id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
233453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hingemouth | Hingemouth | The hingemouth (Phractolaemus ansorgii) is a small freshwater fish that is found only in west central Africa, the sole member of the subfamily Phractolaeminae of the family Kneriidae.
The mouth can extend like a small trunk, thus the name, and has just two teeth, both in the lower jaw. The swim bladder has two compartments, and can function as a lung, allowing the hingemouth to survive in oxygen-poor environments.
References
Kneriidae
Fish described in 1901
Taxa named by George Albert Boulenger
Freshwater fish of Africa | [
-0.3039020597934723,
0.1326339840888977,
0.07785831391811371,
-0.2034713178873062,
-0.0987507775425911,
0.44167283177375793,
0.5384055376052856,
-0.1829335242509842,
-0.3697586953639984,
-0.09532899409532547,
0.25355854630470276,
0.4348006844520569,
-0.678645670413971,
0.4415002167224884,
0.093224436044693,
0.6488639712333679,
0.7408838868141174,
-0.05402573570609093,
-0.5373063087463379,
-0.024007031694054604,
-0.43283239006996155,
-0.6041150093078613,
0.6219007968902588,
-0.14264734089374542,
0.2473478466272354,
0.41717270016670227,
0.4810124933719635,
0.09400395303964615,
0.4001123309135437,
-0.29318690299987793,
0.31330224871635437,
0.8366177678108215,
0.23304380476474762,
-0.20958536863327026,
-0.05443241074681282,
0.015240208245813847,
-0.018639734014868736,
-0.5290755033493042,
0.2004787027835846,
-0.3845759332180023,
-0.016483960673213005,
-0.07230674475431442,
0.037063900381326675,
0.525692880153656,
-0.23212778568267822,
-0.05003518983721733,
-1.3517364263534546,
0.3040951192378998,
-0.5970591902732849,
0.3072752058506012,
-0.29233428835868835,
0.2833470404148102,
-0.10026609152555466,
0.29372814297676086,
0.47247692942619324,
0.013422273099422455,
-0.7053371071815491,
0.17827831208705902,
0.285440593957901,
-0.31158673763275146,
-0.052108295261859894,
-0.12090897560119629,
-0.1271125227212906,
0.6268947124481201,
-0.2394142895936966,
0.8918410539627075,
-0.009538463316857815,
0.8043639659881592,
-0.35428234934806824,
0.2945234775543213,
-0.04715470224618912,
-0.15722531080245972,
-0.009192296303808689,
0.13135024905204773,
0.01721389777958393,
-0.014256956987082958,
-0.5357347130775452,
0.1118122935295105,
0.6275113821029663,
0.08517265319824219,
0.47330567240715027,
0.05112016201019287,
1.0067627429962158,
-0.20794513821601868,
0.21997536718845367,
0.2891577482223511,
-0.11641440540552139,
0.7172462940216064,
-0.4945017993450165,
0.6305638551712036,
-0.6542018055915833,
-0.2949525713920593,
0.09898414462804794,
0.29412686824798584,
-0.26835495233535767,
-0.322253942489624,
-0.021511832252144814,
0.2520007789134979,
0.9710171222686768,
0.47041693329811096,
0.265039324760437,
-0.5335713624954224,
0.28835785388946533,
0.1321411281824112,
-0.6920676827430725,
-0.1171225905418396,
-0.41187793016433716,
-0.4713832437992096,
-0.21332600712776184,
0.13136020302772522,
-0.8653377890586853,
0.5149965286254883,
0.24907952547073364,
-0.496279239654541,
0.4569907486438751,
0.5599600672721863,
-0.07822755724191666,
-0.4594535529613495,
-0.37836575508117676,
-0.2194175273180008,
0.6375740170478821,
0.37867724895477295,
-0.39106541872024536,
0.19751442968845367,
0.030248243361711502,
0.1994217336177826,
0.0781572088599205,
0.6863319873809814,
-0.5882582664489746,
0.2786191999912262,
0.33379438519477844,
0.6549724340438843,
0.20233605802059174,
-0.2665749192237854,
-0.5867606997489929,
-0.2810021638870239,
-0.27413785457611084,
-0.19942757487297058,
-0.08370187878608704,
0.4069276452064514,
-0.6524577140808105,
0.42772945761680603,
-0.7733195424079895,
-0.5521313548088074,
-0.14853432774543762,
0.3731151521205902,
-0.11719148606061935,
0.18790309131145477,
-0.016976812854409218,
-0.139727383852005,
0.48864421248435974,
0.6888376474380493,
-0.018826009705662727,
0.40870919823646545,
-0.5616908669471741,
-0.3728150427341461,
0.006776231341063976,
-0.5021015405654907,
0.30885690450668335,
-0.12365030497312546,
0.08953490853309631,
0.0477876253426075,
-0.6937392354011536,
0.4268530011177063,
0.24923087656497955,
-0.602256178855896,
0.21040397882461548,
-0.2614714801311493,
-0.056015752255916595,
0.3758234977722168,
0.11809642612934113,
0.24100644886493683,
0.5359964370727539,
-0.003748189192265272,
0.06651867926120758,
-0.5285969376564026,
0.41940614581108093,
0.27874821424484253,
0.6892744898796082,
-0.3164263963699341,
-0.9655668139457703,
0.02159227803349495,
0.4912135899066925,
0.14066076278686523,
-0.16605041921138763,
0.29801008105278015,
0.2585116922855377,
0.11808952689170837,
0.18062084913253784,
-0.28875163197517395,
0.11666151136159897,
-1.2105193138122559,
0.12406217306852341,
0.1487242579460144,
1.107547640800476,
0.11030609905719757,
0.33237048983573914,
0.1599612683057785,
-0.27543213963508606,
-0.30732670426368713,
0.013651685789227486,
0.0008032102487049997,
0.4712980091571808,
0.15201744437217712,
-1.5428286790847778,
0.5686555504798889,
0.15289191901683807,
0.06806207448244095,
0.2893764078617096,
0.2815435230731964,
-0.1754235327243805,
-0.6550453305244446,
0.14612837135791779,
-0.39553624391555786,
-0.17168767750263214,
-0.13354352116584778,
0.16469742357730865,
-0.1560923010110855,
-0.05950845405459404,
-0.22450844943523407,
0.6621341109275818,
0.08193475008010864,
-0.08073335140943527,
0.4546159505844116,
0.11007583141326904,
0.0982501208782196,
0.7126043438911438,
-0.03567842021584511,
0.6615513563156128,
-0.022028503939509392,
0.017885219305753708,
0.49486619234085083,
0.8720698356628418,
-0.6114729046821594,
0.4139833450317383,
0.22881972789764404,
-0.3936038613319397,
-0.5668783783912659,
0.22917477786540985,
0.14229899644851685,
-0.09404801577329636,
0.06057870388031006,
-0.8502306342124939,
0.3395102918148041,
0.7111667394638062,
-0.233382910490036,
-0.1586589813232422,
0.7918916344642639,
-0.6241262555122375,
-0.381248414516449,
0.3824446201324463,
0.7750207781791687,
0.3932441473007202,
-0.48930981755256653,
0.25246596336364746,
0.12084703892469406,
0.08976252377033234,
0.23851823806762695,
0.5027920007705688,
-0.0143875852227211,
-0.7479400038719177,
0.17511114478111267,
-0.19247078895568848,
0.21042445302009583,
-0.10177835822105408,
-0.13481351733207703,
-0.5130198001861572,
-0.5784851312637329,
0.2603469789028168,
0.2423558533191681,
0.18869644403457642,
0.5260937213897705,
-0.42168039083480835,
0.18881769478321075,
-0.6138641238212585,
-0.027217162773013115,
0.3571861982345581,
0.260105162858963,
-0.6048325300216675,
-0.5863250494003296,
-0.03204207494854927,
0.7827252149581909,
-0.09036813676357269,
-0.6262852549552917,
0.12242219597101212,
-0.2192104607820511,
0.295845091342926,
-0.23796504735946655,
-0.2300729751586914,
-0.7578668594360352,
-0.4233386814594269,
0.38886189460754395,
-0.04403733089566231,
0.635473906993866,
-0.8229464888572693,
0.2590194642543793,
-0.2920495271682739,
0.4912637174129486,
0.2553991973400116,
-0.5089256763458252,
-0.5061135292053223,
0.1993134468793869,
0.18339195847511292,
0.31793537735939026,
0.13269145786762238,
-0.49405917525291443,
0.04243883118033409,
0.13383881747722626,
-5.561144828796387,
0.32828205823898315,
-0.030174240469932556,
0.4111923575401306,
0.8148431181907654,
0.4289838969707489,
0.01682320609688759,
-0.17054139077663422,
0.23615701496601105,
-0.060563214123249054,
-0.04192283749580383,
0.5676575303077698,
-0.2764485478401184,
-0.18442396819591522,
0.43484845757484436,
0.010079261846840382,
0.09081902354955673,
-0.04892358556389809,
0.36523160338401794,
0.27236348390579224,
-0.11293969303369522,
0.0880127102136612,
0.2911246418952942,
0.43461450934410095,
-0.05835921689867973,
0.22636501491069794,
-0.255175918340683,
-0.45954427123069763,
-0.29752427339553833,
-0.5345619916915894,
-0.2090054750442505,
-0.5206839442253113,
-0.2750079333782196,
0.3567836284637451,
0.2604629397392273,
-0.14868924021720886,
0.25986582040786743,
0.24122077226638794,
-0.19867776334285736,
-0.8930405974388123,
-0.6085870265960693,
0.32927343249320984,
0.12346573173999786,
-0.0912131518125534,
0.5991385579109192,
-0.38142648339271545,
-0.15613317489624023,
-0.5493606925010681,
-0.20181897282600403,
0.7269852757453918,
-0.3585788905620575,
-0.272203654050827,
0.24103336036205292,
0.7818491458892822,
0.5652444958686829,
-0.1220490112900734,
-0.37111130356788635,
0.06681360304355621,
0.1803944706916809,
0.3549082577228546,
-0.25207623839378357,
-0.5906630158424377,
-0.8756985068321228,
-0.20648293197155,
-0.3461637794971466,
0.12973541021347046,
-0.5102337598800659,
0.44060251116752625,
0.18028885126113892,
-0.34052330255508423,
-0.6998888254165649,
