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232616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematullah%20Shahrani | Nematullah Shahrani | Nematullah Shahrani (born 1941) is a prominent Afghan scholar. He was one of four Vice Presidents of the Afghan Transitional Administration from 2002 to 2004. Shahrani also headed of the Afghan Constitution Commission.
He has written more than 30 books and several hundred academic articles. He belongs to an academic family that is known in Afghanistan as the family of scholars. He studied at Kabul University, Al-Azhar University (Cairo) and The George Washington University (U.S.).
From Badakhshan Province in northern Afghanistan, Shahrani is ethnically Uzbek. Although he was one of the ideological figures behind the Afghan resistance against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, he was never involved in any sectarian, party and other ethnic conflicts in Afghanistan. For that he earned the nickname of Mr. Clean.
Currently some of his other family members are teaching at academic institutions in the United States (such as Indiana University Bloomington) and the United Kingdom.
References
Afghan academics
Vice presidents of Afghanistan
Government ministers of Afghanistan
Living people
1941 births
Al-Azhar University alumni
George Washington University alumni
Afghan Uzbek people
Date of birth missing (living people) | [
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232624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey%20Harte | Mickey Harte | Mickey Harte (born 1952) is a Gaelic football manager from County Tyrone, Ireland who currently manages the Louth county team. He managed the Tyrone county team from 2002 and, at his resignation in 2020, was the longest-serving manager then active with the same team in inter-county competition. He is the most successful senior manager in the county's history, having led it to its only three All-Ireland SFC titles, as well as six Ulster SFC titles, one National League and twelve Dr McKenna Cups.
Considered one of the best tacticians in the game, Harte is admired both by peers and former rivals.
Early life
Born in Glencull, near Ballygawley, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland, Harte was educated at the Christian Brothers Grammar School in Omagh. He trained to be a teacher at St. Joseph's College in Belfast (now St Mary's). He taught for five years at De La Salle Boys School in Kircubben. He then moved to St Ciaran's in Ballygawley. In his 22 years spent there, he achieved numerous successes, including Tyrone, Ulster and All-Ireland Vocational Schools titles. He continued working there as he progressed through the county ranks of Tyrone's Gaelic football side, bringing them to a National Football League title, All-Ireland Minor and U21 victories and eventually, in 2003, the Sam Maguire Cup.
Management
Raised in Ballymacilroy outside Ballygawley, County Tyrone, Harte managed the Tyrone minor team (1991–1998) and under-21 team, winning All-Ireland titles with both, before he was named manager of the senior Tyrone county team. He guided the under-21 team to two All-Ireland Under-21 titles and three Ulster Under-21 titles. He led the minor team to an All-Ireland Minor title and three Ulster Minor titles.
He subsequently managed his home club of Errigal Ciarán and was successful with this team as well, winning the Tyrone County Championship and Ulster Senior Club Football Championship.
Harte's first season in charge of the senior county team came in 2003. His team overcame Down in the 2003 Ulster SFC final, requiring a replay after a drawn game when the team conceded four goals; Harte switched Cormac McAnallen from midfield to full-back for thr second game. Tyrone conceded only one further goal in their other four games in that competition, which ended with the county claiming the first All-Ireland Senior Football Championship (SFC) title in its history, and McAnallen would win an All Star Award in this new role. Peter Canavan was injured on the day of the final. Harte started Canavan before withdrawing him at half-time, then unexpectedly bringing him back on with a few minutes remaining and Tyrone narrowly in the lead.
Tyrone and Harte won a second All-Ireland SFC in 2005. The county played a total of ten matches, including three replays, which was a record for any winning team. Tyrone played five matches in the Ulster SFC, including replays against Cavan in the semi-final and against Armagh in the final, which they lost. Having to contest an All-Ireland SFC qualifier as a result of that loss, Tyrone overcame Monaghan to reach an All-Ireland SFC quarter-final against Dublin. Tyrone had yet another drawn game, a match memorable for Owen Mulligan's solo goal. Harte combined Enda McGinley with Joe McMahon for the second half of that game, a move which outwitted Ciarán Whelan, who had been getting the better of his opponents in the first half; Whelan was ultimately removed from the game by the Dublin management. In the All-Ireland SFC semi-final, the county met Armagh for a third time; two points behind with only six minutes of play left and, in what Eamonn Sweeney writing later in the Sunday Independent called "the defining moment of Harte's team", Seán Cavanagh scored a solo point, substitute Shane Sweeney levelled the game and Canavan converted an injury-time free. In the 2005 All-Ireland SFC final, the county defeated Kerry for the second time in three years to win the Sam Maguire Cup.
Harte's and Tyrone's third All-Ireland SFC winning campaign began with a quarter-final loss to Down in the 2008 Ulster SFC. Entering the All-Ireland SFC qualifiers again, the county advanced to the 2008 All-Ireland SFC final against a Kerry team then bidding to win three consecutive titles. Kerry did not. Despite Peter Canavan's retirement, Mulligan's disciplinary problems and O'Neill's on-off retirement through injury, Tyrone won a third All-Ireland SFC title. Harte deployed Justin McMahon to effectively deal with Kerry's Kieran Donaghy (a forward who had become more prominent since the 2005 final), while the half-back line of David Harte, Conor Gormley and Philip Jordan outperformed expectations and Cavanagh scored five points from play. Eamonn Sweeney reckoned 2008 to be "the supreme managerial achievement of Harte's career".
In the latter part of his time as Tyrone manager, Ulster Championship success did not come easy for Harte and his team, having been knocked out five times by Donegal in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015 and 2020. That 2020 defeat was his last game as Tyrone manager.
In November 2020, Harte was appointed manager of the senior Louth county team for an expected three-year period.
Advocacy
Harte has been very forthcoming with his Catholic views. In 2009, he went to Derry to attend the launch of Patrick McCrystal's controversial book Who is at the Centre of Your Marriage, the Pill or Jesus Christ?
In 2010, as part of the Catholic Church's "Year for Priests" celebration, he contributed to a DVD, In Praise of Priests, featuring interviews with various people expressing admiration for their favourite priest.
Harte attracted controversy when, in 2013, he provided a character reference for Ronan McCusker, who had pleaded guilty to rape, and Judge Piers Grant singled out the character reference from Harte as one of the "mitigating factors" which led him to pitch the jail sentence towards the bottom of the range; two-and-a-half years, 15 months in jail, 15 on licence.
Harte supported the No Vote in the 2018 abortion referendum.
Writing and broadcasting
In 2009, Harte began writing a weekly column for the Northern Irish newspaper, The Irish News. To date his column has focused on hot topics in Gaelic games, referees and other GAA-related topics.
In October 2009, Harte (with the help of Michael Foley) published an autobiography, Harte: Presence Is The Only Thing. It was published by Poolbeg ().
Harte makes occasional appearances to offer analysis on the BBC's championship coverage. He did so less than 48 hours after departing as Tyrone manager.
Personal life
Harte is married to Marian with 4 children. His daughter Michaela McAreavey was murdered on her honeymoon in Mauritius in January 2011. He also lost two brothers around the time of his daughter's murder.
Honours
Honorary Doctorate by Queen's University Belfast for services to Gaelic football (2006)
References
1952 births
Living people
GAA people from County Tyrone
Gaelic football managers
Gaelic games writers and broadcasters
Mickey
Anti-abortion activists from Northern Ireland
People educated at Christian Brothers Grammar School, Omagh
Schoolteachers from Northern Ireland
Tyrone inter-county Gaelic footballers | [
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232627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-blind | Gender-blind | In education, business, law, and other fields, gender blindness or sex blindness is the practice of disregarding gender as a significant factor in interactions between people.
In education
Krista Ratcliffe writes that gender blindness functions in the classroom to downplay the existence of gender differences, which tends to reinforce existing gender inequality.
The National Student Genderblind Campaign, founded in the United States in 2006, has argued in favor of gender-neutral campus housing at colleges and universities to better serve gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and intersex students.
In health care
The use of mixed-gender hospital rooms has proved controversial in both the United Kingdom and Canada. Manitoba's Health Minister, Theresa Oswald, has campaigned actively against such rooms, saying that if humanity can "put somebody on the moon", it can find a way to honor gender requests without leading to delays for patients. Great Britain has agreed to phase out such rooms by 2010.
Some medical ethicists have been critical of efforts to return to single-sex rooms. Jacob M. Appel, an advocate for mixed rooms in the United States, has written that opposition to gender-mixed rooms stems from "old-fashioned prejudice", arguing: "Because some people have been brought up to fear or dislike sharing a room with a person of the opposite sex, or blush at the prospect of catching a glimpse of an unwelcome body part when a robe slips open, we enshrine and perpetuate this prejudice in social policy."
In law
The legal test of the "reasonable person" has been criticised for being genderblind to be applied in some areas of the law, particularly sexual harassment. Women are subjected to more normalised and endemic sexual harassment than men. On the grounds of this, the American case of Ellison v. Brady 924 F.2d 872 (1991), the court held that "a sex-blind reasonable person standard tends to be male-based and tends to systematically ignore the experiences of women".
Research
Gendered treatment prevails all over the world. Of a study of organisations which offered women-only services, 23% said that their reason was based on women's inequality and the desire to address that imbalance; 20% that women-only spaces promote female development and empowerment; 18% that they were providing a service not being met by unisex services and which focused on the specific needs of women.
Studies indicate a broad support for single-sex service options to remain available. Of 1000 women polled by the Women's Resource Centre, 97% stated that women should have the option of accessing female-only services if they were victims of sexual assault. 57% indicated that they would choose a women-only gym over a mixed gym. Single-sex services can provide greater comfort and engagement for participants who would otherwise not get involved.
See also
All-women shortlists
Color blindness (race)
Equal opportunity
Gender-neutral language
Genderqueer
Postgenderism
Third gender
Unisex
Pansexuality
References
External links
Definition by the European Institute for Gender Equality
Gender and society
Feminism
Feminist terminology
Linguistic controversies | [
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232629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20King | Earl King | Earl Silas Johnson IV (February 7, 1934 – April 17, 2003), known as Earl King, was an American singer, guitarist, and songwriter, most active in blues music. A composer of blues standards such as "Come On" (covered by Jimi Hendrix, Freddie King, Stevie Ray Vaughan) and "Big Chief" (recorded by Professor Longhair), he was an important figure in New Orleans R&B.
Biography
King was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. His father was a piano player. He died when Earl was still a baby, and Earl was brought up by his mother. With his mother, he started going to church at an early age. In his youth he sang gospel music, but he took the advice of a friend to switch to blues to make a better living.
King started to play the guitar at the age of 15. Soon he started entering talent contests at local clubs, including the Dew Drop Inn. At one such club he met his idol, Guitar Slim. King started imitating Slim, and his presence had a big impact on his musical direction. In 1954, Slim was injured in an automobile accident (right around the time he had the number 1 R&B hit "The Things That I Used To Do"), and King was deputized to continue a tour with Slim's band, representing himself as Slim. After succeeding in this role, King became a regular at the Dew Drop Inn.
His first recording was made in 1953. As Earl Johnson, he released a 78-rpm record, "Have You Gone Crazy"/"Begging at Your Mercy", for Savoy Records. The following year, the talent scout Johnny Vincent introduced King to Specialty Records, for which he recorded some sides, including "Mother's Love", which was locally popular. In 1955, King signed with Vincent's label, Ace. His first single for that label, "Those Lonely, Lonely Nights", was a hit, reaching number 7 on the Billboard R&B chart. He continued to record for Ace for the next five years. During that time, he also he started writing songs for other artists, such as Roland Stone and Jimmy Clanton.
In 1960, Dave Bartholomew invited King to record for Imperial Records. In sessions for that label, he was backed by a host of musicians, including Bob French, George French, James Booker, and Wardell Quezergue. It was at this label he recorded his signature songs "Come On" and "Trick Bag". The former has been a much-covered standard for decades, notably recorded by Jimi Hendrix, Stevie Ray Vaughan and Anson Funderburgh. The latter has also been widely covered, with versions by Johnny Winter, the Meters and Robert Palmer. King co-wrote a number of songs with Bartholomew, either under his own name or under the pseudonym "E.C. King".
King recorded for Imperial until 1963. He went without a recording contract for the rest of the 1960s. During this time, he mostly concentrated on producing and songwriting for the local labels NOLA and Watch. His compositions from this era include "Big Chief", recorded by Professor Longhair; "Teasin' You", recorded by Willie Tee; and "Do-Re-Mi", recorded by Lee Dorsey. He went to Detroit for an audition with Motown Records and recorded a few tracks in the mid-1960s. Three tracks from that session are included on the album Motown's Blue Evolution, released in 1996.
In 1972, he was joined by Allen Toussaint and the Meters to record the album Street Parade. Atlantic Records initially showed interest in releasing it but eventually declined. The title track was released as a single on the Kansu label at the time, but the rest was unreleased until 1982, when the album was issued by Charly Records in the UK.
In the 1970s, he recorded another album, That Good Old New New Orleans Rock 'n Roll, which was released by Sonet in 1977. He also appeared on the album New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival 1976.
In the early 1980s, King met Hammond Scott, the co-owner of Black Top Records, and started to record for the label. The first album Glazed, on which he was backed by Roomful of Blues, was released in 1986. This particular album was nominated for a Grammy Award. A second album, Sexual Telepathy, released in 1990, featured Snooks Eaglin on two tracks and backing by Ronnie Earl & The Broadcasters on some tracks. He recorded his third album for Black Top, Hard River to Cross (1993), with backing by George Porter, Jr., David Torkanowsky, and Herman V. Ernest III.
In 2001, King was hospitalized for an illness during a tour of New Zealand, but that did not stop him from performing. In December of the same year, he toured Japan. and he continued to perform off and on locally in New Orleans until his death.
King died on April 17, 2003, from diabetes-related complications, just a week before the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. His funeral was held on April 30, during the festival, and many musicians attended it, including Dr. John, Leo Nocentelli and Aaron Neville. His Imperial recordings, which had long been out of print, were reissued on CD soon after he died. The June 2003 issue of OffBeat, a local music magazine, paid tribute to King with a series of articles on him.
Discography
Albums
1977: That Good Old New New Orleans Rock 'n Roll (Sonet)
1982: Street Parade (Charly, recorded in 1972)
1986: Glazed (Black Top) w/The Roomful of Blues
1990: Sexual Telepathy (Black Top)
1993: Hard River to Cross (Black Top)
Compilation albums
1982: Trick Bag (Imperial/Pathe Marconi) Imperial
1997: Earl's Pearls: The Very Best of Earl King 1955–1960 (Westside) Ace
2003: Come On: The Complete Imperial Recordings (Okra-Tone) Imperial
2005: New Orleans Blues (Tomato) recorded for Atlantic in 1972, unreleased
2006: The Chronological Earl King 1953–1955 (Classics) Savoy, Specialty, Ace
2016: Come On: 40 Original Rhythm & Blues Classics (Not Now Music)
2019: More Than Gold -The Complete 1955-1962 Ace & Imperial Singles- (Soul Jam)
References
External links
Live concert recording of the Radiators with King, from the Internet Archive
Cascade Blues: Earl King by Greg Johnson
Earl King Story by Larry Benicewicz
Earl King Discography
1934 births
2003 deaths
African-American guitarists
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
American blues singer-songwriters
Rhythm and blues musicians from New Orleans
Imperial Records artists
Ace Records (United States) artists
Black Top Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Charly Records artists
Specialty Records artists
Deaths from diabetes
Blues musicians from New Orleans
20th-century American guitarists
Singer-songwriters from Louisiana
Guitarists from Louisiana
American rhythm and blues singers
American rhythm and blues guitarists
African-American male singer-songwriters
20th-century African-American male singers | [
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232638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Clancy%27s%20Ghost%20Recon%20%282001%20video%20game%29 | Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon (2001 video game) | Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon is a tactical shooter video game developed by Red Storm Entertainment and published by Ubi Soft in 2001 for Microsoft Windows. It was ported to Mac OS, PlayStation 2 and Xbox in 2002 and to the GameCube in 2003. Ports for N-Gage and Game Boy Advance were planned, but later canceled. Unlike Clancy's other tactical shooter series, Rainbow Six, Ghost Recon is not based on any of his books.
Together with Rainbow Six, SWAT 3, and Operation Flashpoint, game industry experts generally credit Ghost Recon with defining and refining the tactical shooter genre. Ghost Recons success has spawned 2 expansion packs, Desert Siege and Island Thunder, as well as numerous sequels for video game consoles and the PC.
Gameplay
Ghost Recon puts the player in charge of the eponymous Ghosts, a fictional squad of United States Special Operations Forces soldiers from Delta Company, 1st Battalion, 5th Special Forces Group. They are organized into three fireteams named using the NATO phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, and Charlie, with space for three soldiers per team (the Xbox and PlayStation 2 versions do not have a Charlie team available). However, only six soldiers can be selected per mission. The player enjoys limited tactical control on the battlefield by issuing maneuver commands and rules of engagement for each fireteam through a command map.
The soldiers themselves are organized into four different character classes. Every class can carry a primary and secondary weapon, which are organized into "kits". Even though the primary weapon remains the same in all the kits (being defined by the soldier class — see below), there is a variety of equipment to be chosen as the secondary weapon.
Rifleman: The predominant soldier class in the game, riflemen can use a variety of different weapon kits. Their primary weapon is the M16 assault rifle. Secondaries include the M203 grenade launcher, the M9 pistol, spare magazines, or a pair of binoculars (in later versions these were replaced with deployable sensors, since binoculars were supplied to all Ghosts).
Support: Support soldiers provide a high volume of suppressive fire with the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon. As the soldier is equipped for short range, he also carries more armor. In addition to the machine gun, the support class may also carry the M9 (suppressed), M67 fragmentation grenades, or additional magazines.
Demolitions ("Demo"): Demolitions personnel are specialists in destroying large structures and can serve in the anti-tank role. Their primary weapon is the M4 carbine. This soldier can also be equipped with demolition charges, grenades, extra magazines, Claymore mines, or the M136 AT4 anti-tank rocket.
Sniper: Distinguishable by their ghillie suits, the sniper can provide fire support over long ranges while hidden. Primarily equipped with the U.S. Army's M24 rifle, they can also be equipped with the standard and silenced M9, extra magazines or grenades.
For every completed mission in the single-player campaign, each soldier that survives gains one Combat Point to upgrade their attributes. There are four basic categories of skill:
Weapon: affects the accuracy and aiming of the weapon; the reticule will close faster and tighter as more points are added.
Stealth: enhances the ability of the soldier to remain undetected and reduces noise generated by the soldier moving.
Endurance: improves recovery time when taking hits, increases the soldier's ability to survive a wound and reduces the effect of heavy equipment on speed.
Leadership: for every three points of skill, all other soldiers in the same fireteam gain an extra point to each of their statistics. The bonus can only apply if the soldier with the high leadership skill is the fireteam's point man.
The player also unlocks "specialists" from NATO or allied countries by completing extra mission objectives. The specialists are more experienced than the Ghosts and have more Combat Points, making them an essential part of the team. They are also equipped with weapons not available to standard soldiers. Two specialists are armed with the Objective Individual Combat Weapon, as part of field tests and implementation of the U.S. Army's Land Warrior program. The specialist corps includes three women, who are the only female combatants in the game.
The game is played entirely from the first-person perspective. A heads-up display relays information such as the name of the soldier the player is controlling, the soldier's assigned fireteam, weapon and ammo counter, a threat indicator, the targeting reticule, health status, and a stance indicator (to show whether the character is standing, crouched, or prone).
Bullets will not penetrate most objects, but they will break glass. Explosives or heavy gunfire can be used to destroy wooden doors, and (in the case of explosives) potentially kill anyone within the blast radius on the other side. Depending on a target's armor, it is generally possible to neutralize a threat with one or two well-placed shots.
If a soldier is rendered "out of action" during a mission, he or she is considered to be dead, and not available for the rest of the campaign. Wounded soldiers who survive a mission will remain wounded unless they are replaced with a healthy soldier for the next mission.
Ghost Recon has both single player and multiplayer modes of play. Up to 36 players are supported in the PC version's multiplayer over an internet (TCP/IP) connection or LAN.
Plot
An ultranationalist regime takes control of the Russian government in Moscow, installing its leader Dmitri Arbatov as president. Russia then takes control over Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, forming the Russian Democratic Union (RDU), a political and military alliance dedicated to recreating the former Soviet Union.
In April 2008, the U.S. Army's elite "Ghost" soldiers battle South Ossetian separatist rebels who are harassing the Georgian government and their allies. Their presence forces the RDU to complain to the United Nations that the U.S. has interfered in their internal affairs. The Russian army invades Georgia to assist the rebels. The Ghosts slow down the Russian advance while foreign civilians are evacuated from the country. Eventually, the Ghosts are all that's left of U.S. forces in Georgia and take the last helicopter out of the U.S. embassy in Tbilisi just as Russian forces arrive. The Georgian government sets up a government-in-exile in Geneva, Switzerland while the RDU annexes Georgia, an act publicly condemned by the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany.
The Ghosts are soon sent to the Baltic states in response to a Russian invasion launched three days ahead of NATO intelligence estimates. The Ghosts attempt to slow down the attack to buy time for NATO units to arrive in force, with the closest of them coming from Germany. The Ghosts fight alongside U.S. Army elements to push the Russians out of the Baltics, with victories in Rēzekne, Latvia, and Venta Utena,Vilnius, Lithuania. The defeat takes its toll on the RDU government with President Arbatov largely blamed for the disaster and put under house arrest.
The Ghosts enter Russia with their first mission being to free U.S. POWs and Russian political prisoners opposed to the RDU. The Russian military executes President Arbatov, which sparks a nationwide rebellion bordering on civil war. The ultranationalists quickly lose public support and many members of the RDU government quit the alliance. The Ghosts later attack several Russian bases such as a naval base at Murmansk and an airbase at Arkhangel'sk, weakening the ultranationalists' combat power. The RDU attracts strong international condemnation and practically dissolve after they detonate a nuclear weapon during a battle north of Moscow between the ultranationalists and a joint force of U.S. and rebelling Russian combat units.
Acting Russian Prime Minister Karpin privately requests additional NATO aid in the fighting, prompting the entire 1st Armored Division to be sent over the Russian border. The Ghosts spearhead a NATO assault on Moscow by cutting through a strong ultranationalist defensive line in the woods outside the capital. On November 10, 2008, NATO forces finally reach a deserted Moscow, with the last ultranationalist defenders holed up inside the Kremlin. After a final assault by the Ghosts in Red Square, the ultranationalists surrender and both the Americans and the newly liberated Russians celebrate their victory.
Development
The game was in development as early as November 2000. Motion capture was used for character animation. The lead designer was Brian Upton and the soundtrack was composed by Bill Brown.
Expansion packs and related games
Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Desert Siege is a 2002 expansion pack, released for Microsoft Windows as a separate purchase and can be unlocked as a new campaign in the PS2 version of Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon. It is also bundled with the Mac port. The expansion pack adds 2 new multiplayer game types (Domination and Siege), 5 new multiplayer maps, new weapons for use in multiplayer, and an eight-mission single player campaign, which also unlocks a new specialist soldier (Jodit Haile). In the PS2 version, players who start Desert Siege by finishing the Ghost Recon campaign first will also retain the soldiers they used in the campaign, including their statistics.
Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Island Thunder was released in late 2002 as an expansion pack for Microsoft Windows, and as a standalone game for Xbox. It contains eight new single player missions, 12 new weapons, 5 new dedicated multiplayer maps, 3 new multiplayer modes (Cat and Mouse, Defend, and Behemoth). On the Xbox, Island Thunder features five additional missions and twelve multiplayer maps.
Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Island Thunder was never released for the PlayStation 2, but its content was combined with eight new single-player missions set in Colombia and additional multiplayer maps and released under the title Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Jungle Storm in 2004.
In addition to the official expansion packs, the very active Ghost Recon modding scene (over 1,000 mods have been published as of January 2013) has produced a large number of unofficial expansions packs for PC. Free expansions like Frostbite, CENTCOM, Heroes Unleashed, and Year of the Monkey (among others) have gained huge popularity, with download counts in the hundreds of thousands.
Reception
Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon received "mixed or average" for the Gamecube and PS2 versions while the Xbox and PC versions received "generally positive" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Ghost Recon was a commercial success. By the end of 2001, sales of its computer version had reached 430,000 units. The series' sales surpassed 760,000 copies by the end of March 2002. In the United States, the computer version of Ghost Recon sold 240,000 copies and earned $10.1 million by August 2006. Edge named it the country's 83rd best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. Combined sales of all Ghost Recon series computer games released between those dates had reached 620,000 in the United States by August 2006. The computer version of Ghost Recon also received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
Sales of the game's PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions surpassed 2 million copies by the end of June 2003, and helped to drive Ubisoft's Q1 2003/2004 revenues to a record high for the company. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Ghost Recon had sold 1.1 million copies and earned $39 million in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 46th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country.
Awards
The editors of PC Gamer US presented Ghost Recon with their 2001 "Best Sound" and overall "Game of the Year" awards, and wrote that "few games have made us cringe in shock, roar with aggression, or exult in victory the way Ghost Recon has." Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon was also named Best Game of the Year in 2001 by IGN. Ghost Recon was a runner-up in IGN's "Best Action Game 2001" and "Best Use Of Sound" ("Reader's Choice"). Wargamer gave it three bronze awards in "Game of the Year", awarded Red Storm with "Game Developer of the Year", and gave "Game Publisher of the Year" to Ubisoft.
Ghost Recons Xbox version won GameSpots 2002 "Best Sound on Xbox" award, and was nominated for "Best Online Game on Xbox" and "Best Shooter on Xbox".
Legacy
Plot coincidence
In August 2008, the Russo-Georgian war began, with a number of commentators noting on the coincidence, that this real world event was somewhat similar to the plot of Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon.
References
External links
2001 video games
Cancelled Game Boy Advance games
GameCube games
Classic Mac OS games
PlayStation 2 games
Works about the Russo-Georgian War
Tactical shooter video games
Tom Clancy games
01
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Bill Brown
Video games set in 2008
Video games set in Georgia (country)
Video games set in Latvia
Video games set in Lithuania
Video games set in Moscow
Video games set in Russia
Video games set in North Carolina
Video games with expansion packs
Windows games
Xbox games
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232639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gott%20soll%20allein%20mein%20Herze%20haben%2C%20BWV%20169 | Gott soll allein mein Herze haben, BWV 169 | Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata (God alone shall have my heart), 169, a solo cantata for an alto soloist, in Leipzig for the 18th Sunday after Trinity, and first performed it on 20 October 1726.
History and words
Bach wrote the cantata during his fourth year in Leipzig, for the 18th Sunday after Trinity. The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul's thanks for grace of God in Ephesus (), and from the Gospel of Matthew, the Great Commandment ().
The unknown author of the text concentrated on the love of God in movements 2 to 5 and added one movement about the love of your neighbour in movement 6, continued in the concluding chorale, the third stanza of Martin Luther's "". The poet connected the first recitative to the following aria by starting the two thoughts in the recitative by a related line from the aria as a motto, and ending both with the a recapitulation of the first line. The second recitative is a paraphrase of , Elijah lifted to heaven. The second aria is a paraphrase of , which sets the love of God apart from the love of the world.
The only other extant cantata for the Sunday is the chorale cantata , composed in 1724. Like three other cantatas, the early (1714), and the 1726 works , and , Bach wrote for a single alto soloist, but unlike those works a choir sings the chorale. The three later cantatas, written within a few months, employ the organ as an obbligato instrument, possibly because Bach liked the combination of alto voice and organ registrations. A week later, Bach composed the famous cantata for bass solo, , also concluded by a chorale. It is not known if Bach looked for texts suitable for a solo voice, or if texts were "clerically imposed on him", which stressed individual piety and therefore suggested to be treated as solo cantatas.
Bach first performed the cantata on 20 October 1726. It is regarded as part of his third annual cycle of cantatas.
Scoring and structure
The cantata in seven movements is scored for alto, a four-part choir only for the closing chorale, two oboes, taille (tenor oboe), two violins, viola, organ obbligato and basso continuo.
Sinfonia
Arioso:
Aria:
Recitative:
Aria:
Recitative:
Chorale:
Music
As in a number of other works, Bach reused some of his earlier works. The first movement, a sinfonia, and movement 5 rely on a lost concerto, perhaps for oboe or flute, possibly written during his time in Köthen (1717–23). That same concerto is the source of Bach's Harpsichord Concerto BWV 1053, composed around 1739. According to John Eliot Gardiner, it may have also served as an organ concerto for the new Silbermann organ in Dresden's Sophienkirche in 1725. Bach used the first movement of the concerto, in da capo form, as an extended instrumental introduction, assigning the solo part to the organ, the tutti to the strings and three oboes which he added for the cantata. The first vocal movement is an arioso, accompanied only by the continuo. Bach followed the careful wording of the poet by setting the lines from the following aria as a motto and conclusion of each thought as an arioso, the reflection which they frame as a secco recitative. The repeat of the essential line "" "acts like a rondo motif", according to Gardiner. In the aria, this line appears reminiscent of the arioso, but in reverse movement. As Gardiner observes: "It is a perfect example of Bach's skill in following admonitions by contemporary music theorists to 'grasp the sense of the text' (Mauritius Vogt, 1719) with the goal of 'refined and text-related musical expression ... the true purpose of music' (Johann David Heinichen, 1711)." The accompaniment of the virtuoso organ adds weight to the statement. Musicologist Julian Mincham interprets the "richly embroidered organ melody", which continues throughout the movement, as a "virtually continuous stream of goodness". A simple secco recitative leads to the second aria, which is again, like the Sinfonia, taken from the concerto, with the voice woven into the solo organ and the strings. According to Dürr, the aria is an example of "how a piece can gain rather than lose from its adaptation in the context of a new work". Another example is the Agnus Dei from Bach's Mass in B minor'. The text marks a farewell to love in the world: "" (Die in me, world and all your love). The music of the aria, marked "Siciliano" as the slow movement of the harpsichord concerto, has been regarded as a "farewell to worldly life", in "a mood of heart-stopping intensity", also as a mystic contemplation of a heavenly love. The aria has been compared in character to the aria of the repenting Peter "" from Bach's St Matthew Passion.
After the love of God has been expanded in great detail in five movements, the commandment to also love one's neighbour is expressed in a short recitative, leading to the chorale, which asks the Holy Spirit to assist in doing so, "so that we might love each other from our hearts and remain of one mind in peace".
Recordings
As a solo cantata, the work has attracted many conductors and singers who are not specialists in Baroque music to record it. Conductors have included Rudolf Barshai and Ludwig Güttler and singers Aafje Heynis, Birgit Finnilä, Jadwiga Rappé and Monica Groop. Andreas Scholl recorded it in 2010 with Julia Schröder leading as concertmaster the Kammerorchester Basel with Junko Takamaya, Michael Feyfar and Raitis Grigalis singing the chorale.
J. S. Bach: Cantata No. 169, "Gott soll allein mein Herze haben", Aafje Heynis, Epic, 1958
J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 157 & BWV 169, Diethard Hellmann, Kantorei & Kammerorchester der Christuskirche Mainz, Lotte Wolf-Matthäus, Cantate 1958
Maureen Forrester sings Bach & Handel, Antonio Janigro, I Solisti di Zagreb, Maureen Forrester, Vanguard 1964
J. S. Bach & Handel: Solo Cantatas & Vocal Works, Yehudi Menuhin, Bath Festival Orchestra, Janet Baker, EMI 1966
J. S. Bach: Cantates BWV 161 & BWV 169, Frigyes Sándor, Chamber Choir and Orchestra of the Franz Liszt Academy of Music, Julia Hamari, Hungaroton 1966
J. S. Bach: Das Kantatenwerk – Sacred Cantatas Vol. 9, Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Tölzer Knabenchor, Paul Esswood, Teldec 1987
Bach Kantaten BWV 35, BWV 169, BWV 49 (Sinfonia), Hartmut Haenchen, RIAS Kammerchor, Kammerorchester Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Jochen Kowalski, Berlin Classics 1994
Bach Edition Vol. 9 – Cantatas Vol. 4, Pieter Jan Leusink, Holland Boys Choir, Netherlands Bach Collegium, Sytse Buwalda, Brilliant Classics 1999
Bach Cantatas Vol. 9, John Eliot Gardiner, Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists, Nathalie Stutzmann, Soli Deo Gloria 2000
J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 17, Ton Koopman, Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir, Bogna Bartosz, Antoine Marchand 2002
References
Sources
Gott soll allein mein Herze haben BWV 169; BC A 143 / Sacred cantata (18th Sunday after Trinity) Bach Digital
Cantata BWV 169 Gott soll allein mein Herze haben history, scoring, sources for text and music, translations to various languages, discography, discussion, Bach Cantatas Website
BWV 169 Gott soll allein mein Herze haben English translation, University of Vermont
BWV 169 Gott soll allein mein Herze haben text, scoring, University of Alberta
Carol Traupman-Carr: Cantata BWV 169 Gott soll allein mein Herze haben analysis, Bach Choir of Bethlehem
Luke Dahn: BWV 169.7 bach-chorales.com
Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach
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232642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald%20Primrose%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Rosebery | Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery | Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, 1st Earl of Midlothian, (7 May 1847 – 21 May 1929) was a British Liberal politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from March 1894 to June 1895. Between the death of his father, in 1851, and the death of his grandfather, the 4th Earl of Rosebery, in 1868, he was known by the courtesy title of Lord Dalmeny.
Rosebery first came to national attention in 1879 by sponsoring the successful Midlothian campaign of William Ewart Gladstone. He briefly was in charge of Scottish affairs. His most successful performance in office came as chairman of the London County Council in 1889. He entered the cabinet in 1885 and served twice as foreign minister, paying special attention to French and German affairs. He succeeded Gladstone as prime minister and leader of the Liberal Party in 1894; the Liberals lost the 1895 election. He resigned the party leadership in 1896 and never again held political office.
Rosebery was widely known as a brilliant orator, an outstanding sportsman and marksman, a writer and historian, connoisseur and collector. All of these activities attracted him more than politics, which grew boring and unattractive. Furthermore, he drifted to the right of the Liberal party and became a bitter critic of its policies. Winston Churchill, observing that he never adapted to democratic electoral competition, quipped: "He would not stoop; he did not conquer."
Rosebery was a Liberal Imperialist who favoured strong national defence and imperialism abroad and social reform at home, while being solidly anti-socialist. Historians judge him a failure as foreign minister and as prime minister.
Origins and early life
Archibald Philip Primrose was born on 7 May 1847 in his parents' house in Charles Street, Mayfair, London. His father was Archibald Primrose, Lord Dalmeny (1809–1851), son and heir apparent to Archibald Primrose, 4th Earl of Rosebery (1783–1868), whom he predeceased. Lord Dalmeny was a courtesy title used by the Earl's eldest son and heir apparent, during the Earl's lifetime, and was one of the Earl's lesser Scottish titles. Lord Dalmeny (died 1851) was MP for Stirling from 1832 to 1847 and served as First Lord of the Admiralty under Lord Melbourne.
Rosebery's mother was Lady (Catherine Lucy) Wilhelmina Stanhope (1819–1901), a historian who later wrote under her second married name "the Duchess of Cleveland", a daughter of Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl Stanhope. Lord Dalmeny died on 23 January 1851, having predeceased his father, when the courtesy title passed to his son, the future Rosebery, as the new heir to the earldom. In 1854 his mother remarried to Lord Harry Vane (later after 1864 known as Harry Powlett, 4th Duke of Cleveland). The relationship between mother and son was very poor. His elder and favourite sister Lady Leconfield was the wife of Henry Wyndham, 2nd Baron Leconfield.
Education and youth
Dalmeny attended preparatory schools in Hertfordshire and Brighton, and then Eton College (1860–65). At Eton, he formed a close attachment to his tutor William Johnson Cory: they visited Rome together in 1864, and maintained correspondence for years afterwards. Dalmeny proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, matriculating in January 1866. He left Oxford in 1868: Dalmeny bought a horse named Ladas, although a rule banned undergraduates from owning horses. When he was found out, he was offered a choice: to sell the horse or to give up his studies. He chose the latter, and subsequently was a prominent figure in British horseracing for 40 years.
The three Prime Ministers from 1880 to 1902, namely Gladstone, Salisbury and Rosebery, all attended both Eton and Christ Church.
Rosebery toured the United States in 1873, 1874 and 1876. He was pressed to marry Marie Fox, the sixteen-year-old adopted daughter of Henry Fox, 4th Baron Holland. She declined him.
Succession to earldom
When his grandfather died in 1868, Dalmeny became 5th Earl of Rosebery. The earldom did not of itself entitle Archibald Primrose to sit in the House of Lords, nor disqualify him from sitting in the House of Commons, as the title is part of the old Peerage of Scotland, from which 16 members (representative peers) were elected to sit in the Lords for each session of Parliament. However, in 1828, Rosebery's grandfather had been created 1st Baron Rosebery in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which did entitle Rosebery to sit in the Lords like all peers of the United Kingdom, and barred him from a career in the House of Commons.
Career
Rosebery is reputed to have said that he had three aims in life: to win the Derby, to marry an heiress, and to become Prime Minister. He managed all three.
Early political career
At Eton, Rosebery notably attacked Charles I of England for his despotism, and went on to praise his Whig forebears – his ancestor, James Stanhope, 1st Earl Stanhope, was a minister to George I of Great Britain. Benjamin Disraeli often met with Rosebery in the 1870s to try to recruit him for his party, but this proved futile. Disraeli's major rival, William Ewart Gladstone, also pursued Rosebery, with considerable success.
As part of the Liberal plan to get Gladstone to be MP for Midlothian, Rosebery sponsored and largely ran the Midlothian Campaign of 1879. He based this on what he had observed in elections in the United States. Gladstone spoke from open-deck trains, and gathered mass support. In 1880, he was duly elected Member for Midlothian and returned to the premiership.
Rosebery served as Foreign Secretary in Gladstone's brief third ministry in 1886. He served as the first chairman of the London County Council, set up by the Conservatives in 1889. Rosebery Avenue in Clerkenwell is named after him.
He served as President of the first day of the 1890 Co-operative Congress.
Rosebery's second period as Foreign Secretary, 1892–1894, predominantly involved quarrels with France over Uganda. To quote his hero Napoleon, Rosebery thought that "the Master of Egypt is the Master of India"; thus he pursued the policy of expansion in Africa.
Rosebery helped Gladstone's Second Home Rule Bill in the House of Lords; nevertheless it was defeated overwhelmingly in the autumn of 1893. The first bill had been defeated in the House of Commons in 1886.
Prime Minister
Rosebery became a leader of the Liberal Imperialist faction of the Liberal Party and when Gladstone retired, in 1894, Rosebery succeeded him as Prime Minister, much to the disgust of Sir William Harcourt, the Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the more left-wing Liberals. Rosebery's selection was largely because Queen Victoria disliked most of the other leading Liberals. Rosebery was in the Lords, but Harcourt controlled the Commons, where he often undercut the prime minister.
Rosebery's government was largely unsuccessful, as in the Armenian crisis of 1895–96. He spoke out for a strongly pro-Armenian and anti-Turkish policy. Gladstone, a prime minister in retirement, called on Britain to intervene alone. The added pressure weakened Rosebery.
His designs in foreign policy, such as expansion of the fleet, were defeated by disagreements within the Liberal Party. He angered all the European powers.
The Unionist-dominated House of Lords stopped the whole of the Liberals' domestic legislation. The strongest figure in the cabinet was Rosebery's rival, Harcourt. He and his son Lewis were perennial critics of Rosebery's policies. There were two future prime ministers in the Cabinet, Home Secretary H. H. Asquith, and Secretary of State for War Henry Campbell-Bannerman. Rosebery rapidly lost interest in running the government. In the last year of his premiership, he was increasingly haggard: he suffered insomnia due to the continual dissension in his Cabinet.
On 21 June 1895, the government lost a vote in committee on army supply by just seven votes. While this might have been treated merely as a vote of no confidence in Secretary for War Campbell-Bannerman, Rosebery chose to treat it as a vote of censure on his government. On 22 June, he and his ministers tendered their resignations to the Queen, who invited the Unionist leader, Lord Salisbury, to form a government. The following month, the Unionists won a crushing victory in the 1895 general election, and held power for ten years (1895–1905) under Salisbury and Arthur Balfour. Rosebery remained the Liberal leader for another year, then permanently retired from politics.
Lord Rosebery's government, March 1894 – June 1895
Lord Rosebery – First Lord of the Treasury, Lord President of the Council, and Leader of the House of Lords
Lord Herschell – Lord Chancellor
Lord Tweedmouth – Lord Privy Seal
H. H. Asquith – Secretary of State for the Home Department
Lord Kimberley – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
Lord Ripon – Secretary of State for the Colonies
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman – Secretary of State for War
Sir Henry Hartley Fowler – Secretary of State for India
Sir William Harcourt – Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons
Lord Spencer – First Lord of the Admiralty
Anthony John Mundella – President of the Board of Trade
Arnold Morley – Postmaster-General
George John Shaw-Lefevre – President of the Local Government Board
James Bryce – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
John Morley – Chief Secretary for Ireland
Sir George Otto Trevelyan – Secretary for Scotland
Sir Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland – Vice-President of the Council
Changes
May 1894: James Bryce succeeds A. J. Mundella at the Board of Trade. Lord Tweedmouth succeeds Bryce at the Duchy of Lancaster, remaining also Lord Privy Seal.
Later life
Liberal Imperialists
Rosebery resigned as leader of the Liberal Party on 6 October 1896, to be succeeded by William Harcourt and gradually moved further and further from the mainstream of the party. With the Liberals in opposition divided over the Boer War which started in 1899, Rosebery, although officially politically inactive, emerged as the head of the “Liberal Imperialists” faction of the party, opposed to Irish Home rule. He supported the war, and brought along many nonconformists likewise. However the war was opposed by a younger faction of Liberals, including David Lloyd George and the party leader Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. Rosebery's acolytes, including H. H. Asquith and Edward Grey, regularly implored him to return as party leader and even Campbell-Bannerman said he would serve under Rosebery, if he accepted fundamental Liberal party doctrine. In a much trailed speech to the Chesterfield Liberal Association in December 1901, Rosebery was widely expected to announce his return but instead delivered what Harcourt's son and private secretary Lewis described as "an insult to the whole past of the Liberal party", by telling the party to "clean its slate". In 1902 Rosebery was installed as president of the newly formed “Liberal League” which superseded the Liberal Imperialist League and counted amongst its vice presidents Asquith and Grey.
1905 onwards
Rosebery's positions made it impossible to join the Liberal government that returned to power in 1905. Rosebery turned to writing, including biographies of Lord Chatham, Pitt the Younger, Napoleon, and Lord Randolph Churchill. Another one of his passionate interests was the collecting of rare books.
The last years of his political life saw Rosebery become a purely negative critic of the Liberal governments of Campbell-Bannerman and Asquith. His crusade "for freedom as against bureaucracy, for freedom as against democratic tyranny, for freedom as against class legislation, and ... for freedom as against Socialism" was a lonely one, conducted from the crossbenches in the Lords. He joined the die-hard unionist peers in attacking Lloyd George's redistributive People's Budget in 1909 but stopped short of voting against the measure for fear of bringing retribution upon the Lords. The crisis provoked by the Lords' rejection of the budget encouraged him to reintroduce his resolutions for Lords reform, but they were lost with the dissolution of parliament in December 1910.
After assaulting the "ill-judged, revolutionary and partisan" terms of the 1911 Parliament Bill, which proposed to curb the Lords' veto, he voted with the government in what proved to be his last appearance in the House of Lords. This was effectively the end of his public life, though he made several public appearances to support the war effort after 1914 and sponsored a "bantam battalion" in 1915. Though Lloyd George offered him "a high post not involving departmental labour" to augment his 1916 coalition, Rosebery declined to serve.
Personal life
Marriage
On 20 March 1878 in the Board of Guardians in Mount Street, London, at the age of 31 Rosebery married the 27-year-old Hannah de Rothschild (1851–1890), only child and sole heiress of the Jewish banker Mayer Amschel de Rothschild, and the wealthiest British heiress of her day. Her father had died four years previously in 1874, and bequeathed to her the bulk of his estate. Later on the same day the marriage was blessed in a Christian ceremony in Christ Church, Down Street, Piccadilly.
In January 1878 Rosebery had told a friend that he found Hannah "very simple, very unspoilt, very clever, very warm-hearted and very shy ... I never knew such a beautiful character." Both Queen Victoria's son the Prince of Wales and her cousin, the army commander Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, attended the ceremony. Hannah's death in 1890 from typhoid, compounded by Bright's disease, left him distraught.
More than a decade after his wife's death, in July 1901, it was speculated that Rosebery intended to marry the widowed Princess Helena, Duchess of Albany, widow of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, 4th son of Queen Victoria. Rosebery never remarried.
Progeny
By his wife Hannah de Rothschild, Rosebery had two sons and two daughters, with whom, according to Margot Asquith, he loved to play:
Albert Edward Harry Meyer Archibald Primrose, 6th Earl of Rosebery known as Harry (8 January 1882 – 30 May 1974) he married Lady Dorothy Grosvenor (granddaughter of Hugh Lupus Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster through his third son Lord Henry Grosvenor) on 15 April 1909 and was divorced from her in 1919. They had two children. He married Hon. Eva Isabel Bruce (daughter of Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare) on 24 June 1924. They had two children.
Neil James Archibald Primrose (14 December 1882 – 18 November 1917) he married Lady Victoria Stanley (daughter Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby) on 7 April 1915. They had one daughter: Ruth Wood, Countess of Halifax.
Lady Sybil Primrose (1879–25 February 1955) she married General Sir Charles Grant on 28 March 1903. They had one son.
Lady Margaret "Peggy" Etrenne Hannah Primrose (1 January 1881 – 13 March 1967) she married Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe on 20 April 1899. They had two children. As Lady Crewe, she became one of the first seven women appointed as magistrates in 1919 following the passing of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919.
Sexuality
Throughout his life, it was rumoured that Rosebery was homosexual or bisexual. He was a notorious misogynist, and liked to surround himself with younger men.
As a student at Eton, beyond his close relationship with his tutor, William Johnson Cory, he fell madly in love with at least one fellow student, Frederick Vyner, by whose murder at the hands of Greek brigands in 1870 he was devastated, keeping the anniversary sacred for the rest of his life.
Like Oscar Wilde, he was hounded by John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry for his association with Francis Douglas, Viscount Drumlanrig, Queensberry's first born son – who had become his private secretary in 1892 when Rosebery became Foreign Secretary. A few months later he arranged for Drumlanrig, who was 26 at the time, to be made a junior member of the government with a seat in the House of Lords.
During the preliminary hearing of the case against Wilde, a letter from Queensberry was produced referring to him as 'a damned cur and coward of the Rosebery type'.
On 18 October 1894, sixteen months after his ennoblement, Drumlanrig died from injuries received during a shooting party. The inquest returned a verdict of "accidental death", but his death was rumoured potentially to be suicide or murder. It was speculated at the time that Drumlanrig may have had a romantic, if not sexual, relationship with Rosebery.
The suggestion was that Queensberry had threatened to expose the Prime Minister if his government did not vigorously prosecute Wilde for Wilde's relationship with Drumlanrig's younger brother, Lord Alfred Douglas. Queensberry believed, as he put it in a letter, that "Snob Queers like Rosebery" had corrupted his sons, and he held Rosebery indirectly responsible for Drumlanrig's death. He claimed to have evidence of Rosebery's transgressions but that was never confirmed.
Using a minor defeat in Parliament that didn't warrant such action, Rosebery resigned from the Premiership on 22 June 1895. This was a few months after the death of Drumlanrig and not quite a month after Wilde was convicted on 25 May, his life and reputation destroyed by a man who was also pursuing Rosebery for the same reason he was after Wilde. In August 1893, Queensberry had followed Rosebery to the spa town of Bad Homburg with the declared intention of giving him a horse-whipping, and had to be dissuaded by the Prince of Wales who was also staying there.
In his recollections, Rosebery wrote: "I cannot forget 1895. To lie awake night after night, wide awake, hopeless of sleep, tormented of nerves, and to realise all that was going on, at which I was present, so to speak, like a disembodied spirit, to watch one's own corpse, as it were day after day, is an experience which no sane man would repeat."
Sir Edmund Backhouse wrote in his unpublished memoirs that he had been one of Rosebery's lovers - although it has been suggested that many of Backhouse's claims were dubiously made.
Robert Rhodes James, who wrote a biography of Rosebery in 1963 (when homosexuality was still illegal in Britain), makes no mention of homosexual relationships at all, while for Leo McKinstry, who was writing in 2005, the evidence that Rosebery was homosexual is circumstantial. Michael Bloch, in 2015, has, however, no doubt that Rosebery was at least romantically interested in men, making him one of the four figures presented in the first chapter of his book on homosexual and bisexual British politicians of the 20th century. In his view, any remaining evidence (of which he gives a long list) can only be circumstantial in any case, considering Rosebery's paranoid taste for secrecy.
Death and burial
The last year of the war was clouded by two personal tragedies: his son Neil's death in Palestine in November 1917 and Rosebery's own stroke a few days before the armistice. He regained his mental powers, but his movement, hearing, and sight remained impaired for the rest of his life. His sister Constance described his last years as a "life of weariness, of total inactivity, and at the last of almost blindness". John Buchan remembered him in his last month of life, "crushed by bodily weakness" and "sunk in sad and silent meditations".
Rosebery died at his Epsom, Surrey home of The Durdans on 21 May 1929, to the accompaniment, as he had requested, of a gramophone recording of the "Eton Boating Song". Survived by three of his four children, he was buried in the small church at Dalmeny. By the time of his death, he was the last Victorian-era British Prime Minister alive.
His estate was probated at £1,500,122 3s. 6d.; () and he was thus the richest prime minister ever, followed by Salisbury, then by Palmerston.
Sporting interests
Horse racing
As a result of his marriage to Hannah de Rothschild, Rosebery acquired the Mentmore Towers estate and Mentmore stud near Leighton Buzzard which had been built by Mayer Amschel de Rothschild. Rosebery built another stable and stud near Mentmore Towers at Crafton, Buckinghamshire, called Crafton Stud.
Rosebery won several of the five English Classic Races. His most famous horses were Ladas who won the 1894 Derby, Sir Visto who did it again in 1895 (Rosebery was Prime Minister on both occasions), and Cicero in 1905.
Football
Rosebery became the first president of the London Scottish Rugby Football Club in 1878, also developed a keen interest in association football and was an early patron of the sport in Scotland. In 1882 he donated a trophy, the Rosebery Charity Cup, to be competed for by clubs under the jurisdiction of the East of Scotland Football Association. The competition lasted over 60 years and raised thousands of pounds for charities in the Edinburgh area.
Rosebery also became Honorary President of the national Scottish Football Association, with the representative Scotland national team and Honorary President of Heart of Midlothian FC. The national team occasionally forsook their traditional dark blue shirts for his traditional racing colours of primrose and pink. This occurred 9 times during Rosebery's lifetime, most notably for the 1900 British Home Championship match against England, which the Scots won 4–1. These colours were used for the away kit of the Scotland national team in 2014 and were Heart of Midlothian's away colours for season 2016/17.
Literary interests
He was a keen collector of fine books and amassed an excellent library. It was sold on 29 October 2009 at Sothebys, New Bond Street. Rosebery unveiled the statue of Robert Burns in Dumfries on 6 April 1882.
Landholdings
Rosebery was the owner of twelve houses. By marriage, he acquired:
Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire, a huge neo-Renaissance stately home, sold in the 1970s
Number 40, Piccadilly, in London.
With his fortune, he bought:
a shooting lodge at Carrington in Midlothian
a Georgian villa at Postwick in Norfolk
In 1897, he bought Villa Delahente in Posillipo, overlooking the Bay of Naples, currently an official residence of the President of the Italian Republic, still known as Villa Rosebery
38 Berkeley Square, London
The Durdans, Epsom, where he died in 1929.
As Earl of Rosebery, he was laird of:
Dalmeny House on the banks of the Firth of Forth (pictured)
Barnbougle Castle in the grounds of Dalmeny Estate, used by Rosebery (an insomniac) for privacy.
He rented:
a home in Randolph Crescent, Edinburgh, during World War I
Lansdowne House, in London, from the Marquess of Lansdowne.
Place-name tributes
The Oatlands area in the South Side of Glasgow was laid out in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, contemporary with Rosebery's most prominent period. The area is much changed since it was originally laid out, but several of the original street names had an association with him or areas around his estate to the northwest of Edinburgh: Rosebery Street, Dalmeny Street, Queensferry Street, Granton Street and Cramond Street.
In London, Rosebery Avenue, running between Holborn and Clerkenwell, was named after him, in recognition of his service as the London County Council's first chairman.
Rosebery, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney, is named after him. A major street, Dalmeny Avenue, runs through the area. Rosebery, Tasmania is also named after him, via the name of a mining company. Dalmeny, New South Wales, a suburb on the New South Wales South Coast, is named after him. Roseberry Avenue in the suburb of South Perth, Western Australia, is also named after him. The former township of Rosebery in South Australia (now part of Collinswood) was named for him, as was modern-day Rosebery Lane in Collinswood. Rosebery in the north west of Victoria, some 15 km south of Hopetoun is also named after him.
Rosebery House, Epsom College, in Epsom, is named after him.
Rosebery School sits on an area of land given to the borough by Lord Rosebery.
In October 1895 Lord Rosebery opened the new Liberal Club on Westborough, in Scarborough, only months after being Prime Minister. The building now houses a Wetherspoons, which is named in his honour.
Ancestry
See also
Lady Stair's House
References
Citations
Bibliography
Hamer, D. A. Liberal politics in the age of Gladstone and Rosebery: a study in leadership and policy (Clarendon Press, 1972).
Jacobson, Peter D. “Rosebery and Liberal Imperialism, 1899 - 1903.” Journal of British Studies 13.1 1973, pp. 83–107. online
Leonard, Dick. Nineteenth-Century British Premiers: Pitt to Rosebery (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)
McKinstry, Leo. Rosebery: Statesman in Turmoil (2005) .
Martel, Gordon. Imperial Diplomacy: Rosebery and the failure of foreign policy ( McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986).
Raymond, E. T. The Life of Lord Rosebery (1923) online
Raymond, John. "The First Phase" History Today (Feb 1959) 9#2 pp 75–82; covers 1847 to 1880.
Raymond, John. "Office and Eclipse" History Today (Mar 1959) 9#3 pp 176–184. on Rosebery 1880 to 1895.
Bloch, Michael. Closet Queens: Some 20th Century British Politicians (Little, Brown, 2015) Chapter 1: Archie, Regie, Loulou and Bill
External links
Earl Of Rosebery 1847–1929 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group
More about The Earl of Roseberry on the Downing street website.
1847 births
1929 deaths
19th-century LGBT people
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Archibald
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232643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant%20other | Significant other | The term significant other has different uses in psychology and in colloquial language. Colloquially "significant other" (or SO) is used as a gender-neutral term for a person's partner in an intimate relationship without disclosing or presuming anything about marital status, relationship status, gender identity, or sexual orientation. Synonyms with similar properties include: sweetheart, other half, better half, spouse, domestic partner, lover, soulmate, or life partner.
In the United States, the term is sometimes used in invitations, such as to weddings and office parties. This use of the term has become common in the UK in correspondence from hospitals, e.g., "you may be accompanied for your appointment by a significant other."
Scientific use
Its usage in psychology and sociology is very different from its colloquial use. In psychology, a significant other is any person who has great importance to an individual's life or well-being. In sociology, it describes any person or persons with a strong influence on an individual's self-concept. Although the influence of significant others on individuals was long theorized, the first actual measurements of the influence of significant others on individuals were made by Archie O. Haller, Edward L. Fink, and Joseph Woelfel at the University of Wisconsin.
Haller, Fink, and Woelfel are associates of the Wisconsin model of status attainment. They surveyed 100 Wisconsin adolescents, measured their educational and occupational aspirations, and identified the set of other individuals who communicated with the students and served as examples for them. They then contacted the significant others directly and measured their expectations for the adolescent's educational and occupational attainments, and calculated the impact of these expectations on the aspirations of the students. Results of the research showed that the expectations of significant others were the single most potent influences on the students' own aspirations. This usage is synonymous with the term "relevant other" and can also be found in plural form, "significant others".
In social psychology, a significant other is an "insulating person", uncle/aunt, grandparent, guardian or teacher – the person who guides and takes care of a child during primary socialization. The significant other protects, rewards, and punishes the child as a way of aiding the child's development. This usually takes about six or seven years, after which the significant other is no longer needed, and the child moves on to a general "other" which is not a real person, but an abstract notion of what society deems good or bad.
First use
The first known use of the terms "significant other person" and "significant other people" is by the U.S. psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan in the article 'Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry' in the journal: 'Psychiatry: Journal of the biology and pathology of interpersonal relations', published in 1940. The phrase was popularised in the United States by Armistead Maupin's 1987 book Significant Others, and in the UK by the 1989 TV series Only Fools and Horses, in which Derek Trotter uses the phrase a number of times when referring to his long-term partner Raquel Turner.
See also
POSSLQ
Spouse
References
Marriage, unions and partnerships
Social philosophy
Gender-neutral language | [
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232645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20Orbiter%201 | Lunar Orbiter 1 | The 1966 Lunar Orbiter 1 robotic spacecraft mission, part of NASA's Lunar Orbiter program, was the first American spacecraft to orbit the Moon. It was designed primarily to photograph smooth areas of the lunar surface for selection and verification of safe landing sites for the Surveyor and Apollo missions. It was also equipped to collect selenodetic, radiation intensity, and micrometeoroid impact data.
Mission controllers injected the spacecraft into a parking orbit around Earth on August 10, 1966, at 19:31 UTC. The trans-lunar injection burn occurred at 20:04 UTC. The spacecraft experienced a temporary failure of the Canopus star tracker (probably due to stray sunlight) and overheating during its cruise to the Moon. The star tracker problem was resolved by navigating using the Moon as a reference, and the overheating was abated by orienting the spacecraft 36 degrees off-Sun to lower the temperature.
Lunar Orbiter 1 was injected into an elliptical near-equatorial lunar orbit 92.1 hours after launch. The initial orbit was and had a period of 3 hours 37 minutes and an inclination of 12.2 degrees. On August 21, perilune was dropped to and on August 25 to . The spacecraft acquired photographic data from August 18 to 29, 1966, and readout occurred through September 14, 1966.
A total of 42 high-resolution and 187 medium-resolution frames were taken and transmitted to Earth covering more than 5 million square kilometers of the Moon's surface, accomplishing about 75% of the intended mission, although a number of the early high-resolution photos showed severe smearing. It also took the first two pictures of Earth from the Moon. Accurate data were acquired from all other experiments throughout the mission.
Orbit tracking showed a slight "pear-shape" of the Moon based on the gravity field, and no micrometeorite impacts were detected. The spacecraft was tracked until it impacted the lunar surface on command at 7 degrees north latitude, 161 degrees east longitude (selenographic coordinates) on the Moon's far side on October 29, 1966, on its 577th orbit. The early end of the nominal one-year mission resulted from a shortage of remaining attitude control gas and other deteriorating conditions and was planned to avoid transmission interference with Lunar Orbiter 2.
See also
Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project
Exploration of the Moon
Lunar Orbiter 2
Lunar Orbiter 3
Lunar Orbiter 4
Lunar Orbiter 5
List of artificial objects on the Moon
References
External links
Destination Moon: A History of the Lunar Orbiter Program (1976) by the NASA History Office
Lunar Orbiter Photo Gallery - Mission 1 by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
1
Spacecraft launched in 1966
Spacecraft that orbited the Moon
Spacecraft that impacted the Moon
1966 on the Moon | [
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232651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Brooks | David Brooks | David Brooks may refer to:
Writers
David Brooks (commentator) (born 1961), commentator for The New York Times and other publications
David Brooks (author) (born 1953), Australian author of short stories and co-editor of Southerly
David H. M. Brooks (1950–1996), South African philosopher and professor of philosophy at the University of Cape Town
Arts
Mavado (singer) (David Constantine Brooks, born 1981), Jamaican dancehall artist
David Brooks, director of the 2012 film ATM
Bubba Brooks (David Kenneth Brooks, Jr., 1922–2002), American jazz musician
David Brooks (actor) (1915–1999), American actor and stage director and producer
Sports
David Brooks (rugby league) (born 1962), Australian rugby league footballer
David Brooks (ice hockey) (born 1939), American ice hockey player
David Brooks (rugby union) (1924–2002), British rugby union footballer
David Brooks (footballer) (born 1997), Welsh footballer
Other
David Owen Brooks (1955–2020), teenage accomplice of serial killer Dean Corll
D. W. Brooks (David William Brooks, 1901–1999), American farmer and businessman
David Brooks (inventor), inventor who patented an insulator for telegraph lines in 1867 while working for the Central Pacific Railroad
David Brooks (American politician) (1756–1838), United States representative in the Fifth United States Congress
David Brooks, 5th Baron Crawshaw (born 1934), British peer and politician
See also
David Brook (disambiguation)
David Brooke (disambiguation) | [
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232653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussar | Hussar | A hussar ( , ; , , , ) was a member of a class of light cavalry, originating in Central Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European armies in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
A number of armored or ceremonial mounted units in modern armies retain the designation of hussars.
Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, under Matthias Corvinus, with mainly Serb warriors.
Etymology
Etymologists are divided over the derivation of the word hussar. Several alternative theories are summarised below.
According to Webster's Dictionary, the word hussar stems from the Hungarian , which in turn originates from the medieval Serbian (Cyrillic: , or , Cyrillic: ), meaning brigand (because early hussars' shock troops tactics used against the Ottoman army resembled that of brigands; in modern Serbian the meaning of is limited to sea pirate), from the Medieval Latin (cf. the English word corsair).
Another theory is that the term is an original Hungarian one, having nothing in common with the Serbian . The hussars' tactics and riding skills are characteristic of the early Hungarian warriors and in the ancient and early medieval ages was used by many ethnicities on the Eurasian steppe, like Huns, Avars, Pechenegs, Cumans and later by the Mongols and Tatars. This type of light cavalry was especially characteristic of the Hungarian armies, at first equipped with bows, arrows, spears, and sabers which were only later exchanged for rifles and carbines.
The first written use of the word (in Latin, plural; in Hungarian: ) is found in documents dating from 1432 in Southern Hungary (at the time the Ottoman military frontiers of the Hungarian Kingdom). A type of irregular light horsemen was already well-established by the 15th century in medieval Hungary.
Byzantinist scholars argue that the term originated in Roman military practice, and the (singular ). 10th-century Byzantine military manuals mention , light cavalry, recruited in the Balkans, especially Serbs, "ideal for scouting and raiding". This word was subsequently reintroduced to Western European military practice after its original usage had been lost with the collapse of Rome in the west.
A further premise notes that means 'twenty' in Hungarian whilst is a unit of land measurement or acre. Accordingly, it is suggested that Hussars are so named as they were a form of military levy introduced after 1458 whereby any landowner with twenty acres was duty bound to provide a mounted and equipped (peasant origin) soldier to the king's army at his own expense.
Origins
Early Hungarian hussars
The hussars reportedly originated in bands of Serb warriors, crossing into southern Hungary after the Ottoman conquest of Serbia in the late 14th century. Regent-Governor John Hunyadi created mounted units inspired by the Ottomans. His son, Matthias Corvinus, later king of Hungary, is claimed to be the creator of these troops, commonly called Rác (a Hungarian exonym for Serbs). Initially, they fought in small bands, but were reorganised into larger, trained formations during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus.
The first hussar regiments comprised the light cavalry of the Black Army of Hungary. Under Corvinus' command, the hussars took part in the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1485 and proved successful against the sipahis (Ottoman cavalry) as well as against the Bohemians and Poles. After the king's death, in 1490, hussars became the standard form of cavalry in Hungary in addition to the heavy cavalry. Their role was limited to irregular warfare, raiding, securing, covering and reconnaissance of main regular forces. According to Antonio Bonfini, this lightly armed cavalry (expeditissimus equitatus) was not allowed to be part of the regular army, when the order of the battle was formed, but was placed outside it in quite separate groups and used to destroy, burn, kill and instil fear in the civilian population, while they rode ahead of the regular army.
The medieval Hungarian written sources spoke disparagingly and contemptuously of the light cavalry and the hussars in general, and during battles the texts praised only the virtues, endurance, courage, training and achievements of the knights. No wonder, since during the Middle Ages the Hungarian noble origin soldiers served exclusively as heavy armoured cavalry.
The 16th and 17th centuries saw a major change and during the Thirty Years' War they fought as light cavalry and increasingly used firearms. The Habsburg emperors hired Hungarian hussars as mercenaries to serve against the Ottomans and on various battlefields throughout Western Europe.
Early hussars wore armor when they could afford it, as did the later Polish hussars. Hungarian hussars abandoned the use of shields and, at a later date, armor; becoming entirely light cavalry in the first half of the 17th century.
Polish hussars
Initially the first units of Polish Hussars in the Kingdom of Poland were formed around 1500.
The Polish heavy hussars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were far more manoeuvrable than the heavily armoured lancers previously employed. The hussars proved vital to the Polish–Lithuanian victories at the Orsza (1514), the Obertyn (1531) and the Battle of Vienna (1683).
Over the course of the 16th century, hussars in Transylvania and Hungary became heavier in character: They had abandoned wooden shields and adopted plate-metal body armour. When Stephen Báthory, a Transylvanian-Hungarian prince, was elected King of Poland in 1576, he reorganised the Polish-Lithuanian Hussars of his Royal Guard along Hungarian lines, making them a heavy formation, equipped with a long lance as their main weapon. By the reign of King Stephen Báthory, the hussars had replaced medieval-style lancers in the Polish–Lithuanian army, and they now formed the bulk of the Polish cavalry. By the 1590s, most Polish–Lithuanian hussar units had been reformed along the same 'heavy', Hungarian model. Due to the same resemblance, the Polish heavy hussars came with their own style, the Polish winged hussars or Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth winged husaria.
In the Battle of Lubieszów, in 1577, the 'Golden Age' of the husaria began. Up to and including the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Polish–Lithuanian hussars fought countless actions against a variety of enemies. In the battles of Byczyna (1588), Kokenhusen (1601), Kircholm (1605), Kłuszyn (1610), Trzciana (1629), Chocim (1673) and Lwów (1675), the Polish–Lithuanian hussars proved to be the decisive factor, often against overwhelming odds.
Until the 18th century, they were considered the elite of the Commonwealth's armed forces.
Croatian hussars
Croatian hussar units, often designated simply as "Croats” (military unit), were raised from the Kingdom of Hungary Military Frontier, Croatian-Slavonian and the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia. One notable captain and chief officer of hussars was Petar Keglević. In 1578, Charles II took command of the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontier and prepared written orders and rule of service for infantry (Haramije) and horsemen (hussars), using the Serbo-Croatian language. The oldest written trace of the surname Husar in Croatia is from 1507 in Vinica where Petrus Hwzar (Petar Husar) was mentioned, in a document dated 1598 entitled "Regestum", mention was made of "hussar" at Lobor ("Castrum Lobor cum suis pertinentiis portiones magnificorum dominorum Joannis et Petri Keglyewich…“Blasius Hwszar, Inq(uilinus)”. A second reference to "hussar" appeared in 1613 from Krapina ("desertum Joannes Huszar de vinea cb – qr j”).
Croatian hussars were irregular light horsemen characteristic of the Habsburg-Ottoman border area. Croatian units were not inevitably referred as "Croats" but it was the most commonly used name. In the Thirty Years' War other designations used were Wallachen, Uskocken, Raitzen, Granitscharen, Insulaner, Wenden, Polen, Türken i Zigeuner. Amongst the Croatian hussars could be found other ethno-political groups, such as Hungarians, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, Poles, Vlachs and Cossacks. Croatian hussars participated in the siege of Magdeburg which was led by Johann Tserclaes as well as the sieges of Heidelberg, Frankenthal, Manheim, Breitenfeld, Lützen, Nördlingen, Wittstock and Breitenfeld.
Between 1746 and 1750 four Grenz Hussar (border) regiments were established: the Karlovac, the Varaždin, the Slavonian and the Syrmia Regiments. The Croatian-Slavonian Grenz Hussars took part in the campaigns of 1793–94 against Revolutionary France In 1751 Maria Theresa prescribed a distinctive hussar uniform.
History
Hussars in the 18th century
Hussars outside the Polish Kingdom followed a different line of development. During the early decades of the 17th century, hussars in Hungary ceased to wear metal body armour; and, by 1640, most were light cavalry. It was hussars of this "light" pattern, rather than the Polish heavy hussar, that were later to be copied across Europe. These light hussars were ideal for reconnaissance and raiding sources of fodder and provisions in advance of the army.
In battle, they were used in such light cavalry roles as harassing enemy skirmishers, overrunning artillery positions, and pursuing fleeing troops. In many countries, the hussars and bosniaks actually retained their original Asiatic uniforms. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, many Hungarian hussars sought employment in other Central and Western European countries and became the core of similar light cavalry formations created there. Following their example, hussar regiments were introduced into at least twelve European armies by 1800.
Bavaria raised its first hussar regiment in 1688 and a second one in about 1700. Prussia followed suit in 1721 when Frederick the Great used hussar units extensively during the War of the Austrian Succession.
France established a number of hussar regiments from 1692 onward, recruiting originally from Hungary and Germany, then subsequently from German-speaking frontier regions within France itself. The first hussar regiment in the French army was the Hussars-Royaux (Royal Hussars), raised from Hungarian deserters in 1692.
Spain disbanded its first hussars in 1747 and then raised new units of Húsares in 1795. The Húsares de Pavía were created in 1684 by the Count of Melgar to serve in Spanish possessions in Italy and were named after the Spanish victory over the French army at Pavia, south of Milan, Italy. During the battle, the King of France, Francis I, was captured by the Spanish Cavalry. The Húsares de Pavía fought in Italy during the War of Piedmont (1692–1695) and the War of Spanish Succession, it was transferred back to Spain. In 1719, the regiment was sent again to Italy until 1746.
Then, it served in campaigns against Algerian pirates and in the sieges of Oran and Algiers. During the Spanish War of Independence against Napoleon (1808–1814), the unit fought the Battles of Bailén, Tudela, Velez, Talavera and Ocaña and the actions of Baza, Cuellar, Murviedro and Alaquàs.
The Húsares de Pavía regiment also was involved in the Ten Years' War in Cuba, the Spanish–American War (1898), the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and in the Campaign of Ifni (1958). Ifni was a Spanish colony in North Africa that was attacked by irregulars from Morocco. At present, this regiment is named Regimiento Acorazado de Caballería Pavía nr 4 (Cavalry armored regiment Pavia nr 4) and is garrisoned in Zaragoza (Spain).
Sweden had hussars from about 1756 and Denmark introduced this class of cavalry in 1762. Britain converted a number of light dragoon regiments to hussars in the early 19th century.
The Dutch Republic took a Bavarian regiment into service in 1745 (Regiment Frangipani). Several new regiments and corps were raised in 1747 and 1748, but eventually these existed only on paper. One regiment, the Statenhuzaren ('States' Hussars') remained, but was disbanded in 1752. In 1784, two free companies of hussars were raised, which were taken into service after 1787 and would become two full regiments. These would be united into one regiment in 1795, which would be the 2nd Regiment of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806, with a 3rd Hussars being raised that same year, as well as a Guard Hussars Regiment. The Guard Hussars would become the 2eme Regiment Chevaux-Legeres Lanciers of the Imperial Guard (The Red Lancers) after 1810; the 3rd was disbanded; the 2nd being incorporated into the French line as the 11eme Regiment. After regaining independence, the new Royal Netherlands Army raised two hussar regiments (nrs. 6 and 8). They were disbanded (nr. 8 in 1830), or converted to lancers (nr. 6 in 1841). In 1867, all remaining cavalry regiments were transferred to hussar regiments. This tradition remains to this day, with the last surviving hussar regiment (Boreel's, 103rd and 104th reconnaissance squadrons) carrying on the tradition of all Dutch cavalry predecessors.
Russian Empire
Russia relied on its native cossacks along with kalmyks and other nomads to provide irregular light cavalry until the mid 18th century.
In 1707, Apostol Kigetsch, a Wallachian nobleman serving Russian Emperor Peter the Great, was given the task to form a khorugv ("banner" or "squadron") of 300 men to serve on the Ottoman-Russian border. The squadron consisted of Christians from Hungary, Serbia, Moldavia, and Wallachia. In 1711, prior to the Pruth campaign, 6 regiments (4 khorugv's each) of hussars were formed, mainly from Wallachia. Two other 'khorugv', for guerilla warfare, were formed, one Polish and one Serbian, to battle the Ottomans. In 1723, Peter the Great formed a Hussar regiment exclusively from Serbian light cavalry serving in the Austrian army. On 14 October 1741, during the regency of Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna, four Hussar regiments, a Serbian (Serbskiy), a Moldavian (Moldavskiy), a Hungarian (Vengerskiy) and a Georgian (Gruzinskiy) were authorized.
After the Russo-Turkish War (1735–39), these Hussar regiments were converted to regular service, voluntarily enlisted and not conscripted as the rest of the Russian army. They were on a level between regular and irregular cavalry. Hussars were recruited only from the nation indicated by the regiment's name, i.e., these regiments were national units in Russian service; all troops (including officers) were national, and commands were given in the respective languages. Each regiment was supposed to have a fixed organization of 10 companies, each of about 100 men, but these regiments were recruited from different sources, so they were less than the indicated strength.
By 1741 the foreign hussars in Russian service had disbanded and reliance for light cavalry functions was again placed on the indigenous Cossack irregulars. In that year new hussar regiments were raised, now drawn from Orthodox Christian communities along the Turkish frontier. The newly raised Russian hussar units had increased to 12 regiments by the Seven Years' War. During the 1750s Serbian and Slovakian Orthodox communities and refugees, plus Poles and Hungarians, provided non-Russian recruits for the expanding hussars who evolved into a semi-regular corps of frontier light horse. In 1759–60, three more Hussar regiments, were raised, the Yellow (Želtiy), the Macedonian (Makedonskiy) and the Bulgarian (Bolgarskiy).
Hussars of Frederick the Great
During and after Rákóczi's War of Independence, many Hungarians served in the Habsburg army. Located in garrisons far away from Hungary, some deserted from the Austrian army and joined that of Prussia. The value of the Hungarian hussars as light cavalry was recognised and, in 1721, two Hussaren Corps were organised in the Prussian Army.
Frederick II (later called "The Great") recognised the value of hussars as light cavalry and encouraged their recruitment. In 1741, he established a further five regiments, largely from Polish deserters. Three more regiments were raised for Prussian service in 1744 and another in 1758. While the hussars were increasingly drawn from Prussian and other German cavalrymen, they continued to wear the traditional Hungarian uniform, richly decorated with braid and gold trim.
Possibly due to a daring and impudent surprise raid on his capital, Berlin, by the hussars of Hungarian general András Hadik, Frederick also recognised the national characteristics of his Hungarian recruits and, in 1759, issued a royal order which warned the Prussian officers never to offend the self-esteem of his hussars with insults and abuse. At the same time, he exempted the hussars from the usual disciplinary measures of the Prussian Army, such as physical punishments including cudgeling.
Frederick used his hussars for reconnaissance duties and for surprise attacks against the enemy's flanks and rear. A hussar regiment under the command of Colonel Sigismund Dabasi-Halász won the Battle of Hohenfriedberg at Striegau on May 4, 1745, by attacking the Austrian combat formation on its flank and capturing all of its artillery.
The effectiveness of the hussars in Frederick's army can be judged by the number of promotions and decorations awarded to their officers. Recipients included the Hungarian generals Pal Werner and Ferenc Kőszeghy, who received the highest Prussian military order, the "Pour le Merite"; General Tivadar Ruesh was awarded the title of baron; Mihály Székely was promoted from the rank of captain to general after less than fifteen years of service.
While Hungarian hussars served in the opposing armies of Frederick and Maria Theresa, there were no known instances of fratricidal clashes between them.
Hussar Verbunkos
Verbunkos (; other spellings are Verbounko, Verbunko, Verbunkas, Werbunkos, Werbunkosch, Verbunkoche) is an 18th-century Hungarian dance and music genre.
The name is derived from the German word werben that means, in particular, "to enroll in the army"; verbunkos means recruiter. The corresponding music and dance were performed during military recruiting, which was a frequent event during this period, hence the character of the music. The verbunkos was an important component of the Hungarian hussar tradition. Potential recruits were dressed in items of hussar uniform, given wine to drink and invited to dance to this music.
Hussars of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
The hussars played a prominent role as cavalry in the Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–15). As light cavalrymen mounted on fast horses, they would be used to fight skirmish battles and for scouting. Most of the great European powers raised hussar regiments. The armies of France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia had included hussar regiments since the mid-18th century. In the case of Britain, four light dragoon regiments were converted to hussars in 1806–1807.
The hussars of the period created the tradition of sabrage, the opening of a champagne bottle with a sabre. Moustaches were universally worn by Napoleonic-era hussars; the British hussars were the only moustachioed troops in the British Army—leading to their being taunted as being "foreigners", at times. French hussars also wore cadenettes, braids of hair hanging on either side of the face, until the practice was officially proscribed when shorter hair became universal.
The uniform of the Napoleonic hussars included the pelisse, a short fur-edged jacket which was often worn slung over one shoulder in the style of a cape and was fastened with a cord. This garment was extensively adorned with braiding (often gold or silver for officers) and several rows of buttons. The dolman or tunic, which was also decorated in braid, was worn under it. The hussar's accoutrements included a Hungarian-style saddle covered by a shabraque, a decorated saddlecloth with long, pointed corners surmounted by a sheepskin.
On active service, the hussar normally wore reinforced breeches which had leather on the inside of the leg to prevent them from wearing due to the extensive time spent in the saddle. On the outside of such breeches, running up each outer side, was a row of buttons, and sometimes a stripe in a different colour. A shako or fur kolpac (busby) was worn as headwear. The colours of the dolman, pelisse and breeches varied greatly by regiment, even within the same army.
The French hussar of the Napoleonic period was armed with a brass-hilted sabre, a carbine and sometimes with a brace of pistols, although these were often unavailable. A famous military commander in Bonaparte's army who began his military career as a hussar was Marshal Ney, who, after being employed as a clerk in an iron works, joined the 5th Hussars in 1787. He rose through the ranks of the hussars in the wars of Belgium and the Rhineland (1794–1798), fighting against the forces of Austria and Prussia before receiving his marshal's baton in 1804, after the Emperor Napoleon's coronation.
In the British Army, hussar cavalry were introduced at a later date than in other major European armies. Towards the end of the 18th century, British light dragoon regiments began to adopt hussar style accoutrements such as laced jackets, pelisses and sabretaches. In 1805, four light dragoon regiments were permitted to use the "hussar" name, initially in parentheses after their regimental title, and adopted full hussar uniforms. British hussars were armed with, in addition to firearms, the highly regarded 1796-pattern light-cavalry sabre.
There were several Russian regiments of hussars by the time of Napoleonic Wars and extensive use was made of them.
19th century
Eastern Europe
Although the Romanian cavalry were not formally designated as hussars, their pre-1915 uniforms, as described below, were of the classic hussar type. These regiments were created in the second part of the 19th century, under the rule of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, creator of Romania by the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia. Romania diplomatically avoided the word "hussar" due to its connotation at the time with Austria-Hungary, traditional rival of the Romanian principates. Therefore, these cavalry regiments were called "Călărași" in Moldavia, and later the designation "Roșiori" was adopted in Wallachia. (The word "călăraș" means "mounted soldier", and "roșior" means "of red colour" which derived from the colour of their uniform.)
The three (later expanded to ten) Roșiori regiments were the regular units, while the Călărași were territorial reserve cavalry who supplied their own horses.
These troops played an important role in the Romanian Independence War of 1877, on the Russo-Turkish front. The Roșiori, as their Romanian name implies, wore red dolmans with black braiding while the Călărași wore dark blue dolmans with red loopings. Both wore fur busbies and white plumes. The Roșiori regiments were distinguished by the different colours of their cloth busby bags (yellow, white, green, light blue, light green, dark blue, light brown, lilac, pink and light grey according to regiment). The Regimentul 1 Roșiori "General de armată Alexandru Averescu" was formed in 1871, while the Regimentul 4 Roșiori "Regina Maria" was created in 1893.
After World War I, the differences between the two branches of Romanian cavalry disappeared, although the titles of Roșiori and Călărași remained. Both types of cavalry served through World War II on the Russian front as mounted and mechanised units.
Latin America
In Argentina, the 'Regimiento de Húsares del Rey' was created in 1806 to defend Buenos Aires from the British 1806–1807 expeditions. After the revolution in 1810, it became the 'Regimiento Húsares de Pueyrredón' after its founder and first colonel, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón. Today, it's traditions and historic name and uniform are kept by the 8th Tank Regiment of the Argentinian Army.
In Chile, the Regimiento de Húsares de la Gran Guardia Nacional (Grand National Guard Hussars Regiment) was created by José Miguel Carrera, who was himself previously a hussar in the Spanish Army. In 1813, as part of the army of the newly independent Chile, the regiment fought against the Spanish Army until its defeat at the disaster of the Battle of Rancagua. It was dissolved by José de San Martín after the Chilean Army fled to Argentina. In addition, the 'Húsares de la Muerte', or 'Death Hussars', were created as a paramilitary corps by Manuel Rodríguez after the 'Desastre de Cancha Rayada' (Disaster of Cancha Rayada) on 26 March 1818, during the period known as the Patria Vieja (Old Fatherland).
In Peru, the squadrons of Hussars of the Peruvian Legion of the Guard were created in 1821 by General José de San Martín, from officers and troopers of the Squadron of "Hussars of the General's Escort", the former Squadron of Horse-Chasseurs of the Andes, which were included in the new army of the newly independent republic of Peru.
The 4th Squadron of the Hussars of the Peruvian Legion of the Guard was organized in Trujillo under the command of Peruvian Colonel Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente. Originally designated as "Cuirassiers" in 1823, it became the "Hussars of Perú" Squadron in 1824.
It was renamed "Hussars of Junín" for its performance in 1824 at the Battle of Junín, which was one of the Spanish-Peruvian battles which determined the final defeat of Spanish colonial rule.
The Hussars of Junín fought at the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, among the liberating forces commanded by Antonio de Sucre against the Royalist Spanish forces commanded by Viceroy José de la Serna. The heroic action of the Hussars of Junín Regiment as part of the light cavalry commanded by General José María Córdova was victorious, the battle eventuating in the capitulation of the Spanish forces, affirming the final independence of Peru.
For this heroic action, the "Hussars of Junín" Light Cavalry Regiment was declared the Liberator of Perú with an inscription on the regimental flag.
North America
In the United States, the Georgia Hussars were a cavalry regiment founded before the American Revolution that continues today as part of the Georgia National Guard. The Hussars served the State of Georgia as part of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, and after reconciliation served in Mexico, World War I, World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Desert Storm, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and The War on Terror. Another famous Confederate regiment designated as Hussars were the 1st Virginia Cavalry, known as the Black Horse Troop. Their grey uniforms had black facings, and unique rows of braid across the chest.
The Union army had two hussar regiments during the Civil War. The 3rd New Jersey Cavalry, nicknamed the Butterflies, wore dark blue pelisses with yellow braid, short blue cloaks with red lining, and a distinctive peakless forage cap similar to the British army. The 5th Missouri Cavalry, known as the Benton Hussars, wore sky blue uniforms with dark blue facings and chest braid. On campaign, a kepi was worn in place of the traditional fur cap. The Benton Hussars served as General Charles S. Hamilton's elite bodyguard, and distinguished themselves at the Battle of Pea Ridge and the Battle of Iuka in 1862.
Hussars in the early 20th century
On the eve of World War I, there were still hussar regiments in the British (including Canadian), French, Spanish, German, Russian, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Romanian and Austro-Hungarian armies. In most respects, they had now become regular light cavalry, recruited solely from their own countries and trained and equipped along the same lines as other classes of cavalry. But Hussars were still notable for their colourful and elaborate parade uniforms, the most spectacular of which were those worn by the two Spanish regiments, Húsares de Pavía and Húsares de la Princesa.
A characteristic of both the Imperial German and Russian Hussars was the variety of colours apparent in their dress uniforms. These included red, black, green, dark and light blue, brown and even pink (the Russian 15th Hussars) dolmans. Most Russian hussar regiments wore red breeches, as did all the Austro-Hungarian hussars of 1914. This rainbow-effect harked back to the 18th-century origins of hussar regiments in these armies and helped regrouping after battle or a charge.
The fourteen French hussar regiments were an exception to this rule – they wore the same relatively simple uniform, with only minor distinctions, as the other branches of French light cavalry. This comprised a shako, light blue tunic and red breeches. The twelve British hussar regiments were distinguished by different coloured busby bags and a few other distinctions such as the yellow plumes of the 20th, the buff collars of the 13th and the crimson breeches of the 11th Hussars.
Hussar influences were apparent even in those armies which did not formally include hussar regiments. Thus, both the Belgian Guides (prior to World War I) and the Mounted Escort, the so-called Blue Hussars, of the Irish Defence Forces (during the 1930s) wore hussar-style uniforms.
The hussar image
The colourful military uniforms of hussars from 1700 onwards were inspired by the prevailing Hungarian fashions of the day. Usually, this uniform consisted of a short jacket known as a dolman, or later a medium-length atilla jacket, both with heavy, horizontal gold braid (sujtás) on the breast and yellow braided or gold Austrian knots (vitézkötés) on the sleeves, a matching pelisse (a short-waisted over-jacket often worn slung over one shoulder), coloured trousers, sometimes with yellow braided or gold Austrian knots at the front, a busby (kucsma) (a high, fur hat with a cloth bag hanging from one side, although some regiments wore the shako (csákó) of various styles), and high riding boots (often Hessian boots). A sabretache, an ornate pouch hung from the belt, often completed the accoutrements.
European hussars traditionally wore long moustaches (but no beards) and long hair, with two plaits hanging in front of the ears as well as a larger queue at the back, a style known as the cadenette. They often retained the queue, which used to be common to all soldiers, after other regiments had dispensed with it and adopted short hair.
Hussars had a reputation for being the dashing, if unruly, adventurers of the army. The traditional image of the hussar is of a reckless, hard-drinking, womanising, moustachioed swashbuckler. General Lasalle, an archetypal hussar officer, epitomized this attitude by his remarks, among which the most famous is: "Any hussar who is not dead by the age of thirty is a blackguard." He died at the Battle of Wagram at the age of 34.
Arthur Conan Doyle's character Brigadier Etienne Gerard of the French Hussards de Conflans has come to epitomise the hussar of popular fiction – brave, conceited, amorous, a skilled horseman and (according to Napoleon) not very intelligent. Brigadier Gerard's boast that the Hussards de Conflans (an actual regiment) could set a whole population running, the men away from them and the women towards them, may be taken as a fair representation of the esprit de corps of this class of cavalry.
Less romantically, 18th-century hussars were also known (and feared) for their poor treatment of local civilians. In addition to commandeering local food-stocks for the army, hussars were known to also use the opportunity for personal looting and pillaging.
The 1930 operetta Viktoria und ihr Husar (Victoria and her Hussar) has been filmed several times.
Armament and tactics
Hussar armament varied over time. Until the 17th century, it included a cavalry sabre, lance, long, wooden shield and, optionally, light, metal armour or simple leather vest. Their usual form of attack was a rapid charge in compact formation against enemy infantry or cavalry units. If the first attack failed, they would retire to their supporting troops, who re-equipped them with fresh lances, and then would charge again.
Apart from the Polish sabre and the lance, Polish heavy hussars were usually equipped with two horse pistols, a small, rounded shield and koncerz, a long (up to 2 metres) stabbing sword used in charges when the lance was broken or lost, and some even carried horseman's picks or war hammers. The Polish hussars quickly enough (by 1590s) abandoned using the "Balkan" shield (a large shield of an asymmetric shape), and most of them now had metal breastplates.
Unlike their lighter counterparts, the Polish hussars were used as a heavy cavalry for line-breaking charges against enemy infantry. The famous low losses were achieved by the unique tactic of late concentration. Until the first musket salvo of the enemy infantry, the hussars approached relatively slowly, in a loose formation. Each rider was at least 5 steps away from his colleagues and the infantry, still using undeveloped muskets, could not aim at any particular cavalryman. Also, if a hussar's horse was wounded, the following lines had time to steer clear of him. After the salvo, the cavalry rapidly accelerated and tightened the ranks. At the moment of the clash of the charging cavalry with the defenders, the hussars were riding knee-to-knee.
Hussars of the Polish Commonwealth were also famous for the huge wings worn on their backs or attached to the saddles of their horses. Several theories attempt to explain the meaning of the wings. According to some, they were designed to foil attacks by Tatar lasso; another theory maintains that the sound of vibrating feathers attached to the wings made a strange sound that frightened enemy horses during the charge. However, recent experiments performed by Polish historians in 2001 did not support any of these theories and the phenomenon remains unexplained. They might have simply intended as a distinctive feature. The wings were probably worn only during parades and not during combat, but this explanation is also disputed. Because Poland has a large population of devout Catholics, it seems possible the wings and uniforms were meant to resemble St. Michael the Archangel.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, hussars of Central and Western Europe retained the use of the sabre throughout the time. Some cavalrymen such as the chasseurs were also armed with firearms, primarily carbines or pistols.
Legacy
Armoured units
After horse cavalry became obsolete, hussar units were generally converted to armoured units, though retaining their traditional titles. Hussar regiments still exist today and horses are sometimes used for ceremonial purposes. In the British Army (although amalgamations have reduced their number to only two), the French Army, the Swedish Army (Livregementets husarer, the Life Regiment Hussars), the Dutch Army and the Canadian Forces, they are usually tank forces or light mechanised infantry. The Danish Guard Hussars provide a ceremonial mounted squadron, which is the last to wear the slung pelisse.
Police hussars in Germany
In certain German states, notably Rheinpfalz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, hussars were sometimes used as a mounted police force or gendarmerie. A rare exception to the usual pattern of German police uniforms were those of the Mecklenburg-Strelitzsche Districts-Husaren. This gendarmerie corps retained their 19th century-style uniforms until 1905.
Current hussar units
Argentina
The 'Regimiento ' (10th Tank Pueyrredon Hussars Regiment) currently serves as an armoured regiment ( "Husares de Pueyrredón") of the Argentine Army using its revolution-era full dress uniforms worn during formal parades.
Bulgaria
The National Guards Unit of Bulgaria were established as a hussar regiment in 1879, and served as the personal escort of Alexander I of Bulgaria. In modern times they serve as the president's honor guard and security detail, and carry AK-47s and SKS instead of sabres, worn only by officers assigned to the unit.
Canada
Regiments in the Primary Reserve:
Regiments on the Supplementary Order of Battle:
14th Canadian Hussars
Chile
The only remaining hussar unit in the Chilean Army is the 3rd Cavalry Regiment "Hussars" () in Angol. It forms part of the 3rd Army Mountain Division, and is the only horse-mounted regiment remaining in the army, aside from the Presidential Horse Grenadiers. The regiment has a mounted troop and mounted military band. It is named after one of the nation's founding fathers, José Miguel de Carrera, and is informally named "The Hussars of Death", as the successor regiment to Manuel Rodríguez's cavalry unit of that name. The modern regiment has the Totenkopf as its insignia as well as on the regimental camp flag.
Denmark
Gardehusarregimentet (English: The Guard Hussar Regiment), founded in 1762, is currently a unit with four battalions: an armoured infantry battalion, a light (motorized) reconnaissance battalion and two training battalions. In addition to its operational role, the Guard Hussar Regiment is one of two regiments in the Danish Army (along with the Den Kongelige Livgarde) to be categorised as 'Guards'; in this case, the Mounted Squadron perform the same role as the Household Cavalry do in the British Army. In mounted parade uniform, the Gardehusarregimentet are the only hussars to still wear the slung and braided pelisse, which was formerly characteristic of this class of cavalry.
France
1st Parachute Hussar Regiment (). Founded in 1720, this regiment is currently stationed in Tarbes, Hautes-Pyrénées, France. They were formerly the "", after their founder, Count Bercheny, a Hungarian noble.
(2nd Hussar Regiment). Founded in 1735, currently stationed in Haguenau, Bas-Rhin, France. Traditionally called "Chamborant".
(3rd Hussar Regiment). Founded in 1764, currently stationed in Metz, France. Part of the Franco-German Brigade. Formerly the "".
Because of political upheavals such as the French Revolution and the Restoration of 1815, the French hussar regiments do not have the same historical continuity as their counterparts in some other armies.
('black hussar') was the nickname given to primary-school teachers during the Third Republic, referring to their black coats. Originally written by essayist Charles Péguy in 1913, the phrase ('the black knights of the Republic') has a military undertone: It is meant to capture the tense atmosphere of the late 19th century in France, as schoolteachers felt entrusted with a superior mission to actively promote Republican and secular values, among a largely illiterate population still much influenced by the authority of royalist or Catholic powers. The phrase is still commonly used in public discourse, to emphasize the moral and civic role played by school teachers (or occasionally, journalists, etc.) in the enlightenment of citizens in a democracy.
Ireland
The Mounted Escort, popularly known as Blue Hussars, was an Irish Army unit which was used for state and ceremonial functions and wore bright blue hussar-style uniforms. They were created in 1932 and disbanded in 1948. The name is sometimes used to refer to their successors: the motorcycle unit that has provided presidential escort since then.
Lithuania
The King Mindaugas Hussar Battalion of the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade is a unit of the Lithuanian Land Forces. It is named after King Mindaugas of Lithuania (–1263).
Netherlands
The Dutch word for hussar is huzaar .
Regiment Huzaren Van Sytzama, eldest element founded in 1577; disbanded in 2012
Regiment Huzaren Prins van Oranje, eldest element founded in 1668
Regiment Huzaren Prins Alexander eldest element founded in 1672; disbanded in 2007
Regiment Huzaren van Boreel, eldest element founded in 1585
Except for the Huzaren van Boreel, the regiments operate in an armoured role in one of the two mechanised brigades of the Dutch army, using the Leopard 2 main battle tank. Each of these brigades also has a squadron from the Huzaren van Boreel attached for reconnaissance.
There is also a mounted unit for ceremonies: Cavalerie Ere-Escorte. It is linked to the Huzaren Prins Alexander, although riders from other regiments participate as well.
Peru
The 1st Light Cavalry Regiment, the "Glorious Hussars of Junín", was until 2012 the horse guards unit of the Peruvian Army, with a history spanning almost two centuries. Raised on August 18, 1821 by José de San Martín as the mounted component of the Peruvian Legion of the Guard, the regiment served in the final battles of the Latin American wars of independence in Junin and Ayacucho, in the Gran Colombia–Peru War, in the War of the Confederation and in the War of the Pacific.
Following an extended period as part of the Army Education Command, the regiment became the Presidential horse guards regiment in 1987. However, by Ministerial Resolution No 139-2012/DE/EP of February 2, 2012, signed under the administration of President Ollanta Humala Tasso, the Field Marshal Domingo Nieto Cavalry Regiment has been reestablished as the official presidential escort, with the main mission of guaranteeing the security of the President of the Republic and the Government Palace of Perú in Lima.
The Hussars of Junín wear a stylised dress uniform of a blue and red shako, red coat and blue breeches modelled on that worn in 1824 in the Battle of Junín. This uniform is of similar design, but with different colors and braiding, to that worn by the Argentine Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers General San Martín, which assisted in its raising and in the training of its first troopers.
The Hussars of Junin carry lances and sabers on parade and perform as a ceremonial guard together with the Marshal Nieto Dragoon Guards and the other ceremonial units of the Peruvian Armed Forces and the National Police of Peru. As noted above, The Hussars of Junín no longer serve as the presidential escort, but are now based in the Peruvian Army Education Command and still participates in ceremonies and parades, representing the Peruvian Army. The regiment also provides honor guards and escorts for welcoming-ceremonies and other events of national importance. An example of such occasions is the annual ceremony commemorating the 1929 reintegration of the Tacna Region into Peru.
Spain
The Spanish Army still retains one of its historic hussar regiments: the Húsares de Pavía:
Húsares Españoles: (Grupo de Caballería Mecanizado "Húsares Españoles" II/11)
Húsares de la Princesa
Húsares de Pavía: Regimiento Acorazado de Caballería Pavía nº 4 (the Pavía Armoured Cavalry Regiment no. 4 "Pavia Hussars"), garrisoned in Zaragoza, Spain.
Húsares de Calatrava
Húsares de Fernando VII
Húsares de Iberia
Húsares de Cantabria
Húsares de Castilla
Húsares de Cataluña
Húsares de San Andres
Húsares de Aragón
Húsares de Arlabán (Carlist)
Sweden
Livregementets husarer (English: 'Life Regiment Hussars'). One of the most distinguished hussar regiments in European history, with roots extending back to 1536. Today, Livregementets husarer, also known as K 3, is the last active hussar regiment in Sweden and trains an airborne battalion and an intelligence battalion, and hosts the Swedish Army's Parachute Ranger School and the Armed Forces Survival School.
United Kingdom
Queen's Royal Hussars
King's Royal Hussars
C (Royal Gloucestershire Hussars) Squadron, the Royal Wessex Yeomanry
710 (Royal Buckinghamshire Hussars) Squadron RLC
Presently, the first two regiments and C Sqn RWxY operate in the armoured role, primarily operating the Challenger 2 main battle tank. The Hussar regiments are grouped together with the Dragoon and Lancer regiments in the order of precedence, all of which are below the Dragoon Guards. A Dragoon regiment, the Light Dragoons, was formed by the amalgamation of two Hussar regiments, the 13th/18th Royal Hussars and the 15th/19th The King's Royal Hussars, in 1992, reversing the mid-19th-century trend of all existing light-dragoon regiments being converted to hussars. 710 (Royal Buckinghamshire Hussars) Laundry Squadron, RLC is an is an Reserve Operational Hygiene Squadron within 165 Port and Maritime Regiment RLC and was formed in April 2014 from 60 Signal Squadron, Royal Corps of Signals.
The Light Cavalry HAC also wear hussar uniform.
Venezuela
The of Venezuela wear hussar style full-dress uniforms, thus maintaining the traditions and legacy of Simón Bolívar's Hussar Troop. This unit was established in 1815, serving under Bolivar during the Venezuelan War of Independence and Spanish American wars of independence. The modern brigade serves as a ceremonial escort to the President of Venezuela at Miraflores Palace and attends all state arrival ceremonies conducted there, as well as providing security for the palace complex. The brigade also provides honor guards (i) at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Carabobo Field, Carabobo commemorating the memory of national heroes and the fallen of the Battle of Carabobo; (ii) at the Montana Barracks in Caracas in memory of the late Hugo Chávez; and (iii) at the National Pantheon in Caracas in memory of Bolívar and other national heroes buried there. The brigade also performs public-duty functions as required. Brigade personnel come from all branches of the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela and public security services. The brigade is commanded by a general or flag officer and includes a Presidential mounted escort of platoon size.
See also
Uhlan
Cossacks
Russian Hussars
Cuirassier
Dragoon
Lancer
Pandurs – infantry mercenaries in the Habsburg Monarchy
References and notes
Further reading
Brzezinski, Richard. Polish Armies 1569–1600. (volume 1) #184 in the Osprey Men-at-Arms Series. London: Osprey Publishing, 6, 16.
, 64 pages
Hollins, David. Hungarian Hussars 1756–1815. Osprey Warrior Series. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, Ltd., 2003.
Klucina, Petr. (Illustrations by Pavol Pevny), Armor: From Ancient To Modern Times. Reprinted by New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1992, (by permission of Slovart Publishing Ltd, Bratislava).
Ostrowski, Jan K., et al., Art in Poland: Land of the Winged Horsemen 1572–1764. Baltimore: Art Services International, 1999.
Wasilkowska, Anna. The Winged Horsemen. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Interpress, 1998.
Zamoyski, Adam. The Polish Way. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1996.
External links
Polish Hussars Feature on MyArmoury.com
Hussars, the armoured force of the seventeenth century at the Wilanów Palace Museum
Croatian Military Frontier Hussar Regiment from Varaždin County (1746) | [
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232654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Turpin | Ben Turpin | Bernard "Ben" Turpin (September 19, 1869 – July 1, 1940) was an American comedian and actor, best remembered for his work in silent films. His trademarks were his cross-eyed appearance and adeptness at vigorous physical comedy. Turpin worked with notable performers such as Charlie Chaplin and Laurel and Hardy, and was a part of the Mack Sennett studio team. He is believed to have been the first filmed "victim" of the pie in the face gag. When sound came to films, Turpin chose to retire, having invested profitably in real estate, although he did do occasional cameos.
Personal life
Turpin was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on September 19, 1869, the son of a candy store owner, Ernest Turpin, and Sarah Buckley.
Turpin and his first wife, actress Carrie Lemieux, were married in Chicago on February 18, 1907. In 1923, Mrs. Turpin became ill with influenza, which caused the loss of her hearing. Heartbroken, Turpin took his seriously ill wife to the Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré in Quebec, hoping she would be healed. She eventually became an invalid, with Turpin placing his career on hold to care for her. Carrie died on October 2, 1925. Turpin remarried on July 8, 1926, to Babette Dietz in Los Angeles.
He was a Roman Catholic, and a member of the Good Shepherd Parish and the Catholic Motion Picture Guild in Beverly Hills, California.
Vaudeville
Turpin worked in vaudeville, burlesque, and circuses. He had a distinctive appearance, with a small wiry frame, a brush mustache, and crossed eyes. Turpin's famous eyes, he said, only crossed as a young adult after he suffered an accident. He was convinced that the crossed eyes were essential to his comic career; his co-workers recalled that after he received any blow to the head he made a point of looking himself in the mirror to assure himself that they had not become uncrossed. He was a devout Catholic, and his workmates occasionally goaded him by threatening to pray that his eyes would uncross, thus depriving him of his livelihood.
Turpin famously bought a $25,000 insurance policy with Lloyd's of London, payable if his eyes ever uncrossed. A 1920 version of the story had his eyes insured for $100,000. How serious this was is open to question; such publicity stunts centered on a performer's "trademark" were common at the time.
He developed a vigorous style of physical comedy, including an ability to stage comic pratfalls that impressed even his fellow workers in the rough-and-tumble world of silent comedy. One of his specialties was a forward tumble he called the "hundred an' eight". It was basically an interrupted forward somersault initiated by kicking one leg up, turning over 180 degrees to land flat on the back or in a seated position.
Film
Turpin first appeared on film in 1907 for Essanay Studios in Chicago in various small parts and comic bits. In addition to his on-screen work, he worked as a carpenter and janitor for Essanay. In the 1909 film Mr. Flip, Turpin receives what is believed to have been the first pie-in-the-face. By 1912 he was an established – if not major – screen personality, giving interviews and writing articles for the new fan magazines (the first of which had started the year before).
Charlie Chaplin joined the Essanay company in 1915, and the studio made Turpin his second banana. Chaplin was maturing as a filmmaker, working slowly and intuitively. Turpin, however, was impatient with Chaplin's methods. The earthy Turpin understood straightforward slapstick more than comic subtlety. The Chaplin–Turpin duo did not last long, with Chaplin abandoning Chicago for California. Turpin does share one additional credit with Chaplin: after Chaplin filmed Burlesque on Carmen in two reels, Essanay filmed new scenes with Turpin to pad the picture into a featurette, doubling its length.
Essanay did not survive Chaplin's departure and remained solvent for only a few more years. Turpin may have been aware of Essanay's instability; he left for the Vogue comedy company, where he starred in a series of two-reel comedies. Former Essanay comedian Paddy McQuire supported him. Many of Turpin's Vogue comedies were re-released under different titles, to cash in on Turpin's subsequent stardom.
Mack Sennett and stardom
In 1917 Ben Turpin joined the leading comedy company, the Mack Sennett studio. Turpin's aptitude for crude slapstick suited the Sennett style perfectly, and Sennett's writers often cast the ridiculous-looking Turpin against type (a rugged Yukon miner; a suave, worldly lover; a stalwart cowboy; a fearless stuntman, etc.) for maximum comic effect. Through the 1920s his roles often spoofed serious actors and celebrities of the time – e.g., "The Shriek" for "The Sheik" – and Turpin became one of film's most popular comics. Turpin appeared in both short subjects and feature films for Sennett. Delighted with his success, he took to introducing himself with the phrase, "I'm Ben Turpin; I make $3,000 a week."
Sennett terminated most of his staff's contracts in 1928, and closed the studio to retool for the new talking pictures. Turpin was signed by the low-budget Weiss Brothers-Artclass company, perhaps the most ambitious coup that Artclass ever attempted. Turpin made two-reel comedies there for one year. Artclass usually traded on his peculiar vision with titles like Idle Eyes and The Eyes Have It.
Turpin in the sound era
1929 saw many silent-film stars uncertain about their future employment, with the new talking pictures requiring new skills and techniques. Ben Turpin chose to retire. He had invested his earnings in real estate, and, being highly successful at this, had no financial need for more work. Producers soon sought him out for gag appearances in films. Turpin's speaking voice was a gritty rasp that retained elements of the New Orleans "Yat" accent of his youth. He commanded a flat fee of $1000 per appearance, regardless of whether it was a speaking role or a fleeting cameo. Among the most memorable of these cameos was in Paramount's Million Dollar Legs (1932) starring W. C. Fields, Jack Oakie, and Susan Fleming.
He starred in only one more film, the short subject Keystone Hotel (Warner Bros., 1935), a reunion of silent-era comedians. His last feature film was Laurel and Hardy's Saps at Sea in 1940, in which his cross-eyed face served as a joke punchline. He was paid his $1000 for one quick shot of his face and just 16 words of dialogue. Death prevented his scheduled appearance in Charlie Chaplin's The Great Dictator.
Death
Ben Turpin died July 1, 1940, of a heart attack and was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California, following a Requiem Mass at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills. He was eulogized as "a fine member of his church, strong in his faith" by Father J. P. Concannon. His pallbearers included Andy Clyde, Billy Bevan, James Finlayson, and Charlie Murray.
Turpin had been close friends with Andy Clyde and James Finlayson, with Clyde having been the witness at Turpin's second wedding, and Turpin having been one of the witnesses signing Finlayson's petition for naturalization.
Turpin's crossed eyes
Turpin and Sennett both appeared as themselves (in Technicolor) in Hollywood Cavalcade (1939), a partly fictionalized movie about the silent-film era. This movie contains a sequence in which Turpin reports for work and prepares to go onto the set in character. In the dressing room he picks up a hand mirror and checks his reflection as he deliberately crosses his eyes as extremely as possible. In this sequence, it can be seen that Turpin's left eye was actually normal when he was not performing and that he intentionally crossed it (to match his misaligned right eye) as part of his screen character.
In the film The Comic (1969), Mickey Rooney plays a fictional silent-film comedian named "Cockeye Van Buren", who is genuinely cross-eyed. Although this character does not otherwise resemble Turpin, the handicap given to Rooney's role is clearly inspired by Turpin.
Filmography
See also
Age fabrication
References
Selective bibliography
External links
Turpin biography on entertainment.msn.com
Ben Turpin at Virtual History
"BEN TURPIN: The Rear Guard of Saxicolous Wayfarers of Cinematic Finitude"
Mr. Flip available for free download from Internet Archive
Ben Turpin on the cover of Life magazine, posthumously(9 years after his death), September 5 1949
Turpin in "The Florodora Boys" skit (at 3:45), speaking a verse and performing his signature somersault
Ben Turpin Collection at The Historic New Orleans Collection
1869 births
1940 deaths
Vaudeville performers
Silent film comedians
American male film actors
American male silent film actors
American male comedians
Male actors from New Orleans
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American comedians
American Roman Catholics
Comedians from Louisiana
American male comedy actors | [
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232657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Addington | Henry Addington | Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, (30 May 175715 February 1844) was a British Tory statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1804.
Addington is best known for obtaining the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, an unfavourable peace with Napoleonic France which marked the end of the Second Coalition during the French Revolutionary Wars. When that treaty broke down he resumed the war, but he was without allies and conducted relatively weak defensive hostilities, ahead of what would become the War of the Third Coalition. He was forced from office in favour of William Pitt the Younger, who had preceded Addington as Prime Minister. Addington is also known for his reactionary crackdown on advocates of democratic reforms during a ten-year spell as Home Secretary from 1812 to 1822. He is the longest continuously serving holder of that office since it was created in 1782.
Family
Henry Addington was the son of Anthony Addington, Pitt the Elder's physician; and Mary Addington, the daughter of the Rev. Haviland John Hiley, headmaster of Reading School. As a consequence of his father's position, Addington was a childhood friend of William Pitt the Younger. Addington studied at Reading School, Winchester, and Brasenose College, Oxford, and then studied law at Lincoln's Inn. He married Ursula Mary Hammond in 1781; she brought an income of £1,000 a year into the marriage. The couple had eight children, of whom six survived to adulthood. Ursula Addington died in 1811; in 1823 Addington married a widow, Marianne Townsend, daughter of William Scott, 1st Baron Stowell.
Political career
He was elected to the House of Commons in 1784 as one of the Members of Parliament for Devizes, and became Speaker of the House of Commons in 1789. In March 1801, William Pitt the Younger resigned from office, ostensibly over the refusal of King George III to remove some of the existing political restrictions on Roman Catholics in Ireland (Catholic Emancipation), but poor health, failure in war, economic collapse, alarming levels of social unrest due to famine, and irreconcilable divisions within the Cabinet also played a role. Both Pitt and the King insisted that Addington take over as Prime Minister, despite his own objections, and his failed attempts to reconcile the King and Pitt.
Prime Minister
Foreign policy was the centrepiece of his term in office. Some historians have been highly critical and said that it was ignorant and indifferent to Britain's greatest needs. However, Thomas Goldsmith argues that Addington and Hawkesbury conducted a logical, consistent and eurocentric balance-of-power policy, rooted in rules and assumptions governing their conduct, rather than a chaotic free-for-all approach.
Addington's domestic reforms doubled the efficiency of the income tax. In foreign affairs, he secured the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. While the treaty's terms were the bare minimum that that the British government could accept, Napoleon Bonaparte would not have agreed to any terms more favourable to the British, and the British government had reached a state of financial collapse from war expenditure, the loss of Continental markets for British goods and two successive failed harvests that had led to widespread famine and social unrest, rendering peace a necessity. By early 1803, Britain's financial and diplomatic positions had recovered sufficiently to allow Addington to declare war on France, when it became clear that the French would not allow a settlement for the defences of Malta that would have been secure enough to fend off a French invasion that appeared imminent.
At the time and ever since, Addington has been criticised for his lacklustre conduct of the war and his defensive posture. However, without allies, Britain's options were limited to defence. He increased the forces, provided a tax base that could finance an enlarged war and seized several French possessions. To gain allies, Addington cultivated better relations with Russia, Austria, and Prussia, which later culminated in the Third Coalition shortly after he left office. Addington also strengthened British defences against a French invasion through the building of Martello towers on the south coast and the raising of more than 600,000 men at arms.
Foundling Hospital
In 1802, Addington accepted an honorary position as vice-president for life on the Court of Governors of London's Foundling Hospital for abandoned babies.
Loss of office
Although the King stood by him, it was not enough, because Addington did not have a strong enough hold on both Houses of Parliament. By May 1804, partisan criticism of Addington's war policies provided the pretext for a parliamentary putsch by the three major factions (Grenvillites, Foxites, and Pittites), who had decided that they should replace Addington's ministry. Addington's greatest failing was his inability to manage a parliamentary majority by cultivating the loyal support of MPs beyond his own circle and the friends of the King. That, combined with his mediocre speaking ability, left him vulnerable to Pitt's mastery of parliamentary management and his unparallelled oratory skills. Pitt's parliamentary assault against Addington in March 1804 led to the slimming of his parliamentary majority to the point that defeat in the House of Commons was imminent.
Lord President and Lord Privy Seal
Addington remained an important political figure because he had gained a large following of MPs who supported him loyally in the Commons. He was reconciled with Pitt in December 1804, with the help of Lord Hawkesbury as an intermediary. As a result, Pitt arranged for him to join the Cabinet as Lord President of the Council in January 1805 but insisted for Addington to accept a peerage to avoid the inconvenience of them sitting together in the Commons and Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth, of Sidmouth in the County of Devon on 12 January 1805. In return for the support of the government by Addington's loyal supporters, Pitt agreed to include Addington's colleague the Earl of Buckinghamshire as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster with a promise to elevate him to the first vacancy of a more senior position in the Cabinet. However, when Melville resigned as First Lord of the Admiralty in July 1805, Pitt broke his promise by having Sir Charles Middleton appointed instead of Buckinghamshire. As a result of the betrayal, Addington and Buckinghamshire resigned and took all of their supporters into opposition. Addington was appointed Lord Privy Seal in 1806 in the Ministry of All the Talents that succeeded Pitt. Later that year he returned to the position of Lord President to 1807. His resignation, in opposition to a limited measure of Catholic Emancipation, which the Cabinet was considering despite the opposition of King George III, precipitated the fall of the Talents Ministry.
Home Secretary
He returned to government again as Lord President in March 1812, and, in June of the same year, became Home Secretary. As Home Secretary, Addington countered revolutionary opposition, being responsible for the temporary suspension of habeas corpus in 1817 and the passage of the Six Acts in 1819. His tenure also saw the Peterloo Massacre of 1819. He left office in 1822, succeeded as Home Secretary by Sir Robert Peel, but Addington remained in the Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio for the next two years, opposing, along with the Duke of Wellington, other members of Cabinet, and King George IV, British recognition of the South American republics. He remained active in the House of Lords for the next few years, making his final speech in opposition to Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and casting his final vote against the Reform Act 1832.
Residences and land
Addington maintained homes at Upottery, Devon and Bulmershe Court, in what is now the Reading suburb of Woodley, but moved to the White Lodge in Richmond Park when he became Prime Minister. However, he maintained links with Woodley and the Reading area as commander of the Woodley Yeomanry Cavalry and High Steward of Reading. He also donated to the town of Reading the four acres of land that is today the site of the Royal Berkshire Hospital, and his name is commemorated in the town's Sidmouth Street and Addington Road as well as in Sidmouth Street in Devizes.
As Speaker of the House of Commons, from 1795 he had a residence in the Palace of Westminster, to the north-east of the House of Commons.
Death
Addington died in London on 15 February 1844 at the age of 86, and was buried in the churchyard at St Mary the Virgin, Mortlake, now in Greater London.
Arms
Cabinet
Notes
References
External links
Henry Addington, Viscount Sidmouth (1757–1844) at David Nash Ford's Royal Berkshire History Website
Woodley House (Sonning) at David Nash Ford's Royal Berkshire History Website
|-
1757 births
1844 deaths
19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Addington, Henry
Addington, Henry
Addington, Henry
British Secretaries of State
Chancellors of the Exchequer of Great Britain
English Anglicans
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Lords Privy Seal
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Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
People educated at Winchester College
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UK MPs who were granted peerages
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Residents of White Lodge, Richmond Park | [
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232665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu%20Shichang | Xu Shichang | Xu Shichang (Hsu Shih-chang; ; courtesy name: Juren (Chu-jen; 菊人); October 20, 1855 – June 5, 1939) was the President of the Republic of China, in Beijing, from 10 October 1918 to 2 June 1922. The only permanent president of the Beiyang government to be a civilian, his presidency was also the longest of the warlord era.
Biography
Xu Shichang's ancestral hometown was Yinxian County (current Yinzhou District), Ningbo, Zhejiang Province. Born in Weihui, Henan, he was Yuan Shikai's closest friend. He was at one time the Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces, served as minister of the cabinet in Prince Qing's Cabinet, and tutored Emperor of China Puyi. At the end of the Qing dynasty, Xu was made chief of the general staff despite being a civilian. Following the overthrow of the monarchy and the Republic of China's establishment, he was appointed minister of state by Yuan Shikai in 1912, as the latter hoped that this would appease the pro-Qing Royalist Party. Xu resigned as secretary of state (premier) in protest to Yuan's imperial ambition in late 1915. He resumed his post after Yuan abandoned monarchism on 22 March 1916.
His election as president was largely engineered by Duan Qirui and his Anhui clique. He was chosen because he was a civilian yet had close ties to the Beiyang Army and was neutral to both its Zhili and Anhui cliques. Lacking any military power of his own, he had to play Duan, Zhili leader Cao Kun, and Fengtian leader Zhang Zuolin against each other to stay in power.
Xu believed the monarchy would eventually be restored, and to prepare Puyi for the challenges of the modern world had hired Reginald Johnston to teach Puyi "subjects such as political science, constitutional history and English".
He held a massive celebration in Beijing for China's victory in World War I on 18 November 1918. However, he then brought troops into the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. A ceasefire with Sun Yat-sen's rival Constitutional Protection government was declared and intellectuals were given greater freedom. This lasted until news from France showed how Duan Qirui promised German territory in Shandong to Japan. Large student protests (May Fourth Movement) led to Xu cracking down with mass arrests. Ma Jun (), a Muslim, led protests against the Versailles Treaty. The delegation was ordered home and China refused to sign or ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Consequently, the shaky alliance between the Zhili and Anhui cliques collapsed with Duan decisively defeated. This led to the era of high warlordism. Conflict with the south flared again in 1920 and he also failed to retake Mongolia. Cao Kun, who never liked Xu, pressured him out of office and restored Li Yuanhong.
References
Sources
External links
China After the War (1920, English translation)
1855 births
1939 deaths
20th-century Chinese heads of government
Politicians from Xinyang
Presidents of the Republic of China
Premiers of the Republic of China
Republic of China politicians from Henan
Chinese police officers
Grand Councillors of the Qing dynasty
Grand Secretaries of the Qing dynasty
Assistant Grand Secretaries
Viceroys of Three Northeast Provinces | [
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232669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Bennett | Tony Bennett | Anthony Dominick Benedetto (born August 3, 1926), known professionally as Tony Bennett, is an American singer of traditional pop standards, big band, show tunes, and jazz. He is also a painter, having created works under his birth name that are on permanent public display in several institutions. He is the founder of the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Astoria, Queens, New York.
Bennett began singing at an early age. He fought in the final stages of World War II as a U.S. Army infantryman in the European Theater. Afterward, he developed his singing technique, signed with Columbia Records and had his first number-one popular song with "Because of You" in 1951. Several tracks such as "Rags to Riches" followed in early 1953. He then refined his approach to encompass jazz singing. He reached an artistic peak in the late 1950s with albums such as The Beat of My Heart and Basie Swings, Bennett Sings. In 1962, Bennett recorded his signature song, "I Left My Heart in San Francisco". His career and personal life experienced an extended downturn during the height of the rock music era. Bennett staged a comeback in the late 1980s and 1990s, putting out gold record albums again and expanding his reach to the MTV generation while keeping his musical style intact.
Bennett continued to create popular and critically praised work into the 21st century. He attracted acclaim for his collaborations with Lady Gaga, which began with the album Cheek to Cheek (2014); the two performers toured together to promote the album throughout 2014 and 2015. With the release of the duo's second album, Love for Sale (2021), Bennett broke the individual record for the longest span of top-10 albums on the Billboard 200 chart for any living artist; his first top-10 record was I Left My Heart in San Francisco in 1962. Bennett also broke the Guinness World Record for the oldest person to release an album of new material, at the age of 95 years and 60 days.
Bennett has amassed numerous accolades throughout his career, including 19 Grammy Awards (including a Lifetime Achievement Award presented in 2001) and two Primetime Emmy Awards. He was named an NEA Jazz Master and a Kennedy Center Honoree. Bennett has sold over 50 million records worldwide.
In February 2021, it was revealed that Bennett was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2016. Due to the slow progression of his illness, he continued to record, tour, and perform until his retirement from concert performances in August 2021 due to physical challenges.
Life and career
1926–1943: Early life
Anthony Dominick Benedetto was born on August 3, 1926, at St. John's Hospital in Long Island City, Queens. He is a son of grocer John Benedetto and seamstress Anna (Suraci), and was the first member of his family to be born in a hospital. In 1906, John had emigrated from Podargoni, a rural eastern district of the southern Italian city of Reggio Calabria. Anna had been born in the U.S. shortly after her parents also emigrated from the Calabria region in 1899. Other relatives came over as well as part of the mass migration of Italians to America. Tony grew up with an older sister, Mary, and an older brother, John Jr. With a father who was ailing and unable to work, the children grew up in poverty. John Sr. instilled in his son a love of art and literature, and a compassion for human suffering, but died when Tony was 10 years old. The experience of growing up in the Great Depression and a distaste for the effects of the presidency of Herbert Hoover would make the child a lifelong Democrat.
Bennett grew up listening to Al Jolson, Eddie Cantor, Judy Garland, and Bing Crosby as well as jazz artists such as Louis Armstrong, Jack Teagarden, and Joe Venuti. His Uncle Dick was a tap dancer in vaudeville, giving him an early window into show business, and his Uncle Frank was the Queens borough library commissioner. By age 10 he was already singing, and performed at the opening of the Triborough Bridge, standing next to Mayor Fiorello La Guardia who patted him on the head. Drawing was another early passion of his; he became known as the class caricaturist at P.S. 141 and anticipated a career in commercial art. He began singing for money at age 13, performing as a singing waiter in several Italian restaurants around his native Queens.
He attended New York's School of Industrial Art where he studied painting and music and would later appreciate their emphasis on proper technique. But he dropped out at age 16 to help support his family. He worked as a copy boy and runner for the Associated Press in Manhattan and in several other low-skilled, low-paying jobs. However, he mostly set his sights on a professional singing career, returning to performing as a singing waiter, playing and winning amateur nights all around the city, and having a successful engagement at a Paramus, New Jersey, nightclub.
1944–1950: World War II and after
Benedetto was drafted into the United States Army in November 1944, during the final stages of World War II. He did basic training at Fort Dix and Fort Robinson as part of becoming an infantry rifleman. Benedetto ran afoul of a sergeant from the South who disliked the Italian from New York City; heavy doses of KP duty or BAR cleaning resulted. Processed through the huge Le Havre replacement depot, in January 1945, he was assigned as a replacement infantryman to the 255th Infantry Regiment of the 63rd Infantry Division, a unit filling in for the heavy losses suffered in the Battle of the Bulge. He moved across France and later into Germany. As March 1945 began, he joined the front line and what he would later describe as a "front-row seat in hell".
As the German Army was pushed back to its homeland, Benedetto and his company saw bitter fighting in cold winter conditions, often hunkering down in foxholes as German 88 mm guns fired on them. At the end of March, they crossed the Rhine and entered Germany, engaging in dangerous house-to-house, town-after-town fighting to clean out German soldiers; during the first week of April, they crossed the Kocher River, and by the end of the month reached the Danube. During his time in combat, Benedetto narrowly escaped death several times. The experience made him a pacifist; he would later write, "Anybody who thinks that war is romantic obviously hasn't gone through one," and later say, "It was a nightmare that's permanent. I just said, 'This is not life. This is not life.'" At the war's conclusion he was involved in the liberation of a Nazi concentration camp near Landsberg, where some American prisoners of war from the 63rd Division had also been held.
Benedetto stayed in Germany as part of the occupying force but was assigned to an informal Special Services band unit that would entertain nearby American forces. His dining with a black friend from high school – at a time when the Army was still racially segregated – led to his being demoted and reassigned to Graves Registration Service duties. Subsequently, he sang with the 314th Army Special Services Band under the stage name Joe Bari (a name he had started using before the war, chosen after the city and province in Italy and as a partial anagram of his family origins in Calabria). He played with many musicians who would have post-war careers.
Upon his discharge from the Army and return to the States in 1946, Benedetto studied at the American Theatre Wing on the GI Bill. He was taught the bel canto singing discipline, which would keep his voice in good shape for his entire career. He continued to perform wherever he could, including while waiting tables. Based upon a suggestion from a teacher at American Theatre Wing, he developed an unusual approach that involved imitating, as he sang, the style and phrasing of other musicians — such as that of Stan Getz's saxophone and Art Tatum's piano — helping him to improvise as he interpreted a song. He made a few recordings as Bari in 1949 for small Leslie Records, but they failed to sell.
