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232917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyepatch	Eyepatch	An eyepatch is a small patch that is worn in front of one eye. It may be a cloth patch attached around the head by an elastic band or by a string, an adhesive bandage, or a plastic device which is clipped to a pair of glasses. It is often worn by people to cover a lost or injured eye, but it also has a therapeutic use in children for the treatment of amblyopia. Eyepatches used to block light while sleeping are referred to as a sleep mask. An eyepad or eye pad is a soft medical dressing that can be applied over an eye to protect it. It is not necessarily the same as an eyepatch. Eyepatches associated with movie portrayals of pirates represented a way for crew who were moving from daylight to below decks' dark conditions to have one eye dark-adapted to seeing in dim light. History In the years before advanced medicine and surgery, eyepatches were common for people who had a lost or injured eye. They were particularly prevalent among members of dangerous occupations, such as soldiers and sailors who could injure an eye in battle. While stereotypically associated with pirates, there is no evidence to suggest the historical accuracy of eye patch wearing pirates before several popular novels of the 19th century (see Association with pirates below). Medical uses Amblyopia Eye patching is used in the orthoptic management of children at risk of lazy eye (amblyopia), especially strabismic or anisometropic amblyopia. These conditions can cause visual suppression of areas of the dissimilar images by the brain such as to avoid diplopia, resulting in a loss of visual acuity in the suppressed eye and in extreme cases in blindness in an otherwise functional eye. Patching the good eye forces the amblyopic eye to function, thereby causing vision in that eye to be retained. It is important to perform "near activities" (such as reading or handiwork) when patched, thereby exercising active, attentive vision. A study provided evidence that children treated for amblyopia with eye patching had lower self-perception of social acceptance. To prevent a child from being socially marginalized by their peers due to wearing an eye patch, atropine eye drops may be used instead. This induces temporary blurring in the treated eye. It has been pointed out that the penalization of one eye by means of patching or atropine drops does not provide the necessary conditions to develop or improve binocular vision. Recently, efforts have been made to propose alternative treatments of amblyopia that do allow for the improvement of binocular sight, for example, using binasal occlusion or partially frosted spectacles in place of any eye patch, using alternating occlusion goggles or using methods of perceptual learning based on video games or virtual reality games for enhancing binocular vision. A 2014 Cochrane Review sought to determine the effectiveness of occlusion treatment on patients with sensory deprivation amblyopia, however no trials were found eligible to be included in the review. However, it is suggested that good outcomes from occlusion treatment for sensory deprivation amblyopia rely on compliance with the treatment. Extraocular muscle palsy To initially relieve double vision (diplopia) caused by an extra-ocular muscle palsy, an eye care professional may recommend using an eyepatch. This can help to relieve the dizziness, vertigo and nausea that are associated with this form of double vision. Use by aircraft pilots Aircraft pilots used an eye patch, or close one eye to preserve night vision when there was disparity in the light intensity within or outside their aircraft, such as when flying at night over brightly lit cities, so that one eye could look out, and the other would be adjusted for the dim lighting of the cockpit to read unlit instruments and maps. Some military pilots have worn a lead-lined or gold-lined eyepatch, to protect against blindness in both eyes, in the event of a nuclear blast or laser weapon attack. Eyepatches are not currently used by military personnel; modern technology has provided an array of other means to preserve and enhance night vision, including red-light and low-level white lights, and night vision devices. Association with pirates Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah, once the most popular pirate in the Persian Gulf, was also the first known to wear an eyepatch after losing an eye in battle. Ex-sailors, ashore, were sometimes portrayed as having an eyepatch to cover the loss of an eye. Medical texts have referred to the eye patch as a "pirate's patch" and, writing in the Minnesota Academy of Sciences Journal in 1934, Charles Sheard of the Mayo foundation pointed out that by "wearing a patch (The pirate's patch) over one eye, it will keep the covered eye in a state of readiness and adaptation for night vision". This technique was explored during WWII by institutes such as the United States Navy. The proposal that pirates may have worn an eyepatch so that one eye would be pre-adjusted to below-deck darkness was tested in an episode of MythBusters in 2007 and found to be plausible, but without any recorded historical precedent. Notable wearers Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart Ana de Mendoza André De Toth Andrew Vachss Barbara Boggs Sigmund Bobby Helms Bruce Peterson Bushwick Bill Charles H. Bonesteel III Charles Stourton, 26th Baron Mowbray Claus von Stauffenberg Colleen A. Harris Dale Chihuly Dale D. Myers Dan Crenshaw Date Masamune. David Bowie Dick Curless Dušan Prelević Floyd Gibbons Francisco de Orellana François Coli Fritz Lang Gabrielle George Maciunas George Melly Jack Coggins James Joyce Jan Syrový Jan Zizka Jason Trost John Ford José Millán Astray Lewis Williams Douglas Lisa Lopes Luís de Camões María de Villota Marie Colvin Martin Bayerle Maxie Anderson Momus Moshe Dayan Mother Angelica Nicholas Ray Nick Popaditch Nicolas-Jacques Conté Pete Burns Peter Gatien Rahmah ibn Jabir al-Jalahimah Raoul Walsh Ray Sawyer Richard W. Rahn Rich Williams Ron Hamilton Sammy Davis Jr. Sheila Gish Sir Francis Bryan Slick Rick Victor Page Wiley Post In fiction An eyepatch can be used in fiction to lend an additional dimension to a character, an air of mystery or general je ne sais quoi. Vanica Zogratis (Black Clover) The Demoman (Team Fortress 2) Danger Mouse Nick Fury (Marvel Comics) Ultimate Nick Fury (Marvel Comics) Deathstroke (DC Comics) Nick Fury Jr (Marvel Comics) The Governor (The Walking Dead) Bazooka Joe General Chang (Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country) Rooster Cogburn Asuka Langley Shikinami (Rebuild of Evangelion) Elle Driver (Kill Bill: Volume 1) Kenpachi Zaraki (Bleach) Goro Majima (Yakuza) Franky (Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow) Madame Kovarian Emilio Largo Snake Plissken Oberst Radl (The Eagle Has Landed) Ribouldingue from Les Pieds Nickelés Ziggy Stardust Saul Tigh Big Dan Teague (Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?) Big Boss/Venom Snake/Solidus Snake (Metal Gear) Catalina Creel (Cuna de Lobos) Lockon Stratos (Mobile Suit Gundam 00) Valmet (Jormungand) Ken Cosgrove (Mad Men) Carl Grimes (The Walking Dead) Sean Diaz (Life Is Strange 2) Sagat (Street Fighter) Dimitri Alexandre Blaiddyd (Fire Emblem: Three Houses) Ana Amari (Overwatch) Ethan Nakamura (Percy Jackson & the Olympians) Undyne (Undertale) Thor (Marvel Cinematic Universe) Odin (Marvel Cinematic Universe) Modo (Biker Mice from Mars) Kaeya Alberich (Genshin Impact) Beidou (Genshin Impact) Fischl (Genshin Impact) Basil St. John (Brenda Starr, Reporter) Sally Brown The "Hathaway Man" advertising character Number 2 (Austin Powers) See also Orthoptist Blindfold Haploscope Diplopia Domino mask Binocular vision Stereopsis References External links International Orthoptic Association Eyewear Ophthalmology Medical equipment Maritime culture	[ 0.3151203393936157, 0.007296462077647448, -0.21652835607528687, -0.007293988019227982, -0.022014904767274857, 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232921	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe%20combined%20immunodeficiency	Severe combined immunodeficiency	Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), also known as Swiss-type agammaglobulinemia, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations that result in differing clinical presentations. SCID involves defective antibody response due to either direct involvement with B lymphocytes or through improper B lymphocyte activation due to non-functional T-helper cells. Consequently, both "arms" (B cells and T cells) of the adaptive immune system are impaired due to a defect in one of several possible genes. SCID is the most severe form of primary immunodeficiencies, and there are now at least nine different known genes in which mutations lead to a form of SCID. It is also known as the bubble boy disease and bubble baby disease because its victims are extremely vulnerable to infectious diseases and some of them, such as David Vetter, have become famous for living in a sterile environment. SCID is the result of an immune system so highly compromised that it is considered almost absent. SCID patients are usually affected by severe bacterial, viral, or fungal infections early in life and often present with interstitial lung disease, chronic diarrhea, and failure to thrive. Ear infections, recurrent Pneumocystis jirovecii (previously carinii) pneumonia, and profuse oral candidiasis commonly occur. These babies, if untreated, usually die within one year due to severe, recurrent infections unless they have undergone successful hematopoietic stem cell transplantation or gene therapy in clinical trials. Classification Diagnosis Early diagnosis of SCID is usually difficult due to the need for advanced screening techniques. Several symptoms may indicate a possibility of SCID in a child, such as a family history of infant death, chronic coughs, hyperinflated lungs, and persistent infections. A full blood lymphocyte count is often considered a reliable manner of diagnosing SCID, but higher lymphocyte counts in childhood may influence results. Clinical diagnosis based on genetic defects is also a possible diagnostic procedure that has been implemented in the UK. Some SCID can be detected by sequencing fetal DNA if a known history of the disease exists. Otherwise, SCID is not diagnosed until about six months of age, usually indicated by recurrent infections. The delay in detection is because newborns carry their mother's antibodies for the first few weeks of life and SCID babies look normal. Newborn screening Several countries test all newborns for SCID as a part of routine newborn screening. All states in the U.S. are performing screening for SCID in newborns using real-time quantitative PCR to measure the concentration of T-cell receptor excision circles. United Kingdom intends to introduce newborn screening for SCID in September 2021. Treatment The most common treatment for SCID is bone marrow transplantation, which has been very successful using either a matched related or unrelated donor, or a half-matched donor, who would be either parent. The half-matched type of transplant is called haploidentical. Haploidentical bone marrow transplants require the donor marrow to be depleted of all mature T cells to avoid the occurrence of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Consequently, a functional immune system takes longer to develop in a patient who receives a haploidentical bone marrow transplant compared to a patient receiving a matched transplant. The first reported case of successful transplant was a Spanish child patient who was interned in Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in 1982, in New York City. David Vetter, the original "bubble boy", had one of the first transplantations also, but eventually died because of an unscreened virus, Epstein-Barr (tests were not available at the time), in his newly transplanted bone marrow from his sister, an unmatched bone marrow donor. Today, transplants done in the first three months of life have a high success rate. Physicians have also had some success with in utero transplants done before the child is born and also by using cord blood which is rich in stem cells. In utero transplants allow for the fetus to develop a functional immune system in the sterile environment of the uterus; however complications such as GVHD would be difficult to detect or treat if they were to occur. More recently gene therapy has been attempted as an alternative to the bone marrow transplant. Transduction of the missing gene to hematopoietic stem cells using viral vectors is being tested in ADA SCID and X-linked SCID. In 1990, four-year-old Ashanthi DeSilva became the first patient to undergo successful gene therapy. Researchers collected samples of DeSilva's blood, isolated some of her white blood cells, and used a retrovirus to insert a healthy adenosine deaminase (ADA) gene into them. These cells were then injected back into her body, and began to express a normal enzyme. This, augmented by weekly injections of ADA, corrected her deficiency. However, the concurrent treatment of ADA injections may impair the success of gene therapy, since transduced cells will have no selective advantage to proliferate if untransduced cells can survive in the presence of the injected ADA. In 2000, a gene therapy "success" resulted in SCID patients with a functional immune system. These trials were stopped when it was discovered that two of ten patients in one trial had developed leukemia resulting from the insertion of the gene-carrying retrovirus near an oncogene. In 2007, four of the ten patients have developed leukemias. Work aimed at improving gene therapy is now focusing on modifying the viral vector to reduce the likelihood of oncogenesis and using zinc-finger nucleases to further target gene insertion. No leukemia cases have yet been seen in trials of ADA-SCID, which does not involve the gamma c gene that may be oncogenic when expressed by a retrovirus. From the treatments of Ashanthi DeSilva in 1990 which is considered gene therapy's first success until 2014 around 60 patients were treated for either ADA-SCID or X-SCID using retroviruses vectors but as previously mentioned the occurrence of cases developing leukemia forced to make changes to improve safety, more recently in 2019 a new method using an altered version of the HIV virus as a lentivirus vector was reported in the treatment of 8 children with X-SCID, and in 2021 the same method was used in 50 children with ADA-SCID obtaining positive results in 48 of them. There are also some non-curative methods for treating SCID. Reverse isolation involves the use of laminar air flow and mechanical barriers (to avoid physical contact with others) to isolate the patient from any harmful pathogens present in the external environment. A non-curative treatment for patients with ADA-SCID is enzyme replacement therapy, in which the patient is injected with polyethyleneglycol-coupled adenosine deaminase (PEG-ADA) which metabolizes the toxic substrates of the ADA enzyme and prevents their accumulation. Treatment with PEG-ADA may be used to restore T cell function in the short term, enough to clear any existing infections before proceeding with curative treatment such as a bone marrow transplant. Epidemiology The most commonly quoted figure for the prevalence of SCID is around 1 in 100,000 births, although this is regarded by some to be an underestimate of the true prevalence; some estimates predict that the prevalence rate is as high as 1 in 50,000 live births. A figure of about 1 in 65,000 live births has been reported for Australia. Due to the particular genetic nature of SCID, a higher prevalence may be found in certain regions and associated cultures where higher rates of consanguineous mating occur. A Moroccan study reported that consanguineous parenting was observed in 75% of the families of Moroccan SCID patients. Recent studies indicate that one in every 2,500 children in the Navajo population inherit severe combined immunodeficiency. This condition is a significant cause of illness and death among Navajo children. Ongoing research reveals a similar genetic pattern among the related Apache people. SCID in animals SCID mice were and still are used in disease, vaccine, and transplant research; especially as animal models for testing the safety of new vaccines or therapeutic agents in people with weakened immune system. Recessive gene with clinical signs similar to the human condition, also affects the Arabian horse. In horses, the condition remains a fatal disease, as the animal inevitably succumbs to an opportunistic infection within the first four to six months of life. However, carriers, who themselves are not affected by the disease, can be detected with a DNA test. Thus careful breeding practices can avoid the risk of an affected foal being produced. Another animal with well-characterized SCID pathology is the dog. There are two known forms, an X-linked SCID in Basset Hounds that has similar ontology to X-SCID in humans and an autosomal recessive form seen in one line of Jack Russell Terriers that is similar to SCID in Arabian horses and mice. SCID mice also serve as a useful animal model in the study of the human immune system and its interactions with disease, infections, and cancer. For example, normal strains of mice can be lethally irradiated, killing all rapidly dividing cells. These mice then receive bone marrow transplantation from SCID donors, allowing engraftment of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to occur. This method can be used to study whether T cell-lacking mice can perform hematopoiesis after receiving human PBMC. See also David Vetter Aisha Chaudhary List of cutaneous conditions List of radiographic findings associated with cutaneous conditions References Further reading External links Learning About Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) NIH Combined T and B–cell immunodeficiencies DNA replication and repair-deficiency disorders Genetic disorders by system Noninfectious immunodeficiency-related cutaneous conditions Rare diseases	[ 0.25401759147644043, 0.4558151662349701, -0.8114758729934692, -0.1592256873846054, -0.14956502616405487, 0.1429441124200821, 0.6004050970077515, 0.4596990644931793, -0.23420122265815735, -0.7019768357276917, -0.09354673326015472, -0.04805786907672882, -0.7550002932548523, 0.608661413192749, 0.21001672744750977, 1.0603504180908203, 0.5111035704612732, 0.4044613540172577, -0.43012791872024536, -0.13225072622299194, -0.1983121782541275, -0.9233359098434448, 0.2616405487060547, 0.05051838234066963, -0.37195438146591187, -0.11997763067483902, 0.2557094991207123, 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232924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20chiffchaff	Common chiffchaff	The common chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita), or simply the chiffchaff, is a common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds in open woodlands throughout northern and temperate Europe and the Palearctic. It is a migratory passerine which winters in southern and western Europe, southern Asia and north Africa. Greenish-brown above and off-white below, it is named onomatopoeically for its simple chiff-chaff song. It has a number of subspecies, some of which are now treated as full species. The female builds a domed nest on or near the ground, and assumes most of the responsibility for brooding and feeding the chicks, whilst the male has little involvement in nesting, but defends his territory against rivals, and attacks potential predators. A small insectivorous bird, it is subject to predation by mammals, such as cats and mustelids, and birds, particularly hawks of the genus Accipiter. Its large range and population mean that its status is secure, although one subspecies is probably extinct. Taxonomy The British naturalist Gilbert White was one of the first people to separate the similar-looking common chiffchaff, willow warbler and wood warbler by their songs, as detailed in 1789 in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, but the common chiffchaff was first formally described as Sylvia collybita by French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1817 in his Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle. Described by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826, the genus Phylloscopus contains about 50 species of small insectivorous Old World woodland warblers which are either greenish or brown above and yellowish, white or buff below. The genus was formerly part of the Old World warbler family Sylvidae, but has now been split off as a separate family Phylloscopidae. The chiffchaff's closest relatives, other than former subspecies, are a group of leaf warblers which similarly lack crown stripes, a yellow rump or obvious wing bars; they include the willow, Bonelli's, wood and plain leaf warblers. An old synonym, used for the chiffchaff was Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). The common chiffchaff has three still commonly accepted subspecies, together with some from the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary Islands, and the Caucasus which are now more often treated as full species. Subspecies P. c. collybita, the nominate form, breeds in Europe east to Poland and Bulgaria, and is described below. It mainly winters in the south of its breeding range around the Mediterranean and in North Africa. It has been expanding its range northwards into Scandinavia since 1970 and close to the southern edge of the range of P. c. abietinus. P. c. abietinus occurs in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and winters from southeastern Europe and northeastern Africa east to Iraq and western Iran. It is intermediate in appearance between P. c. tristis and P. c. collybita, being grey-washed olive-green above with a pale yellow supercilium, and underparts whiter than in P. c. collybita, but it has very similar vocalisations to the nominate subspecies. Due to individual variation, it can be difficult to reliably separate P. c. abietinus and P. c. collybita outside their main breeding and wintering ranges. Some common chiffchaffs in the Middle East are browner and have a more disyllabic swee-hu call than P. c. abietinus, and may belong to a poorly known taxon "brevirostris"; further research is needed to clarify the affinities of this form. P. (c.) tristis, the Siberian chiffchaff, breeds in Siberia east of the Pechora River and winters in the lower Himalayas. It is also regularly recorded in western Europe in winter, and it is likely that the numbers involved have been underestimated due to uncertainties over identification criteria, lack of good data and recording policies (Sweden and Finland only accept trapped birds). It is a dull subspecies, grey or brownish above and whitish below, with little yellow in the plumage, and the buff-white supercilium is often longer than in the western subspecies. It has a higher pitched suitsistsuisit song and a short high-pitched cheet call. It is sometimes considered to be a full species due to its distinctive plumage and vocalisations, being similar to P. s. sindianus in these respects. Nominate P. c. collybita and P. c. tristis do not recognize each other's songs. Pending resolution of the status of P. (c.) fulvescens, which is found where the ranges of P. c. abietinus and P. c. tristis connect and may or may not be a hybrid between these, tristis is maintained in P. collybita. Former subspecies P. ibericus, the Iberian chiffchaff is brighter, greener on the rump, and yellower below than P. collybita, and has a song. It was initially named P. brehmii, but the type specimen of that taxon is not an Iberian chiffchaff. This species is found in Portugal and Spain, west of a line stretching roughly from the western Pyrenees via the mountains of central Spain to the Mediterranean; the Iberian and common chiffchaffs co-occur in a narrow band along this line. Apart from the northernmost section, the precise course of the contact zone is not well documented. A long-distance migrant, this species winters in western Africa. It differs from P. c. collybita in vocalisations, external morphology, and mtDNA sequences. There is hybridization in the contact zone, almost always between male P. ibericus and female P. c. collybita, and hybrids apparently show much decreased fitness; hybrid females appear to be sterile according to Haldane's Rule. Regarding the latter aspect, the Iberian chiffchaff apparently is the oldest lineage of chiffchaffs and quite distinct from the common chiffchaff. P. canariensis, the Canary Islands chiffchaff is a non-migratory species formerly occurring on the major Canary Islands, which is differentiated from P. collybita by morphology, vocalisations and genetic characteristics, and, of course, is not sympatric with any other chiffchaffs. The nominate western subspecies P. c. canariensis of El Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife, and Gran Canaria is smaller than common chiffchaff, and has shorter, rounder wings. It is olive-brown above and has a buff breast and flanks; it has a rich deep song, and a call similar to the nominate race. The eastern P. c. exsul of Lanzarote and possibly Fuerteventura is paler above and less rufous below than its western relative, and had a harsher call; it might have been a distinct species, but it became extinct in 1986 at latest, probably much earlier. The reasons for its extinction are unclear, but it appears always to have been scarce and localised, occurring only in the Haria Valley of Lanzarote. P. sindianus, the mountain chiffchaff, is found in the Caucasus (P. s. lorenzii) and Himalayas (P. s. sindianus), and is an altitudinal migrant, moving to lower levels in winter. The nominate subspecies is similar to P. c. tristis, but with a finer darker bill, browner upperparts and buff flanks; its song is almost identical to P. collybita, but the call is a weak . P. s. lorenzii is warmer and darker brown than the nominate race; it is sympatric with common chiffchaff in a small area in the Western Caucasus, but interbreeding occurs rarely, if ever. The mountain chiffchaff differs from tristis in vocalisations, external morphology, and mtDNA sequences. Its two subspecies appear to be distinct vocally, and also show some difference in mtDNA sequences; they are maintained at subspecies rank pending further research. Etymology The common chiffchaff's English name is onomatopoeic, referring to the repetitive song of the European subspecies. There are similar names in some other European languages, such as the Dutch , the German , Welsh and Finnish . The binomial name is of Greek origin; Phylloscopus comes from /, "leaf", and /, "to look at" or "to see", since this genus comprises species that spend much of their time feeding in trees, while collybita is a corruption of kollubistes, "money changer", the song being likened to the jingling of coins. In some languages their tree-dwelling habit is hinted in the vernacular name. For example, in Swedish the common chiffchaff is called gransångare, a compound of gran (i.e. "spruce") and sångare, meaning both "singer" and Old World warbler. Description The common chiffchaff is a small, dumpy, long leaf warbler. The male weighs 7–8 grammes (0.28–0.31 oz), and the female 6–7 grammes (0.25–0.28 oz). The spring adult of the western nominate subspecies P. c. collybita has brown-washed dull green upperparts, off-white underparts becoming yellowish on the flanks, and a short whitish supercilium. It has dark legs, a fine dark bill, and short primary projection (extension of the flight feathers beyond the folded wing). As the plumage wears, it gets duller and browner, and the yellow on the flanks tends to be lost, but after the breeding season there is a prolonged complete moult before migration. The newly fledged juvenile is browner above than the adult, with yellow-white underparts, but moults about 10 weeks after acquiring its first plumage. After moulting, both the adult and the juvenile have brighter and greener upperparts and a paler supercilium. This warbler gets its name from its simple distinctive song, a repetitive cheerful . This song is one of the first avian signs that spring has returned. Its call is a , less disyllabic than the of the willow warbler or of the western Bonelli's warbler. The song differs from that of the Iberian chiffchaff, which has a shorter . However, mixed singers occur in the hybridisation zone and elsewhere, and can be difficult to allocate to species. When not singing, the common chiffchaff can be difficult to distinguish from other leaf warblers with greenish upperparts and whitish underparts, particularly the willow warbler. However, that species has a longer primary projection, a sleeker, brighter appearance and generally pale legs. Bonelli's warbler (P. bonelli) might be confused with the common chiffchaff subspecies tristis, but it has a plain face and green in the wings. The common chiffchaff also has rounded wings in flight, and a diagnostic tail movement consisting of a dip, then sidewards wag, that distinguishes it from other Phylloscopus warblers and gives rise to the name "tailwagger" in India. Perhaps the greatest challenge is distinguishing non-singing birds of the nominate subspecies from Iberian chiffchaff in the field. In Great Britain and the Netherlands, all accepted records of vagrant Iberian chiffchaffs relate to singing males. Distribution and habitat The common chiffchaff breeds across Europe and Asia east to eastern Siberia and north to about 70°N, with isolated populations in northwest Africa, northern and western Turkey and northwestern Iran. It is migratory, but it is one of the first passerine birds to return to its breeding areas in the spring and among the last to leave in late autumn. When breeding, it is a bird of open woodlands with some taller trees and ground cover for nesting purposes. These trees are typically at least high, with undergrowth that is an open, poor to medium mix of grasses, bracken, nettles or similar plants. Its breeding habitat is quite specific, and even near relatives do not share it; for example, the willow warbler (P. trochilus) prefers younger trees, while the wood warbler (P. sibilatrix) prefers less undergrowth. In winter, the common chiffchaff uses a wider range of habitats including scrub, and is not so dependent on trees. It is often found near water, unlike the willow warbler which tolerates drier habitats. There is an increasing tendency to winter in western Europe well north of the traditional areas, especially in coastal southern England and the mild urban microclimate of London. These overwintering common chiffchaffs include some visitors of the eastern subspecies abietinus and tristis, so they are certainly not all birds which have bred locally, although some undoubtedly are. Behaviour Territory The male common chiffchaff is highly territorial during the breeding season, with a core territory typically across, which is fiercely defended against other males. Other small birds may also be attacked. The male is inquisitive and fearless, attacking even dangerous predators like the stoat if they approach the nest, as well as egg-thieves like the Eurasian jay. His song, given from a favoured prominent vantage point, appears to be used to advertise an established territory and contact the female, rather than as a paternity guard strategy. Beyond the core territory, there is a larger feeding range which is variable in size, but typically ten or more times the area of the breeding territory. It is believed that the female has a larger feeding range than the male. After breeding has finished, this species abandons its territory, and may join small flocks including other warblers prior to migration. Breeding The male common chiffchaff returns to its breeding territory two or three weeks before the female and immediately starts singing to establish ownership and attract a female. When a female is located, the male will use a slow butterfly-like flight as part of the courtship ritual, but once a pair-bond has been established, other females will be driven from the territory. The male has little involvement in the nesting process other than defending the territory. The female's nest is built on or near the ground in a concealed site in brambles, nettles or other dense low vegetation. The domed nest has a side entrance, and is constructed from coarse plant material such as dead leaves and grass, with finer material used on the interior before the addition of a lining of feathers. The typical nest is high and across. The clutch is two to seven (normally five or six) cream-coloured eggs which have tiny ruddy, purple or blackish spots and are about long and across. They are incubated by the female for 13–14 days before hatching as naked, blind altricial chicks. The female broods and feeds the chicks for another 14–15 days until they fledge. The male rarely participates in feeding, although this sometimes occurs, especially when bad weather limits insect supplies or if the female disappears. After fledging, the young stay in the vicinity of the nest for three to four weeks, and are fed by and roost with the female, although these interactions reduce after approximately the first 14 days. In the north of the range there is only time to raise one brood, due to the short summer, but a second brood is common in central and southern areas. Although pairs stay together during the breeding season and polygamy is uncommon, even if the male and female return to the same site in the following year there is no apparent recognition or fidelity. Interbreeding with other species, other than those formerly considered as subspecies of P. collybita, is rare, but a few examples are known of hybridisation with the willow warbler. Such hybrids give mixed songs, but the latter alone is not proof of interspecific breeding. Feeding Like most Old World warblers, this small species is insectivorous, moving restlessly though foliage or briefly hovering. It has been recorded as taking insects, mainly flies, from more than 50 families, along with other small and medium-sized invertebrates. It will take the eggs and larvae of butterflies and moths, particularly those of the winter moth. The chiffchaff has been estimated to require about one-third of its weight in insects daily, and it feeds almost continuously in the autumn to put on extra fat as fuel for the long migration flight. Predators and threats As with most small birds, mortality in the first year of life is high, but adults aged three to four years are regularly recorded, and the record is more than seven years. Eggs, chicks and fledglings of this ground-nesting species are taken by stoats, weasels and crows such as the European magpie, and the adults are hunted by birds of prey, particularly the sparrowhawk. Small birds are also at the mercy of the weather, particularly when migrating, but also on the breeding and wintering grounds. The common chiffchaff is occasionally a host of brood parasitic cuckoos, including the common and Horsfield's cuckoos, but it recognises and rejects non-mimetic eggs and is therefore only rarely successfully brood-parasitised. Like other passerine birds, the common chiffchaff can also acquire intestinal nematode parasites and external ticks. The main effect of humans on this species is indirect, through woodland clearance which affects the habitat, predation by cats, and collisions with windows, buildings and cars. Only the first of these has the potential to seriously affect populations, but given the huge geographical spread of P. c. abietinus and P. c. tristis, and woodland conservation policies in the range of P. c. collybita, the chiffchaff's future seems assured. Status The common chiffchaff has an enormous range, with an estimated global extent of 10 million square kilometres (3.8 million square miles) and a population of 60–120 million individuals in Europe alone. Although global population trends have not been quantified, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (that is, declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as "least concern". None of the major subspecies is under threat, but exsul, as noted above, is probably extinct. There is a slow population increase of common chiffchaff in the Czech Republic. The range of at least P. c. collybita seems to be expanding, with northward advances in Scotland, Norway and Sweden and a large population increase in Denmark. References External links BBC Science and Nature: BBC chiffchaff site BBC Science and Nature: Common chiffchaff song (Real Audio streaming) Common chiffchaff videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection RSPB: Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Feathers of Common chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita) common chiffchaff Birds of Europe Birds of Russia Birds of Africa Birds of North Africa common chiffchaff Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot	[ -0.4227381646633148, 0.5511359572410583, -0.42266958951950073, -0.3970568776130676, -0.10634990781545639, 0.3641219139099121, 0.45587480068206787, 0.7493836879730225, -0.783398449420929, -0.08594302833080292, -0.8090483546257019, -0.024772383272647858, -0.6681535243988037, 0.27345791459083557, -0.21864058077335358, 0.5113348960876465, 0.5470455288887024, 0.38870564103126526, -0.2733907997608185, -0.20859408378601074, 0.1776302009820938, -0.676673173904419, 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232925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian%20chiffchaff	Iberian chiffchaff	The Iberian chiffchaff (Phylloscopus ibericus) is a species of leaf warbler endemic to Portugal, Spain and North Africa, west of a line stretching roughly from the western Pyrenees via the mountains of central Spain to the Atlantic. Taxonomy and etymology The name "chiffchaff" is onomatopoeic, referring to the repetitive chiff-chaff song of the common chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita). There are similar names in some other European languages, such as the Dutch Tjiftjaf, the German Zilpzalp and Welsh siff-saff. The genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific ibericus is Latin for "Iberian". Previously the Iberian chiffchaff was considered as a subspecies of the common chiffchaff. As of 2016, it is recognised as a separate species under the name Phylloscopus ibericus for the following reasons (compared to the common chiffchaff): Brighter in colour Greener rump Yellower below Vocalisations different mtDNA sequence divergence In past, erroneously listed as Phylloscopus brehmii. References Further reading Svensson, Lars (2001). "The correct name of the Iberian Chiffchaff Phylloscopus ibericus Ticehurst 1937, its identification and new evidence of its winter grounds". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 121: 281–296. External links Ageing and sexing (PDF; 1.8 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Iberian chiffchaff Birds of Southern Europe Birds of North Africa Birds of West Africa Fauna of the Iberian Peninsula Iberian chiffchaff Iberian chiffchaff	[ -0.41217461228370667, 0.2739129364490509, -0.4175812602043152, -0.4825945794582367, 0.32990512251853943, 0.4259501099586487, 0.06847203522920609, 0.9617055654525757, -0.5233785510063171, 0.1354072540998459, -0.06155705079436302, 0.2736932337284088, -0.6546807289123535, -0.21095003187656403, -0.2245771288871765, 0.9109326601028442, 0.13348042964935303, 0.6000010371208191, -0.0974874421954155, -0.2617150545120239, 0.28815415501594543, -0.44860243797302246, 0.06892292201519012, -0.01169872097671032, 0.7329564094543457, -0.12066919356584549, 0.3619873523712158, 0.342369019985199, 0.5632836222648621, -0.2878783643245697, -0.37258368730545044, 0.6024749875068665, -0.037763141095638275, -0.3800155520439148, -0.10930634289979935, 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232926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain%20chiffchaff	Mountain chiffchaff	The mountain chiffchaff or eastern chiffchaff (Phylloscopus sindianus) is a species of leaf warbler found in the Caucasus (P. s. lorenzii) and Himalayas (P. s. sindianus), and is an altitudinal migrant, moving to lower levels in winter. The nominate subspecies is similar to the Siberian chiffchaff, but with a finer darker bill, browner upperparts and buff flanks; its song is almost identical to the common chiffchaff, but the call is a weak psew. P. s. lorenzii is warmer and darker brown than the nominate race; it is sympatric with common chiffchaff in a small area in the Western Caucasus, but interbreeding occurs rarely, if ever. The mountain chiffchaff differs from tristis in vocalisations, external morphology and mtDNA sequences. Its two subspecies appear to be distinct vocally, and also show some difference in mtDNA sequences. References (German) Martens, Jochen (1982): Ringförmige Arealüberschneidung und Artbildung beim Zilpzalp, Phylloscopus collybita. Das lorenzii-Problem. Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung 20: 82–100. German) Martens, Jochen; Hänel, Sabine (1981): Gesangformen und Verwandtschaft der asiatischen Zilpzalpe Phylloscopus collybita abietinus und Ph. c. sindianus. Journal für Ornithologie 122 (4): 403–427. [with English abstract] doi:10.1007/BF01652928 Sangster, George; Knox, Alan G.; Helbig, Andreas J.; Parkin, David T. (2002). "Taxonomic recommendations for European birds". Ibis 144 (1): 153–159. doi:10.1046/j.0019-1019.2001.00026.x. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0019-1019.2001.00026.x Helbig, Andreas J.; Martens, Jochen; Seibold, I.; Henning, F.; Schottler, B; Wink, Michael (1996). "Phylogeny and species limits in the Palearctic Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita complex: mitochondrial genetic differentiation and bioacoustic evidence". Ibis 138 (4): 650–666. http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/fak14/ipmb/phazb/pubwink/1996/13_1996.pdf. mountain chiffchaff Birds of Azerbaijan Birds of Central Asia Birds of North India Birds of Western China mountain chiffchaff	[ -0.5437918305397034, 0.6248044371604919, -0.6506938338279724, -0.42104828357696533, -0.5624451637268066, 0.6941026449203491, 0.8770732879638672, 0.3435414135456085, -0.5925183296203613, -0.021604735404253006, -0.6543452739715576, 0.08021525293588638, -0.8208717107772827, 0.4773390591144562, -0.16018329560756683, 0.4988422691822052, 0.5274928212165833, 0.3645036220550537, -0.23446595668792725, -0.18097403645515442, 0.33366313576698303, -0.6219637989997864, 0.4281120300292969, -0.373895525932312, 0.46848273277282715, 0.12405641376972198, 0.35679471492767334, 0.7968441247940063, 0.5501527190208435, 0.006096517201513052, -0.419626384973526, 0.9160040020942688, 0.19476716220378876, -0.5197849869728088, 0.12129495292901993, 0.5011283755302429, 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232928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian%20chiffchaff	Siberian chiffchaff	Siberian chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita tristis) is a leaf-warbler which is usually considered a subspecies of the common chiffchaff, but may be a species in its own right. Range Siberian chiffchaff breeds in Siberia east of the Pechora River and winters in the lower Himalayas. Status in Europe and North America It is also regularly recorded in western Europe in winter, and it is likely that the numbers involved have been underestimated due to uncertainties over identification criteria, lack of good data and recording policies (Sweden and Finland only accept trapped birds). Because of their unfamiliar appearance, British records in the 1950s and 1960s were originally thought to be greenish warblers, and accepted as such by BBRC, the national rarities committee, until the records were reviewed in the 1980s. A Gambell, AK bird discovered by Alexander Lin-Moore and Ethan Goodman on June 5, 2015 and seen by many birders would be the 4th (or 5th?) reported in North America. Appearance and vocalisations It is a dull bird, grey or brownish above and whitish below, with little yellow in the plumage, and the buff-white supercilium is often longer than in the western subspecies. It has a higher pitched suitsistsuisit song and a short high-pitched cheet call. It is sometimes considered to be a full species due to its distinctive plumage and vocalisations, being similar to P. s. sindianus in these respects. Taxonomy Common chiffchaffs (of the nominate race) and Siberian chiffchaffs do not recognize each other's songs. Pending resolution of the status of the form fulvescens, which is found where the ranges of common chiffchaff (of the race abietinus) and Siberian chiffchaff connect and may or may not be a hybrid between these, tristis is maintained in P. collybita by most checklists. Resources Further reading Ebels, Enno (2009) "Siberische Tjiftjaffen in Nederland: voorkomen en determinatie" Dutch Birding 31(2): 86-100 (in Dutch with English summary) Phylloscopus Subspecies	[ -0.4743369519710541, 0.3710857927799225, -0.6091657876968384, -0.08573789149522781, -0.30594220757484436, 0.17560581862926483, 0.7618160843849182, 0.4510873854160309, -0.34672635793685913, -0.11821620166301727, -0.6329019665718079, -0.3744707703590393, -0.8575757145881653, 0.31212931871414185, -0.49949538707733154, 0.5468100309371948, 0.50642991065979, 0.3260748088359833, -0.09662333875894547, -0.3010939061641693, -0.0012543332995846868, -0.7832338213920593, 0.3009043037891388, -0.6724728345870972, 0.3692529499530792, 0.10729395598173141, 0.5596796274185181, 0.6954968571662903, 0.02509118616580963, 0.36175066232681274, -0.28102728724479675, 0.8445789813995361, 0.43510353565216064, -0.11341352760791779, -0.10616477578878403, 0.3892902135848999, -0.06015769764780998, -0.17697982490062714, 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232933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost%20Boys%20%28novel%29	Lost Boys (novel)	Lost Boys (1992) is a horror novel by American author Orson Scott Card. The premise of the novel revolves around the daily lives of a Mormon family, and the challenges they face after a move to North Carolina. The story primarily follows the family's troubles at work, church, and the oldest child Stevie's difficulty fitting in at school, which lead to him becoming increasingly withdrawn. Dealing with themes such as religion and the nature of good and evil, the novel is an expansion of Card's short story "Lost Boys". The plot of the short story is similar to the plot of the novel but Card assumes the role of the protagonist, Fletcher, leading the story to appear autobiographical. After receiving criticism for the story being "offensive" and appropriating the grief of losing a child, Card put a disclaimer at the end of the short story and his novel was written in the third-person. The novel received praise for its "easy and natural prose" and its genuine and uplifting themes. Eugene England criticized the novel for its theology and the manner in which it deals with "religious, theological, and moral issues", stating that Card is at his best when he writes science fiction; however, he admitted that Card is a good storyteller. The novel won the 1992 Association of Mormon Letters Award for Best Novel. Plot summary The novel, set in 1983, revolves around Step Fletcher, a game programmer, who invented a fictional Atari computer game called Hacker Snack, and his family. Step, a devout Mormon, moves his pregnant wife DeAnne and their three children, including seven-year-old Stevie, from Indiana to Steuben, North Carolina so he can start a new job as a technical writer. In addition to struggles at his new job with unpleasant and immoral bosses and coworkers, the Fletchers' new house is periodically invaded by hordes of different types of insects. Bappy, the elderly father of the owner of the rented house, is always ready to lend a hand with things. Step quits his job right before DeAnne gives birth to a baby with special needs. After the move, Step's son Stevie becomes withdrawn, playing only with his imaginary friends in the garden and on his computer. They take him to a psychiatrist, who speculates that the family's religion could be causing Stevie's problems, offending Step. Step and DeAnne notice that the names of Stevie's imaginary friends are the same as the names of young boys who are disappearing. Stevie knows the boys' nicknames, which are not common knowledge. They notify the police, and a detective questions Stevie, concluding that a serial killer must exist for them to be all connected through Stevie. Step notices that the video game that Stevie uses to play with his imaginary friends has graphics that are beyond anything that could actually run on the computer and discovers that the game has no cartridge. On the 22nd of December, Bappy arrives and fits the Christmas lights for them and lingers for quite some time while DeAnn and Step take their infant to the doctor. On Christmas Eve, Stevie brings his friends into the house to introduce them to his parents and to celebrate Christmas. Stevie reveals that now that he is like them, he can make them visible to others. He explained that after confronting Bappy's connection to the missing boys, Bappy murdered him and buried his body in the underspace below the house, which also contained the graves of the other boys. Step and DeAnne bid Stevie farewell. Bappy is arrested and charged with the murder of the boys. Years later, Robbie and Betsy regard their elder brother like a legend and the family waits to unite with their lost child once again in the afterlife. Themes and motifs Robert Bird described Lost Boys as a postmodern detective fiction because it explores multiple realities and aspects of the supernatural. Specifically, it deals with the ontological concerns of good and evil. The novel seeks to address what should be done when confronted with evil. Evil in the novel is described as supernatural and existing beyond the narrative as evident in the prologue which is also independent of the narrative. Throughout the novel, Step attempts to confront evil, suggesting that the most important way to confront evil is to "identify and name sin". Card uses Abinadi in the Book of Mormon as an example, explaining that it is better to die than knowing something bad is happening yet doing nothing about it. However, it is only the purity of Stevie that allows him to recognize the true evil in the novel in Steuben. Stevie sacrifices his life to identify it like Abinadi and Stephen in the New Testament. This work portrays the Mormon theological belief about the eternal nature of evil, that it exists on its own and portrays the struggle against it. Other themes in the novel include what Michael Collings calls "The Epick of Mormonism". Card interweaves religion throughout the novel which plays a large part in the beliefs and morals of the family and the novel. More prominent than Mormonism is the theme of the reality of America as the family lives in a world surrounded by deception, greed, and evil. The community to which the Fletchers belong does not uplift them, but hurts them, exemplified by a fanatical church member, a cruel elementary school teacher, a pedophilic coworker, and a serial killer landlord. It is only at the end of the novel that the Fletchers achieve the sense of community that they were seeking. Stevie is the vehicle for which Card mourns his own "lost boy", his son, yet also represents innocence and purity on a larger scale. Michael Collings argues that the ending of the novel transitions it from a "realistic" novel to a "mythopoeic" one. Video games are common motifs found in Card's writing that often represent the complex, video game-like quality of life that needs to be navigated. In Lost Boys Step Fletcher is a video game designer and a part of the novel's main plot revolves around Stevie playing a mysterious video game. Background and publication Like many of Card's works, the novel is an expansion of a short story, his Lost Boys, which can be found in his short story compilation Maps in a Mirror. According to Card, his original idea for the short story was inspired by Stephen King's Pet Sematary and his dislike of the novel's ending. He wanted to write a story in which the ghost child was not evil, but good. In the short story version, Card assumes Fletcher's role as the protagonist. Some minor plot details are different as well in this story, such as the protagonist's occupation (an editor for a video game magazine) and the story is told from a first-person perspective instead of the novel's third-person perspective. Though he refers to many real events, such as his writing of Ender's Game, the short story is also completely fictional. Because of his use of himself and his real occupation, real locations and real people, Card had to append a special note stating that the story is fictitious as he received criticism that his story was appropriating the grief of losing a child. However, the character Zap was inspired by Card's son with cerebral palsy. According to Gary Westfahl, Card's short story is "moving" but "deeply offensive" and the "epitome of Card's self-absorption". His first mainstream horror novel, Card has stated that Lost Boys was one of his hardest to write due to the emotional nature of the subject material. This comes across in the writing, widely regarded by those who have read it as some of his most intense, personal writing. It was published by HarperCollins in 1992. Reception According to Publishers Weekly, "some readers may find the fantastic plot elements jarring, [but] Card's easy and natural prose goes a long way toward authenticating the supernatural intrusion". Kirkus Reviews called the novel, "affecting, genuine, poignant, uplifting". However, Eugene England stated that Card deals with "religious, theological, and moral issues" better in his science fiction novels than in his realistic novels such as Lost Boys. Furthermore, England stated that the Lost Boys, "[loses] the powerful edge of social criticism and utopianism that Card developed in the mid to late 1980s". England described the novel as, "domestic Mormon realism, with a touch of magical realism". He described the juxtaposition and struggle between the evil existent in the prelude and the rest of the novel and the sacrifice of Stevie as "Manicheistic" and that Bappy and Stevie together create a personal form of "independent and ultimately unredeemable existence". He concluded that though Card's theology may be poor, he is a great storyteller and understands "like Shakespeare and Milton, the power of redeeming love". Lost Boys won the 1992 Association of Mormon Letters Award for Best Novel. Adaptations Lost Boys was optioned by Mostow/Lieberman Productions in 2002 to produce a film directed by Brian Carr. However, Mostow/Lieberman Productions was disbanded in 2004. Orson Scott Card has claimed that many elements of M. Night Shyamalan's The Sixth Sense were plagiarized from Lost Boys, although he has said that enough had been changed that there was no point in suing. See also List of works by Orson Scott Card Orson Scott Card References External links About the novel Lost Boys from Card's website 1992 American novels Novels by Orson Scott Card Mormon fiction Mormonism in fiction Novels set in North Carolina Fiction set in 1983 Harold B. 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232935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow%20warbler	Willow warbler	The willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus) is a very common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds throughout northern and temperate Europe and the Palearctic, from Ireland east to the Anadyr River basin in eastern Siberia. It is strongly migratory, with almost all of the population wintering in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is a bird of open woodlands with trees and ground cover for nesting, including most importantly birch, alder, and willow habitats. The nest is usually built in close contact with the ground, often in low vegetation. Like most Old World warblers (Sylviidae), this small passerine is insectivorous. In northern Europe, it is one of the first warblers to return in the spring, though later than the closely related chiffchaff. Description The willow warbler is a typical leaf warbler in appearance, 11–12.5 cm long and 7–15 g weight. It is greenish brown above and off-white to yellowish below; the wings are plain greenish-brown with no wingbars. Juveniles are yellower below than adults. It is very similar to the chiffchaff, but non-singing birds can be distinguished from that species by their paler pinkish-yellow legs (dark brown to blackish in chiffchaff), longer paler bill, more elegant shape and longer primary projection (wingtip). Its song is a simple repetitive descending whistle, while the contact call is a disyllabic 'hoo-eet', distinct from the more monosyllabic 'hweet' of chiffchaffs. Subspecies Three subspecies are accepted, with a partly clinal reduction in green and yellow plumage tones from west to east, with central birds browner and easternmost birds predominantly greyish: Phylloscopus trochilus trochilus (Linnaeus, 1758). Breeds Europe (from the Pyrenees and Alps northward) except northern Scandinavia, winters west Africa. Phylloscopus trochilus acredula (Linnaeus, 1758). Breeds northern Scandinavia east to western Siberia, winters central Africa. Phylloscopus trochilus yakutensis (Ticehurst, 1935). Breeds eastern Siberia, winters eastern and southern Africa. Behaviour All populations are highly migratory, with the subspecies P. t. yakutensis migrating up to 12,000 km from eastern Siberia to southern Africa along the Asian - East African Flyway, one of the longest migrations of any for a bird of its size. Approximate timings are: October to March: wintering in sub Saharan Africa. Mid March to mid-May: migrates and arrives in the breeding range. Late April to August: breeding season, usually only one brood but rarely two. August to October: migrates back to Africa. Status and conservation Willow warblers prefer young, open, scrubby woodland with small trees, including human-altered habitats such as coppice and young plantations up to 10–20 years old. High amounts of birch, alder and willow, with good lichen amounts, and water features (e.g. streams), fields with large amounts of bracken and mosses, and patches of low bramble (for nest cover) are preferred, but it will use a wide range of other species, including young or open coniferous forests. Incorporating woodland ride edge thickets is beneficial, as is 15 metre woodland edges of varying structure and height. They prefer damp woodland areas. Thicket forming shrubs like blackthorn provide pockets of habitat. Deer browsing can degrade the required low cover. The highest population densities are found in Scandinavia (where it is the commonest bird of any), with up to 1,100 pairs per square kilometre, and a total population in Sweden and Finland of 24 million pairs. Lower densities occur further east, with peak densities of 27 pairs per square kilometre in central Siberia. Even lower densities are found on the southern edge of the breeding range, with just 9 pairs per square kilometre in Switzerland, and a total of just 100 pairs in the whole of northern Spain. In England this species has on average decreased in population by 70% within the last 25 years, with the biggest declines in the southeast. In Scotland some increases have occurred. The Forestry Commission offers grants under a scheme called England's Woodland Improvement Grant (EWIG); as does Natural Englands Environmental Stewardship Scheme. History The willow warbler was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under the genus Motacilla. and then transferred to the genus Phylloscopus (of which it is the type species) by Boie in 1826. The scientific name is from Ancient Greek. The genus name Phylloscopus is from phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"), and the specific trochilus is from trokhilos, "wren". Before the English name was standardised to willow warbler by William Yarrell in 1843, it was sometimes called "willow wren". References External links Willow warbler videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Feathers of the willow warbler Willow warbler - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds Impacts of climate in Africa and Europe on timing of spring migration in Willow Warblers. 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232936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20enterprise%20%28disambiguation%29	Free enterprise (disambiguation)	Free enterprise is an economic term related to a free market. Free Enterprise may also refer to: Transport MS Free Enterprise I, a ferry in service with European Ferries between 1962 and 1980 MS Free Enterprise II, a ferry in service with European Ferries between 1965 and 1982 MS Free Enterprise III, a ferry in service with European Ferries between 1966 and 1984 MS Free Enterprise IV, a ferry in service with European Ferries between 1969 and 1987 MS Free Enterprise V, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1970 and 1993 MS Free Enterprise VI, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1972 and 1996 MS Free Enterprise VII, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1973 and 1998 MS Free Enterprise VIII, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1974 and 1993 MS Herald of Free Enterprise, a ferry in service with European Ferries from 1980 until she sank in 1987 MS Pride of Free Enterprise, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1980 and 2001 MS Spirit of Free Enterprise, a ferry in service with European Ferries & P&O Ferries between 1979 and 2003 Other uses Free Enterprise, a newsletter published by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce Free Enterprise (film), a 1999 comedy/romance movie starring Eric McCormack and Rafer Weigel "Free Enterprise", a song by Rick Ross (featuring John Legend) from Black Market Free Enterprise Action Fund, was a mutual fund Free Enterprise Fund, a conservative fund-raising organization co-founded by Stephen Moore	[ 0.423833966255188, 0.0479697547852993, -0.2336413413286209, 0.3140896260738373, -0.13857580721378326, -0.23023976385593414, 0.18658412992954254, 0.17676104605197906, -0.3588640093803406, -0.05937688797712326, -0.6798146963119507, 0.32156604528427124, -0.8521806001663208, 0.5970460772514343, 0.07518807053565979, 0.20148976147174835, 0.032666537910699844, 0.23070396482944489, -0.06659972667694092, -0.03876234591007233, -0.392116904258728, 0.2536059021949768, -0.2449384480714798, 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232937	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spliceosome	Spliceosome	A spliceosome is a large ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex found primarily within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The spliceosome is assembled from small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) and numerous proteins. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) molecules bind to specific proteins to form a small nuclear ribonucleoprotein complex (snRNP, pronounced “snurps”), which in turn combines with other snRNPs to form a large ribonucleoprotein complex called a spliceosome. The spliceosome removes introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA, a type of primary transcript. This process is generally referred to as splicing. An analogy is a film editor, who selectively cuts out irrelevant or incorrect material (equivalent to the introns) from the initial film and sends the cleaned-up version to the director for the final cut. However, sometimes the RNA within the intron acts as a ribozyme, splicing itself without the use of a spliceosome or protein enzymes. History In 1977, work by the Sharp and Roberts labs revealed that genes of higher organisms are "split" or present in several distinct segments along the DNA molecule. The coding regions of the gene are separated by non-coding DNA that is not involved in protein expression. The split gene structure was found when adenoviral mRNAs were hybridized to endonuclease cleavage fragments of single stranded viral DNA. It was observed that the mRNAs of the mRNA-DNA hybrids contained 5' and 3' tails of non-hydrogen bonded regions. When larger fragments of viral DNAs were used, forked structures of looped out DNA were observed when hybridized to the viral mRNAs. It was realised that the looped out regions, the introns, are excised from the precursor mRNAs in a process Sharp named "splicing". The split gene structure was subsequently found to be common to most eukaryotic genes. Phillip Sharp and Richard J. Roberts were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of introns and the splicing process. Composition Each spliceosome is composed of five small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) and a range of associated protein factors. When these small RNAs are combined with the protein factors, they make RNA-protein complexes called snRNPs (small nuclear ribonucleoproteins, pronounced "snurps"). The snRNAs that make up the major spliceosome are named U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6, so-called because they are rich in uridine, and participate in several RNA-RNA and RNA-protein interactions. The assembly of the spliceosome occurs on each pre-mRNA (also known as heterogeneous nuclear RNA, hn-RNA) at each exon:intron junction. The pre-mRNA introns contains specific sequence elements that are recognized and utilized during spliceosome assembly. These include the 5' end splice site, the branch point sequence, the polypyrimidine tract, and the 3' end splice site. The spliceosome catalyzes the removal of introns, and the ligation of the flanking exons. Introns typically have a GU nucleotide sequence at the 5' end splice site, and an AG at the 3' end splice site. The 3' splice site can be further defined by a variable length of polypyrimidines, called the polypyrimidine tract (PPT), which serves the dual function of recruiting factors to the 3' splice site and possibly recruiting factors to the branch point sequence (BPS). The BPS contains the conserved adenosine required for the first step of splicing. Many proteins exhibit a zinc-binding motif, which underscores the importance of zinc in the splicing mechanism. The first molecular-resolution reconstruction of U4/U6.U5 triple small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (tri-snRNP) complex was reported in 2016. Cryo-EM has been applied extensively by Shi et al. to elucidate the near-/atomic structure of spliceosome in both yeast and humans. The molecular framework of spliceosome at near-atomic-resolution demonstrates Spp42 component of U5 snRNP forms a central scaffold and anchors the catalytic center in yeast. The atomic structure of the human spliceosome illustrates the step II component Slu7 adopts an extended structure, poised for selection of the 3'-splice site. All five metals (assigned as Mg2+) in the yeast complex are preserved in the human complex. Alternative splicing Alternative splicing (the re-combination of different exons) is a major source of genetic diversity in eukaryotes. Splice variants have been used to account for the relatively small number of protein coding genes in the human genome, currently estimated at around 20,000. One particular Drosophila gene, Dscam, has been speculated to be alternatively spliced into 38,000 different mRNAs, assuming all of its exons can splice independently of each other. Assembly The model for formation of the spliceosome active site involves an ordered, stepwise assembly of discrete snRNP particles on the pre-mRNA substrate. The first recognition of pre-mRNAs involves U1 snRNP binding to the 5' end splice site of the pre-mRNA and other non-snRNP associated factors to form the commitment complex, or early (E) complex in mammals. The commitment complex is an ATP-independent complex that commits the pre-mRNA to the splicing pathway. U2 snRNP is recruited to the branch region through interactions with the E complex component U2AF (U2 snRNP auxiliary factor) and possibly U1 snRNP. In an ATP-dependent reaction, U2 snRNP becomes tightly associated with the branch point sequence (BPS) to form complex A. A duplex formed between U2 snRNP and the pre-mRNA branch region bulges out the branch adenosine specifying it as the nucleophile for the first transesterification. The presence of a pseudouridine residue in U2 snRNA, nearly opposite of the branch site, results in an altered conformation of the RNA-RNA duplex upon the U2 snRNP binding. Specifically, the altered structure of the duplex induced by the pseudouridine places the 2' OH of the bulged adenosine in a favorable position for the first step of splicing. The U4/U5/U6 tri-snRNP (see Figure 1) is recruited to the assembling spliceosome to form complex B, and following several rearrangements, complex C is activated for catalysis. It is unclear how the tri-snRNP is recruited to complex A, but this process may be mediated through protein-protein interactions and/or base pairing interactions between U2 snRNA and U6 snRNA. The U5 snRNP interacts with sequences at the 5' and 3' splice sites via the invariant loop of U5 snRNA and U5 protein components interact with the 3' splice site region. Upon recruitment of the tri-snRNP, several RNA-RNA rearrangements precede the first catalytic step and further rearrangements occur in the catalytically active spliceosome. Several of the RNA-RNA interactions are mutually exclusive; however, it is not known what triggers these interactions, nor the order of these rearrangements. The first rearrangement is probably the displacement of U1 snRNP from the 5' splice site and formation of a U6 snRNA interaction. It is known that U1 snRNP is only weakly associated with fully formed spliceosomes, and U1 snRNP is inhibitory to the formation of a U6-5' splice site interaction on a model of substrate oligonucleotide containing a short 5' exon and 5' splice site. Binding of U2 snRNP to the branch point sequence (BPS) is one example of an RNA-RNA interaction displacing a protein-RNA interaction. Upon recruitment of U2 snRNP, the branch binding protein SF1 in the commitment complex is displaced since the binding site of U2 snRNA and SF1 are mutually exclusive events. Within the U2 snRNA, there are other mutually exclusive rearrangements that occur between competing conformations. For example, in the active form, stem loop IIa is favored; in the inactive form a mutually exclusive interaction between the loop and a downstream sequence predominates. It is unclear how U4 is displaced from U6 snRNA, although RNA has been implicated in spliceosome assembly, and may function to unwind U4/U6 and promote the formation of a U2/U6 snRNA interaction. The interactions of U4/U6 stem loops I and II dissociate and the freed stem loop II region of U6 folds on itself to form an intramolecular stem loop and U4 is no longer required in further spliceosome assembly. The freed stem loop I region of U6 base pairs with U2 snRNA forming the U2/U6 helix I. However, the helix I structure is mutually exclusive with the 3' half of an internal 5' stem loop region of U2 snRNA. Minor spliceosome Some eukaryotes have a second spliceosome, the so-called minor spliceosome. A group of less abundant snRNAs, U11, U12, U4atac, and U6atac, together with U5, are subunits of the minor spliceosome that splices a rare class of pre-mRNA introns, denoted U12-type. The minor spliceosome is located in the nucleus like its major counterpart, though there are exceptions in some specialised cells including anucleate platelets and the dendroplasm (dendrite cytoplasm) of neuronal cells. References Further reading External links 3D macromolecular structures of Spliceosomes from the EM Data Bank(EMDB) Organelles Gene expression Protein complexes RNA splicing	[ -0.1656651645898819, -0.05010252073407173, -0.06758227944374084, 0.049765583127737045, -0.1129097267985344, -0.8024070262908936, 0.2476586252450943, 0.38042208552360535, -0.022391602396965027, -0.3830026686191559, -0.017508110031485558, -0.24431870877742767, -0.8137770295143127, 0.6885328888893127, 0.14738048613071442, 0.24667474627494812, 0.051370710134506226, 0.9660410284996033, 0.4902632236480713, -0.3533775508403778, -0.5352885127067566, -0.2917129397392273, 0.47674933075904846, 0.12012717127799988, -0.15323539078235626, -0.47429952025413513, 0.11907638609409332, -0.21982620656490326, 1.0120832920074463, -0.23866042494773865, -0.05087130144238472, 0.4675983488559723, 0.22605834901332855, 0.06695538014173508, -0.1449456661939621, -0.4095005393028259, -0.7138986587524414, 0.12145230174064636, 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232940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20on%20poverty	War on poverty	The war on poverty is the unofficial name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during his State of the Union address on January 8, 1964. This legislation was proposed by Johnson in response to a national poverty rate of around nineteen percent. The speech led the United States Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which established the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to administer the local application of federal funds targeted against poverty. The forty programs established by the Act were collectively aimed at eliminating poverty by improving living conditions for residents of low-income neighborhoods and by helping the poor access economic opportunities long denied them. As a part of the Great Society, Johnson believed in expanding the federal government's roles in education and health care as poverty reduction strategies. These policies can also be seen as a continuation of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, which ran from 1933 to 1937, and Roosevelt's Four Freedoms of 1941. Johnson stated, "Our aim is not only to relieve the symptom of poverty, but to cure it and, above all, to prevent it". The legacy of the war on poverty policy initiative remains in the continued existence of such federal government programs as Head Start, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), TRiO, and Job Corps. Deregulation, growing criticism of the welfare state, and an ideological shift to reducing federal aid to impoverished people in the 1980s and 1990s culminated in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996, which President Bill Clinton claimed "ended welfare as we know it." Major initiatives The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 which created the Community Action Program, Job Corps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), centerpiece of the "war on poverty" – August 20, 1964 Food Stamp Act of 1964 – August 31, 1964 Elementary and Secondary Education Act – April 11, 1965 Social Security Act 1965 (Created Medicare and Medicaid) – July 19, 1965 The Office of Economic Opportunity was the agency responsible for administering most of the war on poverty programs created during Johnson's Administration, including VISTA, Job Corps, Head Start, Legal Services and the Community Action Program. The OEO was established in 1964 and quickly became a target of both left-wing and right-wing critics of the War on Poverty. Directors of the OEO included Sargent Shriver, Bertrand Harding, and Donald Rumsfeld. The OEO launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer program in 1965. The project was designed to help end poverty by providing preschool children from low-income families with a program that would meet emotional, social, health, nutritional, and psychological needs. Head Start was then transferred to the Office of Child Development in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (later the Department of Health and Human Services) by the Nixon Administration in 1969. President Johnson also announced a second project to follow children from the Head Start program. This was implemented in 1967 with Project Follow Through, the largest educational experiment ever conducted. The policy trains disadvantaged and at-risk youth and has provided more than 2 million disadvantaged young people with the integrated academic, vocational, and social skills training they need to gain independence and get quality, long-term jobs or further their education. Job Corps continues to help 70,000 youths annually at 122 Job Corps centers throughout the country. Besides vocational training, many Job Corps also offer GED programs as well as high school diplomas and programs to get students into college. Results and aftermath In the decade following the 1964 introduction of the war on poverty, poverty rates in the U.S. dropped to their lowest level since comprehensive records began in 1958: from 17.3% in the year the Economic Opportunity Act was implemented to 11.1% in 1973. They have remained between 11 and 15.2% ever since. It is important to note, however, that the steep decline in poverty rates began in 1959, 5 years before the introduction of the war on poverty (see figure 4 below). A 2019 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that according to Johnson's standard of poverty, the poverty rate declined from 19.5 percent in 1963 to 2.3 percent in 2017. The 'absolute poverty line' is the threshold below which families or individuals are considered to be lacking the resources to meet the basic needs for healthy living; having insufficient income to provide the food, shelter and clothing needed to preserve health. Poverty among Americans between ages 18–64 has fallen only marginally since 1966, from 10.5% then to 10.1% today. Poverty has significantly fallen among Americans under 18 years old from 23% in 1964 down to less than 17%, although it has risen again to 20% in 2009. The most dramatic decrease in poverty was among Americans over 65, which fell from 28.5% in 1966 to 10.1% today. In 2004, more than 35.9 million, or 12% of Americans including 12.1 million children, were considered to be living in poverty with an average growth of almost 1 million per year. According to the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, since the Johnson Administration, almost $15 trillion has been spent on welfare, with poverty rates being about the same as during the Johnson Administration. A 2013 study published by Columbia University asserts that without the social safety net, the poverty rate would have been 29% for 2012, instead of 16%. According to OECD data from 2012, the poverty rate before taxes and transfers was 28.3%, while the poverty rate after taxes and transfers fell to 17.4%. Nixon attacked Job Corps as an ineffective and wasteful program during his 1968 presidential campaign and sought to substantially cut back the program upon taking office in 1969. The OEO was dismantled by President Reagan in 1981, though many of the agency's programs were transferred to other government agencies. According to the Readers' Companion to U.S. Women's History, Many observers point out that the war on poverty's attention to Black America created the grounds for the backlash that began in the 1970s. The perception by the white middle class that it was footing the bill for ever-increasing services to the poor led to diminished support for welfare state programs, especially those that targeted specific groups and neighborhoods. Many whites viewed Great Society programs as supporting the economic and social needs of low-income urban minorities; they lost sympathy, especially as the economy declined during the 1970s. United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President Jimmy Carter, Joseph A. Califano, Jr. wrote in 1999 in an issue of the Washington Monthly that: In waging the war on poverty, congressional opposition was too strong to pass an income maintenance law. So LBJ took advantage of the biggest automatic cash machine around: Social Security. He proposed, and Congress enacted, whopping increases in the minimum benefits that lifted some two million Americans 65 and older above the poverty line. In 1996, thanks to those increased minimum benefits, Social Security lifted 12 million senior citizens above the poverty line ... No Great Society undertaking has been subjected to more withering conservative attacks than the Office of Economic Opportunity. Yet, the war on poverty was founded on the most conservative principle: Put the power in the local community, not in Washington; give people at the grassroots the ability to stand tall on their own two feet. Conservative claims that the OEO poverty programs were nothing but a waste of money are preposterous ... Eleven of the 12 programs that OEO launched in the mid-'60s are alive, well and funded at an annual rate exceeding $10 billion; apparently legislators believe they're still working. Reception and critique President Johnson's "war on poverty" speech was delivered at a time of recovery (the poverty level had fallen from 22.4% in 1959 to 19% in 1964 when the war on poverty was announced) and it was viewed by critics as an effort to get the United States Congress to authorize social welfare programs. Republicans ran against the War on Poverty program. Some economists, including Milton Friedman, have argued that Johnson's policies actually had a negative impact on the economy because of their interventionist nature, noting in a PBS interview that "the government sets out to eliminate poverty, it has a war on poverty, so-called "poverty" increases. It has a welfare program, and the welfare program leads to an expansion of problems. A general attitude develops that government isn't a very efficient way of doing things." Adherents of this school of thought recommend that the best way to fight poverty is not through government spending but through economic growth. Historian Tony Judt said in reference to the earlier proposed title of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act that "a more Orwellian title would be hard to conceive" and attributed the decline in the popularity of the Great Society as a policy to its success, as fewer people feared hunger, sickness, and ignorance. Additionally, fewer people were concerned with ensuring a minimum standard for all citizens and social liberalism. Economist Thomas Sowell also criticized the war on poverty's programs, writing "The black family, which had survived centuries of slavery and discrimination, began rapidly disintegrating in the liberal welfare state that subsidized unwed pregnancy and changed welfare from an emergency rescue to a way of life." Others took a different tack. In 1967, in his book Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? Martin Luther King Jr. "criticized Johnson's war on poverty for being too piecemeal", saying that programs created under the "war on poverty" such as "housing programs, job training and family counseling" all had "a fatal disadvantage [because] the programs have never proceeded on a coordinated basis...[and noted that] at no time has a total, coordinated and fully adequate program been conceived." In his speech on April 4, 1967, at Riverside Church in New York, NY, King connected the war in Vietnam with the "war on poverty": There is at the outset a very obvious and almost facile connection between the war in Vietnam and the struggle I, and others, have been waging in America. A few years ago there was a shining moment in that struggle. It seemed as if there was a real promise of hope for the poor –both black and white – through the poverty program. There were experiments, hopes, new beginnings. Then came the buildup in Vietnam and I watched the program broken and eviscerated as if it were some idle political plaything of a society gone mad on war, and I knew that America would never invest the necessary funds or energies in rehabilitation of its poor so long as adventures like Vietnam continued to draw men and skills and money like some demonic destructive suction tube. So I was increasingly compelled to see the war as an enemy of the poor and to attack it as such. Perhaps the more tragic recognition of reality took place when it became clear to me that the war was doing far more than devastating the hopes of the poor at home. This criticism was repeated in his speech at the same place later that month when he said that "and you may not know it, my friends, but it is estimated that we spend $500,000 to kill each enemy soldier, while we spend only fifty-three dollars for each person classified as poor, and much of that fifty-three dollars goes for salaries to people that are not poor. So I was increasingly compelled to see the war as an enemy of the poor, and attack it as such." The next year, King started the Poor People's Campaign to address the shortcomings of the "war on poverty" and to "demand a check" for suffering African-Americans which was carried on briefly after his death with the construction and maintenance of an encampment, Resurrection City, for over six weeks. Years later, a writer in The Nation remarked that "the war on poverty has too often been a war on the poor themselves," but that much can be done. In 1989, the former executive officer of the Task Force on Poverty Hyman Bookbinder addressed such criticisms of the "war on poverty" in an op-ed in The New York Times. He wrote that: Today, the ranks of the poor are again swelling ... These and other statistics have led careless observers to conclude that the war on poverty failed. No, it has achieved many good results. Society has failed. It tired of the war too soon, gave it inadequate resources and did not open up new fronts as required. Large-scale homelessness, an explosion of teen-age pregnancies and single-parent households, rampant illiteracy, drugs and crime – these have been both the results of and causes of persistent poverty. While it is thus inappropriate to celebrate an anniversary of the war on poverty, it is important to point up some of the big gains ... Did every program of the 60's work? Was every dollar used to its maximum potential? Should every Great Society program be reinstated or increased? Of course not ... First, we cannot afford not to resume the war. One way or another, the problem will remain expensive. Somehow, we will provide for the survival needs of the poorest: welfare, food stamps, beds and roofs for the homeless, Medicaid. The fewer poor there are, the fewer the relief problems. Getting people out of poverty is the most cost-effective public investment." On March 3, 2014, as Chairman of the Budget Committee of the House of Representatives, Paul Ryan released his "The War on Poverty: 50 Years Later" report, asserting that some of 92 federal programs designed to help lower-income Americans have not provided the relief intended and that there is little evidence that these efforts have been successful. At the core of the report were recommendations to enact cuts to welfare, child care, college Pell grants and several other federal assistance programs. In the appendix titled "Measures of Poverty", when the poverty rate is measured by including non-cash assistance from food stamps, housing aid and other federal programs, the report states that these measurements have "implications for both conservatives and liberals. For conservatives, this suggests that federal programs have actually decreased poverty. For liberals, it lessens the supposed need to expand existing programs or to create new ones." Several economists and social scientists whose work had been referenced in the report said that Ryan either misunderstood or misrepresented their research. See also Modern liberalism in the United States Social programs in the United States The Other America Welfare economics Footnotes Further reading Martha J. Bailey and Sheldon Danziger (eds.), Legacies of the War on Poverty. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2013. . Elizabeth Hinton. From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America. Harvard University Press, 2016. . Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian (eds.), The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964–1980. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2011. . External links Text of President Johnson's special address to Congress in which he uses the words "war against poverty" six times Johnson's State of the Union Address where he declares the beginning of an "unconditional war on poverty in America" "The other planet" – The Economist NPR article about war on poverty Article and photo describing launch of war on poverty UVA Professor Kent G. Germany's article about the war on poverty LKLP Community Action Partnership's article about the 'war on poverty About a call President Johnson gave a congressman asking for helping on passing a poverty bill and more Notes for a 1995 movie titled America's War on Poverty Christian Science Monitor article The War on Poverty 50 Years Later: A Progress Report – Council of Economic Advisers Fighting poverty revisited: What did researchers know 40 years ago? What do we know today? Sheldon Danziger (2007), University of Wisconsin–Madison. 1964 State of the Union Address (full video and audio at www.millercenter.org) 1964 in American politics 88th United States Congress Affordable housing Speeches by Lyndon B. Johnson Great Society programs January 1964 events in the United States Poverty in the United States Presidency of Lyndon B. 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232942	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperborea	Hyperborea	In Greek mythology, the Hyperboreans (, ; ) were a mythical people who lived in the far northern part of the known world. Their name appears to derive from the Greek , "beyond Boreas" (the personified North Wind), although some scholars prefer a derivation from ("to carry over"). Despite their location in an otherwise frigid part of the world, the Hyperboreans were believed to inhabit a sunny, temperate, and divinely-blessed land. In many versions of the story, they lived north of the Riphean Mountains, which shielded them from the effects of the cold North Wind. The oldest myths portray them as the favorites of Apollo, and some ancient Greek writers regarded the Hyperboreans as the mythical founders of Apollo's shrines at Delos and Delphi. Later writers disagreed on the existence and location of the Hyperboreans, with some regarding them as purely mythological, and others connecting them to real-world peoples and places in northern Europe (e.g. Britain, Scandinavia, or Siberia). In medieval and Renaissance literature, the Hyperboreans came to signify remoteness and exoticism. Modern scholars consider the Hyperborean myth to be an amalgam of ideas from ancient utopianism, "edge of the earth" stories, the cult of Apollo, and exaggerated reports of phenomena in northern Europe (e.g. the Arctic "midnight sun"). Early sources Herodotus The earliest extant source that mentions Hyperborea in detail, Herodotus' Histories (Book IV, Chapters 32–36), dates from . However, Herodotus recorded three earlier sources that supposedly mentioned the Hyperboreans, including Hesiod and Homer, the latter purportedly having written of Hyperborea in his lost work Epigoni: "if that really is a work of his". Herodotus also wrote that the 7th-century BC poet Aristeas wrote of the Hyperboreans in a poem (now lost) called Arimaspea about a journey to the Issedones, who are estimated to have lived in the Kazakh Steppe. Beyond these lived the one-eyed Arimaspians, further on the gold-guarding griffins, and beyond these the Hyperboreans. Herodotus assumed that Hyperborea lay somewhere in Northeast Asia. Pindar, a contemporary of Herodotus, also described the otherworldly perfection of the Hyperboreans: Other 5th-century BC Greek authors, like Simonides of Ceos and Hellanicus of Lesbos, described or referenced the Hyperboreans in their works. Location of Hyperborea The Hyperboreans were believed to live beyond the snowy Riphean Mountains, with Pausanias describing the location as "The land of the Hyperboreans, men living beyond the home of Boreas." Homer placed Boreas in Thrace, and therefore Hyperborea was in his opinion north of Thrace, in Dacia. Sophocles (Antigone, 980–987), Aeschylus (Agamemnon, 193; 651), Simonides of Ceos (Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, 1. 121) and Callimachus (Delian, [IV] 65) also placed Boreas in Thrace. Other ancient writers, however, believed the home of Boreas or the Riphean Mountains were in a different location. For example, Hecataeus of Miletus believed that the Riphean Mountains were adjacent to the Black Sea. Alternatively, Pindar placed the home of Boreas, the Riphean Mountains and Hyperborea all near the Danube. Heraclides Ponticus and Antimachus in contrast identified the Riphean Mountains with the Alps, and the Hyperboreans as a Celtic tribe (perhaps the Helvetii) who lived just beyond them. Aristotle placed the Riphean mountains on the borders of Scythia, and Hyperborea further north. Hecataeus of Abdera and others believed Hyperborea was Britain. Later Roman and Greek sources continued to change the location of the Riphean mountains, the home of Boreas, as well as Hyperborea, supposedly located beyond them. However, all these sources agreed these were all in the far north of Greece or southern Europe. The ancient grammarian Simmias of Rhodes in the 3rd century BC connected the Hyperboreans to the Massagetae and Posidonius in the 1st century BC to the Western Celts, but Pomponius Mela placed them even further north in the vicinity of the Arctic. In maps based on reference points and descriptions given by Strabo, Hyperborea, shown variously as a peninsula or island, is located beyond what is now France, and stretches further north–south than east–west. Other descriptions put it in the general area of the Ural Mountains. Later classical sources Plutarch, writing in the 1st century AD, connected the Hyperboreans with the Gauls who had sacked Rome in the 4th century BC (see Battle of the Allia). Aelian, Diodorus Siculus and Stephen of Byzantium all recorded important ancient Greek sources on Hyperborea, but added no new descriptions. The 2nd century AD Stoic philosopher Hierocles equated the Hyperboreans with the Scythians, and the Riphean Mountains with the Ural Mountains. Clement of Alexandria and other early Christian writers also made this same Scythian equation. Ancient identification with Britain Hyperborea was identified with Britain first by Hecataeus of Abdera in the 4th century BC, as in a preserved fragment by Diodorus Siculus: In the regions beyond the land of the Celts there lies in the ocean an island no smaller than Sicily. This island, the account continues, is situated in the north and is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, who are called by that name because their home is beyond the point whence the north wind (Boreas) blows; and the island is both fertile and productive of every crop, and has an unusually temperate climate. Hecateaus of Abdera also wrote that the Hyperboreans had on their island "a magnificent sacred precinct of Apollo and a notable temple which is adorned with many votive offerings and is spherical in shape". Some scholars have identified this temple with Stonehenge. Diodorus, however, does not identify Hyperborea with Britain, and his description of Britain (5.21–23) makes no mention of the Hyperboreans or their spherical temple. Pseudo-Scymnus, around 90 BC, wrote that Boreas dwelled at the extremity of Gaulish territory, and that he had a pillar erected in his name on the edge of the sea (Periegesis, 183). Some have claimed this is a geographical reference to northern France, and Hyperborea as the British Isles which lay just beyond the English Channel. Ptolemy (Geographia, 2. 21) and Marcian of Heraclea (Periplus, 2. 42) both placed Hyperborea in the North Sea which they called the "Hyperborean Ocean". In his 1726 work on the druids, John Toland specifically identified Diodorus' Hyperborea with the Isle of Lewis, and the spherical temple with the Callanish Stones. Legends Along with Thule, Hyperborea was one of several to the Greeks and Romans, where Pliny, Pindar and Herodotus, as well as Virgil and Cicero, reported that people lived to the age of one thousand and enjoyed lives of complete happiness. Hecataeus of Abdera collated all the stories about the Hyperboreans current in the 4th century BC and published a lengthy, now-lost treatise on them that was noted by Diodorus Siculus (ii.47.1–2). Legend told that the sun was supposed to rise and set only once a year in Hyperborea, which would place it above or upon the Arctic Circle, or, more generally, in the arctic polar regions. The ancient Greek writer Theopompus, in his work Philippica, claimed Hyperborea was once planned to be conquered by a large race of soldiers from another island; however, this plan was apparently abandoned, as the soldiers from Meropis realized the Hyperboreans were too strong, and too blessed, for them to be conquered. This unusual tale, which some believe was satire or comedy, was preserved by Aelian (Varia Historia, 3. 18). Theseus visited the Hyperboreans and Pindar transferred Perseus' encounter with Medusa there from its traditional site in Libya, to the dissatisfaction of his Alexandrian editors. Apollonius wrote that the Argonauts sighted Hyperborea, when they sailed through Eridanos. Hyperboreans in Delos Alone among the Twelve Olympians, the Greeks venerated Apollo among the Hyperboreans, and was thought to spent his winters there amongst them. According to Herodotus, offerings from the Hyperboreans came to Scythia packed with straw, and they were passed from tribe to tribe until they arrived at Dodona and from them to other Greek peoples until they to came to Apollo's temple on Delos. He says they used this method because the first time the gifts were brought by two maidens, Hyperoche and Laodice, with an escort of five men, but none of them returned. To prevent this, the Hyperboreans began to bring the gifts to their borders and ask their neighbours to deliver them to the next country and so on until they arrived to Delos. Herodotus also details that other two virgin maidens, Arge and Opis, had come from Hyperborea to Delos before, as a tribute to the goddess Ilithyia for ease of child-bearing, accompanied by the gods themselves. The maidens received honours in Delos, where the women collected gifts from them and sang hymns to them. Abaris the Hyperborean A particular Hyperborean legendary healer was known as "Abaris" or "Abaris the Healer" whom Herodotus first described in his works. Plato (Charmides, 158C) regarded Abaris as a physician from the far north, while Strabo reported Abaris was Scythian like the early philosopher Anacharsis (Geographica, 7. 3. 8). Physical appearance Greek legend asserts that the Boreades, who were the descendants of Boreas and the snow-nymph Chione (or Khione), founded the first theocratic monarchy on Hyperborea. This legend is found preserved in the writings of Aelian: Diodorus Siculus added to this account: The Boreades were thus believed to be giant kings, around tall, who ruled Hyperborea. No other physical descriptions of the Hyperboreans are provided in classical sources. However, Aelius Herodianus, a grammarian in the 3rd century, wrote that the mythical Arimaspi were identical to the Hyperboreans in physical appearance (De Prosodia Catholica, 1. 114) and Stephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century wrote the same (Ethnica, 118. 16). The ancient poet Callimachus described the Arimaspi as having fair hair, but it is disputed whether the Arimaspi were Hyperboreans; according to Herodianus, the Arimaspi were close in appearance to the Hyperboreans, making the inference that the Hyperboreans had fair hair being potentially valid. Celts as Hyperboreans Six classical Greek authors also came to identify the Hyperboreans with their Celtic neighbours in the north: Antimachus of Colophon, Protarchus, Heraclides Ponticus, Hecataeus of Abdera, Apollonius of Rhodes and Posidonius of Apamea. The way the Greeks understood their relationship with non-Greek peoples was significantly moulded by the way myths of the Golden Age were transplanted into the contemporary scene, especially in the context of Greek colonisation and trade. As the Riphean mountains of the mythical past were identified with the Alps of northern Italy, there was at least a geographic rationale for identifying the Hyperboreans with the Celts living in and beyond the Alps, or at least the Hyperborean lands with the lands inhabited by the Celts. A reputation for feasting and a love of gold may have reinforced the connection. Modern interpretations Since Herodotus places the Hyperboreans beyond the Massagetae and Issedones, both Central Asian peoples, it appears that his Hyperboreans may have lived in Siberia. Heracles sought the golden-antlered hind of Artemis in Hyperborea. As the reindeer is the only deer species of which females bear antlers, this would suggest an arctic or subarctic region. Following J. D. P. Bolton's location of the Issedones on the south-western slopes of the Altay mountains, Carl P. Ruck places Hyperborea beyond the Dzungarian Gate into northern Xinjiang, noting that the Hyperboreans were probably Chinese. Amber arrived in Greek hands from some place known to be far to the north. Avram Davidson proposed the theory that Hyperborea was derived from a logical (though erroneous) explanation by the Greeks for the insects, which apparently originated in a warm climate, found embedded inside the amber arriving in their cities from cold northern countries. Unaware of the explanation offered by modern science (i.e. that these insects had lived in times when the climate of northern Europe was much warmer, their bodies preserved unchanged in the amber) the Greeks came up with the idea that the coldness of northern countries was due to the cold breath of Boreas, the North Wind. So if one travelled "beyond Boreas", one would find a warm and sunny land. Hyperborea in neo-Nazi imagery In August 2021, a report published by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue highlighted increased content promoting Hyperborea on the social networking site TikTok. The report indicated that hyperborean imagery and symbology is increasingly being used as a form of Esoteric Nazism by neo-Nazi TikTok users. Symbols used in these hyperborea-glorifying videos included the swastika and the Sonnenrad, both being used widely amongst white supremacists such as Brenton Tarrant, a neo-Nazi terrorist who undertook the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, and displayed by members of several extremist groups involved in the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. Identification as Hyperboreans Northern Europeans (Scandinavians), when confronted with the classical Greco-Roman culture of the Mediterranean, identified themselves with the Hyperboreans. This aligns with the traditional aspect of a perpetually sunny land beyond the north, since the Northern half of Scandinavia faces long days during high summer with no hour of darkness ('mid-night sun'). This idea was especially strong during the 17th century in Sweden, where the later representatives of the ideology of Gothicism declared the Scandinavian peninsula both the lost Atlantis and the Hyperborean land. Northern regions and their inhabitants have been called "Hyperborean", without claims of descent from the mythological Hyperboreans. In this vein, the self-described "Hyperborean-Roman Company" () were a group of northern European scholars who studied classical ruins in Rome, founded in 1824 by Theodor Panofka, Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, August Kestner and Eduard Gerhard. In this sense, Washington Irving, in elaborating on the Astor Expedition in the Pacific Northwest, described how: While the fiery and magnificent Spaniard, inflamed with the mania for gold, has extended his discoveries and conquests over those brilliant countries scorched by the ardent sun of the tropics, the adroit and buoyant Frenchman, and the cool and calculating Briton, have pursued the less splendid, but no less lucrative, traffic in furs amidst the hyperborean regions of the Canadas, until they have advanced even within the Arctic Circle. The term "Hyperborean" still sees some jocular contemporary use in reference to groups of people who live in a cold climate. Under the Library of Congress Classification System, the letter subclass PM includes "Hyperborean Languages", a catch-all category that refers to all the linguistically unrelated languages of peoples living in Arctic regions, such as the Inuit. Hyperborean has also been used in a metaphorical sense, to describe a sense of distance from the ordinary. In this way, Friedrich Nietzsche referred to his sympathetic readers as Hyperboreans in The Antichrist (written 1888, published 1895): "Let us look each other in the face. We are Hyperboreans – we know well enough how remote our place is." He quoted Pindar and added "Beyond the North, beyond the ice, beyond death – our life, our happiness." Hyperborean Indo-European hypothesis John G. Bennett wrote a research paper entitled "The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture" (Journal Systematics, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 1963) in which he claimed the Indo-European homeland was in the far north, which he considered the Hyperborea of classical antiquity. This idea was earlier proposed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (whom Bennett credits) in his The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903) as well as the Austro-Hungarian ethnologist Karl Penka (Origins of the Aryans, 1883). Soviet Indologist Natalia R. Guseva and Soviet etnographer S.V Zharnikova, influenced by Tilak's The Arctic Home in the Vedas, argued for a northern Urals Arctic homeland of the Indo-Aryan and Slavic people; their ideas were popularized by Russian nationalists. Hyperborea in modern esoteric thought According to Jason Jeffrey, H. P. Blavatsky, René Guénon and Julius Evola all shared the belief in the Hyperborean, polar origins of mankind and a subsequent solidification and devolution. Blavatsky describes the Hyperboreans as the origin of the second "root race" and as non-intelligent ethereal creatures that reproduced by budding. However, Jeffrey's account may contradict some theosophical tenets, as according to other authors like Santucci, theosophy sees the passage from one root race to another as always evolution, never devolution, thus the Hyperborean could not be superior to modern man. According to these esotericists, the Hyperborean people represented the Golden Age polar center of civilization and spirituality, with mankind, instead of evolving from a common ape ancestor, progressively devolving into an apelike state as a result of straying, both physically and spiritually, from its mystical otherworldly homeland in the Far North, succumbing to the 'demonic' energies of the South Pole, the greatest point of materialization. Robert Charroux first related the Hyperboreans to an ancient astronaut race of "reputedly very large, very white people" who had chosen "the least warm area on the earth because it corresponded more closely to their own climate on the planet from which they originated". Miguel Serrano was influenced by Charroux's writings on the Hyperboreans. See also 1309 Hyperborea Agharta Atlantis Avalon Baltia Brittia El Dorado Hyperborean cycle Iram of the Pillars Lemuria (continent) Lukomorye Meropis Mythical place Oponskoye Kingdom Patagons Pytheas Sannikov Land Scandinavia Shambhala Southern Thule Thule Thule people Thule Society Utopia Uttarakuru Ys Notes References Sources Portions of this article were formerly excerpted from the public domain Lemprière's Classical Dictionary, 1848.	