0.5578980445861816,
0.24568159878253937,
-0.6458871960639954,
0.663129985332489,
-0.34632110595703125,
-0.1910226196050644,
-0.2473471760749817,
-0.4715177118778229,
-0.11939386278390884,
-0.11282866448163986,
-0.12750278413295746,
0.22932280600070953,
0.6620155572891235,
0.42435896396636963,
-0.9892275333404541,
-0.7094581127166748,
-0.18827831745147705,
0.49568042159080505,
-0.6276282668113708,
0.3160823881626129,
-0.32757335901260376,
0.45269036293029785,
0.13975560665130615,
0.3411726653575897,
1.0161181688308716,
0.5311596989631653,
0.2936941087245941,
0.2769630253314972,
-0.3302934765815735,
0.8532350063323975,
0.27393823862075806,
0.053334832191467285,
-0.09240640699863434,
0.36736389994621277,
-0.2055649608373642,
0.19855982065200806,
0.6062147617340088,
0.7219561338424683,
-0.4516542851924896,
0.05365917831659317,
-0.19813133776187897,
-0.8334420323371887,
0.4039650559425354,
-0.07029452919960022,
-0.05263833701610565,
-0.8619554042816162,
-0.19961677491664886,
0.6825839281082153,
0.26610201597213745,
0.3074982762336731,
0.6228391528129578,
-0.2903316617012024,
-0.5492496490478516,
-0.516791820526123,
-0.20573019981384277,
0.11853842437267303,
0.4056048095226288,
-0.6819146871566772,
-0.26821276545524597,
-0.17978535592556,
-0.13408347964286804,
-0.1440376341342926,
-0.4415402114391327,
0.10415137559175491,
-0.61100172996521,
0.24997498095035553,
-0.146027073264122,
-0.00632205605506897,
0.24419192969799042,
-0.10589978098869324,
-0.5177507400512695,
-0.37366724014282227,
-0.4999668300151825,
0.8359212875366211,
0.16920341551303864,
0.033131781965494156,
-0.22509941458702087,
-0.6343671083450317,
0.7607800364494324,
0.01798361912369728,
-0.08444404602050781,
0.12568536400794983,
-0.640901505947113,
0.2156389355659485,
0.39353665709495544,
0.3565238118171692,
0.2586628198623657,
0.03719290345907211,
-0.26890090107917786,
-0.007218074984848499,
-0.05526695027947426,
-0.7494049668312073,
0.30730879306793213,
0.15731677412986755,
0.8791177868843079,
-0.399250328540802,
-0.11670297384262085,
0.05357947200536728,
0.05965998396277428,
0.31083109974861145,
0.5008022785186768,
-0.6022234559059143,
-0.06672917306423187,
-0.145319864153862,
-0.23880763351917267,
-0.7116201519966125,
0.6732527017593384,
0.3066820502281189,
-0.22114698588848114,
-0.024954143911600113,
0.37314313650131226,
0.1922733187675476,
-0.4614555239677429,
0.7371240854263306,
-1.0312665700912476,
-0.32796064019203186,
0.20690396428108215,
-0.04431838542222977,
-0.27049514651298523,
0.5214883685112,
-0.12957517802715302,
0.5668189525604248,
0.066990427672863,
-0.038363635540008545,
-0.4148710370063782,
-0.21484623849391937,
-0.15169529616832733,
-0.005367993377149105,
-0.7787047624588013,
-0.13134276866912842,
-0.05983908101916313,
-0.3063703179359436,
0.35867929458618164,
0.11713481694459915,
-0.49516552686691284,
0.40383297204971313,
-0.5172419548034668,
-0.5365639925003052,
0.18911367654800415,
-0.05521625280380249,
-0.3282933235168457,
0.1941606104373932,
0.8761053681373596,
-0.5969845652580261,
-0.4667774438858032,
-0.08428096026182175,
-0.0955408588051796,
-0.2708745002746582,
0.2826074957847595,
-0.4211094379425049,
-0.38652828335762024,
-0.06848661601543427,
-0.25223761796951294,
-0.67923504114151,
-0.45039576292037964,
0.9181879162788391,
-0.17727002501487732,
0.24215590953826904,
-0.4945169687271118,
-0.1533345729112625,
-0.2827065885066986,
0.18803700804710388,
0.3421059250831604,
-0.4352071285247803,
0.04766060784459114,
0.24248245358467102,
0.3854737877845764,
-0.5988305807113647,
0.31030482053756714,
0.5354868173599243,
1.4660193920135498,
0.24893741309642792,
-0.1102883592247963,
-0.2421230971813202,
0.2954830527305603,
0.003254989627748728,
0.0012836875393986702,
-0.7459292411804199,
-0.03404846042394638,
0.6890010237693787,
0.3107708990573883,
-0.46866539120674133,
0.24460864067077637,
0.8736042976379395,
-0.9313766360282898,
0.16682083904743195,
-0.09310628473758698,
-0.0861944705247879,
0.7708535194396973,
0.2676461935043335,
-0.29805925488471985,
-0.15433529019355774,
0.12947282195091248,
-0.29633447527885437,
-0.5660399198532104,
-0.6940551996231079,
-0.5683826208114624,
0.4943002462387085,
-0.3629070520401001,
-0.24337974190711975,
0.21074412763118744,
0.6010584235191345,
-0.08634474128484726,
-0.1668033003807068,
0.17198504507541656,
-0.42274010181427,
-0.8604414463043213,
0.15191221237182617,
0.5325211882591248,
-0.4380860924720764,
0.00785006582736969,
0.060109589248895645,
-0.40713927149772644,
-0.06936909258365631,
-0.4372115433216095,
-0.246327206492424,
-0.16937226057052612,
0.04447144269943237,
-0.5378968715667725,
-0.47788554430007935,
-0.047407764941453934,
-0.3233783543109894,
0.0642620325088501,
0.37453967332839966,
0.5458319187164307,
-0.3436199426651001,
0.3531297743320465,
-0.5070891976356506,
0.21747827529907227,
-0.6888870000839233,
0.48319947719573975,
-0.0742279589176178,
-0.3086010217666626,
0.23274293541908264,
0.0402032844722271,
-0.2771104872226715,
-0.26932767033576965,
0.2523416578769684,
-0.1491895467042923,
0.4280245900154114,
0.2652187645435333,
-0.19561129808425903,
0.895010232925415,
0.2405148148536682,
0.4927945137023926,
0.2511298656463623,
-0.5497302412986755,
0.055470243096351624,
0.4349685311317444,
0.21696805953979492,
0.6654599905014038,
0.5553978085517883,
0.3948042094707489,
-0.16433291137218475,
0.21341444551944733,
-0.8707744479179382,
-0.09194839745759964,
0.64274001121521,
0.6396642923355103,
0.1439068615436554,
-0.5024446249008179,
-0.07556383311748505,
-0.027460580691695213,
-0.19378119707107544,
0.2843173146247864,
-0.006068165879696608,
0.008576175197958946,
0.028962107375264168,
0.6727930903434753,
0.3657627999782562,
0.4663035571575165,
0.03982454165816307,
-0.08586952090263367,
-0.06647505611181259,
0.16648727655410767,
-0.5071292519569397,
0.008352696895599365,
-0.08301692456007004,
0.0325898677110672,
0.3782518208026886,
-0.8224318027496338,
-0.16884484887123108,
-0.9084239602088928,
-0.5601420402526855,
0.7156288027763367,
0.04186571389436722,
-0.15548168122768402,
-0.3626643419265747,
0.24115557968616486,
-0.015623098239302635,
-0.326609343290329,
-0.36780574917793274,
-0.06262526661157608,
-0.7589111924171448,
-0.15861381590366364,
-0.37607988715171814,
-0.9890755414962769,
0.02401973120868206,
0.3240779936313629,
-0.2998392581939697,
-0.07985730469226837,
0.5781353116035461,
0.09185212105512619,
0.013951282948255539,
0.40639185905456543,
-0.2502514123916626,
0.23827649652957916,
0.09403988718986511,
-0.22359800338745117,
-0.6070888638496399,
-0.5100070238113403,
-0.30378222465515137,
-0.22985054552555084,
0.20459936559200287,
-0.39258328080177307,
0.5926221609115601,
-0.1574159413576126,
-0.7082140445709229,
-0.36525535583496094,
-0.16471321880817413,
-0.613991916179657,
-0.031522005796432495,
-0.09354177862405777,
-0.1866903305053711,
-0.5860809683799744,
0.08193841576576233,
1.1039148569107056,
0.13846060633659363,
-0.08024466037750244,
-0.30109164118766785,
0.2614763677120209,
-0.13674487173557281,
0.6722930073738098,
0.15593209862709045,
0.43998634815216064,
-0.09298400580883026,
0.7613406777381897,
-0.11691974103450775,
0.3455692231655121,
1.022583246231079,
0.8374150991439819,
-0.23793980479240417,
0.3180893361568451,
-0.06613843142986298,
0.16390398144721985,
0.15361180901527405,
-0.0314667783677578,
-0.187662735581398,
-0.020087866112589836,
-0.5140223503112793,
-0.5069153904914856,
-0.06328590214252472,
0.0777726098895073,
0.28623220324516296,
0.25503411889076233,
0.09733328223228455,
-0.17250917851924896,
-1.0654714107513428,
0.4660002887248993,
0.07901546359062195,
0.03680972009897232,
-0.7340545058250427,
0.006655850913375616,
-0.5046249032020569,
-0.08776070177555084,
-0.012063421308994293,
0.3772658407688141,
-0.04420920088887215,
-0.24407662451267242,
0.06034276634454727,
0.035483621060848236,
0.4288404881954193,
0.07971925288438797,
-0.19623006880283356,
0.3977470397949219,
-0.1480267345905304,
-0.6974573135375977,
-0.2991684079170227,
0.27722087502479553,
0.05376574397087097,
-0.6610619425773621,
0.19734808802604675,
0.24628078937530518,
-0.36932751536369324,
0.16978298127651215,
-0.11940079927444458,
-0.6236910820007324,
-0.03956730291247368,
-0.31408971548080444
] |
233457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched%20Earth%20%28video%20game%29 | Scorched Earth (video game) | Scorched Earth is a shareware artillery video game. It was released for MS-DOS in 1991, originally written by Wendell Hicken using Borland C++ and Turbo Assembler. Players control tanks to do turn-based battle in two-dimensional terrain, adjusting the angle and power of each tank turret before each shot.