In 1949, Pearl Bailey recognized Benedetto's talent and asked him to open for her in Greenwich Village. She had invited Bob Hope to the show. Hope decided to take Benedetto on the road with him and simplified his name to Tony Bennett. In 1950, Bennett cut a demo of "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" and was signed to the major Columbia Records label by Mitch Miller.
1951–1959: First successes
Warned by Miller not to imitate Frank Sinatra (who was just then leaving Columbia), Bennett began his career as a crooner of commercial pop tunes. His first big hit was "Because of You", a ballad produced by Miller with a lush orchestral arrangement from Percy Faith. It started out gaining popularity on jukeboxes, then reached number one on the pop charts in 1951 and stayed there for ten weeks, selling over a million copies. This was followed to the top of the charts later that year by a similarly styled rendition of Hank Williams's "Cold, Cold Heart", which helped introduce Williams and country music in general to a wider, more national audience. The Miller and Faith tandem continued to work on all of Bennett's early hits. Bennett's recording of "Blue Velvet" was also very popular and attracted screaming teenaged fans at concerts at the famed Paramount Theater in New York (Bennett did seven shows a day, starting at 10:30 a.m.) and elsewhere.
A third number-one came in 1953 with "Rags to Riches". Unlike Bennett's other early hits, this was an up-tempo big band number with a bold, brassy sound and a double tango in the instrumental break; it topped the charts for eight weeks.
Later that year, the producers of the upcoming Broadway musical Kismet had Bennett record "Stranger in Paradise" as a way of promoting the show during a New York newspaper strike. The song reached the top, the show was a hit, and Bennett began a long practice of recording show tunes. "Stranger in Paradise" was also a number-one hit in the United Kingdom a year and a half later and started Bennett's career as an international artist.
Once the rock and roll era began in 1955, the dynamic of the music industry changed and it became harder and harder for existing pop singers to do well commercially. Nevertheless, Bennett continued to enjoy success, placing eight songs in the Billboard during the latter part of the 1950s, with "In the Middle of an Island" (which he vehemently hated) reaching the highest at number nine in 1957.
For a month in August–September 1956, Bennett hosted a NBC Saturday night television variety show, The Tony Bennett Show, as a summer replacement for The Perry Como Show. Patti Page and Julius La Rosa had in turn hosted the two previous months, and they all shared the same singers, dancers, and orchestra. In 1959, Bennett would again fill in for The Perry Como Show, this time alongside Teresa Brewer and Jaye P. Morgan as co-hosts of the summer-long Perry Presents.
1954–1965: A growing artistry
In 1954, the guitarist Chuck Wayne became Bennett's musical director. Bennett released his first long-playing album in 1955, Cloud 7. The album was billed as featuring Wayne and showed Bennett's leanings towards jazz. In 1957, Ralph Sharon became Bennett's pianist, arranger, and musical director, replacing Wayne. Sharon told Bennett that a career singing "sweet saccharine songs like 'Blue Velvet'" wouldn't last long, and encouraged Bennett to focus even more on his jazz inclinations.
The result was the 1957 album The Beat of My Heart. It featured well-known jazz musicians such as Herbie Mann and Nat Adderley, with a strong emphasis on percussion from the likes of Art Blakey, Jo Jones, Latin star Candido Camero, and Chico Hamilton. The album was both popular and critically praised. Bennett followed this by working with the Count Basie Orchestra, becoming the first male pop vocalist to sing with Basie's band. The albums Basie Swings, Bennett Sings (1958) and In Person! (1959) were the well-regarded fruits of this collaboration, with "Chicago" being one of the standout songs.
Bennett also built up the quality and, therefore, the reputation of his nightclub act; in this he was following the path of Sinatra and other top jazz and standards singers of this era. In June 1962, Bennett staged a highly promoted concert performance at Carnegie Hall, using a stellar line-up of musicians including Al Cohn, Kenny Burrell, and Candido, as well as the Ralph Sharon Trio. Carnegie Hall had not featured a male pop performer until then (only Judy Garland one year before that). The concert featured 44 songs, including favorites like "I've Got the World on a String" and "The Best Is Yet To Come". It was a big success, further cementing Bennett's reputation as a star both at home and abroad. Bennett also appeared on television, and in October 1962 he sang on the initial broadcast of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.
Also in 1962, Bennett released his recording of "I Left My Heart in San Francisco", a decade-old but little-known song originally written for an opera singer. Although this reached only number 19 on the , it spent close to a year on various other charts and increased Bennett's exposure. The album of the same title was a hit and both the single and album achieved gold record status. The song won Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Solo Vocal Performance for Bennett. Over the years, this would become known as Bennett's signature song. In 2001, it was ranked 23rd on an RIAA/NEA list of the most historically significant Songs of the 20th Century.
Bennett's following album, I Wanna Be Around... (1963), was also a top-5 success, with the title track and "The Good Life" each reaching the of the pop singles chart along with the of the Adult Contemporary chart.
The next year brought the Beatles and the British Invasion, and with them still more musical and cultural attention to rock and less to pop, standards, and jazz. Over the next couple of years, Bennett had minor hits with several albums and singles based on show tunes; his last top-40 single was the number 34 "If I Ruled the World" from Pickwick in 1965, but his commercial fortunes were clearly starting to decline. An attempt to break into acting with a role in the poorly received 1966 film The Oscar met with middling reviews for Bennett; he did not enjoy the experience and did not seek further roles.
A firm believer in the Civil Rights Movement, Bennett participated in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. Years later he would continue this commitment by refusing to perform in apartheid South Africa.
1965–1979: Years of struggle
Ralph Sharon and Bennett parted ways in 1965. There was great pressure on singers such as Lena Horne and Barbra Streisand to record "contemporary" rock songs, and in this vein, Columbia Records' Clive Davis suggested that Bennett do the same. Bennett was very reluctant, and when he tried, the results pleased no one. This was exemplified by Tony Sings the Great Hits of Today! (1970), before which Bennett became physically ill at the thought of recording. It featured covers of Beatles and other current songs and a psychedelic art cover.
Years later, Bennett would recall his dismay at being asked to do contemporary material, comparing it to when his mother was forced to produce a cheap dress. By 1972, he had departed Columbia for the Verve division of MGM Records (Philips in the UK) and had relocated for a stint in London, where he hosted a television show from the Talk of the Town nightclub in conjunction with Thames Television, Tony Bennett at the Talk of the Town. With his new label, he tried a variety of approaches, including some more Beatles material, but found no renewed commercial success, and in a couple more years he was without a recording contract.
Taking matters into his own hands, Bennett started his own record company, Improv. He recorded some songs that would later become favorites, such as "What is This Thing Called Love?", and made two well-regarded albums with jazz pianist Bill Evans, The Tony Bennett/Bill Evans Album (1975) and Together Again (1976), but Improv lacked a distribution arrangement with a major label and by 1977, it was out of business.
As the decade neared its end, Bennett had no recording contract, no manager, and was not performing many concerts outside of Las Vegas. He had developed a drug addiction, was living beyond his means, and had the Internal Revenue Service trying to seize his Los Angeles home.
1979–1989: Turnaround
After a near-fatal cocaine overdose in 1979, Bennett called his sons Danny and Dae for help. "Look, I'm lost here," he told them. "It seems like people don't want to hear the music I make."
Danny Bennett, an aspiring musician himself, also came to a realization. The band Danny and his brother had started, Quacky Duck and His Barnyard Friends, had foundered and Danny's musical abilities were limited. However, he had discovered during this time that he did have a head for business. His father, on the other hand, had tremendous musical talent, but was having trouble sustaining a career from it and had little financial sense. Danny signed on as his father's manager.
Danny got his father's expenses under control, moved him back to New York, and began booking him in colleges and small theaters to get him away from a "Vegas" image. After some effort, a successful plan to pay back the IRS debt was put into place. The singer had also reunited with Ralph Sharon as his pianist and musical director (and would remain with him until Sharon's retirement in 2002). By 1986, Tony Bennett was re-signed to Columbia Records, this time with creative control, and released The Art of Excellence. This became his first album to reach the charts since 1972.
Henry Mancini's theme song "Life in a Looking Glass" from motion picture "That's Life" (1986) sung by Tony Bennett, received a nomination at the Oscars for Best Original Song.
1990–1995: An unexpected audience
Danny Bennett felt that younger audiences who were unfamiliar with his father would respond to his music if given a chance. No changes to Tony's formal appearance, singing style, musical accompaniment (The Ralph Sharon Trio or an orchestra), or song choice (generally the Great American Songbook) were necessary or desirable. Accordingly, Danny began regularly to book his father on Late Night with David Letterman, a show with a younger, "hip" audience. This was subsequently followed by appearances on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, The Simpsons, Muppets Tonight, and various MTV programs. In 1993, Bennett played a series of benefit concerts organized by alternative rock radio stations around the country. The plan worked; as Tony later remembered, "I realized that young people had never heard those songs. Cole Porter, Gershwin – they were like, 'Who wrote that?' To them, it was different. If you're different, you stand out."
During this time, Bennett continued to record, first putting out the acclaimed look-back Astoria: Portrait of the Artist (1990), then emphasizing themed albums such as the Sinatra homage Perfectly Frank (1992) and the Fred Astaire tribute Steppin' Out (1993). The latter two both achieved gold status and won Grammys for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance (Bennett's first Grammys since 1962) and further established Bennett as the inheritor of the mantle of a classic American great.
As Bennett was seen at MTV Video Music Awards shows side by side with the likes of the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Flavor Flav, and as his "Steppin' Out with My Baby" video received MTV airplay, it was clear that, as The New York Times said, "Tony Bennett has not just bridged the generation gap, he has demolished it. He has solidly connected with a younger crowd weaned on rock. And there have been no compromises."
The new audience reached its height with Bennett's appearance in 1994 on MTV Unplugged. (He quipped on the show, "I've been unplugged my whole career.") Featuring guest appearances by rock and country stars Elvis Costello and k.d. lang (both of whom had an affinity for the standards genre), the show attracted a considerable audience and much media attention. The resulting MTV Unplugged: Tony Bennett album went platinum and, besides taking the Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance Grammy award for the third straight year, also won the top Grammy prize of Album of the Year.
1996–2006: Into his 70s
Since his comeback, Bennett has financially prospered; by 1999, his assets were worth $15 to 20 million. He had no intention of retiring, saying in reference to masters such as Pablo Picasso, Jack Benny, and Fred Astaire: "right up to the day they died, they were performing. If you are creative, you get busier as you get older." Bennett continued to record and tour steadily, doing a hundred shows a year by the end of the 1990s. In concert Bennett often makes a point of singing one song (usually "Fly Me to the Moon") without any microphone or amplification, demonstrating his skills at vocal projection. One show, Tony Bennett's Wonderful World: Live From San Francisco, was made into a PBS special. Bennett also created the idea behind, and starred in the first episode of, the A&E Network's popular Live by Request series, for which he won an Emmy Award. In addition to numerous television guest performances, Bennett has had cameo appearances as himself in films such as The Scout, Analyze This, and Bruce Almighty.
In 1998, he made an unlikely but highly successful appearance on the final day of a mud-soaked Glastonbury in an immaculate suit and tie, his whole set on this occasion consisting of songs about the weather. Bennett also published The Good Life: The Autobiography of Tony Bennett in 1998. A series of albums, often based on themes (such as Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Billie Holiday, blues, or duets), has met with largely positive reviews; Bennett has won eleven more Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance or Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album Grammys in the subsequent years, most recently for the year 2018. Bennett has sold over 50 million records worldwide during his career.
Accolades came to Bennett. For his contribution to the recording industry, Tony Bennett was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street. Bennett was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame in 1997, was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001, and received a lifetime achievement award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) in 2002. In 2002, Q magazine named Tony Bennett in its list of the "50 Bands To See Before You Die". On December 4, 2005, Bennett was the recipient of a Kennedy Center Honor. Later, a theatrical musical revue of his songs, called I Left My Heart: A Salute to the Music of Tony Bennett was created and featured some of his best-known songs such as "I Left My Heart in San Francisco", "Because of You", and "Wonderful". The following year, Bennett was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame.
Bennett frequently donates his time to charitable causes, to the extent that he is sometimes nicknamed "Tony Benefit". In April 2002, he joined Michael Jackson, Chris Tucker and former President Bill Clinton in a fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee at New York City's Apollo Theater. He has also recorded public service announcements for Civitan International.
Danny Bennett continues to be Tony's manager while Dae Bennett is a recording engineer who has worked on a number of Tony's projects and who opened Bennett Studios in Englewood, New Jersey in 2001, now shuttered due to the downturn of major label budgets combined with skyrocketing overhead. Tony's younger daughter Antonia is an aspiring jazz singer who opens shows for her father.
2006–2021: Bennett continues to perform
In August 2006, Bennett turned eighty years old. The birthday itself was an occasion for publicity, which then extended through the rest of the following year. Duets: An American Classic reached the highest place ever on the albums chart for an album by Bennett and garnered two Grammy Awards; concerts were given, including a high-profile one for New York radio station WLTW-FM; a performance was done with Christina Aguilera and a comedy sketch was made with affectionate Bennett impressionist Alec Baldwin on Saturday Night Live; a Thanksgiving-time, Rob Marshall-directed television special Tony Bennett: An American Classic on NBC, which would win multiple Emmy Awards; receipt of the Billboard Century Award; and guest-mentoring on American Idol season 6 as well as performing during its finale. He received the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees' Humanitarian Award. Bennett was awarded the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters Award in 2006, the highest honor that the United States bestows upon jazz musicians.
In 2008, Bennett made two appearances on "New York State of Mind" with Billy Joel at the final concerts given at Shea Stadium, and in October releasing the album A Swingin' Christmas with The Count Basie Big Band, for which he made a number of promotional appearances at holiday time. In 2009, Bennett performed at the conclusion of the final Macworld Conference & Expo for Apple Inc., singing "The Best Is Yet to Come" and "I Left My Heart In San Francisco" to a standing ovation, and later making his Jazz Fest debut in New Orleans. In February 2010, Bennett was one of over 70 artists singing on "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", a charity single in aid of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In October, he performed "I Left My Heart in San Francisco" at AT&T Park before the third inning of Game 1 of the 2010 World Series and sang "God Bless America" during the seventh-inning stretch. Days later he sang "America the Beautiful" at the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear in Washington, D.C., which he reprised ten years later in a segment on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert".
In September 2011, Bennett appeared on The Howard Stern Show and named American military actions in the Middle East as the root cause of the September 11 attacks. Bennett also claimed that former President George W. Bush personally told him at the Kennedy Center in December 2005 that he felt he had made a mistake invading Iraq, to which a Bush spokesperson replied, "This account is flatly wrong." Following bad press resulting from his remarks, Bennett clarified his position, writing: "There is simply no excuse for terrorism and the murder of the nearly 3,000 innocent victims of the 9/11 attacks on our country. My life experiences, ranging from the Battle of the Bulge to marching with Martin Luther King, made me a life-long humanist and pacifist, and reinforced my belief that violence begets violence and that war is the lowest form of human behavior."
In September 2011, Bennett released Duets II, a follow-up to his first collaboration album, in conjunction with his 85th birthday. He sings duets with seventeen prominent singers of varying techniques, including Aretha Franklin, Willie Nelson, Queen Latifah, and Lady Gaga. Bennett appeared on the season 2 premiere of the television procedural Blue Bloods performing "It Had To Be You" with Carrie Underwood. His duet with Amy Winehouse on "Body and Soul"—reportedly the last recording she made before her death—charted on the lower reaches of the Billboard Hot 100, making Bennett the oldest living artist to appear there, as well as the artist with the greatest span of appearances. The single did well in Europe, where it reached the top 15 in several countries. The album then debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making Bennett the oldest living artist to reach that top spot, as well as marking the first time he had reached it himself. A model of Koss headphones, the Tony Bennett Signature Edition (TBSE1), was created for this milestone (Bennett having been one of the early adopters of the Koss product back in the 1960s). In November 2011, Columbia released Tony Bennett – The Complete Collection, a 73-CD plus 3-DVD set, which although not absolutely "complete", finally brought forth many albums that had not had a previous CD release, as well as some unreleased material and rarities. In December 2011, Bennett appeared at the Royal Variety Performance in Salford in the presence of Princess Anne.
In the wake of the premature deaths of Winehouse and Whitney Houston, Bennett called for the legalization of drugs in February 2012. In October 2012, Bennett released Viva Duets, an album of Latin American music duets, featuring Vicente Fernández, Juan Luis Guerra, and Vicentico among others. The recording and filming for the project, in Fort Lauderdale, was co-sponsored by the city. On October 31, 2012, Bennett performed "I Left My Heart in San Francisco" in front of more than 100,000 fans at a City Hall ceremony commemorating the 2012 World Series victory by the San Francisco Giants. He published another memoir, Life is a Gift: The Zen of Bennett, and a documentary film produced by his son Danny was released, also titled The Zen of Bennett.
In September 2014, Bennett performed for the first time in Israel, with his jazz quartet at the Charles Bronfman Auditorium in Tel Aviv, receiving a standing ovation. He also made a surprise cameo appearance on stage with Lady Gaga at Hayarkon Park, Tel Aviv, the previous evening. The performance took place days before the release that month of the two stars' much-delayed collaborative effort and resultant Grammy-winning album, Cheek to Cheek, which debuted at number one on the Billboard charts, extending the 88-year-old Bennett's record for the oldest artist to do so, which earned him the Guinness World Records for "oldest person to reach No.1 on the US Album Chart with a newly recorded album", at the age of 88 years and 69 days. At the end of 2014, Bennett and Lady Gaga kicked off their co-headlining Cheek to Cheek Tour. The pair also appeared in a Barnes & Noble commercial.
On September 25, 2015, he released an album of songs composed by Jerome Kern, featuring Bill Charlap on piano, called The Silver Lining: The Songs of Jerome Kern. On November 1, 2015, Bennett, joined by the choir from the Frank Sinatra School, sang "America the Beautiful" before Game 5 of the baseball World Series between the Kansas City Royals and New York Mets at Citi Field.
On August 19, 2016, shortly after his 90th birthday, Bennett was honored by the unveiling of an 8-foot tall statue in his likeness in front of the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco. With Senator Dianne Feinstein, House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi and several San Francisco mayors in attendance, Bennett was serenaded by a young-adult choir singing "I Left My Heart in San Francisco". Bennett had first sung the song at the hotel in 1961. That same year, he performed at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 24 and the Rockefeller Center tree lighting on November 30. On December 20, 2016, NBC televised a special concert in honor of his 90th birthday. In September 2018, Bennett re-recorded the George Gershwin song "Fascinating Rhythm", after 68 years and 342 days, according to the Guinness World Records adjudicator, earning the title of "longest time between the release of an original recording and a re-recording of the same single by the same artist". The song appeared on the collaborative album Love Is Here to Stay with Diana Krall that was released on September 14.
2021–present: Final album and retirement
On August 12, 2021, a week after his 95th birthday and performing at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, Bennett's retirement from concerts was announced by his son and manager Danny Bennett. Danny stated that though his father remained a capable singer, he was becoming physically frail and risked a major fall if he continued touring. His final album, Love for Sale, another collaborative record with Lady Gaga, was released on September 30, 2021. The record received generally favorable reviews, and debuted at number eight in the US. Alexis Petridis called Bennett's performance on the album "pretty remarkable" despite the singer's age and health condition in his review for The Guardian. Bennett broke the individual record for the longest span of top-10 albums on the Billboard 200 chart for any living artist; his first top-10 record was I Left My Heart in San Francisco in 1962. Bennett also broke the Guinness World Record for the oldest person to release an album of new material, at the age of 95 years and 60 days. Bennett's final televised performance was with Lady Gaga on December 16, 2021, in MTV Unplugged. The special was filmed the previous July in front of an intimate studio audience in New York City, and included duets from Love for Sale.
Artistry
Painting
Bennett has also had success as a painter, done under his real name of Anthony Benedetto or just Benedetto. He followed up his childhood interest with professional training, work, and museum visits throughout his life. He sketches or paints every day, often of views out of hotel windows when he is on tour.
He has exhibited his work in numerous galleries around the world. He was chosen as the official artist for the 2001 Kentucky Derby, and was commissioned by the United Nations to do two paintings, including one for its fiftieth anniversary. His painting Homage to Hockney (for his friend David Hockney, painted after Hockney drew him) is on permanent display at the Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown, Ohio. His Boy on Sailboat, Sydney Bay is in the permanent collection at the National Arts Club in Gramercy Park in New York, as is his Central Park at the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C. His paintings and drawings have been featured in ARTnews and other magazines, and sell for as much as $80,000 apiece. Many of his works were published in the art book Tony Bennett: What My Heart Has Seen in 1996. In 2007, another book involving his paintings, Tony Bennett in the Studio: A Life of Art & Music, became a best-seller among art books.
Musical style
Regarding his choices in music, Bennett reiterated his artistic stance in a 2010 interview:
Awards and recognition
Bennett has won 19 Grammy Awards including a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, as follows (years shown are the year in which the ceremony was held and the award was given, not the year in which the recording was released):
{| class=wikitable
|-
! scope="col"| Year
! scope="col"| Work
! scope="col"| Category
! scope="col"| Result
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3"| 1963
| I Left My Heart In San Francisco
| Album of the Year (Other Than Classical)
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| "I Left My Heart In San Francisco"
| Best Solo Vocal Performance, Male
|
|-
| Record of the Year
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 1964
| rowspan="2"| "I Wanna Be Around"
| Record of the Year
|
|-
| Best Vocal Performance, Male
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1965
| "Who Can I Turn"
| Best Vocal Performance, Male
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 1966
| rowspan="2"|"The Shadow of Your Smile (Love Theme From "The Sandpiper")"
| Record of the Year
|
|-
| Best Vocal Performance, Male
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1991
| Astoria: Portrait of the Artist
| Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Male
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1993
| Perfectly Frank
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1994
| Steppin' Out
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3"| 1995
| rowspan="2"|MTV Unplugged
| Album of the Year
|
|-
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
| "Moonglow" (with k.d. lang)
| Best Pop Vocal Collaboration
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1997
| Here's To The Ladies
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 1998
| Tony Bennett On Holiday
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
| "God Bless The Child" (with Billie Holiday)
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
! scope="row" | 1999
| Tony Bennett: The Playground
| Best Musical Album for Children
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2000
| Bennett Sings Ellington: Hot & Cool
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2002
|
| Lifetime Achievement Award
|
|-
| New York State Of Mind (with Billy Joel)
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2003
| Playin' with My Friends: Bennett Sings the Blues
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| "What A Wonderful World" (with k. d. lang)
| Best Pop Collaboration wth Vocals
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2004
| A Wonderful World (with k. d. lang)
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| "La Vie En Rose" (with k. d. lang)
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2006
| The Art Of Romance
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2007
| Duets: An American Classic
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| "For Once in My Life" (with Stevie Wonder)
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2008
| "Steppin' Out with My Baby" (with Christina Aguilera)
| Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2010
| A Swingin' Christmas
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2012
| Duets II
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| "Body And Soul" (with Amy Winehouse)
| Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2014
| Viva Duets
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2015
| Cheek To Cheek (with Lady Gaga)
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
! scope="row" | 2016
| The Silver Lining: The Songs of Jerome Kern (with Bill Charlap)
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| 2019
| Love Is Here To Stay (with Diana Krall)
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| "'S Wonderful" (with Diana Krall)
| Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
|
|-
!scope="row" rowspan="5"| 2022
| rowspan="2"| Love For Sale (with Lady Gaga)
| Album of the Year
|
|-
| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|"I Get a Kick Out of You" (with Lady Gaga)
| Record of the Year
|
|-
| Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
|
|-
| Best Music Video
|
|-
Bennett has gained other recognition:
Works
Discography
Bennett has released over 70 albums during his career, almost all for Columbia Records. The biggest selling of these in the U.S. have been I Left My Heart in San Francisco, MTV Unplugged: Tony Bennett, and Duets: An American Classic, all of which went platinum for shipping one million copies. Eight other albums of his have gone gold in the U.S., including several compilations. Bennett has also charted over 30 singles during his career, with his biggest hits all occurring during the early 1950s and none charting between 1968 and 2010.
Books
Personal life
On February 12, 1952, Bennett married Ohio art student and jazz fan Patricia Beech, whom he had met the previous year after a nightclub performance in Cleveland. Two thousand female fans dressed in black gathered outside the ceremony at St. Patrick's Cathedral in Manhattan, New York, in mock mourning. The couple had two sons, D'Andrea (Danny, born 1954) and Daegal (Dae, born 1955). Bennett and his wife Patricia separated in 1965, their marriage a victim of Bennett's spending too much time on the road, among other factors. In 1969, Patricia sued him for divorce on grounds of adultery. In 1971, their divorce became official.
Bennett had become involved with aspiring actress Sandra Grant while filming The Oscar in 1965. The couple lived together for several years and on December 29, 1971, they quietly married in New York. They had two daughters, Joanna (born 1970) and Antonia (born 1974), and moved to Los Angeles. The two were married until 1983.
In the late 1980s, Bennett entered into a long-term romantic relationship with Susan Crow, a former New York City schoolteacher. Susan Marion Crow, born September 9, 1966, is 40 years junior to Tony and had grown up in a family of Bennett fans, and as it happened the singer had once posed with Crow's mother, Marion, while she was pregnant with her. As a teenager, Crow had been the head of the Bay Area fan club for Bennett.
Bennett and Crow founded Exploring the Arts, a charitable organization dedicated to creating, promoting, and supporting arts education. At the same time they founded (and named after Bennett's friend) the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Queens, a public high school dedicated to teaching the performing arts, which opened in 2001 and would have a very high graduation rate. On June 21, 2007, Bennett married Crow in a private civil ceremony in New York that was witnessed by former Governor Mario Cuomo.
Illness
In February 2021, an article in AARP Magazine revealed that Bennett was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2016, though he continued to perform and record until the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 (he briefly resumed performing in 2021 with an MTV Unplugged show and two Radio City Music Hall performances). His twice-weekly singing practices are thought to have kept his brain stimulated and spared him from symptoms such as disorientation, depression and a detachment from reality. His neurologist told AARP that, prior to the pandemic, Bennett's touring schedule "kept him on his toes and also stimulated his brain in a significant way". Bennett had only started showing symptoms of decline in the two years leading up to the article and had continued to record tracks from 2018 to early 2020 with Lady Gaga for their 2021 album Love for Sale, despite at times being "lost and bewildered" during recording sessions. In announcing Bennett's retirement in August 2021, Danny Bennett stated that the Alzheimer's was mainly affecting his short-term memory and that he would often forget he had just performed after a concert; his long-term memory remained intact and he could still fully remember all the lyrics to his repertoire when performing.
See also
List of best-selling music artists
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Willis Conover. "20 Years with Tony". Billboard. November 30, 1968. pp. T1-T40.
Dorothy Andries. "Tony Bennett; 'Life's Been Good to Me'". The Milwaukee Sentinel. November 14, 1980. p. 3.
Peter B. King. "Tony Bennett; 'I just have to paint, and I have to sing'". The Pittsburgh Press. February 10, 1986. p. C6.
"Tony Bennett: Half a Century and Looking Forward". Billboard. December 20, 1997. pp. 37–65. Pullout section includes multiple articles, including:
Irv Lichtman. "Tony Bennett: The Billboard Interview". pp. 38-39, 52 and 56.
Tom Vickers. "Tony and Columbia". pp. 40 and 58.
Don Waller. "When It Comes to Good Works, Bennett Does a Great Job". pp. 42 and 54.
Paul Sexton. "Bennett Over There". p. 44.
Mark Rowland. "Essential Bennett". pp. 46 and 48.
Richard Henderson. "Bennett Brushes Up". p. 50.
"Backbeat: "Happy 80th, Tony Bennett!". Billboard. August 19, 2006. p. 61.
Jim Bessman. "Tony's Long Haul: Strategic Partnerships Fuel Big Sales for Bennett's 'Duets' Album". Billboard. November 11, 2006. p. 24.
External links
Legacy Records Tony Bennett website
Exploring the Arts website
Bennett and Lady Gaga TV ad for Barnes & Noble
Tony Bennett Interview NAMM Oral History Library (1986)
1926 births
Living people
20th-century American male writers
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Writers from Queens, New York | [
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232670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ready-to-wear | Ready-to-wear | Ready-to-wear (or prêt-à-porter; abbreviated RTW; "off-the-rack" or "off-the-peg" in casual use) is the term for ready-made garments, sold in finished condition in standardized sizes, as distinct from made-to-measure or bespoke clothing tailored to a particular person's frame. In other words, It is a piece of clothing that was mass produced in different sizes and sold that way instead of it being designed and sewn for one person. The term off-the-peg is sometimes used for items other than clothing, such as handbags.
Ready-to-wear has a rather different place in the spheres of fashion and classic clothing. In the fashion industry, designers produce ready-to-wear clothing, intended to be worn without significant alteration because clothing made to standard sizes fits most people. They use standard patterns, factory equipment, and faster construction techniques to keep costs low, compared to a custom-sewn version of the same item. Some fashion houses and fashion designers make mass-produced and industrially manufactured ready-to-wear lines, while others offer garments that are not unique but are produced in limited numbers. Ready-to-wear clothing has become faster to produce due to advancements in communication technology. In order to track production at distant sites and cut costs even further, some mass-market firms use video-conferencing and other sophisticated technologies to send and receive information, thereby insuring product quality without the need to travel to the producer.
History
Men's and children's clothing
Ready-to-wear military uniforms were mass-produced in the United States during the War of 1812. High-quality ready-to-wear garments for men became generally available soon thereafter, as the relatively simple, flattering cuts and muted tones of the contemporary fashion made proportionate sizing possible in mass production.
In 1868, Isidore, Benjamin and Modeste Dewachter offered ready-to-wear clothing for men and children to Belgian clientele when they opened the first chain department stores, Dewachter frères (Dewachter Brothers). By 1904, the chain was managed by Isidore's son, Louis, and had grown to 20 cities and towns in Belgium and France, with some cities having multiple stores. Louis Dewachter also became an internationally known landscape artist, painting under the pseudonym Louis Dewis.
Women's clothing
In the early 19th century, women's fashion was highly ornate and dependent on a precise fit, so ready-to-wear garments for women did not become widely available until the beginning of the 20th century. Before, women would alter their previously styled clothing in order to stay up to date with fashion trends. Women with larger incomes purchased new, fully tailored clothing in current styles while middle-class and lower-class women adjusted their clothing to fit changes in fashion by adding new neck collars, shortening skirts, or cinching shirt waists.
The widespread adoption of ready-to wear clothing reflected a variety of factors including economic disparities, a desire for an independent fashion industry, and an increase in media attention. The demand for affordable and fashionable women's clothing sparked designers and department stores to manufacture clothing in bulk quantities that were accessible to women of all classes and incomes. Through the emergence of the US ready-to-wear market, designers like Chanel with their shift dress or the mail-order catalogs sent to rural farms by Sears allowed women to purchase clothing faster and at a cheaper price. The introduction of the concept of "pret-a-porter" has been attributed to Sonia Delaunay after her geometric styles were exhibited at the seminal 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs in Paris.
Another significant factor created by the ready-to-wear industry was the US development of a style independent from Europe. The US fashion market turned away from Parisian style in favor of an individualized apparel industry promoted through advertisements and articles in magazines like Women's Wear Daily, Harper’s Bazaar, and Ladies Home Journal.
Ready-to-wear also sparked new interests in health, beauty, and diet as manufactured clothing set specific, standardized sizes in attire in order to increase quantities for profit. Women of larger sizes had difficulties finding apparel in department stores, as most manufacturers maintained and sold the limited sizes across the nation.
Overall ready-to-wear fashion exposed women to the newest styles and fashion trends, leading to a substantial increase in profits by US factories from $12,900,583 in 1876 to $1,604,500,957 in 1929. The ready-to-wear fashion revolution led to an expansion of the US fashion industry that made fashionable apparel accessible, cost effective, and commensurable.
Interest in ready to wear was sparked by Yves Saint Laurent, who was the first designer to launch a ready to wear collection, and in 1966 he opened Rive Gauche, his first ready to wear boutique. Whether he succeeded in democratizing fashion is an open question, since few were able to afford his designs, but he did pave the way for ready-to-wear fashion and the cross-fertilisation between haute-couture and high-street fashion that persists into 21st century.
Haute couture and bespoke
Fashion houses that produce a women's haute couture line, such as Chanel, Dior, Lacroix and Saint Laurent also produce a ready-to-wear line, which returns a greater profit because of the higher volume of garments made and the greater availability of the clothing. The construction of ready-to-wear clothing is also held to a different standard than that of haute couture due to its industrial nature. High-end ready-to-wear lines are sometimes based upon a famous gown or other pattern that is then duplicated and advertised to raise the visibility of the designer.
Collections
In high-end fashion, ready-to-wear collections are usually presented by fashion houses each season during a period known as Fashion Week. This takes place on a city-by-city basis, and the most prominent of these include London, New York, Milan, and Paris, and are held twice a year—the Fall/Winter (FW) shows take place in February, and the Spring/Summer (SS) collections are shown in September. Smaller lines include the Cruise and Pre-Fall collections, which add to the retail value of a brand, and are presented separately at the fashion designer's discretion. Ready-to-wear fashion weeks occur separately and earlier than those of haute couture.
See also
Ready-made garment
References
Fashion design | [
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232672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matala%2C%20Crete | Matala, Crete | Matala (Greek: Μάταλα) is a village located 75 km south-west of Heraklion, Crete, Greece. Matala is part of the community of Pitsidia within the municipal unit of Tympaki, Faistos municipality, Heraklion regional unit.
History
The artificial caves in the cliff of the Matala bay were created in the Neolithic Age. Matala was the port of Phaistos during the Minoan period. In the year 220 BC, Matala was occupied by the Gortynians, and during the Roman period, Matala became the port of Gortys. It has been suggested that the caves were once used as tombs, but it is more likely that they were used as living spaces, given their volume (corpses do not need that much room to walk around). One of the caves is called "Brutospeliana" because according to the legend it was frequented by the Roman general Brutus.
Matala was then a fishing village. In the 1960s, the caves were occupied by hippies who were later driven out by the church and the military junta. Matala is now a heavily overbuilt tourist destination relying on coach tours and summer visitors. There are many gift shops and bars. Matala's hippie history relives during the 3 days Matala Beach Festival, every June (since 2011).
Mythology
When Zeus seduced the princess Europa in the form of a white bull, he crossed the sea and brought her to the beach of Matala. There he changed into an eagle and flew her to Gortys where he had sex with her.
Climate
Matala has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). Matala experiences hot, very dry summers and very mild, wet winters.
In popular culture
In Command & Conquer: Generals Zero Hour, the USS Reagan, along with the carrier support group docked in Matala and the naval base on the island, is destroyed by GLA forces .
In Simon Scarrow's historical adventure novel, The Gladiator, the protagonists beach their damaged ship just outside Matala after it is damaged by a tsunami.
Canadian singer and musician Joni Mitchell's experiences with the Matala hippies were immortalised in her songs "Carey" and "California", on her 1971 album "Blue". She spent several weeks living in the Matala caves during the summer of 1969.
Notes
References
External links
Populated places in Heraklion (regional unit)
Port settlements in ancient Crete
Locations in Greek mythology
Populated places in ancient Crete | [
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232674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntablism | Turntablism | Turntablism is the art of manipulating sounds and creating new music, sound effects, mixes and other creative sounds and beats, typically by using two or more turntables and a cross fader-equipped DJ mixer. The mixer is plugged into a PA system for live events and/or broadcasting equipment (if the DJ is performing on radio, TV or Internet radio) so that a wider audience can hear the turntablist's music. Turntablists manipulate records on a turntable by moving the record with their hand to cue the stylus to exact points on a record, and by touching or moving the platter or record to stop, slow down, speed up or, spin the record backwards, or moving the turntable platter back and forth (the popular rhythmic "scratching" effect which is a key part of hip hop music), all while using a DJ mixer's crossfader control and the mixer's gain and equalization controls to adjust the sound and level of each turntable. Turntablists typically use two or more turntables and headphones to cue up desired start points on different records (Greasley & Prior, 2013).
Turntablists, who are often called DJs (or "deejays"), generally prefer direct-drive turntables over belt-driven or other types, because the belt can be stretched or damaged by "scratching" and other turntable manipulation such as slowing down a record, whereas a direct drive turntable can be stopped, slowed down, or spun backwards without damaging the electric motor. The word turntablist was originated by Luis "DJ Disk" Quintanilla (Primus, Herbie Hancock, Invisibl Skratch Piklz). After a phone conversation with Disk, it was later popularised in 1995 by DJ Babu to describe the difference between a DJ who simply plays and mixes records and one who performs by physically manipulating the records, stylus, turntables, turntable speed controls and mixer to produce new sounds. The new term coincided with the resurgence of hip-hop DJing in the 1990s.
John Oswald described the art: "A phonograph in the hands of a 'hiphop/scratch' artist who plays a record like an electronic washboard with a phonographic needle as a plectrum, produces sounds which are unique and not reproduced—the record player becomes a musical instrument." Some turntablists use turntable techniques like beat mixing/matching, scratching, and beat juggling. Some turntablists seek to have themselves recognized as traditional musicians capable of interacting and improvising with other performers. Depending on the records and tracks selected by the DJ and their turntablist style (e.g., hip hop music), a turntablist can create rhythmic accompaniment, percussion breaks, basslines or beat loops, atmospheric "pads", "stabs" of sudden chords or interwoven melodic lines.
History
Precursors
The use of the turntable as a musical instrument has its roots dating back to the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s when musique concrète composers did experiments with audio equipment. Experimental composers (such as John Cage, Halim El-Dabh, and Pierre Schaeffer) used them to sample and create music that was entirely produced by the turntable. Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939) is composed for two variable speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano and cymbal. Edgard Varèse experimented with turntables even earlier in 1930, though he never formally produced any works using them. Though this school of thought and practice is not directly linked to the 1970s-2010 definition of turntablism within hip hop and DJ culture, it has had an influence on modern experimental sonic/artists such as Christian Marclay, Janek Schaefer, Otomo Yoshihide, Philip Jeck, and Maria Chavez. Turntablism as it is known today, however, did not surface until the advent of hip hop in the 1970s.
Examples of turntable effects can also be found on popular records produced in the 1960s and 1970s. This was most prominent in Jamaican dub music of the 1960s, among deejays in the Jamaican sound system culture. Dub music introduced the techniques of mixing and scratching vinyl, which Jamaican immigrants introduced to American hip hop culture in the early 1970s. Beyond dub music, Creedence Clearwater Revival's 1968 self-titled debut album features a backspin effect in the song "Walk on the Water."
Direct-drive turntables
Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables. Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching. The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the market, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables. In 1971, Matsushita released the Technics SL-1100. Due to its strong motor, durability, and fidelity, it was adopted by early hip hop artists.
A forefather of turntablism was DJ Kool Herc, an immigrant from Jamaica to New York City. He introduced turntable techniques from Jamaican dub music, while developing new techniques made possible by the direct-drive turntable technology of the Technics SL-1100, which he used for the first sound system he set up after emigrating to New York. The signature technique he developed was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation to extend the b-dancers' favorite section, switching back and forth between the two to loop the breaks to a rhythmic beat.
The most influential turntable was the Technics SL-1200, which was developed in 1971 by a team led by Shuichi Obata at Matsushita, which then released it onto the market in 1972. It was adopted by New York City hip hop DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore and Afrika Bambaataa in the 1970s. As they experimented with the SL-1200 decks, they developed scratching techniques when they found that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter. Since then, turntablism spread widely in hip hop culture, and the SL-1200 remained the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for the next several decades.
Hip-Hop
Turntablism as a modern art form and musical practice has its roots within African-American inner city hip-hop of the late 1970s. Kool Herc (a Jamaican DJ who immigrated to New York City), Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash are widely credited for having cemented the now established role of DJ as hip hop's foremost instrumentalist. Kool Herc's invention of break-beat DJing is generally regarded as the foundational development in hip hop history, as it gave rise to all other elements of the genre. His influence on the concept of "DJ as turntablist" is equally profound.
To understand the significance of this achievement, it is important to first define the "break." Briefly, the "break" of a song is a musical fragment only seconds in length, which typically takes the form of an "interlude" in which all or most of the music stops except for the percussion. Kool Herc introduced the break-beat technique as a way of extending the break indefinitely. This is done by buying two of the same record, finding the break on each record, and switching from one to the other using the DJ mixer: e.g., as record A plays, the DJ quickly backtracks to the same break on record B, which will again take the place of A at a specific moment where the audience will not notice that the DJ has switched records. Using that idea, Grandmaster Flash elaborated on Kool Herc's invention of break-beat DJing and came up with the quick-mix theory, in which Flash sectioned off a part of the record like a clock. He described it as being "...like cutting, the backspin, and the double-back."
Kool Herc's revolutionary techniques set the course for the development of turntablism as an art form in significant ways. Most important, however, he developed a new form of DJing that did not consist of just playing and mixing records one after the other. The type of DJ that specializes in mixing a set is well respected for his/her own set of unique skills, but playlist mixing is still DJing in the traditional sense. Kool Herc instead originated the idea of creating a sequence for his own purposes, introducing the idea of the DJ as the "feature" of parties, whose performance on any given night would be different than on another night, because the music would be created by the DJ, mixing a bassline from one song with a beat from another song (Greasley & Prior, 2013). The DJ would be examined critically by the crowd on both a technical and entertainment level.
Grand Wizzard Theodore, an apprentice of Flash, who accidentally isolated the most recognizable technique of turntablism: scratching. He put his hand on a record one day, to silence the music on the turntable while his mother was calling out to him and thus accidentally discovered the sound of scratching by moving the record back and forth under the stylus. Though Theodore discovered scratching, it was Flash who helped push the early concept and showcase it to the public, in his live shows and on recordings. DJ Grand Mixer DXT is also credited with furthering the concept of scratching by practicing the rhythmic scratching of a record on one or more turntables (often two), using different velocities to alter the pitch of the note or sound on the recording (Alberts 2002). DXT appeared (as DST) on Herbie Hancock's hit song "Rockit." These early pioneers cemented the fundamental practice that would later become the emerging turntablist art form. Scratching would during the 1980s become a staple of hip hop music, being used by producers and DJs on records and in live shows. By the end of the 1980s it was very common to hear scratching on a record, generally as part of the chorus of a track or within its production.
On stage the DJ would provide the music for the MCs to rhyme and rap to, scratching records during the performance and showcasing his or her skills alongside the verbal skills of the MC. The most well known example of this 'equation' of MCs and DJ is probably Run-D.M.C. who were composed of two MCs and one DJ. The DJ, Jam Master Jay, was an integral part of the group since his turntablism was critical to Run DMC's productions and performances. While Flash and Bambaataa were using the turntable to explore repetition, alter rhythm and create the instrumental stabs and punch phrasing that would come to characterize the sound of hip hop, Grandmaster DST was busy cutting "real" musicians on their own turf. His scratching on Herbie Hancock's 1983 single, "Rockit," makes it perhaps the most influential DJ track of them all – even more than (Grandmaster Flash's) "Wheels of Steel," it established the DJ as the star of the record, even if he wasn't the frontman. Compared to "Rockit," West Street Mob's "Break Dancin' – Electric Boogie" (1983) was punk negation. As great as "Break Dancin'" was, though, it highlighted the limited tonal range of scratching, which was in danger of becoming a short-lived fad like human beat-boxing until the emergence of Code Money's DJ Brethren from Philadelphia in the mid-1980s.
Despite New York's continued pre-eminence in the hip-hop world, scratch DJing was modernized less than 100 miles down the road in Philadelphia, where the climate for the return of the DJ was created by inventing transformer scratching. Developed by DJ Spinbad, DJ Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff, transforming was basically clicking the fader on and off while moving a block of sound (a riff or a short verbal phrase) across the stylus. Expanding the tonal as well as rhythmic possibilities of scratching, the transformer scratch epitomized the chopped-up aesthetic of hip hop culture. Hip hop was starting to become big money and the cult of personality started to take over. Hip hop became very much at the service of the rapper and Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff were accorded maybe one track on an album – for example, DJ Jazzy Jeff's "A Touch of Jazz" (1987) and "Jazzy's in the House" (1988) and Cash Money's "The Music Maker" (1988). Other crucial DJ tracks from this period include Tuff Crew's DJ Too Tuff's "Behold the Detonator" "Soul Food" (both 1989)," and Gang Starr's "DJ Premier in Deep Concentration" (1989).
Decline in role of DJ in hip hop
The appearance of turntablists and the birth of turntablism was prompted by one major factor – the disappearance or downplaying of the role of the DJ in hip-hop groups, on records and in live shows at the turn of the 1990s. This disappearance has been widely documented in books and documentaries (among them Black Noise and Scratch: The Movie), and was linked to the increased use of DAT tapes and other studio techniques that would ultimately push the DJ further away from the original hip-hop equation of the MC as the vocalist and the DJ as the music provider alongside the producer. This push and disappearance of the DJ meant that the practices of the DJ, such as scratching, went back underground and were cultivated and built upon by a generation of people who grew up with hip hop, DJs and scratching. By the mid-90s the disappearance of the DJ in hip hop had created a sub-culture which would come to be known as turntablism and which focused entirely on the DJ utilizing his turntables and a mixer to manipulate sounds and create music. By pushing the practice of DJing away, hip hop created the grounds for this sub-culture to evolve (Greasley & Prior, 2013).
Coining of terms
The origin of the terms turntablist and turntablism are widely contested and argued about, but over the years some facts have been established by various documentaries (Battlesounds, Doug Pray's Scratch), books (DJ Culture), conferences (Skratchcon 2000) and interviews in online and printed magazines. These facts are that the origins of the words most likely lay with practitioners on the US West Coast, centered on the San Francisco Bay Area. Some claim that DJ Disk, a member of the Invisibl Skratch Piklz, was the first to coin the term, others claim that DJ Babu, a member of the Beat Junkies, was responsible for coining and spreading the term turntablist after inscribing it on his mixtapes and passing them around. Another claim credits DJ Supreme, 1991 World Supremacy Champion and DJ for Lauryn Hill. The truth most likely lies somewhere in between all these facts.
In an interview with the Spin Science online resource in 2005, DJ Babu added the following comments about the birth and spread of the term:
Mid-to late 1990s
By the mid to late 1990s the terms "turntablism" and "turntablist" had become established and accepted to define the practice and practitioner of using turntables and a mixer to create or manipulate sounds and music. This could be done by scratching a record or manipulating the rhythms on the record either by drumming, looping or beat juggling. The decade of the 1990s is also important in shaping the turntablist art form and culture as it saw the emergence of pioneering artists (Mix Master Mike, DJ Q-Bert, DJ Quest, DJ Krush, A-Trak, Ricci Rucker, Mike Boo, Pumpin' Pete, Prime Cuts) and crews (Invisibl Skratch Piklz, Beat Junkies, The Allies, X-Ecutioners), record labels (Asphodel), DJ Battles (DMC) and the evolution of scratching and other turntablism practices such as Beat Juggling which are viewable in the IDA (International DJ Association/ITF) World Finals.
Techniques
More sophisticated methods of scratching were developed during that decade, with crews and individual DJs concentrating on the manipulation of the record in time with the manipulation of the cross fader on the mixer to create new rhythms and sonic artifacts with a variety of sounds. The evolution of scratching from a fairly simple sound and simple rhythmic cadences to more complicated sounds and more intricate rhythmical patterns allowed the practitioners to further evolve what could be done with scratching musically. These new ways of scratching were all given names, from flare to crab or orbit, and spread as DJs taught each other, practiced together or just showed off their new techniques to other DJs. Alongside the evolution of scratching, other practices such as drumming (or scratch drumming) and beat juggling were also evolved significantly during the 1990s.
Beat juggling was invented by Steve Dee, a member of the X-Men (later renamed X-Ecutioners) crew. Beat juggling essentially involves the manipulation of two identical or different drum patterns on two different turntables via the mixer to create a new pattern. A simple example would be to use two copies of the same drum pattern to evolve the pattern by doubling the snares, syncopating the drum kick, adding rhythm and variation to the existing pattern. From this concept, which Steve Dee showcased in the early 1990s at DJ battles, Beat Juggling evolved throughout the decade to the point where by the end of it, it had become an intricate technique to create entirely new "beats" and rhythms out of existing, pre-recorded ones (van Veen & Attias, 2012). These were now not just limited to using drum patterns, but could also consist of other sounds – the ultimate aim being to create a new rhythm out of the pre-recorded existing ones. While beat juggling is not as popular as scratching due to the more demanding rhythmical knowledge it requires, it has proved popular within DJ battles and in certain compositional situations (van Veen & Attias, 2012).
Studies
One of the earliest academic studies of turntablism (White 1996) argued for its designation as a legitimate electronic musical instrument—a manual analog sampler—and described turntable techniques such as backspinning, cutting, scratching and blending as basic tools for most hip hop DJs. White's study suggests the proficient hip-hop DJ must possess similar kinds of skills as those required by trained musicians, not limited to a sense of timing, hand–eye coordination, technical competence and musical creativity. By the year 2000, turntablism and turntablists had become widely publicized and accepted in the mainstream and within hip hop as valid artists. Through this recognition came further evolution.
Evolution
This evolution took many shapes and forms: some continued to concentrate on the foundations of the art form and its original links to hip hop culture, some became producers utilizing the skills they'd learnt as turntablists and incorporating those into their productions, some concentrated more on the DJing aspect of the art form by combining turntablist skills with the trademark skills of club DJs, while others explored alternative routes in utilizing the turntable as an instrument or production tool solely for the purpose of making music – either by using solely the turntable or by incorporating it into the production process alongside tools such as drum machines, samplers, computer software, and so on. Digital turntablism techniques later was coined into a term called controllerism, which inspired a movement of new digital DJs such as DJ Buddy Holly and Moldover. DJ Buddy and Moldover went on to create a song called "Controllerism" that pays homage to the sound of digitally emulated turntablism.
New DJs, turntablists and crews owe a distinct debt to pioneer old-school DJs like Kool DJ Herc, Grand Wizard Theodore, Grandmixer DST, Grandmaster Flash, and Afrika Bambaataa, also DJ Jazzy Jeff, DJ Cash Money, DJ Scratch, DJ Clark Kent, and other DJs of the golden age of hip hop, who originally developed many of the concepts and techniques that evolved into modern turntablism. Within the realm of hip hop, notable modern turntablists are the cinematic DJ Shadow, who influenced Diplo and RJD2, among others, and the experimental DJ Spooky, whose Optometry albums showed that the turntablist can perfectly fit within a jazz setting. Mix Master Mike was a founding member of the influential turntablist group Invisibl Skratch Piklz (begun in 1989 as Shadow of the Prophet) and later DJ for the Beastie Boys. Cut Chemist, DJ Nu-Mark, and Kid Koala are also known as virtuosi of the turntables.
Techniques
Chopped and screwed
Starting in the 1990s in the Southern United States and burgeoning in the 2000s, a meta-genre of hip hop called "chopped and screwed" became a significant and popular form of turntablism. Often utilizing a greater variety of vinyl emulation software rather than normal turntables, "chopped and screwed" stood out from previous standards of turntablism in its slowing of the pitch and tempo ("screwing") and syncopated beat skipping ("chopping"), among other added effects of sound manipulation.
DJ Screw of Texas, innovated the art of chopping and screwing coining the phrase "chopped n screwed," taking original contemporary hit records and replaying them in the "chopped n screwed" art form. This gained a very large following finally paving the way for small, independent rap labels to turn a decent profit. However, it is thought by many that DJ Michael Price started slowing down vinyl recordings before the era of DJ Screw.
This form of turntablism, which is usually applied to prior studio recordings (in the form of custom mixtapes) and is not prominent as a feature of live performances, de-emphasizes the role of the rapper, singer or other vocalist by distorting the vocalist's voice along with the rest of the recording (van Veen & Attias, 2012). Arguably, this combination of distortion and audial effects against the original recording grants greater freedom of improvisation to the DJ than did the previous forms of turntablism. Via the ChopNotSlop movement, "Chopped and screwed" has also been applied to other genres of music such as R&B and rock music, thus transcending its roots within the hip-hop genre.
Transform
A transform is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made from a combination of moving the record on the turntable by hand and repeated movement of the crossfader. The name, which has been associated with DJ Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff, comes from its similarity to the sound made by the robots in the 1980s cartoon, The Transformers.
Tear
A tear is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made from moving the record on the turntable by hand. The tear is much like a baby scratch in that one does not need the fader to perform it, but unlike a baby scratch, when the DJ pulls the record back he or she pauses his or her hand for a split second in the middle of the stroke. The result is one forward sound and two distinct backward sounds. This scratch can also be performed by doing the opposite and placing the pause on the forward stroke instead. A basic tear is usually performed with the crossfader open the entire time, but it can also be combined with other scratches such as flares for example by doing tears with the record hand and cutting the sound in and out with the fader hand.
Orbit
An orbit is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is generally any scratch that incorporates both a forward and backward movement, or vice versa, of the record in sequence. The orbit was developed by DJ Disk who incorporated the flare after being shown by DJ Q-Bert. Usually when someone is referring to an orbit, they are most likely talking about flare orbits. For example, A 1 click forward flare and a 1 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 4 very quick distinct sounds) would be a 1 click orbit. A 2 click forward flare and a 2 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 6 very distinct sounds) would be a 2 click orbit, etc. Orbits can be performed once as a single orbit move, or sequenced to produce a cyclical never ending type of orbit sound.
Flare
Flare is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made from a combination of moving the record on the turntable by hand and quick movement of the crossfader. The flare was invented by its namesake, DJ Flare in 1987. This scratch technique is much like the "transform" in some ways, only instead of starting with the sound that is cutting up off, one starts with the sound on and concentrate on cutting the sound into pieces by bouncing the fader off the cut out side of the fader slot to make the sound cut out and then back in a split second.
Each time the DJ bounces the fader off the side of the fader slot it makes a distinct clicking noise. For this reason, flares are named according to clicks. A simple one click forward flare would be a forward scratch starting with the sound on as the DJ bounces/clicks the fader against the side once extremely quickly in the middle of the forward stroke creating two distinct sounds in one stroke of your record hand and ending with the fader open. In the same manner, 2 clicks, 3 clicks, and even more clicks (if a DJ is fast enough) can be performed to do different types of flares. The discovery and development of the flare scratch was instrumental in elevating this art form to the level of speed and technical scratching that is seen in the 2010s.
Chirp
A "chirp" is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made with a mix of moving the record and incorporating movement with the crossfade mixer. It was invented by DJ Jazzy Jeff. The scratch is somewhat difficult to perform because it takes a good amount of coordination. The scratch starts out with the cross-fader open. The DJ then moves the record forward while simultaneously closing the previously opened channel ending the first sound. Then, in a reverse fashion, the DJ opens the channel while moving the record backwards creating a more controlled sounding "baby scratch". Done in quick succession it sounds as though a chirp sound is being produced.
Stab
A "stab" is quite similar to the Chirp technique but requires the crossfade mixer to be "closed". The stab requires the user to push the record forward and back quickly and moving the crossfade mixer with your thumb pressed against it, which results in minimal sound coming out, producing a sharp "stabbing" noise".
Crab
A "crab" is a type of scratch used by turntablists and originally developed by DJ Qbert. It is one of the most difficult scratch techniques to master. The crab is done by pushing the record forward and back while pushing the crossfader mixer open or closed through a quick succession of 4 movements with the fingers. Variations can also include 3 or 2 fingers, and generally it is recommended for beginners to start with 2 fingers and work their way to 4. It is a difficult move to master but also versatile and quite rewarding if done right.
Visual turntablism
Visual turntablism is a more recent phenomenon in which "visual turntablists," or "VJs," incorporate pictures, video, and computer generated effects into their live performances utilizing a separate video mixer in combination with their turntablist equipment. It can contain visuals without the audio being necessarily directly associated or synchronized. Since video mixing became incorporated into DJ hardware from Pioneer, and DJ software such as Scratch Live, visual turtablism have moved from being a DJ with a "VJ," to being solely the DJ mixing music videos much the same way as music was mixed before. In 2005 the International Turntablist Federation World final introduced the 'Experimental' category, Australian DJ/VJ 'DJ J-red' took first place, becoming the first Australian to win a World DJ competition championship title as well as becoming a pioneer of the Visual Turntablist movement.
Contests
Like many other musical instrumentalists, turntablists compete to see who can develop the fastest, most innovative and most creative approaches to their instrument. The selection of a champion comes from the culmination of battles between turntablists. Battling involves each turntablist performing a routine (A combination of various technical scratches, beat juggles, and other elements, including body tricks) within a limited time period, after which the routine is judged by a panel of experts. The winner is selected based upon score. These organized competitions evolved from actual old school "battles" where DJs challenged each other at parties, and the "judge" was usually the audience, who would indicate their collective will by cheering louder for the DJ they thought performed better. The DMC World DJ Championships has been hosted since 1985. There are separate competitions for solo DJs and DJ teams, the title of World Champion being bestowed on the winners of each. They also maintain a turntablism hall of fame.
Role of women
In Western popular music, women musicians have achieved great success in singing and songwriting roles, with top examples being Madonna, Celine Dion and Rihanna. However, there are relatively few women DJs or turntablists. Part of this may stem from a general low percentage of women in audio technology-related jobs. A 2013 Sound on Sound article stated that there are "...few women in record production and sound engineering." Ncube states that "[n]inety-five percent of music producers are male, and although there are female producers achieving great things in music, they are less well-known than their male counterparts." The vast majority of students in music technology programs are male.
In hip hop music, the low percentage of women DJs and turntablists may stem from the overall male domination of the entire hip hop music industry. Most of the top rappers, MCs, DJs, record producers and music executives are men. There are a small number of high-profile women, but they are rare. In 2007 Mark Katz's article "Men, Women, and Turntables: Gender and the DJ Battle," stated that "very few women [do turntablism] battle[s]; the matter has been a topic of conversation among hip-hop DJs for years." In 2010 Rebekah Farrugia states "the male-centricity of EDM culture" contributes to "a marginalisation of women in these [EDM] spaces." While turntablism and broader DJ practices should not be conflated, Katz suggests use or lack of use of the turntable broadly by women across genres and disciplines is impacted upon by what he defines as "male technophilia." Historian Ruth Oldenziel concurs in her writing on engineering with this idea of socialization as a central factor in the lack of engagement with technology. She explains: "an exclusive focus on women's supposed failure to enter the field … is insufficient for understanding how our stereotypical notions have come into being; it tends to put the burden of proof entirely on women and to blame them for their supposedly inadequate socialization, their lack of aspiration, and their want of masculine values. An equally challenging question is why and how boys have come to love things technical, how boys have historically been socialized as technophiles."
Lucy Green focused on gender in relation to musical performers and creators, and specifically on educational frameworks as they relate to both. She suggests that women's alienation from "areas that have a strong technological tendency such as DJing, sound engineering and producing" are "not necessarily about her dislike of these instruments but relates to the interrupting effect of their dominantly masculine delineations." Despite this, women and girls do increasingly engage in turntable and DJ practices, individually and collectively, and "carve out spaces for themselves in EDM and DJ Culture". There are various projects dedicated to the promotion and support of these practices such as Female DJs London. Some artists and collectives go beyond these practices to be more gender inclusive. For example, Discwoman, a New York-based collective and booking agency, describe themselves as "representing and showcasing cis women, trans women and genderqueer talent."
Some pioneers of turntablism
See also
Controllerism
Sampling (music)
Audio signal processing
Scratching
Beatmatching
List of turntablists
Plunderphonics
Vinyl Emulation Software
Battle records
Wave Twisters
References
Alberts, Randy. "Scratch and the Hip-Hop Book of Grand Mixer DXT." DigiZine 1/7 (October 2002).
Shapiro, Peter. Rough Guide to Hip-Hop. Rough Guides, 2001, p. 96.
White, Miles. "The Phonograph Turntable and Performance Practice in Hip Hop Music." Ethnomusicology OnLine 2 (1996) Retrieved February 4, 2013]
Further reading
Eshun, Kodwo. More Brilliant than the Sun. Adventures in Sonic Fiction. London: Quartet Books, 1998.
Katz, Mark. "The Turntable as Weapon: Understanding the DJ Battle." Capturing Sound: How Technology has Changed Music. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010, pp. 124–45.
Katz, Mark. Groove Music: The Art and Culture of the Hip Hop DJ. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. .
Poschardt, Ulf: DJ Culture. London: Quartet Books, 1998.
Pray, Doug (Dir.). Scratch. 2001. A documentary about the History and Culture of Turntablism.
Schloss, Joseph G. Making Beats: The Art of Sample-based Hip-hop. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan UP, 2004.
External links
What is New York Rap? Australian Broadcasting Corporation. A 1979 radio report on the "new" phenomenon of turntablism.
DJing
Experimental music
Musical techniques
Turntables
Hip hop production
Hip hop genres | [
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232677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Chiarelli | Bob Chiarelli | Robert "Bob" Chiarelli (born September 24, 1941) is a politician in Ontario, Canada. He was a Liberal member in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario who served from 1987 to 1997 and again from 2010 to 2018 who represented the ridings of Ottawa West and Ottawa West—Nepean. He was the Regional Chair of Ottawa-Carleton from 1997 to 2001 and was mayor of Ottawa from 2001 to 2006. He served in the provincial cabinets of Dalton McGuinty and Kathleen Wynne. Chiarelli is currently a candidate for Mayor of Ottawa in the 2022 Ottawa municipal election.
Background
Chiarelli was raised in the Little Italy area of Ottawa near Preston Street. His parents were entrepreneurs owning a number of stores in the neighbourhood. He was the youngest of their seven children. He was an ice hockey player in high school and attended Clarkson University, New York, on a hockey scholarship. He received a Bachelor of Business Administration degree, and then returned to Ottawa to attend the University of Ottawa law school. He began his legal practice in 1969. He served for seven years on the National Capital Commission. He lives in Ottawa with his partner Randi Hansen, and has five adult children and two grandchildren.
Provincial politics
Chiarelli entered politics in 1987, where he ran as a Liberal candidate in the 1987 provincial election in the riding of Ottawa West. He defeated Progressive Conservative candidate Derek Insley by about 6,000 votes. He served as the parliamentary assistant to the Chair of the Management Board in 1987–88. Chiarelli was re-elected in the provincial elections of 1990 and 1995. Chiarelli endorsed Dalton McGuinty's bid to lead the Ontario Liberal Party in 1996.
He resigned his seat in 1997 in order to pursue a position in municipal politics.
Return to provincial politics
In 2010, Chiarelli ran as the Liberal Party candidate in a by-election held in the riding of Ottawa West–Nepean to succeed Jim Watson who resigned to run for Mayor of Ottawa. He won the by-election, which was held on March 4. Chiarelli was re-elected in the 2011 and 2014 elections.
On August 18, 2010, Chiarelli was appointed to cabinet as Minister of Public Infrastructure and Renewal.
On June 7, 2018, Chiarelli was defeated in the provincial election. He placed 3rd, behind the PC and NDP local candidates. The Progressive Conservatives, led by Doug Ford, won a sizeable majority government, ending 15 consecutive years of Liberal power.
Municipal politics
In November 1997, Chiarelli contested the position of Regional Chair of Ottawa-Carleton. He defeated incumbent Peter Clark. Chiarelli's win was the only Ottawa municipal contest where an incumbent was upset. For the next three years, he advocated eliminating the region's "two-tiered" government, and amalgamating the regional municipalities into a single city. The provincial government of Mike Harris did this in 2000, and Chiarelli declared himself a candidate to become the first mayor of the amalgamated city of Ottawa.
Chiarelli was elected as the first mayor of the newly amalgamated city of Ottawa on November 13, 2000 defeating former mayor of Gloucester, Ontario, Claudette Cain. He was easily re-elected in the 2003 election beating his closest rival by nearly 40,000 votes.
2006 election
In the 2006 election, he ran for re-election against two main opponents: former Kanata councillor Alex Munter, and businessman Larry O'Brien. Terry Kilrea, runner-up to Chiarelli in 2003, campaigned through the summer but withdrew when it seemed left-wing candidate Alex Munter had taken the lead. Kilrea decided to support Chiarelli for the remainder of the campaign.
Chiarelli's main project was the expansion of the city's light-rail system: a north-south line would run from Barrhaven to downtown Ottawa starting in 2009. His opponents in the election alleged that the project had been undertaken without sufficient consultation or communication with the public. The project was cancelled shortly after his departure of City Hall.
Chiarelli also had plans to improve the east end of the city. He introduced a 10-point revitalization plan that would include attracting more jobs and businesses east of the Rideau River in order to improve its economic development. He also planned to build new roads to improve connections between Orleans and the south end of the city. Also he promised to expand the existing bike trail system with additional trails connecting suburban and rural areas of Ottawa.
In a survey conducted by UniMarketing during the week of October 13, 2006, Chiarelli placed second with an 11-point percentage deficit on Munter but had a three-point advantage over O'Brien among the most likely to vote. In the election, he finished in third position with just over 15% of the vote and lost the mayoral position to O'Brien.
Return to municipal politics
On December 10, 2021, Chiarelli announced his intention to return to municipal politics, declaring himself a candidate for his former job as mayor in the 2022 municipal election.
Electoral record
References
External links
1941 births
Canadian people of Italian descent
Chairs of the Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton
Clarkson University alumni
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Lawyers in Ontario
Living people
Mayors of Ottawa
Members of the Executive Council of Ontario
Ontario Liberal Party MPPs
Sportspeople from Ottawa
University of Ottawa alumni
University of Ottawa Faculty of Law alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians | [
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232680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action%20fiction | Action fiction | Action fiction is the literary genre that includes spy novels, adventure stories, tales of terror and intrigue ("cloak and dagger") and mysteries. This kind of story utilizes suspense, the tension that is built up when the reader wishes to know how the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is going to be resolved or what the solution to the puzzle of a thriller is.
Genre fiction
Action fiction is a form of genre fiction whose subject matter is characterized by emphasis on exciting action sequences. This does not always mean they exclude character development or story-telling. Action fiction is related to other forms of fiction, including action films, action games and analogous media in other formats such as manga and anime. It includes martial arts action, extreme sports action, car chases and vehicles, suspense action, and action comedy, with each focusing in more detail on its own type and flavor of action. It is usually possible to tell from the creative style of an action sequence, the emphasis of an entire work, so that, for example, the style of a combat sequence will indicate whether the entire work can be classified as action adventure, or a martial work. Action is mainly defined by a central focus on any kind of exciting movement.
List of action novels
58 Minutes (1987)
The Bourne Identity (1980)
The Chinaman (1992)
The Equalizer (2014)
First Blood (1972)
Killed in Action (2018)
Man on Fire (1980)
Nothing Lasts Forever (1979)
See also
Action-adventure game
List of genres
Pace (narrative)
Spy fiction
Thriller novel
Notes
References
Literary genres
Fiction-writing mode
Narratology | [
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232683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frasier%20Crane | Frasier Crane | Dr. Frasier Winslow Crane (born ) is a fictional character on the American television sitcom Cheers and its spin-off Frasier, portrayed by Kelsey Grammer. The character debuted in the Cheers third-season premiere, "Rebound (Part 1)" (1984), as Diane Chambers's love interest, part of the Sam and Diane story arc. Intended to appear for only a few episodes, Grammer's performance for the role was praised by producers, prompting them to expand his role and to increase his prominence. Later in Cheers, Frasier marries Lilith Sternin (Bebe Neuwirth) and has a son, Frederick. After Cheers ended, the character moved to a spin-off series Frasier, the span of his overall television appearances totaling twenty years. In the spin-off, Frasier moves back to his birthplace Seattle after his divorce from Lilith, who retained custody of Frederick in Boston, and is reunited with a newly-created family: his estranged father Martin and brother Niles.
Grammer received award recognitions for portraying this character in these two shows, in addition to a 1992 one-time appearance in Wings. For his portrayal in Cheers, Grammer was nominated twice as the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series but did not win that category. For portraying the character in Frasier, Kelsey Grammer won four Emmy Awards out of eleven nominations as the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series and two Golden Globe Awards out of eight nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series (Musical or Comedy).
In February 2021, CBS announced that Grammer would reprise the character in a new reboot of the series set to air on the new streaming service, Paramount+.
Creation and casting
The character Frasier Crane was created in the third season of Cheers (1984–1985) by series creators Glen and Les Charles as Diane Chambers's (Shelley Long) "romantic and intellectual ideal" following her breakup with Sam Malone (Ted Danson). Not only Sam Malone's rival and opposite, Frasier Crane was also part of the love triangle, "a different form of the Sam-Diane relationship," said Glen Charles. The show's writers initially conceived the character as "the role Ralph Bellamy used to play in Cary Grant movies — the guy the lady falls in love with, but is not real. You just know he doesn't have the sexual dynamism Grant does."
John Lithgow was originally chosen by Cheers producers for the role, but turned it down. Grammer believed that he had failed the audition because no one laughed, but was chosen because of the quality of his performance with Danson. Frasier was supposed to only appear on a few episodes before Diane left him, but Grammer's performance was praised by series executives, leading to an extended role in the series. His character was not universally popular, however, for coming between Sam and Diane; a fan approached Grammer asking "Are you that pin dick that plays Frasier?", and the show received fan mail denouncing Grammer.
Role in Cheers
Frasier Crane, an alumnus of Harvard University, Harvard Medical School, and Oxford University, debuted in the two-part episode "Rebound" (1984), the premiere of Cheers season three (1984–85), as a psychiatrist to help bartender Sam Malone recover from a brief return to alcoholism and also cope with his breakup from Diane Chambers. Also Diane's fiancé throughout the third season, he and Diane are supposed to wed in Italy in "Rescue Me" (1985), the finale of season three. However, in "Birth, Death, Love, and Rice" (1985), the premiere of season four (1985–86), Frasier enters the bar and tells Sam that he was jilted by Diane at the altar in Europe. A despondent Frasier, who gave up his practice to go to Europe, loses his job lecturing at a university in Europe. Later in season four, he begins to regularly attend Cheers for drinks and finds himself depending more and more on alcohol. In "The Triangle" (1986), Sam feigns symptoms of depression, planned by Diane, to help Frasier recover from alcoholism and regain his own self-confidence. This leads Frasier to conclude that Sam's symptoms indicate his love for Diane. However, upon arrival Frasier sees Sam and Diane arguing in the bar office, Sam admits the whole plan. Furious, Frasier declares himself to be sober, refuses to be a part of their relationship, and vows to practice psychiatry again.
The character finally becomes a permanent fixture among the other bar patrons by the end of season three, and adds to his comedic repertoire an occasional penchant for commenting on the personality flaws of the other Cheers regulars, while still managing to remain a likable addition to the gang. As his role is expanded, Frasier becomes romantically involved with a stereotypical "intelligent, ice queen" Lilith Sternin (Bebe Neuwirth). Their first date in "Second Time Around" (1986) does not go well; they exchange insults with each other until she leaves the bar, disappointing him. In "Abnormal Psychology" (1986), Frasier and Lilith feel mutual attraction after Diane gives Lilith a makeover. At first reluctant to start anew, they then decide to go on another date. They live together for a year before being married one month before "Our Hourly Bread" (1988) as revealed in the episode, and give birth to their son Frederick in "The Stork Brings a Crane" (1989). (In "Smotherly Love" (1992), they re-enact their wedding to please Lilith's mother Betty (Marilyn Cooper), who was irritated that she had not been present for their marriage).
In "One Hugs, the Other Doesn't" (1992), Frasier is revealed to have been previously married to Nanette Guzman (Emma Thompson), now known as the popular children's entertainer Nanny G. When Nanette sings a song implying her possible feelings for Frasier (despite being fully aware he's remarried), Lilith attacks her during Frederick's second birthday party.
In "Teaching with the Enemy" (1992), Lilith admits her affair with another man Dr. Louis Pascal (Peter Vogt), dooming their marriage. In "Is There a Doctor in the Howe?" (1993), a distraught Frasier is going to sleep with Rebecca Howe in his bed until Lilith unexpectedly returns and then—in the following episode "The Bar Manager, The Shrink, His Wife and Her Lover" (1993)—storms out the room and then heads to Cheers. There, Lilith reveals that the eco-pod experiment with Pascal was a disaster—Pascal turned out to be claustrophobic among other mental problems—and she abandoned the project to return to Boston. Frasier, Rebecca, and eventually Pascal converge on Cheers in pursuit of Lilith. Pascal, armed with a pistol, demands Lilith return to him, threatening to shoot Frasier and the others. Lilith demands that he shoot her first, which causes him to back down and surrender to police. Although Frasier initially refuses to take Lilith back after all this, her pathetic sobbing wins him over, and he hesitantly reconciles with her.
Role in Frasier
Spin-off development
When Cheers ended in 1993, at first the creators did not plan to spin off the character from the predecessor because they were concerned that a spinoff might fail. Instead, they wanted to cast Kelsey Grammer as a paraplegic millionaire resembling Malcolm Forbes, "a magazine mogul [and] a motorcycle enthusiast". The idea was deemed unsuitable and scrapped. Then the show's creators decided to move Frasier Crane out of Boston to avoid any resemblance to Cheers. The spinoff idea would have focused on "his work at a radio station", but they found it resembling an older sitcom, WKRP in Cincinnati. Therefore, they decided to add in his private life, such as his father Martin and brother Niles. In his titular spin-off, Frasier becomes "haughty, disdainful, and exceedingly uptight."
Moving to Seattle
After Cheers, Frasier and Lilith (Bebe Neuwirth) divorce offscreen, and Lilith is awarded custody of their son Frederick, with Frasier granted visiting rights. In the pilot "The Good Son", Frasier explains that he left Boston because he felt that his life and career had grown stagnant (and he had been publicly humiliated after climbing onto a ledge and threatening to commit suicide before being talked down). Therefore, he returned to his original hometown of Seattle, where his father Martin (John Mahoney) and brother Niles (David Hyde Pierce) live, to have a fresh start.
Frasier works for the radio station, KACL, as the host of his psychotherapeutic radio show, The Dr. Frasier Crane Show, produced by his producer and friend, Roz Doyle (Peri Gilpin), who has many ex-boyfriends. Later, his father Martin, a retired Seattle Police Department detective who was shot in the line of duty, ends up moving in with him. Frasier is worried about his father in his current state as he can barely walk, and requires a cane to move. In Cheers, Frasier says that his father is dead, and that he was a scientist. He also says that he is an only child. This inconsistency is later explained in "The Show Where Sam Shows Up": At Frasier's apartment, Sam Malone (Ted Danson) tells Martin and Niles what Frasier had said about them, and Frasier explains that he was trying to distance himself from his family at the time. In Cheers, Frasier tells bar patrons that he is an orphan. He confirms in "To All the Girls I've Loved Before" (1988) that his mother Hester, portrayed by Nancy Marchand in "Diane Meets Mom" (1984) and then by Rita Wilson in flashbacks in "Mamma Mia" (1999) and "Don Juan in Hell: Part 2" (2001), is dead off-screen.
Frasier hires a live-in physical therapist, Daphne Moon (Jane Leeves), to care for Martin. Daphne is an eccentric, working class Englishwoman who professes to be "a bit psychic". Moreover, Martin brings his beloved Jack Russell Terrier, Eddie, whom Frasier is uncomfortable around. After some initial hostility, Frasier grows very close to his new family.
Life with Martin and Niles
During the course of the spin-off's run, especially in scenes at Frasier's apartment, Frasier and Martin regularly fight over the living arrangements and each other's personalities: Frasier is intellectual, elitist, and mild-mannered, while Martin is a rugged man of simple tastes who speaks (according to Frasier) in words that no "sophisticated, educated" person could understand. While Frasier has many common interests with Niles and shares adventures (or misadventures) with him, he has little in common with his father, Martin.
In "Dinner at Eight" (1993), Martin takes Frasier and Niles to a themed steakhouse, where health-conscious Frasier and Niles criticize the food, the restaurant's customs, and the clientele. Martin becomes frustrated and angry before leaving, remarking upon departing that their mother, Hester, would be disappointed with their behavior. Frasier and Niles try to prove that they are not "snobs" by finishing their meal, although it takes them until after closing time. Ironically, in the Cheers season seven episode "I Kid You Not" (1988), Frasier invites Carla and her son Ludlow to a fine dining restaurant, but Carla and Ludlow criticize and mock it, enraging Frasier.
In "Chess Pains" (1996), Frasier teaches Martin how to play chess, but is horrified when Martin becomes a better player than him, due to Martin's seasoned insight as a police detective. Frasier becomes obsessed with winning against his father until Frasier wins one match and Martin does not want to play with Frasier anymore. One late night, Frasier wakes Martin up and asks him whether he lost the chess match on purpose. Martin responds that Frasier "won, fair and square" and nothing more. In the Cheers season five episode "Spellbound" (1987), dimwitted Woody Boyd consistently beats Frasier in chess, frustrating Frasier.
In an episode of the seventh season "A Tsar Is Born" (1999), Martin takes an old family clock, which Frasier and Niles consider ugly, to exhibit on the television show Antiques Roadshow. As the boys soon discover, the clock is related to their ancestors and royalty, and may be worth a fortune, and heightens their expectations of being descended from royalty. Unfortunately, when they try to sell the clock later, the brothers learn from an antique specialist that it was stolen from the daughter of Tsar Alexander II. Moreover, their great-great-grandmother was discovered to have been the clock thief and the daughter's scullery maid, and is discovered to have later been a prostitute in New York City. Therefore, the brothers are left without a fortune, a clock, and their royal dreams are destroyed, as Frasier puts it, they are descended from "thieves and whores". Much to their anger, Martin buys a Winnebago RV with money Frasier claimed were the proceeds from selling the clock.
Reunion with Lilith and Frederick
Actress Bebe Neuwirth left Cheers for fear of becoming typecast and to do Broadway; she did not expect to appear recurrently in Frasier. Cheers and Frasier writers Ken Levine and David Isaacs found chemistry of Frasier and Lilith "special" enough to compare them with Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy on Prozac. In "The Show Where Lilith Comes Back" (1994), Lilith surprises Frasier by dialing to the radio show. They later make love in a hotel room, but end up regretting it, prompting them to part ways again. They decide to remain friends and help each other co-parent their son Frederick (Trevor Einhorn), who also appears occasionally in this spin-off. In "Adventures in Paradise, Part Two" (1994), Lilith gets engaged to her fiancé Brian (James Morrison), much to Frasier's chagrin. In "A Lilith Thanksgiving" (1996), Frasier and Lilith have Frederick admitted into a private school after they annoy the administrator (Paxton Whitehead) several times on Thanksgiving. In "The Unnatural" (1997), Frasier is proven as unathletic and bad at softball, which he reluctantly admits to Frederick. Then Frasier tells him that, when Frasier was a third-grade elementary student, Martin was bad at math.
In "Room Service" (1998), Lilith is recently divorced from her husband Brian for his gay affair. Frasier attempts to renew the relationship, but changes his mind when he finds out, to his horror, that Lilith and Niles had a drunken one-night stand. Lilith last appears in "Guns 'N Neuroses" (2003), in which she and Frasier are accidentally set up to go on a blind date. Lilith and Frasier are close to restarting a relationship in the hotel room, but they are interrupted by a loud argument between a young married couple next door. Frasier and Lilith are able to resolve the couple's dispute, spend the night together watching television, and finally fall asleep on the couch without having had sex. The next morning, they part ways with a tender final onscreen moment together.
Reunions with Cheers characters
With the exception of Rebecca Howe (Kirstie Alley), all the surviving main cast members of Cheers appear in the show at various points. In "The Show Where Sam Shows Up" (1995), Sam Malone reunites with Frasier in Seattle. Later, Frasier is discovered to have slept with Sam's fiancée Sheila (Téa Leoni), but Sam has not discovered the affair, much to Frasier's relief. Nevertheless, Sam finds out her dalliances with Paul Krapence (Paul Willson) and Cliff Clavin (John Ratzenberger), which ends the romantic relationship. In "The Show Where Diane Comes Back" (1996), Frasier is reunited with Diane Chambers and learns that her recent relationship failed and that a foundation refused to fund her upcoming play, prompting him to support it. The play turns out to be based on their relationship in Boston, including her leaving him at the altar. Frasier angrily confronts her about it, but they end up reconciling.
In "The Show Where Woody Shows Up" (1999), Woody Boyd (Woody Harrelson), still married to Kelly with his son and daughter, accidentally reunites with Frasier after landing in the wrong destination, Seattle. However, they realize that they are no longer friends, as their lives are too different. Nevertheless, they admit that they had good times together in Boston, and they will always think about each other. In "Cheerful Goodbyes" (2002), Frasier arrives to Boston for a psychiatric conference. At the airport, Frasier unexpectedly bumps into Cliff Clavin and is invited to Cliff's retirement party the following evening, where he is reunited with Carla Tortelli (Rhea Perlman) and then briefly Norm Peterson (George Wendt). Later, Cliff confides in Frasier that he fears that his friends will not miss him. Frasier tells everyone to say a nice farewell to Cliff; even Carla, who hates him. Moved, Cliff decides to stay in Boston, much to Carla's annoyance.
Final years: 2003–04
In "Caught in the Act" (2004), Frasier's ex-wife Nanette Guzman (Laurie Metcalf), tries to rekindle their relationship, but Frasier refuses. (The character was previously portrayed by Emma Thompson in Cheers episode "One Hugs, the Other Doesn't" (1992) and by Dina Spybey in "Don Juan in Hell, Part 2" (2001) as part of Frasier's imaginary dream.) Later, he falls in love with Charlotte Connor (Laura Linney), but the romance turns out to be short-lived when she moves to Chicago. In the 2004 two-part series finale, "Goodnight, Seattle", Frasier is offered a job as the host of his own television talk show, located in San Francisco and has decided to accept the job. However, in the final scene of the show, it is revealed that Frasier has boarded a plane to Chicago, implying he will be with Charlotte.
Other appearances
Kelsey Grammer has made several appearances as Dr. Frasier Crane outside of Cheers and Frasier.
Mickey's 60th Birthday (1988)
Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color Season 34, Episode 15, "Disneyland's 35th Anniversary Celebration" (1990)
The Earth Day Special (1990)
Wings Season 3, Episode 16, "Planes, Trains and Visiting Cranes" (1992)
The John Larroquette Show Season 3, Episode 1, "More Changes" (1995)
Dr Pepper TV Commercial (2008)
An animated version of the character appears in The Simpsons episode "Fear of Flying (The Simpsons)", although Grammer, who voices Sideshow Bob on the show, does not voice the character of Frasier.
Characterization and analysis
Frasier Crane is a licensed psychiatrist who is, as Kelsey Grammer described, "flawed, silly, pompous, and full of himself, [yet] kind [and] vulnerable." Judy Berman from Flavor Wire describes him as also "a child prodigy, theater geek, and frequent target for bullies." According to Cheers and Frasier writer Peter Casey, Frasier is "very complicated, very intelligent, but also very insecure;" he may have all solutions to problems as psychiatrist but is clueless about himself.
Reception
Popularity
According to a 1993 telephone survey before the Frasier premiere and the Cheers finale, Sam Malone (Ted Danson) scored 26 percent as a favorite character, and Frasier Crane scored 1 percent. In response to the question of spinning off a character, 15 percent voted Sam, 12 percent voted Woody Boyd (Woody Harrelson), 10 percent voted Norm Peterson (George Wendt), and 29 percent voted no spin-offs. Frasier Crane, whose own spin-off Frasier debuted in September 1993, was voted by 2 percent to have his own show.
Critical reaction
At the time Cheers originally aired, Rick Sherwood from Los Angeles disdained Frasier Crane and his existence as part of the "Sam and Diane" dynamic. Sherwood found Frasier's frequent appearances in the bar setting ("his [former] girlfriend's former lover's bar") responsible for turning Cheers into "as believable as [conservative] Archie Bunker [from All in the Family] voting for a liberal Democrat."
Later, while the character became more prominent in the series, inspiring a spin-off Frasier, in a 1999 book Writing and Responsibility, Beverly West and Jason Bergund noted that Frasier's father Martin was supposed to be dead in Cheers but turns out still alive in Frasier, calling it inconsistent with "a bout of amnesia[,] poor scriptwriting", or a desperation to elicit more laughter. (In "The Show Where Sam Shows Up" [1995], Frasier addresses the inconsistency by explaining that he told his friends Martin was dead after an argument with him.) In another book TV Therapy, Frasier Crane in Cheers is considered "high-strung [and] pseudo-sophisticated" and an attraction to 1980s demographics of "anti-intellectual snobbery", but Frasier in Frasier is considered a good, positive role model for intellectuality and sophistication. In 2004, he was ranked by Bravo No. 26 of Bravo's The 100 Greatest TV Characters of all-time. In 2009, the National Lampoon website ranked him No. 20 of "Top 20 Sitcom Characters You'd Kill in Real Life" and called him "hilarious" in the fictional world and "unbearable" in the real world.
Robert Bianco from USA Today considered Frasier Crane masculine in the days of "Fred Astaire and William Powell" instead of recent "beer-belching" days of the reality show, Survivor. Bianco found series of Frasier's love life repetitive and "tiring". Gillian Flynn from Entertainment Weekly considered Frasier Crane's "diction" an inspiration of Fringe'''s Walter Bishop (John Noble), who has an addition of "daffiness" of roles portrayed by actor Christopher Lloyd. Joe Sixpack, a pseudonymous name for writer Don Russell, called Frasier an "insufferable twerp". An internet user from Ken Levine's blog considered Frasier a successor to more prestigious, experienced Bostonian medical doctor and surgeon Charles Winchester (David Ogden Stiers) from the television series M*A*S*H. However, Levine did not acknowledge it when Frasier was the new character in Cheers in 1984. (Coincidentally, in the Frasier episode "Fathers and Son" (2003), actor Stiers, portrayer of Winchester, appears as Hester Crane's former lab assistant Leland Barton, who is suspected as Frasier and Niles' biological father.)Television Without Pity called Frasier "snooty and pretentious", even if he may be "smart" on television and a "rare" species of all characters. Steve Silverman from Screen Junkies praised Kelsey Grammer's performance as Frasier Crane but found them "predictable". Silverman thought that Grammer did not deserve an Emmy, especially in 1998. In note, Silverman deemed the character Frasier as "a windbag with a sense of humor" and "a whining schoolboy with a series of lame excuses." Lance Mannion from his Typepad blog depicted Grammer as partially responsible for turning Cheers "from a light romantic into farce" by physical comedy.
Reviewers on Frasier and Lilith
Martha Nolan from The New York Times called Frasier and Lilith "repressed" when married together in Cheers. Josh Bell from About.com called Frasier and his ex-wife Lilith Sternin one of the "best sitcom divorced couples" of all-time. Steven H. Scheuer from Sarasota Herald-Tribune considered Lilith's significance to and marriage with Frasier "fun" to watch, especially when, in "Severe Crane Damage" (1990), she used comparisons between "the duller good boy" Frasier and "the interesting bad boy" Sam Malone as "psychiatric examples of the good boy-bad boy syndrome". Faye Zuckerman and John Martin from The New York Times called their marriage in Cheers a hilariously "perfect mismatch". Television critic Kevin McDonough from New York praised Kelsey Grammer and Bebe Neuwirth's performances as "repressed individuals" and "separate couple on TV" with "acidic and hilarious" chemistry together. Lance Mannion referred to Frasier and Lilith as separate halves of Diane Chambers.
Accolades
For his performance as Frasier Crane in Cheers, Kelsey Grammer was Emmy Award-nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1988 and 1990. For the same role in Wings episode "Planes, Trains, and Visiting Cranes", he was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 1992 Emmy Awards.
For the same role in Cheers spin-off Frasier, Grammer was consecutively nominated as an Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series during the show's whole run except in 2003. He won that Lead category in 1994, 1995, 1998, and 2004. He earned eight Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series (Musical or Comedy) throughout the series's whole run and won that category in 1996 and 2001. Grammer won American Comedy Awards as the Funniest Male Performer in a TV Series (Leading Role) in 1995 and 1996. Grammer won the Screen Actors Guild Award as part of an ensemble cast of Frasier'' in 2000.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Another edition
External links
Detailed Listing of Frasier Crane Locations in Seattle
Cheers characters
Frasier characters
Fictional radio personalities
Fictional Harvard University people
Fictional University of Oxford people
Television characters introduced in 1984
Fictional characters from Seattle
Fictional attempted suicides
Crossover characters in television
Fictional American psychiatrists
American male characters in television | [
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232684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree%20spiking | Tree spiking | Tree spiking involves hammering a metal rod, nail or other material into a tree trunk, either inserting it at the base of the trunk where a logger might be expected to cut into the tree, or higher up where it would affect the sawmill later processing the wood. It is used to prevent logging by risking damage to saws, in the forest or at the mill, if the tree is cut, as well as possible injury or death to the worker. The spike can also lower the commercial value of the wood by causing discoloration, reducing the economic viability of logging in the long term, without threatening the life of the tree. It is illegal in the United States, and has been described as a form of eco-terrorism.
History
It was first mentioned in the context of discouraging logging in Earth First! magazine. It came to prominence as a contentious tactic within unconventional environmentalist circles during the 1980s, after it was advocated by Earth First! co-founder Dave Foreman in his book Ecodefense. In the book, he discusses how to do it and how to avoid risks to the activist and the logger, such as by putting warning signs or marks in the area where the trees are being spiked.
On 8 May 1987, George Alexander, a millworker, was severely injured when a saw blade shattered after contact with a tree spike and cut his jaw in half. Louisiana-Pacific, Alexander's employer, offered a $20,000 reward for information leading to the alleged tree spiker, but no charges were filed in this incident. The spiking itself was thought to be inconsistent with Earth First! tactics, as the trees were not in an old-growth forest and the placement of the nail suggested it was inserted after the tree was cut. Alexander later filed a lawsuit against Louisiana-Pacific claiming that the band saw had been weakened from previous strikes with nails but was forced to work with the saw or face dismissal.
This industrial accident led the leaders of Earth First! to denounce tree spiking. Tree spiking is labeled as eco-terrorism by logging advocates who claim it is potentially dangerous to loggers or mill-workers, although by 1996 only this single injury resulting from tree spiking had been reported.
By country
New Zealand
Beech trees that were being logged in 1998 in the Tuatapere area were spiked. Police were unable to trace those who were responsible.
Pat O'Dea, while he was the mayor for the Buller District, suggested in 2000 that Native Forest Action (NFA) had spiked trees during a direct action campaign against native forest logging on the West Coast. This was denied by NFA spokesperson Dean Bagient-Mercer. In 1998, Kevin Smith from Forest and Bird had said that tree spiking was proposed by some individuals involved in the NFA campaign.
United States
Following the 1987 injury of California mill worker George Alexander, anti-tree spiking legislation was introduced as the Anti-Tree Spiking Act, and was passed into federal law as an amendment, introduced by senators James A. McClure and Mark Hatfield, to the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. In 1993, John Blount and others were convicted under this statute for spiking trees in the Clearwater National Forest, after Tracy Stone-Manning agreed to testify in exchange for immunity from prosecution.
In 1990, Earth First! leaders, including Judi Bari and Mike Roselle, issued a memo and press release to Earth First! activists in Northern California and Southern Oregon, renouncing tree-spiking as a tactic on the eve of Redwood Summer, a 1990 campaign of nonviolent protests against logging of the redwood forest.
In 2021, President Biden nominated Tracy Stone-Manning to lead the Bureau of Land Management despite her involvement in a 1989 tree-spiking plot.
In popular culture
In Edward Abbey's novel Hayduke Lives! (1989), environmental activists organise tree spiking actions against logging in the Southwestern United States.
See also
Ecotage
Tree sitting
References
Eco-terrorism
Trees
Radical environmentalism | [
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232687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20law | Federal law | Federal law is the body of law created by the federal government of a country. A federal government is formed when a group of political units, such as states or provinces join in a federation, delegating their individual sovereignty and many powers to the central government while retaining or reserving other limited powers. As a result, two or more levels of government exist within an established geographic territory. The body of law of the common central government is the federal law.
Examples of federal governments include those of Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Malaysia, Pakistan, Republic of India, Russia, the former Soviet Union and the United States.
Australia
Brazil
Canada
Germany
India
Malaysia
Pakistan
Russia
United States
The United States Constitution established through the supremacy clause that the United States Constitution and federal law takes precedent over state law. These powers include the authority to govern international affairs, interstate commerce, the currency and national defense. After the American Civil War, the Fourteenth Amendment applied the Constitution's Bill of Rights to state governments. Legislation passed by Congress, an Executive Order of the President, or a decision of federal courts pursuant to the Constitution are federal law.
Through the system of checks and balances, it is the Supreme Court makes final decisions regarding federal laws regarding specific cases brought before them. McCulloch v. Maryland was seminal case handed down by the Supreme Court in 1819 which prevented State legislatures from taxing federal institutions. This established the superior relationship that federal laws have with regards to conflicting State laws and was a critical moment for federalism in the United States. federal laws are codified in the United States Code.
Gravitational Force Theory
Professor Scott Dodson proposes a theory which argues that American federal law has some measurable effect on state law and compares this effect to a gravitational force that while not "inexorable", influences state actors to create legislature in accordance with or at least closely aligned with federal legislature. Dodson justifies the existence of this "pull" by arguing that state legislators and courts rarely exercise their constitutional power to deviate from Federal Law despite having the capability. He cited, among other supreme case decisions and legislative acts, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure as being responsible for ushering, "in a new era of federal procedural uniformity" in 1938.
Proposed Case Evidence
Dodson points to the 1957 Conley v. Gibson supreme court decision as additional contextualization for his argument. This case was brought as a class-action lawsuit by a group of African American rail workers to a Federal District Court in Texas and stating that “their collective bargaining agent be compelled to represent them fairly” in accordance with the Railway Labor Act. The suit was initially dismissed on the basis that the complaint did not follow the previously set federal precedence of requiring a complaint “to state a claim upon which relief could be given”. The supreme court later held that this decision was a mistake based on their subjective interpretation of the Federal Rules of Procedure. The Court prioritized Rule 8 while glossing over Rule 12 to establish to a fairly liberating set of standards for pleading procedures that was then adopted by many state legislatures.
References
Public law | [
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232688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Murray | Alexander Murray | Alexander Murray may refer to:
Public figures
Scotland
Earl of Dunmore
Alexander Murray, 6th Earl of Dunmore (1804–1845)
Alexander Murray, 8th Earl of Dunmore (1872–1962), Scottish soldier, politician and Victoria Cross recipient
Lord Elibank
Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank (1677–1736)
Alexander Murray, 7th Lord Elibank (1747–1820), Scottish peer
Alexander Murray, 8th Lord Elibank (1780–1830)
Alexander Oliphant-Murray, 9th Lord Elibank (1804–1871)
Alexander Murray of Drumdewan (died 1599), Scottish soldier
Alexander Murray of Elibank (1712–1778), Scottish Jacobite, fourth son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank
Alexander Murray, 1st Baron Murray of Elibank (1870–1920), Scottish nobleman and Liberal politician
Alexander Murray (knight), Lord of Culbin and Newton
Alexander Murray, Lord Henderland (1736–1795), Scottish judge and politician
Sir Alexander Murray, 3rd Baronet (died 1743), Scottish politician, MP for Peeblesshire 1710–13
Alexander Murray (1789–1845), Scottish politician, MP for Kirkcudbright Stewartry 1838–45
Alexander Murray (died 1750), Scottish politician
Canada
Alexander Murray (British Army officer, died 1762) (c. 1715–1762)
Alexander Murray (Manitoba politician) (1839–1913), Canadian politician in the province of Manitoba
Alexander Clark Murray (politician) (1900–1983), Canadian Member of Parliament for Oxford
Australia
Alexander Murray (manufacturer) (1803–1880), manufacturer of biscuits and jam; South Australian politician
Alexander Borthwick Murray (1816–1903), South Australian sheep breeder and parliamentarian
United States
Alexander Murray (1755–1821), U.S. Navy officer, Revolutionary War
Alexander Murray (1816–1884), U.S. Navy officer, Mexican-American and American Civil Wars
Alexander C. Murray, American mayor of Fall River, Massachusetts
Others
Alexander Murray (geologist) (1810–1884), Scottish geologist
Alexander Murray (linguist) (1775–1813), Scottish linguist and professor of Oriental languages at the University of Edinburgh
Alexander Hunter Murray (died 1874/9–1874), Hudson's Bay Company fur trader and artist
Alexander Stuart Murray (1841–1904), archaeologist
Alexander Robertson Murray (1872–1956), president of the Bengal Chamber of Commerce
Alexander Murray, 9th Earl of Mansfield (born 1956), British nobleman
Alex Murray, a character in Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time
See also
Alex Murray (disambiguation) | [
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232689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club%20of%20Rome | Club of Rome | The Club of Rome was founded in 1968 at Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, Italy. It consists of one hundred full members selected from current and former heads of state and government, UN administrators, high-level politicians and government officials, diplomats, scientists, economists, and business leaders from around the globe. It stimulated considerable public attention in 1972 with the first report to the Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth. Since 1 July 2008, the organization has been based in Winterthur, Switzerland.
Formation
The Club of Rome was founded in April 1968 by Aurelio Peccei, an Italian industrialist, and Alexander King, a Scottish scientist. It was formed when a small international group of people from the fields of academia, civil society, diplomacy, and industry met at Villa Farnesina in Rome, hence the name.
The problématique
Central to the formation of the club was Peccei's concept of the problematic. It was his opinion that viewing the problems of mankind—environmental deterioration, poverty, endemic ill-health, urban blight, criminality—individually, in isolation or as "problems capable of being solved in their own terms", was doomed to failure. All are interrelated. "It is this generalized meta-problem (or meta-system of problems) which we have called and shall continue to call the "problematic" that inheres in our situation."
In 1970, Peccei's vision was laid out in a document written by Hasan Özbekhan, Erich Jantsch, and Alexander Christakis. Entitled, The Predicament of Mankind; Quest for Structured Responses to Growing Worldwide Complexities and Uncertainties: A PROPOSAL. The document would serve as the roadmap for the LTG project.
The Limits to Growth
The Club of Rome stimulated considerable public attention with the first report to the club, The Limits to Growth. Published in 1972, its computer simulations suggested that economic growth could not continue indefinitely because of resource depletion. The 1973 oil crisis increased public concern about this problem. The report went on to sell 30 million copies in more than 30 languages, making it the best-selling environmental book in history.
Even before The Limits to Growth was published, Eduard Pestel and Mihajlo Mesarovic of Case Western Reserve University had begun work on a far more elaborate model (it distinguished ten world regions and involved 200,000 equations compared with 1,000 in the Meadows model). The research had the full support of the club and its final publication, Mankind at the Turning Point was accepted as the official "second report" to the Club of Rome in 1974. In addition to providing a more refined regional breakdown, Pestel and Mesarovic had succeeded in integrating social as well as technical data. The second report revised the scenarios of the original Limits to Growth and gave a more optimistic prognosis for the future of the environment, noting that many of the factors involved were within human control and therefore that environmental and economic catastrophe were preventable or avoidable.
In 1991, the club published The First Global Revolution. It analyses the problems of humanity, calling these collectively or in essence the "problematique". It notes that, historically, social or political unity has commonly been motivated by enemies in common: "The need for enemies seems to be a common historical factor. Some states have striven to overcome domestic failure and internal contradictions by blaming external enemies. The ploy of finding a scapegoat is as old as mankind itself—when things become too difficult at home, divert attention to adventure abroad. Bring the divided nation together to face an outside enemy, either a real one, or else one invented for the purpose. With the disappearance of the traditional enemy, the temptation is to use religious or ethnic minorities as scapegoats, especially those whose differences from the majority are disturbing." "Every state has been so used to classifying its neighbours as friend or foe, that the sudden absence of traditional adversaries has left governments and public opinion with a great void to fill. New enemies have to be identified, new strategies imagined, and new weapons devised." "In searching for a common enemy against whom we can unite, we came up with the idea that pollution, the threat of global warming, water shortages, famine and the like, would fit the bill. In their totality and their interactions these phenomena do constitute a common threat which must be confronted by everyone together. But in designating these dangers as the enemy, we fall into the trap, which we have already warned readers about, namely mistaking symptoms for causes. All these dangers are caused by human intervention in natural processes, and it is only through changed attitudes and behaviour that they can be overcome. The real enemy then is humanity itself."
In 2001 the Club of Rome established a think tank, called tt30, consisting of about 30 men and women, ages 25–35. It aimed to identify and solve problems in the world, from the perspective of youth.
A study by Graham Turner of the research organisation CSIRO in Australia in 2008 found that "30 years of historical data compare favorably with key features of a business-as-usual scenario called the "standard run" scenario, which results in collapse of the global system midway through the 21st century."
Organization
According to its website, the Club of Rome is composed of "scientists, economists, businessmen, international high civil servants, heads of state and former heads of state from all five continents who are convinced that the future of humankind is not determined once and for all and that each human being can contribute to the improvement of our societies."
The Club of Rome is a membership organization and has different membership categories. Full members engage in the research activities, projects, and contribute to decision-making processes during the club's annual general assembly. Of the full members, 12 are elected to form the executive committee, which sets the general direction and the agenda. Of the executive committee, two are elected as co-presidents and two as vice-presidents. The secretary-general is elected from the members of the executive committee. The secretary-general is responsible for the day-to-day operation of the club from its headquarters in Winterthur, Switzerland. Aside from full members there are associate members, who participate in research and projects, but have no vote in the general assembly.
The club also has honorary members. Notable honorary members include Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, Orio Giarini, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Mikhail Gorbachev, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Horst Köhler, and Manmohan Singh.
The annual general assembly of 2016 took place in Berlin on 10–11 November. Among the guest speakers were former German President Christian Wulff, German Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development Gerd Müller, as well as Nobel Laureate Muhammad Yunus.
National associations
The club has national associations in 35 countries and territories. The mission of the national associations is to spread the ideas and vision in their respective countries, to offer solutions and to lobby for a more sustainable and just economy in their nations, and to support the international secretariat of the club with the organization of events, such as the annual general assembly.
Current activities
there have been 43 reports to the club. These are peer-reviewed studies commissioned by the executive committee, or suggested by a member or group of members, or by outside individuals and institutions. The most recent is Come On! Capitalism, Short-termism, Population and the Destruction of the Planet.
In 2016, the club initiated a new youth project called "Reclaim Economics". With this project they support students, activists, intellectuals, artists, video-makers, teachers, professors and others to "shift the teaching of economics away from the mathematical pseudo-science it has become."
On 14 March 2019, the Club of Rome issued an official statement in support of Greta Thunberg and the school strikes for climate, urging governments across the world to respond to this call for action and cut global carbon emissions.
Critics
Economist Robert Solow, recipient of a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, criticized The Limits to Growth (LTG) as having "simplistic" scenarios. He has also been a vocal critic of the Club of Rome, ostensibly for amateurism. He has said that "the one thing that really annoys me is amateurs making absurd statements about economics, and I thought that the Club of Rome was nonsense. Not because natural resources or environmental necessities might not at some time pose a limit, not on growth, but on the level of economic activity—I didn't think that was a nonsensical idea—but because the Club of Rome was doing amateur dynamics without a license, without a proper qualification. And they were doing it badly, so I got steamed up about that."
An analysis of the world model used for The Limits to Growth by mathematicians Vermeulen and De Jongh has shown it to be "very sensitive to small parameter variations" and having "dubious assumptions and approximations".
An interdisciplinary team at Sussex University's Science Policy Research Unit reviewed the structure and assumptions of the models used and published its finding in Models of Doom; showing that the forecasts of the world's future are very sensitive to a few unduly pessimistic key assumptions. The Sussex scientists also claim that the Meadows et al. methods, data, and predictions are faulty, that their world models (and their Malthusian bias) do not accurately reflect reality.
In contrast, John Scales Avery, a member of Nobel Peace Prize (1995) winning group associated with the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, supported the basic thesis of LTG by stating, "Although the specific predictions of resource availability in "[The] Limits to Growth" lacked accuracy, its basic thesis - that unlimited economic growth on a finite planet is impossible - was indisputably correct."
Notable members
Alexander King (1909–2007), President of the Club of Rome 1984–1990, founding member
Anders Wijkman, co-president, 2012–2018
Ashok Khosla, co-president, 2006–2012
Aurelio Peccei (1908–1984) founding member
Bas de Leeuw
Bohdan Hawrylyshyn (1926–2016) – economist, chairman International Management Institute – Kyiv (:uk:IMI-Kyiv), Honorary Council of Ukraine
Călin Georgescu (born 1962) – chairman of the board, European Support Centre for the Club of Rome, now European Research Center, Vienna and Konstanz (2010-)
Daisaku Ikeda
David Korten
Dennis Meadows (born 1942)
Derrick de Kerckhove (born 1944)
Dzhermen Gvishiani, son in law of Alexei Kosygin
Eberhard von Koerber, co-president, 2006–2012
Elisabeth Mann-Borgese – first female member since 1970
Erich Jantsch, author of Technological Forecasting (1929–1980)
Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker, co-president, 2012–2018
Fernando Henrique Cardoso
Fredrick Chien (born in 1935), former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Frederic Vester (1925–2003)
Graeme Maxton
Hans-Peter Dürr (1929–2014)
Hugo Thiemann (1917–2012)
Ivo Šlaus
John R. Platt (1918–1992)
Joseph Stiglitz (born 1943), Nobel prize-winning economist
Kristín Vala Ragnarsdóttir
Mahdi Elmandjra (1933–2014)
Mamphela Ramphele, co-president since 2018
Max Kohnstamm, former Secretary General of the ECSC (1914–2010)
Michael K. Dorsey
Mikhail Gorbachev (born 1931), last leader of the Soviet Union
Mihajlo D. Mesarovic
Mohan Munasinghe
Mugur Isărescu (born in 1949), the governor of the National Bank of Romania in Bucharest
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994), economist, author of The Entropy Law and the Economic Process
Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1919–2000), former prime minister of Canada;
Prince Hassan bin Talal, President of the Club of Rome 2000–2006
Ricardo Díez Hochleitner, President, 1991–2000
Robert Uffen (1923–2009)
Sandrine Dixson-Declève, co-president since 2018
Tomas Björkman, author of The World We Create
Václav Havel (1936–2011), last president of Czechoslovakia, first president of the Czech Republic
Victor Urquidi (1919–2014)
Mauricio de María y Campos (1943–2021)
See also
Club of Budapest
Club of Madrid
Club of Vienna
Futures studies
Global catastrophic risk
Harlan Cleveland – DIKW
Latin American World Model
Olduvai theory
Peak Oil
Survivalism
The Revenge of Gaia
The First Global Revolution
Pergamon Press
References
External links
Last Call, documentary about The Limits to Growth (trailer)
Club of Rome Reports and Bifurcations, a 40-year overview 17 March 2010 / Draft
Analysis of Limits to Growth by Australian Broadcasting Corporation from 1999
Donella Meadows Institute
Suter, K. (1999). "The Club of Rome: The Global Conscience". Contemporary Review, 275 (1602), 1–5
1968 establishments in Italy
Think tanks established in 1968
20th century in Rome
Futures studies organizations
Globalism
Oceanography
Political and economic think tanks based in Europe
International sustainability organizations
Systems thinking
Think tanks based in Italy
Winterthur
Organisations based in Switzerland | [
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232690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Anderson%20%28editor%20and%20biographer%29 | Robert Anderson (editor and biographer) | Robert Anderson (7 January 1750 – 20 February 1830) was a Scottish author and critic.
Son of David Anderson, W.S., he was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire. He studied first divinity and then medicine at the University of Edinburgh, and subsequently, after some experience as a surgeon, took his M.D. at the University of St Andrews in 1778. He began to practise as a physician at Alnwick in Northumberland, but he became financially independent by his marriage with the daughter of John Gray, and abandoned his profession for a literary life in Edinburgh.
For several years his attention was occupied with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with Prefaces Biographical and Critical (14 vols. 8vo, Edin., 1792–1807). His other publications were:
The Miscellaneous Works of Tobias Smollett, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 1796)
Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., with Critical Observations on his Works (Edin., 1815)
The Works of John Moore, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 7 vols., 1820)
The Grave and other Poems, by Robert Blair; to which are prefixed some Account of his Life and Observations on his Writings (Edin., 1826).
Anderson was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816.
Freemasonry
He was a Scottish Freemason having been Initiated in The Lodge of Holyrood House (St Luke's), No.44, in 1781.
References
Attribution
Further reading
Scottish literary critics
1750 births
1830 deaths
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Scottish Freemasons | [
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232692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20hall | Music hall | Music hall is a type of British theatrical entertainment that was popular from the early Victorian era, beginning around 1850. It faded away after 1918 as the halls rebranded their entertainment as variety. Perceptions of a distinction in Britain between bold and scandalous Victorian Music Hall and subsequent, more respectable Variety differ. Music hall involved a mixture of popular songs, comedy, speciality acts, and variety entertainment. The term is derived from a type of theatre or venue in which such entertainment took place. In North America vaudeville was in some ways analogous to British music hall, featuring rousing songs and comic acts.
Originating in saloon bars within public houses during the 1830s, music hall entertainment became increasingly popular with audiences. So much so, that during the 1850s some public houses were demolished, and specialised music hall theatres developed in their place. These theatres were designed chiefly so that people could consume food and alcohol and smoke tobacco in the auditorium while the entertainment took place. This differed from the conventional type of theatre, which seats the audience in stalls with a separate bar-room. Major music halls were based around London. Early examples included: the Canterbury Music Hall in Lambeth, Wilton's Music Hall in Tower Hamlets, and The Middlesex in Drury Lane, otherwise known as the Old Mo.
By the mid-19th century, the halls cried out for many new and catchy songs. As a result, professional songwriters were enlisted to provide the music for a plethora of star performers, such as Marie Lloyd, Dan Leno, Little Tich, and George Leybourne. All manner of other entertainment was performed: male and female impersonators, lions comiques, mime artists and impressionists, trampoline acts, and comic pianists (such as John Orlando Parry and George Grossmith) were just a few of the many types of entertainments the audiences could expect to find over the next forty years.
The Music Hall Strike of 1907 was an important industrial conflict. It was a dispute between artists and stage hands on one hand, and theatre managers on the other, culminating in a strike. The halls had recovered by the start of the First World War and were used to stage charity events in aid of the war effort. Music hall entertainment continued after the war, but became less popular due to upcoming jazz, swing, and big-band dance music acts. Licensing restrictions had also changed, and drinking was banned from the auditorium. A new type of music hall entertainment had arrived, in the form of variety, and many music hall performers failed to make the transition. They were deemed old-fashioned, and with the closure of many halls, music hall entertainment ceased and modern-day variety began.
Origins and development
Music-halls their origins in 18th century London. It grew with the entertainment provided in the new style saloon bars of public houses during the 1830s. These venues replaced earlier semi-rural amusements provided by fairs and suburban pleasure gardens such as Vauxhall Gardens and the Cremorne Gardens. These latter became subject to urban development and became fewer and less popular.
The saloon was a room where for an admission fee or a greater price at the bar, singing, dancing, drama or comedy was performed. The most famous London saloon of the early days was the Grecian Saloon, established in 1825, at The Eagle (a former tea-garden), 2 Shepherdess Walk, off the City Road in east London. According to John Hollingshead, proprietor of the Gaiety Theatre, London (originally the Strand Music Hall), this establishment was "the father and mother, the dry and wet nurse of the Music Hall". Later known as the Grecian Theatre, it was here that Marie Lloyd made her début at the age of 14 in 1884. It is still famous because of an English nursery rhyme, with the somewhat mysterious lyrics:
Up and down the City RoadIn and out The EagleThat's the way the money goesPop goes the weasel.
Another famous "song and supper" room of this period was Evans Music-and-Supper Rooms, 43 King Street, Covent Garden, established in the 1840s by W.H. Evans. This venue was also known as 'Evans Late Joys' – Joy being the name of the previous owner. Other song and supper rooms included the Coal Hole in The Strand, the Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, Covent Garden and the Mogul Saloon in Drury Lane.
The music hall as we know it developed from such establishments during the 1850s and were built in and on the grounds of public houses. Such establishments were distinguished from theatres by the fact that in a music hall you would be seated at a table in the auditorium and could drink alcohol and smoke tobacco whilst watching the show. In a theatre, by contrast, the audience was seated in stalls and there was a separate bar-room. An exception to this rule was the Britannia Theatre, Hoxton (1841) which somehow managed to evade this regulation and served drinks to its customers. Though a theatre rather than a music hall, this establishment later hosted music hall variety acts.
Early music halls
The establishment often regarded as the first true music hall was the Canterbury, 143 Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth built by Charles Morton, afterwards dubbed "the Father of the Halls", on the site of a skittle alley next to his pub, the Canterbury Tavern. It opened on 17 May 1852 and was described by the musician and author Benny Green as being "the most significant date in all the history of music hall". The hall looked like most contemporary pub concert rooms, but its replacement in 1854 was of then unprecedented size. It was further extended in 1859, later rebuilt as a variety theatre and finally destroyed by German bombing in 1942.
Another early music hall was The Middlesex, Drury Lane (1851). Popularly known as the 'Old Mo', it was built on the site of the Mogul Saloon. Later converted into a theatre it was demolished in 1965. The New London Theatre stands on its site.
Several large music halls were built in the East End. These included the London Music Hall, otherwise known as The Shoreditch Empire, 95–99 Shoreditch High Street, (1856–1935). This theatre was rebuilt during 1894 by Frank Matcham, the architect of the Hackney Empire. Another in this area was the Royal Cambridge Music Hall, 136 Commercial Street (1864–1936). Designed by William Finch Hill (the designer of the Britannia theatre in nearby Hoxton), it was rebuilt after a fire in 1898.
The construction of Weston's Music Hall, High Holborn (1857), built up on the site of the Six Cans and Punch Bowl Tavern by the licensed victualler of the premises, Henry Weston, signalled that the West End was fruitful territory for the music hall. During 1906 it was rebuilt as a variety theatre and renamed as the Holborn Empire. It was closed as a result of German action in the Blitz on the night of 11–12 May 1941 and the building was pulled down in 1960. Significant West End music halls include:
The Oxford Music Hall, 14/16 Oxford Street (1861) – built on the site of an old coaching inn called the Boar and Castle by Charles Morton, the pioneer music hall developer of The Canterbury, who with this development brought music hall to the West End. Demolished in 1926.
The London Pavilion (1861). Facade of 1885 rebuild still extant.
The Alhambra Theatre of Variety (1860) in London, which became a model for Parisian music halls. Some years before the Folies-Bergere it staged circus attractions alongside popular ballets in 55 new productions between 1864 and 1870.
Other large suburban music halls included:
The Old Bedford, 93–95 High Street, Camden Town (1861). Built on the site of the tea gardens of a pub called the Bedford Arms. The Bedford was a favourite haunt of the artists known as the Camden Town Group headed by Walter Sickert, who featured interior scenes of music halls in his paintings, including one entitled 'Little Dot Hetherington at The Old Bedford'. The Old Bedford was demolished in 1969.
Collins', Islington Green (1862). Opened by Sam Collins, in 1862, as the Lansdowne Music Hall, converting the pre-existing Lansdowne Arms public house, it was renamed as Collins' Music Hall in 1863. It was colloquially known as 'The Chapel on the Green'. Collins was a star of his own theatre, singing mostly Irish songs specially composed for him. It closed in 1956, after a fire, but the street front of the building still survives (see below).
Deacons in Clerkenwell (1862).
A noted music hall entrepreneur of this time was Carlo Gatti who built a music hall, known as Gatti's, at Hungerford Market in 1857. He sold the music hall to South Eastern Railway in 1862, and the site became Charing Cross railway station. With the proceeds from selling his first music hall, Gatti acquired a restaurant in Westminster Bridge Road, opposite The Canterbury music hall. He converted the restaurant into a second Gatti's music hall, known as "Gatti's-in-the-Road", in 1865. It later became a cinema. The building was badly damaged in the Second World War, and was demolished in 1950. In 1867, he acquired a public house in Villiers Street named "The Arches", under the arches of the elevated railway line leading to Charing Cross station. He opened it as another music hall, known as "Gatti's-in-The-Arches". After his death his family continued to operate the music hall, known for a period as the Hungerford or Gatti's Hungerford Palace of Varieties.
It became a cinema in 1910, and the Players' Theatre in 1946.
By 1865, there were 32 music halls in London seating between 500 and 5,000 people plus an unknown, but large, number of smaller venues.
In 1878, numbers peaked, with 78 large music halls in the metropolis and 300 smaller venues. Thereafter numbers declined due to stricter licensing restrictions imposed by the Metropolitan Board of Works and London County Council, and because of commercial competition between popular large suburban halls and the smaller venues, which put the latter out of business.
A few of the UK's music halls have survived and have retained many of their original features. Amongst the best examples in the United Kingdom are:
Victoria Hall, Settle is a Grade II listed concert hall in Kirkgate, Settle, North Yorkshire, England. It is the UK's oldest surviving music hall having opened as Settle Music Hall on 11 October 1853. The Music Hall was renamed 'The Victoria Hall' around November 1892.
Wilton's Music Hall is a Grade II listed building in Shadwell, built by John Wilton in 1859 as a music hall and now run as a multi-arts performance space in Graces Alley, off Cable Street in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.
The Britannia Music Hall (later known as The Panopticon or The Britannia Panopticon) in Trongate, Glasgow, Scotland was built in 1857/58 and is located above an amusement arcade at 113-117 Trongate.
Variety theatre
A new era of variety theatre was developed by the rebuilding of the London Pavilion in 1885. Contemporary accounts noted:
One of the most famous of these new palaces of pleasure in the West End was the Empire, Leicester Square, built as a theatre in 1884 but acquiring a music hall licence in 1887. Like the nearby Alhambra this theatre appealed to the men of leisure by featuring alluring ballet dancers and had a notorious promenade which was the resort of courtesans. Another spectacular example of the new variety theatre was the Tivoli in the Strand built 1888–90 in an eclectic neo-Romanesque style with Baroque and Moorish-Indian embellishments. "The Tivoli" became a brand name for music-halls all over the British Empire. During 1892, the Royal English Opera House, which had been a financial failure in Shaftesbury Avenue, applied for a music hall licence and was converted by Walter Emden into a grand music hall and renamed the Palace Theatre of Varieties, managed by Charles Morton. Denied by the newly created LCC permission to construct the promenade, which was such a popular feature of the Empire and Alhambra, the Palace compensated in the way of adult entertainment by featuring apparently nude women in tableaux vivants, though the concerned LCC hastened to reassure patrons that the girls who featured in these displays were actually wearing flesh-toned body stockings and were not naked at all.
One of the grandest of these new halls was the Coliseum Theatre built by Oswald Stoll in 1904 at the bottom of St Martin's Lane. This was followed by the London Palladium (1910) in Little Argyll Street.
Both were designed by the prolific Frank Matcham. As music hall grew in popularity and respectability, and as the licensing authorities exercised ever firmer regulation, the original arrangement of a large hall with tables at which drink was served, changed to that of a drink-free auditorium. The acceptance of music hall as a legitimate cultural form was established by the first Royal Variety Performance before King George V during 1912 at the Palace Theatre. However, consistent with this new respectability the best-known music hall entertainer of the time, Marie Lloyd, was not invited, being deemed too "saucy" for presentation to the monarchy.
'Music Hall War' of 1907
The development of syndicates controlling a number of theatres, such as the Stoll circuit, increased tensions between employees and employers. On 22 January 1907, a dispute between artists, stage hands and managers of the Holborn Empire worsened. Strikes in other London and suburban halls followed, organised by the Variety Artistes' Federation. The strike lasted for almost two weeks and was known as the Music Hall War. It became extremely well known, and was advocated enthusiastically by the main spokesmen of the trade union and Labour movement – Ben Tillett and Keir Hardie for example. Picket lines were organized outside the theatres by the artistes, while in the provinces theatre management attempted to oblige artistes to sign a document promising never to join a trade union.
The strike ended in arbitration, which satisfied most of the main demands, including a minimum wage and maximum working week for musicians.
Several music hall entertainers such as Marie Dainton, Marie Lloyd, Arthur Roberts, Joe Elvin and Gus Elen were strong advocates of the strike, though they themselves earned enough not to be concerned personally in a material sense. Lloyd explained her advocacy:
Recruiting
World War I may have been the high-water mark of music hall popularity. The artists and composers threw themselves into rallying public support and enthusiasm for the war effort. Patriotic music hall compositions such as "Keep the Home Fires Burning" (1914), "Pack up Your Troubles" (1915), "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" (1914) and "We Don't Want to Lose You (but we think you ought to Go)", were sung by music hall audiences, and sometimes by soldiers in the trenches.
Many songs promoted recruitment ("All the boys in khaki get the nice girls", 1915); others satirised particular elements of the war experience. "What did you do in the Great war, Daddy" (1919) criticised profiteers and slackers; Vesta Tilley's "I've got a bit of a blighty one" (1916) showed a soldier delighted to have a wound just serious enough to be sent home. The rhymes give a sense of grim humour ("When they wipe my face with sponges / and they feed me on blancmanges / I'm glad I've got a bit of a blighty one").
Tilley became more popular than ever during this time, when she and her husband, Walter de Frece, managed a military recruitment drive. In the guise of characters like 'Tommy in the Trench' and 'Jack Tar Home from Sea', Tilley performed songs such as "The army of today's all right" and "Jolly Good Luck to the Girl who Loves a Soldier". This is how she got the nickname Britain's best recruiting sergeant – young men were sometimes asked to join the army on stage during her show. She also performed in hospitals and sold war bonds. Her husband was knighted in 1919 for his own services to the war effort, and Tilley became Lady de Frece.
Once the reality of war began to sink home, the recruiting songs all but disappeared – the Greatest Hits collection for 1915 published by top music publisher Francis and Day contains no recruitment songs. After conscription was brought in 1916, songs dealing with the war spoke mostly of the desire to return home. Many also expressed anxiety about the new roles women were taking in society.
Possibly the most notorious of music hall songs from the First World War was "Oh! It's a lovely war" (1917), popularised by male impersonator Ella Shields.
Decline
Music hall continued during the interwar period, no longer the single dominant form of popular entertainment in Britain. The improvement of cinema, the development of radio, and the cheapening of the gramophone damaged its popularity greatly. It now had to compete with jazz, swing and big band dance music. Licensing restrictions also changed its character.
In 1914, the London County Council (LCC) enacted that drinking be banished from the auditorium into a separate bar and, during 1923, the separate bar was abolished by parliamentary decree. The exemption of the theatres from this latter act prompted some critics to denounce this legislation as an attempt to deprive the working classes of their pleasures, as a form of social control, whilst sparing the supposedly more responsible upper classes who patronised the theatres (though this could be due to the licensing restrictions brought about due to the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, which also applied to public houses). Even so, the music hall gave rise to such major stars as George Formby, Gracie Fields, Max Miller, Will Hay, and Flanagan and Allen during this period.
In the mid-1950s, rock and roll, whose performers initially topped music hall bills, attracted a young audience who had little interest in the music hall acts, while driving the older audience away. The final demise was competition from television, which grew popular after the Queen's coronation was televised. Some music halls tried to retain an audience by putting on striptease acts. In 1957, the playwright John Osborne delivered this elegy:
Moss Empires, the largest British music hall chain, closed the majority of its theatres in 1960, closely followed by the death of music hall stalwart Max Miller in 1963, prompting one contemporary to write that: "Music-halls ... died this afternoon when they buried Max Miller". Miller himself had sometimes said that the genre would die with him. Many music hall performers, unable to find work, fell into poverty; some did not even have a home, having spent their working lives living in digs between performances.
Stage and film musicals, however, continued to be influenced by the music hall idiom, including Oliver!, Dr Dolittle and My Fair Lady. The BBC series The Good Old Days, which ran for thirty years, recreated the music hall for the modern audience, and the Paul Daniels Magic Show allowed several speciality acts a television presence from 1979 to 1994. Aimed at a younger audience, but still owing a lot to the music hall heritage, was the late-1970s’ television series, The Muppet Show.