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232944	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerte	Schwerte	Schwerte is a town in the district of Unna, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Geography Schwerte is situated in the Ruhr valley, at the south-east border of the Ruhr Area. South of Schwerte begins the mountainous Sauerland region. Division of the town After the local government reforms of 1975 Schwerte consists of the following districts: Schwerte Holzen Westhofen Ergste Geisecke Villigst Wandhofen History Schwerte received civic rights in the 12th century. The railway facility in the eastern district of Schwerte became a branch of the Buchenwald concentration camp in April 1944. The camp had 445 prisoners in August and 670 in November 1944. The number of escapees was comparatively high; in November 1944 48 prisoners escaped. The camp in Schwerte was disbanded in December 1944 and the remaining prisoners were brought back to Buchenwald. Main sights The Romanesque church of St. Victor has a carved altar of 1523, and stained glass of the 14th and 15th centuries. The Wuckenhof is a timber-framed house built in the 16th century. The Ruhrtalmuseum is situated in a former town hall, that was built in 1547. The Rohrmeisterei was built in 1889 by a water purification company. It was a pumping station until 1924. Today it is part of the German route of industrial heritage (Route der Industriekultur). Economy Today, there are some industries left, which are confined to the manufacture of iron and steel goods. Twin towns – sister cities Schwerte is twinned with: Béthune, France (1960) Bruay-la-Buissière, France (1965) Violaines, France (1969) Allouagne, France (1975) Hastings, England, UK (1982) Cava de' Tirreni, Italy (1984) Leppävirta, Finland (1992) Pyatigorsk, Russia (1992) Notable people Johannes Goddaeus (1555–1632), jurist Heinrich Rehkemper (1894–1949), baritone singer Erwin Rösener (1902–1946), SS-Obergruppenführer Nazi officer executed for war crimes Werner van der Zyl (1902–1984), rabbi Detlef Lewe (1939–2008), sprint canoer, lived in Schwerte Paul Kevenhörster (born 1941), political scientist Wolfgang Kleff (born 1946), footballer Rosemarie Trockel (born 1952), artist Carmen Rischer (born 1956), rhythmic gymnast Thomas Kroth (born 1959), footballer, lives in Schwerte Violetta Oblinger-Peters (born 1977), Austrian slalom canoeist Jens Ewald (born 1983), slalom canoeist Lasse Sobiech (born 1991), footballer References External links Official website Heimatverein Ergste Internet site of the local history society of Ergste Members of the Hanseatic League Province of Westphalia Unna (district)	[ 0.02882334031164646, 0.2795194983482361, 0.6321274042129517, -0.5538817048072815, -0.24366116523742676, 0.6778440475463867, 0.6418055295944214, -0.0074056885205209255, -0.022298593074083328, -0.3862847685813904, -0.12179230153560638, -0.17140674591064453, -0.06245635077357292, 0.8752727508544922, 0.2193213403224945, 0.3365286588668823, 0.46762415766716003, 0.2957737147808075, 0.49191349744796753, -0.9562669396400452, 0.025315849110484123, -0.4868929386138916, 0.4488266408443451, 0.7085350751876831, -0.4414324462413788, -0.33818984031677246, -0.18679803609848022, -0.0723441019654274, 0.33139553666114807, -0.0953952968120575, -0.11221051961183548, 0.7675134539604187, -0.18510641157627106, -0.05676013603806496, 0.25094857811927795, 0.23618148267269135, 0.08351320773363113, -0.21180829405784607, 0.5460280776023865, -0.35642334818840027, -0.4458853304386139, 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232952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy%20%28mathematics%29	Degeneracy (mathematics)	In mathematics, a degenerate case is a limiting case of a class of objects which appears to be qualitatively different from (and usually simpler than) the rest of the class, and the term degeneracy is the condition of being a degenerate case. The definitions of many classes of composite or structured objects often implicitly include inequalities. For example, the angles and the side lengths of a triangle are supposed to be positive. The limiting cases, where one or several of these inequalities become equalities, are degeneracies. In the case of triangles, one has a degenerate triangle if at least one side length or angle is zero. Equivalently, it becomes a "line segment". Often, the degenerate cases are the exceptional cases where changes to the usual dimension or the cardinality of the object (or of some part of it) occur. For example, a triangle is an object of dimension two, and a degenerate triangle is contained in a line, which makes its dimension one. This is similar to the case of a circle, whose dimension shrinks from two to zero as it degenerates into a point. As another example, the solution set of a system of equations that depends on parameters generally has a fixed cardinality and dimension, but cardinality and/or dimension may be different for some exceptional values, called degenerate cases. In such a degenerate case, the solution set is said to be degenerate. For some classes of composite objects, the degenerate cases depend on the properties that are specifically studied. In particular, the class of objects may often be defined or characterized by systems of equations. In most scenarios, a given class of objects may be defined by several different systems of equations, and these different systems of equations may lead to different degenerate cases, while characterizing the same non-degenerate cases. This may be the reason for which there is no general definition of degeneracy, despite the fact that the concept is widely used and defined (if needed) in each specific situation. A degenerate case thus has special features which makes it non-generic. However, not all non-generic cases are degenerate. For example, right triangles, isosceles triangles and equilateral triangles are non-generic and non-degenerate. In fact, degenerate cases often correspond to singularities, either in the object or in some configuration space. For example, a conic section is degenerate if and only if it has singular points (e.g., point, line, intersecting lines). In geometry Conic section A degenerate conic is a conic section (a second-degree plane curve, defined by a polynomial equation of degree two) that fails to be an irreducible curve. A point is a degenerate circle, namely one with radius 0. The line is a degenerate case of a parabola if the parabola resides on a tangent plane. In inversive geometry, a line is a degenerate case of a circle, with infinite radius. Two parallel lines also form a degenerate parabola. A line segment can be viewed as a degenerate case of an ellipse in which the semiminor axis goes to zero, the foci go to the endpoints, and the eccentricity goes to one. A circle can be thought of as a degenerate ellipse, as the eccentricity approaches 0 and the foci merge. An ellipse can also degenerate into a single point. A hyperbola can degenerate into two lines crossing at a point, through a family of hyperbolae having those lines as common asymptotes. Triangle A degenerate triangle has collinear vertices and zero area, and thus coincides with a segment covered twice (if the three vertices are not all equal; otherwise, the triangle degenerates to a single point). If the three vertices are pairwise distinct, it has two 0° angles and one 180° angle. If two vertices are equal, it has one 0° angle and two undefined angles. Rectangle A line segment is a degenerate case of a rectangle which has a side of length 0. For any non-empty subset , there is a bounded, axis-aligned degenerate rectangle where and , , are constant (with for all ). The number of degenerate sides of is the number of elements of the subset . Thus, there may be as few as one degenerate "side" or as many as (in which case reduces to a singleton point). Convex polygon A convex polygon is degenerate if at least two consecutive sides coincide at least partially, or at least one side has zero length, or at least one angle is 180°. Thus a degenerate convex polygon of n sides looks like a polygon with fewer sides. In the case of triangles, this definition coincides with the one that has been given above. Convex polyhedron A convex polyhedron is degenerate if either two adjacent facets are coplanar or two edges are aligned. In the case of a tetrahedron, this is equivalent to saying that all of its vertices lie in the same plane, giving it a volume of zero. Standard torus In contexts where self-intersection is allowed, a sphere is a degenerate standard torus where the axis of revolution passes through the center of the generating circle, rather than outside it. A torus degenerates to a circle when its minor radius goes to 0. Sphere When the radius of a sphere goes to zero, the resulting degenerate sphere of zero volume is a point. Other See general position for other examples. Elsewhere A set containing a single point is a degenerate continuum. Objects such as the digon and monogon can be viewed as degenerate cases of polygons: valid in a general abstract mathematical sense, but not part of the original Euclidean conception of polygons. A random variable which can only take one value has a degenerate distribution; if that value is the real number 0, then its probability density is the Dirac delta function. A root of a polynomial is sometimes said to be degenerate if it is a multiple root, since generically the roots of an th degree polynomial are all distinct. This usage carries over to eigenproblems: a degenerate eigenvalue is a multiple root of the characteristic polynomial. In quantum mechanics, any such multiplicity in the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian operator gives rise to degenerate energy levels. Usually any such degeneracy indicates some underlying symmetry in the system. See also Degeneracy (graph theory) Degenerate form Trivial (mathematics) Pathological (mathematics) Vacuous truth References Mathematical concepts	[ -0.3794093430042267, 0.3059333264827728, -0.7023253440856934, 0.08025744557380676, -0.5369600057601929, -0.028543347492814064, 0.15485088527202606, 0.009896145202219486, -0.16024050116539001, -0.627527117729187, -0.7254664301872253, 0.18651120364665985, -0.5125000476837158, 1.0512851476669312, -0.06108880415558815, 0.6647397875785828, 0.6385625004768372, 0.1325448453426361, -0.4363064467906952, -0.14068694412708282, 0.02842642366886139, 0.22714854776859283, -0.1311778724193573, -0.4937770366668701, 0.05129024386405945, -0.31904393434524536, -0.011586411856114864, 0.18583115935325623, 0.01868811994791031, 0.401203989982605, -0.4198872148990631, 0.6939641237258911, 0.009740672074258327, 0.47103196382522583, 0.34525245428085327, 0.06120522320270538, 0.5999104380607605, -0.27249598503112793, 0.19702686369419098, -0.4439275860786438, 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232953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron%20degeneracy%20pressure	Electron degeneracy pressure	Electron degeneracy pressure is a particular manifestation of the more general phenomenon of quantum degeneracy pressure. The Pauli exclusion principle disallows two identical half-integer spin particles (electrons and all other fermions) from simultaneously occupying the same quantum state. The result is an emergent pressure against compression of matter into smaller volumes of space. Electron degeneracy pressure results from the same underlying mechanism that defines the electron orbital structure of elemental matter. For bulk matter with no net electric charge, the attraction between electrons and nuclei exceeds (at any scale) the mutual repulsion of electrons plus the mutual repulsion of nuclei; so in absence of electron degeneracy pressure, the matter would collapse into a single nucleus. In 1967, Freeman Dyson showed that solid matter is stabilized by quantum degeneracy pressure rather than electrostatic repulsion. Because of this, electron degeneracy creates a barrier to the gravitational collapse of dying stars and is responsible for the formation of white dwarfs. From the Fermi gas theory Electrons are members of a family of particles known as fermions. Fermions, like the proton or the neutron, follow Pauli's principle and Fermi–Dirac statistics. In general, for an ensemble of non-interacting fermions, also known as a Fermi gas, each particle can be treated independently with a single-fermion energy given by the purely kinetic term, where is the momentum of one particle and its mass. Every possible momentum state of an electron within this volume up to the Fermi momentum being occupied. The degeneracy pressure at zero temperature can be computed as where V is the total volume of the system and Etot is the total energy of the ensemble. Specifically for the electron degeneracy pressure, is substituted by the electron mass and the Fermi momentum is obtained from the Fermi energy, so the electron degeneracy pressure is given by , where is the free electron density (the number of free electrons per unit volume). For the case of a metal, one can prove that this equation remains approximately true for temperatures lower than the Fermi temperature, about kelvin. When particle energies reach relativistic levels, a modified formula is required. The relativistic degeneracy pressure is proportional to . Examples Metals For the case of electrons in crystalline solid, several approximations are carefully justified to treat the electrons as independent particles. Usual models are the free electron model and the nearly free electron model. In the appropriate systems, the electron degeneracy pressure can be calculated; it can be shown that this pressure is an important contributor to the compressibility or bulk modulus of metals. White dwarfs Electron degeneracy pressure will halt the gravitational collapse of a star if its mass is below the Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 solar masses). This is the pressure that prevents a white dwarf star from collapsing. A star exceeding this limit and without significant thermally generated pressure will continue to collapse to form either a neutron star or black hole, because the degeneracy pressure provided by the electrons is weaker than the inward pull of gravity. See also Exchange interaction Fermi level Bose–Einstein condensate Nuclear density References Pauli exclusion principle Stellar evolution White dwarfs	[ -0.2793220579624176, 0.4126802980899811, -0.2861033082008362, -0.2995918095111847, -0.6379215121269226, -0.350782573223114, 0.35727933049201965, -0.3806881606578827, 0.09368331730365753, -0.4854784905910492, -0.3928818702697754, 0.6292152404785156, -0.3822496235370636, 0.6997240781784058, 0.25047290325164795, 0.5660658478736877, 0.5585293173789978, 0.603563129901886, -0.6200471520423889, -0.6011027693748474, 0.4037598967552185, -0.1976063996553421, 0.15277230739593506, -0.4173935055732727, -0.16470569372177124, -0.4285232126712799, -0.055674515664577484, -0.32840871810913086, 0.45203664898872375, 0.1070060059428215, 0.0277883131057024, 0.9474875330924988, -0.1673179417848587, 0.13193468749523163, 0.9009735584259033, 0.35626593232154846, 0.06639242172241211, -0.06249455735087395, 0.24215389788150787, -0.24676163494586945, 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232955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyth	Blyth	Blyth may refer to: People Blyth (surname) Blythe (given name) Places Australia Blyth, South Australia, a small town Canada Blyth, Ontario, a village United Kingdom Blyth, Northumberland, a town Blyth Valley (UK Parliament constituency) Blyth, Nottinghamshire, a village River Blyth, Northumberland River Blyth, Suffolk Other uses Baron Blyth, title in the UK peerage Blyth, Inc., a personal goods manufacturing and distribution company The Blyth Academy, Blyth, Northumberland, England Blyth Education, a Canadian company that runs a chain of private secondary schools See also Blithe (disambiguation) Blythe (disambiguation) River Blyth (disambiguation)	[ 0.08028249442577362, 0.3740088939666748, 0.4935036897659302, -0.4738343358039856, -0.3213273882865906, 0.8633406162261963, 0.3119471073150635, 0.18567395210266113, -0.6027508974075317, -0.3351699411869049, -0.41480007767677307, -0.6516727209091187, -0.3268778324127197, 0.5952175855636597, 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232963	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20film	Feature film	A feature film or feature-length film is a narrative film (motion picture or "movie") with a running time long enough to be considered the principal or sole presentation in a commercial entertainment program. The term feature film originally referred to the main, full-length film in a cinema program that also included a short film and often a newsreel. Most feature films are between 75 and 210 minutes long. The first narrative feature film was the 60-minute The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906, Australia). The first (proto)-feature-length film adaptation was Les Misérables (1909, U.S.). Other early feature films include L'Inferno, Defence of Sevastopol (1911), Oliver Twist (American version), Oliver Twist (British version), Richard III, From the Manger to the Cross, Cleopatra (1912), Quo Vadis? (1913), Cabiria (1914) and The Birth of a Nation (1915). Description The notion of how long a feature film should be has varied according to time and place. According to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the American Film Institute and the British Film Institute, a feature film runs for more than 40 minutes, while the Screen Actors Guild asserts that a feature's running time is 60 minutes or longer. The Centre National de la Cinématographie in France defines it as a 35 mm film longer than , which is exactly 58 minutes and 29 seconds for sound films. History The term feature film came into use to refer to the main film presented in a cinema and the one which was promoted or advertised. The term was used to distinguish the longer film from the short films (referred to as shorts) typically presented before the main film, such as newsreels, serials, animated cartoons, live-action comedies and documentaries. There was no sudden increase in the running times of films to the present-day definitions of feature-length; the "featured" film on a film program in the early 1910s gradually expanded from two to three to four reels. Early features had been produced in the United States and France, but were released in individual (short film) scenes. This left exhibitors the option of playing them alone, to view an incomplete combination of some films, or to run them all together as a short film series. Early features were mostly documentary-style films of noteworthy events. Some of the earliest feature-length productions were films of boxing matches, such as The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight (1897), Reproduction of the Corbett-Jeffries Fight and The Jeffries-Sharkey Fight (1899). Some consider the 100-minute The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight to be the first documentary feature film, but it is more accurately characterized as a sports program as it included the full unedited boxing match. In 1900, the documentary film Army Life was produced by Robert Paul. It was a programme of 33 short films, with a total running time of around 75 minutes, following the training of British soldiers. Inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth (1901) ran for 35 minutes, "six times longer than any previous Australian film", and has been called "possibly the first feature-length documentary made in Australia". American company S. Lubin released a Passion Play titled Lubin's Passion Play in January 1903 in 31 parts, totaling about 60 minutes.<ref>Passion Play" (1903), in: The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures [online database].</ref> The French company Pathé Frères released a different Passion Play in May 1903, The Life and Passion of Jesus Christ, in 32 parts, totaling 44 minutes. Defined by length, the first dramatic feature film was the Australian 60-minute film The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906). Similarly, the first European feature was the 90-minute film L'Enfant prodigue (France, 1907), although that was an unmodified record of a stage play; Europe's first feature adapted directly for the screen, Les Misérables, came from France in 1909. The first Russian feature was Defence of Sevastopol in 1911. Early Italian features included L'Inferno (1911), Quo Vadis?, The Last Days of Pompeii (1913) and Cabiria (1914). The first UK features were the documentary With Our King and Queen Through India (1912), filmed in Kinemacolor and Oliver Twist (also 1912). The first American features were Oliver Twist, From the Manger to the Cross, Cleopatra and Richard III (all 1912). Actor Frederick Warde starred in some of these adaptations. The first Asian feature was Japan's The Life Story of Tasuke Shiobara (1912), the first Indian feature was Raja Harishchandra (1913), China's first feature film was Zhang Shichuan's Nan Fu Nan Qi (1913), the first South American feature was Brazil's O Crime dos Banhados (1913), and the first African feature was South Africa's Die Voortrekkers (1916).. By 1915, over 600 feature films were produced annually in the United States. It is often incorrectly cited that The Birth of a Nation (1915) was the first American feature film. The most prolific year of U.S. feature production was 1921, with 682 releases; the lowest number of releases was in 1963, with 213. Between 1922 and 1970, the U.S. and Japan alternated as leaders in the quantity of feature film production. Since 1971, the country with the highest feature output has been India, which produces a thousand films in more than twelve Indian languages each year. Technological developments In 1927, Warner Bros. released the first feature-length film with sound, The Jazz Singer, whose audio track was recorded with a proprietary technology called Vitaphone. The film's success persuaded other studios to go to the considerable expense of adding microphones to their sets, and scramble to start producing their own "talkies". One of the next major advancements made in movie production was color film. Even before color was a possibility in movies, early film makers were interested in how color could enhance their stories. Early techniques included hand tinting: painting each frame by hand. Cheaper and more widely used was toning: dying the film in a single color, used in many films in the 1920s. The film processing lab Technicolor developed the Three-Tone coloring technique that became the standard for color film. It was a complex, time consuming, and expensive process that many movie studios were not eager to try. One of the early adopters of the three-strip process was Disney. Some of the most notable films Technicolor processed with three-strip were The Wizard of Oz and Gone with the Wind. Digital Video (or DV) has quickly changed how most films are made. First used to create special effects and animated movies, digital cameras became more common on film sets in the late 1990s. In 2002, George Lucas' Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones became the first major feature-length film to be shot entirely on digital cameras. The ability to instantly play back footage and quickly transfer footage to computers for editing helped to speed up post-production time. Digital film making was given a big boost in 2005 when the Digital Cinema Initiative created a guide for manufacturers to create a universal standard, to make the technologies more compatible with each other and more user friendly. Shooting movies on digital also led to new technologies for distributing films. Titan A.E.'', released in 2000, was the first feature film to be released for viewing over the internet. Digital distribution changed the ways people received and watched media. It also gave viewers access to huge amounts of online content on demand. 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232964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goya%20Foods	Goya Foods	Goya Foods, Inc. is an American producer of a brand of foods sold in the United States and many Spanish-speaking countries. It has facilities in the United States, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Spain. It is under third-generation ownership of the Spanish-American Unanue family, and is headquartered in Jersey City, New Jersey. History Goya Foods was founded in 1933 (some sources claim 1936), by Prudencio Unanue Ortiz (1886–1976) from Valle de Mena, Spain. Prudencio immigrated to Puerto Rico, where he met and married Carolina Casal (1890–1984), also a Spanish immigrant; they later moved to New York City. The family had originally opened a small store called "Unanue and Sons" in 1922; however, it was converted to wholesale in the mid 1930s. Prudencio purchased the "Goya" name from a Moroccan sardine company because he believed that his last name was too difficult to pronounce for American customers and also liked the association to Spanish artist Francisco Goya. When Prudencio Unanue died in 1976, he left Goya to his sons, Joseph, Charles, Francisco and Anthony. Upon his father's death, Joseph A. Unanue became chief executive of Goya, then a fairly small, $8.5 million company. As president and chief executive of the company, Joseph shared control with his brother Francisco, who served as president of Goya de Puerto Rico Inc., responsible for much of the company's manufacturing operations. Joseph A. Unanue's son, Joseph F. Unanue, was general manager and vice president of Goya de Puerto Rico from 1989 to 1996, when he became executive vice president at the company's New Jersey, assuming the No. 2 position in the company; he died two years later. During Joseph A. Unanue's decades at the head of the company, Goya grew to become a major corporation. By 1998, the company produced about 800 food items (including rice, beans, sauces, and spices), had 2,000 employees, and about $700 million in revenue. Joseph A. Unanue was ousted from his position as Goya chairman and CEO in 2004, amid an feud in the Unanue family about the direction of the company. At the time of Joseph A. Unanue's ouster, Goya was generating from $750 million, to more than $1 billion in revenue. Joseph's son Andy Unanue, the chief operating officer of the company, also left Goya amid the disagreement, prompting litigation. Robert Unanue and his cousin Francisco Unanue made the decision to remove Andy, who had previously been considered the "heir apparent" to Goya. Joseph Unanue retained a significant stake in the company, and retained a seat on its board; he died in 2013. Robert Unanue has been the chief executive since 2004. The fracturing of Goya's ownership among its founders' descendants has frequently led to disputes about the company's strategy. In 2012, the company began construction on a $127 million distribution center in the industrial Meadowlands area of Jersey City, backed by state tax incentives that aided the company in its move from Secaucus to the Jersey City site. In 2019, Goya had talks with The Carlyle Group about a possible buyout; the company ultimately decided not to sell itself to The Carlyle Group. Description Goya manufactures and distributes products from the Spanish, Puerto Rican, Caribbean, Mexican, Cuban and Central and South American cuisine. Their products are sold in stores and supermarket chains throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, and international markets. In 2006, Forbes ranked Goya 355th on its list of the largest private companies in the United States. Between 2014 and 2016 Goya opened five new facilities including manufacturing and distribution centers located in New Jersey, Texas, California, and Georgia to meet rising consumer demand. Currently, Goya Foods is headquartered on a lot in Jersey City, New Jersey. Goya also operates a manufacturing facility in San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic, and a distribution center in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. Corporate affairs Goya Gives "Goya Gives" is a program to support various charities, scholarships, and events, and includes donations of products to food shelters and food banks during times of crisis, such as Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico. In March and April 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Goya donated over of food, or about 270,000 meals, to food banks and other organizations in the United States, and also donated more than 20,000 protective masks. MyPlate/MiPlato campaign In 2012, the company joined First Lady Michelle Obama's "My Plate" healthy eating initiative. President Trump comments On 9 July 2020, at a White House roundtable discussion of the Hispanic Prosperity Initiative with President Donald Trump, Goya Foods co-owner and CEO Robert Unanue praised Trump, saying the country was "truly blessed [...] to have a leader like President Trump, who is a builder" and adding, "we have an incredible builder and we pray, we pray for our leadership, our president and for our country, that we continue to prosper and to grow." Unanue's comments prompted a call for a public boycott on social media, which was supported by various Latino public figures, including Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Julian Castro and Lin-Manuel Miranda. In response, Unanue stated the next day that this was a "suppression of speech" and declined to apologize for his comments. Supporters called for an anti-boycott "buycott" in support of the company. Goya used its corporate Twitter account to call attention to its pledge made at the White House event to donate cans of food for those affected by COVID-19, and a Goya supporter launched a GoFundMe campaign that raised money to buy Goya products and donate them to food pantries. On 7 December 2020, Unanue stated that Ocasio-Cortez was named 'employee of the month' after her boycott call led to a 1000% sales spike. On January 26, 2021, Goya's board of directors voted to censure Unanue following statements disputing the 2020 United States presidential election, banning him from speaking to the media. An anonymous CNN source familiar with the board’s actions claimed that Unanue's statements "imperiled the future of the company and endangered the lives of some of the shareholders," and that the controversy following Unanue's White House appearance had not been good for the company. During CPAC 2021, Goya Foods CEO Unanue claimed the 2020 election was illegitimate, and that Donald Trump is 'the real, the legitimate, and the still actual president'. Cultural impact Goya Foods logo and imagery has been "appropriated" by multiple contemporary fine artists who use the images in their paintings, prints and sculptures, most notably Cuban-American artist Ric Garcia, sculptor Alexander Mijares, painter John Kilduff, and others. See also La Costeña (food company) References External links Goya Foods Goya Foods, Collection 1960–2000 American companies established in 1936 Food product brands Food manufacturers of the United States Food and drink companies based in New Jersey Companies based in Jersey City, New Jersey Hispanic and Latino American cuisine Hispanic and Latino American culture in New York City Hispanic and Latino American culture in New Jersey Latin American cuisine Spanish-American cuisine Spanish-American culture in New York City Food and drink companies established in 1936 1936 establishments in New York City Privately held companies based in New Jersey	[ -0.3691352605819702, 0.36271336674690247, -0.058458466082811356, -0.1409512460231781, -0.6568892598152161, 0.3989742398262024, -0.2660692036151886, 1.0527797937393188, -0.005399466026574373, -0.1938491314649582, -0.2676007151603699, 0.14829792082309723, 0.32081037759780884, 0.6179848313331604, -0.05840592831373215, -0.14317533373832703, 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232968	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20St%20Albans	Battle of St Albans	The Battle of St Albans may refer to one of the two battles fought in or near the city of St Albans during the English Wars of the Roses: The First Battle of St Albans was the first battle of the war and was fought on 22 May 1455. The Second Battle of St Albans was fought on 22 February 1461. See also St. Albans Raid, battle of the American Civil War.	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232971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Savannah	SS Savannah	SS Savannah was an American hybrid sailing ship/sidewheel steamer built in 1818. She was the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, transiting mainly under sail power from May to June 1819. In spite of this historic voyage, the great space taken up by her large engine and its fuel at the expense of cargo, and the public's anxiety over embracing her revolutionary steam power, kept Savannah from being a commercial success as a steamship. Originally laid down as a sailing packet, she was, following a severe and unrelated reversal of the financial fortunes of her owners, converted back into a sailing ship shortly after returning from Europe. Savannah was wrecked off Long Island, New York in 1821. No other American-owned steamship would cross the Atlantic for almost thirty years after Savannah's pioneering voyage. Two British sidewheel steamships, Brunel's SS Great Western and Menzies' SS Sirius, raced to New York in 1838, both voyages being made under steam power alone. Development Savannah was laid down as a sailing packet at the New York shipyard of Fickett & Crockett. While the ship was still on the slipway, Captain Moses Rogers, with the financial backing of the Savannah Steam Ship Company, purchased the vessel in order to convert it to an auxiliary steamship and gain the prestige of inaugurating the world's first transatlantic steamship service. Savannah was fitted with an auxiliary steam engine and paddlewheels in addition to her sails. Moses Rogers himself supervised the installation of the machinery, while his distant cousin, and later brother-in-law, Stevens Rogers oversaw installation of the ship's rigging and sails. Since Savannah crossed the Atlantic mainly under sail power some sources contend that the first transatlantic steamship was the , crossing in 1833. It used sail only during boiler maintenance. Another claimant is the British-built Dutch-owned Curaçao, which used steam power for several days when crossing the Atlantic both ways in 1827. Description The Allaire Iron Works of New York supplied Savannah's engine cylinder, while the rest of the engine components and running gear were manufactured by the Speedwell Ironworks of New Jersey. The 90-horsepower low-pressure engine was of the inclined direct-acting type, with a single cylinder and a 5-foot stroke. Savannah's engine and machinery were unusually large for their time, and after the ship's launch, Moses Rogers had difficulty locating a suitable boiler, rejecting several before settling on a copper model by boiler specialist Daniel Dod. The ship's wrought-iron paddlewheels were 16 feet in diameter with eight buckets per wheel. For fuel, the vessel carried 75 tons of coal and 25 cords of wood. As the ship was too small to carry much fuel, the engine was intended only for use in calm weather, when the sails were unable to provide a speed of at least four knots. In order to reduce drag and avoid damage when the engine was not in use, the paddlewheel buckets were linked by chains instead of bars, enabling the wheels to be folded up like fans and stored on deck. Similarly, the paddlewheel guards were made of canvas stretched over a metal frame which could also be packed away when not required. The whole process of retracting the wheels and guards took no more than about 15 minutes. Savannah is the only known ship to have been fitted with retractable paddlewheels. Savannah's hull and rigging were constructed under the direction of Captain Stevens Rogers, who later became the ship's sailing master. The ship was full rigged like a normal sailing ship, excepting the absence of royal-masts and royals. Contemporary engravings suggest that Savannah's mainmast was set further astern than in normal sailing ships, in order to accommodate the engine and boiler. Interior Savannah was fitted with 32 passenger berths, with two berths in each of the 16 state rooms. The women's quarters were reported to be "entirely distinct" from the men's. Three fully furnished saloons were also provided, complete with imported carpets, curtains and hangings, and decorated with mirrors. The state rooms were large and comfortable and the interior has been described as more closely resembling a pleasure yacht than a steam packet. Early service When it became known that Savannah was intended for transatlantic service, the vessel was quickly dubbed a "steam coffin" in New York and Moses Rogers was unable to hire a crew there. Stevens Rogers then traveled to New London, Connecticut, his hometown, where his reputation was well established, and he could find seamen prepared to serve on the vessel. Savannah conducted a successful trial of approximately two hours duration in New York Harbor to test her engine on Monday March 22, 1819. On Sunday, March 28 at 10a.m., Savannah sailed from New York to her operating port of Savannah, Georgia. The following morning the ship got steam up for the first time at 11a.m., but the engine was in use only half an hour before rough weather persuaded the captain to stow the paddlewheels and revert to sail power once again. The ship reached her destination April 6, having employed the engines for a total of 41½ hours during the 207-hour voyage. In spite of arriving at 4a.m., a large crowd was on hand to welcome the vessel into port. Presidential excursion A few days after Savannah's arrival in Savannah Harbor, the President of the United States, James Monroe, visited the nearby city of Charleston, South Carolina as part of an extended tour of inspection of arsenals, fortifications and public works along the East coast of the United States. On hearing of the visit, Savannah's principal owner, William Scarbrough, instructed Rogers to sail north to Charleston to invite the President to return to the city of Savannah aboard the steamship. Savannah departed under steam for Charleston on April 14, and after an overnight stopover at Tybee Island Light, arrived at Charleston two days later. Scarbrough's invitation was sent, but as the locals objected to the President leaving South Carolina on a Georgian vessel, he pledged to visit the ship at a later date. On April 30, Savannah made steam for her home port once again, arriving there the following day after a 27-hour voyage. On May 7 and 8 Savannah took on coal, and on May 11, President Monroe made good on his promise and arrived to take an excursion on the ship. After the President and his entourage had been welcomed aboard, Savannah departed under steam around 8a.m. for Tybee Lighthouse, arriving there at 10:30 a.m., and departing for town again at 11. Monroe dined on board, expressing enthusiasm to the ship's owner, Mr. Scarbrough, over the prospect of an American vessel inaugurating the world's first transatlantic steamship service. The President was also greatly impressed by Savannah's machinery, and invited Scarbrough to bring the ship to Washington after her transatlantic crossing so that Congress could inspect the vessel with a view to purchasing her for use as a cruiser against Cuban pirates. Historic transatlantic voyage In the days following Monroe's departure, Savannah's crew, with Captain Moses Rogers in command and Stevens Rogers as sailing master, made their final preparations for the Atlantic crossing. On May 15, the ship broke free from her moorings during a squall, but apart from slight damage to her paddles, the ship was unharmed. Savannah's owners made every effort to secure passengers and freight for the voyage, but no-one was willing to risk lives or property aboard such a novel vessel. On May 19, a late advertisement appeared in the local paper announcing the date of departure as May 20. In the event, Savannah's departure was delayed for two days after one of her crew returned to the vessel in a highly inebriated state, fell off the gangplank and drowned. In spite of this delay however, still no passengers came forward, and the ship would make her historic voyage purely in an experimental capacity. The voyage After leaving Savannah Harbor on May 22 and lingering at Tybee Lighthouse for several hours, Savannah commenced her historic voyage at 5a.m. on Monday May 24, 1819, under both steam and sail bound for Liverpool, England. At around 8a.m. the same day, the paddlewheels were stowed for the first time and the ship proceeded under sail. Several days later, on May 29, the schooner Contract spied a vessel "with volumes of smoke issuing", and assuming it was a ship on fire, pursued it for several hours but was unable to catch up. Contract's skipper eventually concluded the smoking vessel must be a steamboat crossing for Europe, exciting his admiration as "a proud monument of Yankee skill and enterprise". On June 2, Savannah, sailing at a speed of 9 or 10 knots, passed the sailing ship Pluto. After being informed by Captain Rogers that his novel vessel was functioning "remarkably well", the crew of Pluto gave Savannah three cheers, as "the happiest effort of mechanical genius that ever sailed the western sea." Savannah's next recorded encounter was not until June 19, off the coast of Ireland with the cutter HMS Kite, which made the same mistake as Contract three weeks earlier and chased the steamship for several hours believing it to be a sailing vessel on fire. Unable to catch the ship, Kite eventually fired several warning shots, and Captain Rogers brought his vessel to a halt, whereupon Kite caught up and its commander asked permission to inspect the ship. Permission was granted, and the British sailors are said to have been "much gratified" by the satisfaction of their curiosity. On June 18, Savannah was becalmed off Cork after running out of fuel for her engine, but by June 20, the ship had made her way to Liverpool. Hundreds of boats came out to greet the unusual vessel, including a British sloop-of-war, an officer from whom hailed Savannah's sailing master Stevens Rogers, who happened to be on deck. The New London Gazette of Connecticut later reported the encounter in the following terms: The officer of the boat asked [Rogers], "Where is your master?" to which he gave the laconic reply, "I have no master, sir". "Where's your captain then?" "He's below; do you wish to see him?" "I do, sir." The captain, who was then below, on being called, asked what he wanted, to which he answered, "Why do you wear that penant, sir?" "Because my country allows me to, sir." "My commander thinks it was done to insult him, and if you don't take it down he will send a force to do it." Captain Rogers then exclaimed to the engineer, "Get the hot-water engine ready." Although there was no such machine on board the vessel, it had the desired effect, and John Bull was glad to paddle off as fast as possible. On approaching the city, Savannah was cheered by crowds thronging the piers and the roofs of houses. The ship made anchor at 6p.m. The voyage had lasted 29 days and 11 hours, during which time the vessel had employed her engine for a total of 80 hours, about 11% of the time. At Liverpool During Savannah's stay at Liverpool, the ship was visited by thousands of people from all walks of life, including officers of the army and navy and other "persons of rank and influence." Perhaps reflecting the suspicion with which both nations still regarded one another after the recent War of 1812, some suspected the ship of planning to rescue Napoleon Bonaparte from prison on the island of St. Helena; his brother Jerome had recently offered a large reward for such a service. Savannah remained at Liverpool for 25 days, while the crew scraped and repainted the ship, tested the engine, and replenished fuel and supplies. On July 21 the ship departed Liverpool bound for St. Petersburg in Russia. Sweden Savannah reached Elsinore (Helsingor), Denmark, on August 9, where she remained in quarantine for five days. On the 14th the ship sailed on to Stockholm, Sweden, thus becoming the first steamship to enter the Baltic Sea. Savannah arrived at Stockholm on August 22, and on the 28th was visited by the Prince of Sweden and Norway. On September 1, an excursion on board the ship around the local islands was arranged, which was attended by the American and other ambassadors, nobles and prominent citizens. While in port at Stockholm, the Swedish government offered to purchase the vessel, but the terms were not attractive enough for Moses Rogers and he rejected the offer. Before leaving, the King of Sweden, Charles XIV John, presented Rogers with the gift of a stone and muller. On September 5, Savannah departed for Kronstadt, Russia, arriving there on the 9th. Russia At Kronstadt, the Emperor of Russia came aboard Savannah and presented Captain Rogers with gifts of a gold watch and two iron chairs. From Kronstadt, Rogers sailed on to St. Petersburg, arriving there September 13. During the journey from Liverpool to St. Petersburg, Savannah engine had its most frequent use, being employed for a total of 241 hours. At St. Petersburg, the American ambassador to Russia extended an invitation to a number of prominent citizens to visit the ship. On September 18, 21 and 23, Savannah made several excursions under steam in the waters off St. Petersburg, with members of the Russian royal family and other noblemen, as well as army and navy officers aboard. During the ship's stay at St. Petersburg, the Russian government also offered to purchase the vessel, but again the terms were not attractive enough for Moses Rogers to accept. On September 27 and 28, Savannah was occupied in taking on coal and stores for her return journey to the United States. Before leaving, Lord Lynedoch of Scotland, who had travelled on board Savannah from Stockholm to St. Peterburg, presented Captain Moses Rogers and Sailing Master Stevens Rogers with a solid silver coffee urn and a gold snuffbox, respectively. Homeward crossing On September 29, Savannah sailed for Kronstadt on the first leg of her journey home. After experiencing several days of rough weather while at Kronstadt, during which the ship lost an anchor and hawser, Savannah left Kronstadt under steam on October 10 bound for Copenhagen, arriving on the 17th, continuing on to Helsingor to pay the Baltic exit toll, then stopping at Arendal, Norway, to wait out bad weather before heading out to open sea and her homeward crossing of the Atlantic. The ship experienced gales and rough seas almost all the way back to the United States, and the engine was not employed again until reaching home waters, the crossing having taken 40 days. Savannah steamed up the Savannah River and arrived safely back at her home port at 10a.m., November 30, six months and eight days from the date of her departure. Later history Savannah remained at her home port until December 3, when she set sail for Washington, D.C., arriving there on the 16th. In January 1820, a great fire swept through the city of Savannah, doing severe damage to the business district. The owners of the Savannah, William Scarbrough and his partners, suffered losses in the fire and were forced to sell the ship. Savannah's engine was removed and resold for the sum of $1,600 to the Allaire Iron Works, which had originally built the engine cylinder. The cylinder was preserved by the proprietor of the Allaire Works, James P. Allaire, and was later displayed at the New York Crystal Palace Exhibition of 1856. After removal of the engine, the ship was used as a sailing packet, operating between New York and Savannah, Georgia, until running aground along the south shore of Long Island on November 5, 1821, and subsequently breaking up. Savannah had proven that a steamship was capable of crossing the ocean, but the public was not yet prepared to trust such means of conveyance on the open sea, and the large amount of space taken up by the engine and its fuel made the ship uneconomic in any case. It would be almost another 20 years before steamships began making regular crossings of the Atlantic, and another American-owned steamship would not do so until 1847, almost 30 years later. The 'Savannah' is portrayed on a 3¢ US commemorative stamp (Scott #923) issued on May 22, 1944. Footnotes References Braynard, Frank O., S.S. Savannah the Elegant Steam Ship. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1963; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1988 Busch, John Laurence, Steam Coffin – Captain Moses Rogers and The Steamship Savannah Break the Barrier, Hodos Historia LLC, 2010. ; Morrison, John Harrison (1903): History Of American Steam Navigation. New York: W. F. Sametz & Co. Morrison, John Harrison (1909): History of New York Shipyards. New York: Wm. F. Sametz & Co. Smithsonian Institution (1891): "Log Book of the Savannah", from Report of the U.S. National Museum During the Year Ending June 30, 1890, Government Printing Office, Washington. Stanton, Samuel Ward (1895): American Steam Vessels, Smith & Stanton, New York, pp. 26–27. Swann, Leonard Alexander Jr. (1965): John Roach, Maritime Entrepreneur: the Years as Naval Contractor 1862–1886 — United States Naval Institute (reprinted 1980 by Ayer Publishing, ). 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232973	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalin	Catalin	Catalin is a brand name for a thermosetting polymer developed and trademarked in 1927 by the American Catalin Corporation of New York City, when the patent on Bakelite expired that year. A phenol formaldehyde resin, it can be worked with files, grinders, and cutters, and polished to a fine sheen. Catalin is produced by a two-stage process, different than other types of phenolic resins, and does not contain fillers, such as sawdust or carbon black. Catalin is transparent, near colorless, rather than opaque. Unlike other phenolics, it can be produced in bright colors or even marbled. This fact has made Catalin more popular than other types of Bakelite for consumer products. Catalin is heavy, quite greasy in feel, and as hard as brass. It is heat resistant and does not soften under boiling water. Like Bakelite, it gives off a distinctive phenolic odour when heated and can be tested using Simichrome, which turns from pink to yellow. Due to oxidation, older Catalin items darken in color; white discolors to yellow. This caused interesting effects in radio cabinets made from Catalin. Catalin radios were often made in stylish Art Deco designs and are sought after by collectors. Applications Catalin was used from the 1930s to 1950s for many household objects, jewelry, small boxes, lamps, cutlery handles, and desk sets. Catalin jewelry, more commonly referred to incorrectly as Bakelite jewelry, was made from the 1930s until the end of World War II when it became too expensive, as every piece had to be individually cast and polished. The American Catalin Corporation introduced 15 new colors in 1927 and developed techniques to create marbling. The colors included yellow, orange, red, greens, blue, and purple, with clear, opaque and marbled versions. In the 1930s, jewelry made in these colors was popular with sets of beads, bangles, earrings, and rings being worn together. Catalin was also used to make radios. In a labor-intensive process, liquid resin was cast and cured with heat, and then polished by hand into Art Deco designs. Notable designers of Catalin radios included Norman Bel Geddes and Walter Dorwin Teague. The bright colors of Catalin radios were meant to convey optimism during the Great Depression. Jewelry made out of Catalin is usually referred to as Bakelite in the antique trade, while the household items, radios, cutlery, etc. are accurately referred to as Catalin. The grips on John Wayne's iconic six shooter, seen in every movie from El Dorado through True Grit, were made of Catalin, not ivory, as often thought. Catalin has also been used for mountings on the great highland bagpipe. This use is no longer common due to a tendency for them to turn orange with age. References Baker, L. 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232975	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%20Glaspie	April Glaspie	April Catherine Glaspie (born April 26, 1942) is an American former diplomat and senior member of the Foreign Service, best known for her role in the events leading up to the Gulf War. Early life Glaspie was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, and graduated from Mills College in Oakland, California, in 1963, and from Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies in 1965. In 1966 Glaspie entered the United States foreign service, where she became an expert on the Middle East. After postings in Kuwait, Syria, and Egypt, Glaspie was appointed ambassador to Iraq in 1988. She was the first woman to be appointed an American ambassador to an Arab country. She had a reputation as a respected Arabist, and her instructions were to broaden cultural and commercial contacts with the Iraqi regime. Subsequently, Glaspie was posted to the U.S. Mission to the United Nations in New York City. She was later posted to South Africa as Consul general in Cape Town. She held this post until her retirement in 2002. Career United States Ambassador to Iraq Meetings with Saddam Hussein Glaspie's appointment as U.S. ambassador to Iraq followed a period from 1980 to 1989 during which the United States had given covert support to Iraq during its war with Iran. Glaspie had her first meeting with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein and his Deputy Prime Minister, Tariq Aziz, on July 25, 1990. In her telegram from July 25, 1990, to the Department of State, Glaspie summarized the meeting as follows: Saddam told the ambassador on July 25 that Mubarak has arranged for Kuwaiti and Iraqi delegations to meet in Riyadh, and then on July 28, 29 or 30, the Kuwaiti crown prince will come to Baghdad for serious negotiations. "Nothing serious will happen" before then, Saddam had promised Mubarak. At least two transcripts of the meeting have been published. The State Department has not confirmed the accuracy of these transcripts, but Glaspie's cable has been released at the Bush Library and placed online by the Margaret Thatcher Foundation. One version of the transcript has Glaspie saying: Later the transcript has Glaspie saying: Another version of the transcript (the one published in The New York Times on 23 September 1990) has Glaspie saying: When these purported transcripts were made public, Glaspie was accused of having given tacit approval for the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, which took place on August 2, 1990. It was argued that Glaspie's statements that "We have no opinion on your Arab-Arab conflicts" and that "the Kuwait issue is not associated with America" were interpreted by Saddam as giving free rein to handle his disputes with Kuwait as he saw fit. It was also argued that Saddam would not have invaded Kuwait had he been given an explicit warning that such an invasion would be met with force by the United States. Journalist Edward Mortimer wrote in the New York Review of Books in November 1990: In September 1990, a pair of British journalists confronted Glaspie with the transcript of her meeting with Saddam Hussein, to which she replied that "Obviously, I didn't think, and nobody else did, that the Iraqis were going to take all of Kuwait." In April 1991 Glaspie testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. She said that at the July 25 meeting she had "repeatedly warned Iraqi President Saddam Hussein against using force to settle his dispute with Kuwait." She also said that Saddam had lied to her by denying he would invade Kuwait. Asked to explain how Saddam could have interpreted her comments as implying U.S. approval for the invasion of Kuwait, she replied: "We foolishly did not realize he [Saddam] was stupid." In July 1991 State Department spokesperson Richard Boucher said at a press briefing: The cables that Glaspie sent from Iraq about her meeting with Saddam are no longer classified. Glaspie's cable on her meeting with Saddam reports that President George H.W. Bush "had instructed her to broaden and deepen our relations with Iraq." Saddam, in turn, offered "warm greetings" to Bush and was "surely sincere" about not wanting war, the cable said. Glaspie herself for years remained silent on the subject of her actions in Iraq. But in March 2008 she gave an interview to the Lebanese newspaper Dar Al-Hayat. In the interview, she said she has no regrets. "It is over," Glaspie said. Nobody wants to take the blame. I am quite happy to take the blame. Perhaps I was not able to make Saddam Hussein believe that we would do what we said we would do, but in all honesty, I don't think anybody in the world could have persuaded him. In the interview, Glaspie recalled that her meeting with Saddam was interrupted when the Iraqi president received a phone call from Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Saddam told her he had assured Mubarak that he would try to settle the dispute, she said. Her cable backs up this version of events; the Iraqi transcript, prepared by Saddam's official English language translator, Sadoun al-Zubaydi, records Saddam saying that Mubarak called before he met with Glaspie. Retrospective views In 2002, the Washington Report on Middle East Affairs published a new account of the Glaspie-Saddam meeting by Andrew Killgore, a former U.S. ambassador to Qatar. Kilgore summarized the meeting as follows: The points referenced in the second and third paragraphs do not appear in the purported transcripts of the Glaspie-Saddam meeting that were released by Iraq, and on which most of the subsequent criticism of Glaspie is based. If there is a full transcript of the meeting in existence, or if the State Department declassifies Glaspie's cables about the meeting, a different assessment might be reached on her performance. James Akins, the U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia at the time, offered a somewhat different perspective in a 2000 interview on PBS: Joseph C. Wilson, Glaspie's Deputy Chief of Mission in Baghdad, referred to her meeting with Saddam Hussein in a May 14, 2004 interview on Democracy Now!: an "Iraqi participant in the meeting [...] said to me very clearly that Saddam did not misunderstand, did not think he was getting a green or yellow light." Wilson's and Akins' views on this question are in line with those of former Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz, who stated in a 1996 interview with Frontline that, prior to the invasion of Kuwait, Iraq "had no illusions" about the likelihood of U.S. military intervention. Similarly, in a 2000 Frontline interview, Aziz declared, "There were no mixed signals", and further elaborated: Kenneth Pollack of the Brookings Institution, writing in The New York Times on February 21, 2003, disagreed with the previously cited views of observers like Edward Mortimer. On Mortimer's stated belief that it was likely Saddam Hussein went ahead with the invasion because he drew as inference from his meeting with Glaspie that the US would react with nothing more than verbal condemnation, Pollack said: Professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt write in the January/February 2003 edition of Foreign Policy that Saddam approached the U.S. to find out how it would react to an invasion into Kuwait. Along with Glaspie's comment that "'[W]e have no opinion on the Arab–Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait', the U.S. State Department had earlier told Saddam that Washington had 'no special defense or security commitments to Kuwait.' The United States may not have intended to give Iraq a green light, but that is effectively what it did." Following WikiLeaks' January 2011 publication of Glaspie's July 1990 cable describing her discussion with Saddam, Juan Cole noted that Glaspie "pressed the dictator on the meaning of his troop build-up on the Kuwaiti border, letting him clearly know of American anxieties," and argued that "her infamous reference to the U.S. not getting involved in inter-Arab disputes referred to a limited issue, the exact border between Iraq and Kuwait, and could not possibly have been interpreted as permission to invade Kuwait!" Cole concluded: "Ms. Glaspie's detractors owe her an apology." In popular culture Glaspie was portrayed by Jacqueline King in the limited series House of Saddam. References External links Carleton Cole: Whatever happened to...US Ambassador to Iraq April Glaspie - The Christian Science Monitor May 27, 1999 1942 births Living people Ambassadors of the United States to Iraq American women ambassadors Ambassadors of the United States American people of the Gulf War Canadian emigrants to the United States People from Vancouver People from Oakland, California Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies alumni Mills College alumni United States Foreign Service personnel 20th-century American women 21st-century American women	[ -0.5818359851837158, 0.23224520683288574, -0.343443900346756, -0.4686065912246704, 0.07821682840585709, 0.7045758366584778, 0.02344234474003315, 0.3518976867198944, -0.34464797377586365, 0.49938204884529114, -0.6024169325828552, 0.6558868885040283, -0.26331406831741333, 0.43378862738609314, -0.04550522193312645, 0.09578578174114227, -0.049617402255535126, -0.24644361436367035, -0.4014527201652527, -0.10146244615316391, 0.17388150095939636, -0.20987096428871155, 0.3752520978450775, -0.1161765307188034, 0.25544726848602295, 0.1916879117488861, -0.021316537633538246, -0.27009710669517517, -0.04219727963209152, 0.11298254877328873, 0.317147433757782, 0.05330640450119972, 0.39441153407096863, 0.25197315216064453, -0.5388076305389404, 0.36707374453544617, 0.1337280124425888, 0.09027187526226044, -0.4223965108394623, 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232977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinky%20%28band%29	Kinky (band)	Kinky is a Mexican rock band, formed in 1998 as part of the Avanzada Regia musical movement and consisting of Gilberto Cerezo, Ulises Lozano, Carlos Chairez, Omar Góngora, and Cesar Pliego. Although a majority of songs are sung in Spanish, some songs contain English lyrics. Kinky were discovered and signed by Sonic360 Records. History Kinky Their first album, called Kinky, was released in early 2002, co-produced by Chris Allison it was a success in Latin America, and had some success in the U.S. Their second single, titled "Más", was a success worldwide. "Más" was used in commercials for Nissan and the NBC Mexican Mafia mini-series Kingpin. It was also featured in the video games SSX 3 and Crackdown, and the movies Thirteen and Man on Fire, which featured another song by Kinky, "Field Goal". "Mas" was also used in an episode of CSI: Miami called "Silencer", season 4, episode 13 in which the band appeared at the beginning singing the song and the theatrical trailer of the film 2 Fast 2 Furious. The song titled "Cornman" was used in the PlayStation 3 video game, LittleBigPlanet In 2002, they joined Cake, De La Soul, The Flaming Lips, Hackensaw Boys, and Modest Mouse on the Unlimited Sunshine Tour in the U.S.; also, the band appeared at Coachella. Atlas In late-2003, the band released Atlas, their second studio album, the most alternative album of the band by far. Singles from Atlas included "Presidente", "Snapshot" and "La Hija del Caníbal". Reina In mid-2006, the band released Reina in an attempt to return to their electronic sound. Singles in the U.S. included "Sister Twisted" and "Uruapan Breaks"; in Mexico and Latin America, the song "A Dónde Van Los Muertos?" became a massive hit. Other Latin American singles included "León" and "Una Línea de Luz". Barracuda In fall of 2008, Kinky released their fourth studio album Barracuda which was co-produced with Money Mark (Beastie Boys). With the hit songs "Hasta quemarnos" and "Those Girls", it launched the band on a world tour for two years. Sueño de la Máquina In mid-2012, Kinky's fifth studio album Sueño de la Máquina was released. It was produced and mixed by John King of the Dust Brothers. The first track "Inmovil" was licensed in the racing game LittleBigPlanet Karting. Discography Studio albums 2002: Kinky 2003: Atlas 2006: Reina 2008: Barracuda 2011: Sueño de la Máquina 2014: MTV Unplugged 2017: Nada Vale Más Que Tú Compilations 2004: Oye Como Va 2006: Rarities In popular culture The song "The Headphonist" was featured in the FX series Nip Tuck. The song "Más" is included in the video game SSX 3 and the movies Man on Fire and Thirteen, and is the song Ziva David is listening to in the NCIS episode "Shalom" (season 4 episode 1). It is also heard in the Alias episode "Countdown" (season 2, episode 20). It was used in a Taco Bell television commercial in 2012. The song "Coqueta" is included in the video game FIFA 06. The song "How Do They Do That" is included in the video game Tiger Woods PGA Tour 08. The song "Uruapan Breaks" was featured in the Showtime series Dexter, and was included in the Soundtrack along with a reinterpretation of the series' Theme by Kinky. The song "Cornman" was featured in the PlayStation 3 exclusive LittleBigPlanet. The song "Papel Volando" from the album "Barracuda" was featured in The CW series Gossip Girl, in the episode "There Might Be Blood" from its second season. The song "Little Boxes" was covered by Kinky for the theme of Season 3, Episode 3 of Weeds. The song "I Say Hey" is playing during the party scene in the movie The Rocker. 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232978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis%20Ortiz%20%28Puerto%20Rican%20boxer%29	Luis Ortiz (Puerto Rican boxer)	Luis Ortiz Flores (born November 5, 1965 in Humacao) is a Puerto Rican former boxer. Amateur career Ortiz had an award-winning amateur career, which led him to represent Puerto Rico in the 1984 Los Angeles summer Olympics. Ortiz at first wasn't very well known in Puerto Rico. Within days after he started competing in the Olympics, that changed, as he began to win bouts. When he secured a bronze medal at the games, he became a nationally known figure, because Puerto Rico had only had two other medalists in their Olympic history, Juan Evangelista Venegas (1948, bronze, boxing) and Orlando Maldonado (1976, bronze, boxing). Ortiz made history, however, when he secured the silver medal a few days before the end of the games. According to him, he weighed himself on the morning of the day before the gold medal fight in his Olympic village room, and he outweighed his division's weight limit (135 pounds) by one and a half pounds. As a consequence of that, since that moment and until the gold medal fight, he was placed in a strict, liquids-only diet by his training team. Ortiz made the weight for the fight and was allowed to fight for the gold medal. However, he lost the fight by a knockout in round two to future multiple-time professional world champion Pernell Whitaker. Ortiz and Arístides González also made history another way during these games: when Gonzalez won a bronze medal in boxing at the Middleweight division, these games became the first Olympic games in which Puerto Rico earned two medals in the same games. While José Torres, a Puerto Rican, won a silver medal in boxing at the 1956 Olympics, he did so representing the United States, as he was required to because he had resided there more than six months. Ortiz's silver medal is historically recognized by Puerto Rican sports historians as the first silver medal won by Puerto Rico. Nevertheless, Ortiz was the object of a hero's welcome by about 300 fans at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan when he returned home. His hometown officially welcomed him by placing many banners on street lights and thank you messages. Olympic results 1st round bye Defeated Buala Sakul (Thailand) KO 2 Defeated Alex Dickson (Great Britain) KO 2 Defeated José Antonio Hernando (Spain) 5-0 Defeated Martin N'Dongo (Cameroon) 3-2 Lost to Pernell Whitaker (United States) TKO 2 Pro career Ortiz tried professional boxing between 1985 and 1986. He did not enjoy much success in the professional rankings, winning 2 bouts and losing 1. All his three professional fights were won or lost by decision. Ortiz retired soon after his third bout, and now holds an office job in his native town. Retirement (1986–present) In 2016, Ortiz made a bid to become a delegate of the Puerto Rico Boxing Federation. See also List of Puerto Ricans Monica Puig References External links 100 Years of Caribbean Participation sports-reference 1965 births Living people Boxers at the 1984 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics Puerto Rican male boxers People from Humacao, Puerto Rico Olympic boxers of Puerto Rico Olympic silver medalists for Puerto Rico Olympic medalists in boxing Lightweight boxers	[ -0.13897697627544403, 0.32446375489234924, -0.19228996336460114, 0.0728573277592659, -0.3917425870895386, -0.0066948398016393185, 0.3539692461490631, 0.2779906094074249, -0.6100460290908813, -0.3232768774032593, 0.5245218873023987, 0.27252909541130066, -0.5808686017990112, 0.2678469121456146, -0.2515711486339569, 0.44361254572868347, 0.36720770597457886, 0.5941145420074463, -0.1498146802186966, -0.4626977741718292, -0.3240087926387787, -0.3991028368473053, 0.27560266852378845, 0.1354401409626007, -0.2940370738506317, 0.40912994742393494, -0.9159789681434631, 0.05367543548345566, 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232997	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Ben-my-Chree	HMS Ben-my-Chree	HMS Ben-my-Chree (Manx: "Woman of My Heart") was a packet steamer and a Royal Navy (RN) seaplane carrier of the First World War. She was originally built in 1907 by Vickers for the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was intended for use on the England–Isle of Man route. She was the third vessel to bear her name. To this day Ben-my-Chree holds the crossing speed record from Liverpool to Douglas for a steamship at under three hours. She was chartered by the RN at the beginning of 1915 and participated in several abortive attacks on Germany in May. The ship was transferred to the Dardanelles in June to support the Gallipoli Campaign. One of her aircraft made the first ship-launched aerial torpedo attack on a ship in August. After Gallipoli was evacuated at the end of the year, Ben-my-Chree became flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron that operated in the Eastern Mediterranean, performing reconnaissance missions and attacking Turkish facilities and troops. She was sunk by Turkish artillery while anchored at the recently occupied island of Kastellorizo in early 1917, five members of her crew being injured. The ship was salvaged in 1920 and broken up in 1923. Ben-my-Chree was the only aviation vessel of either side sunk by enemy action during the war. Description and construction SS Ben-my-Chree had a tonnage of . The ship was long overall and long between perpendiculars. She had a beam of and a depth of from her main deck to the top of her keel. Ben-my-Chree had five decks and a capacity of 2,549 passengers with a crew of 119. The ship was powered by three license-built Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft. They were powered by steam provided by four cylindrical boilers at a working pressure of that gave her a speed of . Her engines burnt up to of coal a day, which made her an expensive ship to run. She was ordered in 1907 by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and was built at the Vickers shipyard in Barrow-in-Furness at a cost of 112,000. The ship was launched on 23 March 1908 and completed on 8 August. Ben-my-Chree was normally laid up, because of her expense, except for the three busiest months of the year when she had a full complement of passengers. Royal Navy modifications and service SS Ben-my-Chree was chartered by the Royal Navy on 1 January 1915 and she began her conversion into a seaplane carrier at the Cammell Laird shipyard in Birkenhead the following day. Part of her aft superstructure was removed and replaced by a hangar, aft of her rear funnel, that housed four to six seaplanes. The aircraft were lifted in and out of the water by derricks fore and aft. A dismountable flying-off platform was installed forward of her superstructure; it was equipped with a trolley and rails to allow a seaplane to take off. In RN service the ship displaced , was long overall, and had a draught of . Ben-my-Chrees turbines generated and she was credited with a speed of although that speed was exceeded in service. The ship could carry of coal. Her crew consisted of approximately 250 officers and ratings. Her armament consisted of four quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder 18 cwt guns, and two Vickers three-pounder AA guns. Ben-my-Chree carried 130 rounds per 12-pounder and 64 rounds for each three-pounder. In May 1916, one 12-pounder AA gun, a three-pounder, and a 2-pounder pom-pom, each on army carriages, were added. She was initially assigned to the Harwich Force, under the command of Commander Cecil L'Estrange Malone, where on 3 May she took part in an abortive air raid on Norddeich that had to be abandoned because of thick fog. On 6 May, while on another unsuccessful mission to attack Norddeich, she was accidentally rammed by the destroyer in thick fog, although damage was slight. Another attempt was made on 11 May, but was again abandoned because of heavy fog. During this raid, Ben-my-Chree attempted to launch her Sopwith Schneider from a trolley off the fore deck, but the engine backfired, wrecking its starter, and breaking the pilot's wrist as the starter handle was in the cockpit. To the Dardanelles In May 1915, she sailed for the Dardanelles, carrying two Short Type 184 torpedo bombers, and arrived at Lesbos on 10 June. Her aircraft were mainly involved in spotting for ships providing naval gunfire support for troops ashore, although they also conducted reconnaissance missions of the area. On 11 August, one of these missions had spotted a Turkish ship off the north coast of the Sea of Marmora and, on the following day, Flight Commander Charles Edmonds attacked it flying a Short 184 seaplane. He left his observer behind and flew with a reduced fuel load to lighten his aircraft enough to carry a , torpedo. He successfully dropped his aerial torpedo at a distance of about and an altitude of . It turned out that his target had been beached after having been torpedoed by the British submarine . This was followed by a successful attack on 17 August against a ship by Edmonds. Flight Lieutenant George Dacre accompanied Edmonds on his flight in his own aircraft, but suffered engine troubles and had to land in the Dardanelles. He was taxiing on the water when he encountered a large steam tugboat, which he promptly torpedoed. After taxiing for several miles he was able to get airborne again and was within gliding distance of Ben-my-Chree when his engine failed permanently. On 2 September, she helped to rescue Australian troops from the torpedoed troopship HMT Southland off Lemnos. The ship was transferred to Port Said, Egypt after the end of the Gallipoli Campaign. Ben-my-Chree became the flagship of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron when it was formed in January 1916. The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding, Egypt and its primary duty was to watch Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai. collided with her on 11 February and badly damaged the ship's bow. Permanent repairs took were made at Suez from 13 March to 25 April. Commander Charles Samson replaced L'Estrange Malone as captain on 14 May. A few days later, Lieutenant William Benn joined the ship as an observer. Ben-my-Chree was based at Aden later in 1916. Loss French troops occupied the Greek island of Kastellorizo, off the southwest coast of Turkey, on 20 December 1916 to use it as an advance base against the Turks. Not pleased at the presence of the French, the Turks secretly deployed an artillery battery of four and twelve guns within range of the island. The French commander requested a seaplane carrier to conduct reconnaissance in the area and Ben-my-Chree was sent in response. She arrived on 11 January 1917 and anchored in the harbour which faced the mainland. The Turkish guns opened fire about two hours later, hitting the carrier with their third shot. Subsequent shells disabled her steering and started a fire in her hangar that spread across her upper deck. (See Mustafa Ertuğrul Aker) The crew was ordered to abandon ship after about forty minutes of the bombardment using the only remaining operable motor lifeboat of the three stowed on board. One officer and four ratings were injured, but no one was killed. The Turks continued their bombardment for five hours until Ben-my-Chree listed to starboard and sank in shallow water. Later in the day, the captain and the chief engineer returned to the wreck to rescue the ship's mascots, a cat and dog which had both survived the attack. Ben-my-Chrees wreck remained in place until 1920 when it was refloated by the salvage ship Vallette and towed to the port of Piraeus. The ship proved to be a constructive total loss and was broken up in Venice, Italy in 1923. During her short career she operated Sopwith Type 860, Schneider, and Baby, as well as Short Type 830 and Type 184 floatplanes. Notes Footnotes References Further reading Seaplane carriers of the Royal Navy Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness 1908 ships World War I aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom Royal Navy ship names Ferries of the Isle of Man Passenger ships of the United Kingdom Steamships Steamships of the United Kingdom Maritime incidents in 1917 World War I shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea	[ -0.7048735618591309, 0.43085047602653503, -0.3515220880508423, -0.27347737550735474, -0.23268559575080872, 0.9457247257232666, 0.7419372797012329, -0.28452861309051514, -0.35759788751602173, 0.49433523416519165, 0.1037743091583252, 0.11964686214923859, 0.0018134457059204578, 0.5939238667488098, 0.21578121185302734, 0.1332954615354538, 0.32624951004981995, 0.8229174613952637, -0.2069799154996872, -1.0450503826141357, -0.27037855982780457, -0.3509337902069092, 0.1877155900001526, 0.3477441370487213, 0.3903217613697052, 0.3813570737838745, 0.40094390511512756, 0.17390944063663483, 0.32620877027511597, 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233000	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%20Phi%20Phi%20Le	Ko Phi Phi Le	Ko Phi Phi Le or Ko Phi Phi Leh (, , ) is an island of the Phi Phi Archipelago, in the Strait of Malacca. It is in Krabi Province of Thailand and is part of Hat Noppharat Thara–Mu Ko Phi Phi National Park Geography Ko Phi Phi Le, in area, is the second largest island of the archipelago, the largest being Ko Phi Phi Don. The island consists of a ring of steep limestone hills surrounding two shallow bays, Maya Bay and Loh Samah. During low tide, Maya Bay cannot be accessed directly from the sea via boat, due to shallow waters and coral. Boats must anchor at the deeper Loh Samah, requiring people to walk through a short section of rocks and jungle to reach Maya Bay itself. There is also one large shallow fjord-like inlet called Pi Ley with a small coral reef at the entrance. Maya Bay harbors bioluminescent plankton. Tourism Hat Noppharat Thara-Mu Ko Phi Phi Marine National Park as a whole, from October 2015 to May 2016 generated revenues of 362 million baht from 1.2 million tourists, 77 percent foreign. As of 2019 the park is closed to visitors because of environmental issues caused by overtourism. Environmental issues Controversy arose regarding the 1999 production of the film The Beach, released February 2000, due to 20th Century Fox bulldozing and landscaping the natural beach setting of Ko Phi Phi Le to make it more "paradise-like". The production altered some sand dunes and cleared some coconut trees and grass to widen the beach. The production company also removed 5 tonnes of garbage from the beach, left behind by tourists. Offers to restore this along with replanting were not accepted. Fox set aside a fund to reconstruct and return the beach to its natural state. Nevertheless, lawsuits were filed as many believed the damage to the ecosystem is permanent and restoration attempts failed. The lawsuits dragged on for years. In 2006, Thailand's supreme court upheld an appeals court ruling that the filming had harmed the environment and ordered that damage assessments be made. Defendants in the case included 20th Century Fox and some Thai government officials. The Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation claims to be investigating ways to control tourist numbers amid concerns that visitors are destroying the environment at marine tourism spots. The move was prompted by marine scientist Thon Thamrongnawasawat, who posted photos of large numbers of low-season tourists packed onto small Maya Beach. According to Mr Thon, during low season 2016, about 5,000 tourists a day crowd onto Maya beach, which is just 250 metres long and 15 metres wide. The beach has 14 available toilets. Tourists are worth 1.6 million baht a day to the park. Thon said that state agencies were running campaigns to drum up tourist numbers with no regard for the environment's carrying capacity. In March 2018 Thai authorities announced that Maya Beach would be closed to tourists for four months to allow it to recover from environmental damage due to excessive visitor numbers. The beach had been receiving an estimated 5,000 visitors per day, while 200 boats per day set anchor in the bay. Surveys by marine biologists had found that 80 percent of the coral reefs surrounding the bay have been destroyed by boat traffic and pollution; marine life was virtually nonexistent as a result. When Maya Beach reopens visitor numbers will be limited to 2,000 people per day and boats will have to dock outside the bay. The government will spend 100 million baht to construct a boat parking zone and floating pier to receive tourists. It will use an online ticketing system to manage sales and income from entry fees. In June 2018, work on coral rehabilitation was initiated by the Marine National Park Operation Center 3 based in Trang. The coral rehabilitation system and methodology was obtained from Ocean Quest Global. Local non-governmental organizations like Reef Guardian Thailand also lent their hands in the restoration efforts. On October 1, 2018, the Thai Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation announced that Maya Beach would be closed indefinitely, because tests performed during the four month closure earlier in the year found the ecological damage to be far more extensive than previously thought. The director of the office, Songtam Suksawang, said that the beach "was completely destroyed, along with the plants which covered it," and that reopening would not occur until the ecosystem "fully recovers to a normal situation." In December 2018, it was reported that blacktip reef sharks were seen swimming close to Maya Bay's beach. The bay had been closed to tourism in June due to the damage caused by mass tourism. Marine biologists took the return of the sharks as a positive signal that the tourist ban was allowing the ecosystem to heal. By February 2019, over 15,000 corals from several local species have been propagated in the bay. The system of rehabilitation is fully organic and no artificial or man-made materials were introduced in the coral rehabilitation project. It is the largest coral rehabilitation project in the world that uses only natural means. See also List of islands of Thailand References External links Phi Phi Le Islands of the Strait of Malacca Geography of Krabi province Populated places in Krabi province Places with bioluminescence	[ 0.24088861048221588, 0.09459024667739868, 0.19417399168014526, -0.10370989143848419, 0.27926892042160034, 0.17930713295936584, 0.06411206722259521, 0.010251542553305626, -0.3550149202346802, -0.0953201949596405, -0.4722384512424469, -0.1927729696035385, -0.5875666737556458, -0.4844932556152344, -0.4451023042201996, 0.6851875185966492, 0.8630654215812683, 0.3762832581996918, -0.3670475482940674, -0.059633076190948486, -0.3064694106578827, -0.2569662928581238, 0.4059711992740631, -0.07039608806371689, 0.06507973372936249, 0.20574235916137695, 0.051199350506067276, 0.5509791374206543, 0.5867767930030823, -0.11270938813686371, 0.2963200807571411, 0.6585485935211182, -0.11123014241456985, -0.008021492511034012, 0.5470849275588989, 0.3110942542552948, 0.44949737191200256, -0.13015103340148926, 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233005	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chai%20Wan	Chai Wan	Chai Wan (; ), formerly known as Sai Wan (西灣), lies at the east end of the urban area of Hong Kong Island next to Shau Kei Wan. The area is administratively part of the Eastern District, and is a mosaic of industrial and residential areas. The population was 186,505 in 2001. Geography Chai Wan is built on land reclaimed from the bay and extends west from Lei Yue Mun in Heng Fa Chuen (see below) and east to Siu Sai Wan. Mount Collinson and Pottinger Peak on the south and Mount Parker on the west, restrict further development. Shek O Country Park is at the south of Chai Wan. Panorama History The name "Chai" literally means firewood, while "Wan" means bay. Its naming possibly because of rich production of firewood in early days. The book Lo Uk folk Museum stated it was possible there were inhabitants settled in Chai Wan during Northern Song and Southern Song Dynasty. During that period, there were merchants bought water in Chai Wan before they continued their journey to Guangzhou, Fujian province, for instance Chai Wan was formerly known as Sai Wan (), meaning "West Bay". At the beginning of the 18th century, the area consisted of six villages: Dai Ping Village, Law Uk, Luk Uk, Nam Uk, Sai Village, Sing Uk. In 1845, the British military built a fort and a barracks in Siu Sai Wan. In December 1941, the Japanese invasion of the island resulted in the Battle of Hong Kong, with approximately 20 gunners executed at the Sai Wan Battery despite having surrendered. After the fort was closed in the 1980s, Sai Sau Wan become an area for new population. In 1929, the Boy Scouts Association, Hong Kong Branch purchased land for the Chai Wan Campsite where Chai Wan Park is now situated. The land returned to Hong Kong Government for development in the early 1970s. In 1952, the government began building low-income housing that gradually replaced rural villages in the area. MTR Island line and Eastern Corridor Phrase 3 opened in 1985 and 1989 respectively, improving connection with rest of the Island and Hong Kong. Culture The Law Uk Folk Museum was formerly a village and is now a museum, a branch of the Hong Kong Museum of History. Housing This area has about 200-300 high rise buildings, most of them residential. It also has a number of public housing estates. Heng Fa Chuen Heng Fa Chuen is a private residential estate in Chai Wan, jointly developed by MTR Corporation and Kerry Properties. Construction of the residential estate began on 13August 1977, ended on 26April 1982 and officially opened on 10 July 1982. The area was reclaimed from Pak Sha Wan () and Lei Yue Mun Bay (). The current promenade along the shoreline was once a beach, surrounded by barren hills and vegetation. Further west, there was once a quarry, near to the site of the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence. However, the quarry was decommissioned by the Hong Kong Government, after it was mined out. The miners dispersed, with some moving to Chai Wan and settling in wooden houses. There were still traces of it when the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence was established. In the early 1980s, when the Island line of the MTR was being planned, the working name of the station was "Chai Wan Quay", according to the Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates Mass Transportation Study. It became Heng Fa Chuen when MTR became the rightful developer of the land for the station and depot. Not only was the name changed, but also it was relocated to its present place from the old location near Chai Wan pier/Ming Pao Industrial Centre. There are 6,504 apartments in 48 residential blocks managed by MTR Property Management, with Paradise Mall, a shopping centre, attached to it. The world's 11,000th McDonald's fast-food restaurant was opened at Heng Fa Chuen in 1989. In 2000, a PARKnSHOP supermarket replaced the existing Carrefour giant chain supermarket. This Carrefour store, which opened in December 1996, was the first one opened in Hong Kong. It is an item of note that the area used to be under the flightpath of planes landing on the southern side of Kai Tak Airport's runway, and therefore most tower blocks had to be built lower than 20 floors. Siu Sai Wan Siu Sai Wan is a newly developed residential area, located in the eastern part of Chai Wan. Notable landmarks in Siu Sai Wan include the largest sports ground on Hong Kong Island, the Siu Sai Wan Sports Ground and one of the largest private housing estates on Hong Kong Island, Island Resort. The population is about 80,000. Economy The head office of Media Chinese is in the Ming Pao Industrial Centre () in Chai Wan. Education Schools in the area include: Islamic Kasim Tuet Memorial College. Caritas Chai Wan Marden Foundation Secondary School (天主教喇沙會張振興伉儷書院) Cognito College (Hong Kong) (文理書院（香港）) HKUGA Primary School French International School of Hong Kong (Lycée Français International Victor Segalen) Chai Wan Campus The Chai Wan Campus of the French school is located in the former Meng Tak Catholic School in Chai Wan; this campus opened in September 2011 and houses primary school students. Guidepost Montessori International Kindergarten (Chai Wan) In Heng Fa Chuen: Lingnan Secondary School (嶺南中學) The Salvation Army Ann Wyllie Memorial Primary School (救世軍韋理夫人紀念學校) The C. & M. A. Scholars' Kindergarten (上書房中英文幼稚園) St. Dominic Kindergarten (聖道明幼稚園) The Creative Kindergarten (啟思幼稚園) The Ruth Kindergarten (路德會幼稚園) Cemeteries Mount Collinson has a range of cemeteries: Cape Collinson Chinese Permanent Cemetery Holy Cross Roman Catholic Cemetery Sai Wan War Cemetery (where the dead from the Second World War are buried) Cape Collinson Muslim Cemetery Hong Kong Buddhist Cemetery Cape Collinson Crematorium Transport MTR Chai Wan is served by two stations of the MTR rapid transit railway, both on the Island line: Chai Wan station, the eastern terminus of Island line Heng Fa Chuen station, at Heng Fa Chuen The Chai Wan Depot is located under blocks 1 to 18 of Heng Fa Chuen Estate and beside Heng Fa Chuen station. It houses trains serving on the Island line, and inspections of trains are carried out here. Expressways Island Eastern Corridor along the shore, from Chai Wan to Causeway Bay. Chai Wan is its eastern terminus, ending at a large roundabout near the MTR station. Major roads Chai Wan Road Tai Tam Road Siu Sai Wan Road Wing Tai Road Shing Tai Road See also List of places in Hong Kong Chai Wan Kok (an area in Tsuen Wan with which it is easily confused) References External links Restricted areas of Hong Kong red public minibus	[ 0.02069229632616043, -0.24960680305957794, 0.6787388324737549, -0.46698197722435, 0.21749229729175568, 0.17618952691555023, 0.34199070930480957, 0.38430389761924744, 0.1601417511701584, -0.7272222638130188, -0.4157392382621765, -0.3810093402862549, 0.3867831230163574, 0.1951042264699936, -0.5918880701065063, -0.20451226830482483, 0.476104736328125, 0.09363553673028946, -0.45953911542892456, 0.23834635317325592, -0.288562536239624, -0.6413270235061646, -0.25457215309143066, -0.273134708404541, 0.0906611979007721, -0.1582661271095276, 0.05741405859589577, 0.5203443765640259, 0.8909404277801514, -0.20144259929656982, 0.040688492357730865, 0.049168094992637634, -0.06441807001829147, -0.003674205858260393, 0.1471557468175888, 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233008	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Paul%27s%20College%2C%20Hong%20Kong	St. Paul's College, Hong Kong	St. Paul's College (SPC; ) is an Anglican day school for boys in Hong Kong. It was established in 1851, the oldest continuously-operated school in Hong Kong. The college first opened in 1851 with only one tutor and nine pupils. Today, it has more than 1,200 pupils in the secondary section and nearly 600 pupils in the primary section. St. Paul's comprises an all-boys primary school section (Primary 1–6) and secondary section (Forms 1–6). The secondary school campus is situated in the Mid-Levels area, part of Hong Kong Island's Western District, whilst the primary school operates in a dedicated campus at Pok Fu Lam in the Island's Southern District. The College Council enjoys a special status in Hong Kong, in that it is a statutory body incorporated by a local ordinance, the St. Paul's College Council Incorporation Ordinance (Cap 1102, Laws of Hong Kong). The aim of the college is to "provide a liberal education to Chinese youths in the English language upon Christian principles." History Establishment St. Paul's College is the earliest Anglo-Chinese school. Its founder, Rev. Vincent John Stanton, was the first colonial chaplain of the former Colony of Hong Kong, appointed in 1843. In 1841, Rev. Stanton, raised funds in England to start an Anglo-Chinese school in Hong Kong. The original purpose of such a fine establishment The Church of England Anglo-Chinese School was to train a body of native clergy and Christian teachers for the propagation of the Gospel in China...[and] to aid in the diffusion of Christian principles among the Chinese'. Thus, the school opened for the purpose of teaching English to Chinese boys in 1849. St. Paul's College was officially founded in 1851, located at Glenealy in what is today the Central District. The school opened with James Summers as headmaster, Rev. Edward T. R. Moncrieff as the tutor with nine boys. The number of students soon swelled to 33. Rev. Moncrieff, the school's only tutor at the time, traveled to India, where he was killed in 1857 in the Indian Mutiny. The college was suspended from 1857 to 1861. It reopened under sinologist John Fryer and was led by him for the ensuing two years. Bishop Burden turned the building into a school mainly for English-speaking boys, which operated from 1873 to 1878. During this time, St. Paul's College and St. Joseph's College competed in the earliest inter-school football matches ever played in the colony. The college again became an Anglo-Chinese school, under the headmastership of A. T. Fryer in 1878. The college was suspended in 1899, and the building was used as a training school for Chinese Catechists under the leadership of Rev. P. A. Bunbury. Early 20th century The Church Missionary Society took over the school building, and St. Paul's College reopened with Rev. A.D. Stewart as headmaster in 1908. Rev. Stewart's brother Col. E. G. Stewart highlighted the primitive facilities of the school at this time in his article about St. Paul's history. "Some of us can remember the old south wing – two enormous classrooms on the first floor and one on the ground floor – the rest of the space taken up with wide verandas and staircases, the whole constructed of ancient and somewhat worm-eaten wood, which must have caused a headache to the insurance company; the bad lighting and amazing discomforts which would not be tolerated by modern schoolboys." During this time, the enrolment soared to 300 and extensions became necessary. In 1911, the Wu Ting Fang Hall and St. Paul's Church were erected. In 1914, St. Paul's Girls School (now St. Paul's Co-educational College) was founded by Rev. A.D. Stewart's sister, Kathleen Stewart. Headmaster Rev. A.D. Stewart retired and his brother Colonel E. G. Stewart took charge in 1930. Japanese occupation In December 1941, the school closed abruptly when Japan invaded Hong Kong in the Pacific War. Col. Stewart, along with some school staff and students, risked their lives for the defence of the colony. After World War II, Colonel Stewart was awarded Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and the Order of the British Empire (OBE) honours in 1948. He was appointed Royal Hong Kong Regiment, honorary colonel. Post-wars years and the Bonham Road era After the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the school was briefly merged with St. Paul's Girl's College, and renamed St. Paul's Co-educational College. The school resumed its individual status in 1949, known as St. Paul's College once again, when its campus on Bonham Road was completed. St. Paul's Co-educational College remained co-educational. Rev. G.L. Speak was appointed principal in 1959. During the Hong Kong 1967 leftist riots, Form 6 pupil Tsang Tak-sing was expelled from the school and prosecuted for distributing leaflets promoting Communism and public order crime. Tsang was sentenced to two years in prison. He later went on to become a deputy in the National People's Congress of Communist China, a member of the Central Policy Unit and, on 1 July 2007, the Secretary for Home Affairs in the Hong Kong Government. Ha Wing Ho was appointed principal in 1969. St. Paul's College bloomed quickly in the late 20th century. In 1979, the completion of St. Paul's College Alumni Association Tse Yu Chuen Swimming Pool marked the completion of one of the greatest building projects of the decade. Its construction was made possible by funding from parents, older boys and the Alumni Association. In 1992, St. Paul's College was the first aided school to opt for the Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS). However, the scheme was eventually suspended when the government policy changed. Under DSS, the school would have been given maximum freedom with regard to curriculum, school fees and entrance requirements. St. Paul's College Primary School was relocated to Hill Road in 1993, which formerly housed a secondary school. The vacant block at Bonham Road was transformed into a series of special-purpose rooms including an art room, music room, staff room, teaching resource room, computer room and teachers' common room. 2000–present The year 2001 marked the 150th anniversary of the school. In the same year, the school elected to join the DSS, under which the school was given more freedom in the enrolment of students, appointment of teachers and the design of the curriculum. In 2006, the college celebrated its 155th anniversary. In that year, John Richard Kennard was appointed as the 11th principal. In the same year, under the DSS, the new South Wing was opened by Archbishop Peter Kwong. The Wong Ming Him Hall was renovated in 2008 and the College Hall in 2010. A new SPC Primary School campus was built in Pok Fu Lam. The project resulted in the SPC Primary School relocating from its current site on Hill Road. Located at the corner of Victoria Road and Pok Fu Lam Road, the new campus opened in January 2013. St. Paul's College celebrated its 160th anniversary during the 2011–2012 academic year. As the first event of the anniversary calendar, the Chapel Choir and Chinese Orchestra visited London in July 2011, and performed at St Paul's Cathedral, Southwark Cathedral and St Martin-in-the-Fields. The 160th Anniversary Concert was held on 26 October 2011 at the Jockey Club Auditorium of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. In 2014, Mr Yuen Dick Yan, Dennis was appointed as Acting Principal of the college and he was subsequent appointed as Principal on an acting basis in 2015. The Motto, Missions and Visions The school motto is "寅畏上主是為智之本", which is the translation of Proverbs 9:10 in classical Chinese. Its English translation is "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom" (KJV). ("Timor Domini Principium Sapientiae" in Latin can be found in graduation certificates of earlier days.) The fact that the motto is in Chinese is significant. While it was the fashion at the time to use Latin for such a purpose, the far-sighted founders of the school saw St. Paul's College as a hub to foster bilinguals and to bring together the cultures of the East and the West. The mission of St. Paul's College is to offer modern, liberal education to Chinese youths in the English language (while including the subject of Chinese language in the curriculum) upon Christian, Protestant and Evangelical principles, as professed by the Sheng Kung Hui. The educational goals of the college, in accordance with its mission, may be described as: to cultivate a healthy attitude toward life and the world, and to expose students to the Christian message; to inculcate civic awareness in students and develop them into responsible and useful citizens of the community with respect for intellectual property, human rights, freedom and justice; to enable students to fully develop their intellectual potential, think logically and creatively, study and solve problems independently, and communicate effectively in English and Chinese; to develop students' skills and abilities in information technology and an interest in lifelong learning; to develop students' physical and musical skills and abilities, and to encourage enjoyment in sports and music; to encourage the appreciation of the arts and development of artistic talents and skills; to promote respect for the views and opinions of others, harmonious relationships in school, the family and the community, and participation in community affairs; and to develop in students the ability to cope with adverse situations and emotional problems. The School Badge The Coat of Arms The college's coat of arms is similar to the coat of arms of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui, indicating that St. Paul's College is a school sponsored by the Sheng Kung Hui. The Scallop Shell The scallop shell was the emblem of St. James the Great, who was the patron saint of pilgrims. One legend describes how he travelled to Northwest Spain, and preached there for seven years. He was later beheaded in Judea by King Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:2). According to the legend, his body was eventually taken back to Spain and buried at Santiago de Compostela. From the ninth century to the 16th century, hundreds of thousands of Christians came to Santiago de Compostela on pilgrimages, expeditions made by individuals or groups to places where God had shown His power in some special ways. Often the journeys were long and dangerous. The pilgrims did not mind, because they believed their spiritual lives would be enriched and deepened by their pilgrimage. Often the pilgrim wore on his hat or cloak a badge indicating his destination. Those going to Santiago de Compostela wore a scallop shell. Perhaps it was a reminder of the small boats in which many of them travelled. Perhaps it had a more practical use as a vessel used in baptism or a drinking vessel. At any rate, the scallop shell eventually became a sign of pilgrimage in general, a symbol of baptism, signifying new life. The pilgrims carried new ways of thinking and of doing things to places that were deeply isolated from the larger world. Pilgrims were people on the move, people on the way to somewhere else. Like the pilgrims of old, Paulines are people on the move. When they leave school, many of them go to other parts of the world, bringing with them new ways of thinking and new ways of doing things. Even those who stay in Hong Kong are also pilgrims of a sort, for life itself is like a journey from childhood to youth, to middle age and beyond. The Shepherd's Staff The shepherd's staff was used by the shepherd to keep the sheep on the right path. Jesus often used this illustration in his teaching, so the shepherd's staff has become the symbol of the care and guidance which the church minister (pastor or priest) gives to others. This care involves showing active concern for the physical, social, psychological and spiritual well-being of a person in practical ways. It is not only clergymen who show this kind of care; teachers and social workers often show this level of concern for many. The Key The key is symbolic of the words of Jesus to Peter, "I will give you the keys of the kingdom of Heaven" (Matthew 16:19). William Barclay, a well-known Christian author, wrote: "The promise that Peter would have the keys to the Kingdom was the promise that Peter would be the means of opening the door to God for thousands upon thousands of people in the days to come. The plain fact is that it is not only Peter who has the keys of the Kingdom, every Christian has, for it is open to every one of us to open the door of the Kingdom to someone, and to enter into the great promise of Jesus Christ." The Open Book The open book symbolises the Bible – open for all to read. The Bishop of Guidford wrote: "The whole Bible is a gift of God to the world. He guided its many writers and he watched over its editing and completion during many generations. For many years he has strengthened and guided his people through the pages of the Bible ... He continues to speak to us and our contemporaries as we read and study its pages." The open book also suggests knowledge. The Crown Above all of the other symbols is a crown, possibly reminiscent of the tradition that the three wise men, or Magi, who came from the east to worship the infant Jesus, were also kings. Tradition has generally supposed that they came from Persia or Arabia, but they may have come from as far away as China. The crown may also symbolise the crown of life which God has promised to those who love him (James 1:12). "The Christian," wrote William Barclay, "has a royalty that other men have never realised, for, however humble his earthly circumstances, he is nothing less the child of God." The Cross In the school badge, the diocesan emblems are surrounded by a cross, which symbolises self-sacrifice, such as when Jesus died on a cross. The Motto The Chinese characters in the motto under the cross are from Proverbs 1:7, translated in English as "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (some translations wrote knowledge. Although both are correct, the most accurate one is wisdom)." The Hebrew version could be translated as "The most important part of knowledge is reverence for the Lord." The fact that the motto is in Chinese is significant. It was more the fashion at that time to use Latin for such a purpose. When St. Paul's College was founded, the primary focus was to offer Chinese youths a modern, liberal education in the English language, while including the subject of Chinese language in the curriculum, upon Christian principles. Bringing together the cultures of East and West and the fostering of bilingualism have been well-established traditions in the school. Recent Results in public exams St. Paul's College improved a lot from the early 2000s, to 2021. It was at first a band 1C secondary school (around 2011), which turns out, into a band 1A secondary school, and achieved the best result in DSE during 2019-2021. The college's result is better than any other boys secondary school. List of Principals Campus The current campus is located at 69 Bonham Road, Western District, Hong Kong. For 100 years before World War II, St. Paul's College was located in Glenealy (also known as "Tit Kong"), in the Central District, in the buildings currently called Bishop's House, which are presently the headquarters of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui. The college buildings were occupied during the war, leading to St. Paul's College being merged with St. Paul's Girls' School to form St. Paul's Co-educational College (SPCC). At the end of the occupation, St. Paul's College was re-established in its own right and granted permission to use the former HKU St. John's College site as its new campus. By the mid-1960s, all of the former St. John's Hall buildings had been replaced. Current campus at Bonham Road The land (Inland Lot No. 7935) at Bonham Road on which St. Paul's College now stand was a private property known as "Fairlea" in the early colonial days. In the 1880s, the small boarding school for Chinese girls founded by missionary and educator Margaret Johnstone (莊思端) moved into Fairlea. The boarding school was taken over by the Church Missionary Society in 1886 and named Fairlea Girls' School (飛利女校), and is one of the predecessors of the current Heep Yunn School. The University of Hong Kong was formed in 1911, and in its early days, it was compulsory for all students to live in a residential hall. Being directly opposite the Main Building of HKU, Fairlea was converted into St. John's Hall, the first hall of the newly founded university. Fairlea Girls' School moved to 4–6 Babington Path as a result. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, St. John's Hall was occupied by an infantry company and also acted as a shelter for local Anglo-Indian and Eurasian refugees, and the Hall was extensively looted after the surrender of Japan. As HKU recommenced classes in 1946, St. John's Hall reopened in 1947 with the aid from the Education Department, with the condition that the latter could use the West Wing of St. John's Hall, location of which is now SPC's Stewart Building. The affiliated primary school of Northcote Training College soon moved in. When SPC regained its independence in 1950, it initially occupied the West Wing as well. The Anglican Church proposed merging St. John's Hall with St. Stephen's Hall, a female-only hall, into the co-educational St. John's College (SJC). SJC subsequently moved into its new premises at 82 Pokfulam Road in 1955, leaving the whole premises at Bonham Road for St. Paul's College's use. The Wong Ming Him Hall, the oldest building existing in the campus nowadays, was built in 1951. The three-storey, multi-purpose building once housed a table tennis room, art room and music room. The building was renovated in 2007–2008 and now houses a multi-purpose rehearsal room, a board room and the archives. The college swimming pool, known in full as "St. Paul's College Alumni Association Tse Yu Chuen Swimming Pool" (聖保羅書院同學會謝雨川游泳池), was officially opened on 8 November 1979. The pool is next to the Wong Ming Him Hall and was named after the alumnus who initiated the fundraising campaign for its construction. The original St. John's Hall building as well as Wong Ming Him Hall was deemed inadequate owing to the college's rapid growth, to an extent that AM PM double-shift schooling was adopted in 1961 and 1962. As a result, the college started the planning of a thorough campus redevelopment scheme with alumnus-cum-architect Szeto Wai (司徒惠) in 1962, and construction started in the same year. The old St. John's Hall building was torn down and replaced by four new blocks, namely the North Wing, East Wing and West Wing (now renamed Stewart Building), as well as the now demolished Primary School Block. This layout remained unchanged until the 2000s, when the college carried out a School Improvement programme. School Improvement Programme In 2003, the college implemented a School Improvement Programme (SIP) with a view to construct a new administration and teaching block above the swimming pool area. To make way for the new building, the college demolished the former primary school building. The intake of the New South Wing occurred in October 2006, and was officially opened by Peter Kwong Kong-kit, the then Archbishop of Hong Kong, on 15 December of the same year. It houses the college office, a principal's room, art rooms, music rooms and staff rooms. Primary school campus In 1993, St. Paul's College Primary School (SPC-PS) moved to its own campus at 70 Hill Road, which formerly housed Hill Road Government Primary School (before 1977), Buddhist Chi Hong College (1977–1990) and Lok Sin Tong Leung Kau Kui College (1991–1992). In addition to 18 classrooms, the Hill Road campus included a school hall, conference room, music room, computer room, library, multi-purpose room, English language room, counselling room, first aid room, visual arts and science room, chapel and tuck shop. A new campus for SPCPS was completed in 2012, and SPCPS moved in subsequently. The new campus is located at the junction of Pok Fu Lam Road and Victoria Road near Wah Fu Estate in Pok Fu Lam. The vacated Hill Road campus is handed over to SKH St. Peter's Primary School, another primary school sponsored by Sheng Kung Hui, enabling the latter's conversion to whole day operation. Students' Organisation The Prefects' Council The Prefects' Council is an independent organisation which is authorised by the principal to help maintain school discipline. A prefect presents himself as a role model to others. Prefects are privileged, entitled to wear the prefects' tie and read Bible at the school morning assembly, which is regarded as a prestige. The prefect's main duties include maintaining discipline at the school and promoting harmony among Paulians. The Prefects' Council runs a committee system under the direction of the head prefect and two-second head prefects. The council is also responsible for co-ordinating all functions held by the school and students' association upon request. Prefects have the right to issue warning sheets according to the seriousness of the offence. Outstanding Prefects are chosen each year based on their general routine and performance of external duties. Students' Association The St. Paul's College Students' Association (abbreviated as SA) is the students' organisation of the college. It is the main body which conducts matters concerning students' welfare and communication with the school. The SA is the oldest students' organisation in all secondary schools in Hong Kong. The Executive Council (EC) is the decision-making body of the Students' Association. Executive Council committees include: Affiliated Clubs Committee (ACC) – helps all clubs in financial need and in other matters such as club registration. There are 53 affiliated clubs under the students' association. Audit Committee – monitors the income and expenditure of the Students' Association. Human Resources Committee (HR) – responsible for arrangement of the SA officials' duty for daily operation and the association's activities. Public Relations Committee (PR) – responsible for liaison with external bodies or schools. Welfare Committee – provides welfare services such as sale of tie clips, umbrella rental service, old books and stationery. Promotion Committee - coordinates the promotion work of the SA . The Students' Association is led by the SA president. At the beginning of each school year, an SA presidential election is held. All students vote for a candidate, and the term of office for each president is one school year. Affiliated Clubs of the Students' Association The Students’ Association (S.A.) organises a Sponsored Walk each year to raise funds for financing the activities of its 53 affiliated clubs, which are grouped under six unions: Arts Union, Science Union, Sports Union, Music Union, Recreation Union and Service Union. The Arts Union and the Science Union organise the Arts Week and the Science Week respectively, with such programmes as book and club exhibitions, and inter-class competitions. In addition, the Science Union participates in the Joint School Science Exhibition during the summer holidays every year. The school provides many opportunities for students to participate in community services through the service clubs or groups such as the Interact Club, the Community Youth Club, the Junior Police Call, the Youth Red Cross and the Scout Group. Social services include collecting toys and second-hand clothes, participating in fundraising walkathons and flag-selling activities for charitable purposes, organising funfairs for the mentally disabled, and paying visits to the homes for the aged. The Recreation Union comprises many clubs for students with various interests, including Green Club, Transport Club, Photography Club and Bridge Club. House system The House System was first introduced in 1975. The college offers students additional opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities, in the form of the House System, which aims at bridging the gap between junior and senior students, and moving the students beyond the limit of class spirit. Membership of each house comes from all parts of the school so that within each class there are members of six houses, which are designated as Banyan, Ginkgo, Oak, Pine, Rosewood and Yew. The system facilitates inter-house ball games and competitions in the Swimming Gala and the Sport Days. Apart from participating in sports competitions, members of the six houses also show their talents in inter-house music, debating and drama contests. The colour of each house corresponds with the first letter of the house name. Each house is led by a house master, and a number of assistant house masters or mistresses. The events at the Annual Sports Day and Swimming Gala are mostly inter-house events, with the exception of a few inter-class events. Most competitions between the houses are sports competitions, while academic ones are rare. Newly admitted F.1 students are randomly distributed among the six houses. House members may purchase and wear house badges on a voluntary basis. College Song and Hymn The old college song was titled The Old St. Paul's College, based on the 18th century ballad "John Peel". The current college song was composed in the 1970s by Rev. Moses Wu, the music teacher at the time, with lyrics by C.F. Miles. It is generally sung during major college events such as Speech Day, the Swimming Gala and Sports Day. The college song is played by the college orchestra at Speech Day. The College Hymn, We Build Our School on Thee, O Lord, is also sung during important services and at morning assemblies. College Song Clapping Controversy It has been a norm for the students of St. Paul's College to clap at the College Song's penultimate sentence, i.e. right after "Down the years we will be faithful". The norm is rumored to have originated in the 1980s primary school section of St. Paul's College, which spread to the secondary school section as tens of primary school section's students were directly promoted annually. According to retired Careers Master Mr. W. F. Ryan, a student in 1986 forgot some lyrics of the College Song and substituted them by clapping. Other students followed suit and normalized it. Mr. Raymond Y. K. Fu, Head of Music Department from 1981 to 2013, had opposed such act as he deemed it "disrespectful". It nonetheless continued for over ten years until 2006, when Dr. J. R. Kennard - the principal succeeding Mr. Timothy W. H. Ha - announced a ban on his first morning assembly, arguing that the clapping goes against the school's traditions and he needed to do so "at the request of the alumni association". Dr. Kennard retracted his position later as he realized that the clapping is a manifestation of loyalty. Dr. Kennard said the ban was merely effective in public events, such as Sports Day and Speech Day (graduation ceremony). Five years from the ban, Dr. Kennard announced on 8 July 2011 that the ban would be lifted once during the end-of-term assembly. However, on 1 September 2011, students continued the clapping - signalling the end of the ban once and for all. Ever since, the clapping has occurred whenever the College Song is sung. As of 9 July 2021 – 10 years from the ban's end – current principal Dr. Dennis Yuen does not show any objection, and the students still clapped at the end of the College Song in the end-of-term assembly. From now on, it is still clapped at the end of the song. Class structure and curriculum Class structure There are six classes in each form (Form 1–6). St. Paul's College uses an English as the medium of instruction. The college traditionally followed a system of education similar to Britain. In 2009, the New Senior Secondary system was introduced across the Hong Kong SAR. This involved moving away from the English model of seven years secondary schooling to the Chinese model of three years of junior secondary plus three years of senior secondary. The two public examinations HKCEE and HKALE are now replaced by a single public examination called the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE). In addition to the HKDSE, the college also offers the IGCSE and GCE A-Level examinations to provide more opportunities for students. Curriculum For the first three years of school (Form 1–Form 3), various subjects are introduced to students, including English, Chinese, Putonghua, Mathematics, Integrated Humanities (which is composed of Geography, History, and Life and Society), Integrated Science, Information and Communication Technology, Religious Studies, Music and Visual Arts. Integrated Science will be replaced with Physics, Chemistry and Biology in Form 3. Under the New Senior Secondary (NSS) educational structure, senior form students now choose three elective subjects in which to specialise, together with the compulsory subjects of Chinese, English, Mathematics, Citizenship and Social Development, as well as the school based Common Core, which researches on sustainability and a better city. As of the 2022-23 academic year, Chinese History, Chinese Literature, Biology, Business, Accounting and Financial Studies (BAFS), Chemistry, Economics, Ethics and Religious Studies, Geography, History, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Music, Physics and Visual Arts (VA) are offered by the college as elective subjects. The college also runs a bridging course for newly admitted Form 1 students to improve their foundation in English and link their already-possessed knowledge with the new ones. There are also remedial classes in Chinese, English and Mathematics for students requiring additional assistance. College Publications The college's Student Publications Council (學生出版社) is responsible for the publication of Wayfarer, the college magazine, and Scope, the college newspaper. Formerly regarded as part of the Students' Association, the council has always been a separate entity. Wayfarer Wayfarer () is the school magazine of St. Paul's College, serving the function as a yearbook. The issue for each academic year is published in December of the following school year. The name Wayfarer, which means "a traveller on foot," symbolises achieving dreams by eliminating obstacles; the Chinese name, 弘道, is derived from the quote "人能弘道，非道弘人" (A man can enlarge the principles which he follows; those principles do not enlarge the man.) taken from the Book of Wei Ling Kung in the Confucian Analects. The aims of publishing Wayfarer, as stated in its inaugural issue (1957–58), are: To organise systematically a history record of the college for future reference; To provide with students and teachers a platform of voicing out what they think, so that their talents can be seen; To compile a collection of excellent works so as to encourage and inspire the future generations. Wayfarer was first published in 1958, but was subsequently suspended until 1963, when the college started to publish Wayfarer annually. Each issue is prepared by an editorial board formed by students, under the supervision of teacher advisors, since the 4th issue (1965–66) – the first three issues were prepared entirely by teachers. Printed in black-and-white for more than 40 years, the first Wayfarer in colour, Issue 45, was published for the 2006–2007 academic year (155th Anniversary of the college). As of December 2013, Wayfarer has published 51 issues. Wayfarer is a bilingual publication. Contents include college report, photographs of classes and groups, club reports, features and contributions. Other than Wayfarer, the College also composes a book with passages written by students throughout the term. Activities and achievements Academic The HKCEE and HKALE results of the school are sound with a very high percentage of students reaching the entrance requirements for local university and matriculation degrees. With the start of new examination, HKDSE, there is still a very high percentage of students meeting general requirements (33222) for local undergraduate university programmes. Besides local universities, the school provides chances to apply international examinations, like IGCSE, GCE. Students are able to enter foreign universities through international examination. Sports Sports activities at the inter-class, inter-house and inter-school levels range from track and field, cross-country racing, swimming, lifesaving, canoeing, gymnastics and judo, to basketball, football, handball, volleyball, badminton, table tennis, field hockey, and squash. The Annual Sports Day and the Swimming Gala are held every academic year. Music and Speech Many students attend instrumental classes after school each day. The Music Union organises regular assembly concerts, the annual Music Contest and the Annual Concert. The school music teams including the choirs, the full symphony orchestra, and the Chinese orchestra, participate actively in the annual Hong Kong Schools Music Festival. Students also take part actively in groups, as well as individually, in the annual Schools Speech Festival. An Artist-in-Residence programme was established in 2007–08 with Dr. Stephen Ng (USA: tenor) as the inaugural artist. Subsequent artists-in-residence have included Branko Stark (2008–09, Croatia: composer-conductor), Peter Walmsley (2009–10, Australia: brass-conductor), and Clive Harries (2010–11, England: organist-choir-conductor). The Global Classroom Programme St. Paul's College launched the Global Classroom programme in 1995. Each year, a comprehensive programme of overseas visits are organised. Under the Direct Subsidy Scheme, opportunities for overseas visits have been enhanced. The Global Classroom programme usually incorporated a variety of academic themes such as language, music or sports exchange activities to encourage students to broaden their horizons and exposure to different cultures around. As of 2015, the school has organised tours to the mainland China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, India, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Greece, Iceland, Northern Europe, South Africa, Zimbabwe, etc. In addition to the Global Classroom, student exchange programmes are arranged with twin schools in China and overseas. Since 2008, Community Awareness Project, with a view to encouraging students to participate in voluntary work to serve the community and helping the disadvantaged, has been launched in the mainland. Pupils has been visiting in Luoyang, Harbin and other places in China. Student Exchange Programme In the Student exchange programme on 21 September 2012 to 29 September 2012, twelve students from Christ Church Grammar School went to St. Paul's College, Hong Kong. St. Paul's College Alumni Association St. Paul's College Alumni Association was established in 1920. There was no official name by the time it was established. By 1930, It was recorded that more than 100 alumni and the management of school was in a restaurant in the Sheung Wan to discuss the establishment of "Old Pauline Union", followed by students in Guangzhou and Shanghai and other places setting up a branch with a view to contacting alumni. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, Macao was the temporarily place where alumni gatherings took place. Until 1950, the Bonham Road school complex was completed, students were to be given a formal name for the "St. Paul's College Alumni Association" (SPCAA). The role of the SPCAA had also changed, been taking a leading role in addition to serve merely as the links between the alumni, the SPCAA will also continue to maintain contact with the school, there are four alumni representative in the College Council, together for the deliberations in school affairs. Past Students had been actively support the alma mater of the building over the years, and had repeatedly launched campaign donations. Without the alumni support the new library, swimming pool, school auditorium air conditioning works at the Bonham Road Campus would not have been that successful. The strong alumni donations has made the new school expansion in the 1950s and 2000s possible with the professional advice by alumni of the famous architect (Patrick Lau, etc.). Many alumni and students will also contribute to the school to set up multiple scholarships and awards funds to reward academic achievement and excellent performance of the students. In addition, SPCAA has published "From Devotion at the 150th anniversary celebration to Plurality: A full history of St. Paul's College 1851-2001 "a book to commemorate the school 150 years of development. Since 2005, SPCAA has been organising mentorship program for matriculation students (after the implementation of the new academic structure this service is provided for the form five students) They arranged the city celebrity alumni and students form a group to participate in various activities to broaden Students of social vision and enhance different years to graduate students in the St. Paul's alumni contact. St. Paul's College Parent Teacher Association St. Paul's College Parent Teacher Association (also known as PTA) was established in 1994, aims to promote the relationship between the school and the student's family. Have been organising activities include book fairs, seminars and visits to the newspaper, etc., PTA each year parents sends teams to participate in the school's yearly Sports Day. PTA Annual General Meeting will be held once a year to elect the President and Director of the year. St. Paul's College Foundation St. Paul's College Foundation Ltd. was established in 2008, aims to raise funds for the school and outside the government-funded tuition in order to provide a first-class learning environment for students. Foundation supports projects include scholarships, campus to promote e-learning, the establishment of schools in Church archives historical documents and so on. In addition, the Foundation also play an important role in the primary school relocation to new premises at Victoria Road by raising campaign funds. Linked schools and alliances In line with the vision of the Global Classroom, the college formally established a Twin-school Programme which aimed at widening students' global perspectives and building links between teachers and students of leading schools around the world through various exchange activities and mutual visits. St. Paul's College is a member school of the International Boys' Schools Coalition (IBSC). John Richard Kennard sat on the Board of Trustees (2008–2017) as vice-president (Asia). Major IBSC member schools include fellow Anglican schools Eton College (London) and The King's School (Sydney). Schools linked by exchanges with St. Paul's College include: High School Affiliated to Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China High School Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Barker College, Sydney, Australia Heimschule Lender, Sasbach, Germany St. Mark's School of Texas, Dallas, USA Mayo College, Ajmer, India Senri International School, Osaka, Japan Trinity-Pawling School, New York State, USA Anglican High School, Singapore Connections with other schools Being the first school established by the Anglican Church of England in Hong Kong, St Paul's has a close relationship with many other religious schools in the city. Lady Smith, wife of the second principal Bishop George Smith, is the founder of Diocesan Girls' School and Diocesan Boys' School. St. Paul's College and St. Joseph's College organised the first inter-school sports competitions in Hong Kong in 1877. The current Bonham Road campus used to be the former campus of Fairlea Girls' School (Heep Yunn School) from 1886 to 1912. The site at 67–69 Bonham Road was subsequently converted into St. John's College, one of the residential halls of the University of Hong Kong. Revd A.D. Stewart helped Au Chak Mun and Mok Kon Sang in founding Munsang College; Stewart was also the headmaster of St. Stephen's College during 1914–1915. St. Paul's College's School Hall was named after Mok Kon Sang before renovation works in the 2010s. Revd A.D. Stewart's sister Kathleen Stewart founded St. Paul's Girls' College, which was later amalgamated with St. Paul's College into St. Paul's Co-educational College after WWII. St. Mark's School was once located in Central Glenealy as the St. Paul's English PM School. The history of Hong Kong Institute of Education can be traced back to 1853 where St. Paul's College offered the then-colony's first formal teacher training courses. Revd. Geoffrey Speak, the ninth principal, founded the Island School. Mr Timothy Ha, MBE, JP, participated in the naming of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Its naming stood out from more than one hundred suggestions and became the name of the third university in Hong Kong. The first trade fair was held in 1938 at Central in St. Paul's College, where there were only 40 exhibitors and 86 booths. Notable alumni The older alumni Wu Tingfang, Wang Chung-hui, SK Yee and Chung Sze-yuen are known as the "Four doctors of St. Paul's" () by the older generation of old boys. Politics and civil service Politicians before the World Wars Wu Tingfang (伍廷芳), a Chinese politician who served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China during the early 1910s, Hong Kong's first ethnic Chinese barrister, the first ethnic Chinese member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, Hong Kong's first ethnic Chinese Justice of the Peace. Yeung Ku-wan (楊衢雲), a Chinese revolutionary, first president of the Hong Kong Chapter of the Revive China Society Wang Chung-hui (王寵惠), a prominent Chinese jurist, diplomat and politician, Republic of China Justice Minister and Foreign Minister, a judge on the Permanent Court of International Justice in the Hague Y.C. James Yen (晏陽初), a Chinese educator and organiser who turned to the villages of China to organise Rural Reconstruction, most famously at Ding Xian, a county in Hebei, from 1926 to 1937 SK Yee (余兆麒), Republic of China World War II general, the ROC Armed Services Committee, led the third director of the Office of the United States Michigan University JD, founder of the Chinese Bank founded in 1983, leading the SK Yee Medical Foundation contribution to medical services Government officials and Legislators Sir Chung Sze-yuen (鍾士元), GBE, GBM, a mechanical engineer, industrialist, business executive and politician in Hong Kong Stephen Ip Shu-kwan (葉澍堃), GBS, JP, former Secretary for Economic Development and Labour of the Hong Kong Government Joseph Yam Chi-kwong (任志剛), GBM, JP, former Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority Lee Wing-tat (李永達), member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong and former Chairman of the Democratic Party of Hong Kong Jasper Tsang Yok-sing (曾鈺成), GBS, JP member of both the Executive Council of Hong Kong and Legislative Council of Hong Kong, former Chairman of the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong (DAB), National committee member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference of the People's Republic of China Tsang Tak-sing (曾德成), GBS, JP, Secretary for Home Affairs, Hong Kong Government (see 1967 Hong Kong riots). Lau Siu-kai (劉兆佳), GBS, JP, Head of Central Policy Unit, Hong Kong Government Patrick Lau (劉秀成), SBS, JP, former President of Hong Kong Institute of Architects and member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong Dr. Lo Wing-lok (勞永樂), JP, former legislative councillor and president of Hong Kong Medical Association Lau Kong-wah (劉江華), defeated member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong; Undersecretary of the Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau Shun Chi-ming (岑智明), FRMetS, JP, Director of the Hong Kong Observatory; President of Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology, World Meteorological Organization Fernando Cheung (張超雄), a Hong Kong politician, vice-chairman of the Labour Party Kenneth Ting (丁午壽), former Hong Kong Legislative Council member, Hong Kong Industries Honorary President, CMA Honorary President, former Liberal Party Vice-chairman Architecture I.M. Pei (貝聿銘), a Pritzker Prize-winning and internationally renowned architect whose important works include the Louvre Pyramid in Paris, the JFK Presidential Library and Museum in Boston, and the Bank of China in Hong Kong, Honorary Doctor of Letters of the University of Hong Kong (1990) Szeto Wai (司徒惠), architect, 1956, 1974 Hong Kong Legislative Council Unofficial Member of the, 1971, 1976 Hong Kong Executive Council Unofficial Member, 1975 University of Hong Kong Honorary Doctor of Science, 1978 Chinese University of Hong Kong reputation Doctor of Laws. He was the chief architect responsible for the design of the college's buildings at Bonham Road. Legal Jerome Chan Chun-hung (陳振鴻): a former judge of the High Court of Hong Kong Gallant Ho Yiu-tai (何耀棣): lawyer, founder, on behalf of the eighth NPC Guangdong Province, Consumer Council of Hong Kong chairman, former St. Paul's College Alumni president Alan Hoo (胡漢清): Senior Counsel, member of national committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Ma Ho-fai (馬豪輝): lawyer, 11th National People's Congress on behalf of Hong Kong Island Religious Peter Kwong Kong-kit (鄺廣傑), first Archbishop and Primate of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui Province, retired at the end of 2006, now Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui, Honorary Doctor of Divinity of the University of Hong Kong (2000) Medical Victor Chang Yam-him (張任謙), cardiac surgeon and humanitarian, a world pioneer in heart and lung transplants. In 1986, he was awarded the Companion of the Order of Australia honours. He was murdered in July 1991 outside his home in Sydney by two extortionists. In Sydney, the Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute was opened in 1994 to commemorate his work and service. Freddie Fu Ho-keong (傅浩強), St. Paul's Class of 1968, pioneer orthopaedic sports medicine surgeon. He is a Distinguished Service Professor at the University of Pittsburgh, David Silver Professor and Chairman of the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Head Team Physician for the University of Pittsburgh Department of Athletics. Most notably, he is renowned for pioneering the technique and concepts of anatomic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Academia Hui Shu Yuen Ron (許樹源) Chair Professor, Power Electronics, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, HKU & Imperial College London. Liang Hin Suen Raymond (梁憲孫) Emeritus Professor, Chair of Haematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, HKU http://hub.hku.hk/cris/rp/rp00345 Joe H. Chow (周祖康) Institute Professor of Engineering Electrical, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Member of the National Academy of Engineering http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~chowj/ Entertainment and mass media Ching Cheong (程翔), senior journalist and chief correspondent of The Straits Times; was detained in the People's Republic of China under suspicion of espionage during his research for news in Mainland China Lai Man-Wai (黎民偉), Hong Kong film actor and director Raymond Lam Fung (林峯), TVB actor Lawrence Cheng (鄭丹瑞), Hong Kong film actor, director, screenwriter, and producer, DJ and radio channel executive Alex To (杜德偉), Hong Kong and Taiwan based singer and actor Paul Lin (林子揚), writer, composer and head of a political discussion online forum in Hong Kong Simon Lui (雷宇揚), Hong Kong artist Music and cultural Ho Fuk Yan (何福仁), writer and poet, retired teacher and former Head of Chinese Department at St. Paul's College Sports Chan Hiu Ming (陳曉明), football coach, Hong Kong Football Association technical and development director, former national team assistant, coach of Hong Kong First Division club Wofoo Tai Po as well as manager of Workable FC and Eastern See also Education in Hong Kong References External links St. Paul's College official website St. Paul's College Alumni Association (SPCAA) St. Paul's College LinkedIn page Protestant secondary schools in Hong Kong Direct Subsidy Scheme schools Boys' schools in Hong Kong Educational institutions established in 1851 Sai Ying Pun Anglican schools in Hong Kong 1851 establishments in Hong Kong Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui	[ 0.10243994742631912, 0.7993201613426208, -0.12501701712608337, -0.335296094417572, -0.0008428097935393453, 0.4722530245780945, 0.8463312983512878, 0.6900922656059265, -0.7486890554428101, -0.26237162947654724, -0.3506563603878021, -0.11569734662771225, 0.5138546824455261, 0.13816200196743011, 0.5454028248786926, -0.3671455681324005, 0.986232340335846, 0.657381534576416, 0.0009604542865417898, 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233009	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation	Reputation	The reputation of a social entity (a person, a social group, an organization, or a place) is an opinion about that entity typically as a result of social evaluation on a set of criteria, such as behaviour or performance. Reputation is a ubiquitous, spontaneous, and highly efficient mechanism of social control in natural societies. It is a subject of study in social, management, and technological sciences. Its influence ranges from competitive settings, like markets, to cooperative ones, like firms, organizations, institutions and communities. Furthermore, reputation acts on different levels of agency, individual and supra-individual. At the supra-individual level, it concerns groups, communities, collectives and abstract social entities (such as firms, corporations, organizations, countries, cultures and even civilizations). It affects phenomena of different scales, from everyday life to relationships between nations. Reputation is a fundamental instrument of social order, based upon distributed, spontaneous social control. The concept of reputation is considered important in business, politics, education, online communities, and many other fields, and it may be considered as a reflection of that social entity's identity. Corporate reputation Reputation as a concept for companies Academic literature Since 1980, the study of 'corporate reputation' has attracted growing scholarly attention from economics, sociology, and management. The concept of reputation has undergone substantial evolution in the academic literature over the past several decades. Terminology such as reputation, branding, image and identity is often used interchangeably in both the popular press and—until recently—in the academic literature, as well. The academic literature has generally settled on a small cluster of perspectives on "what reputation is" in a company context. Economists use game-theory to describe corporate reputations as strategic signals that companies use to convey to markets some of their qualities and abilities. Sociologists view corporate reputation as descriptions of the relative status that companies occupy in an institutional field of rivals and stakeholders. Management scholars describe corporate reputations in one of two main ways, including: the broad view: as an aggregation of perceptions that form as audiences judge the behaviors of companies. This is often evaluated by broad ranking measures of the company as a whole, such as the Fortune Most Admired Companies rankings the specific view: as an assessment, by some specific audience, of the company's ability to perform or behave in a certain way. These are split into two broad categories: (a) outcome/capability reputation and (b) behavior/character reputation, which is intended to capture both the economic and sociological forms of reputation. (a) outcome/capability reputation: this reputation type involves an assessment of how well the company performs on a certain dimension. The most common examples of these is performing well financially or providing high quality products or services. All of these dimensions can be objectively ordered, such as better/worse financial performance (as evaluated by objective, market-based measures of financial performance) or better/worse product quality (as evaluated by a collection of users). (b) behavior/character reputation: this reputation type is said to arise when a company is recognized as consistently behaving in a certain way, in a manner that is relatively devoid of objectively identifiable performance. For instance, a company might prioritize investment in innovation, the improvement of its operational efficiency, or sourcing from local suppliers. Practical measurement of reputation In practice, corporate reputations are revealed by the relative rankings of companies created and propagated by information intermediaries. For example, business magazines and newspapers such as Fortune, Forbes, Business Week, Financial Times, and The Wall Street Journal regularly publish lists of the best places to work, the best business schools, or the most innovative companies. These rankings are explicit orderings of corporate reputations, and the relative positions of companies on these rankings are a reflection of the relative performance of companies on different cognitive attributes. Corporate reputations are found to influence the attractiveness of ranked companies as suppliers of products, as prospective employers, and as investments. For those reasons, companies themselves have become increasingly involved with the practice of reputation management. Connections to related, company-level concepts Like any social construct, reputation is similar to (i.e., convergent with) certain concepts and different (i.e., discriminant) from others. Reputation can be compared to other "social evaluation" or "social judgment" constructs. For instance, reputation is said to be convergent with adjacent concepts like corporate image, identity, celebrity, status, legitimacy, social approval (likability), and visibility (prominence), but discriminant from related constructs like stigma and infamy. Reputation is often considered to be a pragmatic evaluation - actors determine whether the target of the evaluation can be seen as useful to them. Until recently, the relationships with these adjacent constructs were merely theoretical; that is, they were not formally tested or empirically validated for their "nomological relationships" with these other, related constructs. Conceptual relationships: In 2012, the Oxford Handbook of Corporate Reputation was released to provide some clarity to the increasingly fragmented field of social evaluation constructs, all of which had been referred to (either implicitly or explicitly) under an umbrella of "reputation" concepts. In 2020, the introductory part of The Power of Being Divisive: Understanding Negative Evaluations, develops a framework to disentangle a variety of concepts in the field of social evaluations - in particular making the point that negative and positive evaluations can be on different continua, and social actors can be both positively and negatively evaluated at the same time. In this opus and in the Oxford handbook, scholars made incremental efforts to distinguish between handfuls of these constructs, such as: reputation vs. celebrity reputation vs. status reputation vs. legitimacy vs. status reputation vs. social approval reputation vs. stigma reputation vs. status vs. celebrity vs. stigma Empirical relationships: In 2020, Bitektine and colleagues conducted the first major construct validation study to: (a) create scales for the constructs of reputation, cognitive legitimacy, sociopolitical legitimacy, and status, and (b) empirically distinguish between them by undertaking a multiple studies involving several confirmatory factor analyses. This construct validation effort addressed the "broad view" of reputation as a company-level evaluation (not an evaluation for specific attributes). The scale items for reputation that resulted from this effort, as evaluated by an audience of respondents representing the general public, included: "The reputation of this company is excellent", "[this] is a reputable company", and "[this] is a dependable company". There still exists no construct validation effort for the "specific view" of reputation (i.e., that reputation is best understood as a specific audience's view of the company with respect to a specific attribute ). Consequences of reputation Performance outcomes Myriad reputation studies from the 1980s to the 2000s demonstrated that a company's reputation was positively related to various performance measures, such as financial success and profitability. However, more recent work demonstrated that reputation can be both "a benefit and a burden", suggesting that "the bigger you are, the harder you (might) fall" with respect to reputation. Decision outcomes Relatedly, researchers have theorized and/or demonstrated that a company's reputation could also influence the decisions and perceptions of its managers; in some cases, reputation can promote the use of risk-reduction strategies by managers as they seek to preserve the reputation they have cultivated. In other cases, researchers argue that reputation can embolden managers to take risks in areas unrelated to their reputation, since stakeholders may be focused on the reputation itself and inattentive to other areas of the company. Topics relating to reputation Reputation management Many organizations create public relations and corporate communication departments dedicated to assisting companies with reputation management. In addition, many public relations and consulting firms claim expertise in reputation management. The growth of the public relations industry has largely been due to the rising demand for companies to establish credibility and reputation. Incidents which damage a company's reputation for honesty or safety may cause serious damage to finances. For example, in 1999 Coca-Cola lost $60 million (by its own estimate) after schoolchildren reported suffering from symptoms like headaches, nausea and shivering after drinking its products. Although most companies see reputation management as a central part of a CEO's role, managing reputation involves a set of ongoing activities that are best managed when they are delegated to a specific individual in the organization. This is why some companies have created the position of chief reputation officer (CRO). A growing number of people in the business world now have the word "reputation" in their titles –including Dow Chemical, SABMiller, Coca-Cola, Allstate, Repsol YPF, Weber Shandwick, and GlaxoSmithKline (although no longer). Hoover's shows a list of such officers. Social media like Twitter, Linked In, and Facebook have made it increasingly important for companies to monitor their online reputations in order to anticipate and respond to criticisms of their actions. There are two main routes that customers can take when complaining about companies -individual-direct response or broadcast-based response. For a company, it takes a lot of time and effort to address individual-direct responses. One study showed that "...72% of customers expect a reply within one hour." In order to best recover from negative complaints on social media, it is important for a company to prove its authenticity by providing more specific answers directly to its critics. Reputation capital A corporate reputation can be managed, accumulated and traded in for trust, legitimization of a position of power and social recognition, and people are prepared to pay a premium price for goods and services offered, which in turn generates higher customer loyalty, a stronger willingness from shareholders to hold on to shares in times of crisis, and greater likelihood to invest in the company's stock. Therefore, reputation is one of the most valuable forms of "capital" of a company. "Delivering functional and social expectations of the public on the one hand and manage to build a unique identity on the other hand creates trust and this trust builds the informal framework of a company. This framework provides "return in cooperation" and produces reputation capital. A positive reputation will secure a company or organisation long-term competitive advantages. The higher a company's reputation capital, the lower the costs of supervising and exercising control." Building reputation through stakeholder management According to stakeholder theory, corporations should be managed for the benefit of all their "stakeholders," not just their shareholders. Stakeholders of a company include any individual or group that can influence or is influenced by a company's practices. The stakeholders of a company can be suppliers, consumers, employees, shareholders, financial community, government, and media. Companies must properly manage the relationships between stakeholder groups and they must consider the interest(s) of each stakeholder group carefully. Therefore, it becomes essential to integrate public relations into corporate governance to manage the relationships between these stakeholders which will enhance the organization's reputation. Corporations or institutions which behave ethically and govern in a good manner build reputational capital which is a competitive advantage. A good reputation enhances profitability because it attracts customers to products, investors to securities and employees to its jobs. A company's reputation is an intangible asset and a source of competitive advantage against rivals because the company will be viewed as more reliable, credible, trustworthy and responsible to its employees, customers, shareholders and financial markets. In addition, according to MORI's survey of about 200 managers in the private sector, 99% responded that the management of corporate reputation is very (83%) or fairly (16%) important. Reputation is a reflection of companies’ culture and identity. Also, it is the outcome of managers' efforts to prove their success and excellence. It is sustained through acting reliably, credibly, trustworthily and responsibly in the market. It can be sustained through consistent communication activities both internally and externally with key stakeholder groups. This directly influences a public company's stock prices in the financial market. Therefore, this reputation makes a reputational capital that becomes a strategic asset and advantage for that company. As a consequence, public relations must be used in order to establish long lasting relationships with the stakeholders, which will enhance the reputation of the company. Causes and consequences Reputation models can be placed in a broader framework that distinguishes reputation from its underlying causes and from its consequences. This approach is important to clarify the meaning of reputation. Causes of reputation are seen to reside in stakeholder experiences. Stakeholder experiences relate to a company's day-to-day business operations, its branding and marketing and "noise" in the system, such as the media and word of mouth. Further causes of reputation may include the perceived innovativeness of a company, the customers' expectations, the (perceived) quality of the company's goods and services and the subsequent customer satisfaction, all of which differ according to the respective customers' cultural background. The consequences of reputation reside in the behaviors (supportive or resistant) that stakeholders demonstrate towards a company. Behaviors such as advocacy, commitment, and cooperation are key positive outcomes of a good reputation. Boycotts and lawsuits are key negative outcomes of a bad reputation. Reputation recovery/repair Organizations frequently make missteps that cause them to lose the positive regard of stakeholders. In the wake of studies addressing the disproportionate penalties that accrue to high reputation firms when they make such missteps, reputation researchers have proposed models to account for both reputation damage and reputation repair, summarizing prior work in disciplines including economics, marketing, accounting, and management. Reputation transfer In the context of brand extension strategies, many companies rely on reputation transfer as a means of transferring the good reputation of a company and its existing products to new markets and new products. Consumers who are already familiar with other products of an established brand, exhibiting customer satisfaction and loyalty, will more easily accept new products of the same brand. In contrast to brand extension, the general concept of reputation transfer also requires the transfer of a company's values and identity to the new products and/or services and the related brands when entering new markets. It is important, however, to pay attention to the image fit between preexisting and new brands, for this factor has been proven to be critical for the success of brand extensions. In contrast to the special case of brand extension, the general concept of reputation transfer also requires the transfer of the values and identity of a company to the new products and/or services and the related brands when entering new markets. A strong image might therefore even hamper the introduction of new product lines if customers do not associate the competences relevant to the new market/category/product line with the existing company or brand. A company's reputation is furthermore influenced by culture, as nationalities differ with regard to how valued specific aspects of the company's brand identity are in the respective national culture (e.g. environmental concerns or work ethics) as well as with regard to popular cultural dimensions (e.g. Hofstede). Subsequently, these differences impact the success of reputation transfer significantly. Cognitive view of reputation The cognitive view of reputation has become increasingly prominent in reputation research. It has led to improved understanding of the role played by reputation in a number of practical domains and scientific fields. In the study of cooperation and social dilemmas, for instance, the role of reputation as a partner selection mechanism started to be appreciated in the early 1980s. Working toward such a definition, reputation can be viewed as a socially transmitted meta-belief (i.e., belief about belief) that is a property of an agent, that results from the attitudes other actors have about some socially desirable behaviour, be it cooperation, reciprocity, or norm-compliance. Reputation plays a crucial role in the evolution of these behaviours: reputation transmission allows socially desirable behaviour to spread. Rather than concentrating on the property only, the cognitive model of reputation accounts not only for reputation-formation but also for the propagation of reputation. To model this aspect, it is necessary to specify and develop a more refined classification of reputation. A recommendation can be extremely precise; in the stock market, for example, an adviser, when discussing the reputation of a bond, can supplement his informed opinion with both historical series and current events. In informal settings, gossip, although vague, may contain precious hints both to facts ("I've been told this physician has shown questionable behavior") and to conflicts taking place at the information level (if a candidate for a role spreads defamatory information about another candidate, whom should you trust?). Moreover, the expression "it is said that John Smith is a cheater" is intrinsically a reputation spreading act, because on one hand it refers to a (possibly false) common opinion, and on the other the very act of saying "it is said" is self-assessing, since it provides at least one factual occasion when that something is said, because the person who says so (the gossiper), while appearing to spread the saying a bit further, may actually be in the phase of initiating it. Gossip can also be used as an identifier only – as when gossiping about unreachable icons, like royalty or showbiz celebrities – useful only to show the gossiper belongs to the group of the informed ones. While most cases seem to share the characteristic of being primarily used to predict future behavior, they can have, for example, manipulative sub-goals, even more important than the forecast. In the case of a communication between two parties, one (the advisee) that is requesting advice about the potential for danger in a financial transaction with another party (the potential partner, target), and the other (the adviser, evaluator) that is giving advice. Roughly speaking, the advice could fall under one of the following three categories : the adviser declares it believes the potential partner is (is not) good for the transaction in object; the adviser declares it believes another (named or otherwise defined) agent or set of agents believes the potential partner is (is not) good for the transaction in object; the adviser declares it believes in an undefined set of agents, hence there is a belief the potential partner is (is not) good for the transaction in object. Note the care to maintain the possible levels of truth (the adviser declares – but could be lying – it believes – but could be wrong – etc..). The cases are listed, as it is evident, in decreasing order of responsibility. While one could feel most actual examples fall under the first case, the other two are not unnecessarily complicated nor actually infrequent. Indeed, most of the common gossip falls under the third category, and, except for electronic interaction, this is the most frequent form of referral. All examples concern the evaluation of a given object (target), a social agent (which may be either individual or supra-individual, and in the latter case, either a group or a collective), held by another social agent, the evaluator. The examples above can be turned into more precise definitions using the concept of social evaluation. At this point, we can propose to coin a new lexical item, image, whose character should be immediately evident and is clearly linked to reputation. Image Image is a global or averaged evaluation of a given target on the part of an agent. It consists of (a set of) social evaluations about the characteristics of the target. Image as an object of communication is what is exchanged in examples 1 and 2, above. In the second case, we call it third-party image. It may concern a subset of the target's characteristics, i.e., its willingness to comply with socially accepted norms and customs, or its skills (ways), or its definition as pertaining to a precise agent. Indeed, we can define special cases of image, including third-party image, the evaluation that an agent believes a third party has of the target, or even shared image, that is, an evaluation shared by a group. Not even this last is reputation, since it tries to define too precisely the mental status of the group. Reputation, as distinct from image, is the process and the effect of transmitting a target image. To be more precise, we call reputation transmission a communication of an evaluation without the specification of the evaluator, if not for a group attribution, and only in the default sense discussed before. This covers the case of example 3 above. More precisely, reputation is a believed, social, meta-evaluation; it is built upon three distinct but interrelated objects : a cognitive representation, or more precisely a believed evaluation – this could be somebody's image, but is enough that this consist of a communicated evaluation; a population object, i.e., a propagating believed evaluation; and an objective emergent property at the agent level, i.e., what the agent is believed to be. In fact, reputation is a highly dynamic phenomenon in two distinct senses: it is subject to change, especially as an effect of corruption, errors, deception, etc.; and it emerges as an effect of a multi-level bidirectional process. Reputation is also how others know and perceive you as an individual. While image only moves (when transmitted and accepted) from one individual cognition to another, the anonymous character of reputation makes it a more complex phenomenon. Reputation proceeds from the level of individual cognition (when is born, possibly as an image, but not always) to the level of social propagation (at this level, it not necessarily believed as from any specific agent) and from this level back to individual cognition again (when it is accepted). Moreover, once it gets to the population level, reputation gives rise to a further property at the agent level. It is both what people think about targets and what targets are in the eyes of others. From the very moment an agent is targeted by the community, his or her life will change whether he or she wants it or not or believes it or not. Reputation has become the immaterial, more powerful equivalent of a scarlet letter sewed to one's clothes. It is more powerful because it may not even be perceived by the individual to whom it sticks, and consequently it is out of the individual's power to control and manipulate. More simply speaking for those who want a working definition of reputation, reputation is the sum of impressions held by a company's stakeholders. In other words, reputation is in the "eyes of the beholder". It need not be just a company's reputation but could be the reputation of an individual, country, brand, political party, industry. But the key point in reputation is not what the leadership insists but what others perceive it to be. For a company, its reputation is how esteemed it is in the eyes of its employees, customers, investors, talent, prospective candidates, competitors, analysts, alumni, regulators and the list goes on. Online Online reputation is a factor in any online community where trust is important. Examples include eBay, an auction service which uses a system of customer feedback to publicly rate each member's reputation, or Amazon.com which has a similar review system. One study found that a good reputation added 7.6% to the price received. In addition, building and maintaining a good reputation can be a significant motivation for contributing to online communities . Individuals employ monitoring to ensure that they keep up with their online reputation. Given the number of sites on the Internet, it is impossible to manually monitor the entire web for pages that may affect one's online reputation. Free tools such as Google Alerts can be used to keep track online reputations on a small scale, while larger businesses and clients may use more powerful analytics to monitor online interactions and mentions. Paid tools for online reputation management focus on either brand protection or online reputation. These tools track mentions of a brand or product on the Internet, on Facebook, Twitter, blogs, and other social networking sites and websites. Online reputation can be evaluated by how well it is being managed. This form of reputation is usually called web or digital reputation to distinguish it from the online reputation. Indeed, digital or web reputation does not concern the virtual online reputation only, but the whole real reputation of a person or a company as it is affected by the Internet. Online reputation furthermore should not be confused with a company's digital identity. An online reputation is the perception that one generates on the Internet based on their digital footprint. Digital footprints accumulate through all of the content shared, feedback provided and information that is created online. Due to the fact that if someone has a bad online reputation, he can easily change his pseudonym, new accounts on sites such as eBay or Amazon are usually distrusted. If an individual or company wants to manage their online reputation, they will face many more difficulties. According to one study, 84% of responding business leaders saw the greatest reputation threat online to companies as negative media coverage. The next two greatest threats are customer complaints in the media or on grievance sites online (71%) and negative word of mouth (54%). This negative word of mouth could be from dissatisfied customers but from employees as well. With the power of business review websites and customer forums, a company's online reputation can be damaged anonymously online. Employers have begun using the online reputations of job applicants to help their hiring choices. By checking a candidate's social networking profiles on sites such as Facebook, Twitter and MySpace, employers gain insight into a candidate's character and suitability for a job. Some individuals and organizations hire reputation management companies to attempt to hide truthful but unflattering information about themselves. A recent alleged example is that of Dr. Anil Potti, who resigned from Duke University after it was discovered that he had misrepresented himself on his resume and became the subject of a scientific misconduct investigation. See also Digital identity Face (sociological concept) Governance Honour Id, ego and super-ego Reputation management Social capital Social map Social software Virtual community References Further reading Alsop, R (2004). The 18 Immutable Laws of Corporate Reputation: Creating, Protecting, and Repairing Your Most Valuable Asset, Barnett, M. et al. (2006). Corporate Reputation: The Definitional Landscape, in: Corporate Reputation Review, 1/2006 Burkhardt, R. (2007). Reputation Management in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Fombrun, C. (1996). Reputation. Realizing Value from the Corporate Image, Greco, M.; Branca, A. M.; Morena, G. (2010). An Experimental Study of the Reputation Mechanism in a Business Game, Simulation & Gaming, SAGE. Full text. Jackson, K.T. (2004). Building Reputational Capital: Strategies for Integrity and Fair Play that Improve the Bottom Line, Jazaieri, H., Logli Allison, M., Campos, B., Young, R. C., & Keltner, D. (2018). Content, structure, and dynamics of personal reputation: The role of trust and status potential within social networks. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. McElreath, R. (2003). Reputation and the evolution of conflict. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 220(3):345–57. Full text Wilkinson, Shannon M. (2012). Online Reputation Management Frequently Asked Questions. 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233011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimistic%20concurrency%20control	Optimistic concurrency control	Optimistic concurrency control (OCC), also known as optimistic locking, is a concurrency control method applied to transactional systems such as relational database management systems and software transactional memory. OCC assumes that multiple transactions can frequently complete without interfering with each other. While running, transactions use data resources without acquiring locks on those resources. Before committing, each transaction verifies that no other transaction has modified the data it has read. If the check reveals conflicting modifications, the committing transaction rolls back and can be restarted. Optimistic concurrency control was first proposed by H. T. Kung and John T. Robinson. OCC is generally used in environments with low data contention. When conflicts are rare, transactions can complete without the expense of managing locks and without having transactions wait for other transactions' locks to clear, leading to higher throughput than other concurrency control methods. However, if contention for data resources is frequent, the cost of repeatedly restarting transactions hurts performance significantly, in which case other concurrency control methods may be better suited. However, locking-based ("pessimistic") methods also can deliver poor performance because locking can drastically limit effective concurrency even when deadlocks are avoided. Phases of optimistic concurrency control Optimistic concurrency control transactions involve these phases: Begin: Record a timestamp marking the transaction's beginning. Modify: Read database values, and tentatively write changes. Validate: Check whether other transactions have modified data that this transaction has used (read or written). This includes transactions that completed after this transaction's start time, and optionally, transactions that are still active at validation time. Commit/Rollback: If there is no conflict, make all changes take effect. If there is a conflict, resolve it, typically by aborting the transaction, although other resolution schemes are possible. Care must be taken to avoid a time-of-check to time-of-use bug, particularly if this phase and the previous one are not performed as a single atomic operation. Web usage The stateless nature of HTTP makes locking infeasible for web user interfaces. It is common for a user to start editing a record, then leave without following a "cancel" or "logout" link. If locking is used, other users who attempt to edit the same record must wait until the first user's lock times out. HTTP does provide a form of built-in OCC. The response to an initial GET request can include an ETag for subsequent PUT requests to use in the If-Match header. Any PUT requests with an out-of-date ETag in the If-Match header can then be rejected. Some database management systems offer OCC natively, without requiring special application code. For others, the application can implement an OCC layer outside of the database, and avoid waiting or silently overwriting records. In such cases, the form may include a hidden field with the record's original content, a timestamp, a sequence number, or an opaque token. On submit, this is compared against the database. If it differs, the conflict resolution algorithm is invoked. Examples MediaWiki's edit pages use OCC. Bugzilla uses OCC; edit conflicts are called "mid-air collisions". The Ruby on Rails framework has an API for OCC. The Grails framework uses OCC in its default conventions. The GT.M database engine uses OCC for managing transactions (even single updates are treated as mini-transactions). Microsoft's Entity Framework (including Code-First) has built-in support for OCC based on a binary timestamp value. Mimer SQL is a DBMS that only implements optimistic concurrency control. Google App Engine data store uses OCC. The Apache Solr search engine supports OCC via the _version_ field. The Elasticsearch search engine supports OCC via the version attribute. CouchDB implements OCC through document revisions. The MonetDB column-oriented database management system's transaction management scheme is based on OCC. Most implementations of software transactional memory use OCC. Redis provides OCC through WATCH command. Firebird uses Multi-generational architecture as an implementation of OCC for data management. DynamoDB uses conditional update as an implementation of OCC. Kubernetes uses OCC when updating resources. YugabyteDB is an cloud-native database that primarily uses OCC. See also Server Message Block#Opportunistic locking References External links Enterprise JavaBeans, 3.0, By Bill Burke, Richard Monson-Haefel, Chapter 16. Transactions, Section 16.3.5. 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233013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism	Absurdism	In philosophy, "the Absurd" refers to the conflict between the human tendency to seek inherent value and meaning in life, and the human inability to find these with any certainty. The universe and the human mind do not each separately cause the Absurd; rather, the Absurd arises by the contradictory nature of the two existing simultaneously. The absurdist philosopher Albert Camus stated that individuals should embrace the absurd condition of human existence. Absurdism shares some concepts, and a common theoretical template, with existentialism and nihilism. It has its origins in the work of the 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who chose to confront the crisis that humans face with the Absurd by developing his own existentialist philosophy. Absurdism as a belief system was born of the European existentialist movement that ensued, specifically when Camus rejected certain aspects of that philosophical line of thought and published his essay The Myth of Sisyphus. The aftermath of World War II provided the social environment that stimulated absurdist views and allowed for their popular development, especially in the devastated country of France. Overview In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the meaninglessness of the universe. In absurdist philosophy, there are also two certainties that permeate human existence. The first is that humans are constantly striving towards the acquisition or identification with meaning and significance. It seems to be an inherent thing in human nature that urges the individual to define meaning in their lives. The second certainty is that the universe's silence and indifference to human life give the individual no assurance of any such meaning, leading to an existential dread within themselves. According to Camus, when the desire to find meaning and the lack of meaning collide, this is when the absurd is highlighted. The question then brought up becomes whether we should resign ourselves to this despair. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), respectively: Suicide (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option. Camus states that it does not counter the Absurd. Rather, in the act of ending one's existence, one's existence only becomes more absurd. Religious, spiritual, or abstract belief in a transcendent realm, being, or idea: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires an irrational but perhaps necessary religious "leap" into the intangible and empirically unprovable (now commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, Camus regarded this solution, and others, as "philosophical suicide". Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution, believing that by accepting the Absurd, one can achieve the greatest extent of one's freedom. By recognizing no religious or other moral constraints, and by rebelling against the Absurd (through meaning-making) while simultaneously accepting it as unstoppable, one could find contentment through the transient personal meaning constructed in the process. Kierkegaard, on the other hand, regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!" Relationship to existentialism and nihilism Absurdism originated from (as well as alongside) the 20th-century strains of existentialism and nihilism; it shares some prominent starting points with both, though also entails conclusions that are uniquely distinct from these other schools of thought. All three arose from the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from existence: the apparent meaninglessness of a world in which humans, nevertheless, are compelled to find or create meaning. The three schools of thought diverge from there. Existentialists have generally advocated the individual's construction of their own meaning in life as well as the free will of the individual. Nihilists, on the contrary, contend that "it is futile to seek or to affirm meaning where none can be found." Absurdists, following Camus's formulation, hesitantly allow the possibility for some meaning or value in life, but are neither as certain as existentialists are about the value of one's own constructed meaning nor as nihilists are about the total inability to create meaning. Absurdists following Camus also devalue or outright reject free will, encouraging merely that the individual live defiantly and authentically in spite of the psychological tension of the Absurd. Camus himself passionately worked to counter nihilism, as he explained in his essay "The Rebel", while he also categorically rejected the label of "existentialist" in his essay "Enigma" and in the compilation The Lyrical and Critical Essays of Albert Camus, though he was, and still is, often broadly characterized by others as an existentialist. Both existentialism and absurdism entail consideration of the practical applications of becoming conscious of the truth of existential nihilism: i.e., how a driven seeker of meaning should act when suddenly confronted with the seeming concealment, or downright absence, of meaning in the universe. Camus's own understanding of the world (e.g., "a benign indifference", in The Stranger), and every vision he had for its progress, however, sets him apart from the general existentialist trend. Such a chart represents some of the overlap and tensions between existentialist and absurdist approaches to meaning. While absurdism can be seen as a kind of response to existentialism, it can be debated exactly how substantively the two positions differ from each other. The existentialist, after all, doesn't deny the reality of death. But the absurdist seems to reaffirm the way in which death ultimately nullifies our meaning-making activities, a conclusion the existentialists seem to resist through various notions of posterity or, in Sartre's case, participation in a grand humanist project. Søren Kierkegaard A century before Camus, the 19th-century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote extensively about the absurdity of the world. In his journals, Kierkegaard writes about the absurd: Here is another example of the Absurd from his writings: How can this absurdity be held or believed? Kierkegaard says: Kierkegaard provides an example in Fear and Trembling (1843), which was published under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio. In the story of Abraham in the Book of Genesis, Abraham is told by God to kill his son Isaac. Just as Abraham is about to kill Isaac, an angel stops Abraham from doing so. Kierkegaard believes that through virtue of the absurd, Abraham, defying all reason and ethical duties ("you cannot act"), got back his son and reaffirmed his faith ("where I have to act"). Another instance of absurdist themes in Kierkegaard's work appears in The Sickness Unto Death, which Kierkegaard signed with pseudonym Anti-Climacus. Exploring the forms of despair, Kierkegaard examines the type of despair known as defiance. In the opening quotation reproduced at the beginning of the article, Kierkegaard describes how such a man would endure such a defiance and identifies the three major traits of the Absurd Man, later discussed by Albert Camus: a rejection of escaping existence (suicide), a rejection of help from a higher power and acceptance of his absurd (and despairing) condition. According to Kierkegaard in his autobiography The Point of View of My Work as an Author, most of his pseudonymous writings are not necessarily reflective of his own opinions. Nevertheless, his work anticipated many absurdist themes and provided its theoretical background. Albert Camus Though the notion of the 'absurd' pervades all Albert Camus's writing, The Myth of Sisyphus is his chief work on the subject. In it, Camus considers absurdity as a confrontation, an opposition, a conflict or a "divorce" between two ideals. Specifically, he defines the human condition as absurd, as the confrontation between man's desire for significance, meaning and clarity on the one hand – and the silent, cold universe on the other. He continues that there are specific human experiences evoking notions of absurdity. Such a realization or encounter with the absurd leaves the individual with a choice: suicide, a leap of faith, or recognition. He concludes that recognition is the only defensible option. For Camus, suicide is a "confession" that life is not worth living; it is a choice that implicitly declares that life is "too much." Suicide offers the most basic "way out" of absurdity: the immediate termination of the self and its place in the universe. The absurd encounter can also arouse a "leap of faith," a term derived from one of Kierkegaard's early pseudonyms, Johannes de Silentio (although the term was not used by Kierkegaard himself), where one believes that there is more than the rational life (aesthetic or ethical). To take a "leap of faith," one must act with the "virtue of the absurd" (as Johannes de Silentio put it), where a suspension of the ethical may need to exist. This faith has no expectations, but is a flexible power initiated by a recognition of the absurd. (Although at some point, one recognizes or encounters the existence of the Absurd and, in response, actively ignores it.) However, Camus states that because the leap of faith escapes rationality and defers to abstraction over personal experience, the leap of faith is not absurd. Camus considers the leap of faith as "philosophical suicide," rejecting both this and physical suicide. Lastly, a person can choose to embrace the absurd condition. According to Camus, one's freedom – and the opportunity to give life meaning – lies in the recognition of absurdity. If the absurd experience is truly the realization that the universe is fundamentally devoid of absolutes, then we as individuals are truly free. "To live without appeal," as he puts it, is a philosophical move to define absolutes and universals subjectively, rather than objectively. The freedom of humans is thus established in a human's natural ability and opportunity to create their own meaning and purpose; to decide (or think) for him- or herself. The individual becomes the most precious unit of existence, representing a set of unique ideals that can be characterized as an entire universe in its own right. In acknowledging the absurdity of seeking any inherent meaning, but continuing this search regardless, one can be happy, gradually developing meaning from the search alone. Camus states in The Myth of Sisyphus: "Thus I draw from the absurd three consequences, which are my revolt, my freedom, and my passion. By the mere activity of consciousness I transform into a rule of life what was an invitation to death, and I refuse suicide." "Revolt" here refers to the refusal of suicide and search for meaning despite the revelation of the Absurd; "Freedom" refers to the lack of imprisonment by religious devotion or others' moral codes; "Passion" refers to the most wholehearted experiencing of life, since hope has been rejected, and so he concludes that every moment must be lived fully. See also Absurdist fiction Credo quia absurdum Discordianism Existential nihilism Existentialism Irrationality Is–ought problem Kafkaesque Fact–value distinction Lottery of birth Meaning of life Nihilism Non sequitur (literary device) Pataphysics Peter Wessel Zapffe The Stranger (novel) Theatre of the Absurd Absurdistan Church of the SubGenius Terror management theory Use–mention distinction References Further reading OBERIU, edited by Eugene Ostashevsky. Northwestern University Press, 2005. Thomas Nagel: Mortal Questions, 1991. 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233014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA	PGA	PGA is an acronym or initialism that may stand for: Aviation IATA code for Page Municipal Airport, Coconino County, Arizona ICAO designator for Portugália, regional airline based in Lisbon, Portugal Abbreviation for Prince George Airport, British Columbia, Canada Organizations Parliamentarians for Global Action, an international parliamentary group that engage in a range of action-oriented initiatives. Peoples' Global Action, a worldwide co-ordination of radical social movements Producers Guild of America, an organization representing television producers, film producers and new media producers in the United States Golf Professional Golfers' Association (with or without the apostrophe), the usual term for an organization of professional golfers Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland) Professional Golfers' Association of America PGA Championship, one of the four men's major golf championships, organized by the PGA of America PGA Tour, United States-based organization (independent of the PGA of America) that operates men's professional golf tours, and the name of the elite tour it runs Science Chemistry 3-Phosphoglyceric acid (or glycerate 3-phosphate), a chemical substance that is a metabolic intermediate in both glycolysis and the Calvin cycle Polyglutamic acid, a polymer of the glutamic acid (one of proteinogenic amino acids) Polyglycolic acid, another name for polyglycolide Propylene glycol alginate (E405), an emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickener used in food products Prostaglandin of the A type Geology Peak ground acceleration, measure of ground acceleration during an earthquake Language pga, ISO 639-3 language code for Juba Arabic (also known as Sudanese Creole Arabic) language Mathematics Principal geodesic analysis, a generalization of principal component analysis Medicine Pentagestrone acetate, a progestin Polyglandular autoimmune syndromes, another name for autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes Technology Computing Perl Golf Apocalypse, a Perl coding competition Program Global Area, a memory region for the server processes in Oracle Professional Graphics Adapter or Professional Graphics Array, other names for Professional Graphics Controller, an IBM XT graphics card intended for the CAD market Electronics Pin grid array, a type of packaging for integrated circuits Programmable-gain amplifier, an amplifier whose gain can be changed during its operation Programmable gate array, a semiconductor device containing programmable logic components and programmable interconnects (vast majority of today's PGAs are field-programmable gate arrays, or FPGAs) Other Panasonic Gobel Awards, annual Indonesian TV awards, from 1997 until 2019 Paul Gardner Allen (1953–2018), American business magnate, co-founder of Microsoft Pure grain alcohol, another name for neutral grain spirit	[ 0.5048011541366577, -0.1156788170337677, 0.17346259951591492, 0.02568625845015049, 0.22375018894672394, -0.0814782977104187, -0.48662087321281433, 0.18602301180362701, -0.2435440868139267, -0.004487137775868177, -0.2127598375082016, -0.006053971592336893, -0.4585384428501129, -0.062275130301713943, 0.15293551981449127, 0.5312448740005493, -0.003150204662233591, 0.648913562297821, -0.21881966292858124, -0.5292995572090149, -0.40934863686561584, -0.05188119783997536, 0.4086516201496124, -0.14150872826576233, -0.16021989285945892, 0.2703627943992615, 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233015	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla%20browser	Mozilla browser	Mozilla browser may refer to one of the following web browsers produced by the Mozilla Foundation: Mozilla Application Suite (defunct) Mozilla Firefox (previously known as mozilla/browser, Phoenix and Mozilla Firebird) Camino (previously known as Chimera) Minimo (a.k.a. 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233016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal%20sinus	Renal sinus	The renal sinus is a cavity within the kidney which is occupied by the renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood vessels, nerves and fat. The renal hilum extends into a large cavity within the kidney occupied by the renal vessels, minor renal calyces, major renal calyces, renal pelvis and some adipose tissue. 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233017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin%20grid%20array	Pin grid array	A pin grid array (PGA) is a type of integrated circuit packaging. In a PGA, the package is square or rectangular, and the pins are arranged in a regular array on the underside of the package. The pins are commonly spaced 2.54 mm (0.1") apart, and may or may not cover the entire underside of the package. PGAs are often mounted on printed circuit boards using the through hole method or inserted into a socket. PGAs allow for more pins per integrated circuit than older packages, such as dual in-line package (DIP). PGA variants Plastic Plastic pin grid array (PPGA) packaging was used by Intel for late-model Mendocino core Celeron processors based on Socket 370. Some pre-Socket 8 processors also used a similar form factor, although they were not officially referred to as PPGA. Flip chip A flip-chip pin grid array (FC-PGA or FCPGA) is a form of pin grid array in which the die faces downwards on the top of the substrate with the back of the die exposed. This allows the die to have a more direct contact with the heatsink or other cooling mechanism. The FC-PGA was introduced by Intel with the Coppermine core Pentium III and Celeron processors based on Socket 370, and was later used for Socket 478-based Pentium 4 and Celeron processors. FC-PGA processors fit into zero insertion force (ZIF) Socket 370 and Socket 478-based motherboard sockets; similar packages have also been used by AMD. It is still used today for mobile Intel processors. Staggered pin The staggered pin grid array (SPGA) is used by Intel processors based on Socket 5 and Socket 7. Socket 8 used a partial SPGA layout on half the processor. It consists of two square arrays of pins, offset in both directions by half the minimum distance between pins in one of the arrays. Put differently: within a square boundary the pins form a diagonal square lattice. There is generally a section in the center of the package without any pins. SPGA packages are usually used by devices that require a higher pin density than what a PGA can provide, such as microprocessors. Ceramic A ceramic pin grid array (CPGA) is a type of packaging used by integrated circuits. This type of packaging uses a ceramic substrate with pins arranged in a pin grid array. Some CPUs that use CPGA packaging are the AMD Socket A Athlons and the Duron. A CPGA was used by AMD for Athlon and Duron processors based on Socket A, as well as some AMD processors based on Socket AM2 and Socket AM2+. While similar form factors have been used by other manufacturers, they are not officially referred to as CPGA. This type of packaging uses a ceramic substrate with pins arranged in an array. Organic An organic pin grid array (OPGA) is a type of connection for integrated circuits, and especially CPUs, where the silicon die is attached to a plate made out of an organic plastic which is pierced by an array of pins which make the requisite connections to the socket. Stud A stud grid array (SGA) is a short-pinned pin grid array chip scale package for use in surface-mount technology. The polymer stud grid array or plastic stud grid array was developed jointly by the Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC) and Laboratory for Production Technology, Siemens AG. rPGA The reduced pin grid array was used by the socketed mobile variants of Intel's Core i3/5/7 processors and features a reduced pin pitch of 1mm, as opposed to the 1.27mm pin pitch used by contemporary AMD processors and older Intel processors. It is used in the G1, G2, and G3 sockets. See also Ball grid array (BGA) Centered square number Chip carrier - chip packaging and package types list Dual in-line package (DIP) Land grid array (LGA) Single in-line package (SIP) Zig-zag in-line package (ZIP) References Sources External links Intel CPU Processor Identification Ball Grid Arrays: the High-Pincount Workhorses, John Baliga, Associate Editor, Semiconductor International, 9/1/1999 Spot on component packaging, 08/1998, Elektronik, Produktion & Prüftechnik Terminology Chip carriers	[ 0.49319031834602356, 0.24176134169101715, -0.03610294312238693, -0.11080217361450195, -0.2646595239639282, 0.09234015643596649, -0.7902069091796875, -0.24177585542201996, -0.38221660256385803, -0.3714177906513214, -0.3315495550632477, 0.4310029447078705, -0.4739125967025757, 0.21853476762771606, -0.1668783277273178, 0.5858079195022583, 0.4490897059440613, -0.22938907146453857, -0.1258743852376938, 0.07806599885225296, -0.029539721086621284, -0.39198291301727295, 0.1529553234577179, 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233018	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip	Zip	Zip, Zips or ZIP may refer to: Common uses ZIP Code, USPS postal code Zipper or zip, clothing fastener Science and technology Computing ZIP (file format), a compressed archive file format zip, a command-line program from Info-ZIP Zipping (computer science), or zip, reorganizing lists of lists Zip drive, a removable disk storage system Zone Information Protocol, AppleTalk protocol Zip Chip, Apple II accelerators by Zip Technologies Other science and technology Zip tone, in telephony Zig-zag in-line package, electronic packaging Zip fuel, a type of jet fuel Zip tie, a cable fastener Zrt- and Irt-like proteins, or Zips, zinc transporters Arts, entertainment and media Zip (game), a children's game Zip (roller coaster), at Oaks Amusement Park, Oregon, US Zip, a band formed by Pete Shelley Zip and bong, a card game Zip Comics, 1940-1944 ZIP FM, a radio station, Vilnius, Lithuania ZIP Magazine, UK Zip, a character in the Tomb Raider video games Zip, a vertical line in Barnett Newman's paintings Film and television Zip (TUGS), a TV character Zip, the Dodger, a 1914 film starring Fatty Arbuckle "Zip, Zip, Zip", an episode of the TV series How I Met Your Mother ZIP, a fictional amnestic drug in the Blindspot TV series Brands, enterprises and products Zip (airline), a former Canadian airline Mr. ZIP, a promotional character Piaggio Zip, a scooter Zip Co, an Australian fintech company Zip Industries, an Australian manufacturer of hot water dispensers Zip's Drive-in, an American restaurant chain Zip.ca, a Canadian DVD rental service Zip card, for travel in London, UK Zip cube, firelighters Places Žíp, a village in Slovakia Spiš or Zips, Slovakia Zip City, Alabama, US People Zip Collins (1892–1983), US baseball player John Connolly (FBI) (born 1940), nicknamed "Zip" Zip Hanna (1916–2001), US football player Tom Prichard (born 1959), wrestler Zip Zabel (1891–1970), US baseball player Bohdan Zip (1929–2017), Canadian politician Zip the Pinhead, American freak show performer William Henry Johnson (c. 1857–1926) Other uses Zero (slang: zip) Zips, a derogatory term used by Italian-American criminals Akron Zips, the University of Akron athletic teams Zip Feed Tower, a former grain elevator in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, US See also Zip gun (disambiguation) Zipp (disambiguation) Zipper (disambiguation) Zippy (disambiguation) Lists of people by nickname	[ 0.46361809968948364, 0.11562720686197281, -0.4965021312236786, 0.5534763336181641, 0.27370360493659973, 0.1366216540336609, -0.6111117005348206, -0.09075640887022018, -0.5398654937744141, -0.350077360868454, -0.7535542249679565, 0.01911572739481926, -0.26561596989631653, 0.04308925196528435, -0.20328566431999207, 0.21494023501873016, 0.3454413115978241, 0.3767906725406647, -0.6370446085929871, -0.04610476642847061, -0.3317630887031555, -0.08579819649457932, -0.4327632784843445, -0.37745001912117004, -0.21290047466754913, 0.39496392011642456, -0.3348250389099121, 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233019	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig-zag%20in-line%20package	Zig-zag in-line package	The zig-zag in-line package (ZIP) is a packaging technology for integrated circuits. It was intended as a replacement for dual in-line packaging (DIL or DIP). A ZIP is an integrated circuit encapsulated in a slab of plastic with 16, 20, 28 or 40 pins, measuring (for the ZIP-20 package) about 3 mm x 30 mm x 10 mm. The package's pins protrude in two rows from one of the long edges. The two rows are staggered by 1.27 mm (0.05"), giving them a zig-zag appearance, and allowing them to be spaced more closely than a rectangular grid would allow. The pins are inserted into holes in a printed circuit board, with the packages standing at right-angles to the board, allowing them to be placed closer together than DIPs of the same size. ZIPs have now been superseded by surface-mount packages such as the thin small-outline packages (TSOPs), but are still in use. The quad in-line package uses a smilar staggered semiconductor package design. High-power devices (such as high-voltage op-amp ICs, voltage regulators, and motor driver ICs) are still being manufactured in a package with a zig-zag pinout (and normally screwed onto a heatsink). These zig-zag packages include variations on the TO220 such as "TO220S", "staggered leads TO-220-11", "staggered leads TO-220-15", and HZIP. The trademarks Pentawatt or Hexawatt are also used for chips in multi-leaded power packages like TDA2002/2003/2020/2030 and L200. As for computers, dynamic RAM ZIP chips are now only to be found in obsolete computers, some of these are: Commodore Amiga 500 expansion packs Commodore Amiga 3000 on-board memory and some expansion boards Commodore CDTV on-board memory Acorn Archimedes 300 and 400 series on-board memory Acorn Archimedes A3010 and A3020 See also Types of chip carriers – list of chip package types References Chip carriers	[ -0.07235611975193024, -0.2121051549911499, -0.22117026150226593, -0.0037361755967140198, -0.1557995229959488, -0.2595467269420624, -0.43992117047309875, 0.21360287070274353, -0.028520891442894936, -0.15809473395347595, -0.7941255569458008, 0.30025240778923035, -0.23043684661388397, -0.15674558281898499, -0.08181298524141312, -0.13465218245983124, 0.3462770879268646, 0.22745229303836823, -0.053495436906814575, -0.2645873725414276, -0.08602514863014221, -0.3394489288330078, -0.09544789046049118, -0.2999976575374603, -0.13008622825145721, 0.029272565618157387, 0.24404177069664001, 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233021	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dob	Dob	DOB or Dob often refers to date of birth. DOB or Dob may also refer to: Biochemistry 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine, Bromo-DMA, a psychedelic drug Meta-DOB, related substance Methyl-DOB, related substance HLA-DOB, human gene Organizations Daughters of Bilitis, an international lesbian and feminist organization Dykes on Bikes, international network of lesbian motorcycle clubs People Mounir Dob (born 1974), Algerian football referee Daniel O'Brien (comedian), writer for Cracked.com Places Dob (toponym), a Slovene toponym, also found in Austria and Italy Dob, Domžale, Upper Carniola, Slovenia, a village Dob, a hamlet of Slovenska Vas, Šentrupert, Slovenia, with a pear tree avenue and a prison Dob, Bhopal, a village in India Other Division of Banks, an Australian Electoral Division in New South Wales Dust of Basement, an electronic music band originally from Berlin Deutsche Oper Berlin, opera company in the Charlottenburg district of Berlin NATO Dispersed Operating Bases (DOBs) Dobo Airport, Indonesia (IATA code DOB) , a cultivar of Karuka Dobsonian telescope, often referred to as a "Dob" See also Dob-dob, Tibetan monk Dob's Linn, geologically significant location in Scotland Dobber (disambiguation) Dobbs (disambiguation) Dobby (disambiguation) Daub	[ 0.13126155734062195, 0.5430386066436768, -0.27557986974716187, -0.24914489686489105, -0.03483967110514641, 0.18233762681484222, 0.4028346836566925, 0.20106667280197144, -0.33665353059768677, -0.31934884190559387, -0.33559951186180115, -0.4924647808074951, 0.33349746465682983, 0.056722138077020645, -0.3706386387348175, 0.5519847869873047, 0.2997409701347351, 0.3741483688354492, 0.12182379513978958, -0.18318384885787964, -0.22847335040569305, -0.3407297134399414, -0.3427368104457855, -0.23997722566127777, 0.3836185038089752, -0.19612054526805878, -0.206977978348732, -0.29611504077911377, -0.4392850399017334, -0.4443773329257965, 0.055658258497714996, -0.09534910321235657, 0.5707263350486755, 0.5207679867744446, 0.010982478968799114, 0.2418341487646103, 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233022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Kl%C3%A9ber	Jean-Baptiste Kléber	Jean-Baptiste Kléber () (9 March 1753 – 14 June 1800) was a French general during the French Revolutionary Wars. After serving for one year in the French Royal Army, he entered Habsburg service seven years later. However, his plebeian ancestry hindered his opportunities. Eventually, he volunteered for the French Revolutionary Army in 1792 and quickly rose through the ranks. Kléber served in the Rhineland during the War of the First Coalition, and also suppressed the Vendée Revolt. He retired to private life in the peaceful interim after the Treaty of Campo Formio, but returned to military service to accompany Napoleon in the Egyptian Campaign in 1798–99. When Napoleon left Egypt to return to Paris, he appointed Kléber as commander of the French forces. He was assassinated by a student in Cairo in 1800. A trained architect, Kléber, in times of peace, designed a number of buildings. Biography Early career Kléber was born in Strasbourg, where his father worked as a master builder. He briefly engaged in 1769 in the 1st Hussar Regiment, but resigned to study, from 1770 to 1774, architecture, partly in Paris with Jean Chalgrin. His opportune assistance to two German nobles in a tavern brawl obtained for him nomination to the military school of Munich. From this education, he obtained a commission in the Kaunitz regiment of the Imperial army, he took part in the War of the Bavarian Succession, but did not see major engagements, as he was stationed alternately in the garrisons of Mons, Mechelen, and Luxembourg in the Austrian Netherlands. He resigned his commission in 1783 on finding his humble birth hindered his chances for promotion. On returning to France he received the appointment of inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied fortification and military science. French Revolutionary Wars In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin volunteers. Thanks to his military knowledge, he at once gained election as adjutant and soon afterward as lieutenant-colonel. At the defense of Mainz (July 1793) he so distinguished himself that though disgraced along with the rest of the garrison and imprisoned, he promptly won reinstatement, and became in August 1793 a général de brigade. He won considerable distinction in the suppression of the Vendéans, and two months later gained promotion to général de division. In these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. When he openly expressed his opinion that the Vendéans merited lenient measures, the authorities recalled him; but re-instated him once more in April 1794 and sent him to the Armée de Sambre-et-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the numerous actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning victory of Fleurus (26 June 1794), after which in the winter of 1794 – 1795 he besieged Mainz. In 1795, and again in 1796, he held the chief command of an army temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as commander-in-chief. On 13 October 1795 he fought a brilliant rearguard action at the bridge of Neuwied, and in the offensive campaign of 1796, he served as Jourdan's most active and successful lieutenant, with his victory at Siegburg on 1 June that year enabling Jourdan to get the bulk of the French force across the Rhine. Egyptian campaign After the retreat to the Rhine, he again declined a chief command and withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but suffered a wound in the head at Alexandria in the first engagement, which prevented his taking any further part in the campaign of the Pyramids, and caused his appointment as governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799, however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, and won the great victory of Mount Tabor on 15–16 April 1799. When Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799, he left Kléber in command of the French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of bringing his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, he negotiated the Convention of El-Arish (24 January 1800) with Commodore Sidney Smith, winning the right to an honorable evacuation of the French army. When Admiral Lord Keith refused to ratify the terms, Kléber attacked the Turks at the Battle of Heliopolis. Although he had only 10,000 men against 60,000 Turks, Kléber's forces utterly defeated the Turks on 20 March 1800. He then re-took Cairo, which had revolted against French rule. Kléber, son of an operative mason and a prominent freemason himself, was attestedly instrumental in bringing freemasonry to Egypt. While he was negotiating with Sidney Smith in January 1800, Kléber opened a masonic temple in Cairo and thus created the Isis lodge (La Loge Isis), serving as its first master. Assassination Shortly after these victories, while Kléber was walking in the garden of the palace of Alfi bika, he was knifed by Suleiman al-Halabi, a Kurdish or Arab Syrian student living in Egypt. The assassin appeared to be begging from Kléber, but then took his hand and stabbed him in the heart, stomach, left arm, and right cheek, before running away to hide near the palace. He was soon caught, still in possession of the dagger which he had used to kill Kléber, and was later executed. The assassination happened in Cairo on 14 June 1800, coincidentally the same day on which Kléber's friend and comrade, Desaix, fell at Marengo. The assassin's right arm was burned off, and he was impaled in a public square in Cairo and left for several hours to die. Suleiman's skull was shipped to France and used to teach French medical students what the French phrenologists claimed were the cranial features indicating "crime" and "fanaticism" Burial After his assassination, Kléber's embalmed body was repatriated to France. Fearing that his tomb would become a symbol of Republicanism, Napoleon ordered it held at the Château d'If, on an island near Marseilles. It stayed there for 18 years until Louis XVIII granted Kléber a burial place in his home town of Strasbourg. He was buried on 15 December 1838 below his statue located in the center of Place Kléber. His heart is in an urn in the caveau of the Governors beneath the altar of the Saint Louis Chapel in Les Invalides, Paris. Kléber's name is inscribed in column 23 on the southern pillar of the Arc de Triomphe. Assessment Kléber emerged as undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to show that he would have been unequal to it. As a second-in-command no general of his time excelled him. His conduct of affairs in Egypt, at a time when the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows that his powers as an administrator were little, if at all, inferior to those he possessed as a general. Kléber the architect Between 1784 and 1792, Kléber designed a number of buildings both on public and private commission. Perhaps the most notable is the current town hall of Thann, Haut-Rhin (1787–1793), which was originally designed as a hospital but turned into an administrative building before its completion. Other surviving buildings are the château of Grandvillars (often erroneously spelled "Granvillars"), built around 1790 and the canoness houses of the Benedictine abbey of Masevaux (1781–1790). Nine of these houses had been planned but due to the French Revolution, only seven were built. The Musée historique de Strasbourg features a room dedicated to Jean-Baptiste Kléber that also displays a number of his sketches and architectural designs. See also Lycée Kléber Place Kléber Kléber (Paris Métro) Kléber (train) Manfred Stern, Austrian-born Soviet officer who gained fame in the Spanish Civil War under the pseudonym "General Kléber" References Attribution Further reading Philippe Jéhin, Jean-Baptiste Kléber : le lion indomptable : 1753-1800, Éditions Vent d'Est 2012, Auguste Echard: J.