Gameplay
Scorched Earth is one of many games in the genre of "turn-based artillery games". Such games are among the earliest computer games, with versions existing for mainframes with only teletype output. Scorched Earth, with a plethora of weapon types and power-ups, is considered the modern archetype of its format.
The game has a wide variety of customization options from gravity, wind, money, meteorite showers, and a similarly large pool of different payloads, allowing for a large amount of entirely different situations.
The AI players can display text messages before firing, such as "I shall smash your ugly tank!" and before dying, such as "Join the army, see the world they said".
The weapons range from small missile rounds to MIRV warheads to high-yield nuclear weapons. All weapons can be upgraded with tracers which allow the player to more accurately adjust the trajectory on their next turn. In addition to conventional warheads, there is also ordnance such as napalm, wildly bouncing bombs, and earth weapons - allowing the player to dump dirt on other tanks or to remove ground from beneath them. A tank which is covered with dirt has to shoot itself free and may get damaged in the process; one which falls from too high a level may be destroyed. A variety of utilities, such as deflector shields, recharge batteries, and tank parachutes, make it much harder to score a kill with a single hit even with the more bizarre and advanced weapons, adding another dimension to the game's tactics.
Projectiles can be manipulated in their flight-path by wind, shields and guidance systems, and sometimes have partially random effects. Walls may have a bouncing effect, wrap-around, or no effect, as may the ceiling. As the player advances in the game, they can afford more and more powerful weapons, as can their opponents.
The game can be played against up to nine other human players and/or computer-controlled ones. A broad range of differently skilled player types is available. If the player-controlled tanks are destroyed before the others, the AI-controlled players continue to battle each other, turning Scorched Earth into a zero-player game.
Versions
The earliest version is 1.0b. Public versions include 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, and 1.5, which was released in 1995.
Although, graphically, 1.0B looks similar to the later versions, in-game, its menus are completely different. It is also not as feature-rich and contained some different AI class names, such as "Rifleman" and "Twanger" (which may have been changed, as they are also AI class names in the slightly earlier artillery game, Tank Wars).
Starting with 1.0 in 1991, the game became shareware and is graphically what became Scorched Earth.
In version 1.1, more weapons were added, such as Napalm, Smoke Tracers, and Liquid Dirt as well as Joystick support and two new death animations among other things. Also in 1.1, a modem icon was added with the intention of including some form of net play in a following version, however, this feature was never implemented.
Nearly a year later, in 1992, version 1.2 was released which added, among other minor things, a new death animation and Synchronous firing mode. Versions 1.21 and 1.22 were released as very minor updates, both of which listed themselves as version 1.2 in-game and in all documentation except for the "readme" file. In early 1993, version 1.23 was released, and it identified itself as such in-game.
The last version (1.50) was released in 1995. In 1.5, the registration feature was removed and instead, only a shareware version was released freely while the registered version could be obtained through a mail order only. Purchasing the registered version allowed the player to use the triple-turreted tank as well as removing the shareware reminders. New to this version were lasers, SuperMags, and some scenery.
Reception
Computer Gaming World in 1993 called Scorched Earth "the most configurable artillery game I have come across ... the most playable and addictive", with "quite good" SVGA graphics. The magazine concluded that the game was "a bargain for its modest" $10 price.
In 2008, Mark J. P. Wolf said in his book The Video Game Explosion that this is "probably one of the best loved PC shareware games", as a popular early multiplayer "hot seat" game.
Legacy
In a 2005 interview, Wendell Hicken said that he talked to several publishers about developing a new official sequel. Numerous artillery games that were inspired by Scorched Earth include Atomic Tanks, Nasty Armoured Tanks of War, xscorch, and Scorched 3D.
References
External links
1991 video games
Artillery video games
DOS games
DOS-only games
Multiplayer hotseat games
Shareware
Tank simulation video games
Video games developed in the United States | [
0.12975075840950012,
0.3274883031845093,
-0.226144477725029,
0.17048272490501404,
-0.2162409871816635,
-0.4266318380832672,
0.19826029241085052,
-0.05026215314865112,
0.20983237028121948,
-0.11024913936853409,
-0.09941435605287552,
0.5004701018333435,
-0.31709325313568115,
0.04257489740848541,
-0.12404511868953705,
0.10964788496494293,
0.2615898549556732,
0.3227216303348541,
-0.48956429958343506,
-0.29445767402648926,
-0.16632673144340515,
-0.4289356470108032,
0.15652579069137573,
-0.5299227237701416,
-0.5564075708389282,
0.20823556184768677,
0.6382340788841248,
0.41912877559661865,
-0.018773827701807022,
-0.00930936448276043,
-0.11106251925230026,
0.6199607253074646,
0.2530256509780884,
-1.0305521488189697,
-0.17779013514518738,
0.07791194319725037,
-0.33936578035354614,
0.37788650393486023,
-0.19822682440280914,
-0.7282032370567322,
0.41594991087913513,
0.2781603932380676,
0.004306262359023094,
0.6600531339645386,
0.46249765157699585,
-0.2825966775417328,
-1.246412754058838,
-0.5569912195205688,
-0.4125881791114807,
-0.35978928208351135,
-0.3355502188205719,
0.46303752064704895,
0.15271282196044922,
0.22880516946315765,
0.421947717666626,
0.8742716908454895,
-0.34616485238075256,
-0.31844305992126465,
-0.020588889718055725,
-0.15696977078914642,
0.11509241163730621,
0.059366848319768906,
-0.08909354358911514,
0.012697270140051842,
0.04748225584626198,
-0.42314329743385315,
-0.37535756826400757,
0.8245911598205566,
-0.2006443440914154,
-0.5716049671173096,
0.04338710382580757,
-0.808917760848999,
-0.15615232288837433,
-0.22862608730793,
-0.022633839398622513,
0.03227385878562927,
0.7264476418495178,
0.289777547121048,
0.11671990156173706,
0.34940993785858154,
0.235025092959404,
-0.160538449883461,
0.8482807874679565,
-0.19900654256343842,
0.2780238687992096,
0.26351749897003174,
0.15238331258296967,
-0.07154401391744614,
-0.4924231469631195,
0.5806699991226196,
0.05275636166334152,
-0.4083232879638672,
0.4785923361778259,
0.22204555571079254,
0.5839167833328247,
-0.11209103465080261,
-0.20176437497138977,
0.45338064432144165,
0.23250703513622284,
0.68364018201828,
0.13560952246189117,
0.4119793176651001,
0.0077169411815702915,
0.21453335881233215,
-0.5586166977882385,
-0.3917715847492218,
-0.4847332239151001,
-0.7861891984939575,
-0.023827526718378067,
-0.3308066427707672,
0.11375202983617783,
0.6008985042572021,
-0.05229020491242409,
-0.07677303999662399,
-0.6432378888130188,
0.6256267428398132,
0.39766421914100647,
0.3398376405239105,
0.3036527931690216,
0.6766418218612671,
0.6939684748649597,
0.9713135957717896,
-0.28188714385032654,
0.5215733051300049,
0.3830472528934479,
0.8217177987098694,
0.6995536684989929,
0.37305572628974915,
-0.3720746636390686,
0.47219139337539673,
0.35818326473236084,
1.126861333847046,
-0.2709936201572418,
0.1466616839170456,
-0.19582310318946838,
-0.43069860339164734,
0.45552393794059753,
-0.07608738541603088,
0.2358466386795044,
0.310136079788208,
-1.1605243682861328,
-0.34723806381225586,
-0.46952205896377563,
-0.44381266832351685,
0.007231075316667557,
0.24955980479717255,
-0.83810955286026,
-0.3172380030155182,
-0.20578569173812866,
0.2608373761177063,
0.17332197725772858,
-0.1622997224330902,
-0.047856856137514114,
0.2722007930278778,
-0.5937366485595703,
0.8222517371177673,
0.12646830081939697,
-0.33319520950317383,
0.12015325576066971,
0.3545718491077423,
0.18644478917121887,
0.32405635714530945,
-0.042448531836271286,
-0.015387188643217087,
0.2606183588504791,
0.05339447036385536,
0.5518559217453003,
0.09670957922935486,
0.338472455739975,
-0.4242396056652069,
-0.6899438500404358,
0.3529604971408844,
0.20615020394325256,
-0.3175964653491974,
0.802732527256012,
-0.6753110885620117,
0.8499478697776794,
0.7301056981086731,
0.3309108018875122,
0.002868724288418889,
-0.6457776427268982,
-0.738259494304657,
0.5263388752937317,
-0.42432430386543274,
0.3605426847934723,
-0.16520723700523376,
0.04816213250160217,
-0.6093968152999878,
0.07365827262401581,
0.3787404000759125,
-0.7122108340263367,
0.046872906386852264,
0.62095707654953,
-0.002606779569759965,
1.2939367294311523,
-0.05725384131073952,
-0.9174097776412964,
-0.05985204875469208,
0.4014085829257965,
0.6327788829803467,
0.2983379662036896,
-0.008312352001667023,
0.19314509630203247,
0.15888676047325134,
-0.8059210777282715,
0.5968702435493469,
-0.12275003641843796,
0.12751980125904083,
0.08544012904167175,
0.9654955863952637,