Music halls of Paris
The music hall was first imported into France in its British form in 1862, but under the French law protecting the state theatres, performers could not wear costumes or recite dialogue, something only allowed in theaters. When the law changed in 1867, the Paris music hall flourished, and a half-dozen new halls opened, offering acrobats, singers, dancers, magicians, and trained animals. The first Paris music call built specially for that purpose was the Folies-Bergere (1869); it was followed by the Moulin Rouge (1889), the Alhambra (1866), the first to be called a music hall, and the Olympia (1893). The Printania (1903) was a music-garden, open only in summer, with a theater, restaurant, circus, and horse-racing. Older theaters also transformed themselves into music halls, including the Bobino (1873), the Bataclan (1864), and the Alcazar (1858). At the beginning, music halls offered dance reviews, theater and songs, but gradually songs and singers became the main attraction.
Paris music halls all faced stiff competition in the interwar period from the most popular new form of entertainment, the cinema. They responded by offering more complex and lavish shows. In 1911, the Olympia had introduced the giant stairway as a set for its productions, an idea copied by other music halls. Gaby Deslys rose in popularity and created, with her dance partner Harry Pilcer, her most famous dance The Gaby Glide. The singer Mistinguett made her debut the Casino de Paris in 1895, and continued to appear regularly in the 1920s and 1930s at the Folies Bergère, Moulin Rouge and Eldorado. Her risqué routines captivated Paris, and she became one of the most highly-paid and popular French entertainers of her time.
One of the most popular entertainers in Paris during the period was the American singer Josephine Baker. Baker sailed to Paris, France. She first arrived in Paris in 1925 to perform in a show called La Revue Nègre at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées. She became an immediate success for her erotic dancing, and for appearing practically nude on stage. After a successful tour of Europe, she returned to France to star at the Folies Bergère. Baker performed the 'Danse sauvage,' wearing a costume consisting of a skirt made of a string of artificial bananas.
The music-halls suffered growing hardships in the 1930s. The Olympia was converted into a movie theater, and others closed. Others however continued to thrive. In 1937 and 1930, the Casino de Paris presented shows with Maurice Chevalier, who had already achieved success as an actor and singer in Hollywood.
In 1935, a twenty-year old singer named Édith Piaf was discovered in the Pigalle by nightclub owner Louis Leplée, whose club, Le Gerny, off the Champs-Élysées, was frequented by the upper and lower classes alike. He persuaded her to sing despite her extreme nervousness. Leplée taught her the basics of stage presence and told her to wear a black dress, which became her trademark apparel. Leplée ran an intense publicity campaign leading up to her opening night, attracting the presence of many celebrities, including Maurice Chevalier. Her nightclub appearance led to her first two records produced that same year, and the beginning of her career.
Competition from movies and television largely brought an end to the Paris music hall. However, a few still flourish, with tourists as their primary audience. Major music halls include the Folies-Bergere, Crazy Horse Saloon, Casino de Paris, Olympia, and Moulin Rouge.
History of the songs
The musical forms most associated with music hall evolved in part from traditional folk song and songs written for popular drama, becoming by the 1850s a distinct musical style. Subject matter became more contemporary and humorous, and accompaniment was provided by larger house-orchestras, as increasing affluence gave the lower classes more access to commercial entertainment, and to a wider range of musical instruments, including the piano. The consequent change in musical taste from traditional to more professional forms of entertainment, arose in response to the rapid industrialisation and urbanisation of previously rural populations during the Industrial Revolution. The newly created urban communities, cut off from their cultural roots, required new and readily accessible forms of entertainment.
Music halls were originally tavern rooms which provided entertainment, in the form of music and speciality acts, for their patrons. By the middle years of the nineteenth century, the first purpose-built music halls were being built in London. The halls created a demand for new and catchy popular songs, that could no longer be met from the traditional folk song repertoire. Professional songwriters were enlisted to fill the gap.
The emergence of a distinct music hall style can be credited to a fusion of musical influences. Music hall songs needed to gain and hold the attention of an often jaded and unruly urban audience. In America, from the 1840s, Stephen Foster had reinvigorated folk song with the admixture of Negro spiritual to produce a new type of popular song. Songs like "Old Folks at Home" (1851) and "Oh, Dem Golden Slippers" (James Bland, 1879) spread round the globe, taking with them the idiom and appurtenances of the minstrel song. Other influences on the rapidly developing music hall idiom were Irish and European music, particularly the jig, polka, and waltz.
Typically, a music hall song consists of a series of verses sung by the performer alone, and a repeated chorus which carries the principal melody, and in which the audience is encouraged to join.
In Britain, the first music hall songs often promoted the alcoholic wares of the owners of the halls in which they were performed. Songs like "Glorious Beer", and the first major music hall success, "Champagne Charlie" (1867) had a major influence in establishing the new art form. The tune of "Champagne Charlie" became used for the Salvation Army hymn "Bless His Name, He Sets Me Free" (1881). When asked why the tune should be used like this, William Booth is said to have replied "Why should the devil have all the good tunes? "The people the Army sought to save, knew nothing of the hymn tunes or gospel melodies used in the churches, but 'the music hall had been their melody school.
By the 1870s, the songs were free of their folk music origins, and particular songs also started to become associated with particular singers, often with exclusive contracts with the songwriter, just as many pop songs are today. Towards the end of the style the music became influenced by ragtime and jazz, before being overtaken by them.
Music hall songs were often composed with their working class audiences in mind. Songs like "My Old Man (Said Follow the Van)", "Wot Cher! Knocked 'em in the Old Kent Road", and "Waiting at the Church", expressed in melodic form situations with which the urban poor were familiar. Music hall songs could be romantic, patriotic, humorous or sentimental, as the need arose. The most popular music hall songs became the basis for the pub songs of the typical Cockney "knees up".
Although a number of songs show a sharply ironic and knowing view of working class life, there were, too, those which were repetitive, derivative, written quickly and sung to make a living rather than a work of art.
Famous music hall songs
"A Little of What You Fancy Does You Good* (George Arthurs, Fred W. Leigh), sung by Marie Lloyd
"Any Old Iron" (Charles Collins; Terry Sheppard) sung by Harry Champion.
"Ask a P'liceman" (E. W. Rogers and A. E. Durandeau) sung by James Fawn
"Belgium Put the Kibosh on the Kaiser" (Alf Ellerton) sung by Mark Sheridan.
"Boiled Beef and Carrots" (Charles Collins and Fred Murray) sung by Harry Champion.
"The Boy I Love is Up in the Gallery" (George Ware) sung by Nelly Power, and Marie Lloyd.
"Burlington Bertie from Bow" (William Hargreaves) sung by Ella Shields.
"Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" (Joseph Tabrar) sung by Vesta Victoria.
"Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)" (Harry Dacre) sung by Katie Lawrence.
"Don't Dilly Dally on the Way" (Charles Collins and Fred W. Leigh) sung by Marie Lloyd.
"Down at the Old Bull and Bush" (Harry von Tilzer; Andrew B. Sterling) sung by Florrie Forde.
"Every Little Movement (Has a Meaning All Its Own)" (J. C. Moore; Fred E. Cliffe) sung by Marie Lloyd.
"Good-bye-ee!" (R. P. Weston; Bert Lee) sung by Florrie Forde and Daisy Wood.
"Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly?" (C. W. Murphy and Will Letters) sung by Florrie Forde.
"Hello, Hello, Who's Your Lady Friend?" (Harry Fragson; Worton David; Bert Lee) sung by Harry Fragson, Mark Sheridan, etc.
"Hold Your Hand Out, Naughty Boy" (C. W. Murphy and Will Letters) sung by Florrie Forde.
"I Belong to Glasgow", written and performed by Will Fyffe.
"I Do Like to Be Beside the Seaside" (John A. Glover-Kind) sung by Mark Sheridan.
"I Was A Good Little Girl" (Clifford F. Harris; James W. Tate) sung by Clarice Mayne and That.
"If It Wasn't For The 'Ouses in Between" (George Le Brunn; Edgar Bateman) sung by Gus Elen.
"I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" (1911) (Fred Murray and Bert Weston) sung by Harry Champion.
"It's a Bit of a Ruin That Cromwell Knocked About a Bit" (Harry Bedford; Terry Sullivan) sung by Marie Lloyd.
"It's a Long Way to Tipperary" (1914) (Jack Judge and Harry Williams) sung by John McCormack.
"Let's All Go Down the Strand" (Harry Castling and C. W. Murphy) sung by Charles R. Whittle.
"Lily of Laguna" (Leslie Stuart) sung by Eugene Stratton, and later G. H. Elliott.
"The Man on the Flying Trapeze" (George Leybourne; Gaston Lyle; arr. Alfred Lee) sung by George Leybourne.
"The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo" (Fred Gilbert) sung by Charles Coborn.
"My Old Dutch" (Albert Chevalier; Charles Ingle) sung by Albert Chevalier.
"Nellie Dean" (Henry W. Armstrong) sung by Gertie Gitana.
"Oh, It's a Lovely War" (J. P. Long; Maurice Scott) sung by Ella Shields.
"Oh! Mr Porter" (George Le Brunn and Thomas Le Brunn) sung by Marie Lloyd, and Norah Blaney.
"Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit-Bag" (Felix Powell) sung by Florrie Forde.
"Ship Ahoy! (All the Nice Girls Love a Sailor)", performed by Hetty King
"Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay" (Harry J. Sayers) sung by Lottie Collins.
"Waiting at the Church" (Henry E. Pether; Fred W. Leigh) sung by Vesta Victoria.
"Where Did You Get That Hat?" (Joseph J. Sullivan, 1888; words rewritten 1901 by James Rolmaz) sung by J. C. Heffron (1857–1934)
"Who Were You With Last Night?" (Fred Godfrey; Mark Sheridan) sung by Mark Sheridan.
Music hall songwriters
Fred Albert (1844–1886), "topical vocalist" who wrote his own material; titles included "Bradshaw's Guide" and "The Mad Butcher"; popular in the 1870s.
Laurence Barclay (d. 1949), lyricist of "Our Lodger's Such A Nice Young Man" sung by Vesta Victoria.
Edgar Bateman (1860–1946), lyricist of "If It Wasn't for the 'Ouses in Between" and "It's a Great Big Shame" sung by Gus Elen.
Frederick Bowyer (dates not known), with Orlando Powell re-wrote Charles Harris's "After the Ball" for Vesta Tilley.
Harry Castling (1865–1933), lyricist of "Let's All Go Down The Strand" sung by Charles R. Whittle and "Don't Have Any More, Mrs More" sung by Lily Morris.
Harry Clifton (1832–1872), prolific singer-songwriter whose titles include "Polly Perkins of Paddingion Green".
Charles Collins (1874–1923), composer of songs including "Boiled Beef and Carrots", "Any Old Iron", and "Don't Dilly Dally on the Way".
Harry Dacre (1857–1922), composer of "Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)" (1892) and "I'll Be Your Sweetheart" (1899).
H. Worton David (1872–1940), lyricist of "Hello Hello, Who’s Your Lady Friend?" sung by Mark Sheridan and "Hold Your Hand Out, Naughty Boy" sung by Florrie Forde.
Augustus Durandeau (1848–1893), composer of "If You Want To Know The Time, Ask A Policeman" sung by James Fawn, "Come Where The Booze Is Cheaper" sung by Charles Coborn, and "Never introduce yer Donah to a pal" sung by Gus Elen.
George Everard (1873–1907), composer of "It's Alright in the Summertime" and "It Ain't All Honey and It Ain't All Jam", both sung by Vesta Victoria.
Stephen Collins Foster (1826–1864), American parlour music and minstrel composer.
Noel Gay (1898–1954), composer of "The Lambeth Walk" (1937) and "Leaning on a Lamp-post" (1937).
Charles Godfrey (1851–1900), patriotic singer-songwriter.
Fred Godfrey (1880–1953), composer of "Who Were You With Last Night?" sung by Mark Sheridan, and "Now I Have To Call Him Father" sung by Vesta Victoria.
Eric Graham (dates not known), composer of "The Golden Dustman" sung by Gus Elen.
William Hargreaves (1880–1941), wrote the 1915 parody "Burlington Bertie from Bow" for his wife Ella Shields.
John P. Harrington (1865–1939), lyricist, working with George Le Brunn earned the nickname "the Gilbert and Sullivan" of the Halls.
F. Clifford Harris (1875-1949), lyricist (working often with James W. Tate) of "I Was A Good Little Girl" and "A Broken Doll", both sung by Clarice Mayne and That.
Tom Hudson (1791–1844), writer and performer of comic songs
G. W. Hunt (c.1837–1904), prolific composer and lyricist best known for G. H. MacDermott's "War Song" ("By Jingo if we do...")
Charles Knight (dates not known), composer of "Here We Are, Here We Are Again" sung by Mark Sheridan.
Harry Lauder (1870–1950), writer of his own popular songs, "I Love A Lassie" and "Stop yer Tickling, Jock".
George Le Brunn (1864–1905), composer of "Oh! Mr Porter" sung by Marie Lloyd, and "If It Wasn't for the 'Ouses in Between" and "It's a Great Big Shame" sung by Gus Elen.
Alfred Lee (c. 1839–1906), composer of "Champagne Charlie" sung by George Leybourne.
Bert Lee (1880–1946), composer of "Good-bye-ee!" sung by Florrie Forde and Daisy Wood, "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" sung by Harry Champion, and "Hello Hello, Who’s Your Lady Friend?" sung by Mark Sheridan.
Fred W. Leigh (1871–1924), lyricist of "The Galloping Major", "Waiting at the Church", "A Little of What You Fancy Does You Good" and "Don't Dilly Dally on the Way", among others.
Frank Leo (1874–1930), composer of "When the Bugle Calls" and "My Little Deitcher Girl" sung by Wilkie Bard.
Arthur Lloyd (1839–1904), music hall's first prolific singer-songwriter.
Kenneth Lyle (dates not known), composer of "Here We Are, Here We Are Again" sung by Mark Sheridan, and "Jolly Good Luck to the Girl Who Loves a Soldier" sung by Vesta Tilley.
Arthur J. Mills (1872–1919), lyricist of "When I Take My Morning Promenade" sung by Marie Lloyd, and "Ship Ahoy! (All The Nice Girls Love A Sailor)" sung by Hetty King.
Richard Morton (dates not known), lyricist of "Twiggy Voo?" and "Poor Thing", both sung by Marie Lloyd.
C. W. Murphy (1875–1913), composer of "Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly?" sung by Florrie Forde and "Hello Hello, Who’s Your Lady Friend?" sung by Mark Sheridan.
Fred Murray (d. 1922) "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" and "Boiled Beef and Carrots" sung by Harry Champion, and "Our Lodger's Such a Nice Young Man" sung by Vesta Victoria.
Harry B. Norris (dates not known), wrote the original "Burlington Bertie" (1900) for Vesta Tilley.
Henry Pether (dates not known), composer of "Waiting at the Church" sung by Vesta Victoria.
Orlando Powell (1867–1915), composer of "A Coster Girl in Paris" and "Tiddley-Om-Pom!", both sung by Marie Lloyd.
Edward W. Rogers (1864–1913), lyricist of "Ask a P'liceman" sung by James Fawn, and composer of Alec Hurley's original "The Lambeth Walk" (1899).
F. V. St Clair (1860–1922), singer-songwriter whose topical songs included "The Ship That Will Never Return" (1912; concerning the Titanic).
George Alex Stevens (1875–1954), composer of "On Mother Kelly's Doorstep" sung by Randolph Sutton.
Bennett Scott (1875–1930), composer of "When I Take My Morning Promenade" sung by Marie Lloyd, and "Ship Ahoy! All the Nice Girls Love a Sailor" sung by Ella Retford.
Leslie Stuart (1863–1928), composer of "Lily of Laguna" and "Little Dolly Daydream" sung by Eugene Stratton.
Joseph Tabrar (1857–1931), prolific composer whose titles included "Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Bow Wow" sung by Vesta Victoria.
James W. Tate (1875–1922) composer of "I Was A Good Little Girl" and "A Broken Doll", both sung by Clarice Mayne and That.
George Ware (1829–1895), composer of "The Boy I Love is Up in the Gallery" written for Nelly Power; made famous by Marie Lloyd.
R. P. Weston (1878–1936), composer of "Good-bye-ee!" sung by Florrie Forde and Daisy Wood, and "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" sung by Harry Champion.
Harry Wincott (1867–1947), composer of "When The Old Dun Cow Caught Fire" sung by Harry Champion, and (arguably) "Mademoiselle from Armentières".
Music hall comedy
The typical music hall comedian was a man or woman, usually dressed in character to suit the subject of the song, or sometimes attired in absurd and eccentric style. Until well into the twentieth century, the acts were essentially vocal, with songs telling a story, accompanied by a minimum of patter. They included a variety of genres, including:
Lion comiques: essentially, men dressed as "toffs", who sang songs about drinking champagne, going to the races, going to the ball, womanising and gambling, and living the life of an aristocrat.
Male and female impersonators, the latter more in the style of a pantomime dame than a modern drag queen. Nevertheless, these included some more sophisticated performers such as Vesta Tilley and Ella Shields, whose male impersonations communicated real social commentary.
Speciality acts
The vocal content of the music hall bills, was, from the beginning, accompanied by many other kinds of act, some of them quite weird and wonderful. These were known collectively as speciality acts (abbreviated to "spesh"), which, over time, have included:
Adagio: essentially a sort of cross between a dance act and a juggling act, consisting usually of a male dancer who threw a slim, pretty young girl around. Some aspects of modern dance choreography evolved from Adagio acts.
Aerial acts, of the sort usually seen at the circus
Animal acts: Talking dogs, flea circuses, and all manner of animals doing tricks.
Cycling acts: again, a development of a circus act, consisting of either a solo or a troupe of trick cyclists. There was even a seven-piece cycling band called Seven Musical Savonas, who played fifty instruments between them, and Kaufmann's Cycling Beauties, a troupe of girls in Victorian swim wear.
Drag artists: female entertainers dressed as men, such as Vesta Tilley, Ella Shields, and Hetty King; or male entertainers dressed as women, such as Bert Erroll, Julian Eltinge, Danny La Rue, and Rex Jameson in the character of Mrs Shufflewick.
Electric acts, using the newly discovered phenomenon of static electricity to produce tricks such as lighting gas jets and setting fire to handkerchiefs through the performers fingertips. Dr Walford Brodie (1869/70-1939) was the most notable.
Escapologists, such as Harry Houdini.
Fire eaters and other eating acts, such as eating glass, razor blades, goldfish, etc.
Juggling and plate spinning acts. Another variation was the Diabolo.
Knife throwing and sword swallowing. The most spectacular of its time was the Victorina Troupe, who swallowed a sword fired from a rifle.
Magic acts, such as David Devant.
A memory act of the type performed by Datas, "the Living Encyclopaedia" (1875–1956).
Mentalism acts. Commonly a male mentalist, blindfolded on stage, and an attractive female assistant passing among the audience. The assistant would collect objects from the audience, and the mentalist would identify each by "reading" the assistants mind. This was usually accomplished by a clever system of codes and clues from the assistant.
Mime artists and impressionists.
Comic pianists, such as John Orlando Parry and George Grossmith.
Puppet acts, including human puppets and living doll acts.
Shadow puppet acts.
Stilt walkers.
Strongmen such as Eugen Sandow, and strongwomen such as Joan Rhodes, performing feats of strength.
Trampoline acts.
Ventriloquists, or Vent acts as they were called in the business, such as Fred Russell, Arthur Prince, Coram (Thomas Mitchell).
Wild West/Cowboy acts.
Wrestling and jujitsu exhibitions were both popular speciality acts, forming the basis of modern professional wrestling.
Music hall performers
Fred Albert (1843–1886)
Fred Barnes (1885–1938)
Ida Barr (1882–1967)
Bessie Bellwood (1856–1896)
Herbert Campbell (1844–1904)
Aimée Campton (1882–1930)
Kate Carney (1869–1950)
Harry Champion (1866–1942)
Charlie Chaplin (1889–1977)
Sydney Chaplin (1885–1965)
Albert Chevalier (1861–1923)
George H. Chirgwin (1854–1922)
Charles Coborn (1852–1945)
Cullen and Carthy Johnnie Cullen (1868–1929) and Arthur Carthy (1868–1943)
Johnny Danvers (1860-1939)
Daisy Dormer (1883–1947)
Leo Dryden (1864–1939)
T. E. Dunville (1867–1924)
Gus Elen (1862–1940)
Joe Elvin (1862–1935)
G. H. Elliott (1882–1962)
Will Evans (1866–1931)
Florrie Forde (1875–1940)
George Formby, Sr. (1876–1921)
Harry Fragson (1869–1913)
Will Fyffe (1885–1947)
Charles Godfrey (1851–1900)
Will Hay (1888–1949)
Jenny Hill (1848–1896)
Stanley Holloway (1890–1982)
Fred Karno (1866–1941)
Marie Kendall (1873–1964)
Hetty King (1883–1972)
R. G. Knowles (1858–1919)
Lillie Langtry (1853–1929)
George Lashwood (1863–1942)
Sir Harry Lauder (1870–1950)
Stan Laurel (1890–1965)
Katie Lawrence (1868–1913)
Tom Leamore (1866–1939)
Dan Leno (1860–1904)
George Leybourne (1842–1884)
Marie Loftus (1857–1940)
Cecilia Loftus (1876–1943)
Jack Lotto (1857–1944)
Little Tich (1867–1928)
Arthur Lloyd (1839–1904)
Marie Lloyd (1870–1922)
Adelaide Macarte (1879–1908)
Cecilia Macarte (1880–)
Julia Macarte (1878–1958)
Tom Major-Ball (1879–1962)
Ernie Mayne (1871–1937)
Mark Melford (1850–1914)
George Mozart (1864–1947)
Jolly John Nash (1828–1901)
Denise Orme (1885–1960)
Edmund Payne (1864–1914)
Jack Pleasants (1875–1924)
Nelly Power (1854–1887)
Peggy Pryde (1869–1943)
Ella Retford (1885–1962)
Arthur Roberts (1852–1933)
George Robey (1869–1954)
Malcolm Scott (1872–1929)
Truly Shattuck (1875–1954)
Ella Shields (1879–1952)
Mark Sheridan (1864–1918)
J. H. Stead (c.1826–1886)
Eugene Stratton (1861–1918)
Harry Tate (1872–1940)
Sam Torr (1849–1923)
Vesta Tilley (1864–1952)
Arthur Tracy (1899–1997)
Alfred Vance (1839–1888)
Vesta Victoria (1873–1951)
Fawdon Vokes (1844–1904)
Fred Vokes (1846–1888)
Jessie Vokes (1848–1884)
Rosina Vokes (1854–1894)
Victoria Vokes (1853–1894)
Vulcana (1874–1946)
Harry Weldon (1881–1930)
Daisy Wood (1877–1961) (and the Sisters Lloyd)
Billy Williams (1878–1915)
Cultural influences of music hall: Literature, drama, screen, and later music
The music hall has been evoked in many films, plays, TV series, and books.
In James Joyce's short story "The Boarding House" (1914), Mrs Mooney's boarding-house in Hardwicke Street accommodates "occasionally (...) artistes from the music halls". The Sunday night "reunions" with Jack Mooney in the drawing-room create a certain atmosphere.
About half of the film Those Were the Days (1934) is set in a music hall. It was based on a farce by Pinero and features the music hall acts of Lily Morris, Harry Bedford, the gymnasts Gaston & Andre, G. H. Elliott, Sam Curtis, and Frank Boston & Betty.
A music hall with a 'memory man' act provides a pivotal plot device in the classic 1935 Alfred Hitchcock thriller The 39 Steps.
The Arthur Askey comedy film I Thank You (1941) features old-time music hall star Lily Morris as an ex-music hall artiste now ennobled as "Lady Randall". In the last scene of the film, however, she reverts to type and gives a rendition of "Waiting at the Church" at an impromptu concert at Aldwych tube station organised by Askey and his side-kick Richard "Stinker" Murdoch.
The Victorian era of music hall was celebrated by the 1944 film, Champagne Charlie.
The comedy of Benny Hill, first seen on British television in 1951, was heavily influenced by the traditions and conventions of Music hall comedy and he actively kept those traditions (comedy, songs, patter, pantomime, and female impersonations) alive on his more-than-100 television specials broadcast from 1955 through 1991.
Charlie Chaplin's 1952 film Limelight, set in 1914 London, evokes the music hall world of Chaplin's youth where he performed as comedian before he achieved worldwide celebrity as a film star in America. The film depicts the last performance of a washed-up music hall clown called Calvero at The Empire theatre, Leicester Square. The film premiered at the Empire Cinema, which was built on the same site as the Empire theatre.
The Good Old Days (1953 to 1983) was a popular BBC television light entertainment programme recorded live at the Leeds City Varieties, which aimed to recreate an authentic atmosphere of the Victorian–Edwardian music hall with songs and sketches of the era performed by present-day performers in the style of the original artistes. The audience dressed in period costume and joined in the singing, especially the singing of Down at the Old Bull and Bush which closed the show. The show was compered by Leonard Sachs, who introduced the acts. In the course of its run, it featured about 2,000 artists. The show was first broadcast on 20 July 1953. The Good Old Days was inspired by the success of the Ridgeway's Late Joys at the Players' Theatre Club in London: a private members' club that ran fortnightly programmes of variety acts in London's West End.
John Osborne's play The Entertainer (1957) portrays the life and work of a failing, third-rate music hall stage performer who tries to keep his career going even as his personal life falls apart. The story is set at the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, against the backdrop of the dying music hall tradition, and has been seen as symbolic of Britain's general post-war decline, its loss of its Empire, its power, and its cultural confidence and identity. It was made into a film in 1960 starring Laurence Olivier in the title role of Archie Rice.
In Grip of the Strangler (1958), set in Victorian London, the raunchy can-can dancers and loose women of the sleazy "Judas Hole" music hall are terrorised by the Haymarket Strangler, played by Boris Karloff.
The variously titled Ken Dodd TV series recorded between 1959 and 1988 were heavily influenced by those traditions; up to his death in 2018, Dodd continued to tour a variety show including quick-fire stand-up comedy, songs, ventriloquism and sometimes other speciality acts.
The Theatre of the Absurd (c. late 1950s) was influenced by music hall in its use of comedy, with avant-garde cultural forms (such as surrealism) being a more obvious influence.
J. B. Priestley's 1965 novel Lost Empires also evokes the world of Edwardian music hall just before the start of World War I; the title is a reference to the Empire theatres (as well as foreshadowing the decline of the British Empire itself). It was adapted as a television miniseries, shown in both the UK and in the U.S. as a PBS presentation. Priestley's 1929 novel The Good Companions, set in the same period, follows the lives of the members of a "concert party" or touring Pierrot troupe.
Herman's Hermits, led by Peter Noone, incorporated music hall into their repertoire, scoring a major hit with their cover of the Harry Champion music hall standard, "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am", in 1965 (Noone's version includes only the chorus; not the many verses of the original).
Music hall had a discernible influence on the Beatles through Paul McCartney, himself the son of a performer in the music hall tradition (Jim McCartney, who led Jim Mac's Jazz Band). Examples of McCartney's songs to display a music hall influence include: "When I'm Sixty-Four" (1967), "Your Mother Should Know" (1967), "Honey Pie" (1968), and "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" (1969); in the solo period: "You Gave Me the Answer" (1975), and "Baby's Request" (1979).
The parodic film Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), based on the stage musical Oh, What a Lovely War! (1963) by Joan Littlewood's Theatre Workshop, featured the music hall turns and songs that had provided support for the British war effort in World War I.
The popular British television series Upstairs, Downstairs (1971–1975) and its spin-off Thomas & Sarah (1979) each dealt frequently with the world of the Edwardian music hall, sometimes through references to actual Edwardian era performers such as Vesta Tilley, or to characters on the show attending performances, and other times through the experiences of the popular character Sarah Moffat, who left domestic service several times and often ended up going on stage to support herself when she did.
British rockers Queen incorporated music hall styles into several of their songs, such "Killer Queen" (1974) and "Good Old-Fashioned Lover Boy" (1976).
Garry Bushell's punk pathetique band, The Gonads (formed 1977), did rock versions of music hall songs. Many punk pathetique acts were indebted to the music hall tradition.
Between 1978 and 1984, BBC television broadcast two series of programmes called The Old Boy Network. These featured a star (usually a music hall/variety performer, but also some younger turns like Eric Sykes) performing some of their best known routines while giving a slide show of their life story. Artistes featured included Arthur Askey, Tommy Trinder, Sandy Powell, and Chesney Allen.
In Vivian Stanshall and Ki Longfellow-Stanshall's musical, Stinkfoot, a Comic Opera (1985), the lead performer is an ageing music hall artiste named Soliquisto.
Sarah Waters's book Tipping the Velvet (1998) revolves around the world of music halls in the late Victorian era, and in particular around two fictional "mashers" (drag kings) named Kitty Butler and Nan King.
The modern Players' Theatre Club provides a brief impression of contemporary music hall in the film The Fourth Angel (2001), where Jeremy Irons' character creates an alibi by visiting a show.
The name of music hall singer Ida Barr (1882–1967) was appropriated some 40 years after her death by Christopher Green for an unrelated, non-tribute drag act.
The album Between Today and Yesterday by Alan Price (previously keyboard player for The Animals) was influenced by pre-rock 'n' roll music styles, especially music hall.
Surviving music halls
London was the centre of music hall with hundreds of venues, often in the entertainment rooms of public houses. With the decline in popularity of music hall, many were abandoned, or converted to other uses such as cinemas, and their interiors lost. There are a number of purpose-built survivors, including the Hackney Empire, an outstanding example of the late music hall period (Frank Matcham 1901). This has been restored to its Moorish splendour and now provides an eclectic programme of events from opera to "Black Variety Nights". A mile to the south is Hoxton Hall, an 1863 example of the saloon style. It is unrestored but maintained in its original layout, and currently used as a community centre and theatre. In the neighbouring borough, Collins Music Hall (built about 1860) still stands on the north side of Islington Green. The hall closed in the 1960s and currently forms part of a bookshop.
In Clapham, The Grand, originally the Grand Palace of Varieties (1900), has been restored, but its interior reflects its modern use as a music venue and nightclub. The Greenwich Theatre was originally the Rose and Crown Music Hall (1855), and later became Crowder's Music Hall and Temple of Varieties. The building has been extensively modernised and little of the original layout remains.
In the nondescript Grace's Alley, off Cable Street, Stepney, stands Wilton's Music Hall. This 1858 example of the "giant pub hall" survived use as a church, fire, flood and war intact, but was virtually derelict, after its use as a rag warehouse, in the 1960s. The Wilton's Music Hall Trust has embarked on a fund-raising campaign to restore the building. In June 2007, the World Monuments Fund added the building to its list of the world's "100 most endangered sites". The building was for many years on Historic England's Heritage at Risk Register, but following its successful restoration was removed from list in 2016 and after 20 years on the register it was named as one of the successful rescues.
The music video of the Frankie Goes to Hollywood single "Relax" was shot here. Many of these buildings can be seen as part of the annual London Open House event.
There are also surviving music halls outside London, a notable example being the Leeds City Varieties (1865) with a preserved interior. This was used for many years as the setting for the BBC television variety show The Good Old Days, based on the music-hall genre. The Alhambra Theatre, Bradford was built in 1914 for theatre impresario Francis Laidler, and later owned by the Stoll-Moss Empire. It was restored in 1986, and is a fine example of the late Edwardian style. It is now a receiving theatre for touring productions and opera.
In Nottingham, the Malt Cross music hall retains its restored cast-iron interior. It is run as a cafe bar by a Christian charitable trust promoting responsible drinking, also as the location of a safe space late at night and for operating a street pastor service. It is true to its original purpose of providing a venue for up-and-coming musical acts.
In Northern Ireland, the Grand Opera House, Belfast, Frank Matcham 1895, was preserved and restored in the 1980s. The Gaiety Theatre, Isle of Man is another Matcham design from 1900 that remains in use after an extensive restoration programme in the 1970s. In Glasgow, the Britannia Music Hall (1857), by architects Thomas Gildard and H.M. McFarlane, remains standing, with much of the theatre intact but in a poor state, having closed in 1938. There is a preservation trust attempting to rescue the theatre.
One of the few fully functional music hall entertainments is at the Brick Lane Music Hall in a former church in North Woolwich. The Players' Theatre Club is another group performing a Victorian-style music hall show at a variety of venues, and The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America stage music hall-style entertainments.
See also
Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra
Concert saloon
Friedrichstadt-Palast
History of music in Paris
Radio City Music Hall
Tivoli circuit
References
Further reading
Abra, Allison. "Going to the palais: a social and cultural history of dancing and dance halls in Britain, 1918–1960." Contemporary British History (Sep 2016) 30#3 pp 432–433.
Alexander, John, Tearing Tickets Twice Nightly: The Last Days of Variety (Arcady Press, 2002)
Bailey, Peter, ed., Music Hall: The Business of Pleasure, (Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1986)
Baker, Richard Anthony, British Music Hall: An Illustrated History (Pen & Sword, 2014)
Beeching, Christopher,The Heaviest of Swells – A life and times in the Music Halls, (DCG Publications, 2010)
Bratton, J.S., ed., Music Hall: Performance & Style (Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1986)
Bruce, Frank, More Variety Days: Fairs, Fit-ups, Music hall, Variety Theatre, Clubs, Cruises and Cabaret (Edinburgh, Tod Press, 2000)
Busby, Roy, British Music Hall: An Illustrated Who's Who from 1850 to the Present Day (London: Paul Elek, 1976)
Cheshire, D.F., Music Hall in Britain, (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1974)
Earl, John, British Theatres and Music Halls (Princes Risborough, Shire, 2005)
Earl, John and Stanton, John, The Canterbury Hall and Theatre of Varieties (Cambridge, Chadwyck-Healy 1982)
Earl, John and Sell, Michael (eds.) The Theatres Trust Guide to British Theatres, 1750–1950 (A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 2000)
Garrett, John M., Sixty Years of British Music Hall, (London, Chappell & Company in association with Andre Deutsch, 1976)
Green, Benny, ed. The Last Empires: A Music Hall Companion (London, Pavilion Books Ltd. in association with Michael Joseph Ltd., 1986)
Honri, Peter. John Wilton's Music Hall, The Handsomest Room in Town (1985)
Honri, Peter. Working the Halls: the Honris in One Hundred Years of British Music Halls (Farnborough, Eng., Saxon House, 1973).
Howard, Diana. London Theatres and Music Halls 1850–1950 (1970)
Hudd, Roy. Music Hall (London, Eyre Methuen, 1976)
Jackson, Lee. Palaces of Pleasure: From Music Halls to the Seaside to Football, How the Victorians Invented Mass Entertainment (Yale University Press, 2019)
Maloney, Paul, Scotland and the Music Hall, 1850–1914 (Manchester University Press, 2003)
Mellor, G.J., The Northern Music Hall (Newcastle upon Tyne, Frank Graham, 1970)
Mellor, G.J., They Made us Laugh: A Compendium of Comedians Whose Memories Remain Alive (Littleborough, George Kelsall, 1982)
Mullen, John, "The Show Must Go On: Popular Song in Britain during the First World War" (London, Routledge, 2015)
O'Gorman, Brian, Laughter in the Roar: Reminiscences of Variety and Pantomime (Weybridge, B. O'Gorman, 1998)
Scott, Harold, The Early Doors: origins of the music hall (London, Nicholson & Watson 1946)
Stuart, C D and Park, A J, The Variety Stage (London, Unwin 1895)
Wilmut, Roger. Kindly Leave the Stage – The story of Variety 1919–1960'' (London, Methuen 1985)
External links
Theatre and performance reading lists – Music Hall and Variety Victoria and Albert Museum
The British Music Hall Society
The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America
Arthur Lloyd (performer) site links to transcriptions of historical sources on performances and venues
The "Entertainment" section of www.victorianlondon.org
Remastered recordings of music hall artists
University lecture on women in the British music hall during the Great War 1914–1918
British popular music
British styles of music
Theatre in the United Kingdom
Theatrical genres | [
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232700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mungo%20Park%20%28explorer%29 | Mungo Park (explorer) | Mungo Park (11 September 1771 – 1806) was a Scottish explorer of West Africa. After an exploration of the upper Niger River around 1796, he wrote a popular and influential travel book titled Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa in which he theorized the Niger and Congo merged to become the same river. He was killed during a second expedition, having successfully traveled about two-thirds of the way down the Niger. With Park's death, the idea of a Niger-Congo merger remained an open question although it became the leading theory among geographers. The mystery of the Niger's course, which had been speculated about since the Ancient Greeks and was second only to the mystery of the Nile's source, was not solved for another 25 years, in 1830, when it was discovered the Niger and Congo were in fact separate rivers.
If the African Association was the "beginning of the age of African exploration" then Mungo Park was its first successful explorer; he set a standard for all who followed. Park was the first Westerner to have recorded travels in the central portion of the Niger, and through his popular book introduced the public to a vast unexplored continent which influenced future European explorers and colonial ambitions in Africa.
Early life
Mungo Park was born in Selkirkshire, Scotland, at Foulshiels on the Yarrow Water, near Selkirk, on a tenant farm which his father rented from the Duke of Buccleuch. He was the seventh in a family of thirteen. Although tenant farmers, the Parks were relatively well-off. They were able to pay for Park to receive a good education, and Park's father died leaving property valued at £3,000 (). His parents had originally intended him for the Church of Scotland.
He was educated at home before attending Selkirk grammar school. At the age of fourteen, he was apprenticed to Thomas Anderson, a surgeon in Selkirk. During his apprenticeship, Park became friends with Anderson's son Alexander and was introduced to Anderson's daughter Allison, who would later become his wife.
In October 1788, Park enrolled at the University of Edinburgh, attending for four sessions studying medicine and botany. Notably, during his time at university, he spent a year in the natural history course taught by Professor John Walker. After completing his studies, he spent a summer in the Scottish Highlands, engaged in botanical fieldwork with his brother-in-law, James Dickson, a gardener and seed merchant in Covent Garden. In 1788 Dickson along with Sir James Edward Smith and six other fellows founded the Linnean Society of London.
In 1792 Park completed his medical studies at University of Edinburgh. Through a recommendation by Joseph Banks he obtained the post of assistant surgeon on board the East India Company's ship . In February 1793 the Worcester sailed to Benkulen in Sumatra. Before departing, Park wrote to his friend Alexander Anderson in terms that reflect his Calvinist upbringing:
On his return in 1794, Park gave a lecture to the Linnaean Society, describing eight new Sumatran fish. The paper was not published until three years later. He also presented Banks with various rare Sumatran plants.
Travels into the interior of Africa
First journey
On 26 September 1794 Mungo Park offered his services to the African Association, then looking for a successor to Major Daniel Houghton, who had been sent in 1790 to discover the course of the Niger River and had died in the Sahara. Supported by Sir Joseph Banks, Park was selected.
On 22 May 1795, Park left Portsmouth, England, on the brig Endeavour, a vessel travelling to Gambia to trade for beeswax and ivory.
On 21 June 1795, he reached the Gambia River and ascended it to a British trading station named Pisania. On 2 December, accompanied by two local guides, he started for the unknown interior. He chose the route crossing the upper Senegal basin and through the semi-desert region of Kaarta. The journey was full of difficulties, and at Ludamar he was imprisoned by a Moorish chief for four months. On 1 July 1796, he escaped, alone and with nothing but his horse and a pocket compass, and on the 21st reached the long-sought Niger River at Ségou, being the first European to do so. He followed the river downstream to Silla, where he was obliged to turn back, lacking the resources to go further.
On his return journey, begun on 29 July, he took a route more to the south than that originally followed, keeping close to the Niger River as far as Bamako, thus tracing its course for some . At Kamalia he fell ill, and owed his life to the kindness of a man in whose house he lived for seven months. Eventually he reached Pisania again on 10 June 1797, returning to Scotland by way of Antigua on 22 December. He had been thought dead, and his return home with news of his exploration of the Niger River evoked great public enthusiasm. An account of his journey was drawn up for the African Association by Bryan Edwards, and his own detailed narrative appeared in 1799 (Travels in the Interior of Africa).
Park was convinced that:
Park encountered a group of slaves when traveling through Mandinka country Mali:
His book Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa became a best-seller because it detailed what he observed, what he survived, and the people he encountered. His dispassionate — if not scientific or objective — descriptions set a standard for future travel writers to follow and gave Europeans a glimpse of Africa's humanity and complexity. Park introduced them to a vast continent unexplored by Europeans. If the African Association was the "beginning of the age of African exploration" then Mungo Park was its first successful explorer, he set a standard for all who followed. After his death, European public and political interest in Africa began to increase. Perhaps the most lasting effect of Park's travels, though, was the influence on European colonial ambitions during the 19th century.
Between journeys
Settling at Foulshiels, in August 1799 Park married Allison, daughter of his apprenticeship master, Thomas Anderson. A project to go to New South Wales in some official capacity came to nothing, and in October 1801 Park moved to Peebles, where he practised as a physician.
Second journey
In the autumn of 1803 Mungo Park was invited by the government to lead another expedition to the Niger. Park, who chafed at the hardness and monotony of life at Peebles, accepted the offer, but the expedition was delayed. Part of the waiting time was occupied perfecting his Arabic; his teacher, Sidi Ambak Bubi, was a native of Mogador (now Essaouira in Morocco) whose behavior both amused and alarmed the people of Peebles.
In May 1804 Park went back to Foulshiels, where he made the acquaintance of Walter Scott, then living nearby at Ashiesteil and with whom he soon became friendly. In September, Park was summoned to London to leave on the new expedition; he left Scott with the hopeful proverb on his lips, "Freits (omens) follow those that look to them."
Park had at that time adopted the theory that the Niger and the Congo were one, and in a memorandum drawn up before he left Britain he wrote: "My hopes of returning by the Congo are not altogether fanciful."
On 31 January 1805 he sailed from Portsmouth for Gambia, having been given a captain's commission as head of the government expedition. Alexander Anderson, his brother-in-law and second-in-command, had received a lieutenancy. George Scott, a fellow Borderer, was draughtsman, and the party included four or five artificers. At Gorée (then in British occupation) Park was joined by Lieutenant Martyn, R.A., thirty-five privates and two seamen.
The expedition got a late start into the rainy season and did not reach the Niger until mid-August, when only eleven Europeans were left alive; the rest had succumbed to fever or dysentery. From Bamako the journey to Ségou was made by canoe. Having received permission from the local ruler, Mansong Diarra, to proceed, at Sansanding, a little below Ségou, Park made ready for his journey down the still unknown part of the river. Helped by one soldier, the only one capable of work, Park converted two canoes into one tolerably good boat, long and broad. This he christened H.M. schooner Joliba (the native name for the Niger River), and in it, with the surviving members of his party, he set sail downstream on 19 November.
Anderson had died at Sansanding on 28 October, and in him Park had lost the only member of the party – except Scott, already dead – "who had been of real use." Those who embarked in the Joliba were Park, Martyn, three European soldiers (one mad), a guide and three slaves. Before his departure, Park gave to Isaaco, a Mandingo guide who had been with him thus far, letters to take back to Gambia for transmission to Britain.
The Muslim traders along this section of the Niger did not believe Park was exploring purely for intellectual curiosity but was scouting European trading routes, they saw Park as a threat to their trading dominance. They lobbied Mansong Diarra to have Park killed, and when Mansong did not, they lobbied tribes further down the river. Park understood the politics and adopted a policy of staying away from the shore towards the middle of the river while attacking anyone who came near. In the process he also avoided paying tolls/bribes to pass through each kingdom, earning the rage of local rulers, Moorish or not, who would send messengers ahead to the next tribe downriver that a dangerous interloper was coming their way. Furthermore Park's policy of shoot first and not engaging with locals, in some cases slaughtering significant numbers of natives using superior firepower, made the Europeans something of a pariah. Park was running a gauntlet of hostile tribes in part of his own making.
To his wife, Park wrote of his intention not to stop nor land anywhere until he reached the coast, where he expected to arrive about the end of January 1806.
These were the last communications received from Park, and nothing more was heard of the party until reports of disaster reached Gambia.
Death
At length, the British government engaged Isaaco to go to the Niger to ascertain Park's fate. At Sansanding, Isaaco found Amadi Fatouma (Isaaco calls him Amaudy), the guide who had gone downstream with Park, and the substantial accuracy of the story he told was later confirmed by the investigations of Hugh Clapperton and Richard Lander.
Amadi Fatouma stated that Park's canoe had descended the river as far as Sibby without incident. After Sibby, three native canoes chased them and Park's party repulsed the pursuers with firearms. A similar incident occurred at Cabbara and again at Toomboucouton. At Gouroumo seven canoes pursued them. One of the party died of sickness leaving "four white men, myself [Amadi], and three slaves". Each person (including the slaves) had "15 musquets apiece, well loaded and always ready for action". After passing the residence of the king of Goloijigi, 60 canoes came after them which they "repulsed after killing many natives". Further along they encountered an army of the Poule nation and kept to the opposite bank to avoid an action. After a close encounter with a hippopotamus they continued past Caffo (3 canoe pursuers) to an island where Isaaco was taken prisoner. Park rescued him, and 20 canoes chased them. This time they merely asked Amadi for trinkets which Park supplied. At Gourmon they traded for provisions and were warned of an ambush ahead. They passed the army "being all Moors" and entered Haoussa, finally arriving at Yauri (which Amadi calls Yaour), where he (Fatouma) landed. In this long journey of some Park, who had plenty of provisions, stuck to his resolution of keeping away from the natives. Below Djenné, came Timbuktu, and at various other places the natives came out in canoes and attacked his boat. These attacks were all repulsed, Park and his party having plenty of firearms and ammunition and the natives having none. The boat also escaped the many perils attendant on navigating an unknown stream strewn with many rapids; Park had built Joliba so that she drew only of water.
At Haoussa, Amadi traded with the local chief. Amadi reports that Park gave him five silver rings, some powder and flints to give as a gift to the chief of the village. The following day Amadi visited the king where Amadi was accused of not having given the chief a present. Amadi was "put in irons". The king then sent an army to Boussa where there is a natural narrowing of the river commanded by high rock. But at the Bussa rapids, not far below Yauri, the boat became stuck on a rock and remained fast. On the bank were gathered hostile natives, who attacked the party with bow and arrow and throwing spears. Their position being untenable, Park, Martyn and the two remaining soldiers sprang into the river and were drowned. The sole survivor was one of the slaves. After three months in irons, Amadi was released and talked with the surviving slave, from whom was obtained the story of the final scene.
Aftermath
Amadi paid a Peulh man to obtain Park's sword belt. Amadi then returned first to Sansanding and then to Segou. After, Amadi went to Dacha and told the king what had passed. The king sent an army past "Tombouctou" (Timbuktu) to Sacha but decided that Haoussa was too far for a punitive expedition. Instead they went to Massina, a small "Paul" Peulh country where they took all the cattle and returned home. Amadi appears to have been part of this expedition: "We came altogether back to Sego" (Segou). Amadi then returned to Sansanding via Sego. Eventually the Peulh man obtained the sword belt and after a voyage of eight months met up with Amadi and gave him the belt. Isaaco met Amadi in Sego and having obtained the sword belt returned to Senegal.
Isaaco, and later Richard Lander, obtained some of Park's effects, but his journal was never recovered. In 1827 his second son, Thomas, landed on the Guinea coast, intending to make his way to Bussa, where he thought his father might be detained a prisoner; but after penetrating a little distance inland he died of fever. Park's widow, Allison, received a previously agreed upon £4,000 settlement from the African Association as a result of the death of Mungo Park. She died in 1840. Mungo Park's remains are believed to have been buried along the banks of the River Niger in Jebba, Nigeria.
With Park's death the mystery of the Niger remained unsolved. Park's theory that the Niger and Congo were the same river became the general opinion in the years after his death. However even while Park was alive, an amateur German geographer named Reichard proposed the Niger delta was the mouth of the river, but his theory was one of many and did not have much currency because the delta had so many small streams it did not appear to be from a great river. In 1821, James McQueen published a book, the result of 25 years of research, in which he correctly (it would later be seen) laid out the entire course of the Niger, however like Reichard, his theories did not receive much notice. A number of failed expeditions were mounted but the mystery would finally be solved 25 years after Park's death, in 1830. Richard Lander and his brother became the first Europeans to follow the course of the Niger from source to ocean.
His son Mungo Park (1800-1823) died in India at the young age of 22, while in government service, and was buried at Trichinopoly.
Medal
The Royal Scottish Geographical Society award the Mungo Park Medal annually in Park's honour.
In media
Mungo Park appears as one of the two protagonists in the novel Water Music by T. C. Boyle. Mungo Park was mentioned by Nigerian singer Burna Boy in his song "Monsters You Made" from his Grammy award winning album Twice as Tall (2020). Burna Boy talked about the lies of colonialism. Mungo Park is also mentioned in Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick (Chapter 5: Breakfast). In travel literature, Tom Fremantle's 2005 book The Road to Timbuktu: Down the Niger on the Trail of Mungo Park, Mungo Park's life and travels are detailed and retraced by the author.
Works
See also
Physician writer
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
The Annals notes that Isaaco's account was "written originally in Arabic, from which it was translated into Joliffe [?], thence to French, and from French into English". The footnote ends: It appears to have been very badly translated, and is in many parts scarcely intelligible".
Further reading
External links
g
1771 births
1806 deaths
Accidental deaths in Nigeria
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
British expatriates in Nigeria
Burials in Kwara State
Deaths by drowning
Explorers of Africa
People educated at Selkirk High School
People from Selkirk, Scottish Borders
Scottish explorers
Scottish surgeons | [
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232703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Heber | Richard Heber | Richard Heber (5 January 1773 – 4 October 1833) was an English book-collector.
Biography
He was born in Westminster, as the eldest son of Reginald Heber, who succeeded his eldest brother as lord of the manors of Marton in Yorkshire and Hodnet in Shropshire, and of Mary Baylie, his first wife. He attended Brasenose College, Oxford. At 19 he edited the works of Silius Italicus (2 vols. 12mo, 1792), and a year later prepared for the press an edition of Claudiani Carmina (2 vols., 1793).
A taste for book collecting was developed in him in childhood, and as an undergraduate he began to collect a purely classical library. His taste broadening, he became interested in early English drama and literature, and began his collection of rare books in these departments. Succeeding on the death of his father in 1804 to large estates in Yorkshire and Shropshire, which he considerably augmented, he forthwith devoted himself to the purchase of rare books. Heber was one of the 18 founders in 1812 of the Roxburghe Club of bibliophiles.
He possessed extensive landed property in Shropshire and Yorkshire, and was High Sheriff of Shropshire in 1821, was Member of Parliament (MP) for Oxford University from 1821 to 1826, and in 1822 was made a D.C.L. of that University. He was one of the founders of the Athenaeum Club, London.
In 1826 he and Charles Henry Hartshorne, a friend he had made through the Roxburghe Club, encountered gossip and innuendo over the nature of their relationship. John Bull hinted over two of its issues at the idea that it was sexual. Heber had abruptly left the country; Hartshorne pursued John Bull successfully through the courts.
After ransacking England for books, Heber travelled extensively on the Continent, purchasing everywhere, and leaving large depots of books in Paris, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and elsewhere in the Netherlands and Germany. At booksales he sometimes purchased single volumes, sometimes whole libraries. Sir Walter Scott classed Heber's library as "superior to all others in the world"; Thomas Campbell described him as "the fiercest and strongest of all the bibliomaniacs." He did not confine himself to the purchase of a single copy of a work which took his fancy. "No gentleman," he remarked, "can be without three copies of a book, one for show, one for use, and one for borrowers." To such a size did his library grow that it overran eight houses, some in England, some on the Continent.
At his death his collection in England was estimated by Dibdin at 105,000 volumes, exclusive of many thousands on the Continent, the whole having cost upward of £180,000. Allibone in his Dictionary of Authors computes the volumes in England at 113,195, and those in France and Holland at 33,632, making a total of 146,827, to which must be added a large collection of pamphlets. This immense library was disposed of by auction after the owner's death, the sale lasting 216 days and realizing more than £60,000.
Family
He was the half brother of Reginald Heber, a bishop. After he died aged 60 in 1833 there was well-founded gossip that he had been homosexual, however he was very close to another book collector named Frances Mary Richardson Currer. Currer helped Heber when he was in financial difficulties and came to aid his reputation after he died.
Notes
References
"Heber, Richard", Dictionary of National Biography
1773 births
1833 deaths
People from Westminster
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
English book and manuscript collectors
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for the University of Oxford
UK MPs 1820–1826
High Sheriffs of Shropshire
LGBT politicians from England
LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
17th-century LGBT people
18th-century LGBT people
Collectors from London | [
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232705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fucus%20vesiculosus | Fucus vesiculosus | Fucus vesiculosus, known by the common names bladder wrack, black tang, rockweed, ‘’’sea grapes’’’, bladder fucus, sea oak, cut weed, dyers fucus, red fucus and rock wrack, is a seaweed found on the coasts of the North Sea, the western Baltic Sea and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was the original source of iodine, discovered in 1811, and was used extensively to treat goitre, a swelling of the thyroid gland related to iodine deficiency.
Description
The fronds of F. vesiculosus grow to long and wide and have a prominent midrib throughout. It is attached by a basal disc-shaped holdfast. It has almost spherical air bladders, which are usually paired one on either side of the mid-rib but may be absent in young plants. The margin is smooth and the frond is dichotomously branched. It is sometimes confused with Fucus spiralis with which it hybridises and is similar to Fucus serratus.
Distribution
Fucus vesiculosus is a common large alga on the shores of the British Isles. It has been recorded from the Atlantic shores of Europe, Northern Russia, the Baltic Sea, Greenland, Azores, Canary Islands, Morocco and Madeira. It is also found on the Atlantic coast of North America from Ellesmere Island, Hudson Bay to North Carolina.
Ecology
The species is especially common on sheltered shores from the middle littoral to lower intertidal levels. It is rare on exposed shores, where any specimens may be short, stunted and without the air vesicles. F. vesiculosus supports few colonial organisms but provides a canopy and shelter for the tube worm Spirorbis spirorbis, herbivorous isopods such as Idotea and surface-grazing snails such as Littorina obtusata. Phlorotannins in Fucus vesiculosus act as chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail Littorina littorea., while galactolipids act as herbivore deterrents against the sea urchin Arbacia punctulata. Methyl jasmonate may induce the phlorotannins production. Fucophlorethol A is a type of phlorotannin found in F. vesiculosus.
Biology
Plants of F. vesiculosus are dioecious. Gametes are generally released into the seawater under calm conditions, and the eggs are fertilized externally to produce a zygote. Eggs are fertilized shortly after being released from the receptacle. A study on the coast of Maine showed that there was 100% fertilization at both exposed and sheltered sites. Continuously submerged populations in the Baltic Sea are very responsive to turbulent conditions. High fertilization success is achieved because the gametes are released only when water velocities are low.
Individuals of F. vesiculosus from the North Sea colonized the Baltic Sea less than 8 000 years ago. The event is paralleled by a switch from what seems to be obligate sexual recruitment to facultative asexual recruitment. Asexual reproduction in Baltic Sea populations is accomplished by the production of adventitious branches that come loose and reattach to the bottom by the formation of rhizoids. Adventitious branches are present in thalli of F. vesiculosus in other areas too but asexual formation of new thalli has never been reported outside the Baltic Sea.
Consumption
Fucus vesiculosus is sold as a nutritional supplement. Primary chemical constituents include mucilage, algin, mannitol, fucitol, beta-carotene, zeaxanthin, volatile oils, iodine, bromine, potassium and other minerals.
Adverse effects
Consumption of F. vesiculosus can cause platelet inhibition, which may potentiate the anticoagulant activity of warfarin (Coumadin). It should be avoided before surgery.
Some people may suffer an allergic reaction to the iodine in F. vesiculosus.
See also
Edible seaweed
Iodine § Allergic reactions
References
External links
Fucales
Edible algae
Flora of Alaska
Edible seaweeds
Biota of the Arctic Ocean
Biota of the Atlantic Ocean
Biota of the Baltic Sea
Biota of the North Sea
Species described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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232707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald%20Heber | Reginald Heber | Reginald Heber (21 April 1783 – 3 April 1826) was an English bishop, man of letters and hymn-writer. After 16 years as a country parson, he served as Bishop of Calcutta until his death at the age of 42. The son of a rich landowner and cleric, Heber gained fame at the University of Oxford as a poet. After graduation he made an extended tour of Scandinavia, Russia and Central Europe. Ordained in 1807, he took over his father's old parish, Hodnet, Shropshire. He also wrote hymns and general literature, including a study of the works of the 17th-century cleric Jeremy Taylor.
He was consecrated Bishop of Calcutta in October 1823. He travelled widely and worked to improve the spiritual and general living conditions of his flock. Arduous duties, a hostile climate and poor health led to his collapse and death after less than three years in India. Memorials were erected there and in St Paul's Cathedral, London. A collection of his hymns appeared soon after his death. "Holy, Holy, Holy! Lord God Almighty", remains popular for Trinity Sunday, while Brightest and Best is frequently sung during Epiphany.
Early life
Background and childhood
The surname "Heber" probably derives from "Haybergh", a hill in the Craven district of Yorkshire, where the family originated. The Hebers held the lordship of the manor of Marton, and were granted a coat of arms during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. He was the son of Thomas Heber and Elizabeth Atherton, the granddaughter of Richard Atherton.
In 1752 Richard Heber received the manor and estate of Hodnet Hall in Shropshire as a bequest from a cousin of his wife. This included patronage of the parish of Hodnet. On Richard Heber's death in 1766 his brother Reginald, who was co-rector of the parish of Malpas in Cheshire, inherited the Shropshire estate and additionally became rector of Hodnet. His first marriage, to Mary Baylie, produced a son, Richard Heber, who became a noted book collector and Member of Parliament for Oxford University. His second marriage to Mary Allanson, after Mary Baylie's death, produced two further sons, the elder, born at Malpas on 21 April 1783, being named Reginald after his father.
At the age of eight the younger Reginald began five years at the local grammar school at Whitchurch. In 1796 he was sent to Bristow's, a small private school in Neasden a few miles north of Central London. This provided intensive learning for around a dozen boys, preparing them for eventual entry to Oxford or Cambridge. At Bristow's he met John Thornton, who became a lifelong friend, sharing an interest in church history and beliefs; a lengthy letter from Heber to Thornton is described by Heber's biographer Arthur Montefiore as worthy of a learned theologian. In October 1800 Heber entered Brasenose College, Oxford; Thornton's decision to go to Cambridge was a matter for Heber's regret.
Oxford
There were family connections with Brasenose, Heber's brother Richard being a fellow at the time and his father was a former fellow. The head of the college was William Cleaver, a friend of Reginald Senior and frequent visitor to Hodnet Hall. In his first year, Heber won the University Prize for Latin Verse, and began to develop local repute as a Romantic poet. In 1803 he entered a long poem, "Palestine", for the Newdigate Prize. He had been helped in composing it by Walter Scott, a family friend, before Scott's years of fame. The poem was enthusiastically received when Heber declaimed it at that year's Encaenia ceremony. It was later published and set to music by William Crotch (who had been professor of music at Oxford since 1797), and translated into Welsh by W. Owen Pughe in 1822. Montefiore, in 1902, described it as "the most successful and popular piece of religious verse of the first half of the [19th] century". Heber's later biographer Derrick Hughes finds its contemporary acclaim puzzling: "It is not a good, not even a mediocre poem; it is leaden".
The death of Reginald Senior in February 1804 left the living of parish of St Luke, Hodnet vacant, and may have prompted Heber's decision to seek ordination, though he delayed it for some years. In his degree examinations he did honourably rather than brilliantly; Montefiore quotes a contemporary view that Heber's main contribution to university life was in fields outside formal academic success, particularly as a thinker, a poet and an orator: "Reginald Heber was a star whose lustre was as steady as it was clear." He took his bachelor's degree in the summer of 1804 and was elected to a fellowship of All Souls College, Oxford. He also won the university's Bachelor's Prize for an English prose essay.
European journey
Heber and Thornton had planned to follow their graduation with a Grand Tour of Europe. However, in 1804 the Napoleonic Wars made much of Europe inaccessible, and so they delayed their departure until the summer of 1805 and took a route through Sweden, Norway and Finland to Russia, instead of the usual journey through France and Italy. In July 1805, they sailed for Gothenburg in Sweden, then travelled northward by stage coach, via Vänern and Uddevalla, to Kristiania (Oslo) in Norway. After a short stay there, they moved through the wild Dovre Region to Trondheim, where they observed the practice of skiing for the first time (Heber referred to it as "skating").
They then turned south-east, re-entered Sweden and travelled through Uppsala to Stockholm. Towards the end of September they crossed the Gulf of Bothnia to Åbo (Turku), site of Europe's most northerly university, in the part of Finland then under Swedish rule. They proceeded eastwards and reached St Petersburg at the end of October. They spent two months in the city; through influential British Embassy contacts they visited places generally closed to the public, including Tsar Alexander's private quarters in the Winter Palace. They experienced Muslim worship at first hand as the city's large Muslim population observed Ramadan; Heber described the crowds gathered for prayer in an improvised mosque as "the most decent and attentive congregation [he] had seen since leaving England."
Heber and Thornton had meant to remain in St Petersburg until after the New Year, then if possible return home through Germany. This was thwarted by Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805 and the treaties that followed. Instead they extended their stay in Russia, leaving St Petersburg on 31 December 1805 by sledge for the 500-mile journey to Moscow, where they arrived on 3 January. They found it a hospitable city—in a letter home Heber refers to it as an "overgrown village"—and they made friends with many of its leading citizens and clergy. They left by stage coach on 13 March, heading south towards the Crimea and the Black Sea. This took them through the Cossack country of the Don River Basin. Heber sent home a vivid account of the night celebrations for Easter at Novo Tcherkask, the Cossack capital: "The soft plaintive chaunt of the choir, and their sudden change at the moment of daybreak to the full chorus of 'Christ is risen' were altogether what a poet or a painter would have studied with delight".
In the Crimea, Heber observed the manners and practices of the region's large Muslim community. He expressed pleasure at being greeted with the oriental salaam. The course of the war in Europe had meanwhile shifted to allow Heber and Thornton to pass through Poland, Hungary, Austria and Germany to the port of Hamburg, by way of Austerlitz, where they heard accounts of the recent battle. While making sketches of the scene, Heber was briefly mistaken for a French spy by local farmers. At Hamburg the two travellers boarded Lord Morpeth's private yacht and sailed for England, arriving at Great Yarmouth on 14 October 1806.
Rector of Hodnet
Parish priest
On his return to England, Heber prepared for Holy Orders at Oxford, where he found time for literary pursuits, was active in university politics and led a busy social life. He was ordained as deacon at the end of February 1807 and received full priest's orders from the Bishop of Oxford on 24 May 1807. He was then inducted into the family living, as rector of Hodnet; he was later to describe his role as "a half-way station between a parson and a squire". At first he divided his time between his parish and Oxford, where he fulfilled duties at All Souls. He had not at this time determined his own doctrinal position; writing to Thornton he admitted that he was still searching: "Pray for me, my dear friend, that I may have my eyes open to the truth ... and if it please God that I persevere in his ministry I may undertake the charge with a quiet mind and a good conscience". A High churchman by upbringing, Heber was a strong opponent of factional rivalry; he eventually found a place around the midpoint of the Anglican spectrum between the High Church and evangelical wings, with perhaps a slight inclination towards the evangelicals.
On 9 April 1809 Heber married Amelia Shipley, the youngest daughter of the Dean of St Asaph. He withdrew from Oxford, having secured his M.A., and set himself up permanently in the Hodnet rectory; finding this too small for his wife's liking he had the house demolished and a larger replacement built. In September 1813 Heber preached a sermon in Shrewsbury to the British and Foreign Bible Society, a missionary organisation of which he had been a member since his undergraduate days. The sermon ended with what Hughes describes as Heber's first public declaration in support of the work of overseas missions. He refused an appointment as a canon at Durham, preferring to continue his work in Hodnet in which, after 1814, he was assisted by his younger brother, the Revd Thomas Heber, who served as his curate until his death, at the age of 31, in 1816. The employment of a curate enabled Heber to devote more time to his literary pursuits, and to accept an invitation, in 1815, to deliver the Bampton Lectures at Oxford. He chose as his subject "The Personality and the Office of the Christian Comforter"; the series was published in 1822.
In 1817 Heber accepted the post of canon at St Asaph, the relative proximity of which enabled the extra duties to be carried out without interfering with his parish work. His main literary task during these years was a biography and critical study of the complete works of the 17th-century cleric Jeremy Taylor; the works, with Heber's critique, were published in 15 volumes between 1820 and 1822. This period of Heber's life was saddened by the death, on 24 December 1818, of his infant daughter after a short illness. Two more daughters were born later, in 1821 and 1824 respectively; both lived to adulthood. In 1822 Heber was elected to the church office of Preacher of Lincoln's Inn, which would require a regular term of residence in London. He saw this both as an extension of his service to the Church and as a means of renewing contact with old friends.
Hymn writer
At the start of the 19th century the Anglican authorities officially disapproved of the singing of hymns in churches, other than metrical psalms, although there was considerable informal hymn-singing in parishes. Heber, according to the poet John Betjeman, was a professed admirer of the hymns of John Newton and William Cowper, and was one of the first High Church Anglicans to write his own. In all he wrote 57, mainly between 1811 and 1821. Heber wished to publish his hymns in a collection, in which he proposed to include some by other writers. In October 1820 he sought help from the Bishop of London, William Howley, in obtaining official recognition of his collection from the Archbishop of Canterbury. In a noncommittal reply Howley suggested that Heber should publish the hymns, although he proposed to withhold episcopal approval until public reaction could be gauged. Heber began preparing the publication, but was unable to complete arrangements before his departure for India in 1823. The collection was eventually published in 1827, after Heber's death, as Hymns Written and Adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year.
Betjeman characterised Heber's style as consciously literary, with careful choices of adjectives and vivid figures of speech: "poetic imagery was as important as didactic truth". A more recent analysis by J. R. Watson draws attention to Heber's tendency to deliver what he terms "a rather obvious sermon", and to his mixing of powerful description with "a rather trite moralism". A handful of Heber's hymns have survived into popular use into the 21st century.
Brightest and Best
Holy, Holy, Holy! Lord God Almighty
One whose popularity has waned is the missionary hymn "From Greenland's Icy Mountains", written in 1819 as part of a country-wide campaign on behalf of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG). Watson describes this as "a conspicuous example of that fervent belief to convert the world to Christianity which led Heber and others to lay down their lives in the mission field", and while widely sung until the second half of the 20th century, it was for instance omitted from the 1982 revision of the Episcopal Church hymnal. Betjeman felt that in the modern world, the words of this hymn seem patronising and insensitive to other beliefs, with references to "...every prospect pleases and only man is vile", and to "the heathen in his blindness [bowing] down to wood and stone". These phrases and the assumptions behind them offended Gandhi, who drew attention to them in a speech at YMCA Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1925: "My own experience in my travels throughout India has been to the contrary ... [Man] is not vile. He is as much a seeker after truth as you and I are, possibly more so". Other Heber texts remain popular, and the Dictionary of North American Hymnology notes that most of his hymns remain in use.
Bishop of Calcutta
Appointment
The see of Calcutta had been established in 1814. It covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Ceylon, together with Australia and parts of southern Africa. The first bishop, Thomas Middleton, who had been consecrated in 1814, died in office in July 1822. At the time the head of the Indian Board of Control was Charles Williams-Wynn, an old Oxford friend of Heber's. In December 1822 Williams-Wynn wrote to Heber, not directly offering his friend the post—the wording appeared to anticipate a refusal—but nevertheless leaving Heber the opportunity to claim the office, should he wish. Heber had a longstanding interest in the work of overseas missions; he supported not only the SPG but also its more recently formed evangelical sister-body, the Church Missionary Society (CMS), and while still at Oxford had helped to found the British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS).
Heber was attracted to the post, his interest in distant places having been stimulated by his early travels, but his initial response to the implied offer was cautious. He first asked Williams-Wynn whether there was a suitable local man for the appointment and he was told there was not. His next concern was whether his wife and infant daughter should be exposed to the rigours of the Indian climate, and also if his own health was adequate. After consultation with doctors and discussion with his family, Heber wrote to Williams-Wynn on 2 January 1823, refusing the post. Within days he had written again, regretting the refusal and asking if the post was still available, at which Williams-Wynn quickly obtained the formal approval of King George IV to the appointment. Heber spent the next few months at Hodnet preparing for his departure; during this period he gave a farewell sermon at Oxford, after which the degree of Doctor of Divinity (D.D.) was conferred on him. On 1 June 1823 Heber was formally consecrated as Bishop of Calcutta at Lambeth Palace, by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Two weeks later he departed for India with Amelia and his daughter Emily.
In office
The new bishop arrived in Calcutta on 10 October 1823. After his ceremonial installation by the Governor General, Lord Amherst, Heber preached his first sermon as bishop on Sunday 12 October, in St John's Cathedral Church. He faced many challenges arising from tasks unfinished at the time of his predecessor's death and from the long hiatus without a bishop. A major area of concern was Bishop's College, a training school for local clergy founded by Middleton in 1820, the development of which had stalled due to financial and management problems. Heber reinvigorated the project by extensive fundraising, by persuading the government to increase its grant of land, and by restarting the building programme; within a few months the college boasted a library and a new chapel. In June 1824 Heber, using a power provided to him by recent Act of Parliament, ordained as deacon the first native Indian to receive Holy Orders.
Heber was interested in all aspects of Indian life and quickly made friends, both with the local population and with the representatives of non-Anglican churches. Occasionally his easy manner and lavish hospitality clashed with the principles of the more puritan and evangelical of his clergy; one such, Isaac Wilson of the CMS, used a sermon to mount a direct attack on the bishop after what he considered were excessive celebrations following a baptismal service. Wilson was forced to apologise after Heber threatened him with a Consistory court.
Travels
On 15 June 1824 Heber set out on a tour of northern India, accompanied by his personal chaplain, Martin Stowe, and Daniel Corrie, the Archdeacon of Calcutta. Amelia remained in Calcutta; earlier in the year she had given birth to her third daughter, Harriet. The general plan was to travel by boat to the upper waters of the River Ganges, then overland into the foothills of the Himalayas before turning south and west, crossing Rajputana to reach Bombay. The journey was almost aborted near to its beginning when Stowe fell ill in Dacca (present-day Dhaka, Bangladesh) and died there; after some hesitation, Heber decided that the tour should continue. Early in August the party reached Benares (now Varanasi), the largest of the cities in the Ganges plain, where Heber spent several weeks. It was a wholly Indian city without a European population, sacred to Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists but with a well-established CMS school and a substantial Christian minority. Heber consecrated a new church, and when he conducted a Holy Communion service in both English and Hindustani, a large congregation of Christians and Hindus thronged the church.
The party left Benares in mid-September. After reaching Allahabad they continued overland, accompanied by an armed troop of sepoys. On 28 November they reached their farthest northerly point, at Almora in the Kumaon region. Their subsequent path southward took them to Delhi, the ancient Mughal capital, where Heber was presented to the ageing emperor Akbar Shah II in his dilapidated palace; Heber wrote of the emperor as "the venerable ruin of a mighty stock". In the final stages of the journey to Bombay, at Nadiad, Heber met with Sahajanand Swami, the region's leading Hindu religious leader. Heber had hopes of converting the Swami to Christianity, but was disappointed in the meeting since he failed to do so. On 19 April Heber arrived in Bombay, to be greeted a week later by Amelia and his daughters, who had arrived by sea from Calcutta.
Heber remained in Bombay for four months, and then decided that, instead of sailing directly for Calcutta, he would visit Ceylon on the way. He arrived at Galle on 25 August and spent five weeks touring the main cities before departing for Calcutta where he arrived on 19 October 1825 after an absence of 16 months.
Final months
Heber wished to pass on to the Governor General, Lord Amherst, much of what he had learned and observed on his long voyage, and on his return to Calcutta busied himself with a series of detailed reports. He also wrote to Williams-Wynn in London, strongly criticising the East India Company's stewardship of its Indian territories. He was concerned that few Indians were promoted to senior posts, and noted the "bullying, insolent manner" towards Indians that was widespread amongst the Company authorities. Many local matters also demanded Heber's attention: the next phase in the development of Bishop's College, the preparation of a Hindustani dictionary, and a series of ordinations including that of Abdul Masih, an elderly Lutheran whose reception into Anglican orders had earlier been resisted by Bishop Middleton, on unspecified grounds
In spite of the pressures on his time, Heber set out again on 30 January 1826, this time heading south for Madras, Pondicherry, Tanjore, and ultimately Travancore. One reason for the tour was to examine the issue of caste, which persisted in Southern India. In Tanjore on Easter Day, 26 March 1826, Heber preached to more than 1300, and on the following day conducted a confirmation service for a large Tamil congregation. On 1 April he moved on to Trichinopoly where, next day, he confirmed 42 people. On 3 April, after attending an early-morning service at which he gave a blessing in the Tamil language, Heber returned to his bungalow for a cold bath. Immediately after plunging into the water he died, possibly from the shock of the cold water in the intense heat. Watson records that a contemporary engraving shows his body "being carried from the bath by his servant and chaplain, the latter immaculately attired in a frock coat and top hat". His funeral was held the next day at St John's church, where he had preached his final sermon; he was buried within the church, on the north side of the altar.
Memorials and legacy
Although Heber's episcopate had been brief he had made a considerable impression, and news of his death brought many tributes from around India. Sir Charles Grey, an old Oxford friend who was serving as Calcutta's Chief Justice, spoke of Heber's cheerfulness, his lack of self-importance, his good humour, patience and kindness. Flags were flown at half-mast in Madras and Calcutta, and the Governor-General ordered a salute of 42 guns—one for each completed year of the bishop's life. In several cities public subscriptions were opened to raise funds for monuments. In St John's church in Trichinopoly, initially a simple plaque above the grave recorded the date and place of Heber's death; this was in due course made much more elaborate. In St George's church, Madras, a large sculpture by Francis Chantrey was erected, depicting Heber ministering to members of his flock. Reflecting Heber's interest in the training of local ordinands, further funds were raised to provide Heber scholarships at Bishop's College; in Trichinopoly a school founded by the German missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz became the Heber Memorial School.
It took four months for reports of Heber's death to reach England. At Oxford, representatives of Brasenose and All Souls opened a fund for an appropriate memorial; this idea was taken over by Williams-Wynn, who wanted a national rather than an Oxford-based monument. From the large sum collected, Chantrey was paid £3,000 for a huge marble sculpture that was placed in St Paul's Cathedral, London. More modest memorials were raised in the parish churches at Hodnet and Malpas. At the time of Heber's episcopacy, Australia formed part of the Diocese of Calcutta and, following Heber's death, a schoolhouse was erected at St Paul's, Cobbitty, New South Wales and named the Heber Chapel. During his time in St Asaph, Heber became a good friend of the poet, Felicia Hemans, and in 1826 she published a poetic tribute "To the Memory of Bishop Heber" in The Asiatic Journal.
Heber was soon commemorated in print; as well as the publication of his hymns collection in 1827, the journal that he had kept during his northern India tour of 1824–25 was published in 1828 and proved a great commercial success. Less popular was the three-volume biography and letters collection that Amelia published in 1830. In the ensuing years various collections of Heber's poetry appeared. Hughes observes that although some of the lighter verses are neat and amusing, the general quality is such that had Heber been only a poet, he would quickly have been forgotten. He achieved a more lasting niche as a hymn-writer; according to Hughes, among his hymns with enduring appeal are the Epiphany hymn "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning"; "The Son of God Goes Forth to War", dedicated to the church's saints and martyrs, and the Trinity Sunday hymn "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty". The last one is probably the most widely known of all Trinity hymns and owes a great deal of its popularity to John Bacchus Dykes's tune "Nicea": Watson observes that the tune's "magnificent grandeur carries the long lines effortlessly". Hughes mentions two more Heber hymns that, he says, deserve to be better known: "God that madest earth and heaven" and "By cool Siloam's shady rill".
Heber's pioneering commitment to the mission fields was expressed, half a century after his death, by the author Charlotte Mary Yonge: "Heber was one of the first English churchmen who perceived that to enlarge her borders and strengthen her stakes was the bounden duty of the living Church". He led through example, and through his writings which "did much to spread knowledge of, and therefore interest in, the field of labour in which he died". The Anglican Church of Canada commemorates Heber on 4 April each year.
In July 1830 Amelia Heber married Count Demetrius Valsamachi, a Greek diplomat who became a British subject and was later knighted by Queen Victoria. Amelia lived until 1870. Her daughter Emily married Algernon Percy, the son of the Bishop of Carlisle, and the younger daughter Harriet married a son of Heber's friend John Thornton.
See also
Christianity in India
References
Citations
Sources
; re-printed 2015 by Facsimile Publisher and distributed by Gyan Books, New Delhi.
Reginald Heber, Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India from Calcutta to Bombay 1824–1825 with Notes upon Ceylon; An Account of a Journey to Madras and the Southern Provinces 1826 and Letters written in India, Third Edition in Three Volumes, re-printed by Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1995.
Further reading
External links
The Poetical Works of Reginald Heber. Published by E.H. Butler, Philadelphia 1858 (ebook version); another version at Internet archive
The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter—Bampton Lectures (1816) online
"From Greenland's Icy Mountains"—Text of Heber's controversial missionary hymn. From The Hymns and Carols of Christmas, ed. Douglas D. Anderson (online collection)
1783 births
1826 deaths
19th-century Anglican bishops in Asia
19th-century English male writers
19th-century English musicians
19th-century English poets
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Anglican bishops of Calcutta
Anglican writers
English male poets
English sermon writers
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
People from Malpas, Cheshire
Anglican bishops of West Malaysia | [
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232711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Truman%20Show | The Truman Show | The Truman Show is a 1998 American psychological comedy-drama film directed by Peter Weir, produced by Scott Rudin, Andrew Niccol, Edward S. Feldman, and Adam Schroeder, and written by Niccol. The film stars Jim Carrey as Truman Burbank, a man who grew up living an ordinary life that—unbeknownst to him—takes place on a large set populated by actors for a television show about him. The supporting cast includes Laura Linney, Ed Harris, Noah Emmerich, Natascha McElhone, Holland Taylor, Paul Giamatti, and Brian Delate.
The Truman Show was originally a spec script by Niccol, inspired by a 1989 episode of The Twilight Zone called "Special Service" (itself written by J. Michael Straczynski). Unlike the finished product, it was more of a science-fiction thriller, with the story set in New York City. Scott Rudin purchased the script and set up production at Paramount Pictures. Brian De Palma was to direct before Weir signed as director, making the film for $60 million—$20 million less than the original estimate. Niccol rewrote the script while the crew was waiting for Carrey to sign. The majority of filming took place at Seaside, Florida, a master-planned community located in the Florida Panhandle.
The film was a financial success, debuting to critical acclaim, and earned numerous nominations at the 71st Academy Awards, 56th Golden Globe Awards, 52nd British Academy Film Awards, and 25th Saturn Awards. The Truman Show has been analyzed as an exploration of simulated reality, existentialism, surveillance, religion, metaphilosophy, privacy, and reality television.
Plot
Truman Burbank is the unsuspecting star of The Truman Show, a reality television program filmed 24/7 through thousands of hidden cameras and broadcast to a worldwide audience. Christof, the show's creator and executive producer, seeks to capture Truman's authentic emotions and give audiences a relatable everyman. As Truman was selected from birth following an unwanted pregnancy, Christof claims that Truman came to be adopted not just by the show, but by the "world". Truman's hometown of Seahaven Island is a complete set built within an enormous dome, populated by crew members and actors who highlight the product placements that generate revenue for the show. The elaborate set allows Christof to control almost every aspect of Truman's life, including the weather. To prevent Truman from discovering his false reality, Christof manufactures scenarios that dissuade Truman's desire for exploration, such as the "death" of his father in a sea storm to instill aquaphobia, and by constantly broadcasting and printing messages of the dangers of traveling and the virtues of staying home. However, Christof cannot predict all of Truman's actions. During his college years, Truman was intended to fall in love with and marry co-student Meryl, but fell for Sylvia, an extra. Although Sylvia was quickly removed from the show before she could disclose its nature to Truman, her memory has remained with him, who secretly dreams of a life with Sylvia outside of his marriage to Meryl. To this end, he seeks to travel to Fiji, where he was told Sylvia's family moved. In the real world, Sylvia is a part of the "Free Truman" campaign, which fights to have Truman released from the program.
As the show approaches its 30th anniversary, Truman begins discovering unusual elements such as a spotlight falling out of the sky in front of his house and a radio channel that precisely describes his movements. These events are punctuated by the reappearance of his father, who had infiltrated the set as a beggar. Truman begins questioning his life and realizes that the city somehow revolves around him. Meryl's stress from attempting to uphold the charade in the face of Truman's growing skepticism and hostility causes their marriage to deteriorate. One day, Truman takes Meryl by surprise by going on an impromptu road trip, but increasingly implausible emergencies block their way. During an argument ignited by Meryl attempting to advertise a product, Truman determines that Meryl is a part of the conspiracy and holds her at knife-point; she breaks character and is taken off the show. Hoping to bring Truman back to a controllable state, Christof re-introduces Truman's father to the show properly, under the guise of having lost his memory after the boating accident. This helps the show regain the ratings lead with audiences, and Truman seems to return to his routines, except he begins sleeping in his basement. One night, Truman secretly disappears through a makeshift tunnel in his basement, forcing Christof to temporarily suspend the broadcast for the first time in its history. Audiences around the world are captivated by this unexpected event, and tune in in record numbers.
Christof orders a citywide search for Truman and is soon forced to "cue the sun" and break the production's day-night cycle to optimize the search. Christof discovers Truman sailing away from Seahaven on a small boat, having conquered his fear of water. Unable to fetch Truman by boat, Christof resumes the transmission and creates a violent storm in an attempt to capsize the boat. After nearly drowning Truman but failing to break his spirit, Christof ends the storm. Truman continues to sail until his boat strikes the wall of the dome. Initially horrified, Truman discovers a nearby staircase leading to an exit door. As Truman contemplates leaving his world, Christof speaks directly to Truman through a speaker system and tries to persuade him to stay, claiming that there is no more truth in the real world than in his artificial one, where he would have nothing to fear. After a moment of reflection, Truman says his catchphrase: "In case I don't see you... good afternoon, good evening, and good night", bows to his audience and exits. The viewers celebrate his escape, and Sylvia races to greet him. Defeated, Christof's supervisors finally end the program on a shot of the open exit door. Truman's fans—the viewers of the show—cheer upon his successful escape and then, after transmission ceases, ask what else is on television.
Cast
Jim Carrey as Truman Burbank
Chosen out of six unwanted pregnancies to be the first child legally adopted by a corporation, Truman is unaware that his daily life is broadcast continuously worldwide. He has a job in the insurance business and a wife, but he eventually notices that his environment is not what it seems to be. Robin Williams was considered for the role. Still, Weir cast Carrey after seeing him in Ace Ventura: Pet Detective because Carrey's performance reminded him of Charlie Chaplin. Carrey took the opportunity to proclaim himself as a dramatic actor, rather than being typecast in comedic roles. Carrey, who was then normally paid $20 million per film, agreed to do The Truman Show for $12 million. Carrey and Weir initially found working together on set difficult (Carrey's contract gave him the power to demand rewrites), but Weir was impressed with Carrey's improvisational skills, and the two became more interactive. The scene in which Truman declares "this planet Trumania of the Burbank galaxy" to the bathroom mirror was Carrey's idea.
Laura Linney as Hannah Gill, acting as Meryl Burbank, Truman's wife
A nurse at the local hospital. Since the show relies on product placement for revenue, Meryl regularly shows off various items that she has recently "purchased", one of the many oddities that makes Truman question his life. Her role is to act the part of Truman's wife and ultimately to have a child by him, despite her reluctance to accomplish either. She is written off the show after a heated argument with Truman, which is portrayed as a divorce. Linney heavily studied Sears catalogs from the 1950s to develop her character's poses.
Ed Harris as Christof
The creator of The Truman Show. Christof remains dedicated to the program at all costs, often overseeing and directing its course in person rather than through aides. Dennis Hopper was originally cast in the role, but he left in April 1997 (during filming) over "creative differences". Harris was a last-minute replacement. Dennis Hopper later stated that he was fired after two days because Weir and producer Scott Rudin had made a deal that if they did not both approve of Hopper's performance, they would replace him. A number of other actors had turned down the role after Hopper's departure. Harris considered making Christof a hunchback, but Weir did not like the idea.
Noah Emmerich as Louis Coltrane, playing Marlon, Truman's best friend since early childhood
Marlon is a vending machine operator for the company Goodies, who promises Truman that he would never lie to him, despite the latest events in Truman's life. Emmerich has said, "My character is in a lot of pain. He feels really guilty about deceiving Truman. He's had a serious drug addiction for many years. Been in and out of rehab." Very little of this is shown in the finished film, but several deleted scenes depict Louis actively expressing guilt over Truman's situation, and in one sequence, he spots Truman during his escape and purposely says nothing. His name is an amalgamation of two jazz musicians, Louis Armstrong and John Coltrane, and in one scene, he plays the trumpet.
Natascha McElhone as Sylvia, playing Lauren Garland, Truman's college schoolmate
Sylvia was hired to play a background extra, a fellow student at Truman's college, named Lauren. Unlike the other actors who are in it to get paid, she actually believes that Truman should be free from his false reality rather than be locked up like an animal. She became romantically involved with Truman and tried to reveal the truth to him about his life, but was removed from the show before she could do so. She then becomes a protester against The Truman Show, urging Christof to release its lead.
Holland Taylor as Alanis Montclair, playing Truman's mother Angela Burbank
Brian Delate as Walter Moore, playing Truman's father Kirk Burbank
Walter's character on The Truman Show—Truman's "father", Kirk—is "killed off" by Christof during Truman's childhood, supposedly dying in a rainstorm while the two are on a boat out at sea. This trauma is designed to instill a pathological fear of water that will keep Truman from escaping the show's set, an artificial indoor island. Walter later sneaks inside Seahaven to revive his career by disguising himself as an extra. After Truman spots him, his character is reintroduced on the show by using amnesia to explain his absence.
Paul Giamatti as Simeon, a control room director
Peter Krause as Laurence, Truman's boss
Harry Shearer as Mike Michaelson, a TV talk-show host
Joel McKinnon Miller as a garage attendant
Production
Andrew Niccol completed a one-page film treatment titled The Malcolm Show in May 1991. The original draft was more in tone of a science fiction thriller, with the story set in New York City. Niccol stated, "I think everyone questions the authenticity of their lives at certain points. It's like when kids ask if they're adopted." In the fall of 1993, producer Scott Rudin purchased the script for slightly over $1 million. Paramount Pictures agreed to distribute. Part of the deal called for Niccol to make his directing debut, though Paramount executives felt the estimated $80 million budget would be too high for him. In addition, Paramount wanted to go with an A-list director, paying Niccol extra money "to step aside". Brian De Palma was under negotiations to direct before he left United Talent Agency in March 1994. Directors who were considered after De Palma's departure included Tim Burton, Sam Raimi, Terry Gilliam, Barry Sonnenfeld and Steven Spielberg before Peter Weir signed on in early 1995, following a recommendation of Niccol. Bryan Singer wanted to direct but Paramount decided to go with the more experienced Weir.
Weir wanted the film to be funnier, feeling that Niccol's script was too dark, and declaring, "where [Niccol] had it depressing, I could make it light. It could convince audiences they could watch a show in this scope 24/7." Niccol wrote sixteen drafts of the script before Weir considered the script ready for filming. Later in 1995, Jim Carrey signed to star, but because of commitments with The Cable Guy and Liar Liar, he would not be ready to start filming for at least another year. Weir felt Carrey was perfect for the role and opted to wait for another year rather than recast the role. Niccol rewrote the script twelve times, while Weir created a fictionalized book about the show's history. He envisioned backstories for the characters and encouraged actors to do the same.
Weir scouted locations in Eastern Florida but was dissatisfied with the landscapes. Sound stages at Universal Studios were reserved for the story's setting of Seahaven before Weir's wife Wendy Stites introduced him to Seaside, Florida, a "master-planned community" located in the Florida Panhandle. Pre-production offices were immediately opened in Seaside, where the majority of filming took place. The scenes of Truman's house were filmed at a residence owned by the Gaetz family, which included Florida State Senator Don Gaetz and future U.S. Representative Matt Gaetz. Other scenes were shot at Paramount Studios in Los Angeles, California. Norman Rockwell paintings and 1960s postcards were used as inspiration for the film's design. Weir, Peter Biziou and Dennis Gassner researched surveillance techniques for certain shots.
Filming took place from December 1996 to April 1998. The overall look was influenced by television images, particularly commercials: Many shots have characters leaning into the lens with their eyes wide open, and the interior scenes are heavily lit because Weir wanted to remind viewers that "in this world, everything was for sale". Those involved in visual effects work found the film somewhat difficult to make because 1997 was the year many visual effects companies were trying to convert to computer-generated imagery (CGI). CGI was used to create the upper halves of some of the larger buildings in the film's downtown set. Craig Barron, one of the effects supervisors, said that these digital models did not have to look as detailed and weathered as they normally would in a film because of the artificial look of the entire town, although they did imitate slight blemishes found in the physical buildings.
Soundtrack
Themes
Media
In 2008, Popular Mechanics named The Truman Show as one of the 10 most prophetic science fiction films. Journalist Erik Sofge argued that the story reflects the falseness of reality television. "Truman simply lives, and the show's popularity is its straightforward voyeurism. And, like Big Brother, Survivor, and every other reality show on the air, none of his environment is actually real." He deemed it an eerie coincidence that Big Brother made its debut a year after the film's release, and he also compared the film to the 2003 program The Joe Schmo Show: "Unlike Truman, Matt Gould could see the cameras, but all of the other contestants were paid actors, playing the part of various reality-show stereotypes. While Matt eventually got all of the prizes in the rigged contest, the show's central running joke was in the same existential ballpark as The Truman Show." Weir declared, "There has always been this question: Is the audience getting dumber? Or are we filmmakers patronizing them? Is this what they want? Or is this what we're giving them? But the public went to my film in large numbers. And that has to be encouraging."
Ronald Bishop's paper in the Journal of Communication Enquiry suggests The Truman Show showcased the power of the media. Truman's life inspires audiences around the world, meaning their lives are controlled by his. Bishop commented, "In the end, the power of the media is affirmed rather than challenged. In the spirit of Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony, these films and television programs co-opt our enchantment (and disenchantment) with the media and sell it back to us."
In her essay "Reading The Truman Show inside out" Simone Knox argues that the film itself tries to blur the objective perspective and the show-within-the-film. Knox also draws a floor plan of the camera angles of the first scene.
Psychoanalytic interpretation
An essay published in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis analyzed Truman as
Religious interpretation
Benson Y. Parkinson of the Association for Mormon Letters compared the megalomaniacal Hollywood producer Christof to Lucifer. According to Parkinson, the conversation between Truman and Marlon at the bridge can be compared to one between Moses and God in the Book of Moses.
In C.S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies by Rich Wagner, Christof is compared with Screwtape, the eponymous character of the 1942 The Screwtape Letters by C. S. Lewis.
Similarity to Utopia
Parallels can be drawn from Thomas More's 1516 book Utopia, in which More describes an island with only one entrance and only one exit. Only those who belonged to this island knew how to navigate their way through the treacherous openings safely and unharmed. This situation is similar to The Truman Show because there are limited entryways into the world that Truman knows. Truman does not belong to this utopia into which he has been implanted, and childhood trauma rendered him frightened of the prospect of ever leaving this small community. Utopian models of the past tended to be full of like-minded individuals who shared much in common, comparable to More's Utopia and real-life groups such as the Shakers and the Oneida Community. It is clear that the people in Truman's world are like-minded in their common effort to keep him oblivious to reality. The suburban "picket fence" appearance of the show's set is reminiscent of the "American Dream" of the 1950s. The "American Dream" concept in Truman's world serves as an attempt to keep him happy and ignorant.
Release
Originally set for August 8, 1997, the film's theatrical release was pushed back initially to November 14, 1997, and then to the summer of 1998. NBC purchased broadcast rights in December 1997, roughly eight months before the film's release. In March 2000, Turner Broadcasting System purchased the rights and now often airs the film on TBS.
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, The Truman Show holds a 95% approval rating based on 132 reviews, with an average rating of 8.40/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "A funny, tender, and thought-provoking film, The Truman Show is all the more noteworthy for its remarkably prescient vision of runaway celebrity culture and a nation with an insatiable thirst for the private details of ordinary lives." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 90 out of 100 based on 30 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Giving the film a perfect four star score, Roger Ebert compared it to Forrest Gump, claiming that the film had the right balance of comedy and drama. He was also impressed with Jim Carrey's dramatic performance. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "The Truman Show is emotionally involving without losing the ability to raise sharp satiric questions as well as get numerous laughs. The rare film that is disturbing despite working beautifully within standard industry norms." He would name it the best movie of 1998. In June 2010, Entertainment Weekly named Truman one of the 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years.
James Berardinelli liked the film's approach of "not being the casual summer blockbuster with special effects", and he likened Carrey's "[charismatic], understated and effective" performance to those of Tom Hanks and James Stewart. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote, "Undeniably provocative and reasonably entertaining, The Truman Show is one of those high-concept movies whose concept is both clever and dumb." Tom Meek of Film Threat said the film was not funny enough but still found "something rewarding in its quirky demeanor".
Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – Nominated
The Truman Show delusion
Joel Gold, a psychiatrist at the Bellevue Hospital Center, revealed that by 2008, he had met five patients with schizophrenia (and had heard of another twelve) who believed their lives were reality television shows. Gold named the syndrome "The Truman Show delusion" after the film and attributed the delusion to a world that had become hungry for publicity. Gold stated that some patients were rendered happy by their disease, while "others were tormented". One traveled to New York to check whether the World Trade Center had actually fallen—believing the 9/11 attacks to be an elaborate plot twist in his personal storyline. Another came to climb the Statue of Liberty, believing that he would be reunited with his high school girlfriend at the top and finally be released from the show.
In August 2008, the British Journal of Psychiatry reported similar cases in the United Kingdom. The delusion has informally been referred to as "Truman syndrome", according to an Associated Press story from 2008.
After hearing about the condition, Andrew Niccol, writer of The Truman Show, said: "You know you've made it when you have a disease named after you."
See also
Articles
List of films featuring surveillance
Potemkin village
Simulated reality in fiction
Media
"They", a 1941 story by Robert A. Heinlein
Time Out of Joint, 1959 novel
36 Hours, 1965 film
The Prisoner, 1967 television series
EDtv, 1999 film
"White Bear", 2013 episode of Black Mirror
References
External links
The Truman Show screenplay
1998 films
1990s satirical films
1990s science fiction comedy-drama films
1998 comedy films
1998 drama films
American science fiction comedy-drama films
American films
American satirical films
BAFTA winners (films)
American dystopian films
English-language films
European Film Awards winners (films)
Fictional television shows
Films scored by Philip Glass
Films about actors
Films about technological impact
Films about television
Films directed by Peter Weir
Films featuring a Best Drama Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films produced by Scott Rudin
Films set in 1996
Films set in fictional populated places
Films set in California
Films shot in Florida
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award
Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award
Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation winning works
Paramount Pictures films
Religion in science fiction
Postmodern films
Films produced by Edward S. Feldman | [
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232713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calw%20%28district%29 | Calw (district) | Calw is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Karlsruhe, Enz, the district-free city Pforzheim, Böblingen, Freudenstadt and Rastatt.
History
The district was created in 1938, when the Oberamt Calw together with the neighboring Neuenbürg und Nagold were merged into a district. During the communal reform in 1973 the district at first was planned to be dissolved and its municipalities split to neighboring district. However it already had the right size and population which was planned for the newly created districts, and thus this plan was abandoned. But some changes in the outline of the districts happened - 15 municipalities of the district changed to the neighboring districts Enz, Rastatt and Böblingen, and in return it gained 6 municipalities from the districts Freudenstadt and the dissolved district Horb.
Geography
The district belongs to the northern part of the Black Forest mountains. The main river is the Nagold and the Enz.
Partnerships
Since 1991 the district has partnership with the district Freiberg in Saxony.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms, which is nearly identical with the coat of arms of the city Calw, shows the lion of the Counts of Calw on top of three mountains. The three mountains represent the three former counties over which the Counts of Calw once reigned, namely Calw, Löwenstein and Vaihingen. (The latter two cities are not part of the present-day district of Calw) The fountain in the bottom represents the springs and spas in the district.
Cities and towns
References
External links
(German)
Karlsruhe (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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232715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraband | Contraband | Contraband (from Medieval French contrebande "smuggling") refers to any item that, relating to its nature, is illegal to be possessed or sold. It is used for goods that by their nature are considered too dangerous or offensive in the eyes of the legislator—termed contraband in se—and forbidden.
So-called derivative contraband refers to goods that may normally be owned, but are liable to be seized because they were used in committing an unlawful act and hence begot illegally, e.g. smuggling goods; stolen goods – knowingly participating in their trade is an offense in itself, called fencing.
Law of armed conflict
In international law, contraband means goods that are ultimately destined for territory under the control of the enemy and may be susceptible for use in armed conflict. Traditionally, contraband is classified into two categories, absolute contraband and conditional contraband. The former category includes arms, munitions, and various materials, such as chemicals and certain types of machinery that may be used directly to wage war or be converted into instruments of war.
Conditional contraband, formerly known as occasional contraband, consists of such materials as provisions and livestock feed. Cargo of that kind, presumably innocent in character, is subject to seizure if in the opinion of the belligerent nation that seizes them, the supplies are destined for the armed forces of the enemy rather than for civilian use and consumption. In former agreements among nations, certain other commodities, including soap, paper, clocks, agricultural machinery and jewelry, have been classified as non-contraband, but the distinctions have proved meaningless in practice.
Under the conditions of modern warfare, in which armed conflict has largely become a struggle involving the total populations of the contending powers, virtually all commodities are classified by belligerents as absolute contraband.
American Civil War enslaved people
During the American Civil War, Confederate-owned slaves who sought refuge in Union military camps or who lived in territories that fell under Union control were declared "contraband of war". The policy was first articulated by General Benjamin F. Butler in 1861, in what came to be known as the "Fort Monroe Doctrine," established in Hampton, Virginia. By war's end, the Union had set up 100 contraband camps in the South, and the Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony (1863–1867) was developed to be a self-sustaining colony. Many adult freedmen worked for wages for the Army at such camps, teachers were recruited from the North for their schools by the American Missionary Association, and thousands of freedmen enlisted from such camps in the United States Colored Troops to fight with the Union against the Confederacy.
Treaties
Numerous treaties defining contraband have been concluded among nations. In time of war, the nations involved have invariably violated the agreements, formulating their own definitions as the fortunes of war indicated. The Declaration of London, drafted at the London Naval Conference of 1908–1909 and made partly effective by most of the European maritime nations at the outbreak of World War I, established comprehensive classifications of absolute and conditional contraband. As the war developed, the lists of articles in each category were constantly revised by the various belligerents despite protests by neutral powers engaged in the carrying trade. By 1916, the list of conditional contraband included practically all waterborne cargo. Thereafter, for the duration of World War I, nearly all cargo in transit to an enemy nation was treated as contraband of war by the intercepting belligerent, regardless of the nature of the cargo. A similar policy was inaugurated by the belligerent powers early in World War II.
Neutral nations
Under international law, the citizens of neutral nations are entitled to trade, at their own risk, with any or all powers engaged in war. No duty to restrain contraband trade is imposed on the neutral governments, but no neutral government has the right to interfere on behalf of citizens whose property is seized by one belligerent if it is in transit to another. The penalty traditionally imposed by belligerents on neutral carriers engaged in commercial traffic with the enemy consists of confiscation of cargo. By the Declaration of London, it was extended to include condemnation of the carrying vessel if more than half the cargo was contraband. The right of warring nations to sink neutral ships transporting contraband is not recognized in international law, but the practice was initiated by Germany in World War I and was often resorted to by the Axis Powers in World War II.
References
Bibliography
Sources
Dictionary.com
EtymologyOnLine
Criminal law
Smuggling
International law | [
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232719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmeat%20Markham | Pigmeat Markham | Dewey "Pigmeat" Markham (April 18, 1904 – December 13, 1981) was an American entertainer. Though best known as a comedian, Markham was also a singer, dancer, and actor. His nickname came from a stage routine, in which he declared himself to be "Sweet Poppa Pigmeat". He was sometimes credited in films as Pigmeat "Alamo" Markham.
Early life and career
He was born in the community of Hayti, Durham, North Carolina. His family was the most prominent on their street, which came to be called (and later officially named) Markham Street in the Hayti District. Markham began his career in traveling music and burlesque shows. For a time he was a member of Bessie Smith's Traveling Revue in the 1920s. Later, he claimed he originated the Truckin' dance which became nationally popular at the start of the 1930s. In the 1940s he started making film appearances. In 1946 he recorded "Open the Door, Richard".
Markham was a familiar act at New York's famed Apollo Theater where he wore blackface makeup and huge painted white lips, despite complaints the vaudeville tradition was degrading. The book Showtime at the Apollo suggests, "He probably played the Apollo more often than any other performer."
Starting in the 1950s Pigmeat Markham began appearing on television, making multiple appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show.
His boisterous, indecorous "heyeah (here) come da judge" schtick, which made a mockery of formal courtroom etiquette, became his signature routine. Markham would sit at an elevated judge's bench (often in a black graduation cap-and-gown, to look more impressive), and deal with a series of comic miscreants. He would often deliver his "judgments", as well as express frustration with the accused, by leaning over the bench and smacking the accused with an inflated bladder-balloon. He had hit comedy recordings in the 1960s on Chess Records, and saw his routine's entry line become a catchphrase on the Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In NBC television show, as did his phrase "Look that up in your Funk and Wagnalls."
Markham's most famous routine was "discovered" by the general public only after Sammy Davis, Jr. had performed it as a guest on the March 25, 1968 episode of Laugh-In. Due to the years of racial segregation in the entertainment world, he was not widely known by white audiences, and had almost exclusively performed on the "Chitlin' Circuit" of vaudeville, theatres, and night clubs and appeared in several race films, including William D. Alexander's 1949 revue film Burlesque in Harlem, which documented the Chitlin' Circuit.
The phenomenal ripple effect of Davis's version of "the judge" led to Markham's opportunity to perform his signature Judge character himself as a Laugh-In regular during the 1968–69 television season. Archie Campbell later adapted Markham's routine, performing as "Justus O'Peace," on the country version of Laugh-In, Hee Haw, which borrowed heavily from the minstrel show tradition.
Thanks to his Heyeah come da judge routine, which originally was accompanied by music with a funky beat, Pigmeat Markham is regarded as a forerunner of rap. His song "Here Comes the Judge" peaked at number 19 on the Billboard and other charts in 1968. He published an autobiography, Here Come the Judge!, in the wake of his Laugh-In success.
The song "Here Comes the Judge" was prominently sampled by Big Audio Dynamite II during the middle of Rush (Big Audio Dynamite II song).
Death
Markham died of a stroke at Montefiore Medical Center in the Bronx at the age of 77. He is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.
Discography
References:
Albums
At the Party (1961)
The Trial (1961)
Anything Goes with Pigmeat (1962)
Open the Door Richard (1963)
The World's Greatest Clown (1963)
The Best of Moms and Pigmeat Volume One (1964) (with Moms Mabley)
Mr. Funny Man (1965)
This'll Kill Ya! (1965)
One More Time... (1966) (with Moms Mabley)
If You Can't Be Good, Be Careful! (1966)
Mr. Vaudeville (1967)
Save Your Soul, Baby! (1967)
Here Come the Judge (1968)
Tune Me In (1968)
The Hustlers (1968)
Backstage (1968)
Pigmeat's Bag (1968)
Would the Real Pigmeat Markham Please Sit Down (1973)
The Crap-Shootin' Rev
Singles
References
External links
Pigmeat Markham at Discogs
1904 births
1981 deaths
Male actors from Durham, North Carolina
African-American male comedians
African-American male actors
African-American male dancers
African-American dancers
American male dancers
American male comedians
American comedy musicians
Blackface minstrel performers
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Chess Records artists
Vaudeville performers
Musicians from Durham, North Carolina
20th-century American memoirists
African-American non-fiction writers
American non-fiction writers
American male stage actors
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American singers
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American dancers
20th-century American male singers
20th-century African-American male singers | [
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232720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Fechter | Charles Fechter | Charles Albert Fechter (23 October 1824 – 5 August 1879) was an Anglo-French actor.
Biography
Fechter was born, probably in London, of French parents, although his mother was of Piedmontese and his father of German extraction.
As a boy he had ambitions to be a sculptor but discovered his talent while appearing in some private theatricals. In 1841 he joined a travelling company that was going to Italy. The tour was a failure, and the company broke up; Fechter returned home and resumed the study of sculpture. At the same time he attended classes at the Conservatoire with the view of gaining admission to the Comédie-Française. Late in 1844 he won the grand medal of the Académie des Beaux-Arts with a piece of sculpture, and made his debut at the Comédie-Française as Seide in Voltaire's Mahomet and Valère in Molière's Tartuffe. He acquitted himself with credit; but, tired of the small parts he found himself condemned to play, returned again to his sculptor's studio in 1846.
In the same year he was invited to appear with a French company in Berlin, where he made his first decisive success as an actor. On his return to Paris in the following year he married the actress Eléonore Rabut (d. 1895). Previously he had appeared for some months in London, in a season of French classical plays given at the St James's Theatre. In Paris for the next ten years he fulfilled a series of successful engagements at various theatres, his chief triumph being his creation at the Vaudeville on 2 February 1852 of the part of Armand Duval in La Dame aux camélias. For nearly two years (1857–1858) Fechter was manager of the Odéon, where he produced Tartuffe and other classical plays.
Having received tempting offers to act in English at the Princess's Theatre, London, he made a diligent study of the English language, and appeared there on 27 October 1860 in an English version of Victor Hugo's Ruy Blas. This was followed by The Corsican Brothers and Don César de Bazan; and on 20 March 1861, he attempted Hamlet for the first time. The result was an extraordinary triumph, the play running for 115 nights. This was followed by Othello, in which he played alternately the Moor and Iago. In 1863 he became lessee of the Lyceum Theatre, which he opened with The Duke's Motto; this was followed by The King's Butterfly, The Mountebank (in which his son Paul, a boy of seven, appeared), The Roadside Inn, The Master of Ravenswood, The Corsican Brothers (in the original French version, in which he had created the parts of Louis and Fabian dei Franchi) and The Lady of Lyons.
After this he appeared at the Adelphi Theatre (1868) as Obenreizer in No Thoroughfare, by Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins, as Edmond Dantes in The Count of Monte Cristo, and as Count de Leyrac in Black and White, a play in which the actor himself collaborated with Wilkie Collins.
In 1870 he visited the United States, where (with the exception of a visit to London in 1872) he remained till his death. He played in the United States between 1870 and 1876 in most of the parts in which he had won his chief triumphs in Britain. His first appearance in New York was at Niblo's Garden in the title role of Hugo's Ruy Blas in January 1870. He leased the Globe Theatre at 730 Broadway in September 1870. The experiment was brief. Fechter's imperious temper, aggravated by indulgence in drink, involved him in private quarrels and in discussions in the press, and he left in January 1871. He then had the same experiences at the old French theatre, renamed the Lyceum Theatre that year, and also in Boston.
He then went into a brief partnership with William Stuart at the newly completed New Park Theatre in April 1874. It had been built by Stuart and Dion Boucicault, who pulled out just before the opening. Fechter acted in his own Love's Penance, an adaptation of Le médecin des enfants by le Comte d'Avrigny. However the play flopped, and Fechter retired to a farm which he had bought at the little village of Rockland Township, Berks County, Pennsylvania, near Quakertown. The last three years of his life were spent in seclusion with his second wife, Lizzie Price, and his dogs on the farm, where he died. He was interred at Mount Vernon Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
A bust of the actor by himself is in the Garrick Club, London.
Family life
He married, 29 November 1847, Mlle Charlotte Eléonore Rabut (1819-1894), a pensionnaire of the Comédie Française, Paris, by whom he had a son, Paul, and a daughter, Marie, who became an operatic singer. From 1850 to April 1855, he had a love affair with the famous actress Pauline Virginie Déjazet (1798-1875).
References
Notes
Sources
External links
1824 births
1879 deaths
Burials at Mount Vernon Cemetery (Philadelphia)
English male stage actors
English emigrants to the United States
English people of German descent
English people of Italian descent
People of Piedmontese descent
19th-century male actors | [
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232722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Autran | Joseph Autran | Joseph Autran (20 June 1813 – 6 March 1877) was a French poet.
Biography
Autran was born in Marseille. In 1832 he addressed an ode to Alphonse de Lamartine, who was then at Marseille on his way to the East. Lamartine persuaded the young man's father to allow him to follow his poetic instinct, and Autran became Lamartine's faithful disciple from then on.
His best known work is La Mer (1835), remodelled in 1852 as Les Poèmes de la mer. Ludibria ventis (1838) followed, and the success of these two volumes gained for Autran the librarianship of his native town.
In 1844/5 Franz Liszt, who met Autran in Marseille in 1844, set four of his poems, La terre, Les aquilons, Les flots and Les astres, for choir and piano as a cycle, Les quatre élémens.
Autran's other important work is his Vie rurale (1856), a series of pictures of peasant life. The Algerian campaigns inspired him with verses in honour of the common soldier. Milianah (1842) describes the heroic defence of that town, and in the same vein is his Laboureurs et soldats (1854).
Among his other works are the Paroles de Salomon (1868), Épîtres rustiques (1861), Sonnets capricieux, and a tragedy played with great success at the Odéon in 1848, La Fille d'Eschyle. A definitive edition of his works was brought out between 1875 and 1881.
He became a member of the Académie française in 1868, and died at Marseille nine years later.
Works
Le Départ pour l'Orient : ode à M. Alphonse de Lamartine (1832)
La Mer : poésies (1835)
Ludibria ventis : poésies nouvelles (1838)
L'An 40 : ballades et poésies musicales, suivies de Marseille (1840)
Milianah : poème (1841)
Italie et Semaine sainte à Rome (1841)
La Fille d'Eschyle : étude antique en 5 actes, en vers, Paris, Théâtre de l'Odéon, 9 mars 1848
Les Poëmes de la mer (1852)
Laboureurs et soldats (1854)
La Vie rurale : tableaux et récits (1856)
Etienne et Clémentine (1858)Épîtres rustiques (1861)Le Poème des beaux jours (1862)Le Cyclope, d'après Euripide (1863)Paroles de Salomon (1869)Sonnets capricieux (1873)La Légende des paladins (1875)Œuvres complètes'' (1875–82)
References
1813 births
1877 deaths
Writers from Marseille
19th-century French poets
French male poets
19th-century French male writers
Members of the Académie Française | [
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232723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk%20%26%20Wagnalls | Funk & Wagnalls | Funk & Wagnalls was an American publisher known for its reference works, including A Standard Dictionary of the English Language (1st ed. 1893–5), and the Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia (25 volumes, 1st ed. 1912).
The encyclopedia was renamed Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Encyclopedia in 1931 and in 1945, it was known as New Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia, Universal Standard Encyclopedia, Funk & Wagnalls Standard Reference Encyclopedia, and Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia (29 volumes, 1st ed. 1971).
The last printing of Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia was in 1997. As of 2018, annual Yearbooks are still in production.
The I.K. Funk & Company, founded in 1875, was renamed Funk & Wagnalls Company after two years, and later became Funk & Wagnalls Inc., then Funk & Wagnalls Corporation.
History
Isaac Kaufmann Funk founded the business in 1875 as I.K. Funk & Company. In 1877, Adam Willis Wagnalls, one of Funk's classmates at Wittenberg College (now Wittenberg University), joined the firm as a partner and the name of the firm was changed to Funk & Wagnalls Company.
During its early years, Funk & Wagnalls Company published religious books. The publication of The Literary Digest in 1890 marked a shift to publishing of general reference dictionaries and encyclopedias. The firm published The Standard Dictionary of the English Language () in 2 volumes in 1893 and 1895, and Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia () in 1912.
In 1913, the New Standard Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language was published under the supervision of Isaac K. Funk (Editor-in-Chief). The New Standard Unabridged Dictionary was revised until 1943, a later edition that was also supervised by Charles Earl Funk.
The encyclopedia was based upon Chambers's Encyclopaedia:
"Especially are we indebted to the famous Chambers's Encyclopaedia ... With its publishers we have arranged to draw upon its stores as freely as we have found it of advantage so to do."
Wilfred J. Funk, the son of Isaac Funk, was president of the company from 1925 to 1940.
Unicorn Press (later known as the Standard Reference Work Publishing Co.) obtained the rights to publish the encyclopedia, and by 1953 that firm began to sell the encyclopedia through a supermarket continuity marketing campaign, encouraging consumers to include the latest volume of the encyclopedia on their shopping lists. Grocery stores in the 1970s in the Midwest (Chicago – Jewel Grocers) typically kept about four volumes in a rotation, dropping the last and adding the latest until all volumes could be acquired with the initial first volume being 99 cents. The first several volumes were gold painted along the edges and the later volumes were not. A volume was typically priced at $2.99, but toward the later volumes the price had increased with the inflation of the 1970s. If one did not go shopping on a weekly basis, or delivery was spotty, there was a good chance that a volume might be missed to complete the set.
Also sold in grocery stores, one volume at a time, was the Family Library Of Great Music, a 22-album series of classical recordings. One famous composer was highlighted in each release. The records were manufactured exclusively for Funk & Wagnalls by RCA Custom.
In 1965, Funk & Wagnalls Co. was sold to Reader's Digest.
In 1971, the company, now Funk and Wagnalls, Incorporated, was sold to Dun & Bradstreet. Dun and Bradstreet retained Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, but other reference works were relinquished to other publishers.
In 1984, Dun & Bradstreet sold Funk & Wagnalls, Inc., to a group of Funk & Wagnalls executives, who in turn sold it to Field Corporation in 1988.
In 1991, the company was sold to K-III Holdings, Inc, and then in 1993 Funk & Wagnalls Corporation acquired the World Almanac.
In 1998, as part of the Information division of Primedia Inc. (the renamed K-III), the encyclopedia content appeared on the Web site "funkandwagnalls.com". This short-lived venture was shut down in 2001.
Ripplewood Holdings bought Primedia's education division in 1999, which became part of Reader's Digest Association in 2007. In 2009, Funk & Wagnalls was acquired by World Book Encyclopedia.
After failing to purchase rights to the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica and World Book Encyclopedia for its Encarta digital encyclopedia, Microsoft reluctantly used (under license) the text of Funk & Wagnalls encyclopedia for the first editions of its encyclopedia. This licensed text was gradually replaced over the following years with content Microsoft created itself.
Publications
18?? – The Preacher's Homiletic Commentary on the Old Testament
18?? – The Preacher's Homiletic Commentary on the New Testament
1890 – The Literary Digest
1891 – The Encyclopedia of Missions
1893–95 – The Standard Dictionary of the English Language
1901/1906 – The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 volumes
1904 - The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, 10 volumes
1905 — Mrs. Maybrick's Own Story: My Fifteen Lost Years by Florence Maybrick
1906 – The World's Famous Orations, 10 volume set
1909 – Standard Bible Dictionary
1912 – Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia
1913–1943 The New Standard Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, Two volumes
1915 – Women of all nations: a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence, Volume 1
1915 – Women of all nations: a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence, Volume 2
1915 – Women of all nations: a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence, Volume 3
1920 – Funk and Wagnall's Student's Standard Dictionary of the English language [Hardcover]
1927 – The World's One Hundred Best Short Stories, 10 volumes
1929 – The World's Best 100 Detective Stories, in 10 volumes
1929 – Pocket Library of the World's Essential Knowledge, 10 volumes
1929 – The World's 1000 Best Poems, 10 volumes
1936 – A New Standard Bible Dictionary
1946 – Funk and Wagnalls New Practical Standard Dictionary, 2 volumes Re-Copyrighted in 1949, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954 1955 ***First hand account from volumes dated 1955.
1949/50 – Funk & Wagnalls standard dictionary of folklore, mythology and legend, 2 volumes. A one-volume edition with minor revisions was released in 1972.
1957 – The Fashion Dictionary
19?? – Funk & Wagnalls standard handbook of synonyms, antonyms, and prepositions
1968 – Handbook of Indoor Games & Stunts [Paperbook F58]
1971 – Standard Dictionary of the English Language (International Edition)
19?? – Poetry handbook; a dictionary of terms
1971 – Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia
1973 – Funk & Wagnalls Guide to modern world literature
1974 – Funk & Wagnalls Wildlife Encyclopedia
1974 – Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary (2nd Edition)
1980 – The New Funk & Wagnalls Illustrated Wildlife Encyclopedia
1986 – Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia of Science
1996 – Funk & Wagnalls World Atlas
In popular culture
During certain scenes of banter between Dan Rowan and Dick Martin on the NBC comedy-variety show Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, after a particular anecdote of trivia or wisdom, Dick Martin would end the saying by stating, "Look that up in your Funk & Wagnalls!" Sales of the dictionary reportedly increased by 30% as a result of this recurring joke.
In the TV series The West Wing, Season 1: Episode 21 entitled "Lies, Damn Lies and Statistics" press secretary CJ Cregg references Funk & Wagnalls when being told by Toby Ziegler that direction and track are two different words, which garners the sarcastic response "Thank you Funk & Wagnalls" from her.
On The Tonight Show, host Johnny Carson often played a mystic seer from the East named "Carnac the Magnificent". Sidekick Ed McMahon would hand "Carnac" "hermetically sealed" envelopes of questions he purported had been kept in a mayonnaise jar on Funk & Wagnalls' porch since noon that day.
In the TV series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, Season 1: Episode 3 entitled "Planet of the Slave Girls" Buck Rogers and Colonel Wilma Deering come to the rescue of a Directorate pilot under attack. When Buck is reprimanded for "interfering" with a training mission, he tells the flight leader, "If you call that interfering, there's something wrong with your Funk & Wagnalls!"
In the TV series The Venture Bros., Season 4: Episode 10 entitled "Pomp and Circuitry" Billy Quizboy talks to Rusty Venture about how his sons are wholly unprepared for adulthood and how the information on their learning beds is more "dated than Funk & Wagnalls."
References
External links
The Wagnalls Memorial Library
American companies established in 1875
Publishing companies established in 1875
American encyclopedias
English-language encyclopedias
Defunct book publishing companies of the United States
Lists of books
20th-century encyclopedias
19th-century encyclopedias | [
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232727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container%20%28disambiguation%29 | Container (disambiguation) | A container is any receptacle or enclosure for holding a product used in storage, packaging, and shipping.
Container may also refer to:
Computing
Container (abstract data type), a class or data structure that is a collection of other objects
Container (type theory), abstractions that represent collection types in a uniform way
Container (virtualization), a server virtualization method
Container format (computing), for storing related data together, such as audio and video data
Other uses
Container (board game), a 2007 economic-simulation game
Container (film), a 2006 Swedish film by Lukas Moodysson
Container (flowers), plants grown exclusively in containers
"Container" (song), by Fiona Apple
Container radar, a Russian over-the-horizon radar system
Shipping container, for shipping
Intermodal container, a large standardized shipping container
See also
Container Bob, nickname for the man found in a shipping container in 2001
Enclosure (disambiguation)
Receptacle (disambiguation) | [
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232729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic%20Civilizations | Galactic Civilizations | Galactic Civilizations is a turn-based strategy video game developed by Stardock and released in March 2003. The game is a remake of an OS/2 series of the same name. An expansion pack entitled Altarian Prophecy was released in 2004. A sequel, Galactic Civilizations II: Dread Lords, was released February 21, 2006. On May 14, 2015, Stardock released Galactic Civilizations III.
Gameplay
The goal of the game is to eventually dominate the galaxy. It is possible to achieve victory through war, cultural domination, diplomacy or by developing overwhelming advanced technology.
Story
The game is set in the future. Humankind has made contact with the 5 other major alien races. Space travel is risky and expensive, requiring huge jump gates which only permit travel between two specific points. Because space travel is so difficult, the galaxy remains mostly uncolonized. The humans make a great discovery—hyperdrive. It permits fast travel between any two stars. The humans share their discovery with the other five major races. All communication stops. The humans consider that sharing their discovery may have been a mistake. Now that the galaxy is open for exploration, there's going to be a rush to claim all the uncolonized worlds.
Development
Galactic Civilizations was first developed for OS/2 in April 1993 by Brad Wardell. Although revenue from the initial OS/2 release was never paid by the bankrupt publisher, popular support encouraged Stardock to release Shipyards, an add-on pack that allowed users to design their own starships, and this provided enough revenue to support further development, with a simplified version being sold to IBM in 1995 as Star Emperor. The game sold above 30,000 units for OS/2.
Galactic Civilizations II was released later that year, adding several new concepts and tweaks. It was followed by another version of Shipyards (which added both the ship design feature and improved governors/AI), and an expansion pack in April 1997, before Stardock was forced to withdraw from significant OS/2 development with the loss of their market. It is possible to run OS/2 versions of the game under emulation using Virtual PC.
Expansion pack
An expansion pack, called Galactic Civilizations: Altarian Prophecy, was released in 2004.
Reception
Galactic Civilizations
The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. By December 2005, the game had sold 75,000 copies, which Computer Gaming Worlds Bruce Geryk called "impressive" for its genre. According to writer Greg Costikyan, the game's sales had surpassed 100,000 units by 2008.
Galactic Civilizations was named the ninth-best computer game of 2003 by Computer Games Magazine, and it won the publication's "Best AI" award, tying with Halo: Combat Evolved. A writer for the magazine called it "the sort of game that will still be on your hard drive when all the other games you are playing right now are gathering dust on a shelf." The editors of Computer Gaming World nominated Galactic Civilizations for their 2003 "Strategy Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Age of Wonders: Shadow Magic. They wrote that they "found it impossible to ignore the [game's] almost overwhelming depth of strategy".
Altarian Prophecy
The Altarian Prophecy expansion pack received "favorable" reviews, although slightly less than the original, according to Metacritic.
References
Stardock's OS/2 history by Brad Wardell
External links
2003 video games
4X video games
Fictional civilizations
Indie video games
Milky Way in fiction
OS/2 games
Science fiction video games
Space opera video games
Stardock games
Strategy First games
Turn-based strategy video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games with expansion packs
Windows games | [
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232735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promises%20%282001%20film%29 | Promises (2001 film) | Promises is a 2001 documentary film that examines the Israeli–Palestinian conflict from the perspectives of seven children living in the Palestinian communities in the West Bank and Israeli neighborhoods of Jerusalem. Promises has been shown at many film festivals and received excellent reviews and many accolades.
The film follows Israeli-American filmmaker B.Z. Goldberg as he meets with seven Palestinian and Israeli children between the ages of nine and thirteen, seeing the Middle East conflict through their eyes. It allows "ordinary" kids to develop natural bonds of affection by simply playing games with each other - bonds which go beyond the clutter of prejudices that they have heard from their parents and others around them.
Production
Promises was shot between 1997 and 2000 and was produced in association with the Independent Television Service with partial funding provided by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting.
The film has a running time of 106 minutes, and includes Arabic, Hebrew and English dialogue with English subtitles.
In 2004 the filmmakers' produced a follow-up program called Promises: Four Years On, which features interviews and updates on the children's current lives. It lasts 25 minutes and is included as a special feature on the film's DVD release.
The children
Daniel and Yarko: Israeli boys living in west Jerusalem, secular Jews, put off more by religious Jews than Palestinians; grandsons of Holocaust survivor
Shlomo: Jewish quarter in Jerusalem, Orthodox, son of a rabbi from Jerusalem
Moishe: lives in Beit-El in the West-Bank, dislikes the Arabs.
Faraj: lives in the Deheishe refugee camp in the West Bank, Palestinian; son of Palestinian refugees
Mahmoud: Palestinian quarter in East Jerusalem; son of a merchant in the Muslim quarter of the Old City
Sanabel: Palestinian lives also in the Deheishe refuge camp, father is in prison because he was affiliated with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Her brother died from heatstroke, he was also in prison.