-B. Kléber : un fils de l'Alsace, Charavay Frères Éditeurs, Paris, 1883 (sic) online version 1753 births 1800 deaths 18th-century French governors of Egypt Alsatian-German people Assassinated French people Deaths by stabbing in Egypt French generals French people murdered abroad French Republican military leaders killed in the French Revolutionary Wars French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Republican military leaders of the War in the Vendée Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars French people of German descent People from Strasbourg People murdered in Egypt People of the French Revolution Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe French Freemasons 18th-century French architects Murder in 1800	[ -0.4915508031845093, 0.125924214720726, -0.6289749145507812, 0.24789276719093323, -0.3788929283618927, 1.1299318075180054, 0.6750587821006775, -0.1946088820695877, -0.2919936776161194, 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233023	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Energie%20Cottbus	FC Energie Cottbus	FC Energie Cottbus (Lower Sorbian: Energija Chóśebuz) is a German football club based in Cottbus, Brandenburg. It was founded in 1963 as SC Cottbus in what was East Germany. After the reunification of Germany, Energie played six seasons in the third tier of the German football league system before floating between the 2. Bundesliga and Bundesliga for 17 years between 1997 and 2014. From 2014 to 2016, the club played in the third tier, 3. Liga, and were then relegated to the Regionalliga Nordost. In 2018, they were promoted back into the 3. Liga, only to be relegated again the next season. History Predecessor sides Energie Cottbus can trace its roots back to a predecessor side of FSV Glückauf Brieske-Senftenberg, a club founded by coal miners in 1919, in what was then called the town of Marga. FV Grube Marga, as the club was then called, was active until 1924 when the miners left to form a new team called SV Sturm Grube Marga which was banned by the Nazi Party in 1933. GDR The club re-emerged after World War II in 1949 as BSG Franz Mehring Grube, becoming BSG Aktivist Brieske-Ost in 1950. The club was renamed SC Aktivist Brieske-Senftenberg in 1954 and played in the DDR-Oberliga generally earning mid-table results until calamitously falling all the way to the fourth tier Cottbus Bezirksliga in the early 1960s. The players of this side formed SC Energie Cottbus in 1963, whilst the reserve team merged back to BSG Aktivist Brieske-Ost to form BSG Aktivist Senftenberg. The club still exists as FSV Glückauf Brieske-Senftenberg today. SC Cottbus was quickly assisted by a wholesale transfer of players from BSG Aktivist Brieske-Ost ordered by the East German authorities, who often intervened in the business of the country's sports and football clubs for political reasons. East German authorities had a penchant for tagging sports teams with the names of socialist heroes: Franz Mehring was a German socialist politician and journalist. In the mid-1960s, a re-organization program by the regime led to the separation of football sides from sports clubs and the creation of BSG von Bodo Krautz under the patronage of a local coal mine. The football club went by that name only briefly and was quickly renamed BSG Energie in early 1966. German reunification The team took on the name FC Energie in 1990 at the time of German reunification. After years as a II division or lower-table I division side in East Germany, Energie emerged as one of the few former DDR sides to enjoy relative prosperity in a united Germany. After six seasons playing tier III football, the club earned promotion to the 2. Bundesliga in 1997 (the same year they became the first former East German club to play the DFB Cup Final), winning the Regionalliga Nordost, and then played its way into the Bundesliga in 2000, where it managed a three-year stay. A key player in the Bundesliga run was Vasile Miriuță, an imaginative midfield player. After being relegated, Energie narrowly missed a prompt return to the top tier, losing out to Mainz 05 on goal difference. In 2004–05, Energie struggled with both financial (reported debts of €4.5 million) and on-field problems, and the only club escaped relegation to the third tier Regionalliga by scoring one more goal than Eintracht Trier while having the same number of points and goal difference. During the season, the manager and the chairman were replaced. The 2005–06 season was a much more successful one, as the club finished third and won promotion back to the Bundesliga. The 2006–07 Bundesliga season resulted in a 13th-place finish and 41 points, a club record total in the Bundesliga. Energie Cottbus were the only club from the former East Germany playing in the Bundesliga until they lost a relegation play-off to 1. FC Nürnberg in 2009. Cottbus remained in the 2. Bundesliga for another five seasons until 2014, when an 18th-place finish meant relegation to the 3. Liga, ending a 17-season stint in the top two divisions. After a 19th-place finish in the 3. Liga in 2015–16, the club suffered another relegation, to the Regionalliga Nordost. Following two seasons in the fourth tier, Cottbus gained promotion back to the 3. Liga after beating Weiche Flensburg over two legs in the Regionalliga play-offs, but in the 2018–19 season they were relegated back to the Regionalliga after finishing 17th. The German Chancellor Angela Merkel is an honorary member of the club. Honours The club's honours: DFB-Pokal: Runners-up: 1997 2. Bundesliga (II) Bundesliga promotion: 2000, 2006 Regionalliga Nordost: (III/IV) Winners: 1997, 2018 German Under 17 championship: Runners-up: 2004 Brandenburg Cup (Tiers III-VII) Winners: 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998‡, 2001‡, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019 DFB-Pokal U17 Winners: 2011 Team Current squad Notable players Statistics The all-foreign line-up On 6 April 2001, Energie became the first Bundesliga club to field a side made up of 11 foreign players. Energie often fielded nine or ten foreigners that season: German players appeared a total of just 83 times, with striker Sebastian Helbig as the leader with 28. The players were Tomislav Piplica, Faruk Hujdurović, Bruno Akrapović (Bosnia and Herzegovina), János Mátyus, Vasile Miriuță (Hungary), Rudi Vata (Albania), Moussa Latoundji (Benin), Andrzej Kobylański (Poland), Antun Labak (Croatia), Laurențiu Reghecampf (Romania), and Franklin (Brazil). As a side note, even the three substitutes were foreigners, namely Johnny Rödlund from Sweden, Sabin Ilie from Romania and Witold Wawrzyczek from Poland . Reserve team The club's reserve team, FC Energie Cottbus II, has played as high as Regionalliga level, last playing in the Regionalliga Nordost in 2012–13. The team most recently played in the tier five NOFV-Oberliga Süd but has, in the past, also played in the northern division of the league. It first reached Oberliga level in 1998 and has won league championships in 2007 and 2010. At the end of the 2015–16 season, the team was withdrawn from competition. In 1998, it also won the Brandenburgischer Landespokal, the local cup competition in Brandenburg, and qualified for the first round of the DFB-Pokal through this. In 1998–99, it went out losing 1–0 to SpVgg Greuther Fürth, in 2001–02 it lost 4–0 to Arminia Bielefeld. References External links The Abseits Guide to German Soccer Football clubs in Germany Football clubs in East Germany Football clubs in Brandenburg Sport in Cottbus Association football clubs established in 1966 Mining association football clubs in Germany 1966 establishments in East Germany	[ 0.6187090873718262, -0.24292056262493134, -0.17883408069610596, -0.08164741843938828, -0.32850170135498047, 0.5625596642494202, 0.33977794647216797, -0.21312390267848969, -0.1891152560710907, -0.787713885307312, -0.10530387610197067, -0.5556383728981018, -0.2718123495578766, 0.28986597061157227, -0.18057173490524292, 0.3413178026676178, 0.745227575302124, 0.5445311069488525, -0.42420804500579834, -0.87180095911026, 0.032800883054733276, -0.14258508384227753, 0.7528426647186279, 0.5670291185379028, -0.0201896820217371, -0.3789358139038086, 0.42150989174842834, 0.33077529072761536, 0.33147627115249634, -0.028827952221035957, 0.016309300437569618, 0.7672415375709534, -0.3377739489078522, 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233026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio%20Corini	Eugenio Corini	Eugenio Corini (born 30 July 1970) is an Italian professional football coach and former player. A talented, dynamic, and hard-working playmaker, known for his precise long passing, flair, and his ability to orchestrate his team's attacking moves or provide assists for teammates, Corini usually played either as an attacking midfielder or as a deep lying playmaker in midfield. A set-piece specialist, he was also known for his accuracy from free kicks, corners, and penalty kicks. Club career Corini started his career in the Brescia youth squad, but he soon joined the first team, being called to be part it of when just 16 years old, making his debut the following season. He became a regular for the Lombardian team in both 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons, before being noticed and signed by Juventus. In his first season with Juventus, at just 20 years old, Corini played 25 times and scored one goal. In 1992–93, Corini was sold to Sampdoria, where he made 24 appearances, and had several injury problems. In the next few years, Corini moved from team to team almost every season (Napoli, Brescia again, and Piacenza) without being able to show his full potential. In October 1998, Verona loaned him to city rivals Chievo Verona, in Serie B. Corini soon became a mainstay of the team, being named captain and leading his team to an extraordinary promotion to Serie A in 2001, and UEFA Cup qualification the following season, after having been first-placed at the winter break. Corini joined Palermo in 2003, helping the Sicilian team win the 2003–04 Serie B league title, followed by UEFA Cup qualification the following season. He later served as the club's captain. In June 2007, he announced he was not going to renew his contract with Palermo, and a few days later he was signed by Torino, aged 37. He was confirmed with the granata also for the 2008–09 season, which he stated it would be his final one as a footballer. In May 2009 Corini confirmed his retirement as a player, after he failed to recover from a recurring Achilles tendon injury which forced him to have surgery, which caused him to miss the final part of the season which saw Torino being relegated to Serie B. He also stated his intention to try himself as a head coach in the next future. International career Corini became a regular also in the Italy national under-21 football team squad of the early 1990s, winning a UEFA European Under-21 Championship, and representing Italy in the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona. Despite his success for Italy at the youth levels and for various teams at club level, he has never been capped for the full national team in a career spanning almost two decades. However, he did receive call-ups during the 1992–93 season, and more recently in November 2002. Managerial career After announcing his retirement, Corini confirmed his interest in becoming a coach, being successively linked on a number of vacancies in the Italian football panorama. On 5 July 2010 Eugenio Corini was then unveiled as new head coach of Portosummaga, a newly promoted 2010–11 Serie B club; he agreed to become the club's new head coach despite not having the required coaching badges (he had only UEFA A License at the time of the appointment), so it was agreed that UEFA Pro graduate Salvatore Giunta would work alongside him. However, Corini unexpectedly left the club only twelve days later, together with director of football Giuseppe Magalini, due to disagreements with the board regarding the transfer market policy and the future plans for the team. On 27 November 2010 he was appointed head coach of Serie B club Crotone, replacing Leonardo Menichini. His experience with the Calabrian club turned out to be short-lived, as he was dismissed later on 20 February 2011 following a string of poor results that left Crotone in danger of relegation. From 30 November 2011 through the end of the season he coached Frosinone in Lega Pro Prima Divisione in place of the resigned Carlo Sabatini. On 2 October 2012 he was named new head coach of Chievo in place of Domenico Di Carlo, after the team suffered five consecutive defeats in the first six games of the season. Corini and Chievo parted ways on 29 May 2013 by mutual consent; only for Corini to return to Chievo 4 months later, appointed on 12 November 2013 to replace Giuseppe Sannino. He guided Chievo to maintain Serie A status by the end of the season and was thus confirmed as head coach, but was successively sacked on 19 October following a 0–3 defeat to Roma that left his club with four points in seven games. On 30 November 2016, Corini was appointed manager of Palermo. He resigned on 24 January 2017. On 4 February 2018, he was fired as manager of Novara. He returned into management on 18 September 2018, by being named new head coach of Brescia, his first club as a player, in place of David Suazo. He was sacked on 3 November 2019. He was rehired by Brescia on 2 December 2019. On 5 February 2020, he was dismissed by Brescia once more. He became head coach of Serie B club Lecce on 22 August 2020. After Lecce failed to gain promotion to Serie A at the end of the 2020–21 season by losing in the promotion play-offs, he was dismissed on 22 May 2021. Career statistics Club Reference: La Gazzetta dello Sport Managerial statistics Honours Player Palermo Serie B: 2003–04 Individual Serie A Top Assist-provider: 2001–02 (11 assists) Manager Brescia Serie B: 2018–19 References External links Player profile (from US Palermo official website) Living people 1970 births Sportspeople from the Province of Brescia Association football midfielders Italian footballers Italian football managers Brescia Calcio players Juventus F.C. players U.C. Sampdoria players S.S.C. Napoli players Piacenza Calcio 1919 players Hellas Verona F.C. players A.C. ChievoVerona players Palermo F.C. players Torino F.C. players F.C. Crotone managers Frosinone Calcio managers A.C. 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233027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic%20foot	Cubic foot	The cubic foot (symbol ft3 or cu ft) is an imperial and US customary (non-metric) unit of volume, used in the United States and the United Kingdom. It is defined as the volume of a cube with sides of one foot () in length. Its volume is (about of a cubic metre). At , a cubic foot of water weighs . Conversions Symbols and abbreviations The IEEE symbol for the cubic foot is ft3. The following abbreviations are used: cubicfeet, cubicfoot, cubicft, cufeet, cufoot, cuft, cu.ft, cuft, cbft, cb.ft, cbft, cbf, feet, foot, ft, feet/-3, foot/-3, ft/-3. Larger multiples are in common usage in commerce and industry in the USA: CCF or HCF: Centum (Latin hundred) cubic feet; i.e., Used in the billing of natural gas and water delivered to households. MCF: Mille (Latin thousand) cubic feet; i.e., MMCF: Mille mille cubic feet; i.e., MMCFD: MMCF per day; i.e., /d Used in the oil and gas industry. BCF or TMC: Billion or thousand million cubic feet; i.e., TMC is usually used for referring to storage capacity and actual storage volume of storage dams. TCF: Trillion cubic feet; i.e, Used in the oil and gas industry. Cubic foot per second and related flow rates The IEEE symbol for the cubic foot per second is ft3/s. The following other abbreviations are also sometimes used: ft3/sec cu ft/s cfs or CFS cusec second-feet The flow or discharge of rivers, i.e., the volume of water passing a location per unit of time, is commonly expressed in units of cubic feet per second or cubic metres per second. Cusec is a unit of flow rate, used mostly in the United States in the context of water flow, particularly of rivers and canals. Conversions: 1 ft3s−1 = 0.028316847 m3⋅s−1 = 28.316847 L⋅s−1 = 1.699 m3⋅min−1 = 1699 L⋅min−1 Cubic foot per minute The IEEE symbol for the cubic foot per minute is ft3/min. The following abbreviations are used: cu ft/min cfm or CFM cfpm or CFPM Cubic feet per minute is used to measure the amount of air that is being delivered, and is a common metric used for carburettors, pneumatic tools, and air-compressor systems. Standard cubic foot A standard cubic foot (abbreviated scf) is a measure of quantity of gas, sometimes defined in terms of standard temperature and pressure as a cubic foot of volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit () and 14.7 pounds per square inch (PSI) () of pressure. See also Board foot Conversion of units Cord (unit) Cube (arithmetic), cube root Cubic inch Cubic yard Orders of magnitude (volume) for a comparison with other volumes Orders of magnitude (one cubic millimetre to one cubic metre) Square foot Therm, a unit of natural gas approximately equal to 100 cubic feet Cubic metre per second References Units of volume Imperial units Customary units of measurement in the United States Units of flow Physical quantities ja:フィート#立方フィート	[ -0.27372777462005615, 0.4107118844985962, 0.013173376210033894, 0.013696606270968914, -0.11980972439050674, 0.5948540568351746, 0.36897045373916626, 0.48449501395225525, -0.14519180357456207, 0.07148808240890503, -0.27350595593452454, -0.16847556829452515, 0.17667417228221893, 0.8638533353805542, 0.6707372069358826, -0.1293453872203827, 0.5004518628120422, 0.4279661774635315, 0.3137723207473755, 0.0031584231182932854, -0.519145131111145, 0.18423642218112946, 0.36974549293518066, -0.7647511959075928, 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233031	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%20warbler	Wood warbler	The wood warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) is a common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds throughout northern and temperate Europe, and just into the extreme west of Asian Russia in the southern Ural Mountains. This warbler is strongly migratory and the entire population winters in tropical Africa. Name The genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific sibilatrix is Latin for "whistler". At the end of the nineteenth century the bird was also called "wood-wren". Habitat This is a bird of open but shady mature woodlands, such as beech and sessile oak, with some sparse ground cover for nesting. The dome-shaped nest is built near the ground in low shrub. 6 or 7 eggs are laid in May; there may be a second brood. Like most Old World warblers, this small passerine is insectivorous. The main nest predators of wood warblers breeding in the primeval habitat of Białowieża Forest, Poland, are mammals, especially medium-sized carnivores, which mostly predate nests at night using sound or olfaction. Therefore, nest survival declined with nest progression likely due to increased predator detection of older and louder chicks. Description The wood warbler is 11–12.5 cm long, and a typical leaf warbler in appearance, green above and white below with a lemon-yellow breast. It can be distinguished from similar species, like the chiffchaff P. collybita and the willow warbler, P. trochilus by its yellow supercilium, throat and upper breast, pale tertial edges, longer primary projection, and by its shorter but broader tail. It is a summer visitor to the United Kingdom, seen from April until August. It has declined there in recent years. It is rare in Ireland, where there is a very small but apparently stable breeding population in County Wicklow. Various factors associated with forest structure, including slope, forest cover, proportion of broad-leaf forest, canopy height and forest edge length, all influenced the occupancy rates of this declining forest species. Conservation measures are therefore required that provide and maintain the wood warblers preferred forest structure. There is also a preference for forest in the non-breeding season, however this habitat is declining in wintering areas such as Ghana. Despite the decline in forest habitats, there has been no change in number of wood warblers as it appears that this species can use degraded habitats, such as well-wooded farms. However, further loss of trees will likely have a negative impact on this species in the future. Songs It has two song types, often (but not always) given alternately; a high-pitched fluid metallic trill of increasing tempo lasting 2–3 seconds, and a series of 3 to 5 descending piping notes of lower pitch piüü-piüü-piüü. The contact call is a soft piping note, similar to the second song type, but shorter and given singly, "piü". References External links RSPB site description and song wood warbler Birds of Europe Birds of Russia Birds of Africa wood warbler wood warbler	[ -0.06753662973642349, 0.46574652194976807, -0.9250107407569885, -0.23455305397510529, 0.12204495817422867, 0.9558514952659607, 0.3098047077655792, 0.5388509631156921, -1.042656660079956, -0.16536420583724976, -0.4789172112941742, -0.2477056086063385, -0.4168024957180023, 0.01945205219089985, -0.3993820548057556, 0.9225835204124451, -0.0568121075630188, 0.35242196917533875, -0.007095398381352425, -0.4479679763317108, 0.2999371588230133, -0.7055039405822754, 0.8914535641670227, -0.07165706157684326, 0.3814135491847992, -0.007813651114702225, 0.2646702527999878, 0.3225967288017273, 0.10228613018989563, 0.03311462327837944, -0.3196728825569153, 0.7157747745513916, 0.538219690322876, -0.41379374265670776, 0.5395894050598145, -0.0024336602073162794, 0.20134809613227844, -0.49182361364364624, 0.3517662584781647, -0.7091665863990784, 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233033	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic%20yard	Cubic yard	A cubic yard (symbol yd3) is an Imperial / U.S. customary (non-SI non-metric) unit of volume, used in Canada and the United States. It is defined as the volume of a cube with sides of 1 yard (3 feet, 36 inches, 0.9144 meters) in length. Symbols and abbreviations The IEEE symbol for the cubic yard is yd³. The following abbreviations are used: cubic yards, cubic yard, cubic yds, cubic yd cu yards, cu yard, cu yds, cu yd, CYs yards/-3, yard/-3, yds/-3, yd/-3 yards^3, yard^3, yds^3, yd^3 yards³, yard³, yds³ Cubic yard per second One cubic yard per second (1 yd3/s) is a unit of volume flow rate. It corresponds to one cubic yard passing through a specified area every second. Cubic yard per minute One cubic yard per minute (1 yd3/min) is a unit of volume flow rate. It corresponds to one cubic yard passing through a specified area every minute. 1 yd3/s = 60 yd3/min Conversions See also cubic foot cubic inch Square yard Orders of magnitude (volume) Conversion of units Cube (arithmetic), cube root Cubic equation, cubic function References Units of volume Imperial units Customary units of measurement in the United States ja:ヤード#立方ヤード	[ 0.02441132627427578, 0.4335862398147583, -0.18678806722164154, 0.10905570536851883, -0.49266159534454346, 0.37531164288520813, 0.39421379566192627, -0.05052923783659935, -0.27192598581314087, -0.14183665812015533, -0.6206008791923523, -0.33840474486351013, 0.3171030580997467, 0.4976782202720642, 0.6489053964614868, 0.5309769511222839, 0.18717314302921295, 0.5117331147193909, -0.04299933463335037, -0.19990618526935577, -0.23681525886058807, -0.1599680483341217, -0.21622809767723083, -0.7329829335212708, 0.46979081630706787, -0.029657160863280296, 0.40848278999328613, -0.3359387516975403, 0.02670804038643837, 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233034	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasile%20Miriu%C8%9B%C4%83	Vasile Miriuță	Vasile Miriuță (born 19 September 1968) is a Romanian-born naturalized Hungarian football manager and former footballer. From December 2020, he was the head coach of Liga III side Minaur Baia Mare, until July 2021. From July 2021 he was enrolled as the technical director of the same team, Minaur. The midfielder played nine matches for the Hungarian national team, in which he scored one goal in a friendly on 21 August 2002 against Spain. Famous for his free kicks and tactical cleverness, he promoted in the Bundesliga with Energie Cottbus in 2000, but was released at the end of 2002 despite having been an important player for the club. Most of his time at MSV Duisburg he spent outside the starting eleven. Playing career Miriuță debuted as a player in 1988 for FCM Baia Mare. In 1990, he was signed by Dinamo București. At Dinamo, Miriuță became an undisputed regular, until new coach Florin Halagian allegedly told him that he's not going to play a single game in his term, prompting him to leave for Gloria Bistrița in 1991. After one season at Gloria, he returned at Dinamo. Hungary In 1992, tired with his status as a substitute at Dinamo, Miriuță signed with Hungarian side Győr. He soon became a popular figure among the supporters. In 1993, Miriuță was signed by French side Bourges, but returns to Győr after only one season. In 1996, Miriuță moved to Videoton, but after playing 4 games and scoring three goals for the Székesfehérvár club, he is signed by Ferencváros. After two years at Ferencváros, Miriuță signed with rivals Újpest, but didn't play on league games for the Purples. Energie Cottbus In 1998, Miriuța signed with 2. Bundesliga side Energie Cottbus. He soon became undisputed regular for the club and helped the team avoid relegation in the Regionalliga Nordost in his first season for the club. In 2000, Miriuță promoted in Bundesliga with Cottbus, and during their first season in the top tier became one of the regulars of the famous all-foreign line-up. He scored 12 goals in Bundesliga in the 2000–01 season and was voted into the Bundesliga Best XI. Despite this, Miriuță was released in 2002. Late career In 2002, he signed with 2. Bundesliga side MSV Duisburg, but was mostly used as a substitute. In 2003, Miriuță returned to Győr for the third time in his career, for a season. In 2004, he signed with Budapest Honvéd, but ended his contract following a dispute with the coach, then retired. International career In 2000, Miriuță received a phone call from a messenger of Prime Minister Viktor Orbán announcing him that he obtained Hungarian citizenship, for which he applied in 1994, and asking him to play for the national team. He made his debut for Hungary in a 1–0 friendly win over Macedonia. In three years playing for Hungary, Miriuță earned 9 caps and scored a goal in a 1–1 friendly draw against Spain. International goal Score and result list Hungary's goal tally first. Honours Manager Minaur Baia Mare Liga III: 2020–21 Managerial statistics References External links Profile at Fupa.net 1968 births Living people Sportspeople from Baia Mare Hungarian people of Romanian descent Hungarian footballers Association football midfielders Hungary international footballers Ferencvárosi TC footballers Újpest FC players Győri ETO FC players Budapest Honvéd FC players FC Dinamo București players CS Minaur Baia Mare (football) players ACF Gloria Bistrița players FC Energie Cottbus players MSV Duisburg players Bourges 18 players Liga I players Liga III players Nemzeti Bajnokság I players Ligue 2 players Bundesliga players 2. Bundesliga players Hungarian expatriate footballers Expatriate footballers in Germany Expatriate footballers in France Hungarian expatriate sportspeople in Germany Hungarian expatriate sportspeople in France Romanian expatriates in Germany Romanian expatriates in France Hungarian football managers Expatriate football managers in Germany 3. Liga managers CSM Ceahlăul Piatra Neamț managers CFR Cluj managers Győri ETO FC managers ASA 2013 Târgu Mureș managers FC Energie Cottbus managers CS Concordia Chiajna managers FC Dinamo București managers FC Hermannstadt managers Kisvárda FC managers CS Minaur Baia Mare (football) managers Nemzeti Bajnokság I managers	[ -0.04781676083803177, -0.08172619342803955, -0.3003213107585907, -0.36055508255958557, 0.21803994476795197, 0.8684519529342651, 0.454062283039093, -0.5428293347358704, -0.07495857030153275, 0.3750634789466858, -0.007080154959112406, 0.09938494116067886, -1.2042065858840942, 0.047827959060668945, 0.11323365569114685, 0.17923006415367126, -0.2656119465827942, 0.24305325746536255, 0.07057150453329086, -0.15130411088466644, -0.1749805212020874, 0.04304906353354454, 0.5951064229011536, -0.2262565791606903, -0.871481716632843, 0.41421380639076233, 0.026561830192804337, 0.8725441098213196, -1.0221236944198608, -0.24324950575828552, 0.258747398853302, 0.9681602716445923, 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233038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Tianguifu	Hong Tianguifu	Hong Tianguifu (23 November 1849 – 18 November 1864) was the second and last king of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He is popularly referred to as the Junior Lord (). Officially, like his father Hong Xiuquan, he was the King of Heaven (). To differentiate, he is also called the Junior King of Heaven (). History Hong succeeded his father at fourteen and was not respected like his father by the princes, and he was spoken of poorly. Li Xiucheng wrote in his autobiography, which was written shortly before Li's execution, Hong Tianguifu was described as "inexperienced", "spoiled" and "incapable". Also, Hong Tianguifu never rode a horse, which was essential for leaders and commanders in wars. Four months after his coronation, Tianjing, the capital of Taiping rebels, was captured by the Qing dynasty. Hong Tianguifu escaped to Dongba (), Jiangsu in July 1864, rendezvoused with his uncle, Hong Rengan. After going to Guangde County, Anhui first, they went to the town of Huzhou, Zhejiang on 13 August 1864 to rendezvous with the local Taiping Army commander Huang Wenjin (). The Qing dynasty sent Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang to attack the city, and Chen Xueming (), the Taiping army commander in charge of defending the southern gate of the town, surrendered on 26 August 1864. Hong Tianguifu, Hong Rengan and Huang Wenjin were forced to flee from the town next day, under the cover of night, and Huang Wenjin soon died of his wounds. The rest of the survivors attempted to escape to the border region of Jiangxi, Guangdong and Fujian to join the remnant Taiping forces led by Li Shixian, but on 9 October 1864, they were ambushed by the Qing army at Shicheng. Hong Rengan was captured and subsequently executed on 23 November 1864 at Nanchang, Jiangxi. Hong Tianguifu escaped to the mountains near Shicheng after his token force was wiped out, but he was caught on 25 October 1864 by Qing soldiers searching for him. On the way to the escort, Hong Tianguifu and a Qing army soldier named Tang Jiatong had a conversation. Hong Tianguifu first talked about his relationship with his father Hong Xiuquan and others. He said that the old things of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were done by his father and Hong Renxuan. "It has nothing to do with me, even after stepping on the road, I did nothing that is unfavorable to the Qing dynasty, those who resisted the Qing Empire were shattered by the king, Zhongwang and others." however, after the second day of writing a poem of praise to the Qing dynasty, he was subsequently executed by slow slicing on 18 November 1864 at the age of 14. A glimpse of Hong Tianguifu's character can be seen by his remarks before his execution: "Guangdong is not a nice place, I do not want to go back in. I just want to study with Old Master Tang in Hunan, and I should be a great scholar, I want to be a good scholar". ("廣東地方不好，我也不愿回去了，我衹愿跟唐老爺到湖南讀書，想進秀才。") This apparently innocent, pointless and irrelevant comment was considered by some as a desperate and futile attempt to avoid death by confusing the executioner of his identity. It may also have reflected his utter lack of understanding of what was happening to him, and to his lost kingdom. Despite the short time he was a king, he was issued an official jade seal (玉璽 yù xǐ), which is an exhibit in the Hong Kong Museum of History (). Hong Tianguifu's name is unusual in that it contains a three-character given name whereas almost all Chinese given names have just one or two characters. Bibliography Mark Juergensmeye & Wade Clark Roof, Taiping Rebellion, in Encyclopedia of Global Religion, Volume 1, SAGE, 2012, pp. 1257. Nick Shepley, Sun Yat Sen and the birth of modern China: 20th Century China: Volume One, AUK Academic, 2013. James Z. Gao, Taiping Rebellion, in Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949), Scarecrow Press, 209, pp. 350–352. Notes References Heavenly kings of Taiping People from Huadu District 1849 births 1864 deaths Executed people from Guangdong People executed by the Qing dynasty People executed by flaying Hakka people Executed Taiping Heavenly Kingdom people Child soldiers Executed children	[ -0.24822592735290527, 0.4295118451118469, -0.005605036858469248, 0.17810189723968506, -0.35158252716064453, 0.8011332750320435, 0.4782550036907196, -0.12844596803188324, -0.3407990336418152, -0.41425636410713196, -0.3152267038822174, -0.23776662349700928, -0.08149582892656326, 0.3660881221294403, -0.8579666614532471, 0.09317320585250854, 0.8629559874534607, 0.13320089876651764, -0.6014379858970642, -0.2686585783958435, -0.2017204910516739, 0.009460479952394962, -0.09857799112796783, 0.03869432955980301, 0.4349215626716614, 0.13813288509845734, 0.26281872391700745, 0.06014981493353844, 0.46003109216690063, -0.2647968530654907, -0.12309585511684418, 0.08511967957019806, 0.04662527143955231, 0.15991652011871338, 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233039	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Revolutionary%20Wars	French Revolutionary Wars	The French Revolutionary Wars () were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered territories in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Rhineland in Europe and abandoned Louisiana in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. As early as 1791, the other monarchies of Europe looked with outrage at the revolution and its upheavals; and they considered whether they should intervene, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France. Austria stationed significant troops on its French border and together with Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which threatened severe consequences should anything happen to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie-Antoinette. After Austria refused to recall its troops from the French border and to back down on the perceived threat of using force, France declared war on Austria and Prussia in the spring of 1792; both countries responded with a coordinated invasion that was eventually turned back at the Battle of Valmy in September. This victory emboldened the National Convention to abolish the monarchy. A series of victories by the new French armies abruptly ended with defeat at Neerwinden in the spring of 1793. The French suffered additional defeats in the remainder of the year and these difficult times allowed the Jacobins to rise to power and impose the Reign of Terror to unify the nation. In 1794, the situation improved dramatically for the French as huge victories at Fleurus against the Austrians and at the Black Mountain against the Spanish signaled the start of a new stage in the wars. By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. The French also put Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general named Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic. The War of the Second Coalition began in 1798 with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they gradually pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland – racking up victories at Magnano, Cassano and Novi along the way. However, their efforts largely unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, which caused Russia to drop out of the war. Meanwhile, Napoleon's forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor and Abukir. These victories in Egypt further enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France, and he returned in triumph in the fall of 1799, though the Egyptian Campaign ultimately ended in failure. Furthermore, the Royal Navy had won the Battle of the Nile in 1798, further strengthening British control of the Mediterranean and weakening the French Navy. Napoleon's arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This brought a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, Britain found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. However, the lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, and the Napoleonic Wars began over a year later with the formation of the Third Coalition, continuing the series of Coalition Wars. War of the First Coalition 1791–1792 The key figure in initial foreign reaction to the revolution was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of Louis XVI's Queen Marie Antoinette. Leopold had initially looked on the Revolution with equanimity, but became more and more disturbed as the Revolution became more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war. On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with emigrant French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe in the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a non-committal gesture to placate the sentiments of French monarchists and nobles, it was seen in France as a serious threat and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders. France eventually issued an ultimatum demanding that the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria under Leopold II, who was also Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, renounce any hostile alliances and withdraw its troops from the French border. The reply was evasive, and the French Assembly voted for war on 20 April 1792 against Francis II (who succeeded Leopold II), after a long list of grievances presented by foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez. Dumouriez prepared an immediate invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule as they had earlier in 1790. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the army, and the forces raised were insufficient for the invasion. Following the declaration of war, French soldiers deserted en masse and in one case murdered their general, Théobald Dillon. While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, a mostly Prussian Allied army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine. The duke then issued a proclamation called the Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792), written by the French king's cousin, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, the leader of an émigré corps within the Allied army, which declared the Allies' intent to restore the king to his full powers and to treat any person or town who opposed them as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law. This, however, had the effect of strengthening the resolve of the revolutionary army and government to oppose them by any means necessary. On 10 August, a crowd stormed the Tuileries Palace, seizing the king and his family. On 19 August 1792, the invasion by Brunswick's army commenced, with Brunswick's army easily taking the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. The invasion continued, but at Valmy on 20 September, the invaders came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it gave a great boost to French morale. Further, the Prussians, finding that the campaign had been longer and more costly than predicted, decided that the cost and risk of continued fighting was too great and, with winter approaching, they decided to retreat from France to preserve their army. The next day, the monarchy was formally abolished as the First Republic was declared (21 September 1792). Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying Savoy and Nice, which were parts of the Kingdom of Sardinia, while General Custine invaded Germany, occupying several German towns along the Rhine and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter. 1793 Spain and Portugal entered the anti-French coalition in January 1793. Britain began military preparations in late 1792 and declared that war was inevitable unless France gave up its conquests, notwithstanding French assurances they would not attack Holland or annex the Low Countries. Britain expelled the French ambassador following the execution of Louis XVI and on 1 February France responded by declaring war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. France drafted hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a policy of using mass conscription to deploy more of its manpower than the autocratic states could manage to do (first stage, with a decree of 24 February 1793 ordering the draft of 300,000 men, followed by the general mobilization of all the young men able to be drafted, through the famous decree of 23 August 1793). Nonetheless, the Coalition allies launched a determined drive to invade France during the Flanders Campaign. France suffered severe reverses at first. They were driven out of the Austrian Netherlands, and serious revolts flared in the west and south of France. One of these, at Toulon, was the first serious taste of action for an unknown young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed to the siege of the city and its harbor by planning an effective assault with well-placed artillery batteries raining projectiles down on rebel positions. This performance helped make his reputation as a capable tactician, and it fueled his meteoric rise to military and political power. Once the city was occupied, he participated in pacifying the rebelling citizens of Toulon with the same artillery that he first used to conquer the city. By the end of the year, large new armies had turned back foreign invaders, and the Reign of Terror, a fierce policy of repression, had suppressed internal revolts. The French military was in the ascendant. Lazare Carnot, a scientist and prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the fourteen armies of the Republic, and was then nicknamed the Organizer of the Victory. 1794 The year 1794 brought increased success to the French armies. On the Alpine frontier, there was little change, with the French invasion of Piedmont failing. On the Spanish border, the French under General Dugommier rallied from their defensive positions at Bayonne and Perpignan, driving the Spanish out of Roussillon and invading Catalonia. Dugommier was killed in the Battle of the Black Mountain in November. On the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and French both prepared offensives in Belgium, with the Austrians besieging Landrecies and advancing towards Mons and Maubeuge. The French prepared an offensive on multiple fronts, with two armies in Flanders under Pichegru and Moreau, and Jourdan attacking from the German border. The French withstood several damaging but inconclusive actions before regaining the initiative at the battles of Tourcoing and Fleurus in June. The French armies drove the Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond the Rhine, occupying Belgium, the Rhineland, and the south of the Netherlands. On the middle Rhine front in July, General Michaud's Army of the Rhine attempted two offensives in July in the Vosges, the second of which was successful but not followed up, allowing for a Prussian counter-attack in September. Otherwise this sector of the front was largely quiet over the course of the year. At sea, the French Atlantic Fleet succeeded in holding off a British attempt to interdict a vital cereal convoy from the United States on the Glorious First of June, though at the cost of one quarter of its strength. In the Caribbean, the British fleet landed in Martinique in February, taking the whole island by 24 March and holding it until the Treaty of Amiens, and in Guadeloupe in April, where they captured the island briefly but were driven out by Victor Hugues later in the year. In the Mediterranean, following the British evacuation of Toulon, the Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli agreed with admiral Samuel Hood to place Corsica under British protection in return for assistance capturing French garrisons at Saint-Florent, Bastia, and Calvi, creating the short-lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. By the end of the year French armies had won victories on all fronts, and as the year closed they began advancing into the Netherlands. 1795 The year opened with French forces in the process of attacking the Dutch Republic in the middle of winter. The Dutch people rallied to the French call and started the Batavian Revolution. City after city was occupied by the French. The Dutch fleet was captured, and the stadtholder William V fled to be replaced by a popular Batavian Republic, a sister republic which supported the revolutionary cause and signed a treaty with the French, ceding the territories of North Brabant and Maastricht to France on 16 May. With the Netherlands falling, Prussia also decided to leave the coalition, signing the Peace of Basel on 6 April, ceding the west bank of the Rhine to France. This freed Prussia to finish the occupation of Poland. The French army in Spain advanced in Catalonia while taking Bilbao and Vitoria and marching toward Castile. By 10 July, Spain also decided to make peace, recognizing the revolutionary government and ceding the territory of Santo Domingo, but returning to the pre-war borders in Europe. This left the armies on the Pyrenees free to march east and reinforce the armies on the Alps, and the combined army overran Piedmont. Meanwhile, Britain's attempt to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée by landing troops at Quiberon failed, and a conspiracy to overthrow the republican government from within ended when Napoleon Bonaparte's garrison used cannon to fire grapeshot into the attacking mob (which led to the establishment of the Directory). On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan. This was a moderate setback to the position of the French. In northern Italy, victory at the Battle of Loano in November gave France access to the Italian peninsula. 1796 The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan and Moreau on the Rhine, and Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies were to link up in Tyrol and march on Vienna. Jourdan and Moreau advanced rapidly into Germany, and Moreau had reached Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by September, but Jourdan was defeated by Archduke Charles, and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine. Napoleon, on the other hand, was completely successful in a daring invasion of Italy. He left Paris on 11 March for Nice to take over the weak and poorly supplied Army of Italy, arriving on 26 March. The army was already being reorganised and supplied when he arrived, and he found that the situation was rapidly improving. He was soon able to carry out the plan for the invasion of Italy that he had been advocating for years, which provided for an advance over the Apennines near Altare to attack the enemy position of Ceva. The Montenotte Campaign opened after Johann Beaulieu's Austrian forces attacked the extreme French eastern flank near Genoa on 10 April. Bonaparte countered by attacking and crushing the isolated right wing of the allied armies at the Battle of Montenotte on 12 April. The next day he defeated an Austro-Sardinian force at the Battle of Millesimo. He then won a victory at the Second Battle of Dego, driving the Austrians northeast, away from their Piedmontese allies. Satisfied that the Austrians were temporarily inert, Bonaparte harried Michelangelo Colli's Piedmontese at Ceva and San Michele Mondovi before whipping them at the Battle of Mondovì. A week later, on 28 April, the Piedmontese signed an armistice at Cherasco, withdrawing from the hostilities. On 18 May they signed a peace treaty at Paris, ceding Savoy and Nice and allowing the French bases to be used against Austria. After a short pause, Napoleon carried out a brilliant flanking manoeuvre, and crossed the Po at Piacenza, nearly cutting the Austrian line of retreat. The Austrians escaped after the Battle of Fombio, but had their rear-guard mauled at Lodi on 10 May, after which the French took Milan. Bonaparte then advanced eastwards again, drove off the Austrians in the Battle of Borghetto and in June began the Siege of Mantua. Mantua was the strongest Austrian base in Italy. Meanwhile, the Austrians retreated north into the foothills of the Tyrol. During July and August, Austria sent a fresh army into Italy under Dagobert Wurmser. Wurmser attacked toward Mantua along the east side of Lake Garda, sending Peter Quasdanovich down the west side in an effort to envelop Bonaparte. Bonaparte exploited the Austrian mistake of dividing their forces to defeat them in detail, but in so doing, he abandoned the siege of Mantua, which held out for another six months (Carl von Clauswitz mentioned in On War that the siege might have been able to be kept up if Bonaparte had circumvallated the city). Quasdanovich was overcome at Lonato on 3 August and Wurmser at Castiglione on 5 August. Wurmser retreated to the Tyrol, and Bonaparte resumed the siege. In September, Bonaparte marched north against Trento in Tyrol, but Wurmser had already marched toward Mantua by the Brenta valley, leaving Paul Davidovich's force to hold off the French. Bonaparte overran the holding force at the Battle of Rovereto. Then he followed Wurmser down the Brenta valley, to fall upon and defeat the Austrians at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Wurmser elected to march for Mantua with a large portion of his surviving troops. The Austrians evaded Bonaparte's attempts to intercept them but were driven into the city after a pitched battle on 15 September. This left nearly 30,000 Austrians trapped in the fortress. This number rapidly diminished due to disease, combat losses, and hunger. The Austrians sent yet another army under József Alvinczi against Bonaparte in November. Again the Austrians divided their effort, sending Davidovich's corps from the north while Alvinczi's main body attacked from the east. At first they proved victorious over the French at Bassano, Calliano, and Caldiero. But Bonaparte ultimately defeated Alvinczi in the Battle of Arcole southeast of Verona. The French then turned on Davidovich in great strength and chased him into the Tyrol. Wurmser's only sortie was late and ineffectual. The rebellion in the Vendée was also finally crushed in 1796 by Hoche, but Hoche's attempt to land a large invasion force in Ireland was unsuccessful. 1797 On 14 February, British admiral Jervis met and defeated a Spanish fleet off Portugal at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent. This prevented the Spanish fleet from rendezvousing with the French, removing a threat of invasion to Britain. However, the British fleet was weakened over the rest of the year by the Spithead and Nore mutinies, which kept many ships in port through the summer. On 22 February French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from the La Legion Noire (The Black Legion) under the command of Irish American Colonel William Tate landed near Fishguard (Wales). They were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 British reservists, militia and sailors under the command of John Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor. After brief clashes with the local civilian population and Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into an unconditional surrender by 24 February. In Italy, Napoleon's armies were laying siege to Mantua at the beginning of the year, and a second attempt by Austrians under Joseph Alvinczy to raise the siege was driven off at the Battle of Rivoli, where the French scored a decisive victory. Finally, on 2 February, Wurmser surrendered Mantua and 18,000 troops. The Papal forces sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino on 19 February. Napoleon was now free to attack the Austrian heartland. He advanced directly toward Austria over the Julian Alps, sending Barthélemy Joubert to invade the Tyrol. Archduke Charles of Austria hurried from the German front to defend Austria, but he was defeated at the Tagliamento on 16 March, and Napoleon proceeded into Austria, occupying Klagenfurt and preparing for a rendezvous with Joubert in front of Vienna. In Germany, the armies of Hoche and Moreau crossed the Rhine again in April after the previous year's failure. The victories of Napoleon had frightened the Austrians into making peace, and they concluded the Peace of Leoben in April, ending hostilities. However, his absence from Italy had allowed the outbreak of the revolt known as the Veronese Easters on 17 April, which was put down eight days later. Although Britain remained at war with France, this effectively ended the First Coalition. Austria later signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, ceding the Austrian Netherlands to France and recognizing the French border at the Rhine. Austria and France also partitioned Venice between them. 1798 With only Britain left to fight and not enough of a navy to fight a direct war, Napoleon conceived of an invasion of Egypt in 1798, which satisfied his personal desire for glory and the Directory's desire to have him far from Paris. The military objective of the expedition is not entirely clear, but may have been to threaten British dominance in India. Napoleon sailed from Toulon to Alexandria, taking Malta on the way, and landing in June. Marching to Cairo, he won a great victory at the Battle of the Pyramids; however, his fleet was sunk by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, stranding him in Egypt. Napoleon spent the remainder of the year consolidating his position in Egypt. The French government also took advantage of internal strife in Switzerland to invade, establishing the Helvetic Republic and annexing Geneva. French troops also deposed Pope Pius VI, establishing a republic in Rome. An expeditionary force was sent to County Mayo, in Ireland, to assist in the rebellion against Britain in the summer of 1798. It had some success against British forces, most notably at Castlebar, but was ultimately routed while trying to reach Dublin. French ships sent to assist them were captured by the Royal Navy off County Donegal. The French were also under pressure in the Southern Netherlands and Luxembourg where the local people revolted against conscription and anti-religious violence (Peasants' War). The French had taken this territory in 1794, but it was officially theirs in 1797 due to a treaty with Austria. The French forces easily handled the Peasants' rebellion in the Southern Netherlands, and were able to put down the revolting forces in under 2 months. The French in 1798 fought an undeclared war at sea against the United States, that was known variously as the "Quasi-War", the "Half War" and the "Pirate Wars". It was resolved peaceably with the Convention of 1800. War of the Second Coalition Britain and Austria organized a new coalition against France in 1798, including for the first time the Russian Empire, although no action occurred until 1799 except against the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 1799 In Egypt, Napoleon had consolidated his control of the country for the time being. Soon after the beginning of the year, he mounted an invasion of Syria, capturing El Arish and Jaffa. On 17 March, he laid siege to Acre, and defeated an Ottoman effort to relieve the city at the Battle of Mount Tabor on 17 April. However, his repeated assaults on Acre were driven back by Ottoman and British forces under the command of Jezzar Pasha and Sir Sidney Smith. By May, with plague rampant in his army and no sign of success against the city, Napoleon was forced to retreat into Egypt. In July, Turkey, with the help of the British navy, mounted an invasion by sea from Rhodes. Napoleon attacked the Turkish beachheads and scored a crushing victory at the Battle of Abukir, capturing and killing the entire enemy army. In August, Napoleon decided to return to Europe, hearing of the political and military crisis in France. Leaving his army behind with Kléber in command, he sailed through the British blockade to return to Paris and resolved to take control of the government there in a coup. In Europe, the French Army of Observation, organized with 30,000 men in four divisions, crossed the Rhine at Kehl and Basel in March 1799. The following day, it was renamed the Army of the Danube. Under command of Jourdan, the army advanced in four columns through the Black Forest. First Division, the right wing, assembled at Hüningen, crossed at Basel and advanced eastward along the north shore of the Rhine toward Lake Constance. Masséna, commanding the Army of Switzerland, sent a Demi-brigade to secure the Swiss town of Schaffhausen, on the north shore of the Rhine, which guaranteed communications between the two forces. The Advanced Guard crossed at Kehl, and Vandamme led it north-east through the mountains via Freudenstadt. This column eventually became the left flank. It was followed across the Rhine, also at Kehl, by the II. Division. The Third Division and the Reserve also crossed at Kehl, and then divided into two columns, III. Division traveling through the Black Forest via Oberkirch, and the Reserve, with most of the artillery and horse, by the valley at Freiburg im Breisgau, where they would find more forage, and then over the mountains past the Titisee to Löffingen and Hüfingen. The major part of the imperial army, under command of the Archduke Charles, had wintered immediately east of the Lech, which Jourdan knew, because he had sent agents into Germany with instructions to identify the location and strength of his enemy. This was less than distant; any passage over the Lech was facilitated by available bridges, both of permanent construction and temporary pontoons and a traverse through friendly territory. In March 1799, the Army of the Danube engaged in two major battles, both in the southwestern German theater. At the intensely fought Battle of Ostrach, 21–2 March 1799, the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition, Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, defeated Jourdan's Army of the Danube. The French suffered significant losses and were forced to retreat from the region, taking up new positions to the west at Meßkirch (Messkirch, Mößkirch), and then at Stockach and Engen. At the second battle, in Stockach, on 27 March 1799, the Austrian army achieved a decisive victory over the French forces, and again pushed the French army west. Jourdan instructed his generals to take up positions in the Black Forest, and he himself established a base at Hornberg. From there, General Jourdan relegated command of the army to his chief of staff, Jean Augustin Ernouf, and traveled to Paris to ask for more and better troops and, ultimately, to request a medical leave. The Army was reorganized, and a portion placed under the command of André Masséna and merged with the Army of Helvetia. Following the reorganization and change in command, the Army participated in several skirmishes and actions on the eastern part of the Swiss Plateau, including the Battle of Winterthur. After this action, three forces of the imperial army united north of Zürich, completing a partial encirclement of Massena's combined Army of the Danube and Army of Switzerland. A few days later, at the First Battle of Zurich, Massena was forced west, across the Limmat. In late summer, 1799, Charles was ordered to support imperial activities in the middle Rhineland; he withdrew north across the Rhine, and marched toward Mannheim, leaving Zürich and northern Switzerland in the hands of the inexperienced Alexander Korsakov and 25,000 Russian troops. Although the highly capable Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze remained in support, his 15,000 men were not able to counter Korsakov's poor defensive arrangements. Three weeks later, at the Second Battle of Zurich, the Russian force was annihilated, and Hotze was killed south of Zürich. This left Massena in control of northern Switzerland, and forced Suvorov into an arduous three-week march into the Vorarlberg, where his troops arrived, starving and exhausted, in mid-October. Napoleon himself invaded Syria from Egypt, but after a failed siege of Acre retreated to Egypt, repelling a British-Turkish invasion. Alerted to the political and military crisis in France, he returned, leaving his army behind, and used his popularity and army support to mount a coup that made him First Consul, the head of the French government. 1800 In Italy, the Austrians under General Melas attacked first, and by the third week in April had advanced to the Var, with Massena and half his army in Genoa besieged by land, by the Austrians and under tight blockade by the Royal Navy. In response Berthier moved – not to the threatened frontier, but to Geneva – and Massena was instructed to hold Genoa until 4 June. The Army of the Reserve was joined by Napoleon, and in mid-May set out to cross the Alps to attack the Austrian rear. The bulk of the army crossed by the Great St Bernard Pass, still under snow, and by 24 May 40,000 troops were in the valley of the Po. Artillery was man-hauled over with great effort and ingenuity; however an Austrian-held fort on the Italian side (although bypassed by infantry and cavalry) prevented most of the artillery reaching the plains of Northern Italy until the start of June. Once over the Alps, Napoleon did not proceed directly to the relief of Genoa. Instead, he advanced on Milan, to improve his lines of communication (via the Simplon and St Gotthard passes) and to threaten Melas's lines of communication with Mantua and Vienna, in the belief that this would cause Melas to raise the siege of Genoa. He entered Milan on 2 June and by crossing to the South bank of the Po completely cut Melas's communications. Taking up a strong defensive position at Stradella, he confidently awaited an attempt by the Austrian Army to fight its way out. However, Melas had not raised the siege of Genoa, and on 4 June, Masséna had duly capitulated. Napoleon then faced the possibility that, thanks to the British command of the Mediterranean, far from falling back, the Austrians could instead take Genoa as their new base and be supplied by sea. His defensive posture would not prevent this; he had to find and attack the Austrians before they could regroup. He therefore advanced from Stradella towards Alessandria, where Melas was, apparently doing nothing. Convinced that Melas was about to retreat, Napoleon sent strong detachments to block Melas's routes northwards to the Po, and southwards to Genoa. At this point, Melas attacked, and for all the brilliance of the previous campaign, Napoleon found himself at a significant disadvantage in the consequent Battle of Marengo (14 June). Napoleon and the French came under huge pressure in the early hours of the battle. Melas believed he had already won and turned over delivery of the final blow to a subordinate. Suddenly, the prompt return of a detached French force under Desaix and a vigorous French counter-attack converted the battle into a decisive French victory. The Austrians lost half of their army, but Desaix was one of the French victims. Melas promptly entered into negotiations, which led to the Austrians evacuating Northern Italy west of the Ticino and suspending military operations in Italy. Napoleon returned to Paris after the victory, leaving Brune to consolidate in Italy and begin a march toward Austria. In the German theater, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine at the beginning of 1800. Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. In addition to his Austrian regulars, his force included 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz, and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these, 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance (Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a day's march from French-held Switzerland. General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a modestly-equipped army of 137,000 French troops. Of these, 108,000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29,000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, but Moreau declined to follow it. Rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west. Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbe's corps to be detached to Italy after the initial battles, but Moreau had other plans. Through a series of complicated maneuvers in which he flanked, double flanked, and reflanked Kray's army, Moreau's army lay on the eastern slope of the Black Forest, while portions of Kray's army was still guarded the passes on the other side. On 3 May 1800 Moreau and Kray fought battles at Engen and Stockach. The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides. However, while the two main armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under Joseph, Prince of Lorraine-Vaudemont. The loss of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to order a retreat to Meßkirch, where they enjoyed a more favourable defensive position. However, it also meant that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off. On 4 and 5 May, the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Meßkirch. At nearby Krumbach, where the Austrians also had the superiority of position and force, the 1st Demi-Brigade took the village and the heights around it, which gave them a commanding aspect over Meßkirch. Subsequently, Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen, followed closely by the French. Fighting at nearby Biberach an der Ris ensued on 9 May; action principally consisted of the 25,000-man-strong French "Center", commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr. After being flanked by General Moreau, who approached Ulm from the east and overwhelmed his outposts at Battle of Höchstädt, Kray retreated to Munich. Again, on 10 May, the Austrians withdrew with heavy losses, this time to Ulm. A several month armistice followed, during which Kray was replaced by the Archduke John, with the Austrian army retiring behind the river Inn. Austrian reluctance to accept negotiated terms caused the French to end the armistice in mid-November, effective in two weeks. When the armistice ended, John advanced over the Inn towards Munich. His army was defeated in small engagements at the battles of Ampfing and Neuburg an der Donau, and decisively in the forests before the city at Hohenlinden on 3 December. Moreau began a march on Vienna, and the Austrians soon sued for peace, ending the war on the continent. 1801 By 9 February, the Austrians had signed the Treaty of Lunéville, ending the war on the continent. The war against the United Kingdom continued (with Neapolitan harbours closed to her by the Treaty of Florence, signed on 28 March), and the Turks invaded Egypt in March, losing to Kléber at Heliopolis. The exhausted French force in Egypt, however, surrendered in August. The naval war also continued, with the United Kingdom maintaining a blockade of France by sea. Non-combatants Russia, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden joined to protect neutral shipping from British attacks, but were unsuccessful. British Admiral Horatio Nelson defied orders and attacked the Danish fleet in harbor at the Battle of Copenhagen, destroying much of it. An armistice prevented him from continuing into the Baltic Sea to attack the Russian fleet at Reval (Tallinn). Meanwhile, off Gibraltar, the outnumbered French squadron under Linois rebuffed a first British attack under Saumarez in the First Battle of Algeciras, capturing a line-of-battle ship. In the Second Battle of Algeciras, four days later, the British captured a French ship and sank two others, killing around 2000 French for the loss of 12 British. 1802 In 1802, the British and French signed the Treaty of Amiens, ending the war. The peace held for less than a year but still constituted the longest period of peace between the two countries during the period 1793–1815. The treaty is generally considered to be the most appropriate point to mark the transition between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, although Napoleon was not crowned emperor until 1804. Influence The French Revolution transformed nearly all aspects of French and European life. The powerful sociopolitical forces unleashed by a people seeking liberté, égalité, and fraternité made certain that even warfare was not spared this upheaval. 18th-century armies – with their rigid protocols, static operational strategy, unenthusiastic soldiers, and aristocratic officer classes – underwent massive remodeling as the French monarchy and nobility gave way to liberal assemblies obsessed with external threats. The fundamental shifts in warfare that occurred during the period have prompted scholars to identify the era as the beginning of "modern war". In 1791 the Legislative Assembly passed the "Drill-Book" legislation, implementing a series of infantry doctrines created by French theorists because of their defeat by the Prussians in the Seven Years' War. The new developments hoped to exploit the intrinsic bravery of the French soldier, made even more powerful by the explosive nationalist forces of the Revolution. The changes also placed a faith on the ordinary soldier that would be completely unacceptable in earlier times; French troops were expected to harass the enemy and remain loyal enough to not desert, a benefit other Ancien Régime armies did not have. Following the declaration of war in 1792, an imposing array of enemies converging on French borders prompted the government in Paris to adopt radical measures. 23 August 1793, would become a historic day in military history; on that date the National Convention called a levée en masse, or mass conscription, for the first time in human history. By summer of the following year, conscription made some 500,000 men available for service and the French began to deal blows to their European enemies. Armies during the Revolution became noticeably larger than their Holy Roman counterparts, and combined with the new enthusiasm of the troops, the tactical and strategic opportunities became profound. By 1797 the French had defeated the First Coalition, occupied the Low Countries, the west bank of the Rhine, and Northern Italy, objectives which had defied the Valois and Bourbon dynasties for centuries. Unsatisfied with the results, many European powers formed a Second Coalition, but by 1801 this too had been decisively beaten. Another key aspect of French success was the changes wrought in the officer classes. Traditionally, European armies left major command positions to those who could be trusted, namely, the aristocracy. The hectic nature of the French Revolution, however, tore apart France's old army, meaning new men were required to become officers and commanders. In addition to opening a flood of tactical and strategic opportunities, the Revolutionary Wars also laid the foundation for modern military theory. Later authors that wrote about "nations in arms" drew inspiration from the French Revolution, in which dire circumstances seemingly mobilized the entire French nation for war and incorporated nationalism into the fabric of military history. Although the reality of war in the France of 1795 would be different from that in the France of 1915, conceptions and mentalities of war evolved significantly. Clausewitz correctly analyzed the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras to give posterity a thorough and complete theory of war that emphasized struggles between nations occurring everywhere, from the battlefield to the legislative assemblies, and to the very way that people think. War now emerged as a vast panorama of physical and psychological forces heading for victory or defeat. See also Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleonic Wars Military history of France Footnotes Notes References Further reading Blaufarb, Rafe. The French army 1750–1820: Careers, talent, merit (Manchester University Press, 2021). Bell, David A. The first total war: Napoleon's Europe and the birth of warfare as we know it (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014). Bertaud, Jean-Paul. The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power (1988), a major French study Black, Jeremy. British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783–93 (1994) Blanning, T. C. W. The French Revolutionary Wars, 1787–1801. (1996) excerpt and text search Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 1793–1802 (1942); on Britain Bryant, Arthur. Years of victory, 1802–1812 (1942); on Britain Clausewitz, Carl von (2018). Napoleon's 1796 Italian Campaign. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. Connelly, Owen. The wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon, 1792–1815 (2006) Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 9: War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793–1830 (1965), comprehensive global coverage by experts Doughty, Robert, and Ira D. Gruber, eds. Warfare in the Western World: volume 1: Military operations from 1600 to 1871 (1996) pp. 173–94 Dupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed. 1970) pp. 678–93 Esdaile, Charles. The French Wars 1792–1815 (2002) 113pp excerpt and text search, ch 1 Forrest, Alan. Soldiers of the French Revolution (1989) Forrest, Alan. "French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)" in Gordon Martel, ed. The Encyclopedia of War (2012). Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society During the Revolution and Empire (1989) Forrest, Alan. Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire (2002) Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The French Revolutionary Wars (Essential Histories) (2013) excerpt and text search Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, ed. The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History (3 vol. 2006) Gardiner, Robert. Fleet Battle And Blockade: The French Revolutionary War 1793–1797 (2006), naval excerpt and text search Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France, 1789–1802 (1998) excerpt and text search; military topics, but not a battle history Knight, Roger. Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 1793–1815 (2013) Lavery, Brian. Nelson's Navy, Revised and Updated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815 (2nd ed. 2012) Lefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799 (1964). Lynn, John A. The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation And Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94 (1984) Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon (2014), a major biography Rodger, A.B. The War of the Second Coalition: 1798 to 1801, a strategic commentary (1964) Ross, Steven T. Quest for Victory; French Military Strategy, 1792–1799 (1973) Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969) Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1988) 18#4 pp. 771–93 in JSTOR Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (Oxford University Press, 1996); advanced diplomatic history; pp. 100–230 Schneid, Frederick C.: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011. Scott, Samuel F. From Yorktown to Valmy: The Transformation of the French Army in an Age of Revolution (University Press of Colorado, 1998) Historiography and memory Forrest, Alan. The Legacy of the French Revolutionary Wars: The Nation-in-Arms in French Republican Memory (Cambridge University Press, 2009) Rothenberg, Gunther E. "Soldiers and the Revolution: the French army, society, and the state, 1788-99." Historical Journal 32.4 (1989): 981–995. online Simms, Brendan. "Britain and Napoleon," Historical Journal (1998) 41#3 pp. 885–94 in JSTOR In French Attar, Frank, La Révolution française déclare la guerre à l'Europe. Attar, Frank, Aux armes citoyens ! Naissance et fonctions du bellicisme révolutionnaire. External links von Guttner, Darius. 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233043	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blight	Blight	Blight refers to a specific symptom affecting plants in response to infection by a pathogenic organism. Description Blight is a rapid and complete chlorosis, browning, then death of plant tissues such as leaves, branches, twigs, or floral organs. Accordingly, many diseases that primarily exhibit this symptom are called blights. Several notable examples are: Late blight of potato, caused by the water mold Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary, the disease which led to the Great Irish Famine Southern corn leaf blight, caused by the fungus Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Drechs.) Drechs, anamorph Bipolaris maydis (Nisikado & Miyake) Shoemaker, incited a severe loss of corn in the United States in 1970. Chestnut blight, caused by the fungus Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr, has nearly completely eradicated mature American chestnuts in North America. Citrus blight, caused by an unknown agent, infects all citrus scions. Fire blight of pome fruits, caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora (Burrill) Winslow et al., is the most severe disease of pear and also is found in apple and raspberry, among others. Bacterial leaf blight of rice, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae (Uyeda & Ishiyama) Dowson. Bacterial seedling blight of rice (Oryza sativa), caused by pathogen Burkholderia plantarii Early blight of potato and tomato, caused by species of the ubiquitous fungal genus Alternaria Leaf blight of the grasses e.g. Ascochyta species and Alternaria triticina that causes blight in wheat Bur oak blight, caused by the fungal pathogen Tubakia iowensis. On leaf tissue, symptoms of blight are the initial appearance of lesions which rapidly engulf surrounding tissue. However, leaf spots may, in advanced stages, expand to kill entire areas of leaf tissue and thus exhibit blight symptoms. Blights are often named after their causative agent. For example, Colletotrichum blight is named after the fungus Colletotrichum capsici, and Phytophthora blight is named after the water mold Phytophthora parasitica. When blights have been particularly vast and consequential in their effects, they have become named historical events, such as the 19th Century Potato Blight, also known locally from its primary consequence as the Great famine, the Irish potato famine, and Highland Potato Famine, and the near extinction of the Bermuda cedar during the 1940s and 1950s in the event described as The Blight or The Cedar Blight. Gallery References External links Plant pathogens and diseases Mycology	[ 0.5724804401397705, 0.44727006554603577, -0.4952724575996399, -0.24912086129188538, 0.08157698065042496, -0.3626261353492737, 0.5167145729064941, 0.5493691563606262, 0.14881014823913574, -0.32359832525253296, -0.237201526761055, 0.062292274087667465, -0.601913571357727, 0.8817657828330994, 0.040304336696863174, 0.5361954569816589, 0.13085737824440002, 0.7200862765312195, 0.1472044289112091, 0.07104673981666565, -0.187452495098114, -0.32845595479011536, 0.15781904757022858, -0.2947458326816559, 0.28327977657318115, -0.7620383501052856, 0.7235468029975891, 0.5335381627082825, 0.37688982486724854, -0.33094552159309387, -0.0885511040687561, 0.3751988708972931, 0.2058923989534378, 0.04949289932847023, -0.34549060463905334, 0.35189032554626465, -0.2012273073196411, -0.3900812566280365, -0.4098823368549347, -0.15742149949073792, -0.6196399927139282, 0.1840723305940628, -0.0036995545960962772, 0.6955618262290955, 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233046	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buy	Buy	Buy may refer to a trade, i.e., an exchange of goods and services via bartering or a monetary purchase. The term may also refer to: Places Buy (inhabited locality), any of several inhabited localities in Russia Burlington-Alamance Regional Airport, Burlington, North Carolina (IATA code BUY) Buy (river), a river in Perm Krai and the republics of Bashkortostan and Udmurtia in Russia Other uses Buy (album), 1979 album by James Chance and the Contortions Buy, slang for believe, find credible, be convinced Buy.com, a shopping website founded in 1997; renamed Rakuten.com in 2010 See also Acquisition (disambiguation) Bui (disambiguation) Bouy (disambiguation) Buoy (disambiguation) Procurement Purchase (disambiguation) Purchasing Trade (disambiguation)	[ 0.6868205666542053, -0.039872489869594574, -0.27079614996910095, 0.14679577946662903, 0.12556253373622894, 0.030194662511348724, -0.14913222193717957, 0.371823251247406, -0.10794052481651306, -0.4624667465686798, -0.45115798711776733, 0.7802008390426636, 0.03647511824965477, 0.33352333307266235, 0.03433523699641228, -0.018597885966300964, 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233048	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earning	Earning	Earning can refer to: Labour (economics) Earnings of a company Merit	[ 0.36684104800224304, 0.3903229832649231, -0.3279801607131958, 0.190398171544075, -0.07163239270448685, 0.44252660870552063, 0.10783906280994415, 0.3468590974807739, -0.5580522418022156, -0.6217066645622253, -0.5190638899803162, 0.8553618788719177, 0.19673386216163635, 0.25234511494636536, -0.33566537499427795, 0.20810243487358093, 0.22874552011489868, 0.5656682848930359, -0.1396017223596573, -0.6586721539497375, -0.4268868863582611, 0.2502947449684143, 0.053092941641807556, -0.035193588584661484, 0.46544912457466125, -0.06111811101436615, 0.18721522390842438, 0.1481122225522995, -0.26355502009391785, -0.006595329847186804, -0.3190666139125824, -0.04392852634191513, 0.06358861178159714, 0.26842549443244934, -0.2786639928817749, -0.37407732009887695, -0.14616698026657104, -0.3491809666156769, -0.38424819707870483, -0.7280241250991821, 0.07800548523664474, 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233050	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listening	Listening	To listen is to give attention to sound or action. When listening, one is hearing what others are saying, and trying to understand what it means. The act of listening involves complex affective, cognitive and behavioral processes. Affective processes include the motivation to listen to others; cognitive processes include attending to, understanding, receiving and interpreting content and relational messages; and behavioral processes include responding to others with verbal and nonverbal feedback. Listening is a skill for resolving problems. Poor listening can lead to misinterpretations, thus causing conflict or a dispute. Other causes can be excessive interruptions, inattention, hearing what you want to hear, mentally composing a response, and having a closed mind. Listening is also linked to memory. According to one study, during a speech some background noises heard by listeners helped them recall some of the information by hearing it again. For example, when we’re doing something like reading or doing something else while listening to music, we can recall what that was when rehearing the music later. Listening also functions rhetorically as a means of promoting the cross-culture communicative discourses. Ratcliffe built her argument upon two incidents in which individuals demonstrated a tendency to refuse the cross-cultural discourses. What is listening? Listening differs from obeying. A person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or not to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even though the result is not what the speaker wanted. Listening begins by hearing a speaker producing the sound to be listened to. A semiotician, Roland Barthes, characterized the distinction between listening and hearing. "Hearing is a physiological phenomenon; listening is a psychological act." We are always hearing, most of the time subconsciously. Listening is done by choice. It is the interpretative action taken by someone in order to understand, and potentially make sense of, something one hears. How does one listen? Listening may be considered as a simple and isolated process, but it would be far more precise to perceive it as a complex and systematic process. It involves the perception of sounds made by the speaker, of intonation patterns that focus on the information, and of the relevance of the topic under discussion. According to Barthes, listening can be understood on three levels: alerting, deciphering, and understanding how the sound is produced and how it affects the listener. People listen for 45 percent of their time communicating. Alerting, the first level, involves detection of environmental sound cues. This means that certain places have certain sounds associated with them, for example, any given home. Each home has certain sounds associated with it that makes it familiar and comfortable to the occupant. An intrusion, a sound that is not familiar (e.g., a squeaking door or floorboard, a breaking window) alerts whoever lives there to potential danger. Deciphering, the second level, involves detecting patterns when interpreting sounds; for example, a child waiting for the sound of his mother's return home. In this scenario the child is waiting to pick up on sound cues (e.g., jingling keys, the turn of the doorknob, etc.) that signal his mother's approach. Understanding, the third level, means knowing how what one says will affect another. This sort of listening is important in psychoanalysis, the study of the unconscious mind. According to Barthes, the psychoanalyst must suspend judgment while listening to the patient in order to communicate with the latter's unconscious without bias. In the same way, lay listeners must suspend judgment when listening to others. All three levels of listening function within the same plane, and sometimes all at once. Specifically, the second and third levels, which overlap vastly, can be intertwined in that obtaining, understanding and deriving meaning are part of the same process. In this way anyone, on hearing a doorknob turn (obtaining), can almost automatically assume that someone is at the door (deriving meaning). Active listening Active listening involves listening to whatever is being said, attempting to understand it. It can be described in a lot of ways. Active listening requires good listeners who are attentive, nonjudgmental, non-interrupting. An active listener analyzes what the speaker is saying for hidden messages as well as meanings contained in the verbal communication. An active listener looks for nonverbal messages from the speaker in order to comprehend the full meaning of what is being said. In active listening, one must be willing to hear what is being said and try to understand the meaning of whatever has been said. Multiple benefits can accrue from active listening. Being an active listener enables one to become a more effective listener over time. It also strengthens one's leadership skills in the process. Active listening is an exchange between two or more individuals. If they are active listeners, the quality of the conversation will be better and clearer. Active listeners connect with each other on a deeper in their conversations. Active listening can create a deeper, more positive relationship between or among individuals. Active listening is important in bringing changes in the speaker's perspective. Clinical research and evidence show that active listening is a catalyst in one's personal growth, which enhances personality change and group development. People will more likely listen to themselves if someone else is allowing them to speak and get their message across. Active listening allows for individuals to be present in a conversation. "Listening is a key factor in cultivating relationships because the more we understand the other person, the more connection we create, as taught in nonviolent-communication Dharma teachings. As someone recently stated, "We should listen harder than we speak."" In language learning Along with speaking, reading and writing, listening is one of the "four skills" of language learning. All language-teaching approaches, except for grammar translation, incorporate a listening component. Some teaching methods, such as total physical response, involve students simply listening and responding. A distinction is often made between "intensive listening", in which learners attempt to listen with maximum accuracy to a relatively brief sequence of speech; and "extensive listening", in which learners listen to lengthy passages for general comprehension. While intensive listening may be more effective for developing specific aspects of listening ability, extensive listening is more effective in building fluency and maintaining learner motivation. People are usually not conscious of how they listen in their first, or native, language unless they encounter difficulty. A research project focused on facilitating language learning found that L2 (second language) learners, in the process of listening, make conscious use of whatever strategies they unconsciously use in their first language, such as inferring, selective attention or evaluation. Several factors are activated in speech perception: phonetic quality, prosodic patterns, pausing and speed of input, all of which influence the comprehensibility of listening input. There is a common store of semantic information (single) in memory that is used in both first- and second-language speech comprehension, but research has found separate stores of phonological information (dual) for speech. Semantic knowledge required for language understanding (scripts and schemata related to real-world people, places and actions) is accessed through phonological tagging of whatever language is heard. In a study involving 93 participants investigating the relationship between second language listening and a range of tasks, it was discovered that listening anxiety played a major factor as an obstacle against developing speed and explicitness in second language listening tasks. Additional research explored whether listening anxiety and comprehension are related, and as the investigators expected they were negatively correlated. Rhetorical Listening Background Krista Ratcliffe (1999) contended that teaching undertakes the classical Western rhetorical theories that foregrounded speaking and writing but ignored listening. These theories mainly focused on the rhetor’s speech that can persuade the audience. Therefore, the goal of classical rhetoric studies was to address what the audience should listen to not how they listen. Stenberg (2011) extended this perspective to explicate the absence of listening in the academe. The Western teaching maintained the inherited rhetorical Greek noun logos, which means reasoning and logic, while ignoring its verb legein that refers to speaking then lay down_ to listen. Elaborating on this, listening may occur within two different stances: the divided logos and restored logos. Both are different in the way of (re)shaping the functions and outcomes of listening. The hearer listens in the divided logos while simultaneously produces their responses to the speaker. On the other side, within the restored logos, listener exploits the listening time to live in someone’s else experiences, then reflect on, and make meanings to offer a response. One of the examples of divided logos was Aristotle’s theory. Despite its concern with teaching students the oral discourse that mandates listening to produce and analyze enthymemes, listening was displaced and diminished. The attention given to speaking without listening “perpetuates a homogenized mode of speech based on competition rather than dialogue.” (251) Ratcliffe attributed the listening neglect to the Western cultural biases that are represented as: 1) speaking is gendered as masculine while listening as feminine; 2) Listening is subjugated to ethnicity: white people speak while people of color listen; 3) Western culture prefers to depend on sight, not auditory, as their primary interpretative trope. Defining Rhetorical Listening Ratcliffe invited language scholars to consider listening as a new tactic to make meaning and hear the discursive discourses of gender and race and, most importantly, facilitate cross-culture dialogue. Ratcliffe defined rhetorical listening “as a trope for interpretive invention, one that emerges from a space within the logos where listeners may employ their agency.” (p. 204) In other words, listening can be used as a tool to understand the experiences and voices of other people. Therefore, listening is a means of interpretating, reflecting on, and making new meanings. To this end, Ratcliffe expanded that rhetorical listening provides a “stance of openness that a person may choose to assume in relation to any person, text, or culture.” (p. 17) As an outcome of this openness, Ratcliffe (2005) claimed that rhetorical listening cultivates individuals’ conscious and willingness in a way that promote the communication, especially the cross-cultural one Rhetorical listening requires the attendance of individuals’ intentions of seeking understanding. This understanding cannot exist with mere listening. Stenberg cautioned against any expected limitations of interpretation might be caused by these intentions. Therefore, within rhetorical listening the word understanding inverts to be "standing under." This means standing under all the perspectives so that one can (re) conceptualize his/ her ideas and ethics. Hence, individuals do not listen to accumulate others’ ideas, instead they cultivate these ideas through which they can enhance their language and change their visions that open a new avenue for other responses. 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233053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing%20%28disambiguation%29	Qing (disambiguation)	The Qing dynasty () was a dynasty of China that existed from 1636 to 1912. Qing may also refer to: Qing (情, "feelings"), a concept in Chinese philosophy Qing (青), a Chinese color inclusive of shades of green, blue, and black. Qing (), a Chinese abbreviation for Qinghai Province, China Qing (), a Chinese abbreviation for Qingdao in Shandong Province, China Qing County (), in Hebei, China Qing (), an old Chinese unit of area equal to 100 mu, whose value has varied over time and place Qing (), the Chinese name for a sounding stone, a musical instrument See also Hing (surname)	[ -0.49162542819976807, -0.10792626440525055, -0.19030119478702545, 0.28015124797821045, -0.15257368981838226, 0.1831417679786682, 0.20592032372951508, 0.01674460433423519, -0.17883963882923126, -0.2472461760044098, 0.1702047437429428, -0.7943460941314697, -0.21527907252311707, 0.4748716652393341, -0.7510238885879517, 0.1597709357738495, 0.45421281456947327, 0.08304423838853836, -0.22632336616516113, -0.026019452139735222, -0.4560522437095642, 0.00451387744396925, 0.22155888378620148, 0.11953434348106384, -0.023351149633526802, -0.39922642707824707, 0.5144729018211365, -0.3219194710254669, 0.01405314914882183, -0.2517993748188019, 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233055	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate-monotonic%20scheduling	Rate-monotonic scheduling	In computer science, rate-monotonic scheduling (RMS) is a priority assignment algorithm used in real-time operating systems (RTOS) with a static-priority scheduling class. The static priorities are assigned according to the cycle duration of the job, so a shorter cycle duration results in a higher job priority. These operating systems are generally preemptive and have deterministic guarantees with regard to response times. Rate monotonic analysis is used in conjunction with those systems to provide scheduling guarantees for a particular application. Introduction A simple version of rate-monotonic analysis assumes that threads have the following properties: No resource sharing (processes do not share resources, e.g. a hardware resource, a queue, or any kind of semaphore blocking or non-blocking (busy-waits)) Deterministic deadlines are exactly equal to periods Static priorities (the task with the highest static priority that is runnable immediately preempts all other tasks) Static priorities assigned according to the rate monotonic conventions (tasks with shorter periods/deadlines are given higher priorities) Context switch times and other thread operations are free and have no impact on the model It is a mathematical model that contains a calculated simulation of periods in a closed system, where round-robin and time-sharing schedulers fail to meet the scheduling needs otherwise. Rate monotonic scheduling looks at a run modeling of all threads in the system and determines how much time is needed to meet the guarantees for the set of threads in question. Optimality The rate-monotonic priority assignment is optimal under the given assumptions, meaning that if any static-priority scheduling algorithm can meet all the deadlines, then the rate-monotonic algorithm can too. The deadline-monotonic scheduling algorithm is also optimal with equal periods and deadlines, in fact in this case the algorithms are identical; in addition, deadline monotonic scheduling is optimal when deadlines are less than periods. For the task model in which deadlines can be greater than periods, Audsley's algorithm endowed with an exact schedulability test for this model finds an optimal priority assignment. Upper bounds on utilization Least upper bound proved that for a set of periodic tasks with unique periods, a feasible schedule that will always meet deadlines exists if the CPU utilization is below a specific bound (depending on the number of tasks). The schedulability test for RMS is: where is the utilization factor, is the computation time for process , is the release period (with deadline one period later) for process , and is the number of processes to be scheduled. For example, for two processes. When the number of processes tends towards infinity, this expression will tend towards: Therefore, a rough estimate when is that RMS can meet all of the deadlines if total CPU utilization, , is less than 70%. The other 30% of the CPU can be dedicated to lower-priority, non-real-time tasks. For smaller values of or in cases where is close to this estimate, the calculated utilization bound should be used. In practice, for the process, should represent the worst-case (i.e. longest) computation time and should represent the worst-case deadline (i.e. shortest period) in which all processing must occur. Upper bound for harmonic task sets Liu and Layland noted that this bound may be relaxed to the maximum possible value of 1.0, if for tasks , where and , is an integer multiple of , which is to say that all tasks have a period that is not just a multiple of the shortest period, , but instead that any task's period is a multiple of all shorter periods. This is known as an harmonic task set. An example of this would be: . It is acknowledged by Liu and Layland that it is not always feasible to have a harmonic task set and that in practice other mitigation measures, such as buffering for tasks with soft-time deadlines or using a dynamic priority assignment approach may be used instead to allow for a higher bound. Generalization to harmonic chains Kuo and Mok showed that for a task set made up of harmonic task subsets (known as harmonic chains), the least upper bound test becomes: In the instance where no task period is an integer multiple of another, the task set can be thought of as being composed of harmonic task subsets of size 1 and therefore , which makes this generalization equivalent to Liu and Layland's least upper bound. When , the upper bound becomes 1.0, representing full utilization. Stochastic bounds It has been shown that a randomly generated periodic task system will usually meet all deadlines when the utilization is 88% or less, however this fact depends on knowing the exact task statistics (periods, deadlines) which cannot be guaranteed for all task sets, and in some cases the authors found that the utilization reached the least upper bound presented by Liu and Layland. Hyperbolic bound The hyperbolic bound is a tighter sufficient condition for schedulability than the one presented by Liu and Layland: , where is the CPU utilization for each task. It is the tightest upper bound that can be found using only the individual task utilization factors. Resource sharing In many practical applications, resources are shared and the unmodified RMS will be subject to priority inversion and deadlock hazards. In practice, this is solved by disabling preemption or by priority inheritance. Alternative methods are to use lock-free algorithms or avoid the sharing of a mutex/semaphore across threads with different priorities. This is so that resource conflicts cannot result in the first place. Disabling of preemption The OS_ENTER_CRITICAL() and OS_EXIT_CRITICAL() primitives that lock CPU interrupts in a real-time kernel, e.g. MicroC/OS-II The splx() family of primitives which nest the locking of device interrupts (FreeBSD 5.x/6.x), Priority inheritance The basic priority inheritance protocol promotes the priority of the task that holds the resource to the priority of the task that requests that resource at the time the request is made. Upon release of the resource, the original priority level before the promotion is restored. This method does not prevent deadlocks and suffers from chained blocking. That is, if a high priority task accesses multiple shared resources in sequence, it may have to wait (block) on a lower priority task for each of the resources. The real-time patch to the Linux kernel includes an implementation of this formula. The priority ceiling protocol enhances the basic priority inheritance protocol by assigning a ceiling priority to each semaphore, which is the priority of the highest job that will ever access that semaphore. A job cannot preempt a lower priority critical section if its priority is lower than the ceiling priority for that section. This method prevents deadlocks and bounds the blocking time to at most the length of one lower priority critical section. This method can be suboptimal, in that it can cause unnecessary blocking. The priority ceiling protocol is available in the VxWorks real-time kernel. It is also known as Highest Locker's Priority Protocol (HLP). Priority inheritance algorithms can be characterized by two parameters. First, is the inheritance lazy (only when essential) or immediate (boost priority before there is a conflict). Second is the inheritance optimistic (boost a minimum amount) or pessimistic (boost by more than the minimum amount): In practice there is no mathematical difference (in terms of the Liu-Layland system utilization bound) between the lazy and immediate algorithms, and the immediate algorithms are more efficient to implement, and so they are the ones used by most practical systems. An example of usage of basic priority inheritance is related to the "Mars Pathfinder reset bug" which was fixed on Mars by changing the creation flags for the semaphore so as to enable the priority inheritance. Interrupt Service Routines All interrupt service routines (ISRs), whether they have a hard real-time deadline or not should be included in RMS analysis to determine schedulability in cases where ISRs have priorities above all scheduler-controlled tasks. An ISR may already be appropriately prioritized under RMS rules if its processing period is shorter than that of the shortest, non-ISR process. However, an ISR with a period/deadline longer than any non-ISR process period with a critical deadline results in a violation of RMS and prevents the use of the calculated bounds for determining schedulability of a task set. Mitigating mis-prioritized ISRs One method for mitigating a mis-prioritized ISR is to adjust the analysis by reducing the ISR's period to be equal to that of the shortest period, if possible. Imposing this shorter period results in prioritization that conforms to RMS, but also results in a higher utilization factor for the ISR and therefore for the total utilization factor, which may still be below the allowable bound and therefore schedulability can be proven. As an example, consider a hardware ISR that has a computation time, of 500 microseconds and a period, , of 4 milliseconds. If the shortest scheduler-controlled task has a period, of 1 millisecond, then the ISR would have a higher priority, but a lower rate, which violates RMS. For the purposes of proving schedulability, set and recalculate the utilization factor for the ISR (which also raises the total utilization factor). In this case, will change from to . This utilization factor would be used when adding up the total utilization factor for the task set and comparing to the upper bound to prove schedulability. It should be emphasized that adjusting the period of the ISR is for analysis only and that the true period of the ISR remains unchanged. Another method for mitigating a mis-prioritized ISR is to use the ISR to only set a new semaphore/mutex while moving the time-intensive processing to a new process that has been appropriately prioritized using RMS and will block on the new semaphore/mutex. When determining schedulability, a margin of CPU utilization due to ISR activity should be subtracted from the least upper bound. ISRs with negligible utilization may be ignored. Examples Example 1 Under RMS, P2 has the highest rate (i.e. the shortest period) and so would have the highest priority, followed by P1 and finally P3. Least Upper Bound The utilization will be: . The sufficient condition for processes, under which we can conclude that the system is schedulable is: Because , and because being below the Least Upper Bound is a sufficient condition, the system is guaranteed to be schedulable. Example 2 Under RMS, P2 has the highest rate (i.e. the shortest period) and so would have the highest priority, followed by P3 and finally P1. Least Upper Bound Using the Liu and Layland bound, as in Example 1, the sufficient condition for processes, under which we can conclude that the task set is schedulable, remains: The total utilization will be: . Since the system is determined to not be guaranteed to be schedulable by the Liu and Layland bound. Hyperbolic Bound Using the tighter Hyperbolic bound as follows: it is found that the task set is schedulable. Example 3 Under RMS, P2 has the highest rate (i.e. the shortest period) and so would have the highest priority, followed by P3 and finally P1. Least Upper Bound Using the Liu and Layland bound, as in Example 1, the sufficient condition for processes, under which we can conclude that the task set is schedulable, remains: The total utilization will be: . Since the system is determined to not be guaranteed to be schedulable by the Liu and Layland bound. Hyperbolic Bound Using the tighter Hyperbolic bound as follows: Since the system is determined to not be guaranteed to be schedulable by the Hyperbolic bound. Harmonic Task Set Analysis Because , tasks 2 and 3 can be considered a harmonic task subset. Task 1 forms its own harmonic task subset. Therefore, the number of harmonic task subsets, , is . Using the total utilization factor calculated above (0.81875), since the system is determined to be schedulable. See also Deadline-monotonic scheduling Deos, a time and space partitioned real-time operating system containing a working Rate Monotonic Scheduler. Dynamic priority scheduling Earliest deadline first scheduling RTEMS, an open source real-time operating system containing a working Rate Monotonic Scheduler. Scheduling (computing) References Further reading . , Chapter 6. . External links Mars Pathfinder Bug from Research @ Microsoft What really happened on Mars Rover Pathfinder by Mike Jones from The Risks Digest, Vol. 19, Issue 49 The actual reason for the Mars Pathfinder Bug, but those who actually dealt with it, rather than someone whose company and therefore stock value depended upon the description of the problem, or someone who heard someone talking about the problem. 