-0.3481386601924896,
0.29153671860694885,
0.10317860543727875,
0.19045394659042358,
0.38756677508354187,
0.5488874912261963,
-0.8909726738929749,
0.3218702971935272,
0.42235004901885986,
-0.49718034267425537,
0.19012631475925446,
-0.017194543033838272,
-0.6028748154640198,
0.5252906084060669,
-0.47221529483795166,
0.2137266844511032,
-0.3946549892425537,
0.27718639373779297,
0.8719941973686218,
-0.9169661402702332,
-0.014904436655342579,
0.6888697147369385,
-0.00017767342797014862,
-1.017739176750183,
0.110380157828331,
-0.23807206749916077,
-0.22196269035339355,
-0.7180460691452026,
0.06003449112176895,
0.13549087941646576,
0.14287836849689484,
0.8671355843544006,
-0.6331855654716492,
-0.10863646119832993,
-0.0988498106598854,
-0.00538095785304904,
0.1929623782634735,
0.4562123715877533,
0.05067988485097885,
-0.3569108545780182,
0.27261021733283997,
0.2345491647720337,
0.5921209454536438,
-0.1793743371963501,
0.0510607473552227,
0.22292879223823547,
-0.4951329827308655,
-0.25602200627326965,
-0.5720792412757874,
-0.20028215646743774,
0.0335124135017395,
0.34839195013046265,
-0.5060017704963684,
0.31750160455703735,
0.08576671779155731,
-1.573826789855957,
-0.5828821659088135,
-0.1401752531528473,
-0.10861752182245255,
0.5803680419921875,
0.0440521202981472,
-0.36035141348838806,
-0.1548551768064499,
-0.7483119368553162,
0.23587094247341156,
-0.29424768686294556,
-0.6382580995559692,
0.5632542371749878,
-0.5151612162590027,
-0.44152089953422546,
0.506560742855072,
0.8184126615524292,
0.581551194190979,
0.21354565024375916,
-0.6624563932418823,
0.3951084315776825,
0.7973206639289856,
-0.2681964933872223,
-0.2360529750585556,
-0.07551127672195435,
-0.19693924486637115,
0.1826750934123993,
0.0993531197309494,
0.47728127241134644,
0.516477644443512,
0.3620947003364563,
-0.13323234021663666,
-0.4128339886665344,
0.41597962379455566,
-0.21813219785690308,
-0.4971460998058319,
0.25365641713142395,
-0.8517334461212158,
-0.4695257544517517,
-0.03991996869444847,
-0.6682348847389221,
-0.6455439329147339,
-0.3415083587169647,
-5.217305660247803,
-0.318319171667099,
-0.29887378215789795,
-0.27585721015930176,
0.17803548276424408,
0.21828210353851318,
0.2027158886194229,
-0.5707128643989563,
-0.16475893557071686,
0.2356247752904892,
0.24409711360931396,
0.3851167857646942,
0.4858374297618866,
-0.0023349847178906202,
0.7952561974525452,
0.10191403329372406,
1.1916753053665161,
-0.17523802816867828,
0.17380692064762115,
-0.5367409586906433,
0.06043373420834541,
0.4738091826438904,
-0.13306432962417603,
0.13153193891048431,
0.1499786376953125,
1.2352862358093262,
0.1339646726846695,
-0.19989487528800964,
-0.06271177530288696,
0.15827052295207977,
0.24172215163707733,
-0.29059338569641113,
0.1296192705631256,
-0.1416500359773636,
-0.6597354412078857,
0.3941415250301361,
0.6112068891525269,
0.5776895880699158,
0.4921010732650757,
-0.5138375163078308,
-0.31844058632850647,
0.10618815571069717,
-0.1177462562918663,
0.44883108139038086,
0.5785502791404724,
-0.9137009978294373,
-0.51217120885849,
0.14307329058647156,
0.1428813934326172,
0.6009960770606995,
-0.05895203724503517,
-0.04135042801499367,
1.0036585330963135,
0.6376153826713562,
-0.27294012904167175,
-0.3210218846797943,
0.40462127327919006,
0.2529149651527405,
-0.16076862812042236,
-0.11149310320615768,
0.49153006076812744,
-0.512356698513031,
-0.29860928654670715,
-0.552688479423523,
0.4713701903820038,
-0.3939027488231659,
-0.10397539287805557,
-0.4337368905544281,
-0.05395793169736862,
0.11539529263973236,
-0.5334720015525818,
-0.050453051924705505,
0.019534936174750328,
-0.7966546416282654,
0.7123614549636841,
0.2800327241420746,
-0.5165718197822571,
0.026531748473644257,
-0.2881595194339752,
0.2510374188423157,
0.1660880297422409,
-0.5386828780174255,
0.20273730158805847,
-0.34011200070381165,
-0.4024021327495575,
-0.3224455416202545,
0.14270730316638947,
-0.15360130369663239,
0.3518483638763428,
0.05062863975763321,
0.6028144359588623,
-0.4307897984981537,
0.5005016326904297,
0.4425809383392334,
0.5666203498840332,
0.9936777949333191,
0.6923879981040955,
-0.28369399905204773,
0.9004979133605957,
-0.255702942609787,
0.33929643034935,
-0.6696244478225708,
0.49688464403152466,
-0.5404056906700134,
-0.46575626730918884,
-0.02899780496954918,
0.23853763937950134,
0.045901283621788025,
0.701663076877594,
-0.00007166946306824684,
0.21869589388370514,
-0.24964793026447296,
-0.0007448819233104587,
0.2974436581134796,
0.059464894235134125,
0.09758903831243515,
0.10486438870429993,
0.8306516408920288,
0.5478087067604065,
0.05511357635259628,
0.014846443198621273,
-0.051525309681892395,
-0.03699268773198128,
-0.3619098365306854,
0.40298208594322205,
0.02489873766899109,
0.632502019405365,
0.20882126688957214,
-0.05304447561502457,
0.00297507643699646,
-0.018956415355205536,
0.4485713541507721,
-0.24973101913928986,
0.4283570349216461,
0.32925722002983093,
-0.5583012700080872,
-0.40468350052833557,
-0.19393885135650635,
0.44505009055137634,
-0.07619353383779526,
0.003901042276993394,
-0.9741585850715637,
-0.30542129278182983,
0.12379465997219086,
-0.03307797387242317,
0.13740785419940948,
0.25526389479637146,
-0.12761595845222473,
0.19707851111888885,
0.41908350586891174,
-0.48151281476020813,
-0.6208907961845398,
0.7053282260894775,
-0.4258078634738922,
-0.25194400548934937,
0.34809496998786926,
0.1601896435022354,
0.19578173756599426,
-0.349561870098114,
-0.806837260723114,
0.32003140449523926,
-0.13054054975509644,
-1.4653103351593018,
0.3715745508670807,
0.13832010328769684,
0.06771412491798401,
0.09874298423528671,
-0.4869489073753357,
-0.4120003283023834,
0.662556529045105,
0.43477705121040344,
0.04608995094895363,
-0.5904262065887451,
-0.1229315847158432,
0.7942273020744324,
-0.5451153516769409,
0.026652056723833084,
-0.16443125903606415,
0.24849826097488403,
-0.5760336518287659,
-0.1150483712553978,
-0.27750810980796814,
-0.26268959045410156,
0.03614697605371475,
-0.2121511548757553,
-0.6256543397903442,
-0.45749765634536743,
0.5272365212440491,
-0.4487757682800293,
-0.01815778762102127,
-0.21111077070236206,
0.6029022336006165,
0.6754062175750732,
0.3165473937988281,
-0.5030941963195801,
0.006654941942542791,
-0.12929636240005493,
0.4001106321811676,
0.08710240572690964,
-0.986257016658783,
0.2986064553260803,
-0.008028891868889332,
-0.4464395046234131,
0.24435566365718842,
0.5310547947883606,
-0.9080795049667358,
0.5958675146102905,
0.36234423518180847,
-0.4252914488315582,
0.32025086879730225,
-0.12712456285953522,
-0.4712270498275757,
-0.07014155387878418,
0.21946512162685394,
-0.08460181951522827,
-0.5752032399177551,
0.3593336045742035,
0.16824935376644135,
-0.46221059560775757,
0.34990397095680237,
-0.8280033469200134,
-0.10853909701108932,
-0.6370673775672913,
0.24351154267787933,
-1.0656564235687256,
0.5454866290092468,
0.478315144777298,
-1.0186104774475098,
-0.07292725145816803,
-0.18906572461128235,
-0.3351402282714844,
0.22842469811439514,
0.38869962096214294,
0.23487308621406555,
0.18169008195400238,
-0.16111934185028076,
0.1998925656080246,
-0.10480417311191559,
-0.3418698310852051,
-0.30337852239608765,
-0.2018178254365921,
0.29097411036491394,
0.21505726873874664,
-0.5113197565078735,
-0.13822323083877563,
-0.27913641929626465,
0.11097542196512222,
-0.4612993597984314,
-0.777647078037262,
0.20327064394950867,
0.253966748714447,
-0.20203819870948792,
-0.7926146984100342,
-0.4870510399341583,
1.0240906476974487,
-1.1775305271148682,
-0.17744219303131104,
0.28181886672973633,
-0.22797013819217682,
-0.270561158657074,
-0.10444314777851105,
-0.042902376502752304,
-0.98077791929245,
0.41950562596321106,
0.500106692314148,
-0.4148707985877991,
0.2980940341949463,
-0.7046409249305725,
-0.12822425365447998,
-0.09527802467346191,
-0.16137711703777313,
0.14882029592990875,
0.6373772025108337,
0.8356603980064392,
0.45621412992477417,
-0.4163759648799896,
0.1468612104654312,
-0.5120759010314941,
0.08571215718984604,
0.364717036485672,
-0.08778520673513412,
0.10151751339435577,
-0.07699547708034515,
-0.7449741959571838,
0.36481723189353943,
-0.4587855041027069,
0.016035402193665504,
-0.07374510914087296,
0.3593434989452362,
-0.41038715839385986,
-0.2403164505958557,
-0.09725465625524521,
-0.5246883630752563,
0.08654159307479858,
0.1916215568780899,
0.3308699429035187,
-0.5568500757217407,
-0.757584273815155,
-0.32286638021469116,
-0.10568650811910629,
-0.7902382016181946,
1.2724647521972656,
0.38124650716781616,
-0.22759278118610382,
0.8030481934547424,
-0.14694613218307495,
0.31872743368148804,
0.34121301770210266,
-0.4896602928638458,
-0.05512376129627228,
-0.1577122062444687,
-0.01883930154144764,
-0.025813590735197067,
0.8385006785392761,
0.222985178232193,
-0.10805141925811768,
0.6648414731025696,
-0.5501424670219421,
0.2860475182533264,
0.021811367943882942,
0.102794349193573,
-0.12072204798460007,
1.045702338218689,
0.44618794322013855,
-0.21000982820987701,
0.15396611392498016,
-0.24477314949035645,
-0.1452290266752243,
0.8507501482963562,
-0.5776547789573669,
0.5200415253639221,
-0.44227296113967896,
-0.668617308139801,
0.36388230323791504,
-0.3433966338634491,
0.4065067768096924,
-0.07768898457288742,
-0.2875487506389618,
-0.4529300034046173,
0.6041680574417114,
-0.011839261278510094,