Reception
Critical response
Promises has an approval rating of 96% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 47 reviews, and an average rating of 7.81/10. The website's critical consensus states, "A heartbreaking and illuminating look at the Israeli and Palestinian conflict through the eyes of children". Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Nominations
Best Documentary, 74th Academy Awards
Best Documentary, IFP Spirit Awards
Truer than Fiction Award, IFP Spirit Awards
Awards
2002 The NBR Freedom of Expression Citation National Board of Review
2002 The Michael Landon Award for Community Service to Youth Twenty-Third Annual Young Artist Awards
2001 Emmy Award, Best Documentary
2001 Emmy Award, Best Background Analysis
2001 Rotterdam International Film Festival Audience Award, Best Film
2001 Munich Film Festival Freedom of Expression Award
2001 Jerusalem Film Festival Special Festival Award
2001 Locarno International Film Festival Special Ecumenical Jury Prize
2001 San Francisco International Film Festival Audience Award, Best Documentary Grand Prize, Best Documentary Golden Gate Award, Documentary Film
2001 Vancouver International Film Festival Audience Award, Diversity in Spirit Award
2001 Hamptons International Film Festival Best Documentary
2001 São Paulo International Film Festival Best Documentary Audience Award
2001 Valladolid International Film Festival Best Documentary
2001 Paris International Film Festival (Rencontres) Audience Award-Best Film
References
External links
The Promises Film Project
Promises Films, An Independent Documentary Filmmaking Company
2001 documentary films
2001 films
American films
Arabic-language films
American documentary films
Documentary films about children in war
Documentary films about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
English-language films
Films directed by Carlos Bolado
Hebrew-language films
POV (TV series) films | [
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232736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crabeater%20seal | Crabeater seal | The crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), also known as the krill-eater seal, is a true seal with a circumpolar distribution around the coast of Antarctica. They are medium- to large-sized (over 2 m in length), relatively slender and pale-colored, found primarily on the free-floating pack ice that extends seasonally out from the Antarctic coast, which they use as a platform for resting, mating, social aggregation and accessing their prey. They are by far the most abundant seal species in the world. While population estimates are uncertain, there are at least 7 million and possibly as many as 75 million individuals. This success of this species is due to its specialized predation on the abundant Antarctic krill of the Southern Ocean, for which it has uniquely adapted, sieve-like tooth structure. Indeed, its scientific name, translated as "lobe-toothed (lobodon) crab eater (carcinophaga)", refers specifically to the finely lobed teeth adapted to filtering their small crustacean prey. Despite its name, crabeater seals do not eat crabs. As well as being an important krill predator, the crabeater seal's pups are an important component of the diet of leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx), which are responsible for 80% of all crabeater pups deaths.
Taxonomy and evolution
The genus name of the crabeater seal, Lobodon, derives from Ancient Greek meaning "lobe-toothed", and the species name carcinophaga means "crab eater." The crabeater seal shares a common recent ancestor with the other Antarctic seals, which are together known as the lobodontine seals. These include the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), the Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii), and the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli). These species, collectively belonging to the Lobodontini tribe of seals, share teeth adaptations including lobes and cusps useful for straining smaller prey items out of the water column. The ancestral Lobodontini likely diverged from their sister clade, the Mirounga (elephant seals) in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, when they migrated southward and diversified rapidly in the relative isolation around Antarctica.
Description
Adult seals (over five years old) grow to an average length of and an average weight of around . Females are on average longer and around heavier than males, though their weights fluctuate substantially according to season; females can lose up to 50% of their body weight during lactation, and males lose a significant proportion of weight as they attend to their mating partners and fight off rivals. During summer, males typically weigh , and females . A molecular genetic based technique has been established to confirm the sex of individuals in the laboratory. Large crabeater seals can weigh up to . Pups are about in length and at birth. While nursing, pups grow at a rate of about a day, and grow to be around when they are weaned at two or three weeks.
These seals are covered mostly by brown or silver fur, with darker coloration around flippers. The color fades throughout the year, and recently molted seals appear darker than the silvery-white crabeater seals that are about to molt. Their body is comparatively more slender than other seals, and the snout is pointed. Crabeater seals can raise their heads and arch their backs while on ice, and they are able to move quickly if not subject to overheating. Crabeater seals exhibit scarring either from leopard seal attacks around the flippers or, for males, during the breeding season while fighting for mates around the throat and jaw. Pups are born with a light brown, downy pelage (lanugo), until the first molt at weaning. Younger animals are marked by net-like, chocolate brown markings and flecks on the shoulders, sides and flanks, shading into the predominantly dark hind and fore flippers and head, often due to scarring from leopard seals. After molting, their fur is a darker brown fading to blonde on their bellies. The fur lightens throughout the year, becoming completely blonde in summer.
Crabeaters have relatively slender bodies and long skulls and snouts compared to other phocids. Perhaps their most distinctive adaptation is the unique dentition that enables this species to sieve Antarctic krill. The postcanine teeth are finely divided with multiple cusps. Together with the tight fit of the upper and lower jaw, a bony protuberance near the back of the mouth completes a near-perfect sieve within which krill are trapped.
Distribution and population
Crabeater seals have a continuous circumpolar distribution surrounding Antarctica, with only occasional sightings or strandings in the extreme southern coasts of Argentina, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. They spend the entire year on the pack ice zone as it advances and retreats seasonally, primarily staying within the continental shelf area in waters less than 600 m deep. They colonized Antarctica during the late Miocene or early Pliocene (15-25 million years ago), at a time when the region was much warmer than today. The population is connected and fairly well mixed (panmictic), and genetic evidence does not suggest any subspecies separations. A genetic survey did not detect evidence of a recent, sustained genetic bottleneck in this species, which suggests that populations do not appear to have suffered a substantial and sustained decline in the recent past.
Currently, no reliable estimates of the total crabeater seal population are available. Past estimates relied on minimal opportunistic sighting and much speculation, ranging from 2 million to 50-75 million individuals. Genetic evidence suggests that crabeater population numbers may have increased during the Pleistocene. The most recent point estimate is 7 million individuals, but this, too, is considered a likely underestimate. An international effort, the Antarctic Pack Ice Seal initiative, is currently underway to evaluate systematically collected survey data and obtain reliable estimates of all Antarctic seal abundances.
Behavior
Crabeater seals have a typical, serpentine gait when on ice or land, combining retractions of the foreflippers with undulations of the lumbar region. This method of locomotion leaves a distinctive sinuous body track and can be extremely effective. When not subject to overheating (i.e. on cold days), speeds on land of have been recorded for short distances. Satellite tracking data have resulted in conservative estimates of swimming speeds of 66 km/day and 12.7 km/h. While swimming, crabeaters have been known to engage in porpoising (leaping entirely out of the water) and spyhopping (raising the body vertically out of the water for visual inspection) behaviors.
The most gregarious of the Antarctic seals, crabeaters have been observed on the ice in aggregations of up to 1,000 hauled out animals and in swimming groups of several hundred individuals, breathing and diving almost synchronously. These aggregations consist primarily of younger animals. Adults are more typically encountered alone or in small groups of up to three on the ice or in the water.
Crabeater seals give birth during the Antarctic spring from September to December. Rather than aggregate in reproductive rookeries, females haul out on ice to give birth singly. Adult males attend female-pup pairs until the female begins estrus one to two weeks after the pup is weaned before mating. Copulation has not been observed directly and presumably occurs in water. Pups are weaned in about three weeks, at which time they are also beginning to molt into a subadult coat similar to the adult pelage.
Curiously, crabeater seals have been known to wander further inland than any other pinniped. Carcasses have been found over 100 km from the water and over 1000 m above sea level, where they can be mummified in the dry, cold air and conserved for centuries.
Ecology
Diet
Despite its name, the crabeater seal does not feed on crabs (the few crab species in its range are mostly found in very deep water). Rather, it is a specialist predator on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), which comprise over 90% of the diet. Their high abundance is a testament to the extreme success of Antarctic krill, the single species with the greatest biomass on the planet. There is little seasonality in their prey preference, but they may target adult and male krill. Other prey items include cephalopods and diverse Antarctic fish species. Although the crabeater seal is sympatric with the other Antarctic seal species (Weddell, Ross and leopard seals), the specialization on krill minimizes interspecific food competition. Among krill-feeding whales, only blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) and minke whales (B. acutorostrata) extend their range as far south as the pack ice where the crabeater seals are most frequent.
While no reliable historical population estimates have been done, population models suggest crabeater seal populations may have increased at rates up to 9% a year in the 20th century, due to the removal of large baleen whales (especially the blue whale) during the period of industrial whaling and the subsequent explosion in krill biomass and removal of important competitive forces.
Predation
Young crabeater seals experience significant predation by leopard seals. Indeed, first-year mortality is exceedingly high, possibly reaching 80%, and up to 78% of crabeaters that survive through their first year have injuries and scars from leopard seal attacks. Long scars and sets of parallel scars, visible on the otherwise pale and relatively unmarked pelage of crabeaters, are present on nearly all young seals. The incidence of visible scars falls off significantly after the first year, suggesting leopard seals primarily target the young of the year. The high predation pressure has clear impacts on the demography and life history of crabeater seals, and has likely had an important role in shaping social behaviors, including aggregation of subadults.
Predation by killer whales (Orcinus orca) is poorly documented, though all ages are hunted. While most predation occurs in the water, coordinated attacks by groups of killer whales creating a wave to wash the hauled-out seal off floating ice have been observed. Orca packs generally pursue other seals, however, as crabeaters are known to be a tenacious species that make themselves more trouble to catch than they're worth.
Gallery
See also
Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx)
Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii)
Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii)
References
External links
Voices in the Sea - Crabeater Seal
Lobodontins
Mammals described in 1842
Taxa named by Jacques Bernard Hombron
Taxa named by Honoré Jacquinot
Pinnipeds of Antarctica
Seal, Crabeater
Pinnipeds of Australia
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Victoria (Australia)
Seal, Crabeater
Seal, Crabeater
Seal, Crabeater | [
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232737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yabby | Yabby | Yabby is a name given in Australia to two different kinds of crustacean:
Cherax (freshwater yabby), a crayfish
Trypaea (marine yabby), a ghost shrimp (infraorder Thalassinidea) which lives in the intertidal zone
See also
Yabba (disambiguation)
Yabby You (1946–2010), Jamaican reggae vocalist and producer
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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232739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulate | Emulate | Emulate, Inc. (Emulate) is a biotechnology company that commercialized Organs-on-Chips technology—a human cell-based technology that recreates organ-level function to model organs in healthy and diseased states. The technology has applications in pharmaceutical research, product development, testing how different medicines, chemicals, and foods affect human health. Emulate has also worked with Cedars-Sinai Medical Center on a precision medicine initiative that uses Organs-on-Chips technology in the clinical setting. This initiative is designed to provide clinicians with better data about how an individual patient may respond to treatment. The company also signed a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to advance and qualify its Human Emulation System to meet regulatory evaluation for product testing.
Technology
Emulate's Organs-on-Chips technology has been used to recreate the function of a variety of different organs, including the liver, intestine, brain, kidney, and lung. The company's Organ-Chips are about the size of a AA battery and feature two fluidic channels that create the flow of blood and other fluids. The chips are made of a flexible polymer and can be stretched to recreate similar motions to those of breathing or peristalsis. The company has developed a Human Emulation System that combines its Organ-Chips along with hardware and software apps. The system is designed to reduce some of the complexities of working with Organs-on-Chips technology and is built around the Organ-Chip, which recreates the microenvironment of an organ that is found within the body. An instrument called Zoë Culture Module provides pressure driven flow and recreates perfusion pressure and shear forces like those experienced in the human body.
History
Emulate was spun out from the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, where the technology was initially invented and then extensively developed. Scientific Founder Donald Ingber founded the company around 2013. James Coon was co-founder and the first CEO. Jim Corbett is the current CEO.
In July 2014, the founders raised $12 million in a first round of financing. In March 2016, the company raised a Series B round of investment of $28 million from repeat and new investors, including NanoDimension, ALS Finding a Cure, Atel Ventures and Laboratory Corp. of America Holdings. In February 2018, Emulate formed strategic partnerships with Roche, a Swiss-based pharmaceutical company, and Takeda, a pharmaceutical company based in Japan. The company raised its most recent round of funding in June 2018 when they announced that they had raised a Series C round of funding led by Silicon Valley-based capital firm Founders Fund. In September 2021, the company raised a Series E round of $82 million.
References
Further reading
American companies established in 2014
Biotechnology companies of the United States
2014 establishments in the United States | [
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232741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble%20rot | Noble rot | Noble rot (; ; ; ) is the beneficial form of a grey fungus, Botrytis cinerea, affecting wine grapes. Infestation by Botrytis requires moist conditions. If the weather stays wet, the damaging form, "grey rot", can destroy crops of grapes. Grapes typically become infected with Botrytis when they are ripe. If they are then exposed to drier conditions and become partially raisined, this form of infection is known as noble rot. Grapes picked at a certain point during infestation can produce particularly fine and concentrated sweet wine. Wines produced by this method are known as botrytized wines.
Origins
According to Hungarian legend, the first aszú (a wine using botrytised grapes) was made by Laczkó Máté Szepsi in 1630. However, mention of wine made from botrytised grapes had already appeared in the Nomenklatura of Fabricius Balázs Sziksai, which was completed in 1576. A recently discovered inventory of aszú predates this reference by five years. When vineyard classification began in 1730 in the Tokaj region, one of the gradings given to the various terroirs centered on their potential to develop Botrytis cinerea.
A popular myth is that the practice originated independently in Germany in 1775, where the Riesling producers at Schloss Johannisberg (Geisenheim, in the Rheingau region) traditionally awaited the say-so of the estate owner, Heinrich von Bibra, Bishop of Fulda, before cutting their grapes. In this year (so the legend goes), the abbey messenger was robbed en route to delivering the order to harvest and the cutting was delayed for three weeks, time enough for the Botrytis to take hold. The grapes were presumed worthless and given to local peasants, who produced a surprisingly good, sweet wine which subsequently became known as Spätlese, or late harvest wine. In the following few years, several different classes of increasing must weight were introduced, and the original Spätlese was further elaborated, first into Auslese in 1787 and later Eiswein in 1858 (although Eiswein is usually made from grapes not affected by Botrytis).
Viticulture and uses
In some cases, inoculation occurs when spores of the fungus are sprayed over the grapes, while some vineyards depend on natural inoculation from spores present in the environment.
The fungus perforates the grapes' skin, allowing water in the grape to evaporate during dry conditions, and thereby raising the sugar concentration in the remaining juice.
Some of the finest botrytized wines are picked berry by berry in successive (French for "selections").
Internationally renowned botrytized wines include the aszú of Tokaj-Hegyalja in Hungary/Slovakia (commonly called Tokaji or Tokay), Sauternes from France – where the process is known as or , and Beerenauslese or Trockenbeerenauslese wines from Germany and Austria. Other wines of this type include the Romanian Grasă de Cotnari, French Coteaux du Layon, French Monbazillac, Austrian Ausbruch and South African Noble Late Harvest (NLH). Depending on conditions, the grapes may be only minimally botrytized. Botrytis has also been imported for use by winemakers in California and Australia.
References
External links
University of California Pest Management Guidelines for Grape Botrytis Bunch Rot
The Ohio State University Botrytis Bunch Rot Fact Sheet
Botrytis Genome Sequencing Project, INRA, France
Fungal grape diseases
Oenology
Viticulture | [
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232742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botrytis%20cinerea | Botrytis cinerea | Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or "gray mold".
The fungus gives rise to two different kinds of infections on grapes. The first, grey rot, is the result of consistently wet or humid conditions, and typically results in the loss of the affected bunches. The second, noble rot, occurs when drier conditions follow wetter, and can result in distinctive sweet dessert wines, such as Sauternes or the Aszú of Tokaji/Grasă de Cotnari. The species name Botrytis cinerea is derived from the Latin for "grapes like ashes"; although poetic, the "grapes" refers to the bunching of the fungal spores on their conidiophores, and "ashes" just refers to the greyish colour of the spores en masse. The fungus is usually referred to by its anamorph (asexual form) name, because the sexual phase is rarely observed. The teleomorph (sexual form) is an ascomycete, Botryotinia fuckeliana, also known as Botryotinia cinerea (see taxonomy box).
Etymology
"Botrytis" is derived from the Ancient Greek botrys (βότρυς) meaning "grapes", combined with the New Latin suffix -itis for disease.
Hosts and symptoms
Hosts
The disease, gray mold, affects more than 200 dicotyledonous plant species and a few monocotyledonous plants found in temperate and subtropical regions, and potentially over a thousand species. Serious economic losses can be a result of this disease to both field and greenhouse grown crops. The causal agent, Botrytis cinerea can infect mature or senescent tissues, plants prior to harvest, or seedlings. There is a wide variety of hosts infected by this pathogen including protein crops, fiber crops, oil crops, and horticultural crops. Horticultural crops include vegetables (examples are chickpeas, lettuce, broccoli, and beans) and small fruit crops (examples are grape, strawberry, and raspberry), these are most severely affected and devastated by gray mold. Plant organs affected include fruits, flowers, leaves, storage organs, and shoots.
Symptoms and signs
Symptoms vary across plant organs and tissues. B. cinerea is a soft rot that will have a collapsed and water soaked appearance on soft fruit and leaves. Brown lesions may develop slowly on undeveloped fruit. Twigs infected with gray mold will die back. Blossoms will cause fruit drop and injury, such as ridging on developing and mature fruit. Symptoms are visible at wound sites where the fungus begins to rot the plant. Gray masses with a velvety appearance are conidia on the plant tissues are a sign of plant pathogen. These conidia are asexual spores that will continue to infect the plant and surrounding hosts throughout the growing season making this a polycyclic disease.
Plants can produce localized lesions when a pathogen attacks. An oxidative burst causes hypersensitive cell death called a hypersensitive response (HR). This soft rot can trigger HR to assist in colonization. Botrytis cinerea, as a necrotrophic pathogen, exploits the dead tissue for its pathogenicity or its ability to cause disease. Susceptible plants cannot use the HR to protect against Botrytis cinerea.
See:
List of potato diseases
List of canola diseases
List of maize diseases
List of alfalfa diseases
List of African daisy diseases
List of African violet diseases
List of pea diseases
List of lentil diseases
List of anemone diseases
List of almond diseases
List of apple diseases
List of apricot diseases
List of asparagus diseases
List of avocado diseases
List of azalea diseases
List of beet diseases
List of bellflower diseases
List of bleeding heart diseases
List of butterfly flower diseases
List of caneberries diseases
List of carrot diseases
List of tea diseases
List of tobacco diseases
List of tomato diseases
List of verbena diseases
List of sweet potato diseases
List of sunflower diseases
List of strawberry diseases
List of sapphire flower diseases
List of safflower diseases
List of rose diseases
List of primula diseases
List of poinsettia diseases
List of pocketbook plant diseases
List of pistachio diseases
List of pigeonpea diseases
List of Persian violet diseases
List of Capsicum diseases
List of pear diseases
List of peanut diseases
List of peach and nectarine diseases
List of mimulus, monkey-flower diseases
List of mango diseases
List of lettuce diseases
List of kalanchoe diseases
List of Jerusalem cherry diseases
List of impatiens diseases
List of hop diseases
List of hemp diseases
List of grape diseases
List of geranium diseases
List of fuchsia diseases
List of cyclamen diseases
List of cucurbit diseases
List of crucifer diseases
List of citrus diseases
List of cineraria diseases
List of chickpea diseases
List of cattleya diseases
List of carnation diseases
List of Douglas-fir diseases
List of dahlia diseases
List of foliage plant diseases (Araceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Acanthaceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Agavaceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Araliaceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Asclepiadaceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Gesneriaceae)
List of Ficus diseases
List of foliage plant diseases (Polypodiaceae)
List of foliage plant diseases (Vitaceae)
List of rhododendron diseases
Biology
Botrytis cinerea is characterized by abundant hyaline conida (asexual spores) borne on grey, branching tree-like conidiophores. The fungus also produces highly resistant sclerotia as survival structures in older cultures. It overwinters as sclerotia or intact mycelia, both of which germinate in spring to produce conidiophores. The conidia, dispersed by wind and by rain-water, cause new infections. Botrytis cinerea performs an asexual cycle over the summer season.
Different Botrytis cinerea strains show considerable genetic variability (polyploidy).
Gliocladium roseum is a fungal parasite of Botrytis cinerea.
The hypothetical protein BcKMO was shown to positively regulate growth and development. It showed a great similarity to the kynurenine 3-monooxygenase encoding gene in eukaryotes.
Environment
Gray mold favors moist, humid, and warm environmental conditions between . Temperature, relative humidity, and wetness duration produce a conducive environment that is favorable for inoculation of mycelium or conidia. Controlled environments, such as crop production greenhouses, provide the moisture and high temperatures that favor the spreading and development of the pathogen Botrytis cinerea.
Standing water on plant leaf surfaces provides a place for spores to germinate. Humid conditions can result from improper irrigation practice, plants placed too close together, or the structure of the greenhouse not allowing for efficient ventilation and air flow. Ventilation at night significantly reduces the incidence of gray mold.
Melanized sclerotium allows Botrytis cinerea to survive for years in the soil. Sclerotia and the asexual conidia spores contribute to the widespread infection of the pathogen.
A low pH is preferred by the gray mold to perform well. Botrytis cinerea can acidify its environment by secreting organic acids, like oxalic acid. By acidifying its surroundings, cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) are enhanced, plant-protection enzymes are inhibited, stomatal closure is deregulated, and pH signaling is mediated to facilitate its pathogenesis.
Viticulture
In the Botrytis infection known as "noble rot" (pourriture noble in French, or Edelfäule in German), the fungus removes water from the grapes, leaving behind a higher percent of solids, such as sugars, fruit acids and minerals. This results in a more intense, concentrated final product. The wine is often said to have an aroma of honeysuckle and a bitter finish on the palate.
A distinct fermentation process initially caused by nature, the combination of geology, climate and specific weather led to the particular balance of beneficial fungus while leaving enough of the grape intact for harvesting. The Chateau d'Yquem is the only Premier Cru Supérieur, largely due to the vineyard's susceptibility to noble rot.
Botrytis complicates winemaking by making fermentation more complex. Botrytis produces an anti-fungal compound that kills yeast and often results in the fermentation stopping before the wine has accumulated sufficient levels of alcohol.
Botrytis bunch rot is another condition of grapes caused by Botrytis cinerea that causes great losses for the wine industry. It is always present on the fruitset, however, it requires a wound to start a bunch rot infection. Wounds can come from insects, wind, accidental damage, etc. To control botrytis bunch rot there are a number of fungicides available on the market. Generally, these should be applied at bloom, bunch closure and veraison (the most important being the bloom application). Some winemakers are known to use the German method of fermentation and prefer having a 5% bunch rot rate in their grapes and will usually hold the grapes on the vine a week longer than normal.
Horticulture
Botrytis cinerea affects many other plants.
Strawberries
It is economically important on soft fruits such as strawberries and bulb crops. Unlike wine grapes, the affected strawberries are not edible and are discarded. To minimize infection in strawberry fields, good ventilation around the berries is important to prevent moisture being trapped among leaves and berries. A number of bacteria have been proven to act as natural antagonists to B. cinerea in controlled studies.
Other plants
In greenhouse horticulture, Botrytis cinerea is well known as a cause of considerable damage in tomatoes.
The infection also affects rhubarb, snowdrops, white meadowfoam, western hemlock, Douglas-fir cannabis, and Lactuca sativa. UV-C treatment against B. cinerea was investigated by Vàsquez et al 2017. They find it increases phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity and production of phenolics. This in turn decreases L. sativas susceptibility. Potassium bicarbonate-based fungicide may be used.
Human disease
Botrytis cinerea mold on grapes may cause "winegrower's lung", a rare form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis (a respiratory allergic reaction in predisposed individuals).
Mycoviruses of Botrytis cinerea
Botrytis cinerea not only infects plants, it also hosts several mycoviruses itself (see the table/image).
A range of phenotypic alterations due to the mycoviral infection have been observed from symptomless to mild impact, or more severe phenotypic changes including reduction in pathogenicity, growth/suppression of mycelia, sporulation and sclerotia production, formation of abnormal colony sectors (Wu et al., 2010) and virulence.
Management
Botrytis cinerea can be managed through cultural, chemical, and biological practices.
There are no resistant species to the gray mold rot. Gray mold can be culturally controlled by monitoring the amount and timing of fertilizer applications to reduce the amount of fruit rot. Excessive application of nitrogen will increase the incidence of disease while not improving yields.
Not planting cultivars that have an upright or dense growth habit can reduce disease as these limit airflow and are favorable for the pathogen. Spacing of plants so they are not touching will increase airflow allowing the area to dry out and reduce the spread of disease. Pruning or purposeful removal of diseased, dead, or overgrown limbs on a regular schedule can also help to improve air movement.
Sanitation by removing dead or dying plant tissue in the fall will decrease inoculum levels as there is no debris for the sclerotium or mycelia to overwinter. Removing debris in the spring will remove inoculum from the site. Disposal of berries during harvest that have signs and symptoms of gray mold will reduce inoculum for the following year.
Biochar, a form of charcoal, can be applied as a soil amendment to strawberry plants to reduce the severity of the fungal disease by stimulating defense pathways within the plant.
Gray mold can be chemically controlled with well-timed fungicide applications starting during the first bloom. Timing can reduce the chance of resistance and will save on costs.
Biological controls or microbial antagonists used for disease suppression, have been successfully used in Europe and Brazil in the form of fungi-like Trichoderma harzianium Rifai and Gliocladium roseum Bainier. Trichoderma species especially, have been shown to control gray mold.
See also
Botrydial
References
External links
Genome information for Botrytis cinerea
Genome analysis of Botrytis cinerea
TheWineDoctor.com
Sclerotiniaceae
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Small fruit diseases
Fungal strawberry diseases
Fungal citrus diseases
Fungal grape diseases
Oenology
Fungi described in 1794 | [
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232744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephaniah%20Williams | Zephaniah Williams | Zephaniah Williams (1795 – 8 May 1874) was a Welsh coal miner and Chartist campaigner, who was one of the leaders of the Newport Rising of 1839. Found guilty of high treason, he was condemned to death, but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment in Tasmania. Eventually he was pardoned, and his discovery of coal on that island earned him a fortune.
Early life
Williams was born near Argoed, Sirhowy Valley, Monmouthshire, Wales, with much of his childhood spent near the then village of Blackwood, also living for some periods in Caerphilly and Nantyglo. He was fortunate enough not only to have a fair amount of schooling, and becoming literate in both English and Welsh, but also having the character to be self-educated, particularly studying geology.
At the age of 25 he married Joan, then living for some time in Machen and had a son Llewellyn. Daughters Jane and Rhoda were born in 1825 and 1827 respectively.
At the age of 33 he came to Sirhowy, as a free thinking rationalist, with strong radical views, rather than one of religious conviction. Williams believed that Christ was nothing more than a good man; but a sufficiently good man that had he been living at Coalbrookvale in 1839 his house would have been pulled down over his head by the mine-owners. Apparently, stories said that Williams spat every time the name of Christ was mentioned. In 1830 Williams launched a Political Union in Tredegar and the following year, in 1831, is thought to have been instrumental in forming the Humanists/Dynolwyr of Nantyglo.
He became a coal miner or collier and later a Master Collier at Blaina and innkeeper, keeping the Royal Oak at Nantyglo, from where he used to pay his colliers.
Chartist
He was a free thinking man in religious matters and the local Working Men's Association met at his home.
On the wall in The Royal Oak was 'a picture of the Crucifixion with the enigmatic caption: 'This is the man who stole the ass'. At the Coach and Horses in Blackwood, Zephaniah Williams met John Frost - a magistrate and supporter of the cause.
It was at this time only natural that such a man would emerge as a natural leader during the Chartist movement in south east Wales.
He was subsequently prosecuted for his part in the Chartist Newport Rising at Newport, Monmouthshire on 4 November 1839.
The Newport Rising
Along with John Frost and William Jones, he led a large column of men from the Nantyglo area to march south reaching the outskirts of the town [Newport] at about 9am; halting at St. Woolos Church, then moving as a mass to Stow Hill, continuing to the square, and on to the Westgate Hotel, Newport. Thirty soldiers (red-coats) were at the Westgate Hotel.
This site is sometimes regarded as the greatest armed rebellion in 19th century Britain.
The men assembled at the Royal Oak before marching as one into Newport. Known as the "Blackwood Infidel", he had a reputation as a political Radical, and as an individual prepared to settle disputes in less conventional ways. Some histories refer to his having been prosecuted at Usk in 1833 for blowing up a coal mine in a dispute with the mineowner. Other histories refer to him having been an atheist who vigorously promoted his views - very controversial at the time.
Transportation to Australia for life
For his part in the Chartist Rising on Newport he was sentenced by The Special Commission held at Shire Hall, Monmouth on 16 January 1840 with the verdict of 'guilty of high treason' - sentencing to death by hanging, drawing, and quartering.
But his sentence was commuted and he was transported for life to Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania, Australia), arriving at the colony on the last day of June 1840. In 1848 he described the terrible treatment handed out in the colony, 'Many have I known, though guilty of the offence for which they suffered, commit murder in order to expire on the gallows rather than endure the punishment'. Once there he made plans to escape, but remained.
He was given a conditional pardon in 1854 allowing him to live anywhere outside of the UK; this was amended to a full pardon in 1856. He decided to remain in Tasmania, and brought his wife and family out from Wales to Australia. He discovered coal on the island and made a considerable fortune from it, so founding the Tasmanian coal trade
He died a prosperous man at Launceston, Tasmania on 8 May 1874.
Letter to Benjamin Williams by Zephaniah Williams
This letter (printed by John Partridge of Newport) to Rev. Benjamin Williams, who was a nonconformist minister, written in Sirhowy in 1831, expresses his [Z. Williams] view on a number of subjects. The extracts are as follows :
On Rationalism
I would advise all men to take nothing upon trust but all on trial, whether in politics, religion, ethics, or anything else : to sit down with a determined resolution: to examine closely: and to be directed by that which reason most approves.
On Prejudice
When prejudice has shut the eye of the mind the brightest rays of truth shine in vain. When men are thus incapacitated for the reception of truth they become liable to become guilty of injustice, ill-nature, and ill manners to others; and insensible of what is properly owing to themselves.
On Friendship
We know that man is a social being and that consequently he has a capacity for friendship. Friendship is as old as the first formation of society and in its own nature so necessary that I know not how a social being could exist without it.
On The Doctrine of Pre-destination
Your conduct and your doctrine are at variance; for you are holding to your flock that God will have the number which he has decreed, and afterwards go into my neighbours to persuade them that an impotent mortal like myself may be the means of leading an infinite number of those who are already decreed for happiness (for you could not mean that such as are reprobate could be endangered by my heresy) into eternal misery. According to your tenets I could not be but fulfilling what I was ordained to fulfil, and the act, in itself, is right.
On Inconsistency in the Use of Reason
Those who distrust reason in matters of faith deem its free and unshackled exercise, not withstanding all their concessions in their pious moods as of essential importance in worldly matters, in which they forget not to use the wisdom of serpents, however wanting in the innocence of doves.
See also
List of convicts transported to Australia
References
1795 births
1874 deaths
Welsh atheists
Chartists
People from Blackwood, Caerphilly
Welsh prisoners sentenced to death
Convicts transported to Australia | [
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232755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Nashville | USS Nashville | USS Nashville may refer to:
, was a gunboat in service from 1897 to 1918
, was a light cruiser in service from 1938 to 1946; sold to Chile in 1951 and scrapped in 1985
, was an amphibious transport dock that served from 1970 to 2009
See also
United States Navy ship names | [
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232756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Keith%20%28missionary%29 | George Keith (missionary) | George Keith (1638/9 – 27 March 1716) was a Scottish missionary born in Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, to a Presbyterian family, he received an M.A. from the University of Aberdeen. Keith joined the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in the 1660s, accompanying George Fox, William Penn, and Robert Barclay on a mission to the Netherlands and Germany in 1677.
In 1685, three years after Barclay had been made the nonresident governor of the Province of East Jersey (part of the present-day American state of New Jersey), Keith traveled there to take the post of Surveyor-General. In 1686 he ran the first survey to mark out the border between West Jersey and East Jersey, which is today still known as the Keith line. Around 1691 Keith decided that Quakers had strayed too far from orthodox Christianity and began to have sharp disagreements with his fellow believers. He first broke with Philadelphia Yearly Meeting to form a short-lived group called the Christian Quakers in the colonies. In 1693, he and his fellow Keithians published An Exhortation & Caution to Friends Concerning Buying or Keeping of Negroes, one of the earliest printed antislavery tracts in British North America.
After returning to England, he was disowned by London Yearly Meeting in 1694. In 1699 he attacked William Penn and other Quakers as "Deists". He was ordained to the Church of England ministry in May 1700. Sponsored by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, Keith returned to the American colonies as a missionary from 1702 to 1704, trying to win over Quakers and others. Keith invigorated Anglican congregations in Perth Amboy. Upon returning to England, Keith served as rector at the parish of Edburton, Sussex until his death on 27 March 1716.
Early life and education
Born in Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, to a Presbyterian family, he received an M.A. from the University of Aberdeen. Keith joined the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in the 1660s, accompanying George Fox, William Penn, and Robert Barclay on a mission to the Netherlands and Germany in 1677. In the meanwhile, he produced in 1674 the first English translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan based on Edward Pococke's Latin version. He also participated in the 1676 Aberdeen disputes over Barclay's Theses Theologicae, authoring with Barclay a defense of the Theses titled Quakerism Confirmed.
Career
In 1685, three years after Barclay had been made the nonresident governor of the Province of East Jersey (part of the present-day American state of New Jersey), Keith traveled there to take the post of Surveyor-General. In 1686 he ran the first survey to mark out the border between West Jersey and East Jersey, which is today still known as the Keith line. He moved to Philadelphia in 1688 to serve as headmaster at the Friends School there.
For his survey work, the Proprietors gave him large grants of land including seven hundred acres in Monmouth County where he founded the town of Freehold (which broke off and became Marlboro). He established his home in a Quaker settlement near Topanemus where he helped to build a meeting house in which he preached to the people on the Quaker faith.
Around 1691 Keith decided that Quakers had strayed too far from orthodox Christianity and began to have sharp disagreements with his fellow believers. He first broke with Philadelphia Yearly Meeting to form a short-lived group called the Christian Quakers in the colonies. In 1693, he and his fellow Keithians published An Exhortation & Caution to Friends Concerning Buying or Keeping of Negroes, one of the earliest printed antislavery tracts in British North America. David Brion Davis, a leading scholar of abolition and slavery, argues that Keith's Exhortation foreshadowed "the major religious themes of nineteenth-century abolitionism." After returning to England, he was disowned by London Yearly Meeting in 1694. In 1699 he attacked William Penn and other Quakers as "Deists". He was ordained to the Church of England ministry in May 1700.
Sponsored by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, Keith returned to the American colonies as a missionary from 1702 to 1704, trying to win over Quakers and others. Keith invigorated Anglican congregations in Perth Amboy,
Burlington and Concord Township, Pennsylvania. He preached in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1703, and left behind his daughter, Anne, who had likewise returned to the Anglican fold, unlike her husband, Quaker George Walker of Old Point Comfort.
Upon returning to England, Keith served as rector at the parish of Edburton, Sussex until his death on 27 March 1716. He is buried in the churchyard and his grave has an inscribed stone installed in 1932.
Sources
Bowden, James. The history of the Society of Friends in America. [n. p.] 1850.
Pomfret, John Edwin, The Province of East New Jersey, 1609-1702, the rebellious proprietary. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1962.
.
Episcopal Church Liturgy & Music website - Biography of George Keith
Further reading
Kirby, E. W. (1942) George Keith. New York: American Historical Association (includes a full bibliography)
Sonne, Niels Henry. 1942. "George Keith, 1638–1716. New York: Appleton-Century, 1942. Vi, 177 Pages." Church History. 11, no. 04. .
References
External links
Parish of Edburton
1630s births
1716 deaths
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
18th-century Church of England clergy
Converts to Quakerism
Kingdom of Scotland emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People from Peterhead
Scottish Anglican missionaries
Scottish Episcopalians
Scottish Quakers
American school principals
Quaker missionaries
Anglican missionaries in the United States
Protestant missionaries in Germany
Protestant missionaries in the Netherlands
People of colonial New Jersey
People from Horsham District | [
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232757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Stuart | John Stuart | John Stuart may refer to:
Politics and military
John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713–1792), Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1762 to 1763
John Stuart, 1st Marquess of Bute (1744–1814), British nobleman and politician
John Stuart (loyalist) (1718–1779), British Superintendent of Indian Affairs in southern colonies during American Revolution
John Ferdinand Smyth Stuart (1745–1814), Scottish physician, soldier, and author
John Stuart (judge) (1793–1876), British Conservative MP 1846–1852, judge from 1852
John Stuart, Count of Maida (1759–1815), British soldier, lieutenant-general during the Napoleonic Wars
John Stuart (British Army officer, born 1811) (1811–1889), British general
Sir John Stuart, 4th Baronet (c. 1752–1821), Scottish MP for Kincardineshire
John Stuart, Lord Mount Stuart (1767–1794), Scottish Tory politician
John Stuart, 12th Earl of Moray (1797–1867), Scottish soldier and politician
John T. Stuart (1807–1885), U.S. Representative from Illinois and law partner of Abraham Lincoln
John Stuart (Canadian politician) (1830–1913), Member of Parliament in the late 19th century
John Stuart (Nova Scotia politician) (1752–1835), lawyer and politician in Nova Scotia
Others
John Stuart (Presbyterian minister) (1743–1821), reviser of the New Testament in Scottish Gaelic
John Stuart (priest) (c1740–1811), Anglican clergyman, missionary, educator and Loyalist
John Stuart (Virginia settler) (1749–1823), western Virginia settler and soldier at the Battle of Point Pleasant
John Stuart of Inchbreck (1751–1827), professor of Greek at Aberdeen University
John Stuart (explorer) (1780–1847), Canadian explorer
John McDouall Stuart (1815–1866), explorer, the first European to successfully traverse Australia from south to north
John Stuart (genealogist) (1813–1877), Scottish antiquarian, genealogist
John Stuart, co-founder of locomotive builders Kerr Stuart
John Stuart (CEO) (1877–1969), CEO of the Quaker Oats Company
John Stuart Jr. (1912–1997), one of the heirs to the Quaker Oats Company fortune
John Stuart (actor) (1898–1979), Scottish actor
John Stuart (abolitionist) (Ottobah Cugoano, c. 1757 – after 1791), African abolitionist
John Leighton Stuart (1876–1962), President of Yenching University and later United States ambassador to China
Johnny Stuart (1901–1970), American baseball player
Johnny Stuart (author) (1940–2003), author and expert on Russian art
John Trevor Stuart (born 1929), British mathematician
John Stuart (weightlifter) (born 1920), Canadian weightlifter
See also
John Stewart (disambiguation)
Jon Stewart (disambiguation)
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), 19th-century philosopher | [
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232762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20precedence%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom | The order of precedence in the United Kingdom is the sequential hierarchy for Peers of the Realm, officers of state, senior members of the clergy, holders of the various Orders of Chivalry and other persons in the three legal jurisdictions within the United Kingdom:
England and Wales
Scotland
Northern Ireland
Separate orders exist for males and females.
Determination of precedence
The order of precedence is determined by various methods. The Precedence Act (which technically applies only to determine seating in the House of Lords Chamber) and the Acts of Union with Scotland and Ireland generally set precedence for members of the nobility. The statutes of the various Orders of Chivalry set precedence for their members. In other cases, precedence may be decided by the sovereign's order, by a Royal Warrant of Precedence, by letters patent, by Acts of Parliament, or by custom.
Source of precedence
One may acquire precedence for various reasons. Firstly, one may be an office-holder. Secondly, one may be of a particular degree such as duke. Thirdly, in the case of women, one may be the wife of a title-holder (note that wives acquire precedence due to their husbands, but husbands do not gain any special precedence due to their wives). Finally, one may be the son or daughter of a title-holder.
One does not gain precedence as a child of a lady, unless that lady is a peeress in her own right. Furthermore, if a daughter of a peer marries a commoner, then she retains her precedence as a daughter of a peer. However, if she marries a peer, then her precedence is based on her husband's status, and not on her father's.
British royal family
The King or Queen of the United Kingdom, as the sovereign, is always first in the order of precedence. A king is followed by his queen consort, the first in the order of precedence for women. The reverse, however, is not always true for queens regnant. There is no established law of precedence for a prince consort, so he is usually specially granted precedence above all other males by letters patent or, on the other hand, may rank lower than the heir apparent or the heir presumptive, even if the heir is his own son, such as with Prince Albert and Edward VII, who outranked his father as Prince of Wales.
Current practice
In 2005, Elizabeth II changed the order of precedence for private occasions, putting Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, fourth in the order of precedence, after herself, Anne, Princess Royal, and Princess Alexandra, contrary to the usual position of the heir apparent's wife. The Duchess of Cornwall continues to rank second in the order of precedence at official occasions, such as state dinners.
The Court Circular lists Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, above their uncles, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex.
There is no specific place in the order for a great-grandchild of the sovereign (no matter how senior in the order of succession). The sons of a duke of the blood royal are entitled to precedence after all non-royal dukes, pursuant to the unrevoked Lord Chamberlain's Order of 1520 as amended in 1595. The daughters have the equivalent position in the women's order.
Officers of State
In England and Wales, the Archbishop of Canterbury is the highest in precedence following the royal family. Then come, assuming the post of Lord High Steward is vacant (as it usually has been since 1421), the Lord Chancellor, the Archbishop of York and the Archbishop of Wales. Next come the Prime Minister, the Lord President of the Privy Council, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Speaker of the House of Lords (since July 2006), the President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (since October 2009), the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales (since November 2007) and the Lord Privy Seal.
The precedence of the Lord Great Chamberlain, the Earl Marshal, the Lord Steward and the Lord Chamberlain are determined by the rank and class of the peerage of the holders of such offices.
In Scotland, the Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland and the Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland, if Peers, rank after the Lord Speaker of the House of Lords. If not so, then they rank after the younger sons of dukes. The Hereditary High Constable of Scotland and the Master of the Household in Scotland rank above dukes. If the Keepers of the Seals are Peers, then the Keepers precede the High Constable and Master.
Peers of the Realm
The ranks of Peers are as follows: Duke (and Duchess), Marquess (and Marchioness), Earl (and Countess), Viscount (and Viscountess), and Baron (and Baroness) together with Scottish Lord (and Lady) of Parliament.
Within their own respective ranks, the rank of Peers correspond to the age (venerability) of the creation of their peerages; that is, the older the title, the more senior the title's holder is. However, seniority rules also depend on the country within the current UK where the title originated, so that English peers hold the highest ranks, followed by Scottish peers. After English and Scottish peers, peers created in Great Britain as whole in (1707–1801) follow. together over the Pre-Union Peerage of Ireland (pre-1801), and together they all take precedence over either the senior Peerage of the United Kingdom (post-1801), or the junior Post-Union Peerage of Ireland (1801–1922).
Subject to the same governing rules as detailed in the paragraphs above, the rank of the wives of Peers is also governed by the venerability (age) of the peerage. A dowager Peeress (widow of a deceased Peer) would however always precede the wife of the present Peer.
Barons and Baronesses of the life peerage rank immediately below Barons and Baronesses of the hereditary peerage and Scottish Lords and Ladies in Parliament.
Primates, archbishops, bishops, Scottish Lord High Commissioners and moderators
In England and Wales, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England, is the most senior person outside of Royalty, and after the Lord Chancellor, immediately followed by the Archbishop of York, Primate of England, and immediately followed by the Archbishop of Wales. Primates, archbishops and bishops of the Church of England in England and the Church in Wales rank immediately above Peers. First come the Bishops of London and Durham, followed by the Bishop of Winchester, followed by the other diocesan bishops in order of seniority, and then the suffragan bishops in order of seniority.
The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Anglican Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe, whose Sees are full and integral parts of the Ecclesiastical Provinces of York and Canterbury, respectively, are also usually included as suffragan bishops of the Church of England for the purpose of precedence.
See the list of Lords Spiritual for the most senior 21 diocesan bishops ordered by seniority.
In Scotland, the Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ranks immediately below the sovereign or consort (depending on their respective sex), but only when the General Assembly is in session, and immediately followed by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.
According to the unofficial order of precedence for Northern Ireland published by the publishers of Burke's Peerage, 106th Edition, , the precedence of all of the primates and archbishops of the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland and the Church of Ireland, together with the Moderator of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, are to be determined solely by seniority, according to the dates of consecration or translation, or the date of election, in the case of the Presbyterian Moderator, without any presumption of automatic Roman Catholic or Protestant seniority, Anglican or Presbyterian.
Baronets, knights and holders of state honours
The two highest orders of chivalry in England and Wales, and in Scotland, are the Orders of the Garter, and the Thistle, respectively. Knights of the Order of the Garter precede baronets. After the baronets come the members of all the other orders of chivalry in the following order of their ranks: Knight or Dame Grand Cross, Knight or Dame Commander, Commander or Companion, Lieutenant or Officer, and Member.
For individual members with equivalent ranks but of different orders, precedence is accorded based on the seniority of the orders of chivalry: the Order of the Bath, the Order of St Michael and St George, the Royal Victorian Order, and the Order of the British Empire. For equivalent ranks and orders, those appointed earlier precede those appointed later. Knights Bachelor come after Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
Wives of Knights of the Garter, Knights of the Thistle, Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commanders, and Commanders or Companions receive precedence based on their husbands' positions. Wives of individuals of a certain rank follow in precedence after female holders of the same rank. Thus, wives of Knights Grand Cross follow Dames Grand Cross.
Wives of baronets go immediately above all Dames Grand Cross, but are below (though not immediately below) Ladies and Wives of Knights of the Garter, the Thistle, and St Patrick. Baronets' widows follow rules similar to dowager peeresses; a widow of a previous baronet comes immediately before the wife of the present baronet.
See also
Line of succession to the British throne
Forms of address in the United Kingdom
The House of Lords Precedence Act 1539
The Union with Scotland Act 1706, article XXIII
The Union with Ireland Act 1800
Ministerial ranking
References
External links
Debretts
The Union with Ireland Act 1800, article IV
Bedford, Michael (editor). Dod's Parliamentary Companion 1998. 179th edition. Vacher Dod. 1998. . Pages 504 to 510.
Dod, Charles Roger. A Manual of Dignities, Privilege and Precedence. London: Whitaker and Co., 1843.
United Kingdom
British culture
British monarchy | [
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232763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumri | Thumri | Thumri (Hindi: ठुमरी) is a vocal genre or style of Indian music. The term "thumri" is derived from the Hindi verb thumuknaa (ठुमकना), which means "to walk with a dancing gait in such a way that the ankle-bells tinkle." The form is, thus, connected with dance, dramatic gestures, mild eroticism, evocative love poetry and folk songs, especially from Uttar Pradesh, though there are regional variations.
The text is romantic or devotional in nature, the lyrics are usually in Uttar Pradesh dialects of Hindi called Awadhi and Brij Bhasha. Thumree is characterized by its sensuality, and by a greater flexibility with the raga.
Thumri is also used as a generic name for some other, even lighter, forms such as Dadra, Hori, Kajari, Sawani, Jhoola, and Chaiti, even though each of them have their own structure and content—either lyrical or musical or both—and so the exposition of these forms vary. Like Indian classical music itself, some of these forms have their origin in folk literature and music.
Structure
As in Khuyaal, thumri has two parts, the sthayi and the antara. It favours tala-s such as Deepchandi, Roopak, Addha, and Punjabi. These tala-s are characterized by a special lilt, nearly absent in the tala-s used in khayal. Thumri compositions are mostly in raga-s such as Kafi, Khamaj, Jogiya, Bhairavi, Pilu and Pahadi. A common feature of these and other such raga-s is the free movement they allow the artist, since they do not depend for their identity on rigidly formulated tonal sequences, irrespective of the compositions involved. In fact, one may say that they have a built-in provision for mixing raga-s or for moving out of the raga actually presented in order to add colour to the proceedings.
Origins
The exact origins of thumri are not very clear, given that there are no historical references to such a form until the 15th century. The first mention of Thumri goes back to the 19th century, with a link to the classical dance form Kathak. This was the bandish ki thumri or bol-baant and it evolved mostly in Lucknow in the court of nawab Wajid Ali Shah. At that time, it was a song sung by tawaifs or courtesans. According to historical records, a new version of thumri arose in the late 19th century, which was independent of dance, and much more slow-paced. This form was called bol-banav and it evolved in Varanasi.
Thumri and khayal
Unlike the khayal, which pays meticulous attention to unfolding a raga, thumri restricts itself to expressing the countless hues of shringar by combining melody and words. The contours of a khayal are most definitely broader and fluid. Thus, a khayal singer is capable of encompassing and expressing a wide range of complex emotions. A thumri singer goes straight to the emotional core of a composition and evokes each yarn of amorous feeling, each strand of sensuous sentiment, with great discretion. Khayal aims at achieving poise and splendour; thumri is quicksilver in tone and ardently romantic in spirit. It needs a delicate heart, and a supple and soulful voice capable of expressing several shadings and colours of tones to bring out its beauty. To draw an analogy from the world of painting, khayal is closer, in form and spirit, to the unrestrained and energetic world of Renaissance masters like Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian – forcefully executed brush strokes are seen on a broad canvas; whereas thumri, with its affinity for finer points and shades of feeling, emotion and mood, is closer to the finely-detailed still-life paintings of the Dutch masters of the 17th century.
Noted thumri artists
Purab ang
Well-known artists of the 'purab ang' thumri' of the Benaras gharana or Banaras gayaki include Rasoolan Bai (1902–1974), Siddheshwari Devi (1908–1977), Girija Devi (1929–2017), Mahadev Prasad Mishra (1906–1995) and Chhannulal Mishra (b. 1936).
Some other singers of thumri are Gauhar Jan (1873–1930), Begum Akhtar (1914–1974), Shobha Gurtu (1925–2004), Noor Jehan (1926–2000) and Nirmala Devi (1927-1996). The bol banao style has a slow tempo and is concluded by a laggi, a faster phase where the tabla player has some freedom of improvisation.
Another stalwart in the genre of thumri was Naina Devi (1917–1993), who was married to a royal family but later devoted her life to the singing of the song of Tawaifs. For a member of the royal family to take such a step in those days meant fighting countless social stigmas that had enough power to totally alienate someone from the society, but she had the support of her husband.
Classical thumri
Some khyal singers took an interest in thumrī and sang it their own way, as in the case of Abdul Karim Khan, Faiyaz Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Bhimsen Joshi, Madhav Gudi, Rajan and Sajan Mishra, Barkat Ali Khan, Jagdish Prasad and Prabha Atre.
Today thumrī is sometimes sung at the end of khyal concerts as a concluding item.
Besides the tabla and the tanpura, other typical instruments in thumri are sarangi, harmonium and swarmandal.
Lyrics
Thumrī singers pay considerable attention to the lyrics, though they may be difficult to follow in the ornamented enunciation. This is especially where the focus is on love, and many lyrics deal with separation or viraha. Krishna's ras leela or love play with Radha and other gopis of Vrindavan appear frequently. As an example, here are the lyrics of a thumrī composed by the medieval poet Lalan, celebrating Krishna's flute – how its tunes are driving Radha mad. Braj or Vrindavan is where Krishna is indulging in this love play; Radha is the "girl of Braj".
References
Further reading
Dance in Thumri, by Projesh Banerji. Published by Abhinav Publications, 1986. .
Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives, by Peter Lamarche Manuel. Published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1989. ..
Thumri, Tradition & Trends, by Ramanlal Chhotalal Mehta, Published by Indian Musicological Society, 1990.
Hindi Poetry in a Musical Genre: Thumri Lyrics, by Lalita Du Perron. Published by Routledge, 2007. .
External links
Article: Semi-classical song
Indian classical music
Hindustani music genres
Hindustani music terminology | [
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232766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enter%20the%20Matrix | Enter the Matrix | Enter the Matrix is a 2003 action-adventure video game developed by Shiny Entertainment and published by Infogrames, Inc. under the Atari brand name. It was the first game based on The Matrix film series. Its story is concurrent with that of the film The Matrix Reloaded and features over an hour of original footage, written and directed by the Wachowskis and starring the cast of the films, produced for the game.
Released in May 2003, the same month as The Matrix Reloaded, Enter the Matrix was simultaneously produced with The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions. While it received mixed reviews from critics, the game sold 5 million copies as of May 2004.
Gameplay
Enter the Matrix gives players control of two of the supporting characters from Reloaded and Revolutions, Ghost (Anthony Wong) and Niobe (Jada Pinkett-Smith), members of the same group of rebels as Morpheus, Trinity, and Neo, the protagonists of the series. Niobe is the Captain of the Logos, the fastest ship in the rebel fleet. Ghost is the ship's first mate, weapons guru, and a deep-thinking, philosophical assassin. The game takes place at roughly the same time as the events in Reloaded.
Players play as either Niobe or Ghost, each of whom have slight variations during their story. Most levels involve controlling players in a third-person perspective, using guns and fighting skills to defeat opponents and complete level objectives. At any time, players can activate bullet time (called "Focus" in the game) which slows down time, giving players the ability to perform actions such as shooting in midair and dodging bullets. Some levels involve one on one martial arts fighting against single opponents. In levels involving vehicles, such as driving a car or piloting the Logos, the style of game play depends on the selected player, with Niobe maneuvering the vehicles to avoid obstacles, whilst Ghost takes control of a gun to fight off incoming enemies (although Ghost is required to drive on one level as Niobe is fighting an Agent on a plane as part of a different level). A hacking system allows players to enter codes, which can unlock special skills, weapons and secrets, such as a 2-player versus mode.
Plot
The story begins with Niobe, captain of the Logos, and Ghost, her first mate, retrieving a package left in the Matrix by the crew of the recently destroyed rebel ship Osiris. After being pursued by Agents, Ghost and Niobe escape from the Matrix with the package, which turns out to be a message to the human city Zion, warning them that the machines are approaching with an army of Sentinels. Niobe and Ghost are tasked with calling the rest of the ships back to Zion to coordinate a defense.
With this in mind, the captains of the various ships hold a meeting in the Matrix to decide on how best to defend themselves. During the meeting, Agents attack the building they are in, although Niobe and Ghost are able to help their allies escape. They then encounter the Keymaker, a program capable of accessing any area in the Matrix, who leads them to safety through a door he created. The Keymaker gives the two a key that they are supposed to give to Neo. However, the key is stolen by henchmen of the Merovingian, a program created during the early days of the Matrix who now operates an illegal smuggling ring within the program. Ultimately, the Merovingian destroys the key, but Niobe and Ghost are able to escape, when the Keymaker realizes that it is too early for the key to be given to Neo.
Niobe later volunteers to go find the Nebuchadnezzar, the ship captained by Morpheus, upon which Neo serves, and the only ship yet to return to Zion. Upon finding the ship and its crew, and helping them escape from the Matrix, Niobe and Ghost agree to help in Neo's mission against the machines, agreeing to destroy a power plant. After this mission is completed, the Oracle, a program that often gives the humans advice, requests that the player character come and speak to her. After their conversation, the player is confronted by Agent Smith, a rogue Agent that seeks to destroy both the human and machine worlds. The player character barely escapes from the hundreds of Smith copies and the Matrix. Once out, the Logos is attacked by the machines. They defeat the machines by setting off an EMP, which disables their own ship in the process. The game ends with Niobe and Ghost waiting in the Logos, hoping that they will be rescued. The two wonder what's coming but believe that it will be "a hell of a ride."
Characters
Aside from Ghost and Niobe, there are numerous secondary characters in Enter The Matrix.
Sparks (Lachy Hulme) — the operator on the Logos; he gives players tips and information throughout the game.
Vector (Don Anjaya Battee) — The first mate of the Vigilant. When Axel was kidnapped by agents, Vector helps Soren get him back. Niobe found herself surrounded by police but is saved by Vector. Trapped in the fire on the Vigilant.
Smith — a program that can absorb human bodies and humanoid programs to make copies of himself; he chases the player through an abandoned skyscraper, and later, Chinatown.
Agent Johnson — an agent who appears frequently during the game; Niobe defeats him by kicking him off a cargo plane, while Ghost defeats him by knocking him into a short-circuited computer server.
Agent Jackson — another agent with frequent appearances in the game; Ghost defeats him by blowing up his helicopter. Jackson also tries to kill Niobe and Ghost after the crew of the Caduceus is saved, but the two were unexpectedly saved by the Keymaker.
Agent Thompson — the least-featured Agent in the game, who only appears in cinematics; the only opportunity to fight him occurs at the end of Niobe's missions at the power plant.
The Oracle — a program within the Matrix who often helps the humans.
Seraph — a martial arts master who protects the Oracle; he fights Niobe or Ghost once during the events of the game.
Morpheus — a member of the rebels, Niobe's ex-boyfriend, and captain of the Nebuchadnezzar.
Trinity — another rebel, a good friend of Ghost, to whom she refers as "dear brother"; first mate on the Nebuchadnezzar.
Neo — the most important rebel; Morpheus believes he is "The One".
Cmdr. Lock — leader of the Zion defence forces; Niobe's current boyfriend.
Axel, Soren, Ballard, Bane, Binary, Ice, Corrupt and Malachi — rebels encountered during the game.
The Keymaker — an old program who guides players through certain portions of the game.
The Trainman — carries multiple wristwatches on his arms; he controls the link between the Matrix and the machine city, and works for the Merovingian.
The Merovingian — an old program that has gone rogue in the Matrix; he has a chateau in the mountains wherein he has the Keymaker imprisoned; his henchmen are from early Matrix programs, and are rumored to be "vampires" and "werewolves".
Persephone — wife of the Merovingian; often betrays him out of spite.
Cain and Abel — two henchmen of the Merovingian.
Vlad — the black-clad, pale-skinned leader of the Merovingian's vampires; he is killed by Niobe, who stabs him through the heart with a wooden stake.
Cujo — the leader of the Merovingian's werewolves; he is killed by being impaled on a wooden stake in the dungeons of the chateau.
The Twins — employees of the Merovingian, they are encountered as the player leaves the chateau; they chase the players down a long tunnel, before they are finally evaded.
Sewing Woman — a character featured in the multiplayer mode of the game.
Connections to the films
Enter the Matrix was designed, like the 2003 animated film The Animatrix, to be an integral part of the Matrix milieu. The game includes one hour of live action 35 mm film footage written and directed specifically for the game by The Wachowskis. The martial arts moves and game engine cutscenes feature actions motion captured directly from the films' actors and stunt doubles to recreate their unique fighting style, and were created under the supervision of the series' fight scene choreographer Yuen Woo-ping.
The player learns that Neo is not the only target of Persephone's predilection for trading kisses for esoteric information; Niobe and Ghost are both put into positions where they must submit to her whims in order to gain critical information. Significant also to the continuity of the Matrix universe is the first appearance of actress Mary Alice in the role of the Oracle. Gloria Foster, the original actress, had died of complications related to diabetes early in the production of The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions. She had filmed her scenes for Reloaded, but was yet to complete her work on Revolutions. The game includes a sequence specifically explaining her change of appearance, as a result of an attack on her by the Merovingian. The Merovingian's attack was facilitated by a sacrificial trade with the compassionate program Rama-Kandra. The Merovingian acquired the deletion codes for the Oracle's external "shell", and in exchange, he gave Rama-Kandra's daughter, Sati, her freedom, despite her lack of purpose in the machine world. The Oracle foretells, however, that Sati will play an important role in both the Matrix and the real world.
Development
Enter the Matrix took two and a half years to produce on a budget of $20 million, not including marketing expenses or the cost of the extra hour of movie footage.
Soundtrack
A promotional CD release of the soundtrack accompanied the video game, with compositions by Erik Lundborg in the style of Don Davis, who composed the music for the films.
Track listing
"Kick Jab Stab" (3:04)
"Get Out Of My Face" (3:18)
"In My Path... You're Dead" (2:22)
"Eat This, Jerk" (3:27)
"You Don't Scare Me Bucko" (2:35)
"I Do Not Like You" (1:57)
"Fist Fight" (2:29)
"Smelly Sewer" (1:27)
"Be Prepared" (1:41)
"A Sickening Feeling" (4:22)
"Somethin's Wrong" (3:10)
"Uh, Oh... What's That?" (3:04)
"Stuck In Much – Escape" (1:23)
"What Fresh Hell Is This?" (2:11)
"Not Agent Smith – Again!!!" (2:53)
"Zen Garden" (1:21)
"The Big Distraction" (0:50)
"Elevator Is a Trap" (0:36)
"Tear Gas" (0:42)
"Piano Escape" (0:25)
"Swat to Phone" (0:33)
"No Rest for the Wicked" (0:47)
"Merovingian's Office" (0:37)
"Attic Opens" (0:27)
"Going to Church" (0:52)
Other musical groups, such as Evanescence, Fluke, Clawfinger, and Celldweller, are featured in the game and are credited in the game's booklet.
Reception
By February 2004, global sales of Enter the Matrix across all systems had surpassed 4 million units, according to Atari. By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of Enter the Matrix had sold 1.2 million copies and earned $58 million in the United States. Next Generation ranked it as the 39th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of Enter the Matrix console releases reached 1.9 million units in the United States by July 2006. Worldwide, the game sold 5million units.
Enter the Matrix received "mixed or average" reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.
Two critics from Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it "bad" scores; another later admitted that his "average" score for the game was more positive than the game actually deserved. Mark MacDonald was especially scathing, writing "In more than 20 years of playing games, I have never seen a console game as obviously unfinished and rushed to market as Enter the Matrix.... This game is a complete mess, and that's the only thing complete about it."
GameSpot listed Enter the Matrix in several of their "Dubious Honors" lists at the end of 2003, including their five most disappointing titles of the year. One common complaint was that players wanted to play as trilogy protagonist Neo rather than secondary characters Ghost and Niobe, an issue Shiny Entertainment addressed with their later Matrix game Path of Neo.
Steven Poole, in his column in Edge, described the PS2 version of Enter the Matrix as "Max Payne with celebrity scriptwriters", and said that the films' fluid fight choreography could not be matched by the game's control system, and that the game's centred view, while practical, was not as interesting as the "kinetic montage" of camera angles used in the movies' action scenes. He also expressed other concerns:
The most worrying new precedent that Enter the Matrix sets, though, with its massively hyped synergy and narrative overlap with Reloaded, is that it seems the film itself has been deliberately made to suffer, to donate some of its lifeblood so that its vampiric brood can feed on it. In Reloaded, Niobe and her crew go to blow up the nuclear power plant, a feat of security bypassing which would presumably require something like a lobby scene squared. Instead, we see nothing until they are already in the control room. Why? Because that's what you get to do in the game instead. The film's sense of rhythm and victory over threat is compromised just so we can bash buttons on our consoles at home. It's as though James Cameron had cut footage out of Aliens so that it could be rendered in blocky 2D graphics in the 1987 Spectrum/C64 tie-in game released by Electric Dreams — which remains, actually, a superior film-to-game conversion.
Positive comments came from IGN, Game Informer, and Nintendo Power, with NP stating, "its game play suffers from repetition, but this two-disc technomelange has tons of great stuff for Matrix fans." IGN's review, while mixed, praised its presentation and sound, stating that "you can't get much better than having the [Wachowskis] filming your cutscenes," and "Kudos to the sound team for bringing the movie audio to life in the game. Excellent sound design, and a great score." The IGN review also said, "Things could have been much better with a few more months in development. That said, the story elements and the way the [Wachowskis] tie together the Matrix movies, the Animatrix shorts, and the game is exceptional. Not being able to slip into the black robes of the movie's principal characters is a bummer, but there's no denying that playing through Enter the Matrix will actually increase your appreciation of the Matrix universe as a whole." They also praised the GameCube version, specifically: "A big 'thank you' to Atari and Shiny for making sure that Nintendo's little cube didn't get shafted. The GameCube version actually ships on two disks to accommodate all the video and audio content. DPLII, progressive scan, DIVX compression — it's all used to full effect to make sure the GameCube version is as good as it can be."
Even non-video game publications gave the game some positive acclaim. Maxim gave it a score of eight out of ten and said it was "by no means a weak attempt to cash in on a franchise...Gamers not only get tons of extra movie action but also get to run, kick, and shoot in a fully realized Matrix universe." Entertainment Weekly gave it a B and said that it "wants to be so many different games that it doesn't excel at any one of them." The Cincinnati Enquirer gave it three-and-a-half stars out of five and said that the game "isn't a perfect slice of interactive entertainment, but it does provide at least a dozen hours of action-packed fun and serves as a clever vehicle to expand on the events in The Matrix Reloaded." The Village Voice, however, gave it six out of ten and stated: "Nerds may activate two-player mode using the DOS-throwback 'hacking gameplay element.' If any of you figure out how to boff Trinity during a rave, please e-mail me."
References
External links
2003 video games
Action-adventure games
Atari games
Infogrames games
Hacking video games
Interactive Achievement Award winners
Martial arts video games
GameCube games
PlayStation 2 games
The Matrix (franchise) video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games about virtual reality
Windows games
Video games directed by The Wachowskis
Xbox games
Video games designed by David Perry
Shiny Entertainment games
Transmedia storytelling
Video games with time manipulation | [
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232767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20order%20of%20precedence | French order of precedence | The order of precedence () for public ceremonies in France is established by (Decree no. 89–655 of 13 September 1989 relating to public ceremonies, precedence, and civil and military honours). The original order has been modified since 1989, for example inserting the Defender of Rights after that office's 2011 creation. the order is as follows:
The President of the Republic (Emmanuel Macron)
The Prime Minister (Jean Castex)
The President of the Senate (Gérard Larcher)
The President of the National Assembly (Richard Ferrand)
Former Presidents of the Republic, in order of term
Nicolas Sarkozy
François Hollande
The Government, in the order decided by the President of the Republic (Castex Government)
Former Prime Ministers, in order of term
Laurent Fabius
Édith Cresson
Édouard Balladur
Alain Juppé
Lionel Jospin
Jean-Pierre Raffarin
Dominique de Villepin
François Fillon
Jean-Marc Ayrault
Manuel Valls
Bernard Cazeneuve
Édouard Philippe
The President of the Constitutional Council (Laurent Fabius, who ranks higher as former Prime Minister)
The Vice President of the Conseil d'État (Bruno Lasserre)
The President of the Economic, Social and Environmental Council (Thierry Beaudet)
The Defender of rights (Claire Hédon)
Members of the National Assembly
Senators
European parliament members
The judicial authority represented by the first President of the Court of Cassation (Chantal Arens) and the public prosecutor of that court (François Molins)
The first President of the Revenue Court (Cour des Comptes) (Pierre Moscovici) and the public prosecutor of that court
The Great Chancellor of the Légion d'honneur, chancellor of the National Order of Merit (Général Benoît Puga) and the members of the councils of these orders
The Chancellor of the Order of the Libération, and the members of the council of this order
The Chief of the Defence Staff (Général Thierry Burkhard)
The following then apply in Paris:
The prefect of the Île-de-France région, prefect of Paris (Michel Delpuech)
The prefect of police, prefect of the Paris defense zone (Michel Delpuech)
The mayor of Paris, president of the Council of Paris (Anne Hidalgo)
The representatives to the European Parliament
The chancellor of the Institute of France, the perpetual secretaries of the French Academy, the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, the Academy of Sciences, of the Académie des beaux-arts and of the academy of moral and political sciences
The general secretary of the government; the general secretary of national defence; the general secretary of the Ministry of foreign affairs
The president of the administrative court of appeal of Paris (Patrick Frydman); the first president of the Paris court of appeal (Jacques Degrandi) and the general public prosecutor of that court (François Falletti)
The general delegate for weaponry; the general secretary for administration of the Ministry of defence; the chief of staff of the army; the chief of staff of the navy; the chief of staff of the air force; the military governor of Paris, commanding the Île-de-France army region
The president of the high council of broadcasting (CSA) (Olivier Schrameck)
The president of the national commission "computing and freedoms" (CNIL) (Marie-Laure Denis)
The president of the concurrence council
Universities of Paris
There are analogous orderings for local officials at events in Metropolitan France outside Paris, for Overseas France, and on naval bases. There are also provisions to allow subordinate to take the place of certain head officers, if absent. For events organised by a public body other than the national government, the body's head ranks second after the representative of the State (President, prefect, or sub-prefect).
References
France
Politics of France | [
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232769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Grenville%2C%201st%20Baron%20Grenville | William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville | William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, (25 October 175912 January 1834), styled as Lord Grenville from 1790, was a British Pittite Tory politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1806 to 1807, but was a supporter of the Whigs for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars. As prime minister, his most significant achievement was the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. However, his government failed to either make peace with France or to accomplish Catholic emancipation and it was dismissed in the same year.
Background
Grenville was the son of the Whig Prime Minister George Grenville. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of the Tory statesman Sir William Wyndham, 3rd Baronet. He had two elder brothers: Thomas and George. He was thus uncle to the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos.
He was also related to the Pitt family by marriage since William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, had married his father's sister Hester. The younger Grenville was thus the first cousin of William Pitt the Younger.
Grenville was educated at Eton College; Christ Church, Oxford; and Lincoln's Inn.
Political career
Grenville entered the House of Commons in February 1782 as member for the borough of Buckingham. He soon became a close ally of the prime minister, his cousin William Pitt the Younger. In September, he became secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, who was his brother George. He left the House the following year and served in the government as Paymaster of the Forces from 1784 to 1789. In 1789, he served briefly as Speaker of the House of Commons before he entered the cabinet as Home Secretary and resigned his other posts. He became Leader of the House of Lords when he was raised to the peerage the next year as Baron Grenville, of Wotton under Bernewood in the County of Buckingham.
In 1791, he succeeded the Duke of Leeds as Foreign Secretary. Grenville's decade as Foreign Secretary was dramatic with the Wars of the French Revolution. During the war, Grenville was the leader of the party that focused on the fighting on the continent as the key to victory and opposed the faction of Henry Dundas, which favoured war at sea and in the colonies.
Grenville left office with Pitt in 1801 over the issue of George III's refusal to assent to Catholic emancipation.
Grenville did part-time military service at home as Major in the Buckinghamshire Yeomanry cavalry in 1794 and as lieutenant-colonel in the South Buckinghamshire volunteer regiment in 1806.
In his years out of office, Grenville became close to the opposition Whig leader Charles James Fox, and when Pitt returned to office in 1804, Grenville sided with Fox and did not take part.
Prime minister
After Pitt's death in 1806, Grenville became the head of the "Ministry of All the Talents", a coalition between Grenville's supporters, the Foxite Whigs, and the supporters of former Prime Minister Lord Sidmouth, with Grenville as First Lord of the Treasury and Fox as Foreign Secretary as joint leaders. Grenville's cousin William Windham served as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, and his younger brother, Thomas Grenville, served briefly as First Lord of the Admiralty.
The Ministry ultimately accomplished little and failed either to make peace with France or to accomplish Catholic emancipation, the later attempt resulting in the ministry's dismissal in March 1807. It had one significant achievement, however, in the abolition of the slave trade in 1807.
Post-premiership
In the years after the fall of the ministry, Grenville continued in opposition by maintaining his alliance with Lord Grey and the Whigs, criticising the Peninsular War and, with Grey, refusing to join Lord Liverpool's government in 1812.
In the postwar years, Grenville gradually moved back closer to the Tories but never again returned to the cabinet. In 1815, he separated from his friend Charles Grey and supported the war policy of Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the Marquess of Lansdowne brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of the distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville delivered a speech advocating repressive measures. His political career was ended by a stroke in 1823.
Grenville also served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford from 1810 until his death in 1834.
Legacy
Historians find it hard to tell exactly which separate roles Pitt, Grenville and Dundas played in setting war policy toward France but agree that Grenville played a major role at all times until 1801. The consensus of scholars is that war with France presented an unexpected complex of problems. There was a conflict between secular ideologies, the conscription of huge armies, the new role of Russia as a continental power and especially the sheer length and cost of the multiple coalitions.
Grenville energetically worked to build and hold together the Allied coalitions and paid suitable attention to smaller members such as Denmark and Sardinia. He negotiated the complex alliance with Russia and Austria. He hoped that with British financing, they would bear the brunt of the ground campaigns against the French.
Grenville's influence was at the maximum during the formation of the Second Coalition. His projections of easy success were greatly exaggerated, and the result was another round of disappointment. His resignation in 1801 was caused primarily by the king's refusal to allow Catholics to sit in Parliament.
Dropmore House
Dropmore House was built in the 1790s for Lord Grenville. The architects were Samuel Wyatt and Charles Tatham. Grenville knew the spot from rambles during his time at Eton College and prized its distant views of his old school and of Windsor Castle. On his first day in occupation, he planted two cedar trees. At least another 2,500 trees were planted. By the time he died, his pinetum contained the biggest collection of conifer species in Britain. Part of the post-millennium restoration is to use what survives as the basis for a collection of some 200 species.
Personal life
Lord Grenville married the Honourable Anne, daughter of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, in 1792. The marriage was childless. He died in January 1834, aged 74, when the barony became extinct.
Ministry of All the Talents
Lord Grenville – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Lords
Charles James Fox – Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons
The Lord Erskine – Lord Chancellor
The Earl Fitzwilliam – Lord President of the Council
The Viscount Sidmouth – Lord Privy Seal
The Earl Spencer – Secretary of State for the Home Department
William Windham – Secretary of State for War and the Colonies
Viscount Howick – First Lord of the Admiralty
Lord Henry Petty – Chancellor of the Exchequer
The Earl of Moira – Master-General of the Ordnance
The Lord Ellenborough – Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench
Changes
September 1806On Fox's death, Lord Howick succeeds him as Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons. Thomas Grenville succeeds Howick at the Admiralty. Lord Fitzwilliam becomes Minister without Portfolio, and Lord Sidmouth succeeds him as Lord President. Lord Holland succeeds Sidmouth as Lord Privy Seal.
Honours
Hereditary Peerage
He was given a Hereditary Peerage in 1790 allowing him to sit in the House of Lords. He sat with the Whig Party Benches. He took the title of 1st Baron Grenville. This title became extinct upon his death in 1834 as he had no surviving heir.
British Empire honours
British Empire honours
Scholastic
Chancellor, visitor, governor, and fellowships
Memberships and fellowships
Notes
Further reading
Ehrman, John. The Younger Pitt: The Years of Acclaim (1969); The Reluctant Transition (1983); The Consuming Struggle (1996).
Furber, Holden. Henry Dundas: First Viscount Melville, 1741–1811, Political Manager of Scotland, Statesman, Administrator of British India (Oxford UP, 1931). online
Jupp, Peter. "Grenville, William Wyndham, Baron Grenville (1759–1834)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2009) https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/11501
Leonard, Dick. "William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville—Not Quite 'All the Talents'." in Leonard, ed, Nineteenth-Century British Premiers (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 38-54.
McCahill, Michael W. "William, First Lord Grenville." (2003) 22#1 pp 29-42
Mori, Jennifer. Britain in the Age of the French Revolution: 1785-1820 (2014).
Negus, Samuel D. Further concessions cannot be attained': the Jay-Grenville treaty and the politics of Anglo-American relations, 1789–1807." (Texas Christian University, 2013. PhD thesis) online
Sack, James J. The Grenvillites, 1801–29: Party Politics and Factionalism in the Age of Pitt and Liverpool (U. of Illinois Press, 1979)
Sherwig, John M. "Lord Grenville's plan for a concert of Europe, 1797-99." Journal of Modern History 34.3 (1962): 284–293.
Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902)'' (1938), primary sources online
External links
More about William Wyndam Grenville, Lord Grenville on the Downing Street website.
GrEco Project On Lord Grenville's Economics
1759 births
1834 deaths
19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain
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William
19th-century heads of government
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Leaders of the House of Lords | [
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232774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker%20of%20the%20House%20of%20Representatives | Speaker of the House of Representatives | Speaker of the House of Representatives may refer to:
National governments
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda
Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Belize
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Burma
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Egypt
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Fiji
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Grenada
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Jamaica
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Japan
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Liberia
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Malta
Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives
Speaker of the Nigerian House of Representatives
Speaker of the Philippine House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Somaliland
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Thailand
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Trinidad and Tobago
Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
U.S. state governments
Speaker of the Alabama House of Representatives
Speaker of the Alaska House of Representatives
Speaker of the Arizona House of Representatives
Speaker of the Arkansas House of Representatives
Speaker of the California House of Representatives
Speaker of the Colorado House of Representatives
Speaker of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Speaker of the Delaware House of Representatives
Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives
Speaker of the Georgia House of Representatives
Speaker of the Hawaii House of Representatives
Speaker of the Idaho House of Representatives
Speaker of the Illinois House of Representatives
Speaker of the Indiana House of Representatives
Speaker of the Iowa House of Representatives
Speaker of the Kansas House of Representatives
Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives
Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives
Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives
Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
Speaker of the Michigan House of Representatives
Speaker of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Speaker of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Speaker of the Missouri House of Representatives
Speaker of the Montana House of Representatives
Speaker of the Nebraska House of Representatives
Speaker of the Nevada House of Representatives
Speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
Speaker of the New Jersey House of Representatives
Speaker of the New Mexico House of Representatives
Speaker of the New York House of Representatives
Speaker of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Speaker of the North Dakota House of Representatives
Speaker of the Ohio House of Representatives
Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives
Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives
Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Speaker of the Rhode Island House of Representatives
Speaker of the South Carolina House of Representatives
Speaker of the South Dakota House of Representatives
Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives
Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives
Speaker of the Utah House of Representatives
Speaker of the Vermont House of Representatives
Speaker of the Virginia House of Representatives
Speaker of the Washington House of Representatives
Speaker of the Wyoming House of Representatives
US Territories, etc.
Speaker of the Northern Mariana Islands House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico
See also
Speaker (politics)
List of legislatures by country | [
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232775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20Senate | President of the Senate | President of the Senate is a title often given to the presiding officer of a senate. It corresponds to the speaker in some other assemblies.
The senate president often ranks high in a jurisdiction's succession for its top executive office: for example, the president of the Senate of Nigeria is second in line for succession to the presidency, after only the vice president of the Federal Republic, while in France, which has no vice president, the Senate president is first in line to succeed to the presidential powers and duties.
Africa
Burundi
The president of the Senate of Burundi, since 17 August 2005, is Molly Beamer of the CNDD-FDD. The president is assisted in his work by two vice-presidents.
Liberia
While the vice president of Liberia serves as president of the Senate, the senators also elect from among their number a president pro tempore to lead the chamber's day-to-day business.
Nigeria
The president of the Senate is the presiding officer of the Senate of Nigeria, elected by its membership.
The president of the Senate since 11 June 2019 is Ahmed Ibrahim Lawan, who represents the Yobe North constituency.
South Africa
The Senate of South Africa was the upper house of parliament between 1910 and 1981, and between 1994 and 1997. During both periods, the Senate was led by a president.
Asia and Oceania
Australia
The president of the Australian Senate is a senator, traditionally a member of the governing party or coalition, elected by the Senate at the beginning of each parliament as the first item of business. They are assisted by a deputy president who is traditionally a member of the largest opposition party. The current president is Slade Brockman, a Liberal senator from Western Australia, who has held the office since 18 October 2021.
Cambodia
The Senate of Cambodia is led by a 12-person permanent commission (bureau), which is in turn chaired by the president of the Senate, currently Say Chhum. He is assisted by a first and a second vice-president. The president and vice-presidents are elected as the first item of business at the start of every legislative session.
Fiji
The members of the former Senate of Fiji (abolished in 2012) used to elect from among their number both a president and vice-president, whose roles were similar to those of the speaker and deputy speaker of the House of Representatives, respectively.
The last persons to hold those positions were President Kinijoji Maivalili an Vice-President Hafiz Khan. The military coup of 5 December 2006 brought their terms to a premature end.
Malaysia
The Senate of Malaysia elects a president from its members, who is comparable to the speaker of the House of Representatives. The position is partisan and has usually been held by a member of the Government party.
Philippines
Sri Lanka
The Senate of Ceylon was the upper house of Parliament between 1947 and 1971. During this periods, the Senate was led by a president.
Europe
Belgium
The presiding officer of the Belgian Senate is elected by the senators at the beginning of each parliamentary term. The president of the Senate is customarily a member of a majority party with a great deal of political experience. The president presides over the plenary assembly of the Senate, guides and controls debates in the assembly, is responsible for ensuring the democratic functioning of the Senate, maintains order and security in the assembly and for enforcing the rules of the Senate, and represents the Senate at both the national (to the other institutions) and the international level.
The president of the Senate, together with the president of the Chamber of Representatives, ranks immediately behind the king in the order of precedence. The elder of the two takes the second place in the order of precedence. The presidents of the Senate and the Chamber rank above the prime minister.
Danzig
In the Free City of Danzig (1920–1939, 1945), the Senate (or Senat in German) was the executive branch, with senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In Danzig the president of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) was an office equivalent to that of prime minister in other countries.
France
The Senate of France elects a president from among its own number. The president of the French Senate stands first in line of succession in case of death or resignation of the president of the Republic, becoming acting president until a presidential election can be held. This most recently occurred with Alain Poher, who was senate president from 1968 to 1992 and who served as interim president on two occasions: following Charles de Gaulle's resignation in 1969, and following Georges Pompidou's death in office in 1974.
Since 2014, the position has been held by Gérard Larcher of Les Républicains (LR), formerly known as the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).
Germany
In the German states of Berlin (Senate of Berlin), Bremen (Senate of Bremen) and Hamburg (Senate of Hamburg), the Senates (or Senat in German) are the executive branch, with senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In these Länder, the president of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) is an office equivalent to that of minister-president in other German Länder.
Italy
The Senate of Italy holds its first sitting no later than 20 days after a general election. That session, presided by the oldest senator, proceeds to elect the president of the Senate for the following parliamentary period. On the first two attempts at voting, an absolute majority (a majority of all senators) is needed; if a third round is needed, a candidate can be elected by a majority of the senators present and voting. If this third round fails to produce a winner, a final ballot is held between the two senators with the highest votes in the previous ballot. In the case of a tie, the elder senator is deemed the winner.
In addition to overseeing the business of the chamber, chairing and regulating debates, deciding whether motions and bills are admissible, representing the Senate, etc., the president of the Senate stands in for the president of the Republic when he is unable to perform his duties.
The current president of the Senate is Maria Elisabetta Alberti Casellati. For a historical listing, see: List of presidents of the Senate of Italy.
Poland
Romania
The first session of the Senate is headed by the eldest senator. In that session the senators elect the Standing Bureau of the Romanian Senate. It consists of the president of the Senate, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The president of the Standing Bureau also serves as the president of the Senate. The president is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period. The Senate president succeeds temporarily the president of Romania if the latter resigns, is suspended, incapacitated or dies in office. (He/she continues to be president of the Senate during the ad-interim presidency of the country. He/she acts as president until a new president is elected).
Spain
North America
Barbados
At the start of every parliamentary session, the Senate of Barbados elects a president and a vice president, neither of whom may be ministers or parliamentary secretaries. Prior to the January 2008 general election, the positions were held by Sir Fred Gollop and Dame Patricia Symmonds.
Belize
The senate of Belize elects both a president and a vice-president upon first convening after a general election. The person elected president may be a senator (provided he/she does not concurrently hold a ministerial position) or a person external to the Senate. The vice-president must be a member of the Senate who does not hold a ministerial portfolio. (Constitution, section 66.)
The president is Carolyn Trench-Sandiford.
Canada
While the speaker of the Senate of Canada, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate of Canada, is not described as a "president" in English, the position is called président du Sénat in French. He is appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister.
Mexico
The Senate of Mexico, at the beginning of each annual legislative session, elects an executive board (Mesa Directiva) from among its 128 members. The executive board comprises a president, three vice-presidents, and four secretaries, elected by an absolute majority of the senators. Members of the executive board may be re-elected for the following year without restriction. The president of the executive board also serves as the president of the Senate.
The president of the Senate for the current LXIV Legislature is Mónica Fernández Balboa, a former National Regeneration Movement (MORENA) deputy for the Federal District, and former president of MORENA.
Trinidad and Tobago
The president of the Senate of Trinidad and Tobago, who is generally elected from the government benches, chairs debates in the chamber and stands in for the country's president during periods of absence or illness (Constitution, section 27). A vice-president of the Senate is also elected from among the senators. The current president of the Senate is Christine Kangaloo who is the only woman of Indian origin in the world to currently hold such a position
United States
The vice president of the United States is assigned the responsibility of presiding over the Senate and designated as its president by the United States Constitution. The vice president, as president of the Senate, has the authority (ex officio, as they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote. Other than this, the rules of the Senate grant its president very little power (in contrast to the powerful office of speaker of the House of Representatives).
While vice presidents used to regularly preside over the Senate, modern vice presidents have done so only rarely, as the daily procedures are routine. Vice presidents usually personally preside over swearing in new senators, during joint sessions, announcing the result of a vote on a significant bill or confirmation, or when casting a tie-breaking vote. The Senate chooses a president pro tempore to preside in the vice president's absence. Modern presidents pro tempore, too, rarely preside over the Senate. In practice, junior senators of the majority party typically preside over routine functions in order to learn Senate procedure.
Vice presidents have cast 272 tie-breaking votes since the U.S. federal government was established in 1789. The vice president with the most tie breaking votes is John C. Calhoun (served 1825–1832) with 31. The most recent vice president to have completed his term of office, Mike Pence, in office from 2017 to 2021, cast 13 tie-breaking votes. Kamala Harris was sworn in as the new president of the Senate on January 20, 2021.
U.S. state senates
In state governments of the United States, the presiding officer of the state senate (the upper house) is a matter decided by the state's constitution. Some states designate the lieutenant governor as president of the senate, in the same way as the Vice-President, while in other states, the Senate elects its own president. The Tennessee Senate elects a senator speaker of the Senate, who is given the title of lieutenant governor.
Similarly, New Hampshire has no lieutenant governor, but the state senate elects a president who is the de facto lieutenant governor, given that in the event of the governor's death, resignation, or inability to serve, the president of the senate acts as governor until the vacancy is filled. New Jersey previously used the same system, but with the important proviso that the Senate president continued to serve in that position while also serving as acting governor. After Christine Todd Whitman resigned as governor, Donald DiFrancesco spent nearly a year as acting governor. As a result of his tenure, questions were raised about the propriety of such a system, particularly with regard to separation of powers–related issues. A constitutional amendment was enacted in 2005 to create the office of lieutenant governor effective at the 2009 election.
Many state legislatures, act almost as like miniature versions of the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. In the Senate, Kamala Harris is the president of the senate. In most state legislatures, the lieutenant governor acts almost like the vice president. An example of this is in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania: Governor Tom Wolf acts as like a president, Lieutenant Governor John Fetterman acts as like a vice president and is the president of the Pennsylvania Senate. Both chambers of the Pennsylvania legislature also have minority and majority leaders, and a speaker of the House.
Puerto Rico
South America
Argentina
The Argentine Senate is presided over by the vice-president of the Republic, currently Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (who previously served as the president of Argentina from 2007 to 2015). This was a recent expansion of the vice-president's powers introduced as part of the 1994 constitutional amendments (Constitution, Art. 57). The vice-president may only cast a vote to break a tied Senate vote.
Brazil
The president of Brazil's Federal Senate is Rodrigo Pacheco.
The president of the Federal Senate is the third in order to succeed the president (only below the vice president and the president of the Chamber of Deputies). It is also the president of the National Congress, which includes the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
Chile
The president of the Senate of Chile is elected from among the country's senators. The holder of the position, since March 2020, is Adriana Muñoz.
Colombia
The president of the Senate – Ernesto Macías Tovar for the 2018–19 period – also serves as the president of the Congress of Colombia.
Peru
Peru had a bicameral Congress from 1829 until 1992. The president of the Senate was elected by the Senate members to preside over the sessions for one year.
Uruguay
The vice president of Uruguay presides over the country's 30-member Senate.
See also
The princeps senatus, the leader of the Roman Senate
Speaker of the Senate
References
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232779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biceps%20%28disambiguation%29 | Biceps (disambiguation) | Biceps is a muscle located on the inside of the upper arm.
Biceps may also refer to:
Biceps (prosody), a point in a metrical pattern
BICEPS, the current treatment route for combat stress reaction employed by the U.S. military
"Biceps", a 1941 story by Nelson Algren in The Neon Wilderness
See also
Bicep (disambiguation)
Biceps femoris muscle, one of the hamstring muscles of the back of each thigh | [
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232781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision%20Electronic%20Recording%20Apparatus | Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus | Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus (VERA) was an early analog recording videotape format developed from 1952 by the BBC under project manager Dr Peter Axon.
History
In order to record high frequencies, a tape must move rapidly with respect to the recording or playback head. The frequencies used by video signals are so high that the tape/head speed is on the order of several meters per second (tens of feet per second), an order of magnitude faster than professional analog audio tape recording. The BBC solved the problem by using reels of magnetic tape that passed static heads at a speed of .
VERA was capable of recording about 15 minutes (e.g. 4,572 meters) of 405-line black-and-white video per reel, and the picture tended to wobble because of some jitter (uneven speed) of the tape transport. Later video recorders used a time base corrector to remove this jitter and make synchronization with the studio house possible.
In order to cope with 625-line PAL or SECAM colour transmissions VERA would likely have required an even faster, and possibly unfeasible, tape speed.
Development began in 1952, but VERA was not perfected until 1958. It was given a live demonstration on-air on Panorama on April 14, 1958; Richard Dimbleby, seated by a clock, talked for a couple of minutes about the new method of vision recording with instant playback, and then the tape was wound back and replayed. The picture was slightly watery, but reasonably watchable, and instant playback was something completely new.
However, by this time it had already been rendered obsolete by the Ampex quadruplex video recording system. This used wide tapes running at a speed of per second. The rapid tape-to-head speed of quadruplex videotape was achieved by spinning the heads rapidly on a drum: the system used, with variations, on all videotape systems ever since, as well as DAT.
The BBC scrapped VERA and quickly adopted the Ampex system. It has been suggested that the BBC only continued to develop VERA as a bargaining tool, so it would be offered some of the first Ampex machines produced in unstated exchange for abandoning further work on a potential rival, but the colossal disadvantages of VERA and its status as a technological dead-end make this seem highly unlikely.
See also
Helical scan
Notes
External links
BBC: The rise and rise of the video
Oldboys article including instruction manual and film footage
Chronomedia article
youtube.com VERA - Early Video Tape Recorder - Peter Axon interview 1958
videopreservation.conservation-us.org museum BBC's VERA (Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus)
birth-of-tv.org VERA 1958: Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus
Introduction to the video recorder, National Science and Media Museum blog
youtube.com VERA
rfwilmut.net BROADCAST VIDEO RECORDING
The History of Television, 1942 to 2000, By Albert Abramson, Christopher H. Sterling, page 83
youtube.com, Richard Dimbleby demonstrates the new BBC Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus in an edition of Panorama in April 1958.
Basic Radio & Television, 2/E, By Sharma, page 447
Audiovisual introductions in 1952
Videotape
History of television | [
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232782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish-Bentinck%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Portland | William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland | William Henry Cavendish Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, (14 April 173830 October 1809) was a British Whig and then a Tory politician during the late Georgian era. He served as Chancellor of the University of Oxford (1792–1809) and twice as the Prime Minister of Great Britain (1783) and then of the United Kingdom (1807–1809). The 24 years between his two terms as Prime Minister is the longest gap between terms of office of any British Prime Minister.
Portland was known before 1762 by the courtesy title Marquess of Titchfield. He held a title of every degree of British nobility: duke, marquess, earl, viscount and baron. He was the leader of the Portland Whigs faction, which broke with the Whig leadership of Charles James Fox and joined with William Pitt the Younger in the wake of the French Revolution.
Early life and education
Lord Titchfield was the eldest son of William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland and Margaret Cavendish-Harley and inherited many lands from his mother and his maternal grandmother, who was the widow of John Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated MA in 1757.
Marriage and children
On 8 November 1766, Portland married Lady Dorothy Cavendish, a daughter of William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire and Charlotte Boyle. They were parents of six children:
William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland (24 June 176827 March 1854).
Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (14 September 177417 June 1839).
Lady Charlotte Cavendish-Bentinck (2 October 177528 July 1862). Married Charles Greville, and they had three sons: Charles Cavendish Fulke Greville, Algernon Greville, and Henry William Greville (1801–1872), and a daughter, Harriet (1803–1870) m. Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere.
Lady Mary Cavendish-Bentinck (13 March 17796 November 1843).
Lord Charles Bentinck (20 May 178028 April 1826). Ancestor of the 6th and 7th dukes of Portland.
Lord Frederick Cavendish-Bentinck (2 November 178111 February 1828) married Lady Mary Lowther (died 1863), daughter of William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, 16 September 1820; had issue: George Cavendish-Bentinck, ancestor of the 8th and 9th dukes of Portland.
A stillborn baby, birthed at Burlington House on 20 October 1786.
Political and public offices
Portland was elected to sit in the Parliament of Great Britain for Weobley in 1761 before he entered the House of Lords after he succeeded his father as Duke of Portland the next year. He was associated with the aristocratic Whig Party of Lord Rockingham and served as Lord Chamberlain of the Household in Rockingham's first government (1765–1766).
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
Portland served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in Rockingham's second ministry (April–August 1782). He faced strong demands for conciliatory measures following years of coercion and taxation brought about by the British government's engagement in the American Revolutionary War. Portland resolved to make concessions and, overcoming the resistance of Lord Shelburne, the Home Secretary to whom he reported, convinced Parliament to repeal the Declaratory Act and to modify Poynings' Law. Following Rockingham's death, Portland resigned from Lord Shelburne's ministry along with other supporters of Charles James Fox.
First government
In April 1783, Portland was selected as the titular head of a coalition government as Prime Minister, whose real leaders were Charles James Fox and Lord North. He served as First Lord of the Treasury in the ministry until its fall in December that same year. During his tenure, the Treaty of Paris was signed, which formally ended the American Revolutionary War. The government was brought down after it had lost a vote in the House of Lords on its proposed reform of the East India Company after George III had let it be known that any peer voting for the measure would be considered his personal enemy.
In 1789, Portland became one of several vice presidents of London's Foundling Hospital. The charity had become one of the most fashionable of the time, with several notables serving on its board. At its creation, 50 years earlier, Portland's father, William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland, had been one of the founding governors, as listed on the charity's royal charter granted by George II. The hospital had a mission to care for the abandoned children in London, and it achieved rapid fame through its poignant mission, its art collection donated from supporting artists and the popular benefit concerts by George Frideric Handel. In 1793, Portland took over the presidency of the charity from Lord North.
Home secretary
Along with many other conservative Whigs such as Edmund Burke, Portland was deeply uncomfortable with the French Revolution; he broke with Fox over that issue and joined Pitt's government as Secretary of State for the Home Department in 1794. In that role he oversaw the administration of patronage and financial inducements, which were often secret, to secure the passage of the Act of Union 1800. He continued to serve in the cabinet until Pitt's death in 1806, from 1801 to 1805 as Lord President of the Council and then as a Minister without Portfolio.
Second government
In March 1807, after the collapse of the Ministry of all the Talents, Pitt's supporters returned to power, and Portland was once again an acceptable figurehead for a fractious group of ministers that included George Canning, Lord Castlereagh, Lord Hawkesbury and Spencer Perceval.
Portland's second government saw the United Kingdom's complete isolation on the continent but also the beginning of its recovery with the start of the Peninsular War. In late 1809, with Portland's health poor and the ministry rocked by the scandalous duel between Canning and Castlereagh, Portland resigned and died shortly thereafter.
He was Recorder of Nottingham until his death.
Death and burial
He died on 30 October 1809 at Burlington House, Piccadilly, after an operation for the stone, and was buried at St Marylebone Parish Church, London.
He had lived expensively: with an income of £17,000 a year (worth £577,000 in 2005), he had debts at his death computed at £52,000 (£1.76 million in 2005), which were paid off by his succeeding son by selling off some property, including Bulstrode.
Along with Sir Robert Peel, Lord Aberdeen, Benjamin Disraeli, William Ewart Gladstone, Marquess of Salisbury, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Bonar Law and Neville Chamberlain, he was the first of nine British prime ministers to die while his direct successor was in office.
Legacy
The Portland Vase of Roman glass was given its name because it was owned by Portland at his family residence at Bulstrode Park.
Portland Parish, in Jamaica, was named after him. The Titchfield School, founded in 1786, is in the parish and is also named in his honour. The school's crest is derived from the his personal crest.
Two major streets in Marylebone are named after the him: Portland Place and Great Portland Street. Both were built on land that he once owned.
North Bentinck Arm and South Bentinck Arm were named for the Bentinck family by George Vancouver in 1793, along with other names on the British Columbia Coast, such as Portland Canal and Portland Channel.
The department of Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham holds a number of papers relating to the him. His personal and political papers (Pw F) are part of the Portland (Welbeck) Collection, and the Portland (London) Collection (Pl) contains his correspondence and official papers, especially in series Pl C.
The Portland Estate Papers held at Nottinghamshire Archives also contain items relating to the 3rd Duke's properties.
The Portland Collection of fine and decorative art includes pieces owned and commissioned by him, including paintings by George Stubbs.
Arms
Cabinets as Prime Minister
First Ministry, April – December 1783
The Duke of Portland—First Lord of the Treasury
Lord Stormont—Lord President of the Council
Lord Carlisle—Lord Privy Seal
Lord North—Secretary of State for the Home Department
Charles James Fox—Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
The Viscount Keppel—First Lord of the Admiralty
Lord John Cavendish—Chancellor of the Exchequer
The Viscount Townshend—Master-General of the Ordnance
Lord Northington—Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
The Great Seal is in Commission
Second Ministry, March 1807October 1809
The Duke of Portland—First Lord of the Treasury
Lord Eldon—Lord Chancellor
Lord Camden—Lord President of the Council
Lord Westmorland—Lord Privy Seal
Lord Hawkesbury, after 1808, Lord Liverpool – Secretary of State for the Home Department
George Canning—Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
Lord Castlereagh—Secretary of State for War and the Colonies
Lord Mulgrave—First Lord of the Admiralty
Spencer Perceval—Chancellor of the Exchequer and of the Duchy of Lancaster
Lord Chatham—Master-General of the Ordnance
Lord Bathurst—President of the Board of Trade
Changes
July 1809—Lord Harrowby, the President of the Board of Control, and Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the Secretary at War, enter the Cabinet
Ancestry
References
External links
William Bentinck, Duke of Portland profile on the 10 Downing Street website
Biography of the 3rd Duke, with links to online catalogues, from Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham
1738 births
1809 deaths
19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom
People from Nottinghamshire
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
18th-century heads of government
19th-century heads of government
British MPs 1761–1768
British Secretaries of State
Chancellors of the University of Oxford
103
William, 3rd Duke of Portland
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Nottinghamshire
Lord Presidents of the Council
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom
Fellows of the Royal Society
Portland, Victoria
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
British landowners
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
Whig (British political party) MPs for English constituencies
Burials at St Marylebone Parish Church
Leaders of the House of Lords | [
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232783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODP | ODP | ODP may refer to:
Computing
Observer Design Pattern, a software design pattern
On Device Portal, a mobile application as service portal or content portal
Open Directory Project, a Web directory; later renamed to DMOZ
OpenDocument Presentation, a standard mobile electronic office documents file format with file extension
OpenDataPlane, a set of application programming interfaces for the networking data plane
Political parties
Ökologisch-Demokratische Partei (Ecological Democratic Party), a German political party
Özgürlük ve Dayanışma Partisi (Freedom and Solidarity Party), a Turkish political party
Oromo Democratic Party, a political party in Ethiopia
Companies
Office Depot, retail chain of office-supply stores in the United States; stock symbol (ODP)
Opening Day Partners, company that owns and operates various professional baseball teams in the United States
Other
Obstacle departure procedures, IFR standard instrument departure procedures in aviation for obstacle clearance
Ocean Drilling Program, an international research project
Omega Delta Phi, multicultural fraternity founded in the United States in 1987
Operating department practitioner, a person who plans and coordinates perioperative care in a department of a hospital in the United Kingdom
Orderly Departure Program, a program to resettle Vietnamese refugees in the United States
Ozone depletion potential in chemistry and pollution
See also
ÖDP (disambiguation)
RM-ODP, reference model of open distributed processing | [
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232784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachialis%20muscle | Brachialis muscle | The brachialis (brachialis anticus), also known as the Teichmann muscle, is a muscle in the upper arm that flexes the elbow. It lies deeper than the biceps brachii, and makes up part of the floor of the region known as the cubital fossa (elbow pit). The brachialis is the prime mover of elbow flexion generating about 50% more power than the biceps.
Structure
The brachialis originates from the anterior surface of the distal half of the humerus, near the insertion of the deltoid muscle, which it embraces by two angular processes. Its origin extends below to within 2.5 cm of the margin of the articular surface of the humerus at the elbow joint. Its fibers converge to a thick tendon, which is inserted into the tuberosity of the ulna
Blood supply
The brachialis is supplied by the Muscular branches of brachial artery and the recurrent radial artery.
Nerve supply
The brachialis muscle is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve, which runs on its superficial surface, between it and the biceps brachii. However, in 70-80% of people, the muscle has double innervation with the radial nerve (C5-T1). The divide between the two innervations is at the insertion of the deltoid.
Variation
The muscle is occasionally doubled; additional muscle slips to the supinator, pronator teres, biceps brachii, lacertus fibrosus, or radius are more rarely found.
Function
The brachialis flexes the arm at the elbow joint. Unlike the biceps, the brachialis does not insert on the radius, and does not participate in pronation and supination of the forearm.
History
Etymology
The brachialis muscle In classical Latin bracchialis means of or belonging to the arm, and is derived from classical Latin bracchium,"arm". The expression musculus brachialis is used in the current official anatomic nomenco Terminologia Anatomica''.
Additional images
See also
References
External links
Elbow flexors
Muscles of the upper limb | [
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232786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum%20life%20span | Maximum life span | Maximum life span (or, for humans, maximum reported age at death) is a measure of the maximum amount of time one or more members of a population have been observed to survive between birth and death. The term can also denote an estimate of the maximum amount of time that a member of a given species could survive between birth and death, provided circumstances that are optimal to that member's longevity.
Most living species have at least one upper limit on the number of times the cells of a member can divide. This is called the Hayflick limit, although the number of cell divisions does not strictly control lifespan.
Definition
In animal studies, maximum span is often taken to be the mean life span of the most long-lived 10% of a given cohort. By another definition, however, maximum life span corresponds to the age at which the oldest known member of a species or experimental group has died. Calculation of the maximum life span in the latter sense depends upon the initial sample size.
Maximum life span contrasts with mean life span (average life span, life expectancy), and longevity. Mean life span varies with susceptibility to disease, accident, suicide and homicide, whereas maximum life span is determined by "rate of aging". Longevity refers only to the characteristics of the especially long lived members of a population, such as infirmities as they age or compression of morbidity, and not the specific life span of an individual.
In humans
Demographic evidence
The longest living person whose dates of birth and death were verified according to the modern norms of Guinness World Records and the Gerontology Research Group was Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), a French woman who is verified to have lived to 122. Reduction of infant mortality has accounted for most of the increased average life span longevity, but since the 1960s mortality rates among those over 80 years have decreased by about 1.5% per year. "The progress being made in lengthening lifespans and postponing senescence is entirely due to medical and public-health efforts, rising standards of living, better education, healthier nutrition and more salubrious lifestyles." Animal studies suggest that further lengthening of median human lifespan as well as maximum lifespan could be achieved through "calorie restriction mimetic" drugs or by directly reducing food consumption. Although calorie restriction has not been proven to extend the maximum human life span , results in ongoing primate studies have demonstrated that the assumptions derived from rodents are valid in primates.
It has been proposed that no fixed theoretical limit to human longevity is apparent today. Studies in the biodemography of human longevity indicate a late-life mortality deceleration law: that death rates level off at advanced ages to a late-life mortality plateau. That is, there is no fixed upper limit to human longevity, or fixed maximal human lifespan. This law was first quantified in 1939, when researchers found that the one-year probability of death at advanced age asymptotically approaches a limit of 44% for women and 54% for men.
However, this evidence depends on the existence of a late-life plateaus and deceleration that can be explained, in humans and other species, by the existence of very rare errors. Age-coding error rates below 1 in 10,000 are sufficient to make artificial late-life plateaus, and errors below 1 in 100,000 can generate late-life mortality deceleration. These error rates cannot be ruled out by examining documents, the standard, because of successful pension fraud, identity theft, forgeries and errors that leave no documentary evidence. This capacity for errors to explain late-life plateaus solves the "fundamental question in aging research is whether humans and other species possess an immutable life-span limit" and suggests that a limit to human life span exists.
A theoretical study suggested the maximum human lifespan to be around 125 years using a modified stretched exponential function for human survival curves. The analysis of dynamics of the body mass in human population indicates extremums, which correspond to mean (70–75 years), the commonly accepted maximum (100–110 years) and maximum known (140–160 years) lifespan.
In another study, researchers claimed that there exists a maximum lifespan for humans, and that the human maximal lifespan has been declining since the 1990s. A theoretical study also suggested that the maximum human life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ, which is around 104 years.
The United Nations has undertaken an important Bayesian sensitivity analysis of global population burden based on life expectancy projection at birth in future decades. The 2017 95% prediction interval of 2090 average life expectancy rises as high as +6 (106, in Century Representation Form) by 2090, with dramatic, ongoing, layered consequences on world population and demography should that happen. The prediction interval is extremely wide, and the United Nations can not be certain. Organizations like the Methuselah Foundation are working toward an end to senescence and practically unlimited human lifespan. If successful, the demographic implications for human population will be greater in effective multiplier terms than any experienced in the last five centuries if maximum lifespan or the birthrate remain unlimited by law. Modern Malthusian predictions of overpopulation based on increased longevity have been criticized on the same basis as general population alarmism (see Malthusianism).
Non-demographic evidence
Evidence for maximum lifespan is also provided by the dynamics of physiological indices with age. For example, scientists have observed that a person's VO2max value (a measure of the volume of oxygen flow to the cardiac muscle) decreases as a function of age. Therefore, the maximum lifespan of a person could be determined by calculating when the person's VO2max value drops below the basal metabolic rate necessary to sustain life, which is approximately 3 ml per kg per minute. On the basis of this hypothesis, athletes with a VO2max value between 50 and 60 at age 20 would be expected "to live for 100 to 125 years, provided they maintained their physical activity so that their rate of decline in VO2max remained constant".
Longitudinal variations of physiological indices, as diverse as complete blood counts (CBC) or physical activity records collected by wearable devices, along individual aging trajectories revealed a linear increase of the organism state fluctuations range with age. The broadening could be explained by a progressive loss of physiological resilience measured by the inverse auto-correlation times of the organism state fluctuations. Extrapolation of this data suggested that organism state recovery time and variance could simultaneously diverge at a critical point of 120 – 150 years of age corresponding to a complete loss of resilience and hence should be incompatible with survival. The criticality resulting in the end of life is an intrinsic biological property of an organism that is independent of stress factors and signifies a fundamental or absolute limit of human lifespan.
In other animals
Small animals such as birds and squirrels rarely live to their maximum life span, usually dying of accidents, disease or predation.
The maximum life span of most species is documented in the Anage repository.
Maximum life span is usually longer for species that are larger or have effective defenses against predation, such as bird flight, chemical defenses or living in social groups.
The differences in life span between species demonstrate the role of genetics in determining maximum life span ("rate of aging"). The records (in years) are these:
for common house mouse, 4
for Brown rat, 3.8
for dogs, 29 (See List of oldest dogs)
for cats, 38 (See List of oldest cats)
for common cranes, 43
for polar bears, 42 (Debby)
for horses, 62
for Asian elephants, 86
The longest-lived vertebrates have been variously described as
Large parrots (macaws and cockatoos can live up to 80–100 years in captivity)
Koi (a Japanese species of fish, allegedly living up to 200 years, though generally not exceeding 50 – a specimen named Hanako was reportedly 226 years old upon her death)
Tortoises (Galápagos tortoise) (190 years)
Tuataras (a New Zealand reptile species, 100–200+ years)
Eels, the so-called Brantevik Eel (Swedish: Branteviksålen) is thought to have lived in a water well in southern Sweden since 1859, which makes it over 150 years old. It was reported that it had died in August 2014 at an age of 155.
Whales (bowhead whale) (Balaena mysticetus about 200 years)—Although this idea was unproven for a time, recent research has indicated that bowhead whales recently killed still had harpoons in their bodies from about 1890, which, along with analysis of amino acids, has indicated a maximum life span of "177 to 245 years old".
Greenland sharks are currently the vertebrate species with the longest known lifespan. An examination of 28 specimens in one study published in 2016 determined by radiocarbon dating that the oldest of the animals that they sampled had lived for about 392 ± 120 years (a minimum of 272 years and a maximum of 512 years). The authors further concluded that the species reaches sexual maturity at about 150 years of age.
Invertebrate species which continue to grow as long as they live (e.g., certain clams, some coral species) can on occasion live hundreds of years:
A bivalve mollusk (Arctica islandica) (aka "Ming", lived 507±2 years.)
Exceptions
Some jellyfish species, including Turritopsis dohrnii, Laodicea undulata, and Aurelia sp.1, are able to revert to the polyp stage even after reproducing (so-called reversible life cycle), rather than dying as in other jellyfish. Consequently, these species are considered biologically immortal and have no maximum lifespan.
There may be no natural limit to the Hydra's life span, but it is not yet clear how to estimate the age of a specimen.
Flatworms, or Platyhelminthes, are known to be "almost immortal" as they have a great regeneration capacity, continuous growth and binary fission type cellular division.
Lobsters are sometimes said to be biologically immortal because they do not seem to slow down, weaken, or lose fertility with age. However, due to the energy needed for moulting, they cannot live indefinitely.
Tardigrades can live indefinitely in a state of suspended animation, a state which they enter when they are not hydrated. In this state, they can withstand an extremely large number of environmental pressures, including intense radioactivity and heat, and being sent into space. Despite this, they can only live in a hydrated state for a few months.
In plants
Plants are referred to as annuals which live only one year, biennials which live two years, and perennials which live longer than that. The longest-lived perennials, woody-stemmed plants such as trees and bushes, often live for hundreds and even thousands of years (one may question whether or not they may die of old age). A giant sequoia, General Sherman is alive and well in its third millennium. A Great Basin Bristlecone Pine called Methuselah is years old and the Bristlecone Pine called Prometheus was a little older still, at least 4,844 years (and possibly as old as 5,000 years), when it was cut down in 1964. The oldest known plant (possibly oldest living thing) is a clonal Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) tree colony in the Fishlake National Forest in Utah called Pando at about 80,000 years. Lichen, a symbiotic algae and fungal proto-plant, such as Rhizocarpon geographicum can live upwards of 10,000 years.
Increasing maximum life span
"Maximum life span" here means the mean life span of the most long-lived 10% of a given cohort. Caloric restriction has not yet been shown to break mammalian world records for longevity. Rats, mice, and hamsters experience maximum life-span extension from a diet that contains all of the nutrients but only 40–60% of the calories that the animals consume when they can eat as much as they want. Mean life span is increased 65% and maximum life span is increased 50%, when caloric restriction is begun just before puberty. For fruit flies the life extending benefits of calorie restriction are gained immediately at any age upon beginning calorie restriction and ended immediately at any age upon resuming full feeding.
A few transgenic strains of mice have been created that have maximum life spans greater than that of wild-type or laboratory mice. The Ames and Snell mice, which have mutations in pituitary transcription factors and hence are deficient in Gh, LH, TSH, and secondarily IGF1, have extensions in maximal lifespan of up to 65%. To date, both in absolute and relative terms, these Ames and Snell mice have the maximum lifespan of any mouse not on caloric restriction (see below on GhR). Mutations/knockout of other genes affecting the GH/IGF1 axis, such as Lit, Ghr and Irs1 have also shown extension in lifespan, but much more modest both in relative and absolute terms. The longest lived laboratory mouse ever was a Ghr knockout mouse, which lived to ≈1800 days in the lab of Andrzej Bartke at Southern Illinois University. The maximum for normal B6 mice under ideal conditions is 1200 days.
Most biomedical gerontologists believe that biomedical molecular engineering will eventually extend maximum lifespan and even bring about rejuvenation. Anti-aging drugs are a potential tool for extending life.
Aubrey de Grey, a theoretical gerontologist, has proposed that aging can be reversed by strategies for engineered negligible senescence. De Grey has established The Methuselah Mouse Prize to award money to researchers who can extend the maximum life span of mice. So far, three Mouse Prizes have been awarded: one for breaking longevity records to Dr. Andrzej Bartke of Southern Illinois University (using GhR knockout mice); one for late-onset rejuvenation strategies to Dr. Stephen Spindler of the University of California (using caloric restriction initiated late in life); and one to Dr. Z. Dave Sharp for his work with the pharmaceutical rapamycin.
Correlation with DNA repair capacity
Accumulated DNA damage appears to be a limiting factor in the determination of maximum life span. The theory that DNA damage is the primary cause of aging, and thus a principal determinant of maximum life span, has attracted increased interest in recent years. This is based, in part, on evidence in human and mouse that inherited deficiencies in DNA repair genes often cause accelerated aging. There is also substantial evidence that DNA damage accumulates with age in mammalian tissues, such as those of the brain, muscle, liver and kidney (reviewed by Bernstein et al. and see DNA damage theory of aging and DNA damage (naturally occurring)). One expectation of the theory (that DNA damage is the primary cause of aging) is that among species with differing maximum life spans, the capacity to repair DNA damage should correlate with lifespan. The first experimental test of this idea was by Hart and Setlow who measured the capacity of cells from seven different mammalian species to carry out DNA repair. They found that nucleotide excision repair capability increased systematically with species longevity. This correlation was striking and stimulated a series of 11 additional experiments in different laboratories over succeeding years on the relationship of nucleotide excision repair and life span in mammalian species (reviewed by Bernstein and Bernstein). In general, the findings of these studies indicated a good correlation between nucleotide excision repair capacity and life span. The association between nucleotide excision repair capability and longevity is strengthened by the evidence that defects in nucleotide excision repair proteins in humans and rodents cause features of premature aging, as reviewed by Diderich.
Further support for the theory that DNA damage is the primary cause of aging comes from study of Poly ADP ribose polymerases (PARPs). PARPs are enzymes that are activated by DNA strand breaks and play a role in DNA base excision repair. Burkle et al. reviewed evidence that PARPs, and especially PARP-1, are involved in maintaining mammalian longevity. The life span of 13 mammalian species correlated with poly(ADP ribosyl)ation capability measured in mononuclear cells. Furthermore, lymphoblastoid cell lines from peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans over age 100 had a significantly higher poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation capability than control cell lines from younger individuals.
Research data
A comparison of the heart mitochondria in rats (7-year maximum life span) and pigeons (35-year maximum life span) showed that pigeon mitochondria leak fewer free-radicals than rat mitochondria, despite the fact that both animals have similar metabolic rate and cardiac output
For mammals there is a direct relationship between mitochondrial membrane fatty acid saturation and maximum life span
Studies of the liver lipids of mammals and a bird (pigeon) show an inverse relationship between maximum life span and number of double bonds
Selected species of birds and mammals show an inverse relationship between telomere rate of change (shortening) and maximum life span
Maximum life span correlates negatively with antioxidant enzyme levels and free-radicals production and positively with rate of DNA repair
Female mammals express more Mn−SOD and glutathione peroxidase antioxidant enzymes than males. This has been hypothesized as the reason they live longer However, mice entirely lacking in glutathione peroxidase 1 do not show a reduction in lifespan.
The maximum life span of transgenic mice has been extended about 20% by overexpression of human catalase targeted to mitochondria
A comparison of 7 non-primate mammals (mouse, hamster, rat, guinea-pig, rabbit, pig and cow) showed that the rate of mitochondrial superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production in heart and kidney were inversely correlated with maximum life span
A study of 8 non-primate mammals showed an inverse correlation between maximum life span and oxidative damage to mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) in heart & brain
A study of several species of mammals and a bird (pigeon) indicated a linear relationship between oxidative damage to protein and maximum life span
There is a direct correlation between DNA repair and maximum life span for mammalian species
Drosophila (fruit-flies) bred for 15 generations by only using eggs that were laid toward the end of reproductive life achieved maximum life spans 30% greater than that of controls
Overexpression of the enzyme which synthesizes glutathione in long-lived transgenic Drosophila (fruit-flies) extended maximum lifespan by nearly 50%
A mutation in the age−1 gene of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans increased mean life span 65% and maximum life span 110%. However, the degree of lifespan extension in relative terms by both the age-1 and daf-2 mutations is strongly dependent on ambient temperature, with ≈10% extension at 16 °C and 65% extension at 27 °C.
Fat-specific Insulin Receptor KnockOut (FIRKO) mice have reduced fat mass, normal calorie intake and an increased maximum life span of 18%.
The capacity of mammalian species to detoxify the carcinogenic chemical benzo(a)pyrene to a water-soluble form also correlates well with maximum life span.
Short-term induction of oxidative stress due to calorie restriction increases life span in Caenorhabditis elegans by promoting stress defense, specifically by inducing an enzyme called catalase. As shown by Michael Ristow and co-workers nutritive antioxidants completely abolish this extension of life span by inhibiting a process called mitohormesis.
See also
Ageing
Aging brain
American Aging Association
Aubrey de Grey
Biodemography
Biological immortality
Calorie restriction
Compression of morbidity
DNA damage theory of aging
Extreme longevity tracking
Genetics of aging
Gerontology
Hayflick limit
Indefinite lifespan
Life expectancy
Life extension
List of long-living organisms
Longevity
Methuselah Mouse Prize
Michael Ristow
Mitohormesis
Oldest people
Senescence
Strategies for engineered negligible senescence (SENS)
References
External links
Anage Database
Informational website on the biology of aging
Mechanisms of Aging
Actuarial science
Senescence | [
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232791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimmick | Gimmick | A gimmick is a novel device or idea designed primarily to attract attention or increase appeal, often with little intrinsic value. When applied to retail marketing, it is a unique or quirky feature designed to make a product or service "stand out" from its competitors. Product gimmicks are sometimes considered mere novelties, and tangential to the product's functioning. Gimmicks are occasionally viewed negatively, but some seemingly trivial gimmicks of the past have evolved into useful, permanent features. The term is also sometimes used to describe unusual features or playstyles in video games, usually if they are unnecessary or obnoxious.
Etymology
The origin of the term "gimmick" is uncertain. Etymologists suggest that the term emerged in the United States in the early 20th century. The Oxford Dictionary suggests that it may have originally been a slang term for something that a con artist or magician manipulated to make appearances different from reality and gradually changed its meaning to refer to any ‘piece of magicians' apparatus’. The word itself may be an approximate anagram of the word magic. Another possible origin is that it may have come into use among the gaming tables, where it came to refer to "a device used for making a fair game crooked". The term first appeared in American newspapers in the 1910s and 1920s.
Examples
In marketing, the use of gimmicks can be an important part of the sales promotions effort. However, finding a successful gimmick for an otherwise mundane product can be challenging as it requires some effort to match the promotional objectives with the gimmick and select items which will ideally contribute to enduring brand recall.
Many different types of gimmicks are used in sales promotion and product design. For example, toothbrushes are often given certain gimmicks, such as bright colors, easy-grip handles, or color-changing bristles so they appear more interesting to consumers. This is often done in an attempt to appeal to children, who are often more interested in the gimmick than the product. Musicians often adopt visual gimmicks that do not affect their music, such as Slash's top hat, Angus Young's schoolboy uniform, make-up used by KISS, and deadmau5's mouse helmet. Gimmicks within a musical context are a central characteristic of the novelty song.
Special Design Features, e.g. toothbrushes that change color when they are about to wear out (signaling that the consumer needs to repurchase)
Novel packaging, e.g. packaging that has residual value once the original contents have been consumed such as a jam/coffee jar that can be reused as a drinking vessel or storage container
Add-on gifts or give-aways, e.g. toys included in children's fast food meal packs, cover mounts on magazines, toy in a cereal box
Any novel or unexpected sales promotion
Failed gimmicks
In 1992, the British division of The Hoover Company launched a disastrous promotional campaign which promised free airline tickets to purchasers of its appliances. The division lost £50 million as a result and was eventually sold.
In Poland in 1997, certain tobacco companies were using young sales representatives, traveling around in flashy company branded vehicles, to work clubs and venues where they gave away free cigarettes to patrons as part of the promotional effort. The sales and marketing team at Phillip Morris decided to add another gimmick to the sampling by having the sales reps use trick matches which lit with a simple scratch on jeans. In one case, the stocks of matches carried in a vehicle caught fire killing two sales reps and seriously injuring another. The incident created public relations problems for the company.
In 1999, a Casa Sanchez Foods restaurant in California offered free lunch for life to anyone with a tattoo of its logo, a boy in a sombrero riding an ear of corn. More than 40 fans turned up with the tattoo claiming their reward, and the owners estimated that this could cost the business $5.8 million over 50 years (calculated at $8 per day, per customer). After running the numbers, the company decided to cap the number of people who could obtain the deal. The promotion returned in March 2010.
See also
Marketing strategy
Publicity stunt
References
Product management
20th-century neologisms
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232794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Petersson | Tom Petersson | Thomas John Peterson, better known as Tom Petersson, is an American musician who is best known for being the bass guitar player for the rock band Cheap Trick.
Career
Before joining Cheap Trick, Petersson played in a number of bands, including the Bol Weevils, the Grim Reapers, Sick Man of Europe, and Fuse. He started out playing electric guitar, but soon switched to bass. His professional career has been closely entwined with Cheap Trick guitarist Rick Nielsen since the Grim Reapers in 1967, and the two co-founded Cheap Trick in 1974.
During Cheap Trick's classic period, Petersson started playing the 12 string bass guitar, an instrument he conceived and developed in collaboration with luthiers at Hamer Guitars. Petersson left Cheap Trick in August 1980, shortly before the release of the album All Shook Up. He worked with his then-wife Dagmar on material for a solo album, which was eventually released in 1984 as the six-song EP Tom Peterson and Another Language. Petersson also toured with Carmine Appice in 1982. From 1985 to 1987 he joined Pete Comita, who had briefly replaced him in Cheap Trick, in a reformed version of his early band Sick Man of Europe, which also included songwriter Janna Allen. Petersson rejoined Cheap Trick in 1987 and has remained with the band ever since.
Outside of Cheap Trick, Petersson has worked with artists such as Donovan, Willie Nelson, Mick Jagger, Harry Nilsson (unused tracks for the Every Man Has a Woman album), Bill Lloyd, Frank Black, Concrete Blonde, Foster and Lloyd, Edan Everly, Coinship, and members of The Mavericks. Petersson also appeared in The Ramones' 1986 music video "Something to Believe In".
Personal life
Petersson and his wife Alison have two children, son Liam and daughter Lilah. In 2014, Tom and Alison founded Rock Your Speech to promote awareness and understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorder, and to use music to help children overcome speech difficulties associated with autism.
Petersson is a serious guitar collector, owning a wide variety of guitars and basses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.premierguitar.com/articles/GALLERY_Tom_Peterssons_Bass_Collection|title=GALLERY: Tom Peterssons Bass Collection|website=Premierguitar.com|access-date=2017-07-27}}</ref> He prominently used a vintage Gibson Thunderbird bass as his main stage instrument for many years, until a girlfriend threw it out of a hotel window during an argument. Professionally he has endorsed a number of different bass brands during his career, including Hamer, Chandler, Waterstone, Electrical Guitar Company, Hofner, and Mike Lull. He currently plays Gretsch basses, including a pair of his distinctive Falcon signature 12-string basses (one in green, one in white), which Petersson endorses and which have now become a production model.