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233058	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Leaders	World Leaders	World Leaders, also known as Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments, is a public domain directory published weekly by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. It lists different state officials for each country of the world: the head of state and/or head of government and other cabinet ministers, the chief of the central bank, and the ambassadors to the United Nations and the United States. See also The International Who's Who List of current heads of state and government National Security Agency academic publications World-Check External links World Leaders World Leaders Autograph Society, the international community of collectors who collect autographs of world leaders Central Intelligence Agency publications Directories Heads of government Heads of state Public domain databases	[ 0.28846850991249084, 0.26388615369796753, -0.18549396097660065, 0.46570706367492676, -0.15254978835582733, -0.2505725920200348, -0.03746785223484039, 0.5504470467567444, -0.30300968885421753, -0.009864915162324905, -0.6793996095657349, 0.16968202590942383, -0.4028116464614868, 0.23073118925094604, -0.007330821827054024, -0.4391210675239563, 0.556898832321167, 0.5663250684738159, -0.47262042760849, -0.2947435975074768, -0.41697242856025696, 0.04991612210869789, 0.295188307762146, -0.4915665090084076, 0.12762005627155304, 0.34332987666130066, -0.14313417673110962, -0.5407230854034424, 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233059	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Plym	River Plym	The River Plym is a river in Devon, England. It runs from Dartmoor in the centre of the county southwest to meet the River Meavy, then south towards Plymouth Sound. The river is popular with canoeists, and the Plym Valley Railway runs alongside a section of the river. Course The river's source is around above sea level on Dartmoor, in an upland marshy area called Plym Head. From the upper reaches, which contain antiquities and mining remains, the river flows roughly southwest past clay workings at Shaugh Prior to The Dewerstone, where it meets the River Meavy. The course then changes to run southwards, between Plymouth and Plympton passing through the National Trust owned Plymbridge Woods and under the ancient Plym Bridge. Its upper tidal estuary is known as the Laira and the lower part is called Cattewater, which is navigable and leads towards Plymouth Sound. It is approximately long. Nomenclature The name Plym is thought to have its origins in Old English and means the "plum tree" (Cornish ploumenn), from a back-formation from the name of Plympton. The port of Plymouth took its name from the river. History , a River-class antisubmarine frigate, was named after the river during World War II. It carried out convoy escort duties in the North Atlantic and was later destroyed in the UK's first nuclear explosion. When it was in operation, the Cann Quarry Canal left the river at Marsh Mills. The Plym Valley Railway runs alongside the River Plym. It opened in 1856 as a section of the South Devon and Tavistock Railway, which followed the river as far as the tributary with the River Meavy. The line closed to passengers in 1962, and goods services stopped four years later. The new railway is volunteer-run railway which operates steam and diesel hauled train rides. The first section from Plym Valley from Marsh Mills station opened in 2001, with an extension to Lee Moor Crossing in 2008. In 2013, the line was extended to Plymbridge. The remainder of the line forms part of the Plym Valley Trail, a cycle route from Plymouth to Ilfracombe. Leisure The River Plym is popular for canoeing. The upper section in Dartmoor from Cadover Bridge to Shaugh Bridge is considered challenging, and has been described by the British Canoe Union as the hardest section of river to navigate the park. It is often the first river to fill during heavy rain, and one of the first to drop afterwards. Experienced canoeists judge the water level carefully around the weather. This section has a number of pool drops, which are not recommended for novices. Lower sections beyond Shaugh Bridge to Bickleigh Bridge are easier to navigate past the first rapid, provided the river is at a sufficient water level. In addition the Plym is rich with brown trout, sea trout and salmon. Angling is allowed in both lower and upper areas with much of the water being managed by Plymouth & District Freshwater Angling Association. See also Rivers of the United Kingdom References Citations Sources Plym, River P	[ -0.28070756793022156, -0.061888497322797775, 0.2961832582950592, -0.41078606247901917, 0.20715013146400452, 0.9566648602485657, 0.025152282789349556, 0.704663097858429, 0.04571158438920975, -0.31513530015945435, 0.3330792784690857, 0.403715580701828, 0.1457289606332779, 0.6011502742767334, -0.5689470171928406, -0.12238539755344391, -0.06771983951330185, 0.10497734695672989, 0.6155081987380981, -0.6154592633247375, 0.5122621059417725, -0.3147621750831604, 0.3400745987892151, 0.44842469692230225, -0.20976416766643524, 0.513637363910675, 0.37643611431121826, 0.16109083592891693, 0.0792909488081932, -0.18492093682289124, -0.1850150227546692, 0.9106562733650208, 0.17711752653121948, -0.1738552451133728, 0.19397617876529694, -0.14431428909301758, 0.07493893802165985, 0.2937331795692444, -1.0124949216842651, -0.36030590534210205, 0.1312834620475769, -0.2284506857395172, -0.7271574139595032, 0.20873084664344788, 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233061	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang%20Fa	Liang Fa	Liang Fa (1789–1855), also known by other names, was the second Chinese Protestant convert and the first Chinese Protestant minister and evangelist. He was ordained by Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary in the Qing Empire. His tract Good Words to Admonish the Age was influential on Hong Xiuquan, who went on to lead the Taiping Rebellion. Name Liang Fa is the pinyin romanization of Liang's usual Chinese name, which his father used. is the Jyutping romanization of the same name in Cantonese, the usual spoken dialect of Guangdong's natives. His personal name is the common Chinese verb for "to send" but in Chinese grammar can also be understood as its past participle, "[he who is] sent". He is also known as , "", "Afa", "" or "" from the Southern Chinese habit of forming affectionate nicknames using the prefix Ā- (now , formerly ). was apparently his complete name, although it was used less often. It variously appears as "Leang Kung-fa", "Leang Kung-fah", and "Leong Kung Fa". Life Liang was born in the village of Gulao (then known as "Lohtsun"), Gaoming County, in Sanzhou ("Samchow"), Guangdong, in 1789. Although he came from a poor family, they made an effort to give him a classical Chinese education at the village school. This consisted of the Four Books, three of the Five Classics, and the Sacred Edict. They were unable to afford his schooling until he was 11; at age 15, he was compelled to seek work as a brush-maker in Guangzhou (then known as "Canton"). He soon left this to apprentice as a printer, for whom he carved characters onto wooden blocks. After four years, he left to a nearby village to ply the trade. He returned to Gulao in 1810 to mourn his mother's death and then returned to the area around Guangzhou. In 1811 and 1812, Cai Luxing (, known at the time as "Tsae Low-heen") was helping Robert Morrison to publish his Chinese translation of the New Testament and in one of those years Liang began to assist in carving the work's printing blocks. An imperial edict of 1812 prohibited the publication of Christian texts in Chinese; it found that Christianity was a menace to Chinese culture as it "neither holds spirits in veneration nor ancestors in reverence". Nonetheless, Cai's younger brother—probably named Gao—became the Protestants' first Chinese convert, baptized at a secluded seaside spring on July 16, 1814, and Liang became their second. The missionary William Milne employed Liang as his Chinese teacher and Liang went with him to the Malacca mission in April 1815 to assist him with printing his Chinese-language tracts. At his request, he was baptized by Milne at noon on November 3, 1816, so that there would be no shadows present. He adopted the pen name "Student of the Good". Liang returned to China in April 1819 to see his family. Under Morrison's supervision, he prepared 200 copies of a 37-page tract of Miscellaneous Exhortations for his friends and neighbors. The police reacted harshly, arresting him and burning both the copies and the printing blocks used to publish them. Morrison got him released two days later, but he had already been beaten thirty times with a bamboo cane and compelled to pay $70. He remained forty days with his family and then returned to Malacca. He returned again in 1820, successfully converting and baptizing his wife before returning to Malacca the next year. Following Milne's death, he came home in 1823. On November 20, he had Morrison baptize his son Jinde ("Tsin-tih"). A month later, Morrison appointed him as a lay evangelist for the London Missionary Society and in 1827 ordained him as a full minister, the first native Chinese to do so. He preached at hospitals and chapels and, after writing his own tracts, thought to distribute Christian literature to the scholars gathered for the prefectural and provincial imperial exams. He printed 7,000 or 70,000 tracts in a single year and personally distributed them to the thousands who came for the tests in Guangzhou and in the prefectural seats of Guangdong. It was at one such session that Hong Xiuquan first encountered Liang's work Good Words to Admonish the Age. He converted a printer named Lin ("Lam"); Li San, who became his assistant; and others. Liang accompanied Wat Ngong, another Chinese Christian printer, on his trek in 1830, distributing their Christian tracts across southwest Guangdong. He continued the practice for three or four more years. There are unclear references to some long-standing dispute between Wat and Liang that was eventually resolved; they worked together in Malacca and again to continue the mission with another native worker after Morrison's death. The 1833 Government of India Act ended the East India Company's legal monopoly on Britain's share of the Canton trade. Amid the diplomatic crisis occasioned by the uptick in opium smuggling and Lord Napier's resort to force to assert his right to act as the British consul in Guangzhou, the Emperor personally expressed disbelief that westerners were responsible for the Chinese-language magazines and broadsides being distributed by the English. Qing subjects were forbidden to teach to the language, and a crackdown was ordered. Morrison died in August 1834 and, several days into Liang's distribution of tracts at Guangzhou's provincial exams a few weeks later, the city's police came for him and his companions. Liang escaped to Macao, but an assistant in Guangzhou and several family members in Sanzhou were seized. Unlike his father, John Morrison helped Liang by paying the $800 for the ten captives himself. He again left for Malacca with his son Lou. He was formally attached to the London mission there in 1837 and, while working there with Wat Ngong, caused a "spike" in conversions, netting more than thirty converts in a span of months. When many of these new converts later abandoned the faith, it prompted disputes within the LMS about the meaning and requirements for baptism. Liang moved to the mission at Singapore the next year. He finally returned to China in July 1839. He then joined Peter Parker's missionary hospital on Hog Lane in Guangzhou's Thirteen Factories trading ghetto. At an 1841 congressional hearing in Washington, Parker quoted Liang as saying "When I meet men in the streets and villages and tell them the folly of worshipping idols they laugh at me. Their hearts are very hard. But when men are sick and are healed their hearts are very soft". For similar reasons, he opposed Britain's persecution of the First Opium War, saying its support of opium smugglers and assaults on China would turn its people against Christianity in general and British missionaries in particular. In 1845, Liang became the hospital's chaplain, leading regular services and visiting patients. Parker noted him often sharing his conversion story and scriptural passages. Liang helped Robert Morrison's son-in-law Benjamin Hobson locate a residence and establish his clinic in Guangzhou's western suburbs in 1848. Liang then moved his work there, since it began to treat more than two hundred patients daily. Four men and six women joined him for services, but more than a hundred might watch their ceremony. He baptized Hok Chau, who worked at the hospital illustrating Hobson's medical treatises, in 1852; Chau later went on to succeed Liang as minister there. He was unhappy with his son Jinde's government job, which required him to work on Sundays. He also had a daughter and a third child, who died in 1832. He died on 12 April 1855. Works Liang Fa wrote under the pen name "Student of the Good" or "Retired Student of the Good". He is primarily remembered for his Quànshì Liángyán , formerly romanized as K'euen She Lëang Yen and Ch'üan-shih Liang-yen and variously translated as Good Words to Admonish the Age, "Good News to Admonish the Ages", "Good News to Admonish the World", "Good Words to Exhort the World", "Good Words Exhorting the Age", "Good Words Exhorting Mankind", &c. Revised by Morrison, it was printed in Guangzhou in early 1832 and in Malacca later that year. It comprised a form of the New Testament in vernacular Chinese based upon Morrison's classical Chinese translation, along with ten homilies, some of Liang's tracts, an attack on Chinese religions, and his conversion story. Although often called a "tract", it was over 500 pages long in nine stand-alone chapters or scrolls (juan), which appear to have often been printed in four-volume sets. It largely dwelt on the omnipotence of God the Father, the degrading nature and effects of idolatry and other sins, and the personal choice between salvation and damnation. Its actual text long went unstudied since only four copies are known to have survived the suppression of the Taipings: one copy of the Malacca edition is held by the New York Public Library, one copy of the Guangzhou edition is held by Harvard University, and two more were held by the London Missionary Society. A third and fourth edition, both abridged, were also printed at Singapore. He also published: . , autobiographical & probably a second edition . , reprinted 1832 by the British & Foreign School Society. , a translation of the Morning Service of Church of England, with the prayers done by Liang and the hymns by others . . . Liang also assisted Milne's Monthly Chinese Magazine and created The Monthly Total Record of the Inspection of the Worldly Customs (《察世俗每月統記傳》 Cha Shisu Meiyue Tongji Zhuan), one of the first Chinese magazines. Legacy Liang was an important participant in the establishment of Protestantism in China, but is most remembered for the influence of his tracts on Hong Xiuquan and his Taiping rebels, for whom Good Words to Admonish the Age became a sacred text. Liang's grave was found to be on land purchased for the expansion of Lingnan University (formerly Canton Christian College and now Sun Yat-sen University). He was re-interred in the center of the college campus on the site reserved for the college chapel. The site was dedicated 7 June 1920. See also Christianity and Protestantism in China Jesuit and Protestant China missions Anglo-Chinese College Notes References Citations Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789 births 1855 deaths Chinese Protestant missionaries Chinese evangelists Protestant missionaries in China Writers from Zhaoqing Alumni of Ying Wa College Qing dynasty writers Chinese non-fiction writers Converts to Christianity Taiping Heavenly Kingdom	[ -0.2117798775434494, 0.7956724762916565, -0.4381331205368042, -0.5616130232810974, -0.0697709396481514, 0.6402041912078857, 0.6682793498039246, -0.08387168496847153, -0.1797230988740921, -0.18165373802185059, -0.2364691197872162, 0.03326941281557083, -0.052410900592803955, -0.08027596026659012, -0.42682453989982605, 0.05893552303314209, 0.4877740144729614, -0.0501737967133522, -0.5533726215362549, -0.5034405589103699, -0.4916483163833618, -0.33948954939842224, 0.2836856245994568, 0.44020533561706543, 0.05940410867333412, 0.19532911479473114, 0.35645148158073425, 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233067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading%20%28disambiguation%29	Reading (disambiguation)	Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning. Reading also commonly refers to Reading, Berkshire, a town in England. The common noun or verb reading (pronounced as ) or the proper noun Reading (pronounced as ) may also refer to: Common noun or verb Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters Readings of kanji in Japanese Reading (computer), an action performed by computers, to acquire data from a source Reading (legislature), the mechanism by which a bill is introduced to a legislature Divination, gaining insight through interpretation of omens or supernatural indicators Psychic reading, an attempt to discern information through clairvoyance Dramatic reading, a dramatic art, also known as oral interpretation and interpretive reading Art The Reading (Fantin-Latour), an 1877 painting by Henri Fantin-Latour The Reading (Manet), a c. 1865-1873 painting by Édouard Manet Businesses and organisations Reading School, a British grammar school University of Reading, a British university Reading Power Station, in Tel Aviv, Israel Reading Works, a former factory in Pennsylvania, U.S. Reading Company, also called Reading Railroad and Reading Lines, an American company Events Battle of Reading (871) Battle of Reading (1688) Siege of Reading (1642–1643) Reading and Leeds Festivals People Reading (surname) John of Reading (died 1346), theologian Marquess of Reading, a title in peerage of the UK since 1926, including Earl of Reading, Baron Reading, Viscount Reading Marchioness of Reading (disambiguation), wife of the Marquess Bishop of Reading, Anglican suffragan bishop in Diocese of Oxford since 1889 Places United Kingdom Reading, Berkshire Reading/Wokingham Urban Area, area defined by the UK Office for National Statistics Reading (UK Parliament constituency) (1295–1950 and 1955–1974) Reading East (UK Parliament constituency) (created 1983) Reading North (UK Parliament constituency) (1950–1955 and 1974–1983) Reading South (UK Parliament constituency) (1950–1955 and 1974–1983) Reading West (UK Parliament constituency) (created 1983) HM Prison Reading, in Reading, Berkshire, England United States Reading, Kansas Reading, Massachusetts Reading, Michigan Reading, Minnesota Reading, Missouri Reading, New York Reading, Ohio, a city in Hamilton County Reading, Columbiana County, Ohio Reading, Pennsylvania Reading, Vermont North Reading, Massachusetts Port Reading, New Jersey Reading Township (disambiguation) West Reading, Pennsylvania Other places Reading, Jamaica Ships HMS Reading (G71), a Royal Navy destroyer ship formerly USS Bailey USS Reading (PF-66), a U.S. Navy frigate Sport Reading F.C., an English football club Reading Hockey Club, an English field hockey club Reading R.F.C., an English rugby team Reading Racers, an English speedway team Reading Town F.C., a defunct English football club Reading Fightin Phils, an American baseball team Reading (United States Baseball League), a 1912 team See also Reading station (disambiguation) Read (disambiguation) Redding (disambiguation) Baron Astley of Reading, a title in peerage of England (1644–1688) Learning to read 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233068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin%20%28document%29	Round-robin (document)	Round-robin is a document signed by multiple parties in a circle to make it more difficult to determine the order in which it was signed, thus preventing a ringleader from being identified. Origin The term dates from the 17th-century French Rond ruban (round ribbon). This described the practice of signatories to petitions against authority (usually Government officials petitioning the Crown) appending their names on a document in a non-hierarchical circle or ribbon pattern (and so disguising the order in which they have signed) so that none may be identified as a ringleader. This practice was adopted by sailors petitioning officers in the Royal Navy (first recorded 1731). Spanish–American War A round-robin letter was authored in Cuba after the cessation of hostilities in 1898 by a committee of 10 brigade commanders of the American Army's V Corps including acting brigade commander Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish–American War, to accelerate the departure of the American Army back to the United States during the rainy disease-plagued summer season. This letter was leaked to the press and embarrassed the administration of US President William McKinley. 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233071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse%20detonation%20engine	Pulse detonation engine	A pulse detonation engine (PDE) is a type of propulsion system that uses detonation waves to combust the fuel and oxidizer mixture. The engine is pulsed because the mixture must be renewed in the combustion chamber between each detonation wave and the next. Theoretically, a PDE can operate from subsonic up to a hypersonic flight speed of roughly Mach 5. An ideal PDE design can have a thermodynamic efficiency higher than other designs like turbojets and turbofans because a detonation wave rapidly compresses the mixture and adds heat at constant volume. Consequently, moving parts like compressor spools are not necessarily required in the engine, which could significantly reduce overall weight and cost. PDEs have been considered for propulsion since 1940. Key issues for further development include fast and efficient mixing of the fuel and oxidizer, the prevention of autoignition, and integration with an inlet and nozzle. To date, no practical PDE has been put into production, but several testbed engines have been built and one was successfully integrated into a low-speed demonstration aircraft that flew in sustained PDE powered flight in 2008. In June 2008, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) unveiled Blackswift, which was intended to use this technology to reach speeds of up to Mach 6. However the project was reported cancelled soon afterward, in October 2008. Concept Pulse jets The basic operation of the PDE is similar to that of the pulse jet engine. In the pulse jet, air is mixed with fuel to create a flammable mixture that is then ignited in an open chamber. The resulting combustion greatly increases the pressure of the mixture to approximately 100 atmospheres (10 MPa), which then expands through a nozzle for thrust. To ensure that the mixture exits to the rear, thereby pushing the aircraft forward, a series of shutters are used to close off the front of the engine. Careful tuning of the inlet ensures the shutters close at the right time to force the air to travel in one direction only through the engine. Some pulse jet designs used a tuned resonant cavity to provide the valving action through the airflow in the system. These designs normally look like a U-shaped tube, open at both ends. In either system, the pulse jet has problems during the combustion process. As the fuel burns and expands to create thrust, it is also pushing any remaining unburnt charge rearward, out of the nozzle. In many cases some of the charge is ejected before burning, which causes the famous trail of flame seen on the V-1 flying bomb and other pulse jets. Even while inside the engine, the mixture's volume is constantly changing which inefficiently converts fuel into usable energy. PDEs All regular jet engines and most rocket engines operate on the deflagration of fuel, that is, the rapid but subsonic combustion of fuel. The pulse detonation engine is a concept currently in active development to create a jet engine that operates on the supersonic detonation of fuel. Because the combustion takes place so rapidly, the charge (fuel/air mix) does not have time to expand during this process, so it takes place under almost constant volume. Constant volume combustion is more efficient than open-cycle designs like gas turbines, which leads to greater fuel efficiency. As the combustion process is so rapid, mechanical shutters are difficult to arrange with the required performance. Instead, PDEs generally use a series of valves to time the process carefully. In some PDE designs from General Electric, the shutters are eliminated through careful timing, using the pressure differences between the different areas of the engine to ensure the "shot" is ejected rearward. Another side effect, not yet demonstrated in practical use, is the cycle time. A traditional pulsejet tops out at about 250 pulses per second due to the cycle time of the mechanical shutters, but the aim of the PDE is thousands of pulses per second, so fast that it is basically continuous from an engineering perspective. This should help smooth out the otherwise highly vibrational pulsejet engine — many small pulses will create less volume than a smaller number of larger pulses for the same net thrust. Unfortunately, detonations are many times louder than deflagrations. The major difficulty with a pulse-detonation engine is starting the detonation. While it is possible to start a detonation directly with a large spark, the amount of energy input is very large and is not practical for an engine. The typical solution is to use a deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT)—that is, start a high-energy deflagration, and have it accelerate down a tube to the point where it becomes fast enough to become a detonation. Alternatively the detonation can be sent around a circle and valves ensure that only the highest peak power can leak into exhaust. Also the pulse compression detonation system can be applied to solve the initiation problem. This process is far more complicated than it sounds, due to the resistance the advancing wavefront encounters (similar to wave drag). DDTs occur far more readily if there are obstacles in the tube. The most widely used is the "Shchelkin spiral", which is designed to create the most useful eddies with the least resistance to the moving fuel/air/exhaust mixture. The eddies lead to the flame separating into multiple fronts, some of which go backwards and collide with other fronts, and then accelerate into fronts ahead of them. The behavior is difficult to model and to predict, and research is ongoing. As with conventional pulsejets, there are two main types of designs: valved and valveless. Designs with valves encounter the same difficult-to-resolve wear issues encountered with their pulsejet equivalents. Valveless designs typically rely on abnormalities in the air flow to ensure a one-way flow, and are very hard to achieve in a regular DDT. NASA maintains a research program on the PDE, which is aimed at high-speed, about Mach 5, civilian transport systems. However most PDE research is military in nature, as the engine could be used to develop a new generation of high-speed, long-range reconnaissance aircraft that would fly high enough to be out of range of any current anti-aircraft defenses, while offering range considerably greater than the SR-71, which required a massive tanker support fleet to use in operation. While most research is on the high speed regime, newer designs with much higher pulse rates in the hundreds of thousands appear to work well even at subsonic speeds. Whereas traditional engine designs always include tradeoffs that limit them to a "best speed" range, the PDE appears to outperform them at all speeds. Both Pratt & Whitney and General Electric now have active PDE research programs in an attempt to commercialize the designs. Key difficulties in pulse detonation engines are achieving DDT without requiring a tube long enough to make it impractical and drag-imposing on the aircraft (adding a U-bend into the tube extinguishes the detonation wave); reducing the noise (often described as sounding like a jackhammer); and damping the severe vibration caused by the operation of the engine. First PDE powered flight The first known flight of an aircraft powered by a pulse detonation engine took place at the Mojave Air & Space Port on 31 January 2008. The project was developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory and Innovative Scientific Solutions, Inc. The aircraft selected for the flight was a heavily modified Scaled Composites Long-EZ, named Borealis. The engine consisted of four tubes producing pulse detonations at a frequency of 80 Hz, creating up to 200 pounds of thrust (890 newtons). Many fuels were considered and tested by the engine developers in recent years, but a refined octane was used for this flight. A small rocket system was used to facilitate the liftoff of the Long-EZ, but the PDE operated under its own power for 10 seconds at an altitude of approximately 100 feet (30 m). The flight took place at a low speed whereas the appeal of the PDE engine concept lies more at high speeds, but the demonstration showed that a PDE can be integrated into an aircraft frame without experiencing structural problems from the 195-200 dB detonation waves. No more flights are planned for the modified Long-EZ, but the success is likely to fuel more funding for PDE research. The aircraft itself has been moved to the National Museum of the United States Air Force for display. In rocketry If both fuel and oxidizer are carried by the vehicle a pulse detonation engine is independent of the atmosphere and it can be used in spaceflight. On 26 July 2021 (UTC), Japan's space agency JAXA successfully tested a pulse detonation rocket engine in space on a S-520 sounding rocket flight. Popular culture In the sci-fi novel Aelita (1923), two Russians travel to Mars in a pulse detonation rocket utilizing "a fine powder of unusual explosive force" (p. 19). The 1939 Soviet novel The Mystery of the Two Oceans by Grigory Adamov is centered around a submarine using a detonation engine (among other cutting-edge technologies). The fuel is a hydrogen/oxygen mixture, produced through water electrolysis. At one point, the submarine is sabotaged by disabling the pressure indicators, causing a buildup of the explosive mixture. X-COM: UFO Defense video game features fictional fighter aircraft, "Interceptor", which is powered by dual pulse detonation engines, according to ingame description. In the drama television series JAG, the Season Nine episode "The One That Got Away" (original air date 17 October 2003) features the Aurora — which in the show is a super-secret hypersonic aircraft under development by the CIA that uses a pulse-detonation engine. In the movie Stealth (2005), the advanced fighters use pulse-detonation engines with scramjet boosters. The PDE has been used as a story point in a number of modern novels such as Dan Brown's thriller Deception Point (the second page of the book states that all technologies in the story are non-fictional and exist, albeit without referencing any sources), and Victor Koman's science fiction novel Kings of the High Frontier. See also Nuclear pulse propulsion Rotating detonation engine Scramjet Gluhareff Pressure Jet List of pulsejet-powered aircraft References External links Innovative Scientific Solutions Inc. Pulse Detonation Engines Popular Science 1952 Pulse Detonation Jet Propulsion Patent by William Bollay Apparatus powered using laser-supplied energy, US patent Issued on 6 August 1996 Boyd B. Bushman (Video) The high detonation temperature inside the tube of an experimental PDE causes the seals to heat up and catch fire. (Video) An experimental PDE operating with a detonation frequency of 1 Hz where the pulses are clearly defined. 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233074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin%20scheduling	Round-robin scheduling	Round-robin (RR) is one of the algorithms employed by process and network schedulers in computing. As the term is generally used, time slices (also known as time quanta) are assigned to each process in equal portions and in circular order, handling all processes without priority (also known as cyclic executive). Round-robin scheduling is simple, easy to implement, and starvation-free. Round-robin scheduling can be applied to other scheduling problems, such as data packet scheduling in computer networks. It is an operating system concept. The name of the algorithm comes from the round-robin principle known from other fields, where each person takes an equal share of something in turn. Process scheduling To schedule processes fairly, a round-robin scheduler generally employs time-sharing, giving each job a time slot or quantum (its allowance of CPU time), and interrupting the job if it is not completed by then. The job is resumed next time a time slot is assigned to that process. If the process terminates or changes its state to waiting during its attributed time quantum, the scheduler selects the first process in the ready queue to execute. In the absence of time-sharing, or if the quanta were large relative to the sizes of the jobs, a process that produced large jobs would be favoured over other processes. Round-robin algorithm is a pre-emptive algorithm as the scheduler forces the process out of the CPU once the time quota expires. For example, if the time slot is 100 milliseconds, and job1 takes a total time of 250 ms to complete, the round-robin scheduler will suspend the job after 100 ms and give other jobs their time on the CPU. Once the other jobs have had their equal share (100 ms each), job1 will get another allocation of CPU time and the cycle will repeat. This process continues until the job finishes and needs no more time on the CPU. Job1 = Total time to complete 250 ms (quantum 100 ms). First allocation = 100 ms. Second allocation = 100 ms. Third allocation = 100 ms but job1 self-terminates after 50 ms. Total CPU time of job1 = 250 ms Consider the following table with the arrival time and execute time of the process with the quantum time of 100 ms to understand the round-robin scheduling: Another approach is to divide all processes into an equal number of timing quanta such that the quantum size is proportional to the size of the process. Hence, all processes end at the same time. Network packet scheduling In best-effort packet switching and other statistical multiplexing, round-robin scheduling can be used as an alternative to first-come first-served queuing. A multiplexer, switch, or router that provides round-robin scheduling has a separate queue for every data flow, where a data flow may be identified by its source and destination address. The algorithm allows every active data flow that has data packets in the queue to take turns in transferring packets on a shared channel in a periodically repeated order. The scheduling is work-conserving, meaning that if one flow is out of packets, the next data flow will take its place. Hence, the scheduling tries to prevent link resources from going unused. Round-robin scheduling results in max-min fairness if the data packets are equally sized, since the data flow that has waited the longest time is given scheduling priority. It may not be desirable if the size of the data packets varies widely from one job to another. A user that produces large packets would be favored over other users. In that case fair queuing would be preferable. If guaranteed or differentiated quality of service is offered, and not only best-effort communication, deficit round-robin (DRR) scheduling, weighted round-robin (WRR) scheduling, or weighted fair queuing (WFQ) may be considered. In multiple-access networks, where several terminals are connected to a shared physical medium, round-robin scheduling may be provided by token passing channel access schemes such as Token Ring, or by polling or resource reservation from a central control station. In a centralized wireless packet radio network, where many stations share one frequency channel, a scheduling algorithm in a central base station may reserve time slots for the mobile stations in a round-robin fashion and provide fairness. However, if link adaptation is used, it will take a much longer time to transmit a certain amount of data to "expensive" users than to others since the channel conditions differ. It would be more efficient to wait with the transmission until the channel conditions are improved, or at least to give scheduling priority to less expensive users. Round-robin scheduling does not utilize this. Higher throughput and system spectrum efficiency may be achieved by channel-dependent scheduling, for example a proportionally fair algorithm, or maximum throughput scheduling. Note that the latter is characterized by undesirable scheduling starvation. This type of scheduling is one of the very basic algorithms for Operating Systems in computers which can be implemented through circular queue data structure. 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233076	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance%20aircraft	Reconnaissance aircraft	A reconnaissance aircraft (colloquially, a spy plane) is a military aircraft designed or adapted to perform aerial reconnaissance with roles including collection of imagery intelligence (including using photography), signals intelligence, as well as measurement and signature intelligence. Modern technology has also enabled some aircraft and UAVs to carry out real-time surveillance in addition to general intelligence gathering. Before the development of devices such as radar, military forces relied on reconnaissance aircraft for visual observation and scouting of enemy movement. An example is the PBY Catalina maritime patrol flying boat used by the Allies in World War II: a flight of U.S. Navy Catalinas spotted part of the Japanese fleet approaching Midway Island, beginning the Battle of Midway. History Prior to the 20th century machines for powered and controllable flight were not available to military forces, but some attempts were made to use lighter than air craft. During the Napoleonic Wars and Franco-Prussian War, balloons were used for aerial reconnaissance by the French. In World War I, aircraft were deployed during early phases of battle in reconnaissance roles as 'eyes of the army' to aid ground forces. Aerial reconnaissance from this time through 1945 was mostly carried out by adapted versions of standard fighters and bombers equipped with film cameras. Photography became the primary and best-known method of intelligence collection for reconnaissance aircraft by the end of World War II. World War I also saw use of floatplanes to locate enemy warships. After the battle of Jutland demonstrated the limitations of seaplane tenders, provisions were made for capital ships to carry, launch, and recover observation seaplanes. These seaplanes could scout for enemy warships beyond the visual range of the ship's lookouts, and could spot the fall of shot during long range artillery engagements. Observation seaplanes were replaced by helicopters after World War II. After World War II and during the Cold War the United States developed several dedicated reconnaissance aircraft designs, including the U-2 and SR-71, to monitor the nuclear threat from the Soviet Union. Other types of reconnaissance aircraft were built for specialized roles in signals intelligence and electronic monitoring, such as the RB-47, Boeing RC-135 and the Ryan Model 147 drones. Since the Cold War much of the strategic reconnaissance aircraft role has passed over to satellites, and the tactical role to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). This has been proven in successful uses by Israel, and by the United States in Desert Storm operations. See also Aerial reconnaissance Surveillance aircraft List of United States Air Force reconnaissance aircraft Lockheed U-2 Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Maritime patrol aircraft Observation seaplane References External links spyflight "A Tale of Two Airplanes" by Kingdon R. "King" Hawes, Lt Col, USAF (Ret.) 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233078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montebello%20Islands	Montebello Islands	The Montebello Islands, also known as the Monte Bello Islands, are an archipelago of around 174 small islands (about 92 of which are named) lying north of Barrow Island and off the Pilbara coast of north-western Australia. The islands form a marine conservation reserve of administered by the Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation. The islands were the site of three British atmospheric nuclear weapons tests in 1952 and 1956. Description The islands of the archipelago have a collective land area of about . The largest islands, Hermite and Trimouille, have areas of and respectively. They consist of limestone rock and sand. The rocky parts are dominated by Triodia hummock grassland with scattered shrubs, while the sandy areas support grasses, sedges and shrubs, mainly Acacia. Patches of mangroves grow in sheltered bays and channels of the archipelago, especially at Hermite Island. The climate is hot and arid with an annual average rainfall of about 320 mm. Wildlife Birds The islands have been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because they support over 1% of the world populations of fairy and roseate terns, and of sooty oystercatchers. Greater crested terns breed there irregularly, sometimes in large numbers. Other birds breeding on the islands include ospreys, white-bellied sea eagles, pied oystercatchers, Caspian terns and bridled terns. The islands support 12–15 breeding pairs of beach stone-curlews. Yellow white-eyes have been recorded. Mammals Invasive feral cats and black rats have been eradicated from the islands, allowing endangered rufous hare-wallabies (mala) and Shark Bay mice to be translocated to the islands under the conservation management strategy for these threatened species. They are now common on many of the larger islands. History It is believed that the islands were visited by indigenous Australians until about 8248 BP, when a period of global warming and rising sea levels caused the Montebellos to become separated from the mainland, and forced abandonment. In 1622 Tryall, an English East India Company-owned East Indiaman, was wrecked on the Tryal Rocks, uncharted submerged rocks about northwest of the outer edge of the Montebello Islands. The ship's factor Thomas Bright and 35 others sailed a longboat to the Montebello Islands and spent seven days ashore, before sailing the longboat to Bantam in Java. This was the first recorded shipwreck in Australian waters and the first extended stay in Australia by Europeans. In 1801 Nicolas Baudin, leading a French Navy exploration expedition, named the island group after the Battle of Montebello of 1800, Hermite Island after Admiral Jean-Marthe-Adrien L'Hermite, and Trimouille Island after French general Louis II de la Trémoille. The islands were economically significant for pearl fishing from the end of the 19th century until the outbreak of the Second World War. British nuclear weapons tests The Montebello Islands were the site of three atmospheric nuclear weapon tests by the British military: one in 1952, and two in 1956. HMS Plym, moored in Main Bay on Trimouille Island, was the site of Operation Hurricane, the first-ever atomic weapon tested by the United Kingdom, on 3 October 1952. While subsequent British tests were conducted at sites on mainland Australia, in 1956 there were two land-sited tower-mounted tests, on Trimouille and Alpha Islands. The second of these, codenamed "Mosaic G2", was the largest nuclear explosion in Australia, with an official yield of 60 kilotons. Mosaic G2 was later described as an "exceptionally "dirty" explosion", whose fallout contaminated large areas of mainland Australia, as far away as the Queensland towns of Mount Isa, Julia Creek, Longreach and Rockhampton. Islands Of the smaller islands, the largest are: North-West Island Primrose Island Bluebell Island Alpha Island Crocus Island Campbell Island Delta Island Renewal Island Ah Chong Island There are also 10 named groups of small islets, whose individual islands have not yet been named: Corkwood Islands Fig Islands Hakea Islands Jarrah Islands Jasmine Islands Karri Islands Marri Islands Minnieritchie Islands Mulga Islands Quandong Islands References Further reading Acaster, Ray (1995). "British nuclear testing at the Monte Bello Islands". Early Days Vol. 11, no. 1. pp. 66–80. Arnold, Lorna; and Smith, Mark (2006). Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath. Palgrave MacMillan. Bird, Peter (1989). Operation Hurricane. Square One Publications: Worcester. (First published in 1953). Burbidge, A. A. (1971). The Fauna and Flora of the Monte Bello Islands. Department of Fisheries and Fauna: Perth. Deegan, P. M. (1992). Monte Bello and Lowendal Islands: bibliography, summary report of marine resources. Dept. of Conservation and Land Management: Perth. Duyker, Edward (2006). François Péron: An Impetuous Life: Naturalist and Voyager. Miegunyah/MUP: Melbourne. Fornasiero, Jean; Monteath, Peter; and West-Sooby, John (2004). Encountering Terra Australis: the Australian voyages of Nicholas Baudin and Matthew Flinders. Wakefield Press: Kent Town, South Australia. Horner, Frank (1987). The French Reconnaissance: Baudin in Australia 1801–1803. Melbourne University Press: Melbourne. . Tuckfield, Trevor (1 August 1951). "The Monte Bello Islands". Walkabout, Vol. 17, No. 8. pp. 33–34. External links Video footage of the Operation Hurricane detonation on Trimouille Island in 1951 Nicolas Baudin's Scientific Expedition to the Terres Australes by Steve Reynolds – Marine Life Society of South Australia Inc. 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233079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno%20Akrapovi%C4%87	Bruno Akrapović	Bruno Akrapović (born 26 September 1967) is a Bosnian professional football manager and former player who played as a midfielder. He is current manager of Shkëndija. Club career Starting his career in his native Bosnia, at the time part of Yugoslavia, Akrapović spent the majority of his career playing for various clubs in the Bundesliga and 2. Bundesliga. He played for Energie Cottbus from 2000 until 2002. He played alongside Jürgen Klopp at Mainz. International career Akrapović made his senior debut for Bosnia and Herzegovina in a March 2000 friendly match against Macedonia and has earned a total of 14 caps, scoring one goal. His final international was a September 2002 European Championship qualification match against Romania. International goal Scores and results list Bosnia and Herzegovina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after Akrapović goal. Managerial career Akrapović recently coached KF Shkëndija in the Macedonian First League and RNK Split in Croatia before relocating to Bulgaria in 2017 to become the manager of Lokomotiv Plovdiv where he won twice in a row the Bulgarian Cup: 2018/19 and 2019/20. On 16 January 2010, Akrapović received his UEFA Pro Licence in Football Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina's educational facility in Jablanica. Personal life Akrapović's wife is Italian and their son Aaron Akrapović used to represent Italy U17. Managerial statistics As of 19 February 2022 Honours Manager Lokomotiv Plovdiv Bulgarian Cup: 2018–19, 2019–20 Bulgarian Supercup: 2019–20 References External links Profile at Soccerpunter.com 1967 births Living people Sportspeople from Zenica Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina Association football midfielders Yugoslav footballers Bosnia and Herzegovina footballers Bosnia and Herzegovina international footballers NK Čelik Zenica players SV Arminia Hannover players TuS Celle FC players VfL Wolfsburg players 1. FSV Mainz 05 players Tennis Borussia Berlin players FC Energie Cottbus players FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt players Kickers Offenbach players 2. Bundesliga players Regionalliga players Bundesliga players Yugoslav expatriate footballers Expatriate footballers in Germany Yugoslav expatriate sportspeople in Germany Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate footballers Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Germany Bosnia and Herzegovina football managers FK Shkëndija managers RNK Split managers PFC Lokomotiv Plovdiv managers PFC CSKA Sofia managers Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate football managers Expatriate football managers in Gibraltar Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriates in Gibraltar Expatriate football managers in North Macedonia Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in North Macedonia Expatriate football managers in Bulgaria Bosnia and Herzegovina expatriate sportspeople in Bulgaria	[ -0.30940937995910645, 0.2908613085746765, -1.0725280046463013, -0.3763631582260132, -0.32058626413345337, 1.0925655364990234, 0.5379595160484314, -0.06430669873952866, -0.4866292476654053, 0.45826447010040283, 0.6120592355728149, 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233082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn	Burn	A burn is a type of injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ultraviolet radiation (like sunburn). Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids (called scalding), solids, or fire. While rates are similar for males and females, the underlying causes often differ. Among women in some areas, risk is related to use of open cooking fires or unsafe cook stoves. Among men, risk is related to the work environments. Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors. Burns can also occur as a result of self-harm or violence between people (assault). Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first-degree burns. They appear red without blisters and pain typically lasts around three days. When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer, it is a partial-thickness or second-degree burn. Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful. Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur. In a full-thickness or third-degree burn, the injury extends to all layers of the skin. Often there is no pain and the burnt area is stiff. Healing typically does not occur on its own. A fourth-degree burn additionally involves injury to deeper tissues, such as muscle, tendons, or bone. The burn is often black and frequently leads to loss of the burned part. Burns are generally preventable. Treatment depends on the severity of the burn. Superficial burns may be managed with little more than simple pain medication, while major burns may require prolonged treatment in specialized burn centers. Cooling with tap water may help pain and decrease damage; however, prolonged cooling may result in low body temperature. Partial-thickness burns may require cleaning with soap and water, followed by dressings. It is not clear how to manage blisters, but it is probably reasonable to leave them intact if small and drain them if large. Full-thickness burns usually require surgical treatments, such as skin grafting. Extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid, due to capillary fluid leakage and tissue swelling. The most common complications of burns involve infection. Tetanus toxoid should be given if not up to date. In 2015, fire and heat resulted in 67 million injuries. This resulted in about 2.9 million hospitalizations and 176,000 deaths. Most deaths due to burns occur in the developing world, particularly in Southeast Asia. While large burns can be fatal, treatments developed since 1960 have improved outcomes, especially in children and young adults. In the United States, approximately 96% of those admitted to a burn center survive their injuries. The long-term outcome is related to the size of burn and the age of the person affected. Signs and symptoms The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth. Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or three days, followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days. Individuals suffering from more severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain. Full-thickness burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture. While superficial burns are typically red in color, severe burns may be pink, white or black. Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred, but these findings are not definitive. More worrisome signs include: shortness of breath, hoarseness, and stridor or wheezing. Itchiness is common during the healing process, occurring in up to 90% of adults and nearly all children. Numbness or tingling may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury. Burns may also produce emotional and psychological distress. Cause Burns are caused by a variety of external sources classified as thermal (heat-related), chemical, electrical, and radiation. In the United States, the most common causes of burns are: fire or flame (44%), scalds (33%), hot objects (9%), electricity (4%), and chemicals (3%). Most (69%) burn injuries occur at home or at work (9%), and most are accidental, with 2% due to assault by another, and 1–2% resulting from a suicide attempt. These sources can cause inhalation injury to the airway and/or lungs, occurring in about 6%. Burn injuries occur more commonly among the poor. Smoking and alcoholism are other risk factors. Fire-related burns are generally more common in colder climates. Specific risk factors in the developing world include cooking with open fires or on the floor as well as developmental disabilities in children and chronic diseases in adults. Thermal In the United States, fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns. Of house fires that result in death, smoking causes 25% and heating devices cause 22%. Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire. Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks, high temperature tap water in baths or showers, hot cooking oil, or steam. Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and, in the United States and Australia, this population makes up about two-thirds of all burns. Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20–30% of burns in children. Generally, scalds are first- or second-degree burns, but third-degree burns may also result, especially with prolonged contact. Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries. This is a particular risk for adolescent males. In the United States, For non-fatal burn injuries, white males, aged <6 comprise most cases. Thermal burns from grabbing/touching and spilling/splashing were the most common type of burn and mechanism, while the bodily areas most impacted were hands and fingers followed by head/neck. Chemical Chemical burns can be caused by over 25,000 substances, most of which are either a strong base (55%) or a strong acid (26%). Most chemical burn deaths are secondary to ingestion. Common agents include: sulfuric acid as found in toilet cleaners, sodium hypochlorite as found in bleach, and halogenated hydrocarbons as found in paint remover, among others. Hydrofluoric acid can cause particularly deep burns that may not become symptomatic until some time after exposure. Formic acid may cause the breakdown of significant numbers of red blood cells. Electrical Electrical burns or injuries are classified as high voltage (greater than or equal to 1000 volts), low voltage (less than 1000 volts), or as flash burns secondary to an electric arc. The most common causes of electrical burns in children are electrical cords (60%) followed by electrical outlets (14%). Lightning may also result in electrical burns. Risk factors for being struck include involvement in outdoor activities such as mountain climbing, golf and field sports, and working outside. Mortality from a lightning strike is about 10%. While electrical injuries primarily result in burns, they may also cause fractures or dislocations secondary to blunt force trauma or muscle contractions. In high voltage injuries, most damage may occur internally and thus the extent of the injury cannot be judged by examination of the skin alone. Contact with either low voltage or high voltage may produce cardiac arrhythmias or cardiac arrest. Radiation Radiation burns may be caused by protracted exposure to ultraviolet light (such as from the sun, tanning booths or arc welding) or from ionizing radiation (such as from radiation therapy, X-rays or radioactive fallout). Sun exposure is the most common cause of radiation burns and the most common cause of superficial burns overall. There is significant variation in how easily people sunburn based on their skin type. Skin effects from ionizing radiation depend on the amount of exposure to the area, with hair loss seen after 3 Gy, redness seen after 10 Gy, wet skin peeling after 20 Gy, and necrosis after 30 Gy. Redness, if it occurs, may not appear until some time after exposure. Radiation burns are treated the same as other burns. Microwave burns occur via thermal heating caused by the microwaves. While exposures as short as two seconds may cause injury, overall this is an uncommon occurrence. Non-accidental In those hospitalized from scalds or fire burns, 310% are from assault. Reasons include: child abuse, personal disputes, spousal abuse, elder abuse, and business disputes. An immersion injury or immersion scald may indicate child abuse. It is created when an extremity, or sometimes the buttocks are held under the surface of hot water. It typically produces a sharp upper border and is often symmetrical, known as "sock burns", "glove burns", or "zebra stripes" - where folds have prevented certain areas from burning. Deliberate cigarette burns most often found on the face, or the back of the hands and feet. Other high-risk signs of potential abuse include: circumferential burns, the absence of splash marks, a burn of uniform depth, and association with other signs of neglect or abuse. Bride burning, a form of domestic violence, occurs in some cultures, such as India where women have been burned in revenge for what the husband or his family consider an inadequate dowry. In Pakistan, acid burns represent 13% of intentional burns, and are frequently related to domestic violence. Self-immolation (setting oneself on fire) is also used as a form of protest in various parts of the world. Pathophysiology At temperatures greater than , proteins begin losing their three-dimensional shape and start breaking down. This results in cell and tissue damage. Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin. They include disruption of the skin's sensation, ability to prevent water loss through evaporation, and ability to control body temperature. Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium. In large burns (over 30% of the total body surface area), there is a significant inflammatory response. This results in increased leakage of fluid from the capillaries, and subsequent tissue edema. This causes overall blood volume loss, with the remaining blood suffering significant plasma loss, making the blood more concentrated. Poor blood flow to organs such as the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract may result in kidney failure and stomach ulcers. Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years. This is associated with increased cardiac output, metabolism, a fast heart rate, and poor immune function. Diagnosis Burns can be classified by depth, mechanism of injury, extent, and associated injuries. The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury. The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination, although a biopsy may also be used. It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary. In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire-related burn, carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered. Cyanide poisoning should also be considered. Size The size of a burn is measured as a percentage of total body surface area (TBSA) affected by partial thickness or full thickness burns. First-degree burns that are only red in color and are not blistering are not included in this estimation. Most burns (70%) involve less than 10% of the TBSA. There are a number of methods to determine the TBSA, including the Wallace rule of nines, Lund and Browder chart, and estimations based on a person's palm size. The rule of nines is easy to remember but only accurate in people over 16 years of age. More accurate estimates can be made using Lund and Browder charts, which take into account the different proportions of body parts in adults and children. The size of a person's handprint (including the palm and fingers) is approximately 1% of their TBSA. Severity To determine the need for referral to a specialized burn unit, the American Burn Association devised a classification system. Under this system, burns can be classified as major, moderate, and minor. This is assessed based on a number of factors, including total body surface area affected, the involvement of specific anatomical zones, the age of the person, and associated injuries. Minor burns can typically be managed at home, moderate burns are often managed in a hospital, and major burns are managed by a burn center. Severe burn injury represents one of the most devastating forms of trauma. Despite improvements in burn care, patients can be left to suffer for as many as three years post-injury. Prevention Historically, about half of all burns were deemed preventable. Burn prevention programs have significantly decreased rates of serious burns. Preventive measures include: limiting hot water temperatures, smoke alarms, sprinkler systems, proper construction of buildings, and fire-resistant clothing. Experts recommend setting water heaters below . Other measures to prevent scalds include using a thermometer to measure bath water temperatures, and splash guards on stoves. While the effect of the regulation of fireworks is unclear, there is tentative evidence of benefit with recommendations including the limitation of the sale of fireworks to children. Management Resuscitation begins with the assessment and stabilization of the person's airway, breathing and circulation. If inhalation injury is suspected, early intubation may be required. This is followed by care of the burn wound itself. People with extensive burns may be wrapped in clean sheets until they arrive at a hospital. As burn wounds are prone to infection, a tetanus booster shot should be given if an individual has not been immunized within the last five years. In the United States, 95% of burns that present to the emergency department are treated and discharged; 5% require hospital admission. With major burns, early feeding is important. Protein intake should also be increased, and trace elements and vitamins are often required. Hyperbaric oxygenation may be useful in addition to traditional treatments. Intravenous fluids In those with poor tissue perfusion, boluses of isotonic crystalloid solution should be given. In children with more than 10–20% TBSA burns, and adults with more than 15% TBSA burns, formal fluid resuscitation and monitoring should follow. This should be begun pre-hospital if possible in those with burns greater than 25% TBSA. The Parkland formula can help determine the volume of intravenous fluids required over the first 24 hours. The formula is based on the affected individual's TBSA and weight. Half of the fluid is administered over the first 8 hours, and the remainder over the following 16 hours. The time is calculated from when the burn occurred, and not from the time that fluid resuscitation began. Children require additional maintenance fluid that includes glucose. Additionally, those with inhalation injuries require more fluid. While inadequate fluid resuscitation may cause problems, over-resuscitation can also be detrimental. The formulas are only a guide, with infusions ideally tailored to a urinary output of >30 mL/h in adults or >1mL/kg in children and mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg. While lactated Ringer's solution is often used, there is no evidence that it is superior to normal saline. Crystalloid fluids appear just as good as colloid fluids, and as colloids are more expensive they are not recommended. Blood transfusions are rarely required. They are typically only recommended when the hemoglobin level falls below 60-80 g/L (6-8 g/dL) due to the associated risk of complications. Intravenous catheters may be placed through burned skin if needed or intraosseous infusions may be used. Wound care Early cooling (within 30 minutes of the burn) reduces burn depth and pain, but care must be taken as over-cooling can result in hypothermia. It should be performed with cool water and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury. Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation. Cleaning with soap and water, removal of dead tissue, and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care. If intact blisters are present, it is not clear what should be done with them. Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact. Second-degree burns should be re-evaluated after two days. In the management of first and second-degree burns, little quality evidence exists to determine which dressing type to use. It is reasonable to manage first-degree burns without dressings. While topical antibiotics are often recommended, there is little evidence to support their use. Silver sulfadiazine (a type of antibiotic) is not recommended as it potentially prolongs healing time. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of dressings containing silver or negative-pressure wound therapy. Silver sulfadiazine does not appear to differ from silver containing foam dressings with respect to healing. Medications Burns can be very painful and a number of different options may be used for pain management. These include simple analgesics (such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen) and opioids such as morphine. Benzodiazepines may be used in addition to analgesics to help with anxiety. During the healing process, antihistamines, massage, or transcutaneous nerve stimulation may be used to aid with itching. Antihistamines, however, are only effective for this purpose in 20% of people. There is tentative evidence supporting the use of gabapentin and its use may be reasonable in those who do not improve with antihistamines. Intravenous lidocaine requires more study before it can be recommended for pain. Intravenous antibiotics are recommended before surgery for those with extensive burns (>60% TBSA). , guidelines do not recommend their general use due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance and the increased risk of fungal infections. Tentative evidence, however, shows that they may improve survival rates in those with large and severe burns. Erythropoietin has not been found effective to prevent or treat anemia in burn cases. In burns caused by hydrofluoric acid, calcium gluconate is a specific antidote and may be used intravenously and/or topically. Recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in those with burns that involve more than 40% of their body appears to speed healing without affecting the risk of death. The use of steroids is of unclear evidence. Surgery Wounds requiring surgical closure with skin grafts or flaps (typically anything more than a small full thickness burn) should be dealt with as early as possible. Circumferential burns of the limbs or chest may need urgent surgical release of the skin, known as an escharotomy. This is done to treat or prevent problems with distal circulation, or ventilation. It is uncertain if it is useful for neck or digit burns. Fasciotomies may be required for electrical burns. Skin grafts can involve temporary skin substitutes, derived from animal (human donor or pig) skin or synthesized. They are used to cover the wound as a dressing, preventing infection and fluid loss, but will eventually need to be removed. Alternatively, human skin can be treated to be left on permanently without rejection. Integra LifeSciences’ Integra artificial skin products are among the most widely used for burn victims. There is no evidence that the use of copper sulphate to visualise phosphorus particles for removal can help with wound healing due to phosphorus burns. Meanwhile, absorption of copper sulphate into the blood circulation can be harmful. Alternative medicine Honey has been used since ancient times to aid wound healing and may be beneficial in first- and second-degree burns. There is moderate evidence that honey helps heal partial thickness burns. The evidence for aloe vera is of poor quality. While it might be beneficial in reducing pain, and a review from 2007 found tentative evidence of improved healing times, a subsequent review from 2012 did not find improved healing over silver sulfadiazine. There were only three randomized controlled trials for the use of plants for burns, two for aloe vera and one for oatmeal. There is little evidence that vitamin E helps with keloids or scarring. Butter is not recommended. In low income countries, burns are treated up to one-third of the time with traditional medicine, which may include applications of eggs, mud, leaves or cow dung. Surgical management is limited in some cases due to insufficient financial resources and availability. There are a number of other methods that may be used in addition to medications to reduce procedural pain and anxiety including: virtual reality therapy, hypnosis, and behavioral approaches such as distraction techniques. Patient support Burn victims require support and care – both physiological and psychological. Respiratory failure, sepsis, and multi-organ system failure are common in hospitalized burn victims. To prevent hypothermia and maintain normal body temperature, burn victims with over 20% of burn injuries should be kept in an environment with the temperature at or above 30 degree Celsius. Metabolism in burn victims proceeds at a higher than normal speed due to the whole-body process and rapid fatty acid substrate cycles, which can be countered with an adequate supply of energy, nutrients, and antioxidants. Enteral feeding a day after resuscitation is required to reduce risk of infection, recovery time, non-infectious complications, hospital stay, long-term damage, and mortality. Controlling blood glucose levels can have an impact on liver function and survival. Risk of thromboembolism is high and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that does not resolve with maximal ventilator use is also a common complication. Scars are long-term after-effects of a burn injury. Psychological support is required to cope with the aftermath of a fire accident, while to prevent scars and long-term damage to the skin and other body structures consulting with burn specialists, preventing infections, consuming nutritious foods, early and aggressive rehabilitation, and using compressive clothing are recommended. Prognosis The prognosis is worse in those with larger burns, those who are older, and females. The presence of a smoke inhalation injury, other significant injuries such as long bone fractures, and serious co-morbidities (e.g. heart disease, diabetes, psychiatric illness, and suicidal intent) also influence prognosis. On average, of those admitted to the United States burn centers, 4% die, with the outcome for individuals dependent on the extent of the burn injury. For example, admittees with burn areas less than 10% TBSA had a mortality rate of less than 1%, while admittees with over 90% TBSA had a mortality rate of 85%. In Afghanistan, people with more than 60% TBSA burns rarely survive. The Baux score has historically been used to determine prognosis of major burns. However, with improved care, it is no longer very accurate. The score is determined by adding the size of the burn (% TBSA) to the age of the person and taking that to be more or less equal to the risk of death. Burns in 2013 resulted in 1.2 million years lived with disability and 12.3 million disability adjusted life years. Complications A number of complications may occur, with infections being the most common. In order of frequency, potential complications include: pneumonia, cellulitis, urinary tract infections and respiratory failure. Risk factors for infection include: burns of more than 30% TBSA, full-thickness burns, extremes of age (young or old), or burns involving the legs or perineum. Pneumonia occurs particularly commonly in those with inhalation injuries. Anemia secondary to full thickness burns of greater than 10% TBSA is common. Electrical burns may lead to compartment syndrome or rhabdomyolysis due to muscle breakdown. Blood clotting in the veins of the legs is estimated to occur in 6 to 25% of people. The hypermetabolic state that may persist for years after a major burn can result in a decrease in bone density and a loss of muscle mass. Keloids may form subsequent to a burn, particularly in those who are young and dark skinned. Following a burn, children may have significant psychological trauma and experience post-traumatic stress disorder. Scarring may also result in a disturbance in body image. In the developing world, significant burns may result in social isolation, extreme poverty and child abandonment. Epidemiology In 2015 fire and heat resulted in 67 million injuries. This resulted in about 2.9 million hospitalizations and 238,000 dying. This is down from 300,000 deaths in 1990. This makes it the fourth leading cause of injuries after motor vehicle collisions, falls, and violence. About 90% of burns occur in the developing world. This has been attributed partly to overcrowding and an unsafe cooking situation. Overall, nearly 60% of fatal burns occur in Southeast Asia with a rate of 11.6 per 100,000. The number of fatal burns has changed from 280,000 in 1990 to 176,000 in 2015. In the developed world, adult males have twice the mortality as females from burns. This is most probably due to their higher risk occupations and greater risk-taking activities. In many countries in the developing world, however, females have twice the risk of males. This is often related to accidents in the kitchen or domestic violence. In children, deaths from burns occur at more than ten times the rate in the developing than the developed world. Overall, in children it is one of the top fifteen leading causes of death. From the 1980s to 2004, many countries have seen both a decrease in the rates of fatal burns and in burns generally. Developed countries An estimated 500,000 burn injuries receive medical treatment yearly in the United States. They resulted in about 3,300 deaths in 2008. Most burns (70%) and deaths from burns occur in males. The highest incidence of fire burns occurs in those 1835 years old, while the highest incidence of scalds occurs in children less than five years old and adults over 65. Electrical burns result in about 1,000 deaths per year. Lightning results in the death of about 60 people a year. In Europe, intentional burns occur most commonly in middle aged men. Developing countries In India, about 700,000 to 800,000 people per year sustain significant burns, though very few are looked after in specialist burn units. The highest rates occur in women 16–35 years of age. Part of this high rate is related to unsafe kitchens and loose-fitting clothing typical to India. It is estimated that one-third of all burns in India are due to clothing catching fire from open flames. Intentional burns are also a common cause and occur at high rates in young women, secondary to domestic violence and self-harm. History Cave paintings from more than 3,500 years ago document burns and their management. The earliest Egyptian records on treating burns describes dressings prepared with milk from mothers of baby boys, and the 1500 BCE Edwin Smith Papyrus describes treatments using honey and the salve of resin. Many other treatments have been used over the ages, including the use of tea leaves by the Chinese documented to 600 BCE, pig fat and vinegar by Hippocrates documented to 400 BCE, and wine and myrrh by Celsus documented to 100 CE. French barber-surgeon Ambroise Paré was the first to describe different degrees of burns in the 1500s. Guillaume Dupuytren expanded these degrees into six different severities in 1832. The first hospital to treat burns opened in 1843 in London, England, and the development of modern burn care began in the late 1800s and early 1900s. During World War I, Henry D. Dakin and Alexis Carrel developed standards for the cleaning and disinfecting of burns and wounds using sodium hypochlorite solutions, which significantly reduced mortality. In the 1940s, the importance of early excision and skin grafting was acknowledged, and around the same time, fluid resuscitation and formulas to guide it were developed. In the 1970s, researchers demonstrated the significance of the hypermetabolic state that follows large burns. 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233083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les%20Wexner	Les Wexner	Leslie Herbert Wexner (born September 8, 1937) is an American billionaire businessman, the founder and chairman emeritus of L Brands (formerly Limited Brands). Wexner grew a business empire after starting The Limited, a clothing retailer with a restricted selection of profitable items, and later expanded his holdings to include Victoria's Secret, Abercrombie & Fitch, Express, Inc., and Bath & Body Works. Wexner announced, in February 2020, that he was transitioning from CEO of L Brands into the role of chairman emeritus. Wexner had a very close relationship with Jeffrey Epstein that began in the 1980s and continued until Epstein's death. Wexner allowed Jeffrey Epstein to run his business out of a house he owned and resided in whilst CEO of Victoria's Secret. Early life and education Leslie Wexner was born in Dayton, Ohio on September 8, 1937, to parents Bella (née Cabakoff 1908–2001) and Harry Louis Wexner (1899–1975). His parents were both of Russian-Jewish origin. His father was born in Russia. His mother, a first generation American, was born in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn and moved to Columbus, Ohio, as a toddler. He has a younger sister, Susan. His parents paid tuition for Wexner to attend Bexley High School. He attended Ohio State University, and although he had expressed an interest in architecture he graduated in 1959 with a major in business administration. While at Ohio State University, he became a member of Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity. Wexner served in the Air National Guard. He briefly attended the Moritz College of Law. Career Wexner began his retail career working in his parents' clothing store "Leslie's", which had been named in his honor. After he decided to leave law school, his parents asked him to take care of the store when they went on their first vacation in ten years. While they were away on vacation he analyzed the profit and loss margins on the women's clothing they sold. He found that although higher-priced clothing (e.g. jackets) had a higher margin per item, they sold less frequently than blouses and were therefore less profitable as a line. When he told his father this, his father was uninterested in changing his inventory. In 1963, Wexner was lent $5,000 from his aunt Ida which was then matched by a bank in order to start The Limited. The store took its name due to its limited focus on moderately priced merchandise such as skirts, sweaters and shirts that turned over quickly and generated greater revenues. Wexner opened the first store on August 10, 1963, in the Kingsdale Shopping Center in Upper Arlington, Ohio, a suburb of Columbus. One year later, Wexner's parents closed their store and joined their son in running The Limited. He opened the second Limited store in August 1964. He took Limited Brands public in 1969, listed as LTD on the NYSE. A. Alfred Taubman reportedly served as a mentor for Wexner, starting in the mid 1960s, and the two partnered on many deals involving Taubman's shopping malls over the years. Wexner expanded the Limited considerably in the 1970s, having opened the 100th store in 1976. He took on significant debt in 1978 to purchase the importer and manufacturer Mast Industries, which later was regarded to have provided him with essential business advantages over competitors. In the 1980s, Wexner doubled his retail holdings by purchasing a number of companies and became known as a major retail owner at malls in America. In 1982, Wexner acquired the lingerie business Victoria's Secret. Started as an MBA project by Stanford graduate Roy Raymond, Victoria's Secret attracted Wexner's interest due to the unique, high quality merchandise and Victorian-era decor of the shop which featured red-velvet sofas. Wexner described Raymond as "very guarded" stating, "When I met him, it was as if he met the devil." Six months later, when Raymond was facing bankruptcy, he contacted Wexner and offered to sell Victoria's Secret. Wexner bought the company for $1 million and by the 1990s it was worth an estimated $1 billion. After Wexner assumed ownership, Victoria's Secret became widely known for marketing its items with the use of super models known as "angels" which were featured in an annual fashion show, overseen by Ed Razek. By 2015, sales were in decline and 2018 proved to be the final year for the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. Over the years, Wexner built a retailing and marketing conglomerate that included Victoria's Secret, Pink (Victoria's Secret for teens), Bath & Body Works, Henri Bendel, The White Barn Candle Company, and La Senza. Previous brands that were spun off include Lane Bryant, Abercrombie & Fitch, Lerner New York, The Limited Too (now Tween Brands, Inc.), Structure 9, Aura Science, The Limited (which closed its brick-and-mortar stores while retaining its online presence), and Express (which closed its Canadian stores and hundreds of its U.S.-based stores). In 2012, CNN Money described Wexner as the longest serving CEO of a Fortune 500 company. In February 2020, Wexner was described as the longest serving CEO of a Fortune 500 company with his 57 years at the helm of L Brands. He was on Harvard Business Review’s Top 100 Best Performing CEOs, ranked #11 in 2015, and #34 in 2016. L Brands shareholders filed a complaint in the Court of Chancery of Delaware on January 14, 2021, stating that Wexner, among others, created an "entrenched culture of misogyny, bullying and harassment" and was aware of abuses being committed by Jeffrey Epstein, which breached his fiduciary duty to the company, causing devaluation of the brand. The complaint also names Wexner's wife, current chair Sarah E. Nash and former marketing officer Ed Razek, whose "widely known misconduct" was long allowed at the company. Jeffrey Epstein association Wexner had a close relationship with Jeffrey Epstein that began in the 1980s and continued until at least 2007. He was the primary billionaire client of Epstein, a financier who claimed to only work with clients with a net worth of one billion USD or greater. Epstein became Wexner's financial manager in 1987. Wexner purchased the New York property, the Herbert N. Straus House, in 1989 and later transferred it to Epstein in the mid-1990s following his marriage to Abigail. In July 1991, Wexner granted Epstein power of attorney and also instated him as a trustee on the board of the Wexner Foundation. Wexner has been accused of failing to take action when complaints were raised against Epstein, including after executives of L Brands reported (in the mid-1990s) that Epstein was abusing his power and connection to Wexner by posing as a recruiter of Victoria's Secret models. The artist Maria Farmer contacted local and federal authorities about an assault she allegedly endured by Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell while working as an artist-in-residence on Wexner's Ohio property in 1996. Within a year of Farmer's complaint, the actress Alicia Arden filed a police report in Los Angeles detailing that Epstein had misrepresented himself as a recruiter for Victoria's Secret prior to another alleged assault. In early 2006, Epstein was charged in Florida with "multiple counts of molestation and unlawful sexual activity with a minor." The New York Times reported that it was 18 months after the charges were raised that Wexner cut his ties to Epstein. In August 2019, following Epstein's second incarceration and prior to his death, Wexner addressed the Wexner Foundation in writing, releasing a statement that his former financial advisor, Jeffrey Epstein, had “misappropriated vast sums of money” from him and from his family. Wexner retained services of criminal defense attorney Mary Jo White of Debevoise & Plimpton. Wexner faced additional public scrutiny in late 2019 (and again in early 2020) when a group of wrestlers who are survivors of the Ohio State University abuse scandal publicly called on state and federal officials to conduct further inquiry into Maria Farmer's allegations of sexual assault at the Wexner property. The wrestlers called for accountability surrounding the Wexner family's involvement in Epstein's abuse and raised the issue of the continuing influence of Abigail and Leslie Wexner serving as the "biggest and best-known benefactors" of the university. Philanthropy In 1989, Wexner and his mother Bella were the first to make a $1 million personal donation to the United Way. Both of their names were inscribed in marble, and are on display in the lobby of the United Way Headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. Wexner was listed by Forbes in 2017, the wealthiest of seven billionaires from Ohio who made the list. He was a major funder of the Wexner Center for the Arts at the Ohio State University, which is named in honor of his father. Wexner explained that because "growing up, my folks moved around a lot, and I never got a good Jewish education", he felt unprepared to take leadership roles in the Jewish community. So, in 1985, he joined Rabbi Herbert A. Friedman to establish the Wexner Foundation's first core program, aimed "to educate Jewish communal leaders in the history, thought, traditions and contemporary challenges of the Jewish people." In 1991, Wexner formed with billionaire Charles Bronfman the Study Group, which is more widely known as the Mega Group. The group was a loosely organized club of some of the country's wealthiest and most influential businessmen who were concerned with Jewish issues. Max Fischer, Michael Steinhardt, Leonard Abramson, Edgar Bronfman, and Laurence Tisch were some of the members. The group would meet twice a year for two days of seminars related to the topic of philanthropy and Jewishness. In 1998, Steven Spielberg spoke about his personal religious journey, and later the group discussed Jewish summer camps. The group, which Wexner co-chaired with Charles Bronfman, went on to inspire a number of philanthropic initiatives such as the Partnership for Excellence in Jewish Education, Birthright Israel, and the upgrading of national Hillel. Wexner served on the board of trustees of Ohio State University from 1988 to 1997. In December 2005, Wexner was appointed to his second term and was elected chairman in 2009. It was announced in June 2012 that Wexner's chairmanship was to end, eight years before his appointment would have ended. On May 11, 2004, Wexner received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship at a dinner in Columbus, Ohio. The award was presented by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. On February 16, 2011, Wexner pledged a donation of $100 million to Ohio State, which will be allocated to the university’s academic Medical Center and James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, with additional gifts to the Wexner Center for the Arts and other areas. This latest gift is the largest in the university’s history. Through the L Brands Foundation, Wexner and L Brands contributed $163.4 million to the Columbus Foundation. On February 10, 2012, Ohio State University Medical Center officially changed its name to the Wexner Medical Center at Ohio State University commemorating "Mr. Wexner's indelible, lifelong legacy of leadership at Ohio State", according to university president E. Gordon Gee, during over 30 years of "ardent support" of the institution. Personal life On January 23, 1993, Wexner, then 55 years of age, married Abigail S. Koppel, 31, an attorney, in a ceremony at their home in New Albany, Ohio. The couple have four children: Harry, Hannah, David, and Sarah. Formerly of the Bexley area of Columbus, Ohio, Wexner now lives in New Albany, a community northeast of that city. He owns a 30-room, $47 million, Georgian-inspired estate, on nearly 336 acres (1.4 km²), that was built in 1990. The estate was, for twenty years, the location of the Annual New Albany Classic Invitational Grand Prix & Family Day benefiting The Center for Family Safety and Healing. The Classic consistently drew the top professional show jumping riders because of its elaborate and well-maintained jumping course. In February 2018, Abigail Wexner announced the end of the event, citing the growing number of elite equestrian competitions. As a pun on his name and his former residence in Bexley, the village of New Albany was known (unofficially) for some time as Wexley. Today, this Georgian-themed village inspires comparison to eighteenth century developments by wealthy aristocrats in England. Wexner has owned the mid-eighteenth century Grade II* listed Foxcote House in Warwickshire, England, since 1997. At the time of its construction in 1997, Wexner's Limitless was the largest American-owned private yacht, measuring 315 feet and 8 inches (96.25 meters) long and 41 feet (12.50 meters) wide. Few authorized images exist, but photographs of the yacht's interior appear in an October 2016 retrospective of the career of the yacht's interior designer, François Catroux, written by David Netto and published by Rizzoli. The Limitless is one of the largest privately owned yachts in use. President George W. Bush appointed Wexner to serve in the Honorary Delegation to accompany him to Jerusalem for the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the State of Israel in May 2008. Wexner was inducted as an honorary member into the 104th Class of Sphinx Senior Class Honorary at The Ohio State University on May 7, 2010. On February 10, 2012, The Ohio State University board of trustees voted to rename The Ohio State University Medical Center in honor of Wexner, in recognition of his leadership and service to the university and the medical center. Now the medical center is known as Wexner Medical Center at Ohio State University. Political activities Wexner hosted a fundraiser in 2012 for Mitt Romney and donated $250,000 to Restore Our Future, Romney's super PAC. In 2015, Wexner donated $500,000 to the Right to Rise USA Super-Pac that supported the 2016 presidential campaign of Jeb Bush. The Columbus Dispatch reported on September 14, 2018, that Wexner had renounced his affiliation with the Republican Party due to changes in its nature. Wexner made his comment shortly after former President Obama gave a speech on the same Columbus Partnership panel that Wexner addressed. He has been a political independent since 2018. See also List of billionaires References External links The Wexner Foundation 1937 births Living people American billionaires American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies American fashion businesspeople American people of Russian-Jewish descent American political fundraisers Bexley High School alumni Jewish American philanthropists Ohio State University Fisher College of Business alumni Ohio State University trustees People from Bexley, Ohio Businesspeople from Dayton, Ohio People from New Albany, Ohio Ohio Republicans Ohio Independents 21st-century American Jews Jeffrey Epstein	[ 0.5438642501831055, -0.06813375651836395, 0.13619355857372284, -0.251364141702652, 0.20628856122493744, 0.4588303864002228, -0.31728270649909973, 0.44086018204689026, -0.009277267381548882, -0.24065914750099182, -0.11383723467588425, 0.3564704954624176, -0.09760008007287979, 0.5210089683532715, -0.19364778697490692, 0.3574719727039337, 0.18073196709156036, 0.2731657922267914, -0.6037248969078064, 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233084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainspotting%20%28novel%29	Trainspotting (novel)	Trainspotting is the first novel by Scottish writer Irvine Welsh, first published in 1993. It takes the form of a collection of short stories, written in either Scots, Scottish English or British English, revolving around various residents of Leith, Edinburgh who either use heroin, are friends of the core group of heroin users, or engage in destructive activities that are effectively addictions. The novel is set in the late 1980s and has been described by The Sunday Times as "the voice of punk, grown up, grown wiser and grown eloquent". The novel has since achieved a cult status and served as the basis for the film Trainspotting (1996), directed by Danny Boyle. A sequel called Porno was published in 2002. A prequel called Skagboys was published in April 2012. Characters Mark "Rent Boy" Renton – The novel's protagonist and most frequent narrator, Renton is the voice of reason among his group of friends, many of whom he dislikes. He narrates his daily life – from supporting his heroin addiction with dole money and petty theft to interacting with the "normal world" – with a cynical approach. He is intelligent and capable of participating in mainstream society, but he is misanthropic and depressed, and uses heroin to give purpose to his life as well as for hedonistic purposes. Simon "Sick Boy" Williamson – A promiscuous, amoral con artist and one of Renton's close friends. He is often on the lookout for potential scams and has little respect for the many women he seduces. Sick Boy swears off heroin after the death of the infant Dawn, implied to be his daughter, who asphyxiates while her mother Lesley and Sick Boy are on a heroin binge. Daniel "Spud" Murphy – Naive and childlike, Spud is both the whipping boy and only real source of comfort among Renton's circle of friends, who feel protective of him even as they take advantage of him. Spud is kind, sensitive, and loves animals. Spud is sent to Saughton prison for a section of the novel for petty theft. Francis "Franco" Begbie – A violent psychopath, Begbie bullies his "friends" into going along with whatever he says, assaulting and intimidating anyone who angers him. He expresses intense loyalty to his friends even though he considers junkies to be the lowest form of life, despite being addicted to alcohol and the adrenaline rush of violence. Davie Mitchell – Another Leith native and acquaintance of Renton. Davie is a university graduate and holds down a decent job. His life is thrown into chaos when he contracts HIV. He narrates the chapters "Bad Blood" and "Traditional Sunday Breakfast". Tommy Lawrence – A childhood friend of Renton's, Tommy asks Renton for heroin to try after his girlfriend dumps him, which Renton reluctantly provides. Tommy's resulting addiction, illness and death weigh on Renton's conscience. Rab "Second Prize" McLaughlin – A friend of the main group, who is often inebriated and gets into frequent fights while drunk, which he always loses. Second Prize had a promising career as a pro footballer for Manchester United, but he was fired from the team after a few years because of his drinking problem. Structure The novel is split into seven sections. The first six sections contain multiple chapters from various perspectives; the final section contains one chapter. The novel's plot is nonlinear. Most chapters are narrated in first-person, stream-of-consciousness style in some combination of Scots dialect and Standard English. Some chapters are written from a third-person omniscient stance to convey the actions and thoughts of several characters in a scene. Plot summary Section 1: Kicking Mark and Simon (a.k.a. Sick Boy) are watching a Jean-Claude Van Damme video when they decide to go buy heroin from Johnny Swan (also called "Mother Superior") since they are both feeling symptoms of withdrawal. They cook up with Raymie and Alison. After being informed that he should go and see Kelly, who has just had an abortion, Renton goes home to finish his video instead. Mark initially makes an attempt to come off heroin by acquiring a bare room and all the things he will require when coming down (canned soup, headache medicine, and pails for vomit). When withdrawal begins to set in, however, he resolves to get another hit to ease the decline. Unable to find any heroin, he acquires opium suppositories which, after a heavy bout of diarrhoea, he must recover from a public lavatory. Simon attempts to pick up girls while being annoyed by Mark, who wants to watch videos. Sick Boy loses Renton and launches into an internal monologue that is self-glorifying and nihilistic. The chapter "It Goes Without Saying" opens with the death of an infant, Dawn, whose mother Lesley is a heroin addict and acquaintance of the main characters. The cause of death is unclear; characters speculate that it may have been a cot death or a death from neglect. The Skag Boys are unsure of how to respond. However, Sick Boy becomes notably more emotional and distressed than the others and eventually breaks down as well, stating he is kicking heroin for good. Simon does not explicitly state that he was the child's father, playing to the title of the story. Mark wants to comfort his friend, but is unsure how and simply cooks a shot for himself in order to deal with the situation. A sobbing Lesley asks him to also cook her up a hit, which Mark does but makes sure he injects himself before her, stating the action "goes without saying". Section 2: Relapsing After an argument with his girlfriend Carol, Second Prize meets Tommy in a pub, and Tommy confronts a man who is punching his girlfriend. They are shocked to find the woman supports her abusive boyfriend instead of her would-be liberators by digging her nails into Tommy's face, inciting a brawl. While the couple slips out unnoticed, Tommy and Second Prize find themselves taking the blame for the whole affair from the pub locals. Renton, Begbie and their girlfriends meet up for a drink before going to a party, but it ends when Begbie throws a glass off a balcony, hitting someone and splitting open their head, setting off a huge pub brawl. In another scene, Tommy comes around to Renton's flat (shortly after Renton relapsed) after being dumped by his girlfriend. Renton reluctantly gives him some heroin upon request, setting off Tommy's gradual decline into addiction, HIV/AIDS, and later, death. Later, Renton's brother Billy and his friends Lenny, Naz Peasbo, and Jackie are waiting for their friend Granty to arrive for a game of cards, as he is holding the money pot. They later find out that Granty is dead and his girlfriend has disappeared with the money, prompting them to beat Jackie, whom they knew to have been sleeping with her. Later, Begbie and Lexo have pulled an unknown crime and, so Begbie decides to lie low in London with Renton. The chapter covers their train journey. Section 3: Kicking Again Spud manages to kick heroin, and visits his grandmother, where his mixed-race uncle Dode is staying. He recounts the trouble that Dode has had with racism growing up, particularly an event when he and Spud went to a pub and were soon assaulted by white power skinheads. This abuse led to a fight, which left Dode hospitalised, where Spud visits him. Renton has kicked heroin and is restless. He ends up picking up a girl at a nightclub, Dianne, unaware that she is only fourteen. He is later forced to lie to her parents at breakfast the following morning. Despite his guilt and discomfort, he sleeps with Dianne again when she shows up at his flat. Spud, Renton and Sick Boy take some ecstasy and stroll to The Meadows where an excited Sick Boy and Renton try to kill a squirrel but stop after Spud becomes upset by their actions towards the animal. He states to the reader that you can't love yourself if you hurt animals as it's wrong and compares their innocence to that of Simon's dead baby Dawn. He also notably states that squirrels are "lovely" and "free" and that "that's maybe what Rents can't stand" indicating Mark envies those he feels are completely unbound and free. Mark is ashamed and Spud forgives him quickly and the pair embrace, before Simon breaks them up. Section 4: Blowing It Renton and Spud are in court for stealing books. Renton gets a suspended sentence owing to his attempts at rehabilitation, while Spud is sentenced to ten months in prison. Renton relapses and has to suffer heroin withdrawal at his parents' house, where he experiences hallucinations of dead baby Dawn, the television programme he is watching, and the lecture provided by his father. He is later visited by Sick Boy and goes out to a pub with his parents, whose unnerving enthusiasm acts as a veneer for their authoritative treatment. Renton's brother Billy dies in Northern Ireland with the British Army. Renton attends the funeral; there, he almost starts a fight with some of his father's Unionist relatives, and ends up having sex with Billy's pregnant girlfriend in the toilets. Demonstrating some topicality, Renton discusses the hypocrisy of Unionism and the British in Northern Ireland. Section 5: Exile Renton is stranded in London with no place to sleep. He tries to fall asleep in an all-night porno theatre, where he meets an old homosexual named Gi, who lets him stay at his apartment. Later, Renton, Spud, Begbie, Gav, Alison and others venture out for another drink and then something to eat. Spud and others reflect upon their sex lives. Section 6: Home Spud, Begbie, and a teenager have engaged in a criminal robbery. Spud recounts the crime and comments on Begbie's paranoia and how the teenager is likely to get ripped off by the pair. Gav tells Renton the story of how Matty died of toxoplasmosis after attempting to rekindle his relationship with his ex using a kitten. The group attends Matty's funeral, where they reflect on his downfall, and what may have caused it. Later, Renton returns to Leith for Christmas and meets Begbie, who beats up an innocent man after having seen his alcoholic father in the disused Leith Central railway station. He visits a former drug dealer, Johnny Swann, who has had his leg amputated as a result of heroin use, and he visits Tommy, who is dying of AIDS. Section 7: Exit Renton, Sick Boy, Begbie, Spud and Second Prize go to London to engage in a low-key heroin deal and see a Pogues gig. The book ends with Renton stealing the cash and going to Amsterdam. Renton thinks to himself that he will send Spud his cut, as he is the only 'innocent' party. Stage adaptation Soon after publication, the book was adapted for the stage by Harry Gibson. The stage version inspired the subsequent film, and regularly toured the UK in the mid-1990s. This adaptation starred Ewen Bremner and later Tam Dean Burn as Renton. The Los Angeles production of Trainspotting won the 2002 Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for Direction, and the 2002 LA Weekly Theater Award for Direction, for director Roger Mathey. In 2013 In Your Face Theatre and Seabright Productions staged a new immersive production of Gibson's adaptation rebranded as Trainspotting Live. Directed by Adam Spreadbury-Maher and Greg Esplin, this production has gone on to sell out at three Edinburgh Festival Fringes and played to critical acclaim in London, on several UK tours and in New York City. Film adaptation The film was directed by Danny Boyle, with an adapted screenplay written by John Hodge. It starred Ewan McGregor, Robert Carlyle, Jonny Lee Miller and Ewen Bremner. Irvine Welsh made a cameo appearance as the drug dealer Mikey Forrester. The film has been ranked 10th by the British Film Institute (BFI) in its list of Top 100 British films of all time. It also brought Welsh's book to an international cinema audience and added to the phenomenal popularity of the novel. Reception "Trainspotting" was longlisted for the 1993 Booker Prize (and was apparently rejected for the shortlist after "offending the sensibilities of two judges"). Welsh claimed that the book had sold over one million copies in the UK by 2015, and been translated into thirty languages. References Further reading External links Irvine Welsh discusses Trainspotting on the BBC World Book Club 1993 British novels 1993 debut novels 1993 in Scotland Black comedy books Books about depression British novels adapted into films Nonlinear narrative novels Novels by Irvine Welsh Novels set in Edinburgh Novels about heroin addiction Scottish English Scots-language works Trainspotting fr:Trainspotting	[ -0.34476280212402344, 0.2854497730731964, -0.12829077243804932, -0.3129024803638458, 0.24579733610153198, 0.21128588914871216, 0.4353111982345581, 0.015019633807241917, 0.06007269397377968, 0.006055263336747885, -0.23097944259643555, 0.1993822157382965, -0.817428469657898, 0.10774994641542435, 0.5548830032348633, -0.028708461672067642, 0.3294202387332916, 0.14015333354473114, -0.4144646227359772, -0.6529447436332703, -0.08245516568422318, 0.050876226276159286, 0.5047482252120972, -0.037874866276979446, 0.49156931042671204, -0.1541772484779358, -0.1490844190120697, 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233085	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SableCC	SableCC	SableCC is an open-source compiler generator (or interpreter generator) in Java. Stable version is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). Rewritten version 4 is licensed under Apache License 2.0. SableCC includes the following features: Deterministic finite automaton (DFA)-based lexers with full Unicode support and lexical states. Extended Backus–Naur form grammar syntax. (Supports the *, ? and + operators). LALR(1) based parsers. Automatic generation of strictly-typed abstract syntax trees. Automatic generation of tree-walker classes. See also ANTLR JavaCC Coco/R References External links SableCC website Parser generators Java development tools	[ -0.002169195795431733, 0.24655762314796448, -0.5123986005783081, -0.011211289092898369, -0.3571845591068268, -0.11200883984565735, 0.007677627727389336, 0.11059970408678055, 0.08717498183250427, -0.08756665885448456, -0.28594836592674255, 0.3332796096801758, -0.4227566719055176, 0.007520333863794804, -0.2332172691822052, 0.2243250161409378, 0.24575956165790558, 0.635311484336853, -0.2212129384279251, -0.6213740706443787, 0.0032153523061424494, -0.33562275767326355, -0.5210609436035156, -0.5397682189941406, -0.11159154027700424, 0.41499003767967224, 0.2301599383354187, 0.18467994034290314, -0.8619865775108337, 0.24598897993564606, -0.14231005311012268, 0.7088652849197388, 0.1717517375946045, -0.2010762244462967, -0.5728618502616882, 0.0020206100307404995, -0.23736487329006195, -0.034722067415714264, 0.1618528515100479, -0.8506205081939697, 0.19267608225345612, 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233088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PVA	PVA	PVA may refer to: Science and technology Patterned vertical alignment, an LCD technology Polyvinyl acetate, a polymer and major component of a popular form of wood glue Polyvinyl alcohol, a water-soluble synthetic polymer Population viability analysis, a risk-assessment method used in conservation biology Positive vorticity advection in meteorology Potato virus A, an agricultural disease Medicine Paraventricular nucleus, a part of the brain Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans, a skin disease Pulmonary vein ablation, a surgical procedure of the heart Other Paralyzed Veterans of America, a charity service organization Patrick van Aanholt (born 1990), a Dutch footballer PVA, NYSE ticker symbol for Penn Virginia, an oil and gas company High School for the Performing and Visual Arts, a secondary school in Houston, Texas Perkiomen Valley Academy, a Pennsylvania school for maladjusted students People's Volunteer Army, the Chinese armed forces active during the Korean War Property Valuation Administrator, a county official in Kentucky responsible for real estate appraisal El Embrujo Airport IATA code	[ 0.5513321161270142, 0.21181631088256836, -0.5048860907554626, 0.1438896209001541, 0.34359195828437805, 0.48214298486709595, 0.26714664697647095, -0.04891035333275795, -0.5524784326553345, -0.33462443947792053, -0.3024795949459076, 0.03856562823057175, -0.3098272681236267, 0.09531903266906738, 0.16430045664310455, 0.43534213304519653, 0.5260424017906189, 0.5660382509231567, 0.14441567659378052, 0.14956249296665192, -0.37414637207984924, -0.20775599777698517, 0.2947556972503662, -0.5094670057296753, -0.11354731023311615, -0.318177193403244, 0.057544756680727005, 0.08250080049037933, -0.021552834659814835, 0.2853407561779022, 0.10907862335443497, 0.4265841245651245, 0.265705943107605, -0.17637336254119873, 0.49427667260169983, 0.0010052199941128492, -0.31847092509269714, -0.2790369689464569, 0.01268639974296093, -0.20526346564292908, 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233089	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl%20acetate	Polyvinyl acetate	Polyvinyl acetate (PVA, PVAc, poly(ethenyl ethanoate)), commonly known as wood glue, white glue, carpenter's glue, school glue, or Elmer's glue in the US, is a widely available adhesive used for porous materials like wood, paper, and cloth. An aliphatic rubbery synthetic polymer with the formula (C4H6O2)n, it belongs to the polyvinyl ester family, with the general formula −[RCOOCHCH2]−. It is a type of thermoplastic. Properties The degree of polymerization of polyvinyl acetate is typically 100 to 5000, while its ester groups are sensitive to base hydrolysis and slowly convert PVAc into polyvinyl alcohol and acetic acid. The glass transition temperature of polyvinyl acetate is between 30 and 45 °C depending on the molecular weight. PVAc dispersions such as Elmer's Glue-All contain polyvinyl alcohol as a protective colloid. In alkaline conditions, boron compounds such as boric acid or borax cause the polyvinyl alcohol to cross-link, forming tackifying precipitates or toys, such as Slime and Flubber. A number of microorganisms can degrade polyvinyl acetate. Most commonly, damage is caused by filamentous fungi; however, algae, yeasts, lichens, and bacteria can also degrade polyvinyl acetate. Discovery Poly(vinyl acetate) was discovered in Germany in 1912 by Fritz Klatte. The monomer, vinyl acetate, was first produced on an industrial scale by the addition of acetic acid to acetylene with a mercury(I) salt, but it is now primarily made by palladium-catalyzed oxidative addition of acetic acid to ethylene. Preparation PVA is a vinyl polymer. Polyvinyl acetate is prepared by the polymerization of vinyl acetate monomer (free-radical vinyl polymerization of the monomer vinyl acetate). Applications As a dispersion in water, PVAc preparations are used as adhesives for porous materials, particularly for wood, paper, and cloth, and as a consolidant for porous building stone, in particular sandstone. Uses: As wood glue, PVAc is known as "white glue" and the yellow as "carpenter's glue". As paper adhesive during paper packaging conversion. In bookbinding and book arts, due to its flexible strong bond and non-acidic nature (unlike many other polymers). The use of PVAc on the Archimedes Palimpsest during the 20th century greatly hindered the task of disbinding the book and preserving and imaging the pages in the early 21st century, in part because the glue was stronger than the parchment it held together. In handicrafts. As envelope adhesive. As wallpaper adhesive. As a primer for drywall and other substrates As a gum base in chewing gum. As an adhesive for cigarette paper. As the coating layer on Gouda cheese. The stiff homopolymer PVAc, but mostly the more soft copolymer, a combination of vinyl acetate and ethylene, vinyl acetate ethylene (VAE), is also used in paper coatings, paint and other industrial coatings, as a binder in nonwovens in glass fibers, sanitary napkins, filter paper and in textile finishing. Polyvinyl acetate is also the raw material to make other polymers like: Polyvinyl alcohol −[HOCHCH2]−: Polyvinyl acetate is partially or completely hydrolysed to give polyvinyl alcohol. This reversible saponification and esterification reaction was a strong hint for Hermann Staudinger in the formulation of his theory of macromolecules. Polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP): Polyvinyl acetate is partially hydrolyzed and then esterified with phthalic acid. See also Ethylene vinyl acetate International Klein Blue Elmer's Products References Adhesives Household chemicals Vinyl polymers Woodworking adhesives Wood finishing materials Polymers Acetate esters	[ 0.6536960005760193, 0.08954834192991257, -0.29403528571128845, 0.1805056482553482, 0.01181699987500906, 0.1928173005580902, -0.3282531499862671, 0.04891267791390419, -0.16706819832324982, -0.6338025331497192, -0.7350107431411743, 0.5091063380241394, -0.5449853539466858, 0.1571052074432373, -0.0788293182849884, 0.5173389911651611, 1.1111657619476318, 0.683427095413208, -0.11035574227571487, -0.2227349877357483, -0.13963936269283295, -0.2917412519454956, -0.053420402109622955, -0.26164570450782776, 0.5056717395782471, 0.296743780374527, -0.12687377631664276, -0.11961186677217484, 0.031316038221120834, 0.1925751268863678, 0.37284567952156067, 0.34290045499801636, 0.6017001867294312, -0.4165409207344055, 0.8364675641059875, 0.4081113338470459, -0.09965560585260391, -0.36240166425704956, 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233091	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20control	Radio control	Radio control (often abbreviated to RC) is the use of control signals transmitted by radio to remotely control a device. Examples of simple radio control systems are garage door openers and keyless entry systems for vehicles, in which a small handheld radio transmitter unlocks or opens doors. Radio control is also used for control of model vehicles from a hand-held radio transmitter. Industrial, military, and scientific research organizations make use of radio-controlled vehicles as well. A rapidly growing application is control of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or drones) for both civilian and military uses, although these have more sophisticated control systems than traditional applications. History The idea of controlling unmanned vehicles (for the most part in an attempt to improve the accuracy of torpedoes for military purposes) predates the invention of radio. The latter half of the 1800s saw development of many such devices, connected to an operator by wires, including the first practical application invented by German engineer Werner von Siemens in 1870. Getting rid of the wires via using a new wireless technology, radio, appeared in the late 1890s. In 1897 British engineer Ernest Wilson and C. J. Evans patented a radio controlled torpedo or demonstrated remote radio control boats on the Thames river (accounts of what they did vary). At an 1898 exhibition at Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla demonstrated a small unmanned boat that used a coherer based radio control. With an eye towards selling the idea to the US government as a torpedo, Tesla's 1898 patent included a clockwork frequency changer so an enemy couldn't take control of the device. In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo introduced a radio based control system called the "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Science. In the same year, he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. It was intended as a way of testing a dirigible of his own design without risking human lives. To avoid the expense of conceivably crashing his airship prototype he built his demonstration device into a boat. Unlike the previous systems, which carried out actions of the 'on/off' type, Torres device was able to memorize the signals received to execute the operations on its own and could carry out to 19 different orders. In 1906, in the presence of an audience which included the King of Spain, Torres demonstrated the invention in the Port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore with people on board. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing. In 1904, Bat, a Windermere steam launch, was controlled using experimental radio control by its inventor, [Jack Kitchen]. In 1909 the French inventor Gabet demonstrated what he called his "Torpille Radio-Automatique", a radio-controlled torpedo. In 1917, Archibald Low as head of the secret RFC experimental works at Feltham, was the first person to use radio control successfully on an aircraft, a "aerial target". It was "piloted" from the ground by future world aerial speed record holder Henry Segrave. Low's systems encoded the command transmissions as a countermeasure to prevent enemy intervention. During World War I American inventor John Hays Hammond, Jr. developed many techniques used in subsequent radio control including developing remote controlled torpedoes, ships, anti-jamming systems and even a system allowing his remote-controlled ship targeting an enemy ship's searchlights. In 1922 he installed radio control gear on the obsolete US Navy battleship USS Iowa so it could be used as a target ship (sunk in gunnery exercise in March 1923). The Soviet Red Army used remotely controlled teletanks during the 1930s in the Winter War against Finland and fielded at least two teletank battalions at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. A teletank is controlled by radio from a control tank at a distance of 500–1,500 m, the two constituting a telemechanical group. There were also remotely controlled cutters and experimental remotely controlled planes in the Red Army. The United Kingdom's World War One development of their radio-controlled 1917 'Aerial Target' (AT) and 1918 'Distant Control Boat' (DCB) using Low's control systems led eventually to their 1930s fleet of "Queen Bee". This was a remotely controlled unmanned version of the de Havilland "Tiger Moth" aircraft for Navy fleet gunnery firing practice. The "Queen Bee" was superseded by the similarly named Queen Wasp, a purpose-built, target aircraft of higher performance. Second World War Radio control was further developed during World War II, primarily by the Germans who used it in a number of missile projects. Their main effort was the development of radio-controlled missiles and glide bombs for use against shipping, a target otherwise both difficult and dangerous to attack. However, by the end of the war, the Luftwaffe was having similar problems attacking Allied bombers and developed a number of radio command guided anti-aircraft missiles, none of which saw service. The effectiveness of the Luftwaffe's systems, primarily comprising the series of Telefunken Funk-Gerät (or FuG) 203 Kehl twin-axis, single joystick-equipped transmitters mounted in the deploying aircraft, and Telefunken's companion FuG 230 Straßburg receiver placed in the ordnance to be controlled during deployment and used by both the Fritz X unpowered, armored anti-ship bomb, and the powered Henschel Hs 293 guided bomb, was greatly reduced by British efforts to jam their radio signals, eventually with American assistance. After initial successes, the British launched a number of commando raids to collect the missile radio sets. Jammers were then installed on British ships, and the weapons basically "stopped working". The German development teams then turned to wire guidance once they realized what was going on, but the systems were not ready for deployment until the war had already moved to France. The German Kriegsmarine operated FL-Boote (ferngelenkte Sprengboote) which were radio controlled motor boats filled with explosives to attack enemy shipping from 1944. Both the British and US also developed radio control systems for similar tasks, to avoid the huge anti-aircraft batteries set up around German targets. However, no system proved usable in practice, and the one major US effort, Operation Aphrodite, proved to be far more dangerous to its users than to the target. The American Azon guided free-fall ordnance, however, proved useful in both the European and CBI Theaters of World War II. Radio control systems of this era were generally electromechanical in nature, using small metal "fingers" or "reeds" with different resonant frequencies each of which would operate one of a number of different relays when a particular frequency was received. The relays would in turn then activate various actuators acting on the control surfaces of the missile. The controller's radio transmitter would transmit the different frequencies in response to the movements of a control stick; these were typically on/off signals. The radio gear used to control the rudder function on the American-developed Azon guided ordnance, however, was a fully proportional control, with the "ailerons", solely under the control of an on-board gyroscope, serving merely to keep the ordnance from rolling. These systems were widely used until the 1960s, when the increasing use of solid state systems greatly simplified radio control. The electromechanical systems using reed relays were replaced by similar electronic ones, and the continued miniaturization of electronics allowed more signals, referred to as control channels, to be packed into the same package. While early control systems might have two or three channels using amplitude modulation, modern systems include 20 or more using frequency modulation. Radio-controlled models The first general use of radio control systems in models started in the early 1950s with single-channel self-built equipment; commercial equipment came later. The advent of transistors greatly reduced the battery requirements, since the current requirements at low voltage were greatly reduced and the high voltage battery was eliminated. In both tube and early transistor sets the model's control surfaces were usually operated by an electromagnetic 'escapement' controlling the stored energy in a rubber-band loop, allowing simple on/off rudder control (right, left, and neutral) and sometimes other functions such as motor speed. Crystal-controlled superheterodyne receivers with better selectivity and stability made control equipment more capable and at lower cost. Multi-channel developments were of particular use to aircraft, which really needed a minimum of three control dimensions (yaw, pitch and motor speed), as opposed to boats, which required only two or one. As the electronics revolution took off, single-signal channel circuit design became redundant, and instead radios provided proportionally coded signal streams which a servomechanism could interpret, using pulse-width modulation (PWM). More recently, high-end hobby systems using pulse-code modulation (PCM) features have come on the market that provide a computerized digital bit-stream signal to the receiving device, instead of the earlier PWM encoding type. However, even with this coding, loss of transmission during flight has become more common, in part because of the ever more wireless society. Some more modern FM-signal receivers that still use "PWM" encoding instead can, thanks to the use of more advanced computer chips in them, be made to lock onto and use the individual signal characteristics of a particular PWM-type RC transmitter's emissions alone, without needing a special "code" transmitted along with the control information as PCM encoding has always required. In the early 21st century, 2.4 gigahertz spread spectrum RC control systems have become increasingly utilized in control of model vehicles and aircraft. Now, these 2.4 GHz systems are being made by most radio manufacturers. These radio systems range in price from a couple thousand dollars, all the way down to under US$30 for some. Some manufacturers even offer conversion kits for older digital 72 MHz or 35 MHz receivers and radios. As the emerging multitude of 2.4 GHz band spread spectrum RC systems usually use a "frequency-agile" mode of operations, like FHSS that do not stay on one set frequency any longer while in use, the older "exclusive use" provisions at model flying sites needed for VHF-band RC control systems' frequency control, for VHF-band RC systems that only used one set frequency unless serviced to change it, are not as mandatory as before. Modern military and aerospace applications Remote control military applications are typically not radio control in the direct sense, directly operating flight control surfaces and propulsion power settings, but instead take the form of instructions sent to a completely autonomous, computerized automatic pilot. Instead of a "turn left" signal that is applied until the aircraft is flying in the right direction, the system sends a single instruction that says "fly to this point". Some of the most outstanding examples of remote radio control of a vehicle are the Mars Exploration Rovers such as Sojourner. Industrial radio remote control Today radio control is used in industry for such devices as overhead cranes and switchyard locomotives. Radio-controlled teleoperators are used for such purposes as inspections, and special vehicles for disarming of bombs. Some remotely controlled devices are loosely called robots, but are more properly categorized as teleoperators since they do not operate autonomously, but only under control of a human operator. An industrial radio remote control can either be operated by a person, or by a computer control system in a machine to machine (M2M) mode. For example, an automated warehouse may use a radio-controlled crane that is operated by a computer to retrieve a particular item. Industrial radio controls for some applications, such as lifting machinery, are required to be of a fail-safe design in many jurisdictions. Industrial remote controls work differently from most consumer products. When the receiver receives the radio signal which the transmitter sent, it checks it so that it is the correct frequency and that any security codes match. Once the verification is complete, the receiver sends an instruction to a relay which is activated. The relay activates a function in the application corresponding to the transmitters button. This could be to engage an electrical directional motor in an overhead crane. In a receiver there are usually several relays, and in something as complex as an overhead crane, perhaps up to 12 or more relays are required to control all directions. In a receiver which opens a gate, two relays are often sufficient. Industrial remote controls are getting more and higher safety requirements. For example: a remote control may not lose the safety functionality in case of malfunction. This can be avoided by using redundant relays with forced contacts. See also Precision-guided munition Radio-controlled airplane Radio-controlled boat Radio-controlled car Radio-controlled helicopter Remote control Remote control vehicle Telecommand Teletank Notes and references Further reading Bill Yenne, Attack of the drones: a history of unmanned aerial combat, Zenith Imprint, 2004, Laurence R. 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233097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Eustace%20Diamonds	The Eustace Diamonds	The Eustace Diamonds is a novel by Anthony Trollope, first published in 1871 as a serial in the Fortnightly Review. It is the third of the "Palliser" series of novels. Plot summary In this novel, the characters of Plantagenet Palliser, his wife Lady Glencora and their uncle the ailing Duke of Omnium are in the background. The plot centres on Lizzie Greystock, a fortune-hunter who ensnares the sickly, dissipated Sir Florian Eustace and is soon left a very wealthy widow and mother. While clever and beautiful, Lizzie has several character flaws; the greatest of these is an almost pathological delight in lying, even when it cannot benefit her. (Trollope comments that Lizzie sees lies as "more beautiful than the truth.") Before he dies, the disillusioned Sir Florian discovers all this, but does not think to change the generous terms of his will. The diamonds of the book's title are a necklace, a family heirloom that Sir Florian gave to Lizzie to wear. Though they belong to her husband's estate (and thus eventually will be the property of her son), Lizzie refuses to relinquish them. She lies about the terms under which they were given to her, leaving their ownership unclear. The indignant Eustace family lawyer, Mr Camperdown, strives to retrieve the necklace, putting the Eustaces in an awkward position. On the one hand, the diamonds are valuable and Lizzie may not have a legal claim to them, but on the other, they do not want to antagonise the mother of the heir to the family estate (Lizzie having only a life interest). Meanwhile, after a respectable period of mourning, Lizzie searches for another husband, a dashing "Corsair" more in keeping with her extravagantly romantic fantasies. She becomes engaged to a dull, but honourable politician, Lord Fawn, but they have a falling out when her character becomes better known, especially her determination to keep the diamonds. She then considers her cousin, Frank Greystock, even though he is already engaged to Lucy Morris, a poor but much beloved governess of the Fawn daughters. Greystock is a successful lawyer and Member of Parliament, but his income is inadequate to his position and spendthrift lifestyle. Lizzie believes he can shield her from the legal proceedings being initiated by Mr Camperdown. Another more Corsair-like possibility is one of the guests at her Scottish home, the older Lord George de Bruce Carruthers, a man who supports himself in a somewhat mysterious manner. Among the other guests is a young woman named Lucinda Roanoke, whose financially straitened aunt, Mrs Carbuncle, is desperate to marry her off. Despite Lucinda's deep detestation of the brutish Sir Griffin Tewett, the aunt has her way and the mismatched couple become engaged. Things take a dramatic turn on a trip to London. Lizzie, out of fear of Mr Camperdown, keeps her diamonds with her in a conspicuous strongbox. One night, at an inn, the strongbox is stolen and everybody assumes the jewellery is lost. As it turns out, Lizzie had taken the gems out and put them under her pillow, but acting on her first instincts, she perjures herself when she has to report the theft to the magistrate, thinking that she can sell the diamonds and let the robbers take the blame. Suspicion falls on both Lizzie and Lord George, acting either together or separately. In any case, the thieves, aided by Lizzie's disloyal maid, Patience Crabstick, try again and succeed in their second attempt. Lizzie feigns illness and takes to her bed. Lady Glencora Palliser pays Lizzie a visit to offer her sympathy. The police begin to unravel the mystery, putting Lizzie in a very uncomfortable position. In the end, the diamonds are lost, the police discover the truth, and Lizzie is forced to confess her lies, though she escapes legal retribution since her testimony is needed to convict the criminals. Both Frank Greystock and Lord George become disgusted by her conduct and desert her. Lucinda Roanoke grows to loathe Sir Griffin more and more intensely until, on what would have been the day of their wedding, she loses her sanity. Frank Greystock returns to Fawn Court to marry Lucy Morris. Mr Emilius, a foreign crypto-Jewish clergyman, woos Lizzie while she is in a vulnerable state and succeeds in marrying her (though it is hinted earlier in the book, and is later confirmed in Phineas Redux, that he is already married). Editions (selected) The Eustace Diamonds. 3 vols. London, 1873 [1872]. The Eustace Diamonds; with a preface by Michael Sadleir; illustrations by Blair Hughes-Stanton. 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1950. The Eustace Diamonds; with an introduction by Simon Raven. [St. Albans]: Panther, [1968] The Eustace Diamonds; introduction by P. D. James. London: Trollope Society, 1990 The Eustace Diamonds; the Royal edition. 2 vols.; plates. Philadelphia: Gebbie and Company, 1902. The Oxford Trollope; Crown edition. General editors: Michael Sadleir & Frederick Page. The Eustace Diamonds. 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1950 References External links 1871 British novels Family saga novels Novels by Anthony Trollope Works originally published in The Fortnightly Review Novels first published in serial form Chapman & Hall books	[ -0.03368178382515907, 0.5161683559417725, 0.05749421566724777, -0.58253014087677, 0.15704458951950073, 0.337488055229187, 0.708662748336792, 0.01230302732437849, -0.43469181656837463, 0.19756631553173065, -0.43363621830940247, 0.3322243392467499, -0.37929558753967285, 0.32926884293556213, 0.7688710689544678, -0.000444597884779796, 0.41162005066871643, 0.8240854144096375, 0.20459026098251343, -1.1875572204589844, 0.14212828874588013, -0.21540412306785583, 0.4533919394016266, -0.16484202444553375, 0.686314046382904, -0.4725709855556488, 0.31323370337486267, -0.42242032289505005, -0.043511245399713516, 0.30587098002433777, 0.05203724279999733, 0.8390355706214905, 0.09053707867860794, -0.25458043813705444, -0.18653680384159088, -0.2204413115978241, 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233098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20of%20the%20Five%20Towns	Anna of the Five Towns	Anna of the Five Towns is a novel by Arnold Bennett, first published in 1902 and one of his best-known works. Plot background The plot centres on Anna Tellwright, daughter of a wealthy but miserly and dictatorial father, living in the Potteries area of Staffordshire, England. Her activities are strictly controlled by the Methodist church. The novel tells of Anna's struggle for freedom and independence against her father's restraints. "The Five Towns" In reality Stoke-on-Trent is an amalgamation (in 1910) of six towns: in order from northwest to southeast, the towns are Tunstall, Burslem, Hanley, Stoke, Fenton and Longton. "The Five Towns" is a name given to it in novels by Arnold Bennett, who was born in Hanley and lived in the district. He said that he believed "Five Towns" was more euphonious than "Six Towns", so he omitted Fenton (sometimes referred to as "the forgotten town"). He called Stoke "Knype" but used recognisable aliases for the other four towns. Plot Anna lives with her young step-sister Agnes and her twice-widowed father, Ephraim Tellwright, in Bursley. The latter, once an active preacher and teacher in the Methodist movement, has become a domestic tyrant and, because of his miserly attitude to money, a wealthy man. On her 21st birthday, Ephraim unceremoniously hands Anna her unexpected inheritance from her grandmother; several parcels of shares and rented residential and industrial property that he has carefully hoarded and re-invested over the years. On paper, Anna is now a rich woman, but she has no experience in business and financial dealings, save the spending of the household expenses her father reluctantly hands over every week. She visits the rundown ‘bank’ (earthenware manufactory) operated by Titus and Willie Price, which she now owns. The Prices’ business is grossly in debt and they claim to be unable to pay the back rent, but manage to give Anna a few pounds. She is also invited to visit the up-to-date and prosperous works of Henry Mynors, and is advised by Ephraim to invest in them as a ‘sleeping partner’. She is well aware that Mynors, who she knows through shared church activities, is in love with her, but is unsure of her own feelings. Anna is invited to visit the Isle of Man by Alderman and Mrs Sutton, who see Anna as a ‘suitable’ friend for their indulged daughter, Beatrice. Mynors is also invited. By the end of the visit, Anna and Henry are engaged to be married, but Anna still harbours secret feelings for Willie Price, whom she also knows well from the Methodist movement. On her return to Bursley, Anna is devastated to learn of the suicide of Titus Price. She blames herself and her father’s squeezing of the Prices’ business, but Willie comes to call and explains that the crash of a major customer was the catalyst for his father’s suicide. It becomes clear that Willie must declare himself bankrupt, and the creditors (which include Anna) allow him enough money to emigrate to Australia. Mynors takes the large Price family residence for the marital home, even though it will need much refurbishment. He and Anna agree to marry as soon as possible, and make a home also for Agnes. Henry discovers a discrepancy in church accounts, and it becomes apparent that the Prices have been embezzling money to prop up their business. Anna and Henry determine that they will jointly make up the shortfall so that the Prices will not be blamed. But the news leaks out anyway and the whole community is soon abuzz. Anna decides that Willie should not leave Bursley empty-handed, and slips a note to him, on condition that he will not read it until he arrives in Melbourne. The note contains a money order (in the book, a 'bank-note') for one hundred pounds. Anna and Henry marry. No more is heard of Willie Price; the story implies that he too commits suicide. Adaptations In 1985 a television series Anna of the Five Towns was produced by the BBC. In 2011, Helen Edmundson wrote an adaptation of Anna of the Five Towns which was broadcast in two parts on BBC Radio 4. 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233099	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Old%20Wives%27%20Tale	The Old Wives' Tale	The Old Wives' Tale is a novel by Arnold Bennett, first published in 1908. It deals with the lives of two very different sisters, Constance and Sophia Baines, following their stories from their youth, working in their mother's draper's shop, into old age. It covers a period of about 70 years from roughly 1840 to 1905, and is set in Burslem and Paris. It is generally regarded as one of Bennett's finest works. Bennett was initially inspired to write the book by a chance encounter in a Parisian restaurant. In the introduction to the book, he says and Bennett also found inspiration in Maupassant's novel Une Vie. Plot details The book is broken up into four parts. The first section, "Mrs Baines" details the adolescence of both Sophia and Constance, and their life in their father's shop and house (a combined property). The father is ill and bedridden, and the main adult in their life is Mrs Baines, their mother. By the end of the first book, Sophia (whose name reflects her sophistication, as opposed to the constant Constance) has eloped with a travelling salesman. Constance meanwhile marries Mr Povey, who works in the shop. The second part, "Constance", details the life of Constance from that point forward up until the time she is reunited with her sister in old age. Her life, although outwardly prosaic, is nevertheless filled with personal incident, including the death of her husband, Mr Povey, and her concerns about the character and behaviour of her son. The third part, "Sophia", carries forward the story of what happened to Sophia after her elopement. Abandoned by her husband in Paris, Sophia eventually becomes the owner of a successful pension. The final part, "What Life Is", details how the two sisters are eventually reunited. Sophia returns to England and the house of her childhood, where Constance still lives. Details and legacy According to Tom Wolfe (Hooking Up, p. 148), the book was "wildly successful," with the author demurring with "I don't read my reviews, I measure them." In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Old Wives' Tale No. 87 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. A facsimile edition of the manuscript has been published, which is a testament to Bennett's calligraphic skills. The original manuscript is in the Lilly Library, Indiana. It was adapted into a 1921 film The Old Wives' Tale starring Fay Compton. It was made into a TV series by the BBC in 1988 as Sophia and Constance. References External links The Old Wives' Tale, audio book at Librivox 1908 British novels Novels by Arnold Bennett Novels set in Staffordshire Novels set in Paris Chapman & Hall books British novels adapted into television shows British novels adapted into films	[ -0.43115153908729553, 0.4802612364292145, 0.63287752866745, -0.43100517988204956, 0.42764946818351746, 0.3045628070831299, 0.6692760586738586, -0.0790342316031456, -0.39926859736442566, -0.03256678581237793, -0.1808238923549652, 0.3394559323787689, 0.0024592666886746883, 0.7344875335693359, -0.06173549219965935, 0.2318064272403717, 0.12547501921653748, 0.7408109903335571, -0.0970401018857956, -0.8890760540962219, -0.27036339044570923, -0.4477163255214691, 0.8743603229522705, -0.3109317421913147, -0.19308482110500336, -0.009402244351804256, 0.5500670671463013, -0.3149414360523224, 0.1260131150484085, 0.06489647179841995, -0.3141288757324219, -0.08555705100297928, -0.08559911698102951, -0.049948740750551224, 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233100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glide%20bomb	Glide bomb	A glide bomb or stand-off bomb is a standoff weapon with flight control surfaces to give it a flatter, gliding flight path than that of a conventional bomb without such surfaces. This allows it to be released at a distance from the target rather than right over it, allowing a successful attack without the aircraft needing to survive until reaching the target. World War II-era glide bombs like the German Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293 pioneered the use of remote control systems, allowing the controlling aircraft to direct the bomb to a pinpoint target as a pioneering form of precision-guided munition. Modern systems are generally self-guided or semi-automated, using GPS or laser designators to hit their target. The term glide bombing does not refer to the use of glide bombs, but a style of shallow-angle dive bombing. Early efforts German designs World War I In October 1914 Wilhelm von Siemens suggested what became known as the Siemens torpedo glider, a wire-guided flying missile which would essentially have comprised a naval torpedo with an attached airframe. It was not intended to be flown into a target, but rather at a suitable altitude and position, a signal would be transmitted, causing the airframe components to detach from the torpedo which would then enter the water and continue towards its target. Guidance signals were to be transmitted through a thin copper wire, and guide flares were to be carried to help control. Siemens-Schuckertwerke was already occupied with remote controlled boats (the FL-boats or Fernlenkboote), and had some experience in this area. Flight testing was performed under the supervision of an engineer called Dorner from January 1915 onwards, using airships as carriers and different types of biplane and monoplane glider airframes to which a torpedo was fitted. The last test flight was performed on February 8, 1918. It was planned to use the Siemens-Schuckert R.VIII bomber as a carrier craft, but the Armistice stopped the project. World War II Development During World War II the first operational glide bombs were developed by the Germans as an anti-shipping weapon. Ships are typically very difficult to attack: a direct hit or an extremely near miss is needed to do any serious damage, hitting a target as small as a ship was difficult in this period. At first dive bombers were used with some success in this role, but their successes were countered by ever-increasing anti-aircraft defenses on the Royal Navy ships they were attacking. By 1941 accurate bombing was as difficult as ever, with the added problem of evading anti-aircraft fire. The German solution was the development of a number of glide bombs employing radio control guidance. One was created by fitting a control package on the rear of an otherwise standard bomb, starting with their 100 kg armor-piercing bomb to create the Ruhrstahl SD 1400, commonly referred to as Fritz-X. This weapon was designed specifically to pierce the deck armor of heavy cruisers and battleships. The bomb aimer dropped the bomb from high altitude while the aircraft was still approaching the ship, and guided it to impact with the target by sending commands to spoilers attached to its rear. This proved to be difficult to do, because as the bomb dropped toward the target it fell further behind the launch aircraft, eventually becoming difficult to see. This problem was solved by having the launch aircraft slow down and enter a climb to avoid overtaking the bomb as it fell. In addition it proved difficult to properly guide the bomb to impact as the angle of descent changed, and if the bomb was not aimed accurately so as to end up roughly right over the target, there was little that could be done at later stages to fix the problem. Nevertheless, the Fritz X proved useful with crews trained on its use. In test drops from , experienced bomb aimers could place half the bombs within a radius and 90% within . Design work started as early as 1939, and a version of the guidance package mounted to standard 500 kg bombs was tested in September 1940. It was found that the bomb was unable to penetrate a ship's armor, so changes were made to fit an armor-piercing warhead before the system finally entered service in 1943. The basic A-1 model was the only one to be produced in any number, but developments included the B model with a custom armor-piercing warhead, and the C model with a conical warhead which was designed to hit the water short of the ship and then travel a short distance underwater to hit the ship below the waterline. The guidance system for the Hs 293 series was the same as the Fritz-X unpowered munition; it used a Funkgerät FuG 203 Kehl radio control transmitter with a single two-axis joystick in the deploying bomber, and an FuG 230 Straßburg receiver in the munition. Operational use Following the capitulation of Italy in 1943, Germany damaged the Italian battleship Italia and sank the Roma with Fritz-X bombs. Attacks were also made on the USS Savannah, causing much damage and loss of life. HMS Warspite was hit by three Fritz-X, and although casualties were few, the ship had to be towed to Malta for repairs and was out of action for six months. The cruiser USS Philadelphia was very slightly damaged by several near misses from Fritz-X bombs. The light cruiser HMS Uganda was also hit and put out of action for almost the entire war as a result. A more widely employed weapon was the Henschel Hs 293, which included wings and a rocket motor to allow the bomb to glide some distance away from the launch aircraft. This weapon was designed for use against thinly armored but highly defended targets such as convoy merchantmen or their escorting warships. When launched, a small liquid-fueled rocket fired to speed the weapon up and get it out in front of the releasing aircraft, which was flown to approach the target just off to one side. The bomb then dropped close to the water and glided in parallel to the launch aircraft, with the bomb aimer adjusting the flight left or right. As long as the bomb was dropped at roughly the right range so it did not run out of altitude while gliding in, the system was easy to use, at least against slow-moving targets. The Hs 293 was first used operationally in the Bay of Biscay against RN and RCN destroyers, sloops and frigates. Its combat debut was made on August 25, 1943, when the sloop HMS Bideford was slightly damaged by a missile which failed to fully detonate, but killed one crewman. Another sloop, HMS Landguard, survived a near miss with slight damage. The Germans attacked again two days later, sinking HMS Egret on August 27, 1943; they also seriously damaged HMCS Athabaskan. Over one-thousand Allied soldiers died on 25 November 1943 when a Hs 293 sank the troopship from Mediterranean convoy KMF 26. Allied countermeasures Several defensive measures were implemented right away. Ships capable of maneuvering at high speed were instructed to make tight turns across the weapon's flight path in order to complicate the missile operator's efforts. Attacking aircraft were interdicted with air patrols and heavy-caliber anti-aircraft weapons, disrupting either the visual or radio links to the guided weapons. Smoke was used to hide ships at anchor. Allied aircraft also attacked the home bases of the special German units equipped with these weapons, primarily (Gruppen II and III of Kampfgeschwader 100 and Gruppe II of Kampfgeschwader 40). American, British and Canadian scientists also developed sophisticated radio jammers to disrupt the guidance signal. Ultimately nine different jamming systems were deployed in the European theater against these weapons. While early models proved inadequate, by the time the Allies were preparing for the invasion of France in 1944 more capable systems were deployed, and the success rate of guided weapons declined considerably. Even more important to the defeat of the weapons was Allied command of the airspace and the interception of incoming bombers by Allied fighter aircraft. The Hs 293 was also used in August 1944 to attack bridges over the River See and River Selume at the southern end of the Cherbourg peninsula in an attempt to break US general Patton's advance, but this mission was unsuccessful. A similar mission against bridges on the river Oder, designed to slow the Soviet advance into Germany, was made in April 1945 but failed. The Germans also experimented with television guidance systems on the Hs 293D models. The use was problematic – as the bomb approaches the target, even tiny amounts of control input would cause the target to jump around the TV display, so much of the difficulty was in developing control systems that would become progressively less sensitive as the pilot required. A wire-guided version was also developed, but this Hs 293B variant was never deployed. UK program In 1939 Sir Dennistoun Burney and Nevil Shute Norway, worked together on an air-launched gliding torpedo, the "Toraplane", and a gliding bomb, "Doravane". Despite much work and many trials the Toraplane could not be launched with repeatable accuracy and it was abandoned in 1942. US designs The US Army Air Force started a wide-spanning development program of both glide bombs, known as "GB", and similar systems designed to fall more vertically, as "VG". Several models of both concepts were used in limited numbers during WWII. The first to be used operationally was the Aeronca GB-1, essentially an autopilot attached to a small glider airframe carrying a bomb. It was intended to allow the 8th Air Force bombers to drop their payloads far from their targets and thus avoid having to overfly the most concentrated areas of anti-aircraft artillery fire. It was first used on 28 May 1944 against the Eifeltor marshalling yard in Cologne, but only 42 of 113 bombs released reached anywhere near the target; most "spun in and exploded 15 miles from the target... many of the batteries failed to hold [their] charge"). More advanced models in the GB series included the television guided GB-4, GB-5, GB-12, and GB-13, which used contrast-seekers for anti-ship use, and the command-guided GB-8, 'Azon', 'Razon', as well as the infrared-guided 'Felix'. US Navy glide bombs included the 'Bat' and its earlier variant, the 'Pelican'. The longer-range Bat used an active radar seeker and was used in the Pacific on August 13, 1944, but could not distinguish between targets in a cluttered environment and could be easily spoofed by even simple radar countermeasures. Only four examples of an experimental glide bomb, the 'Pratt-Read LBE', were produced. Post-WWII developments After the war the increasing sophistication of electronics allowed these systems to be developed as practical devices; from the 1960s air forces deployed a number of such systems, including the USAF's AGM-62 Walleye. Contrast seekers were also steadily improved, becoming very effective in the widely used AGM-65 Maverick missile. Both were standard systems until the 1980s when the development of laser guidance and GPS based systems made them unnecessary for all but the most accurate of roles. Various TV-based systems remain in limited service for super-accurate uses, but have otherwise been removed. In the anti-ship role, direct attack from an aircraft even at long range became more dangerous due to the deployment of anti-aircraft missiles on ships. Weapons such as the Bat had ranges too short to keep the attacking aircraft out of range, especially in a force provided with air cover. This was addressed with the introduction of small jet engines that greatly extended the range, producing the anti-shipping missile class that remains widely used today. Similarly, the need to attack well-defended targets such as airbases and military command posts led to the development of newer generations of glide bombs. European air forces use a glide package with a cluster bomb warhead for remotely attacking airbases. Laser and GPS guidance systems are used. AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon is an American glide bomb introduced in 1998. GBU-44/B Viper Strike is an American glide bomb. HOPE/HOSBO are a family of glide bombs under development by Diehl Defence. H-2 SOW , H-4 SOW , Takbir and GIDS REK are glide bombs developed by Pakistan. The H-4 may be a copy or a Pakistani variant of the Denel Raptor II glide bomb, a development of the Raptor I H2 which made its combat debut when used by Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft to attack a bridge on 12 December 1987 during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. DRDO Glide Bombs developed by India. GBU-53/B developed by Raytheon. NPO Bazalt subsidiary of Russian company Techmash is developing a glide cluster bomb PBK-500U Drel. See also Blue Boar Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) Bigeye bomb JDAM Paveway Al-Tariq Takbir AGM-62 Walleye DRDO Glide Bombs References External links Article on the GB1 glide bomb Photo of Siemens torpedo glider beneath Zeppelin L35 Bombs Aerial bombs Guided bombs Glider aircraft	[ 0.02495892532169819, 0.20060671865940094, -0.1267213374376297, 0.22597980499267578, -0.1717807501554489, -0.25407806038856506, 0.2641485929489136, -0.421320378780365, 0.0990406796336174, -0.4260856509208679, -0.6870208978652954, 0.4781462848186493, -0.22582492232322693, -0.30599087476730347, -0.12902376055717468, 0.30108457803726196, 0.17059826850891113, -0.04444324970245361, 0.4288288354873657, 0.04691983014345169, -0.31426751613616943, -0.10308331996202469, 0.049051038920879364, -0.5563019514083862, 0.23557811975479126, -0.13207392394542694, 0.2713858187198639, 0.38536733388900757, -0.1645239293575287, 0.16667300462722778, 0.13316316902637482, 0.4899265468120575, 0.05320536345243454, -0.33520641922950745, 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233101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortress%20of%20Louisbourg	Fortress of Louisbourg	The Fortress of Louisbourg () is a National Historic Site and the location of a one-quarter partial reconstruction of an 18th-century French fortress at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. Its two sieges, especially that of 1758, were turning points in the Anglo-French struggle for what today is Canada. The original settlement was made in 1713, and initially called Havre à l'Anglois. Subsequently, the fishing port grew to become a major commercial port and a strongly defended fortress. The fortifications eventually surrounded the town. The walls were constructed mainly between 1720 and 1740. By the mid-1740s Louisbourg, named for Louis XIV of France, was one of the most extensive (and expensive) European fortifications constructed in North America. It was supported by two smaller garrisons on Île Royale located at present-day St. Peter's and Englishtown. The Fortress of Louisbourg suffered key weaknesses, since it was erected on low-lying ground commanded by nearby hills and its design was directed mainly toward sea-based assaults, leaving the land-facing defences relatively weak. A third weakness was that it was a long way from France or Quebec, from which reinforcements might be sent. It was captured by British colonists in 1745, and was a major bargaining chip in the negotiations leading to the 1748 treaty ending the War of the Austrian Succession. It was returned to the French in exchange for border towns in what is today Belgium. It was captured again in 1758 by British forces in the Seven Years' War, after which its fortifications were systematically destroyed by British engineers. The British continued to have a garrison at Louisbourg until 1768. The fortress and town were partially reconstructed in the 1960s and 1970s, using some of the original stonework, which provided jobs for unemployed coal miners. The head stonemason for this project was Ron Bovaird. The site is operated by Parks Canada as a living history museum. The site stands as the largest reconstruction project in North America. History French settlement on Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island) can be traced to the early 17th century following settlements in Acadia that were concentrated on Baie Française (now the Bay of Fundy) such as at Port-Royal and other locations in present-day peninsular Nova Scotia. A French settlement at Sainte Anne (now Englishtown) on the central east coast of Île Royale was established in 1629 and named Fort Sainte Anne, lasting until 1641. A fur trading post was established on the site from 1651–1659, but Île Royale languished under French rule as attention was focused on the St. Lawrence River/Great Lakes colony of Canada (which then comprised parts of what is now Quebec, Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin and Illinois), Louisiana (which encompassed the current Mississippi Valley states and part of Texas), and the small agricultural settlements of mainland Acadia. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 gave Britain control of part of Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia) and Newfoundland; however, France maintained control of its colonies at Île Royale, Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island), Canada and Louisiana, with Île Royale being France's only territory directly on the Atlantic seaboard (which was controlled by Britain from Newfoundland to present-day South Carolina) and it was strategically close to important fishing grounds on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, as well as being well placed for protecting the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1713, France set about constructing Port Dauphin and a limited naval support base at the former site of Fort Sainte-Anne; however, the winter icing conditions of the harbour led the French to choose another harbour on the southeastern part of Île Royale. The harbour, being ice-free and well protected, soon became a winter port for French naval forces on the Atlantic seaboard and they named it Havre Louisbourg after King Louis XIV. First siege British forces besieging Louisbourg in 1745. The British captured the fortress, but returned it to the French at the end of the War of Austrian Succession. The Fortress was besieged in 1745 by a New England force backed by a Royal Navy squadron. The New England attackers succeeded when the fortress capitulated on June 16, 1745. A major expedition by the French to recapture the fortress led by Jean-Baptiste de La Rochefoucauld de Roye, duc d'Anville, the following year was destroyed by storms, disease and British naval attacks before it ever reached the fortress. Louisbourg returned In 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession, restored Louisbourg to France in return for territory gained in the Austrian Netherlands and the British trading post at Madras in India. Maurepas, the ministre de la marine, was determined to have it back. He regarded the fortified harbour as essential to maintaining French dominance in the fisheries of the area. The disgust of the French in this transaction was matched by that of the English colonists. The New England forces left, taking with them the famous Louisbourg Cross, which had hung in the fortress chapel. This cross was rediscovered in the Harvard University archives only in the latter half of the 20th century; it is now on long-term loan to the Louisbourg historic site.Having given up Louisbourg, Britain in 1749 created its own fortified town on Chebucto Bay which they named Halifax. It soon became the largest Royal Navy base on the Atlantic coast and hosted large numbers of British army regulars. The 29th Regiment of Foot was stationed there; they cleared the land for the port and settlement. Second siege Britain's American colonies were expanding into areas claimed by France by the 1750s, and the efforts of French forces and their First Nation allies to seal off the westward passes and approaches through which American colonists could move west soon led to the skirmishes that developed into the French and Indian War in 1754. The conflict widened into the larger Seven Years' War by 1756, which involved all of the major European powers. A large-scale French naval deployment in 1757 fended off an attempted assault by the British in 1757. However, inadequate naval support the following year allowed a large British combined operation led by Jeffrey Amherst to land for the 1758 Siege of Louisbourg which ended after a siege of six weeks on 26 July 1758, with a French surrender. The fortress was used by the British as a launching point for its 1759 Siege of Quebec that culminated in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The fortifications at Louisbourg were systematically destroyed by British engineers in 1760 to prevent the town and port from being used in the future by the French, should the peace process return Cape Breton island to France. The British kept a garrison at Louisbourg until 1768. Some of the cut-stones from Louisbourg were shipped to Halifax to be re-used and, in the 1780s, to Sydney, Nova Scotia. Governors Philippe Pastour de Costebelle (1714-1717) Jacques L'Hermite (French Officer) (acting, 1714-1715) Joseph de St. Ovide, Monbeton de Brouillan (acting, 1716-1717; governor 1717-1739) Francois de Bourville (acting, 1723-1724; 1729-1731; 1737-39; 1740) Isaac-Louis de Forant (1739-1740) Jean-Baptiste Prévost du Quesnel (1740-1744) Louis Du Pont Duchambon de Vergor (acting, 1744-1745) Antoine Le Moyne de Châteauguay (1745) Peter Warren (1745-1746) Charles Knowles (1746-1747) Charles Watson (Royal Navy officer) (1748) Peregrine Thomas Hopson (1747-1749) Charles des Herbiers de La Ralière (1749-1751) Jean-Louis de Raymond (1751-1753) Charles Joseph D'Ailleboust (acting, 1753-54) Augustin de Boschenry de Drucour (1754-1758) 20th century The site of the fortress was designated a National Historic Site in 1920. Beginning in 1961, the government of Canada undertook a historical reconstruction of one quarter of the town and fortifications with the aim being to recreate Louisbourg as it would have been at its height in the 1740s. The work required an interdisciplinary effort by archeologists, historians, engineers, and architects. The reconstruction was aided by unemployed coal miners from the industrial Cape Breton area, many of whom learned French masonry techniques from the 18th century and other skills to create an accurate replica. Where possible, many of the original stones were used in the reconstruction. Dozens of researchers worked on the project over a span of five decades. They included British-born archeologists Bruce W. Fry and Charles Lindsay; and Canadian historians B. A. Balcom, Kenneth Donovan, Brenda Dunn, John Fortier, Margaret Fortier, Allan Greer, A.J.B. Johnston, Eric Krause, Anne Marie Lane Jonah, T.D. MacLean, Christopher Moore, Robert J. Morgan, Christian Pouyez and Gilles Proulx. There were many more. Among the architects, Yvon LeBlanc, one of the first Acadian architects, was responsible for most of the town-site buildings, with input from researchers who contributed to various committees. Today, the entire site of the fortress, including the one-quarter reconstruction, is the Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site of Canada, operated by Parks Canada. Offerings include guided and unguided tours, and the demonstration and explanation of period weapons, including muskets and a cannon. Puppet shows are also shown. The Museum / Caretakers Residence (ca. 1935-6) within the site is a Classified Federal Heritage Building. The fortress has also greatly aided the local economy of the town of Louisbourg, as it has struggled to diversify economically with the decline of the North Atlantic fishery. On 5 May 1995, Canada Post issued the 'Fortress of Louisbourg' series to mark the 275th anniversary of the official founding of the fortress, the 250th anniversary of the siege by the New Englanders, the 100th anniversary of the commemoration by the Society of Colonial Wars, and the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the Sydney and Louisburg Railway (S & L). The Fortress of Louisbourg series includes: 'The Harbour and Dauphin Gate', '18th Century Louisbourg'; 'The King's Bastion'; 'The King's Garden, Convent, Hospital, and British Barracks' and 'The Fortifications and Ruins Fronting the Sea and Rochfort Point' The 43¢ stamps were designed by Rolf P. Harder. The museum that operates from the Fortress is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada. Fortified town The Fortress of Louisbourg was the capital for the colony of Île-Royale, and was located on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island near its southeastern point. The location for the fortress was chosen because it was easy to defend against British ships attempting to either block or attack the St. Lawrence River, at the time the only way to get goods to Canada and its cities of Quebec and Montreal. South of the fort, a reef provided a natural barrier, while a large island provided a good location for a battery. These defences forced British ships to enter the harbour via a channel. The fort was built to protect and provide a base for France's lucrative North American fishery and to protect Quebec City from British invasions. For this reason, it has been given the nicknames ‘Gibraltar of the North’ or the ‘Dunkirk of America.’ The fort was also built to protect France's hold on one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, the Grand Banks. One hundred and sixteen men, ten women, and twenty-three children originally settled in Louisbourg. Demographic The population of Louisbourg quickly grew. In 1719, 823 people called this maritime city their home. Seven years later, in 1726, the population was 1,296, in 1734 it was 1,616, and by 1752, the population of Louisbourg was 4,174. Of course, population growth did not come without consequences. Smallpox ravaged the population in 1731 and 1732, but Louisbourg continued to grow, especially economically. Economy Louisbourg was a large enough city to have a commercial district, a residential district, military arenas, marketplaces, inns, taverns and suburbs, as well as skilled labourers to fill all of these establishments. For the French, it was the second most important stronghold and commercial city in New France. Only Quebec was more important to France. Unlike most other cities in New France, Louisbourg did not rely on agriculture or the seigneurial system. Louisbourg itself was a popular port and was the third busiest port in North America (after Boston and Philadelphia.) It was also popular for its exporting of fish, and other products made from fish, such as cod-liver oil. The North Atlantic fishing trade employed over ten thousand people, and Louisbourg was seen as the ‘nursery for seamen.’ Louisbourg was an important investment for the French government because it gave them a strong commercial and military foothold in the Grand Banks. For France, the fishing industry was more lucrative than the fur trade. In 1731, Louisbourg fishermen exported 167,000 quintals of cod and 1600 barrels of cod-liver oil. There were roughly 400 shallop-fishing vessels out each day vying for the majority of the days catch. Also, 60 to 70 ocean-going schooners would head out from Louisbourg to catch fish further down the coast. Louisbourg's commercial success was able to bring ships from Europe, The West Indies, Quebec, Acadia, and New England. Fortifications Louisbourg was also known for its fortifications, which took the original French builders 28 years to complete. The engineer behind the project was Jean-Francois du Vergery de Verville. Verville picked Louisbourg as his location because of its natural barriers. The fort itself cost France 30 million French livres, which prompted King Louis XV to joke that he should be able to see the peaks of the buildings from his Palace in Versaille. The original budget for the fort was four million livres. Two and a half miles of wall surrounded the entire fort. On the western side of the fort, the walls were high, and across, protected by a wide ditch and ramparts. The city had four gates that led into the city. The Dauphin Gate, which is currently reconstructed, was the busiest, leading to the extensive fishing compounds around the harbour and to the main road leading inland. The Frederick Gate, also reconstructed, was the waterfront entrance. The Maurepas Gate, facing the narrows, connected the fishing establishments, dwellings and cemeteries on Rocheford Point and was elaborately decorated as it was very visible to arriving ships. The Queen's Gate on the sparsely populated seaward side saw little use. Louisbourg was also home to six bastions, two of which have been reconstructed: the Dauphin bastion, commonly referred to as a 'demi-bastion' because of its modification; the King's bastion; the Queen's bastion; the Princess bastion; the Maurepas bastion; and the Brouillon bastion. On the eastern side of the fort, 15 guns pointed out to the harbour. The wall on this side was only high and across. Louisbourg was one of the "largest military garrisons in all of New France", and many battles were fought and lives lost here because of it. The fort had the embrasures to mount 148 guns; however, historians have estimated that only 100 embrasures had cannons mounted. Disconnected from the main fort, yet still a part of Louisbourg, a small island in the harbour entrance was also fortified. The walls on the Island Battery were high, and thick. Thirty-one 24-pound guns were mounted facing the harbour. The island itself was small, with room for only a few small ships to dock there. An even larger fortified battery, the Royal Battery, was located across the harbour from the town and mounted 40 guns to protect the harbour entrance. Structures The Louisbourg hospital was the finest hospital in North America and the second-largest building in the fort town. The hospital had a tall spire that would rival that of the King's bastion and was run by the Brothers of Saint-Jean-de-Dieu. Climate Louisbourg experiences a marine influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). Looking at weather data from Louisbourg, NS, we can see the follow average high and low temperatures for the 2020/2021 winter: December 2020- (Avg High:5.7/Avg Low: -0.9)--->Daily Avg: 2.4 January 2020- (Avg High:2.0/Avg Low: -4.2)--->Daily Avg: -1.1 February 2020- (Avg High:1.1/Avg Low: -6.4)--->Daily Avg: -2.65 The above suggests that if climate data for 2021-2050 would match these averages or exceed them, areas like Louisbourg, NS could be considered to have a oceanic climate rather than a continental climate since it would meet the Köppen climate classification using the -3 isotherm. This would make sense given that most of the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia is predicted to transition to a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) for 2071-2100 climate normals. See also List of French forts in North America Louisbourg Garrison Royal eponyms in Canada References Further reading Olive Patricia and Hoad, Linda M. Louisbourg et les Indiens : une étude des relations raciales de la France, 1713-1760 Drake, Samuel Adams (1891). The Taking of Louisburg 1745. Boston: Lee and Shepard Publishers. (reprinted by Kessinger Publishing ) Fortier, John (1979). Fortress of Louisbourg. Toronto: Oxford University Press. Johnston, A.J.B (2008). Endgame 1758: The Promise, the Glory and the Despair of Louisbourg's Last Decade Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press and Sydney: Cape Breton University Press, 2007. Johnston, A.J.B. (2001). "Control and Order: The Evolution of French Colonial Louisbourg, 1713-1758" East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. Johnston, A.J.B. (1996). "Life and Religion at Louisbourg, 1713-1758" Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press. Johnston, A.J.B. (1997). "Louisbourg: The Phoenix Fortress" Halifax: Nimbus Publishing. Johnston, A.J.B. (2002). "The Summer of 1744: A Portrait of Life in 18th-Century Louisbourg" Ottawa: Parks Canada. McLennan, J.S (2000, originally 1918). Louisbourg: From its Foundation to its Fall, 1713-1758. Halifax: The Book Room Limited. Parks Canada (undated). Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site brochure. Wood, William. The Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720–1760 (text version from Project Gutenberg, audiobook from LibriVox) External links History museums in Nova Scotia Buildings and structures in the Cape Breton Regional Municipality Louisbourg Museums in Cape Breton County Open-air museums in Canada Living museums in Canada Louisbourg National Historic Sites in Nova Scotia Louisbourg Tourist attractions in Cape Breton County Coastal fortifications Forts or trading posts on the National Historic Sites of Canada register Former colonial capitals in Canada 1720 establishments in the French colonial empire Military installations established in 1720 1768 disestablishments in the British Empire Military installations closed in 1768	[ -0.61357581615448, 0.5486025810241699, -0.47720399498939514, -0.515021026134491, 0.5617188811302185, 0.585328996181488, 1.0159168243408203, -0.06954877078533173, -0.4476289451122284, -0.43925508856773376, -0.0830046534538269, 0.48182687163352966, 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233102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Expedition	Northern Expedition	The Northern Expedition was a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the "Chinese Nationalist Party", against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926. The purpose of the campaign was to reunify China, which had become fragmented in the aftermath of the Revolution of 1911. The expedition was led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, and was divided into two phases. The first phase ended in a 1927 political split between two factions of the KMT: the right-leaning Nanjing faction, led by Chiang, and the left-leaning faction in Wuhan, led by Wang Jingwei. The split was partially motivated by Chiang's purging of communists within the KMT, which marked the end of the First United Front. In an effort to mend this schism, Chiang Kai-shek stepped down as the commander of the NRA in August 1927, and went into exile in Japan. The second phase of the Expedition began in January 1928, when Chiang resumed command. By April 1928, the nationalist forces had advanced to the Yellow River. With the assistance of allied warlords including Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang, nationalist forces secured a series of decisive victories against the Beiyang Army. As they approached Beijing, Zhang Zuolin, leader of the Manchuria-based Fengtian clique, was forced to flee, and was assassinated shortly thereafter by the Japanese. His son, Zhang Xueliang, took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique, and in December 1928, announced that Manchuria would accept the authority of the nationalist government in Nanjing. With the final piece of China under KMT control, the Northern Expedition concluded successfully and China was reunified, heralding the start of the Nanjing decade. Prelude In the 1920s, the Beiyang government based in Beijing was internationally recognised as the legitimate Chinese government. Much of the country, however, was not under its control, being ruled by a patchwork of warlords. The Kuomintang (KMT), based in Guangzhou (Canton), aspired to be the party of national liberation. Since the conclusion of the Constitutional Protection Movement in 1922, the KMT had been bolstering its ranks to prepare for an expedition against the northern warlords in Beijing, with the goal of reunifying China. This preparation involved improving both the political and military strength of the KMT. Before his death in March 1925, Sun Yat-sen, the founder of the Republic of China and co-founder of the KMT, was supportive of Sino-Soviet co-operation, which had involved forming the First United Front with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The military arm of the KMT was the National Revolutionary Army (NRA). Chiang Kai-shek, who had emerged as Sun's protégé as early as 1922, was appointed commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy in 1924, and quickly emerged as a contender for the position of Sun's successor in the aftermath of his death. On 30 May 1925, Chinese students in Shanghai gathered at the International Settlement, and held demonstrations in opposition to foreign interference in China. Specifically, with the support of the KMT, they called for the boycott of foreign goods and an end to the Settlement, which was governed by the British and Americans. The Shanghai Municipal Police, largely operated by the British, opened fire on the crowd of demonstrators. This incident sparked outrage throughout China, culminating in the Canton–Hong Kong strike, which began on 18 June, and proved a fertile recruiting ground for the CCP. Concerns about the rising power of the leftist faction, and the effect of the strike on the Guangzhou government's ability to raise funds, which was largely dependent on foreign trade, led to increasing tensions within the United Front. Amidst this backdrop, Chiang, who had been vying for the position of KMT leader, began to consolidate power in preparation for an expedition against the northern warlords. On 20 March 1926, he launched a bloodless purge of hardline communists who were opposed to the proposed expedition from the Guangzhou administration and its military, known as the Canton Coup. At the same time, Chiang made conciliatory moves toward the Soviet Union, and attempted to balance the need for Soviet and CCP assistance in the fight against the warlords with his concerns about growing communist influence within the KMT. In the aftermath of the coup, Chiang negotiated a compromise whereby hardline members of the rightist faction, such as Wu Tieh-cheng, were removed from their posts in compensation for the purged leftists. By doing so, Chiang was able to prove his usefulness to the CCP and their Soviet sponsor, Joseph Stalin. Soviet aid to the KMT government would continue, as would co-operation with the CCP. A fragile coalition between KMT rightists, centrists led by Chiang, KMT leftists, and the CCP managed to hold together, laying the groundwork for the Northern Expedition. In 1926, there were three major coalition of warlords across China that were hostile to the KMT government in Guangzhou. The forces of Wu Peifu occupied northern Hunan, Hubei, and Henan provinces. The coalition of Sun Chuanfang was in control of Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. The most powerful coalition, led by Zhang Zuolin, head of the Beiyang government and the Fengtian clique, was in control of Manchuria, Shandong and Zhili. To face the Northern Expedition, Zhang Zuolin eventually assembled the "National Pacification Army" (; NPA), an alliance of the warlords of northern China. First phase (July 1926–April 1927) Against Wu Peifu (July–September 1926) Amidst heavy fighting along the border between KMT-held territory and that of the recently allied forces of the Fengtian and Zhili cliques, the nationalist government appointed Chiang Kai-shek commander-in-chief of the NRA on 5 June 1926. Chiang would accept this post in a ceremony on 9 July, which marked the formal start of the Northern Expedition, although military clashes had already been ongoing. The initial strategy for the KMT's northern advance against the Zhili warlords, which was largely devised by Soviet advisors Mikhail Borodin and Vasily Blyukher, was to focus on defeating Wu Peifu and appeasing Sun Chuanfang, while ignoring Zhang Zuolin of the Fengtian clique. Having switched from a defensive to offensive posture, KMT forces quickly advanced from their base in Guangdong into Wu-controlled Hunan province, capturing Changsha on 11 July. At the time, most of Wu Peifu's forces were preoccupied with fighting at Nankou Pass, near Beijing, against the Guominjun, a breakaway Zhili faction sympathetic to the KMT. Sun Chuanfang, who the KMT had avoided antagonising, did not intervene as KMT troops advanced further into Wu's territory. Whilst the Fengtian clique had offered its support to Wu, he refused their aid, fearing that the northern warlords would undermine his position if he allowed their troops into his territory. At a military conference held in Changsha on 11–12 August, the KMT decided launch a direct assault on Wu's stronghold of Wuchang, bypassing Sun's Nanchang. In this manner, they would follow the route taken by the Taiping Rebellion in the 19th century. In an address to his generals at the same conference, Chiang proclaimed: With the capture of the Yangtze port of Yuezhou on 22 August, Hunan came under complete KMT control, paving the way for an advance to Wuchang along the route of the Beijing–Guangzhou railway. As Wu Peifu's forces retreated northward, they breached several Yangtze dikes, slowing the KMT push. By 28 August, the KMT, led by Li Zongren and his Guangxi NRA Seventh Army, had taken Xianning, about south of Wuchang. Wu Peifu, who had returned south to mount a defence of Wuchang, gathered his forces at Heshengqiao Bridge. On 29 August, he launched a counterattack against KMT forces to the south, compromising his defensive line, and by noon the next day, his forces were in general retreat toward Wuchang. In this short period of time, Wu lost 8,000 troops. At least 5,000 of these were taken prisoner, along with their rifles, providing a boost to KMT forces. By 2 September, the NRA had nearly surrounded Wuchang. Whilst Wu and most of his army fled north to Henan province, his remaining troops in the walled city held out for over a month. His failure in the face of the NRA, however, left his hold on power and reputation broken. What remained of his army would disintegrate in the following months. Against Sun Chuanfang (September 1926–February 1927) With Wu Peifu's forces in retreat, the NRA directed itself toward Sun Chuanfang-controlled Jiangxi province, namely the city of Jiujiang and the provincial capital, Nanchang. Whilst Sun had been offered a non-aggression pact by the Guangzhou government, he was not willing to subordinate his administration to KMT rule. Consequently, whilst the siege in Wuchang was still ongoing, Chiang Kai-shek launched an attack across the Jiangxi border on 4 September. By 19 September, both Jiujiang and Nanchang had come under KMT control, hastened by the defection of Lai Shih-huang, one of Sun's generals. Despite these successes, the NRA offensive was forced into retreat as Sun arrived from Nanjing with reinforcements on 21 September. Sun retook most of the territory he had lost, brutally reasserting his authority by killing hundreds of students, teachers, and suspected members of the KMT, whose severed heads he displayed on spikes in public places. With the Northern Expedition's advance halted, Chiang wired the government in Guangzhou, demanding an end to the still ongoing Canton–Hong Kong strike, which continued to hamper his supply chain. Negotiations with the British began on 23 September, with the strike finally called off on 10 October. This eased access to supplies for the NRA, and freed up manpower, in the form of the strikers, for the continued push north. On the same day, Wu Peifu's remaining forces at Wuchang surrendered, completing the NRA's conquest of Hubei province. As bloody fighting continued in Jiangxi, the civil governor of Zhejiang province, Xia Chao, one of Sun's subordinates, defected to the KMT government in Guangzhou. Zhejiang inhabitants had become increasingly dissatisfied with the rule of Sun, who was foreign to the province, and on 16 October, Xia declared its independence. Chiang Kai-shek, a native of Zhejiang, was able to convince Xia to side with the KMT. Following his defection, Xia launched an attack on Sun-controlled Shanghai, but was almost immediately forced to withdraw back to Zhejiang; Sun had detected Xia's plans days earlier. Sun's forces subsequently marched on Zhejiang, crushing the rebellion by 23 October. Xia was executed, along with hundreds of his troops, while thousands of civilians were massacred at Xia's former headquarters. Alongside the Zhejiang rebellion, the NRA had continued their offensive in Jiangxi. Adding to the pressure on Sun, the Shantou-based NRA First Army, led by He Yingqin, marched across the Guangdong border, and began a new offensive into Fujian province. NRA troops were welcomed by many locals, including the Hakka, who resented foreign control, and gradually began to infiltrate the Fujian countryside. He's forces moved up the coast, pushing toward the provincial capital, Fuzhou. By the end of October, Sun's forces were again in retreat across Jiangxi and Fujian. In early November, KMT troops moved to capture the Yangtze ports of Jiujiang and Hukou, and by 9 November retook control of Nanchang. Sun's forces abandoned substantial materiel as they retreated, bolstering the poorly-armed NRA, which suffered 20,000 casualties in the final push on Nanchang alone. Concurrently, Sun himself had left for Tianjin with the aim of seeking aid from the powerful Fengtian clique. Shandong warlord Zhang Zongchang and Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin offered assistance, agreeing that it was necessary to contain the NRA, though they demanded payment in return for their help. As the NRA offensive carved its way through Fujian, 60,000 troops from Shandong arrived in Sun-controlled Anhui province on 24 November. These were organised into the "National Pacification Army" (NPA) on 1 December. Zhang Zuolin took the position of commander-in-chief, with Zhang Zongchang and Sun Chuanfang as deputy commanders. This alliance was hugely unpopular with locals in the regions under Sun's control, with Zhang Zhongchang's northern troops viewed as invaders. The Zhejiang autonomy movement continued, and a meeting of influential provincial figures, nominally loyal to Sun, was held in Shanghai on 8 December. In Fujian, many of Sun's troops had already defected to the NRA, and on 9 December, He Yingqin's army entered Fuzhou unopposed. On 11 December, Zhejiang commander Zhou Fengqi announced his defection to the NRA. This started a cascade of defections, leading to Zhejiang's secession from Sun's "United Provinces", after which it was given autonomous status by the Guangzhou government. In response, Sun rallied his army on Zhejiang border, with the NPA protecting his rear, and charged into Zhejiang, retaking most of the province. By 10 January, the majority of the Zhejiang rebel forces had retreated to Quzhou. To relieve the besieged rebels, He Yingqin pushed his Fujian-based forces into Zhejiang, halting Sun's advance. The rebel and KMT forces merged under the command of Bai Chongxi, who launched a counteroffensive on 20 January. By 29 January, the offensive had reached Lanxi and Jinhua, where a fierce battle resulted in a catastrophic defeat for Sun's forces. Following this victory, the NRA launched a pincer attack on provincial capital Hangzhou. Many of Sun's northern troops, demoralised by defeat, broke ranks and streamed north, looting the towns and villages they passed along the way. With his forces in disarray, Sun's commander in the area, Meng Chao-yueh, decided on 17 February to abandon Hangzhou and flee with his 20,000 troops by train to Jiangsu province. By 23 February, Zhejiang was under complete KMT control. In six months, the nationalists had expanded their control to seven provinces, inhabited by a population of about 170 million people. Aided by the defection of numerous warlords and their armies, by this point, the NRA had bolstered its ranks to 700,000. Shanghai–Nanjing offensive (February–April 1927) Sun Chuanfang retreated to Nanjing in the aftermath of these setbacks. The Fengtian clique responded to Sun's plea for help by reinforcing Jiangsu and Anhui provinces, while increasing the number of troops in Henan in support of Wu Peifu. Two major Fengtian formations, the Shandong Army of Zhang Zongchang and the Zhili Army of Chu Yupu, crossed the Yangtze River in February 1927 to help Sun defend Nanjing and Shanghai. Following their victory in Zhejiang, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the launch of an offensive on those two cities. The Hangzhou-based eastern NRA, led by Bai Chongxi and He Yingqin, launched a two-pronged attack in mid-March. Bai's forces advanced toward Shanghai, whilst He's forces moved toward Changzhou, with the goal of severing Sun's lifeline, the Shanghai–Nanjing railway. Meanwhile, Cheng Qian's central NRA advanced toward Nanjing through Anhui province, its path opened by the defection of Sun's forces there. The remnants of Sun's forces, supported by the Shandong Army, were forced to withdraw to Shanghai proper in the face of Bai's army. He's forces quickly severed the railway link with Shanghai, while Sun was confronted with the defection of his navy, and a communist general strike in Shanghai. Intense fighting took place at Songjiang, just outside the city, but on 22 March, Bai's forces marched into Shanghai victorious. The Fengtian support operation had proven to be a "costly operational disaster" for the northern warlords, whose armies had suffered heavy casualties, forcing them to retreat north across the Yangtze. Meanwhile, the strike continued until 24 March, when Bai ordered its end. The general disorder caused by the strike is said to have resulted in the deaths of 322 people, with 2,000 wounded, contributing to KMT feelings of unease with its wayward communist allies. With Shanghai under their control, the NRA turned its attention to Nanjing. He Yingqin advanced from the south-east, whilst Cheng Qian came from the south-west. Zhang Zongchang ordered his Shandong Army to withdraw from Nanjing on 23 March, leaving the city undefended. Cheng arrived on the next day, entering the city with no resistance. Almost immediately after arrival of the NRA, mass anti-foreigner riots broke out in the city, in an event that came to be known as the Nanjing Incident. British and American naval forces were sent to evacuate their respective citizens, resulting in a naval bombardment that left the city burning and at least forty people dead. He's forces arrived on 25 March, and on the next day, Cheng and He were finally able to put an end to the violence. Chiang Kai-shek's faction accused Lin Boqu of planning the unrest, viewing it as an attempt to turn international opinion against the KMT. Lin, a member of both the CCP and the KMT, had been serving as political commissar of the Sixth Army, part of Cheng Qian's forces. Whoever was responsible, the Nanjing Incident represented the culmination of tensions within the First United Front. The nationalist government had moved from Guangzhou to the new city of Wuhan, which was formed from a merger of Wuchang and two other nearby cities. The Wuhan administration gradually drifted away from Chiang, becoming a centre of leftist, Soviet-backed power within the KMT and constraining his authority. Communist-led trade unions staged near-constant demonstrations in Wuhan itself, and across the nominally KMT-controlled territories, establishing parallel structures of administration in areas liberated by the NRA. In the final success of the first phase of the expedition, the NRA went on to capture Anhui provincial capital Hefei and the smaller city of Bengbu. NRA forces that had already been operating north of the Yangtze continued into northern Jiangsu province. Their advance, however, was hampered by the administrative chaos that followed the Nanjing Incident. Tensions between the leftists in Wuhan and rightists in Nanjing would come to a head, bringing the Northern Expedition to a halt. Meanwhile, in the aftermath of the Shanghai–Nanjing offensive, the aid of the Fengtian armies prevented Sun Chuanfang's army from collapsing completely, and they eventually managed to regroup and strengthen their forces for the next phase of the conflict. Launching a counteroffensive on 3 April, the NPA had been able to force the NRA back more than to the Yangtze by 11 April. Anti-communist purge and second phase (April 1927–June 1928) Internal conflict among the nationalists (April–August 1927) As part of the First United Front, many members of the Chinese Communist Party had joined the KMT, and they exerted significant influence over its left-wing faction. Mikhail Borodin, the official liaison between the KMT and the Soviet government in Moscow, had spent years cultivating this alliance, while covertly encouraging CCP expansion. This Soviet-backed leftist wing of the KMT came to dominate the nationalist government in Wuhan, which increasingly directed its ire at NRA commander-in-chief Chiang Kai-shek. On 1 April, the Wuhan government, advised by Borodin, issued edicts stripping Chiang of his authority in foreign affairs, financial matters, and communications, and ordered that he leave his command post in Shanghai and go to the front. These orders had no effect, as Wuhan had almost no military authority. The government intended to send a small force to Nanjing with the aim of "disarming" Chiang, but put that plan on hold following Wang Jingwei's return from exile in Europe. Wang, who had travelled back to China at the urging of members of the government, was greeted in Shanghai by Chiang, who offered a power-sharing deal. Wang said that he would consider the deal, and boarded a ship for Wuhan on 7 April. He arrived on the 10th, where he was eagerly greeted by the Wuhan leadership. Having heard from Wang about Chiang's offer, the government decided to turn its limited forces toward Beijing instead. Chiang, on the other hand, was already preparing for a purge of communists in Shanghai. Between 12 and 14April, hundreds of communists in Shanghai were arrested and killed on the orders of Chiang in a disturbance that came to be called the "Shanghai massacre", effectively ending the alliance between the nationalists and the communists. The purge was condemned by the Wang Jingwei, now leader of the Wuhan government, formalising the split between the KMT leftists based in Wuhan and the KMT rightists, who subsequently established their own government in Nanjing. The precariousness of the NRA position in Nanjing was clear: at ceremonies held to commemorate the city's elevation to capital of China, warlord Zhang Zongchang's artillery bombarded the city's waterfront from across the Yangtze. With the Nanjing–Shanghai area under constant threat of attack from the NPA, a series of independent offensives was launched by NRA and NRA-aligned forces in May 1927. Feng Yuxiang and his Guominjun moved first, leaving their base in Shaanxi to march on Luoyang, in Henan. On 10 May, the NRA First and Sixth armies crossed the Yangtze into Anhui, and on 16 May, Li Zongren, based in western Anhui, led the Seventh Army toward Hefei. Concurrently, the Wuhan government launched its own campaign in Henan province led by Tang Shengzhi, whom was appointed to serve as the Wuhan army's commander-in-chief. Aided by the defection of remnants of Wu Peifu's forces, Tang advanced to fight the forces of the "Young Marshal" Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, pushing them back to a river at Yancheng. By 20 May, Li had captured Bengbu, whilst Chiang unleashed a four-pronged attack through Jiangsu, toward the warlord power base in Shandong. He Yingqin led the NRA First Army across the Yangtze at Zhenjiang, and moved to capture Haizhou. On 28 May, Li took Suzhou, while the Guominjun took Luoyang, forcing Zhang Zongchang to withdraw his forces to Shandong, and Zhang Xueliang to fall back north of the Yellow River. Following Xueliang's retreat, Feng Yuxiang moved east from Luoyang to Zhengzhou. Finally, on 2 June, the NRA captured the vital railway junction of Xuzhou. With both the Longhai and Beijing–Hankou railways under NRA or Guominjun control, Feng came into direct contact with the Wuhan and Nanjing factional governments, who both sought his aid. He met with Wang Jingwei and Tang Shengzhi at Zhengzhou on 10–11 June, then travelled to Xuzhou to meet with Chiang Kai-shek on 19 June. On the next day, Feng announced that he would align with the Nanjing faction and purge communists from the areas under his control, crippling the Wuhan government's plan to push north, upon which Tang returned to Wuhan with his troops. Whilst Chiang intended to push into Shandong, he was thwarted by the arrival of the Japanese Kwantung Army during the course of June, who were ostensibly deployed to protect Japanese citizens in Qingdao. Around this time, Wu Peifu retreated with his remaining forces into Sichuan, where he announced his retirement. On 5 July, NPA general Chen Yi-yen defected to the NRA, but failed to convince his 10,000 soldiers at Qingdao to do likewise. At Wuhan, Tang Shengzhi began to mobilise his troops for an attack on the Nanjing government. Aware of this threat, Chiang recalled troops from the Shandong border in an effort to block Tang. In turn, the NPA launched an attack on Chiang in early July, reclaiming much of the territory they had lost. By 24 July, the NPA had retaken Xuzhou. In the face of mounting losses inflicted by the warlords, the Wuhan and Nanjing factions began reconciliation talks. The Wuhan government purged communists from its ranks and expelled Soviet advisors, facilitating a rapprochement between the two factions, but also sparking the communist Nanchang uprising, which weakened its authority. In the meantime, however, the NPA counter-offensive continued, reaching Bengbu on 9 August, and forcing Chiang to withdraw his troops south of the Yangtze. In return for his co-operation, Wang Jingwei demanded that Chiang resign from his post of commander-in-chief, and relinquish all political titles. Accordingly, Chiang resigned from his post on 12 August, though this did not immediately reunify the Wuhan and Nanjing factions. Without Chiang Kai-shek (August 1927–January 1928) As the two sides attempted to reconcile their political differences, Sun Chuanfang's forces continued to bombard Nanjing from across the Yangtze. Sensing the NRA's continual disarray, Sun moved to try and recapture Shanghai, contrary to the wishes of NPA leader Zhang Zuolin. On 25 August, NPA landing parties were dispatched to cross the Yangtze at Longtan, near Nanjing. In the early morning of 26 August, thousands of Sun's troops crossed the river, rallying at the Longtan station of the Shanghai–Nanjing railway. Li Zongren's NRA Seventh Army managed to drive the NPA away from the railway briefly, but thousands more of Sun's troops, including White Russian mercenary units, crossed the river the next day and retook the station, cutting off contact between Nanjing and Shanghai. The reeling NRA sent missives to all factions within the revolutionary movement, calling for unity in the face of Sun's advancing troops. Accordingly, in an attempt to put pressure on Sun, Feng Yuxiang and his Guominjun launched an attack into Shandong on 28 August, while Wuhan sent its troops north, trying to flank Sun, and He Yingqin approached from Shanghai. With its forces encircled, and unable to continue to move troops across the river, the NPA was forced to abandon Longtan railway station on 30 August. In a desperate attempt at resistance, Sun rallied his 40,000 remaining troops and launched a counter-offensive on 31 August, only to be crushed in a hard-fought battle that left more than 10,000 of those troops dead. While Sun was able to escape to Shandong, his surviving troops were forced to surrender to NRA. With victory in hand, reconciliation talks restarted on 7 September, and on 15 September, the Wuhan government was dissolved, with a new joint government established in Nanjing, under the leadership of Guangxi clique generals. Wang Jingwei refused to join the new government, as did Tang Shengzi, who became an independent warlord in his own right, controlling Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, and parts of Anhui. On the other hand, Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan, theretofore independent, aligned his province with the Nanjing government, adding 100,000 troops to NRA ranks and increasing the pressure on Zhang Zuolin. In the subsequent fighting neither the Shanxi nor Fengtian forces managed to gain the upper hand. Yan's troops successfully withstood a massive siege at Zhuozhou, but went on to suffer a heavy defeat at Baoding on 15 October. The threat from Tang's forces, however, prejudiced any further northward advance by the NRA, and so in October it moved to quash his rebellion. Tang was defeated in early November, and left for exile in Japan shortly afterwards. With Tang dealt with, the push north resumed, reaching Bengbu by 9 November. Continuing their advance, the NRA and Feng Yuxiang's Guominjun moved toward Xuzhou. The NPA attempted a counter-offensive on 12 December, led by armoured trains, but was quickly forced back by the combined NRA and Guominjun forces, which took Xuzhou on 16 December. The NPA retreated once more to Shandong. Meanwhile, in Guangzhou, a communist uprising broke out on 11 December. The violent rebellion was quickly put down, and on 13 December, Chiang Kai-shek called for the ending of all remaining relations with the Soviet Union. The Nanjing government agreed, and also aired its suspicions over the allegiances of Wang Jingwei, who had been based in Guangzhou after the end of the Wuhan government. Wang left for exile in France on 17 December, paving the way for Chiang's return as commander-in-chief. With the military success of Chiang's Whampoa troops, the various KMT factions agreed to recognise the legitimacy of Chiang's leadership. Consequently, Chiang was officially invited to resume command of the NRA on 1 January 1928. Regrouping and Jinan incident (January–May 1928) With the frigid winter of northern China prohibiting any further advance, Chiang used the months following his reappointment to consolidate his control and restore the integrity of the Nanjing administration. On 18 February, Chiang was granted the title "Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Expeditionary Forces", whilst He Yingqin was made NRA chief-of-staff. The NRA was reorganised into four "collective armies". The First Collective Army was made up largely of the original NRA forces from Guangzhou, now based in the Nanjing–Shanghai area. The Second Collective Army consisted of Feng's Guominjun, the Third of Yan's Shanxi forces, and the Fourth of Li Zongren's Guangxi clique army. By this point, the NRA was made up of one million soldiers, most of them part of ex-warlord armies. Preparing for a resumption of the expedition in March, Chiang ordered his foreign ministry to negotiate with the Japanese, in order to try to prevent their further intervention in Shandong. By 1 April, Feng's NRA Second Collective Army (Guominjun) and Yan's NRA Third Collective Army had started to fight the NPA on the Henan–Shandong border and along the Beijing–Suiyuan railway. The resumption of the Northern Expedition was officially launched by Chiang Kai-shek on 7 April. With the NPA line softened by Feng and Yan's attacks, the NRA First Collective Army rushed into Shandong along the Tianjin–Pukou railway, capturing Tengzhou by 16 April. Meanwhile, Feng's forces advanced into Shandong from the west, capturing Jiaxiang on the 15th. Sun Chuanfang decided to attempt a two-pronged counter-offensive against the NRA First and Second armies, managing to push the First back to the Longhai railway. His attack against the Second Army failed, and by the 21st, the combined NRA had forced him to withdraw from Jining to the provincial capital Jinan. According to an American account Sun's retreat, the "great majority of the troops in this retreat literally walked the soles off their shoes, and this, combined with the scarcity of food and total lack of shelter left the vast horde without any idea of further resistance". The Japanese, meanwhile, having heard of Sun's defeat, began to move Kwantung Army troops by train from Qingdao to Jinan. While the NRA Second Collective Army advanced northeast to Jinan along the southern bank of the Yellow River, the First Collective Army diverged east from the Tianjin–Pukou railway at Tai'an, crossing the Taishan mountains to attack Jinan from the west via the Qingdao–Jinan railway. This strategy was successful, and by 29 April, the NRA had nearly encircled Jinan. The beleaguered NPA retreated to the north bank of the Yellow River, amidst looting and outbreaks of violence. At this point, there were already 3,000 Japanese troops in Jinan, guarding the 2,000 Japanese civilians in the city. On the next day, NRA troops entered Jinan. Chiang Kai-shek arrived on 2 May, and attempted to negotiate a Japanese withdrawal from Jinan, issuing safety guarantees for Japanese civilians to local Kwantung Army commander Hikosuke Fukuda. Fukuda agreed, and his troops prepared to leave that night. Early the next morning, conflict broke out between the Chinese and Japanese troops, starting what came to be called the "Jinan incident". What began as a minor armed altercation escalated on 8 May into a full-scale Japanese attack on the city. During the course of the incident, the Japanese killed KMT foreign affairs commissioner Cai Gongshi, several diplomats, and about five thousand Chinese civilians. Final offensive and capture of Beijing (May–December 1928) Deciding to avoid further confrontation with the Japanese, the NRA First Army continued its march north by going around Jinan to capture Dezhou on 13 May, while the NRA Second Army moved north along the Beijing–Hankou railway. Meanwhile, Yan Xishan's NRA Third Army proceeded toward Beijing from its base in Shanxi. The Second and Third armies met at Baoding on the North China Plain. While the Second Army besieged that city, the Third Army went north toward Zhangjiakou, gateway to Beijing. On 17 May, however, the forces of Zhang Zuolin launched a 200,000-man counter-offensive, forcing the First Army back and the Second Army south of Baoding. As fighting grew closer to Beijing, the Japanese sent a communique to both the NRA and Zhang, warning that any fighting in Manchuria would result in a Japanese intervention in that region. Zhang, weary of KMT propaganda that linked him with the Japanese massacre at Jinan, responded that he would "not recognize Japan's interest in Manchuria", compromising his position. With his troops demoralised, the momentum of the NPA counter-offensive fizzled out by 25 May, and the Third Army was able to capture Zhangjiakou on that day, and Nankou Pass on the next. With pressure growing on his vital railway links, Zhang gradually began to withdraw his troops from the North China Plain on 30 May. In the face of the NRA onslaught, and under pressure from the Japanese, Zhang decided to evacuate to Manchuria by train, leaving with his staff on 3 June. Early the next morning, a bomb planted by the Japanese Kwantung Army exploded under the train, killing Zhang in the so-called "Huanggutun incident". His remaining forces, even further demoralised, crumpled under the pressure of the NRA advance. Sun Chuanfang unleashed the final blow to the NPA when he withdrew his troops from the defensive line and fled to Japanese-controlled Dairen on 4 June. On 6 June, the NRA Third Collective Army marched into Beijing, ending the Beiyang government. The other NRA armies would arrive in the Beijing area over the next few days. Zhang Zongchang subordinate Xu Yuanquan subsequently surrendered Tianjin to the NRA First Collective Army on 11 June. Zhang Xueliang succeeded Zhang Zuolin as leader of the Fengtian clique, and decided to end the war and to co-operate with the nationalists. The Shandong–Zhili Army led by Zhang Zongchang and Chu Yupu refused to surrender, and despite the defeats it had suffered still numbered about 60,000–70,000 soldiers, as well as at least three armoured trains manned by White Russian mercenaries under General Konstantin Nechaev. As Zhang Xueliang had sided with the nationalists, Zhang Zongchang declared war on the Fengtian clique. Supported by Japan, the Shandong–Zhili Army moved from its base at Tangshan on 2 August, crossed the Luan River, and invaded Manchuria. After six days of fighting, however, the defiant warlord army was trapped by KMT and Zhang Xueliang-aligned forces; many of Zhang Zongchang's troops (including the White Russian mercenaries) defected or deserted, and those who refused to surrender were killed. Zhang Xueliang officially declared his allegiance to the nationalist government in Nanjing on 29December 1928, marking the formal end of the Northern Expedition, and the reunification of China. Aftermath Following the capture of Beijing, Chiang and his administration moved quickly to reorganise the government for peacetime. In July, he and the leaders of the four collective armies met at Beijing to discuss the demobilisation and disarmament of the roughly 2.2 million troops that had come to be part of the NRA. Chiang desired to reduce the size of the army by half, so as to free up government monies for domestic development. The lack of unity in the new administration quickly became apparent, and on 14 July, Feng Yuxiang left Beijing. A general meeting of the KMT was held in Nanjing from 8–14 August. At this meeting, also attended by non-KMT members Feng and Yan Xishan, the primary topic discussion was that of centralisation. Chiang desired to take the power that had been executed through various provincial entities and concentrate it in the central government, in an effort to curtail the provincialist tendencies of the warlord era. Minister of Finance T. V. Soong called for all revenues to be centralised in the national treasury. In the end, though, it was recognised that real centralisation could only occur if the various commanders, the former warlords, relinquished their financial and military power to the national government. While these principles were nominally agreed to by the KMT membership, their exercise in practice was far from assured. The new peacetime Nanjing government was launched on 10 October 1928, the seventeenth anniversary of the start of the Xinhai Revolution, with Chiang at its head. The country, however, remained de facto divided into five realms controlled by military leaders. The Nanjing faction controlled the area around Nanjing and Shanghai, while the Guangxi clique controlled Hubei, Hunan, and Guangxi. Feng Yuxiang's Guominjun continued to control Shaanxi, Henan, and parts of Shantung and Zhili, while Yan Xishan controlled Shanxi, Beijing, and the area around Tianjin. Zhang Xueliang continued to control Manchuria as a quasi-independent state, and local warlords in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou remained as they were before the Northern Expedition. Defeated warlord Zhang Zongchang would return to his former territory of Shandong in 1929, where he launched a rebellion against his former subordinate Liu Zhennian, who had defected to the nationalists during the Northern Expedition. While the rebellion was put down swiftly, it demonstrated the Nanjing government's shaky hold on China's vast territory. As Chiang attempted to cut back the military and centralise the power of the nationalist government in Nanjing, the regional warlords, with their military forces largely intact, began to renounce their allegiance to Chiang and form an alliance against the KMT. This struggle for supremacy broke into armed conflict in the Central Plains War of 1929–30. Although Chiang was ultimately victorious in that war which ensured his status as the singular leader of all China, regionalism and warlordism would continue, weakening the country and laying the groundwork for the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. In the Soviet Union The Northern Expedition became a point of contention between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky in the Soviet Union. Stalin encouraged the CCP to co-operate with the KMT on multiple occasions, as he believed the KMT was more capable of completing the Chinese revolution. Trotsky was against collaboration with the KMT, as he believed that it was opposed to the concept of proletarian revolution. The Comintern backed Stalin's decision to financially support the KMT. Stalin, who in his China strategy prohibited the arming of workers and peasants, and encouraged co-operation with the bourgeoisie, was considered vulnerable in the aftermath of the failure of the United Front. This failure crystallised his move away from international revolution and toward "Socialism in One Country". Stalin would never again trust the Chinese Communist Party, which he would later refer to as "margarine communists" who deviated from Marxist orthodoxy in their drive for peasant-based, rather than worker-based, revolution. References Citations Sources Further reading External links Kuomintang Warlord Era Wars involving the Republic of China Conflicts in 1926 Conflicts in 1927 Conflicts in 1928 1926 in China 1927 in China 1928 in China National Revolutionary Army Military campaigns involving China	[ -0.3468817174434662, 0.3254151940345764, -0.23493166267871857, -0.26350653171539307, -0.2615692615509033, 0.14781388640403748, 0.3210216462612152, 0.31255093216896057, 0.07486405223608017, -0.13314086198806763, -0.3051655888557434, -0.1570836752653122, -0.07170695811510086, 