-0.019568048417568207,
-0.016682490706443787,
-0.20688766241073608,
-0.657573401927948,
0.30847764015197754,
-0.26721566915512085,
-0.014546806924045086,
0.15491975843906403,
0.17076343297958374,
-0.41834014654159546,
0.4446524977684021,
-0.1891270875930786,
-0.6488253474235535,
-0.06277867406606674,
-0.7089902758598328,
0.22536875307559967,
0.12629325687885284,
0.1789640486240387,
-0.5344414710998535,
0.3014295697212219,
-0.1645091027021408,
0.1296808272600174,
0.09167218953371048,
0.3753342926502228,
0.09895441681146622,
-0.17535297572612762,
-0.07165049016475677,
-0.30316057801246643,
0.43587106466293335,
0.3400527834892273,
-0.06060665845870972,
0.08015350997447968,
0.31417322158813477,
0.2518462538719177,
0.29710981249809265,
0.20116138458251953,
-0.04123929888010025,
-0.074769526720047,
0.03309807926416397,
-0.4369005262851715,
-0.1600184291601181,
-0.5521110892295837,
-0.37925028800964355,
0.5516875386238098,
-0.40348586440086365,
-0.04059739410877228,
0.3372303247451782,
0.511883020401001,
-0.5097882747650146,
0.30289456248283386,
-0.5985981822013855,
-0.7260832786560059,
-0.2124028205871582,
-0.35082703828811646,
-0.5366231799125671,
0.35943859815597534,
0.5447548627853394,
0.20193621516227722,
0.27783912420272827,
0.24238891899585724,
-0.1961648315191269,
0.19067677855491638,
0.20795805752277374,
-0.4124220907688141,
0.06134656444191933,
-0.8409377336502075,
0.35326436161994934,
-1.4678364992141724,
0.1143173798918724,
0.1121140792965889,
0.270408034324646,
-0.17485859990119934,
-0.16635733842849731,
-0.5840262770652771,
-0.6747342348098755,
1.0836459398269653,
-0.5385885238647461,
0.06977681070566177,
-0.5555896759033203,
0.20071616768836975,
-0.7105897665023804,
-0.0724928081035614,
0.5812152624130249,
-0.08969302475452423,
-0.5260718464851379,
0.388249009847641,
-0.7386150360107422,
-0.5061632394790649,
0.2270471751689911,
0.19454975426197052,
-0.1825084090232849,
-0.24816414713859558,
0.042280152440071106,
-0.3775198459625244,
-0.4558362066745758,
0.8001810908317566,
0.4933355152606964,
0.35036027431488037,
-0.6030033826828003,
-0.20374779403209686,
-0.258908212184906,
0.2626402676105499,
-0.06801072508096695,
-2.1683664321899414,
0.05121849849820137,
-0.020485950633883476,
0.1947263479232788,
0.3489186465740204,
0.6652159690856934,
0.01878237910568714,
0.143095001578331,
0.4752192497253418,
-0.3745521605014801,
-0.10260599851608276,
0.21417032182216644,
0.0196964330971241,
-0.6091527342796326,
-0.047071631997823715,
0.6696837544441223
] |
233458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinking%20shears | Pinking shears | Pinking shears are scissors with sawtoothed instead of straight blades. They produce a zigzag pattern instead of a straight edge.
Before pinking scissors were invented, a pinking punch or pinking iron was used to punch out a decorative hem on a garment. The punch would be hammered by a mallet against a hard surface and the punch would cut through the fabric. In 1874, Eliza P. Welch patented an "Improved" design for pinking Iron, which featured a pair of handles.
The pinking shears design that are most well known were patented by Louise Austin in 1893. In 1934, Samuel Briskman patented a pinking shear design (Felix Wyner and Edward Schulz listed as the inventors). In 1952, Benjamin Luscalzo was granted a patent for pinking shears that would keep the blades aligned to prevent wear.
Pinking shears are used for cutting woven cloth. Cloth edges that are unfinished will easily fray, the weave becoming undone and threads pulling out easily. The sawtooth pattern does not prevent the fraying but limits the length of the frayed thread and thus minimizes damage.
These scissors can also be used for decorative cuts and a number of patterns (arches, sawtooth of different aspect ratios, or asymmetric teeth) are available. True dressmaker's pinking shears, however, should not be used for paper decoration because paper dulls the cutting edge.
Etymology
The cut produced by pinking shears may have been derived from the garden plant called the pink, in the genus Dianthus (the carnations). The color pink also may have been named after these flowers, although the origins of the name are not definitively known. As the pink has scalloped, or "pinked", edges to its petals, pinking shears can be thought to produce an edge similar to the flower.
The word "pink" can be used as a verb dating back to 1300 meaning "pierce, stab, make holes in".
References
Scissors
Sewing equipment | [
-0.07950512319803238,
-0.1630730926990509,
-0.21719038486480713,
0.16856153309345245,
-0.704258143901825,
0.551257312297821,
0.08188609033823013,
0.175664484500885,
-0.14733190834522247,
-0.23687438666820526,
-0.16150221228599548,
0.22299011051654816,
0.2034204602241516,
0.5752362012863159,
-0.3392166793346405,
0.6813015341758728,
-0.05554301291704178,
0.2558779716491699,
0.18485234677791595,
-0.18177549540996552,
-0.26447004079818726,
-0.6549907922744751,
0.9277430176734924,
-0.48528262972831726,
0.4676783084869385,
0.016175255179405212,
0.5385602116584778,
-0.09577623009681702,
-0.3611278831958771,
0.28338760137557983,
0.24445319175720215,
0.6913701295852661,
0.3710268437862396,
-0.6852109432220459,
0.19757667183876038,
-0.38207048177719116,
0.46111881732940674,
-0.16196852922439575,
0.0833163633942604,
-0.5184180736541748,
-0.2177550494670868,
0.000479722220916301,
0.6566399335861206,
0.4677794575691223,
0.02305511385202408,
-0.1518818438053131,
-1.778923749923706,
0.34200775623321533,
-0.4806199073791504,
-0.0668916255235672,
-0.6602792143821716,
-0.08857298642396927,
0.35869112610816956,
0.46527621150016785,
0.37336868047714233,
0.8100230693817139,
-0.49195003509521484,
0.1587589532136917,
0.38059717416763306,
-0.000600889790803194,
-0.028639625757932663,
-0.23806734383106232,
-0.24348120391368866,
0.6326637268066406,
0.25013813376426697,
0.5948505401611328,
-0.07590512186288834,
0.40073347091674805,
-0.7958651781082153,
-0.44529083371162415,
-0.024259597063064575,
-0.26193422079086304,
0.37919601798057556,
0.34266233444213867,
-0.029250549152493477,
-0.045886747539043427,
-0.5590174794197083,
-0.4799639582633972,
0.5752522945404053,
0.04716000333428383,
0.02006819099187851,
0.7108017802238464,
0.8778319954872131,
0.1596970111131668,
0.08265624940395355,
0.3181792199611664,
-0.375930517911911,
0.4868512749671936,
-0.18642762303352356,
0.40339118242263794,
-0.23297178745269775,
-0.29564589262008667,
0.6330010294914246,
0.2895053029060364,
-0.04299439489841461,
-0.2796035706996918,
-0.04822811484336853,
0.6608830690383911,
0.3923133611679077,
0.29130277037620544,
0.22914351522922516,
-0.03363887593150139,
0.8516393303871155,
-0.1204780712723732,
-0.24269245564937592,
-0.29956698417663574,
-0.4420871436595917,
-0.24951159954071045,
0.07316702604293823,
-0.5934402942657471,
-0.5237475633621216,
-0.01969139277935028,
0.22104017436504364,
-0.21547657251358032,
-0.2701604664325714,
0.1543709933757782,
0.4128011465072632,
-0.06318118423223495,
0.05674891546368599,
0.1267089545726776,
0.5229749083518982,
0.16892364621162415,
-0.4319179952144623,
0.1302378624677658,
-0.3154009282588959,
0.20575673878192902,
0.19951650500297546,
1.219359278678894,
-0.12570741772651672,
-0.06234188377857208,
0.42627784609794617,
1.0837726593017578,
0.017580734565854073,
-0.20049352943897247,
0.10204588621854782,
-0.7101765275001526,
0.18027539551258087,
-0.4002309739589691,
-0.10705983638763428,
0.18436524271965027,
-0.3967015743255615,
-0.1427529901266098,
-0.6387774348258972,
-0.662314236164093,
0.5079397559165955,
0.15454791486263275,
0.23092319071292877,
-0.5537604093551636,
-0.36612749099731445,
-0.18392616510391235,
0.32678771018981934,
0.05546629801392555,
-0.027535632252693176,
0.013758568093180656,
-0.005829054396599531,
-0.3061400055885315,
0.46028730273246765,
-0.406451940536499,
0.2381560057401657,
0.20517410337924957,
-0.8603901267051697,
0.12245506793260574,
-0.2654804587364197,
0.326987087726593,
0.21772606670856476,
-0.7108930349349976,
0.6455500721931458,
0.039110712707042694,
-0.11319481581449509,
0.8245508670806885,
-0.32467764616012573,
0.6268914341926575,
0.19711247086524963,
-0.13775518536567688,
0.6635856628417969,
0.0324835330247879,
-0.2983538806438446,
0.3029833137989044,
0.5524949431419373,
-0.540893018245697,
-0.8034774661064148,
0.631649911403656,
0.4584769010543823,
-0.01629166305065155,
0.2373160719871521,
-0.03680969402194023,
0.5121350288391113,
0.07905171066522598,
-0.26652321219444275,
0.047514528036117554,
-0.7105419635772705,
-0.6330311298370361,
0.2727123498916626,
0.028324443846940994,
1.1525318622589111,
0.4796880781650543,
-0.7018060088157654,
0.5977070927619934,
0.04265807196497917,
0.9866788983345032,
-0.047524694353342056,
-0.18527333438396454,
0.34030503034591675,
-0.34369704127311707,
-1.0703716278076172,
0.7863470315933228,
0.10006053745746613,
0.04867340996861458,
0.3663053512573242,
0.4950244724750519,
0.8007971048355103,
-0.8747541904449463,
0.250506192445755,
-0.21351557970046997,
-0.6383025646209717,
0.12695859372615814,
0.5497004389762878,
0.4232974648475647,
0.2511538863182068,
-0.57967209815979,
0.5287660956382751,
-0.09150082617998123,
-0.15097172558307648,
0.5678748488426208,
0.2614904046058655,
0.4716245234012604,