References
BibliographyReputation Is a Fragile Thing: The Story of Cheap Trick''; Mike Hayes with Ken Sharp, published by Poptastic, 1998,
External links
Official Cheap Trick website
Living people
American rock bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Songwriters from Illinois
Cheap Trick members
People from Winnebago County, Illinois
Place of birth missing (living people)
Guitarists from Illinois
20th-century American guitarists
Enigma Records artists
1950 births | [
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232795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Park%3A%20Bigger%2C%20Longer%20%26%20Uncut | South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut | South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut is a 1999 American adult computer-animated musical comedy film based on the animated sitcom South Park. The film was directed by series creator Trey Parker from a screenplay by Parker, series co-creator Matt Stone, and Pam Brady; and stars Parker, Stone, Mary Kay Bergman, and Isaac Hayes, all of whom reprise their roles from the series, with George Clooney, Eric Idle, and Mike Judge in supporting roles. The plot follows Stan, Kyle, Cartman, and Kenny as they sneak into an R-rated film starring the Canadian comedy duo Terrance and Phillip, after which they begin swearing. When the consequent moral panic culminates in the United States declaring war on Canada, Stan, Kyle and Cartman take it upon themselves to save Terrance and Phillip from execution, while Kenny tries to prevent a prophecy involving Satan and Saddam Hussein's intent to conquer the world.
Primarily centered on themes of censorship and scapegoating, the film also parodies and satirizes the animated films of the Disney Renaissance, musicals such as Les Misérables, and controversies surrounding the series itself. The film also heavily satirizes the Motion Picture Association of America; during production, Parker and Stone disputed with the MPAA, which returned the film multiple times with an NC-17 rating due to its use of profanity. The film's songs were written by Parker and Marc Shaiman, the latter of whom composed the score.
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut premiered at Grauman's Chinese Theater on June 23, 1999 and was released theatrically in North America the following week by Paramount Pictures, with Warner Bros. Pictures handling international distribution. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised its story, soundtrack, humor and themes. Produced on a $21 million budget, it grossed $83.1 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing R-rated animated film until 2016. At the 72nd Academy Awards, the song "Blame Canada" was nominated for Best Original Song, but lost to Phil Collins' "You'll Be in My Heart" from Tarzan.
Plot
One morning in South Park, Colorado, Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski and his adopted brother Ike, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick visit the movie theater to see Terrance and Phillip's new film, Asses of Fire. When they are denied tickets to the R-rated film, the boys pay a homeless man to accompany them. After watching the film, the boys begin swearing constantly. Their friends are impressed and also decide to see the film, except for Wendy Testaburger, who becomes acquainted with transfer student Gregory, to Stan's jealousy.
When the children's parents find out, they are forbidden from seeing the film again, but do so multiple times. As a bet with Cartman, Kenny sets his fart on fire, imitating a scene from the film; he accidentally immolates himself and is rushed to the hospital, where he dies from a botched heart transplant. Barred from Heaven, Kenny descends into Hell, wherein he encounters Satan and his abusive partner Saddam Hussein. Meanwhile, Kyle's mother, Sheila, forms the Mothers Against Canada (M.A.C.) movement with other parents. Terrance and Phillip are arrested as war criminals; when the United States refuses to release them, Canada bombs the Baldwins in retaliation. The US declares war on Canada and arranges to have Terrance and Phillip executed during a USO show. After insulting Sheila, Cartman is implanted with a V-chip, which administers an electric shock whenever he swears.
Satan prophesies that the war is a sign of the apocalypse and upon Terrance and Phillip's deaths, he will invade and conquer Earth. After failing to persuade Satan to abandon Saddam, Kenny's ghost visits Cartman to warn him. Unable to reason with their mothers, Stan, Kyle, and Cartman form a resistance movement with their classmates to rescue Terrance and Phillip. At Gregory's behest, they recruit the French-accented, misotheistic Cristophe, nicknamed "the Mole." Kyle later hides Ike in their family's attic as Canadians are sent to internment camps. After they infiltrate the show, Stan and Kyle are tasked with stalling the execution, while Cartman attempts to deactivate the alarm as the Mole prepares to secure Terrance and Phillip. However, Kenny's ghost reappears before Cartman, frightening him into forgetting his task. The Mole is discovered and fatally mauled by guard dogs.
The remaining boys try to warn their mothers about Satan's prophecy, but are ignored as the execution commences. The execution is interrupted when Canada launches a surprise attack, resulting in a massive battle between the two armies. Cartman deactivates the electrical switch, allowing Terrance and Phillip to escape; the shock from the switch causes his V-chip to malfunction. Stan chases after them, but is knocked out in an explosion. Members of M.A.C., horrified at what they incited, decide to abandon their cause, with only Sheila remaining committed.
Stan reawakens before a sentient clitoris, who tells him to be self-confident to gain Wendy's affection. Stan leads the others to Terrance and Phillip, whom the US Army have cornered. The children form a human shield as Kyle tries to reason with Sheila, faulting her for scapegoating others for his mistakes. While the soldiers begin to back down, Sheila refuses and shoots Terrance and Phillip dead, fulfilling Satan's prophecy. Saddam usurps Satan and demands that everyone bow to him. When Saddam insults Cartman, the latter's retort releases bolts of energy from his hands. Subsequently, Cartman engages in profanity-laden tirades to attack Saddam, who continues to verbally abuse Satan. Satan becomes enraged and throws Saddam back into Hell, where he is impaled on a stalagmite.
Grateful for Kenny's support, Satan grants him one wish. Kenny wishes for everything to return to a pre-war state, and parts with his friends before disappearing. South Park is restored as the casualties, including Terrance and Phillip, are undone. As Americans and Canadians make peace, Sheila reconciles with Kyle, as does Wendy with Stan. For his sacrifice, Kenny is allowed entry into Heaven.
Cast
Trey Parker as Stan Marsh / Eric Cartman / Gregory / Satan / Mr. Garrison / Mr. Hat / Phillip Niles Argyle / Randy Marsh / Clyde Donovan / Tom – News Reporter / Midget in a Bikini / Bill Clinton / Canadian Ambassador / Bombardiers / Mr. Mackey / Army General / Ned Gerblansky / Christophe – Ze Mole (or The Mole) / Big Gay Al (singing voice) / Adolf Hitler / additional voices
Matt Stone as Kyle Broflovski / Kenny McCormick (Hooded) / Saddam Hussein (credited to "Himself") / Terrance Henry Stoot / Big Gay Al / Ticket Taker / Stuart McCormick / Jimbo Kearn / Gerald Broflovski / Butters Stotch / American Ambassador / additional voices
Mary Kay Bergman as Liane Cartman / Sheila Broflovski / Sharon Marsh / Carol McCormick / Wendy Testaburger / Clitoris / additional voices
Isaac Hayes as Chef Jerome McElroy
Jesse Howell, Anthony Cross-Thomas and Franchesca Clifford as Ike Broflovski (Franchesca Clifford was credited as "Francesca Clifford")
Bruce Howell as Man in Theatre
Deb Adair as Woman in Theatre
Jennifer Howell as Bebe Stevens
George Clooney as Dr. Gouache ("Dr. Doctor" on screen)
Brent Spiner as Conan O'Brien
Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields
Dave Foley as the Baldwin brothers
Eric Idle as Dr. Vosknocker
Nick Rhodes as Canadian Fighter Pilot
Toddy E. Walters as Winona Ryder
Stewart Copeland as American Soldier #1
Stanley G. Sawicki as American Soldier #2
Mike Judge as Kenny McCormick (Unhooded)
Howard McGillin as Gregory (singing voice) (uncredited)
Production
Development
Development for the film began during production of South Parks first season in January 1998. Co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone signed a deal with Comedy Central that April which contracted the duo to produce episodes until 1999, as well as an unspecified amount to produce a film based on the series. Part of Parker and Stone's conditions were that the film must at least receive an R rating, keeping it in line with the series' humor and the short films which inspired it. Parker stated that their desire was to approach the film from a more creative perspective and do more than a simple feature length episode. Despite alleged pressure from Paramount Pictures executives to tone down the film, Parker and Stone's conditions were eventually met.
"They really wanted to be able to go beyond the South Park television show," Comedy Central spokesman Tony Fox reported to TV Guide. "They really fought hard for and won the right to make an R-rated movie." Paramount executives went as far to prepare graphs displaying how much more revenue a PG-13-rated South Park film would potentially generate. The William Morris Agency, which represented Parker and Stone, pushed for the film's production to begin as soon as possible, while public interest was still high, instead of several years into its run, as was the case with Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996).
Casting
As in the television series, most of the characters are voiced by Parker, Stone, and Mary Kay Bergman. Isaac Hayes reprised his role as Chef, and audio samples of staff children Jesse Howell, Anthony Cross-Thomas and Franchesca Clifford were used for the voice of Ike Broflovski. Guest voices for the film include George Clooney as Dr. Gouache, Brent Spiner as Conan O'Brien, Minnie Driver as Brooke Shields, Eric Idle as Dr. Vosnocker, and Dave Foley as brothers Alec, Billy, Daniel and Stephen Baldwin.
Michael McDonald, who performs the closing track "Eyes of a Child", performs Satan's high notes in "Up There", and Howard McGillin provides Gregory's singing voice in "La Résistance (Medley)". Former The Police drummer Stewart Copeland voices a United States Army soldier. Mike Judge, creator of Beavis and Butt-Head and King of the Hill, provides Kenny's voice in his sole speaking appearance at the end of the film. Although initially denied by Paramount, Metallica vocalist James Hetfield performs the track "Hell Isn't Good", which was confirmed by Parker in the 2009 Blu-ray commentary.
Writing
The first season episode "Death" heavily influenced the film's screenplay; both plots center on the parents of South Park protesting Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children. Parker stated, "After about the first year of South Park, Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie, and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of thing." During this time, the team was also busy with the second and third seasons of the series, the former of which Parker and Stone later described as "disastrous". As such, perceiving that the initial fervor would wane, they decided to write the film as a personal, fully committed musical.
Animation
The film was animated using Alias|Wavefront PowerAnimator, running on SGI O2 and Octane workstations. Characters and individual scene elements were designed with texture mapping and shading that, when rendered, resemble the cutout animation of the short films and the series' first episode. The animation crew used a multiprocessor SGI Origin 2000 and 31 multiprocessor Origin 200 servers for both rendering and asset management. Backgrounds, characters and other items could be saved separately or as fully composited scenes, with convenient access at later points. "By creating flat characters and backgrounds in a 3D environment, we are able to add textures and lighting effects that give the film a cut-out construction paper stop-motion style which would have taken many more months if done traditionally," stated line producer Gina Shay. By the fifth season, the series transitioned to Maya. The studio now runs a 120-processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots per hour. The animation of South Park: Bigger, Longer, & Uncut is therefore seen as an example of how South Parks visual quality has improved in recent seasons. In the audio commentary on the 2009 Blu-ray release, Stone and Parker criticize how "bad and time consuming" the animation was during that time. IGN described the animation as "fall[ing] somewhere within the middle ground—not quite cardboard cutouts, but not quite fully computerized either." Nate Boss, in a review for High-Def Digest, commented, "There is no comparing the two, as the movie has a classic (for South Park, at least) animated feel, so full of the cut-outs we have grown to love, while the newer seasons sport a more computer processed feel." The film, compared to the series at the time of its production, was animated in widescreen (1.66:1). "Although the 'primitive' animation of South Park is supposedly a joke, it's really a secret weapon," wrote Stephanie Zacharek of Salon. "The simplicity of Parker and Stone's technique is what makes it so effective."
Post-production
The crew alternated between the film and the series, pushing both to scheduling extremes; changes to the film were made as late as two weeks before its release as the crew continually disputed with Paramount: "They wanted a Disney kind of trailer. We said no. They put together a totally un-South Park MTV video for the song 'What Would Brian Boitano Do?'. We had to go make our own version." Paramount's first trailer for the film advertised it, according to Parker, as "the laughiest movie of the summer", and promoted it in a way that South Park "was completely against". Parker and Stone told the studio of their dissatisfaction with the trailer, and upon the creation of a second trailer with minimal changes, the two broke the videocassette in half before returning it to the studio. "It was war," said Stone in 2000. "They were saying, 'Are you telling us how to do our job?' And I was going, 'Yes, because you're fucking stupid and you don't know what you're doing.'" In another instance, Paramount used the film's songs to create a music video for MTV. In accordance with broadcast standards, various parts were edited out; Parker described the final result as a "horrible little medley with all humor absent". The studio sent the original tape to Parker and Stone over the weekend with plans to send it to MTV on Monday to prepare it for a Wednesday airdate. Instead, Stone took the tape home, and Paramount threatened to sue Parker and Stone in response. Parker also noted that the title is an innuendo, and that "they (the MPAA) just didn't get it".
Music
The film's songs were written by Parker and Marc Shaiman; Shaiman also composed the film's score. The fourteen songs in the film recall various Broadway musicals. The soundtrack also parodies many familiar Disney conventions, with several songs spoofing such films as Beauty and the Beast and The Little Mermaid. "Mountain Town" has been compared to Oklahoma! and Beauty and the Beasts "Belle", while "La Résistance (Medley)" was favorably compared to Les Misérables. "I'm Super" recalls "Be Our Guest" and South Pacifics "Honey Bun", and "Kyle's Mom's a Bitch" echoes Chitty Chitty Bang Bang; "Up There", "I Can Change" and the "Mountain Town (Reprise)" recall The Little Mermaids "Part of Your World", "Poor Unfortunate Souls" and "Part of Your World (Finale)"; and "Uncle Fucka" also drew comparisons to Oklahoma!, particulatly in its coda. "Hell Isn't Good", which accompanies Kenny's descent to Hell, was sung by an uncredited James Hetfield.
The soundtrack received critical acclaim, with Entertainment Weekly describing it as "a cast album that gleefully sends up all the Hollywood musical conventions we're being deprived of." The soundtrack was released June 15, 1999 by Atlantic Records. "Blame Canada" was frequently highlighted as one of the best songs in the album and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. "I was like, 'We're going to get nominated for an Academy Award for this.' I really was," Parker said. "I even told him [Shaiman]." Shaiman spoke of the song, "We're making fun of people who pick ridiculous targets to blame anything about what's going on in their lives, so Canada was just the perfect, ridiculous, innocuous choice for a target." In 2011, Time called the soundtrack the "finest, sassiest full-movie musical score since the disbanding of the Freed unit at MGM."
Release
Paramount and Warner Bros. Pictures (whose respective parent companies Viacom and Time Warner formerly jointly owned Comedy Central) collaborated in distributing the film; Paramount released the film in the United States, while Warner Bros. distributed the film internationally.
The film was rated R for "pervasive vulgar language and crude sexual humor, and for some violent images" by the Motion Picture Association of America. The board's objections to the film were described in highly specific terms in private memos by Paramount executives. The MPAA initially insisted on the more prohibitive NC-17 rating. Of the six times the film was screened to the MPAA, it was designated NC-17 after five screenings, the last of which was two weeks before its scheduled release. A marketing agent from Paramount called Parker and Stone and explained that the studio "needed" an R. In response, Stone contacted producer Scott Rudin, who in turn called a Paramount executive and, in Stone's words, "freaked out on them". The film's rating was lowered to R the following day, with the original film intact. "The ratings board only cared about the dirty words; they're so confused and arbitrary," said Parker to The New York Times. "They didn't blink twice because of violence." During production of the film's trailer, the MPAA objected to certain words but found no issue with a scene in which soldiers are shot dead. "They had a problem with words, not bullets," he said. The MPAA gave Paramount specific notes for the film; in contrast, Parker and Stone's NC-17-rated Orgazmo, released in 1998 by Rogue Pictures, was not given any specifications on how to be acceptable for an R rating. The duo attributed the R rating to the fact that Paramount and Warner Bros. are both members of the MPAA; the former denied these claims. In the United Kingdom, the film was given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification for "frequent coarse language and crude sexual references" with no edits made. In Australia, it was rated MA15+ (Mature accompanied for those under 15) by the Australian Classification Board. In Canada, the film received 18A and 14A certificates in most provinces, and a 13+ certificate in Quebec.
As predicted through the characters' actions in the film, there were numerous news reports of underage patrons unsuccessfully attempting to sneak into the film. There were also reports of adolescents seeing the film under the pretense of purchasing tickets to Wild Wild West, which was released on the same date. This was a result of an industry-wide crackdown on such attempts, as proposed by President Bill Clinton in response to the moral panic generated by the Columbine High School massacre two months before the film's release. The film was cited, along with American Pie, as an explicit film released in the summer of 1999 tempting underage youth to sneak into theaters. There were similar reports of the film attracting an underage crowd when the film was released in the United Kingdom in August 1999.
Amidst the aftermath of Columbine in relation to the film's release, Parker was questioned whether he felt "youth culture [was] under fire", to which he commented: "[I]t's amazingly strange, because that climate is what the movie is all about, and we wrote it more than a year ago. So when [Columbine] happened, we were like, 'Wow.' What we wrote about in this movie came true in terms of people's attitudes. The movie is also about war, and then that happened, too." Hayes responded to conservatives urging prudishness as a cure for society's ills: "If we give in to that and allow [entertainment] to become a scapegoat, you might wind up living in who-knows-what kind of state... If you believe in [your artistic vision] and you've got a moral conviction, take it to 'em!" The rating of the film later brought comparisons to Stanley Kubrick's Eyes Wide Shut, which was released in theaters in a digitally altered and censored version two weeks after South Park; the original cut was rated NC-17 before Warner Bros. altered it to ensure an R rating. In response to these debates and controversy, Stone called the MPAA a "bumbling, irresponsible organization".
Promotion
Paramount's licensing arm significantly expanded retail distribution beyond specialty stores (Hot Topic, Spencer's) to major retailers (Target, J.C. Penney), which involved carefully stripping T-shirts of objectionable material. Licensing industry observers credited Comedy Central with carving out a profitable niche in an industry dominated by partnerships linking fast-food restaurants and major film studios, which was particularly difficult for South Park, as fast-food chains did not want to associate with the series' content. Eventually, J.C. Penney ended its South Park tie-ins in April 1999 as a result of customer complaints. In July 1999, Parker and Stone appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien to promote the film's release. During the interview, Parker and Stone showed a clip of the film in which O'Brien (Brent Spiner) hands over Terrance and Phillip to the US government before committing suicide. Upon seeing the clip, O'Brien responded that his interns thought that it was "really funny", but were annoyed that the Late Night set was portrayed as on the top floor of the GE Building, when it was really on the sixth floor. The film also suffered negative publicity before release. It was initially reported that on the day of the Columbine massacre, a friend of the perpetrators, Chris Morris, was seen wearing a black T-shirt depicting characters from South Park. Both Parker and Stone are from Colorado, and Stone attended the nearby Heritage High School. Following the massacre, Stone took a three-day sabbatical: "Nothing seemed funny after that," he said. South Park was also, at the time, generally waning in popularity: ratings dropped nearly 40 percent with the premiere of the third season and, according to Entertainment Weekly, "it [wasn't] the pop-culture behemoth it was last year [1998]." In response to the decline, Parker commented, "Suddenly we suck and we're not cool anymore. The funny thing is, last year we were saying the same things and we were hip, fresh, and cute. Now they're telling us we're pushing 30, we're failures, and we're sellouts."
Home media
The film was released on DVD in the US on November 23, 1999, with a VHS release initially exclusively as a rental. A traditional retail VHS release was issued on May 16, 2000. The DVD contained three theatrical trailers for special features, which many criticized as being typical of "bare-bones" DVD releases. A laserdisc release was issued on January 18, 2000; this release is markedly rare, as it was issued late in the format's lifespan. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on June 30, 2009, ten years after its theatrical release. In addition to the trailers, this release featured an audio commentary from Parker and Stone and a special "What Would Brian Boitano Do?" music video. This release was sourced from the original film negative, which resulted in audio sync issues. IGN's Scott Lowe explained, "Although clearly aged, South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut looks great and is free of the washed out, compressed imperfections of previous standard definition releases of the film." However, Michael Zupan of DVDTalk notes that an automatic digital scratch removal process may have inadvertently removed some intentional lines from the picture, notably during Cartman's first scene with the V-chip. In the commentary, Parker and Stone, as well as other crew members, reveal that they had no recollection of making the film due to heavy scheduling.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut has an 80% approval rating based on reviews from 95 critics, and an average rating of 7.10/10. The website's consensus states: "Its jokes are profoundly bold and rude but incredibly funny at the same time." On Metacritic it has a score of 73 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B-" on scale of A to F.
Rita Kempley of The Washington Post described it as "outrageously profane" and "wildly funny", writing that "While censorship is the filmmakers' main target […] [Parker and Stone's] favorite monster is the Motion Picture Association of America, self-appointed guardians of the nation's chastity. It's all in good dirty fun and in service of their pro-tolerance theme." Stephen Holden of The New York Times regarded the film's "self-justifying moral" as "about mass entertainment, censorship and freedom of speech." He also praised Cartman's subjection to the V-chip as "the movie's sharpest satirical twist, reminiscent of A Clockwork Orange". Entertainment Weekly graded the film an A− and commended the film's message in a post-Columbine society, as well as the musical numbers, which "brilliantly parody / honor the conventions of Broadway show tunes and, especially, the Disney-formula ditties that began with Alan Menken and Howard Ashman." Writing for The Washington Post, Michael O'Sullivan neutrally regarded the film's offensive nature, commenting "Yes, the lampooning is more broad than incisive, but under the bludgeoning of this blunt instrument very few sacred cows are left standing." Reviewing the film for Time, Richard Corliss wrote that "you may laugh yourself sick – as sick as this ruthlessly funny movie is." Corliss later named the film his fifth favorite animated film of all time.
The film also had detractors, without noting the conservative family groups offended by the film's humor. Jack Matthews of the Daily News suggested the film's running time made Parker and Stone "run out of ideas". Roger Ebert stated that the "vicious social satire" of the film both "offended" and "amazed" him. Ebert rated the film of 4 stars, calling it "the year's most slashing political commentary", but also wrote that "it is too long and runs out of steam, but it serves as a signpost for our troubled times. Just for the information it contains about the way we live now, thoughtful and concerned people should see it. After all, everyone else will."
Box office
On a $21 million budget, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut opened at number three behind Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace and Tarzan, with a gross of $14,783,983 over the four-day Independence Day weekend from 2,128 theaters for an average of $6,947 per theater ($11,090,000 and an average of $5,211 over three days) and a total of $19,637,409 since its Wednesday launch. It went on to gross $52,037,603 in the United States and Canada, with the 3-day opening making up 22% of the final domestic gross. It made an additional $31.1 million internationally for a total of $83,137,603 worldwide.
It was the highest-grossing R-rated animated film since Akira (1988), until it was surpassed by Sausage Party (2016), which grossed more than $140 million worldwide; that record was, in turn, surpassed by Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba the Movie: Mugen Train in 2020, which grossed more than $500 million worldwide.
Accolades
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Blame Canada". As a joke, Parker and Stone attended the 72nd Academy Awards ceremony in drag. It was later revealed on 6 Days to Air that they were high on LSD during the pre-show and the ceremony. When "Blame Canada" was scheduled to be performed, ABC requested that lyrics be written to comply with their S&P department. "It would be ironic to have to change the words in a movie about censorship," remarked Shaiman. The department was particularly critical of the song's use of the word fuck and allusions to the Ku Klux Klan. When Parker and Shaiman declined these requests, Robin Williams, a friend of Shaiman's, performed the song with black tape over his mouth and turned his back when profanities were sung. The award ultimately went to Phil Collins' "You'll Be in My Heart", as featured in Tarzan. In response, Parker and Stone ridiculed him in two consecutive episodes of the series' fourth season: "Cartman's Silly Hate Crime 2000" and "Timmy 2000". In the DVD commentary for the latter episode, Parker states that they were "fully expecting to lose, just not to Phil Collins".
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Blame Canada" – Nominated
2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
Nominated Animation Film
Lists and records
The film has been nominated by the American Film Institute for their list of the Greatest American Musicals.
In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted the film at No. 13 in the greatest comedy films of all time.
In 2001, Terry Gilliam selected it as one of the ten best animated films of all time.
In 2006, South Park finished fifth on the United Kingdom Channel 4's "50 Greatest Comedy Films" vote.
Readers of Empire, in a 2006 poll, voted it No. 166 in the greatest films of all time.
In 2008, the film was included in Entertainment Weeklys list of the "25 Movie Sequels We'd Line Up to See" and "The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years".
The film is No. 5 on Bravo's 100 Funniest Movies.
IGN named it the sixth greatest animated film of all time in their Top 25 list.
In 2011, Time named it the sixth greatest animated feature of all-time.
In 2021, it was listed as one of the best animated films of all time by Complex.
Legacy
Following its release, MPAA president Jack Valenti stated that he regretted not giving the film an NC-17 rating. In response to the film's controversy, the MPAA expanded its system with detailed descriptions adjacent to its ratings beginning in 2000. The film's use of profanity earned it a 2001 Guinness World Record for "Most Swearing in an Animated Movie" (399 profanities, including 139 uses of fuck; 128 offensive gestures; and 221 acts of violence).
In the song "Uncle Fucka", fuck is said 31 times. Blink-182 would often end songs on their The Mark, Tom, and Travis Show Tour with lines from "Uncle Fucka" throughout 2000. The lines can be heard on the band's live album, The Mark, Tom, and Travis Show (The Enema Strikes Back!).
While the actual Saddam Hussein was on trial for genocide charges in 2006, Stone joked that the U.S. military was repeatedly showing Hussein the film as a form of torture. Parker and Stone were given a signed photo of Hussein by American soldiers.
Subsequent film development
In 2007, during development of the "Imaginationland" trilogy, Parker and Stone described the possibility of producing it as a film, but ultimately abandoned these plans amid a demanding production schedule. Parker and Stone said in a 2008 interview that a theatrically released sequel would most likely be what concludes the series.
In 2011, when the official South Park website FAQ was asked whether a sequel would be made, it was responded with "the first South Park movie was so potent, we're all still recovering from the blow. Unfortunately, at the current moment, there are no plans for a second South Park movie. But you never know what the future may bring, crazier things have happened..."
In 2013, Warner Bros. relinquished its rights to co-finance any further South Park films during their negotiations to co-finance Christopher Nolan's Interstellar. Previous efforts to produce another South Park film were complicated by both Paramount and Warner Bros. retaining certain rights to the IP.
In August 2021, a series of 14 television films was announced for Paramount+ as part of a multi-year deal with Parker and Stone, the first two of which premiered in November and December 2021.
See also
Canada–United States relations
List of musical films
List of adult animated films
References
External links
South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut at the TCM Movie Database
1999 films
1999 animated films
1999 comedy films
1990s American animated films
1990s black comedy films
1990s English-language films
1990s satirical films
1990s fantasy-comedy films
1999 computer-animated films
Adult animated films
Adult animated comedy films
American adult animated films
American black comedy films
American computer-animated films
American fantasy-comedy films
American films
American musical comedy films
American political comedy films
American political satire films
Animated comedy films
Animated films based on animated series
Animated musical films
Apocalyptic films
Canada–United States relations in South Park
Comedy Central animated films
Cultural depictions of Adolf Hitler
Cultural depictions of Bill Clinton
Cultural depictions of Bill Gates
Cultural depictions of Mahatma Gandhi
Cultural depictions of Saddam Hussein
Disney parodies
Films about bullying
Films about Canada–United States relations
Films about censorship
Films about domestic violence
Films about discrimination
Films about mass murder
Films about murder
Films about prejudice
Films about racism
Films about sexual abuse
Films about World War III
Films based on television series
Films directed by Trey Parker
Films produced by Matt Stone
Films produced by Trey Parker
Films scored by Marc Shaiman
Films set in Colorado
Films set in fictional populated places
Films set in hell
Films with screenplays by Matt Stone
Films with screenplays by Pam Brady
Films with screenplays by Trey Parker
LGBT-related animated films
Animation controversies in film
Rating controversies in film
Military humor in film
Musical parodies
Paramount Pictures animated films
Portrayals of Jesus in film
South Park (franchise) films
The Devil in film
Warner Bros. animated films
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232802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routine | Routine | Routine may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
"Routine" (SWT), the first of four stories in the second issue of the Star Wars Tales series
Choreographed routine, orchestrated dance involving several performers
Comedy routine, comedic act or part of an act
The Routine (album), by Hotwire, 2003
"The Routine", the first episode of the HBO series Oz
"Routine" (Alan Walker song), 2016
Computing
Routine, another name for a computer program
Coroutine, generalized reentrant computer subroutine having multiple entry points
Subroutine, a routine inside another routine
Other uses
Ethnomethodology, sociological discipline focused on the methods groups use to create societal order
Routine activity theory, sub-field of criminology
Routinization of authority, the process through which a charismatic authority becomes a bureaucracy
Schedule, or timetable, a basic time-management tool to formalize or develop a routine
Visual routine, visual cognitive means of extracting information from a scene | [
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232804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronator%20quadratus%20muscle | Pronator quadratus muscle | Pronator quadratus is a square-shaped muscle on the distal forearm that acts to pronate (turn so the palm faces downwards) the hand.
Structure
Its fibres run perpendicular to the direction of the arm, running from the most distal quarter of the anterior ulna to the distal quarter of the radius. It has two heads: the superficial head originates from the anterior distal aspect of the diaphysis (shaft) of the ulna and inserts into the anterior distal diaphysis of the radius, as well as its anterior metaphysis. The deep head has the same origin, but inserts proximal to the ulnar notch. It is the only muscle that attaches only to the ulna at one end and the radius at the other end. Arterial blood comes via the anterior interosseous artery.
Innervation
Pronator quadratus muscle is innervated by the anterior interosseous nerve, a branch of the median nerve.
Function
When pronator quadratus contracts, it pulls the lateral side of the radius towards the ulna, thus pronating the hand. Its deep fibers serve to keep the two bones in the forearm bound together. Moreover, this muscle can be absent in some humans, however, that does not affect the action of pronation very notably, as the pronator teres does the major role in that action.
Spinal tracts
The lateral corticospinal tract is responsible for the motor pathway of the pronator quadratus. This tract begins in the precentral gyrus of the motor cortex where a signal is transmitted from the upper motor nerve through the progression tracts of the internal capsule and through the cerebral peduncles of the midbrain. It decussates in the medulla and travels down the lateral corticospinal tract in the lateral column of the spinal cord. It then decussates in the spinal cord and synapses at the anterior horn to the lower motor neurons of the skeletal muscles.
The cuneate fasciculus tract is responsible for the sensation of the pronator quadratus position and movement, deep touch, visceral pain, and vibration. This tract begins in the dorsal nerve root where the signal is transmitted through the dorsal horn and up the posterior column of the spinal cord. It synapses with an interneuron in the gracile nucleus. It then decussates in the medial lemniscus of the medulla, travels through the cuneate nucleus and through the medial lemniscus of the midbrain to synapse in the thalamus. It synapses with a third order neuron and transmits the signal to the postcentral gyrus of the somesthetic cortex.
This could apply to any muscle in the upper limb and not specific to this muscle.
Additional images
References
External links
Muscles of the upper limb
Forearm pronators | [
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] |
232807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left | Left | Left may refer to:
Music
Left (Hope of the States album), 2006
Left (Monkey House album), 2016
"Left", a song by Nickelback from the album Curb, 1996
Direction
Left (direction), the relative direction opposite of right
Left-handedness
Politics
Left (Austria), a movement of Marxist–Leninist, Maoist and Trotskyist organisations in Austria
Left-wing politics (also known as left or leftism), a political trend or ideology
Centre-left politics
Far-left politics
The Left (Germany)
See also
Copyleft
Leaving (disambiguation)
Lefty (disambiguation)
Sinister (disambiguation)
Venstre (disambiguation)
Right (disambiguation) | [
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232810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BCrst | Fürst | (, female form , plural ; from Old High German , "the first", a translation of the Latin ) is a German word for a ruler and is also a princely title. were, since the Middle Ages, members of the highest nobility who ruled over states of the Holy Roman Empire and later its former territories, below the ruling (emperor) or (king).
A Prince of the Holy Roman Empire was the reigning sovereign ruler of an Imperial State that held imperial immediacy in the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The territory ruled is referred to in German as a (principality), the family dynasty referred to as a (princely house), and the (non-reigning) descendants of a are titled and referred to in German as (prince) or (princess).
The English language uses the term "prince" for both concepts. Latin-based languages (French, Italian, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese) also employ a single term, whereas Dutch as well as the Scandinavian and some Slavic languages use separate terms similar to those used in German (see for the latter).
An East Asian parallel to the concept of "ruling prince" would be the Sino-Xenic word 王 (pronounced wáng in Mandarin, wong4 in Cantonese, ō in Japanese, wang in Korean and vương in Vietnamese), which commonly refers to Korean and non-East-Asian "kings", but usually refers to non-imperial monarchs (who would go by 皇帝 ("emperor" or "empress regnant") instead) in ancient China and Vietnam and therefore is frequently translated to "prince", especially for those who became rulers well after to the first adoption of the title 皇帝 by Qin Shi Huang. Some examples include China's Prince Wucheng and Vietnam's Prince Hưng Đạo. On the other hand, the son of a monarch would go by different titles, such as 皇子 ("imperial son"), 親王 ("prince of the blood") or 王子 ("royal son"). A "European sovereign prince" may have the same title as a "duke", namely 公, and "principality" is translated to the same word as "duchy", namely 公国.
Since the Middle Ages, the German designation and title of refers to:
rulers of the states that made up the Holy Roman Empire, below the ruling (Emperor) or (King);
members of the nobility above the rank of (Count) but below (Duke);
a ruler or monarch (in general).
Use of the title in German
The title (female form , female plural ) is used for the heads of princely houses of German origin (in German a ). From the Late Middle Ages, it referred to any vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor ruling over an immediate estate. Unless he also holds a higher title, such as grand duke or king, he will be known either by the formula " + [geographic origin of the dynasty]", or by the formula " + [name of the ruled territory]". These forms can be combined, as in "".
The rank of the title-holder is not determined by the title itself, but by his degree of sovereignty, the rank of his suzerain, or the age of the princely family (note the terms ; and see German nobility). The (Prince) ranked below the (Duke) in the Holy Roman Empire's hierarchy, but princes did not necessarily rank below dukes in non-German parts of Europe. However, some German dukes who did not rule over an immediate duchy did not outrank reigning princes (e.g. Dukes of Gottschee, a title held by the Princes of Auersperg. Gottschee was not an Imperial state but a territory under the Dukes of Carniola. However, Princes of Auersperg held imperial immediacy for their state of Tengen). Likewise, the style usually associated with the title of in post-medieval Europe, (translated as "Serene Highness"), was considered inferior to ("Highness") in Germany, though not in France.
The present-day rulers of the sovereign principality of bear the title of , and the title is also used in German when referring to the ruling princes of Monaco. The hereditary rulers of the one-time principalities of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania were also all referred to in German as before they eventually assumed the title of "king" ().
Other uses in German
is used more generally in German to refer to any ruler, such as a king, a reigning duke, or a prince in the broad sense (compare Niccolò Machiavelli's ). Before the 12th century, counts were also included in this group, in accordance with its usage in the Holy Roman Empire, and in some historical or ceremonial contexts, the term can extend to any lord.
The descendants of a , when that title has not been restricted by patent or custom to male primogeniture, is distinguished in title from the head of the family by use of the prefix (prince, from ; female: ).
A nobleman whose family is non-dynastic, i.e. has never reigned or been mediatised, may also be made a by a sovereign, in which case the grantee and his heirs are deemed titular or nominal princes, enjoying only honorary princely title without commensurate rank. In families thus elevated to princely title (usually as a reward for military or political services) in or after the 18th century, the cadets often hold only the title of (Count), such as in the families of the princes of , and . However, in a few cases, the title of is available to all male-line descendants of the original grantee (mostly descendants of dukes, for example, the families of , , but also descendants of a simple Fürst, like ).
Derived titles
Several titles were derived from the term :
(Prince of the Empire) was a ruling Prince whose territory was part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was entitled to a vote, either individually () or as a member of a voting unit (), in the Imperial Diet (). was also used generically for any ruler who cast his vote in either of the s two upper chambers, the Electoral College () or the College of Princes (): Their specific title might be king, grand duke, duke, margrave, landgrave, count palatine (), burgrave, Imperial prince () or Imperial count (). Usually included in this group were the , Imperial princes and counts whose small territories did not meet the s criteria for voting membership as an Imperial estate (), but whose family's right to vote therein was recognised by the Emperor. Officially, a Prince of the Church () who voted in the Electoral or Princely College, along with a handful of titular princes (nobles granted an honorary but hereditary title of prince by an Emperor who, however, were not , lacking a vote in the ) might also be referred to as .
(Prince of the Church) was a hierarch who held an ecclesiastic fief and Imperial princely rank, such as prince-bishops, prince-abbots, or Grand Masters of a Christian military order. All Cardinals are deemed to be Princes of the Church and considered to be equal to royal princes by the Church.
(Prince of the Land) is a princely head of state, i.e. not just a titular prince. A was a geopolitical entity with (feudal) statehood, whether fully independent or not. The term is sometimes translated, as in states bound together only in a personal union (e.g., the Electorate of Hanover and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) whose joint ruler reigned as a in each of the realms under different titles and constitutions. Thus, for example, the Habsburg emperors held a different regnal style in each of their ('crown land') realms.
(Prince-Elector) was a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire with a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, as designated by the Golden Bull of 1356 or elevated to that status subsequently. Originally, only seven princes possessed that right, of whom four were secular and three ecclesiastic. This prerogative conferred on its holders rank inferior only to that of the Emperor, regardless of the specific title attached to each Elector's principality. (earlier spelled ) is derived from , "to choose". Properly an office of the Empire rather than a hereditary title, during the long tenure of the Imperial throne held by the House of Habsburg, the Electorates were less distinguished from other Imperial princes by their right to choose an emperor than by the right to transmit the fief associated with the office to a single heir by primogeniture, originally unknown in Germany, rather than to divide lands among descendants in multiple appanages, allowing preservation of each Elector's territorial integrity and power.
(Grand Prince) was a rare title in German-speaking lands, and was used primarily to translate titles borne by rulers outside the Holy Roman Empire (e.g., Russia, Tuscany). In 1765, Empress Maria Theresa proclaimed the Hungarian province of Transylvania to be a "Grand Principality" (), whereafter it became one of the titles of the Emperor of Austria in 1804.
(Prince primate) referred to the head of the member states of the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine established in 1806, then held by the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, . Today, it is a rarely used episcopal title: Upon the elevation of the () archbishop, Christian August of Saxe-Zeitz, to a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1714, his successors have born the title of Prince primate () up to today. The Archbishops of Salzburg still hold the title of , though their diocese is located in Austria.
Origins and cognates
The word designates the head (the “first”) of a ruling house, or the head of a branch of such a house. The term “first” originates from ancient Germanic times, when the “first"” was the leader in battle.
Various cognates of the word exist in other European languages (see extensive list under Prince), sometimes only used for a princely ruler. A derivative of the Latin (a Republican title in Roman law, which never formally recognized a monarchic style for the executive head of state but nominally maintained the Consuls as collegial Chief magistrates) is used for a genealogical prince in some languages (e.g., in Dutch and West Frisian, where a ruler is usually called and foarst, respectively), but a prince of the blood is always styled . In Icelandic, is a ruler, and a prince of the blood is (in these languages, no capital letters are used for writing titles, unless they occur as the first word of a sentence), while in other languages, only a -derived word is used for both (e.g., English uses prince for both). In all cases, the original (German or otherwise) term may also be used.
References
Further reading
German Empire (in German – use the English and French translated versions only with due caution)
Danubian Monarchy Austria-Hungary (in German – use the English and French translated versions only with due caution)
Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German)
WorldStatesmen – here Germany (with specifics on the HREmpire); see also other present countries
Etymology Online
External links
Austrian noble titles
German feudalism
German noble titles
German words and phrases
Heads of state
Noble titles
Princes of the Holy Roman Empire
Princes
Royal titles
Titles of nobility of the Holy Roman Empire | [
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232817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method%20%28computer%20programming%29 | Method (computer programming) | A method in object-oriented programming (OOP) is a procedure associated with a message and an object. An object consists of data and behavior; these compose an interface, which specifies how the object may be utilized by any of its various consumers.
Data is represented as properties of the object, and behaviors are represented as methods. For example, a Window object could have methods such as open and close, while its state (whether it is open or closed at any given point in time) would be a property.
In class-based programming, methods are defined within a class, and objects are instances of a given class. One of the most important capabilities that a method provides is method overriding - the same name (e.g., area) can be used for multiple different kinds of classes. This allows the sending objects to invoke behaviors and to delegate the implementation of those behaviors to the receiving object. A method in Java programming sets the behavior of a class object. For example, an object can send an area message to another object and the appropriate formula is invoked whether the receiving object is a rectangle, circle, triangle, etc.
Methods also provide the interface that other classes use to access and modify the properties of an object; this is known as encapsulation. Encapsulation and overriding are the two primary distinguishing features between methods and procedure calls.
Overriding and overloading
Method overriding and overloading are two of the most significant ways that a method differs from a conventional procedure or function call. Overriding refers to a subclass redefining the implementation of a method of its superclass. For example, findArea may be a method defined on a shape class, triangle, etc. would each define the appropriate formula to calculate their area. The idea is to look at objects as "black boxes" so that changes to the internals of the object can be made with minimal impact on the other objects that use it. This is known as encapsulation and is meant to make code easier to maintain and re-use.
Method overloading, on the other hand, refers to differentiating the code used to handle a message based on the parameters of the method. If one views the receiving object as the first parameter in any method then overriding is just a special case of overloading where the selection is based only on the first argument. The following simple Java example illustrates the difference:
Accessor, mutator and manager methods
Accessor methods are used to read the data values of an object. Mutator methods are used to modify the data of an object. Manager methods are used to initialize and destroy objects of a class, e.g. constructors and destructors.
These methods provide an abstraction layer that facilitates encapsulation and modularity. For example, if a bank-account class provides a getBalance() accessor method to retrieve the current balance (rather than directly accessing the balance data fields), then later revisions of the same code can implement a more complex mechanism for balance retrieval (e.g., a database fetch), without the dependent code needing to be changed. The concepts of encapsulation and modularity are not unique to object-oriented programming. Indeed, in many ways the object-oriented approach is simply the logical extension of previous paradigms such as abstract data types and structured programming.
Constructors
A constructor is a method that is called at the beginning of an object's lifetime to create and initialize the object, a process called construction (or instantiation). Initialization may include an acquisition of resources. Constructors may have parameters but usually do not return values in most languages. See the following example in Java:
public class Main {
String _name;
int _roll;
Main(String name, int roll) { // constructor method
this._name = name;
this._roll = roll;
}
}
Destructors
A destructor is a method that is called automatically at the end of an object's lifetime, a process called destruction. Destruction in most languages does not allow destructor method arguments nor return values. Destruction can be implemented so as to perform cleanup chores and other tasks at object destruction.
Finalizers
In garbage-collected languages, such as Java, C#, and Python, destructors are known as finalizers. They have a similar purpose and function to destructors, but because of the differences between languages that utilize garbage-collection and languages with manual memory management, the sequence in which they are called is different.
Abstract methods
An abstract method is one with only a signature and no implementation body. It is often used to specify that a subclass must provide an implementation of the method. Abstract methods are used to specify interfaces in some programming languages.
Example
The following Java code shows an abstract class that needs to be extended:
abstract class Shape {
abstract int area(int h, int w); // abstract method signature
}
The following subclass extends the main class:
public class Rectangle extends Shape {
@Override
int area(int h, int w) {
return h * w;
}
}
Reabstraction
If a subclass provides an implementation for an abstract method, another subclass can make it abstract again. This is called reabstraction.
In practice, this is rarely used.
Example
In C#, a virtual method can be overridden with an abstract method. (This also applies to Java, where all non-private methods are virtual.)
class IA
{
public virtual void M() { }
}
abstract class IB : IA
{
public override abstract void M(); // allowed
}
Interfaces' default methods can also be reabstracted, requiring subclasses to implement them. (This also applies to Java.)
interface IA
{
void M() { }
}
interface IB : IA
{
abstract void IA.M();
}
class C : IB { } // error: class 'C' does not implement 'IA.M'.
Class methods
Class methods are methods that are called on a class rather than an instance. They are typically used as part of an object meta-model. I.e, for each class, defined an instance of the class object in the meta-model is created. Meta-model protocols allow classes to be created and deleted. In this sense, they provide the same functionality as constructors and destructors described above. But in some languages such as the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) the meta-model allows the developer to dynamically alter the object model at run time: e.g., to create new classes, redefine the class hierarchy, modify properties, etc.
Special methods
Special methods are very language-specific and a language may support none, some, or all of the special methods defined here. A language's compiler may automatically generate default special methods or a programmer may be allowed to optionally define special methods. Most special methods cannot be directly called, but rather the compiler generates code to call them at appropriate times.
Static methods
Static methods are meant to be relevant to all the instances of a class rather than to any specific instance. They are similar to static variables in that sense. An example would be a static method to sum the values of all the variables of every instance of a class. For example, if there were a Product class it might have a static method to compute the average price of all products.
In Java, a commonly used static method is:
Math.max(double a, double b)
This static method has no owning object and does not run on an instance. It receives all information from its arguments.
A static method can be invoked even if no instances of the class exist yet. Static methods are called "static" because they are resolved at compile time based on the class they are called on and not dynamically as in the case with instance methods, which are resolved polymorphically based on the runtime type of the object.
Copy-assignment operators
Copy-assignment operators define actions to be performed by the compiler when a class object is assigned to a class object of the same type.
Operator methods
Operator methods define or redefine operator symbols and define the operations to be performed with the symbol and the associated method parameters. C++ example:
#include <string>
class Data {
public:
bool operator<(const Data& data) const { return roll_ < data.roll_; }
bool operator==(const Data& data) const {
return name_ == data.name_ && roll_ == data.roll_;
}
private:
std::string name_;
int roll_;
};
Member functions in C++
Some procedural languages were extended with object-oriented capabilities to leverage the large skill sets and legacy code for those languages but still provide the benefits of object-oriented development. Perhaps the most well-known example is C++, an object-oriented extension of the C programming language. Due to the design requirements to add the object-oriented paradigm on to an existing procedural language, message passing in C++ has some unique capabilities and terminologies. For example, in C++ a method is known as a member function. C++ also has the concept of virtual functions which are member functions that can be overridden in derived classes and allow for dynamic dispatch.
Virtual functions
Virtual functions are the means by which a C++ class can achieve polymorphic behavior. Non-virtual member functions, or regular methods, are those that do not participate in polymorphism.
C++ Example:
#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
class Super {
public:
virtual ~Super() = default;
virtual void IAm() { std::cout << "I'm the super class!\n"; }
};
class Sub : public Super {
public:
void IAm() override { std::cout << "I'm the subclass!\n"; }
};
int main() {
std::unique_ptr<Super> inst1 = std::make_unique<Super>();
std::unique_ptr<Super> inst2 = std::make_unique<Sub>();
inst1->IAm(); // Calls |Super::IAm|.
inst2->IAm(); // Calls |Sub::IAm|.
}
See also
Property (programming)
Remote method invocation
Subroutine, also called subprogram, routine, procedure or function
Notes
References
Articles with example C++ code
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232818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grover | Grover | Grover is a blue Muppet character on the popular PBS/HBO children's television show Sesame Street. Self-described as lovable, cute and furry, he is a blue monster who rarely uses contractions when he speaks or sings. Grover was originally performed by Frank Oz from his earliest appearances. Eric Jacobson has performed the character regularly from the year 2000 onwards.
Origins
A prototype version of Grover appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show on Christmas Eve in 1967. This puppet had greenish-brown fur and a red nose. He also had a raspier voice – somewhat like Cookie Monster's – and was played a bit more unkempt than Grover would later behave. The monster was referred to as "Gleep", a monster in Santa's workshop. He later made a cameo appearance in The Muppets on Puppets in 1968 with the Rock and Roll Monster. In 1969, clad in a necktie, he appeared in the Sesame Street Pitch Reel in the board-room sequences. During the first season of Sesame Street, the character was nicknamed "Fuzzyface" or "The Hairy One", though neither would be used for his actual name. The muppet was not yet the "cute" character he would become, and he was not all that different in personality from the other monsters with whom he interacted.
In his book The Tipping Point, author Malcolm Gladwell notes that the character "was used in promotional films for IBM". The puppet first received the name "Grover" on May 1, 1970.
In an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show on May 31, 1970, the character acquired his present appearance with blue fur and a pink nose. In this appearance, Kermit the Frog tried to sing "What Kind of Fool Am I?" (accompanying himself on piano), but Grover repeatedly interrupted him. The true Grover "officially" debuted in the second season of Sesame Street.
Appearances
Charlie's Restaurant
One of the more frequent sketch segments featuring Grover involves him taking a series of customer service jobs. One of his customers is always Mr. Johnson, a balding, mustachioed customer who invariably becomes frustrated at Grover's bumbling service and/or his (Grover's) insistence that he is serving him properly.
The first Grover-Mr. Johnson series of sketches, set at "Charlie's Restaurant", aired in the early 1970s; here, Grover is employed as a waiter and Mr. Johnson is his customer.
The sketches followed the same basic premise: Mr. Johnson would order a menu item, Grover would serve the customer, a disagreement results (usually) as a result of Grover's mistakes, and Grover attempting (often, more than once) to correct the mistake with varied degrees of success. Under this backdrop, the sketches served to teach the childhood audience basic concepts such as same and different, big and little, hot and cold, the alphabet, following directions and patience, among other things. This was even parodied in an episode of Monsterpiece Theater, where Grover had to keep rushing out of the kitchen to tell Johnson that they had run out of parts of his order. Naturally, Alistair Cookie introduced this performance as "Much Ado About Nothing".
Repeats of the "Charlie's Restaurant" series of sketches aired for many years on Sesame Street. In the years since, new Grover-Mr. Johnson sketches have been produced, with Grover taking other customer service jobs and Mr. Johnson as his hapless customer. Every time, Mr. Johnson recognizes Grover as "that waiter from Charlie's".
Grover's jobs have ranged from a taxi driver and a photographer to a flight attendant and singing telegram artist. One sketch parodied the ABC television series Extreme Makeover: Home Edition in a segment where Grover began remodeling Mr. Johnson's home despite his express wishes. In another one, Mr. Johnson is the only patron, and Grover is the only actor, for a production of Spider-Monster: The Musical, a parody of the musical Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark. The play is, of course, a complete calamity and finally comes crashing down on both of them.
Other segments
Grover also has an instructional persona who wears a cap and gown to provide educational context for simple, everyday things. His lessons are often wrong, leaving himself open to correction by a group of Muppets. This, combined with the failings of the Super Grover character, means that Grover can be very self-conscious and timid. He is often a source of slapstick humor and often accidentally injures himself.
Early in the series, Grover would often greet Kermit the Frog by running up to him and yelling, "Hey, froggy babeee!" and then giving him a hard slap on the back, which knocked him over.
Global Grover is a more recent series of segments, in which Grover hosts a trip to a foreign country to learn about their culture and customs.
In 2010, Grover starred in a parody of an Old Spice Commercial called "Smell Like a Monster" based on "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like", albeit a clam with "two tickets to the thing you love" bit his nose and he rode a cow rather than a horse.
Super Grover
Grover has a semi-secret superhero identity as the well-meaning but inept Super Grover, sometimes presented as the alter ego of Grover Kent, "ace doorknob salesman for Acme, Inc". Originally his superhero costume consisted of a pink cape and medieval knight's helmet, with a Superman-style crest on both the cape and his T-shirt, bearing a letter "G" on his chest instead of "S". During the 1970s and 1980s, Sesame Street ran a series of Super Grover sketches spoofing the classic Adventures of Superman series (in the opening of these, his name was hyphenated "Super-Grover"). An announcer (Jerry Nelson) introduced each episode with the lines:
With that, a fanfare sounds, Super Grover bursts through a paper wall bearing his crest, fruitlessly tries to move his helmet up off his eyes, and adds, "And I am cute, too!"
From there, episodes followed a simple formula: Super Grover is flying somewhere over Metro City when he hears the cries of a Muppet child in some small trouble and immediately sails in to assist. The excited child is quickly disillusioned as Super Grover crash-lands nearby. From there, Grover continues to be enthusiastic but no help whatsoever, his "dramatic" feats of strength or speed serving only to kill time while the child solves the problem on their own and wanders off. By then, Grover's efforts have usually landed him in a comical predicament of his own.
Super Grover has appeared in the Sesame Street theatrical films Follow that Bird (1985) and The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland (1999), where it is revealed he stretches his arms out and spins into his costume in homage to Wonder Woman), as well as the 1983 PBS special Don't Eat the Pictures.
For Sesame Streets 41st season in 2010, the character was revamped as Super Grover 2.0, who debuted on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, flying in and crash-landing behind the chair where he was meant to sit. His new costume consists of a helmet reminiscent of a Spartan or Centurion, a red cape, and a black rubber vest resembling bike racing gear. Both the cape and the vest are adorned with his crest, now with a lightning bolt added behind the "G". Of course, the helmet has a hinged visor which still tends to fall over Grover's eyes. But now the tagline is Super Grover 2.0 – He Shows Up!
Grover's Mother ("Mommy")
"Grover's Mommy" plays an integral but often unrecognized role on Sesame Street. She has been seen almost exclusively in print, including the many illustrated books starring Grover. She was also occasionally seen in photographs, as a photo puppet, such as on the cover of Volume 4 of The Sesame Street Treasury. Over the course of time, her appearance has fluctuated greatly.
Her earliest known appearance as a Muppet is a 1970s sketch in which Grover speaks to the audience about being afraid of the dark. At the end of the sketch, his mom (Frank Oz) enters his room to kiss him goodnight. In this appearance, the puppet used for her is recycled from the early Grover puppet from the first season. Another early appearance (circa 1981) involves his mother (Kathryn Mullen) coming into the bathroom while Grover is telling the audience about how to take a bath.
She has more recently appeared (performed by Stephanie D'Abruzzo) in a brief Elmo's World sequence (from the "Families" episode), with her son as his alter-ego Super Grover, as her own alter-ego, "Super-Mommy". Grover crashlands, screaming "Moooommy!" and his mom follows yelling "Soooonny!" crashing on top of him. They recover, acknowledge each other, and both faint.
Books
In the 1971 children's book The Monster at the End of This Book, Grover goes to great effort to keep the reader from turning the pages of the book, because there is a monster on the final page. Grover ties pages down, nails pages to the next one and builds a brick wall to block access; at the end it is discovered that the monster at the end of the book is Grover himself, who is mortified ("Oh, I am so embarrassed..."). The late 1990s saw a sequel to the book where Grover desperately tries to stop Elmo from reaching the end of the book, eventually directing him to leave the book and enter from the back. Therefore, when both of them reach the end, they wind up scaring each other.
Another popular children's book, Would You like to Play Hide & Seek in This Book with Lovable, Furry Old Grover?, had Grover trying different ways to hide from the reader, eventually getting upset and begging the reader to just say "no" they do not see him, even though he was just crouching down in a corner.
In 1974, Grover went on a learning expedition in Grover and The Everything In The Whole Wide World Museum. He tours rooms such as "The Long Thin Things You Can Write With Room", as well as "The Things That Make So Much Noise You Can't Think Room". Grover wanders through "The Things That Are Light Room", returns a rock to "The Things That Are Heavy Room", and just when he wonders whether it is possible to have a museum that holds everything in the whole wide world, he comes upon a door labeled "Everything Else", which opens to take him out into the world. As of 1996, Publishers Weekly ranked the book at 79 on their list of best-selling children's paperbacks, and Lou Harry of Indianapolis Business Journal included the book on his list of 12 examples of how muppets have qualified as quality entertainment. It was written by Norman Stiles and Daniel Wilcox, and illustrated by Joe Mathieu.
The Adventures of Grover in Outer Space is a Sesame Street storybook featuring Grover that was published in 1984. When Grover Moved to Sesame Street was published in 1985. He was also featured in I Want a Hat Like That (1987, reprinted 1999).
International
Sesame Street is modified for different national markets, and Grover is often renamed.
In Afghanistan, his name is Kajkoal, meaning a bowl and refers to his mouth.
In Brazil, he is known as Arquibaldo, although in the 2007 versions maintains the name Grover.
In Czech Republic, he is called Bohouš.
In Egypt, he is called Gaafar.
In Germany, he is Grobi, a diminutive of the German grob, meaning "rough" or "rude".
In Gulf Cooperation Council, he is called Qarqor
In Indonesia, he is called Gatot.
In Israel, he is called Kruvi, which is a play on the word kruv ("cabbage").
In Latin America and Puerto Rico, he is known as Archibaldo.
In Norway, he is known as Gunnar and voiced by Harald Mæle.
In Pakistan, he is Banka, meaning immature or youthful.
In Poland, he is called Florek ("Sesame Street" only).
In Portugal, he is Gualter (Walter).
In South Korea, he is Geurobeo (그로버).
In Spain, he is called Coco, which is Spanish for coconut, referring to the shape of his head and mouth.
In Turkey, he is known as Açıkgöz, meaning "leery".
References
External links
Sesame Street Muppet characters
Fictional waiting staff
Television characters introduced in 1967
Fictional monsters
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232819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Lesh | Phil Lesh | Philip Chapman Lesh (born March 15, 1940) is an American musician and a founding member of the Grateful Dead, with whom he played bass guitar throughout their 30-year career.
After the band's disbanding in 1995, Lesh continued the tradition of Grateful Dead family music with side project Phil Lesh and Friends, which paid homage to the Dead's music by playing their originals, common covers, and the songs of the members of his band. Lesh operates a music venue called Terrapin Crossroads. He scaled back his touring regimen in 2014 but continues to perform with Phil Lesh & Friends at select venues. From 2009 to 2014, he performed in Furthur alongside former Grateful Dead bandmate Bob Weir.
Background
Lesh was born in Berkeley, California, United States, and started out as a violin player. While enrolled at Berkeley High School he switched to trumpet and participated in all of the school's music-related extracurricular activities. Studying the instrument under Bob Hansen, conductor of the symphonic Golden Gate Park Band, he developed a keen interest in avant-garde classical music and free jazz. After attending San Francisco State University for a semester, Lesh was unable to secure a favorable position in the school's band or orchestra and determined that he was not ready to pursue a higher education. Upon dropping out, he successfully auditioned for the renowned Sixth Army Band (then stationed at the Presidio of San Francisco) with the assistance of Hansen, but was ultimately determined to be unfit for military service.
Shortly thereafter, he enrolled at the College of San Mateo, where he wrote charts for the community college's well-regarded big band and ascended to the first trumpet chair. (A snippet of tape of Lesh on trumpet at CSM can be heard on "Born Cross-Eyed" from the Grateful Dead's 1968 release Anthem of the Sun.) After transferring with sophomore standing to the University of California, Berkeley in 1961, he befriended future Grateful Dead keyboardist Tom Constanten before dropping out again after less than a semester. At the behest of Constanten, he studied under the Italian modernist Luciano Berio in a graduate-level course at Mills College in the spring of 1962; their classmates included Steve Reich and Stanford University cross-registrant John Chowning.
While volunteering for KPFA as a recording engineer during this period, he met bluegrass banjo player Jerry Garcia. Despite seemingly opposite musical interests, they soon formed a friendship. Following a brief period as a Post Office Department employee and keno marker in Las Vegas (initially rooming with Constanten, who soon departed to study under Berio and other members of the Darmstadt School in Europe); a second stint with the Post Office in San Francisco; and a collaboration with the likes of Reich, Jon Gibson and Constanten upon the latter's return from Europe under the auspices of the San Francisco Mime Troupe, Lesh was talked into becoming the bassist for Garcia's new rock group (then known as The Warlocks) in the fall of 1964. This was a peculiar turn of events, as Lesh had never played bass before. According to Lesh, the first song he rehearsed with the band was "I Know You Rider". He joined them for their third or fourth gig (memories vary) and stayed until the end.
Since Lesh had never played bass, it meant that to a great extent he learned "on the job", yet it also meant he had no preconceived attitudes about the instrument's traditional rhythm section role. In his autobiography, he credits Jack Casady (who was playing with Jefferson Airplane) as a confirming influence on the direction his instincts were leading him into. While he has said that his playing style was influenced more by Bach counterpoint than by contemporaneous rock and soul bass players, one can also hear the fluidity and power of a jazz bassist such as Charles Mingus or Jimmy Garrison in Lesh's work, along with stylistic allusions to Casady. Lesh has also cited Jack Bruce of Cream as an influence.
Music
Lesh was an innovator in the new role that the electric bass developed during the mid-1960s. Contemporaries such as Casady, Bruce, James Jamerson and Paul McCartney adopted a more melodic, contrapuntal approach to the instrument; before this, bass players in rock had generally played a conventional timekeeping role within the beat of the song, and within (or underpinning) the song's harmonic or chord structure. While not abandoning these aspects, Lesh took his own improvised excursions during a song or instrumental. This was a characteristic aspect of the so-called San Francisco Sound in the new rock music. In many Dead jams, Lesh's bass is, in essence, as much a lead instrument as Garcia's guitar.
Lesh was not a prolific composer or singer with the Grateful Dead, although some of the songs he contributed or co-wrote (including "New Potato Caboose", "Box of Rain", "Truckin'", "Unbroken Chain" and "Pride of Cucamonga") are among the best known in the band's repertoire. Lesh's high tenor voice contributed to the Grateful Dead's three-part harmony sections in their group vocals in the early days of the band, until he largely relinquished singing high parts to Donna Godchaux (and thence Brent Mydland and Vince Welnick) in 1976 due to vocal cord damage from improper singing technique. In 1985, he resumed singing lead vocals on select songs as a baritone. Throughout the Grateful Dead's career, his interest in avant-garde music remained a crucial influence on the group.
In 1994, he was inducted into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Grateful Dead.
Post-Grateful Dead
After the disbanding of the Grateful Dead, Lesh continued to play with its offshoots The Other Ones and The Dead, as well as performing with his own band, Phil Lesh and Friends. In 1999, he co-headlined a tour with Bob Dylan.
Additionally, Lesh and his wife Jill administer their charitable organization, the Unbroken Chain Foundation. The couple have two children together, Grahame and Brian. Both Grahame and Brian follow in their father's musical footsteps. The three frequently play together both publicly and privately, for example in an annual benefit concert grouping known as Philharmonia, dating to 1997, most recently on December 18, 2011 at a Christmas gig including Bob Weir and Jackie Greene at the Tenderloin Middle School cafeteria attended by 250 people.
In 1998, Lesh underwent a liver transplant as a result of chronic hepatitis C infection; since then, he has become an outspoken advocate for organ donor programs and when performing regularly encourages members of the audience to become organ donors (tracks identified as the "donor rap" on the live recordings of his various performances).
In April 2005, Lesh's book Searching for the Sound: My Life with the Grateful Dead () was published. The book takes its name from the lyrics of a Grateful Dead song titled "Unbroken Chain," from their album From the Mars Hotel. "Unbroken Chain" is one of the few songs Lesh sings. This was the only book about the Grateful Dead written by a member of the band until 2015, when Bill Kreutzmann released his memoir, Deal: My Three Decades of Drumming, Dreams and Drugs with the Grateful Dead.
On October 26, 2006, Lesh released a statement on his official website, revealing that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer—the disease that killed his father—and would be undergoing an operation in December 2006 to have it removed. On December 7, 2006, Lesh released a statement stating that he had undergone prostate surgery with the cancer being removed.
In 2009, Lesh went back on tour with the remaining members of the Grateful Dead. Following the 2009 summer tour Lesh proceeded to found a new band with Bob Weir named Furthur, which debuted in September 2009.
In 2012, Lesh founded a music venue called Terrapin Crossroads, in San Rafael, California. The venue officially opened on March 8, 2012, with a first of a run of twelve concerts by Phil Lesh and Friends. When not on tour, Lesh's sons, Grahame and Brian, serve as the house band at Terrapin Crossroads In addition to songs from the Dead catalog, Lesh played material by Mumford & Sons, Zac Brown Band and other contemporary acts with his sons.
Lesh began performing again with Phil Lesh and Friends in 2012. Furthur disbanded in early 2014 and, at age 74, Lesh ceased touring full time. Since then he has performed regularly at Terrapin Crossroads with various Phil Lesh and Friends line-ups as well as with the Terrapin Family Band. He also performs select show at venues throughout the United States, notably the Capitol Theatre, as well as at festivals.
He took part in the 2015 Fare Thee Well concerts, and a short North American tour with Bob Weir in the spring of 2018.
In October 2015, Lesh announced that he had bladder cancer surgery. He stated that his prognosis was good and that he expected to make a full recovery.
In August 2019, Lesh announced that he had to undergo back surgery, in which he and his band had to cancel upcoming engagements at the Outlaw Music Festival, Telluride Blues & Brews Festival, and Dirt Farmers Festival. He is expected to make a full recovery.
Discography
The Other Ones:
The Strange Remain (1999)
Phil Lesh and Friends:
Love Will See You Through (1999)
There and Back Again (2002)
Live at the Warfield (2006)
Notes
References
Philzone.com—Phil Lesh and Friends fan site
Parker, T. Virgil. "Phil Lesh: All in the Music", College Crier
Phil Lesh and Friends at archive.org
External links
Phil Lesh and Friends official website
Terrapin Crossroads—Phil Lesh's new music and dining venue in San Rafael, CA (Marin County)
Phil Lesh on the Grateful Dead's Official Site
1940 births
American rock bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni
Grateful Dead members
Musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area
Singer-songwriters from California
American rock singers
American male singer-songwriters
American bass guitarists
Liver transplant recipients
Living people
Musicians from Berkeley, California
Guitarists from California
The Other Ones members
New Riders of the Purple Sage members
Furthur (band) members
20th-century American guitarists | [
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232823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubaantun | Lubaantun | Lubaantun (pronounced /lubaːnˈtun/; also Lubaantún in Spanish orthography) is a pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in southern Belize, Central America. Lubaantun is in Belize's Toledo District, about 42 kilometres (26 mi) northwest of Punta Gorda, and approximately 3.2 kilometres (2 mi) from the village of San Pedro Columbia, at an elevation of 61 metres (200 ft) feet above mean sea level. One of the most distinguishing features of Lubaantun is the large collection of miniature ceramic objects found on site; these detailed constructs are thought to have been charmstones or ritual-accompanying accoutrements.
The city dates from the Maya Classic era, flourishing from the AD 730s to the 890s, and seems to have been completely abandoned soon after. The architecture is somewhat unusual from typical Classical central lowlands Maya sites. Lubaantun's structures are mostly built of large stone blocks laid with no mortar, primarily black slate rather than the limestone typical of the region. Several structures have distinctive "in-and-out masonry"; each tier is built with a batter, every second course projecting slightly beyond the course below it. Corners of the step-pyramids are usually rounded, and lack stone structures atop the pyramids; presumably some had structures of perishable materials in ancient times.
The centre of the site is on a large artificially raised platform between two small rivers; it has often been noted that the situation is well-suited to military defence. The ancient name of the site is currently unknown; "Lubaantun" is a modern Maya name meaning "place of fallen stones".
Archaeological investigations
At the start of the 20th century inhabitants of various Kekchi and Mopan Maya villages in the area mentioned the large ruins to inhabitants of Punta Gorda. Dr. Thomas Gann came to investigate the site in 1903, and published two reports about the ruins in 1905.
The next expedition was led by R. E. Merwin of Harvard University's Peabody Museum in 1915 who cleared the site of vegetation, made a more detailed map, took measurements and photographs, and made minor excavations. Of note Merwin discovered one of the site's three courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, which had stone markers with hieroglyphic texts and depictions of the ballgame.
In 1924 Gann revisited the ruins, and then led adventurer F.A. Mitchell-Hedges to the site. In his typically sensationalistic fashion, Mitchell-Hedges published an article in the Illustrated London News claiming to have "discovered" the site. Gann made a new map of the site. The following year Mitchell-Hedges returned to Lubaantun as a reporter for the Illustrated London News, accompanied by his companion Lady Richmond Brown. Anna Mitchell-Hedges, the adoptive daughter of F. A. Mitchell-Hedges, would later claim that she not only accompanied her father on the expedition, but also that it was she who found the (in)famous crystal skull there. But there is no evidence that Anna was ever in Belize, and if the skull actually had been excavated at Lubaantun it would be hard to explain why none of the official reports mention it, why other expedition members deny that it was found there, and why the publicity-loving Mitchell-Hedges did not publish even a single mention of the skull before the 1950s. According to Nickell, there is a plethora of mystery surrounding
the crystal skull allegedly found at Lubaantun. New Age believers assert that
there are thirteen crystal skulls that when brought together will unite humanity and heal the world. There is little evidence to suggest that the skulls have any mystical or psychic properties other than anecdotal evidence presented by Anna Mitchell-Hedges. She claimed that the skull was the secret to her longevity, and that it has the ability to kill whoever dares mock its power. Moreover, some scholars believe that the skulls may be Aztec but assert that they certainly are not Pre-Columbian or the 3,000 years old as postulated by F.A. Mitchell-Hedges. Additionally, many archaeologists postulate that most, if not all, of the skulls are European forgeries.
More importantly, it is clear from investigations by Joe Nickell and Norman Hammond that the skull was not found at Lubaantun at all, but was actually purchased by Mitchell-Hedges at a Sotheby's auction in 1943. The skull had previously belonged to the collector Sydney Burney, and photographs of it had been published in the journal Man as early as 1936.
Geoffrey Laws, along with T.A. Joyce and Mitchell-Hedges surveyed the site of Lubaantun. He noted that the site lies upon the line dividing these two geographical units, situated near the village of San Pedro Colombia, at the head of canoe navigation on the Colombia River. The ruins are located in the area formed by the convergence of two small tributaries of this river. His reports, along with other scholars, are consistent in their prostrations that the Lubaantun Maya rigorously utilized water transport. Moreover, Laws commented on the climate as being warm and humid. His report also notes an absence of any “indigenous populations” in his 1928 survey; consistent with other fieldwork at the time.
The British Museum sponsored investigations and excavations at Lubaantun under T.A. Joyce in 1926 and 1927, establishing the mid to late Classic period chronology of the site. According to Joyce, the complex at Lubaantun was 900 feet long and 600 feet wide toward the north. During his excavation the archaeologist found pottery fragments which were both shaped and painted along with stone items and shell ornaments. He believed that most of the material culture at the site indicated
that it was an Early Classic site but this assertion has since been dismissed by the archaeological community. Notably, he thought that the site must have been under strict centralized control since the architectural styles found would have required large amounts of physical labor. He also identifies four “classes” of masonry: megalithic cut blocks, smaller perpendicular blocks, “in and out” structures that lacked stucco, and also poorly constructed blocks that suggest that the Maya failed to build another “in and out” building style. In addition, he details the two great pyramids that he excavated are in the “in and out” style which stand approximately 40 feet tall. Furthermore, Joyce documented the presence of large, megalithic terracing which he thought were reminiscent of Peruvian styles. He noted the absence of “ornamental” stone carvings which other scholars have recorded as well. This leads to greater difficulties in defining precise dates at Lubaantun.
Moreover, despite the lack of hieroglyphs and stelae Joyce discovered an abundance of pottery-whistle figurines which feature two finger holes, allowing for three notes to be produced. He mentioned how he found some painted pottery but it appears to be similarly fashioned to painted pieces found in Pusilha, indicating that the latter was responsible for painted works and Lubaantun produced molded figurines. The whistles often depict important cosmological figures, and officials in ceremonial garb. He identified two physical types of figurines, those he calls “chubby” and the other as “classical.” The classical features include people, depicting cranial modification, ear flares, and nose ornaments. The chubby figures include a large forehead and cheeks, and there is an absence of facial ornaments. Many of the molded figures feature masks. Joyce also made distinctions between the male and female figurines that he observed. Men often were shown wearing girdles, capes, and long skirts while women became associated with the sombrero. Joyce notes that girdles may be indicative of a warrior class distinction. Men carry “provision” bags, spears, and rattles highlighting their association with field work/hunting while women are depicted carrying water jars or baskets of agricultural products. The production of metate is additionally featured on many of these
figurines. He also discovered fans at Lubaantun and a “special” series of figurines that depict crests, close-fitting helmets, a glove worn in the right hand, and highly dramatized thigh flaps. He believed that these could indicate that the figurines displayed the dress of ball players.
Many of the artefacts from this expedition can be found in the British Museum's collection. After this Lubaantun was neglected by archeologists (although it suffered some looting by treasure hunters) until 1970, when a joint British Museum, Harvard, and Cambridge University project was begun led by archaeologist Norman Hammond. Norman Hammond, Kate Pretty, and Frank P. Saul excavated the site in the 1970s. Their research team, in congruence with Sharer and Traxler, believed that the site was founded in the Late Classic period as opposed to the Early Classic, suggested by Joyce. In addition, they postulated that the site saw no Postclassic reoccupation and considered it to be abandoned until the site’s later discovery. They also discuss how Lubaantun has been subject to various looting activities. Their excavations primarily dealt with one Maya family tomb. Various problems were associated with their excavation, including water damage and collapsed masonry walls. Unlike prior surveys, their team found pottery vessels which may have been painted at one point but time has since faded their decorative coating. Hammond's team also found skeletal remains that were also badly damaged by water, but tooth preservation remained relatively good. The disposition of the skulls and bones are consistent with the Maya’s tendency to repurpose tombs, and bury multiple remains in one area. Saul reported that the tomb contained 15 adults, both male and female of various young and middle adult ages. All of the individuals had cavities except for one individual and virtually all of the remains indicate malnutrition occurred in early childhood.
Furthermore, the pottery vessels are primarily appear in Tepeu 2 style with some indication of Tepeu 3 in the Uaxactun chronology. The ceramic data suggest that the tomb was not utilized for a very long; no more than a century. They also found ground, and polished stone obsidian blade flakes, ear/nose plugs and a stylized flower. They claim that the site is unique because it is 1 of 26 sites (out of 115) which indicate that there were
multiple burials.
Sharer and Traxler also believe that the site is a Late Classic center. They note that Normand Hammond provided a new map for the site in 1970. Their work suggests that Lubaantun was occupied “briefly” from AD 700 to 870. There is also evidence that the site was a main production center for cacao and that Lubaantuun was the local capital in that particular area. Cermaic and stone effigies with cacao pods have been found at the site. Additionally discovered is an acropolis, one ball court, and Quirigua-style architecture in the form of large masonry terraces. However, the site lacks two major components which would indicate that Lubaantuun was a Late Classic
site; there are no vaulted buildings or carved sculptured monuments. Also discussed is the space and place of buildings at the site. Lubaantun, being a smaller Maya site, has discernible open public and closed private spaces.
Little is still known regarding how the Lubaantun Maya traded with other polities and their relationship with neighboring communities. While Sharer and Traxler’s work largely pertains to the cacao trade, Heather McKillop’s work at Stingray Lagoon reveals the importance of salt production and trade in the Precolumbian Maya realm. The presence of molded Lubaantun-style whistle figurines, inland goods at the Stingray Lagoon site, and unit-stamped pottery provide supporting evidence for
salt production and for inland transport.
Current archaeology imbues that Lubaantun is still a widely interpreted site. Nonetheless, excavations demonstrate that the site is renowned for its mass of mould-made ceramic whistle figurines, manos, and metates, as well as its stair-like architecture. New research reveals that the site has three ball courts, to the east, west, and south of the major E group buildings. Scholars also estimate that the population at Lubaantun may have consisted of 600 people per square kilometer. Additionally, it is postulated that Lubaantun and Nim Li Punit was politically created from the earlier centers of Pusilha or Uxbenka. Archaeological evidence suggests that Lubaantun was built at a strategic spatial location in order to maintain access the natural ecological resources and take advantage of the pre-existing trade networks. Other research suggests that language spoken at Lubaantun was most likely a dialect of Cholan, one of the many dialects spoken in the Classic Maya heartland. Furthermore, current projects are still underway at Lubaantun. In 1998, the Maya Archaeological Sites Development Program, in tandem with the European Union, and the Belize Government’s
Department of Archaeology, made successful attempts at restoration, and building of an interpretive Visitor Center at the site.
Lubaantun is now accessible to visitors by automobile and has a small visitors' centre. As of 2001 an admission fee of 10 BZD dollars was charged to visitors.
See also
List of Mesoamerican pyramids
References
Bibliography
External links
Lubaantun on MayaBelize.ca
Lubaantun on SouthernBelize.com
Maya sites in Belize
Former populated places in Belize
Buildings and structures in Toledo District
Ruins in Belize | [
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232832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels%2C%20Ontario | Brussels, Ontario | Brussels is a community within the Municipality of Huron East in Huron County, Ontario, Canada. It held village status prior to 2001.
History
Brussels incorporated as the village of Ainleyville in 1855, founded by William Ainlay. The name was changed in 1872 when a branch line of the Grand Trunk Railway from Guelph came through the community. Back in the late 19th century Brussels had a post office, a flour mill, a grist mill, a sawmill, a hair salon, and a fanning mill. The Ronald Streamer, a piece of firefight equipment, was made in Brussels.
It was amalgamated into the Municipality of Huron East on January 1, 2001.
Brussels Public Library
Built with a Carnegie grant of $7000, the Brussels Public Library opened on January 14, 1910. It is one of only six in Ontario to have a corner entrance, a feature deemed extravagant by James Bertram, Carnegie's private secretary who ran the grant program. It was renovated in 2014.
Geography
Brussels is located in the Municipality of Huron East; however, the town lies on the municipal border to the Municipality of Morris-Turnberry. Both of these municipalities are located in Huron County, Ontario.
The town is split by two Huron County roads; 12 and 16. Huron County Road 12, called Turnberry Street (in-town) and Brussels Line (out-of-town) runs north-south through the town while Huron County Road 16 runs west-east through the town with a distinct name depending on the direction. The road is named Morris Road (out-of-town) or Orchard Line (in-town) when traveling west from the town; the road is named Newry Road (out-of-town) or Queen Street (in-town) when travelling east from the town.
The Maitland River runs through the town in a south to north direction which has resulted in the construction of a dam in the in community. The river and low-land areas of the dam typically floods every spring from increased rainfall and snow melt.
Brussels is north of London and west of Kitchener. It is also east of the closest coastal community, Goderich on the shorelines of Lake Huron.
As Brussels is a rural community, farmland surrounds the town on all sides with scattered bushes amongst the fields.
Demographic
Population
The population of Brussels, previously Ainleyville, has gone through periods of growth and decline since its formation in 1855.
Disputed Claims
In the beginning (1855), it is rumored that Ainleyville had a population of over 800 residents, however, this is a disputed claim. The claim is disputed for two distinct reasons: (1) there has not been a provided citation in any reports or websites with regards to this claim and (2) the village founder, William Ainlay, purchased 200 acres of land in 1854 and laid out a town plot in 1855 - based on the timing of these events, it doesn't appear logical that over 800 people would move to a location that has no infrastructure in the late 1800s.
Besides the disputed claim in 1855, many sources attempt to state that the population in Brussels through 1881 soared to around 1,800 residents, however, relevant newspapers referring back to the official Canadian census state that the population reached a maximum of 1,290 during that year.
Verified Information
Despite these disputed claims, population data from 1871 through to the most recent Canadian Census in 2016 has been made publicly available through archived newspapers and the Government of Canada.
The first available census, 1871, states that the population of Ainleyville was at 781. The village went through a period of rapid growth over the following decade as the village grew to include a train station alongside related industries. This is confirmed with the 1881 census that claims the population was around 1,290. (See Disputed Claims 2)
Over the following two decades from 1881 through to 1901, the population in the village varied from year to year with frequent growth and decline years ranging from a population of 1,290 in 1881 down to a population of 1,105 in 1901.
The varying population numbers ended through the early twentieth century when the population started a steady decline up until the end of the 1930s. At the beginning of this decline period in 1910, the population was around 1,105 residents, however, this number dropped down to 780 residents in 1939; the first time the village seen resident numbers below 800 since the 1871 census.
The population attempted to rebound for the next three decades (1940s-1960s), however, the village population couldn't quite surpass 850 residents. The village recorded 826 residents in 1941, 813 residents in 1951, 722 residents in 1955, 844 residents in 1961 and 820 residents in 1966.
Following this rebound attempt, the population of Brussels started a growth cycle which the community is yet to come out of as of 2016. Starting in 1971, the village recorded 911 residents growing back to above 1,000 residents in 1991, specifically 1,126 residents.
Since the early 1990s until 2016, the population of Brussels has been steady within 100 residents, ranging from the lowest resident count of 1,126 in 1991 to the highest count of 1,170 in 2006.
The most recent population estimate was 993 residents in 2021.
Climate & Weather
Brussels consists of humid continental climate with four distinct seasons; winter, spring, summer, and autumn (fall). The climate generally falls into the Dfb climate subtype.
Climate Average & Records
The community of Brussels (or the previous village of Ainleyville) has never been home to an official weather station from Environment and Climate Change Canada; however, there are nearby weather stations in Goderich and Mount Forest with previous weather data provided by the weather agency for the neighboring community of Blyth that encounter the same climate as Brussels.
Media
Newspapers
The Brussels Post
The Brussels Post was a newspaper organization formed in 1884 in the town of Brussels. The newspaper organization was operation from 1884 through to 1929 before ceasing operations. The operations started back up in 1937 through to 1983 when The Brussels Post was discontinued. Four years after The Brussels Post ceased operations, the North Huron Citizen formed.
In the early days of The Brussels Post, the operations were weekly.
While sources claim that The Brussels Post was formed in 1885, the earliest known digitalized paper from January 2, 1885 states that it's the 26th paper or 26th week, indicating that the first paper would have been issued around July 4, 1884.
The Citizen
After the discontinuing of The Brussels Post in 1981, The Citizen, provided by North Huron Citizen was formed. The Citizen is the newspaper still distributed around the community as of 2022. Similar to The Brussels Post, the newspaper is issued weekly.
While the head-office for the North Huron Citizen is located in the nearby community of Blyth, Ontario, there is a small office located in the Brussels downtown core.
Notable people
Frances Beatrice Taylor, poet, journalist
Harry Dean Ainlay, former mayor of Edmonton, Alberta
Jack McIntyre, professional ice hockey player
Janet Cardiff, artist
See also
Municipality of Huron East
List of unincorporated communities in Ontario
References
The Settlement Of Huron County by James Scott.
Communities in Huron County, Ontario
Former villages in Ontario
Populated places disestablished in 2001 | [
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232837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Pedro%20Columbia | San Pedro Columbia | San Pedro Columbia is a village in Toledo District, Belize, located about two miles from the ancient Maya ruins of Lubaantun. In 2000 San Pedro Columbia had a population of about 700 people. The population is mostly Kekchi Maya with some Mopan Maya. San Pedro Columbia has Belize's largest settlement of Kekchi. Most of the population came to Belize from the Petén region of Guatemala in the late 19th century. The village is known for the hand woven embroidery produced there.
Ancient history
Lubaantun is one of the area's pre-Columbian Maya sites, inhabited at least as early as the Maya Classic Period. Lubaantun has unusual features of construction including drystone work and rounded corners that set it apart from other Maya sites.
Reference line notes
External links
San Pedro Columbia on SouthernBelize.com
Populated places in Toledo District
Toledo West | [
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232840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics%20of%20paper%20folding | Mathematics of paper folding | The discipline of origami or paper folding has received a considerable amount of mathematical study. Fields of interest include a given paper model's flat-foldability (whether the model can be flattened without damaging it), and the use of paper folds to solve up-to cubic mathematical equations.
History
In 1893, Indian civil servant T. Sundara Rao published Geometric Exercises in Paper Folding which used paper folding to demonstrate proofs of geometrical constructions. This work was inspired by the use of origami in the kindergarten system. Rao demonstrated an approximate trisection of angles and implied construction of a cube root was impossible.
In 1936 Margharita P. Beloch showed that use of the 'Beloch fold', later used in the sixth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms, allowed the general cubic equation to be solved using origami.
In 1949, R C Yeates' book "Geometric Methods" described three allowed constructions corresponding to the first, second, and fifth of the Huzita–Hatori axioms.
The Yoshizawa–Randlett system of instruction by diagram was introduced in 1961.
In 1980 was reported a construction which enabled an angle to be trisected. Trisections are impossible under Euclidean rules.
Also in 1980, Kōryō Miura and Masamori Sakamaki demonstrated a novel map-folding technique whereby the folds are made in a prescribed parallelogram pattern, which allows the map to be expandable without any right-angle folds in the conventional manner. Their pattern allows the fold lines to be interdependent, and hence the map can be unpacked in one motion by pulling on its opposite ends, and likewise folded by pushing the two ends together. No unduly complicated series of movements are required, and folded Miura-ori can be packed into a very compact shape. In 1985 Miura reported a method of packaging and deployment of large membranes in outer space, and as late as 2012 this technique had become standard operating procedure for orbital vehicles.
In 1986, Messer reported a construction by which one could double the cube, which is impossible with Euclidean constructions.
The first complete statement of the seven axioms of origami by French folder and mathematician Jacques Justin was written in 1986, but were overlooked until the first six were rediscovered by Humiaki Huzita in 1989. The first International Meeting of Origami Science and Technology (now known as the International Conference on Origami in Science, Math, and Education) was held in 1989 in Ferrara, Italy. At this meeting, a construction was given by Scimemi for the regular heptagon.
Around 1990, Robert J. Lang and others first attempted to write computer code that would solve origami problems.
In 1996, Marshall Bern and Barry Hayes showed to be an NP-complete problem the assignation of a crease pattern of mountain and valley folds in order to produce a flat origami structure starting from a flat sheet of paper.
In 1999, a theorem due to Haga provided constructions used to divide the side of a square into rational fractions.
In late 2001 and early 2002, Britney Gallivan proved the minimum length of paper necessary to fold it in half a certain number of times and folded a piece of toilet paper twelve times.
In 2002, Belcastro and Hull brought to the theoretical origami the language of affine transformations, with an extension from 2 to 3 in only the case of single-vertex construction.
In 2002, Alperin solved Alhazen's problem of spherical optics. In the same paper, Alperin showed a construction for a regular heptagon. In 2004, was proven algorithmically the fold pattern for a regular heptagon. Bisections and trisections were used by Alperin in 2005 for the same construction.
In 2009, Alperin and Lang extended the theoretical origami to rational equations of arbitrary degree, with the concept of manifold creases. This work was a formal extension of Lang's unpublished 2004 demonstration of angle quintisection.
Pure origami
Flat folding
The construction of origami models is sometimes shown as crease patterns. The major question about such crease patterns is whether a given crease pattern can be folded to a flat model, and if so, how to fold them; this is an NP-complete problem. Related problems when the creases are orthogonal are called map folding problems. There are three mathematical rules for producing flat-foldable origami crease patterns:
Maekawa's theorem: at any vertex the number of valley and mountain folds always differ by two.
It follows from this that every vertex has an even number of creases, and therefore also the regions between the creases can be colored with two colors.
Kawasaki's theorem: at any vertex, the sum of all the odd angles adds up to 180 degrees, as do the even.
A sheet can never penetrate a fold.
Paper exhibits zero Gaussian curvature at all points on its surface, and only folds naturally along lines of zero curvature. Curved surfaces that can't be flattened can be produced using a non-folded crease in the paper, as is easily done with wet paper or a fingernail.
Assigning a crease pattern mountain and valley folds in order to produce a flat model has been proven by Marshall Bern and Barry Hayes to be NP-complete. Further references and technical results are discussed in Part II of Geometric Folding Algorithms.
Huzita–Justin axioms
Some classical construction problems of geometry — namely trisecting an arbitrary angle or doubling the cube — are proven to be unsolvable using compass and straightedge, but can be solved using only a few paper folds. Paper fold strips can be constructed to solve equations up to degree 4. The Huzita–Justin axioms or Huzita–Hatori axioms are an important contribution to this field of study. These describe what can be constructed using a sequence of creases with at most two point or line alignments at once. Complete methods for solving all equations up to degree 4 by applying methods satisfying these axioms are discussed in detail in Geometric Origami.
Constructions
As a result of origami study through the application of geometric principles, methods such as Haga's theorem have allowed paperfolders to accurately fold the side of a square into thirds, fifths, sevenths, and ninths. Other theorems and methods have allowed paperfolders to get other shapes from a square, such as equilateral triangles, pentagons, hexagons, and special rectangles such as the golden rectangle and the silver rectangle. Methods for folding most regular polygons up to and including the regular 19-gon have been developed. A regular n-gon can be constructed by paper folding if and only if n is a product of distinct Pierpont primes, powers of two, and powers of three.
Haga's theorems
The side of a square can be divided at an arbitrary rational fraction in a variety of ways. Haga's theorems say that a particular set of constructions can be used for such divisions. Surprisingly few folds are necessary to generate large odd fractions. For instance can be generated with three folds; first halve a side, then use Haga's theorem twice to produce first and then .
The accompanying diagram shows Haga's first theorem:
The function changing the length AP to QC is self inverse. Let x be AP then a number of other lengths are also rational functions of x. For example:
A generalization of Haga's theorems
Haga's theorems are generalized as follows:
Therefore, BQ:CQ=k:1 implies AP:BP=k:2 for a positive real number k.
Doubling the cube
The classical problem of doubling the cube can be solved using origami. This construction is due to Peter Messer: A square of paper is first creased into three equal strips as shown in the diagram. Then the bottom edge is positioned so the corner point P is on the top edge and the crease mark on the edge meets the other crease mark Q. The length PB will then be the cube root of 2 times the length of AP.
The edge with the crease mark is considered a marked straightedge, something which is not allowed in compass and straightedge constructions. Using a marked straightedge in this way is called a neusis construction in geometry.
Trisecting an angle
Angle trisection is another of the classical problems that cannot be solved using a compass and unmarked ruler but can be solved using origami. This construction, which was reported in 1980, is due to Hisashi Abe. The angle CAB is trisected by making folds PP' and QQ' parallel to the base with QQ' halfway in between. Then point P is folded over to lie on line AC and at the same time point A is made to lie on line QQ' at A'. The angle A'AB is one third of the original angle CAB. This is because PAQ, A'AQ and A'AR are three congruent triangles. Aligning the two points on the two lines is another neusis construction as in the solution to doubling the cube.
Related problems
The problem of rigid origami, treating the folds as hinges joining two flat, rigid surfaces, such as sheet metal, has great practical importance. For example, the Miura map fold is a rigid fold that has been used to deploy large solar panel arrays for space satellites.
The napkin folding problem is the problem of whether a square or rectangle of paper can be folded so the perimeter of the flat figure is greater than that of the original square.
The placement of a point on a curved fold in the pattern may require the solution of elliptic integrals. Curved origami allows the paper to form developable surfaces that are not flat. Wet-folding origami is a technique evolved by Yoshizawa that allows curved folds to create an even greater range of shapes of higher order complexity.
The maximum number of times an incompressible material can be folded has been derived. With each fold a certain amount of paper is lost to potential folding. The loss function for folding paper in half in a single direction was given to be , where L is the minimum length of the paper (or other material), t is the material's thickness, and n is the number of folds possible. The distances L and t must be expressed in the same units, such as inches. This result was derived by Britney Gallivan, a high schooler from California, in December 2001. In January 2002, she folded a piece of toilet paper twelve times in the same direction, debunking a long-standing myth that paper cannot be folded in half more than eight times.
The fold-and-cut problem asks what shapes can be obtained by folding a piece of paper flat, and making a single straight complete cut. The solution, known as the fold-and-cut theorem, states that any shape with straight sides can be obtained.
A practical problem is how to fold a map so that it may be manipulated with minimal effort or movements. The Miura fold is a solution to the problem, and several others have been proposed.
See also
Flexagon
Lill's method
Napkin folding problem
Map folding
Regular paperfolding sequence (for example, the dragon curve)
Notes and references
Further reading
Demaine, Erik D., "Folding and Unfolding", PhD thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, 2001.
Dureisseix, David, "Folding optimal polygons from squares", Mathematics Magazine 79(4): 272–280, 2006.
Dureisseix, David, "An Overview of Mechanisms and Patterns with Origami", International Journal of Space Structures 27(1): 1–14, 2012.
External links
Paper Folding Geometry at cut-the-knot
Dividing a Segment into Equal Parts by Paper Folding at cut-the-knot
Britney Gallivan has solved the Paper Folding Problem
Overview of Origami Axioms
Introduction to Statistics with Origami by Mario Cigada
Recreational mathematics
Paper folding
Origami
Mathematics and art
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232843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde%20Park%2C%20Sydney | Hyde Park, Sydney | Hyde Park is a heritage-listed urban park located in the central business district of Sydney, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It is the oldest public parkland in Australia. Hyde Park is on the eastern fringe of the Sydney city centre and is approximately rectangular in shape, being squared at the southern end and rounded at the northern end. It is bordered on the west by Elizabeth Street, on the east by College Street, on the north by St. James Road and Prince Albert Road and on the south by Liverpool Street.
The park was designed by Norman Weekes, Sir John Sulman (1927 design resolution), Alfred Hook, W. G. Layton and I. Berzins and was built from 1810 to 1927. It is also known as Hyde Park, Sydney Common, Government Domain, The Common, The Exercising Ground, Cricket Ground and Racecourse. Hyde Park is owned by the City of Sydney and the Land and Property Management Authority, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 13 December 2011.
It is the southernmost of a chain of parkland that extends north to the shore of Sydney Harbour via The Domain and Sydney's Royal Botanic Gardens. Around the park's boundaries lie various buildings housing the Supreme Court of New South Wales, St. James Church, Hyde Park Barracks and Sydney Hospital to the north, St Mary's Cathedral, the Australian Museum and Sydney Grammar School to the east, the Downing Centre to the south, the David Jones Limited flagship store and the CBD to the west. It is divided in two by the east–west running Park Street.
Hyde Park contains well-kept gardens and approximately 580 trees; a mixture of figs, conifers, palms, and other varieties. It is famed for its magnificent fig tree lined avenues. Sandringham Gardens sit on the eastern side of the park, close to the intersection of Park Street and College Street.
History
At the time of European settlement in 1788 local Aborigines hunted ducks in the swampy marshes that were to become Hyde Park.
Hyde Park is also understood to be the site of an important Aboriginal contest ground which is a part of the greater Aboriginal history of Sydney. Until the mid 1820s, Aboriginal people travelled from all over Sydney and as far away as the Hunter and the Illawarra, to gather at a ceremonial contest ground to the south of the city. The exact location of this site of ritualized conflict settlement and resistance is unclear. Described as lying between the road to Botany Bay and the Brickfields, it was probably near Hyde Park South. Bloody fist fights involving up to 100 people, spearings and beatings were used to resolve conflicts at the Brickfields contest ground. These were observed and recorded by visiting Russian sailors in 1814, and again 10 years later by the French explorers Dumont d'Urvile and Rene Lesson.
The valley of the Tank Stream was cradled between two slightly elevated sandstone and shale ridges which ran down to the harbour to form Dawes Point and Bennelong Point on each side of Sydney Cove. The Tank Stream itself was only a tiny rivulet which rose in marshy ground skirting the western slopes of the ground which later became Hyde Park. The seepage from the bed-joints of the underlying sandstone around the upper portion of its catchment, which headed about the centre of the park, filtered through the soil to form a definite channel near King and Pitt Streets. The area now occupied by Hyde Park was relatively flat, rising slightly along the centre and elevated.
We know it was timbered, as was the rest of the topography, from the early drawings of the settlement, and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney J. H. Maiden has suggested that the dominant species were probably white or brittle gum (Eucalyptus micrantha), blackbutt (E.pilularis), bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera), Port Jackson figs (Ficus rubiginosa), Bangalow palms (Archontophoenix cunninghamiana), cabbage tree palms (Livistona australis) and smooth-barked white apple (Angophora costata), with an understorey of tea tree (Leptospermum sp.), wattle (Acacia sp.) and NSW Christmas bush (Ceratopetalum gummiferum).
From 1788 this was a place where soldiers could be quickly assembled in case of a convict rebellion. It was probably the site of a bloody battle between Aborigines and Europeans for control of land around Sydney. It was also the site of an important Aboriginal contest ground.
Before Governor Phillip departed from the settlement in December 1792, he had drawn a line from the head of Woolloomooloo Bay to the head of Cockle Bay (now Darling Harbour) and noted in writing on the map that no land within the line was to be leased or granted and should remain the property of the Crown. In subsequent years this directive was whittled away. King granted leases in the town, Foveaux had begun to issue grants, Macquarie was to extend the grants.
The area of Hyde Park however, fell largely within this line, and became regarded as a sort of "Common" on the edge of the town. It had quite a different status to the Governor's Domain, which became the Botanic Gardens. It was land that belonged to the people, rather than to the Governor or his officials. The settlers grazed their animals on it and used its brush and trees as firewood. It was gradually denuded of vegetation. By 1810 it would have been a relatively open, elevated space and by then it would have had views out to the north east across Woolloomooloo to the harbour. Early on there were shingling parties and saw pits operating in the vicinity. It was known as "the Common" even before Governor Macquarie defined its size and use by his proclamation of 5 October 1810. His 83rd regiment had established a camp there while waiting for more permanent accommodation, on the southern end near the brickfields.
Later it became the colony's first sports centre and racecourse. Prize fights and cricket matches were held here. In 1803 cricket was introduced on The Common by British officers. This game became an obsession and the area served the game from 1827 to 1856.
Developments from 1810 to 1830
Before 1810 the area was known as "The Common," the "Exercising Ground", "Cricket Ground" or "Racecourse". Macquarie, on 11 February 1810, formally reserved it as open space, the first public park set aside in Australia. He formally defined the park as bounded in the north by the NSW Government Domain, on the west by the town of Sydney, on the east by the grant to John Palmer at Woolloomooloo and on the south by the brickfields.
Macquarie named it "Hyde Park" after the great Hyde Park in London, north-west of Westminster, near Buckingham Palace (which had once belonged to the Manor of Hyde and which was seized from the Abbey of Westminster by Henry VIII for a forest hunting reserve in 1536). Macquarie's naming and formal definition of the park was part of his town planning policy. He named the streets and regularised their courses, erected a wharf in Cockle Bay, relocated the Market Place and planned other improvements in the town, as well as defining Sydney's first major park and formalising its use "for the recreation and amusement of the inhabitants". He also added another use for the park, "as a field of exercise for the troops". His proclamation acknowledged the previous uses of the area.
Ten days after Macquarie named it Hyde Park it was the venue for Australia's first organised horse race and it was used for races through the 1820s. At that time it was much larger, marking the outskirts of Sydney's southern settlement The park was used as Sydney's racecourse from 1820 to 1821.< Whittaker adds that as well as being a popular cricket venue in the 1820s it was also popular for informal children's games.
It was delineated only as a space at the end of Macquarie Street, where the military held parades, and townspeople cut firewood and carted off soil. It became a favourite place for cricket, a playground for local school boys, a racecourse and - with its slightly elevated position - a promenade cites Hyde Park as being Sydney's cricket ground from 1827 to 1856.
In 1811 Macquarie framed further regulations to secure the space for public recreation. He closed access across the park to the Brickfields beyond, forbade carts to cross it, or cows, sheep, goats and pigs' to graze upon it, and ordered that no cattle headed for markets near Darling Harbour were to be driven across it. He caused a fence to be made between the park and the brickfields and directed that carts carrying bricks or pottery should go through the turn-pike gate in George Street. He directed that all traffic crossing the park was to use the new line of road along the route of Liverpool Street to South Head Road (or Oxford Street). This roadway then defined the southern boundary of Hyde Park.
The northern boundary was at first defined by the edge of the Governor's Demesne (Domain), which the Macquaries came to regard as their personal pleasure grounds. Macquarie himself directed the building of Hyde Park Barracks (1817–19), St. James' Church (1820) and the Law Courts (1819-28) at the northern end of Hyde Park, using Francis Greenway as his architect, with these buildings as fine embellishments to the colonial town, facing each other across a plaza which terminated Macquarie Street. Macquarie blocked the street named after himself at what was later known as Queens's Square and excluded all roadways from the park.
The western boundary was defined as Camden Street, later Elizabeth Street, renamed by Macquarie for his wife, Elizabeth Campbell). It was marked out in Meehan's plan of 1807 almost as far as present day Park Street. This was first a street of scattered small wattle and daub thatched houses, brush and grass trees. These were gradually replaced by more substantial houses in the next four decades. It became a fashionable residential street, with elegant terrace houses overlooking the maturing Hyde Park.
The eastern boundary was not sharply defined when the Macquaries departed Sydney in 1821. A map of that year shows a vegetable garden of 11 acres allocated to the Barracks and a site marked out for the Roman Catholic Chapel... "near the rubbish dump". The foundation stone for what would become St. Mary's Cathedral was laid in 1821 on a site adjoining Hyde Park's north-eastern side, the first site granted to the Roman Catholic Church in Australia.
Macquarie made no move to have the space planted. He probably had enough difficulty getting the Government Domain in order. However the formal nature of the Queens Square end of Hyde Park made it an appropriate place for Governor Brisbane's Commission to be read to the assembled populace on 1 December 1821.<
Francis Greenway, architect to Governor Macquarie, wrote in a letter to The Australian in April 1825 that Hyde Park was to be "given to the inhabitants of Sydney for ever, and to be laid down in the most elegant style of landscape gardening". It would be planted out "in the modern way of landscape gardening, as many of the squares are now in London, the garden enclosed with an elegant rail fence". Lack of cooperation from the Colonial Office in London meant that Greenway's elaborate and optimistic plans for beautifying Sydney were put aside for the time being.
Wrestling and boxing in the park continued, with quoits, rugby union, hurling, military drills, a zoo in 1849. In public holidays the park resembled a "side show alley".
From the first attempts at structuring it the site has lent itself to a formal design. Emphasis on a central avenue was given by the 1832 extension of Macquarie Street south through the park and by its flatness. When this street extension was closed for a second time in 1851, its north–south line became a rudimentary public walk (known as "Lovers" Walk'); a derivation from the planted walks in English 18th century urban pleasure gardens (such as Vauxhall Gardens).
Developments from the 1830s to 1900
In the 1830s Governor Darling proposed to sell off the park for houses, but his successor Governor Bourke rebuffed the claims of those who desired the park for residential allotments and reaffirmed its status as a park. In 1830 Park Street was extended through the park.
In 1832 William and Macquarie Street (southern extension) were constructed severing Hyde Park and establishing its central axis. Also in 1832 College Street was built which divided off part of the park, in the area which became Cook and Phillip Parks. Also in 1832 Sydney College was built (later Sydney Grammar School). With the nearby Lyons Terrace (1851) and the Australian Museum (1849-51) the southern end of Hyde Park attracted significant and imposing buildings which increased its importance as a planned open space envisaged by Francis Greenway.
In 1837 the first major planting in the park was undertaken by Superintendent of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, Alan Cunningham. Also in 1837 Sydney's second main water supply (after the first one - the Tank Stream - had become polluted) was Busby's Bore in Lachlan Swamps (later part of Centennial Park). An outlet for water brought to the city from the bore through a tunnel was an elevated pipe in Hyde Park where water carts queued and filled their barrels to sell in the town at 3 pennies per bucket.
In 1846 work commenced on the Australian Museum on the south-east corner of William and Park Streets, probably to the design of architect Mortimer Lewis. This was probably Australia's first prominent museum building, and faced the park.
In the 1850s Hyde Park was a barren expanse of grass criss-crossed with paths and dirt tracks around its perimeter. This is clear in a c.1854 photograph taken from the Mint by mint-worker and amateur photographer William Stanley Jevons in the very early days of photography.
In 1854 the Public Parks Act was passed and a Hyde Park Improvement Committee was formed. Trustees were appointed to determine policy and after 1854 the space gradually became tailored towards more bourgeois, middle-class ideal of a passive, decorative open space for strolling. It attracted public speakers for a time, until they, like the cricketers, were banished to the Domain to the park's north. Gradually Hyde Park became more a place for passive recreation and more like an "English" garden.
There was increasing public pressure to "improve" the park and plant it. By this time the influence of Scottish/English writer John Claudius Loudon and architect/gardener (later Sir) Joseph Paxton had reached the antipodes - the garden invaded the pleasure ground to form a "gardenesque" (Loudon's term) composition with each of Hyde Park's four quarters divided by a central walk and the whole park by Park Street. Incidents or features such as statues, fountains, ponds and a bandstand were introduced. This broadly reflected the rise of the Public Parks Movement in England, and elsewhere in Sydney - with Parramatta Park being declared a public park in the mid 1850s after much lobbying.
In the 1850s civic monuments began to be erected in the park. The first in 1857 was the Thornton Obelisk. It is also irreverently known as 'Thornton's Scent Bottle' constructed on the park's western side entrance facing Bathurst Street (intersection with Elizabeth St.). This is actually a sewerage ventilator, made to appear like Cleopatra's Needle, an Egyptian Obelisk now displayed in London (ibid).
In the 1850s with the coming of responsible government, Hyde Park became a venue for Sunday oratory on political and civic topics, and later election meetings. It was also used for processions and official gatherings such as the ball to welcome Queen Victoria's son Prince Alfred in 1868. Its 19th century layout featured straight paths rather than curved ones, with the central avenue of Moreton Bay fig trees continuing the line of Macquarie Street southward. Elsewhere lawns were interspersed with clumps of trees and shrubs, water features and a bandstand.
In 1861 planting was undertaken, predominantly along pathways. Moreton Bay (Ficus macrophylla) and Port Jackson (F.rubiginosa) figs were planted in Hyde Park in 1862(1860 say Mackaness & Butler-Bowden, 2007, 72) on the advice of Director of the Botanic Gardens, Charles Moore. Despite removal of an earlier central avenue of Moreton Bay figs, other specimens of both of these species survive from this era.
In 1866 the parkland was enclosed with a two-railed hardwood fence. A bronze statue of Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, was erected in 1866 five years after his death. This was moved to the Botanic Gardens in 1922 and relocated in front of Hyde Park Barracks in 1987.
After the 1851 Great Exhibition in Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace, held in London's Hyde Park, and the first Australian Colonial Exhibition in Melbourne in 1854, Sydney also held a more modest exhibition in the Museum to display exhibits destined for Paris (the 1855 International Exhibition) or Melbourne (1861). Victoria also hosted Australia's earliest intercolonial exhibition, in Melbourne (1866-7), again preceding a major international exhibition in Paris (1867). Even if a railway station was not erected on Hyde Park (as had been suggested) or even used at all for an exhibition, the proximity of the railway station and exhibition hall was seen as a necessity for practical and symbolic reasons. Ease of transport was vital for a successful show but so was the powerful symbolism of the "iron horse", with its prefabricated iron railway tracks symptomatic of an age that had produced the Crystal Palace. Encouraged by the success of the first Sydney exhibition of the Agricultural Society of NSW in 1869, Prince Alfred Park was chosen as the site of the grand "Metropolitan Intercolonial Exhibition" of 1870.
To Sydney's chagrin, the Melbourne exhibition was a great success and the "mother colony" looked anxiously to the day when she could respond with a confident rejoinder. The centenary of Cook's "discovery" of Australia of 1770 was seen as a suitable commemorative event and Hyde Park, Sydney considered an appropriate site. A proposal to erect a new central railway station and use the hall for the exhibition, was considered
A painting by Thomas H. Lewis showed Merry Cricket Club Matches in Hyde Park's north - the park was apparently only planted from Park Street south if the painting was accurate.
In 1871 additional planting was undertaken. In 1876 the parkland was redefined and enclosed with a dwarf stone wall and iron palisade fence. In 1878 Hyde Park was formally delineated, its corners demarcated with gates and sandstone piers surmounted by gas lamps.
In 1878 the Great Synagogue was built on Elizabeth Street facing Hyde Park. Beyond (i.e. south of) the Synagogue the character of Elizabeth Street became somewhat less exclusive. By 1900, pubs and the odd private club - including Tattersall's bookmakers club - were a feature of the street. In 1879 (on the centenary of Cook's death) the Captain Cook statue was erected, on a stone base that had been erected in 1869. It stands on the highest point in the park. Its sculptor was Thomas Woolmer who was prominent in the English pre-Raphaelite movement and who spent several years in Australia. From 1878 to 1896 Sydney Botanic Gardens Director Charles Moore was appointed a trustee of Hyde Park. A Cook's pine tree (Araucaria columnaris) flanks the statue.
In 1881 the Frazer Memorial Fountain, one of two donated to the city by merchant and MLC John Frazer (the second fountain is in the middle of Prince Albert Road at the intersection with Art Gallery Road and St. Mary's Road). The fountain was designed by John F. Hennessy as assistant to the City Architect, Charles Sapford) was sited at Hyde Park on the corner of Oxford and College Street. This was one of the first sources of clean water for Sydney and a population meeting point in the park. The original design featured cups dangling from the large water basin for people to take a drink. The taps were bronze and in the shape of a dolphin.
Also in 1888 the Fort Macquarie Cannon (s) was placed in the park.
In 1888 the John Baptist Memorial Fountain was sited at Hyde Park, in a different location to its current one near the corner of Park & Elizabeth Streets. Early photographs (pre c.1910) show it on an "x" intersection of two paths, and surrounded by a metal picket fence. Baptist was an early and influential nursery proprietor in Sydney whose nursery "The Garden" in Surry Hills was successful. He was a generous benefactor, donating a fountain to Redfern Park.
This fountain was commissioned for "The Garden" nursery. It was donated by his family to the City for Hyde Park on the centenary of the European settlement of Australia – at this time Australia's premier park had no fountain. While its origin is uncertain – it seems to be a locally made copy (in sandstone) after an 1842 English design – since the 1830s catalogues of the English firm Austin and Seeley had carried descriptions of fountains made of artificial stone and J.C.Loudon had advocated installing jetting fountains. A popular theme was three dolphins or carp on rockwork, their tails holding up the shell-shaped basin.... It also appears to be the earliest surviving ornamental (c.f. drinking) fountain in Sydney. Elizabeth Bay House's fountain is believed an earlier import. Government House's and Vaucluse House's – almost identical – were installed in the 1860s. In c. 2007 Sydney City Council removed the sandstone pedestal (with three triton fish forming a tapering spout) for conservation and safekeeping. The base remains in situ. The current management plan proposes its reinstallation and repair.
In 1897 a bronze statue was erected by public subscription to commemorate the populist politician William Bede Dalley (1831–88) near the north-east corner of the park near Prince Albert Road.
Developments from 1900 to 1930
Director of the Botanic Gardens, Joseph Henry Maiden compiled a 42-page paper on "The Parks of Sydney" which he delivered to the Royal Society on 4 June 1902. Providing a schedule of Sydney's 207 "Public Parks and Recreation Reserves" set aside between January 1855 and April 1902, Maiden dealt with their administration, and how they were (or should be) planted, fenced and provided with paths, roads, seats, lights and other facilities, such as latrines, which were now provided "for women and children" in the Botanic Gardens, but not yet "in our parks, so far as I am aware". Maiden stressed that above all, 'in this democratic country, parks "should be inviolable". Their inalienability had to be rigorously guarded. He noted that fortunately "the battle of Hyde Park has been fought and won. Hyde Park will be immune from the builder and the railway constructor for a century, and if for so long, then it is safe for all time. For each generation is wiser than the preceding one...". He may, in retrospect, have been over-optimistic on these last two points.
After addressing the Royal Society, Maiden was asked by Sydney Council to report on the state of the reserves within the city. He furnished an interim report in July 1903, before he had inspected Prince Alfred and Moore Parks, but many of his suggestions were of a general nature. The council should appoint a superintendent of parks: "trained professional gardeners, not labourers or handy men" should comprise the core of the staff; a nursery and depot were required; etc. With improvements, Elizabeth Street could become "the noblest street in Sydney"...More latrines were generally needed, and if "a convenience for females" were provided in Hyde Park, say near Park Street, it would, I feel sure be a boon'. His report went to Council in August 1903.
Control of Hyde Park was vested by the Department of Lands in the then Sydney Municipal Council in 1904. A programme of upgrading began. By 1905 illumination of the whole of Hyde Park had been completed.
In 1908 Hyde Park was redefined following the widening of Elizabeth and Liverpool Streets by and . In 1910 a bus shelter was constructed.
In 1910 Sydney's first women's public lavatory was built in the park near the corner of Park and Elizabeth Streets. It was considered a "failure" by Council due to low usage and was replaced in 1955. In 1912 the park was redefined following the widening of College Street. Mark Foys Emporium (south-west corner of Liverpool & Elizabeth Streets) was built in 1909 opposite the park. This was one of the largest and grandest department stores in the city, growing over time to six stories. When trains (i.e. after 1926) were the most popular method of goring to town the store thrived because of its proximity to the underground railway station.
In 1914 the sundial was repaired (its date of erection is not known).
In 1916 Hyde Park was redefined following the widening of Park Street. In 1917 the Frazer Memorial Fountain was relocated to the north-east corner of the Pool of Remembrance. The Emden gun, a four-inch gun salvaged from the German raider ship sunk off the Cocos Islands by HMAS Sydney in 1914, the first Australian naval ship to ship victory and one of the nation's earliest war trophies, was gifted from the Commonwealth Government and sited at Hyde Park on the corner of Oxford and College Streets. In 1919 the bronze statue of scholar, patriot and politician William Bede Dalley was erected by public subscription in the park's north-east near Hyde Park Barracks.
An underground railway for the city was planned in 1916 but did not proceed until 1922. The idea of building an underground rail network for Sydney was first mooted by engineer and Harbour Bridge designer Dr John Bradfield in 1913. Government approved it and in 1916 work began on the first leg from Central to Museum and St. James. Part of the park was fenced in 1916, however from 1922 onwards major excavation began and much of the western side and part of the centre of Hyde Park North was refashioned after construction commenced. Excavation began with the felling of the main avenue's Moreton Bay fig trees.
World War 1 brought a halt but in 1922 the project resumed in earnest. Most of the construction of Liverpool Street Station (now Museum) station was done by horsepower and hand. According to The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 May 1929 the southern end of the park (Anzac Memorial) was a mountain of excavated soil and the south-west corner had been a railway construction site for more than 12 years! This necessitated massive excavations and vast disturbance over five years (1924-9) involving a huge army of workmen and the moving of an enormous amount of soil, shale and sandstone. This was one of the major urban projects of the Depression years.
The rail system was officially opened in December 1926. The first electric trains ran between Central, Museum and St. James.
Following concern about the park's future development during and after the railway construction disruption, Sydney City Council in 1927 held a design competition "for a comprehensive layout and beautification scheme" for a restored and refurbished Hyde Park (along with 'up-to-date lines'). The competition was run probably to allay fears that the park would be closed to the public for years more, as well as to put pressure on the Railway Commissioners.
It was won by architect, planner, landscape designer and engineer Norman Weekes (1888-1972) with a finely delineated design drawn by young architect Raymond McGrath (1903–77) and influenced by the "City Beautiful" movement. This design evolved with the active criticism of the assessors, architect and town planner John (later Sir) Sulman, architect Alfred Hook (Associate Professor of Construction, Architecture Faculty, Sydney University) and Town Clerk (and closely involved in the park's management) W. G. Layton, who wrote a masterly report assessing the design, pointing out its shortcomings and enunciating the design philosophy followed. Landscape historian Georgina Whitehead describes Weekes' design as an accomplished melange of modern City Beautiful, Beaux Artes and Art Deco inspiration.
Their report stated (inter alia) that a "park laid out on the above lines (a hierarchy of traffic ways, lined with and shaded by trees, expanses of lawn, restrained fountains and monuments) and ...would be dignified, useful, a pleasure to the citizens and an object of admiration to visitors, as they are in the principal cities of Europe. Hyde Park properly treated may thus take its place among those of the leading cities of the world". Weekes' design was simplified. Importing fertile soil was the first priority.
Part of the vision was to place major monuments at each end of the main vista aligned with Macquarie Street, which ultimately saw the Anzac Memorial and Archibald Fountain installed.
In the 1920s the Oddfellows Memorial, an elaborate drinking fountain commemorating members of the Grand United Order of Oddfellows who served and died in World War 1, was built near the northern corner of Park and Elizabeth Streets.
1927 also saw the opening of David Jones Department store on the corner of Market and Elizabeth Streets, directly opposite the park and St. James Station entry.
1929 saw the American stock market crash, with reverberations around the world's financial markets, triggering widespread unemployment.
Developments since the 1930s
In 1930 an Anzac Memorial competition to commemorate Australian diggers who served in World War I was won by architect C. Brice Dellit. Its construction would take four years.
In 1932 Hyde Park's perimeter walls were built to a new design and the British Lawn on the north part of the park's eastern boundary facing St.Mary's Cathedral, Sandringham Gardens and Memorial Gates (on the corner of College and Park Streets (north).
A climax at the park's northern end is the Archibald Fountain, a flamboyant 1932 erection set in a large pond depicting a bronze Apollo and other gods and mythological creatures such as Poseidon (God of the sea), Diana (the huntress), Theseus and the Minotaur and Jason and the Golden Fleece. This was bequeathed in 1919 to Sydney by J.F.Archibald, to commemorate the association of Australia and France during World War 1 and was designed by (and regarded as the master work of) French sculptor Francois Sicard. Archibald was editor of The Bulletin, a newspaper that encouraged writers in the 1890s onward to write about Australia: he himself was a committed Francophile, supporting a near-French styled beard and changing his name twice: from John Felham to Jules Francois (Archibald). He dreamed of a Sydney developed along Parisian lines, with outdoor cafes and music in the streets. Henry Lawson wanted red flags: Archibald red umbrellas.
There was a move to include native plants and E.H.Ward, curator of Sydney Botanic Gardens, became the chief adviser - he was responsible for the planting of the great, dense avenue of Hill's figs (Ficus microcarpa var. 'Hillii'). This ran along the central walkway aligned with Macquarie Street, and was established as its major axis. Desirable attributes were listed: the need for shade, restriction of plant species, open grassed areas rather than shrubberies. Specimen trees were considered 'out of place'; flower beds were tolerated in restraint.
The desired quality was "quietude" - the park would be a haven from the bustle and noise of the city. Trams and buses, routed through the park by Weekes, were eliminated.
Civic monuments were thought appropriate and two of the most successful of the period were attracted - the Archibald Fountain at the northern end and the Anzac Memorial (1930–34) at the southern end: an inspired Art Deco monument of blocky, buttressed forms. With fine sculptures under English migrant sculptor Raynor Hoff's direction, its symbolism departed from neo-classical forms used in many war memorials and incorporated symbols special to Australia - such as the rising sun and figures of brooding servicemen- which gave the monumental strength to the large granite sculpture. Its modernity and the emphasis (sculpture and friezes) on women, made it controversial. Photographer Harold Cazneaux depicted its new setting, "Pool of Reflection" and lines of then Lombardy poplars (Populus nigra 'Italica') in 1934.
A 1930 photograph shows mostly only small trees in the park with the Hills fig avenue newly planted. Bandstands were scattered throughout the city and were popular for lunchtime concerts, particularly in the depression when unemployed people abounded. One was located near the cnr. of Park and College Streets (north) - which was demolished to create (in 1951) the Sandringham Gardens and memorial gates to Kings George V and VI.
Much of the construction of the park was assisted (through the 1930s) with labour employed as part of the Depression Relief Fund Programme, which was also responsible for the 1934 construction of the Anzac Memorial's Pool of Remembrance. Also in 1934 the Frazer Memorial Fountain was relocated to its current location, close to the entry steps facing College and Francis Streets, near Sydney Grammar School. In this same year St. James Station and Museum Station were constructed, both with entries/exits in Hyde Park south and north.
In 1934 entry and exits to St. James and Museum Stations in Hyde Park South and North were built, as the southern portion of Hyde Park was only handed back to Sydney City Council in 1932.
In the 1960s an outdoor cafe was constructed behind (north-east) of Museum Station entry building, by Sydney City Council. Design of cafe and landscaping were the work of Ilmars Berzins, SCC landscape architect.
In the 1950s Hyde Park saw the introduction on Park Street (in the north-western corner of the park's southern half) of the Long Day Childcare and the Women's Rest Centre conveniences for women and their children visiting the city. This replaced the earlier Women's Public Toilets. In 1954 Queen Elizabeth II dedicated Sandringham Memorial Gardens, designed by Ilmars Berzins, commemorating King George VI (her father, the former King) and the Royal Family's Scottish rural retreat.
In 1983 the Nagoya gardens were constructed in Hyde Park North, commemorating a sister city friendship. Busby's Bore fountain was erected in the same year and slightly to the north-west near the Supreme Court part of the park.
In the late 1980s the city council saw a need to reassess the park and improve condition of a number of its elements: plantings, walls, paths and monuments. A draft plan of management and master plan were produced in 1989. Through the early 1990s a works programme was implemented to upgrade paths, conserve monuments and stone walls and built new stone walls along College Street in Hyde Park South. The works depot was removed from the eastern side of the main avenue of Hyde Park north in this period.
In 1999 the men's conveniences at St. James Station were converted into a cafe facing the park's north-western corner (off Market Street/Elizabeth Street intersection). Nagoya Gardens were upgrade.
In 2004-5 an arboriculture survey of the park was undertaken, after an outbreak of fungal attack meant the need to remove some of the park's central avenue of Hill's figs (Ficus microcarpa 'Hillii'). In 2006 a plan of management and Tree management report were adopted by Council and the Crown.
In 2012 ongoing tree management works were undertaken. On 15 September 2012, a protest by Salafi Muslims against an anti-Islam film Innocence of Muslims was held at Hyde Park, among other places in Sydney CBD, where around 300 people had gathered. As the crowd started to leave Hyde Park near St James, Public Order and Riot Squad officers equipped with batons and riot shields had already been stationed at the park exit.
On 31 March 2015 a War Memorial to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander soldiers was unveiled in Hyde Park South, close to Bathurst and Elizabeth Streets. Designed by indigenous artist Tony Albert it features four tall, bullets and three fallen shells, representing diggers who returned and those who did not. The work was inspired by Albert's grandfather's story of survival and experiences escaping a German concentration camp in World War II.
In February 2016 Sydney City Council proposes restoring the Frazer Memorial Fountain (1881) with a new base, plinth and steps and its impressive filigree works restored. Restoration is expected to take place later in 2016.
Sporting activities
Many sports were played at Hyde Park, including cricket, rugby, horse racing, quoits and hurling. Sports people using the park grounds had to share it with the military, who trained on it and practised drill work, the general public, who cut paths across the playing fields, stray dogs, cattle, goats, sheep and other animals. Their activities sometimes clashed. The quoit players, in particular, used an area close to the cricket pitch and often damaged it.
Horse racing
Seven Arabian horse taken on board the First Fleet at the Cape Colony (now South Africa) were the first horses to be brought to Australia. The first thoroughbred to be brought to Australia was Rockingham in 1799. By 1800 there were 200 horses in the colony which grew to 1100 by 1810. A race ground on the Hawkesbury River near Richmond was probably Australia's first racecourse being used as early as 1806. Match races were run there as part of a holiday at Parramatta in April 1810. Only two days after Governor Macquarie dedicated Hyde Park for 'recreation and amusement' it became the site of Australia's first official horse race meeting organised on 15, 17 and 19 October 1810 by the officers of the 73rd Regiment (Macquarie's regiment). The meetings to devise the rules and organise the event were held in the officers' mess and many of the horses were owned by the officers. The race meeting consisted of a series of heats with weights set depending on the sex and age of a horse. There were also a number of match races between two horses and sweepstake prizes offered. Governor Macquarie himself attended each day of the meeting. This format for race meetings was followed in the colony for the next 50 years. Owners mostly rode their own horses and the courses were marked by flags and posts. Novelty events were often included.
Meetings continued to be held at Hyde Park up until the formation of the Sydney Turf Club in 1825 when they were moved to the 'Bellevue' course. Meetings were also run at Parramatta and Camperdown. The Australian Racing and Jockey Club was formed in 1828 with the encouragement of Governor Darling but the colony could not support two race clubs and both folded in 1831.
Cricket
Although some research indicates that cricket was played before 1803 at the southern end of the Common near where the War Memorial is today, the first confirmed match took place on the Common in 1803. The players were the civilians and officers from the supply ship Calcutta. The cricket ground was laid out in the north-western section of the park (just behind the current entrance to St James railway station) and all major games were played there until 1856.