0.559809148311615, -0.41434407234191895, 0.7184119820594788, 0.44132199883461, -0.34494906663894653, 0.36306384205818176, -0.11442785710096359, -0.23388713598251343, -0.19447365403175354, 0.4005778133869171, -0.10839909315109253, 0.564898669719696, -0.3356509804725647, 0.8932487368583679, -0.21942269802093506, 0.2111295610666275, -0.1681346595287323, -0.0405433289706707, 0.2547604739665985, -0.23581744730472565, -0.3093514144420624, 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233103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lamb	Charles Lamb	Charles Lamb (10 February 1775 – 27 December 1834) was an English essayist, poet, and antiquarian, best known for his Essays of Elia and for the children's book Tales from Shakespeare, co-authored with his sister, Mary Lamb (1764–1847). Friends with such literary luminaries as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, William Wordsworth, and William Hazlitt, Lamb was at the centre of a major literary circle in England. He has been referred to by E. V. Lucas, his principal biographer, as "the most lovable figure in English literature". Youth and schooling Lamb was born in London, the son of Elizabeth Field and John Lamb. Lamb was the youngest child, with a sister 11 years older named Mary and an even older brother named John; there were four others who did not survive infancy. His father John Lamb was a lawyer's clerk and spent most of his professional life as the assistant to a barrister named Samuel Salt, who lived in the Inner Temple in the legal district of London. It was there in Crown Office Row that Charles Lamb was born and spent his youth. Lamb created a portrait of his father in his "Elia on the Old Benchers" under the name Lovel. Lamb's older brother was too much his senior to be a youthful companion to the boy but his sister Mary, being born eleven years before him, was probably his closest playmate. Lamb was also cared for by his paternal aunt Hetty, who seems to have had a particular fondness for him. A number of writings by both Charles and Mary suggest that the conflict between Aunt Hetty and her sister-in-law created a certain degree of tension in the Lamb household. However, Charles speaks fondly of her and her presence in the house seems to have brought a great deal of comfort to him. Some of Lamb's fondest childhood memories were of time spent with Mrs Field, his maternal grandmother, who was for many years a servant to the Plumer family, who owned a large country house called Blakesware, near Widford, Hertfordshire. After the death of Mrs Plumer, Lamb's grandmother was in sole charge of the large home and, as William Plumer was often absent, Charles had free rein of the place during his visits. A picture of these visits can be glimpsed in the Elia essay Blakesmoor in H—shire. Why, every plank and panel of that house for me had magic in it. The tapestried bed-rooms – tapestry so much better than painting – not adorning merely, but peopling the wainscots – at which childhood ever and anon would steal a look, shifting its coverlid (replaced as quickly) to exercise its tender courage in a momentary eye-encounter with those stern bright visages, staring reciprocally – all Ovid on the walls, in colours vivider than his descriptions. Little is known about Charles's life before he was seven other than that Mary taught him to read at a very early age and he read voraciously. It is believed that he suffered from smallpox during his early years, which forced him into a long period of convalescence. After this period of recovery Lamb began to take lessons from Mrs Reynolds, a woman who lived in the Temple and is believed to have been the former wife of a lawyer. Mrs Reynolds must have been a sympathetic schoolmistress because Lamb maintained a relationship with her throughout his life and she is known to have attended dinner parties held by Mary and Charles in the 1820s. E. V. Lucas suggests that sometime in 1781 Charles left Mrs Reynolds and began to study at the Academy of William Bird. His time with William Bird did not last long, however, because by October 1782 Lamb was enrolled in Christ's Hospital, a charity boarding school chartered by King Edward VI in 1553. A thorough record of Christ's Hospital is to be found in several essays by Lamb as well as The Autobiography of Leigh Hunt and the Biographia Literaria of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, with whom Charles developed a friendship that would last for their entire lives. Despite the school's brutality, Lamb got along well there, due in part, perhaps, to the fact that his home was not far distant, thus enabling him, unlike many other boys, to return often to its safety. Years later, in his essay "Christ's Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago", Lamb described these events, speaking of himself in the third person as "L". "I remember L. at school; and can well recollect that he had some peculiar advantages, which I and other of his schoolfellows had not. His friends lived in town, and were near at hand; and he had the privilege of going to see them, almost as often as he wished, through some invidious distinction, which was denied to us." Christ's Hospital was a typical English boarding school and many students later wrote of the terrible violence they suffered there. The upper master (i.e. principal or headteacher) of the school from 1778 to 1799 was Reverend James Boyer, a man renowned for his unpredictable and capricious temper. In one famous story Boyer was said to have knocked one of Leigh Hunt's teeth out by throwing a copy of Homer at him from across the room. Lamb seemed to have escaped much of this brutality, in part because of his amiable personality and in part because Samuel Salt, his father's employer and Lamb's sponsor at the school, was one of the institute's governors. Charles Lamb had a stutter and this "inconquerable impediment" in his speech deprived him of Grecian status at Christ's Hospital, thus disqualifying him for a clerical career. While Coleridge and other scholarly boys were able to go on to Cambridge, Lamb left school at fourteen and was forced to find a more prosaic career. For a short time he worked in the office of Joseph Paice, a London merchant, and then, for 23 weeks, until 8 February 1792, held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the South Sea House. Its subsequent downfall in a pyramid scheme after Lamb left (the South Sea Bubble) would be contrasted to the company's prosperity in the first Elia essay. On 5 April 1792 he went to work in the Accountant's Office for the British East India Company, the death of his father's employer having ruined the family's fortunes. Charles would continue to work there for 25 years, until his retirement with pension (the "superannuation" he refers to in the title of one essay). In 1792 while tending to his grandmother, Mary Field, in Hertfordshire, Charles Lamb fell in love with a young woman named Ann Simmons. Although no epistolary record exists of the relationship between the two, Lamb seems to have spent years wooing her. The record of the love exists in several accounts of Lamb's writing. "Rosamund Gray" is a story of a young man named Allen Clare who loves Rosamund Gray but their relationship comes to nothing because of her sudden death. Miss Simmons also appears in several Elia essays under the name "Alice M". The essays "Dream Children", "New Year's Eve", and several others, speak of the many years that Lamb spent pursuing his love that ultimately failed. Miss Simmons eventually went on to marry a silversmith and Lamb called the failure of the affair his "great disappointment". Family tragedy Both Charles and his sister Mary suffered a period of mental illness. As he himself confessed in a letter, Charles spent six weeks in a mental facility during 1795: Mary Lamb's illness was more severe than her brother's, and it led her to become aggressive on a fatal occasion. On 22 September 1796, while preparing dinner, Mary became angry with her apprentice, roughly shoving the little girl out of her way and pushing her into another room. Her mother, Elizabeth, began admonishing her for this, and Mary suffered a mental breakdown. She took the kitchen knife she had been holding, unsheathed it, and approached her mother, who was sitting down. Mary, "worn down to a state of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her mother at night", was seized with acute mania and stabbed her mother in the heart with a table knife. Charles ran into the house soon after the murder and took the knife out of Mary's hand. Later in the evening, Charles found a local place for Mary in a private mental facility called Fisher House, which had been found with the help of a doctor friend of his. While reports were published by the media, Charles wrote a letter to Samuel Taylor Coleridge in connection to the matricide: Charles took over responsibility for Mary after refusing his brother John's suggestion that they have her committed to a public lunatic asylum. Lamb used a large part of his relatively meagre income to keep his beloved sister in the private "madhouse" in Islington. With the help of friends, Lamb succeeded in obtaining his sister's release from what would otherwise have been lifelong imprisonment. Although there was no legal status of "insanity" at the time, the jury returned the verdict of "lunacy" which was how she was freed from guilt of willful murder, on the condition that Charles take personal responsibility for her safekeeping. The 1799 death of John Lamb was something of a relief to Charles because his father had been mentally incapacitated for a number of years since suffering a stroke. The death of his father also meant that Mary could come to live again with him in Pentonville, and in 1800 they set up a shared home at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, where they would live until 1809. In 1800, Mary's illness came back and Charles had to take her back again to the asylum. In those days, Charles sent a letter to Coleridge, in which he admitted he felt melancholic and lonely, adding "I almost wish that Mary were dead." Later she would come back, and both he and his sister would enjoy an active and rich social life. Their London quarters became a kind of weekly salon for many of the most outstanding theatrical and literary figures of the day. In 1869, a club, The Lambs, was formed in London to carry on their salon tradition. The actor Henry James Montague founded the club's New York counterpart in 1874. Charles Lamb, having been to school with Samuel Coleridge, counted Coleridge as perhaps his closest, and certainly his oldest, friend. On his deathbed, Coleridge had a mourning ring sent to Lamb and his sister. Fortuitously, Lamb's first publication was in 1796, when four sonnets by "Mr Charles Lamb of the India House" appeared in Coleridge's Poems on Various Subjects. In 1797 he contributed additional blank verse to the second edition, and met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, on his short summer holiday with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, thereby also striking up a lifelong friendship with William. In London, Lamb became familiar with a group of young writers who favoured political reform, including Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt and William Hone. Lamb continued to clerk for the East India Company and doubled as a writer in various genres, his tragedy, John Woodvil, being published in 1802. His farce, Mr H, was performed at Drury Lane in 1807, where it was roundly booed. In the same year, Tales from Shakespeare (Charles handled the tragedies; his sister Mary, the comedies) was published, and became a best seller for William Godwin's "Children's Library". On 20 July 1819, at age 44, Lamb, who, because of family commitments, had never married, fell in love with an actress, Fanny Kelly, of Covent Garden, and besides writing her a sonnet he also proposed marriage. She refused him, and he died a bachelor. His collected essays, under the title Essays of Elia, were published in 1823 ("Elia" being the pen name Lamb used as a contributor to The London Magazine). The Essays of Elia would be criticised in the Quarterly Review (January 1823) by Robert Southey, who thought its author to be irreligious. When Charles read the review, entitled "The Progress of Infidelity", he was filled with indignation, and wrote a letter to his friend Bernard Barton, where Lamb declared he hated the review, and emphasised that his words "meant no harm to religion". First, Lamb did not want to retort, since he actually admired Southey; but later he felt the need to write a letter "Elia to Southey", in which he complained and expressed that the fact that he was a dissenter of the Church, did not make him an irreligious man. The letter would be published in The London Magazine, in October 1823: A further collection called The Last Essays of Elia was published in 1833, shortly before Lamb's death. Also, in 1834, Samuel Coleridge died. The funeral was confined only to the family of the writer, so Lamb was prevented from attending and only wrote a letter to Rev. James Gilman, a very close [word missing], expressing his condolences. On 27 December 1834, Lamb died of a streptococcal infection, erysipelas, contracted from a minor graze on his face sustained after slipping in the street; he was 59. From 1833 till their deaths, Charles and Mary lived at Bay Cottage, Church Street, Edmonton, north of London (now part of the London Borough of Enfield). Lamb is buried in All Saints' Churchyard, Edmonton. His sister, who was ten years his senior, survived him for more than a dozen years. She is buried beside him. Work Lamb's first publication was the inclusion of four sonnets in Coleridge's Poems on Various Subjects, published in 1796 by Joseph Cottle. The sonnets were significantly influenced by the poems of Burns and the sonnets of William Bowles, a largely forgotten poet of the late 18th century. Lamb's poems garnered little attention and are seldom read today. As he himself came to realise, he was a much more talented prose stylist than poet. Indeed, one of the most celebrated poets of the day—William Wordsworth—wrote to John Scott as early as 1815 that Lamb "writes prose exquisitely"—and this was five years before Lamb began The Essays of Elia for which he is now most famous. Notwithstanding, Lamb's contributions to Coleridge's second edition of the Poems on Various Subjects showed significant growth as a poet. These poems included The Tomb of Douglas and A Vision of Repentance. Because of a temporary falling out with Coleridge, Lamb's poems were to be excluded in the third edition of the Poems though as it turned out a third edition never emerged. Instead, Coleridge's next publication was the monumentally influential Lyrical Ballads co-published with Wordsworth. Lamb, on the other hand, published a book entitled Blank Verse with Charles Lloyd, the mentally unstable son of the founder of Lloyds Bank. Lamb's most famous poem was written at this time and entitled The Old Familiar Faces. Like most of Lamb's poems, it is unabashedly sentimental, and perhaps for this reason it is still remembered and widely read today, being often included in anthologies of British and Romantic period poetry. Of particular interest to Lambarians is the opening verse of the original version of The Old Familiar Faces, which is concerned with Lamb's mother, whom Mary Lamb killed. It was a verse that Lamb chose to remove from the edition of his Collected Work published in 1818: I had a mother, but she died, and left me, Died prematurely in a day of horrors – All, all are gone, the old familiar faces. In the final years of the 18th century, Lamb began to work on prose, first in a novella entitled Rosamund Gray, which tells the story of a young girl whose character is thought to be based on Ann Simmons, an early love interest. Although the story is not particularly successful as a narrative because of Lamb's poor sense of plot, it was well thought of by Lamb's contemporaries and led Shelley to observe, "what a lovely thing is Rosamund Gray! How much knowledge of the sweetest part of our nature in it!" (Quoted in Barnett, page 50) In the first years of the 19th century, Lamb began a fruitful literary cooperation with his sister Mary. Together they wrote at least three books for William Godwin's Juvenile Library. The most successful of these was Tales From Shakespeare, which ran through two editions for Godwin and has been published dozens of times in countless editions ever since. The book contains artful prose summaries of some of Shakespeare's most well-loved works. According to Lamb, he worked primarily on Shakespeare's tragedies, while Mary focused mainly on the comedies. Lamb's essay "On the Tragedies of Shakespeare Considered with Reference to their Fitness for Stage Representation", which was originally published in the Reflector in 1811 with the title "On Garrick, and Acting; and the Plays of Shakspeare, considered with reference to their fitness for Stage Representation", has often been taken as the ultimate Romantic dismissal of the theatre. In the essay, Lamb argues that Shakespeare should be read, rather than performed, in order to protect Shakespeare from butchering by mass commercial performances. While the essay certainly criticises contemporary stage practice, it also develops a more complex reflection on the possibility of representing Shakespearean dramas: Shakespeare’s dramas are for Lamb the object of a complex cognitive process that does not require sensible data, but only imaginative elements that are suggestively elicited by words. In the altered state of consciousness that the dreamlike experience of reading stands for, Lamb can see Shakespeare’s own conceptions mentally materialized. Besides contributing to Shakespeare's reception with his and his sister's book Tales From Shakespeare, Lamb also contributed to the recovery of acquaintance with Shakespeare's contemporaries. Accelerating the increasing interest of the time in the older writers, and building for himself a reputation as an antiquarian, in 1808 Lamb compiled a collection of extracts from the old dramatists, Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets Who Lived About the Time of Shakespeare. This also contained critical "characters" of the old writers, which added to the flow of significant literary criticism, primarily of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, from Lamb's pen. Immersion in seventeenth-century authors, such as Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne, also changed the way Lamb wrote, adding a distinct flavour to his writing style. Lamb's friend the essayist William Hazlitt thus characterised him: "Mr. Lamb ... does not march boldly along with the crowd .... He prefers bye-ways to highways. When the full tide of human life pours along to some festive show, to some pageant of a day, Elia would stand on one side to look over an old book-stall, or stroll down some deserted pathway in search of a pensive description over a tottering doorway, or some quaint device in architecture, illustrative of embryo art and ancient manners. Mr. Lamb has the very soul of an antiquarian ...." Although he did not write his first Elia essay until 1820, Lamb's gradual perfection of the essay form for which he eventually became famous began as early as 1811 in a series of open letters to Leigh Hunt's Reflector. The most famous of these early essays is "The Londoner", in which Lamb famously derides the contemporary fascination with nature and the countryside. He would continue to fine-tune his craft, experimenting with different essayistic voices and personae, for the better part of the next quarter century. Religious views Christianity played an important role in Lamb's personal life: although he was not a churchman he "sought consolation in religion,"<ref>Biography: Charles Lamb 1775–1834, The Poetry Foundation: </ref> as shown in letters he wrote to Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Bernard Barton in which he describes the New Testament as his "best guide" for life and recalls how he used to read the Psalms for one or two hours without getting tired. Other writings also deal with his Christian beliefs.E.V. Lucas. The Works of Charles and Mary Lamb, Volume 2 Like his friend Coleridge, Lamb was sympathetic to Priestleyan Unitarianism and was a Dissenter, and he was described by Coleridge himself as one whose "faith in Jesus ha[d] been preserved" even after the family tragedy. Wordsworth also described him as a firm Christian in the poem "Written After the Death of Charles Lamb", Alfred Ainger, in his work Charles Lamb, writes that Lamb's religion had become "an habit". Lamb's own poems "On The Lord's Prayer", "A Vision of Repentance", "The Young Catechist", "Composed at Midnight", "Suffer Little Children, and Forbid Them Not to Come Unto Me", "Written a Twelvemonth After the Events", "Charity", "Sonnet to a Friend" and "David" express his religious faith, while his poem "Living Without God in the World" has been called a "poetic attack" on unbelief, in which Lamb expresses his disgust at atheism, attributing it to pride. Legacy There has always been a small but enduring following for Lamb's works, as the long-running and still-active Charles Lamb Bulletin demonstrates. Because of his quirky, even bizarre, style, he has been more of a "cult favourite" than an author with mass popular or scholarly appeal. Anne Fadiman notes regretfully that Lamb is not widely read in modern times: "I do not understand why so few other readers are clamoring for his company... [He] is kept alive largely through the tenuous resuscitations of university English departments.". Two of the houses at Christ's Hospital (Lamb A and Lamb B) are named in his honour. and he is also honoured by The Latymer School, a grammar school in Edmonton, a suburb of London where he lived for a time: it has six houses, one of which, Lamb, is named after him. A major academic prize awarded each year at Christ's Hospital School's speech day is "The Lamb Prize for Independent Study". Sir Edward Elgar wrote an orchestral work, Dream Children, inspired by Lamb's essay of that title. A quotation from Lamb, "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once",' serves as the epigraph to Harper Lee's novel To Kill a Mockingbird. The Charles Lamb pub in Islington is named after him. Charles Lamb plays an important role in the plot of Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows's novel, The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society.Selected worksBlank Verse, poems, 1798A Tale of Rosamund Gray, and Old Blind Margaret, 1798John Woodvil, verse drama, 1802Tales from Shakespeare, 1807The Adventures of Ulysses, 1808Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who Lived About the Time of Shakespeare, 1808On the Tragedies of Shakespeare, 1811Witches and Other Night Fears, 1821The Pawnbroker's Daughter, 1825Eliana, 1867Essays of Elia, 1823The Last Essays of Elia, 1833 Notes Biographical referencesLife of Charles Lamb, by E.V. Lucas, G.P. Putman & Sons, London, 1905, revised editions 1907 and 1921.Charles Lamb and the Lloyds, edited by E.V. Lucas, Smith, Elder & Company, London, 1898.Charles Lamb and His Contemporaries, by Edmund Blunden, Cambridge University Press, 1933.Companion to Charles Lamb, by Claude Prance, Mansell Publishing, London, 1938.Charles Lamb; A Memoir, by Barry Cornwall aka Bryan Procter, Edward Moxon, London, 1866.Young Charles Lamb, by Winifred Courtney, New York University Press, 1982.A Portrait of Charles Lamb, by David Cecil, Constable, London, 1983.Charles Lamb, by George Barnett, Twayne Publishers, Boston, 1976.A Double Life: A Biography of Charles and Mary Lamb, by Sarah Burton, Viking, 1993.The Lambs: Their Lives, Their Friends, and Their Correspondence, by William Carew Hazlitt, C. Scribner's Sons, 1897.Dream-Child: A Life of Charles Lamb'' by Eric G. Wilson, Yale University Press, 2022. External links Charles Lamb Facebook page Online catalog of Charles Lamb's personal library, online at LibraryThing Charles Lamb at the National Portrait Gallery, London The Lambs, Inc., History Charles Lamb Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. The Charles Lamb Society Page for The Charles Lamb Society, including information on Charles and Mary Lamb 1775 births 1834 deaths English children's writers English essayists People from the City of London Romanticism People educated at Christ's Hospital English letter writers Writers from London Writers with disabilities English Christians People from Widford, Hertfordshire	[ -0.33615368604660034, 0.15933068096637726, -0.2796180844306946, -0.366705983877182, 0.30591124296188354, 0.9092115759849548, 0.6998849511146545, 0.023777544498443604, -0.1892821490764618, -0.1908135712146759, -0.08423812687397003, 0.14652545750141144, 0.053458988666534424, 0.1036805659532547, -0.4037172198295593, 0.2352253496646881, -0.04212680831551552, -0.3081852197647095, -0.45502930879592896, -0.04202202707529068, 0.27546319365501404, 0.07597427815198898, 0.7417847514152527, -0.0963297188282013, 0.2793729603290558, -0.19619931280612946, 0.6508538126945496, -0.4015861749649048, 0.03814137354493141, 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233104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoharp	Autoharp	An autoharp or chord zither is a string instrument belonging to the zither family. It uses a series of bars individually configured to mute all strings other than those needed for the intended chord. The term autoharp was once a trademark of the Oscar Schmidt company, but has become a generic designation for all such instruments, regardless of manufacturer. History Charles F. Zimmermann, a German immigrant in Philadelphia, was awarded the patent in 1882 for a “Harp” fitted with a mechanism that muted strings selectively during play. He called a zither-sized instrument using this mechanism an “autoharp.” Unlike later designs, the instrument shown in the patent was symmetrical, and the damping mechanism engaged with the strings laterally instead of from above. It is not known if Zimmermann ever produced such instruments commercially. Karl August Gütter of Markneukirchen, Germany, built a model that he called a Volkszither, which was more clearly the prototype of the autoharp in its current form. He obtained a British patent for it c. 1883–1884. In 1885, after returning from a visit to Germany, Zimmermann began production of instruments with the Gütter design. He labeled them autoharps and included his own name and patent number. As a result, Zimmermann is widely but incorrectly regarded as the inventor of the instrument in its now familiar form. Trademark A form of the term autoharp in stylized lettering was registered as a trademark in 1926. The word is currently claimed as a trademark by the U.S. Music Corporation, whose Oscar Schmidt Inc. division manufactures autoharps. The USPTO registration, however, covers only a “Mark Drawing Code (5) Words, Letters, and/or Numbers in Stylized Form” and has expired. In litigation with George Orthey, it was held that Oscar Schmidt could only claim ownership of the stylized graphic representation of autoharp, the word itself having come into generic use. Construction The autoharp body is made of wood, and has a generally rectangular shape, with one corner cut off. The soundboard generally features a guitar-like sound-hole, and the top may be either solid wood or of laminated construction. A pin-block of multiple laminated layers of wood occupies the top and slanted edges, and serves as a bed for the tuning pins, which resemble those used in pianos and concert zithers. On the edge opposite the top pin-block is either a series of metal pins, or a grooved metal plate, which accepts the lower ends of the strings. Directly above the strings, on the lower half of the top, are the chord bars, which are made of plastic, wood, or metal, and support felt or foam pads on the side facing the strings. These bars are mounted on springs, and pressed down with one hand, via buttons mounted to their topside. The buttons are labeled with the name of the chord produced when that bar is pressed against the strings, and the strings strummed. The back of the instrument usually has three wooden, plastic, or rubber "feet", which support the instrument when it is placed backside down on a table top, for playing in the traditional position. Strings run parallel to the top, between the mounting plate and the tuning pins, and pass under the chord bar assembly. Modern autoharps most often have 36 strings, with some examples having as many as 47 strings, and rare 48-string models (such as Orthey Autoharps No. 136, tuned to G and D major). They are strung in a semi-chromatic manner which, however, is sometimes modified into either diatonic or fully chromatic scales. Standard models have 12, 15 or 21 chord bars available, providing a selection of major, minor, and dominant seventh chords. These are arranged for historical or systemic reasons. Various special models have also been produced, such as diatonic one-, two-, or three-key models, models with fewer or additional chords, and a reverse-strung model (the 43-string, 28-chord Chromaharp Caroler). Range and tuning The range is determined by the number of strings and their tuning. A typical 36-string chromatic autoharp in standard tuning has a 3½ octave range, from F2 to C6. The instrument is not fully chromatic throughout this range, however, as this would require 44 strings. The exact 36-string tuning is: There are a number of gaps in the lowest octave, which functions primarily to provide bass notes in diatonic contexts; there is also a missing G♯3 in the tenor octave. The fully chromatic part of the instrument's range begins with A3 (the A below middle C). Diatonically-strung single-key instruments from modern luthiers are known for their lush sound. This is achieved by doubling the strings for individual notes. Since the strings for notes not in the diatonic scale need not appear in the string bed, the resulting extra space is used for the doubled strings, resulting in fewer damped strings. Two- and three-key diatonics compromise the number of doubled strings to gain the ability to play in two or three keys, and to permit tunes containing accidentals, which could not otherwise be rendered on a single key harp. A three-key harp in the circle of fifths, such as a GDA, is often called a festival or campfire harp, as the instrument can easily accompany fiddles around a campfire or at a festival. Chord bars The standard, factory chord bar layout for a 12-chord autoharp, in two rows, is: The standard, factory chord bar layout for a 15-chord instrument, in two rows, is: The standard, factory chord bar layout for a 21-chord instrument is in three rows: A variety of chord bar layouts may be had, both in as-delivered instruments, and after customization. Electric autoharp Until the 1960s, no pickups were available to amplify the autoharp other than rudimentary contact microphones, which frequently had a poor-quality, tinny sound. In the early 1960s, a bar magnetic pickup was designed for the instrument by Harry DeArmond, and manufactured by Rowe Industries. Pinkerton's Assorted Colours used the instrument on their 1966 single "Mirror, mirror". In the 1970s, Oscar Schmidt came out with their own magnetic pickup. The Evil One, a 1979 hard rock album by Roky Erickson and the Aliens prominently featured the electric autoharp of Bill Miller which granted "an unearthly edge" to the music. Shown is a 1930 refinished Oscar Schmidt “Model A”. This harp has two DeArmond magnetic pickups (one under the chord bars), with a d'Aigle fine-tuning mechanism, and d'Aigle chord bar assembly, and was used in a 1968 MGM Records/Heritage Records recording by Euphoria. Variants A synthesized version of the autoharp, the Omnichord, was introduced in 1981 and is now known as the Q-Chord, described as a "digital songcard guitar". Playing technique As initially conceived, the autoharp was played in the position of a concert zither, that is, with the instrument set flat on a table (there are three "feet" on the back for this purpose), and the flat-edge of the instrument (below the chord bars) placed to the player's right. The left hand worked the chord buttons, and the right hand would strum the strings in the narrow area below the chord bars. Right hand strums were typically done with a plectrum similar to a guitar pick, made of shell, plastic, or compressed felt. A strum would usually activate multiple strings, playing the chord held down by the left hand. Partly because of this playing mode, the autoharp came to be thought of as a rhythm instrument for playing chordal accompaniment, and even today many still think of the instrument in that way. New techniques have been developed, however, and modern players can play melodies on the instrument: diatonic players, for example, are able to play fiddle tunes using open-chording techniques, "pumping" the damper buttons while picking individual strings. Skilled chromatic players can perform a range of melodies, and even solos including melody, chords, and complex rhythmic accompaniments. In the mid-20th century performers began experimenting with taking the instrument off the table and playing it in an upright position, held in the lap, with the back of the instrument (having the "feet") held against the chest. Cecil Null, of the Grand Ole Opry is usually credited as the first to adopt this playing style in public performance, in the 1950s. In this position the left hand still works the chord buttons, but from the opposite edge of the instrument, and the right hand still executes the strums, but now plays in the area above the chord bars. (See Joe Butler illustration, below.) This playing mode makes a wider area of the strings available to the picking hand, increasing the range of tonal possibilities, and it proved very popular. It was soon adopted by other performers, notably by members of the Carter Family. By the early 1970s some players were experimenting with finger-style techniques, where individual fingers of the right hand would pluck specific strings, rather than simply hold a pick and strum chords. Bryan Bowers became a master of this mode of playing, and developed a complex technique utilizing all five fingers of his right hand. This allows him to play independent bass notes, chords, melody, and counter melodies as a soloist. Bowers was also one of the early pioneers in adding a strap to the instrument and playing it while standing up. Notable performers Kilby Snow (May 28, 1905 – March 29, 1980) was an American folk musician and virtuoso autoharpist, who won the title of Autoharp Champion of North Carolina at the age of 5. He developed the "drag note" playing style, a technique that relied on his left-handedness to produce "slurred" notes. Although his recorded output is small (a single album for Folkways Records in the 1960s), he has been enormously influential among autoharpists, and is regarded by many as the first modern autoharp player. Mother Maybelle Carter of the original Carter Family brought the instrument to prominence in the late 1940s by using it as a lead instrument when performing with her daughters; The Carter Sisters. Other Family members such as Sara Carter, Janette Carter, Johnny Cash, and all of The Carter Sisters played the instrument as well. A vast number of recordings by all members of The Carter Family includes the use of an Autoharp. Maybelle Carter's granddaughter Carlene Carter frequently plays the autoharp onstage and on her recordings; her song "Me and the Wildwood Rose", a tribute to her grandmother, makes prominent use of the autoharp. Janis Joplin occasionally played the autoharp, which can be heard in her early, unreleased recording "So Sad to Be Alone". Several Lovin' Spoonful songs feature the autoharp playing of John Sebastian, including "Do You Believe in Magic" and "You Didn't Have to Be So Nice". He also played in the 1979 Randy VanWarmer hit song "Just When I Needed You Most". Bryan Bowers developed a complex finger-picking style of playing the autoharp (as opposed to the more common strumming technique) which he initially brought to bluegrass performances with The Dillards in the 1970s, and later to several of his own solo albums. Bowers was an early experimenter with customizing the instrument, often stripping it down to 8-10 chords to obtain more room above the chord bars for his right-hand fingers to work in; he also favors diatonic single-key autoharps, which have doubled strings, thus increasing the power and resonance of the tone. He is also a music educator, a strong advocate for the instrument, and was inducted into the Autoharp Hall of Fame in 1993. Comedian Billy Connolly has used an autoharp in his performances (mostly in earlier concerts during the 1980s). British singer songwriter Corinne Bailey Rae regularly plays the autoharp and composed the title track from her 2010 album The Sea on the autoharp. Norwegian avant-garde artist Sturle Dagsland frequently performs with an autoharp. Singer/songwriter Brittain Ashford of the band Prairie Empire is known for using autoharp in her music, including the 2008 release "There, but for You, go I". She also regularly performs on the autoharp as part of her role in Ghost Quartet, a four-person song cycle composed by Dave Malloy. In 2017, drag queen and singer-songwriter Trixie Mattel used the autoharp in her album Two Birds. Mattel also plays the autoharp as part of her regular drag performances. In 2020, KatieJane Garside released the Liar, Flower album Geiger Counter, in which she is featured on autoharp. See also Dolceola Guitar zither (chord zither, fretless zither) Guitaro Marxophone Omnichord (electronic autoharp) Zither References External links Autoharp Quarterly Box zithers American musical instruments	[ 0.14099550247192383, -0.013323305174708366, -0.3889535963535309, 0.1300254911184311, -0.04952778294682503, 0.5668766498565674, -0.2518523633480072, 0.2968180179595947, -0.0996202677488327, -0.2093728631734848, -0.09144306927919388, 0.739467978477478, -0.2975851595401764, 0.2876296043395996, -0.4364151060581207, 0.595242977142334, 0.7233292460441589, -0.047206442803144455, -0.3854512572288513, -0.06488485634326935, 0.027289390563964844, -0.29125383496284485, 0.4406130015850067, 0.16471457481384277, 0.3001522719860077, -0.2708376944065094, -0.11009325832128525, -0.08301790803670883, 0.22562582790851593, 0.011782336048781872, -0.002819814719259739, 0.933282732963562, 0.6131225824356079, -0.9282212853431702, -0.36033326387405396, -0.40895819664001465, -0.4618889391422272, 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233106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20La%20Salle%20%28AGF-3%29	USS La Salle (AGF-3)	The second USS La Salle (LPD-3/AGF-3) was built as a and entered service with the United States Navy in 1964. La Salle was named for the city in Illinois that was in turn named after René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. La Salle saw service in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and throughout international waters in the Middle East. The vessel served as a command ship for Joint Task Force Middle East. In 2005 the ship was decommissioned and sunk as a target ship off the Atlantic coast of the United States in 2007. Construction and career Her keel was laid down by New York Naval Shipyard, Brooklyn, New York, on 2 April 1962. She was launched on 3 August 1963 sponsored by Mrs. Victor M. Longstreet, and commissioned on 22 February 1964 with Captain Edward H. Winslow in command. Amphibious transport, 1964–1968 After shakedown and training in the Caribbean Sea and off Norfolk, Virginia, the amphibious transport dock departed Norfolk on 9 October to participate in "Operation Steel Pike I", a complex training exercise involving over 80 ships and United States and Spanish troops. It closed the coast of Spain off Huelva on 26 October, and embarked Under Secretary of the Navy Paul B. Fay, Vice Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Horacio Rivero, Commandant of the Marine Corps General Wallace M. Greene, and Chairman of the House Armed Services Committee Congressman Mendel Rivers to watch the landing operations. The exercise completed on 4 November, La Salle joined the 6th Fleet at Naples, Italy, for amphibious operations and joint NATO training. It returned to Norfolk on 13 March 1965. With then-Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Jr., Commander Amphibious Forces, Atlantic Fleet embarked, La Salle sailed on 1 May for the Dominican Republic during the revolution where she served as command and control for the operation, returning to Norfolk on 1 June. Three weeks later it joined the Caribbean Amphibious Ready Squadron, returning to home port on 21 September to begin training operations along the east coast and in the Caribbean. Through the first half of 1966, La Salle continued operating off the east coast. July and September were spent in Norfolk for upkeep and modifications, with further exercises following. On 3 November, she recovered a Gemini 2-MOL test space capsule near Ascension Island. This was the Gemini 2 space capsule's second flight. This was returned to Florida's Cape Kennedy, and the rest of the year spent on local operations in the Atlantic. La Salle entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 9 January 1967 for repairs and remained there until 20 March. The remainder of 1967 and the first three quarters of 1968 were spent conducting various exercises and port visits which ranged along the entire Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts and into the Caribbean as well. On 2 November she put into Norfolk to prepare for an extended deployment with the Sixth Fleet. Departing 13 November, she steamed first to Morehead City, North Carolina, and then began her voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. Command ship, 1972–2005 La Salle was converted to a "miscellaneous command ship" and given the hull classification symbol AGF-3 after an overhaul in 1972. After re-fitting in 1972 she was sent to homeport in Bahrain and serve in a mainly diplomatic capacity, at a time when one of America's main allies in the Middle East, the Shah of Iran, controlled the Persian Gulf. In addition, to highlight its new diplomatic role in the general Middle East region, La Salle was painted white to highlight its diplomatic as opposed to military missions. Admiral William J. Crowe, who later became Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under President Ronald Reagan, was named Commander Middle East Force and assigned to La Salle to serve in this diplomatic role. In this time before the Gulf War, piracy off the east coast of Africa and the re-activation of the U.S. Fifth Fleet, only La Salle along with two U.S. Navy destroyers dispatched from the U.S. east coast on a six-month rotating basis were routinely on patrol in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and the general Indian Ocean regions. La Salle was considered by the Navy to be isolated duty and anything but a plum assignment by its crew. To symbolize its relatively minor status as a fighting ship at this time, La Salles nickname, emblazoned on T-shirts sold in the ship's store and wryly smiled about by those many of the ship's crew who wore them, unofficially became "The Great White Whale". By the time of Gulf War the ship had become known, more appropriately to its future operational roles, by its new nickname "The Great White Ghost of the Arabian Coast". In 1979, La Salle assisted in the evacuation of 260 American and foreign national civilians from the Iranian seaport of Bandar Abbas, and subsequently became the focal point of U.S. activity in the Persian Gulf at the outset of the Iranian Hostage Crisis. The ship returned to the United States in late 1980 for the first time in almost nine years. After undergoing an extensive overhaul in Philadelphia, La Salle returned to the Persian Gulf and resumed her role as the flagship for Commander, Middle East Forces (COMMIDEASTFOR) in June 1983, relieving . In 1984, the ship conducted minesweeping operations in the Red Sea in response to attempts to disrupt shipping lanes for which it was awarded a Meritorious Unit Citation, and in 1986, conducted contingency operations in the Gulf of Aden during Yemen's civil war. After the Iraqi missile attack on the frigate in May 1987, La Salle provided the primary firefighting rescue assistance to the ship. Later that year "La Salle" served as the staging ship for the seizure of the "Iran Ajr" minelaying vessel on 21 September, including receiving the detained crew members for later repatriation, and the mines from the Iran Ajr for intelligence exploitation. In June 1988, after spending months in Japan for a major overhaul on the engines, La Salle was heading back to the Persian Gulf. On 3 July 1988 the cruiser shot down an Airbus passenger aircraft, Iran Air Flight 655, while La Salle was in Subic Bay, Philippines for repairs. It became urgent for the ship to return to Bahrain, and be positioned off the coast of Saudi Arabia. La Salle passed Vincennes in the Strait of Hormuz, soon after the incident. On 21 July 1988, La Salle officially assumed Commander of Middle East Forces and three generals and an admiral were assigned to it. An Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was awarded to the crew members. During Operation Desert Shield, the ship assumed the responsibility of commanding and coordinating the multinational Maritime Intercept Force. Returning to a conventional gray paint scheme, La Salle assumed responsibilities as the flagship for Commander, Sixth Fleet on 8 November 1994. Homeported in Gaeta, Italy, La Salle was fully engaged in operations throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas in its role of supporting Commander, U.S. 6th Fleet and Strike Force and Logistics South. Following the September 11 attacks, La Salle commenced her role in the war on terrorism, serving in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. One of the ship's last major assignments was supporting NATO-led efforts to control the international waters off Greece during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. On 25 February 2005, she was relieved by as the U.S. Sixth Fleet command ship. Decommissioning and disposal La Salle was decommissioned at Norfolk, Virginia on 27 May 2005, with Captain (later Vice Admiral) Herman Shelanski as its last commanding officer and former La Salle commanding officer, Rear Admiral Mark Milliken, as the decommissioning ceremony guest speaker. It was sunk as a target by the United States Navy on 11 April 2007 during a scheduled fleet exercise off the Atlantic coast. 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233108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Jeffrey%2C%20Lord%20Jeffrey	Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey	Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey (23 October 1773 – 26 January 1850) was a Scottish judge and literary critic. Life He was born at 7 Charles Street near Potterow in south Edinburgh, the son of George Jeffrey, a clerk in the Court of Session (first clerk to Robert Sinclair, advocate). After attending the Royal High School for six years, he studied at the University of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1789, and at Queen's College, Oxford, from September 1791 to June 1792. He had begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford, and returned to it afterwards. He became a member of the Speculative Society, where he measured himself in debate with Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham, Francis Horner, the Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the Scottish bar in December 1794, but, having abandoned the Tory principles in which he had been educated, he found that his Whig politics hampered his legal prospects. In consequence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in 1798 to try his hand at journalism, but without success; he also failed in his attempts to obtain a salaried position. His marriage to Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the question of a settled income even more pressing. A project for a new review, brought up by Sydney Smith in Jeffrey's flat (on Buccleuch Place) in the presence of Henry Brougham (afterwards Lord Brougham), Francis Horner and others, resulted in the appearance on 10 October 1802 of the Edinburgh Review. At the outset the Review did not have an editor. The first three numbers were effectively edited by Sydney Smith. On his leaving for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an arrangement with Archibald Constable, the publisher, was eventually appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most of those involved were Whigs; but, although the general bias of the Review was towards social and political reforms, it was at first so little of a party organ that it numbered Sir Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis was given to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of an article by Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos on the French Usurpation of Spain. This article expressed despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at once withdrew his subscription, the Quarterly being soon afterwards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockburn the effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was "electrical." The English reviews were at that time practically publishers' organs, with articles by hack writers instructed to obey the publishers' interests. The Edinburgh Review, on the other hand, enlisted a brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the editor, not the publisher. They received sixteen guineas a sheet (sixteen printed pages), increased subsequently to twenty-five guineas in many cases, instead of the two guineas earned by London reviewers. The review was not limited to literary criticism but became the accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. The particular work which provided the starting-point of an article was in many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always brilliant and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social subjects, ethics or literature. These general principles and the novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking even after the original circle of exceptionally able men who founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation of 12,000. Jeffrey's editorship lasted about twenty-six years, ceasing with the ninety-eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in favour of Macvey Napier. Jeffrey's own contributions numbered two hundred, all except six being written before his resignation of the editorship. He wrote quickly, at odd moments of leisure and with little special preparation. Great fluency and ease of diction, considerable warmth of imagination and moral sentiment, and a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or violation of the accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms pungent and effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his general outlook prevented him from detecting and estimating latent forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual and moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy accounts for his distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of Shelley and Keats, and for his praise of the half-hearted and elegant romanticism of Samuel Rogers and Thomas Campbell. A criticism in the sixteenth number of the Review on the morality of Thomas Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the police, and Jeffrey's pistol was found to contain no bullet. The affair led to a warm friendship, and Moore contributed to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article on Lalla Rookh (1817). Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became acquainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New York, and great-niece of John Wilkes. When she returned to the United States, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 1813. Before returning to Scotland, they visited several of the chief American cities, and his experience strengthened Jeffrey in the conciliatory policy he had advocated towards the States. Notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambition. His literary reputation helped his professional advancement. His practice extended rapidly in the civil and criminal courts, and he regularly appeared before the general assembly of the Church of Scotland. As an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of insight gave him a formidable advantage in the detection of the weaknesses of a witness and the vulnerable points of his opponent's case, while he grouped his own arguments with an admirable eye to effect, especially excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. Jeffrey was twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected Rector of the University of Glasgow. In 1829 he was chosen dean of the Faculty of Advocates. On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became Lord Advocate, and entered parliament at a by-election in January 1831 as member for the Perth burghs. The election was overturned on petition, and in March he was returned at a by-election for Malton, a borough in the interest of Lord Fitzwilliam. He was re-elected in Malton at the general election in May 1831, but was also returned for the Perth burghs and chose to sit for the latter. After the passing of the Scottish Reform Bill, which he introduced in parliament, he was returned for Edinburgh in December 1832. At this time he was living at 24 Moray Place in the west end of Edinburgh. His parliamentary career, which, though not brilliantly successful, had won him high general esteem, was terminated by his elevation to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 he was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders, giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by the House of Lords. He died at Edinburgh and was buried in the "Lords Row" near the western wall in Dean Cemetery on the west side of the city. Some of his contributions to the Edinburgh Review appeared in four volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay on "Beauty" contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica. The Life of Lord Jeffrey, with a Selection from his Correspondence, by Lord Cockburn, appeared in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the Selected Correspondence of Macvey Napier (1877); the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's Reminiscences, vol. ii. (1881); and an essay by Lewis E Gates in Three Studies in Literature (New York, 1899). Memorials Jeffrey Street (a planned street of 1868) in Edinburgh is named in his memory. A bust by Sir John Steell stands on the east wall of Parliament Hall, behind St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. In Fiction The character Beau Nardi in John Paterson's Mare, James Hogg's allegorical satire on the Edinburgh publishing scene first published in the Newcastle Magazine in 1825, was based on Francis Jeffrey. Family Francis Jeffrey's first wife, Catherine Wilson, died 8 August 1805, aged only 28, and is buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard, with their infant child George (d.1802). His brother, John Jeffrey (1775-1848) is also buried there. His sister, Marian, married Dr Thomas Brown of Lanfine and Waterhaughs FRSE in 1800. References Further reading John Clive, "The Edinburgh Review," History Today. (1952) 2#12 pp 844–850. 'Francis Jeffrey's American Journal: New York to Washington, 1813', humming earth (2011), Morgan, Peter F. (ed.) (1982), Jeffrey's Criticism: A Selection, Scottish Academic Press, External links Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh Jeffrey,Francis Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis Jeffrey, Francis Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Edinburgh constituencies UK MPs 1830–1831 UK MPs 1831–1832 UK MPs 1832–1835 Deans of the Faculty of Advocates Lord Advocates Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies Burials at the Dean Cemetery Writers from Edinburgh Lawyers from Edinburgh	[ -0.5250054597854614, 0.48820289969444275, -0.4069576561450958, -0.5655304789543152, 0.06421803683042526, 0.6823394298553467, 0.8473147749900818, -0.2335905134677887, -0.27163973450660706, 0.12895052134990692, -0.3729366362094879, 0.17688767611980438, -0.3412367105484009, 0.32286301255226135, 0.07872185856103897, 0.29044103622436523, -0.03119228221476078, 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233109	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddur%20of%20Saadia%20Gaon	Siddur of Saadia Gaon	The Siddur (prayerbook) of Saadia Gaon is the earliest surviving attempt to transcribe the weekly ritual of Jewish prayers for week-days, Sabbaths, and festivals (apart from the prayer book of Amram Gaon, of which there is no authoritative text). The text also contains liturgical poetry by Saadia, as well as Arabic language commentary. There is no known extant manuscript of the entire text, though there is a near complete manuscript in Oxford. Fragments have also been found in the Cairo Genizah. The prayerbook apparently served as a basis for later efforts to codify the Jewish prayer ritual and set it down in writing and was imitated by later authors. An edition based on these manuscripts has been published by Davidson, Assaf and Yoel in Jerusalem in 1941. The Arabic portions are accompanied by translations into Hebrew in facing columns. According to posek rav David Bar-Hayim, the Birkat Hamazon in the siddur of Saadia Gaon is the shortest known fixed Jewish Grace After Meals, today. See also Palestinian minhag (Heb.: Minhagei Eretz Yisrael) References External links Siddur of Rabbenu Saadya Gaon Saadia Gaon	[ -0.17194989323616028, 0.6075148582458496, -1.0352731943130493, -0.8891422748565674, -0.46397730708122253, 0.5197917819023132, 0.425091952085495, 0.09838000684976578, -0.1751869022846222, -0.5466750264167786, -0.2092023640871048, -0.07375042885541916, -0.4024542272090912, 0.23199352622032166, 0.08672306686639786, 0.5514286160469055, 0.5450253486633301, 0.1578858494758606, -0.10713779926300049, -0.5103890299797058, -0.24058577418327332, -0.012480586767196655, 0.13291458785533905, -0.18019728362560272, 0.22800378501415253, -0.1941210925579071, 0.5632156133651733, -0.04030359536409378, -0.5501514077186584, 0.13741646707057953, 0.0782117173075676, 0.7547723650932312, 0.1480039805173874, -0.5625863075256348, 0.3196839392185211, -0.3380295932292938, 0.10804859548807144, -0.02435119077563286, 0.18152955174446106, -0.4479568898677826, 0.03709776699542999, 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233114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Dubois	Jacques Dubois	Jacques Dubois (Latinised as Jacobus Sylvius; 1478 – 14 January 1555) was a French anatomist. Dubois was the first to describe venous valves, although their function was later discovered by William Harvey. He was the brother of Franciscus Sylvius Ambianus (François Dubois; c. 1483 – 1536), professor of humanities at the Collège de Tournai, Paris. First years The origins of this anatomist are vague. He was probably born in 1478 in Loeuilly, a small town near Amiens, the seventh in a family of fifteen. His father had been a weaver. At a young age he studied Ancient Greek with Hermonymus of Sparta and Janus Lascaris, Hebrew with François Vatable, and mathematics with Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, and gradually became a leading figure in French humanism, where he was famous for his excellent knowledge of these disciplines. Early grammar of French Dubois was the author of the first grammar of the French language to be published in France. The title of this work was In linguam gallicam isagωge, una cum eiusdem Grammatica latino-gallica, ex hebræis, græcis et latinis authoribus [Introduction to the French language, with a Latin-French grammar of the same, based on Hebrew, Greek and Latin authors], published in Paris in early 1531, less than a year after the very first French grammar, by John Palsgrave, was published in London. From philosophy to medicine Dubois was known for his hard work, and eloquence. He studied languages and mathematics at the University of Paris; but feeling that the rewards were inadequate, Dubois abandoned scholarship for medicine. He acquired his anatomical knowledge thanks to Jean Fagault, a famous physician of Paris and also dean of the Faculty of Medicine. While studying under Fagault, Dubois began his career as a professor with a course explaining the work of Hippocrates and Galen. These lessons concerned anatomy and were taught at the (in Tréguier). The success of his lectures turned out to be so remarkable that the faculty of the University of Paris protested that he had not yet obtained a college degree. For this reason Sylvius went to the University of Montpellier, where he enrolled in November 1529. He received his M.B. in 1529 and his M.D. from Montpellier in 1530. Once he obtained his degree he returned to Paris, but he was again blocked by the Faculty, which decreed that the anatomist should have obtained an M.B. from the University of Paris before returning to his lessons. On 28 June 1531 Sylvius incorporated an M.B. at Paris and was able to resume its course in anatomy. In 1550, when Vidus Vidius departed for Italy, he was appointed to succeed him as Professor of Surgery in charge of the new Collège Royal in Paris. This appointment was granted by Henry II of Valois. Sylvius was an admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and physiological writings of that author in preference to giving demonstrations from the subject. He died on 14 January 1555 in Paris. Sylvius as a teacher Sylvius was not only an eloquent professor, but also a demonstration teacher. He was the first professor to teach anatomy of a human corpse, in France. His biggest intellectual flaw was his blind reverence for the ancient authors. He treated the writings of Galen as if they were wholly sacred, he would believe that if a corpse showed structures different from those described by Galen, the error was not in the texts, but in the corpse, or the structure of the human body that had changed over the centuries. In one of his works, "Ordo et Ratio Ordinis Legendis Hippocratis et Galeni Libris", Sylvius says that the anatomy of Galen was infallible, that his treatise De Usu Partium was divine and that further progress in anatomy would have been impossible. Andreas Vesalius, who was his (frustrated) pupil, states that his manner of teaching was calculated neither to advance the science nor to rectify the mistakes of his predecessors. A human body was never seen in Dubois' anatomical theatre. The carcasses of dogs and other animals were the materials from which he taught. It was so difficult to obtain human bones, that Vesalius and his fellow-students had to collect them themselves from the Cimetière des Innocents and other cemeteries. Without these, they must have committed numerous errors in acquiring the first principles. Though Jean Riolan (1577–1657) contradicted these comments and accused Vesalius of ingratitude, it is certain that the frustrations that Vesalius experienced were the basis for which he later traveled to Padua and became a famous anatomist himself. Only in Italy were the opportunities of inspecting the human body frequent enough as to facilitate the study of the science. Charles Estienne also attacked his old teacher and assured that Sylvius was greedy. Some other pupils of Sylvius defended his teaching and work, specially Louis Vasse and Michel de Villeneuve, the latter being considered by Johann Winter von Andernach (colleague and friend of Sylvius) the best galenist of Paris and second anatomist after Vesalius. Louis Vassé denounced the attacks of Vesalius and Estienne, and affirmed they had learnt all they knew by Sylvius' lessons. Vasse explains the nature of Sylvius' influence over his unruly audience this way: "This depended not so much on his splendid use of the Latin tongue as upon the exceptional clarity of his thought. He was, moreover, never tired of teaching and so taught that none of his students ever tired of learning. He had an astonishing power of enabling them to grasp and see quite clearly that which a moment before had seemed impenetrable and terribly involved." This period was a time of fierce debate between Galenists and the new body of thought on anatomy. The conservative Riolan attacked William Harvey with equal fervour. Contributions to anatomy Sylvius made a valuable service by giving a name to the muscles, which until then had simply been referred to by numbers. These numbers were arbitrarily assigned by different authors. He was the first anatomist to publish descriptions of satisfactory pterygoid process and the sphenoid bone and clinoid bone tear. He gave a good description of the sphenoid sinus in an adult, but denied its existence in children. Sylvius also wrote about the vertebrae, but described incorrectly the sternum. Although the cerebral aqueduct (Aqueduct of Sylvius) and Sylvian (lateral) sulcus of the brain have been said to be his contributions to anatomy, the aqueduct was described by Galen nearly 1300 years before, albeit the name aqueduct in this context was first mentioned by another Sylvius (Franciscus Sylvius, 1614-1672), who apparently also described the sulcus which bears his name. References External links 1478 births 1555 deaths French anatomists History of anatomy 16th-century French physicians	[ -0.26450449228286743, 0.12360625714063644, -1.0127683877944946, 0.07106193155050278, -0.01868414878845215, 1.024138331413269, 0.8455713391304016, -0.36863258481025696, -0.5462790131568909, -0.7215569019317627, 0.09781114757061005, 0.02351078763604164, -0.4581243097782135, 0.0024556335993111134, 0.03657885268330574, 0.3731934428215027, 0.4532850384712219, -0.5456949472427368, -0.3355506658554077, -0.43019506335258484, -0.022539818659424782, -0.3230101466178894, 0.12954674661159515, 0.2148449420928955, -0.33621659874916077, 0.29401493072509766, -0.5858846306800842, 0.19056935608386993, 0.527827262878418, -0.46171241998672485, 0.290397047996521, 0.25328728556632996, 0.5907910466194153, -0.10037780553102493, -0.29188933968544006, 0.183949276804924, -0.5487087965011597, 0.05702078342437744, 0.20258699357509613, -0.2125454694032669, -0.30500495433807373, 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233116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic%20warbler	Arctic warbler	The Arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis) is a widespread leaf warbler in birch or mixed birch forest near water throughout its breeding range in Fennoscandia and the northern Palearctic. It has established a foothold in North America, breeding in Alaska. This warbler is strongly migratory; the entire population winters in southeast Asia. It therefore has one of the longest migrations of any Old World insectivorous bird. It traditionally included populations that breed in Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Japan, but genetic and vocal evidence strongly suggested these should be treated as separate species, and are all now considered distinct with the Kamchatka leaf warbler in Kamchatka, Hokkaido and the Kuril Islands, and the Japanese leaf warbler in Japan (except Hokkaido). The nest is on the ground in a low shrub. Like most Old World warblers, this small passerine is insectivorous. This is a typical leaf warbler in appearance, greyish-green above and off-white below. Its single wing bar distinguishes it from most similar species except the greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides. It is larger than that species and has a heavier, dagger-like bill, with a dark tip to the lower mandible. Its song is a fast trill. This species occurs as an autumn vagrant in western Europe and is annual on Great Britain. There were 225 confirmed arctic warbler sightings in Britain between 1958 and 2001. The genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific borealis is from Latin and means "northern". 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233117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Etienne	Charles Etienne	The name Charles Etienne may refer to: Charles Estienne (1504–1564), French anatomist Charles-Guillaume Étienne (1778–1845), French playwright	[ -0.2710965871810913, 0.7034099698066711, -0.4843224287033081, -0.1806972771883011, -0.36412855982780457, 0.9093235731124878, 1.0101598501205444, -0.062459345906972885, -0.32870543003082275, -0.7902596592903137, 0.03612026199698448, 0.4407288134098053, -0.19659189879894257, 0.5632889270782471, -0.12591393291950226, 0.21976028382778168, -0.21159270405769348, 0.13470378518104553, -0.17834487557411194, -0.351525217294693, -0.1927105337381363, -0.052320439368486404, 0.646942138671875, -0.3752393424510956, 0.06657619029283524, 0.3371089696884155, 0.18749350309371948, 0.21259081363677979, 0.6352895498275757, 0.25559622049331665, 0.08853396773338318, 0.3399980962276459, 0.18838076293468475, -0.2561570405960083, -0.5708048939704895, -0.042152710258960724, -0.03541458398103714, 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233122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer%20Walpole	Spencer Walpole	Sir Spencer Walpole KCB, FBA (6 February 1839 – 7 July 1907) was an English historian and civil servant. Background He came of the younger branch of the de facto first prime minister, Robert Walpole who revived the Whig Party, being a patrilineal descendant of one of his brothers, the 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton. His father Spencer Horatio Walpole (1807–1898) was three times Home Secretary under the 14th Earl of Derby. Through his mother he was a grandson of Spencer Perceval, the Tory prime minister. The only mainstream political parties in his lifetime which were at that time taking shape as the Liberal and Conservative parties were therefore closely connected to him at birth, and each party icon formed one half of his name. Career Spencer Walpole was educated at Eton, and from 1858 to 1867 was a clerk in the War Office, then becoming an inspector of fisheries. In 1867 he married Marion Jane Murray; they had one son and one daughter. In 1882 he was made lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man, and from 1893 to 1899 he was secretary to the Post Office. In 1898 he was knighted. A most efficient public servant and in private life well-conversed, Walpole became a successfully published historian. His family connections gave him a natural affinity for the study of public affairs, and their mingling of Whig and Tory policies of past and present contributed to a deliberately reasoned, judicious and balanced view of English political figures – he inclined, however, to the Whig or moderate Liberal side, including in his writing. His principal work, the History of England from 1815 (1878-1886), in six volumes, was carried down to 1858, and was continued in his History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904). Among his other publications come his lives of Spencer Perceval (1894) and Lord John Russell (1889), and a volume of valuable Studies in Biography (1906). His name is commemorated in Walpole Park in Ealing, formerly the grounds of his family home Pitzhanger Manor, both of which were purchased by Ealing Council in 1899. Bibliography Walpole, Spencer. A History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815 (6 vol. Longmans, Green, and Company, 1878–86.) online free; WorldCat holdings in 434 libraries worldwide Walpole, Spencer. History of Twenty-Five Years (4 vol. 1904–1908) covers 1856–1880; online free; WorldCat holdings in 228 libraries worldwide References External links 1839 births 1907 deaths People educated at Eton College English historians Secretaries of the General Post Office Civil servants in the War Office Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man Spencer Fellows of the British Academy	[ 0.21475479006767273, 0.5105101466178894, -0.8263487815856934, -0.4029789865016937, -0.23791126906871796, 0.5409129858016968, 0.5960180759429932, 0.09369741380214691, -0.3690842092037201, 0.0132599463686347, -0.3206911087036133, -0.3274551331996918, -0.5998424291610718, 0.6151421070098877, 0.5992246866226196, 0.07143326103687286, -0.533129870891571, -0.08153097331523895, -0.3941575884819031, -0.22482147812843323, -0.2861888110637665, 0.4021240472793579, 0.30830180644989014, -0.10584855079650879, -0.4480595290660858, -0.22498609125614166, 0.3627980053424835, 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233123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenish%20warbler	Greenish warbler	The greenish warbler (Phylloscopus trochiloides) is a widespread leaf warbler with a breeding range in northeastern Europe, and temperate to subtropical continental Asia. This warbler is strongly migratory and winters in India. It is not uncommon as a spring or early autumn vagrant in Western Europe and is annually seen in Great Britain. In Central Europe large numbers of vagrant birds are encountered in some years; some of these may stay to breed, as a handful of pairs does each year in Germany. Like all leaf warblers, it was formerly placed in the "Old World warbler" assemblage, but now belongs to the new leaf-warbler family Phylloscopidae. The genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific trochiloides is from Ancient Greek trokhalos, "bowed", and -oides "resembling", from the similarity to the willow warbler, P. trochilus. The English name of this species provides a perfect argument in favour of the capitalisation of species names (i.e. treating them as proper nouns), a convention which is generally applied in scientific literature. The decapitalised "greenish warbler" is equally descriptive of many bird species across multiple families, whereas a capitalised "Greenish Warbler" shows unambiguously that Phylloscopus trochiloides is under discussion. Description and ecology This is a typical leaf warbler in appearance, grayish-green above and off-white below. The single wing bar found in the southern and western populations distinguishes them from most similar species (except Arctic warbler P. borealis). It is slightly smaller than that species and has a thinner bill, without a dark tip to the lower mandible. A latitude-based analysis of wintering birds indicated that more northerly P. trochiloides are smaller, i.e. this species does not seem to follow Bergmann's rule. Its song is a high jerky trill, in some populations containing a sequence of down- and more rarely up slurred notes. It breeds in lowland deciduous or mixed forest; non-breeding birds in the warmer parts of its range may move to montane habitat in summer. Individuals from southeast of the Himalayas are for example quite often seen in Bhutan during the hot months, typically in humid Bhutan Fir (Abies densa) forest up to about 3,800 meters ASL or more, but they do not breed there and return again to the adjacent subtropical lowlands in winter. The nest is on the ground in low shrub. Like its relatives, this small passerine is insectivorous. Subspecies and evolution It has a number of subspecies, of which P. t . viridianus is the most familiar in Europe. As it seems, it is a ring species, with populations diverging east- and westwards of the Tibetan Plateau, later meeting on the northern side. Their relationships are therefore fairly confusing: Eastern group: greenish warblers Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides: greenish warbler Southern rim of the Himalaya eastwards from Nepal into W China. Dusky greyish green above, often traces of second wing bar. Phylloscopus trochiloides obscuratus: dull-green warbler Intermediate between trochiloides and two-barred warbler. Gansu and surroundings, China. Western group: green warblers Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus: western greenish warbler Breeds Western Siberia to north-east Europe; at east of range south to NW India. Dull green above, with yellowish supercilium, throat, breast and faint wing bar. The groups' origin lies probably in the Himalayan region, where trochiloides is found. This taxon is close to the parapatric obscuratus, and to plumbeitarsus which is geographically separated from obscuratus; they all can (and in the case of the former two do naturally) hybridize. P. t. plumbeitarsus is often split as distinct species, as it does not hybridize with viridianus in the narrow zone in the western Sayan Mountains where their ranges overlap. But phylogenetically, the western taxa are even more distinct. However, there is some gene flow between trochiloides and viridianus also, with their hybrids being especially common in Baltistan; they were once considered another subspecies ludlowi. The green warbler P. nitidus, now by many considered a distinct species, is a mountain isolate that diverged from ancestral viridianus. Song structure differs mainly between greenish warbler and two-barred warbler, which was formerly considered conspecific. The former has a fairly uniform, long, and warbling song. Around the Himalayas, song structure is similar, but songs are generally shorter. Two-barred warbler, on the other hand, has a long song that can be clearly divided into a warbling part, followed by series of up- and downslurred notes. The songs of obscuratus and "ludlowi", are short, but contain the downslur elements too; in the latter, they uniquely appear at the start of the song. Footnotes References Alström, Per (2006): "Species concepts and their application: insights from the genera Seicercus and Phylloscopus". Acta Zoologica Sinica 52(Supplement): 429–434. Inskipp, Carol; Inskipp, Tim & Sherub (2000): The ornithological importance of Thrumshingla National Park, Bhutan. Forktail 14: 147–162. PDF fulltext External links Avibase The greenish warbler ring species greenish warbler Birds of Eurasia Birds of Russia Birds of South Asia Birds of Southeast Asia greenish warbler	[ -0.3407456874847412, 0.5349692106246948, -0.6808048486709595, -0.14042316377162933, -0.153492733836174, 0.7909737825393677, 0.13436231017112732, 0.7514928579330444, -1.0790306329727173, -0.06549190729856491, -0.5494769215583801, -0.409477561712265, -0.4594089686870575, -0.15518192946910858, -0.23657064139842987, 1.0094802379608154, 0.3284825086593628, 0.05062275379896164, -0.02504660189151764, -0.14031000435352325, 0.03198203817009926, -0.397312194108963, 0.836883008480072, -0.3782031238079071, 0.07588224858045578, 0.1074908897280693, -0.0973157063126564, 0.553987443447113, 0.12515142560005188, -0.021978288888931274, -0.2062096893787384, 0.7674299478530884, 0.5112636685371399, 0.051690202206373215, -0.039976052939891815, 0.3160707652568817, 0.3303737938404083, -0.4536994397640228, 0.33791613578796387, 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233128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater%20familias	Pater familias	The pater familias, also written as paterfamilias (plural patres familias), was the head of a Roman family. The pater familias was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his extended family. The term is Latin for "father of the family" or the "owner of the family estate". The form is archaic in Latin, preserving the old genitive ending in (see Latin declension), whereas in classical Latin the normal first declension genitive singular ending was . The pater familias always had to be a Roman citizen. Roman law and tradition (mos majorum) established the power of the pater familias within the community of his own extended familia. In Roman family law, the term "Patria potestas" (Latin: “power of a father”) refers to this concept. He held legal privilege over the property of the familia, and varying levels of authority over his dependents: these included his wife and children, certain other relatives through blood or adoption, clients, freedmen and slaves. The same mos majorum moderated his authority and determined his responsibilities to his own familia and to the broader community. He had a duty to father and raise healthy children as future citizens of Rome, to maintain the moral propriety and well-being of his household, to honour his clan and ancestral gods and to dutifully participate—and if possible, serve—in Rome's political, religious and social life. In effect, the pater familias was expected to be a good citizen. In theory at least, he held powers of life and death over every member of his extended familia through ancient right. In practice, the extreme form of this right was seldom exercised. It was eventually limited by law. In the Roman tradition, the term has appeared mostly in legal texts, and to a lesser extent, in literary texts. In both types of discourses, the term has been most commonly used to refer to the “estate owner,” a title considered conceptually separate from his familial relations. Roman familia The Roman household was conceived of as an economic and juridical unit or estate: familia originally meant the group of the famuli (the servi or serfs and the slaves of a rural estate) living under the same roof. That meaning later expanded to indicate the familia as the basic Roman social unit, which might include the domus (house or home) but was legally distinct from it: a familia might own one or several homes. All members and properties of a familia were subject to the authority of a pater familias: his legal, social and religious position defined familia as a microcosm of the Roman state. In Roman law, the potestas of the pater familias was official but distinct from that of magistrates. Only a Roman citizen held the status of pater familias, and there could be only one holder of that office within a household. He was responsible for its well-being, reputation and legal and moral propriety. The entire familia was expected to adhere to the core principles and laws of the Twelve Tables, which the pater familias had a duty to exemplify, enjoin and, if necessary, enforce, so within the familia Republican law and tradition (mos majorum) allowed him powers of life and death (vitae necisque potestas). He was also obliged to observe the constraints imposed by Roman custom and law on all potestas. His decisions should be obtained through counsel, consultation and consent within the familia, which were decisions by committee (consilium). The family consilia probably involved the most senior members of his own household, especially his wife, and, if necessary, his peers and seniors within his extended clan (gens). Augustus's legislation on the morality of marriage co-opted the traditional potestas of the pater familias. Augustus was not only Rome's princeps but also its father (pater patriae). As such, he was responsible for the entire Roman familia. Rome's survival required that citizens produce children. That could not be left to individual conscience. The falling birth rate was considered a marker of degeneracy and self-indulgence, particularly among the elite, who were supposed to set an example. Lex Julia maritandis ordinibus compelled marriage upon men and women within specified age ranges and remarriage on the divorced and bereaved within certain time limits. The Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis severely penalised adulterous wives and any husbands who tolerated such behaviour. The Lex Papia Poppaea extended and modified the laws in relation to intermarriage between social classes and inheritance. Compliance was rewarded and exceptional public duty brought exemption, but dictatorial compulsion was deeply unpopular and quite impractical. The laws were later softened in theory and practise, but the imperial quaestio perpetua remained. Its public magistrates now legally over-rode the traditional rights of the family concilium and pater familias. The principate shows a clear trend towards the erosion of individual patria potestas and the increasing intrusion of the state into the juridical and executive independence of the familia under its pater. As priest of familia, gens and genius The domestic responsibilities of the pater familias included his priestly duties (sacra familiae) to his "household gods" (the lares and penates) and the ancestral gods of his own gens. The latter were represented by the di parentes as ancestral shades of the departed, and by the genius cult. Genius has been interpreted as the essential, heritable spirit (or divine essence, or soul) and generative power that suffused the gens and each of its members. As the singular, lawful head of a family derived from a gens, the pater familias embodied and expressed its genius through his pious fulfillment of ancestral obligations. The pater familias was therefore owed a reciprocal duty of genius cult by his entire familia. He in his turn conferred genius and the duty of sacra familiae to his children—whether by blood or by adoption. Roman religious law defined the religious rites of familia as sacra privata (funded by the familia rather than the state) and "unofficial" (not a rite of state office or magistracy, though the state pontifices and censor might intervene if the observation of sacra privata was lax or improper). The responsibility for funding and executing sacra privata therefore fell to the head of the household and no other. As well as observance of common rites and festivals (including those marked by domestic rites), each family had its own unique internal religious calendar—marking the formal acceptance of infant children, coming of age, marriages, deaths and burials. In rural estates, the entire familia would gather to offer sacrifice(s) to the gods for the protection and fertility of fields and livestock. All such festivals and offerings were presided over by the pater familias. Wife The legal potestas of the pater familias over his wife depended on the form of marriage between them. In the Early Republic, a wife was "handed over" to the legal control of her husband in the form of marriage cum manu (Latin cum manu means "with hand"). If the man divorced his wife, he had to give the dowry back to his wife and her family. By the Late Republic, manus marriage had become rare, and a woman legally remained part of her birth family. Women emancipated from the potestas of a pater familias were independent by law (sui iuris) but had a male guardian appointed to them. A woman sui iuris had the right to take legal action on her own behalf but not to administer legal matters for others. Children The laws of the Twelve Tables required the pater familias to ensure that "obviously deformed" infants were put to death. The survival of congenitally disabled adults, conspicuously evidenced among the elite by the partially-lame Emperor Claudius, demonstrates that personal choice was exercised in the matter. The pater familias had the power to sell his children into slavery; Roman law provided, however, that if a child had been sold as a slave three times, he was no longer subject to patria potestas. The pater familias had the power to approve or reject marriages of his sons and daughters; however, an edict of Emperor Augustus provided that the pater familias could not withhold that permission lightly. The filii familias (children of the family) could include the biological and adopted children of the pater familias and his siblings. Because of their extended rights (their longa manus, literally "long hand"), the patres familias also had a series of extra duties: duties towards the filii and the slaves, but some of the duties were recognized not by the original ius civile but only by the ius gentium, specially directed to foreigners, or by the ius honorarium, the law of the Magistratus, especially the Praetor, which would emerge only in a latter period of Roman law. Adult filii remained under the authority of their pater and could not themselves acquire the rights of a pater familias while he lived. Legally, any property acquired by individual family members (sons, daughters or slaves) was acquired for the family estate: the pater familias held sole rights to its disposal and sole responsibility for the consequences, including personal forfeiture of rights and property through debt. Those who lived in their own households at the time of the death of the pater succeeded to the status of pater familias over their respective households (pater familias sui iuris) even if they were only in their teens. Children "emancipated" by a pater familias were effectively disinherited. If a paterfamilias died intestate, his children were entitled to an equal share of his estate. If a will was left, children could contest the estate. Over time, the absolute authority of the pater familias weakened, and rights that theoretically existed were no longer enforced or insisted upon. The power over life and death was abolished, the right of punishment was moderated and the sale of children was restricted to cases of extreme necessity. Under Emperor Hadrian, a father who killed his son was stripped of both his citizenship and all its attendant rights, had his property confiscated and was permanently exiled. Slavery Roman context The original classical Roman definition of familia referred to “a body of slaves,” and did not refer to wives and children. The classical legal concept of pater familias as “head of household” derived from this early conception of familia and, thus, from the legal relationship between slaveowners and their enslaved laborers rather than that between fathers and children. Since the early classical period, Roman writers and jurists have interpreted ancient writers’ invocation of pater familias as the basis of the concept of “head of household”—over the alternative Latin word for slaveowner, dominus—as a purposeful choice, intended to mitigate the harsh connotations that the act of slaveholding conferred onto heads of households and expanding the applicability of the term to non-enslaved members of the household. As a semantic term, pater familias thus connoted heads of household who were thought to combine the affective tenderness of a father with the stern coercion of a slaveowner in ordering their households. As Roman jurists began to articulate the legal conception of pater familias from the early classical period onwards, the minimum qualification for assuming the status of pater familias came to be understood as one’s capacity to own property. However, in Roman law, this was considered a distinct dimension of the pater familias’ authority from their capacity to hold dominion over enslaved persons. While both enslaved people and the estate itself were considered part of the familia unit over which pater familias held authority, they were recognized as distinct from family members (wives, children, and grandchildren). Despite these distinctions, what all members of the household shared was their subjecthood to the authority, or potestas, of the pater familias. By the second century, A.D., the distinction between family members and enslaved persons residing in the same household had lessened, even as the patria potestas also weakened over time. Patres familias wielded complete and separate authority over members of their households, including their enslaved laborers. In cases of adjudicating legal transgressions committed by enslaved persons, patres familias exhibited equivalent jurisdiction as that of local civil magistrates, including the ability to absolve the enslaved of any wrongdoing, trying them by jury, or sentencing them to capital punishments. While some Roman patres familias permitted enslaved individuals in their households to establish quasi-marital unions (known as contubernia) as a means of forming communal bonds among the enslaved, these unions were only recognized within the household and carried no legal bearing outside of the household. The children that resulted from these unions were themselves enslaved and considered the legal property of their mother’s owner. Roman legal sources often recognized enslaved people as part of the instrumenta (roughly translated as “equipment”) of the household to highlight the service they provided the pater familias. This definition included both enslaved people working in field settings and those living in the domestic household and working in direct service of the pater familias. Roman women sui iuris (“of their own power,” and not under the authority of any pater familias) possessed the legal right to own enslaved people as instrumenta, though jurists decided on a case-by-case basis whether to extend the status of pater familias to them in their capacity as slaveowners. In general, however, the status of pater familias could not be fully extended to women sui iuris because Roman law recognized the authority that pater familias wielded over members of the immediate family as strictly gendered, i.e., male. Nonetheless, historians and legal scholars have often overlooked this exception to the rule that allowed some women sui iuris (usually wealthy and of the upper socioeconomic stratum of society) to attain legal recognition as pater familias through their ownership of enslaved persons. Historical applications Outside of the Roman context, various slavery regimes in world history have adopted the concept of pater familias to structure the legal, cultural, and social relationships between slaveowners and enslaved people. The law code of fifteenth-century Valencian society, for example, adopted the classical Roman conception of familia to recognize servant laborers and enslaved persons as members of the domestic household, roughly equal in status to family members given their subjecthood to the authority of the pater familias. As a consequence of this, patres familias maintained honor and status within their communities by fulfilling both the material and spiritual needs of all members of the household, including enslaved persons. This included providing for the food, clothing, shelter, education, and baptism of enslaved persons. When they reneged on these obligations, the law code considered them to forfeit their right to ownership of their enslaved, leading in some cases to disputes between paternal heads of household over the status of enslaved persons whom they each claimed to have “raised.” In the context of plantation slavery in the antebellum U.S. South, slaveowning planters developed a rhetorical defense of slavery as a benevolent, paternalistic institution based on the ancient Roman model of the pater familias. Some planters employed the concept as a legal protectionary measure, instructing renters to whom they “hired out” their enslaved laborers to “treat” them “as good pater familias,” in an effort to stymie abusive practices. Others used the concept to rationalize planter rule, claiming themselves sovereigns of their households who provided for all constituent members, and demanding their loyalty and labor in return. Drawing on the Roman precedent in this way, these planters claimed that their enslaved laborers were their “dependents,” who ultimately benefitted from the paternalistic ordering of the household. Southern newspapers and print media repeatedly promoted this idea in order to square the intrinsic brutality that defined the institution of slavery with the democratic ideals the nation was supposedly founded on, often developing this paternalistic ideology to irrational heights and ignoring the contradictions that it masked. This paternalistic ideology persisted after the legal abolition of slavery, as white employers and political leaders in the South attempted to maintain a hierarchical socioeconomic class status over formerly enslaved persons, as well as women and poor laborers, whom they viewed as “dependents,” thereby expanding the Roman household model of pater familias to the level of broader society. The patriarchal mode of slavery that Southern U.S. and Caribbean slaveowners attempted to establish often clashed with the familial structures enslaved people themselves constructed. Some of these family structures had roots in West African societies. The Akan society of the Gold Coast, for example, was largely matrilineal and composed of individual “clans or lineages,” descended from a single mother. Mandé society, while more often organized along patrilineal lines, exhibited some matrilineal lines and generally reserved powerful positions of political and household authority for women. In Igbo society, women were “most celebrated” for their roles as mothers and wives, but also participated in independent market activity and in communal defense. As a sizable proportion of enslaved people transported to the New World in the trans-Atlantic trade originated from Akan, Mandé, and Igbo societies, some historians have noted a connection between the matrilineal elements of these West African cultures and the centrality of women and mothers in enslaved peoples’ family units. These alternative modes of structuring household and family life among enslaved people threatened some planters’ intentions to serve as the solely acknowledged pater familias of their households. See also Kyrios References Sources Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 2, a sourcebook, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. Frier, Bruce W., McGinn, Thomas A.J., and Lidov, Joel, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, Oxford University Press (American Philological Association), 2004. Huebner, S. R, Ratzan, D. M. eds. Growing up Fatherless in Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2009. Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, Roman Social History, a Sourcebook, Routledge, 2007. Severy, Beth, Augustus and the family at the birth of the Roman Empire, Routledge, 2003. External links George Long, "Patria Potestas", in William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London, John Murray, 1875, pp. 873‑875. "Roman Law", in Catholic Encyclopedia New York, Robert Appleton, 1913. Olga Tellegen-Couper, "A Short History of Roman Law". 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233131	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20warbler	Green warbler	The green warbler (Phylloscopus nitidus), also known as green willow warbler or green leaf warbler, is a leaf warbler found in the Caucasus Mountains in southcentral Europe. Like all leaf warblers, it was formerly placed in the "Old World warbler" assemblage, but now belongs to the new leaf-warbler family Phylloscopidae. The genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific nitidus is from Latin and means "shining". It is most closely related to the greenish warbler but is brighter in colour, and the underside is much more yellow. It has one strong and one faint wing bar, especially in young birds. 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233133	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%20Fuk%20Yan	Ho Fuk Yan	Ho Fuk Yan () is a Chinese-language author and poet in Hong Kong. Being the former Head of the Chinese Language Department of St. Paul's College, he also teaches Chinese History, Chinese Culture and Chinese Language before his retirement in 2010, after receiving his secondary education there and university education in The University of Hong Kong. Ho's famous works include A Reborn Tree ("再生樹"), and "An Interview with the Dragon" ("龍的訪問"). References The first 90 years, University of Hong Kong External links 文學花園：香港作家何福仁 Hong Kong poets Living people Alumni of St. Paul's College, Hong Kong Year of birth missing (living people)	[ 0.10607301443815231, 1.0741626024246216, -0.45537376403808594, -0.6917880773544312, -0.40476712584495544, 0.40027013421058655, 0.19981221854686737, 0.3053210377693176, -0.05374344438314438, -0.12151102721691132, -0.2891993224620819, -0.016704492270946503, 0.3428223729133606, -0.19828006625175476, 0.01924380101263523, 0.10217418521642685, 0.2830614149570465, 0.09436546266078949, -0.6507694125175476, -0.33669179677963257, -0.06844678521156311, -0.5760577917098999, 0.2705480456352234, -0.39518409967422485, 0.129246324300766, 0.02737748622894287, -0.052820853888988495, 0.4914312958717346, 0.01799081079661846, -0.17551849782466888, -0.5391805171966553, 0.9079569578170776, 0.18820396065711975, -0.27213823795318604, -0.33386874198913574, 0.33314430713653564, -0.14013326168060303, -0.06852594763040543, 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233138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Reeve%20%28journalist%29	Henry Reeve (journalist)	Henry Reeve (9 September 1813 – 21 October 1895) was an English journalist. Biography He was the younger son of Henry Reeve, a Whig physician and writer from Norwich, and was born at Norwich. He was educated at the Norwich School under Edward Valpy. During his holidays he saw a good deal of the young John Stuart Mill. In 1829 he studied at Geneva and mixed in Genevese society, then very brilliant, and including the Sismondis, François Huber, Charles Victor de Bonstetten, Alphonse de Candolle, Pellegrino Rossi, Sigismund Krasinski (his most intimate friend), and Adam Mickiewicz, whose Faris he translated. During a visit to London in 1831 he was introduced to Thackeray and Thomas Carlyle, while through the Austins he made the acquaintance of other literary figures. Next year, in Paris, he met Victor Hugo, Victor Cousin, and Sir Walter Scott. He travelled in Italy, sat under Schelling at Munich and under Ludwig Tieck at Dresden, became in 1835-36 a member of Madame de Circourt's salon, and numbered among his friends Alphonse de Lamartine, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire, Alfred de Vigny, Adolphe Thiers, François Guizot, Charles Forbes René de Montalembert, and Alexis de Tocqueville, of whose books, Démocratie en Amérique and the Ancien Régime, he made standard translations into English. In 1837 he was made clerk of appeal and then registrar to the judicial committee of the Privy Council. From 1840 to 1855 he wrote for The Times, his close touch with men like Guizot, Christian Bunsen, Lord Clarendon, and his own chief at the Privy Council Office, Charles Greville, enabling him to write with authority on foreign policy during the critical period from 1848 to the end of the Crimean War. Upon the promotion of Sir George Cornewall Lewis to the Cabinet early in 1855 Reeve was asked by Longman to edit the April number of the Edinburgh Review, to which his father had been one of the earliest contributors, and in the following July he became the editor. His friendship with the Orleanist leaders in France survived all vicissitudes, but he was appealed to for guidance by successive French ambassadors, and was more than once the medium of private negotiations between the English and French governments. In April 1863, he published perhaps the most important of his contributions—a searching review of Kinglake's Crimea; and in 1872 he brought out a selection of his Quarterly and Edinburgh articles on eminent Frenchmen, entitled Royal and Republican France. Three years later appeared the first of three instalments (1875, 1885 and 1887) of his edition of the famous Memoirs which Charles Greville had placed in his hands a few hours before his death in 1865. In 1878 Reeve published a popular biography Petrarch. A purist in point of form and style, of the school of Thomas Macaulay and Henry Hart Milman, Reeve outlived his literary generation, and became one of the most reactionary of old Whigs. Yet he continued to edit and maintain the reputation of the Edinburgh until his death at his seat of Foxholes, in Hampshire. He had been elected a member of "The Club" in 1861, and served as its treasurer from 1867 to 1893. He was made a D.C.L. by the University of Oxford in 1869, a C.B. in 1871, and a corresponding member of the French Institute in 1865. A striking panegyric was pronounced upon him by his lifelong friend, the duc d'Aumale, before the Académie des Sciences in November 1895. His Memoirs and Letters (2 vols., with portrait) were edited by J. K. Laughton, in 1898. In a March 1937 issue of The Times there was an appeal for Henry Reeve's diary. Sources (The Encyclopædia Britannica article has the error "Rossil" for "Rossi", cf. Dictionary of National Biography article.) 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233141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color%20breed	Color breed	A color breed refers to groupings of horses whose registration is based primarily on their coat color, regardless of the horse's actual breed or breed type. Some color breeds only register horses with a desired coat color if they also meet specific pedigree criteria, others register animals based solely on color, regardless of parentage. A few pedigree-based color breeds, notably the American Paint Horse and the Appaloosa, confronted with the reality of many animals born without the proper color even though they are from two registered parents, have modified their rules to allow registration of animals with the proper pedigree even if they do not possess the proper color. On the other hand, with the prevalence of DNA testing for parentage, many horses once forced into color breed status due to being born the "wrong" color and thus deemed undesirable or of questionable parentage by many regular breed registries with cropout rules can now be accepted for registration. For example, some mainstream breeds, such as American Quarter Horses, Tennessee Walking Horses and American Saddlebreds include individuals of the palomino color or pinto patterns, as well as a wide variety of other colors. However, a color breed registry, such as the Palomino Horse Breeders Association or the Pinto Horse Association of America, accepts only horses of each particular color or color pattern —regardless of their particular breeds. White horses had their own color registry that included cremello horses, but not grays. Many horses eligible for registration with their own breed registry and of a particular color to allow color breed registration are often "double registered" with both organizations, often increasing their sale value by doing so. With stallions, double registration may also increase their breeding value by widening the set of interested mare owners. Alternative meaning There are some breeds, such as the Norwegian Fjord Horse, Appaloosa, American Paint Horse, Friesian and Haflinger, which have distinct physical characteristics and recorded pedigrees but also typically have distinctive or colorful coats. These might be considered a "color breed" by some, but they are pedigree-based breeds. For example, Appaloosas are usually spotted, but a solid-colored offspring of registered parents can still be a registered Appaloosa. Likewise, a solid-colored American Paint Horse that has registered parents may also be registered. On the other hand, while Friesian breeders have deliberately bred to exclude chestnut horses, and will only register black animals, these black animals also must be Friesian by pedigree and no other bloodlines are allowed into the registry. The same is true of Norwegian Fjord Horses, which are all a variation of dun. Color breeding Some horse breeds exclude certain colors that are considered signs of a crossbred animal. For example, other than the Sabino pattern and some recently discovered dominant white alleles in horses with DNA-verified parentage, the Arabian horse registry excludes all spotted horses. The Finnhorse was also bred for decades to exclude all colors but chestnut, and specifically to remove such "fancy" colors as roans, grays and spotted (sabino), which were seen as indicators of foreign blood, though that policy has now changed, as for some particular colors, this might hold true - for example, all present gray Finnhorses can be traced back to a certain gray mare of dubious pedigree. Due to DNA verification of parentage, today many mainstream breed registries that once excluded certain coat colors will now accept them as long as the animal can be proved pureblooded. Many colors are specifically bred for. See also List of horse breeds Equine coat color Equine coat color genetics References http://www.colorbreedcouncil.com/ Color Breed Council (USA). Includes both color breeds and pedigreed breeds with a color preference. "Color breed council conducts international equine judges seminar." Article explains who the members of the council are and what the council does. 