0.3220933675765991,
0.1873207837343216,
-0.19993290305137634,
-0.20140425860881805,
0.12664639949798584,
-0.171003520488739,
-0.20799623429775238,
-0.4633667767047882,
-0.2544797956943512,
-0.264110803604126,
0.05333912745118141,
-0.6666908264160156,
0.9110105037689209,
0.07729727029800415,
0.34549182653427124,
-0.273201584815979,
-0.05939425528049469,
0.29765212535858154,
0.4169292151927948,
0.20286105573177338,
0.12230268120765686,
0.4891911447048187,
0.25803104043006897,
-0.3874412775039673,
0.624996542930603,
0.6794560551643372,
-0.2493896633386612,
-0.5225761532783508,
-0.2460642158985138,
0.10736200958490372,
0.07154354453086853,
-0.21160605549812317,
0.24949774146080017,
0.09729813039302826,
-0.31802088022232056,
0.21671438217163086,
0.10597967356443405,
-0.22128969430923462,
-0.28629109263420105,
0.008391574025154114,
-0.4052155613899231,
0.2827724516391754,
0.7719418406486511,
0.02355240285396576,
0.39814016222953796,
0.4678846001625061,
-0.7859848141670227,
-0.6718135476112366,
-0.6636872887611389,
-0.6158677935600281,
0.040405046194791794,
-0.05453881621360779,
-0.8154323101043701,
-0.20106948912143707,
0.5865540504455566,
0.9181652665138245,
0.7081863284111023,
-0.25578412413597107,
-0.6582306623458862,
-0.6532157063484192,
0.6099562048912048,
-0.30580082535743713,
-0.3378453850746155,
-0.4776710569858551,
-0.43842944502830505,
0.4235822260379791,
-0.721523642539978,
0.13722357153892517,
-0.270224004983902,
0.14552126824855804,
-0.3024713099002838,
-0.4074819087982178,
0.5841277837753296,
-0.8788997530937195,
-0.2198425829410553,
-0.14994893968105316,
0.10734979063272476,
-0.623734712600708,
-0.2891537547111511,
0.011901347897946835,
-0.029213109984993935,
-0.5841235518455505,
-5.367550849914551,
-0.036309003829956055,
-0.6148368716239929,
-0.35502681136131287,
0.5058424472808838,
-0.29119768738746643,
0.6267518401145935,
-0.0685209184885025,
-0.3293341398239136,
-0.13686110079288483,
-0.3564015030860901,
0.3905830979347229,
0.07415670156478882,
-0.3672845959663391,
0.4860529899597168,
0.41816550493240356,
0.5062326192855835,
-0.6140289902687073,
0.2943386733531952,
-0.5152586102485657,
-0.11204039305448532,
0.13480672240257263,
-0.03384410962462425,
0.9821897745132446,
0.38117504119873047,
0.5676127672195435,
0.16238123178482056,
0.2933306097984314,
-0.4806930720806122,
-0.5038422346115112,
-0.12234019488096237,
0.09432868659496307,
0.08099745959043503,
0.019901644438505173,
0.11271356046199799,
-0.08086993545293808,
0.7070223689079285,
0.1576540619134903,
0.45501384139060974,
-0.2239326685667038,
-0.046179503202438354,
0.4826633036136627,
0.046335626393556595,
0.12443376332521439,
0.7612766623497009,
-0.01023179478943348,
-0.08031096309423447,
-0.21206435561180115,
-0.3662887513637543,
0.5249580144882202,
0.14667268097400665,
-0.19381076097488403,
0.3909909725189209,
0.33731311559677124,
-0.03939373791217804,
-0.1279505491256714,
0.4704079329967499,
-0.06515186280012131,
-0.8230608105659485,
-0.08072061091661453,
0.3937384784221649,
-0.6305583715438843,
0.16507449746131897,
-0.34955471754074097,
0.11785583943128586,
-0.8844285607337952,
-0.5779183506965637,
-0.031237343326210976,
0.4459490478038788,
-0.16476044058799744,
0.08014586567878723,
0.34867212176322937,
0.13351823389530182,
-0.7512496709823608,
0.4328295588493347,
-0.38620132207870483,
-0.13577570021152496,
-0.015795694664120674,
0.3016643822193146,
0.005655177403241396,
0.057740096002817154,
-0.4709467589855194,
-0.831781804561615,
0.7010775208473206,
0.0534396730363369,
-0.8205870389938354,
-0.33007848262786865,
-0.010126208886504173,
-0.02189033292233944,
-0.29247063398361206,
0.533674955368042,
0.06357674300670624,
-0.08688145875930786,
-0.5579977631568909,
-0.0723002478480339,
-0.38244426250457764,
0.41485944390296936,
-0.2371283620595932,
0.4419500231742859,
-0.42039763927459717,
0.34660518169403076,
-0.45826542377471924,
-0.2658805847167969,
-0.8047183752059937,
0.36286240816116333,
-0.4030687212944031,
-0.08153065294027328,
0.6130985021591187,
0.5824190974235535,
-0.3695792555809021,
0.17608970403671265,
-0.24049508571624756,
-0.40368103981018066,
0.31203219294548035,
0.19473592936992645,
-0.18513651192188263,
-0.5431736707687378,
0.32857075333595276,
0.26276591420173645,
-0.16727688908576965,
0.12561944127082825,
0.11638826876878738,
0.08580463379621506,
-0.44002318382263184,
0.3387679159641266,
-0.22807066142559052,
0.31890419125556946,
0.23158162832260132,
-0.4505459666252136,
0.3484898805618286,
0.5950902104377747,
0.18242132663726807,
-0.6809391975402832,
-0.37227684259414673,
-0.45523691177368164,
0.007736480329185724,
-0.6510607600212097,
0.24070049822330475,
-0.11792413145303726,
-0.12504610419273376,
-0.1400519609451294,
-0.08271124958992004,
0.111208975315094,
0.03206656128168106,
1.22236967086792,
0.9666027426719666,
0.09509110450744629,
-0.16211150586605072,
-0.728053629398346,
0.8270837068557739,
-0.39437589049339294,
-0.2848343253135681,
-0.044789791107177734,
-0.5634915828704834,
0.5641233325004578,
0.3461085855960846,
0.14849448204040527,
0.5946957468986511,
-0.6373010277748108,
-0.53779137134552,
-0.05305776000022888,
0.3858577609062195,
-0.5102483630180359,
-0.1873169243335724,
-0.05515413358807564,
-0.6954989433288574,
-1.100179672241211,
-0.08011400699615479,
-0.09768497198820114,
0.573665976524353,
0.22443272173404694,
-0.2125631421804428,
-0.7175373435020447,
-0.054350290447473526,
0.4022529125213623,
0.3844384253025055,
-0.24884586036205292,
-0.048785626888275146,
-0.01869412511587143,
-0.8762120008468628,
-0.1704031229019165,
-0.4624316990375519,
0.2429974228143692,
0.33189085125923157,
0.23260405659675598,
-0.5134607553482056,
-0.6875573992729187,
0.04440233111381531,
-0.8840869665145874,
0.5043227076530457,
0.10969178378582001,
-0.016849182546138763,
0.34948068857192993,
0.1696005016565323,
-0.7540507316589355,
-0.38303476572036743,
0.14605103433132172,
0.549813449382782,
-0.5012667179107666,
-0.7347341775894165,
-0.1239604577422142,
1.0950448513031006,
-0.421207070350647,
0.20003937184810638,
-0.13446447253227234,
-0.5873108506202698,
0.01814858801662922,
0.2349424809217453,
-0.9406633377075195,
0.08874049782752991,
-0.08484712243080139,
-0.31976518034935,
0.40222105383872986,
0.4074017405509949,
-0.2783353626728058,
-0.23526941239833832,
0.7825605273246765,
-0.19136913120746613,
-0.264391154050827,
-0.3487544357776642,
0.6343040466308594,
-0.7805471420288086,
-0.520126223564148,
0.2539129853248596,
-0.8619386553764343,
0.2022417187690735,
-0.009394478052854538,
-0.4621378779411316,
1.4742547273635864,
-0.295737624168396,
0.1550457626581192,
-0.18878893554210663,
0.3301939368247986,
0.556212842464447,
0.4745498597621918,
0.8359041213989258,
-1.2160327434539795,
0.49365806579589844,
-0.1912582367658615,
-0.19231213629245758,
0.8660208582878113,
1.0969860553741455,
-0.16046570241451263,
0.26392894983291626,
-0.45793774724006653,
-0.27199268341064453,
-0.07724827527999878,
-0.6858940124511719,
-0.604263186454773,
0.8606301546096802,
-0.11472967267036438,
-0.6965982913970947,
-0.15634673833847046,
-0.2982437312602997,
0.4223816692829132,
-0.09926485270261765,
0.13704341650009155,
-0.12696072459220886,
0.29110488295555115,
0.5410676598548889,
-0.5183953046798706,
0.20983822643756866,
-0.2544518709182739,
0.5361045002937317,
-0.03724938631057739,
0.22018417716026306,
-0.33501461148262024,
-0.44789963960647583,
0.5007533431053162,
-0.0900438204407692,
-0.09801165014505386,
-0.3135938346385956,
0.3859776556491852,
-0.074987031519413,
0.07962989807128906,
0.10742517560720444,
-0.23246675729751587,
-0.39818310737609863,
-0.21247124671936035,
-0.8235775232315063,
0.12072566151618958,
-0.19600246846675873,
0.3868529796600342,
-0.8770341277122498,
-0.4053446650505066,
0.13139009475708008,
-0.20095691084861755,
-0.29118612408638,
-0.860599160194397,
-0.23440220952033997,
0.112260602414608,
-0.006495494861155748,
-0.11480540037155151,
0.463984876871109,
0.020473474636673927,
0.6530557870864868,
-0.06423773616552353,
0.27339237928390503,
-0.25861111283302307,
0.31971657276153564,
-0.11967078596353531,
0.8222920894622803,
-0.11189968138933182,
-0.7332980632781982,
0.42688417434692383,
0.17592640221118927,
0.07531097531318665,
0.17354661226272583,
0.5141046643257141,
0.402312308549881,
-0.013972547836601734,
0.1458999514579773,
-0.09603048115968704,
0.5899198651313782,
0.07231489568948746,
-0.5470789670944214,
0.5850841403007507,
-0.02031581662595272,
0.028960300609469414,
0.6326667070388794,
-0.21589423716068268,
-0.02644646167755127,
1.112021565437317,
0.046713847666978836,
-1.0130770206451416,
0.46335339546203613,
-0.38153594732284546,
-0.2756972312927246,
0.48250964283943176,
0.4915383756160736,
0.35740044713020325,
0.4615904986858368,
-0.5885817408561707,
0.2876953184604645,
0.19410520792007446,
-0.176235631108284,
-0.12266212701797485,
-0.11956246942281723,
0.2716560363769531,
0.8182349801063538,
0.49554023146629333,
0.674866259098053,
0.12011447548866272,
-0.12525558471679688,
0.322731077671051,
0.1782928854227066,
0.00619660085067153,
0.3286946415901184,
0.12308598309755325,
-0.1955484300851822,
0.16470006108283997,
-0.0609535351395607,
0.7554237842559814,
-0.5871226191520691,
0.21817657351493835,
-0.4137492775917053,