The first fully recorded match took place in Hyde Park between the 17th and 39th Regiments on 7 May 1832. However, by the 1850s running problems with other users of the Park, the public, the military and players of other sports, ultimately caused cricket matches to be moved to the Domain where unfortunately, similar problems were also encountered.
Boxing
Organised bareknuckle fights were probably common in the early colony and officers of the NSW Corps were known to have arranged fights between convicts. The first recorded fight took place on the road to Botany about half a mile from the Racecourse in 1814. This would put it near the current location of the War Memorial. As if the boxing bout was not enough, the combatants, John Berringer (also known as John Parton) and Charles Sefton, were first required to run a mile. Both Berrenger and Sefton has been sentenced to death in Britain but had their sentences commuted to transportation to NSW. The fight lasted 56 rounds and was won by Berringer.
Rugby
On 17 June 1865 the first known rugby match to be played in Australia took place in Hyde Park between members of Australia's first rugby club, the Sydney Football Club, which had been established that month. In the July that year, the Sydney Club played the Australian Club in Hyde Park, in the first inter-club game.
In 1856, Hyde Park was turned into public gardens and sporting activity all but ceased. Cricket and football clubs had to find other places to play. Cricket was played at the Domain and both sports were also played at Moore Park and the Garrison Ground (now the Sydney Cricket Ground).
Description
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Hyde Park is in the City of Sydney's south-centre, lying broadly on the ridge that runs south–north to Bennelong Point and forming the city's eastern "edge". The park is broadly flat, though sloping slightly east and west to the adjacent streets (College & Elizabeth Streets). The park is pock marked with drain lids, many of which lead down to Busby's Bore, the first large-scale attempt at a water source system after backing-up the Tank Stream, the Sydney colony's primary water source. Busby's Bore was built between 1827 and 1837 using convict labour and fresh water from Lachlan Swamp (later known as Centennial Park) to the city.
Hyde Park is broadly rectangular with a rounded northern end. It is bisected east–west by Park Street and ringed by other major city streets (Liverpool and College Streets, Prince Albert Road, St.James' Road, Elizabeth Street) and stands in strong contrast to the closely built-up and intense environment of the city beside it. Its landscape design offers shady avenues, green sward areas and colourful vistas. Its layout and monuments offer a sense of the city's and nation's history and its design reflects certain aspirations which have found expressions in its vistas, layout and monuments. The park is centred on its great shaded promenade under magnificent mature Hill's figs (Ficus microcarpa var. Hillii). Dense and lacy, these trees have grown tall and now dominate the planting and design, despite some having to be removed due to fungus attack in recent years. A climax at each end of the park is provided by the two major monuments of the Archibald Fountain at the northern and most populous end and by the solid bulk of the Anzac Memorial at the southern end. These two monuments are of essential importance to the park's design and character.
The Park is an accomplished melange of modern City Beautiful, Beaux Artes and Art Deco inspiration. A series of cross paths, perpendicular and angled to the central promenade, connect city streets to its north, west and south with key streets leading to the suburbs of Woolloomooloo, East Sydney and Darlinghurst to the east.
The two major east–west perpendicular paths in the park's north lead from Market Street to the Archibald Fountain, and from this to St. Mary's Cathedral. Major perpendicular east–west paths in the park's south run east from Bathurst Street past the obelisk and crossing the northern end of the paved plaza north of the Anzac Memorial and reflective pool (to Sydney Grammar School); and another bisecting the Anzac Memorial and connecting directly with Francis Street to the park's east.
Flights of steps lead down from the central promenade to Park Street which bisects the two halves of the park. Other flights of steps lead diagonally off both north and south-eastern corners off Park Street, the entry opposite Francis Street, as both Park and College Streets are at a lower level than much of the adjacent park (or its ridge). Broadly both halves (running north–south) of the park are grassed areas, with scattered trees mostly framing and following cross paths.
Wide paved areas surround both the Archibald Fountain and the Anzac Memorial. A rectangular Pool of Remembrance is set among a wide paved area north of (and on all sides of) the Anzac Memorial, the pool's edges being lined with fastigiate poplar trees (Populus alba "Fastigiata" which replaced earlier Lombardy poplars (P.nigra 'Italica').
A series of monuments throughout the park form features of different compartments, as follows: (NB: this may not be complete list):
North-west (St.James' Road to Park Street)
St.James Station entry (northern, to St.James' Road)
Sundial (date not known, pre 1914, designer?)
Busby's Bore Fountain (1962, John Byrom)
The Nagoya Gardens (1964, designers?, upgraded 1999)
A giant chess board set in paving (1972, designer?)
A former toilet block, now a cafe (1999) backing onto an entry/exit (to Market Street) of the St. James underground Railway station (1934)
F. J. Walker Memorial Fountain - (1961, Gerard Havekes)
John Baptist Fountain (, relocated to park 1888, designer unknown - likely a home-made copy after an English design)
Former Tram Shelter (Kiosk)
Oddfellows Memorial (War Memorial)(near cnr.Park/Elizabeth St.s)(1920s)
Underground Gentlemen's Toilets (filled/unused) facing Park Street
North-east (Prince Albert Road to Park Street)
Archibald Fountain
William Bede Dalley statue (1919, sculptor?)
Fort Macquarie Cannon (opp. St.Mary's Road)(1810s)
British Lawn (1932)
Sandringham Gardens & Memorial Gates (1951 Ilmar Berzins, SCC)
South-west (Park- Liverpool Streets)
Thornton Obelisk (Sydney Water Sewer ventilator)(1857, ?)
Museum Station entry building, and cafe (cnr.Elizabeth/Liverpool Sts)
Anzac Memorial
Pool of Remembrance (1934, Dellit?)
South-east (Park-Liverpool Streets)
Captain Cook Statue (1879 on 1869 base, Thomas Woolmer (UK)
Frazer Memorial Fountain (1881, John F.Hennessy, as assistant to City Architect, Charles Sapford)(moved three times since, in the park)
Emden Gun (1914, a 1917 gift from the Commonwealth Government).
Condition
As at 9 June 2011, much of the park was dug up in the 1920s to install the City Underground Railway including Museum Station in the park's south-western quarter (with two exits to cnr. Liverpool/Elizabeth St.s and to near Bathurst Street) and St. James Station north of the Archibald Fountain with two exits, one to Market Street, the other under St. James' Road to its northern side outside the park boundary.
As an open space area, Hyde Park has been subject to various attacks by contending uses: residential, active recreation, passive recreation, infrastructure, etc.). Various encroachments have appeared from time to time, buildings for particular purposes, outlets for Sydney water supply, road widening around and through it and, most dramatically, the huge upheaval of the City Underground Railway construction with massive excavation through its length and breadth (1916 fencing, 1922+ excavation).
Even though it evolved during a period when informal landscape planning dominated the English-speaking world, and even though some informal elements have been introduced to its design, it has remained Sydney's major formal urban landscape. It is this formal quality which gives it its strength and memorability.
Much of the park reflects its 1926 competition design with some modifications between 1927-c.1930. Recent (1990-2010) changes have been relatively minor - one more noticeable one being removal of 13 Hill's fig trees from the northern end (around the Archibold Fountain) due to fungal attack. Another change of note has been removal of the s day care/women's rest centre building in the late 1990s and re-grassing of that north-western corner of the southern half of the park. Changes to Gallipoli Gardens plantings around the Anzac Memorial, minor pathway upgrades and recent works to install cycle lane along the park's eastern side on College Street have meant minor incursions and changes there.
Modifications and dates
1788-1810clearing for firewood, grazing
1810fencing; racecourse (originally roughly 22ha/56 acres, including Elizabeth and most of College Street, i.e. 30% larger than today)
1830sextension of Park Street
1832Macquarie Street extended south through the park
1837elevated pipe outlet for Busby's Bore water supply
1849zoo
1851Macquarie Street extension closed again, "Lovers" Lane' walk created
1854+pressure for passive recreation/improvement, planting, walks; Park Street created bisecting park and four "quarters" formed
1857sewer vent/obelisk erected on Bathurst/Elizabeth Street side
1862Moreton Bay (Ficus macrophylla) and Port Jackson (F.rubiginosa) figs planted on Charles Moore's advice. Despite 1920s upheavals, and removal of the original central avenue of Moreton Bay figs, some of these still remain elsewhere in the park
1916-26major upheaval and recreation of the park after creation of the underground railway loop. St. James & Museum stations/entries
1927hills fig avenue created along central axis
1930-34Anzac Memorial and Pool of Remembrance constructed
1932Archibald Fountain and surrounds created
1951demolition of bandstand, creation of Sandringham Gardens
1955demolition of women's toilet, creation of Long Day Childcare and Women's Rest Centre
196Nagoya Gardens created
1990-1999various modifications to pathways, entries, plantings, creation of cafe in former toilet part of St. James Station entry
2000demolition of Long Day Childcare/Women's Rest Centre
2006removal of 13 Hills figs due to fungus and soil problems
removal for safe-keeping/conservation of sandstone pedestal of the John Baptist Memorial Fountain (still yet to be reinstated)
changes to south-east corner (Liverpool/College Sts)
2010changes to eastern side to accommodate road/cycle path works
Monuments
The centrepiece of Hyde Park is the Archibald Fountain. The fountain was designed by François-Léon Sicard and bequeathed by J. F. Archibald in 1932 in honour of Australia's contribution to World War I in France. The fountain features in the notable Australian B-grade horror film Howling III: The Marsupials (1987). Also at the northern end are the Nagoya Gardens featuring a giant outdoor chess set and the entrance to the underground St James railway station.
Adjacent to College Street and the Australian Museum lies the Sandringham Garden. This colonnaded, sunken garden was opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II as a memorial to Kings George V and George VI.
At the park's southern end is the ANZAC War Memorial behind the Pool of Reflection and the entrances to the Museum railway station. A monument consisting of a gun from the German light cruiser stands at Whitlam Square, at the south-eastern, Oxford Street entry of the park. It was built as a memorial to the Australian Imperial Force of World War I. Fund raising for a memorial began on 25 April 1916, the first anniversary of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) landing at Anzac Cove for the Battle of Gallipoli. It was opened on 24 November 1934 by His Royal Highness Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester.
Close to the ANZAC Memorial in the southern end of the park is Yininmadyemi - Thou didst let fall, a public artwork that acknowledges the service of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men and women in the Australian Defence Force. The artwork by Indigenous Australian artist Tony Albert was unveiled on 31 March 2015 and was commissioned by the City of Sydney as part of its Eora Journey public art initiative.
The western, or Elizabeth Street side, at the Bathurst Street entrance of the park sits beside the Obelisk decorated with Egyptian features. It was erected in 1857 and unveiled by the then Mayor, George Thornton. However, the monument is actually a sewer vent, and soon the joke around town was to call it Thornton's Scent Bottle. Further south from here is another Middle Eastern inspired monument by the Independent Order of Odd Fellows dedicated to the fallen Sydneysiders of the Great War.
In the northeastern sector, of the southern half of the park, there is a monument to Captain James Cook, erected to commemorate Cook's discovery of the east coast of Australia in 1770. The sculptor was Thomas Woolner (17 December 1825 – 7 October 1892) and the statue was cast by Cox & Sons, at its Thames Ditton Foundry, Surrey, England.
Vegetation
An expansive avenue of Hill's Weeping Figs (Ficus microcarpa), which are the predominant trees in the park planted from the 1930s, run from St James Road to Park Street (Hyde Park North) and continue on to the Pool of Reflection (Hyde Park South). There are a number of Moreton Bay Figs and Port Jackson Figs. Minority tree species found in the park include:
Araucaria cunninghamii
Araucaria columnaris
Agathis robusta
Pinus roxburghii
Stenocarpus sinuatus
Ficus religiosa
Lophostemon confertus
Platanus x acerifolia
Afrocarpus falcatus
Quercus ilex
Quercus robur
Washingtonia robusta
Phoenix canariensis
Phoenix reclinata
Phoenix dactylifera
Phoenix rupicola
Butia capitata
Livistona australis
Between 2004 and 2005 a number of disease-affected trees were discovered and felled. Following investigations a significant proportion of the trees were found to be infected with three different fungi. In 2006, a Tree Management Plan recommended the removal of about 230 diseased trees to be progressively replaced over time, and aimed to keep the majority of the park's trees for as long as possible by increasing the ratio of examinations and mending.
Heritage listing
As at 17 August 2011, Hyde Park has State significance as public land (the Australian colony's first common) that has influenced the development of Sydney's layout from as early as 1789, occupying approximately the same site since that time. Proclaimed by Governor Macquarie, it is Australia's oldest designated public parkland (1810), and has been continuously used from 1788 for public open space, recreation, remembrance, celebration and leisure. Hyde Park has contributed to the cultural development of the city as a recreational space encapsulating the principles of a Victorian parkland through the use of a hierarchy of pathways and the strategic siting of monuments, statues and built items. It is of State significance as a demonstration of the international spread of the English public parks movement originating in the mid-19th century. It provides evidence of the influence of transport infrastructure on urbanisation by its upheaval and re-creation after construction of the city underground railway in the 1920s. It was site of some of Australia's first sporting events, and remains the prime open space in Sydney for special events, protests and festivals as it has been since 1810. The Park contains a collection of monuments and sculptures which mark key events and personalities in the history of the State including war memorials and significant artistic works.
Hyde Park, Sydney was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 13 December 2011 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
Hyde Park has State historical significance as Australia's oldest public park. It is a surviving part of the nation's first public common on land consciously set aside as public open space in the urban context. It has been continuously used from 1788 for public recreation, remembrance, celebration and leisure. Its historical development provides evidence of the spread of the public parks movement which saw the emergence of deliberately designed public parks in the mid- to late 19th century, while the influence of transport infrastructure on urbanisation is demonstrated in its upheaval and recreation after construction of the city underground railway. The site of some of Australia's first sporting events, Hyde Park remains the prime open space in Sydney for special events, protests and festivals as it has been since its gazettal in 1810. It also provides a record of some of Australia's earliest involvement in war through monuments such as the Emden Gun.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
Hyde Park is associated with the Aboriginal people of the Sydney Region for its believed use as a contest ground. Hyde Park has State significance for it associations with a number of influential men responsible for the creation, design and development of Hyde Park. Governor Phillip, Governor Macquarie and Colonial Architect Francis Greenway all contributed to activities which contributed to the declaration of the Commonl and its eventual gazettal in 1810, as well as the earliest although unrealised design concepts for the park. Several key personalities in Sydney and NSW landscape design and architecture played key roles in both the design and implementation of the park throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Among these were the early Directors of the Sydney Botanic Gardens Alan Cunningham (1837) and Charles Moore who provided planting advice that would shape the early development of the park. In the twentieth century designer Norman Weekes, the 1926 design competition winner and competition assessors Sir John Sulman (architect), Alfred Hook (architect) and Town Clerk W.G. Layton were instrumental in the implementation of the redesign and beautification of Hyde Park following the massive excavations and disturbance of the park associated with the construction of part of what later became the City Circle Railway line from 1922.
The monuments and sculptures in Hyde Park not only create a visually interesting outdoor gallery, but bring with them important associations with artists and designers. Among them are French sculptor Francois Sicard and Bulletin magazine editor Frank Archibald (1932 installation of Archibald Fountain), architect C. Bruce Dellitt and sculptor Raynor Hoff (Anzac Memorial), and landscape architect Ilmar Berzins (Sandringham Gardens).
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
Hyde Park has State significance as Australia's premier example of a formal public park in a highly urban situation. It is an early example of a park whose design was based upon a public open space design competition with adjustments made by the judging panel. It contains a number of significant memorials, which make important contributions to the aesthetics of Hyde Park. Of these, the ANZAC Memorial and the Archibald Fountain also have independent heritage values. The memorial and the fountain have significant design influence on the layout and physical character of the Park and the City of Sydney, with the Anzac Memorial positioned on a major axis linked to the Archibald Fountain.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
Hyde Park has State social significance as the setting of the Anzac Memorial which has special association with the families of servicemen and women killed in the Anzac Gallipoli campaigns of the First World War. Additional memorials have smaller scale significance of this nature, such as the Emden Gun
Hyde Park has State social significance to the people of Sydney and NSW as a site of ongoing public recreation and major events, parades and celebrations that have continue to be held there since the park's inception. This significance is emphasised by the fact that these events take place in the state's oldest public park which has been in continuous use since European settlement in 1788.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
Hyde Park has State significance as one of only two public open spaces, the other being Macquarie Place, dating to 1810 under Governor Macquarie. It is rare as a formally structured Australian urban park, created in an age when informal park layouts were more common. It contains rare design work in a public space by architect and landscape architect Norman Weekes, while the work of landscape architect Ilmar Berzins is one of only four known surviving works by Berzins in NSW. The other three examples are Arthur MacElhone Reserve, Elizabeth Bay; Fitzroy Gardens, Kings Cross and Duntryleague Golf Course, Orange. Sculptural and monumental work in the park also have State rarity values. The John Baptist Fountain created and erected in Hyde Park in 1888 is the oldest surviving ornamental fountain in Sydney. The Archibald Fountain is possibly the only example of the master work of French sculptor Francois Sicard in Australia.
The Emden Gun has state significance as the first naval trophy of World War One from the Royal Australian Navy's first ship to ship battle and one of only four salvaged from the SMS Emden. It is also believed to be the first gun to be utilised for memorial purposes in NSW and the first naval war trophy of World War One. The Emden Gun has national significance as one of only a small number of war trophies captured by Australia prior to 1916 and the battles of the Western Front due to both the outcomes of those early battles and the inability of soldiers to take much with them when they withdrew from those campaigns.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
Hyde Park is an influential public park and open space, much used, loved and copied in other urban spaces in Australian cities and towns.
Gallery
See also
HMAS Sydney I - SMS Emden Memorial
Parks in Sydney
Hyde Park, London
References
Bibliography
Attribution
External links
[CC-By-SA]
[CC-By-SA]
YouTube video showing Archibald Fountain and part of Hyde Park
YouTube video showing giant chess set in Hyde Park
YouTube video showing Sandringham Gardens
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Sports venues in Sydney
Public speaking
Activism
Cultural heritage of Australia
Horse racing venues in Australia
Event venues in New South Wales
Parks in Sydney
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
Elizabeth Street, Sydney
College Street, Sydney
Liverpool Street, Sydney
Sports venues completed in 1803
Parks established in 1810
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232844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huzita%E2%80%93Hatori%20axioms | Huzita–Hatori axioms | The Huzita–Justin axioms or Huzita–Hatori axioms are a set of rules related to the mathematical principles of origami, describing the operations that can be made when folding a piece of paper. The axioms assume that the operations are completed on a plane (i.e. a perfect piece of paper), and that all folds are linear. These are not a minimal set of axioms but rather the complete set of possible single folds.
The first seven axioms were first discovered by French folder and mathematician Jacques Justin in 1986. Axioms 1 through 6 were rediscovered by Japanese-Italian mathematician Humiaki Huzita and reported at the First International Conference on Origami in Education and Therapy in 1991. Axioms 1 though 5 were rediscovered by Auckly and Cleveland in 1995. Axiom 7 was rediscovered by Koshiro Hatori in 2001; Robert J. Lang also found axiom 7.
The seven axioms
The first 6 axioms are known as Justin's axioms or Huzita's axioms. Axiom 7 was discovered by Jacques Justin. Koshiro Hatori and Robert J. Lang also found axiom 7. The axioms are as follows:
Given two distinct points p1 and p2, there is a unique fold that passes through both of them.
Given two distinct points p1 and p2, there is a unique fold that places p1 onto p2.
Given two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places l1 onto l2.
Given a point p1 and a line l1, there is a unique fold perpendicular to l1 that passes through point p1.
Given two points p1 and p2 and a line l1, there is a fold that places p1 onto l1 and passes through p2.
Given two points p1 and p2 and two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places p1 onto l1 and p2 onto l2.
Given one point p and two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places p onto l1 and is perpendicular to l2.
Axiom 5 may have 0, 1, or 2 solutions, while Axiom 6 may have 0, 1, 2, or 3 solutions. In this way, the resulting geometries of origami are stronger than the geometries of compass and straightedge, where the maximum number of solutions an axiom has is 2. Thus compass and straightedge geometry solves second-degree equations, while origami geometry, or origametry, can solve third-degree equations, and solve problems such as angle trisection and doubling of the cube. The construction of the fold guaranteed by Axiom 6 requires "sliding" the paper, or neusis, which is not allowed in classical compass and straightedge constructions. Use of neusis together with a compass and straightedge does allow trisection of an arbitrary angle.
Details
Axiom 1
Given two points p1 and p2, there is a unique fold that passes through both of them.
In parametric form, the equation for the line that passes through the two points is :
Axiom 2
Given two points p1 and p2, there is a unique fold that places p1 onto p2.
This is equivalent to finding the perpendicular bisector of the line segment p1p2. This can be done in four steps:
Use Axiom 1 to find the line through p1 and p2, given by
Find the midpoint of pmid of P(s)
Find the vector vperp perpendicular to P(s)
The parametric equation of the fold is then:
Axiom 3
Given two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places l1 onto l2.
This is equivalent to finding a bisector of the angle between l1 and l2. Let p1 and p2 be any two points on l1, and let q1 and q2 be any two points on l2. Also, let u and v be the unit direction vectors of l1 and l2, respectively; that is:
If the two lines are not parallel, their point of intersection is:
where
The direction of one of the bisectors is then:
And the parametric equation of the fold is:
A second bisector also exists, perpendicular to the first and passing through pint. Folding along this second bisector will also achieve the desired result of placing l1 onto l2. It may not be possible to perform one or the other of these folds, depending on the location of the intersection point.
If the two lines are parallel, they have no point of intersection. The fold must be the line midway between l1 and l2 and parallel to them.
Axiom 4
Given a point p1 and a line l1, there is a unique fold perpendicular to l1 that passes through point p1.
This is equivalent to finding a perpendicular to l1 that passes through p1. If we find some vector v that is perpendicular to the line l1, then the parametric equation of the fold is:
Axiom 5
Given two points p1 and p2 and a line l1, there is a fold that places p1 onto l1 and passes through p2.
This axiom is equivalent to finding the intersection of a line with a circle, so it may have 0, 1, or 2 solutions. The line is defined by l1, and the circle has its center at p2, and a radius equal to the distance from p2 to p1. If the line does not intersect the circle, there are no solutions. If the line is tangent to the circle, there is one solution, and if the line intersects the circle in two places, there are two solutions.
If we know two points on the line, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), then the line can be expressed parametrically as:
Let the circle be defined by its center at p2=(xc, yc), with radius . Then the circle can be expressed as:
In order to determine the points of intersection of the line with the circle, we substitute the x and y components of the equations for the line into the equation for the circle, giving:
Or, simplified:
where:
Then we simply solve the quadratic equation:
If the discriminant b2 − 4ac < 0, there are no solutions. The circle does not intersect or touch the line. If the discriminant is equal to 0, then there is a single solution, where the line is tangent to the circle. And if the discriminant is greater than 0, there are two solutions, representing the two points of intersection. Let us call the solutions d1 and d2, if they exist. We have 0, 1, or 2 line segments:
A fold F1(s) perpendicular to m1 through its midpoint will place p1 on the line at location d1. Similarly, a fold F2(s) perpendicular to m2 through its midpoint will place p1 on the line at location d2. The application of Axiom 2 easily accomplishes this. The parametric equations of the folds are thus:
Axiom 6
Given two points p1 and p2 and two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places p1 onto l1 and p2 onto l2.
This axiom is equivalent to finding a line simultaneously tangent to two parabolas, and can be considered equivalent to solving a third-degree equation as there are in general three solutions. The two parabolas have foci at p1 and p2, respectively, with directrices defined by l1 and l2, respectively.
This fold is called the Beloch fold after Margharita P. Beloch, who in 1936 showed using it that origami can be used to solve general cubic equations.
Axiom 7
Given one point p and two lines l1 and l2, there is a fold that places p onto l1 and is perpendicular to l2.
This axiom was originally discovered by Jacques Justin in 1989 but was overlooked and was rediscovered by Koshiro Hatori in 2002. Robert J. Lang has proven that this list of axioms completes the axioms of origami.
Constructibility
Subsets of the axioms can be used to construct different sets of numbers. The first three can be used with three given points not on a line to do what Alperin calls Thalian constructions.
The first four axioms with two given points define a system weaker than compass and straightedge constructions: every shape that can be folded with those axioms can be constructed with compass and straightedge, but some things can be constructed by compass and straightedge that cannot be folded with those axioms. The numbers that can be constructed are called the origami or pythagorean numbers, if the distance between the two given points is 1 then the constructible points are all of the form where and are Pythagorean numbers. The Pythagorean numbers are given by the smallest field containing the rational numbers and whenever is such a number.
Adding the fifth axiom gives the Euclidean numbers, that is the points constructible by compass and straightedge construction.
Adding the neusis axiom 6, all compass-straightedge constructions, and more, can be made. In particular, the constructible regular polygons with these axioms are those with sides, where is a product of distinct Pierpont primes. Compass-straightedge constructions allow only those with sides, where is a product of distinct Fermat primes. (Fermat primes are a subset of Pierpont primes.)
The seventh axiom does not allow construction of further axioms. The seven axioms give all the single-fold constructions that can be done rather than being a minimal set of axioms.
An eighth axiom
The existence of an eighth axiom was claimed by Lucero in 2017, which may be stated as: there is a fold along a given line l1. The new axiom was found after enumerating all possible incidences between constructible points and lines on a plane. Although it does not create a new line, it is nevertheless needed in actual paper folding when it is required to fold a layer of paper along a line marked on the layer immediately below.
References
External links
Origami Geometric Constructions by Thomas Hull
A Mathematical Theory of Origami Constructions and Numbers by Roger C. Alperin
Geometry
Mathematical axioms
Paper folding
Recreational mathematics | [
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232846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Cross | James Cross | James Richard Cross (29 September 1921 – 6 January 2021) was an Irish-born British diplomat who served in India, Malaysia and Canada. While posted in Canada, Cross was kidnapped by members of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) during the October Crisis of October 1970. He was ultimately released almost two months later, and subsequently returned to the United Kingdom.
Early life and career
Cross was born in Nenagh in County Tipperary, Ireland, on 29 September 1921. His mother died during her labour with him. His older sibling had intellectual disabilities and was consequently institutionalised. Cross was raised on the family farm, which was a hundred acres in size, before moving in with relatives. He was nicknamed "Jasper" by his family and friends. Cross studied economics and political science at Trinity College Dublin, where he graduated with a first class honours degree in 1944. It was there that he also met his wife, Barbara Dagg, who studied modern languages.
During World War II, Cross served with the British Army and fought for the liberation of France. He was commissioned into the Royal Engineers Movement Control Section in 1944. After the war, Cross joined the diplomatic service and was assigned first to New Delhi in 1953. His first stint in Canada commenced in 1957, when he served in Halifax and Winnipeg for five years. He was consequently assigned to Kuala Lumpur for four years (in then Malaya and after 1963 Malaysia), before going back to London in 1966 to direct the Board of Trade branch in charge of exhibitions and fairs overseas. He returned to Canada in February 1968 as the senior Trade Commissioner in Montreal.
Kidnapping
On 5 October 1970, Cross was abducted at gunpoint from his British diplomatic residence at 1297 Redpath Crescent, in the Golden Square Mile district of Montreal, and held as a hostage for two months as the FLQ made a series of demands to the Quebec government. During captivity, due to lack of food Cross lost 10 kg (22 lb). He was released on 3 December after 60 days in captivity. In exchange for his release, his abductors would get safe passage to Cuba. The talks were held at the Canada Pavilion, located on Notre Dame Island, the site of Expo 67. This site was declared Cuban territory for the period of the talks.
Six members of the FLQ's "Liberation Cell" were later convicted of Cross's kidnapping when they returned to Canada during the late 1970s. They received custodial sentences ranging from 12 to 24 months.
Cross said of his kidnapping:
On the 40th anniversary of the day that sparked the October Crisis in 2010, Cross agreed to speak to CBC Radio's The Current about the events surrounding his kidnapping. There is also a transcript of a taped memoir online, uploaded by Churchill College.
Later life
Cross returned to the United Kingdom after his release and continued working for the civil service. However, he was no longer assigned overseas postings. Although he received a number of offers to sell his story, he did not since he was prohibited by the government from doing so. Cross went on to serve as Under-Secretary in various divisions of Britain's Department of Trade and Industry and Department of Energy. He was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in January 1971.
Cross retired to Seaford, East Sussex. He died at his home there on 6 January 2021. He was 99, and suffered from complications of COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in England in the time leading up to his death. Both his wife and their only child (Susan) predeceased him in 2018 and 2015, respectively.
In fiction
Cross is depicted as a character in the novel The Revolution Script by Brian Moore, together with Pierre Laporte. Their names are changed by Moore out of respect for their families. He is also featured in My October by Claire Holden Rothman, and as a character in the 2006 Canadian television series October 1970, played by R.H. Thomson.
See also
List of kidnappings
List of people who disappeared
References
External links
Interview with James Richard Jasper Cross & transcript, British Diplomatic Oral History Programme, Churchill College, Cambridge, 1996
1921 births
2021 deaths
1970s missing person cases
20th-century British diplomats
British Army personnel of World War II
British expatriates in Canada
British expatriates in India
British expatriates in Malaysia
Canada–United Kingdom relations
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in England
Formerly missing people
Kidnapped British people
Kidnapped diplomats
Missing person cases in Canada
October Crisis
Diplomats from Dublin (city)
People from Nenagh
Royal Engineers officers
Terrorism in Canada
Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom | [
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232847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%20Khachaturian | Aram Khachaturian | Aram Ilyich Khachaturian (; ; , Aram Xačʿatryan; 1 May 1978) was a Soviet and Armenian composer and conductor. He is considered one of the leading Soviet composers.
Born and raised in Tbilisi, the multicultural capital of Georgia, Khachaturian moved to Moscow in 1921 following the Sovietization of the Caucasus. Without prior music training, he enrolled in the Gnessin Musical Institute, subsequently studying at the Moscow Conservatory in the class of Nikolai Myaskovsky, among others. His first major work, the Piano Concerto (1936), popularized his name within and outside the Soviet Union. It was followed by the Violin Concerto (1940) and the Cello Concerto (1946). His other significant compositions include the Masquerade Suite (1941), the Anthem of the Armenian SSR (1944), three symphonies (1935, 1943, 1947), and around 25 film scores. Khachaturian is best known for his ballet music—Gayane (1942) and Spartacus (1954). His most popular piece, the "Sabre Dance" from Gayane, has been used extensively in popular culture and has been performed by a number of musicians worldwide. His style is "characterized by colorful harmonies, captivating rhythms, virtuosity, improvisations, and sensuous melodies".
During most of his career, Khachaturian was approved by the Soviet government and held several high posts in the Union of Soviet Composers from the late 1930s, although he joined the Communist Party only in 1943. Along with Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, he was officially denounced as a "formalist" and his music dubbed "anti-people" in 1948 but was restored later that year. After 1950 he taught at the Gnessin Institute and the Moscow Conservatory and turned to conducting. He traveled to Europe, Latin America and the United States with concerts of his own works. In 1957 Khachaturian became the Secretary of the Union of Soviet Composers, a position he held until his death.
Khachaturian composed the first Armenian ballet music, symphony, concerto, and film score. He is considered the most renowned Armenian composer of the 20th century. While following the established musical traditions of Russia, he broadly incorporated Armenian and, to lesser extent, Caucasian, Eastern and Central European, and Middle Eastern peoples' folk music in his works. He is highly regarded in Armenia, where he is considered a "national treasure".
Biography
Background and early life (1903–21)
Aram Khachaturian was born on 6 June (24 May in Old Style) 1903 in the city of Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi, Georgia) into an Armenian family. Some sources indicate Kojori, a village near Tiflis (now in Georgia's Gardabani Municipality), as his birthplace. His father, Yeghia (Ilya), was born in the village of Upper Aza near Ordubad in Nakhichevan (present-day Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, Azerbaijan) and moved to Tiflis at the age of 13; he owned a bookbinding shop by the age of 25. His mother, Kumash Sarkisovna, was from Lower Aza, also a village near Ordubad. Khachaturian's parents were betrothed before knowing each other, when Kumash was 9 and Yeghia was 19. They had 5 children, one daughter and four sons, of whom Aram was the youngest. Khachaturian received primary education at the commercial school of Tiflis, a school for merchants. He considered a career either in medicine or engineering.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries and throughout the early Soviet period, Tiflis (known as Tbilisi after 1936) was the largest city and the administrative center of the Caucasus. In Tiflis, which has historically been multicultural, Khachaturian was exposed to various cultures. The city had a large Armenian population and was a major Armenian cultural center until the Russian Revolution and the following years. In a 1952 article "My Idea of the Folk Element in Music", Khachaturian described the city environment and its influence on his career:
In 1917, the Bolsheviks rose to power in Russia in the October Revolution. After over two years of fragile independence, Armenia fell to Soviet rule in late 1920. Georgia was also Sovietized by the spring of 1921. Both countries formally became part of the Soviet Union in December 1922.
Education (1922–36)
In 1921, the eighteen-year-old Khachaturian moved to Moscow to join his oldest brother, Suren, who had settled in Moscow earlier and was a stage director at the Moscow Art Theatre by the time of his arrival. He enrolled at the Gnessin Musical Institute in 1922, simultaneously studying biology at the Moscow University. He initially studied the cello under Sergei Bychkov and later under Andrey Borysyak. In 1925, Mikhail Gnessin started a composition class at the institute, which Khachaturian joined. In this period, he wrote his first works: the Dance Suite for violin and piano (1926) and the Poem in C Sharp Minor (1927). Beginning with his earliest works, Khachaturian extensively used Armenian folk music in his compositions.
In 1929, Khachaturian entered the Moscow Conservatory to study composition under Nikolai Myaskovsky and orchestration under Sergei Vasilenko. In 1933, he married the composer Nina Makarova, a fellow student from Myaskovsky's class. He finished the conservatory in 1934 and went on to complete his graduate work in 1936.
Early career (1936–48)
His Armenian-influenced First Symphony, which Khachaturian composed as a graduation work from the Moscow Conservatory in 1935, "drew the attention of prominent conductors and was soon performed by the best Soviet orchestras" and was admired by Shostakovich. He began an active creative career upon completing his graduate studies at the conservatory in 1936. He wrote his first major work, the Piano Concerto, that year. It proved to be a success, establishing him as a respected composer in the Soviet Union. It was "played and acclaimed far beyond the borders of the Soviet Union", and "established his name abroad".
His Piano Concerto, along with the two later concertos—the Violin Concerto (1940), for which he won a State Prize (called the Stalin Prize then, the highest artistic award in the Soviet Union), and the Cello Concerto (1946)—are "often considered a kind of a grand cycle". The Violin Concerto "gained international recognition" and became part of the international repertory. It was first performed by David Oistrakh.
Khachaturian held important posts at the Composers' Union, becoming deputy chairman of the Moscow branch in 1937. He subsequently served as the Deputy Chairman of the Organizing Committee (Orgkom) of the Union between 1939 and 1948. He joined the Communist Party in 1943. "Throughout the early and mid-1940s, Khachaturian used that position to help shape Soviet music, always stressing but technically masterful composition. In fact, in his memoirs he reported pride about leading an institution that organized creative work in many musical genres and especially in all Soviet republics."
The years preceding and following World War II proved to be very productive for Khachaturian. In 1939 Khachaturian made a six-month trip to his native Armenia "to make a thorough study of Armenian musical folklore and to collect folk-song and dance tunes" for his first ballet, Happiness which he completed in the same year. "His communion with Armenia's national culture and musical practice proved for him as he put it himself, 'a second conservatoire'. He learned a lot, saw and heard many things anew, and at the same time he had an insight into the tastes and artistic requirements of the Armenian people." In 1942, at the height of the Second World War, he reworked it into the ballet Gayane. It was first performed by the Kirov Ballet (today known as Mariinsky Ballet) in Perm, while Leningrad was under siege. It was a great success that earned Khachaturian a Soviet State Prize. Khachaturian returned the money of the prize to the state with a request to use it for building a tank for the Red Army.
He composed the Second Symphony (1943) on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the October Revolution and incidental music to Masquerade (1944), "a symphonic suite in the tradition of lavish classical Russian music", on Mikhail Lermontov's play of the same title. Both the ballet Gayane and the Second Symphony were "successful and were warmly praised by Shostakovich". In 1944, Khachaturian composed the largely symbolic Anthem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Denunciation and restoration (1948)
In mid-December 1947, the Department for Agitation and Propaganda (better known as Agitprop) submitted to Andrei Zhdanov, the secretary of the Communist Party's Central Committee, a document on the "shortcomings" in the development of Soviet music. On 10–13 January 1948, a conference was held at the Kremlin in the presence of seventy musicians, composers, conductors and others who were confronted by Zhdanov:
During the course of the conference, the newly appointed head of the Union of Soviet Composers, Tikhon Khrennikov complained that Khachaturian's Symphonic Poem had its premier in a half empty hall and that "everyone thought that Khachaturian's Cello Concerto was rubbish". In response, Khachaturian who admitted that speaking at such an event made him nervous conceded that composers of more complex work might be guilty of ignoring popular taste, thinking that it would catch up with them in time. Zhdanov interrupted to say that such an attitude was "extreme individualism". Khachaturian and other leading composers were denounced by the Communist Party as followers of the alleged formalism (i.e. "[a type of] music that was considered too advanced or difficult for the masses to enjoy") and their music was dubbed "anti-people". It was the Symphonic Poem (1947), later titled the Third Symphony, that officially earned Khachaturian the wrath of the Party. Ironically, he wrote the work as a tribute to the 30th anniversary of the October Revolution. He stated: "I wanted to write the kind of composition in which the public would feel my unwritten program without an announcement. I wanted this work to express the Soviet people's joy and pride in their great and mighty country."
Musicologist Blair Johnston believes that his "music contained few, if any, of the objectionable traits found in the music of some of his more adventuresome colleagues. In retrospect, it was most likely Khachaturian's administrative role in the Union [of Soviet Composers], perceived by the government as a bastion of politically incorrect music, and not his music as such, which earned him a place on the black list of 1948." In March 1948, Khachaturian "made a very full and humble apology for his artistic 'errors' following the Zhdanov decree; his musical style, however, underwent no changes". He was sent to Armenia as a "punishment", and continued to be censured. By December 1948 he was restored to favor, receiving praise for his score for Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (ru), a film biography of the Soviet leader.
Later life (1950–78)
In 1950, Khachaturian began conducting and started teaching composition at his alma maters—the Gnessin Institute (since 1950), and later at the Moscow Conservatory (since 1951). During his career as a university professor, Khachaturian emphasized the role of folk music to his students and instilled the idea that composers should master their nations' folk music heritage.
In 1950, he began working on his third and last ballet, Spartacus (1950–54), which later proved to be his last internationally acclaimed work. He was named People's Artist of the Soviet Union in 1954. He revised Spartacus in 1968.
"Following the success of Spartacus toward the end of the fifties, his remaining years were devoted less to composition, and more to conducting, teaching, bureaucracy and travel." He served as the President of the Soviet Association of Friendship and Cultural Cooperation with Latin American States from 1958 and was a member of the Soviet Peace Committee (since 1962). "He frequently appeared in world forums in the role of champion of an apologist for the Soviet idea of creative orthodoxy." Khachaturian toured with concerts of his own works in around 30 countries, including in all the Eastern Bloc states, Italy (1950), Britain (1955, 1977), Latin America (1957) and the United States (1960, 1968). His January 1968 visit to U.S. capital of Washington, D.C. was a significant one. He conducted the National Symphony Orchestra in a program of his own works.
Khachaturian went on to serve again as Secretary of the Composers Union, starting in 1957 until his death. He was also a deputy in the fifth Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (1958–62). In the last two decades of his life, Khachaturian wrote three concert rhapsodies—for violin (1961–62), cello (1963) and piano (1965)—and solo sonatas for unaccompanied cello, violin, and viola (1970s), which are considered to be his second and third instrumental trilogies.
Khachaturian died in Moscow on 1 May 1978, after a long illness, just short of his 75th birthday. He was buried at the Komitas Pantheon in Yerevan on 6 May, next to other distinguished Armenians. He was survived by his son, Karen, and daughter, Nune, and his nephew, Karen Khachaturian, who was also a composer.
Views and personality
In 1968 New York Post music critic Harriett Johnson characterized Khachaturian as "sturdy, stocky and youthful." In Testimony, attributed by Solomon Volkov to Dmitri Shostakovich, the author wrote: "Meeting Khachaturian means, first of all, eating a good, filling meal, drinking with pleasure, and chatting about this and that. That's why, if I have the time, I never turn down a meeting with him."
Khachaturian wrote that "the October Revolution fundamentally changed my whole life and, if I have really grown into a serious artist, then I am indebted only to the people and the Soviet Government. To this people is dedicated my entire conscious life, as is all my creative work." Khachaturian always remained enthusiastic about communism. In 1973 he joined eleven Soviet composers in condemning the nuclear physicist and dissident Andrei Sakharov after he met with Western correspondents. Khachaturian was an atheist. When asked about his visit to the Vatican, Khachaturian responded: "I'm an atheist, but I'm a son of the [Armenian] people who were the first to officially adopt Christianity and thus visiting the Vatican was my duty."
Music
Khachaturian's works span a broad range of musical types, including ballets, symphonies, concertos, and film scores. Music critic Edward Greenfield expresses the opinion that Khachaturian "notably outshone other Soviet contemporaries in creating a sharply identifiable style, something which his successors have found impossible to emulate". He composed a great portion of his works in a ten-year span between 1936 and 1946, preceding and following the Second World War. Despite his formal restoration after the 1948 denunciation, Khachaturian only succeeded in composing one internationally acclaimed work in the last 30 years of his life, the ballet Spartacus.
According to James Bakst, what made Khachaturian unique among Soviet composers is "the blending of national Armenian vocal and instrumental intonations with contemporary orchestral techniques". Khachaturian's music is characterized by an active rhythmic development, which reaches either a mere repetition of the basic formula (ostinato) or "a game of emphasis within this formula".
Works
Ballets
Khachaturian is best known internationally for his ballet music. His second ballet, Gayane, was largely reworked from his first ballet, Happiness. Spartacus became his most acclaimed work in the post-Stalin period. These two compositions "remain his most successful compositions". According to Jonathan McCollum and Andy Nercessian, his music for these two ballets "can safely be included among the best known pieces of classical music throughout the world, a fact that is vitalized by perception that these are perhaps the only works through that the world really knows Armenian music". Ann Haskins of LA Weekly suggests that he has thus "made an indelible mark on the world of ballet".
Spartacus was popularized when the "Adagio of Spartacus and Phrygia" was used as the theme for a popular BBC drama series The Onedin Line during the 1970s. The climax of Spartacus was also used in films such as Caligula (1979) and Ice Age: The Meltdown (2006). Joel Coen's The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) also prominently featured music from Spartacus and Gayane (the "Sabre Dance" included). Gayanes "Adagio" was used, among other films, in Stanley Kubrick's futuristic film 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Orchestral music
Khachaturian wrote three symphonies: the First in 1934/5, the Second in 1943, and the Third in 1947. He also wrote three concertos: the Piano Concerto (1936), the Violin Concerto (1940), and the Cello Concerto (1946).
Other compositions
Khachaturian wrote incidental music for several plays, including Macbeth (1934, 1955), The Widow from Valencia (1940), Masquerade (1941), King Lear (1958). He produced around 25 film scores. Among them is Pepo (1935), the first Armenian sound film. In 1950 he was awarded the Stalin Prize for the score of The Battle of Stalingrad (1949).
Influences
Musicologist Marina Frolova-Walker describes Khachaturian as the only internationally renowned Soviet composer "who emerged from the nationalist project". James Bakst interpreted Khachaturian's views as follows: "Music is a language created by the people. The people create intonational music forms which reveal at once his national elements of an art work."
Composer Tigran Mansurian suggested that Khachaturian's music incorporates American characteristics and called the United States his "second homeland" in terms of musical influences, especially due to the sense of optimism in his works and lifestyle.
Armenian folk music
Khachaturian is widely known for his use of folk songs of various ethnic groups in his compositions, most notably those of Armenians. Rosenberg argued that despite not having been born in Armenia, Khachaturian was "essentially an Armenian composer whose music exhibits his Armenian roots". New York Post music critic Harriett Johnson noted that Khachaturian is "musically sophisticated yet closely identified with his people through their idiosyncratic folk music." "[M]any of his compositions evoke an Armenian melodic line. However, his works markedly differed from the conventional orchestrations of folk themes", writes Rouben Paul Adalian. He suggests that Khachaturian's works carry "the vibrant rhythms and stirring pace of Caucasian dance music", but at the same time are "original compositions that reworked that cultural material through new instrumentation and according to European musical canons, resulting in a sound unique to the composer". He was particularly influenced by the folk-song collector, musicologist Komitas, and composers Alexander Spendiaryan and Romanos Melikian. Khachaturian acknowledged that Komitas "singlehandedly laid the foundations for Armenia's classical tradition". In a 1969 article about Komitas, Khachaturian called him his "greatest teacher".
His plans to write an opera "on the destiny of the Armenian people, the tragic fate of Armenians scattered all over the world, their suffering and the struggle" never realized, and his "Armenian Rhapsody for mouth-organ and orchestra, intended for his close friend Larry Adler and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra" remained uncompleted. "Yet the intention, the spirit, was always there." Khachaturian emphasized his Armenian origin, stating:
Other folk music
During his university years, Khachaturian transcribed Armenian, Russian, Hungarian, Turkish and other folk songs. In his mature works, Khachaturian used elements from folk songs of Caucasian (including, but not limited to Georgians), Eastern European (Ukrainians, Poles) and Middle Eastern (Turks, Kurds) peoples. His first ballet, Happiness, incorporates a Ukrainian gopak, Georgian, Armenian and Russian dances and a Lezginka, an energetic dance of many Caucasian peoples. The Masquerade Suite includes a Mazurka, a Polish folk dance music. The ballet Gayane, like its predecessor, features a Lezginka. Act II of Gayane "is filled with Kurdish dances".
Russian classical music
Khachaturian is cited by musicologists as a follower of Russian classical traditions. According to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, he "carried forward into the twentieth century the colorful, folk-inspired style of such nineteenth-century Russian composers as Rimsky-Korsakov and Tchaikovsky". Like the members of The Five, especially Alexander Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov, whose works to some extent served him as a model, Khachaturian drew heavily upon "Eastern" and "Oriental" material in creating compositions in various classical genres and styles of European origin. But Khachaturian's cultural identity and rigorous musical training within the Soviet establishment allowed him to penetrate more deeply to the essence of Eastern and Caucasian music and to incorporate it more fully in his mature work, including the ballets. "Never dissociating himself from the traditions of Russian music, he came to be regarded in Moscow as a mouthpiece of the entire Soviet Orient, gathering up all the diverse traditions into a grand generalization", concludes Marina Frolova-Walker.
Khachaturian's influence
Khachaturian's students at the Gnessin Institute and the Moscow Conservatory included Aziz El-Shawan, Andrei Eshpai, Anatol Vieru, Edgar Hovhannisyan, Mikael Tariverdiev, Mark Minkov, Alexey Rybnikov, Albert Markov, Tolib Shakhidi, Georgs Pelēcis, Rostislav Boiko (ru), and Nodar Gabunia (ru).
He had a great influence on the development of Armenian music in the 20th century. "Naturally, he immediately became an example for young national composers and a hero in Armenia", suggests Pritsker. Khachaturian's influence can be traced in nearly all trends of Armenian classical music traditions (symphonic and chamber), including on Arno Babajanian, a prominent Armenian composer of the late Soviet period. His unique symphonic interpretation has influenced Edvard Mirzoyan, Konstantin Orbelyan, and others.
Khachaturian also had an influence on Asian composers. Schonberg argued that Soviet-trained Chinese composers, such as Li Delun, were part of a "school of music strongly indebted to such Socialist-Realistic composers as Aram Khachaturian." The music of the Japanese composer Roh Ogura had the influence of Khachaturian in "its rhythms and scoring."
Recognition and reputation
Khachaturian is generally considered one of the leading composers of the Soviet Union. Alongside Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev, he has been generally cited as one of the three greatest composers of the Soviet era. As early as 1957 Time magazine called Prokofiev, Shostakovich and Khachaturian "the three modern giants" of Soviet music. They are sometimes collectively referred to as the three "titans" of Soviet music. "Whether or not history will support the verdict, Khachaturian in his lifetime ranked as the third most celebrated Soviet composer after Shostakovich and Prokofiev", wrote the music critic Ronald Crichton in 1978. According to the Los Angeles Philharmonic, "his works do not enjoy the international reputation that those of" Shostakovich and Prokofiev do. With the two aforementioned composers and Dmitry Kabalevsky, Khachaturian "was one of the few Soviet composers to have become known to the wider international public". According to music historian Harlow Robinson, "his proletariat origins, non-Russian ethnic origins and Soviet training [made him] a powerful symbol within the Soviet musical establishment of the ideal of a multinational Soviet cultural identity, an identity which the composer enthusiastically embraced and exploited both at home and abroad". Unlike Prokofiev and Shostakovich, Khachaturian was "entirely a creation of the Soviet musical and dance establishment".
Reputation in the West
Josef Woodard, writing for the Los Angeles Times, suggests that Khachaturian has "long [been] considered a lighter-weight participant among 20th-century composers", while classic music broadcaster Norman Gilliland describes him as a "major" composer of the 20th century. Richard Taruskin argued in 1996 that Khachaturian has not been "certified as [a] great artist by the promoters of classical music."
Although describing him as an important and highly popular composer and a "man of pronounced gifts", New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg argued on his death in 1978 that Khachaturian "frankly composed popular music" and that after being exposed to his work it becomes evident that it is mostly "formula writing". While praising his work as exotic and colorful, he described Khachaturian as a "bureaucratic composer, turning out well-crafted pieces of no particular personality, and certainly nothing that would rock the boat". In 1968 New York Post music critic Harriett Johnson argued that while some may describe Khachaturian's style as "pop," she praised the "the individuality of his melodies, infiltrated as they are with Oriental flavor of his Armenian heritage" and "the elemental surge of his rhythm which easily grows wild." She described him as an "immense musician who believes in the peasant heart and who has said so unabashedly in his music."
Tim Ashley wrote in The Guardian in 2009 that Khachaturian's popularity fell in the West, because of his image as one of Soviet music's "yes-men". He argued, "Such a view is simplistic, given that he had a major brush with the authorities in 1948." In 2003 conductor Marin Alsop opined that Khachaturian is "very underperformed" and "somewhat underrated․"
In Armenia
Khachaturian was the most renowned Armenian composer of the 20th century, and the most famous representative of Soviet Armenian culture. He has been described as "by far the most important Armenian composer", the "Armenian Tchaikovsky", and deemed a key figure in 20th-century Armenian culture. He remains the only Armenian composer to rise to international significance. Khachaturian is highly regarded in Armenia and considered a national treasure. One of the "modern icons of Armenian pride", Khachaturian is embraced and celebrated by the Armenian people "as a famous son who earned world-wide recognition". Şahan Arzruni has described Khachaturian as "the musical ambassador of Armenian culture". David Marshall Lang noted in his 1970 book on Armenia that "For making Armenia's popular musical heritage known all over the world, his homeland pays him well deserved acclaim."
Khachaturian is credited for bringing Armenian music worldwide recognition. Poet Hamo Sahyan said about Khachaturian: "He became the big denial of our myth of smallness, [he] became the symbol of measuring our small people with the great ones... [He] became our certificate of civilization."
Posthumous honors and tribute
The philharmonic hall of the Yerevan Opera Theater has been officially called the Aram Khachaturian Grand Concert Hall since 1978. The House-Museum of Aram Khachaturian in Yerevan was inaugurated in 1982.
In 1998, the Central Bank of Armenia issued 50-dram banknotes depicting Khachaturian's portrait and the Yerevan Opera Theater on the obverse and an episode from the ballet Gayane and Mount Ararat on the reverse. It remained in use until 2004 when it was replaced by a coin. He is one of the two composers depicted on the Armenian currency (the other is Komitas, who is depicted on the 10,000 dram banknote since 2018).
In 2013, UNESCO inscribed a collection of Khachaturian's handwritten notes and film music in the Memory of the World Register.
Music schools are named after Khachaturian in Tbilisi, Moscow (established in 1967, named after him in 1996), Yerevan, Martuni, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Watertown, Massachusetts, U.S. (run by the Hamazkayin). Streets in Yerevan, Tbilisi, Moscow (ru), Nur-Sultan (Kazakhstan) and Simferopol (Crimea) are named after Khachaturian.
In 1993 the festival of symphonic music Aram Khachaturian-93 was held in Yerevan. The Aram Khachaturian International Competition (Արամ Խաչատրյանի անվան միջազգային մրցույթ) is held annually in Yerevan since 2003.
In 2009, Russia's flag carrier, Aeroflot, named one of its Airbus A319-112 planes after Khachaturian.
Statues
On 31 July 1999 a three-and-a-half meter high statue of Khachaturian in 19th-century realist style by Yuri Petrosyan was unveiled before the Khachaturian Hall of the Yerevan Opera Theater in attendance of President Robert Kocharyan, Speaker Karen Demirchyan and leading poet Silva Kaputikyan. On 30 April 2013, a bust of Khachaturian erected by sculptor Gevorg Gevorgyan was opened in the street named after him in Yerevan's Arabkir district by Yerevan Mayor Taron Margaryan on his 110th anniversary.
A statue of Khachaturian by Georgiy Frangulyan was unveiled in Moscow on 31 October 2006. Notable attendees included Armenian President Kocharyan, Moscow Mayor Yury Luzhkov and Russia's First Lady Lyudmila Putina. Busts of Khachaturian by the Armenian sculptor Mikael Soghoyan were erected at the Moscow Conservatory in 2017 and in front of an arts school named after him in Nizhny Novgorod in August 2021.
Films
In 1977, a year before his death, Studio Ekran made a documentary on Khachaturian.
In 1983, the Yerevan Studio produced another TV documentary on him.
In 2003, an 83-minute-long documentary about Khachaturian with unique footage was directed by Peter Rosen and narrated by Eric Bogosian. The film won the Best Documentary at the 2003 Hollywood Film Festival. In 2004, TV Kultura, Russia's government-owned art channel, made a documentary on Khachaturian entitled Century of Aram Khachaturian (Век Арама Хачатуряна).
Awards and honors
Soviet Union
Hero of Socialist Labour (1973)
Order of Lenin (1939, 1963, 1973)
People's Artist of the USSR (1954), Russian SFSR (1947), Armenian SSR (1955), Georgian SSR (1963), Azerbaijan SSR (1973)
Honored Art Worker of the Armenian SSR (1938), Russian SFSR (1944), Uzbek SSR (1967)
Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1945, 1966)
Order of the October Revolution (1971)
Lenin Prize (1959) for the ballet Spartacus
Stalin Prize (1941 for Violin Concerto, 1943 for ballet Gayane, 1946 for the Second Symphony, 1950 for the film The Battle of Stalingrad
USSR State Prize (1971 for the Triad of Concerto-Rhapsodies: for violin and orchestra; for cello and orchestra; for piano and orchestra)
Other states
Order of the Science of Art of the United Arab Republic (1961, "for outstanding musical achievements")
Medal of Pope John XXIII (1963)
Medal of the Iranian Shah (1965)
Honored Art Worker of Polish People's Republic (1972, "for contribution to the Polish culture")
Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France) and title of Commandeur (1974)
Academic titles
Professor of Music — 1950
Honorary Member of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Rome, Italy — 1960
Corresponding Member of the Academy of Arts of the German Democratic Republic — 1961
Honorary Professor of the Conservatorio Nacional de Música, Mexico — 1960
Full Member (Academician) of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR — 1963
Doctor of Arts (Доктор искусствоведения), Academy of Sciences of the USSR — 1965
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Books and book chapters
Dictionary and encyclopedia articles
; also available online at AllMusic
Journal articles
[an essay praising Khachaturian]
Newspaper articles
(archived)
External links
Virtual Museum of Aram Khachaturian
Aram Khachaturian: An Introduction 2014 documentary
2003 documentary on SnagFilms
1967 headshot portrait of Khachaturian. Photo by Horst Tappe at Getty Images
1903 births
1978 deaths
20th-century Armenian musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century male musicians
Musicians from Tbilisi
People from Tiflis Governorate
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Fifth convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union
Gnessin School of Music alumni
Gnessin State Musical College faculty
Moscow Conservatory alumni
Moscow Conservatory faculty
Armenian atheists
Armenian classical musicians
Ballet composers
Composers for piano
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Heroes of Socialist Labour
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People's Artists of Georgia
People's Artists of the RSFSR
People's Artists of the USSR
Stalin Prize winners
Lenin Prize winners
Recipients of the Decoration of Honor Meritorious for Polish Culture
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Pupils of Nikolai Myaskovsky
Male classical composers
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National anthem writers
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Soviet academics
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Soviet music educators
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232850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20sex%20tourism | Child sex tourism | Child sex tourism (CST) is tourism for the purpose of engaging in the prostitution of children, which is commercially facilitated child sexual abuse. The definition of child in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is "every human being below the age of 18 years". Child sex tourism results in both mental and physical consequences for the exploited children, which may include sexually transmitted infections (including HIV/AIDS), "drug addiction, pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and death", according to the State Department of the United States. Child sex tourism, part of the multibillion-dollar global sex tourism industry, is a form of child prostitution within the wider issue of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Child sex tourism victimizes approximately 2 million children around the world. The children who perform as prostitutes in the child sex tourism trade often have been lured or abducted into sexual slavery.
Users of children for commercial and sexual purposes can be categorized by motive. Although pedophiles are popularly associated with child sex tourism, they are not the majority of users. There are two types of offenders: preferential abusers who specifically prefer children, because they seek to build a relationship with a child or because they perceive the risk of sexually transmitted infections to be lower; and situational users, which are abusers who do not actively seek out children but for whom the actual act is opportunistic. For situational users, there may be a lack of concern to check the age of a prostitute before engaging in sexual activity.
Travelling child sex offenders can use the Internet to plan their trips by seeking out and trading information about opportunities for child sex tourism and where the most vulnerable children can be found, generally in areas of low income. A few governments have enacted laws to allow prosecution of its citizens for child sexual abuse committed outside of their home country. However, while laws against child sex tourism may deter situational offenders who may act impulsively, pedophiles who travel specifically for the purpose of exploiting children are not easily deterred.
Background
Child sex tourism has been closely linked to poverty, armed conflicts, rapid industrialization, and exploding population growth. In Latin America and Southeast Asia, for instance, street children often turn to prostitution as a last resort. Additionally, vulnerable children are easy targets for exploitation by traffickers. United States, Canada, Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, and Mexico have been identified as leading hotspots of child sexual exploitation. Also, child victim ages have been found in Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand to range from 6 to 11 years old, followed by 12 to 15 years old, and 15 to 17. Child sex tourism has also been complicated by varying ages of consent laws where, for example, the age of consent is 13 in Japan while it is 21 in Bahrain (see ages of consent in Asia).
In 2012, the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography reported: "Countries of origin of international child sex tourists vary depending on the regions, but the demand is usually recognized as coming from the industrialized countries, including the richer countries of Europe, North America, the Russian Federation, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. Australians, for instance, have been identified as the largest group of sex tourists prosecuted in Thailand (31 percent of the total). Of the 146 cases investigated by Action Pour Les Enfants (APLE) in Cambodia between 2003 and April 2012, 32 were American, 24 French and 20 Vietnamese. In the coastal regions of Kenya, for example, 30 percent were residents and 70 percent of the abusers were foreign: Italians (18 percent), Germans (14 percent), Swiss (12 percent), with tourists coming from Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania fifth and sixth on the list. In Costa Rica, according to available information, between the 1999 and 2005, the Child Exploitation Unit had arrested a total of 74 persons on suspicion of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Of those arrested, 56 were Costa Rican nationals and 18 foreign nationals".
In Thailand, the exact number of child-prostitutes is not known, but Thailand's Health System Research Institute reports that children in prostitution make up 40% of prostitutes in Thailand. In Cambodia, it has been estimated that about a third of all prostitutes are under 18. In India, the federal police say that around 1.2 million children are believed to be involved in prostitution. Up until recently, Brazil has been considered to have the worst child sex trafficking record after Thailand. As per Chris Rogers report on BBC World "Now Brazil is overtaking Thailand as the world's most popular sex-tourist destination". DLN reports that "Brazil at the moment is on a high trend of child sex tourism and is all geared to take up the first spot beating out Thailand."
Sex tourism targeting children creates huge monetary incentives for traffickers. Human trafficking impacts an estimated 1.2 million child victims. The United Nations Office of Drugs and Crimes (UNODC) recently stated that 79% of all global trafficking is for sexual exploitation, which is one of the fastest growing criminal activities in the world.
UNICEF notes that sexual activity is often seen as a private matter, making communities reluctant to act and intervene in cases of sexual exploitation. These attitudes make children far more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Most exploitation of children takes place as a result of their absorption into the adult sex trade where they are exploited by local people and sex tourists. The Internet provides an efficient global networking tool for individuals to share information on destinations and procurement.
In cases involving children, the U.S. has relatively strict domestic laws that hold accountable any American citizen or permanent resident of the U.S. who travels abroad for the purpose of engaging in illicit conduct with a minor. However, child pornography, sex tourism and human trafficking remain fast-growing industries. Rep. Chris Smith, R-N.J. recently introduced H.R. 1623, the international Megan's Law. Similar to the domestic Megan's Law (named after Megan Kanka of New Jersey), which provides for community notification when a sex offender is living in the area, H.R. 1623 would alert officials abroad when U.S. sex offenders intend to travel, and likewise encourage other countries to keep sex offender lists and to notify the U.S. when a known sex offender may be coming to the United States for sex tourism. While there are serious problems with the sex offender registries in the United States, human rights organizations such as ECPAT and UNICEF believe this would be a step in the right direction.
One of the factors pushing Brazil to the top of this list of destination countries is the extensive use of the Sport Fishing industry in the Brazilian Amazon as a front. The 2008 U.S. State Department Report states "At midyear Federal Police in Manaus began investigating allegations that a foreign-owned travel company arranged fishing expeditions to the Amazon region that were in reality sex tours for U.S. and European pedophiles. At year's end the investigation was continuing in coordination with foreign law enforcement officials." Another US State Department report states (page 85) "In a newer trend, some arranged fishing expeditions to the Amazon were organized for the purpose of child sex tourism for European and American exploiters." Recent Reports on Fox Atlanta and ABC World News Tonight have helped shine the light on this. ECPAT-USA has recently posted a Brazilian National News story with English subtitles.
Webcam child sex tourism
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigations estimate, there are 750,000 predators online at any given time in 40,000 public chat rooms. Offers from 20,000 internet users to pay for webcam sex performances were found in a 10-week investigation conducted from a warehouse in Amsterdam, in the Terre des hommes Dutch action against WCST, using "Sweetie", a 3D computer model. Out of 21,000 perpetrators, 1,000 were identified from Australia, Canada, Germany, Ghana, India, Italy, Mauritius, the Netherlands, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and United States. 110 of the alleged online abusers were based in the UK and another 254 were traced to computers in the US. Together with Avaaz.org, Terre des Hommes Netherlands has created an online petition to pressure governments to adopt proactive investigation policies in order to protect children against webcam child sex tourism.
Global response
In recent years there has been an increase in the prosecution of child sex tourism offenses. At least 38 countries have extraterritorial laws that allow their citizens to be prosecuted specifically for child sexual abuse crimes committed while abroad, and another 31 nations have more general extraterritorial laws that could be used to prosecute their citizens for crimes committed during child sex tourism trips. As of May 2016, 173 countries have signed and ratified the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography which is "Deeply concerned at the widespread and continuing practice of sex tourism, to which children are especially vulnerable". It also obliges parties to pass laws within their own territories against these practices "punishable by appropriate penalties that take into account their grave nature". In response to CST, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the tourism industry, and governments have begun to address the issue. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) established a task force to combat CST. The WTO, ECPAT (End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes) and Nordic tour operators created a global Code of Conduct for the Sexual Exploitation of Children in Travel and Tourism in Travel and Tourism in 1996. As of April 2013, over 1200 travel companies from 40 countries had signed the code.
International law enforcement activities
The United States' Homeland Security Investigations participates in investigating and capturing child sex tourists. In 2003 ICE launched “Operation Predator”, leading to the arrest of over 11,000 child sexual abusers, including more than 1,100 outside the United States. While ICE agents refuse to comment on their means and methods of operation, media reports have suggested the use of undercover agents, internet sting operations, and sophisticated technologies. ICE agents in Bangkok did say however that they often receive information from local NGOs about foreigners in Thailand whom they suspect of engaging in child sexual abuse. Sometimes U.S. based law enforcement, such as local sheriffs' departments and parole officers, inform them of known sex offenders who are traveling to the region. In both cases, local ICE agents work with their Royal Thai Police counterparts to monitor the suspects’ movements while in Thailand. The UK police and the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) are actively involved in monitoring child sex tourists and do prosecute.
INTERPOL actively pursues offenders as well.
Policing of child sex tourism
Asia
Cambodia: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that the sale of virgin girls continues to be a serious problem in Cambodia, and that a significant number of Asian and other foreign men travel to Cambodia to engage in child sex tourism. Cambodia's 1996 Law on Suppression of the Kidnapping, Trafficking, and Exploitation of Human Persons contains legislation against the commercial sexual exploitation of children, and while the law focuses largely on trafficking, it also addresses prostitution. The age of consent in Cambodia is 15, and the law does not specifically define or prohibit the prostitution of children. It is estimated that 1/3 of prostitutes in Cambodia are children.
China: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that the government of China did not take sufficient measures to reduce demand for forced labor, commercial sex acts, or child sex tourism.
Indonesia: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that child sex tourism is prevalent in most urban areas and tourist destinations, such as Bali and Riau Island in Indonesia. Recently, islands of Indonesia like Bali and Batam have become known for child sex tourism. These islands have also been destinations for sex trafficking. Under a Criminal Code in Indonesia, any Indonesian citizen can be punished for violating the Child Protection Act or the Criminal Code, whether it is inside Indonesia or outside. The Child Protect Act 28 is a general act to protect the rights of children. A few specific sections provide laws specific to sexual mistreatment of children. One law states that it is illegal to use a child for personal or commercial monetary gain. If one does not follow this law, the punishment can be up to ten years in jail and/ or a monetary fine of 200 million rupiahs which is equivalent to 22,000 US dollars.
South Korea: South Korean men have been major drivers of child sex tourism in Asia for some time. In 2005, The Korea Times reported that an international symposium was held to talk about strategies for curbing the high numbers of Korean child sex tourists to southeast Asia. The symposium, "Conditions and Countermeasures to Overseas Child and Youth Sex Tourism by Korean Men" discussed issues concerning Korean male soliciting of child prostitutes across Asia, but Cambodia and The Philippines were especially worrisome. "[Panelists] said male Korean tourists are believed to abuse the unfortunate situation of poor Cambodian children," who are coerced into selling sexual favors in order to help their families. As for the Philippines, the report noted, "An increasing number of Koreans bought sex in the Philippines, sometimes abusing prostitutes. The Philippine government has urged the Korean government to take firm action against soliciting prostitutes, in particular buying sex from children." The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2019 reports that the men of South Korea engage in child sex tourism in Cambodia, China, Mongolia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Technology such as the internet has helped increase accessibility of child sex tourism in the Republic of Korea. Some South Korean men arrange for children from the Philippines, Thailand, and China as sources of sex. A Korean Institute of Criminology study published in January 2013 shows that South Korean men are the primary market for child sex tourism in Southeast Asia. "Among foreigners visiting Southeast Asia, South Koreans are the majority group driving demand for child prostitution across the region." The article goes on to say, "A 2008 report from the U.S. Department of State, 'Trafficking in Persons Report,' described South Korea as a significant source of demand for child sex tourism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands." Yun Hee-jun, head of a Seoul-based group campaigning against sex trafficking, claims, “If you visit any brothel in Vietnam or Cambodia, you can see fliers written in Korean.” Although South Korea has legislation in place to prosecute Korean nationals who are child sex offenders abroad, a 2014 report stated "The government has not prosecuted or convicted any Korean sex tourists during the past seven years".
Laos: Lao Penal Law, Article 131 states: "Human trafficking means the recruitment, moving, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of any person within or across national borders by means of deception, threats, use of force, debt bondage or any other means [and using such person in] forced labour, prostitution, pornography, or anything that is against the fine traditions of the nation, or removing various body organs [of such person], or for other unlawful purposes. Any of the above-mentioned acts committed against children under 18 years of age shall be considered as human trafficking even though there is no deception, threat, use of force, or debt bondage. Any person engaging in human trafficking shall be punished by five years to fifteen years of imprisonment and shall be fined from 10,000,000 Kip to 100,000,000 Kip". Lao Law on Development and Protection of Women, Article 24 states: "If these acts are committed against children under 18 years old, then even though there is no deception, threat, force, or debt bondage, trafficking shall be regarded to have occurred. Any individual who co-operates with the offender [who commits] an offence mentioned above[,] whether by incitement, providing assets or vehicles to the offender, the provision of shelter, or the concealment or removal of traces of an infraction, shall be considered as an accomplice in trafficking in women and children". According to a 2008 US state department report: "Police corruption, a weak judicial sector and the population’s general lack of understanding of the court system impeded anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts...Corruption remained a problem with government officials susceptible to involvement or collusion in trafficking in persons."
Mongolia: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that South Korean and Japanese tourists engage in child sex tourism in Mongolia. The Mongolian government has implemented laws regarding child prostitution. The Criminal Code bans organized prostitution of anyone under the age of 16, the age of sexual consent in Mongolia. Not only is prostitution of anyone under the age of 16 illegal, sex with a person under the age of 16 is illegal as well. Not complying with this law could lead to three years in jail or eighteen months of community service. Rape is also considered illegal in Mongolia, with the punishment of two to six years in prison. If there are repeated violations or injury to victims these punishments are intensified.
Philippines: Child sex tourism is known as a serious problem in the Philippines. The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports of tourists coming from Northeast Asia, Australia, Europe and North America to engage in sex with children. With new technology like the internet, some children form cyber relationships with men from other countries and get money by sending pornographic images over the internet.
Thailand: Both governmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations have worked together to shut down brothels. They have also tried to increase awareness of child sex tourism and made attempts to stop it. In 2008, records of 27,000 woman and children were reported as seeking medical treatment from injuries relating to sexual abuse. Many children are not registered at birth in Thailand, allowing them more easily to be trafficked to other countries and forced into child labor, including sexual exploitation.
North America
Barbados: There has been no noticeable action taken by the government of Barbados to reduce the demand for commercial sex acts, though public commentary on the problem of sex tourism, including child sex tourism, has been increasing.
Dominican Republic: Some reports say that child sex tourism is a current problem, particularly in coastal resort areas, with child sex tourists arriving year-round from various countries. It is also reported that the current legislation has inconsistencies and gaps which could obstruct the interpretation and application of the legislation. The Code for the Protection of the Rights of Children and Adolescents, Law 136-03 conceptualizes crime of using children and adolescents in paid sexual activity. Only certain modes of production and dissemination of pornographic material are seen as criminal activities, while possession of child pornography is sanctioned.
Cuba: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that the government of Cuba has made no known efforts to reduce the demand for commercial sex. Additionally, it is reported that the government does not acknowledge any child sex tourism problem but has recently banned children under 16 from nightclubs. According to Cuban government documents, training was provided to those in the tourism industry on how to identify and report potential sex tourists.
El Salvador: One-third of the sexually exploited children between 14 and 17 years of age are boys. The median age for entering into prostitution among all children interviewed was 13 years. They worked an average of five days per week, although nearly 10% reported that they worked seven days a week. Recently, the problem has increased, especially due to migration. Many children are lied to with promises of jobs, and are abducted and sent to countries in North America by foreigners from Mexico or neighboring countries. Most victims are Salvadoran children from rural areas who are forced into commercial sexual exploitation in urban areas.
The Government of El Salvador does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, but is making significant efforts to do so. During the reporting period, the government sustained anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts and continued to provide services to children who were trafficked for sexual exploitation. The Salvadoran government sustained anti-trafficking prevention efforts during the reporting period. The government forged or continued partnerships with NGOs, international organizations, and foreign governments on anti-trafficking initiatives. In May 2009, the government collaborated with an NGO to launch a campaign aimed specifically at increasing awareness of the commercial sexual exploitation of children, reaching approximately 4,500 children and adults. The government included anti-trafficking information in the training it gives to military forces prior to their deployment for international peacekeeping missions.
Jamaica: The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2010 reports that NGOs (Nongovernmental Organizations) and local observers state that there is a child sex tourism problem near Jamaica's resort areas.
Trinidad and Tobago: According to the governments of Trinidad and Tobago, there were no reports nor prosecutions on child sex tourism.
South America
Argentina: The US Department of State reported that child sex tourism is a problem in Argentina, especially on the border and in Buenos Aires. The Argentinean penal code does not specifically prohibit child sex tourism. and there were not any child sex related prosecutions in 2009–2010. Hoping to reduce child sex tourism, governmental authorities passed a law commanding law enforcement to seek the closure of all brothels NGOs reported. This is not effective because brothels are often tipped off by local police before the raids.
Brazil: The US Department of State reported that child sex tourism remains a serious problem, particularly in tourist areas in Brazil's northeast. Most child sex tourists come from Europe, and some come from the United States. Brazilian authorities are not directly involved with prosecuting sex tourists and instead allow NGOs to prosecute those participating in child sex tourism. A Brazilian law newly introduced in 2000, states, “to submit a child or adolescent, as defined in the caput of article 2 (children: people younger than 12 years ; adolescents: people between 12 and 18), prostitution or sexual exploitation is punishable by imprisonment for four to ten years and a fine.”
Colombia: Article 219 of the Colombian criminal code prohibits, “organizing or facilitating sexual tourism and provides penalties of 3 to 8 years’ imprisonment”, but there were no reported prosecutions or convictions of child sex tourists. In recent years, Colombia has strengthened legislation related to control trafficking of children, particularly to follow the criminal code. However, a law is still pending approval by the Code for Children and Adolescents, which includes the rights and guarantees of children and adolescents victims of commercial sexual exploitation.
Ecuador: Child sex tourism occurs mostly in urban areas, and in tourist destinations, such as the city of Tena and the Galapagos Islands.
Peru: Child sex tourism is present in Iquitos, Madre de Dios, and Cuzco. Traffickers reportedly operate illegally in certain regions where governmental authority lacks. Although some areas of the country are known child sex tourism destinations and Peruvian laws prohibit this practice, there were no reported convictions of child sex tourists. The government trained 710 government officials and tourism service providers about child sex tourism, conducted a public awareness campaign on the issue, and reached out to the tourism industry to raise awareness about child sex tourism; to date, 60 businesses have signed code of conduct agreements nationwide.
Uruguay: Government officials maintained efforts to reach out to hotel workers and to others in the broader tourism sector to raise awareness about child sex tourism and the commercial sexual exploitation of children. Uruguay's educational system continues to include trafficking education to high schools.
Extraterritorial jurisdiction
A growing number of countries have specific extraterritorial legislation that prosecutes their citizens in their homeland should they engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with children. In 2008, ECPAT reported that 44 countries had extraterritorial child sex legislation. The following list includes specific citations:
Australia
Australia was one of the first countries to introduce laws that provide for jail terms for its citizens and residents who engage in sexual activity with children in foreign countries. The laws are contained in the Crimes (Child Sex Tourism) Amendment Act 1994 that came into force on 5 July 1994. The law also makes it an offence to encourage, benefit or profit from any activity that promotes sexual activity with children.
It is a crime for Australian citizens, permanent residents or bodies corporate to engage in, facilitate or benefit from sexual activity with children (under 16 years of age) while overseas. These offences carry penalties of up to 25 years imprisonment for individuals and up to $500,000 in fines for companies
Canada
Canada has included in its Criminal Code provisions that allow for the arrest and prosecution of Canadians in Canada for offences committed in foreign countries related to child sex tourism, such as child prostitution, as well as for child sexual exploitation offences, such as indecent acts, child pornography and incest (Bills C-27 and C-15A that came into force on May 26, 1997, and July 23, 2002, respectively). Convictions carry a penalty of up to 14 years imprisonment.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the Prevention of Child Pornography Ordinance (Cap. 579) of December 2003 introduced offences in regard to child sex tourism, giving extraterritorial effect to 24 sexual offences listed in a new Schedule 2 to the Crime Ordinance (Cap. 200). This makes illegal an act committed against a child outside Hong Kong if the defendant or the child has connections with Hong Kong. It is also an offence to make any arrangement relating to the commission of such acts against children and to advertise any such arrangement.
Israel
Israeli Penal Code, Chapter 1, Section 15 states that Israeli penal law shall apply to foreign offenses, felony or misdemeanor which were committed by an Israeli citizen or resident of Israel, without exception, in cases relating to Chapter VIII, Article X (Prostitution and Obscenity) regarding minors.
Section 203B under Article X are penal laws to the exploitation of minors for prostitution by way of pimping and trafficking.
Section 203C under the same article is a penal law specific to the client: "A person served by an act of prostitution of a minor, shall be liable to three years imprisonment."
As of February 2016, section 203C is in the process of amendment to an increase of imprisonment from three to five years
Japan
The 1999 Law for Punishing Acts Related to Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, and for Protection of Children stipulates "that a person who is involved in child prostitution, who sells child pornographic products or who transports foreign children to another country for the purpose of forcing them into prostitution shall be punished with imprisonment with labor or a fine. Japanese nationals who commit such crimes abroad shall be punished with the same penalty".
New Zealand
Under The Crimes Amendment Act 2005 "...it is an offence: For New Zealand citizens and residents to engage in sexual conduct or activities with a child in another country".
Russia
Criminal Code of Russia, Article 12 states "The Operation of Criminal Law in Respect of Persons Who Have Committed Offences Outside the Boundaries of the Russian Federation[:] 1. Citizens of the Russian Federation and stateless persons permanently residing in the Russian Federation who have committed outside the Russian Federation a crime against the interests guarded by the present Code shall be subject to criminal liability in accordance with the present Code, unless a decision of a foreign state's court exists concerning this crime in respect of these persons".
Federal Act No. 380-FZ of 28 December 2013 amended the Criminal Code by also adding laws regarding the receiving of sexual services from a minor. Under the amended article 240.1 of the Criminal Code, "The receipt of sexual services from a minor aged from 16 to 18 by a person who has reached the age of 18 is punishable by up to 240 hours of compulsory work, or restriction of freedom for up to 2 years, or forced labour for up to 4 years, or deprivation of liberty for the same period. In this article, sexual services are understood to mean sexual intercourse, sodomy, lesbianism or other acts of a sexual nature, a condition of the performance of which is monetary or any other remuneration of a minor or third party or the promise of remuneration of a minor or third party".
Article 240.3 (amended by Federal Act No. 14-FZ of February 29, 2012) states "The deeds provided for by Parts One and Two of this Article which are committed with the involvement in prostitution of persons who are to be under 14 years old - Shall be punishable by deprivation of liberty for a term of three to 10 years with or without deprivation of the right to hold definite offices or to engage in definite activities for a term of up to fifteen years and with restriction of liberty for a term of from one year to two years or without such".
Singapore
Singapore Penal Code, Section 376C (Commercial sex with minor under 18 outside Singapore) states: "(1) Any person, being a citizen or a permanent resident of Singapore, who does, outside Singapore, any act that would, if done in Singapore, constitute an offence under section 376B, shall be guilty of an offence".
Switzerland
Swiss Federal Office of Police state "Swiss federal authorities have stepped up their efforts in fighting child sex tourism in recent years. A special fedpol unit dealing with child pornography and pedocriminality offences co-operates closely with numerous partner services both at home and abroad. Since June 2008, an online form has been available to the general public to report cases of child sex tourism to the appropriate judicial authorities".
Swiss Criminal Code Article 5 3. (Territorial scope of application / Offences against minors abroad) states: "1 This Code also applies to any person who is in Switzerland, is not being extradited and has committed any of the following offences abroad: abis.3 sexual acts with dependent persons (Art. 188) and sexual acts with minors against payment (Art. 196); b. sexual acts with children (Art. 187) if the victim was less than 14 years of age;".
Article 296 3. (Exploitation of sexual acts / Sexual acts with minors against payment) Amended 27 September 2013, states: "Any person who carries out sexual acts with a minor or induces a minor to carry out such acts and who makes or promises payment in return is liable to a custodial sentence not exceeding three years or to a monetary penalty".
Article 187 1. (Endangering the development of minors / Sexual acts with children) states: "1. Any person who engages in a sexual act with a child under 16 years of age, or, incites a child to commit such an activity, or involves a child in a sexual act, is liable to a custodial sentence not exceeding five years or to a monetary penalty. 2. The act is not an offence if the difference in age between the persons involved is not more than three years."
South Korea
Under The Act on the Protection of Children and Juveniles from Sexual Abuse, Article 33 (Punishment of Korean Citizens who Commit Offenses Overseas) states: "Where criminally prosecuting a Korean citizen who commits a sex offense against a child or juvenile outside the territory of the Republic of Korea, pursuant to Article 3 of the Criminal Act, the State shall endeavor to obtain criminal information swiftly from the relevant foreign country and punish such offender". According to a 2012 ECPAT report "progress is needed with regard to the enforcement of extraterritorial jurisdiction concerning nationals who have sex with children abroad...depending on which South Korean law is being applied, the definition of “child” varies...These varying definitions create uncertainty as to how the various laws will be applied and invite a lack of cooperation or lack of uniformity in enforcement by multiple agencies"
United Kingdom
The Sexual Offences Act 2003 enables British citizens and residents who commit sexual offences against children overseas to be prosecuted in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Similar provisions are in force in Scotland under the Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995. Some of the offences carry penalties of up to life imprisonment and anyone found guilty will be placed on the Sex Offenders Register. As of 2013, two British citizens are in jail following trials based on this legislation: Barry McCloud and David Graham.
United States
Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a federal crime, prosecutable in the United States, for a U.S. citizen or permanent resident alien, to engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18, whether or not the U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident alien intended to engage in such illicit sexual conduct prior to going abroad. For purposes of the PROTECT Act, illicit sexual conduct includes any commercial sex act in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18. The law defines a commercial sex act as any sex act, on account of which anything of value is given to or received by a person under the age of 18. Before congressional passage of the Protect Act of 2003, prosecutors had to prove that sex tourists went abroad with the intent of molesting children—something almost impossible to demonstrate. The Protect Act shifted the burden, making predators liable for the act itself. Penalties were doubled from up to 15 years in prison to up to 30 years in prison.
European Union
Under the 2011 Directive on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, Article 17 (Jurisdiction and coordination of prosecution) "1.Member States shall take the necessary measures to establish their jurisdiction over the offences referred to in Articles 3 to 7 where: (a) the offence is committed in whole or in part within their territory; or (b) the offender is one of their nationals. Meaning EU member states should prosecute their citizens for child sex offences committed abroad. By 2015, most member states have transposed this article.
References
External links
The Global Study on Sexual Exploitation of Children in Travel and Tourism by ECPAT
The Problem of Enforcement in Extraterritorial Laws Relating to Sex Tourism by John Pascoe
Tourism
Sex tourism
Extraterritorial jurisdiction | [
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] |
232856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe%20New%20Transit | Kobe New Transit | is the third-sector semipublic company that runs Port Island Line ("Port Liner") and Rokkō Island Line ("Rokkō Liner") automated guideway transit (AGT) systems in Kobe, Japan. When opened in 1981, the Port Liner was the world's first fully automated transport system.
In the Surutto KANSAI stored-fare system, the company is represented by the mark KS on the back of farecards.
Lines
Kōbe New Transit operates following two lines, which connect the artificial islands in the port of Kobe with the mainland:
Port Island Line (Port Liner)
Rokkō Island Line (Rokko Liner)
History
July 18, 1977: Company established
February 5, 1981: Port Island Line (Port Liner) began operation. The first practical AGT in Japan.
February 21, 1990: Rokkō Island Line (Rokkō Liner) began operation.
February 2, 2006: Port Liner extended to Kobe Airport.
Rolling stock
1000 series
2000 series
2020 series
3000 series
8000 series
Fares
The table below shows adult normal passenger fares. Children's fares are half price (fractions less than 10 yen are rounded up).
In fact, Minami Kōen Station, Naka-Futō Station, and Kita-Futō Station on the Port Liner are treated as the same station as Shimin Byōin Mae Station in calculating fare, and it is possible to get on and off at Minami Kōen Station, Naka Futō Station, and Kita Futō Station while using the commuting ticket by way of Shimin Byōin Mae Station.
Until February 1, 2006, it cost 240 yen (flat rate) to take either the Port Island Line or Rokkō Island Line.
See also
Monorails in Japan
Transport in Keihanshin
List of metro systems
References
External links
Kobe New Transit Co.,LTD.
Transport in Kobe
Railway companies of Japan
Companies based in Kobe | [
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232857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chao%20%28Sonic%20the%20Hedgehog%29 | Chao (Sonic the Hedgehog) | Chao (; ) are fictional life-forms in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series published by Sega. They are small, childlike creatures that go through a complex life cycle and exist in several visual forms depending on how they are raised. Developer Sonic Team incorporated Chao into the games to encourage players to explore levels and support the good–evil dichotomy of Sonic Adventure 2.
Chao have appeared in many games in the series, beginning with Sonic Adventure in 1998. They usually take the form of digital pets, but have also played parts in the story and figured into other gameplay elements. Most notably, the character Cream the Rabbit has a Chao named Cheese, whom she uses to attack enemies. They have also appeared in games outside the series, the Sonic the Hedgehog comics, and the Sonic X anime, as well as being featured in promotions and merchandise. Critics have given overall positive opinions on Chao and their integration into Sonic gameplay, generally praising their worth as a diversion.
Conception and characteristics
Chao are based on a special technology called A-Life, originally created for Sonic Team's NiGHTS into Dreams where it was used for similar virtual pets called Nightopians.
Sonic Team's Takashi Iizuka stated in an interview with video game publication 1UP.com that Chao were incorporated into Sonic Adventure "so that new players would be forced to go out, explore the action sections, and find Flickies and things." Chao were designed as a "relative neutral entity" in this game. However, to remain consistent with the good–evil dichotomy of Sonic Adventure 2, they were designed so that the player could raise them as "Hero Chao" or "Dark Chao". Chao were given the ability to socialize and interact in Sonic Adventure 2 in order to make the game unique, and to more resemble "a real artificial life form."
Chao are small creatures with a pudding-like body and behave much like human infants, with pleasant and relaxing personalities. Professor Chao, a minor character in Sonic Adventure 2, states that Chao are cute, and enjoy toys and being held or petted. However, they dislike being held while the player jumps, spins around, or throws them. Chao's diets consist of tree fruit and coconuts. Chao hatch from eggs found in Chao Gardens. When the player spends enough time with a Chao in the Chao Garden, the Chao develops a cocoon; it hatches from this as an adult. Eventually it develops another cocoon. If the Chao has been treated well, the cocoon is pink and the Chao is reincarnated as an egg; the cycle then restarts and the Chao remembers the player. If, however, the Chao has been treated poorly, the cocoon is gray and the Chao dies, removing every trace of itself from the game. Chao can breed to produce fertile eggs.
Appearances
In video games
Chao have appeared in numerous Sonic the Hedgehog video games as digital pets. They made their first appearance in the 1998(JP) / 1999(NTSC/PAL) Dreamcast game Sonic Adventure. The player can raise them, enter them in races, and export them to Chao Adventure, a game for the Dreamcast's VMU peripheral. The player can also trade Chao or post their high scores online using the Dreamcast's Internet capabilities. The Chao raising feature was expanded in Sonic Adventure 2; Chao may become "Hero Chao", "Dark Chao" or "Neutral Chao" depending on whether the game's "hero" characters (Sonic the Hedgehog, Miles "Tails" Prower, and Knuckles the Echidna) or "dark" characters (Shadow the Hedgehog, Doctor Eggman, and Rouge the Bat) are nicer to them. Chao can enter karate competitions in this game, as well as racing. The Game Boy Advance (GBA) games Sonic Advance, Sonic Advance 2, and Sonic Pinball Party feature a "Tiny Chao Garden", similar to the Chao Gardens of Sonic Adventure and Sonic Adventure 2 but with minigames in place of racing and karate competitions. Chao can be transferred between Sonic Adventure 2 Battle and Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut—Nintendo GameCube ports of Sonic Adventure 2 and Sonic Adventure—and the GBA games featuring a Tiny Chao Garden. Unusually, a generic Chao is an unlockable character in the party game Sonic Shuffle.
Chao have also appeared in the series as minor characters and gameplay elements. Two Chao—one Neutral and one Dark—who drive Chao-styled mechas are playable characters in the two-player battle mode of Sonic Adventure 2: Battle. On the Sonic the Hedgehog-styled pinball board in Sonic Pinball Party, one of the player's objectives is to hatch several Chao eggs. Each world in the 2004 GBA game Sonic Advance 3 features Chao-inspired minigames to earn extra lives for the player, and a sidequest that involves finding Chao to obtain Chaos Emeralds. 2007's PlayStation Portable installment Sonic Rivals 2 hides Chao throughout levels to be found in a free play mode. In the 2008 Nintendo DS role-playing game Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood, Chao eggs are hidden throughout the in-game universe for the player to find and hatch. The resulting infant Chao can be equipped to characters. This affects the characters' performance in battle; for example, one kind will increase the character's hit points. The game features a multiplayer mode in which Chao can be traded between players who each have a copy of the game. Chao take the form of an item in the "Panel Flip" party game of the 2009 Wii and DS game Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games. Each player's object is to claim as many panels as possible in a six-by-six grid; finding a Chao upon flipping a panel claims all panels in a given row or column for the player. One mission in Sonic Generations (2011) involves racing against Cream the Rabbit to collect lost Chao in a city location.
Cream, a prominent character in the series, has a Chao named Cheese as a partner, who wears a red bowtie to distinguish himself from other chao. In a move to keep her image safe, she often uses him to attack enemies instead of doing so herself. Other notable Chao include Chaos, guardian of the Chao, who serves as an antagonist in Sonic Adventure; Omochao, a robotic Chao who appears in several games as a means of player tutorial; and Chocola, Cheese's twin whom Cream, Amy Rose, and Big the Cat search for over the course of Sonic Heroes.
Chao have also made appearances in video games outside the Sonic the Hedgehog series. In the 2004 PlayStation 2 game Sega Superstars; the player uses points earned during the game to please a pet Chao. Marking the introduction of the character Sonic the Hedgehog to the 2008 Wii game Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Chao and other characters from the Sonic the Hedgehog series appear as collectible trophies and stickers. Chao also make a cameo appearance in the 2001 GameCube port of Phantasy Star Online within a questline called "The Fake in Yellow". Through the completion of the quest and a few other steps involved, it can allow the player to gain access to a Game Boy Advance Machine which gives you an option to download the otherwise unobtainable Tails Chao.
They also appear as trophies in Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Wii U and as spirits in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
In other media
Chao were recurring characters in the Sonic X anime that ran from 2003 to 2006. In the episode "Little Chao Lost", Cheese becomes lost while swimming in a stream. The main characters find him at the stream's end, in a Chao colony, where Doctor Eggman shows up to steal a supposed Chaos Emerald from them until he is defeated. Later on, in "Flood Fight", a colony of Chao appears after a battle with Chaos; they turn out to be Chaos' old friends and embrace it as it leaves with Tikal the Echidna to return to the past.
Chao have also made occasional appearances in Archie Comics' Sonic the Hedgehog comic book series. They debuted in an Sonic Adventure-based story arc, where they work together with Tikal to defeat Chaos. At one point, Sonic, Tails, and Knuckles find a Chao garden and one Chao followed Sonic home, and after spending time around his Roboticized father came to resemble Omochao. However, Eggman destroys the garden, and the Chao migrate to a lake. Much later, Cream and her mother Vanilla protect a frightened but incompetent group of Chao from Eggman's assistant, Snively. Cream's friend Amy Rose realizes they are the same group from the lake and, to Cream's delight, suggests that the lake can be converted to a Chao garden. Following the comic reboot, Cheese continued to accompany Cream while Chocola was revealed to live with her mother Vanilla and Gemerl (from Sonic Advance 3). The heroes would also discover a Chao Garden hidden in an undersea cavern whose inhabitants included an ancient Chao named Aquarius and a guard dog-like Chao named Crusher.
Chao were prominently featured in the official web short "Chao in Space". The premise references billboard props in the Sonic Adventure series, which appeared to advertise a fictional movie of the same name. The short alternates between a Chao's dream in which it is piloting a space ship, and between Sonic trying to keep the aforementioned Chao under control as it sleepwalks. The short was accompanied by the release of some related merchandise through the official Sega Shop website.
In IDW Publishing's Sonic the Hedgehog comic book series, Chao have a prominent role in the "Chao Races & Badnik Bases" arc, in which Rouge competes in Chao races with Cream's Chao, Cheese, to defeat champion Chao racer Clutch and obtain parts for a nearly-destroyed E-123 Omega from him. However, Clutch demands Rouge surrender Cheese to him if he loses. Shadow reveals Clutch to be abusive to his Chao, locking up his losing ones in a cage. The group eventually frees and rescues Clutch's losing Chao with help from their new friend Belle and her built-in lockpicker.
Reception and impact
Chao and the Chao-raising
system have received generally positive reviews. In a review of Sonic Adventure, GameSpot's Peter Bartholow stated that "with the Chao-breeding simulation and the minigames, Sonic offers much more beyond the completion of its story." IGN stated that "SA more than has the extras department covered." This enthusiasm was extended to IGN's reviews of Sonic Adventure 2, Sonic Advance, and Sonic Adventure DX: Director's Cut. GameSpot's Shane Satterfield was critical of the Chao raising feature in Sonic Adventure 2: Battle, stating that "there's little in the way of interactivity" and that "the Chao training aspect using the Game Boy Advance is little more than a novelty." However, GameSpy's Shane Bettenhausen praised the feature in the game, comparing Chao to Tamagotchi digital pets. GameSpot's Frank Provo noted the appeal to "those people who might only enjoy pinball in passing" that Chao brought to Sonic Pinball Party. 1UP.com's Chris Baker called the Chao feature in Sega Superstars "ultimately worthless... but some might find it amusing." In a review of Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood, GameSpot's Shiva Stella praised the level of strategy that the game's Chao system added. Destructoid's Jim Sterling voiced a similar opinion, though they said that Chao had been "rubbish" in previous games.
A Chao keychain was released as part of a Sonic X character keychain series. Between July 27 and September 8, 2002, Sega hosted events at Tokyo-based department stores to promote upcoming Sega video games. Attendees could download "Chao Mini Garden"s and exclusive Chao to their copies of Sonic Advance. Chao clothing clips, along with accessories based on other Sega characters, were available.
Mary Jane Irwin of IGN used "Chao program" to describe Pokémon Channel in her review of the game.
See also
Wisps
Slime (Dragon Quest)
Toad (Mario)
References
External links
Chao Laboratory
Child characters in video games
Fictional karateka
Sonic the Hedgehog characters
Video game characters introduced in 1998
Video game mascots
Video game nobility
Video game species and races
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232859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20railway%20companies%20in%20Japan | List of railway companies in Japan | List of railway companies in Japan lists Japanese railway operators.
Those in italics are the third-sector operators; being half-public, half-private.
Japan Railways Group
The Japan Railways Group consists of the seven companies that were formed after the privatization of the Japanese National Railways.
Passenger
Freight
Major sixteen private railways
Kantō region
Keikyu Corporation 京浜急行電鉄 (京急)
Keio Corporation 京王電鉄
Keisei Electric Railway 京成電気鉄道
Odakyu Electric Railway 小田急電鉄
Sagami Railway (Sotetsu) 相模鉄道 (相鉄)
Seibu Railway 西武鉄道
Tobu Railway 東武鉄道
Tokyo Metro 東京地下鉄 (東京メトロ)
Tokyu Corporation 東京急行電鉄 (東急)
Chūbu region
Nagoya Railroad (Meitetsu) 名古屋鉄道 (名鉄)
Kansai region
Hankyu Corporation 阪急電鉄
Hanshin Electric Railway 阪神電気鉄道
Keihan Electric Railway 京阪電気鉄道
Kintetsu Railway 近畿日本鉄道 (近鉄)
Nankai Electric Railway 南海電気鉄道
Kyushu
Nishi-Nippon Railroad 西日本鉄道 (西鉄 Nishitetsu)
Semi-major six private railways
Kantō region
Shin-Keisei Electric Railway 新京成電鉄
Kansai region
Kita-Osaka Kyuko Railway 北大阪急行電鉄 (Kitakyū 北急)
Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway 神戸高速鉄道 (subway, Category-3 railway operator)
Sanyo Electric Railway 山陽電気鉄道
Semboku Rapid Railway 泉北高速鉄道
Other private and third sector railways
From north to south by prefecture where railway operations are headquartered. Category-3 railway operators and subsidiary companies are not listed. Some English names are unofficial.
Hokkaido
South Hokkaido Railway Company 道南いさりび鉄道株式会社
Tōhoku region
Aomori Prefecture
Aoimori Railway 青い森鉄道
Kōnan Railway 弘南鉄道
Tsugaru Railway 津軽鉄道 (Tsutetsu 津鉄)
Iwate Prefecture
IGR Iwate Galaxy Railway IGRいわて銀河鉄道
Sanriku Railway 三陸鉄道 (Santetsu 三鉄)
Miyagi Prefecture
Sendai Airport Transit 仙台空港鉄道
Akita Prefecture
Akita Nairiku Jūkan Railway 秋田内陸縦貫鉄道
Yuri Kōgen Railway 由利高原鉄道
Yamagata Prefecture
Yamagata Railway 山形鉄道
Fukushima Prefecture
AbukumaExpress 阿武隈急行 (Abukyū 阿武急)
Aizu Railway 会津鉄道
Fukushima Transportation 福島交通
Kantō region
Ibaraki Prefecture
Hitachinaka Seaside Railway ひたちなか海浜鉄道
Kantō Railway 関東鉄道 (Kantetsu 関鉄)
Kashima Rinkai Railway 鹿島臨海鉄道
Tochigi Prefecture
Mōka Railway 真岡鐵道
Yagan Railway 野岩鉄道
Gunma Prefecture
Jōmō Electric Railway 上毛電気鉄道
Jōshin Dentetsu 上信電鉄
Watarase Keikoku Railway わたらせ渓谷鐵道
Saitama Prefecture
Chichibu Railway 秩父鉄道
Saitama Railway 埼玉高速鉄道 (SR)
Chiba Prefecture
Chōshi Electric Railway 銚子電気鉄道 (Chōden 銚電)
Hokusō Railway 北総鉄道
Isumi Railway いすみ鉄道
Kominato Railway 小湊鉄道
Ryūtetsu 流鉄
Shibayama Railway 芝山鉄道
Tōyō Rapid Railway 東葉高速鉄道
Tokyo
Metropolitan Intercity Railway Company (Tsukuba Express) 首都圏新都市鉄道 (つくばエクスプレス)
Tōkyō Waterfront Area Rapid Transit (Rinkai Line) 東京臨海高速鉄道 (りんかい線) (TWR)
Kanagawa Prefecture
Hakone Tozan Railway 箱根登山鉄道
Izuhakone Railway (Daiyūzan Line) 伊豆箱根鉄道 (大雄山線)
Yokohama Minatomirai Railway 横浜高速鉄道
Chūbu region
Niigata Prefecture
Echigo Tokimeki Railway えちごトキめき鉄道
Hokuetsu Express 北越急行
Toyama Prefecture
Ainokaze Toyama Railway あいの風とやま鉄道
Kurobe Gorge Railway 黒部峡谷鉄道
Toyama Chihō Railway 富山地方鉄道 (Chitetsu 地鉄)
Ishikawa Prefecture
Hokuriku Railroad 北陸鉄道 (Hokutetsu 北鉄)
IR Ishikawa Railway IRいしかわ鉄道
Noto Railway のと鉄道
Fukui Prefecture
Echizen Railway えちぜん鉄道
Yamanashi Prefecture
Fuji Kyūkō 富士急行 (Fujikyū, Fuji-Q 富士急)
Nagano Prefecture
Alpico Kōtsū アルピコ交通
Nagano Electric Railway 長野電気鉄道 (Nagaden 長電)
Shinano Railway しなの鉄道
Ueda Electric Railway 上田電鉄 (Ueden 上電)
Gifu Prefecture
Akechi Railway 明知鉄道 (Aketetsu 明鉄)
Nagaragawa Railway 長良川鉄道 (Nagatetsu 長鉄)
Tarumi Railway 樽見鉄道
Yōrō Railway 養老鉄道
Shizuoka Prefecture
Enshū Railway 遠州鉄道 (Entetsu 遠鉄)
Gakunan Railway 岳南電車
Izuhakone Railway (Sunzu Line) 伊豆箱根鉄道 (駿豆線)
Izukyū Corporation 伊豆急行 (伊豆急)
Ōigawa Railway 大井川鐵道 (Daitetsu 大鐵)
Shizuoka Railway 静岡鉄道 (Shizutetsu 静鉄)
Tenryū Hamanako Railroad 天竜浜名湖鉄道 (Tenhama 天浜)
Aichi Prefecture
Aichi Loop Line Company 愛知環状鉄道 (Aikan 愛環)
Nagoya Seaside Rapid Railway (Aonami Line) 名古屋臨海高速鉄道 (あおなみ線)
Tōkai Transport Service 東海交通事業 (TKJ)
Toyohashi Railroad 豊橋鉄道 (Toyotetsu 豊鉄)
Kansai region
Mie Prefecture
Iga Railway 伊賀鉄道
Ise Railway 伊勢鉄道 (Isetetsu 伊勢鉄)
Sangi Railway 三岐鉄道
Shiga Prefecture
Ohmi Railway 近江鉄道
Shigaraki Kohgen Railway 信楽高原鐵道
Kyoto Prefecture
Eizan Electric Railway 叡山電鉄 (Eiden 叡電)
Sagano Scenic Railway 嵯峨野観光鉄道
Willer Trains (Kyoto Tango Railway) WILLER TRAINS (京都丹後鉄道)
Osaka Prefecture
Mizuma Railway 水間鉄道 (Suitetsu 水鉄)
Hyōgo Prefecture
Hōjō Railway 北条鉄道
Kobe Electric Railway 神戸電気鉄道 (Shintetsu 神鉄)
Nose Electric Railway 能勢電気鉄道 (Noseden 能勢電)
Wakayama Prefecture
Kishū Railway 紀州鉄道
Wakayama Electric Railway 和歌山電鐵
Chūgoku region
Tottori Prefecture
Chizu Express 智頭急行
Wakasa Railway 若桜鉄道
Shimane Prefecture
Ichibata Electric Railway 一畑電車
Okayama Prefecture
Ibara Railway 井原鉄道
Mizushima Rinkai Railway 水島臨海鉄道
Yamaguchi Prefecture
Nishikigawa Railway 錦川鉄道
Shikoku
Tokushima Prefecture
Asa Kaigan Railway 阿佐海岸鉄道 (Asatetsu 阿佐鉄)
Kagawa Prefecture
Takamatsu-Kotohira Electric Railroad 高松琴平電気鉄道 (Kotoden 琴電)
Ehime Prefecture
Iyo Railway 伊予鉄道 (Iyotetsu 伊予鉄)
Kōchi Prefecture
Tosa Kuroshio Railway 土佐くろしお鉄道
Kyushu
Fukuoka Prefecture
Amagi Railway 甘木鉄道 (Amatetsu 甘鉄)
Heisei Chikuhō Railway 平成筑豊鉄道 (Heichiku 平筑)
Nagasaki Prefecture
Matsuura Railway 松浦鉄道 (MR)
Shimabara Railway 島原鉄道 (Shimatetsu 島鉄)
Kumamoto Prefecture
Hisatsu Orange Railway 肥薩おれんじ鉄道
Kumagawa Railroad くま川鉄道 (Kumatetsu くま鉄)
Kumamoto Electric Railway 熊本電気鉄道 (Kumaden 熊電, Kikuchi Electric Railway 菊池電車)
Minamiaso Railway 南阿蘇鉄道
Subways
Sapporo City Transportation Bureau (Sapporo Subway) 札幌市交通局 (札幌市営地下鉄)
Sendai City Transportation Bureau (Sendai Subway) 仙台市交通局 (仙台市営地下鉄)
Saitama Railway 埼玉高速鉄道 (SR)
Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation (Toei Subway) 東京都交通局 (都営地下鉄)
Tokyo Waterfront Area Rapid Transit (Rinkai Line) 東京臨海高速鉄道 (りんかい線) (TWR)
Yokohama City Transportation Bureau (Yokohama Municipal Subway) 横浜市交通局 (横浜市営地下鉄)
Yokohama Minatomirai Railway (Minatomirai Line) 横浜高速鉄道 (みなとみらい線)
Transportation Bureau City of Nagoya (Nagoya Municipal Subway) 名古屋市交通局 (名古屋市営地下鉄)
Kyoto Municipal Transportation Bureau (Kyoto Municipal Subway) 京都市交通局 (京都市営地下鉄)
Osaka Rapid Electric Tramway (Osaka Metro) 大阪高速電気軌道 (Osaka Metro (大阪メトロ))
Kobe Municipal Transportation Bureau (Kobe Municipal Subway) 神戸市交通局 (神戸市営地下鉄)
Hokushin Kyuko Electric Railway 北神急行電鉄
Fukuoka City Transportation Bureau (Fukuoka City Subway) 福岡市交通局 (福岡市地下鉄)
Monorails
Chiba Urban Monorail 千葉都市モノレール
Maihama Resort Line (Disney Resort Line) 舞浜リゾートライン (ディズニーリゾートライン)
Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation (Ueno Zoo Monorail) 東京都交通局 (上野モノレール)
Tokyo Monorail 東京モノレール
Tama Toshi Monorail 多摩都市モノレール
Shōnan Monorail 湘南モノレール
Ōsaka Monorail 大阪高速鉄道 (大阪モノレール)
Kitakyushu Monorail 北九州高速鉄道 (北九州モノレール)
Okinawa Urban Monorail (Yui Rail) 沖縄都市モノレール (ゆいレール)
New transit systems
Aichi Rapid Transit (Linimo) 愛知高速交通 (リニモ)
Hiroshima Rapid Transit (Astram Line) 広島高速交通 (アストラムライン)
Kobe New Transit (Port Liner, Rokkō Liner) 神戸新交通 (ポートライナー, 六甲ライナー)
Nagoya Guideway Bus (Yutorīto Line) 名古屋ガイドウェイバス (ゆとりーとライン)
Osaka Municipal Transportation Bureau (New Tram) 大阪市交通局 (ニュートラム)
Saitama New Urban Transit (New Shuttle) 埼玉新都市交通 (ニューシャトル)
Seibu Railway (Yamaguchi Line) 西武鉄道 (山口線)
Skyrail Service スカイレールサービス (also considered as monorail.)
Yamaman (Yūkarigaoka Line) 山万 (ユーカリが丘線)
Yokohama Seaside Line (Kanazawa Seaside Line) 横浜シーサイドライン (金沢シーサイドライン)
Yurikamome ゆりかもめ
Trams
Chikuhō Electric Railroad 筑豊電気鉄道 (Chikutetsu 筑鉄)
Enoshima Electric Railway 江ノ島電鉄 (Enoden 江ノ電)
Fukui Railway 福井鉄道 (Fukutetsu 福鉄)
Hakodate City Transportation Bureau 函館市交通局
Hankai Electric Tramway 阪堺電気軌道
Hiroshima Electric Railway 広島電鉄 (Hiroden 広電)
Iyo Railway (Matsuyama City Line) 伊予鉄道 (松山市内線) (Iyotetsu 伊予鉄)
Kagoshima City Transportation Bureau 鹿児島市交通局
Keifuku Electric Railroad 京福電気鉄道 (Randen 嵐電)
Keihan Electric Railway (Ōtsu Line) 京阪電気鉄道 (大津線)
Kumamoto City Transportation Bureau 熊本市交通局
Manyo Line 万葉線
Nagasaki Electric Tramway 長崎電気軌道
Okayama Electric Tramway 岡山電気軌道 (Okaden 岡電)
Sapporo City Transportation Bureau (Sapporo Streetcar) 札幌市交通局 (札幌市電)
Tōkyō Metropolitan Government Bureau of Transportation (Toden) 東京都交通局 (都電)
Tokyu Corporation (Setagaya Line) 東京急行電鉄 (世田谷線) (東急)
Tosaden Kōtsū とさでん交通 (Tosaden 土佐電)
Toyama Chihō Railway (Toyama City Tram Line) 富山地方鉄道 (富山市内軌道線) (Chitetsu 地鉄)
Toyohashi Railroad (Azumada Main Line) 豊橋鉄道 (東田本線) (Toyotetsu 豊鉄)
Funiculars
Hakone Tozan Railway (Hakone Tozan Cable Car) 箱根登山鉄道 (箱根登山ケーブルカー)
Hieizan Railway (Sakamoto Cable) 比叡山鉄道 (坂本ケーブル)
Izuhakone Railway (Jukkokutōge Cable Car) 伊豆箱根鉄道 (十国峠ケーブルカー)
Keifuku Electric Railroad (Eizan Cable) 京福電気鉄道 (叡山ケーブル) (Randen 嵐電)
Keihan Electric Railway (Otokoyama Cable) 京阪電気鉄道 (男山ケーブル)
Kintetsu Railway (Ikoma Cable, Nishi-Shigi Cable) 近畿日本鉄道 (生駒ケーブル, 西信貴ケーブル) (近鉄)
Kobe City Urban Development (Maya Cablecar) 神戸市都市整備公社 (摩耶ケーブル線, まやビューライン夢散歩)
Kurama-dera (Kurama-dera Cable) 鞍馬寺 (鞍馬寺ケーブル)
Mitake Tozan Railway (Mitake Tozan Cable) 御岳登山鉄道 (御岳登山ケーブル)
Mt. Rokkō Cable Car & Tourism Company (Rokkō Cable) 六甲山観光 (六甲ケーブル)
Nankai Electric Railway (Kōyasan Cable) 南海電気鉄道 (高野山ケーブル)
Nose Electric Railway (Myoken Cable) 能勢電鉄 (妙見ケーブル) (Noseden 能勢電)
Okamoto MFG (Beppu Rakutenchi Cable) 岡本製作所 (別府ラクテンチケーブル)
Ōyama Cable Car (Ōyama Cable Car) 大山観光電鉄 (大山ケーブルカー)
Sarakurayama Tozan Railway (Sarakurayama Cable Car) 皿倉山登山鉄道 (皿倉山ケーブルカー)
Seikan Tunnel Museum (Seikan Tunnel Tappi Shakō Line) 青函トンネル記念館 (青函トンネル竜飛斜坑線)
Shikoku Cable (Yakuri Cable) 四国ケーブル (八栗ケーブル)
Takao Tozan Electric Railway (Takao Tozan Cable) 高尾登山電鉄 (高尾登山ケーブル)
Tango Kairiku Kōtsū (Amanohashidate Cable Car) 丹後海陸交通 (天橋立ケーブルカー) (Tankai 丹海)
Tateyama Kurobe Kankō 立山黒部貫光 (TKK)
Tsukuba Kankō Railway (Mount Tsukuba Cable Car) 筑波観光鉄道 (筑波山ケーブルカー)
Trolleybuses
Tateyama Kurobe Kankō (Tateyama Tunnel Trolleybus) 立山黒部貫光 (立山トンネルトロリーバス)
Freight-only companies
Fukushima Rinkai Railway 秋田臨海鉄道
Mizushima Rinkai Railway 福島臨海鉄道
Hachinohe Rinkai Railway 八戸臨海鉄道
Kashima rinkai Railway 岩手開発鉄道
Kanagawa Rinkai Railway 神奈川臨海鉄道 (Kanarin 神奈臨)
Keiyō Rinkai Railway 京葉臨海鉄道 (Rintetsu 臨鉄)
Kinuura Rinkai Railway 衣浦臨海鉄道
Nagoya Rinkai Railway 名古屋臨海鉄道
Seinō Railway 西濃鉄道
Sendai Rinkai Railway 仙台臨海鉄道
Taiheiyō Coal Services and Transportation 太平洋石炭販売輸送
Selected discontinued companies
Those with English articles are listed here.
Chūgen Railway 中原鉄道
Horonai Railway 官営幌内鉄道
Japanese Government Railways 鉄道省
Kaetsunō Railway 加越能鉄道
Kashima Railway 鹿島鉄道
Kosaka Smelting & Refining 小坂製錬 (freight)
Kurihara Den'en Railway くりはら田園鉄道
Miki Rail-Bus 三木鉄道
San'yō Railway 山陽鉄道
Tōkadai New Transit (Peach Liner) 桃花台新交通 (ピーチライナー) (new transit system)
Towada Kankō Electric Railway 十和田観光電鉄 (Tōtetsu 十鉄)
See also
List of urban rail systems in Japan
List of railway companies
List of railway lines in Japan
List of railway stations in Japan
List of railway electrification systems in Japan
Rail transport in Japan
Monorails in Japan
List of aerial lifts in Japan
List of airport people mover systems
List of bus operating companies in Japan
List of defunct railway companies in Japan
References
Companies
Japan
Railway | [
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232862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Restless%20Years | The Restless Years | The Restless Years is an Australian soap opera which followed the lives of several Sydney school-leavers and young adults. It was produced by the Reg Grundy Organisation for Network Ten. It debuted December 1977 and ran until late 1981. It was not renewed by the network due to declining ratings. The series had a predominantly young audience.
Cast
There was a high turnover of attractive youngsters in the cast. The most enduring characters were Dr Bruce Russell (Malcolm Thompson), his eventual wife Olivia Baxter (Zoe Bertram), rebellious youth Peter Beckett (Nick Hedstrom), and his former school teacher Miss Elizabeth McKenzie (June Salter). Original cast members Salter and Hedstrom left the series in late 1980 and Bertram left in late 1981, leaving Thompson as the only remaining original cast member. Thompson was the only cast member to continue through the show's entire run. Salter and Hedstrom returned for the final episode.
Original cast members
June Salter as Miss. Elizabeth McKenzie
Malcolm Thompson as Bruce Russell
Deborah Coulls as Penny Russell
Nick Hedstrom as Peter Beckett
Sonny Blake as Alan Archer
Julieanne Newbould as Alison Clarke
Graham Thorburn as Barry King
Others in the cast included:
David Argue as Sammy Martin
Queenie Ashton as Jessica Metcalf
Don Barker as Bill Williams
Bruce Barry as Miles Dunstan
Chris Bell as David Harker
John Benton as Richard Dawson
Zoe Bertram as Olivia Baxter
Tony Blackett as Colin Strauss
Warren Blondell as Shaun Williams
Todd Boyce as Mark Patterson
Bunney Brooke as Amy Blake
Simon Burke as Stephen Moran
Tom Burlinson as Mickey Pratt
Antoinette Byron as Tracey Williams
Joy Chambers as Rita Merrick
Benita Collings as Clare Moran
Penny Cook as Susie Denning
Sally Cooper as Wendy Price
Diane Craig as Gail Lawrence
Barry Creyton as Sidney Dalton
Allan Cribbs as Ronny Maguire
Lisa Crittenden as Briony Thompson
Don Crosby as Rex Williams
Lynette Curran as Jean Stafford
John Ewart as Chris Hunter
Judith Fisher as Fran Williams
Jill Forster as Heather Russell
Kerry Francis as James Moran
David Franklin as Bernie Harper
Robyn Gibbes as Meredith Price
Richard Gilbert as Mervyn Baggott
Jamie Gleeson as Tim Watson
Jacqui Gordon as Kim Barnett
Tina Grenville as Louise Archer
Jennifer Hagan as Maggie Edwards
Ron Haddrick as Greg Denning
John Hamblin as A.R. Jordan
James Healey as Gary Fisher
Anna Hruby as Sally Kennedy
Ivar Kants as Ken Garrett
Deborah Kennedy as Helen Ashford
Kerri-Anne Kennerley as Melinda Burgess
Jan Kingsbury as Anne Hunter
Ned Lander as 'Hodgo' Hodges
Keith Lee as Don Clarke
Mark Lee as Lee Prentice
Kim Lewis as Julie Scott
Vince Martin as Craig Garside
Peter Mochrie as Rick Moran
Victoria Nicholls as Raelene Geddes
Rosemary Paul as Robyn Hunter
Craig Pearce as Michael Lee
Brock Perks as Brett Gibbs
Peter Phelps as Kevin Ryan
Patrick Phillips as Mike Corrigan
Rebecca Rigg as Sandra Harper
Lenore Smith as Diane Archer
Rosalind Speirs as Gillian Vaughan
Martin Sacks as Adam Lee
Michael C Smith as Shane Archer
Mark Spain as Artie Wilson
Joanne Stanley as Sarah Williams
Mary-Lou Stewart as Charmaine Weston
Peggy Thompson as Carol Archer
Noel Trevarthen as Jeff Archer
Geraldine Turner as Sandy Miller
Stanley Walsh as Clive Archer
Rod Weaver as Neil Burgess
Peter Whitford as Maurice Brown
Storylines
The series made use of dramatic storylines involving murders, kidnapping, amnesia, blackmail, serial killers and prostitution among the more standard elements as teenage problems, unemployment, romance, jealousy, money-making schemes, and parental problems.
The show's younger characters were seen living in various share households. Their storylines frequently involved romances, attempts to find a job, career problems. There were some family groups where the parents endured marital infidelity, divorce, problems with their children.
Dr Bruce Russell's first wife, Alison (Julieanne Newbould), suffered a miscarriage and was soon afterwards killed by terrorists while on holiday in Asia. Bruce later married Olivia Baxter. She fell pregnant but there were complications. Bruce arranged for her to have an abortion as the pregnancy could harm her health. After this she became mentally deranged and divorced him. Olivia subsequently snatched a baby and went on the run.
Scheduling
In most areas the series screened at 7.30 pm in one-hour installments, twice a week.
For all but the last three weeks of its 1981 season, the series screened in Melbourne as five thirty-minute episodes stripped across each weeknight at 7.00 pm. It was moved to 5.30 pm for the last three weeks, with final episode reached on Thursday, 12 November 1981.
In Sydney in mid 1981 the series switched to running as a single one-hour episode on Wednesday nights at 7.30 pm.
Remakes
The show was remade in the Netherlands as Goede tijden, slechte tijden (first broadcast 1990) which in turn was remade in Germany as Gute Zeiten, schlechte Zeiten (since 1992): both these titles mean "Good times, bad times". As of 2021, the Dutch and German shows are still running – although they have long since diverged from the original Australian storylines – and are the highest rated soap operas in their respective countries. Apart from the similar title, both shows are currently also very different from each other with unique characters and very different plotlines.
See also
List of Australian television series
Notes
External links
Aussie Soap Archive: The Restless Years — Overview and review
The Restless Years at the National Film and Sound Archive
Australian television soap operas
Network 10 original programming
Television series produced by The Reg Grundy Organisation
Television shows set in New South Wales
1977 Australian television series debuts
1981 Australian television series endings
English-language television shows | [
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232863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fairly%20OddParents | The Fairly OddParents | The Fairly OddParents is an American animated television series created by Butch Hartman for Nickelodeon. The series follows the adventures of Timmy Turner, a 10-year-old boy with two fairy godparents named Cosmo and Wanda who grant him wishes to solve his everyday problems.
The series originated from shorts on Nickelodeon's animation showcase Oh Yeah! Cartoons, that aired from 1998 to 2001. The show was later picked up as a half-hour series on March 30, 2001, due to its popularity. Originally, it ended on November 25, 2006, totaling five seasons, but resumed production in 2008. Production of the series ceased again after Hartman left Nickelodeon in February 2018. As of July 30, 2020, all seasons of the show are available on Paramount+. It is Nickelodeon's second longest-running animated show, behind SpongeBob SquarePants.
On February 24, 2021, it was announced that a live-action series was in development for Paramount+. A year later, it was announced that The Fairly OddParents: Fairly Odder would premiere on March 31, 2022.
Synopsis
Premise
The Fairly OddParents tells the story of a 10-year-old boy named Timmy Turner who is neglected by his parents and abused by his Babysitter, Vicky. One day, he is granted two fairy godparents, Cosmo and Wanda, who grant his every wish to improve his miserable life. However, these wishes usually backfire and cause a series of problems that Timmy must fix. Earlier episodes of the series tend to revolve around Timmy trying to navigate his everyday life at home, at school and elsewhere in town with his friends, Chester and A.J., and occasionally his parents, while also trying to fix a wish gone awry and ultimately, learning a lesson in the end. Later in the series, Timmy wishes that Cosmo and Wanda would have a baby, whom they named Poof. Much later in the series, Timmy got a pet fairy dog named Sparky. Even later in the series, Timmy is informed that due to a shortage of available fairies, he must now share Cosmo and Wanda with his neighbor, Chloe Carmichael, who is essentially his polar opposite. Chloe loves sharing, animals, and everything that is ecologically friendly.
At the beginning of the series, Vicky was the main antagonist, but as the series progressed, many more villains were introduced, including Denzel Crocker, Timmy's crazed teacher who wishes to prove to the world that fairies exist; Francis, the school bully; Remy Buxaplenty, a young billionaire child with a fairy godparent named Juandissimo Magnifico, who is set on getting rid of Timmy's fairy godparents due to his immense jealousy towards him for having two fairy godparents compared to his one; Dark Laser, a parody of Darth Vader, who wants to destroy Timmy and the Earth; the Pixies, who are known to wield as much power as fairies, but they treat their magical powers like a business. The Pixies' primary goal is to take control of Fairy World and the Earth; the Anti-fairies, who are similar to the actual fairies, but with polar opposite personalities and character traits. Anti-fairies are also known for causing bad luck; and Norm the Genie, who hatches a plan to gain freedom from his lamp and get revenge on Timmy.
Setting
The Fairly OddParents is set in the fictional city of Dimmsdale, California. Dimmsdale has a sign on some mountains near the city that is a parody of the Hollywood Sign. In the episode "Vicky Loses Her Icky", the Mayor of Dimmsdale unveils the "Welcome to Dimmsdale – Nicest Town on Earth!" sign. However, at the end of the episode, the President of the United States changes the word "Nicest" to "Meanest". Dimmsdale appears to be average-sized, with a downtown containing large buildings, skyscrapers and a city hall, but also containing uptown areas with suburban residences (including the neighborhood where Timmy, his parents and his friends live) and businesses, such as Timmy's school; a hospital; a jail; a sports complex called the Dimmadome, which is named after its founder and owner, Doug Dimmadome, a man who owns a local TV channel and various restaurants and stores, as well as a park in the center of the city. Dimmsdale also appears to have rural farmland located outside of the city. The adults who live in Dimmsdale are notably moronic and often settle situations with things like angry mobs, but they do still manage to form a working and functioning society. In the episode "Which Witch is Which?" it was revealed that Dimmsdale was founded in the 1660s and named after a man called Dale Dimm.
When the show needs to, it switches its location to Fairy World, the home of the fairies, which is a floating world located on top of some clouds and colored with an abundance of pink and purple. Fairy World is depicted as a large metropolis with houses, streets, different kinds of buildings, and skyscrapers. Most buildings in Fairy World have crowns and stars above their roofs. The fairies have a civilization like that of humans, but with their primary source of power being magic, which also keeps their world afloat. A large rainbow acts as the bridge between Fairy World and the Earth, although the bridge seems to exist only for decoration since fairies teleport via magic to and from Earth. Fairy World is not actually a part of Earth but is depicted as a separate world in outer space located near Earth's orbit that can only be accessed by magic. Among the most notable landmarks in Fairy World is the glowing entrance sign on the other side of the rainbow bridge and the giant wand located in the center of Fairy World that powers the fairies' magic. Jorgen Von Strangle, who acts as the leader of the fairies and Fairy World, is an enormous and tough fairy with an Austrian accent, similar to that of Arnold Schwarzenegger. Jorgen personally dislikes Timmy at the beginning of the series but warms up to him over time.