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233146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Knox	Henry Knox	Henry Knox (July 25, 1750 – October 25, 1806) was an American military officer who was a senior general of the Continental Army and later the United States Army. He directed the artillery in the successful war for independence. He was close to George Washington, who appointed him first United States Secretary of War from 1789 to 1794. Born and raised in Boston, Massachusetts, Knox owned and operated a bookstore there, cultivating an interest in military history and joining a local artillery company. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, he helped General George Washington on artillery matters which proved decisive in driving the British out of Boston in 1776. Knox quickly rose to become the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army. In this role he accompanied Washington on most of his campaigns, and had some involvement in many major actions of the war. He established training centers for artillerymen and manufacturing facilities for weaponry that were valuable assets to the army that won the war for independence. He saw himself as the embodiment of revolutionary republican ideals. Knox initiated the concept of The Society of the Cincinnati, formally organizing the society and authoring its founding document as the war ended in 1783. It was an elite organization of veteran officers. The Continental Congress appointed him Secretary of War, where he dealt mostly with Indian affairs. Following the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1789, he became President Washington's Secretary of War. In this role he oversaw the development of coastal fortifications, worked to improve the preparedness of local militia, and oversaw the nation military activity in the Northwest Indian War. He was formally responsible for the nation's relationship with the Indian population in the territories it claimed, articulating a policy that established federal government supremacy over the states in relating to Indian nations, and called for treating Indian nations as sovereign. Knox's idealistic views on the subject were frustrated by ongoing illegal settlements and fraudulent land transfers involving Indian lands. He retired to Thomaston, District of Maine in 1795, where he oversaw the rise of a business empire built on borrowed money. He died in 1806, leaving an estate that was bankrupt. Early life and marriage Henry Knox's parents, William and Mary (née Campbell), were Ulster Scots immigrants who emigrated from Derry to Boston in 1729. His father was a shipbuilder who, due to financial reverses, left the family for Sint Eustatius in the West Indies where he died in 1762 of unknown causes. Henry was admitted to the Boston Latin School, where he studied Greek, Latin, arithmetic, and European history. Since he was the oldest son still at home when his father died, he left school at the age of 9 and became a clerk in a bookstore to support his mother. The shop's owner, Nicholas Bowes, became a surrogate father figure for the boy, allowing him to browse the shelves of the store and take home any volume that he wanted to read. The inquisitive future war hero, when he was not running errands, taught himself French, learned some philosophy and advanced mathematics, and devoured tales of ancient warriors and famous battles. He immersed himself in literature from a tender age. However, Knox was also involved in Boston's street gangs, becoming one of the toughest fighters in his neighborhood. Impressed by a military demonstration, at 18 he joined a local artillery company called The Train. On March 5, 1770, Knox was a witness to the Boston massacre. According to his affidavit, he attempted to defuse the situation, trying to convince the British soldiers to return to their quarters. He also testified at the trials of the soldiers, in which all but two were acquitted. In 1771 he opened his own bookshop, the London Book Store, in Boston "opposite William's Court in Cornhill." The store was, in the words of a contemporary, a "great resort for the British officers and Tory ladies, who were the ton at that period." Boasting an impressive selection of excellent English products and managed by a friendly proprietor, it quickly became a popular destination for the aristocrats of Boston. As a bookseller, Knox built strong business ties with British suppliers (like Thomas Longman) and developed relationships with his customers, but he retained his childhood aspirations. Largely self-educated, he stocked books on military science, and also questioned soldiers who frequented his shop in military matters. The genial giant initially enjoyed reasonable pecuniary success, but his profits slumped after the Boston Port Bill and subsequent citywide boycott of British goods. In 1772 he cofounded the Boston Grenadier Corps as an offshoot of The Train, and served as its second in command. Shortly before his 23rd birthday Knox accidentally discharged a gun, shooting two fingers off his left hand. He managed to bind the wound up and reach a doctor, who sewed the wound up. Knox supported the Sons of Liberty, an organization of agitators against what they considered tyrannical policies by the British Parliament. It is unknown if he participated in the 1773 Boston Tea Party, but he did serve on guard duty before the incident to make sure no tea was unloaded from the Dartmouth, one of the ships involved. The next year he refused a consignment of tea sent to him by James Rivington, a Loyalist in New York. Henry married Lucy Flucker (1756–1824), the daughter of Boston Loyalists, on June 16, 1774, despite opposition from her father, who had differing political views. Lucy's brother served in the British Army, and her family attempted to lure Knox to service there. Despite long separations due to his military service, the couple were devoted to one another for the rest of his life, and carried on an extensive correspondence. After the couple fled Boston in 1775, she remained essentially homeless until the British evacuated the city in March 1776. Even afterward, she often traveled to visit Knox in the field. Her parents left, never to return, with the British during their withdrawal from Boston after the Continental Army fortified Dorchester Heights, a success that hinged upon Knox's Ticonderoga expedition. Military career Siege of Boston When the war broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, Knox and Lucy snuck out of Boston, and Knox joined the militia army besieging the city. His abandoned bookshop was looted and all of its stock destroyed or stolen. He served under General Artemas Ward, putting his acquired engineering skills to use developing fortifications around the city. He directed rebel cannon fire at the Battle of Bunker Hill. When General George Washington arrived in July 1775 to take command of the army, he was impressed by the work Knox had done. The two also immediately developed a liking for one another, and Knox began to interact regularly with Washington and the other generals of the developing Continental Army. Knox did not have a commission in the army, but John Adams in particular worked in the Second Continental Congress to acquire for him a commission as colonel of the army's artillery regiment. Knox bolstered his own case by writing to Adams that Richard Gridley, the older leader of the artillery under Ward, was disliked by his men and in poor health. As the siege wore on, the idea arose that cannon recently captured at the fall of forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in upstate New York could have a decisive impact on its outcome. Knox is generally credited with suggesting the prospect to Washington, who thereupon put him in charge of an expedition to retrieve them even though Knox's commission had not yet arrived. Reaching Ticonderoga on December 5, Knox commenced what came to be known as the noble train of artillery, hauling by ox-drawn sled 60 tons of cannon and other armaments across some of ice-covered rivers and snow-draped Berkshire Mountains to the Boston siege camps. The region was lightly populated and Knox had to overcome difficulties hiring personnel and draft animals. On several occasions cannon crashed through the ice on river crossings, but the detail's men were always able to recover them. In the end, what Knox had expected to take just two weeks actually took more than six, and he was finally able to report the arrival of the weapons train to Washington on January 27, 1776. Called by historian Victor Brooks "one of the most stupendous feats of logistics" of the entire war, Knox's effort is commemorated by a series of plaques marking the Henry Knox Trail in New York and Massachusetts. Upon the cannon's arrival in Cambridge they were immediately deployed to fortify the Dorchester Heights recently taken by Washington. So commanding was the new battery over Boston harbor the British withdrew their fleet to Halifax. With the siege ended, Knox undertook the improvement of defenses in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York City in anticipation of a possible British assault. In New York he became friends with Alexander Hamilton, commander of the local artillery. He also established a close friendship with Massachusetts general Benjamin Lincoln. New York and New Jersey campaign Knox was with Washington's army during the New York and New Jersey campaign, including most of the major engagements resulting in the loss of New York City. He narrowly escaped capture following the British invasion of Manhattan, only making it back to the main Continental Army lines through the offices of Aaron Burr. He was in charge of logistics in the critical crossing of the Delaware River that preceded the December 26, 1776 Battle of Trenton. Though hampered by ice and cold, with John Glover's Marbleheaders (14th Continental Regiment) manning the boats, he got the attack force of men, horses and artillery across the river without loss. Following the battle he returned the same force, along with hundreds of prisoners, captured supplies and all the boats back across the river by the afternoon of December 26. Knox was promoted to brigadier general for this accomplishment, and given command of an artillery corps expanded to five regiments. The army again crossed the river a few days later after the decision to make a stand at Trenton. Knox was with the army at the January 2, 1777 at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek, and again the next day at the Battle of Princeton. In 1777 while the army was in winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, Knox returned to Massachusetts to improve the Army's artillery manufacturing capability. He raised an additional battalion of artillerymen and established an armory at Springfield, Massachusetts before returning to the main army in the spring. That armory, and a second at Yorktown, Pennsylvania established by one of his subordinates, remained valuable sources of war material for the rest of the war. Philadelphia campaign Knox returned to the main army for the 1777 campaign. In June he learned that Congress had appointed Philippe Charles Tronson du Coudray, a French soldier of fortune, to command the artillery. Du Coudray's appointment upset not only Knox, who immediately threatened his resignation to Congress, but also John Sullivan and Nathanael Greene, who also protested the politically motivated appointment. Du Coudray was subsequently reassigned to the post of inspector general, and died in a fall from his horse while crossing the Schuylkill River in September 1777. Knox was present at Brandywine, the first major battle of the Philadelphia campaign, and at Germantown. At Germantown he made the critical suggestion, approved by Washington, to capture rather than bypass the Chew House, a stone mansion that the British had occupied as a strong defensive position. This turned out to significantly delay the army's advance and gave the British an opportunity to reform their lines. Knox afterward wrote to Lucy, "To [morning fog and] the enemy's taking possession of some stone buildings in Germantown, is to be ascribed the loss of the victory." Knox was also present at the Battle of Monmouth in July 1778, where Washington commended him for the artillery's performance. The army saw no further action that year, but privateers that Knox and fellow Massachusetts native Henry Jackson invested in were not as successful as they hoped; many of them were captured by the British. Artillery training school and Yorktown Knox and the artillery established a winter cantonment at Pluckemin (a hamlet of Bedminster, New Jersey). There Knox established the Continental Army's first school for artillery and officer training. This facility was the precursor to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. While there, through the summer of 1779, General Knox spent most of his time training more than 1,000 soldiers in conditions of low morale and scarce supplies. Conditions were exceptionally harsh in the winter of 1779–80, and Washington's army was again largely inactive in 1780 while the main action in the war moved south. In late September 1780 Knox was a member of the court martial that convicted Major John André, the British officer whose arrest exposed the treachery of Benedict Arnold. (Knox had briefly shared accommodations with André while en route to Ticonderoga in 1775, when the latter was traveling south on parole after being captured near Montreal.) During these years of relative inaction Knox made several trips to the northern states as Washington's representative to increase the flow of men and supplies to the army. In 1781 Knox accompanied Washington's army south and participated in the decisive Siege of Yorktown. He was personally active in the field, directing the placement and aiming of the artillery. The Marquis de Chastellux, with whom Knox established a good friendship, wrote of Knox, "We cannot sufficiently admire the intelligence and activity with which he collected from different places and transported to the batteries more than thirty pieces ...", and "one-half has been said in commending his military genius. Washington specifically called out both Knox and the French artillery chief for their roles in the siege, and recommended to Congress that Knox be promoted. Demobilization Knox was promoted to major general on March 22, 1782; he became the army's youngest major general. He and Congressman Gouverneur Morris were assigned to negotiate prisoner exchanges with the British. These negotiations failed because the sides could not agree on processes and terms for matching various classes of captives. He joined the main army at Newburgh, New York, and inspected the facilities at West Point, considered a crucial defensive position. After enumerating its defects and needs, Washington appointed him its commander in August 1782. The next month he was devastated by the death of his nine-month-old son, and fell into a depression. He soldiered on, however, becoming involved in negotiations with the Confederation Congress and Secretary of War Benjamin Lincoln over the issue of pensions and overdue compensation for the military. Knox wrote a memorial, signed by a number of high-profile officers, suggesting that Congress pay all back pay immediately and offer a lump-sum pension rather than providing half-pay for life. The unwillingness of Congress to deal with the issue prompted Knox to write a warning letter, in which he wrote "I consider the reputation of the American army as one of the most immaculate things on earth, and that we should even suffer wrongs and injuries to the utmost verge of toleration rather than sully it in the least degree. But there is a point beyond which there is no sufferance. I pray we will sincerely not pass it." When rumors of mutiny in the higher rank circulated in March 1783, Washington held a meeting in which he made an impassioned plea for restraint. In the meeting, Knox introduced motions reaffirming the officers' attachment to Washington and Congress, helping to defuse the crisis. Because of the unresolved issues, however, Knox and others became vigorous proponents of a stronger national government, something which leading political leaders (including Thomas Jefferson, John Hancock, and Samuel Adams) opposed at the time. With the arrival of news of a preliminary peace in April 1783 Congress began to order the demobilization of the Continental Army, and Washington gave Knox day-to-day command of what remained of the army. During this time Knox organized The Society of the Cincinnati, a fraternal, hereditary society of Revolutionary War officers that survives to this day. He authored the society's founding document, the Institution, in April 1783 and served as its first Secretary General. Knox also served as The Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati's first Vice President. The hereditary nature of the society's membership initially raised some eyebrows, but it was generally well received. He also drafted plans for the establishment of a peacetime army, many of whose provisions were eventually implemented. These plans included two military academies (one naval and one army, the latter occupying the critical base at West Point), and bodies of troops to maintain the nation's borders. When the British withdrew the last of their troops from New York on November 21, 1783, Knox was at the head of the American forces that took over. He stood next to Washington during the latter's farewell address on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern. After Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief on December 23, Knox became the senior officer of the army. The post of Secretary at War became available when Benjamin Lincoln resigned in November 1783, and Lincoln had recommended Knox to follow him. Although the Confederation Congress had been aware of Lincoln's intent to resign when the formal peace arrived, it had not named a successor. Knox had been considered for the job when it was given to Lincoln in 1781, and expressed his interest in succeeding Lincoln. However, in the absence of a guiding hand in the War Department, Congress attempted to implement an idea for a standing militia force as a peacetime army. Knox resigned his army commission in early 1784, "well satisfied to be excluded from any responsibility in arrangements which it is impossible to execute", and Congress' idea failed. Knox returned to Massachusetts, where the family established a home in Dorchester. Knox worked to reassemble a large parcel of land in Maine (parts of what are sometimes called the Waldo Patent and the Bingham Purchase) that had been confiscated from his Loyalist in-laws. He was able to assemble a vast multi-million acre real estate empire in Maine, including almost all of the old Flucker holdings, in part by getting appointed the state's official for disposing of seized lands, and then rigging the sale of his in-laws' lands to a straw buyer acting on his behalf. He was also appointed to a state commission responsible for negotiating treaty provisions with the Penobscot Indians of central Maine. This commission also became involved in investigating issues surrounding the eastern border with Nova Scotia (now New Brunswick), a matter that would not be resolved until the 1842 Webster-Ashburton Treaty. Secretary of War Congress finally appointed Knox the nation's second United States Secretary at War on March 8, 1785, after considering a number of other candidates. At the time, Knox is reported to have been of "immense girth", weighing nearly 300 pounds and 6 feet 3 inches. The army was by then a fraction of its former size, and the new nation's westward expansion was exacerbating frontier conflicts with Indian tribes. The War Department Knox took over had two civilian employees and a single small regiment. Congress in 1785 authorized the establishment of a 700-man army. Knox was only able to recruit six of the authorized ten companies, which were stationed on the western frontier. Some members of the Confederation Congress opposed the establishment of a peacetime army, and also opposed the establishment of a military academy (one of Knox's key proposals) on the basis that it would establish an superior military class capable of dominating society. Knox first proposed an army mainly composed of state militia, specifically seeking to change attitudes in Congress about a democratically managed military. Although the plan was initially rejected, many of its details were eventually adopted in the formation and administration of the United States Army. The need for an enhanced military role took on some urgency in 1786 when Shays' Rebellion broke out in Massachusetts, threatening the Springfield Armory. Knox personally went to Springfield to see to its defense. Although Benjamin Lincoln raised a militia force and put down the rebellion, it highlighted the weakness of both the military and defects in the Articles of Confederation that hampered Congressional ability to act on the matter. In the rebellion's aftermath Congress called the Constitutional Convention, in which the United States Constitution was drafted. Knox in early 1787 sent Washington a proposal for a government that bears significant resemblance to what was eventually adopted. When Washington asked Knox if he should attend the convention, Knox urged him to do so: "It would be circumstance highly honorable to your fame, in the judgment of the present and future ages, and double entitle you to the glorious epithet — Father of Your Country." This is possibly the earliest documented application of the phrase "Father of His Country" to Washington. Knox actively promoted the adoption of the new constitution, engaging correspondents in many colonies on the subject, but especially concentrating on achieving its adoption by Massachusetts, where its support was seen as weak. After its adoption he was considered by some to be a viable candidate for vice president, but he preferred to remain in the war office, and the office went to John Adams. With the adoption of the new Constitution and the establishment of the War Department, Knox's title changed to Secretary of War. As part of his new duties, Knox was responsible for implementation of the Militia Act of 1792. This included his evaluation of the arms and readiness of the militia finding that only 20% of the 450,000 members of the militia were capable of arming themselves at their own expense for militia service as required by the act. To resolve this arms shortage, Knox recommended to Congress that the federal government increase the purchase of imported weapons, ban the export of domestically produced weapons and establish facilities for the domestic production and stockpiling of weapons. These facilities included the existing Springfield Armory and another at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. In 1792 Congress, acting on a detailed proposal from Knox, created the short-lived Legion of the United States. When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1793, American merchant shipping began to be affected after Washington formally declared neutrality in the conflict. Both France and Britain began seizing American shipping that was trading with the enemy nation. Most of the Continental Navy's few ships were sold off at the end of the Revolutionary War, leaving the nation's merchant fleet without any defenses against piracy or seizure on the high seas. Knox urged and presided over the creation of a regular United States Navy and the establishment of a series of coastal fortifications. Native American diplomacy and war Knox was responsible for managing the nation's relations with the Native Americans resident in lands it claimed, following a 1789 act of U.S. Congress. Knox, in several documents drafted for Washington and Congress, articulated the nation's early Native American policy. He stated that Indian nations were sovereign and possessed the land they occupied, and that the federal government (and not the states) should therefore be responsible for dealings with them. These policies were implemented in part by the passage of the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1790, which forbade the sale of Native American lands except in connection with a treaty with the federal government. Knox wrote, "The Indians, being the prior occupants, possess the right to the soil. It cannot be taken from them except by their consent, or by rights of conquest in case of a just war. To dispossess them on any other principle would be a great violation of the fundamental laws of nature." Historian Robert Miller claims that statements like these seem to support indigenous rights to land, but were ignored in the practice of the Doctrine of Discovery, which came to govern the taking of Native lands. American Indian wars, including the Cherokee–American wars and the Northwest Indian War, would occupy much of his tenure. During the years of the Confederation, there had been insufficient Congressional support for any significant action against the Nations on the western frontier. The British supported the northwestern tribes from frontier bases that they continued to occupy after the Revolutionary War ended (in violation of the Treaty of Paris), and the Cherokee and Creek continued to contest illegal encroachment of colonial settlers on their lands. In October 1790 Knox organized a campaign led by General Josiah Harmar into the Northwest Territory in retaliation for Native American raids against colonial settlers in that territory and that of present-day Kentucky. That campaign failed. A second campaign was organized by Knox, financed by William Duer, and to be led by territorial Governor Arthur St. Clair. Knox and Duer failed to provide enough supplies for the Army, which led to the American Army's greatest defeat in history. These campaigns failed to pacify the Native Americans, and Knox was widely blamed for the failure to protect the frontier. Seeking to close the issue before he left office, he organized an expedition led by Anthony Wayne that brought the conflict to a meaningful end with the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Wayne's "troops had burned 'immense fields of corn' for a stretch of about fifty miles along the river", in a move that affected civilian non-combatants. The result of American military action in the Northwest led to the Treaty of Greenville, which forced the defeated Native Americans to cede lands in the Ohio area. The bloody campaigns that Secretary Knox oversaw in some cases involved armies many times larger than later battles in the 1870s. The Native American nations were reluctant to leave their hunting grounds but Knox thought he could make a deal with the southern tribes headed by Alexander McGillivray. He would promise the U.S.Army would protect them from land-hungry squatters. Washington and Knox generally felt the use of force would be too costly to Americans and a violation of republican ideals. Knox proposed furnishing the Natives with livestock, farming implements, and missionaries, in order to make them pacific farmers. Knox signed the Treaty of New York (1790) on behalf of the nation, ending conflict with some, but not all, Cherokee tribal units. Of the dying off of the native populations in the nation's most heavily populated areas, Knox wrote, "A future historian may mark the causes of this destruction of the human race in sable colors." In the 1990s leftist writer Noam Chomsky claims that the nation's leaders "knew what they were doing", and often used language saying they were the natives' "benefactors", "philanthropists and humanitarians", when in reality they were engaged in the "genocidal practices" of extermination and "Indian Removal". Knox said how the American government and settlers were treating the Indian tribes were so harmful that "our modes...have been more destructive to the Indian natives than the conduct of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru". He went on to cite the fact that where there was white settlement, there was "the utter extirpation" of natives, or almost none left alive. Regardless of whether the Americans wanted to obtain Native American lands by purchase, conquest or other means, "there would be no lasting peace while land remained the object of American Indian policy", which continued after Knox left office. Washington's policies, as carried out by Secretary Knox, set the stage for the rise of Tecumseh two decades later. Many thousands of Native Americans refused to accept treaties, claiming that they had not approved them and that their only purpose was to remove them from their lands. They specifically cited the Treaty of Greenville, and reoccupied ancestral lands, beginning renewed resistance in the Northwest that was finally crushed in the War of 1812. On January 2, 1795, Knox left the government and returned to his home in Thomaston, District of Maine, which was then part of Massachusetts, to devote himself to caring for his growing family. He was succeeded in the post of Secretary of War by Timothy Pickering. Business ventures and land speculation Knox settled in Thomaston, and built a magnificent three story mansion surrounded by outbuildings called Montpelier, the whole of "a beauty, symmetry and magnificence" said to be unequaled in the Commonwealth. He spent the rest of his life engaged in cattle farming, ship building, brick making and real estate speculation. Connections formed during the war years served Knox well, as he invested widely in frontier real estate, from the Ohio valley to Maine (although his largest holdings by far were those in Maine). Although he claimed to treat settlers on his Maine lands fairly, he used intermediaries to evict those who did not pay their rents or squatted on the land. These tactics upset those settlers to the point where they once threatened to burn Montpelier down. One of the people Knox took land from was Joseph Plumb Martin, a soldier who settled in Maine and wrote a memoir of his war experiences. Knox briefly represented Thomaston in the Massachusetts General Court, but he eventually became so unpopular that he lost the seat to a local blacksmith. Many incidents in Knox's career attest to his character, both good and bad. As one example, when he and Lucy were forced to leave Boston in 1775, his home was used to house British officers who looted his bookstore. In spite of personal financial hardships, he managed to make the last payment of £1,000 to Longman Printers in London to cover the price of a shipment of books that he never received. In Maine, however, he would be remembered as a grasping tyrant and was forever immortalized in Nathanial Hawthorne's 1851 novel The House of the Seven Gables, for which he served as the model for Col. Pyncheon. Knox was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1805. As well as building a landed estate, Knox attempted to enlarge his fortune through industrial craft enterprises. He had interests in lumbering, ship building, stock raising and brick manufacturing. Unfortunately for him, these businesses failed (due in part to a lack of focused investment), and Knox built up significant debts. Knox was forced to sell large tracts of land in Maine to satisfy some of his creditors. The purchaser of his Maine lands was a Pennsylvania banker named William Bingham, leading those tracts to become known locally as the Bingham Purchase. Death Knox died at his home on October 25, 1806, at the age of 56, three days after swallowing a chicken bone which lodged in his throat and caused a fatal infection. He was buried on his estate in Thomaston with full military honors. Lucy Flucker died in 1824, having sold off more portions of the family properties to pay the creditors of Knox's insolvent estate. The couple had three children, although only one son survived to adulthood. The son, Henry Jackson Knox, became known as a wastrel for his drinking and scandalous behavior. Before his death in 1832, Henry Jackson Knox became "impressed with a deep sense of his own unworthiness", requesting in penance that his remains not be interred with his honored relatives but deposited in a common burial ground "with no stone to tell where." Their daughter Lucy Flucker Knox Thatcher had a son, Henry Thatcher, who would serve as an admiral in the Civil War. Montpelier remained in the family until it was demolished in 1871, to make way for the Brunswick-Rockland railroad line. The only surviving structure is an outbuilding that was deeded to the Thomaston Historical Society upon its founding in 1972. The current Montpelier Museum is a 20th-century reconstruction not far from the site of the original. Honors Towns and cities in Maine, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Maryland, and Tennessee are named Knox or Knoxville in his honor. There are counties named for Knox in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas. The house he used as a headquarters in New Windsor, New York, during the Revolution has been preserved as Knox's Headquarters State Historic Site; it is a listed National Historic Landmark. Knox Township, Illinois, is named after Knox, as is Knox Place in the Bronx, New York. Knox has been honored by the U.S. Postal Service with an 8¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. Knox was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1791. Two forts, Fort Knox in Kentucky and Fort Knox (Maine) were named after him. Knox Hall at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, home of the U.S. Army Field Artillery School, is named in his honor, as is an annual award recognizing the performance of U.S. artillery batteries. The Major General Nathanael Greene–class large coastal tug USAV Major General Henry Knox (LT-802) is named in honor of Knox. His papers have been preserved at the Massachusetts Historical Society, and his personal library resides in the Boston Athenaeum in proximity to that of his friend, George Washington. In popular culture Russell Gordon Carter's 1948 young adult short story "Colonel Knox's Oxen" tells the story of the winter trek of the cannons from Ticonderoga to Boston. Farnham Scott portrayed Henry Knox in the 1984 miniseries George Washington, and the 1986 sequel George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation. In the 2000 film The Crossing, which tells the story of the Revolutionary War's Battle of Trenton, Knox is played by actor John Henry Canavan. Seymour Reit's 2001 novel "Guns for General Washington" tells the story of the winter trek of the cannons from Ticonderoga to Boston from the point of view of Henry Knox's (fictitious?) nineteen-year-old brother Will. Knox is portrayed in the 2008 HBO miniseries John Adams, which chronicled the life of John Adams. Abigail Adams (the wife of John Adams) walks out of her home, and upon seeing Knox and his men traveling down the road pulling two British cannons which they captured from Fort Ticonderoga, Abigail says, "Mr. Knox! You used to sell books to my husband; and now look at you!" In the 2015 musical Hamilton, George Washington says to Hamilton, “Nathanael Greene and Henry Knox wanted to hire you” during the song "Right Hand Man". Notes References Ellis, Joseph J. American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies at the Founding of the Republic. New York: Knopf, 2007. Metcalf, Bryce (1938). Original Members and Other Officers Eligible to the Society of the Cincinnati, 1783-1938: With the Institution, Rules of Admission, and Lists of the Officers of the General and State Societies. Strasburg, VA: Shenandoah Publishing House, Inc. Thomas, William Sturgis (1929). Members of the Society of the Cincinnati, Original, Hereditary and Honorary; With a Brief Account of the Society's History and Aims. New York: T.A. Wright Further reading Carter, Michael (1997) Nation building and the Military: The Life and Career of Secretary at War Henry Knox, 1750–1806.(PhD dissertation) Diary of the Ticonderoga expedition. Rubin Stuart, Nancy. Defiant brides : the untold story of two revolutionary-era women and the radical men they married, Boston : Beacon Press, 2013. Ward, Harry M. "Knox, Henry" American National Biography (1999) online, short scholarly biography External links Knox Montpelier Home Museum The Historical Society of The Somerset Hills Vanderveer House The Vanderveer/Knox House & Museum Official Website The Knox Cannon Trail US Army Armor Center, Fort Knox, KY The Society of the Cincinnati \|- \|- 1750 births 1806 deaths 18th-century American businesspeople 18th-century American politicians American booksellers American people of Scotch-Irish descent Bookstores in Boston Continental Army generals Continental Army officers from Massachusetts Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Founders of lineage societies Politicians from Boston People from New Windsor, New York People from Thomaston, Maine United States Secretaries of War Washington administration cabinet members People from colonial Boston Commanding Generals of the United States Army Boston Latin School alumni	[ -0.25266560912132263, 0.28224748373031616, -0.9621037244796753, 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233152	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprechgesang	Sprechgesang	(, "spoken singing") and (, "spoken voice") are expressionist vocal techniques between singing and speaking. Though sometimes used interchangeably, Sprechgesang is directly related to the operatic recitative manner of singing (in which pitches are sung, but the articulation is rapid and loose like speech), whereas Sprechstimme is closer to speech itself (because it does not emphasise any particular pitches). Sprechgesang Sprechgesang is more closely aligned with the long-used musical techniques of recitative or parlando than is Sprechstimme. Where the term is employed in this way, it is usually in the context of the late Romantic German operas or "music dramas" that were composed by Richard Wagner and others in the 19th century. Thus, Sprechgesang is often merely a German alternative to recitative. Sprechstimme The earliest compositional use of the technique was in the first version of Engelbert Humperdinck's 1897 melodrama Königskinder (in the 1910 version it was replaced by conventional singing), where it may have been intended to imitate a style already in use by singers of lieder and popular song, but it is more closely associated with the composers of the Second Viennese School. Arnold Schoenberg asks for the technique in a number of pieces: the part of the Speaker in Gurre-Lieder (1911) is written in his notation for Sprechstimme, but it was Pierrot Lunaire (1912) where he used it throughout and left a note attempting to explain the technique. Alban Berg adopted the technique and asked for it in parts of his operas Wozzeck and Lulu. History In the foreword to Pierrot Lunaire (1912), Schoenberg explains how his Sprechstimme should be achieved. He explains that the indicated rhythms should be adhered to, but that whereas in ordinary singing a constant pitch is maintained through a note, here the singer "immediately abandons it by falling or rising. The goal is certainly not at all a realistic, natural speech. On the contrary, the difference between ordinary speech and speech that collaborates in a musical form must be made plain. But it should not call singing to mind, either." For the first performances of Pierrot Lunaire, Schoenberg was able to work directly with the vocalist and obtain exactly the result he desired, but later performances were problematic. Schoenberg had written many subsequent letters attempting to clarify, but he was unable to leave a definitive explanation and there has been much disagreement as to what was actually intended. Pierre Boulez would write, "the question arises whether it is actually possible to speak according to a notation devised for singing. This was the real problem at the root of all the controversies. Schoenberg's own remarks on the subject are not in fact clear." Schoenberg would later use a notation without a traditional clef in the Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte (1942), A Survivor from Warsaw (1947) and his unfinished opera Moses und Aron, which eliminated any reference to a specific pitch, but retained the relative slides and articulations. Sprechgesang style talk-singing has appeared in contemporary pop, rock, punk, and alternative music since the 1960s, with artists including Bob Dylan, Lou Reed, Jonathan Richman, The B-52's, The Fall, Nick Cave, Sonic Youth, They Might Be Giants, Slint, Cake, Life Without Buildings, The Hold Steady, French Vanilla, and Billie Eilish cited as acts that have used the technique. The sprechgesang vocal style is also prominent in the British post-punk scene of the 2020s, with groups such as Dry Cleaning, Black Country, New Road, and Squid featuring a vocalist that uses the talk-sing method. Notation In Schoenberg's musical notation, Sprechstimme is usually indicated by small crosses through the stems of the notes, or with the note head itself being a small cross. Schoenberg's later notation (first used in his Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte, 1942) replaced the 5-line staff with a single line having no clef. The note stems no longer bear the x, as it is now clear that no specific pitch is intended, and instead relative pitches are specified by placing the notes above or below the single line (sometimes on ledger lines). Berg notates several degrees of Sprechstimme, e. g. in Wozzeck, using single-line staff for rhythmic speaking, five-line staves with x through the note stem, and a single stroke through the stem for close-to-singing sprechstimme. In modern usage, it is most common to indicate Sprechstimme by using an x in place of a conventional notehead. See also Parlando Rapping Spoken word Talking blues References External links Avior Byron, ‘The Test Pressings of Schoenberg Conducting Pierrot lunaire: Sprechstimme Reconsidered’, Music Theory Online (MTO), 12/1 (February 2006) Avior Byron and Matthias Pasdzierny 'Sprechstimme Reconsidered Once Again: "... though Mrs. Stiedry is never in pitch"', Music Theory Online (MTO), 13/2 (June 2007) Avior Byron, 'Pierrot lunaire in studio and in broadcast: Sprechstimme, tempo and character', Journal of the Society of Musicology in Ireland (JSMI), 2 (2006–7) Singing techniques Extended techniques Opera terminology German words and phrases	[ -0.22737734019756317, 0.04453328624367714, -0.1138836145401001, -0.3984198570251465, -0.36751148104667664, 0.08174841850996017, 0.6474829316139221, 0.15731753408908844, -0.16030853986740112, -0.5894528031349182, -0.4297552704811096, 0.24033688008785248, 0.35819119215011597, -0.25359657406806946, -0.6061353087425232, 0.2358197122812271, 0.5922312140464783, 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233153	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Ridge	Blue Ridge	Blue Ridge may refer to any of the following: Places Canada Blue Ridge, Alberta United States Blue Ridge, Alabama Blue Ridge, Arizona Blue Ridge, Georgia Blue Ridge, Indiana Blue Ridge, Missouri Blue Ridge, New York, a hamlet in the town of North Hudson Blue Ridge (Hamilton County, New York), a ridge in the towns of Lake Pleasant and Indian Lake Blue Ridge, Texas Blue Ridge, Virginia Blue Ridge, Seattle, Washington Blue Ridge Berryessa Natural Area, California Blue Ridge Dam, a hydroelectric dam in Fannin Co., Georgia Lake Blue Ridge, a lake created by the completion of Blue Ridge Dam Blue Ridge Mountain (New York), an elevation in Hamilton County Blue Ridge Mountains, a major range of the Appalachian Mountains Blue Ridge Mountain, in Virginia and West Virginia Blue Ridge Parkway, a road running through the Blue Ridge Mountains Blue Ridge Road, a 19-mile scenic highway in the Adirondacks, New York Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania Blue Ridge Wilderness Area, a wilderness area in the Adirondacks, New York Arts entertainment, and media Blue Ridge (album), a 1985 album featuring Jonathan Edwards and The Seldom Scene Blue Ridge (film), 2010 film Brands and enterprises Blue Ridge (dishware), a type of American dishware manufactured by Southern Potteries, Inc. in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s Blue Ridge Capital, a private equity firm and hedge fund Blue Ridge Communications, a cable television provider in eastern Pennsylvania Transport Blue Ridge (Amtrak), a passenger train USS Blue Ridge, a list of Navy ships USS Blue Ridge (AGC-2), an amphibious force flagship that served from 1943 to 1947 USS Blue Ridge (ID-2432) or the Great Lakes passenger steamer Virginia in service for less than a year during 1918 USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19), a command and control ship serving as the Seventh Fleet command ship See also Blue Ridge High School (disambiguation) Blue Ridge Railway (disambiguation)	[ 0.35060030221939087, 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233154	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclera	Sclera	The sclera, also known as the white of the eye or, in older literature, as the tunica albuginea oculi, is the opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of the human eye containing mainly collagen and some crucial elastic fiber. In humans, and some other vertebrates, the whole sclera is white, contrasting with the coloured iris, but in most mammals, the visible part of the sclera matches the colour of the iris, so the white part does not normally show while other vertebrates have distinct colors for both of them. In the development of the embryo, the sclera is derived from the neural crest. In children, it is thinner and shows some of the underlying pigment, appearing slightly blue. In the elderly, fatty deposits on the sclera can make it appear slightly yellow. People with dark skin can have naturally darkened sclerae, the result of melanin pigmentation. The human eye is relatively rare for having a pale sclera (relative to the iris). This makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, and the cooperative eye hypothesis suggests this has evolved as a method of nonverbal communication. Structure The sclera forms the posterior five-sixths of the connective tissue coat of the globe. It is continuous with the dura mater and the cornea, and maintains the shape of the globe, offering resistance to internal and external forces, and provides an attachment for the extraocular muscle insertions. The sclera is perforated by many nerves and vessels passing through the posterior scleral foramen, the hole that is formed by the optic nerve. At the optic disc the outer two-thirds of the sclera continues with the dura mater (outer coat of the brain) via the dural sheath of the optic nerve. The inner third joins with some choroidal tissue to form a plate (lamina cribrosa) across the optic nerve with perforations through which the optic fibers (fasciculi) pass. The thickness of the sclera varies from 1mm at the posterior pole to 0.3 mm just behind the rectus muscle insertions. The sclera's blood vessels are mainly on the surface. Along with the vessels of the conjunctiva (which is a thin layer covering the sclera), those in the episclera render the inflamed eye bright red. In many vertebrates, the sclera is reinforced with plates of cartilage or bone, together forming a circular structure called the sclerotic ring. In primitive fish, this ring consists of four plates, but the number is lower in many living ray-finned fishes, and much higher in lobe-finned fishes, various reptiles, and birds. The ring has disappeared in many groups, including living amphibians, some reptiles and fish, and all mammals. The eyes of all non-human primates are dark with small, barely visible sclera. Histology The collagen of the sclera is continuous with the cornea. From outer to innermost, the four layers of the sclera are: episclera stroma lamina fusca endothelium The sclera is opaque due to the irregularity of the Type I collagen fibers, as opposed to the near-uniform thickness and parallel arrangement of the corneal collagen. Moreover, the cornea bears more mucopolysaccharide (a carbohydrate that has among its repeating units a nitrogenous sugar, hexosamine) to embed the fibrils. The cornea, unlike the sclera, has five layers. The middle, thickest layer is also called the stroma. The sclera, like the cornea, contains a basal endothelium, above which there is the lamina fusca, containing a high count of pigment cells. Sometimes, very small gray-blue spots can appear on the sclera, a harmless condition called scleral melanocytosis. Function Human eyes are somewhat distinctive in the animal kingdom in that the sclera is very plainly visible whenever the eye is open. This is not just due to the white color of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to identify where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form of nonverbal communication. Animal researchers have also found that, in the course of their domestication, dogs have also developed the ability to pick up visual cues from the eyes of humans. Dogs do not seem to use this form of communication with one another and only look for visual information from the eyes of humans. Injury Trauma The bony area that makes up the human eye socket provides exceptional protection to the sclera. However, if the sclera is ruptured by a blunt force or is penetrated by a sharp object, the recovery of full former vision is usually rare. If pressure is applied slowly, the eye is actually very elastic. However, most ruptures involve objects moving at some velocity. The cushion of orbital fat protects the sclera from head-on blunt forces, but damage from oblique forces striking the eye from the side is not prevented by this cushion. Hemorrhaging and a dramatic drop in intraocular pressure are common, along with a reduction in visual perception to only broad hand movements and the presence or absence of light. However, a low-velocity injury which does not puncture and penetrate the sclera requires only superficial treatment and the removal of the object. Sufficiently small objects which become embedded and which are subsequently left untreated may eventually become surrounded by a benign cyst, causing no other damage or discomfort. Thermal trauma The sclera is rarely damaged by brief exposure to heat: the eyelids provide exceptional protection, and the fact that the sclera is covered in layers of moist tissue means that these tissues are able to cause much of the offending heat to become dissipated as steam before the sclera itself is damaged. Even relatively low-temperature molten metals when splashed against an open eye have been shown to cause very little damage to the sclera, even while creating detailed casts of the surrounding eyelashes. Prolonged exposure, however—on the order of 30 seconds—at temperatures above will begin to cause scarring, and above will cause extreme changes in the sclera and surrounding tissue. Such long exposures even in industrial settings are virtually nonexistent. Chemical injury The sclera is highly resistant to injury from brief exposure to toxic chemicals. The reflexive production of tears at the onset of chemical exposure tends to quickly wash away such irritants, preventing further harm. Acids with a pH below 2.5 are the source of greatest acidic burn risk, with sulfuric acid, the kind present in car batteries and therefore commonly available, being among the most dangerous in this regard. However, acid burns, even severe ones, seldom result in loss of the eye. Alkali burns, on the other hand, such as those resulting from exposure to ammonium hydroxide or ammonium chloride or other chemicals with a pH above 11.5, will cause cellular tissue in the sclera to saponify and should be considered medical emergencies requiring immediate treatment. Abnormal coloring Redness of the sclera is typically caused by eye irritation causing blood vessels to expand, such as in conjunctivitis ("pink eye"). Episcleritis is a generally benign condition of the episclera causing eye redness. Scleritis is a serious inflammatory disease of the sclera causing redness of the sclera often progressing to purple. Yellowing or a light green color of the sclera is a visual symptom of jaundice. In cases of osteogenesis imperfecta, the sclera may appear to have a blue tint, more pronounced than the slight blue tint seen in children. The blue tint is caused by the showing of the underlying uveal tract (choroid and retinal pigment epithelium). In very rare but severe cases of kidney failure and liver failure, the sclera may turn black. See also Extraocular implant Scleral tattooing Sclerotomy Notes References External links —"Sagittal Section Through the Eyeball" Eye Human eye anatomy	[ 0.39560091495513916, -0.2233504205942154, -0.21247507631778717, 0.07887956500053406, -0.048002731055021286, 0.29055720567703247, 0.32289719581604004, 0.7602338790893555, 0.07727430760860443, -0.6692343354225159, -0.6943469643592834, 0.5923905968666077, -0.23471367359161377, -0.08878733217716217, -0.08497758954763412, -0.20663300156593323, 0.7119355797767639, 0.4767630100250244, 0.2870412766933441, 0.34035664796829224, -0.38607725501060486, -0.47236543893814087, -0.10686952620744705, -0.01071079634130001, 0.6196667551994324, -0.4976677894592285, -0.4029904901981354, 0.10342820733785629, 0.4793581962585449, 0.24496696889400482, 0.10647721588611603, 0.5909780263900757, 0.00399890448898077, -0.5672213435173035, -0.006269312463700771, -0.2421627640724182, -0.06919966638088226, -0.33972302079200745, -0.16418913006782532, 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233155	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon%20State%20University	Oregon State University	Oregon State University (OSU) is a public land-grant research university in Corvallis, Oregon. The university offers more than 200 undergraduate-degree programs along with a variety of graduate and doctoral degrees. On-campus enrollment averages near 32,000, making it the state's largest university. Since its founding over 272,000 students have graduated from OSU. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" with an additional, optional designation as a "Community Engagement" university. OSU is a land-grant university that also participates in the sea-grant, space-grant, and sun-grant research consortia; it is one of only four such universities in the country (University of Hawaii at Manoa, Cornell University and Pennsylvania State University are the others). OSU received $441 million in research funding for the 2017 fiscal year and consistently ranks as the state's top earner in research funding. History The 1800s The university's roots date to 1856, when it was founded as a primary and preparatory community school known as Corvallis Academy. The school's first teacher and principal was John Wesley Johnson, a famous figure in Oregon higher education. Johnson received his secondary education in Corvallis before working at the new academy. He later attended Yale University and was instrumental in developing other Oregon colleges. Within a decade of its inception, college-level coursework was added to the academy's curriculum, making it the first public college in the region and a magnet for Oregon's young adults seeking a profession. The university has had 11 names since opening, eight of them during the 1800s. Like many of today's land-grant colleges and universities, name changes were common during this period and helped schools better align themselves with some of the largest available grants in agricultural research. Corvallis area Freemasons played a leading role in developing the early school. Several of the university's largest buildings are named after these early founders. The school offered its first college-level curriculum in 1865, under the administration of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South and the school's first president, William A. Finley. On August 22, 1868, official articles of incorporation were filed for Corvallis College. October 27, 1868, is known as OSU Charter Day. The Oregon Legislative Assembly designated Corvallis College as the "agricultural college of the state of Oregon" and the recipient of the Land Grant. Acceptance of this grant required the college to comply with the requirements set forth in the Morrill Land-Grant Acts and the name of the school was changed to Corvallis State Agricultural College. The school was then authorized to grant Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science and Master of Arts degrees. The first graduating class was in 1870, with Bachelor of Arts degrees. As the school's name changed so did its mission. Coursework in the sciences and technology became the most popular starting in 1900. The 1900s In 1929 the Legislative Assembly passed the Oregon Unification Bill, which placed the school under the oversight of the newly formed Oregon State Board of Higher Education. A doctorate in education was first offered in the early 1930s, with the conferral of four Doctor of Philosophy degrees in 1935. That year also saw the creation of the first summer session. The growing diversity in degree programs led to another name change in 1937, when the school became Oregon State College. The school's current name, Oregon State University, was adopted on March 6, 1961, by a legislative act signed into law by Governor Mark Hatfield. Campuses Main campus (Corvallis) The main campus is the centerpiece of Corvallis, Oregon. 83 miles south of Portland, the campus lies near the middle of the state's Willamette Valley and has been ranked the safest campus in the Pac-10 (1994). Much of the main campus was designed by landscape architect John Charles Olmsted in 1906. In 2008, Olmsted's early campus design was designated by the National Register of Historic Places as the Oregon State University Historic District. It is the only college or university campus in Oregon to hold a historic district designation. The Memorial Union was designed by OSU alumni and renowned Oregon architect, Lee Arden Thomas. It has been recognized as "one of the finest examples of Neoclassical architecture in Oregon." Branch campus (Bend) In 2016 OSU completed the construction of a branch campus in Bend. This campus is called OSU-Cascades and offers students living in Oregon's central region an opportunity to attend select classes closer to their homes. Ecampus (online) Oregon State offers more than 80 degree and certificate programs made up from a selection of over 1,500 online courses in more than 110 subjects. US News & World Report ranked OSU's online bachelor's degree programs 4th in the nation in 2021 and has ranked them in the top 10 since 2013. In 2021 College Choice ranked the Ecampus liberal arts program number one in the nation. The OSU faculty teaching on campus also offer many of these same programs and courses online through the Oregon State University Ecampus website. Students who pursue an online education at Oregon State earn the same diploma and transcript as on-campus students. Organization and administration Colleges and schools The academic programs are divided among 12 colleges and the graduate school, each with a dean responsible for all faculty, staff, students and academic programs. Colleges are divided either into departments administered by a department head/chair or schools administered by a director who oversees program coordinators. Each school or department is responsible for academic programs leading to degrees, certificates, options or minors. College of Agricultural Sciences College of Business College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences College of Education College of Engineering College of Forestry Graduate School University Honors College College of Liberal Arts College of Pharmacy College of Public Health and Human Sciences College of Science College of Veterinary Medicine Extension Service program OSU Extension Service program is a section for non-students and adult education established on July 24, 1911, under the leadership of Vice Provost Scott Reed (OSU Extension Service Administration). OSU Extensions, Combined Experiment & Extension Centers, Branch Experiment Stations, and Open Campus are in several counties. Programs include 4-H Youth Development, Agriculture and Natural Resources (includes OSU Master Gardener, Metro Master Gardener), Family and Community Health/SNAP-Ed, and Forestry and Natural Resources. Funding Together with university leaders, the OSU Foundation publicly launched Oregon State's first comprehensive fundraising campaign, The Campaign for OSU, on October 26, 2007, with a goal of $625 million. Donors exceeded the goal in October 2010 nearly a year ahead of schedule, resulting in a goal increase to $850 million. In March 2012 the goal was raised to $1 billion. At OSU's annual State of the University address in Portland on January 31, 2014, President Edward J. Ray announced that campaign contributions had passed $1 billion, putting Oregon State in a group of 35 public universities to cross the billion-dollar fundraising mark and one of only two organizations in the Pacific Northwest to reach that milestone. The Campaign for OSU concluded on December 31, 2014, with more than $1.1 billion from 106,000 donors. The Oregon State University Foundation is a nonprofit organization chartered to raise and administer private funds in support of the university's education, research and outreach, governed by a volunteer board of trustees. It holds total net assets exceeding $744 million and manages the majority portion of the university's composite endowment, valued at more than $596 million as of 2018. International partnerships Oregon State has varied and numerous partnership agreements with international institutions, including James Cook University in Australia, the University of Forestry in Bulgaria, Lincoln University in New Zealand and India's Gokula Education Foundation. Academic profile Admissions Admission to Oregon State is rated "selective" by U.S. News & World Report. In fall 2019, total student enrollment was 31,719, the largest among all Oregon universities. For fall 2015, OSU received 14,058 freshman applications; 11,016 were admitted (78.4%) and 3,593 enrolled. The average high school grade point average (GPA) of the enrolled freshmen was 3.58, while the middle 50% range of SAT scores were 480-610 for critical reading, 490-630 for math, and 470-590 for writing. The middle 50% range of the ACT Composite score was 21-28. Annual Fall Freshman Statistics Teaching OSU has more majors, minors and special programs than any other university or college in Oregon. Research Research has played a central role in the university's overall operations for much of its history. Most of OSU's research continues at the Corvallis campus, but an increasing number of endeavors are underway at various locations throughout the state and abroad. Research facilities beyond the campus include the John L. Fryer Aquatic Animal Health Laboratory in Corvallis, the Seafood Laboratory in Astoria and the Food Innovation Laboratory in Portland. The university's College of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CEOAS) operates several laboratories, including the Hatfield Marine Science Center and multiple oceanographic research vessels based in Newport. CEOAS is now co-leading the largest ocean science project in U.S. history, the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI). The OOI features a fleet of undersea gliders at six sites in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans with multiple observation platforms. CEOAS is also leading the design and construction of the next class of ocean-faring research vessels for the National Science Foundation, which will be the largest grant or contract ever received by any Oregon university. OSU also manages nearly of forest land, including the McDonald-Dunn Research Forest. The 2005 Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education recognized OSU as a "comprehensive doctoral with medical/veterinary" university. It is one of three such universities in the Pacific Northwest to be classified in this category. In 2006, Carnegie also recognized OSU as having "very high research activity," making it the only university in Oregon to attain these combined classifications. The National Sea Grant College Program was founded in the 1960s. OSU is one of the original four Sea Grant Colleges selected in 1971. In 1967 the Radiation Center was constructed at the edge of campus, housing a 1.1 MW TRIGA Mark II Research Reactor. The reactor is equipped to utilize Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) for fuel. U.S. News & World Report's 2008 rankings placed OSU eighth in the nation in graduate nuclear engineering. OSU was one of the early members of the federal Space Grant program. Designated in 1991, the additional grant program made Oregon State one of only 13 schools in the United States to serve as a combined Land Grant, Sea Grant and Space Grant university. Most recently, OSU was designated as a federal Sun Grant institution. The designation, made in 2003, makes Oregon State one of only three such universities (the others being Cornell University and Penn State) and the first of two public institutions with all four designations (the other being Penn State). In 2001, OSU's Wave Research Laboratory was designated by the National Science Foundation as a site for tsunami research under the Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation. The O. H. Hinsdale Wave Research Laboratory is on the edge of the campus and is one of the world's largest and most sophisticated laboratories for education, research and testing in coastal, ocean and related areas. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences funds two research centers at OSU. The Environmental Health Sciences Center has been funded since 1969 and the Superfund Research Center has been funded since 2009. OSU administers the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, a United States Forest Service facility dedicated to forestry and ecology research. The Andrews Forest is a UNESCO International Biosphere Reserve. OSU's Open Source Lab is a nonprofit founded in 2003 and funded in part by corporate sponsors that include Facebook, Google, and IBM. The organization's goal is to advance open source technology, and it hires and trains OSU students in software development and operations for large-scale IT projects. The lab hosts a number of projects, including a contract with the Linux Foundation. Military Oregon State University is one of the few universities to have ROTC detachments for each branch of the US Military. Oregon State University Army ROTC is a distinguished program and has been taught regularly since 1873. The so-called Beaver Battalion is known as the West Point of the West for producing more commissioned officers than any other non-military school during World War II. It is located in McAlexander Fieldhouse, named after General Ulysses G. McAlexander, the former commander of Army ROTC. After the Second World War ended in 1945, a Department of Naval Science was added at Oregon State. Providing officer training for both the US Navy and the US Marine Corps, it is now one of the largest in the nation and has earned the unofficial title "Naval Academy of the Northwest." On July 1, 1949, the US Army Air Corps training branch became a separate officer training unit now known as Aerospace Science. The Oregon State Air Force ROTC draws more freshmen scholarships than any other AFROTC unit in the nation and has had over 1,000 officers commissioned. In 1977, two graduates of the OSU AFROTC became the first women pilots in the Air Force. Today, the Army and Air Force ROTC programs at the University share the McAlexander Fieldhouse. Libraries In 1999, OSU finished a $40 million remodeling of the campus library. Known as the Valley Library, the remodeled building was selected by The Library Journal as its 1999 Library of the Year, the first academic library so named. Rankings and recognition In 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked OSU tied for 139th nationally, tied for 71st top public and tied for 58th "most innovative" university in the U.S., and tied for 277th best globally. In its 2016 Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) ranked Oregon State University's Environmental Science & Engineering program 20th in the world, its Electrical & Electronic Engineering program was ranked in the top "151-200" positions worldwide, while its Materials Science & Engineering program was ranked among the top "301-400" international programs. Agriculture and forestry at Oregon State University ranks 23rd in the world (9th in the U.S.), according to QS World University Rankings in 2019. In 2012, ECONorthwest conducted an economic impact analysis that found that each year OSU has a $2.06 billion economic footprint. $1.93 billion of this total was in the state of Oregon. Student life Corvallis is Oregon's 10th-largest city. It is a relatively small community and many of the local events have a strong connection to the university. OSU has over 400 active student organizations and groups. The campus is only a few hours' driving distance from any number of outdoor recreation opportunities. Several federal and state natural forests and parks are popular student destinations. These include the Cascade Range, a rugged coastline, several large forests, the high desert and numerous rivers and lakes. Portland, Oregon's largest city, is north of campus. From 1930 to 1968, OSU was home to the Gamma chapter of Phrateres, a philanthropic-social organization for female college students. Gamma was the third chapter of the organization, which eventually had over 20 chapters in Canada and the U.S. Most older OSU students live off campus, but on-campus housing is available and required for most incoming freshmen. There are 16 residence halls on campus, which are organized into individual Hall Councils. The residence halls include Bloss Hall, Buxton Hall, Callahan Hall, Cauthorn Hall, Dixon Lodge, Finley Hall, Halsell Hall, Hawley Hall, International Living-Learning Center, McNary Hall, Poling Hall, Sackett Hall, Tebeau Hall, Weatherford Hall, West Hall, and Wilson Hall. Residents make up the membership and each council holds its own elections to select management over the hall government. All the councils are managed by the Residence Hall Association (RHA). The LaSells Stewart Center is the conference and performing arts center for the campus. Many famous speakers have graced the stage of the campus's main auditorium, Austin Auditorium, while the Corvallis-OSU Symphony plays there frequently. The OSU Office of Conferences and Special Events is in the auditorium. The university is home to Orange Media Network, the university's student media department. Orange Media Network encompasses the award-winning The Daily Barometer student newspaper, KBVR 88.7 FM, KBVR-TV, Prism Art and Literary Journal, lifestyle magazine Beaver's Digest, and fashion magazine DAMchic. Two Oregon State students are members of the Oregon Student Association Board of Directors. Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation and athletic games are Hail to Old OSU and the Alma Mater. There is a YMCA-YWCA Round Table at the university. Student government The Associated Students of Oregon State University (ASOSU) is the officially recognized student government at Oregon State University and represents all students in campus affairs and at community, state and federal levels regarding issues that directly influence the quality of and access to, post-secondary education. Diversity Like most American universities and colleges, OSU actively works to diversify its faculty and staff. In 1993, OSU reported having difficulties retaining and hiring minority faculty members. Only 150 out of 2,284 faculty members were black, Native American, Asian, or Hispanic. In response, the school president and vice president introduced a hiring initiative to promote and enhance diversity. The initiative recognizes the compelling need to build a welcoming and inclusive university community and the direct relationship between excellence and diversity. In 2007, Scott Reed was named Vice Provost for Outreach and Engagement as OSU Extension Service and OSU Ecampus were aligned under this new division. Ecampus delivers OSU degree programs and courses online and at a distance to students worldwide. In accordance with the university's mission for diversity, many organizations, clubs, and departments have been formed, including the Office Of Community and Diversity and several cultural and resource centers. Oregon State University has several cultural centers aimed at promoting diversity and supporting students of color, including the Lonnie B. Harris Black Cultural Center, Native American Longhouse, Asian & Pacific Cultural Center and the Centro Cultural César Chávez. In addition to its mission of ethnic diversity, Oregon State University supports its lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender population with a Pride Center. Athletics In a 2008 national ranking of academics, athletic opportunity and overall performance, Oregon State was selected as one of America's "premier" universities. The ranking, performed by STACK magazine, placed Oregon State 29th in the nation's "Elite 50" universities and was uncontested within the state for that year. Since then, the University of Oregon has also appeared in the STACK rankings. The history of Oregon State athletics dates back to 1893 when "Jimmie the Coyote" was recognized as the first official mascot. In 1910, the official mascot was replaced by the beaver and remains the school's mascot to this day. In 1915, the university's varsity athletic teams were invited to join the Pacific Coast (Athletic) Conference as one of four charter members. Reser Stadium now serves as the home field for the school's football team. The school mascot is Benny the Beaver and first appeared on the football sidelines in 1952. The next year Oregon State added a football stadium to its campus, known then as Parker Stadium. Fundraisers in 2006 and 2007 helped expand Reser Stadium from 35,000 seats to 46,200. A time lapse video recording of the expansion is viewable on the internet. 1962 saw OSU's (and the west coast's) first Heisman Trophy winner, quarterback Terry Baker. The University of Oregon is the university's in-state rival for athletics. The annual Oregon–Oregon State football rivalry football game is one of the longest-running rivalries in all of college football. The university's home golf course, Trysting Tree's, features championship-worthy golf and practice facilities. The name of the course can be traced back to a locally famous tree near Community Hall on campus where student couples would meet to make dates. Basketball is held in Gill Coliseum and named after former Beavers coach Slats Gill. The Coliseum is also home to the university's Collegiate wrestling team. Baseball is played in Goss Stadium at Coleman Field. The OSU baseball team, won back-to-back NCAA Division I Baseball Championships in 2006 and 2007 and added a third win in 2018. Softball is held in the OSU Softball Complex. Opened in April 2001, the $1.5 million OSU Softball Complex seats 750. Oregon State hosted a Regional and Super Regional tournament in the 2006 NCAA tournament, winning both and moving on to the Women's College World Series. Oregon State has a total of four NCAA championships. In addition to the three baseball titles (2006, 2007 and 2018), the Beavers won the 1961 NCAA Men's Cross Country Championship. In 1975, the men's rowing Varsity-4 with coxswain team won the Intercollegiate Rowing Association National Collegiate Rowing Championships in Syracuse, New York, establishing a course record which stood for 15 years. The Oregon State racquetball team has won 10 consecutive USA racquetball intercollegiate championships, beginning in 2008. The 2018 Oregon State baseball team won the NCAA Division I Championship defeating the Arkansas Razorbacks in three games making it their third title ever in the sport of baseball managed by the same manager from the previous two titles Pat Casey. People Faculty and staff OSU has several notable faculty members, including: Bernard Malamud, novelist and short-story writer George Poinar, Jr., entomology professor whose work extracting DNA from insects fossilized in amber was the inspiration for the novel and film Jurassic Park William Appleman Williams, historian Ernest H. Wiegand, inventor of the modern Maraschino cherry Pat Casey, baseball coach who was named Coach of the Year by several publications in both 2006 and 2007 when he led the baseball team to back-to-back national championships Slats Gill, former OSU basketball coach and member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Corinne Manogue, physicist, best known for clarifying superradiance in both gravitational and electromagnetic contexts Tevian Dray, mathematician, co-author of scientific paper "On the existence of solutions to Einstein's equation with nonzero Bondi news" Ralph Miller, former OSU basketball coach and member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Dana Reason, director of the Popular Music Studies Program and acclaimed Canadian pianist and composer James Cassidy, soil scientist, bassist and keyboard player for Information Society Craig Robinson, former OSU head basketball coach and the brother-in-law of President Barack Obama Alumni A complete list of Oregon State alumni is available here. Oregon State University has numerous nationally and internationally famous alumni who have contributed significantly to their professions. Among over 200,000 OSU alumni, scientist and peace activist Linus Pauling may be the most famous. Pauling is the only recipient of two unshared Nobel Prizes, in the fields of chemistry and peace. Arts and entertainment In arts and entertainment, alumni include: Trevor Bardette, actor Geffrey Davis, poet Harley Jessup, special-effects production designer, art director Cathy Marshall, news anchor George Oppen, Pulitzer Prize winner Jodi Ann Paterson, model Mike Rich, screenwriter Travis Rush, country music singer Lee Arden Thomas, architect who designed the OSU Memorial Union. Sara Jean Underwood, model, actress Kendra Sunderland, model and pornographic actress (expelled) Business In the business world, some OSU alumni hold or have held prominent positions in various industries, including: Thomas J. Autzen, plywood manufacturing pioneer and namesake of the University of Oregon's Autzen Stadium Mercedes Alison Bates, the first female officer of General Mills and former vice-president of its Betty Crocker Cooking division Peggy Cherng, co-founder of Panda Express Jen-Hsun Huang, co-founder and CEO of NVIDIA Timothy S. Leatherman, inventor of the Leatherman tool and founder of the Leatherman Tool Group Don Robert, CEO of Experian Brian McMenamin, co-founder of the McMenamins restaurant/hotel/theater chain Bernie Newcomb, co-founder of E*TRADE Leonard Shoen, founder of U-Haul John A. Young, former president and CEO of Hewlett-Packard Military Several notable OSU alumni are associated with the military, including: Edward Allworth, Medal of Honor recipient Marion Eugene Carl, World War II flying ace and USMC Major General Elmer E. Hall, World War II Brigadier General, USMC John Noble Holcomb, Medal of Honor recipient Anthony E. Van Dyke, commander of Marine forces at Henderson Hall and Colonel of the USMC Ulysses G. McAlexander, Commander of Army ROTC from 1907-1911 and again from 1915-1917. Earned the nickname "Rock of the Marne" during World War I. Helped with the construction of the Memorial Union and received an honorary doctorate from the university in 1930. Politics In politics, notable alumni include the following: Cecil Andrus, former governor of Idaho and United States Secretary of the Interior Rod Chandler, former U.S. Representative John Ensign, former U.S. Senator John Hubert Hall, former governor of Oregon Julia Butler Hansen, former U.S. Representative Douglas McKay, former governor of Oregon and U.S. Secretary of the Interior Norris Poulson, former U.S. Representative Frederick Steiwer, former U.S. Senator Lowell Stockman, former U.S. Representative Jolene Unsoeld, former U.S. Representative Mary Carlin Yates, former U.S. Ambassador to Burundi and Ghana Kevin Cameron, former U.S. Representative Science and engineering Notable science and engineering alumni include: Charity Dean, M.D., MPH&TM, epidemiologist, assistant director of the California Department of Public Health in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, co-founder and CEO of The Public Health Company. Douglas Engelbart, winner National Medal of Technology, known for computer mouse and Mother of all Demos. Paul H. Emmett, staff of the Manhattan Project Milton Harris, founder of Harris Research Laboratories and former chair of the Board of Directors of the American Chemical Society Sara Harris, climate scientist and 3M National Teaching Fellow at the University of British Columbia Wayne L. Hubbell, Jules Stein Professor of Ophthalmology at UCLA Donald M. Kerr, wildlife biologist and founded the High Desert Museum Linus Pauling, only winner of two unshared Nobel prizes, chemist known for advancing the theory of the chemical bond and the concept of ortho-molecular medicine. Stephen O. Rice, a pioneer in the related fields of information theory, communications theory, and telecommunications Ada-Rhodes Short, mechatronic design engineer and transgender rights activist William Tebeau, first African-American male graduate, chemical engineering, 1948, namesake of William Tebeau Residence Hall Earl A. Thompson, inventor of the manual transmission synchronizer in 1923 and leader of the team at General Motors Corporation that developed the first Hydramatic automatic transmission in 1940 Michael Waterman, co-inventor of the Smith-Waterman algorithm used in DNA sequence alignment. Holds an Endowed Associates Chair in Biological Sciences, Mathematics and Computer Science at the University of Southern California. One of the foundational and lead figures in the field of computational biology. Sports Oregon State athletes have had a significant showing in professional sports, including more than 15 MLB players, more than 20 NBA players and more than 130 NFL players. Bella Bixby (born 1995), goalkeeper for Portland Thorns FC and United States women's national soccer team Ben Carter (born 1994), American-Israeli basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Colby Covington, professional Mixed Martial Artist, former UFC interim Welterweight Champion Jared Cunningham - basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Derek Anderson, NFL Pro Bowler Terry Baker, Quarterback, Heisman Trophy winner in 1962 Brent Barry, former NBA player Brandin Cooks, wide receiver for the Los Angeles Rams Michael Conforto, MLB All-Star and former New York Mets outfielder Nathan Coy, mixed martial artist, former Maximum Fighting Championship welterweight champion Jacoby Ellsbury, MLB All-Star, two-time World Series champion and former New York Yankees center fielder Dick Fosbury, Olympian high jumper and creator of the Fosbury Flop A. C. Green, former NBA player nicknamed "Iron Man", NBA All-Star and 3-time NBA Champion Les Gutches, NCAA titles 1995 and 1996, 1996 Olympic Team, Dan Hodge Trophy as the nation's best college wrestler in 1996, Freestyle Wrestling World Champion, Member of National Wrestling Hall of Fame Johnny Hekker, Punter for the Los Angeles Rams T. J. Houshmandzadeh, NFL Pro Bowler Joni Huntley, first American woman to high jump over Steven Jackson, former Running back, NFL Pro Bowler Chad Johnson, former NFL wide receiver/Pro Bowler Gary Payton, 2006 NBA champion, member of the Basketball Hall of Fame and 9-time NBA All-Star Gary Payton II, NBA guard, currently playing for the Los Angeles Lakers. Son of Gary Payton Robin Reed, undefeated amateur wrestler Tracy Smith, 1968 U.S. Olympic team, 10,000 meters; world-record holder, 3-mile; 6-time AAU national champion Sean Mannion, quarterback for the Minnesota Vikings Markus Wheaton, wide receiver for the Chicago Bears Bill Wold, basketball player for the Hapoel Tel Aviv basketball team in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Others Other notable alumni include: Stacy Allison, First American woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest Pamela Cytrynbaum, journalist and restorative justice practitioner William Oefelein, NASA astronaut Hüsnü Özyeğin, Turkish billionaire businessman, philanthropist Jodi Ann Paterson, Playboy Playmate of The Year Donald Pettit, NASA astronaut Sara Jean Underwood, Playboy Playmate of The Year Points of interest Endurance Array Hatfield Marine Science Center Linus Pauling Institute O. H. Hinsdale Wave Research Laboratory Oregon State University Cascades Campus Oregon State University Radiation Center Peavy Arboretum See also Hyslop Field Research Laboratory List of forestry universities and colleges Robert W. MacVicar Stone Award for Lifetime Literary Achievement Further reading Annual Catalogue of Officers and Students, Corvallis State Agricultural College, 1873-1874. Salem, OR: E.H. White, 1874. —Includes several annual volumes listing professors, alumni, students, and college regulations. References External links Oregon State Athletics website 1868 establishments in Oregon Buildings and structures in Benton County, Oregon Education in Corvallis, Oregon Educational institutions established in 1858 Educational institutions established in 1868 Land-grant universities and colleges Pharmacy schools in Oregon Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities Veterinary schools in the United States Tourist attractions in Benton County, Oregon Public universities and colleges in Oregon	[ -0.008104108273983002, 0.1265794187784195, 0.06558268517255783, 0.17038530111312866, 0.24078166484832764, 0.32468265295028687, 0.7386741042137146, 0.5028986930847168, -0.1414487361907959, -0.6780158281326294, 0.004226152319461107, -0.07210715860128403, 0.09481524676084518, 0.5008622407913208, 0.3333352506160736, -0.35619357228279114, 0.29383209347724915, 0.5540146231651306, 0.088155597448349, 0.03467787429690361, -0.37852635979652405, 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233157	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowie	Bowie	Bowie may refer to: People Bowie (surname), origin of the surname and a list of people with the surname, including particularly: James Bowie (c. 1796–1836), Texan revolutionary David Bowie (1947–2016), English singer, songwriter, and actor Bowie Kuhn (1926–2007), fifth Commissioner of Major League Baseball Places Bowie, Arizona, an unincorporated community Bowie, Colorado, an unincorporated community Bowie, Maryland, a city Bowie County, Texas Bowie, Texas, a city in Montague County Fort Bowie, a 19th-century U.S. Army outpost in Arizona Bowie Seamount, a submarine volcano on the coast of British Columbia, Canada Bowie hotspot, a volcanic hotspot in the Pacific Ocean Bowie Canyon, a submarine canyon in the Bering Sea Bowie Crevasse Field, Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica Entertainment Bowie (Shining Force II), the default name of the protagonist in the Shining Force II video game "Bowie" (Flight of the Conchords), the sixth episode of the television series Flight of the Conchords Bowie: A Biography, a biography of David Bowie by Marc Spitz Bowie – The Video Collection, a video album by David Bowie Ships USC&GS Bowie (CSS 27), a United States Coast and Geodetic Survey coastal survey ship in commission from 1946 to 1967 , a United States Navy attack transport in commission from 1944 to 1946 Other uses Bowie knife, popularized by Jim Bowie Bowie State University, north of Bowie, Maryland Bowie Race Track, Bowie, Maryland Bowie High School (disambiguation), a list of high schools named Bowie See also Boøwy or Boowy, a Japanese rock band Bowi, an album by Nick Lowe, named after David Bowie Joseph Bouie, Jr., American politician Dowie, a surname Cowie (disambiguation)	[ 0.1599830687046051, 0.557427167892456, -0.4835459589958191, -0.2109852284193039, -0.49328136444091797, 0.425582617521286, 0.04290096089243889, 0.259967178106308, -0.3019232153892517, -0.41730475425720215, -0.2474852353334427, -0.12070703506469727, 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233159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Huber	François Huber	François Huber (2 July 1750 – 22 December 1831), also known as Francis in English publications or Franz in German publications was a Swiss entomologist who specialized in honey bees. His pioneering work was recognized all across Europe and based on thorough observation with the help of several assistants due to his blindness. Life Early life François Huber was born in Geneva on 2 July 1750 in a well respected and well off family, of merchants and bankers with important ties to Geneva, Lyon and Paris. The Huber family had members in the highest institutions in the local community and was linked to other prominent local families. The family made significant contributions to the scientific and theological literature. His great-aunt, Marie Huber, was known as a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of The Spectator (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753). His father Jean Huber (1721–1786) was a prominent member of the coterie at Ferney. He was a well known artist who left several portraits of Voltaire, who was a close friend. He was also interested in falcons and his observations led to him writing his Observations sur le Vol des Oiseaux de Proie (Observations on the flight of birds of prey ; Geneva, 1784) From his early childhood, Francois was instructed in the field of literature as well as natural history, a passion he shared with his father. He attended the Collège de Saussure but his health soon deteriorated. His sight started failing at the age of fifteen. His father requested the assistance of Théodore Tronchin to treat him. He sent the young Huber to the village of Stains near Paris to recover. There, he lived the simple existence of a peasant away from the pressure of the high society. The treatment was very successful for his health and he had fond recollection of the simple life there and of the hospitality throughout his life. However, his eyesight was considered incurable by the oculist Venzel and he was facing total blindness. He had however already met Marie Aimée Lullin, the daughter of the syndics of the Swiss Republic. They had both been companions during dances and had grown up together. Her father refused to consent to their union because of his blindness as he did not want his fortune to end in the hands of a blind man when his daughter inherited. However, Marie refused to abandon François and decided to wait until she was twenty-five, when she would be legally able to make that decision on her own. He could still see light and interacted with others as if he could see. He later lost his sight completely but throughout his life he would say: I have seen, I have seen with my own eyes when recalling his youth and when others described things to him. Marriage Marie resisted the pressures from her father to not marry this disabled man. She had, however, to wait to attain her majority, 25 years old at the time, in order to marry François. She walked down to the altar with François on 28 April 1776 with her maternal uncle, M. Rilliet Fatio, and married François Huber. She was 25 years and 23 days old. At her side was a close friend and confidant, Louise Eléonore Brière de Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de Candolle's mother. Marie later shared this story of her marriage to the young scientist, and in later life, she would honor him and recount his life after his passing. Marie became his reader, his secretary, and his observer, and she was very attentive in order to prevent any embarrassments in public that could have occurred from his disability. This strong loving relationship was noticed by many, including Voltaire who mentioned it in his correspondence, and it was inspiration for Germaine de Staël when she described the Belmont family in her novel Delphine. Early research He became interested in honey bees after being read the works of René de Réaumur and Charles Bonnet. He also had a conversation with the latter who was also based in Geneva. His curiosity was focused on the history of these insects. His initial desire was to verify some facts and then fill in missing information. Since he was now blind, he had to rely on the help of others. This included his wife but also his servant François Burnens, who was fully devoted to his master. François Burnens (1760-1837) was the son of peasants from Oulens-sous-Échallens from the Canton of Vaud who arrived in 1780. Huber taught him how to observe and directed him through questioning. He leveraged his memories of his youth and the testimonials of his wife and friends. Through his "observation", he discovered that the queen bee did not mate in the hive but in the air and detailed how the timing of this event was essential. He also confirmed the discovery by A.M. Schirach that bees are able to convert eggs into queens by the use of food (royal jelly) and that worker bees can also lay eggs. He described the battles between queens, the killing of drones at the end of the summer and what happens when a queen is replaced by a newly introduced queen. He also proved that bees used their antennae to communicate. He looked at the dimensions of the cells and how they influence the shape of the insects, the way the larvae spins silk to make its cocoons. He showed that queens are oviparitous. He looked at the ways swarms formed and was the first to provide an accurate biological history of bee colonies. These observations were made using a new type of hive in which each comb had glass sides, which Huber developed; these hives were the ancestors of our modern observation hives. Until then, hives had been circular and made of straw. These new hives opened as books with each frame visible to view. These allowed the team to observe the bees and follow them around. These discoveries would not have been possible without the skills and bravery of François Burnens, who was fully committed to discovering the truth. It is said that he would face the attacks of an entire hive just to learn a fact. First publication The results of these observations were the publication of Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles (New observations on bees) in Geneva in 1792. The 800-page volume was made of the letters that François had sent to Charles Bonnet, who happened to be his uncle. It was soon translated into English (1806) and into German. It was very well received by the scientific community not just because of the discoveries but also because he had overcome such a disability. He was also welcomed by most of the academies of Europe, especially the French Academy of Sciences. It influenced other scientists, including the renowned naturalist Charles Darwin, who owned a copy and made a commentary of the book in his famous On the Origin of Species. He also mentions Pierre Huber. The poet Jacques Delille in his Chant VII, Règne Animal celebrated Huber's blindness and discovery: Further research He started studying wax and its production. It had been speculated without sufficient proof that it came from the honey. He had already explained the origin of propolis and was able to determine through observation with Burnens that wax came out from between the rings of the abdomen as laminated sheets. These initial findings were published in Premier Mémoire sur l'origine de la Cire (First memoir on the origin of wax) in 1804. Burnens left in 1795 to go back to his village. There he got married and became a farmer along with becoming a local judge. Marie-Aimée assisted Huber but he also started training his son, Pierre Huber. He started his apprenticeship with his father as an observer. He would go on to publish his own books, not on bees but on ants. With this new assistant by his side, he was able to continue his research and in 1814, published a second edition edited in part by his son. Further findings on wax were published in his second edition. Huber was also helped by Christine Jurine, who dissected bees for him and discovered the ovaries of the working bees. Témoignage d'Huber sur elle : Nouvelles observations, t. 2, 1814, p. 431 [archive]. He studied the damage caused by the Sphinx atropos in hives and looked into the question of smell and its importance in the hive. He also studied the respiratory system of bees. He was able to prove that bees consume oxygen like other animals. This begged the question of how they survived with such a large population in enclosed hives with only a small entrance for fresh air. He was able to prove for the first time that bees used their wings to circulate the air, creating adequate ventilation. In order to analyse the air, he worked with Jean Senebier, another Geneva scientist who was researching this question with regards to vegetables. The two became friends and they published the Mémoires sur l'Influence de l'Air et de Diverses Substances Gazeuses dans la Germination de Différentes Graines (Memoirs on the Influence of Air and of Various Gaseous Substances on the Germination of Different Seeds) in which they demonstrated the need for oxygen in germination. Last years Francois Huber spent his last years in Lausanne being cared for by his daughter, Marie Anne de Molin. He continued some of his research and remained curious. He was interested in the discovery of sting-less bees near Tampico in Mexico by Captain Hall. He was given some samples by Professor Prevost and later a full colony. He was said to have kept his mental capacity to the end. Those who were close to him said he was loving and beloved to the end. On December 20, he wrote to a friend: He died two days later on 22 December 1831 in the arms of his daughter. Publications Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles, adressé à Charles Bonnet (First Edition) published in one volume in 1792 in Geneva. Reprinted in 1796. The English translation was published in London in 1806. Mémoires sur l'Influence de l'Air et de Diverses Substances Gazeuses dans la Germination de Différentes Graines (Geneva, 1801) co-published with Jean Senebier. Premier Mémoire sur l'origine de la Cire (1804) Mémoire sur la construction des cellules (1804) in the Journal Nicholson and republished in 1814. Lettre de Mr. Huber au Prof. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les Abeilles dans leurs ruches, et sur les moyens de les en préserver (Geneva, October 29, 1804) This is a letter that was published. Nouvelles Communications relatives au sphinx atropos et à l'industrie des abeilles à s'en défendre (November 27, 1804) This is a letter that was published as a follow up to the previous letter. Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles (Second Edition) published in two volumes in 1814 in Geneva and Paris. This publication was edited by his son, Pierre Huber. Lettres inédites de François Huber pour faire suite aux Nouvelles Observations (sur les Abeilles) published posthumously in 1897 in Nyon (Switzerland) by edited by Edouard Bertrand and published in La Revue Internationale d'Apiculture. These letters were sent by Huber to his young cousin Elisa de Portes who was interested in his work. She kept the letters most of her life until giving them to Mr. Bertrand to be published. Legacy Augustin de Candolle who was a close family friend and one of the first biographer, gave François Huber's name to a genus of Brazilian trees Huberia, including Huberia laurina. It is a shrub with light green fruits that grows on rocky summits with soil-filled crevices and small areas of white sand at an elevation of . A book was published in Paris in 1829 titled Fragments d'Hubert sur les abeilles with an introduction by Dr. Mayranx. It is unclear if François Huber or Pierre Huber were involved in this publication but the last name is misspelled throughout. A novel by Sara George The Beekeeper's Pupil was published in 2002 inspired by the team of Huber and Burnens. It is written as the fictional journal of François Burnens from his arrival at the Huber household at the age of 19 years old in 1784 to his departure 10 years later in 1794. Her novel is based on the writings of Huber but also those of Augustin de Candolle. A French version was published in 2018 in Geneva by Slatkine. François Huber has been largely forgotten not only in the Geneva local history but also in the beekeeping community in spite of his discoveries having been unchallenged for over two centuries. References External links The full text of Volume I of 'New Observations on the Natural History of Bees' by François Huber 1806 English edition Complete scan of Volume I of 'New Observations on the Natural History of Bees' by François Huber 1806 English edition Sketch of the Life of Francis Huber Beekeeping pioneers Scientists from the Republic of Geneva Swiss naturalists Swiss beekeepers 1750 births 1831 deaths 18th century in Geneva Blind people from Switzerland Members of the French Academy of Sciences 19th-century Swiss scientists People from Geneva	[ -0.41735735535621643, 0.5785064697265625, -0.7031517028808594, 0.03761022165417671, -0.174016073346138, 1.0078258514404297, 1.1809028387069702, -0.0450039841234684, -0.4895479679107666, -0.5734615325927734, 0.05627232789993286, -0.39557215571403503, -0.5189617276191711, 0.3132901191711426, -0.5511447787284851, 0.01298303622752428, -0.29616251587867737, -0.24081091582775116, -0.6078784465789795, -0.17842896282672882, 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233167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGP	HGP	HGP may refer to: Haryana Gana Parishad, a political party in India Holy Ghost Preparatory School, in Bensalem, Pennsylvania, United States Human Genome Project Progeria (Hutchinson–Gilford progeria) Homegrown Player in Major League Soccer; see Homegrown Player Rule (Major League Soccer)	[ 0.07933593541383743, 0.18589475750923157, 0.08079025149345398, 0.06223324313759804, -0.17863942682743073, 0.09361973404884338, 0.14871010184288025, -0.16435544192790985, -0.6699583530426025, -0.03229406476020813, -0.3467999994754791, -0.16275210678577423, -0.5752615928649902, -0.018772028386592865, 0.2363341748714447, 0.49671611189842224, 0.22094567120075226, 0.9039642810821533, -0.2969812750816345, -0.6372154355049133, 0.15045547485351562, -0.3913540840148926, 0.5016322731971741, -0.1938273310661316, 0.340576171875, 0.0020059021189808846, 0.13504096865653992, 0.12559126317501068, -0.5234125256538391, 0.24049371480941772, 0.122950978577137, 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233171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Szebehely	Victor Szebehely	Victor G. Szebehely (August 21, 1921 – September 13, 1997) was a key figure in the development and success of the Apollo program. In 1956, a dimensionless number used in time-dependent unsteady flows was named "Szebehely's number," (In the September and October 1977 issues of the journal Celestial Mechanics, volume 16, an equation used to determine the gravitational potential of the Earth, planets, satellites, and galaxies was named "Szebehely's equation"). He worked with General Electric, Yale University, the Royal Netherlands Navy, the United States Air Force, NASA, and the University of Texas at Austin. One of his areas of research was orbital debris and planetary defense against meteor impacts His first book, The Theory of Orbits, is an important work in orbital mechanics, being the definitive text on the restricted three-body problem as applicable to an Earth-Moon spacecraft system such as Apollo. He was knighted by Queen Juliana of the Netherlands in 1957. History Szebehely was born in Budapest, Hungary. His father was an engineer and he started to study in that field, but switched later to physics. In 1944 he graduated as an engineer from the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Because of the threatening communist take over he went to the United States in 1947 and became a naturalized citizen in 1956. Szebehely authored "Hydrodynamics of Slamming Ships" as David Taylor Model Basin Report 823 in 1952 and co-authored "Ship Slamming in Head Seas" as DTMB Report 913 in 1955. He was the author of several books. In 1978 he received the very first Dirk Brouwer Award from the Dynamical Astronomy Division of the American Astronomical Society. He died in Austin, Texas at age 76. References External links "In Memoriam - Victor G. Szebehely", at the University of Texas at Austin Interview with Victor G. Szebehely, July 20, 1988. University of Texas at San Antonio: Institute of Texan Cultures: Oral History Collection, UA 15.01, University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries Special Collections. 20th-century American astronomers Hungarian emigrants to the United States 20th-century Hungarian astronomers 20th-century Hungarian physicists Engineers from Budapest 1921 births 1997 deaths	[ -0.3209766149520874, 0.7813342213630676, -0.09472891688346863, -0.45840275287628174, -0.6490291953086853, 0.6468228697776794, 0.39335545897483826, -0.13068529963493347, -0.6336344480514526, -0.3573770523071289, -0.29258638620376587, 0.011603311635553837, -0.33030378818511963, 0.6304022073745728, 0.18898694217205048, 0.5049864649772644, -0.02499707043170929, 0.18078921735286713, 0.007095079869031906, -0.93386310338974, 0.26936930418014526, 0.04823174327611923, 0.3917081952095032, 0.002326173707842827, -0.06453437358140945, -0.005274063441902399, 0.021978460252285004, 0.10549230128526688, 0.10702402144670486, 0.32160404324531555, 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