-0.05161237716674805,
-0.2718774080276489,
-0.4606899619102478,
-0.7155494093894958,
-0.31758934259414673,
-0.27765268087387085,
-0.1511451005935669,
-0.769260823726654,
-0.4714492857456207,
-0.19735382497310638,
0.35611504316329956,
-0.37362873554229736,
-0.40489041805267334,
0.5107437372207642,
0.831951916217804,
0.5649097561836243,
0.21705934405326843,
0.22052080929279327,
0.004004759714007378,
-0.17613141238689423,
0.5315043330192566,
0.12170739471912384,
0.08154857903718948,
-0.010728810913860798,
-0.20120275020599365,
0.4345661401748657,
-0.3407236337661743,
-0.30968236923217773,
-0.1637510359287262,
-0.2605612576007843,
-0.03288958966732025,
0.44726744294166565,
-0.08276218920946121,
-0.43243759870529175,
0.17820411920547485,
-0.31662511825561523,
-0.26920539140701294,
-0.21792012453079224,
-0.6521640419960022,
-0.3649754524230957,
-0.47204065322875977,
0.4827120006084442,
-0.12766391038894653,
0.1707163155078888,
-0.4441629946231842,
0.5361855626106262,
0.35064512491226196,
0.04769238829612732,
-0.4869559705257416,
0.5049560070037842,
0.045762740075588226,
0.333440363407135,
-0.17578361928462982,
0.44463491439819336,
0.7440321445465088,
-0.20502401888370514,
0.3167926073074341,
-0.14507955312728882,
-0.6510000228881836,
-0.4110068380832672,
0.4860101044178009,
-0.29699215292930603,
-0.14582525193691254,
-0.5118653178215027,
0.0420113205909729,
-0.3764656186103821,
0.24547260999679565,
0.5011008977890015,
-0.005054233130067587,
-0.10203258693218231,
0.3575104773044586,
0.19059360027313232,
0.038366738706827164,
0.25461795926094055,
-0.9568531513214111,
0.6090694665908813,
-0.3785557746887207,
0.2876152992248535,
-0.15819735825061798,
0.12013892084360123,
-0.2907651960849762,
0.5093585252761841,
0.5690575838088989,
-0.33256497979164124,
0.2659362256526947,
-0.532717764377594,
-0.7933083176612854,
0.077682264149189,
-0.9770345091819763,
0.40679046511650085,
-0.3165278732776642,
-0.5989364385604858,
-0.36483490467071533,
0.22631801664829254,
0.25474563241004944,
-0.3974774479866028,
0.1177079975605011,
-0.07430631667375565,
0.23590907454490662,
0.27813294529914856,
-0.40441760420799255,
-0.9500965476036072,
-0.4177118241786957,
-0.16066771745681763
] |
233460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagra | Nagra | Nagra is a brand of portable audio recorders produced from 1951 in Switzerland. Beginning in 1997 a range of high-end equipment aimed at the audiophile community was introduced, and Nagra expanded the company’s product lines into new markets.
Originally a product of the Kudelski Group, Nagra recorders are now developed, produced and sold by independently-owned company Audio Technology Switzerland S.A., based in Romanel-sur-Lausanne.
History
The machines were initially designed by Polish inventor Stefan Kudelski, and his company won numerous technical awards for their precision and reliability. Nagra means "[it] will record" in Polish, Kudelski's mother language.
Nagra-brand tape recorders were the de facto standard sound recording systems for motion picture and (non-video) single-camera television production from the 1960s until the 1990s.
Synchronization
Originally, a physical sync lead tethered the Nagra recorder to the camera (putting a pulse from the camera onto the tape), to ensure any fluctuations in the tape were accounted for. After the introduction of crystal sync, the tape recorder could operate separately from the camera, each having a separate accurate clock guaranteed to stay in sync with the other, allowing the sound recordist significantly more freedom of movement. This was commonly known as double system sound.
Models
Nagra recorders are identified by a number that indicates their technological generation and features:
NAGRA I – The very first prototype with clockwork motor and miniature tubes, appearing in 1951. Two were sold to Radio Genève.
NAGRA II – The first production model, miniature tubes equipped, clockwork motor, which appeared in 1953. In 1953, in a new facility, Nagra began the production of the Nagra II (a Nagra I with the option to have an external modulometer (a type of VU meter) in the sidewall. Later the Nagra II was improved to the Nagra II b and in 1955, to the Nagra II c (a Nagra II with some improvements in electronics and using the first Nagra printed circuit).
NAGRA II CI – The second generation fitted with printed circuit boards replacing chassis wiring, appearing in 1955.
Nagra III NP – The first Nagra usable for film work, appearing in 1958. This was a monaural recorder, with the "NP" denoting the Neopilot sync.
Nagra IV-L – Monaural, Neopilot sync, featuring two microphone inputs and a built-in audio limiter. Introduced in 1968. The unreliable head mounts were redesigned three times with the final design being designated the Nagra 4.2
Nagra 4.2 – Same as the IV-L, but added powering for microphones and built-in equalizers. Introduced in 1972. In the 1980s one could upgrade a 4.2 to record SMPTE timecode.
Nagra IV-S – Stereo Nagra, recording two-track stereo. It had dual level pots, limiters, and equalizer presets. It was introduced in 1971. It originally employed a 14 kHz sync signal that is not compatible with the earlier Neopilot sync. This signal is recorded employing FM modulation on a third or center track that could simultaneously be employed as an additional but lower quality "cue" track.
Nagra IV-STC – In 1984 Nagra introduced timecode support. With such support an IV-S became an STC with a pull out tray.
Nagra IV-SJ – Stereo Nagra for instrumentation and logging. Pots are replaced with switches to set gain in precise steps, no limiters, and when present, the microphone inputs are for high-voltage unbalanced instrumentation mics rather than low impedance balanced with T-power and phantom.
Nagra IS – In 1974 the Nagra IS (nicknamed Idioten-Sicher or "idiot proof" by its users) was introduced. The Nagra IS was a small-bodied recorder, to be used in both film- and broadcast applications. Focus was on simple operation and lower weight than the IV/4-series recorders. It only supported 5 inch reels. Special versions of the IS called ISN and ISS could play back the 3,81 mm wide tape used with Nagra SN recorders. The IS is the only model derived from the original Nagra III to use three motors for tape transport. Supply and take up spools have their own motors.
NAGRA E – A simple, single-speed (7.5ips), mono recorder aimed at radio reporters was introduced in 1976.
In addition to these field recorders, Kudelski S.A. produced a studio recorder called the Nagra T-Audio, designed mainly for use in telecines for transferring dailies. All of the above machines use 1/4" tape.
NAGRA TRVR – A rare stereo machine designed with the 19" rack format. It is a reel to reel 1/4" tape recorder designed for automatic long recording using the four standard tape speeds. The machine is equipped with an automatic start recording device actuated by the input signal and, at the tape end, allows automatic connection to another machine that begins recording on a new tape without loss of signal. When equipped with the accessory RCHS, Time Code Reader Searcher, the machine allows high speed search of a particular sequence when its time code had been entered by the keyboard or from its memory. These machines were used by intelligence services of several countries and logging service of radio stations.
Série Noire
Kudelski SA also produced a series of miniaturised reel-to-reel recorders using a special tape (width ), slightly larger than the conventional 1/8" cassette tape. These machines are referred to as SN (for Série Noire) and production was originally ordered by President Kennedy for the United States Secret Service.
The SN range comprises the following models:
Nagra SNN – monaural, full-track, main tape speed of 3-3/4 ips.
Nagra SNS – monaural, half-track, main tape speed of 15/16 ips (multiplying the recording length at the expense of the dynamic range and high-frequency response).
Nagra SNST – stereo, intended more for security service "two microphones to record two different people talking" usage than hi-fi usage due to technical limitations.
Nagra SNST-R – full hi-fi stereo.
A special version of the SN using unique tape cassettes was made in cooperation with JBR Technology and widely used by US domestic intelligence agencies.
Digital recorders
The Nagra IV-STC was the standard for film and classical music recording until the mid-1990s, when DAT recorders became reliable enough to use in the field. In response, Kudelski produced two digital recorders to compete:
Nagra D – 4 channel PCM digital audio recorder. Instead of recording to the DAT format, the D used a digital reel-to-reel format using a helical scan head and 1/4" tape on 5" and 7" reels. The tape is identical to that used on Digital Audio Stationary Head machines such as the Sony PCM-3202 and Mitsubishi X-86 series. The unique format, combined with its heavy weight, made it somewhat unpopular with many production sound mixers, but year after year many films were completed with Nagra Ds (and the newer 24-bit/96 kHz Nagra DII). Despite some popularity in the late 1990s, the Nagra D and DII are a rarity on US films as of the mid-2000s.