Another location seen in the show is the city of Chincinatti, the home town of Timmy's favorite comic book superhero, the Crimson Chin. Other locations include the dark and twisted Anti-Fairy World, the dark counterpart of Fairy World where the Anti-fairies reside; the dull and gray metropolis of Pixies Inc., home of the Pixies; and Yugopotamia, another planet where Timmy's alien friend Mark Chang lived until the episode "New Squid in Town!" when Timmy invites Mark to live in the Dimmsdale junkyard in order to escape his evil fiancée, Princess Mandie.
Voice cast
Tara Strong as Timmy Turner, Poof
Daran Norris as Cosmo, Mr. Turner
Susanne Blakeslee as Wanda, Mrs. Turner
Grey DeLisle as Vicky
Carlos Alazraqui as Denzel Crocker
Matthew W. Taylor as Sparky
Kari Wahlgren as Chloe Carmichael
Recurring voice actors include Jim Ward, Rob Paulsen, Dee Bradley Baker, Eric Bauza, Jason Marsden, Jeff Bennett, Dionne Quan, Gary LeRoi Gray, Frankie Muniz, and Ibrahim Haneef Muhammad.
Throughout its run, celebrities who have guest starred on The Fairly OddParents include Adam West, Jay Leno, Norm Macdonald, Mary Hart, Chris Kirkpatrick, Alec Baldwin, Ben Stein, Jackie Mason, Jason Bateman, Laraine Newman, Gilbert Gottfried, Michael Clarke Duncan, Brendan Fraser, Patrick Warburton, Gene Simmons, Paul Stanley, Tom Arnold, and Scott Hamilton, additional voice actors: Kevin Michael Richardson, Tom Kenny, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Kimberly Brooks, Eddie Deezen, Greg Cipes, Debi Derryberry, Carolyn Lawrence, James Arnold Taylor, Jane Carr, Nika Futterman, Mo Collins, Queen Latifah, Mary Hart, Cheri Oteri, Crystal Scales, Dannah Phirman, Vanessa Marshall, Frank Welker, Mick Wingert, Wally Wingert, Rino Romano, Amber Hood.
Production history
Development and Oh Yeah! Cartoons (1997–2001)
Prior to the creation of The Fairly OddParents, Butch Hartman was working at Cartoon Network on Dexter's Laboratory and Johnny Bravo. In 1997, Fred Seibert contacted Hartman about pitching ideas for his Oh Yeah! Cartoons series which he was developing for Nickelodeon, Hartman initially declined the offer. Several months later, Johnny Bravo finished and Hartman decided to create his own series instead of going back to working for other studios.
Hartman started developing his own series by drawing a picture of a little boy who would become Timmy Turner. Hartman was originally going to name him Mike, after his brother Mike Hartman, but they had a fight that day, so Hartman named him after his other brother Timmy Hartman instead. Hartman wanted Timmy to be able to go anywhere because he never wanted to be stuck for a story transition. Hartman was originally going to give Timmy science powers, but decided against it due to Dexter's Laboratory having recently come out. Instead, he decided to give Timmy a magic friend. He drew Wanda first and then decided that she needs someone to talk to other than Timmy, and that was when he drew Cosmo. After coming up with the entire premise for the cartoon in about fifteen minutes, Hartman first pitched the idea to Hanna-Barbera and then to Cartoon Network, both of whom turned it down. Hartman then went back to Seibert at Nickelodeon and successfully pitched it to them for Oh Yeah! Cartoons.
While in early development, the series was titled The Fairy GodParents and then it was briefly changed to Oh My GodParents. Bill Burnett came up with the title The Fairly OddParents, which they ended up sticking with. Hartman originally created The Fairly OddParents as a seven-minute short film, which was one of the thirty-nine short cartoons created for Oh Yeah! Cartoons. Hartman made ten more seven-minute short films of The Fairly OddParents in total for Oh Yeah! Cartoons, which aired on Nickelodeon from September 4, 1998, to March 23, 2001. Due to the success of the shorts, Nickelodeon decided to pick up The Fairly OddParents for a full-length series alongside fellow Oh Yeah! Cartoons: ChalkZone and My Life as a Teenage Robot. In 2000, Nickelodeon ordered seven 23-minute episodes for the series' first season, which premiered on March 30, 2001 (just one week after the final Oh Yeah! short) in the half-hour before fellow Nicktoon Invader Zim made its debut.
Unlike the later series, the animation in the original shorts is not as smooth and the designs are notably different (including Timmy's parents, Mr. and Mrs. Turner, who are only seen from the neck down with their faces hidden in the pilot episodes and appear to be more intelligent than they appeared to be in the proceeding series, yet still easily duped by Vicky's abhorrent actions). Other notable differences include Timmy Turner, who was voiced by Mary Kay Bergman in the Oh Yeah! shorts rather than Tara Strong in the series (Strong would dub over Bergman's dialogue in the Oh Yeah! shorts to establish better continuity). Cosmo is significantly more intelligent than he appears to be in the proceeding series while Wanda is shown to be ditzy. Vicky is also much less evil than in the current series; she also calls Timmy by his name as opposed to the more often used "twerp".
Original run (2001–2006)
Upon its premiere, The Fairly OddParents was immediately popular and quickly became the second-highest-rated children's program among kids ages 2–11 on both network and cable television, behind Nick's own SpongeBob SquarePants. The series managed to briefly steal SpongeBob'''s spot as the number one highest rated children's television program in mid-2003. The Fairly OddParents also attracted a wide audience, appealing to kids as well as to teenagers and adults, with 14.2 million kids 2-11 tuning in each week, 10.8 million adult viewers per week and was the number one series on television among tween audiences (9-14).
On January 24, 2006, Hartman announced on his forum that Nickelodeon had ceased production of the show. "The Jimmy Timmy Power Hour 3: The Jerkinators" is the fifth-season finale in production order and was intended to be the series finale, airing on July 21, 2006. However, Nickelodeon broadcast the episode "Timmy the Barbarian/No Substitute for Crazy" after "The Jerkinators" as the fifth-season finale in airing order, on November 25 of that year.
Revival (2007–2012)
On February 2, 2007, Hartman announced on his forum that Nick granted The Fairly OddParents twenty more episode slots, making sure the show resumed production. Later on July 7, 2007, a special titled 77 Secrets of the Fairly OddParents Revealed hinted that a new character would join the series.
After a one-year hiatus, Nickelodeon announced that they would begin the sixth season, which would consist of twelve episodes alongside the broadcast of a television film called Fairly OddBaby, which introduced a new character, a baby fairy named Poof, to the main cast of characters. A huge hit, Fairly OddBaby aired on February 18, 2008, and garnered 8.89 million viewers for its premiere; the rebroadcast of the film the following day garnered 4.82 million viewers, making it the number one and ninth most viewed cable broadcast respectively for the week of February 18–24, 2008.
Live-action films and end of the series (2011–2017)
To honor the tenth anniversary of The Fairly OddParents, a live-action television film titled A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner! premiered on July 9, 2011. The film is set 13 years after the animated series and stars Drake Bell as a 23-year-old Timmy Turner, who is trying his hardest not to grow up in order to prevent losing his fairy godparents, and Daniella Monet as Tootie, who has grown into a mature and beautiful activist with whom Timmy falls in love. The premiere of the movie attracted 5.8 million viewers and it was the top-rated television broadcast on cable networks for the week of July 10–16, 2011, and ranked as "2011's Top Original TV Movie on Basic Cable with Kids and Total Viewers".
The success of A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner! spawned two sequels: A Fairly Odd Christmas and A Fairly Odd Summer, which premiered on November 29, 2012, and August 2, 2014 respectively. Drake Bell and Daniella Monet reprised their respective roles in both of the sequels.
The ninth season of The Fairly OddParents began with a television special titled "Fairly OddPet", which premiered on March 23, 2013, and attracted 3.8 million viewers. The ninth season's official run began on May 4, 2013. Season nine introduced a new character, Timmy's pet fairy dog Sparky, to the show's main cast. Season nine contained twenty-six episodes, making it the longest season in the series. It is also the first season to be formatted in both high definition and widescreen.
The tenth season of The Fairly OddParents began with a special called "The Big Fairy Share Scare!", which introduced another new main character named Chloe Carmichael, Timmy's neighbor who he is forced to share Cosmo and Wanda with due to a fairy shortage. The tenth season aired from January 15, 2016, to July 26, 2017, on both Nickelodeon and Nicktoons. The visuals and lyrics for the theme song were changed for season ten in order to include Chloe; however, it still contained the same rhythm and melody as the original theme song. Also in season 10, the show's animation made the transition from traditional animation to Flash animation. The animation for season ten was done by Elliott Animation Studios in Canada, whereas all of the prior seasons were animated by Yeson Animation Studios in South Korea.
Episodes
The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron, Boy Genius crossover episodes
There have also been three tie-ins with special episode crossovers involving the Nickelodeon computer-animated series The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron, Boy Genius under the title "The Jimmy-Timmy Power Hour" (the first alone, the second and third with the subtitles "When Nerds Collide!" and "The Jerkinators!", respectively); the three main characters from Fairly OddParents meet with the main characters from Jimmy Neutron, Jimmy, Sheen, Carl, Cindy, and Libby, and often cross between each of their worlds of 2D and 3D animation.
Cancelled spin-off series and film
In 2004, Hartman revealed his intentions to make a Crash Nebula spin-off series. The pilot episode "Crash Nebula" was aired as part of the show's fourth season. Nickelodeon decided not to pick up the series.
In 2006, Hartman stated that he was still confident and would try to get the spin-off greenlighted in the future. He also wrote a script entitled Crash Nebula: The Movie for Paramount Pictures, but the film was canceled due to its similarities to Disney's Sky High.
Live-action reboot series
On February 24, 2021, it was announced that a live-action reboot series was in development and debut on Paramount+. Hartman and Seibert will return as producers, while Christopher J. Nowak will serve as both executive producer and showrunner. The series started production in July 2021. The series is scheduled to premiere on March 31, 2022.
Home media
Reception
Critical reception
Betsy Wallace from Common Sense Media gave the series 3 of 5 stars saying, “Nickelodeon airs some of the most creative and expertly animated cartoons on television, and it has another winner with The Fairly OddParents.”
Dennis Cass from Slate Magazine favorably compared the series' writing to that of Animaniacs and praised the series' broad appeal.
Awards and nominations
Other media
Video games
Four video games have been released based on the series. The first video game, The Fairly OddParents: Enter the Cleft! was released exclusively for the Game Boy Advance on November 6, 2002, in North America. The second video game, The Fairly OddParents: Breakin' da Rules was released for the Game Boy Advance, GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Windows exclusively in North America on November 3, 2003. The third video game, The Fairly OddParents: Shadow Showdown was released for Microsoft Windows, GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance on September 8, 2004, in North America. The fourth video game, Fairly Odd Parents: Clash with the Anti-World was released exclusively for the Game Boy Advance on October 17, 2005.
The show was featured in most Nicktoons crossover video games, including Nicktoons Basketball released for Windows PCs on September 11, 2004, Nicktoons: Freeze Frame Frenzy was released for the Game Boy Advance on September 20, 2004, Nicktoons Movin' was released for the PlayStation 2 on October 21, 2004, the 2005 video game Nicktoons Unite was released for the PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, GameCube, and Nintendo DS, Nicktoons Winners Cup Racing was released for Windows PCs on February 15, 2006, Nicktoons: Battle for Volcano Island was released for the PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, GameCube, and Nintendo DS on October 24, 2006, and Nicktoons: Attack of the Toybots was released for the Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, Wii, and Nintendo DS on October 23, 2007. The show was also featured in an arcade racing game, Nicktoons Nitro, released on November 10, 2009.
Timmy Turner and his alter ego, Cleft the Boy Chin Wonder, are playable characters in the official mobile game Nickelodeon Super Brawl Universe.
Theme park attractions
There are 3 attraction rides based the show in total at Nickelodeon Universe in American Dream and Mall of America. Fairly Odd Coaster, located in Mall of America and formerly known as Timberland Twister in 2004, is a spinning roller coaster themed to the show that opened in 2007. In American Dream, there are 2 attraction rides themed to the show titled Fairly Odd Airways, designed for toddlers, and Timmy's Half-Pipe Havoc, a half-pipe roller coaster suitable for all ages, both opened on October 25, 2019.
Streaming
All seasons of the show are currently available to stream exclusively on Paramount+ (at the time CBS All Access) as of July 2020.
Figurines and toysThe Fairly OddParents' popularity during its run saw a rise in a line-up of merchandises, including board games, collectible figures, plush toys, and more. The show was also included in promotional kids' meal tie-ins from Burger King and Wendy's, along with brands from Kraft, Nabisco, and Popsicle.
In 2004, Palisades Toys released a line of collectible Fairly OddParents figures.
In 2012, a toy company called Jazwares released some Fairly OddParents'' figures and plushies as part of the Nicktoons toy line.
Apparel
A line of The Fairly OddParents shirts were made available at Hot Topic, Kohl's, and Amazon as part of their licensed Nickelodeon Rewind merchandise collection.
Popular culture in music
American rapper Desiigner premiered a track titled "Tiimmy Turner" on July 21, 2016, based on the character Timmy Turner.
Notes
References
External links
The Fairly OddParents at Frederator Studios
Production blog
2000s American animated television series
2000s Nickelodeon original programming
2001 American television series debuts
2010s American animated television series
2010s Nickelodeon original programming
2017 American television series endings
American children's animated comedy television series
American television series revived after cancellation
American television series with live action and animation
American flash animated television series
English-language television shows
Television about fairies and sprites
Frederator Studios
Television about magic
Television franchises
Annie Award winners
Emmy Award-winning programs
Nickelodeon original programming
Nicktoons
Television shows adapted into films
Television series created by Butch Hartman
Television shows set in California
Television shows adapted into video games
Animated television series about children | [
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232867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamstring | Hamstring | In human anatomy, a hamstring () is any one of the three posterior thigh muscles in between the hip and the knee (from medial to lateral: semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris). The hamstrings are susceptible to injury.
In quadrupeds, the hamstring is the single large tendon found behind the knee or comparable area.
Criteria
The common criteria of any hamstring muscles are:
Muscles should originate from ischial tuberosity.
Muscles should be inserted over the knee joint, in the tibia or in the fibula.
Muscles will be innervated by the tibial branch of the sciatic nerve.
Muscle will participate in flexion of the knee joint and extension of the hip joint.
Those muscles which fulfill all of the four criteria are called true hamstrings.
The adductor magnus reaches only up to the adductor tubercle of the femur, but it is included amongst the hamstrings because the tibial collateral ligament of the knee joint morphologically is the degenerated tendon of this muscle. The ligament is attached to medial epicondyle, two millimeters from the adductor tubercle.
Structure
The three muscles of the posterior thigh (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris long & short head) flex (bend) the knee, while all but the short head of biceps femoris extend (straighten) the hip. The three 'true' hamstrings cross both the hip and the knee joint and are therefore involved in knee flexion and hip extension. The short head of the biceps femoris crosses only one joint (knee) and is therefore not involved in hip extension. With its divergent origin and innervation it is sometimes excluded from the 'hamstring' characterization.
A portion of the adductor magnus is sometimes considered a part of the hamstrings.
Function
The hamstrings cross and act upon two joints – the hip and the knee – and as such they are termed biarticular muscles.
Semitendinosus and semimembranosus extend the hip when the trunk is fixed; they also flex the knee and medially (inwardly) rotate the lower leg when the knee is bent.
The long head of the biceps femoris extends the hip, as when beginning to walk; both short and long heads flex the knee and laterally (outwardly) rotate the lower leg when the knee is bent.
The hamstrings play a crucial role in many daily activities such as walking, running, jumping, and controlling some movement in the gluteus. In walking, they are most important as an antagonist to the quadriceps in the deceleration of knee extension.
Clinical significance
Sports running injuries
A common running injury in several sports, excessive stretch of a hamstring results from extensive hip flexion while the knee is extended. During sprinting, a hamstring injury may occur from excessive muscle strain during eccentric contraction late in the leg swing phase. The overall incidence of a hamstring injury in sports and professional dancers is about two per 1000 hours of performance. In some sports, a hamstring injury occurs at the incidence of 19% of all sports injuries, and results in an average time loss from competition of 24 days.
Imaging
Imaging the hamstring muscles is usually performed with an ultrasound and/or MRI. The biceps femoris is most commonly injured, followed by semitendinosus. Semimembranosus injury is rare. Imaging is useful in differentiating the grade of strain, especially if the muscle is completely torn. In this setting, the level and degree of retraction can be determined, serving as a useful roadmap prior to any surgery. Those with a hamstring strain of greater than 60mm in length have a greater risk of recurrence.
Use in surgery
The distal semitendinosus tendon is one of the tendons that can be used in the surgical procedure ACL reconstruction. In this procedure, a piece of it is used to replace the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The ACL is one of the four major ligaments in the knee, which also include the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL), and lateral collateral ligament (LCL).
History
Etymology
The word "ham" is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee, from a Germanic base where it meant "crooked". It gained the meaning of the leg of an animal around the 15th century. String refers to tendons, and thus, the hamstrings are the string-like tendons felt on either side of the back of the knee.
See also
Hamstringing
Hamstring curl
Lombard's Paradox
Popliteal fossa
Pulled hamstring
References
External links
MRI Images demonstrating avulsion fracture of the hamstring muscle origin
Hip extensors
Knee flexors
Muscles of the lower limb
Posterior compartment of thigh | [
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232868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pli%20selon%20pli | Pli selon pli | Pli selon pli (Fold by fold) is a piece of classical music by the French composer Pierre Boulez. It carries the subtitle Portrait de Mallarmé (Portrait of Mallarmé). It is scored for a solo soprano and orchestra and uses the texts of three sonnets of French symbolist poet Stéphane Mallarmé and single lines from two of his other poems. At over an hour, it is Boulez's longest work.
Movements and poems
The composition is in five movements, the first and last using a line from a Mallarmé poem, the three middle movements using the entire text of a Mallarmé sonnet. The movements and their associated poems are:
The title is taken from yet another Mallarmé poem, Remémoration d'amis belges, in which the poet describes how a mist that covers the city of Bruges gradually disappears:
Boulez said: "So, fold by fold, as the five movements develop, a portrait of Mallarmé is revealed."
Boulez uses the five Mallarmé poems in chronological order, beginning with the early "Don du poème" of 1865 in the first movement and continuing to the late "Tombeau" of 1897 in the last. The work thus represents a life of Mallarmé, and it concludes with the word "mort" (death), the only clearly intelligible word of the last movement. The first movement uses just the first line of "Don du poème" and the last movement just the last line of "Tombeau". Describing the setting of these texts, a critic wrote that in the first and last movements "the voice is hardly present – though significant when it is" and that the voice "function[s] as an instrumental timbre in its own right." Of the work as a whole wrote: "The idea of 'setting' a text, however, in the conventional sense, is not adopted here. Rather, the soprano is an integral part of the instrumental fabric and only rarely are specific words or phrases 'illustrated' musically in the traditional manner."
Conception and composition
Boulez composed Improvisations I and II, for soprano and percussion ensemble, in 1957. In 1959 he wrote Improvisation III for soprano, instrumental ensemble and a large group of percussion, as well as Tombeau, for soprano and large orchestra. In 1960, he completed Don in a version for soprano and piano. In 1962, he rescored this movement for soprano and orchestra, and also rescored Improvisation I, completing the work in its initial form.
As he did with so many of his compositions, Boulez returned to the work and revised it. In the 1980s, he rewrote Don and revised Improvisation III. In both cases, Boulez removed some of the flexibility he had previously allowed the performers in determining the order in which to play the sections of these movements.
Improvisation II contrasts "three different kinds of sounds—fixed pitch, partially pitched, and unpitched ('noise')".
The music
Don (1962 version)
3 flutes (II and II doubling on piccolo), alto flute in G, oboe (English horn), E-flat clarinet, clarinet in A, bass clarinet in B-flat, bassoon
4 horns in F, trumpet in D, trumpet in C, tenor trombone, bass trombone, contrabass trombone
3 harps, piano, celesta, mandolin, guitar – guitar and mandolin are both amplified
timpanist and 6 percussionists
strings
version nouvelle 1989
4 flutes (3 flutes and alto flute), oboe, clarinet, E-flat clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon
4 horns in F, trumpet in D, trumpet in C, tenor trombone, bass trombone, contrabass trombone
mandolin, guitar (both amplified)
7 percussionists playing: Chinese cymbals, snare drum, glockenspiel, chimes, crotales, 2 vibraphones, 3 bongos, 2 xylophones, 2 bell plates, 3 pr claves, 2 pr maracas, 5 suspended cymbals, 6 Almglocken, 3 gongs, 2 tam-tams, 2 bass drums, timpani
3 harps, piano, celesta
4 violins, 4 violas, 5 cellos, 3 double basses
Improvisation I "Le vierge, le vivace et le bel aujourd'hui" (1957 version)
soprano
harp
vibraphone
4 percussionists: 2 blocks of metal, 2 tam-tams, large bass drum; 1 pair of high crotales, 2 small bass drums; 1 pair of deep crotales, 1 deep bass drum; 3 suspended cymbals, 3 gongs
version nouvelle 1989
2 flutes (both doubling on piccolos), E-flat clarinet, clarinet in A), 2 alto saxophones in E-flat
4 horns in F
8 percussionists: chimes, xylophone, tenor drum, bass drum, 2 vibraphones, 2 cowbells, 2 tam-tams, 6 bongos, 2 snare drums, tuned Almglocken (g>c’’), 3 gongs, 2 suspended cymbals, 6 crotales (indefinite pitch), optional glockenspiel
3 harps, mandolin, guitar
8 violas, 6 double basses
Improvisation II "Une dentelle s'abolit" soprano, harp, vibraphone, tubular bells, piano, celesta, 4 percussionists: suspended cymbals, gong, vibraphone, chimes, crotales, 4 pr maracas, 3 pr claves, 2 tam-tamsImprovisation III "À la nue accablante tu" 3 flutes (2nd and 3rd doubling on piccolo), alto flute in G (doubling on piccolo)
tenor trombone
7 percussionists: claves, congas, glockenspiel, chimes, Chinese cymbals, bass drum, 2 xylophones (4 hands), bell plate, 6 Almglocken, 5 bongos
3 harps (special tuning required for the two of them), celesta, mandolin, guitar
5 cellos, 3 double bassesTombeau
2 flutes (1st doubling on piccolo), English horn, E-flat clarinet, clarinet in A, bass clarinet in B-flat, bassoon
horn, trumpet in D, trumpet in C, tenor trombone, bass trombone, contrabass trombone
2 harps, piano, guitar, vibraphone, tubular bells, xylophone, bass drum (playing the vibraphone and timbales), gongs (playing the tom-tom and plate bells)
4 violins, 4 violas, 2 cellos, 2 double basses
The piece has a relatively simple large-scale dynamic shape: the outer movements are written for large ensembles, the second and fourth movements for smaller groups, and the central third movement uses just ten instrumentalists and the soprano. The general dynamic is loudest at the work's opening and closing and most quiet in the middle. The first movement opens with a loud sound which immediately becomes quiet and the last closes with a rapid crescendo. In fact the last movement "is consumed by a vast and monolithic crescendo that slowly and steadily gains in textural and contrapuntal complexity as its unfolds before breaking off after some fifteen minutes: it is the monolithic inexorability of its unfolding over so vast an expanse of time that makes the experience of Tombeau so gripping".
The symmetrical structure of the work is readily apparent not only in its dynamics, but in the use of fragments in the opening and closing sections and the disposition of instruments. The work opens and closes with the same chord.
The composition also includes instances of tone painting, as in the first movement where "fog and the hovering characteristic of fog are suggested by the long soft roll on the suspended cymbals that underlies much of the movement, the sudden motion of denser thickets of fog in a gust of wind by adding other rolls to the suspended cymbal roll".
According to one critic, "[Boulez's] works inhabit their own special soundworld". In Pli selon Pli he groups instruments in atypical ways. For example, "The customary string section is not used for lyrical, cantabile melodies, but rather for sounds such as tremolos 'snapped' pizzicati and other quasi-percussive effects." At times, "Three harps, mandolin and guitar are added to two pianos to form a plucked/struck string group." Bells are used so as to avoid any association with religious ceremony. Instead "their combination with other metal percussion creates for a unique sonority – quite peculiar to itself." He described the orchestration as "extraordinarily inventive, with sometimes a completely different timbre between one phrase – or even note – and the next." John Rockwell recognized both the work's innovations and its sources: "as evident as the novelty of these pieces are their debts to other composers and other cultures–the Expressionist tensions of Schoenberg, the exuberant racket of Chinese percussion, above all the piercing aviary of Messiaen. Which is not to deny Mr. Boulez his eagerly sought-after originality, merely to place it in context."
The published score of the original version was printed with some sections in black, green, blue, violet and red to illustrate, according to a Pierpont Morgan Library exhibition catalog, "the different degrees of rigor with which its various parts are to be realized in performance". The colors did not appear in later versions.
Performance history
Boulez conducted the Southwest German Radio Symphony Orchestra (Baden-Baden) in the world premiere of Pli selon Pli in 1960. According to Judith Crispin, the complex rhythms of Pli selon Pli, which are "ostensibly" required by compositional concerns, were designed to "showcase the conducting skills of the composer", his "virtuosic display".
Maurice Béjart choreographed a ballet using three movements: "Don", "Improvisation III", and "Tombeau".
The first New York performance of all five movements occurred in 1978 in Carnegie Hall by the Contemporary Chamber Ensemble led by Arthur Weisberg.
Boulez sometimes conducted partial performances. For example, he led the New York Philharmonic in performances of the first two "Improvisations" in 1974 and of the three "Improvisations" in 1986.
Reception
In 1970 a critic reviewing the work's first recording wrote that Pli selon Pli had for years been on "a mission" to serve as "a showpiece of the 'advanced' idiom" and judged that "The ground it covers and even breaks qualifies it well ... as such an emissary". He wrote:
In 1974, when Boulez conducted the New York Philharmonic in the first two "Improvisations" at one of a series of "Rug Concerts" that attracted in notably young audience, the audience "stood and cheered" and brought the conductor and soloist back for four additional bows.
In 1984, Paul Griffiths wrote that the work was "now well established as a major monument to that strange movement known as the 'avant garde': composed between 1957 and 1962, it is indeed a testimony to that movement's heyday". Andrew Porter said the work deserved to be presented annually in New York. Edward Rothstein called it "a touchstone in postwar composition".
In 1986, New York Times critic John Rockwell withheld judgment: "how posterity will value these scores, so colorful yet so insistently, self-contentedly enigmatic, remains to be seen", though he once wrote that the composition demonstrated Boulez's "wonderfully acute sense of aural color". In 1991, his colleague Donal Henahan, who had long been hostile to the work, used Pli selon Pli as an exemplar of the failure of contemporary music to engage the listener's emotions:
A Gramophone review of the only recording of the final version, which it called "the composer’s definitive conception of the work as enhanced chamber music", said that "there can be no such thing as a sanitised‚ lushly comforting Pli selon Pli. The music remains Boulez's most extended engagement with the modernist aesthetic‚ especially in the concluding "Tombeau"‚ which so determinedly resists that very continuity and coherent cumulation to which it seems to aspire". It described the composition as "a work which sums up the composer's vision of art and life in the years before he found his way to a viable electroacoustic technique and a more stable view of musical structure." Another assessment from early in the 21st century called Pli selon Pli Boulez's "perhaps greatest score", which "carved out a particular sound, ethos, and way of measuring musical time that no work–by Boulez or anyone else–has since followed up, let alone equaled."
Discussing the work in 2013, composer and conductor Matthias Pintscher said:
Composer and pianist Anthony Cheung said that "The use of percussion in Pli selon pli, the Improvisations sur Mallarmé, the exotic, heightened resonance of that world, has been particularly influential for me."
Recordings
The work has been recorded three times: in 1969 with soprano Halina Łukomska and the BBC Symphony Orchestra; in 1981 with soprano Phyllis Bryn-Julson and the same orchestra; and in 2000 with soprano Christine Schäfer and the Ensemble InterContemporain. Boulez conducted all three recordings. Only the third recording presents the work in its final form. In 1983, comparing the first two recordings, Paul Griffiths noted the latter's markedly longer playing times and wrote: "Boulez in 1969 appears to have been excited with a work that was still new; in 1981 he was looking back on it with affection, certainly, but perhaps too with a faint sense of regret."
Notes
References
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Further reading
Albèra, Philippe (ed.) (2003). Pli selon pli de Pierre Boulez: Entretiens et études. Geneva: Contrechamps Editions.
Harrison, Max (1969). "Demanding Boulez". The Times, issue 57658 (6 September): Saturday Review III, col. D.
Piencikowski, Robert (ed.) (2010). Pierre Boulez: Tombeau, Facsimiles of the Draft Score and the First Fair Copy of the Full Score. Publication of the Paul Sacher Foundation. Vienna: Universal Edition.
Sadie, Stanley (1969). "Boulez: The Berlioz of Our Times?". The Times, issue 57554 (8 May): 12, col. A.
External links
A page from the Pli selon pli score, nr.2 improvisation I sur Mallarmé "le vierge, le vivace et le bel aujourd´hui", on Universal Edition's website
Compositions by Pierre Boulez
20th-century classical music
Serial compositions
Adaptations of works by Stéphane Mallarmé
Music based on poems | [
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232872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20Affairs | Family Affairs | Family Affairs is a British soap opera that aired on Channel 5. It debuted on 30 March 1997, the day of the launch of Channel 5 and was screened as five thirty-minute episodes each week. The series never achieved high ratings, so the producers conducted several drastic revamps of the series. There were several wholesale changeovers of the cast, and the premise of the series was refocused from a family in a quiet suburb just outside London, to a range of different people living on a bustling outer London street. On 2 August 2005, Channel 5 announced they would not renew Family Affairs. Production ceased on 4 November, and the final episode was broadcast on 30 December 2005.
The series was shot on video to give a film look. In 1999 and 2004, single episodes used standard video presentation for testing purposes. Producer Sean O'Connor changed to standard video presentation from September 2005 until the final episode.
History
The serial originally focused on the Hart and Gates family and some of their friends and close associates living in the fictional outer London suburb of Charnham. The Hart family consisted of parents builder Chris (Ian Ashpitel), his wife Annie (Liz Crowther) and their four children: ladies' man Duncan (Rocky Marshall), confused 24-year-old virgin and trainee solicitor Holly (Sandra Huggett), police constable Melanie (Cordelia Bugeja), and schoolboy Jamie (Michael Cole).
Chris and Annie's parents were also featured. After losing his wife Sally (Jean Heywood) in the opening episodes, Chris' father Angus (Ian Cullen) came to live with the family. Annie's parents, staunchly conservative Elsa Gates (Delena Kidd) and philandering Jack (Ken Farrington), lived nearby.
Other original characters were Chris's partner in their building business, Nick Trip (Barry McCormick); Melanie's bubbly best friend Claire Toomey (Tina Hall); Annie's baby-obsessed friend Maria Callan (Annie Miles); and Duncan's loyal drinking partners Tim Webster (Idris Elba) and Roy Farmer (Miles Petit).
The action took place in a series of modern, middle-class houses and spacious apartments whose geographic relation to one another was not clearly defined by the series. The primary meeting place for characters was The Lock, a slick bar/restaurant located in Charnham's riverside marina district. The expansive parklands and forested areas of Charnham Common were also frequently visited by characters.
Later in 1997, Maria's ex-husband, the callous Pete Callan, appeared in town. Pete, played by ex-Brookside actor David Easter, provided the series with a much-needed villain, and he quickly became the show's standout character. Pete soon married Claire Toomey, who had been deserted by Duncan after giving birth to his twin children.
Another early arrival was the sassy bisexual Susie Ross (Tina Landini), who took a job at The Lock and romanced both Duncan and his twin sister Holly. Nick's troublesome teenage son Liam (Stephen Hoyle) arrived, and neighbourhood nosey parker Bill Cockerill (Roger Sloman) and his wife Samantha (Tessa Wyatt) made several appearances.
Liam became involved in a post office robbery. His lawyer was Pamela Hargreaves (Sandy Hendrickse), and she soon embarked on a romance with Liam's father Nick. Pete Callan then bought The Lock, further cementing his importance to the series. Entrepreneur Peter Stringfellow even made a guest appearance in one episode.
Revamp
By mid-1998, the programme's middling ratings prompted the show's makers to drastically revamp the series. Brian Park, famous for his overhaul of ITV's Coronation Street, was appointed as Family Affairs''' new producer and was tasked with remodelling the series. It was decided that the majority of the regular characters would be written out – including all members of Hart and Gates families.
Throughout 1998, Tim, Susie and Liam departed, and the recurring Cockerill couple was phased out. Pamela's romance with Nick developed and her mother, lovable but meddling gossip Sadie Hargreaves (Barbara Young), entered the storyline. Lovable rogue Dave Matthews (Richard Hawley), his brassy chain-smoking wife Cat (Nicola Duffett), and Dave's son from an earlier marriage Josh (Terry Burns) moved in. Dave was an extramarital love interest for Annie Hart, before falling in love with her daughter Holly.
Also introduced was Dusty McHugh (Doreen Ingleton), the strident owner of the local mini supermarket, and her children, mouthy daughter Yasmin (Ebony Thomas) and conscientious son Benji (Junior Laniyan). The McHughs lived in a flat above their shop, and the adjacent flat was occupied by students Declan Byrne (Quentin Jones), Gabby Johnson (Emma Linley) and Clive Starr (Huw Bevan). Clive's older brother Dudley (David Verrey), also known as Serge Pompidou, became the new chef at The Lock, and was soon joined there by vapid barmaid Siobhan Jones (Jemma Walker).
Yasmin, known for her ostentatious facial piercings, quickly started a relationship with Josh Matthews. Clive was revealed to be gay, and secretly in love with flatmate Declan. Dudley/Serge embarked on a romance with Maria Callan, and the pair were soon married.
Gates and Hart families depart
In late 1998, Jack Gates crashed his car on an isolated road while driving drunk. The incident knocked his wife Elsa unconscious; Jack placed her in the driver's seat before anyone arrived at the scene and blamed her for the crash. Elsa suffered amnesia during her subsequent recuperation, and Jack kept her isolated from family for fear that their support or inquiries could trigger the return of her memory and uncover the truth. When Elsa's memory did begin to return, Jack smothered her with a pillow, changed his will to make Pete Callan his chief beneficiary, and committed suicide by gassing himself in his car.
On 29 January 1999, the entire Hart family (except for Duncan, who had already left the series) was killed. After Roy and Melanie's wedding, the Harts conducted a small reception on their river boat. After Roy left the boat to retrieve a hangover cure for Jamie, a fallen candle ignited leaking gas. The resultant explosion killed all on board, just as Chris learnt of Annie's affair with Dave Matthews.
New direction
Immediately, the show's theme tune and opening titles were revamped to reflect the serial's new direction. They now deployed flashes of a tube journey to Charnham Station, linking Charnham with the city of London. Over this, shots of the new characters introduced over preceding weeks were shown.
Roy suffered emotional trauma after the loss of Melanie, kidnapping Claire Callan and threatening to kill her. After her rescue, she left Charnham and Roy recovered.
Maria Starr announced her pregnancy, while refusing to let Dudley/Serge anywhere near her or to even share the same bed for many months. She was actually faking the pregnancy and wearing a cushion under her dress. Disguised by a dark wig, Maria stole a baby from a maternity hospital and brought it home, attempting to pass it off as her own child. The truth quickly came out and the baby returned to its real parents, who chose to not press charges.
Pamela defended new client Simon Thornton (Valentine Pelka), who was accused of rape. She was convinced of his innocence so didn't fully investigate his background, but later learned he had kept vital facts about previous convictions from her. Realising he was guilty, Pamela dropped the case and resigned from her job, but Simon started stalking her. Pamela accidentally killed Simon with an iron during a confrontation at his home. Fearing her claims of self-defence would not be believed, she enlisted Sadie's help to bury Simon's body on Charnham Common. Racked with guilt for several months, Pamela and Sadie exhibited strange behaviour which puzzled Nick, who had proposed to Pamela during this time.
Nick and Pamela were married at The Lock. The marriage was short-lived, as Simon's body was found and Pamela was arrested and imprisoned for murder. Pamela took full blame and insisted Sadie had not assisted, ensuring Sadie's freedom. Nick left town shortly afterwards.
Benjie McHugh began a love affair with his married teacher Maggie Roswell (Robyn Moore), and eventually went on the run together with Maggie's two sons. Maggie was killed in a car accident while fleeing from her husband.
Clive Starr accepted that Declan was straight and there could be no romance between them, moving on to Adam Sheldrake (Vince Leigh). Adam was a policeman, who was in the closet for fear that being bisexual could affect his career. Adam soon found himself attracted to Clive's flatmate Gabby Johnson. Adam's ex-wife and daughter then arrived, further complicating Adam's relationship with Clive and his affair with Gabby.
Siobhan Jones became closely associated with Pete Callan, then her sister Julie-Ann moved in. Julie-Ann started pursuing Pete, an endeavour which ended with the revelation that Pete was actually her father.
For several months after the revamp, the existing locations of Maria Starr's flat, Pete Callan's flat, the marina and The Lock continued to be featured. Dave and Cat moved into the former Gates residence. Despite the new tube station opening sequence, the exterior shots of the show's locales the frequently visited Charnham Common suggested that Charnham was a modern, green, and spacious small town.
New characters continued to join. One arrival was the Derwin family - censorious Fern Derwin (Belinda Sinclair), easy-going taxi-driver Max (Nick Stringer) and their rebellious foster son Arlo Dean (Ash Newman). The Derwins soon fostered the troubled and sensitive Gemma Craig (Angela Hazeldine) who had recently lost her entire family. Meanwhile, Josh Matthews pursued a singing career, enlisting a manager (played by Jonathan Coleman) and recording a CD, which didn't sell.
The departures of Claire Callan, Nick Trip and then Maria Starr left Roy Farmer as the show's only remaining original character. Pamela Trip and Dudley Starr/Serge Pompidou had also departed. Dusty McHugh emigrated to Jamaica, leaving Yasmin and Benji – and the shop – in the care of her sister-in-law Pearl (Doña Croll). Dusty returned briefly for a Christmas visit. It was later reported she had been killed in a car accident in Jamaica.
Six months after his introduction, Max Derwin died of a heart attack during an argument with Arlo. Fern discovered that he Max left everything in his will to an illegitimate son, Maxwell, from a relationship with another woman. Claire Callan returned to the series in 2000, hardened by her disastrous marriage to Pete. She had left the twins with her sister.
Stanley Street
In 2000, coinciding with the introduction of the Warrington family, the geographic focus of the series was retconned to Stanley Street, in the fictitious West London W15 postal district. Previously, the specific location of Charnham had never been explicitly stated; it was known to be close to a river (actually the Grand Union Canal at Yeading), and characters sometimes travelled to Maidenhead. With the late-1998 infusion of new characters, it was established Dusty and her children lived over their minimarket and that in the next door flat were students Declan, Gabby and Clive. Now, we would see action regularly extend to the shop's street exterior and the surrounding buildings, and this location was revealed to be the bustling Stanley Street with its row of narrow shopfronts and terraced houses. Just as Roy was establishing his new Internet café business, next door to Yasmin's mini-supermarket, the Warringtons moved in across the street. Roy came to live in the street as well, and when Pete Callan sold The Lock to buy an old-style pub, The Black Swan, this too was revealed to be on the same short street.
In quick succession, any regular characters not already living there soon moved into Stanley Street, while Sadie's home inexplicably shifted there without her having to move house. After this, various locations seen earlier in the series – such as The Lock and the marina – would not be seen again. Alongside Yasmin's minimarket and the newly opened Internet café, The Black Swan would become one of the show's primary meeting places, despite the fact that landlord Pete Callan was openly hated by most of his neighbours. From now on, most outdoor taping was on the Stanley Street set, reducing the number of time-consuming location shoots while confining much of the action to one place.
Many storylines now focussed around Pete Callan and his various nefarious activities. Meanwhile, the large group of younger characters in the series went through a series of romantic entanglements. The newly introduced Warrington family became key figures in the show's on-going storylines; Nikki Warrington (Rebecca Blake) endured problems in her marriage and her large blended family, which consisted of her doctor husband Andrew (Simon Cook), his children Luke (Royce Cronin) and Sara (Beth Cordingly), and Nikki's children Becky (Chandra Reugg) and Darren (Joe Fox, later Ike Hamilton) from her previous marriage to incarcerated Adrian Scott (Ariyon Bakare).
Nikki became embroiled in scandal when she embarked upon an affair with her stepson Luke. This played alongside Pete Callan's latest misdemeanour – framing new wife Siobhan for the murder of Josh Matthews. Siobhan had struck a blow to a suspected burglar in the darkened kitchen upstairs at the pub, where she lived with Pete, before realising the "burglar" was merely barman Josh Matthews. Siobhan falsely believed that her blow to Josh had killed him, when it had actually just knocked him unconscious; Pete, who was on the scene in seconds and harboured a deep-seated entity with Josh's father Dave, secretly delivered the deadly blow after Siobhan left in terror. Siobhan was quickly arrested and sent to prison.
2001
In 2001, the Warrington clan was extended to include their relatives, the Webb and Ellis families: Nikki's brother Matt Ellis (Matthew Jay Lewis), his girlfriend Karen (Tanya Franks) and Karen's brothers Jim (Joe Dow) and Paul Webb (Martin Delaney).
With their storylines gradually dwindling, Gabby Johnson and Clive Starr quietly departed. The places in their flat were taken by a succession of attractive young residents, including Polly Arnold (Juliet Cowan) and Dr Tanya Ayuba (Laila Rouass). Polly romanced Declan Byrne, but when her brother Gavin (Neil Roberts) arrived in town, she resumed her incestuous love affair with him, resulting in a disgusted Declan leaving Charnham. The establishment of a youth refuge on the street angered some residents, although Roy Farmer soon became a highly involved volunteer on the project. Jim Webb became Cat Matthews' reluctant second husband.
Paul Webb paired up with Gemma Craig, who continued to live with her well-meaning but increasingly meddlesome foster mother Fern. Fern had married Roy's father Vince (Stephen Yardley).
Karen Ellis embarked upon a controversial lesbian affair with her child's surrogate mother, Sadie's Australian niece Kelly Hurst (Nicky Talacko). This storyline also featured the brief appearance of Kelly's father and Sadie's brother-in-law Barry (Antony Booth). At Christmas, Paul Webb discovered that Jim was not his brother, but his father.
2002
In 2002, Cat Webb's niece Geri (Anna Acton) moved to Stanley Street, as did the troubled Davenport family, who moved into the flat originally occupied by Declan, Gabby and Clive. Mother Ginny (Joanna Foster) was recovering from a severe bout of depression, and husband Robert (Brian Cowan) worked to launch a catering business on Stanley Street. Their three teenage children Jessica (Sammy Glenn), Cameron (Rupert Hill) and Lewis (Sam Stockman) were soon joined by Robert's much younger adoptive brother Jude Davenport. Jude was openly despised by Ginny, Cameron and Lewis after he romantically pursued Jessica. Cameron and Paul Webb became close friends, until Paul learned of Cameron's brief affair with his fiancée Gemma. A furious Paul left Gemma at the altar and left Charnham.
Charlotte Day (Leanne Lakey) arrived and began working at the Black Swan, quickly becoming a love interest for Pete Callan. She was later joined by her younger sister Lucy (Julia Lee Smith) and their mother Eileen (Rosie Rowell). After Charlotte's departure, Eileen and Lucy continued in the series, becoming involved in several highly dramatic events. Eileen soon became Pete Callan's fourth wife after his divorce from Siobhan.
Peter England joined as Ben Galloway, who lived in the halfway house and worked in Roy Farmer's Internet café. Ben's storyline progressed to a point where Ben admitted he was gay and shared the first gay kiss on British daytime TV.
Meanwhile, Yasmin and Benji's aunt Pearl moved away, and a guilt-racked Siobhan Callan endured prison and a lengthy court case after being framed for Josh's murder. She was eventually released and returned to Charnham, where she and others slowly began to piece the truth together, although nothing could be proved and Pete got away with the murder. Siobhan departed in 2002, after Pete caused a car crash that injured her killed Kate Matherson (Mary Stockley).
Robert Davenport had a one-night stand with Geri, after which she accused him of rape. He went to trial but was acquitted. The stress led to the break-up of his marriage, resulting in Ginny moving to France with Jessica. Jude Davenport also moved away.
2003 cast revamp
In September 2003, another drastic cast revamp occurred as new series producer Alison Davis arrived, presented with the task of finally getting viewing figures up to an acceptable standard.
Paul Webb left after his portrayer, Martin Delaney, left the series to take a role in New Zealand serial Shortland Street. Following Paul's departure all members of the related Webb, Warrington and Ellis families were gradually phased out.
Robert Davenport and co-worker Fern Farmer were killed when a runaway car ploughed into the shopfront of Robert's catering business. The driver was Dave Matthews' recently arrived stepson Jake Walker (Seb Castang), who lost control of the stolen car during a police chase following a botched deal by Gabriel Drummond. The biggest casualty of Davis's arrival was the show's only remaining original character, Roy Farmer, who was killed in a fire at his Internet café business.
These departures left just a handful of old characters on board, with Pete, Sadie, Yasmin, Cat and the returning Dave as the only pre-2002 characters remaining in the show (Pete had joined in 1997, the others in late-1998). Pete was now the show's longest-serving character. Pete and Eileen Day had married, although she had actually married him for strategic reasons in a long-term plan for revenge. In league with the sinister Mike Shaw (Tony O'Callaghan), Eileen had started the fire that killed Roy, in an attempt to frame Pete for arson. No one knew Roy was inside when the fire was set; when Pete was arrested, the charge was arson and murder. Pete was sent to prison on remand and was absent for many months, seen in isolated episodes where other characters visited him in prison. He eventually returned to the storyline with his trial, ending in his acquittal, return to Charnham and to running the pub with Eileen, who had become licensee while he was in custody.
On Pete's first day back, one of his tasks was to dispose of Mike Shaw's corpse; in an incident, somewhat similar to the death of Josh Matthews, Mike was accidentally killed by Pete's stepdaughter Lucy after he had tried to rape Eileen. Sam Taylor (Leon Ockenden), Eileen's son from a previous relationship with Mike, arrived. Pete secretly learned that Eileen and Mike had set the fire in an attempt to frame him for arson, and he plotted a slow and satisfying revenge against Eileen.
Another series of new characters were brought in to remould Family Affairs once again. Gary Costello (Gary Webster), a businessman who lost his fortune in a failed business deal, was forced to move from Chigwell to the comparatively modest Stanley Street, much to the shame and embarrassment of his snobbish, socialite wife Chrissie (Kazia Pelka). Their daughters Melanie (Rebecca Hunter) and Chloe (Leah Coombes), were more concerned about leaving behind their school friends. They were later joined by Gary's dependable mother Myra (Kate Williams).
The fractious Boulter family opened a restaurant on the site of Roy's destroyed café. Moody, judgemental Les and his nurturing wife Denise harboured a secret about a long-ago affair. Their son Brendan was a closeted bisexual; their teenage daughter was the bright Kelly. Also moving in was nurse Tanya Woods (Carol Starks) and her gay best friend Sean Steel (Sam Barriscale). Doug MacKenzie (Gareth Hale) became Cat Webb's third husband, while his womanising son Marc (Michael Wildman; later Graham Bryan) married Yasmin. Doug's younger son and Marc's half-brother Justin (Ryan Davenport) provided comic relief as the local clown. He and Kelly Boulter had a romance that led to an unplanned pregnancy. Kelly went on to have the child, and the couple began living together.
Later storylines
With the new cast members in place, storylines in 2004 focused on the new characters through several major storylines. During one of many marital upsets in the Costello household, daughter Chloe retreated upstairs and rifled through older sister Melanie's possessions, only to find a stash of MDMA; she subsequently took several of the pills and wound up in hospital. Tests revealed the source of the illness, but also suggested she might also have cancer, and further tests were ordered. In the public outpouring of sympathy and support for the family, Chrissie finally found acceptance in the neighbourhood. When tests showed Chloe did not have cancer, Chrissie kept it quiet and convinced Chloe to maintain a pretence of illness as a "little game". Unfortunately, the lie took hold, leading to many months of Chrissie deceiving the community and her own family, convincing everyone that Chloe was undergoing chemotherapy. When Eileen Callan saw them out shopping when Chloe was purportedly in hospital, and after picking up on other hints, she voiced her suspicion that Chrissie was faking Chloe's illness. The community was aghast and ostracized Eileen for several weeks. Chrissie's pretence continued for a few more weeks, until a suspicious Tanya removed Chloe's bandages to reveal that there were no injection wounds at all.
Tanya herself was pregnant to Sean; as platonic friends with little prospect of parenthood presenting itself, they planned to become parents together and Tanya underwent in vitro fertilisation. Brendan Boulter became engaged to Melanie Costello married her while conducting an affair with Sean. Denise Boulter had been largely ostracised by her outraged daughter and husband after the truth about her long-ago affair came to light. However, they eventually reconciled their differences, although Brendan would leave town to escape his own problems.
Gary and Chrissie's marriage had faltered, leading to their separation, but the family endured its lowest ebb when Chloe Costello was sexually abused by family friend Bradley Foster (Harry Capehorn). The Boulter's marriage was again tested when Denise was raped by an unseen assailant, accusing local taxi driver Graham Harker (Lee Warburton) of the crime despite a total lack of evidence, and the Boulter family began hounding him to seek revenge. Graham started a romance with Melanie, who became his sole supporter.
Gary and Chrissie Costello reconciled and Gary proposed on Christmas Eve 2004. Melanie had earlier refused to attend their remarriage ceremony due to clashes with her parents over her relationship with Graham; on the day of the ceremony, Melanie learned that their suspicions had been correct and that he was a dangerous rapist, when he held her captive in his flat. Melanie was able to enlist Denise's help escaping from Graham. These events would see him brought to justice, although repercussions from these events would also lead to the Boulter's marriage disintegrating, and Les and Denise both leaving Charnham.
At The Black Swan, psychotic Trish Wallace (Gabrielle Glaister) emerged as a recurring villain capable of rivalling Pete Callan. An unnerved Eileen was being blackmailed by someone who threatened to reveal to Pete that Eileen had framed him for arson; Pete already knew this, and the Callans endured several tumultuous plot twists as they schemed and plotted against each other. This culminated in the 2000th episode in late-2004, when Pete threw Eileen into the River Thames. Pete's eventual comeuppance followed an armed showdown between Pete, Trish and Eileen in September 2005. Pete was shot dead after a shootout with S019 Officers, in a final act of suicide by cop.
Several other characters, including Sadie, Dave and Lucy, were written out of the series as Alison Davis ended her reign, to be replaced by ex-Hollyoaks producer Sean O'Connor. O'Connor quickly outlined his plans for the show, including a name change and many younger, more glamorous characters (which threatened to turn the soap into a Hollyoaks clone). However, his plans were cut short by the announcement that Channel 5 would not be renewing the series for 2006. This timing resulted in numerous barely-known characters populating the final episode.
Final episode
The final episode of Family Affairs was broadcast on 30 December 2005 in the UK, and on 29 June 2006 in Australia and New Zealand. 1.3 million people tuned in to watch the final in the UK.
The episode revolved mainly around the lead up to the Stanley Street New Year's Eve party and the wedding of newcomers Nathan and Eve Fletcher. Eileen Callan returned and announced she had won the lottery and was now very wealthy. Eileen sold The Black Swann to Rex Randell and bought a house for the Costello family. Yasmin and Damian kissed and announced they were a couple. Dr Hector Price and George finally became a couple after a falling out with nurse and flatmate Meredith. Babs Woods' long-time boyfriend Howard returned.
Hester is murdered by her brother, Rex Randell, after his barmaid Katie saw footage of Rex murdering his late wife. After the murder, Rex faced up to Katie; the outcome of the showdown was not shown. Doug split from his long-term wife Cat.
The final scene saw most of the other characters celebrating the New Year.
Cast and characters
Storylines
The show generally concentrated on family-based storylines and marital upsets, although more extreme storylines involving murder, rape, prostitution, blackmail, drug use, and brother-sister incestuous relationships have also occurred. Perhaps, most significantly, Family Affairs has often been acclaimed for its constant inclusion of minority groups, having featured a higher density of gay and lesbian characters over its history than any other British soap. It has also been praised for its treatment and integration of characters from ethnic minorities, notable examples of which include the inimitable Yasmin, who had been with the show for seven years at its final episode in December, and the more recent addition of a gay Muslim character, Sami Shafiq (Hosh Kane).Family Affairs also went to unprecedented lengths in its treatment of the controversial issue of child abuse; in 2005, the soap won its first British Soap Award for a storyline in which young Chloe Costello (Leah Coombes) was sexually abused by a family friend, Bradley Foster (Harry Capehorn). The storyline, backed by the NSPCC, aimed to destroy some unhelpful stereotypes about what most expect a paedophile to be like. Partly, as a result of the storyline, Kazia Pelka, who played Chloe's mother Chrissy, also won the award for Best Dramatic Performance, culminating in a double victory for the show.
Production notes
Prior to the establishment of the outdoor Stanley Street set, most of the location footage was shot in West London. The Lock and its surrounding areas were filmed at Yeading Marina, shots of the town centre of Charnham were in Uxbridge, and wooded areas featured Ruislip, Denham and Iver among others. The houses seen in exterior shots were in Hayes, Uxbridge, and other parts of west London. The early episodes feature scenes shot near Wharncliffe Viaduct, a railway viaduct in Hanwell, west London.
Several episodes made heavy use of the police station sets of ITV1's police drama The Bill, made by the same TV production company. The words "Sun Hill" were removed from the front of the police station for the Family Affairs shoot. The hospital sets used for St Hugh's on The Bill were also used to represent hospital St. David's in Family Affairs''.
References
External links
.
In-depth audio interview with David Easter (Pete Callan).
1997 British television series debuts
Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming
Television shows produced by Thames Television
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows set in London
1990s British television soap operas
2000s British television soap operas
2005 British television series endings
British television soap operas
1990s British LGBT-related television series
2000s British LGBT-related drama television series | [
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232875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer%20Perceval | Spencer Perceval | Spencer Perceval (1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812) was a British statesman and barrister. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1809 until his assassination in May 1812. Perceval is the only British prime minister to have been assassinated, and the only solicitor-general or attorney-general to have become prime minister.
The younger son of an Anglo-Irish earl, Perceval was educated at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, practised as a barrister on the Midland circuit, and in 1796 became a King's Counsel. He entered politics at age 33 as a member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton. A follower of William Pitt the Younger, Perceval always described himself as a "friend of Mr. Pitt", rather than a Tory. Perceval was opposed to Catholic emancipation and reform of Parliament; he supported the war against Napoleon and the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. He was opposed to hunting, gambling and adultery; he did not drink as much as most MPs at the time, gave generously to charity, and enjoyed spending time with his thirteen children.
After a late entry into politics, his rise to power was rapid: he was appointed as Solicitor General and then Attorney General for England and Wales in the Addington ministry, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in the second Portland ministry, and then became prime minister in 1809. At the head of a weak government, Perceval faced a number of crises during his term in office, including an inquiry into the Walcheren expedition, the madness of King George III, economic depression, and Luddite riots. He overcame those crises, successfully pursued the Peninsular War in the face of opposition defeatism, and won the support of the Prince Regent. His position was looking stronger by early 1812, when, in the lobby of the House of Commons, he was assassinated by a merchant with a grievance against his government.
Perceval had four older brothers who survived to adulthood. Through expiry of their male-line, male heirs, the earldom of Egmont passed to one of his great-grandsons in the early twentieth century and became extinct in 2011.
Childhood and education
Perceval was born in Audley Square, Mayfair, London the seventh son of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont; he was the second son of the Earl's second marriage. His mother, Catherine Compton, Baroness Arden, was a granddaughter of the 4th Earl of Northampton. Spencer was a Compton family name; Catherine Compton's great uncle Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington, had been prime minister.
His father, a political advisor to Frederick, Prince of Wales and King George III, served briefly in the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty. Perceval's early childhood was spent at Charlton House, which his father had taken to be near Woolwich Dockyard.
Perceval's father died when he was eight. Perceval went to Harrow School, where he was a disciplined and hard-working pupil. It was at Harrow that he developed an interest in evangelical Anglicanism and formed what was to be a lifelong friendship with Dudley Ryder. After five years at Harrow, he followed his older brother Charles to Trinity College, Cambridge. There he won the declamation prize in English and graduated in 1782.
Legal career and marriage
As the second son of a second marriage, and with an allowance of only £200 a year (), Perceval faced the prospect of having to make his own way in life. (Under primogeniture, the first son inherited land and title.) He chose the law as a profession, studied at Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in 1786. Perceval's mother had died in 1783. Perceval and his brother Charles, now Lord Arden, rented a house in Charlton, where they fell in love with two sisters who were living in the Percevals' old childhood home. The sisters' father, Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, approved of the match between his eldest daughter Margaretta and Lord Arden, who was wealthy and already a Member of Parliament and a Lord of the Admiralty. Perceval, who was at that time an impecunious barrister on the Midland Circuit, was told to wait until the younger daughter, Jane, came of age in three years' time. When Jane reached 21, in 1790, Perceval's career was still not prospering, and Sir Thomas still opposed the marriage.
The couple eloped and married by special licence in East Grinstead. They set up home together in lodgings over a carpet shop in Bedford Row, later moving to Lindsey House, Lincoln's Inn Fields. They had thirteen children together.
Perceval's family connections obtained a number of positions for him: Deputy Recorder of Northampton, and commissioner of bankrupts in 1790; surveyor of the Maltings and clerk of the irons in the mint– a sinecure worth £119 a year – in 1791; and counsel to the Board of Admiralty in 1794. He acted as junior counsel for the Crown in the prosecutions of Thomas Paine in absentia for seditious libel (1792), and John Horne Tooke for high treason (1794). Perceval joined the London and Westminster Light Horse Volunteers in 1794 when the country was under threat of invasion by France and served with them until 1803.
Perceval wrote anonymous pamphlets in favour of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and in defence of public order against sedition. These pamphlets brought him to the attention of William Pitt the Younger, and in 1795 he was offered the appointment of Chief Secretary for Ireland. He declined the offer. He could earn more as a barrister and needed the money to support his growing family. In 1796 he became a King's Counsel and had an income of about £1,000 a year (). Perceval was 33 when he became a KC, making him one of the youngest ever.
Early political career: 1796–1801
In 1796, Perceval's uncle, the 8th Earl of Northampton, died. Perceval's cousin Charles Compton, who was MP for Northampton, succeeded to the earldom and took his place in the House of Lords. Perceval was invited to stand for election in his place. In the May by-election he was elected unopposed, but weeks later had to defend his seat in a fiercely contested general election. Northampton had an electorate of about one thousand– every male householder not in receipt of poor relief had a vote– and the town had a strong radical tradition. Perceval stood for the Castle Ashby interest, Edward Bouverie for the Whigs, and William Walcot for the corporation. After a disputed count, Perceval and Bouverie were returned. Perceval represented Northampton until his death 16 years later, and is the only MP for Northampton to have held the office of prime minister. 1796 was his first and last contested election; in the general elections of 1802, 1806 and 1807, Perceval and Bouverie were returned unopposed.
When Perceval took his seat in the House of Commons in September 1796, his political views were already formed. "He was for the constitution and Pitt; he was against Fox and France", wrote his biographer Denis Gray. During the 1796–1797 session, he made several speeches, always reading from notes. His public speaking skills had been sharpened at the Crown and Rolls debating society when he was a law student. After taking his seat in the House of Commons, Perceval continued with his legal practice, as MPs did not receive a salary, and the House only sat for a part of the year. During the Parliamentary recess of the summer of 1797, he was senior counsel for the Crown in the prosecution of John Binns for sedition. Binns, who was defended by Samuel Romilly, was found not guilty. The fees from his legal practice allowed Perceval to take out a lease on a country house, Belsize House in Hampstead.
It was during the next session of Parliament, in January 1798, that Perceval established his reputation as a debater – and his prospects as a future minister – with a speech in support of the Assessed Taxes Bill (a bill to increase the taxes on houses, windows, male servants, horses and carriages, in order to finance the war against France). He used the occasion to mount an attack on Charles Fox and his demands for reform. Pitt described the speech as one of the best he had ever heard, and later that year Perceval was appointed to the post of Solicitor to the Ordnance.
Solicitor and attorney general: 1801–1806
Pitt resigned in 1801 when the King and Cabinet opposed his bill for Catholic emancipation. As Perceval shared the King's views on Catholic emancipation, he did not feel obliged to follow Pitt into opposition. His career continued to prosper during Henry Addington's administration. He was appointed solicitor general in 1801 and attorney general the following year. Perceval did not agree with Addington's general policies (especially on foreign policy), and confined himself to speeches on legal issues. He was retained in the position of attorney general when Addington resigned, and Pitt formed his second ministry in 1804. As attorney general, Perceval was involved with the prosecution of radicals Edward Despard and William Cobbett, but was also responsible for more liberal decisions on trade unions, and for improving the conditions of convicts transported to New South Wales.
When Pitt died, in January 1806, Perceval was an emblem bearer at his funeral. Although he had little money to spare (by now he had eleven children), he contributed £1,000 towards a fund to pay off Pitt's debts. He resigned as attorney general, refusing to serve in Lord Grenville's ministry of "all the talents", as it included Fox. Instead he became the leader of the Pittite opposition in the House of Commons.
During his period in opposition, Perceval used his legal skills to defend Princess Caroline, the estranged wife of the Prince of Wales, during the "delicate investigation". The Princess had been accused of giving birth to an illegitimate child, and the Prince of Wales ordered an inquiry, hoping to obtain evidence for a divorce. The government inquiry found that the main accusation was untrue (the child in question had been adopted by the Princess), but it was critical of the behaviour of the Princess. The opposition sprang to her defence and Perceval became her advisor, drafting a 156-page letter to King George III in her support. Known as , it was described by Perceval's biographer as "the last and greatest production of his legal career". When the King refused to let Caroline return to court, Perceval threatened publication of The Book. But Grenville's ministry fell – again over a difference of opinion with the King on the Catholic question – before The Book could be distributed. As a member of the new government, Perceval drafted a cabinet minute acquitting Caroline on all charges and recommending her return to court. He had a bonfire of The Book at Lindsey House, and large sums of government money were spent on buying back stray copies. A few remained at large and The Book was published soon after his death.
Chancellor of the Exchequer: 1807–1809
On the resignation of Grenville, the Duke of Portland put together a ministry of Pittites and asked Perceval to become Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons. Perceval would have preferred to remain attorney general or become Home Secretary, and pleaded ignorance of financial affairs. He agreed to take the position when the salary (smaller than that of the Home Office) was augmented by the Duchy of Lancaster. Lord Hawkesbury (later Liverpool) recommended Perceval to the King by explaining that he came from an old English family and shared the King's views on the Catholic question.
Perceval's youngest child, Ernest Augustus, was born soon after Perceval became chancellor (Princess Caroline was godmother). Jane Perceval became ill after the birth and the family moved out of the damp and draughty Belsize House, spending a few months in Lord Teignmouth's house in Clapham before finding a suitable country house in Ealing. Elm Grove was a 16th-century house that had been the home of the Bishop of Durham; Perceval paid £7,500 for it in 1808 (borrowing from his brother Lord Arden and the trustees of Jane's dowry), and the Perceval family's long association with Ealing began. Meanwhile, in town, Perceval had moved from Lindsey House into 10 Downing Street, when the Duke of Portland moved back to Burlington House shortly after becoming prime minister.
One of Perceval's first tasks in Cabinet was to expand the Orders in Council that had been brought in by the previous administration and were designed to restrict the trade of neutral countries with France, in retaliation to Napoleon's embargo on British trade. He was also responsible for ensuring that Wilberforce's bill on the abolition of the slave trade, which had still not passed its final stages in the House of Lords when Grenville's ministry fell, would not "fall between the two ministries" and be rejected in a snap division. Perceval was one of the founding members of the African Institute, which was set up in April 1807 to safeguard the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act.
As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Perceval had to raise money to finance the war against Napoleon. This he managed to do in his budgets of 1808 and 1809 without increasing taxes, by raising loans at reasonable rates and making economies. As leader of the House of Commons, he had to deal with a strong opposition, which challenged the government over the conduct of the war, Catholic emancipation, corruption, and Parliamentary reform. Perceval successfully defended the commander-in-chief of the army, the Duke of York, against charges of corruption when the Duke's ex-mistress Mary Anne Clarke claimed to have sold army commissions with his knowledge. Although Parliament voted to acquit the Duke of the main charge, his conduct was criticised, and he accepted Perceval's advice to resign. (He was re-instated in 1811).
Portland's ministry contained three future prime-ministers – Perceval, Lord Hawkesbury and George Canning – as well as another two of the 19th-century's great statesmen: Lord Eldon and Lord Castlereagh. But Portland was not a strong leader and his health was failing. The country was plunged into political crisis in the summer of 1809 as Canning schemed against Castlereagh, and the Duke of Portland resigned following a stroke. Negotiations began to find a new prime minister: Canning wanted to be either prime minister or nothing, Perceval was prepared to serve under a third person, but not Canning. The remnants of the cabinet decided to invite Lord Grey and Lord Grenville to form "an extended and combined administration" in which Perceval was hoping for the home secretaryship. But Grenville and Grey refused to enter into negotiations, and the King accepted the Cabinet's recommendation of Perceval for his new prime minister.
Perceval kissed the King's hands on 4 October and set about forming his Cabinet, a task made more difficult by the fact that Castlereagh and Canning had ruled themselves out of consideration by fighting a duel (which Perceval had tried to prevent). Having received five refusals for the office, he had to serve as his own Chancellor of the Exchequer – characteristically declining to accept the salary.
Prime Minister: 1809–1812
The new ministry was not expected to last. It was especially weak in the Commons, where Perceval had only one cabinet member– Home Secretary Richard Ryder – and had to rely on the support of backbenchers in debate. In the first week of the new Parliamentary session in January 1810 the government lost four divisions, one on a motion for an inquiry into the Walcheren Expedition (in which, the previous summer, a military force intending to seize Antwerp had instead withdrawn after losing many men to an epidemic on the island of Walcheren off the Dutch coast) and three on the composition of the finance committee. The government survived the inquiry into the Walcheren Expedition at the cost of the resignation of the expedition's leader Lord Chatham. The radical MP Sir Francis Burdett was committed to the Tower of London for having published a letter in William Cobbett's Political Register denouncing the government's exclusion of the press from the inquiry. It took three days, owing to various blunders, to execute the warrant for Burdett's arrest. The mob took to the streets in support of Burdett, troops were called out, and there were fatal casualties. As Chancellor, Perceval continued to find the funds to finance Wellington's campaign in the Iberian Peninsula, whilst contracting a lower debt than his predecessors or successors.
King George III had celebrated his Golden Jubilee in 1809; by the following autumn he was showing signs of a return of the illness that had led to the threat of a Regency in 1788. The prospect of a Regency was not attractive to Perceval, as the Prince of Wales was known to favour Whigs and disliked Perceval for the part he had played in the "delicate investigation". Twice Parliament was adjourned in November 1810, as doctors gave optimistic reports about the King's chances of a return to health. In December select committees of the Lords and Commons heard evidence from the doctors, and Perceval finally wrote to the Prince of Wales on 19 December saying that he planned the next day to introduce a regency bill. As with Pitt's bill in 1788, there would be restrictions: the regent's powers to create peers and award offices and pensions would be restricted for 12 months, the Queen would be responsible for the care of the King, and the King's private property would be looked after by trustees.
The Prince of Wales, supported by the Opposition, objected to the restrictions, but Perceval steered the bill through Parliament. Everyone had expected the Regent to change his ministers but, surprisingly, he chose to retain his old enemy Perceval. The official reason given by the Regent was that he did not wish to do anything to aggravate his father's illness. The King assented to the Regency Bill on 5 February, the Regent took the royal oath the following day and Parliament formally opened for the 1811 session. The session was largely taken up with problems in Ireland, economic depression and the bullion controversy in England (a bill was passed to make bank notes legal tender), and military operations in the peninsula.
The restrictions on the Regency expired in February 1812, the King was still showing no signs of recovery, and the Prince Regent decided, after an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Grey and Grenville to join the government, to retain Perceval and his ministers. Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, after intrigues with the Prince Regent, resigned as foreign secretary and was replaced by Castlereagh. The opposition meanwhile was mounting an attack on the Orders in Council, which had caused a crisis in relations with America and were widely blamed for depression and unemployment in England. Rioting had broken out in the Midlands and North, and been harshly repressed. Henry Brougham's motion for a select committee was defeated in the Commons, but, under continuing pressure from manufacturers, the government agreed to set up a Committee of the Whole House to consider the Orders in Council and their impact on trade and manufacture. The committee began its examination of witnesses in early May 1812.
Assassination
At 5:15 pm, on the evening of 11 May 1812, Perceval was on his way to attend the inquiry into the Orders in Council. As he entered the lobby of the House of Commons, a man stepped forward, drew a pistol and shot him in the chest. Perceval fell to the floor, after uttering something that was variously heard as "murder" and "oh my God". They were his last words. By the time he had been carried into an adjoining room and propped up on a table with his feet on two chairs, he was senseless, although there was still a faint pulse. When a surgeon arrived a few minutes later, the pulse had stopped, and Perceval was declared dead.
At first it was feared that the shot might signal the start of an uprising, but it soon became apparent that the assassin – who had made no attempt to escape – was a man with an obsessive grievance against the Government and had acted alone. The assassin, John Bellingham, was a merchant who believed he had been unjustly imprisoned in Russia and was entitled to compensation from the government, but all his petitions had been rejected. Perceval's body was laid on a sofa in the speaker's drawing room and removed to Number 10 in the early hours of 12 May. That same morning an inquest was held at the Cat and Bagpipes public house on the corner of Downing Street and a verdict of wilful murder was returned.
Perceval left a widow and twelve children aged between three and twenty, and there were soon rumours that he had not left them well provided for. He had just £106 5s 1d in the bank when he died. A few days after his death, Parliament voted to settle £50,000 on Perceval's children, with additional annuities for his widow and eldest son. Jane Perceval married Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Henry Carr, brother of the Reverend Robert James Carr, then Vicar of Brighton, in 1815 and was widowed again six years later. She died aged 74 in 1844.
Perceval was buried on 16 May 1812 in the Egmont vault at St Luke's Church, Charlton, London. At his widow's request, it was a private funeral. Lord Eldon, Lord Liverpool, Lord Harrowby and Richard Ryder were the pall-bearers. The previous day, Bellingham had been tried, and, refusing to enter a plea of insanity, was found guilty. He was hanged on 18 May.
Legacy
Perceval was a small, slight, and very pale man, who usually dressed in black. Lord Eldon called him "Little P". He never sat for a full-sized portrait; likenesses are either miniatures or are based on a death mask by Joseph Nollekens. Perceval was the last British prime minister to wear a powdered wig tied in a queue, and knee-breeches according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century. He is sometimes referred to as one of Britain's forgotten prime ministers, remembered only for the manner of his death. Although not considered an inspirational leader, he is generally seen as a devout, industrious, principled man who at the head of a weak government steered the country through difficult times. A contemporary MP Henry Grattan, used a naval analogy to describe Perceval: "He is not a ship-of-the-line, but he carries many guns, is tight-built and is out in all weathers". Perceval's modern biographer, Denis Gray, described him as "a herald of the Victorians".
Perceval was mourned by many; Lord Chief Justice Sir James Mansfield wept during his summing up to the jury at Bellingham's trial. However, in some quarters he was unpopular and in Nottingham the crowds that gathered following his assassination were in a more cheerful mood. Public monuments to Perceval were erected in Northampton, Lincoln's Inn and Westminster Abbey. Four biographies have been published: a book on his life and administration by Charles Verulam Williams, which appeared soon after his death; his grandson Spencer Walpole's biography in 1894; Philip Treherne's short biography in 1909; Denis Gray's 500-page political biography in 1963. In addition, there are three books about his assassination, one by Mollie Gillen, one by David Hanrahan, and the latest by Andro Linklater entitled Why Spencer Perceval Had to Die.
Perceval's assassination inspired poems such as Universal sympathy on the martyr'd statesman (1812):
One of Perceval's most noted critics, especially on the question of Catholic emancipation, was the cleric Sydney Smith. In Peter Plymley's Letters Smith writes:
If I lived at Hampstead upon stewed meats and claret; if I walked to church every Sunday before eleven young gentlemen of my own begetting, with their faces washed, and their hair pleasingly combed; if the Almighty had blessed me with every earthly comfort–how awfully would I pause before I sent forth the flame and the sword over the cabins of the poor, brave, generous, open-hearted peasants of Ireland!
American historian Henry Adams suggested that it was this picture of Perceval that stayed in the minds of Liberals for a whole generation.
In July 2014, a memorial plaque was unveiled in St Stephen's Hall of the Houses of Parliament, close to where he was killed. The plaque had been proposed by Michael Ellis, Conservative MP for Northampton North (parts of which Perceval once represented).
In streets in Northampton and Northamptonshire his name is memorialised as it is by the main streets set back behind two sides of Northampton Square, London: Spencer and Percival Streets.
Family
Spencer and Jane Perceval had thirteen children, of whom twelve survived to adulthood. Four of the daughters never married, and lived together all their lives. During their mother's life, they lived with her in Elm Grove, Ealing; after her death, the sisters moved to nearby Pitzhanger Manor House, while their brother Spencer took over Elm Grove. Cousin marriage was common: the remaining two daughters and two of the sons took this path.
Jane (1791–1824) married her cousin Edward Perceval, son of Lord Arden, in 1821 and lived in Felpham, Sussex. She died three years after marrying, apparently in childbirth.
Frances (1792–1877) lived with three unmarried sisters.
Maria (1794–1877) lived with her three unmarried sisters.
Spencer (1795–1859) was, like his father, educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. After Perceval's assassination, Spencer junior was voted an annuity of £1000 (), free legal training at Lincoln's Inn and a tellership of the Exchequer, all of which left him financially secure. He became a Member of Parliament at the age of 22 and in 1821 married Anna, a daughter of the chief of the clan Macleod, with whom he had eleven children. He joined the Catholic Apostolic Church and was created an apostle in 1833. He served as a metropolitan lunacy commissioner.
Charles (born and died 1796)
Frederick James (1797–1861) was the only one of Perceval's sons not to go to Harrow. Due to his fragile health he was sent to school at Rottingdean. He married for the first time in 1827, spent some time in Ghent, Belgium, was a director of the Clerical, Medical and General Life Assurance Society and a justice of the peace for Middlesex and for Kent, but generally led a quiet and retired life. Widowed in 1843, he married for the second time the following year. A grandson, Frederick Joseph Trevelyan Perceval, who was a Canadian rancher, became the 10th de jure Earl of Egmont (he did not claim the title) and was the father of the 11th earl.
Rev. Henry (1799–1885) was educated at Harrow, where he was the only Perceval to become head of school. He went to Brasenose College, Oxford. In 1826 he married his cousin Catherine Drummond. For 46 years Henry was the rector of Elmley Lovett in Worcestershire.
Dudley Montague (1800–1856) was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford. Like his brother Spencer, he was given free legal training at Lincoln's Inn but was not called to the bar. He spent two years as an administrator at the Cape of Good Hope, where he married a daughter of Gen. Sir Richard Bourke, future Governor of New South Wales, in 1827. Back in England he obtained a treasury post and defended his father's reputation after it was attacked in Napier's history of the Peninsular War. In 1853 he stood unsuccessfully against William Gladstone in the election for an MP to represent Oxford University.
Isabella (1801–1886) married her cousin Spencer Horatio Walpole in 1835 and was the only one of Perceval's daughters to have children. Her husband was a lawyer who became an MP in 1846 and served as Home Secretary. They lived in the Hall on Ealing Green, next-door to Isabella's four unmarried sisters.
John Thomas (1803–1876) was educated at Harrow. After a three-year career as an officer in the Grenadier Guards and a term at Oxford University, he spent three years in asylums and became a campaigner for reform of the Lunacy Laws. In 1832, just after his release from an asylum, he married a cheesemonger's daughter.
Louisa (1804–1891) lived with her three unmarried sisters.
Frederica (1805–1900) lived with her three unmarried sisters. In her will she left money to build All Saints Church, Ealing, in memory of her father (he was born on All Saints Day). It is also known as the Spencer Perceval Memorial Church.
Ernest Augustus (1807–1896) was educated at Harrow. He spent nine years in the 15th Hussars, seven of them as a captain. In 1830, he married his cousin Beatrice Trevelyan, daughter of Sir John Trevelyan, 5th Baronet. The couple settled in Somerset and raised a large family, including antiquary Spencer George Perceval. Ernest served as private secretary to the Home Office on three occasions.
Arms
Cabinet of Spencer Perceval
See also
Earl of Egmont
Notes
References
Further reading
Fulford, Roger. "Spencer Perceval" History Today (Feb 1952) 2#2 pp 95–100.
Gray, Denis. Spencer Perceval (Manchester University Press, 1963), full scholarly biography
Knight, Roger. Britain against Napoleon: The Organization of Victory, 1793-1815 (Penguin UK, 2013).
Pentland, Gordon. "'Now the great Man in the Parliament House is dead, we shall have a big Loaf!' Responses to the Assassination of Spencer Perceval." Journal of British Studies 51.2 (2012): 340-363 online.
External links
Spencer Perceval, the assassinated prime minister that history forgot in The Guardian
Spencer Perceval on the Downing Street website
Articles about Spencer Perceval on the website of All Saints Church, Ealing
Spencer Perceval's assassination at the National Archives
Spencer Perceval's assassination in the Parliamentary Archives
Spencer Perceval's memorial in Westminster Abbey
A short article about Spencer Perceval and Ealing in the Ealing Civic Society newsletter
Family of the Earls of Egmont at Cracroft's Peerage
Spencer Perceval in the Parliamentary Archives
Parliamentary Archives, Papers relating to Spencer Perceval (1762-1812)
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232876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention%20of%20Peking | Convention of Peking | The Convention of Peking or First Convention of Peking is an agreement comprising three distinct treaties concluded between the Qing dynasty of China and Great Britain, France, and the Russian Empire in 1860. In China, they are regarded as among the unequal treaties. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China keeps the original copy of the convention in the National Palace Museum in Taiwan.
Background
On 18 October 1860, at the culmination of the Second Opium War, the British and French troops entered the Forbidden City in Beijing. Following the decisive defeat of the Chinese, Prince Gong was compelled to sign two treaties on behalf of the Qing government with Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, who represented Britain and France respectively. Although Russia had not been a belligerent, Prince Gong also signed a treaty with Nikolay Ignatyev.
The original plan was to burn down the Forbidden City as punishment for the mistreatment of Anglo-French prisoners by Qing officials. Because doing so would jeopardize the treaty signing, the plan shifted to burning the Old Summer Palace and Summer Palace instead. The treaties with France and Britain were signed in the Ministry of Rites building immediately south of the Forbidden City on 24 October 1860.
Terms
In the convention, the Xianfeng Emperor ratified the Treaty of Tientsin (1858).
The area known as Kowloon was originally leased in March 1860. The Convention of Peking ended the lease, and ceded the land formally to the British on 24 October 1860.
Article 6 of the Convention between China and the United Kingdom stipulated that China was to cede the part of Kowloon Peninsula south of present-day Boundary Street, Kowloon, and Hong Kong (including Stonecutters Island) in perpetuity to Britain.
Article 6 of the Convention between China and France stipulated that "the religious and charitable establishments which were confiscated from Christians during the persecutions of which they were victims shall be returned to their owners through the French Minister in China".
Manchuria
The treaty also ceded parts of Outer Manchuria to the Russian Empire. It granted Russia the right to the Ussuri krai, a part of the modern day Primorye, the territory that corresponded with the ancient Manchu province of East Tartary. See Treaty of Aigun (1858), Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) and Sino-Russian border conflicts.
In addition to ceding territory that had been ruled by the Qing dynasty, the treaty also ceded territory under Korean jurisdiction, notably the island (by that time and currently a peninsula at the southernmost end of Primorsky Krai) of Noktundo. This was not known to the Koreans until the 1880s (20 or so years after the signing of the treaty, to which Korea was not a party), at which point it became a matter of official protest as the Koreans asserted that the Qing had no authority to cede Noktundo to Russia.
Aftermath
Kowloon
The governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong in 1984, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island, ceded under the Treaty of Nanking (1842), and Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street), was to be transferred to the PRC on 1 July 1997.
Noktundo
The status of Noktundo, which had been under Korean jurisdiction from the turn of the 17th century but was (unbeknownst to the Koreans until the 1880s) ceded to Russia in the treaty, remains formally unresolved, as only one of two Korean jurisdictions/governments have accepted a border agreement with Russia. North Korea and the USSR signed a border treaty in 1985 officially certifying the Russian-North Korean border as running through the center of the Tumen River which left the now-peninsula of Noktundo on the Russian side of the border. This agreement is not recognized by South Korea, which has since demanded Noktundo's return to Korean jurisdiction (ostensibly this would be North Korean jurisdiction, with the expectation of unified Korean control after an eventual Korean reunification).
See also
Second Convention of Peking
History of Hong Kong
Western imperialism in Asia
References
Further reading
Cole, Herbert M. "Origins of the French Protectorate over Catholic Missions in China." American Journal of International Law 34.3 (1940): 473–491.
External links
A timeline of the history of Hong Kong from 1840 to 1999
Full text of the Convention of Peking between China and the United Kingdom
Full text of the Convention of Peking between China and France
Full text of the Convention of Peking between China and Russia
19th century in the Russian Empire
History of Manchuria
Peking
Peking
Kowloon
Peking
1860 in France
1860 in the United Kingdom
1860 in China
China–Russian Empire relations
Opium Wars
Boundary treaties
1860 treaties
Peking
Peking
Peking
China–France relations
China–United Kingdom relations
October 1860 events | [
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232877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidex | Humidex | The humidex (short for humidity index) is an index number used by Canadian meteorologists to describe how hot the weather feels to the average person, by combining the effect of heat and humidity. The term humidex was first coined in 1965. The humidex is a nominally dimensionless quantity (though generally recognized by the public as equivalent to the degree Celsius) based on the dew point.
Range of humidex: Scale of comfort:
20 to 29: Little to no discomfort
30 to 39: Some discomfort
40 to 45: Great discomfort; avoid exertion
Above 45: Dangerous; heat stroke quite possible
History
The current formula for determining the humidex was developed by J. M. Masterton and F. A. Richardson of Canada's Atmospheric Environment Service in 1979. Humidex differs from the heat index used in the United States in being derived from the dew point rather than the relative humidity, though both dew point and relative humidity (when used in conjunction with air temperature) are directly related to atmospheric moisture.
For a long time, the record humidex in Canada was set by Windsor, Ontario, which hit 52.1 on 20 June 1953, as reported by Environment Canada.
This value was beaten on 25 July 2007 when Carman, Manitoba, hit 52.6.
Computation formula
When the temperature is and the dew point is , the humidex is 34. If the temperature remains and the dew point rises to , the humidex rises to 42. The humidex is higher than the U.S. heat index at equal temperature and relative humidity.
The humidex formula is as follows:
where
H denotes the Humidex
Tair is the air temperature in °C
Tdew is the dewpoint temperature in °C
e = 2.71828
5417.7530 is a rounded constant based on the molecular weight of water, latent heat of evaporation, and the universal gas constant. The humidity adjustment approximately amounts to one Fahrenheit degree for every millibar by which the partial pressure of water in the atmosphere exceeds .
At the time the humidex was originally developed in 1965, Canada was still on the Fahrenheit scale, and thus the humidex was originally based on that. The 1979 reformulation, which added the factor, was largely to address metrication in Canada as the country switched to the Celsius scale.
Table
See also
Heat index (with temperature chart in both °F and °C)
AccuWeather RealFeel temperature
Thermal stress on humans
Wind chill
References
Atmospheric thermodynamics
1979 introductions
Climate of Canada
Meteorological indices | [
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232878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Jenkinson%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Liverpool | Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool | Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, (7 June 1770 – 4 December 1828) was a British Tory statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1812 to 1827. He held many important cabinet offices such as Foreign Secretary, Home Secretary and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. He was also a member of the House of Lords and served as leader.
As prime minister, Liverpool called for repressive measures at domestic level to maintain order after the Peterloo Massacre of 1819. He dealt smoothly with the Prince Regent when King George III was incapacitated. He also steered the country through the period of radicalism and unrest that followed the Napoleonic Wars. He favoured commercial and manufacturing interests as well as the landed interest. He sought a compromise of the heated issue of Catholic emancipation. The revival of the economy strengthened his political position. By the 1820s he was the leader of a reform faction of "Liberal Tories" who lowered the tariff, abolished the death penalty for many offences, and reformed the criminal law. By the time of his death, however, the Tory party, which had dominated the House of Commons for over 40 years, was ripping itself apart.
Derry says he was:
Important events during his tenure as prime minister included the War of 1812 with the United States, the Sixth and Seventh Coalitions against the French Empire, the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars at the Congress of Vienna, the Corn Laws, the Peterloo Massacre, the Trinitarian Act 1812 and the emerging issue of Catholic emancipation. Scholars rank him highly among all British prime ministers, but he was also called "the Arch-mediocrity" by a later Conservative prime minister the Earl of Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli).
Early life
Jenkinson was baptised on 29 June 1770 at St. Margaret's, Westminster, the son of George III's close adviser Charles Jenkinson, later the first Earl of Liverpool, and his first wife, Amelia Watts. Jenkinson's 19-year-old mother, who was the daughter of a senior East India Company official, William Watts, and of his wife Begum Johnson, died from the effects of childbirth one month after his birth. Through his mother's grandmother, Isabella Beizor, Jenkinson was descended from Portuguese settlers in India; he may also have been one-sixteenth Indian in ancestry.
Jenkinson was educated at Charterhouse School and Christ Church, Oxford. In the summer of 1789, Jenkinson spent four months in Paris to perfect his French and enlarge his social experience. He returned to Oxford for three months to complete his terms of residence, and in May 1790 was created Master of Arts.
In 1797, the then Lord Hawkesbury was the cavalry commander of the Cinque Ports Light Dragoons who ran amok following a protest against the Militia Act at Tranent in East Lothian; twelve civilians were killed. Author James Miller wrote in 1844 that "His lordship was blamed for remaining at Haddington, as his presence might have prevented the outrages of the soldiery."
Jenkinson was appointed a Colonel of militia in 1810.
Early Career (1790-1812)
Member of Parliament
He won election to the House of Commons in 1790 for Rye, a seat he would hold until 1803; at the time, however, he was below the age of assent to Parliament, so he refrained from taking his seat and spent the following winter and early spring in an extended tour of the continent. This tour took in the Netherlands and Italy; at its conclusion he was old enough to take his seat in Parliament. It is not clear exactly when he entered the Commons, but as his twenty-first birthday was not reached until almost the end of the 1791 session, it is possible that he waited until the following year.
House of Commons
With the help of his father's influence and his political talent, he rose relatively fast in the Tory government. In February 1792, he gave the reply to Samuel Whitbread's critical motion on the government's Russian policy. He delivered several other speeches during the session, including one against the abolition of the slave trade, which reflected his father's strong opposition to William Wilberforce's campaign. He served as a member of the Board of Control for India from 1793 to 1796.
In the defence movement that followed the outbreak of hostilities with France, Jenkinson, was one of the first of the ministers of the government to enlist in the militia. He became a Colonel in the Cinque Ports Fencibles in 1794, and his military duties led to frequent absences from the Commons. His regiment was sent to Scotland in 1796, and he was quartered for a time in Dumfries.
His parliamentary attendance also suffered from his reaction when his father angrily opposed his projected marriage with Lady Louisa Hervey, daughter of the Earl of Bristol. After Pitt and the King had intervened on his behalf, the wedding finally took place at Wimbledon on 25 March 1795. In May 1796, when his father was created Earl of Liverpool, he took the courtesy title of Lord Hawkesbury and remained in the Commons. He became Baron Hawkesbury in his own right and was elevated to the House of Lords in November 1803, as recognition of his work as Foreign Secretary. He also served as Master of the Mint (1799–1801).
Cabinet
Foreign Secretary
In Henry Addington's government, he entered the cabinet in 1801 as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, in which capacity he negotiated the Treaty of Amiens with France. Most of his time as Foreign secretary was spent dealing with the nations of France and the United States. He continued to serve in the cabinet as Home Secretary in Pitt the Younger's second government. While Pitt was seriously ill, Liverpool was in charge of the cabinet and drew up the King's Speech for the official opening of Parliament. When William Pitt died in 1806, the King asked Liverpool to accept the post of Prime Minister, but he refused, as he believed he lacked a governing majority. He was then made leader of the Opposition during Lord Grenville's ministry (the only time that Liverpool did not hold government office between 1793 and after his retirement). In 1807, he resumed office as Home Secretary in the Duke of Portland's ministry.
War Secretary
Lord Liverpool (as Hawkesbury had now become by the death of his father in December 1808) accepted the position of Secretary of State for War and the Colonies in Spencer Perceval's government in 1809. Liverpool's first step on taking up his new post was to elicit from General Arthur Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington) a strong enough statement of his ability to resist a French attack to persuade the cabinet to commit themselves to the maintenance of his small force in Portugal.
Prime Minister (1812-1827)
When Perceval was assassinated in May 1812, George, the Prince Regent, successively tried to appoint four men to succeed him, but they were unable to form ministries; Liverpool, the Prince Regent's fifth choice for the post, reluctantly accepted office on 8 June 1812. The cabinet proposed Liverpool as his successor with Lord Castlereagh as leader in the Commons but after an adverse vote in the Lower House, they subsequently gave both their resignations. The Prince Regent, however, found it impossible to form a different coalition and confirmed Liverpool as prime minister on 8 June. Liverpool's government contained some of the future great leaders of Britain, such as Lord Castlereagh, George Canning, the Duke of Wellington, Robert Peel, and William Huskisson. Liverpool is considered a skilled politician, and held together the liberal and reactionary wings of the Tory party, which his successors, Canning, Goderich and Wellington, had great difficulty with.
War
Congress of Vienna
Liverpool's ministry was a long and eventful one. The War of 1812 with the United States and the final campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars were fought during Liverpool's premiership. It was during his ministry that the Peninsular Campaigns were fought by the Duke of Wellington. France was defeated in the Napoleonic Wars, and Liverpool was appointed to the Order of the Garter. At the peace negotiations that followed, Liverpool's main concern was to obtain a European settlement that would ensure the independence of the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal, and confine France inside its pre-war frontiers without damaging its national integrity. To achieve this, he was ready to return all British colonial conquests. Within this broad framework, he gave Castlereagh a discretion at the Congress of Vienna, the next most important event of his ministry. At the congress, he gave prompt approval for Castlereagh's bold initiative in making the defensive alliance with Austria and France in January 1815. In the aftermath of the defeat of Napoleon - who had briefly escaped exile and returned to rule France - at Waterloo in June that year, many years of peace followed.
The Corn Laws
Home trouble
Inevitably taxes rose to compensate for borrowing and to pay off the national debt, which led to widespread disturbance between 1812 and 1822. Around this time, the group known as Luddites began industrial action, by smashing industrial machines developed for use in the textile industries of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire. Throughout the period 1811–1816, there were a series of incidents of machine-breaking and many of those convicted faced execution.
Agriculture remained a problem because good harvests between 1819 and 1822 had brought down prices and evoked a cry for greater protection. When the powerful agricultural lobby in Parliament demanded protection in the aftermath, Liverpool gave in to political necessity. Under governmental supervision the notorious Corn Laws of 1815 were passed prohibiting the import of foreign wheat until the domestic price reached a minimum accepted level. Liverpool, however, was in principle a free-trader, but had to accept the bill as a temporary measure to ease the transition to peacetime conditions. His chief economic problem during his time as Prime Minister was that of the nation's finances. The interest on the national debt, massively swollen by the enormous expenditure of the final war years, together with the war pensions, absorbed the greater part of normal government revenue. The refusal of the House of Commons in 1816 to continue the wartime income tax left ministers with no immediate alternative but to go on with the ruinous system of borrowing to meet necessary annual expenditure. Liverpool eventually facilitated a return to the gold standard in 1819.
Lord Liverpool argued for the abolition of the wider slave trade at the Congress of Vienna, and at home he supported the repeal of the Combination Laws banning workers from combining into trade unions in 1824. In the latter year the newly formed Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck, later the RNLI, obtained Lord Liverpool as its first president.
Assassination Attempt
The reports of the secret committees he obtained in 1817 pointed to the existence of an organised network of disaffected political societies, especially in the manufacturing areas. Liverpool told Peel that the disaffection in the country seemed even worse than in 1794. Because of a largely perceived threat to the government, temporary legislation was introduced. He suspended Habeas Corpus in both Great Britain (1817) and Ireland (1822). Following the Peterloo massacre in 1819, his government imposed the repressive Six Acts legislation which limited, among other things, free speech and the right to gather for peaceful demonstration. In 1820, as a result of these measures, Liverpool and other cabinet ministers were targeted for assassination. They escaped harm when the Cato Street conspiracy was foiled.
Catholic emancipation
During the 19th century, and, in particular, during Liverpool's time in office, Catholic emancipation was a source of great conflict. In 1805, in his first important statement of his views on the subject, Liverpool had argued that the special relationship of the monarch with the Church of England, and the refusal of Roman Catholics to take the oath of supremacy, justified their exclusion from political power. Throughout his career, he remained opposed to the idea of Catholic emancipation, though he did see marginal concessions as important to the stability of the nation.
The decision of 1812 to remove the issue from collective cabinet policy, followed in 1813 by the defeat of Grattan's Roman Catholic Relief Bill, brought a period of calm. Liverpool supported marginal concessions such as the admittance of English Roman Catholics to the higher ranks of the armed forces, the magistracy, and the parliamentary franchise; but he remained opposed to their participation in parliament itself. In the 1820s, pressure from the liberal wing of the Commons and the rise of the Catholic Association in Ireland revived the controversy.
By the date of Sir Francis Burdett's Catholic Relief Bill in 1825, emancipation looked a likely success. Indeed, the success of the bill in the Commons in April, followed by Robert Peel's tender of resignation, finally persuaded Liverpool that he should retire. When Canning made a formal proposal that the cabinet should back the bill, Liverpool was convinced that his administration had come to its end. George Canning then succeeded him as Prime Minister. Catholic emancipation however was not fully implemented until the major changes of the Catholic Relief Act of 1829 under the leadership of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, and with the work of the Catholic Association established in 1823.
Retirement and death
Liverpool's first wife, Louisa, died at 54. He soon married again, on 24 September 1822, to Lady Mary Chester, a long-time friend of Louisa. Liverpool finally retired on 9 April 1827 after suffering a severe cerebral hemorrhage at his Fife House residence in Whitehall two months earlier, and asked the King to seek a successor. He suffered another minor stroke in July, after which he lingered on at Coombe until a third attack on 4 December 1828 from which he died. Having died childless, he was succeeded as Earl of Liverpool by his younger half-brother Charles. He was buried in Hawkesbury parish church, Gloucestershire, beside his father and his first wife. His personal estate was registered at under £120,000.
Legacy
Historian R. W. Seton-Watson sums up Liverpool's strengths and weaknesses:
Liverpool was the first British Prime Minister to regularly wear long trousers instead of knee breeches. He entered office at the age of 42 years and one day, making him younger than all of his successors. Liverpool served as Prime Minister for a total of 14 years and 305 days, making him the longest-serving Prime Minister of the 19th century. As of 2022, none of Liverpool's successors have served longer.
In London, Liverpool Street and Liverpool Road, Islington, are named after Lord Liverpool. The Canadian town of Hawkesbury, Ontario, the Hawkesbury River and the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia, Liverpool, New South Wales, and the Liverpool River in the Northern Territory of Australia were also named after Lord Liverpool.
Lord Liverpool, as Prime Minister to whose government Nathan Mayer Rothschild was a lender, was portrayed by American actor Gilbert Emery in the 1934 movie, The House of Rothschild.
Lord Liverpool's ministry (1812–1827)
Lord Liverpool – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Lords
Lord Eldon – Lord Chancellor
Lord Harrowby – Lord President of the Council
Lord Westmorland – Lord Privy Seal
Lord Sidmouth – Secretary of State for the Home Department
Lord Castlereagh (Lord Londonderry after 1821) – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Commons
Lord Bathurst – Secretary of State for War and the Colonies
Lord Melville – First Lord of the Admiralty
Nicholas Vansittart – Chancellor of the Exchequer
Lord Mulgrave – Master-General of the Ordnance
Lord Buckinghamshire – President of the Board of Control
Charles Bathurst – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
Lord Camden – minister without portfolio
Changes
Late 1812 – Lord Camden leaves the Cabinet
September 1814 – William Wellesley-Pole (Lord Maryborough from 1821), the Master of the Mint, enters the Cabinet
February 1816 – George Canning succeeds Lord Buckinghamshire at the Board of Control
January 1818 – F. J. Robinson, the President of the Board of Trade, enters the Cabinet
January 1819 – The Duke of Wellington succeeds Lord Mulgrave as Master-General of the Ordnance. Lord Mulgrave becomes minister without portfolio
1820 – Lord Mulgrave leaves the cabinet
January 1821 – Charles Bathurst succeeds Canning as President of the Board of Control, remaining also at the Duchy of Lancaster
January 1822 – Robert Peel succeeds Lord Sidmouth as Home Secretary
February 1822 – Charles Williams-Wynn succeeds Charles Bathurst at the Board of Control. Bathurst remains at the Duchy of Lancaster and in the Cabinet
September 1822 – Following the suicide of Lord Londonderry, George Canning becomes Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons
January 1823 – Vansittart, elevated to the peerage as Lord Bexley, succeeds Charles Bathurst as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. F. J. Robinson succeeds Vansittart as Chancellor of the Exchequer. He is succeeded at the Board of Trade by William Huskisson
1823 – Lord Maryborough, the Master of the Mint, leaves the Cabinet. His successor in the office is not a Cabinet member
References
Further reading
This contains an assessment of his character and achievements.
Cookson, J. E. Lord Liverpool's administration: the crucial years, 1815–1822 (1975)
Gash, Norman. Lord Liverpool: The Life and Political Career of Robert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl of Liverpool 1770–1828 (London 1984)
Gash, Norman. "Jenkinson, Robert Banks, second earl of Liverpool (1770–1828)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004); online ed. 2008 accessed 20 June 2014 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14740
Gash, Norman. "Lord Liverpool: a private view," History Today (1980) 30#5 pp 35–40
Hay, William Anthony. Lord Liverpool : a political life (Woodbridge, The Boydell Press, 2018).
Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People? England 1783–1846 (New Oxford History of England) (2006) scholarly survey
Hilton, Boyd. "The Political Arts of Lord Liverpool." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (Fifth Series) 38 (1988): 147–170. online
Hutchinson, Martin. Britain's Greatest Prime Minister: Lord Liverpool (Cambridge, The Lutterworth Press, 2020).
Petrie, C. Lord Liverpool and His Times (London, 1954)
Plowright, John. Regency England: The Age of Lord Liverpool (Routledge, 2006)
Sack, James J. The Grenvillites, 1801–29: Party Politics and Factionalism in the Age of Pitt and Liverpool (1991)
Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe (1789–1914): A Survey of Foreign Policy (1937) online free
External links
Earl of Liverpool Prime Minister's Office
"Earl of Liverpool" by Prime Minister's Office
1770 births
1828 deaths
19th-century prime ministers of the United Kingdom
19th-century heads of government
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
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Jenkinson, Robert Banks
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Leaders of the House of Lords | [
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232879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.%20J.%20Robinson%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Goderich | F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich | Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon, (1 November 1782 – 28 January 1859), styled The Honourable F. J. Robinson until 1827 and known between 1827 and 1833 as The Viscount Goderich (pronounced ), the name by which he is best known to history, was a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1827 to 1828.
A member of the rural landowning aristocracy, Robinson entered politics through family connections. In the House of Commons, he rose through junior ministerial ranks, achieving cabinet office in 1818 as President of the Board of Trade. In 1823, he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer, a post he held for four years. In 1827, he was raised to the peerage, and in the House of Lords was Leader of the House and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies.
When the Prime Minister, George Canning, died in 1827, Goderich succeeded him, but was unable to hold together Canning's fragile coalition of moderate Tories and Whigs. He resigned after 144 days in office, the shortest in history for any British prime minister who did not die in office.
After leaving the premiership Goderich served in the cabinets of two of his successors, the Earl Grey and Sir Robert Peel.
Life and career
Early years
Robinson was born at Newby Hall, Yorkshire, the second son of Thomas Robinson, 2nd Baron Grantham by his wife Lady Mary Yorke, a daughter of Philip Yorke, 2nd Earl of Hardwicke. He was educated at a preparatory school at Sunbury-on-Thames, then attended Harrow School from 1796 to 1799, followed by St John's College, Cambridge from 1799 to 1802. William Pitt the Younger was Member of Parliament for Cambridge University, to which, as The Times said, "accordingly most of the budding Tory statesmen of the day resorted". Robinson was an accomplished classicist, winning Sir William Browne's Medal for the best Latin ode in 1801. After graduating in 1802 he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn. He remained a member there until 1809, but did not pursue a legal career and was not called to the bar.
Against the background of the Napoleonic Wars Robinson did part-time military service at home as Captain (1803), ultimately Major (1814–1817) in the Northern Regiment of West Riding Yeomanry.
First political appointments
Robinson entered politics through a family connection. His mother's cousin, the third Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, appointed him as his private secretary in 1804. Two years later Hardwicke secured for him the parliamentary seat of Carlow, a pocket borough near Dublin. In 1807 Robinson gave up the seat and was elected as MP for Ripon, close to his family home in Yorkshire.
In his first years in Parliament Robinson declined offers of junior ministerial posts, out of deference to his patron Hardwicke, who was an opponent of the Prime Minister, the Duke of Portland. However, the Foreign Secretary, George Canning, chose him as the secretary of Lord Pembroke's mission to Vienna, aimed at securing a new treaty of alliance between Britain and Austria. The mission was unsuccessful, but Robinson's reputation was not damaged, and, as his biographer E Royston Pike puts it, "as a good Tory [he was] given several small appointments in successive ministries." His political thinking was greatly influenced by Canning, but he became the protégé of Canning's rival Lord Castlereagh, who appointed him his under-secretary at the War Office in May 1809. When Castlereagh resigned from the government in October, unwilling to serve under the new Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval, Robinson resigned with him. In June 1810 he accepted office as a member of the Admiralty board. At the time of Perceval's assassination early in 1812, he was absent from parliament ostensibly on militia duties in Yorkshire.
He was made a Privy Counsellor in August 1812,
In 1814 Robinson married Lady Sarah Albinia Louisa Hobart (1793–1867), daughter of the 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire, and first cousin to Castlereagh's wife. There were three children of the marriage, only one of whom survived to adulthood:
Hobart Frederick Robinson (September 1816)
Eleanor Henrietta Robinson (31 October 1826)
George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon (24 October 1827 – 9 July 1909)
Robinson served under Lord Liverpool as Vice-President of the Board of Trade between 1812 and 1818, and as joint-Paymaster of the Forces between 1813 and 1817, from which position he sponsored the Corn Laws of 1815. Robinson's Corn Importation Bill, successfully presented to Parliament in February 1815, was a protectionist measure, imposing minimum prices for imported wheat and other grains. The historian Gregor Dallas writes:
The Corn Laws made the price of wheat artificially high, to the benefit of the landed classes and the detriment of the working classes. While the Bill was going through Parliament Robinson's London house in Old Burlington Street was frequently attacked by angry citizens; in one such attack the railings outside the house were ripped out, the front door smashed open, paintings ripped, and furniture thrown out of the window. In another attack two people were shot, one of them fatally. Describing the incident to the House of Commons Robinson was moved to tears, showing, as the biographer P J Jupp put it, "a propensity under stress which was to earn him the first of several nicknames, in this case the Blubberer".
Cabinet minister
In 1818 Robinson entered the cabinet as President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy, under the premiership of Lord Liverpool. In 1823 he succeeded Nicholas Vansittart as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The historian Richard Helmstadter writes:
Robinson served as Chancellor for four years, and was regarded as a success in the post. The public finances were in good order, with a revenue surplus for the first three years of his chancellorship. He cut taxes and made grants to house the Royal Library in the British Museum and to buy the Angerstein Collection for the National Gallery. Jupp writes, "These achievements, together with his support for Catholic relief and the abolition of slavery, led to his being regarded as one of the most liberal members of the government and to two more nicknames – 'Prosperity Robinson' and 'Goody'." Robinson's last year at the Treasury was overshadowed by a run on the banks, caused by the collapse of the City of London bankers Pole Thornton and Co. Robinson was not blamed for the collapse, but his measures to mitigate the crisis were widely seen as half-hearted.
Under strain from the financial crisis, Robinson asked Liverpool for a change of post. In January 1827 he was given a peerage as Viscount Goderich, but Liverpool had no time to reshuffle his cabinet, being taken ill in February 1827 and resigning the premiership. He was succeeded by Canning, whose appointment caused a major realignment in the political factions of the day. The Tories split into four groups, distinguished by their view of Catholic Emancipation. Canning and his followers were liberal on the matter; Robinson belonged to a moderate group that was willing to support Canning; the faction led by the Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel opposed emancipation; and an ultra-Tory group resisted any kind of liberalising measure. To the anger of the King, George IV, who regarded it as a betrayal, Wellington and Peel refused to serve under Canning. With half the Tories ranged against him, Canning was obliged to seek support from the Whigs. Goderich, appointed by Canning as Leader of the House of Lords as well as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, found the upper house no less stressful than the Commons. He was the target for the anger of the anti-Canning Tories in the Lords, suffering many personal verbal assaults; when he attempted to get a new Corn Law enacted it was defeated by an alliance of peers led by Wellington.
Prime Minister
Canning's health had been declining since the beginning of 1827, and on 8 August he died. A prominent Whig commented, "God has declared against us. He is manifestly for the tories, and I fear the king also, which is much worse." The King, however, though he had long inclined to favour Tories over Whigs, was still angry at the refusal of Wellington and Peel to serve in Canning's cabinet. A widespread expectation (possibly shared by Wellington himself) that the King would send for Wellington was confounded. On the day of Canning's death Goderich and the Home Secretary, William Sturges Bourne, were summoned to Windsor Castle, where the King announced his intention of appointing Goderich to the premiership.
Goderich immediately encountered difficulty in balancing the conflicting demands of the King and the Whigs about the composition of his cabinet. George considered that the three ministerial posts held by Whigs were quite enough; the Whigs pressed hard for the inclusion of a fourth, Lord Holland, as Foreign Secretary. Goderich satisfied nobody with his inability to resolve matters. A leading Whig, George Tierney, spoke of his party's dissatisfaction with Goderich: "[T]hey think Goderich has behaved so ill in this affair that they can have no confidence in him. They believe so much in the integrity of his character that they do not suspect him of any duplicity in what has passed, but his conduct has been marked by such deplorable weakness as shows how unfit he is for the situation he occupies." There was further discontent in the coalition cabinet at Goderich's vacillation over the appointment of a Chancellor of the Exchequer, once again caught between the demands of the King and those of his Whig allies. Within a month, William Huskisson, a Tory colleague, was writing of Goderich: "The king has taken the exact measure of him, and openly says he must do all the duties of a premier himself, because Goderich has no nerves! I am using nearly his own words; and he has been acting, and still talks of acting up to this declaration." George's contempt for his Prime Minister was confirmed in his description of Goderich as "a damned, snivelling, blubbering blockhead."
In addition to the conflicting pressures from the King and the Whigs, Goderich had to cope with the mental problems from which his wife was suffering. In December Huskisson wrote:
Wellington was by now distancing himself from the Extreme-Tory wing of his party, and by January 1828 the King had concluded that the coalition could not continue and that a Tory ministry under Wellington would be preferable. Goderich had already written a letter of resignation to the King, but had not yet sent it, when he was summoned to Windsor. He described the disintegrating state of his administration; the King asked him to send for the Lord Chancellor, who was in turn bidden to summon Wellington to receive the King's commission to form a government. According to one account, Goderich was in tears during his interview with the King, who passed him a handkerchief, but within days Goderich was rejoicing in his release from office: "quite another man [who] sleeps at nights now, and laughs and talks as usual." His premiership had lasted 144 days, which was then, and remains, the second shortest in British history, three days longer than that of his immediate predecessor, Canning.
Goderich is 'the man with the hat' in the painting "The Staircase of the London Residence of the Painter" by the Dutch painter Pieter Christoffel Wonder. In 2014 a Dutch art student did research on the painting and discovered that it depicts the resignation of Prime Minister Frederick John Robinson in January 1828. The research can be found on the Academia.edu website.
Later cabinet posts
In 1830 Goderich moved over to the Whigs and joined Lord Grey's cabinet, as Colonial Secretary. Both on moral and on economic grounds he was strongly opposed to slavery throughout his career, and he worked hard in the 1830s for the emancipation of slaves throughout the British Empire. His work was continued by his successor as Colonial Secretary, Lord Stanley, whose abolitionist legislation Goderich piloted through the House of Lords.
In 1833 Goderich was created Earl of Ripon. He had not sought the advancement in the peerage, but wished to accept the King's offer of the Garter, for which, at that time, a viscountcy was considered an insufficient rank. He left the Colonial Office in the same year, and did not wish to hold any further office, but Grey insisted on his taking the senior non-departmental post of Lord Privy Seal. However, the next year Goderich and Stanley broke with the Whigs over what they saw as a threat to the established status of the Church of Ireland.
From 1841 to 1843 Ripon served in Peel's second administration as President of the Board of Trade, with the young W. E. Gladstone as his deputy. His final ministerial post was President of the Board of Control from 1843 to 1846. During his career, as Helmstadter observes, he had been, in succession, "a Pittite, a Tory, a Canningite, a Whig, a Stanleyite, a Conservative, and a Peelite. Between 1818 and 1846 he was a member of every government except Wellington's and Melbourne's."
Apart from his political career Goderich served as president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1830 to 1833, and of the Royal Society of Literature from 1834 to 1845. He died in January 1859, aged 76. He outlived 5 of his successors in the prime ministry.
Ripon died at Putney Heath, London, in January 1859, aged 76. He was succeeded by his only son, George who became a noted Liberal statesman and cabinet minister and was created Marquess of Ripon. The son was unique in being conceived at No 11 Downing Street, while Robinson was Chancellor of the Exchequer, and being born at No 10, when his father, now Goderich, was Prime Minister.
Goderich's government, September 1827 – January 1828
Lord Goderich – First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Lords
Lord Lyndhurst – Lord Chancellor
The Duke of Portland – Lord President of the Council
The Earl of Carlisle – Lord Privy Seal
The Marquess of Lansdowne – Secretary of State for the Home Department
The Earl of Dudley – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
William Huskisson – Secretary of State for War and the Colonies and Leader of the House of Commons
J. C. Herries – Chancellor of the Exchequer
The Marquess of Anglesey – Master-General of the Ordnance
Charles Grant – President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy
Charles Williams-Wynn – President of the Board of Control
William Sturges Bourne – First Commissioner of Woods and Forests
Lord Bexley – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
Viscount Palmerston – Secretary at War
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
External links
More about Frederick Robinson, Viscount Goderich on the 10 Downing Street website.
Paper by M. Oderwald: "The stairecase of the Londen residence of the painter".
|-
1782 births
1859 deaths
Goderich, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount
Goderich, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount
British Secretaries of State
Robinson, Frederick John
Ripon, Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of
Robinson, Frederick John
Paymasters of the Forces
Tory MPs (pre-1834)
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
Goderich, Federick
People from Ripon
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Earls of Ripon
Goderich, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount
Peers of the United Kingdom created by William IV
Younger sons of barons
Fellows of the Royal Society
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
Robinson, Frederick
UK MPs who were granted peerages
Goderich, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount
Frederick John
Goderich, F. J. Robinson, 1st Viscount
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Presidents of the Royal Society of Literature
Leaders of the House of Lords | [
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232883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20Demeter | Law of Demeter | The Law of Demeter (LoD) or principle of least knowledge is a design guideline for developing software, particularly object-oriented programs. In its general form, the LoD is a specific case of loose coupling. The guideline was proposed by Ian Holland at Northeastern University towards the end of 1987, and can be succinctly summarized in each of the following ways:
Each unit should have only limited knowledge about other units: only units "closely" related to the current unit.
Each unit should only talk to its friends; don't talk to strangers.
Only talk to your immediate friends.
The fundamental notion is that a given object should assume as little as possible about the structure or properties of anything else (including its subcomponents), in accordance with the principle of "information hiding". It may be viewed as a corollary to the principle of least privilege, which dictates that a module possess only the information and resources necessary for its legitimate purpose.
It is so named for its origin in the Demeter Project, an adaptive programming and aspect-oriented programming effort. The project was named in honor of Demeter, “distribution-mother” and the Greek goddess of agriculture, to signify a bottom-up philosophy of programming which is also embodied in the law itself.
History
The law dates back to 1987 when it was first proposed by Ian Holland, who was working on the Demeter Project. The Demeter Project was the birthplace of a lot of AOP (Aspect Oriented Programming) principles.
A quote in one of the remainders of the project seems to clarify the origins of the name:
In object-oriented programming
An object a can request a service (call a method) of an object instance b, but object a should not "reach through" object b to access yet another object, c, to request its services. Doing so would mean that object a implicitly requires greater knowledge of object b's internal structure.
Instead, b's interface should be modified if necessary so it can directly serve object a's request, propagating it to any relevant subcomponents. Alternatively, a might have a direct reference to object c and make the request directly to that. If the law is followed, only object b knows its own internal structure.
More formally, the Law of Demeter for functions requires that a method m of an object a may only invoke the methods of the following kinds of objects:
a itself;
m's parameters;
any objects instantiated within m;
a's attributes;
global variables accessible by a in the scope of m.
In particular, an object should avoid invoking methods of an object returned by another method. For many modern object oriented languages that use a dot as field identifier, the law can be stated simply as "use only one dot". That is, the code a.m().n() breaks the law where a.m() does not. As an analogy, when one wants a dog to walk, one does not command the dog's legs to walk directly; instead one commands the dog which then commands its own legs.
Advantages
The advantage of following the Law of Demeter is that the resulting software tends to be more maintainable and adaptable. Since objects are less dependent on the internal structure of other objects, object implementation can be changed without reworking their callers.
Basili et al. published experimental results in 1996 suggesting that a lower Response For a Class (RFC, the number of methods potentially invoked in response to calling a method of that class) can reduce the probability of software bugs. Following the Law of Demeter can result in a lower RFC. However, the results also suggest that an increase in Weighted Methods per Class (WMC, the number of methods defined in each class) can increase the probability of software bugs. Following the Law of Demeter can also result in a higher WMC.
A multilayered architecture can be considered to be a systematic mechanism for implementing the Law of Demeter in a software system.
In a layered architecture, code within each layer can only make calls to code within the layer and code within the next layer down.
"Layer skipping" would violate the layered architecture.
Disadvantages
Although the LoD increases the adaptiveness of a software system, it may result in having to write many wrapper methods to propagate calls to components; in some cases, this can add noticeable time and space overhead.
At the method level, the LoD leads to narrow interfaces, giving access to only as much information as it needs to do its job, as each method needs to know about a small set of methods of closely related objects. On the other hand, at the class level, if the LoD is not used correctly, wide (i.e. enlarged) interfaces may be developed that require introducing many auxiliary methods. This is due to poor design rather than a consequence of the LoD per se. If a wrapper method is being used, it means that the object being called through the wrapper should have been a dependency in the calling class.
One proposed solution to the problem of enlarged class interfaces is the aspect-oriented approach, where the behavior of the method is specified as an aspect at a high level of abstraction. The wide interfaces are managed through a language that specifies implementations. Both the traversal strategy and the adaptive visitor use only a minimal set of classes that participate in the operation, and the information about the connections between these classes is abstracted out.
See also
Single-responsibility principle
Principle of least astonishment
Facade pattern
References
Further reading
(from this book, "Law of Demeter" is also known as "Don't talk to strangers")
External links
Law of Demeter (LoD)
"Object-Oriented Programming: An Objective Sense of Style" (OOPSLA '88 Proceedings) (PDF)
The Paperboy, The Wallet,and The Law Of Demeter (PDF)
Phil Haack: "The Law of Demeter is not a Dot Counting Exercise"
Lieber: "Phil Holland's Law of Demeter"
"Adaptive Object-Oriented Software, The Demeter Method"
The Demeter Project —- What is Demeter?
Object-oriented programming
Programming principles | [
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232893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspector%20Gadget%20%281983%20TV%20series%29 | Inspector Gadget (1983 TV series) | Inspector Gadget is an animated science fiction comedy series from the mid–1980s co-created by Andy Heyward, Jean Chalopin and Bruno Bianchi, and was originally syndicated by DIC Audiovisuel and Lexington Broadcast Services Company. The series stars the voice of Don Adams as the titular character, and first premiered on September 12, 1983. It is the first cartoon show to be syndicated by DIC, who specifically created the series to help expand into the North American market, and the first animated series to be presented in stereo sound. The program originally ran from 1983 to 1986, broadcasting 86 episodes over two seasons, and remained in syndication into the late 1990s. The show revolves around the adventures of a clumsy, dim-witted detective named Inspector Gadgeta cyborg human with various bionic gadgets built into his bodywho is sent on missions to thwart plans by his nemesis Dr. Claw, the leader of an evil organization known as "M.A.D.", unknowingly being assisted by his niece Penny and their dog, Brain.
The TV series proved to be a success for DIC, not only launching the Inspector Gadget franchise, including additional animated productions, such as a 2015 sequel series, and two live-action films, but also encouraging the company to produce additional programs such as Heathcliff.
Since 2012, the rights to Inspector Gadget have been owned by WildBrain (previously DHX Media) through its in-name-only unit, Cookie Jar Entertainment. Cookie Jar had purchased DiC and its library of shows in 2008, and was itself acquired by DHX Media in 2012.
Premise
Inspector Gadget (Augustine Tamare), the titular character of the series, is a world-famous cyborg police inspector who works for a secret police organization that combats crime across the globe, with each of his missions focused on thwarting the criminal schemes of M.A.D. (which stands for "Mean And Dirty")a criminal organization led by the nefarious Dr. Claw, and conducted by his agents. Missions that he undertakes often occur in a foreign locale, or within the fictional city of Metro City. Despite the fact that Inspector Gadget is equipped with numerous gadgets to help him, including a personal vehicle that can morph between a family minivan to a compact police car, he is ultimately incompetent and clueless on each mission, often uses a gadget that he did not call for, and is sometimes prone to causing trouble inadvertently for those around him - an example of this is a running gag, inspired by the "self-destruct" message, in which Inspector Gadget is given briefing messages from his boss Chief Quimby, who primarily hands them to him while in disguise, only to have them unintentionally returned to him before they detonate.
In reality, the investigations are often conducted by Inspector Gadget's niece Penny, who secretly operates behind the scenes to thwart M.A.D.'s plot and ensure that her uncle remains out of harm's way, as Dr. Claw frequently instructs his agents to get rid of Inspector Gadget before he can stop them. Even though Inspector Gadget is incompetent, he always escapes danger due to luck, either from a misfired gadget, or from the secret assistance of the family dog Brain, who usually shadows him in disguise; on most occasions, his disguise often causes Inspector Gadget to chase him on the mistaken belief that he is a M.A.D. agent. While Penny remains in contact with Brain during her investigation, she is often placed in danger and either escapes by recalling Brain to help, or using her own technology. Despite the pair's involvement, both make it certain that Inspector Gadget is seen to have completed the mission in Quimby's opinion; in some cases, Inspector Gadget actually completes a mission, though usually through his own luck. Dr. Claw always vows revenge on Inspector Gadget for thwarting his schemes, and flees the scene on most occasions having been on site to oversee his plans.
Like many cartoons made in the 1980s, Inspector Gadget always ended each episode with a public service announcement advising how to handle a situation, such as the danger of dealing with strangers.
Characters
Inspector Gadget/Augustin Tamare (Inspecteur Gadget in French) is voiced by Don Adams. Despite being laden with many gadgets in his body, he is frequently clueless, bungles his cases and gets himself into danger, only escaping from trouble and completing his missions with luck. (In the earliest produced episodes, Gadget was halfway brilliant, deducing that Dr. Claw is nearby and even became infuriated when he lost his nemesis in a high-speed chase) A policeman by nature, he is a caring family man that often takes risks to protect his niece Penny and their dog Brain, and has a firm disbelief in the supernatural. His character often utters four catchphrases during episodes"Wowsers!", at times of shock and complete surprise; "Go-Go-Gadget", which is often spoken before Gadget names the gadget he intends to use; "Is that you, Chief? You're where?", uttered when Chief Quimby calls Gadget on his next assignment; and "I'm always on duty.", which is also said to Quimby before Gadget leaves for his assignment. He often introduces himself with, "My name is Inspector Gadget", and otherwise it is implied that "Inspector" is his actual first name (rather than a title) and "Gadget" his surname.
Penny (Sophie in French) Inspector Gadget's niece. She is the true "brains" behind Inspector Gadget's investigations, and the one responsible for foiling M.A.D.'s schemes, a fact only known to Brain. Her investigations are conducted in secret, in which she uses two pieces of technologya hi-tech computer disguised as a book; and a special utility wristwatch, which she frequently uses to communicate with Brain and monitor her uncle's activities with. Penny often gets kidnapped by M.A.D. when they catch her snooping into their affairs, but manages to escape with her technology or by calling on Brain for help. Penny's dependence on her computer book is often played for suspense: she will be separated from her book at a key moment and be unable to save the day until she reacquires it. When an investigation is nearing its completion, Penny frequently contacts her uncle's boss in secret to alert him to Gadget's "arrest" of the culprit in the scheme he is investigating. The writers of the series never elaborate on who Penny's parents are, nor revealed them in any of the episodes (hinting that she might be an orphan).
Brain (Finot in French) The family dog, assists in investigations by secretly keeping Gadget out of danger, and on several occasions coming to Penny's aid when she needs him. The series' writers designed the character to be highly intelligent and resourceful, often becoming bipedal in order to operate under a number of disguises aimed at fooling Gadget and/or the M.A.D. Agents. A running gag is that Gadget will typically befriend M.A.D. Agents and remain oblivious to their attempts to kill him, while exclusively perceiving Brain as a M.A.D. Agent he needs to arrest. Brain is outfitted with a hi-tech collar that conceals a retractable video communications system linked to Penny's wristwatch, in which he communicates to her through a mixture of pantomime and physical gestures. By Season 2, Brain was using this video link to 'talk' to Penny in dog-talk reminiscent of Scooby-Doo.
Chief Quimby (Chef Gontier in French) Inspector Gadget's short-tempered boss. The chief of police in Metro City, Quimby specialises in the use of disguises in order to pass on a message containing Inspector Gadget's briefing for his next message, a frequent plot element used at the beginning of each episode, as well as seeing him towards the end to congratulate him on a job well done, never realising that Inspector Gadget's niece is responsible for foiling Dr. Claw's plots or alerting him secretly to where he and the police need to be. As a running gag, Inspector Gadget is oblivious to the message's "self-destruct" element and returns it to his boss prior to it blowing up, always unintentionally and occasionally through sheer bad luck on Quimby's part. The character is frequently portrayed with a pipe in his mouth, is often on the receiving end of a mishap from Inspector Gadget's bumbling nature, and is accompanied by his own theme music during his main scene in the episode.
Doctor Claw (Docteur Gang in French) The leader of the evil M.A.D. organization. Dr. Claw often operates his schemes via a computer terminal, while accompanied by his pet cat M.A.D. Cat (a reference to James Bond villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld), usually either within a base that is often depicted as an old castle, or from within his personal craft the M.A.D. Mobilea black-and-red vehicle that can transform between a car, jet, and submersible, which he always escapes in when his latest scheme has failed whilst he is on location at or near where it is being conducted. Dr. Claw considers Inspector Gadget to be his greatest nemesis, despite being aware of his idiocy, but does know about Penny and Brain's involvement in his missions; however, both he and his M.A.D. agents presume they are simply under orders by Inspector Gadget to spy on their operations, and are never fully aware that they are the real brains behind his schemes being thwarted. The character always uses his catchphrase"I'll get you next time, Gadget! Next time!"at the end of each episode, often to illustrate his desire for revenge against Inspector Gadget. He is never seen, aside from his arms.
Corporal Capeman Inspector Gadget's sidekick, introduced in the second season, and voiced by Townsend Coleman. Capeman is a self-proclaimed superhero who acts in the manner of a stereotypical crime fighter, yet despite being more observant of details than the Inspector, he is equally as inept at interpreting them. Capeman dislikes Brain and is occasionally mean to him, despite Brain getting him out of trouble. Capeman is also obsessed with learning to fly and often mistakenly believes he has miraculously acquired the power of flight while in the midst of dire circumstances. Gadget almost always mispronounces Capeman's name as "Capman", while Penny calls him "Capey".
Conception
The series was created by Andy Heyward, Jean Chalopin, and Bruno Bianchi. The three developed the project for DIC Audiovisuel. The initial idea for Inspector Gadget came from Heyward, who also wrote the pilot episode with the help of Jean Chalopin in 1982 ("Winter Olympics", often syndicated as episode #65, "Gadget in Winterland"). Chalopin, who at the time owned the DIC Audiovisuel studio, helped develop the format and concept for the rest of the episodes together with Bruno Bianchi, who designed the main characters and served as supervising director. Part of the project's existence was to recoup costs incurred by DiC and TMS Entertainment when a planned collaboration, a spin-off of Lupin the Third called Lupin VIII, was cancelled due to financial disputes with the estate of Arsène Lupin creator Maurice Leblanc.
According to the DVD bonus film "Wowsers", a retrospective featurette with co-creators Andy Heyward and Mike Maliani on the four-disc DVD set Inspector Gadget: The Original Series, Gadget went through approximately 350 sketches before reaching his final design. Gadget's design also included a mustache in the pilot before it was dropped for the rest of the series, due to DiC being sued by MGM as the character looked too similar to Inspector Clouseau. A fourth version of the pilot was recorded where lines were added to explain the mustache away (Penny: "You know, uncle, I really like your new mustache." Inspector Gadget: "It's so that nobody will recognize me. I'm on vacation – absolutely, totally, and completely off-duty.").
Analysis
The titular character of the series, Inspector Gadget, is both a police inspector and a cyborg. Gadget is dressed in a Mackintosh raincoat and trilby hat. When he uses the phrase "go-go gadget", various "useful bionic gadgets" are activated and emerge from underneath his coat and hat. The gadgets are built into his body, and often malfunction. Inspector Gadget is a bionic man with enhancements attached to his body. The original television series gave no background for him. The spin-off television series Gadget Boy & Heather (1995-1998) gives an origin story for him. In this version, Gadget was conceived as a bionic child who has the mind of an adult detective. His bionic enhancements are creations of Myron Dabble, an inventor who lives in Switzerland. The various hidden appliances within Gadget render him a cyborg equivalent of a Swiss Army knife, a multi-tool. The enhancements were intended to grant him status as a "super sleuth". His body has been upgraded, but his intellect has received no equivalent enhancements. Inspector Gadget has access to many different weapons and gadgets, but seems to lack in intellect. He habitually blunders his way through cases, in a style similar to Inspector Clouseau. Terry Rowan describes Gadget as "clumsy" and "dimwitted". Despite his advanced equipment, Gadget is clueless and incompetent. He constantly faces obstacles and perils, but manages to survive by either his own good luck or covert help by Penny and Brain. The car which Inspector Gadget drives is a Matra Murena. Inspector Gadget's boss is Chief Quimby. Inspector Gadget is covertly assisted by his niece Penny, who is typically the person who actually solves their cases. Penny is a master of investigation and technology. Her main technological devices are a computer in the form of a book, and a wristwatch that is actually a device with multiple uses. She secretly monitors her uncle's activities and intervenes to help him. She foils the plans of M.A.D. Due to the secrecy of her activities, she never receives credit for them and only her dog is aware of them. Penny herself is assisted by her pet dog Brain. Brain has human-level intellect and is bipedal. Brain is often tasked with keeping Inspector Gadget safe and uses various disguises. The second season of the series also introduced an actual sidekick for Inspector Gadget, called Corporal Capeman. The main opponents to Gadget and his supporting cast are the members of the evil organization M.A.D. Gadget's archenemy is Dr. Claw, the leader of the organization. Dr. Claw serves mostly as an unseen character. Typically only his hands and arms are visible. His hands are covered by gauntlets. Dr. Claw is depicted sitting in front of a computer terminal, from where he monitors the developments of his various schemes. His headquarters are located at an old castle. Niall Richardson and Adam Locks, cultural studies scholars, cite Inspector Gadget as an example of the "physical cyborg" concept. These types of characters are part man, and part machine. The concept was popularized by cinema and television. The writers cite as other examples of this type Steve Austin, Darth Vader, Iron Man, and RoboCop.
In their published book You Might Be a Zombie and Other Bad News, the editors of Cracked.com interpret the series as implying serious problems for Penny. The parents of Penny never appear in the television series and are not even mentioned. The implication is that the parents have either disappeared or are deceased. Like many child characters from "classic cartoons", Penny is an orphan. Inspector Gadget is her legal guardian. While Penny is referred to as Gadget's "niece" and not as his ward, the editors question whether the two characters are biologically related. There is no resemblance in the physical features of Inspector Gadget and Penny. Penny also differs from Inspector Gadget in behavior and in her superior competence. A running gag of the series is how Inspector Gadget handles explosives. He disposes clearly-labeled explosive devices by "carelessly tossing" them away. The devices always end up exploding in proximity to Inspector Gadget's employer. The editors see Inspector Gadget as incapable of surviving on his own and point that his machinery tends to malfunction. A recurring situation in the series, is Inspector Gadget warning Penny not to follow him on a mission supposedly too dangerous for her. The editors view Penny as having no choice in actually ignoring the warnings. If she fails to ensure Inspector Gadget's survival, she will lose her legal guardian and end up in an orphanage.
According to the A Dictionary of Sociology, Inspector Gadget is a science fiction series. It is one of several works in this genre to be inspired by the concept of the cyborg, as defined in the 1960s by electronic engineers Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Kline. The term referred to organisms with cybernetic enhancements which would be capable of surviving in extraterrestrial environments. The idea was that advancements in engineering would enable human functions to be replaced with mechanical parts and computer-controlled systems. Clynes and Kline were not science fiction writers, but their concept inspired "much science fiction writing". Besides Inspector Gadget and its eponymous character, other examples cited in the dictionary include RoboCop, Steve Austin, Luke Skywalker, and the Borg. Animation historian David Perlmutter places the series in its historical content for American television animation. He considers the original Inspector Gadget television series to be the first production of DIC Entertainment intended for American television and the most famous creation of this production company. He states that the series set the company on the course that it would follow for the next three decades but he considers most of its subsequent series to be less successful.
Despite being an inspector, Gadget is depicted more as a "globe-trotting secret agent" than a detective. The series was action-oriented, but much of the action was intended to be comical. It managed to effectively blend elements of action fiction and comedy, in a manner that was unusual for the 1980s. The TV series was created for the syndication market and turned out to be a profitable hit. A total of 86 episodes were produced. In part, its success was fueled by good publicity. In the United States, the series received unusually extensive press coverage for a work of television animation. The attention of the press was attracted by the casting of Don Adams in the title role. Besides his own ineptness, Inspector Gadget's effectiveness as a detective was undermined by his cheerful optimism. As conceived by Andy Heyward, from Inspector Gadget's view of the world, the sun is always shining. He is usually unable to perceive danger. Inspector Gadget's villains are similarly ineffective. Their attempts to get rid of Inspector Gadget are as flawed as those of Boris Badenov to get rid of his own opponents. Penny is a more effective character than her uncle. Despite being a pre-teen girl, she is the one actually conducting investigations and solving cases. She was often kidnapped, but this did not reduce the importance of the character to the series. Perlmutter considers Penny to be an unusually resourceful and intelligent female character, by the standards of the 1980s. Penny's "computer book" was effectively a handheld computer, an electronic organizer, and a mobile phone. Perlmutter considers this element of the series to have anticipated real-life technological advancements in these fields. Brain seems to have a superhuman intellect and is a master of disguise. He acts more like Penny's field agent than her pet dog. M.A.D. is depicted as an efficient criminal cartel, and its leader Dr. Claw is seemingly an effective administrator. However, most of Claw's agents are depicted as buffoons, and Perlmutter finds them similar to the characters depicted by the Three Stooges. Dr. Claw himself is the most menacing figure among them. At the end of episodes, Dr. Claw's wrathful and intimidating voice is heard, threatening to "get" Inspector Gadget when their paths next cross. Besides the main cast of the series, the episodes feature another recurring character, Chief Quimby. Chief Quimby informs Inspector Gadget about his assignments through self-destructing paper messages. Inevitably, the messages blow up the Chief himself. The explosions are played for laughs. Due to various recurring elements in the series, often the basic plot of each episode was the same. The geographic location of each episode differed, however, and provided for some variety in the series. The series effectively provided viewers with both comedic and dramatic moments. Despite the censorship standards for American animated series in effect during the 1970s and 1980s, the series also included elements of slapstick comedy. This was nearly forbidden at the time, but the censorship was less strict for syndication series and the studio got away with it. The success of Inspector Gadget encouraged DIC to invest in the production of more animated series for the American market, starting with The Littles (1983). Multiple new series were produced in 1984.
Production
Writers
Nelvana writer Peter Sauder was the head writer for season 1, which was co-produced by DiC. As Nelvana was no longer part of the production by season 2, the show was written by the DIC studio employees Eleanor Burian-Mohr, Mike O'Mahoney, Glen Egbert, and Jack Hanrahan. Hanrahan and Burian-Mohr would later write the Christmas special Inspector Gadget Saves Christmas as well as many episodes of the Gadget Boy spinoff series, and Burian-Mohr additionally wrote dialogue for the educational show Inspector Gadget's Field Trip.
Animation
After the pilot, the first 64 -minute episodes were written, designed, storyboarded, and voice-recorded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada at the Nelvana facilities, (which co-produced the series under DiC's supervision), with creative supervision by Jean Chalopin. Bruno Bianchi was the Supervising Director. Most of those episodes were animated in Tokyo, Japan by TMS Entertainment, while a few episodes were animated in Taiwan by Cuckoo's Nest Studio, before being finished in post production by DiC and Nelvana. The pilot episode, "Winter Olympics" (a.k.a. "Gadget in Wonderland"), was animated by TMS's subsidiary; Telecom Animation Film and had a slightly higher budget than the rest of the episodes. The additional production facilities for TMS-animated episodes are AIC, and Oh! Production. Sunrise, and Toei Animation (uncredited) helped with the ink and painting process for the TMS-animated episodes.
Nelvana was not involved with the show's 21-episode second season, in which pre-production was now moved to DiC's own Los Angeles-based headquarters. The animation and post-production was generally done at K.K. DiC Asia (later Creativity & Development Asia), a Japanese animation house Jean Chalopin co-founded that DiC had some ownership in at the time.
Voice cast
The role of Inspector Gadget went through two different voice actors for the pilot episode before Don Adams was cast. In the first version of the pilot episode, the voice of Inspector Gadget was provided by Jesse White. A second version of the pilot was made with the only difference being Gary Owens re-recording all of White's dialogue with a deep-toned mid-Atlantic accent. Eventually, producers decided to cast actor Don Adams in the role, re-recording all of Inspector Gadget's dialogue in the pilot to make it more reminiscent of Maxwell Smart. A fourth version of the pilot was made for broadcast with Frank Welker re-recording one line as Inspector Gadget to explain the mustache.
Dr. Claw, M.A.D. Cat, and Brain were voiced by Frank Welker. Welker and Adams recorded their dialogue in separate recordings in Los Angeles, while the rest of the first season's cast recorded in Toronto. Don Francks initially replaced Welker as Dr. Claw for 25 episodes following the pilot before Welker was called in to replace him for those episodes. However, Welker was unable to re-record a few episodes, where Francks' voice remained. Francks remained with the show, however, and usually performed the voice of a henchman of Dr. Claw. Sometimes Francks would portray a secondary M.A.D. agent, with Welker (who usually performed the voices of the agents otherwise) as the other in episodes where Francks' voice was necessary. Penny was originally voiced by Mona Marshall in the pilot and was subsequently portrayed by Don Francks' daughter, Cree Summer, for the rest of the first season in her first voice acting role. Chief Quimby was voiced by John Stephenson in the original pilot, and later by Dan Hennessey for the remainder of the first season.
When production of Inspector Gadget moved from Nelvana in Toronto to DiC's headquarters in Los Angeles for the second season, all of the Canadian-based voice artists were replaced. Holly Berger replaced Cree Summer Francks as the voice of Penny while Maurice LaMarche replaced Dan Hennessey as the voice of Chief Quimby. Occasionally, LaMarche would fill in for Don Adams as Inspector Gadget whenever necessary.
Music
The theme music was inspired by Edvard Grieg's movement "In the Hall of the Mountain King" and was composed by Shuki Levy. For many years, Levy had a partnership with his friend Haim Saban, with Levy composing the music and Saban running the business. Their record company, Saban Records, (now Saban Music Group) has provided music for many DiC cartoons and children's shows in the 1980s and 1990s, and is still running today.
Many of the background music cues were a variation of the Gadget melody. Even at festivals or dances in the cartoon, the Gadget theme was often played. Occasionally during an episode, such as in "Launch Time" and "Ghost Catchers", Inspector Gadget would hum his own theme music. Levy also had a range of other musical cues for each character, as well as cues for the various moods of the scenes. Penny and Brain each had several different versions of their respective musical themes.
The theme song was sampled in the song "The Show" by Doug E. Fresh and Slick Rick and "Rockin' to the P.M." by Raw Fusion on the album Live from the Styleetron. It was also sampled on "I'll Be Your Everything," performed by Youngstown, which served as the theme song for the live action film.
In her book Robot Takeover: 100 Iconic Robots of Myth, Popular Culture & Real Life, Scissor Sisters singer Ana Matronic says she considers the theme music to be widely recognized around the world. The series was a "global hit" and its theme song became "iconic". However, she notes that copies of the original television soundtrack had become extremely rare by 2010.
History
Season 1
The pilot episode featured a slightly different opening and closing credits and a moustached Gadget. In a later version of the pilot, dialogue by Penny and Inspector Gadget was re-dubbed explaining Inspector Gadget's mustache as a disguise for the holiday. Since DiC was a French company looking to expand its operations to the US, the show was produced for release in both France and the US. It was broadcast in North America in September 1983, nine months after the pilot was previewed on five stations. A month later, the series premiered in France, whose version also featured a theme song with French lyrics and the French title Inspecteur Gadget appearing in front of the episode.
The first season was aired on weekdays from September 12, 1983 to December 9, 1983 and comprised 65 episodes.
Season 2
The first-season episodes were repeated during the 1984–1985 season, with 21 new episodes airing on Saturdays for the second season of Inspector Gadget from September 1985 to February 1986. Several changes were made to the established formula.
The format of the series changed significantly. In the second season, the episodes would feature three short segments in a row sharing the same general theme and often the same villains, who were still not arrested by the end of their final episode. Many of the episodes revolved around M.A.D. trying to get rid of Inspector Gadget, instead of Dr. Claw's crimes and plots to dominate the world from the first season.
New characters and settings were introduced. Inspector Gadget, Penny, and Brain moved into a high-tech house filled with many gadgets. In the season's fourth episode, Corporal Capeman was introduced as Inspector Gadget's sidekick.
Broadcast history
In the United States, the series originally ran from 1983 to 1986 in national first-run syndication and remained in syndication into the late-1990s. Repeats of the series briefly appeared on CBS's Saturday morning cartoon lineup from 1991 to 1992. Nickelodeon also aired reruns of the show from October 1, 1987 until August 31, 1992, and again from November 4, 1996 until April 29, 2000. Internationally, it aired on various TV stations and remained in syndication into the late-1990s. Various stations, such as Global Television Network, and The Family Channel aired Inspector Gadget until the late-1990s. Inspector Gadget was seen on Qubo from August 31, 2019 until the channel's shutdown on February 28, 2021. As of early 2022, Inspector Gadget can be streamed on the Paramount+ streaming service as well as on The Roku Channel.
Merchandise
Soundtrack
A soundtrack LP to accompany the series, named Inspecteur Gadget: Bande Originale de la Serie TV, was released in France in 1983 by Saban Records. Wagram Music made it available on online services such as Spotify and iTunes.
The soundtrack features the following tracks:
Le Thème de Inspecteur Gadget (Inspector Gadget's Theme)
Le Thème de Sophie (Penny's Theme)
La Chanson De Finot (Brain The Dog)
Gadget on Mars
Ghost
Mad Art in Museum
Gadget in Japan
Chocolate Factory
Rodeo
M.A.D's Theme
Heroes in African Jungle
Gadget with the Incas
Look Out
Gadget in Trouble
Arabian Desert
The Sophisticated Gadget
Train Theme
Kingdom
Car Race
Pharaohs
Penny's Theme (Instrumental)
Inspector Gadget (Instrumental)
With the exception of the first three-song tracks and the tracks "M.A.D's Theme" and "Penny's Theme", all the music on this album is background scores for the TV series. The album is far from a complete soundtrack, as there were probably several hours of source music used in the series. Some tracks on the album are more location/episode-specific or for special sequences. There were also at least two other records released by Saban Records (both in French). One of these was the single of the theme music (with French vocals, released both in 1983 and 1985 with different sleeve covers), and another was an audio story named "La Malediction du roi Touthankarton", based on the episode "Curse of the Pharaohs".
The French title is a word play with the name of Pharaoh "TouthankAMon. In french, "TouthankARTon" sounds like "Tout en carton" (all in carton).
An English-language soundtrack LP, entitled "Inspector Gadget – The Music", was released in Australia in 1986 through ABC Records. While many of its tracks overlapped with those of the French LP, 5 tracks were exclusive to the Australian LP: "Inspector Gadget Theme" (an extended version of Inspector Gadget's American opening theme), "Brain The Dog" (an instrumental background music version of Brain's theme), "Max's theme" (a misspelling of "Mad's theme", this is an alternate version of the same composition on the French LP, with slightly different orchestrations), "Italian Gadget" (a piece of background music) and "Gadget Closing" (the American end credits theme for the show).
Home media
North America
The Meier Group first released VHS tapes of the series in 1983, each containing a single episode. These releases continued on through companies such as Family Home Entertainment, Kideo Video (distributed through Karl-Lorimar Home Video) and Buena Vista Home Video.
In 1999 Buena Vista Home Video released Inspector Gadget: Gadget's Greatest Gadgets, a direct-to-video feature that contained three episodes of the TV series. It was made to tie in with the Disney film, Inspector Gadget.
On July 6, 2004, Sterling Entertainment released a VHS/DVD called Inspector Gadget: The Gadget Files. The release contains the show's pilot Winter Olympics alongside the first two episodes of the series, which are "Monster Lake" and "Down on the Farm". The DVD version contains "Gadget at the Circus" and "The Amazon" as bonus episodes, alongside an interview with Andy Heyward answering 10 questions voted upon by fans. The Sterling release of Inspector Gadget Saves Christmas contains the episodes "Weather in Tibet" and "Birds of a Feather" with "So It is Written" as a bonus episode.
In 2006, Shout! Factory acquired the rights to the series and subsequently released Inspector Gadget: The Original Series, a four-disc set featuring the first 22 episodes of the series on DVD on April 25, 2006, with Sony BMG Music Entertainment. There are errors on the box concerning which episodes are on each disc. The last episode listed on each disc is actually the first episode on the next disc. 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment would later acquire the home video rights for the series.
On September 9, 2009, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released a single-disc DVD, Inspector Gadget: The Go Go Gadget Collection which features ten episodes from the series.
On May 24, 2013 TV Shows on DVD noted that New Video Group had acquired the home video rights to the series. New Video Group released the complete series on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time in four volume sets on October 8, 2013. They also re-released Inspector Gadget Saves Christmas on October 29, 2013.
The series is also available on Amazon, on demand, and iTunes (in US and Canada) for purchase.
Australia
All season one episodes except for Quizz Master were released as three-disc box sets by Magna Pacific on November 9, 2006; July 3, 2007; and October 11, 2007. These are named Inspector Gadget – The Original Series: Box Set 1, Inspector Gadget - The Original Series: Box Set 2, and Inspector Gadget - The Original Series: Box Set 3, respectively. Inspector Gadget - The Original Series: Box Set 1 contains the version of the pilot episode where Gary Owens voices Gadget. In Inspector Gadget - The Original Series: Box Set 3 three of the episodes were edited: "Funny Money", "Tree Guesses", and "Fang the Wonderdog". These episodes had small edits made to them. For example, in the episode "Tree Guesses", a scene with a lumberjack M.A.D. agent throwing numerous axes at Inspector Gadget was cut out.
All three box sets were released together as Inspector Gadget: 25th Anniversary Collection (9 Disc Box Set), released in Australia by MagnaPacific on November 5, 2008.
Europe
In Europe, various independent DVD distributors would hold the rights to Jetix's programming library, including the DIC shows they owned. For example, in the UK, Maximum Entertainment released three DVD sets consisting of the first 13 episodes of Season 1; both "Volume 1" and "Volume 2" contained five episodes each. Volume 1 was re-released by Maximum in 2007 as "Five Crazy Episodes" and another DVD titled "Pirate Island" was released in 2008, containing five episodes. A 4-disc boxset containing the same episodes as Maximum's releases was issued by Lace DVD in 2010.Inspektor Gadget: Die komplette Staffel 1 (English translation: Inspector Gadget: The Complete Season 1) was released in Germany by More Music and Media on March 19, 2010. The 10-disc set includes all 65 episodes from the first Season, but with only German audio.
Legacy and spin-off incarnations Inspector Gadget was adapted into a 1999 live action Disney film starring Matthew Broderick as the titular character, Dabney Coleman as Chief Quimby, Michelle Trachtenberg as Penny, and Rupert Everett as Dr. Claw, with Gadget's original voice actor, Don Adams, as Brain in a post-credits scene. It was panned by critics, fans and audiences, and because of it, the movie earned a 21% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
A direct-to-video sequel was released in 2003. Broderick did not reprise his role as the title character; he was replaced by French Stewart. Elaine Hendrix was the lead female character as G2, and Caitlin Wachs portrayed Penny replacing Trachtenberg. D. L. Hughley reprises his role as the Gadgetmobile; he is the only star from the first film who appears in the sequel.
In January 2009, IGN named Inspector Gadget as the 54th best in the Top 100 Best Animated TV Shows.
In 2011, a new Inspector Gadget comic book was published in the United States by Viper Comics. Written by Dale Mettam and illustrated by José Cobá, the style of the book is based on the original 1983 television show. A preview comic was released on May 7, 2011, as part of the Free Comic Book Day, before the entire story was officially published as a 48-page book in August.
A new CGI animated Inspector Gadget TV series was developed in 2012. It was commissioned by Teletoon and put into pre-production by Cookie Jar Entertainment. It was mentioned by Ray Sharma, the CEO of XMG Studio, in January 2012. Sharma described how the success of the game had resulted in a new TV series being in the making: "We did 1 million downloads in a week, and it's reinvigorated the TV brand with a new TV series in production." In September 2012, Cookie Jar issued a short press release about the upcoming series, as part of the advertising for it during the MIPCOM market that October, stating: "Cookie Jar Entertainment is celebrating Inspector Gadget's 30th anniversary with the launch of a brand-new series with its Canadian broadcast partner TELETOON. The series will again revolve around the iconic bionic bumbling detective." On June 9, 2013, Teletoon officially announced the reboot series with two press pictures of Inspector Gadget's new look as well as a press release. The TV series is produced by DHX Media, which purchased Cookie Jar Group in 2012.
In May 2015, it was announced that a new film with a rebooted version of the character was in the works. Like the live-action movies, it would be by Disney, with Dan Lin producing it. In October 2019, Mikey Day and Streeter Seidell were hired to write the film.
See also
List of French animated television series
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading Go Go Gadget: The Creation of Inspector Gadget'' by Andy Heyward; 2016.
External links
Inspector Gadget at DHX Media
Inspector Gadget at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016.
1983 American television series debuts
1983 Canadian television series debuts
1983 French television series debuts
1986 American television series endings
1986 Canadian television series endings
1986 French television series endings
1980s American animated television series
1980s Canadian animated television series
1980s French animated television series
Cyborgs in television
English-language television shows
First-run syndicated television shows in Canada
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Inspector Gadget
Television series by DIC Entertainment
Television series by DHX Media
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television series by Nelvana
American detective television series
Television series created by Jean Chalopin | [
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232894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool | Blackpool | Blackpool is a large town and seaside resort in Lancashire, England. Located on the northwest coast of England, it is the main settlement within the borough also called Blackpool. The town is by the Irish Sea, between the Ribble and Wyre rivers, and is north of Liverpool and northwest of Manchester. At the 2011 census, the unitary authority of Blackpool had an estimated population of 139,720, while the wider built-up area (which also includes areas outside the unitary authority) had a population of 239,409. This makes it the second-largest in Lancashire, as well as the fifth-most populous urban area in northwest England after Manchester, Liverpool, Preston, and Birkenhead.
Throughout the Medieval and Early Modern period, Blackpool was a coastal hamlet in Lancashire's Amounderness Hundred and remained as such until the mid-18th century, when it became fashionable in England to travel to the coast in the summer to improve well-being. In 1781, visitors attracted to Blackpool's sandy beach were able to use a new private road, built by Thomas Clifton and Sir Henry Hoghton. Stagecoaches began running to Blackpool from Manchester in the same year, and from Halifax in 1782. In the early 19th century, Henry Banks and his son-in-law John Cocker erected new buildings in Blackpool, which increased its population from less than 500 in 1801 to over 2,500 in 1851. St John's Church in Blackpool was consecrated in 1821.
Blackpool rose to prominence as a major centre of tourism in England when a railway was built in the 1840s connecting it to the industrialised regions of northern England. The railway made it much easier and cheaper for visitors to reach Blackpool, triggering an influx of settlers; in 1876, Blackpool was incorporated as a borough, governed by its own town council and aldermen. In 1881, Blackpool was a booming resort with a population of 14,000 and a promenade complete with piers, fortune-tellers, public houses, trams, donkey rides, fish and chip shops, and theatres. By 1901, the population of Blackpool was 47,000, by which time its place was cemented as "the archetypal British seaside resort". By 1951, it had grown to 147,000 people.
Shifts in tastes, combined with opportunities for British people to travel overseas, affected Blackpool's status as a leading resort in the late 20th century. Its urban fabric and economy both remain relatively undiversified and firmly rooted in the tourism sector, and the borough's seafront continues to attract millions of visitors every year. Blackpool's major attractions and landmarks include Blackpool Tower, Blackpool Illuminations, Pleasure Beach, Blackpool Zoo, Sandcastle Water Park, the Winter Gardens, and Blackpool Tramway (the UK's only surviving first-generation tramway).
History
Toponymy
Blackpool gets its name from a historic drainage channel (possibly Spen Dyke) that ran over a peat bog, discharging discoloured water into the Irish Sea, which formed a black pool (on the other side of the sea, "Dublin" (Dubh Linn) is derived from the Irish for "black pool"). Another explanation is that the local dialect for stream was "pul" or "poole", hence "Black poole".
People originating from Blackpool are called Sandgrownians or Sandgrown'uns it is also sometimes used (as too for persons originating from Morecambe and Southport) or Seasiders (although this is more commonly associated with Blackpool F.C.).
Early history
A 13,500-year-old elk skeleton was found with man-made barbed bone points (probably from spears) on Blackpool Old Road in Carleton in 1970. Now displayed in the Harris Museum this provided the first evidence of humans living on the Fylde as far back as the Palaeolithic era. The Fylde was also home to a British tribe, the Setantii (the "dwellers in the water") a sub-tribe of the Brigantes, who from about AD80 were controlled by Romans from their fort at Dowbridge, Kirkham. During the Roman occupation the area was covered by oak forests and bog land.
Some of the earliest villages on the Fylde, which were later to become part of Blackpool town, were named in the Domesday Book in 1086. Many of them were Anglo-Saxon settlements. Some though had 9th and 10th century Viking place names. The Vikings and Anglo-Saxons seem to have co-existed peacefully, with some Anglo-Saxon and Viking placenames later being joined together – such as Layton-with-Warbreck and Bispham-with-Norbreck. Layton was controlled by the Butlers, Barons of Warrington from the 12th century.
In medieval times Blackpool emerged as a few farmsteads on the coast within Layton-with-Warbreck, the name coming from "le pull", a stream that drained Marton Mere and Marton Moss into the sea close to what is now Manchester Square. The stream ran through peatlands that discoloured the water, so the name for the area became "Black Poole". In the 15th century the area was just called Pul, and a 1532 map calls the area "the pole howsys alias the north howsys".
In 1602, entries in Bispham Parish Church baptismal register include both Poole and for the first time blackpoole. The first house of any substance, Foxhall, was built toward the end of the 17th century by Edward Tyldesley, the Squire of Myerscough and son of the Royalist Sir Thomas Tyldesley. An Act of Parliament in 1767 enclosed a common, mostly sand hills on the coast, that stretched from Spen Dyke southwards. Plots of the land were allocated to landowners in Bispham, Layton, Great Marton and Little Marton. The same act also provided for the layout of a number of long straight roads that would be built in the areas south of the town centre, such as Lytham Road, St. Annes Road, Watson Road and Highfield Road.
Taking the cure
By the middle of the 18th century, the practice of sea bathing to cure diseases was becoming fashionable among the wealthier classes, and visitors began making the arduous trek to Blackpool for that purpose. In 1781, Thomas Clifton and Sir Henry Hoghton built a private road to Blackpool, and a regular stagecoach service from Manchester and Halifax was established. A few amenities, including four hotels, an archery stall and bowling greens, were developed, and the town grew slowly. The 1801 census records the town's population at 473. The growth was accelerated by the actions of Henry Banks, often considered to be the "Father of Blackpool". In 1819 he purchased the Lane Ends estate, including the Lane Ends Hotel, and built the first holiday cottages. In 1837, his son-in-law Dr. John Cocker built Blackpool's first assembly rooms, which still stand on the corner of Victoria Street and Bank Hey Street.
Arrival of the railways
The most significant event in the early growth of the town occurred in 1846, with the completion of a branch line to Blackpool from Poulton on the main Preston and Wyre Joint Railway line from Preston to Fleetwood. Fleetwood declined as a resort, as its founder and principal financial backer, Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, went bankrupt. In contrast, Blackpool boomed. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s. In 1851 a Board of Health was formed. Gas lighting was introduced in 1852, and piped water in 1864. By 1851, the town's population was over 2,500.
The growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer.
In 1863, the North Pier was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for elite visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor. The town expanded southward beyond what is today known as the Golden Mile, towards South Shore, and South Pier was completed in 1893, making Blackpool the only town in the United Kingdom with three piers. In 1878, the Winter Gardens complex opened, incorporating ten years later the Opera House, said to be the largest in Britain outside London.
The town was granted a Charter of Incorporation as a municipal borough in 1876. W.H. Cocker, son of Dr John Cocker, and therefore grandson of Henry Banks, was its first mayor. The town would become a county borough in 1904.
From the 1880s until the First World War, Blackpool was one of the regular destinations for the Bass Excursions, when trains would take employees of Bass's Burton brewery on an annual trip to the seaside.
Electricity
Much of Blackpool's growth and character from the 1870s on was predicated on the town's pioneering use of electrical power. In 1879, it became the first municipality in the world to have electric street lighting, as large parts of the promenade were wired. The lighting and its accompanying pageants reinforced Blackpool's status as the North of England's most prominent holiday resort, and its specifically working-class character. It was the forerunner of the present-day Blackpool Illuminations. In 1885 one of the world's first electric tramways was laid down as a conduit line running from Cocker Street to Dean Street on the Promenade. The line was operated by the Blackpool Electric Tramway Company until 1892 when their lease expired and Blackpool Corporation took over running the line. A further line was added in 1895 from Manchester Square along Lytham Road to South Shore, and the line was extended north, first to Gynn Square in 1899, and then to Fleetwood. In 1899 the conduit system was replaced by overhead wires. The tramway has remained in continuous service to this day.
By the 1890s, the town had a population of 35,000 and could accommodate 250,000 holidaymakers. The number of annual visitors, many staying for a week, was estimated at three million. 1894 saw the opening of two of the town's most prominent buildings, the Grand Theatre on Church Street, and Blackpool Tower on the Promenade. The Grand Theatre was one of Britain's first all-electric theatres.
The first decade of the new century saw the development of the Promenade as we know it today, and further development southwards beyond South Shore towards Harrowside and Squires Gate. The Pleasure Beach was first established about this time. Seasonal static illuminations were first set up in 1912, although due to World War I and its aftermath they only enjoyed two seasons until they were re-introduced in 1925. The illuminations extended the holiday season into September and early October, ceremonially switched on by notables and celebrities.
Towards the present
The inter-war period saw Blackpool attain pre-eminence as a holiday destination. By 1920, Blackpool claimed around eight million visitors per year, three times as many as its nearest British rivals, still drawn largely from the mill towns of East Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire. Stanley Park was laid out in 1920 and opened in 1926. The area around the park has become renowned for some of the most desirable residences in the area.
In 1937, Littlewoods opened its first department store in the town. The Blackpool Co-operative Society Emporium, a flagship store built in 1938, which incorporated the Jubilee Theatre, stood on Coronation Street, until 1988 when it was demolished for a planned shopping centre. The site remained empty until eventually becoming a car park and then was redeveloped when the Hounds Hill Centre was expanded to include the Debenhams Store.
Documents have been found to suggest that the reason Blackpool escaped heavy damage in World War II was that Adolf Hitler had earmarked the town to remain a place of leisure after his planned invasion. Despite this, on 11 September 1940, German bombs fell near Blackpool North railway station and eight people were killed in nearby houses in Seed Street. This site today is occupied by the new Town Hall offices and Sainsbury's Supermarket.
In the same war, the Free Polish Air Force made its headquarters in exile at Blackpool in Talbot Square, after the force evacuated to Britain from France. The nearby Layton Cemetery contains the war graves of 26 Polish airmen. The famous No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was formed in Blackpool, and became the most successful Fighter Command unit shooting down 126 German machines in only 42 days during the Battle of Britain.
Blackpool's population boom was complete by 1951, by which time some 147,000 people were living in the town – compared to 47,000 in 1901 and a mere 14,000 in 1881. In the decade after the war, the town continued to attract more visitors, reaching a zenith of 17 million per year. However, several factors combined to make this growth untenable. The decline of the textile industry led to a de-emphasis of the traditional week-long break, known as wakes week. The rise of package holidays took many of Blackpool's traditional visitors abroad, where the weather was more reliably warm and dry, and improved road communications, epitomised by the construction of the M55 motorway in 1975, made Blackpool more feasible as a day trip rather than an overnight stay. The economy, however, remains relatively undiversified, and firmly rooted in the tourism sector.
Government
Though the Blackpool Urban Area extends beyond the statutory boundaries of Blackpool to encompass Fleetwood, Cleveleys, Thornton, Poulton-le-Fylde and Lytham St Annes, Blackpool remains administratively separate with its wider borough.
Between 1904 and 1974, Blackpool formed a county borough independent of the administrative county of Lancashire. With the passage of the Local Government Act 1972, Blackpool's county borough status was abolished and it was made part of the shire county of Lancashire. On 1 April 1998, however, Blackpool was made a unitary authority and re-formed as an autonomous local government. However, it remains part of Lancashire for ceremonial purposes.
As of the 2019 election Blackpool Council is currently controlled by the Labour Party, who took control from the Conservatives in 2011. They are the largest party represented with 23 councillors followed by the Conservative Party with 15 councillors.
Blackpool is covered by two Westminster constituencies:
Blackpool North and Cleveleys,
Blackpool South.
Demographics
The population of Blackpool has been declining constantly since 2001 and is expected to decline even further in the future.
In the 2011 census Blackpool was stated to have the highest percentage of divorced people in the country, 13.1% compared to the average of 9% for England and Wales.
Population change
Public health
In 2017, Blackpool had the fourth highest rate of antidepressant prescription in England with the most common health problems being depression, stress and anxiety. At 12.9%, Blackpool had the highest fraction of working-age people too sick to work and has no improvement on this percentage since 1999 despite the rate in the North West England as a whole improving from 11% in 1999 to 7.8% in 2016. Blackpool also has high rates of obesity (13.5%), smoking (27%) and alcoholic liver disease (28 deaths per 100 thousand). Men in the Bloomfield ward had the lowest life expectancy at birth, 68.2 years, of any ward in England and Wales in 2016.
Economy
This is a chart of the trend of regional gross value added (GVA) of Blackpool at current basic prices by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.
While Blackpool hosts a large number of small businesses and self-employed people, there are some large employers. The government-owned National Savings and Investments is based at Marton, together with their Hardware random number generator, ERNIE ( "Electronic Random Number Indicator Equipment"), which picks the Premium Bond numbers, while other government agencies are based at Warbreck and Norcross further up the Fylde coast. Burton's Biscuit Company, Tangerine Confectionery produce biscuits and other confectionery products, Klarius UK manufactures automotive components, Victrex manufactures high-performance polymers and the Glasdon Group is a plastics manufacturer making litter bins, park benches and reflective road signs.
TVR formerly produced sports cars at its Bispham factory. Blackpool was also the original site of Swallow Sidecar Company, forerunner of Jaguar Cars.
The 2015 HSBC research on rental yields ranks Blackpool in the top three cities with the best rental returns. The numerous urban regeneration projects, the property prices which are among the most affordable in the UK, and the high rental yields create a very favourable environment for real estate investors.
Blackpool's main shopping streets are Church Street, Victoria Street, Birley Street, Market Street, Corporation Street, Bank Hey Street, Abingdon Street and Talbot Road. There is currently one shopping centre within the town, Houndshill Shopping Centre.
Geography
Physical
Blackpool rests in the middle of the western edge of The Fylde, which is a coastal plain atop a peninsula. The seafront consists of a 7-mile sandy beach, with a flat coastline in the south of the district, which rises once past the North Pier to become the North Cliffs, with the highest point nearby at the Bispham Rock Gardens at around . The majority of the town district is built up, with very little semi-rural space such as at Marton Mere. Due to the low-lying terrain, Blackpool experiences occasional flooding, with a large-scale project completed in 2017 to rebuild the seawall and promenade to mitigate this.
Climate
Blackpool has, like all of the UK, a temperate maritime climate according to the Köppen climate classification system. Thus the same cool summer, frequent overcast skies, and small annual temperature range is typical.
The absolute minimum temperature stands at , recorded during December 1981, however was recorded in January 1881. The lowest temperature to occur in recent years is during December 2010. In a more normal winter, the coldest night averages .
The absolute maximum temperature recorded in Blackpool was during July 1976. The highest temperature to occur in recent years is during July 2015. In a more normal summer, the warmest day will likely average , with slightly fewer than 5 days a year attaining a temperature of or above.
Rainfall averages slightly less than , with over 1 mm of precipitation occurring on 147 days of the year.
Green belt
Blackpool is within a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties, and is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the Blackpool and nearby Merseyside conurbations from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on the permitted building.
As the town's urban area is highly built up, only (2017) of green belt exists within the borough, covering the cemetery, its grounds and nearby academy/college playing fields by Carleton, as well as the football grounds near the airport by St Annes. Further afield, portions are dispersed around the wider Blackpool urban area into the surrounding Lancashire districts of Fylde and Wyre, helping to keep the settlements of Lytham St Annes, Poulton-le-Fylde, Warton/Freckleton and Kirkham separated.
Tourism
Blackpool is heavily dependent on tourism. In what is often regarded as its heyday (1900–1950), Blackpool thrived as the factory workers of Northern England took their annual holidays there en masse, known as wakes weeks. Photographs from that era show crowds of tourists on the beach and promenade. Blackpool was also a preferred destination of visitors from Glasgow and remains so to this day. The town went into decline when affordable air travel arrived in the 1960s and the many previous visitors instead travelled to Mediterranean coastal resorts due to competitive prices and the more reliable weather. Today Blackpool remains the most popular seaside resort in the UK; however, the town has suffered a serious drop in numbers of visitors which have fallen from 17 million in 1992 to 10 million today.
Similarly Pleasure Beach Blackpool was the country's most popular free attraction with 6 million visitors a year but has lost over a million visitors since 1998 and has recently introduced a £6 entrance fee.
In July 2010, an independent survey of 4,500 members of the general public by consumer magazine Which? Holiday (now Which? Travel) found that Blackpool was the UK's favourite seaside resort, followed by Brighton, Whitby, Bournemouth and Scarborough. Blackpool has now improved the seawall and promenade, and Blackpool Tower has been revamped.
In February 2012, a number of tourist attractions in Blackpool collaborated to produce the Blackpool Resort Pass which allows for discounted access in one ticket. The original pass included visits to Merlin Entertainments attractions and Blackpool Pleasure Beach. In February 2013, Marketing Blackpool, formerly the Tourism division of Blackpool Council, led the relaunch of the Blackpool Resort Pass which includes additional attractions including Blackpool Zoo, Sandcastle Waterpark and Blackpool Model Village and Gardens.
Blackpool has a pioneering publicly owned Municipal wireless network Wi-Fi, which covers the entire town centre, promenade and beach front. Visitors can take a virtual tour of Blackpool, and full internet access is available.
Conferences
Outside the main holiday season, Blackpool's Winter Gardens routinely used to host major political and trade union conferences. However, in recent years these are increasingly taking place in major cities with modern, purpose-built conference centres.
The National Union of Students last held its Annual Conference in Blackpool in 2009; they will now be hosted by the Sage Gateshead. In January 2011, Blackpool hosted the NEEC Conference (formerly the North of England Education Conference), a key date in the education calendar. The Winter Gardens also hold the National Pensioners' Parliament.
The Young Farmers convention has been held regularly in Blackpool since the late 1960s.
Entertainment
Blackpool remains a summer entertainment venue but many local establishments now trade all year round. It is known for specialising in variety shows featuring entertainers catering to a broad range of tastes, from family-friendly Ken Dodd to the 'adults only' humour of Roy 'Chubby' Brown.
In recent years artists such as DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, Britney Spears and Pitbull, have performed in Blackpool and have performed during the MTV Illuminations switch-on weekends.
In 2018 The Blackpool festival took place on the comedy carpet in front of the Blackpool Tower which over three days played host to world class DJs and entertainers.
For the following four Fridays after the illuminations switch-on the town plays host to the world fireworks championship where four teams from around the world design their displays in time with music and are judged on their technique and display. On the fifth Friday following the illuminations switch-on the competition winner is announced and performs another display. These displays often attract thousands of visitors to the promenade.
Regular shows include those from Viva cabaret bar, the legends shows, Funny Girls, Joey Blower, Joe Longthorn as well as regular performances at both the Winter Gardens and Grand Theatre. The town has also seen a number of new food outlets opening. The Tower Ballroom still opens daily for dancing and hosts international dance competitions as well as playing host to many episodes of Strictly Come Dancing.
The Grand Theatre (locally known as 'The Grand') was designed by Victorian theatre architect Frank Matcham and was opened in 1894 after a construction period of seven months, at a cost of £20,000 between December 1893 and July 1894. The project was conceived and financed by local theatre manager Thomas Sergenson who had been using the site of the Grand for several years to stage a circus. He had also transformed the fortunes of other local theatres.
Matcham's brief was to build Sergenson the "prettiest theatre in the land". The Grand was Matcham's first theatre to use an innovative 'cantilever' design to support the tiers, thereby reducing the need for the usual pillars and so allowing clear views of the stage from all parts of the auditorium.
The town also plays host to the longest-running seaside show in Britain, Legends, which features multiple tribute artists with a live band and dance troupe, first appearing at the North Pier in 1999, then at the Central Pier from 2000 to 2012 and now at the Sands Venue. Current tribute artists include "Neil Diamond", "Adele", "Elton John" and "Robbie Williams".
In February 2018 council chiefs attended a convention in Florida to identify a new "concert venue" concept for the town, doubling as a new purpose built centre for conferences and conventions. The site earmarked for the propose project is the old central station site which now serves as a car park and police station with law courts on Bonny Street. The police have since moved to a brand new facility near to the M55 motorway entrance and the site in central Blackpool is earmarked for the new potential development.
An Imax cinema has been announced by the council as adding on to the existing Hounds Hill shopping centre on land that is now a ground level car park. The development is to be shared with the Wilko store which is to re-locate from its current location to make way for a new hotel and transport hub as part of the current urban regeneration and infrastructure improvements in the town. Expected final completion for these projects has still not been announced although work has begun on some of the foundation works.
Events and festivals
Gay Blackpool
Blackpool had its first gay pride celebration in 2006. Historically, seaside resorts have been able to provide niches for minority groups. Blackpool, like other English resorts, has had a reputation for being a safe community for gay people. During World War II, there was a proliferation of cafés, pubs and clubs where homosexual men could meet in Blackpool. In the 1990s, the town began to be promoted as a gay tourist destination. Blackpool contains several bars, pubs and nightclubs aimed at the LGBT community. These include Funny Girls (a burlesque cabaret showbar), Buzz, Flamingo, and the Flying Handbag.
Pollution
Pollution was often found in the seawater at Blackpool, in particular bacteria counts that frequently exceeded the standards of the Environment Agency. However, sea water quality improved significantly since unfavourable reports in 2013, with the resort's south beach winning a Blue Flag award in 2016, and three other beaches achieving Seaside Award Status.
Regeneration
Blackpool has taken steps to improve its tourism industry. One controversial proposal, which had the involvement of the local council, was to transform Blackpool into a casino resort along the lines of the Las Vegas Strip and Atlantic City, making it the centre point of gambling in the UK. Ultimately, Manchester was selected for the initial trial by the Government's Casinos Advisory Panel. Since this decision, Blackpool's council and MPs have lobbied Parliament extensively, claiming their bid was misunderstood. The local newspaper, the Blackpool Gazette, sent a petition signed by over 11,500 local residents and visitors demanding the decision be reconsidered. On 29 March 2007, the Advisory Panel's recommendations were approved by the House of Commons, but rejected by the House of Lords, meaning the bill would be reconsidered by parliament. However, in early 2008 the House of Lords voted against the super-casino proposal, and the Government proceeded no further with the idea. In 2019, plans to develop a casino with other visitor attractions on the central car park (Blackpool Central Station) site were announced.
The Talbot Gateway is a planned civic quarter, originally costed at £285m in 2003. work was continuing on what is reported to be a "billion-pound growth and prosperity programme".
Regeneration work was completed in July 2009 on Waterloo Road in South Shore that transformed the area into a modern shopping centre. £1 million of public investment is helping to improve the public realm and act as a catalyst for the regeneration of South Shore.
In March 2010 it was confirmed that a deal had been made for Blackpool Council to purchase some of Blackpool's most notable landmarks from private ownership. The deal, totalling £38.9m, had national and local government backing and included the purchase of:
Blackpool Tower
The Winter Gardens
The Sea Life Centre
Louis Tussauds Wax Works
The Blackpool Tower Dungeon
Indoor Golf Centre
Bonny Street Market
Mr T's Amusement Arcade
Merlin Entertainments Group also took over the running of Louis Tussauds Wax Works, converting it into their better-known brand, Madame Tussauds Wax Works. The Winter Gardens were purchased by Blackpool Council; the complex is operated by Crown Entertainment Centres Ltd.
Landmarks and places of interest
Major attractions
Other attractions
Theatres & Venues
Grand Theatre, Blackpool was built by Frank Matcham in 1894. It offers a mix of drama, dance, opera, ballet and comedy including a yearly pantomime.
The Winter Gardens is a large entertainment and conference venue in the town centre. It includes the Opera House (one of the largest theatres in Europe), Pavilion Theatre, Empress Ballroom, Spanish Hall, Arena and Olympia.
The Imperial Hotel is a large red-brick Victorian hotel, which has hosted guests such as Charles Dickens, Queen Elizabeth II and Margaret Thatcher.
Blackpool Sands stretch along the whole seafront and comprise the main natural attraction for tourists.
Funny Girls is a drag cabaret burlesque showbar, located on Dickson Road.
Viva Cabaret Showbar & Events Suite is a Vegas-style production show venue next to the Tower.
Former attraction
The Doctor Who Exhibition, which closed in 2009, was the biggest Doctor Who exhibition in the UK, containing props and costumes from the long-running BBC TV series, including some from recently aired programmes.
Transport
Air
Blackpool Airport operated regular charter and scheduled flights throughout the UK and Europe. The airport is actually just over the borough boundary into Fylde Borough, although a proposal to reorganise Blackpool's borders would see the airport incorporated into Blackpool Borough. This airport, formerly known as Blackpool Squires Gate Airport, is one of the oldest in the UK having hosted public flying meetings in 1909 and 1910. After a gap, it was active from the 1930s to mid 2014 and from December 2014 to date. Airlines that served Blackpool, before its temporary closure in late 2014, included Jet2.com and Aer Arran. The airport was reopened to small aircraft after failing to find a buyer in December 2014.
The airport's most recent scheduled services to Belfast and the Isle of Man ceased when Citywing suspended operations in March 2017. Access to the town by air is now via Liverpool John Lennon Airport or Manchester Airport, both approximately away by road.
In 1927 the local council announced that an airfield would be built near Stanley Park, which would become Stanley Park Aerodrome offering flights to the Isle of Man for £1-16s–0d (£1.80). The airport opened in 1929 and was officially opened by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in 1931. However, with the opening of Squires Gate Airport a decision was announced in 1936 by the Ministry of Transport to close the Stanley Park airfield. In fact, civil operations continued until the outbreak of war with scheduled services to the Isle of Man and elsewhere. During the war, Stanley Park was used as a Royal Air Force (RAF) training station, known as No. 3 School of Technical Training. Vickers assembled many Wellington bombers here and Bristol Beaufighters were repaired for the RAF. The airfield closed in 1947. The land on which the airport stood now covers Blackpool Zoo and a hotel and golf course. The hangars from the old airport are still in use at Blackpool Zoo as the main entrance building, Playbarn, Education Academy and camel house.
Bus and coach
Blackpool Transport operates the main bus services in and around Blackpool
Stagecoach Merseyside & South Lancashire operates the regional bus and coach services in and out of Blackpool
National Express operates the main long-distance coach services in and out of Blackpool
Facilities include:
Blackpool Talbot Road Bus Station, which was the main town centre bus station but is now a gym. Blackpool Transport stopped using the bus station in the early 2000s after a disagreement with Blackpool Council regarding the state of the bus station building. Blackpool Transport now use Market Street and Corporation Street, in the town centre, as their bus interchange. National Express have also recently stopped using this bus station, moving to the new National Express Blackpool Central Coach Station.
Blackpool Central Coach Station, is main coach station for all National Express coach services. which is also used by some independent coach operators. The coach station has a booking office and toilet facilities.
Blackpool Lonsdale Road Coach Station, was the main coach station for South Shore district of Blackpool. This was mainly used by independent coach operators. The coach station has a café, shop and toilet facilities but is in a state of disrepair.
Blackpool Colosseum Bus & Coach Station, which was the main bus and coach station in South Shore. Located next to Blackpool Transport Headquarters, it was demolished to make way for a Somerfield supermarket. The site is now occupied by the link road from the M55 motorway and additional depot parking.
Railway
Train operators that serve Blackpool are:
Avanti West Coast
Northern Trains
Stations in the town are, or were:
Blackpool North (originally Talbot Road)
Blackpool Pleasure Beach (originally Burlington Road Halt)
Blackpool South (originally Waterloo Road)
Layton (originally Bispham)
Squires Gate (just outside the borough boundary but serving Blackpool Airport)
Blackpool Central (originally Hounds Hill, closed 1964)
(renamed Lytham Road 1903, closed 1916)
Blackpool once had two railway terminals with a total of over 30 platforms, mainly used by excursion traffic in the summer. Blackpool Central, close to Blackpool Tower, was closed in 1964, while Blackpool North was largely demolished and rebuilt as a smaller facility. The route of the former excursion line into Blackpool Central is now used as a link road from the M55 motorway to the town centre. The line into Blackpool via Lytham St Annes now has a station serving Blackpool Pleasure Beach but terminates at Blackpool South station. The line into North station is now the more important.
Road
The M55 motorway links the town to the national motorway network. Other major roads in the town are the A583 to Kirkham and Preston, the A587 and A585 to Fleetwood, the A586 to Poulton-le-Fylde, Garstang and Lancaster and the A584 and B5261 which both lead to Lytham St Annes.
Tram
The Blackpool Tramway runs from Starr Gate in Blackpool to Fleetwood and is the only surviving first-generation tramway in the United Kingdom. The tramway dates back to 1885 and is one of the oldest electric tramways in the world. It is run by Blackpool Transport, owned by Blackpool Council. The tramway runs for and carries 6,500,000 passengers each year.
The tramway was for a long time the only working tramway in the United Kingdom outside of museums. It was also the UK's first electric system. However, there are now a number of other tramways, including Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram & West Midlands Metro and many more.
On 1 February 2008 it was announced that the Government had agreed to a joint Blackpool Transport and Blackpool Council bid for funding toward the total upgrade of the track. The government contributed £60.3m of the total £85.3m cost. Blackpool Council and Lancashire County Council each provided about £12.5m. The Government's decision meant that the entire length of the tramway from Starr Gate to Fleetwood was upgraded and also sixteen new trams joined the fleet.
In April 2012, the tramway reopened after the major reconstruction. Day to day services are run by the 16 Flexity 2 trams. Several double deck English Electric Balloon trams from the older fleet have been widened to work alongside the new trams to provide additional capacity in the summer months. Several non-modified older trams also operate a heritage service from Pleasure Beach to Little Bispham on weekends and holidays.
An extension of the new service to Blackpool North railway station was planned to open by April 2019 between the existing North Pier stop of the Blackpool Tramway, along Talbot Road, and terminating at Blackpool North railway station, but was delayed and is now on schedule to open Summer 2022.
Filmography
The resort is featured in the 1934 film Sing as We Go, starring Gracie Fields, as well as other cinema and TV productions, including Forbidden (1949), Hindle Wakes (1952), Holiday (1957), Coasting (1990), Funny Bones (1995) starring Lee Evans and Oliver Platt and directed by St. Annes born Peter Chelsom, and The Parole Officer (2001) starring Steve Coogan.
The Japanese film Shall We Dance? (1996) closes with a scene at the World Ballroom Dancing Championships in Blackpool. All the hair styling for the film was completed by Blackpool-born-and-bred hairstylist Eileen Clough, who has been in the trade since the 1960s. In the Hollywood remake of the film (2004), directed by Peter Chelsom, Blackpool is mentioned but not shown.
Blackpool is the setting for Bhaji on the Beach (1993) directed by Gurinder Chadha. The film Like It Is (1998) directed by Paul Oremland was also partly filmed in Blackpool. The opening scenes were filmed in the Flamingo. The 2005 television comedy/thriller series Funland revolved around the fictionalised, seedier aspects of Blackpool.
The town also features heavily in the BBC television serial Blackpool, starring David Morrissey, Sarah Parish and David Tennant and first broadcast in 2004, and the one-off follow-up Viva Blackpool, broadcast in June 2006.
In 2006 Lion Television filmed The Great British Summer, which featured many buildings in Blackpool. The Royal Windsor Hotel was featured, with the owner talking all about the hotel seasons and industry. Bernard Manning was also shown at the hotel doing his spot through the season hosted by Blackpool Born local Entertainer & DJ Gordon Head and other local acts. The Great British Summer was narrated by Alan Titchmarsh.
Between 10 September 2012 and 19 November 2012 the resort was featured in Channel 4's 999: What's Your Emergency?.
The resort was also featured in the three-part reality television series, Blackpool Lights on Channel 5 in December 2013.
As well as this, the 2016 Tim Burton film Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children also features Blackpool and its key tourist attraction, The Blackpool Tower.
Blackpool was once again featured in a Channel 5 documentary series from 26 October 2017, this time entitled Bargain Loving Brits in Blackpool. The series ran for six episodes until 30 November 2017.
Culture
Music
Reginald Dixon, MBE, ARCM, who held the position as organist at the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool from March 1930 until March 1970 made and sold more recordings than any other organist.
Blackpool Symphony Orchestra was founded by Percy Dayman in 1920. It presents an annual series of concerts and organises educational and community outreach projects.
1950s
Frank Sinatra performed at the Opera House on several occasions in the 1950s. A 1953 concert was recorded and eventually released on CD many years later.
1960s
The Beatles had a long and varied association with Blackpool, including a significant event in John Lennon's early childhood and multiple gigs in the town between 1963 and 1965.
Formed in Blackpool in 1963, The Rockin' Vickers were a rock and roll beat combo most notable for featuring Ian "Lemmy" Kilmister, then known as Ian Frasier, later of Hawkwind and more famously Motörhead, as a bassist and vocalist. The band recorded four singles before splitting in 1967. The other Rockin' Vickers guitarist, Nick Gribbon, continues to perform in pubs in and around Blackpool as Nick Unlimited, with an open door policy that has given many talented younger Blackpool musicians their first opportunity to play live.
The Executives were a Blackpool band who recorded a handful of singles in the 1960s including the original 1964 version of March of the Mods, which became a top 40 hit for Joe Loss and His Orchestra in the same year. The tune was written by Tony Carr, the father of Executives' frontman Roy Carr, who later became a well-known music journalist with New Musical Express and the author of several books on popular music and executive editor of music magazines including New Musical Express, Melody Maker and Vox. Executives bass player Glenn Cornick became a founding member of Jethro Tull, later forming Wild Turkey. Tony Williams, The Executives' guitarist, joined Stealers Wheel soon after its formation in 1972 and also briefly joined Jethro Tull in 1978 as a touring bassist.
Additionally, the nascent Jethro Tull, then called The Blades, featuring future Tull members Ian Anderson, John Evan, Jeffrey Hammond, and Barrie Barlow, formed as students in Blackpool in the early 1960s.
Blackpool was notorious for having imposed an indefinite ban on the Rolling Stones from performing in the town in 1964 after a riot broke out among the audience who had found their performance "suggestive" during their concert at the Empress Ballroom. The ban was lifted forty-four years later in March 2008.
The Jimi Hendrix – Experience video and DVD features concert footage of Hendrix's performance at Blackpool's Opera House in 1967.
1970s
Psychedelic rock band Complex were formed in Blackpool in 1968 and self-released two albums in 1971. Only 99 copies of their self-titled debut were pressed and this extremely rare vinyl album has since been described as "one of the "Holy Trinity" items of rare British Psychedelia". The band continued to play until 1978 when they disbanded with the onset of punk. Limited edition remastered versions of both Complex albums were released by Guersson in 2012.
A number of bands from Blackpool achieved a level of success during the punk and post-punk era. Factory Records' Section 25 were formed in 1977 in Poulton-le-Fylde, a small market town on the outskirts of Blackpool, as were the 1976–79 version of punk band Skrewdriver, who recorded several singles and an album for the Chiswick label (the skinhead "white power" rock act of the same name that gained notoriety later, contained only one member of the original band). Both bands claimed Blackpool as their place of origin.
1980s and 1990s
Another Blackpool band signed to Factory was Tunnelvision, who recorded just one single for the label in 1981.
When Barry Lights relocated his Lightbeat record label from Leeds to Blackpool in 1981, the label's first Blackpool signing was electronic rock band Zoo Boutique. After releasing the debut single by Fleetwood punk band One Way System, Lights set up specialist hardcore punk Beat the System label. Blackpool punk band The Fits were amongst the first to benefit, eventually releasing four indie chart hit singles in 1982–85.
The Membranes who featured John Robb initially set up their own Vinyl Drip record label in 1981 before achieving three indie top 20 hits from 1984 to 1986, reaching number 6 in John Peel's Festive Fifty in 1984 and making a pre-recorded appearance on Channel 4 rock show The Tube.
The Ceramic Hobs formed in 1985 and to date have "made more than 30 uncategorisable releases on vinyl, CD and cassette for many different worldwide record labels".
Blackpool musician Lucifer's "Cyber Punk Rock" EPs of 1994 contained the first full vocal songs intended for playback on a computer.
2000 onwards
21st century musical exports from Blackpool include Karima Francis, The Locals, who first appeared on BBC Introducing when they were just 15, Goonies Never Say Die, Litterbug, Aiden Grimshaw who came ninth on the 2010 series of X Factor, The Senton Bombs, UFX/Uncle Fester and Little Boots, who topped the BBC Sound of... poll in 2009.
The White Stripes recorded their first official DVD, Under Blackpool Lights, at the Empress Ballroom in the Winter Gardens on 27 and 28 January 2004. Get Up Kids guitarist Jim Suptic's Kansas City, Missouri indie rock band Blackpool Lights is named after the DVD title.
In 2005, a compilation album, The Ugly Truth About Blackpool Volume One, chronologically documenting the best of Blackpool indie rock music from 1977 to 2005, was released by Andy Higgins' JSNTGM Records in conjunction with the Arts Council, Blackpool Evening Gazette and Blackpool Council. Volume 2, showcasing the best Blackpool indie bands active in 2005/6 was released the following year. Other Blackpool recording artists on JSNTGM include Sick 56, Erase Today and Litterbug.
Each August since 2006, Blackpool has been the venue for the largest festival of punk rock in the world, the annual Rebellion Festival, which is held in the Winter Gardens over four days and features over 200 punk bands.
In the 2010s, Grime music in Blackpool increased dramatically with the invention of BGMedia. They gained millions of views but also caught controversy due to the lyrical content of BGMedia rappers.
In August 2018, German Indie label Firestation Records released in Europe and Japan an eleven track retrospective album 'Illuminated', on Vinyl and CD, by the late 1980s Blackpool Indie Band 'Rik Rak'.
Songs about Blackpool
In 1937 George Formby's song "With My Little Stick of Blackpool Rock", was banned by BBC radio for having suggestive lyrics.
The Kinks' song "Autumn Almanac" contains the following lines: "... I go to Blackpool for my holidays/Sit in the open sunlight ..."
"She Sold Blackpool Rock" was a minor success in 1969 for Honeybus as the follow up to their 1968 top ten hit single "I Can't Let Maggie Go".
Graham Nash's semi-autobiographical song "Military Madness" begins "In an upstairs room in Blackpool / By the side of a northern sea / The army had my father / And my mother was having me".
Paul McCartney recorded a song entitled "Blackpool" amongst a number of demo home recordings in the years 1971 and 1972.
The Jethro Tull song "Up the 'Pool" from the 1972 Living in the Past album is about Blackpool, singer Ian Anderson and other members of the band's childhood home. Another Tull track about the beach attractions of Blackpool is "Big Dipper", from the 1976 album Too Old to Rock 'n' Roll: Too Young to Die!.
In the early 1980s the then Blackpool based band The Membranes used the town as the subject matter for their "Tatty Seaside Town" 1988 single, which was later covered by Therapy?
Other songs written about Blackpool include Oh Blackpool by The Beautiful South and several different songs called "Blackpool", by Sham 69, Macc Lads, Roy Harper and The Delgados. "Blackpool" is also the title song from a production co-written with author Irvine Welsh and Vic Godard (Subway Sect) in 2002, later released as a four-song EP called Blackpool. A song called "Blackpool Fool" appears on the Frank Sidebottom album A, B, C & D (1997).
Franz Ferdinand's 2013 "Love Illumination" single was originally called "Blackpool Illuminati".
Songs that mention Blackpool in the lyrics include "Elvis Impersonator: Blackpool Pier", the opening track of the Manic Street Preachers album Everything Must Go, which contains the lyric "20ft high off Blackpool Promenade" amongst other references to Blackpool. The opening line of Soft Cell's 1982 "Say Hello, Wave Goodbye" hit (later a hit for David Gray in 1998) "Standing at the door of the Pink Flamingo, Crying in the rain" is believed to be a reference to Blackpool's famous gay nightclub The Flamingo. Låpsley's chillout song "Painter (Valentine)" includes the lines "you can paint these wings and make me fly / crush coming over like the R.E.M kind / orange in the colour like Blackpool on the sunrise".
Folk songs written about the town include The Houghton Weavers anthem "The Blackpool Belle" ("Oh the Blackpool Belle was a getaway train that went from Northern stations. What a beautiful sight on a Saturday night bound for the illuminations"), Jasper Carrot's "Day Trip To Blackpool" ("Didn't we have a miserable time the day we went to Blackpool? An 'orrible day, we got drunk on the way And spent our money on chips and bingo...") and Mike Harding's single "Talking Blackpool Blues" ("Well my Mam and Dad and Gran and me / We went to Blackpool by sea / It rained and rained for most of the day / But we all got tanned in a funny sort of way").
Notable musicians born in Blackpool
John Evan, keyboard player with Jethro Tull (1969-1980), leader of The Blades, John Evan Band and John Evan Smash
Jeffrey Hammond, bass guitarist with Jethro Tull, (1970-1975)
Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys
Nick McCarthy of Franz Ferdinand
Larry Cassidy of Section 25
Gary Miller (1924–1968), had a hit with The Yellow Rose of Texas
Graham Nash of The Hollies / Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young
Robert Smith of The Cure
John Robb, singer and bass guitarist
Jon Gomm acoustic guitarist
Maddy Prior, folk singer
Rae Morris, singer-songwriter
Victoria Hesketh, better known as her stage name Little Boots
David Atherton, conductor and co-founder of the London Sinfonietta
Media
Newspapers that cover the Blackpool area include the Blackpool Gazette, the daily newspaper covering the Fylde Coast area, known locally as The Gazette. They also publish a free weekly newspaper, the Blackpool Reporter, which is delivered to householders in Blackpool. The Gazette also publishes a daily online version in Polish, Witryna Polska (Polish Gazette) to cater for the local Polish community. The Lancashire Evening Post is a daily evening newspaper covering the county of Lancashire.
Blackpool has a pioneering publicly owned Municipal wireless network, Wi-Fi which covers the entire town centre & promenade & beach front. Full internet access is available via the publicly owned Municipal wireless network.
Local radio was provided by Radio Wave, a commercial radio station, based on Mowbray Drive in Blackpool, which covered the Fylde Coast area. This radio station closed and last aired on 20 August 2020. Blackpool also falls in the coverage area of BBC Radio Lancashire, Rock FM, Greatest Hits Lancashire, Smooth North West and Heart North West.
Blackpool Gay Radio provides a part-time radio service catering for the local gay community featuring a mix of music, local features, news and celebrity interviews.
Blackpool also has four music related internet radio stations:
Fylde FM, the Fylde Coast's largest internet radio station.
Radio Vibe 2001 - 2003 (Blackpool Fylde & Wyre), an online music service only.
Splash Net Radio
Lancashire's Lighthouse Radio (Part of LLR Ministries)
Radio Victoria, based in Victoria Hospital, broadcasts throughout the hospital.
National television with local opt-outs is provided by ITV Granada, the ITV franchise holder for the North West, BBC North West, the regional BBC station for the North West region.
Blackpool also has a dedicated local TV news service, That's Lancashire, part of the That's TV network, broadcast from their studio in Preston.
Sport
Boxing
Blackpool has two main venues for boxing fight nights, the Tower Circus Arena and the Winter Gardens, which both hold regular fight nights throughout the year. Events at these venues have been screened on Sky Sports, British Eurosport and Channel M.
Blackpool is home to many current and former professional boxers including Brian Rose (born in Birmingham), Jack Arnfield, Jeff Thomas (born in Dordrecht), Mathew Ellis (born in Oldham), Matty Askin (born in Barnsley), RP Davies and Scott Cardle.
Cricket
Blackpool Cricket Club are Blackpool's major cricketing team; they won the League Cup in 2013 and were National Champions in 1990. They won the Lancashire Cup on eight occasions between 1973 and 1996 and were League Champions fourteen times. Their home is in the grounds of Stanley Park, which also hosts Lancashire County Cricket Club.
Football
The town's professional football club is Blackpool F.C., who have spent 31 seasons in the top division and won the 1953 FA Cup Final. There are other, smaller football clubs located within Blackpool, including A.F.C. Blackpool, Blackpool Wren Rovers and Squires Gate.
Golf
There are three golf clubs in Blackpool. Blackpool North Shore Golf Club opened in 1904, moving to its present site on Knowle Hill in 1927; the new course was designed by Harry Colt. In 1926, an Alister MacKenzie designed course opened within Stanley Park; it is home to Blackpool Park Golf Club. The newest addition is Herons' Reach Golf Resort, which was designed by Peter Allis and Clive Clark and opened in 1992.
Rugby
Blackpool Borough were the first professional rugby league club in the town. However, they eventually folded after leaving the town in 1987. Blackpool Panthers were formed in 2004 and played in Co-operative Championship One. They ground-shared at Bloomfield Road then in 2007 at Woodlands Memorial Ground, the home of Fylde Rugby Club in the neighbouring town of Lytham St Annes. The club ceased to exist after the 2010 season due to lack of finance.
Blackpool Stanley, Blackpool Scorpions and Blackpool Sea Eagles are amateur rugby league clubs in the town.
The resort formerly held the now discontinued Northern Rail Cup Final at Bloomfield Road, a Rugby League knockout competition for all clubs outside of the Super League attracting many thousands of visitors.
Blackpool is currently home to the annual 'Summer Bash' rugby league tournament held at Bloomfield Road, where an entire round of Championship matches are played in the city to showcase the sport.
Blackpool also has a rugby union club, called Blackpool RUFC. Their home ground is Norbreck Rugby Ground.
Running
The annual Blackpool Marathon is staged on the Promenade each April. Thousands of competitors run on the closed Promenade, organised by Fylde Coast Runners.
Professional wrestling
The Pleasure Beach's Horseshoe Show Bar was home to professional wrestling events throughout the season, promoted by Bobby Baron. The bar shows were home to a "wrestling booth" where members of the public could challenge the wrestlers for cash prizes for each round they survived. These challenges would be taken by shooters, wrestlers skilled in the brutal submission holds of catch wrestling, which they could deploy to defend the prize money even against skilled amateur wrestlers. Booths such as these had been a foundation of the professional wrestling industry since the 19th century, and Baron's booth is reputed to have been the last of its kind in the world.
Numerous renowned professional wrestlers worked as carnival shooters at the booth, including future WWE star William Regal; his tag team partner Robbie Brookside; Shak Khan, who runs a catch wrestling school in the area; and future women's champion Klondyke Kate. The booth ended with Baron's death in 1994, although other promoters have since held shows in the bar. Additionally, the Tower Circus was a frequent venue for wrestling shows. A photograph of noted wrestling villain Jack Pye in action at the circus was, for some time in the late 2000s, displayed by the entrance to the circus. The tradition was revived by ASW when they promoted a summer season at the venue in 2008, and a similar summer season in 2012 at the Winter Gardens.
WWE held a tournament at the Empress Ballroom on 14 and 15 January 2017 to crown the inaugural WWE United Kingdom Champion. In attendance were Regal and Triple H, with the latter commenting to local journalists, "Blackpool has this reputation. It's easy to get to, a lot of people come here and when they come here they lose it and that's what we wanted. I almost feel like there wasn't really another choice." Tyler Bate won the inaugural tournament to become the first WWE United Kingdom Champion.
Several renowned wrestlers have invested in Blackpool. Kendo Nagasaki owns the Trades Hotel and KAOS Nightclub, Rex Strong (1942-2017) owned the Hadley Hotel, and Johnny Saint owned a block of holiday flats in the town. Shirley "Big Daddy" Crabtree worked as a lifeguard on Central Pier. He was reunited, on a 1979 edition of ITV's This Is Your Life, with a woman whose life he had saved.
Religion
Blackpool has a number of Christian churches, including 18 Anglican and 10 Catholic churches. Other Christian groups in the town include Blackpool Baptist Tabernacle, Blackpool Christian Centre, Blackpool Community Church, Kings Christian Centre, Liberty Church, and New Life Community Church. The Shrine of Our Lady of Lourdes is now redundant and is being converted into a community centre by the Historic Chapels Trust.
There were previously two synagogues in Blackpool for its Jewish population, now down to one. The Blackpool Reform Jewish Congregation caters to the Reform population and is located on Raikes Parade with a synagogue hall and classroom facilities, a purpose-built sanctuary hall, and an assembly room. Blackpool United Hebrew Congregation was an Orthodox synagogue located on Leamington Road with a synagogue hall and community centre. The synagogue closed in May 2012 due to a declining Orthodox population, with the final rabbi David Braunold having retired in 2011. As of January 2022, the building which formerly housed the synagogue was awaiting new use.
There is a residential Buddhist Centre in North Shore called Keajra Kadampa Buddhist Centre, which is a member of the New Kadampa Tradition. There are also two mosques for the Muslim population: the purpose-built Blackpool Central Mosque & Islamic Community Centre is located on Revoe Street and provides prayer facilities, while the Blackpool Islamic Community Centre (BICC) offers Islamic education.
Blackpool also has small communities of Bahaʼis, Hindus, Jains, Mormons, and Sikhs. The Blackpool Faith Forum was established in 2001 in conjunction with Blackpool Council to provide interfaith dialogue between the various faith groups in the town, to raise awareness of the various faiths in the town and to promote a multifaith community. It is linked to the Interfaith Network of UK. In February 2007 a youth forum was established, Blackpool Faith Forum for Youth (BIFFY).
Education
As well as 29 state primary schools and eight state secondary schools, there is also a range of activities for children and young people in the town. Some of these are delivered by Blackpool Young People Services (a part of Blackpool Council).
Shipwrecks
A number of shipwrecks have occurred on the coastline of Blackpool. The most recent occurrence was the grounding of the cruiser Coco Leoni in March 2008. Famously, in 1897, HMS Foudroyant, Nelson's flagship before HMS Victory, was grounded close to North Pier in a storm.
Crimes
Blackpool has experienced numerous high-profile crimes since the early 20th century. In 2012, Blackpool was identified as a "crime hotspot", and in 2016 was revealed as having the fourth-highest murder rate in the UK. Rates of violent crime, sexual assault and domestic violence exceed national averages.
In 1913, the "Brides in the Bath" serial killer George Joseph Smith drowned his second wife Alice in their rented room of a boarding house on Regent Road. He was due to be the beneficiary of a sizeable life insurance policy upon his wife's death.
In 1971, Supt Gerry Richardson, 38, was shot dead while chasing a gang of London thugs who had robbed a resort jewellers. The five-man group bungled the raid on Preston's Jewellers in the Strand. They arrived late and failed to check a back room where the shop manager had already raised a silent alarm connected to Blackpool Police Station. As the gang made their getaway they became involved in a high-speed chase through the streets of North Shore which ended with Supt Richardson's tragic murder at the hands of "Fat" Freddie Sewell. Supt Richardson was posthumously awarded the George Cross in 1972. Wounded Inspector Carl Walker also received the George Cross.
In 1972, Dr Ahmad Alami (the son of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem) murdered three sleeping children at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. He also stabbed two nurses and other children sleeping on the ward. Alami was diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic and judged unfit to stand trial. He was detained at Broadmoor high security hospital for several years before being released and deported back to his native Jordan.
In 1999, Stuart Michael Diamond was convicted of the brutal murder of a homeless 17-year-old heroin addict, Christopher Hartley. Diamond murdered Hartley and dismembered his body before 'dumping' the remains in a hotel 'swill bin'; Hartley's head was never recovered.
In 2007, the jury in the case of the alleged rape and murder of Blackpool schoolgirl Charlene Downes, 14, heard a police surveillance tape of Jordanian Iyad Albattikhi, 29, and Iranian Mohammed Reveshi, 50, allegedly detailing her stabbing, and her later alleged disposal in their "Funny Boyz" kebab shop's mincing machine by the prosecution. Albattikhi allegedly boasted that he had sold her remains in kebabs. Both men were acquitted of the alleged offence. John Bromley-Davenport, for the defence, said: "We have uncovered within the Blackpool Police force an astonishing catalogue of incompetence, failure to disclose, manipulation and lies, some of which were uttered on oath during the trial last year. If the jury at that trial had swallowed the lies and been duped by the manipulation then a grave miscarriage of justice would have occurred."
15-year-old Paige Chivers went missing in 2007 after leaving her home in Bispham. In 2015 Robert Ewing was convicted of her murder. Her body has never been found. Her father Frank Chivers was murdered in 2013.
On 25 July 2010, nurse Jane Clough was stabbed to death in Victoria Hospital's car park. Her ex-boyfriend Jonathan Vass, a paramedic, was later found guilty of her murder.
On 31 January 2013, 16-year-old student Sasha Marsden was sexually assaulted, stabbed to death and her body set on fire.
Notable people
Blackpool has been the birthplace and/or home to a number of notable people, including:
Jo Appleby (born 1978) – soprano singer with Amici Forever
David Atherton (born 1944) – conductor
Hylda Baker (1905–1986) – comedian
Dave Ball (born 1959) – musician (Soft Cell)
Zoë Ball (born 1970) – English television and radio presenter
Neville Bannister (born 1937) – footballer (Bolton Wanderers, Lincoln City, Hartlepool United, Rochdale, Fleetwood Town)
Ronnie Baxter (born 1961) – darts player
Lennie Bennett (1938–2009) – comedian
George Berry (born 1957) – footballer
Alfie Boe (born 1973) - tenor and actor
Charlie Cairoli (1910–1980) – famous clown, born in Milan but became famous in Blackpool where he lived from 1939 to his death in 1980. He is buried at Carleton Cemetery.
Joe Cardle (born 1987) - footballer for Partick Thistle
George Carman (1929–2001) – barrister
Frank Carson (1926–2012) – comedian
Violet Carson (1898–1983) – actress, Ena Sharples in Coronation Street, lived in Bispham until her death
Ronnie Clayton (1923–2007) – British Featherweight Boxing Champion 1947–54, twice Lonsdale Belt winner
Jimmy Clitheroe (1921–1973) – British comedy actor, lived most of his life in the Greenlands area on Bispham Road, Blackpool, where he died in 1973
Jenna Coleman (born 1986) – actress (Emmerdale, Waterloo Road, Titanic, Doctor Who)
Alistair Cooke (1908–2004) – journalist and commentator
Jack Cooper (born 1980) - musician (Ultimate Painting)
Robert Crampton (born 1964) – The Times journalist, born and spent the first six years of his life in the town.
Steven Croft (born 1984) – cricketer
Reginald Dixon (1904–1985) – organist of the Wurlitzer organ at Blackpool Tower Ballroom
John Evan (born 1948) – musician Jethro Tull
Judy Flynn (born 1963/1964) – actress
Dan Forshaw (born 1981) – jazz musician
Aiden Grimshaw (born 1991) – X Factor Series 7 contestant
Jeffrey Hammond (born 1946) – musician Jethro Tull
Steve Harrison – award-winning advertising creative; founder of Harrison Troughton Wunderman
Roy Harper (born 1941) – musician
Barney Harwood (born 1979) – television presenter
Victoria Christina Hesketh (Little Boots) (born 1984) – musician
David Hoyle – performance artist
Edwin Hughes (1830–1927) – ("Balaclava Ned"), the last survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava in the Crimea lived in Blackpool and is buried in Layton cemetery.
John Inman – actor, lived in the Warbreck area near to Holy Family Primary School.
Matty Kay – footballer
Augustus Kenderdine – landscape and portrait painter
Cynthia Lennon – first wife of John Lennon
Jacqueline Leonard – actress
Ian Levine – songwriter
Syd Little – comedian (Little and Large)
Brian London – boxer
Joe Longthorne – singer
Chris Lowe – musician – (Pet Shop Boys)
Andrew Lyons – footballer (Crewe Alexandra, Wigan Athletic)
Sir William Lyons (1901–1985), founder of Jaguar Cars
John Mahoney – actor (Frasier), educated at St Josephs formerly on Newton Drive
Sir Stanley Matthews (1915–2000) – footballer (Blackpool F.C.) (the Seasiders)from 1947 to 1961. The 1953 FA win against Bolton Wanderers was called the Matthews Cup Final.
Gavin McCann – footballer (Bolton Wanderers)
Nick McCarthy – musician (Franz Ferdinand)
Stacey McClean – singer (S Club 8)
Vic McGlynn – radio presenter
Tony Melody – actor, lived in Greenlands area until his death in 2008.
Victoria Monks – music hall artiste (1884–1927)
Pauline Moran – actress
Aaron Morris (1991–) – comedian and television presenter, lives in Blackpool
David Morley – poet, professor
Janet Munro – actress
Graham Nash – (The Hollies, Crosby, Stills & Nash)
Bernadette Nolan – singer and actress
Coleen Nolan – singer and television presenter
Daryl Peach – World Pool Champion
Jodie Prenger – singer and actress
Maddy Prior – singer (Steeleye Span)
Peter Purves – television presenter
William Regal – WWE wrestler
John Robb – musician, author and television presenter
Nikki Sanderson – actress (Coronation Street and Hollyoaks)
Michael Smith – Nobel Prize-winning chemist
Robert Smith – musician (The Cure)
Frank Swift (1913–1958) – goalkeeper (Manchester City and England)
Hayley Tamaddon (born 1977) – actress (Emmerdale & Coronation Street)
David Thewlis (born 1963) – actor (Remus Lupin in the Harry Potter film series)
Ricky Tomlinson (born 1939) – actor (Bobby Grant in Brookside), (Jim Royle in The Royle Family), born in Bispham.
Billy Townley (1866–1950) – first player to score a hat-trick in an F.A cup final. Also instrumental in popularising Football in Germany.
Roger Uttley (born 1949) – rugby union player
William Watt – journalist for the Blackpool Gazette
Daniel Whiston (born 1976) – ice skater (Dancing on Ice)
Tony Williams (born 1947) – musician (Stealers Wheel and Jethro Tull)
Shelly Woods (born 1986) – elite wheelchair athlete
Scott Wright (born 1974) – actor (Coronation Street)
Tim Woolcock (born 1952) – painter
Lucy Fallon (born 1995) - actress (Coronation Street)
Twin towns/Sister cities
Blackpool is twinned with:
Bottrop, Germany
Sanya, China
Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Blackpool.
Individuals
William Henry Cocker : 19 June 1897.
Joseph Heap : 19 November 1907.
John Bickerstaffe : 6 February 1912.
James Fish : 6 February 1912.
James Ward : 16 November 1914.
Robert Butcher Mather : 16 November 1914.
John Grime : 3 November 1915.
James Heyes : 3 November 1915.
Rt Hon David Lloyd George : 6 August 1918.
Brigadier General Thomas Edward Topping : 2 August 1922.
Thomas Bickerstaffe : 4 August 1926.
Sir Lindsay Parkinson : 4 August 1926.
William Henry Broadhead : 4 August 1926.
Henry Brown : 3 October 1928.
Samuel Hill : 3 October 1928.
John Collins : 3 October 1928.
Thomas Fielding : 3 October 1928.
Rt Hon Lord Derby : 1 August 1934.
Rt Hon Lord Stamp : 23 March 1937.
Sir Cuthbert Cartwright Grundy : 31 January 1938.
Rt Hon Sir Winston Churchill : 4 September 1946.
Field Marshal Rt Hon Lord Montgomery of Alamein : 21 July 1948.
Eli Hey Howe : 3 March 1950.
Tom Gallon Lumb : 3 March 1950.
Thomas Fenton : 3 March 1950.
Sir Harold R Grime : 3 March 1950.
Rhodes William Marshall : 2 May 1973.
Harold Grimbledeston : 2 May 1973.
Ernest Alfred Machin : 2 May 1973.
Joseph Shepherd Richardson : 2 May 1973.
Leonard Broughton : 2 May 1973.
Raymond Jacobs : 25 June 1984.
Walter Uriah Robinson : 25 June 1984.
Harold Leslie Hoyle : 25 June 1984.
Percy Patrick Hall : 25 June 1984.
Stanley Harding Mortensen: 29 November 1989.
Lilian Doris Thompson : 9 April 2003.
James Christopher Armfield : 9 April 2003.
Military Units
R (Blackpool) Battery 288 (2nd West Lancashire) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery, Territorial Army: 1961.
HMS Penelope RN: 1990.
12th Regiment Royal Artillery: 2005.
The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment: 2017.
HMS Triumph RN: 2017.
See also
Listed buildings in Blackpool
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Business in Blackpool
Blackpool Council
Blackpool Entertainment Venues History
Seaside resorts in Lancashire
Towns in Lancashire
Beaches of Lancashire | [
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232904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir | Coir | Coir (), or coconut fibre, is a natural fibre extracted from the outer husk of coconut and used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes and mattresses. Coir is the fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. Other uses of brown coir (made from ripe coconut) are in upholstery padding, sacking and horticulture. White coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets. It has the advantage of not sinking, so can be used in long lengths in deep water without the added weight dragging down boats and buoys.
Coir must not be confused with coir pith, which is the powdery and spongy material resulting from the processing of the coir fibre. Coir fibre is locally named 'coprah' in some countries, adding to confusion. Pith is chemically similar to coir, but contains much shorter fibers. The name coco peat may refer either to coir or the pith or a mixture, as both have good water-retaining properties as a substitute for peat.
History
The name coir comes from കയർ (kayar), the Malayalam word for cord or rope (traditionally, a kind of rope is made from the coconut fibre). Ropes and cordage have been made from coconut fibre since ancient times. The Austronesian peoples, who first domesticated coconuts, used coconut fibre extensively for ropes and sennit in building houses and lashed-lug plank boats in their voyages in both the Pacific and the Indian Oceans.
Later Indian and Arab navigators who sailed the seas to Malaya, China, and the Persian Gulf centuries ago also used coir for their ship ropes. Arab writers of the 11th century AD referred to the extensive use of coir for ship ropes and rigging.
A coir industry in the UK was recorded before the second half of the 19th century. During 1840, Captain Widely, in co-operation with Captain Logan and Mr. Thomas Treloar, founded the known carpet firms of Treloar and Sons in Ludgate Hill, England, for the manufacture of coir into various fabrics suitable for floor coverings.
Structure
Coir fibres are found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. The individual fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls. Each cell is about long and in diameter. Fibres are typically long. The two varieties of coir are brown and white. Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. Mature brown coir fibres contain more lignin and less cellulose than fibres such as flax and cotton, so are stronger but less flexible. White coir fibres harvested from coconuts before they are ripe are white or light brown in color and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are generally spun to make yarn used in mats or rope.
The coir fibre is relatively waterproof, and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by saltwater. Fresh water is used to process brown coir, while seawater and fresh water are both used in the production of white coir.
Processing
Green coconuts, harvested after about six to 12 months on the palm, contain pliable white fibres. Brown fibre is instead obtained by harvesting fully mature coconuts when the nutritious layer surrounding the seed is ready to be processed into copra and desiccated coconut. The fibrous layer of the fruit is then separated from the hard shell (manually) by driving the fruit down onto a spike to split it (dehusking). A well-seasoned husker can manually separate 2,000 coconuts per day. Machines are now available which crush the whole fruit to give the loose fibres. These machines can process up to 2,000 coconuts per hour.
Brown fibre
The fibrous husks are soaked in pits or in nets in a slow-moving body of water to swell and soften the fibres. The long bristle fibres are separated from the shorter mattress fibres underneath the skin of the nut, a process known as wet-milling.
The mattress fibres are sifted to remove dirt and other rubbish, dried in the sun and packed into bales. Some mattress fibre is allowed to retain more moisture so it retains its elasticity for twisted fibre production. The coir fibre is elastic enough to twist without breaking and it holds a curl as though permanently waved. Twisting is done by simply making a rope of the hank of fibre and twisting it using a machine or by hand.
The longer bristle fibre is washed in clean water and then dried before being tied into bundles or hanks. It may then be cleaned and 'hackled' by steel combs to straighten the fibres and remove any shorter fibre pieces. Coir bristle fibre can also be bleached and dyed to obtain hanks of different colours.
White fibre
The immature husks are suspended in a river or water-filled pit for up to ten months. During this time, micro-organisms break down the plant tissues surrounding the fibres to loosen them — a process known as retting. The segments of the husk are then beaten with iron rods to separate out the long fibres which are subsequently dried and cleaned. Cleaned fibre is ready for spinning into yarn using a simple one-handed system or a spinning wheel.
In 2009, researchers at CSIR's National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram developed a biological process for the extraction of coir fibre from coconut husk without polluting the environment. The technology uses enzymes to separate the fibres by converting and solubilizing plant compounds to curb the pollution of waters caused by retting of husks.
Buffering
Because coir pith is high in sodium and potassium, it is treated before use as a growth medium for plants or fungi by soaking in a calcium buffering solution; most coir sold for growing purposes is said to be pre-treated. Once any remaining salts have been leached out of the coir pith, it and the cocochips become suitable substrates for cultivating fungi. Coir is naturally rich in potassium, which can lead to magnesium and calcium deficiencies in soilless horticultural media. Coir fiber is rarely used as a potting material, except for orchids, and does not need buffering, as it has a very low cation-exchange capacity (CEC) capacity, hence not retaining salts.
Coir does provide a suitable substrate for horticultural use as a soilless potting medium. The material's high lignin content is longer-lasting, holds more water, and does not shrink off the sides of the pot when dry allowing for easier rewetting. This light media has advantages and disadvantages that can be corrected with the addition of the proper amendment such as coarse sand for weight in interior plants like Draceana. Nutritive amendments should also be considered. Calcium and magnesium will be lacking in coir potting mixes, so a naturally good source of these nutrients is dolomitic lime which contains both. pH is of utmost importance as coir pith tends to have a high pH after some months of use, resulting in plant stunting and multiple deficiencies. Coir also has the disadvantage of being extremely sensitive to the Leucocoprinus greenhouse fungus. The addition of beneficial microbes to the coir media have been successful in tropical green house conditions and interior spaces as well. However, it is important to note that the microbes will engage in growth and reproduction under moist atmospheres producing fruiting bodies (mushrooms).
Bristle coir
Bristle coir is the longest variety of coir fibre. It is manufactured from retted coconut husks through a process called defibering. The coir fibre thus extracted is then combed using steel combs to make the fibre clean and to remove short fibres. Bristle coir fibre is used as bristles in brushes for domestic and industrial applications.
Uses
Cordage, packaging, bedding, flooring, and others
Red coir is used in floor mats and doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles and sacking. A small amount is also made into twine. Pads of curled brown coir fibre, made by needle-felting (a machine technique that mats the fibres together), are shaped and cut to fill mattresses and for use in erosion control on river banks and hillsides. A major proportion of brown coir pads are sprayed with rubber latex which bonds the fibres together (rubberised coir) to be used as upholstery padding for the automobile industry in Europe. The material is also used for packaging.
The major use of white coir is in rope manufacture. Mats of woven coir fibre are made from the finer grades of bristle and white fibre using hand or mechanical looms. White coir also is used to make fishing nets due to its strong resistance to saltwater.
Agricultural and horticultural uses
In agriculture and horticulture, coir is used as an organic and decorative component in soil and potting mixes. Due to the increasing concern regarding the sustainability of producing sphagnum (peat moss) and peat from peatlands, usage of alternative substrates has been on the rise; the byproduct coir is one commonly used substitute. Many sources of coir however are heavily contaminated with pathogenic fungi, and the choice of the source is important. Coir is also useful to deter snails from delicate plantings, and as a growing medium in intensive glasshouse (greenhouse) horticulture.
Coconut coir from Mexico has been found to contain large numbers of colonies of the beneficial fungus Aspergillus terreus, which acts as a biological control against plant pathogenic fungi.
Coir is also used as a substrate to grow mushrooms. The coir is usually mixed with vermiculite and pasteurised with boiling water. After the coir/vermiculite mix has cooled to room temperature, it is placed in a larger container, usually a plastic box. Previously prepared spawn jars are then added, spawn is usually grown in jars using substrates such as rye grains or wild bird seed. This spawn is the mushrooms mycelium and will colonize the coir/vermiculite mix eventually fruiting mushrooms.
Coir is an allergen, as well as the latex and other materials used frequently in the treatment of coir.
Coir can be used as a terrarium substrate for reptiles or arachnids.
Coir fibre pith or coir dust can hold large quantities of water, just like a sponge. It is used as a replacement for traditional peat in soil mixtures, or, as a soil-less substrate for plant cultivation. It has been called "coco peat" because it is to fresh coco fibre somewhat like what peat is to peat moss, although it is not true peat.
Coir waste from coir fibre industries is washed, heat-treated, screened and graded before being processed into coco peat products of various granularity and denseness, which are then used for horticultural and agricultural applications and as industrial absorbent.
Usually shipped in the form of compressed bales, briquettes, slabs or discs, the end user usually expands and aerates the compressed coco peat by the addition of water. A single kilogramme of dry coco peat will expand to 15 litres of moist coco peat.
Coco peat is used as a soil conditioner. Due to low levels of nutrients in its composition, coco peat is usually not the sole component in the medium used to grow plants. When plants are grown exclusively in coco peat, it is important to add nutrients according to the specific plants' needs. Coco peat from Philippines, Sri Lanka and India contains several macro- and micro-plant nutrients, including substantial quantities of potassium. This extra potassium can interfere with magnesium availability. Adding extra magnesium through the addition of magnesium sulphates can correct this issue.
Some coco peat is not fully decomposed when it arrives and will use up available nitrogen as it does so (known as drawdown), competing with the plant if there is not enough. This is called nitrogen robbery; it can cause nitrogen deficiency in the plants. Poorly sourced coco fibre can have excess salts in it and needs washing (check electrical conductivity of run-off water, flush if high). It holds water well and holds around 1,000 times more air than soil. Adding slow release fertilizers or organic fertilizers are highly advised when growing with coco fibre.
Common uses of coco fibre include:
As a substitute for peat, because it is free of bacteria and most fungal spores, and is sustainably produced without the environmental damage caused by peat mining.
Mixed with sand, compost and fertilizer to make good quality potting soil. Coco peat generally has an acidity in the range of pH - 5.5 to 6.5, which is slightly too acidic for some plants, but many popular plants can tolerate this pH range.
As substrate for growing mushrooms, which thrive on the cellulose. Coco peat has high cellulose and lignin content.
Coco fibre can be re-used up to three times with little loss of yield. Coco fibre from diseased plants should not be re-used.
Other uses
Oil and fluid absorption
Due to its superior absorption capabilities when compared to products made of clay, silica and diatomaceous earth-based absorbents, dry coconut coir pith is gaining popularity as an oil and fluid absorbent. Many other absorbents have to be mined, whereas coconut coir pith is a waste product in abundance in countries where coconut is a major agriculture product.
Animal bedding
Coconut coir pith is also used as a bedding in litter boxes, animal farms and pet houses to absorb animal waste.
Construction material
Coconut fiber (coir) is used as a construction material because the natural fibers are eco-friendly. Additionally, coconut fiber (CF) is resistant to thermal conductivity, is very tough, ductile, durable, renewable and inexpensive. It was observed in an experimental study that by partially replacing 2% of cement with CF, the compressive strength of the concrete is increased.
Biocontrol
Trichoderma coir pith cake (TCPC) has been prepared and successfully used for control of plant diseases. The dry product TCPC has a long shelf life.
Biosecurity risks
Coco fibre can harbor organisms that pose a threat to the biosecurity of countries into which it is imported. Coco peat has been imported into New Zealand since about 1989 with a marked increase since 2004. By 2009 a total of 25 new weed species have been found in imported coco peat. The regulations relating to importing coco peat into New Zealand have been amended to improve the biosecurity measures.
Trichoderma is a naturally occurring fungus in coco peat; it works in symbiosis with plant roots to protect them from pathogenic fungi such as Pythium.
Coco peat may be sterilized to remove potential pathogens and weeds. This may be done to remove contaminants in fresh material or to reuse old coir. Both heat (boiling or baking) and chemical means can be used.
Major producers
Total world coir fibre production is . India, mainly in Pollachi and the coastal region of Kerala State, produces 60% of the total world supply of white coir fibre. Sri Lanka produces 36% of the total brown fibre output. Over 50% of the coir fibre produced annually throughout the world is consumed in the countries of origin, mainly India. Together, India and Sri Lanka produce 90% of the coir produced every year. Sri Lanka remains the world's largest exporter of coir fibre and coir fibre based products.
See also
Coir Board of India
Fiber rope
International Year of Natural Fibres 2009
Coconut production in Kerala
Natural rope
References
Further reading
KT Rammohan. 2008. 'Coir in India: History of Technology' in Helaine Selin (ed). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Vol. 1. pp. 596–600. Berlin, Heidelberg and New York: Springer-Verlag.
KT Rammohan and R Sundaresan. 2003. 'Socially Embedding the Commodity Chain: An Exercise in Relation to Coir Yarn Spinning in Southern India'. World Development. 31: 5. pp. 903–923.
KT Rammohan. 1999. 'Technological Change in Kerala Industry: Lessons from Coir Yarn Spinning. Thiruvananthapuram: CDS Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development.
External links
Coconuts
Fiber plants
Horticulture
Malayalam terms
Non-food crops | [
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232905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching | Code-switching | In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation or situation. Multilinguals (speakers of more than one language) sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with the syntax and phonology of each variety. There are several different reasons why code-switching is beneficial which are listed below in addition to different types of code switching and theories behind it.
Use
The earliest known use of the term code-switching in print was by Lucy Shepard Freeland in her 1951 book, Language of the Sierra Miwok, referring to the indigenous people of California. In the 1940s and the 1950s, many scholars considered code-switching to be a substandard use of language. Since the 1980s, however, most scholars have come to regard it as a normal, natural product of bilingual and multilingual language use. The term "code-switching" is also used outside the field of linguistics. Some scholars of literature use the term to describe literary styles that include elements from more than one language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers. In popular usage, code-switching is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two languages, such as Spanglish, Taglish, or Hinglish. Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic study, the name code-switching is sometimes used to refer to switching among dialects, styles or registers. This form of switching is practiced, for example, by speakers of African American Vernacular English as they move from less formal to more formal settings. Such shifts, when performed by public figures such as politicians, are sometimes criticized as signaling inauthenticity or insincerity.
As switching between languages is exceedingly common and takes many forms, we can recognize code-switching more often as sentence alternation. A sentence may begin in one language, and finish in another. Or phrases from both languages may succeed each other in apparently random order. Such behavior can be explained only by postulating a range of linguistic or social factors such as the following:
Speakers cannot express themselves adequately in one language so they switch to another to make good the deficiency. This may trigger a speaker to continue in the other language for a while.
Switching to a minority language is very common as a means of expressing solidarity with a social group. The language change signals to the listener that the speaker is from a certain background; if the listener responds with a similar switch, a degree of rapport is established.
The switch between languages can signal the speaker's attitude towards the listener - friendly, irritated, distant, ironic, jocular and so on. Monolinguals can communicate these effects to some extent by varying the level of formality of their speech; bilinguals can do it by language switching.
Distinguishing features
Code-switching is distinct from other language contact phenomena, such as borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and loan translation (calques). Borrowing affects the lexicon, the words that make up a language, while code-switching takes place in individual utterances. Speakers form and establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language form an intermediate, third language. Speakers also practice code-switching when they are each fluent in both languages. Code mixing is a thematically related term, but the usage of the terms code-switching and code-mixing varies. Some scholars use either term to denote the same practice, while others apply code-mixing to denote the formal linguistic properties of language-contact phenomena and code-switching to denote the actual, spoken usages by multilingual persons.
Code-switching and language transfer
There is much debate in the field of linguistics regarding the distinction between code-switching and language transfer. According to Jeanine Treffers-Daller, "considering CS [code-switching] and [language] transfer as similar phenomena is helpful if one wants to create a theory that is as parsimonious as possible, and therefore it is worth attempting to aim for such a unified approach, unless there is compelling evidence that this is not possible."
Not all linguists agree on whether they should be considered similar phenomena. In some cases, linguists refer to the benefits and disadvantages of language transfer as two separate phenomena, i.e., language transference and language interference, respectively. In such views, these two kinds of language transfer, along with code-switching can, comprise what is known as cross-linguistic influence.
Part of the debate may be solved by simply clarifying some key definitions. Evidently, linguists sometimes use different terminology to refer to the same phenomenon, which can make it confusing to distinguish between two phenomena from one another in investigative discourse. For instance, psycholinguists frequently make use of the term language switching in reference to the "controlled and willed switching" to another language. However, this term is hardly used by linguists working on natural code-switching.
Linguists adopted that code-switching involves switching between languages. But when a multilingual speaker fluent in the languages being alternated, can alleviate the contention behind this debate. This is so because language transfer does not require switching between language systems to be done by a multilingual speaker. As a result, this can explain for transfer errors, when proficiency in one language is lower than the proficiency of the speaker in the other.
On the other hand, there are linguists that maintain "that CS and transfer are manifestations of the same phenomenon, i.e. the influence of one language on another, is an attractive null hypothesis that can be tested in experimental settings."
Rationale
There are several reasons to switch codes in a single conversation:
A particular topic: People generally switch codes during discourse about a particular topic when specific language is necessary or preferred; alternative speech may better convey relevant concepts.
Quoting someone: People will switch codes while quoting another person.
Solidarity and gratitude: When expressing gratitude or solidarity, code-switching can occur inadvertently or with the intention of fostering a rapport.
Clarification: A speaker may engage in code-switching when listeners have difficulty comprehending specific words or concepts initially, or when the speaker does not know or remember the appropriate words in one of the languages.
Group identity: People may alter their language to express group identification. This can happen, for example, when introducing members of a particular group to others.
To soften or strengthen command: While asking someone to do something, code-switching works to mark emphasis or provide inspiration.
Lexical need: People often use technical or idiomatic speech from a foreign or non-primary language; code-switching occurs when translating such words or phrases could distort the precise meaning.
Unconscious effort: People may engage in code-switching without thinking about it. This can occur when one is frightened by a specific event or circumstances such as going on a thrilling ride at an amusement park.
To fit in: Code-switching is a useful tool for people to talk and act more like those around them.
To get something: When a person code-switches to a dialect, language, or accent of the local people in the area, he or she may get better deals, prices, or treatments when purchasing an item or service.
To say something in secret: Code-switching can be used when a person wants to relay a message to another person with the intention that no one else around them can understand if they converse in another language.
Types
Scholars use different names for various types of code-switching.
Intersentential switching occurs outside the sentence or the clause level (i.e. at sentence or clause boundaries). It is sometimes called "extrasentential" switching. In Assyrian-English switching one could say, "Ani wideili. What happened?" ("Those, I did them. What happened?").
Intra-sentential switching occurs within a sentence or a clause. In Spanish-English switching one could say, "La onda is to fight y jambar." ("The latest fad is to fight and steal.")
Tag-switching is the switching of either a tag phrase or a word, or both, from one language to another, (common in intra-sentential switches). In Spanish-English switching one could say, "Él es de México y así los criaron a ellos, you know." ("He's from Mexico, and they raise them like that, you know.")
Intra-word switching occurs within a word itself, such as at a morpheme boundary. In Shona-English switching one could say, "But ma-day-s a-no a-ya ha-ndi-si ku-mu-on-a. ("But these days I don't see him much.") Here the English plural morpheme -s appears alongside the Shona prefix ma-, which also marks plurality.
Most code-switching studies primarily focus on intra-sentential switching, as it creates many hybrid grammar structures that require explanation. The other types involve utterances that simply follow the grammar of one language or the other. Intra-sentential switching can be alternational or insertional. In alternational code-switching, a new grammar emerges that is a combination of the grammars of the two languages involved. Insertional code-switching involves "the insertion of elements from one language into the morphosyntactic frame of the other."
A portmanteau sentence is a particular type of intrasentential code-switching. It is a hybrid involving structures from two different languages in one sentence in which an item in one language as a bridge between portions of the sentence in languages which have differing word order typologies. It is more of a "syntactic blend" than the kind of lexical blend one sees in portmanteau words such as smog.
Theories
Social theories
Code-switching relates to, and sometimes indexes social-group membership in bilingual and multilingual communities. Some sociolinguists describe the relationships between code-switching behaviours and class, ethnicity, and other social positions.
In addition, scholars in interactional linguistics and conversation analysis have studied code-switching as a means of structuring speech in interaction. Some discourse analysts, including conversation analyst Peter Auer, suggest that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but that it is a means to create social situations.
Markedness model
The Markedness model, developed by Carol Myers-Scotton, is one of the more complete theories of code-switching motivations. It posits that language users are rational and choose to speak a language that clearly marks their rights and obligations, relative to other speakers, in the conversation and its setting. When there is no clear, unmarked language choice, speakers practice code-switching to explore possible language choices. Many sociolinguists, however, object to the Markedness Model's postulation that language-choice is entirely rational.
Sequential analysis
Scholars of conversation analysis such as Peter Auer and Li Wei argue that the social motivation behind code-switching lies in the way code-switching is structured and managed in conversational interaction; in other words, the question of why code-switching occurs cannot be answered without first addressing the question of how it occurs. Using conversation analysis (CA), these scholars focus their attention on the sequential implications of code-switching. That is, whatever language a speaker chooses to use for a conversational turn, or part of a turn, impacts the subsequent choices of language by the speaker as well as the hearer. Rather than focusing on the social values inherent in the languages the speaker chooses ("brought-along meaning"), the analysis concentrates on the meaning that the act of code-switching itself creates ("brought-about meaning").
Communication accommodation theory
The communication accommodation theory (CAT), developed by Howard Giles, professor of communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara, seeks to explain the cognitive reasons for code-switching, and other changes in speech, as a person either emphasizes or minimizes the social differences between himself and the other person(s) in conversation. Giles posits that when speakers seek approval in a social situation they are likely to converge their speech with that of the other speaker. This can include, but is not limited to, the language of choice, accent, dialect, and para-linguistic features used in the conversation. In contrast to convergence, speakers might also engage in divergent speech, in which an individual person emphasizes the social distance between himself and other speakers by using speech with linguistic features characteristic of his own group.
Diglossia
In a diglossic situation, some topics are better suited to the use of one language over another. Joshua Fishman proposes a domain-specific code-switching model (later refined by Blom and Gumperz) wherein bilingual speakers choose which code to speak depending on where they are and what they are discussing. For example, a child who is a bilingual Spanish-English speaker might speak Spanish at home and English in class, but Spanish at recess.
Linguistic theories
In studying the syntactic and morphological patterns of language alternation, linguists have postulated specific grammatical rules and specific syntactic boundaries for where code-switching might occur.
Constraint-based model: Poplack (1980)
Shana Poplack's model of code-switching is an influential theory of the grammar of code-switching. In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The free-morpheme constraint stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing. Generally, borrowing occurs in the lexicon, while code-switching occurs at either the syntax level or the utterance-construction level. The equivalence constraint predicts that switches occur only at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar. For example, the sentence: "I like you porque eres simpático" ("I like you because you are nice") is allowed because it obeys the syntactic rules of both Spanish and English. Cases like the noun phrases the casa white and the blanca house are ruled out because the combinations are ungrammatical in at least one of the languages involved. Spanish noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then adjectives, while the adjectives come before the nouns in English noun phrases. The casa white is ruled out by the equivalence constraint because it does not obey the syntactic rules of English, and the blanca house is ruled out because it does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.
Critics cite weaknesses of Sankoff and Poplack's model. The free-morpheme and equivalence constraints are insufficiently restrictive, meaning there are numerous exceptions that occur. For example, the free morpheme constraint does not account for why switching is impossible between certain free morphemes. The sentence: "The students had visto la película italiana" ("The students had seen the Italian movie") does not occur in Spanish-English code-switching, yet the free-morpheme constraint would seem to posit that it can. The equivalence constraint would also rule out switches that occur commonly in languages, as when Hindi postpositional phrases are switched with English prepositional phrases like in the sentence: "John gave a book ek larakii ko" ("John gave a book to a girl"). The phrase ek larakii ko is literally translated as a girl to, making it ungrammatical in English, and yet this is a sentence that occurs in English-Hindi code-switching despite the requirements of the equivalence constraint. The Sankoff and Poplack model only identifies points at which switching is blocked, as opposed to explaining which constituents can be switched and why.
Matrix language-frame model
Carol Myers-Scotton's Matrix Language-Frame (MLF) model is the dominant model of insertional code-switching. The MLF model posits that there is a Matrix Language (ML) and an Embedded Language (EL). In this case, elements of the Embedded Language are inserted into the morphosyntactic frame of the Matrix Language. The hypotheses are as follows (Myers-Scotton 1993b: 7):
The Matrix Language Hypothesis states that those grammatical procedures in the central structure in the language production system which account for the surface structure of the Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituent (linguistics) are only Matrix Language–based procedures. Further, the hypothesis is intended to imply that frame-building precedes content morpheme insertion. A Matrix Language can be the first language of the speaker or the language in which the morphemes or words are more frequently used in speech, so the dominant language is the Matrix Language and the other is the Embedded Language. A Matrix Language island is a constituent composed entirely of Matrix Language morphemes.
According to the Blocking Hypothesis, in Matrix Language + Embedded Language constituents, a blocking filter blocks any Embedded Language content morpheme which is not congruent with the Matrix Language with respect to three levels of abstraction regarding subcategorization. "Congruence" is used in the sense that two entities, linguistic categories in this case, are congruent if they correspond in respect of relevant qualities.
The three levels of abstraction are:
Even if the Embedded Language realizes a given grammatical category as a content morpheme, if it is realized as a system morpheme in the Matrix Language, the Matrix Language blocks the occurrence of the Embedded Language content morpheme. (A content morpheme is often called an "open-class" morpheme, because they belong to categories that are open to the invention of arbitrary new items. They can be made-up words like "smurf", "nuke", "byte", etc. and can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some prepositions. A system morpheme, e.g. function words and inflections, expresses the relation between content morphemes and does not assign or receive thematic roles.)
The Matrix Language also blocks an Embedded Language content morpheme in these constituents if it is not congruent with a Matrix Language content morpheme counterpart in terms of theta role assignment.
Congruence between Embedded Language content morphemes and Matrix Language content morphemes is realized in terms of their discourse or pragmatic functions.
Examples
Hindustani (Urdu or Hindi)/English
Swahili/English
We see that example 1 is consistent with the Blocking Hypothesis and the system content morpheme criteria, so the prediction is that the Hindi or Urdu equivalents are also content morphemes. Sometimes non-congruence between counterparts in the Matrix Language and Embedded Language can be circumvented by accessing bare forms. "Cell" is a bare form and so the thematic role of "cell" is assigned by the verb -wek- 'put in/on'; this means that the verb is a content morpheme.
The Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis states that when an Embedded Language morpheme appears which is not permitted under either the Matrix Language Hypothesis or Blocking Hypothesis, it triggers the inhibition of all Matrix Language accessing procedures and completes the current constituent as an Embedded Language island. Embedded Language islands consist only of Embedded Language morphemes and are well-formed by Embedded Language grammar, but they are inserted in the Matrix Language frame. Therefore, Embedded Language islands are under the constraint of Matrix Language grammar.
Swahili/English
Swahili/English
Example 1 is ungrammatical (indicated by the leading asterisk) because "your" is accessed, so the Embedded Language Island Trigger Hypothesis predicts that it must be followed by an English head (e.g., "your letter") as an Embedded Language island. The reason is that possessive adjectives are system morphemes. We see the same thing happen in example 2, which is therefore ungrammatical. However, the correct way to finish the sentence is not "for wewe", switching back to Swahili; rather, it should end with "for you", which would be an Embedded Language island.
The Embedded Language Implicational Hierarchy Hypothesis can be stated as two sub-hypotheses:
The farther a constituent is from the main arguments of the sentence, the freer it is to appear as an Embedded Language island.
The more formulaic in structure a constituent is, the more likely it is to appear as an Embedded Language island. Stated more strongly, choice of any part of an idiomatic expression will result in an Embedded Language island.
The Implication Hierarchy of Embedded Language Islands:
Formulaic expressions and idioms (especially prepositional phrases expressing time and manner, but also as verb phrase complements)
Other time and manner expressions
Quantifier expressions
Non-quantifier, non-time noun phrases as verb phrase complements
Agent Noun phrases
Theme role and case assigners, i.e. main finite verbs (with full inflections)
Wolof/French
Arabic/English
Swahili/English
We see example 1 work because the French Embedded Language island Le matin de bonne heure, "early in the morning", is a time expression. (Also, it is repeated in Wolof in the second sentence.) In example 2, we see the quantifier a lot of is a predicted Embedded Language island. Here we see an objective complement of a finite verb begin with the quantifier.
Constraint-free approach
Jeff MacSwan has posited a constraint-free approach to analyzing code-switching. This approach views explicit reference to code-switching in grammatical analysis as tautological, and seeks to explain specific instances of grammaticality in terms of the unique contributions of the grammatical properties of the languages involved. MacSwan characterizes the approach with the refrain, "Nothing constrains code-switching apart from the requirements of the mixed grammars." The approach focuses on the repudiation of any rule or principle which explicitly refers to code-switching itself. This approach does not recognize or accept terms such as "matrix language", "embedded language", or "language frame", which are typical in constraint-based approaches such as the MLF Model.
Rather than posit constraints specific to language alternation, as in traditional work in the field, MacSwan advocates that mixed utterances be analyzed with a focus on the specific and unique linguistic contributions of each language found in a mixed utterance. Because these analyses draw on the full range of linguistic theory, and each data set presents its own unique challenges, a much broader understanding of linguistics is generally needed to understand and participate in this style of codeswitching research.
For example, Cantone and MacSwan (2009) analyzed word order differences for nouns and adjectives in Italian-German codeswitching using a typological theory of Cinque that had been independently proposed in the syntax literature; their account derives the word order facts of Italian-German codeswitching from underlying differences between the two languages, according to Cinque's theory.
Controversies
Much remains to be done before a more complete understanding of code-switching phenomena is achieved. Linguists continue to debate apparent counter-examples to proposed code-switching theories and constraints.
The Closed-class Constraint, developed by Aravind Joshi, posits that closed class items (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.) cannot be switched. The Functional Head Constraint developed by Belazi et al. holds that code-switching cannot occur between a functional head (a complementizer, a determiner, an inflection, etc.) and its complement (sentence, noun-phrase, verb-phrase). These constraints, among others like the Matrix Language-Frame model, are controversial among linguists positing alternative theories, as they are seen to claim universality and make general predictions based upon specific presumptions about the nature of syntax.
Myers-Scotton and MacSwan debated the relative merits of their approaches in a series of exchanges published in 2005 in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, issues 8(1) and 8(2).
Neuroscience
Bilingual advantage
Compared to their monolingual peers, bilingual children seem to have some advantage in non-linguistic tasks related to executive and attentional control. For instance, they are able to identify relevant visual information and ignore irrelevant perceptual information better than monolingual children. Bilinguals employ these executive and attentional processes daily as they need to quickly be able to select the correct vocabulary and grammar in context.
Neuroanatomy
Research has shown that the knowledge and use of more than one language alters both the anatomical and functional organization of the brain, which leads to different functional capabilities both in language and other areas. Certain regions of the bilingual brain have been repeatedly shown to differ from those of monolinguals in both size and neural activity.
One such study (Michelli et al., 2004) showed significant increase in grey matter density in the left inferior parietal cortex of bilinguals relative to monolinguals as a specific instance of experience-dependent brain plasticity. Another study (Coggins et al., 2004) showed an increase in the volume of the anterior midbody of the corpus callosum, which is involved in primary and somatosensory function, in bilinguals. The research suggests the increase is an accommodation for the increased phonemic capacity requirement of bilinguals.
Subcortical network
By using case studies of bilingual patients with cerebral lesions, researchers theorized that language switching relies on the inhibition of the non-target language using the left basal ganglia alongside executive control processes with the anterior cingulate, prefrontal, and front cortices, or bilateral supramarginal gyri and Broca's area. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has also been shown as significant in controlling language switching and inhibiting the unused language through observations of uncontrollable language switching in patients with damage to this brain area. Increased activation is seen in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during language switching, but not regularly.
Extended control process model
It is postulated that the language not in use is "active" during another language's use and can be primed by a conversation. That priming is what makes it difficult to pinpoint changes in activation within any given network. Based on various studies, it is shown that the immediate spoken context affects the likelihood of a code-switch; "prior utterances can influence the activation of lexico-syntactic representations, making such representations more available for selection".
The extended control process model states the following:"Language control signals operate on a subcortical gate that acts as a constructor of utterance plans. The gate interacts with frontal regions to select a syntactic structure and binds roles in that structure to a specific lexical content. Plans are constructed in the planning layer of competition queuing CQ network. The competitive choice layer of this network allows serial order to emerge from the parallel activation of items in the plan." The model hypothesizes that single language use and code-switching use two different types of language control, which is competitive control and cooperative control, respectfully. In competitive language control, the "gate" will only allow constructions from a single language to enter the plan. On the other hand, there are two forms of cooperative control: coupled control ("the matrix language temporarily cedes control to other language to allow intended insertion or alternation before control is returned back") and open control ("entry into the utterance planning mechanism is determined by whichever items from either language are most active at some moment in time").
Brain response
In a study published in 2001, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from native English speakers as they randomly named digits in English or their L2. The results of the study showed that participants named digits slower after a language switch, regardless of the switch direction. Language switches from the L1 to L2 were characterized with an N320 ERP, indicating inhibition of unwanted lexicon, which may reflect a greater need to suppress an active L1 when using L2. However, code-switching during language comprehension, as opposed to production, did not result in an N320.
A 2002 study showed that language switches based on expected endings to sentences (from context) elicited a response consistent with code switches being treated like "unexpected events at the physical level than at the lexico-semantic level. The more proficient the bilingual in L2, the earlier the latency and the smaller the amplitude was this positivity to the code-switch."
Limitations
The lack of controlled environments for test subjects and their cognitive capabilities regarding language use and fluency has long been a concern in multilingual experimentation. Researchers try to "offset" results that follow no trends by analyzing social and linguistic history of the populations they are testing, but a good method to standardize data patterns and variation based on individual idiolects has yet to be created and implemented.
Only a few studies have been done to measure brain activity during code switches, and so general trends cannot be expanded into larger theories without additional research.
Examples in conversation
In this section, segments that are switched from the primary language of the conversation are shown in bold.
African-American English and standard English in the classroom
Children growing up in African American communities, who natively speak African-American Vernacular English (AAVE), acquire a kind of bilingualism (or bidialectism) when entering mainstream American classrooms. Teachers and academic expectations they encounter require them to use standard, higher-prestige linguistic features for school assignments and classroom participation, often effectively leading these students to develop an ability to code-switch rapidly between nonstandard AAVE and standard English features. This can pose a processing obstacle for some students who have to navigate subtle grammatical differences between the two varieties of English when interpreting prompts and instructions (see, e.g., Terry, et al., 2010 on past tense copula was/were). Age is a significant factor in determining how many AAVE forms vs. more standard forms are produced by a given student with a significant downshift in classroom AAVE production occurring around the transition from preschool to kindergarten and first grade. Craig and Washington (2004) found a reduction in five out of six morpho-syntactic characteristics studied across the transition from pre-K to kindergarten including null copula, zero articles, zero past tense, zero plurals, and zero prepositions. The bidialectism developed by these children offers similar advantages to other kinds of bilingualism including increased executive function and advances in critical thinking. As an example of this code-switching in action, see the following transcript of Rachel Jeantel's testimony in the trial of George Zimmerman for the murder of Trayvon Martin below. This transcript was analyzed in Rickford and King (2016); the bolded elements represent places where initially a null copula (indicated by the symbol ∅) was used which was switched to an overt copula ('s) when asked for clarification by the court reporter:
Filipino and English
Code-switching between English and Tagalog (Filipino), as well as English and other native languages, are very widespread in the Philippines. Known generally as Taglish, it has become the de facto lingua franca among the urbanized and/or educated middle class. It is largely considered the "normal acceptable conversation style of speaking and writing" in informal settings. It is so widespread that a non-native speaker can be identified easily because they predominantly use pure Tagalog, whereas a native speaker would switch freely with English.
According to the linguist Maria Lourdes S. Bautista, there are two contrasting types of code-switching in the Philippines: deficiency-driven and proficiency-driven. Deficiency-driven code-switching is when a person is not competent in one language and thus has to switch back to the language they are more familiar with. This is common among younger children, as in the example below given by Bautista:
Proficiency-driven code-switching, on the other hand, is when a person is fully competent in both languages being used and can switch between them easily. It is the main type of code-switching in the islands. The example below is given by Bautista, taken from an interview with the television journalist Jessica Soho:
Proficiency-driven code-switching is characterized by frequent switching of the Matrix Language (ML) between Tagalog and English, demonstrating the high proficiency of the speakers in both languages. There are also a wide range of strategies involved, including: the formation of bilingual verbs by the addition of prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (e.g. Nagsa-sweat ako = "I was sweating"); switching at the morphological, word, phrasal, or clausal levels; and the use of system morphemes (like enclitics, conjunctions, etc.) within long stretches of ML content; and even the inversion of the verb–subject–object word order of Tagalog into the subject-verb-object order of English.
According to Bautista, the reason for this type of code-switching is what she termed "communicative efficiency", wherein a speaker can "convey meaning using the most accurate, expressive, or succinct lexical items available to them." The linguist Rosalina Morales Goulet also enumerated several reasons for this type of code-switching. They are: "for precision, for transition, for comic effect, for atmosphere, to bridge or create social distance, for snob appeal, and for secrecy."
French and Tamil
This example of switching from French to Tamil comes from ethnographer Sonia Das's work with immigrants from Jaffna, Sri Lanka, to Quebec. , who moved from Sri Lanka to Quebec as a child and now identifies as Québécois, speaks to Das in French. When Selvamani's sister, Mala, laughs, switches to Tamil to ask Mala why she is laughing. After this aside, continues to speak in French. also uses the word tsé ("you know", contraction of tu sais) and the expression je me pas poigner ("I will not be caught"), which are not standard French but are typical of the working-class Montreal dialect Joual.
Hopi and Tewa
Researcher Paul Kroskrity offers the following example of code-switching by , who are trilingual in Tewa, Hopi, and English. They are discussing the selection of a site for a new high school in the eastern Hopi Reservation. In their two-hour conversation, the primarily speak Tewa; however, when addresses the Hopi Reservation as a whole, he code-switches to Hopi. His speaking Hopi when talking of Hopi-related matters is a conversational norm in the Arizona Tewa speech community. Kroskrity reports that these Arizona Tewa men, who culturally identify themselves as Hopi and Tewa, use the different languages to linguistically construct and maintain their discrete ethnic identities.
Latin and Irish
Irish annals were written in Ireland between the 8th and 17th centuries by Christian monks and priests. These were fluent in both Irish and Latin and wrote the annals in both languages, often switching between them within a single sentence.
An example is given below, from the 9th-century Martyrology of Óengus:
Here, a spurious etymology of the prince Connadil's name is given.
According to the scholar Nike Stam, "Many switches consisted of inserted Latin fragments: short phrases or single words. Some of these Latin phrases appeared to be of a formulaic nature and seemed to have originated in the medieval catena tradition. They are often used to provide cross-references to other sources or to combine conflicting opinions on a text. These are phrases like ut in proverbio dicitur ["as is said in the proverb"] and ut ferunt peritii ["as experience bears out"]. Most of the language switches, however, consisted of what Muysken called alternation: longer fragments like clauses or long phrases. This type of code-switching has been linked to bilingualism in societies that are strongly diglossic, and thus suggests that the scribes compiling and writing the glosses preferred to use their two languages according to specific norms."
Spanish and English
Researcher Ana Celia Zentella offers this example from her work with Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilingual speakers in New York City. In this example, and her younger sister, , speak Spanish and English with outside of their apartment building. Zentella explains that the children of the predominantly Puerto Rican neighbourhood speak both English and Spanish: "Within the children's network, English predominated, but code-switching from English to Spanish occurred once every three minutes, on average."
See also
Bibliography of code-switching
Code-switching in Hong Kong
Cultural assimilation
Hegemony
Heteroglossia
Llanito
Macaronic language
Metalinguistic awareness
Metaphorical code-switching
Mixed language
Raciolinguistics
Register (sociolinguistics)
Respectability politics
Situational code-switching
Style shifting
Translanguaging
References
Language acquisition
Sociolinguistics
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