Nagra ARES C and ARES- PP – In 1995 the ARES-C recorder was introduced with the aim of replacing the ageing NAGRA-E portable tape recorder in the broadcast market. Based on a tape-less platform using PCMCIA computer memory cards as a recording medium, the ARES-C offers a recorder, editor and ISDN codec in the same portable, battery operated box. Accepted by radio stations around the world it formed the basis of a new generation of digital recorders for the NAGRA company. After the success of NAGRA D digital tape recorder, the NAGRA ARES was the first NAGRA digital tape-less recorder. The ARES C-PP was a studio 19" (2U) rack-mountable version of the ARES-C and gave broadcasters a full system for journalistic transmission. The C-PP was extensively used in broadcast OB vans and small radio studios. Nagra ARES models use PC (formerly PCMCIA) Cards for data storage, Flash RAM Type I and II (max 192 MB).
Nagra V – 2 channel PCM digital audio recorder, 24-bit/96 kHz, removable hard drive based recorder with timecode support. Has the additional benefits of being very light, and producing files easily processed by non-linear editing systems. Originally released with the Orb removable hard drive system, which proved unreliable. The drive system was replaced by Agate Technology's DN-Boy system in October 2002. Unlike the analog Nagras, the Nagra V digital recorders have not been adopted as readily for the motion picture and TV industries, which mostly use competing digital multi-track machines from manufacturers such as Aaton's Cantar, Fostex, Sound Devices and Zaxcom.
Nagra VI – Released in 2008, originally as a 6 channel recorder and later upgraded to 8 channels (six inputs plus two mix), the Nagra VI was touted as "the natural successor to the NAGRA-D / DII multi-track digital recorders" and is equipped with four microphone preamps, two line level inputs which double as dual digital inputs (AES/EBU and S/PDIF), with input channels equipped with low pass filters, limiters, variable mic sensitivity settings and variable voltage phantom power. Rotary encoders and soft buttons allow the user to program the function of the main audio pots and shortcut keys. The VI records to an internal 2.5" hard drive with compact flash as a backup or for transfers, has full timecode capability and meta-data entry for audio files and digital sound reports. Records 24-bit/96 kHz as well as MP3 formats. The VI was released to compete with multitrack machines from other manufacturers, although it has still not regained its original market share in production sound, as higher channel counts and smaller size and weight become more available at less cost.
Nagra Seven – Since 2013, this 2 track recorder has been designed as the successor to the Nagra LB, ARES-C, ARES-BB+ and Nagra V recorders. It is a flexible device and can be adapted to a multitude of specific applications depending on the internal options installed. Based on an extremely high performance, simple to operate platform the addition internal ISDN or SMPTE/EBU time code boards adapt it to either the broadcast or film / TV markets. Optional WiFi/3G, WiFi/4G, internal editor and audio compressions are also available, to further dedicate the device for particular applications.
Hi-Fi
In 1997, Nagra launched the PL-P, a vacuum tube phono preamplifier, beginning a range of high-end audio equipment. The range is intended for audiophile consumers as opposed to exclusively the professional equipment manufactured hitherto. Since then, the range has grown steadily and have added tubes and mosfet amplifiers, CD players, other pre-amps and DACs. Now divided into 2 Classic and HD lines, Nagra's products are acclaimed by many journalists as being among the world's best sound reproduction electronics.
References
External links
Nagra Audio website
Documentary sound recordist discusses his work and approach when using a Nagra III as part of a 16mm film crew
Manufacturers of professional audio equipment
Audio storage
Digital television
Polish inventions
Swiss brands
Audio equipment manufacturers of Switzerland | [
-0.2019241750240326,
0.44747406244277954,
-0.15581274032592773,
-0.019979123026132584,
0.2929348647594452,
0.5352108478546143,
-0.1739368736743927,
-0.17845939099788666,
-0.19620822370052338,
-0.14265131950378418,
0.06232655420899391,
0.37315577268600464,
-0.18503104150295258,
0.537937581539154,
-0.13913939893245697,
0.009946285746991634,
0.4840816557407379,
-0.07233302295207977,
0.15168432891368866,
-0.6561787128448486,
0.1490824818611145,
-0.07319986075162888,
0.4713258445262909,
0.19582994282245636,
0.08660527318716049,
-0.36732393503189087,
-0.20545795559883118,
0.5208354592323303,
0.38250407576560974,
0.5525535345077515,
-0.041350990533828735,
0.5712050795555115,
0.07209445536136627,
-0.45830392837524414,
-0.41802993416786194,
0.13350695371627808,
-0.32990309596061707,
0.1736125946044922,
-0.32609933614730835,
-0.2979971766471863,
-0.06430640816688538,
-0.13665996491909027,
-0.489967405796051,
0.31541627645492554,
-0.17200450599193573,
0.14585228264331818,
-0.9080042243003845,
0.24763301014900208,
-0.6369202733039856,
0.32807832956314087,
-0.2837001085281372,
0.23309586942195892,
-0.3647172749042511,
0.5878670811653137,
-0.23710396885871887,
0.08668258786201477,
0.028622135519981384,
-0.10845674574375153,
-0.30579066276550293,
-0.22824916243553162,
0.33821940422058105,
-0.5881338119506836,
-0.06649314612150192,
-0.2832995355129242,
0.2505412697792053,
-0.16262954473495483,
0.23346637189388275,
-0.196747288107872,
0.12518389523029327,
0.08630286902189255,
-0.0757128968834877,
-0.04343273490667343,
-0.3191072344779968,
-0.3162807822227478,
0.3487584590911865,
-0.05589202418923378,
0.07371911406517029,
-0.6100006699562073,
-0.10720007866621017,
0.22989408671855927,
0.06790181994438171,
0.0704655796289444,
1.174778938293457,
-0.024905992671847343,
0.21543799340724945,
-0.026073291897773743,
-0.490781307220459,
0.6053863763809204,
-0.4620140790939331,
-0.12816478312015533,
-0.5523583292961121,
-0.6868095397949219,
0.8135977983474731,
-0.1317625790834427,
-0.5471124053001404,
0.4996502995491028,
-0.35624557733535767,
0.052269842475652695,
0.7459527254104614,
0.10779765248298645,
-0.08654167503118515,
-0.06283936649560928,
-0.11013282090425491,
-0.2968217432498932,
-0.13729017972946167,
-0.42007938027381897,
0.03201668709516525,
-0.12444482743740082,
-0.32026994228363037,
-0.16405296325683594,
0.027153464034199715,
0.0639127641916275,
0.2806417942047119,
-0.14232774078845978,
-0.05950140953063965,
-0.12512987852096558,
0.2043357789516449,
-0.09380906075239182,
0.0982760488986969,
0.7884751558303833,
0.7149099111557007,
0.681830644607544,
0.13231179118156433,
0.29985710978507996,
-0.2910567820072174,
0.008244043216109276,
0.59397292137146,
0.5052348375320435,
-0.5657413005828857,
0.019713718444108963,
0.04830251261591911,
0.2550753355026245,
0.06472217291593552,
0.6860624551773071,
-0.03951910883188248,
0.030994128435850143,
0.3385246694087982,
-0.3419780433177948,
-0.29417940974235535,
0.3911179006099701,
-0.22419297695159912,
0.5090553760528564,
-0.5147427916526794,
-0.33967989683151245,
-0.04034453630447388,
0.08600211143493652,
0.004259834066033363,
-0.07239814847707748,
-0.049082353711128235,
-0.36137402057647705,
0.0015617007156834006,
0.03048761561512947,
0.12853814661502838,
-0.49423667788505554,
-0.14657041430473328,
0.13595058023929596,
-0.31235677003860474,
0.2829521894454956,
0.31562885642051697,
-0.5085347890853882,
0.015558690764009953,
0.14990435540676117,
-0.5815549492835999,
0.31641361117362976,
-0.15339958667755127,
-0.4185936748981476,
0.20850126445293427,
0.3094305098056793,
0.31928402185440063,
-0.23328687250614166,
0.3346608579158783,
-0.34227094054222107,
0.11496616899967194,
0.21554921567440033,
-0.436570942401886,
-0.28376835584640503,
0.22093795239925385,
0.4381658136844635,
-0.02048323303461075,
0.009205251932144165,
-0.45528244972229004,
-0.19513678550720215,
-0.021408025175333023,
0.1531749665737152,
0.573774516582489,
0.42414677143096924,
0.5805893540382385,
-0.1343846321105957,
-0.13169917464256287,
-0.26886534690856934,
-0.20493103563785553,
-0.2976554036140442,
0.3247581422328949,
-0.23211674392223358,
0.6769428849220276,
0.14963530004024506,
-0.7055529356002808,
0.7068958878517151,
-0.18569503724575043,
-0.008572552353143692,
-0.3869989216327667,
0.29449546337127686,
0.5460531711578369,
-0.4488322138786316,
-0.08193261921405792,
-0.017806341871619225,
-0.010548333637416363,
-0.09790578484535217,
0.12296784669160843,
0.4174734055995941,
0.006980791687965393,
-0.456814706325531,
0.6373823285102844,
0.11929747462272644,
-0.1181735172867775,
0.18207432329654694,
-0.22188767790794373,
0.1765712946653366,
0.32879161834716797,
-0.16497208178043365,
0.3848426938056946,
-0.0751819908618927,
0.19658353924751282,
0.6500467658042908,
-0.4113139510154724,
1.1756635904312134,
0.25366154313087463,
-0.2029920518398285,
0.22813090682029724,
0.08124597370624542,
-0.30605632066726685,
-0.09256994724273682,
0.16095232963562012,
-0.20791791379451752,
0.11777141690254211,
0.38306525349617004,
-0.002525433897972107,
-0.22274212539196014,
0.0435272715985775,
0.39043229818344116,
0.8160994648933411,
0.16321390867233276,
-0.03979551047086716,
0.08696393668651581,
0.9947684407234192,
-0.035613518208265305,
-0.13097085058689117,
0.2340894639492035,
0.2689255177974701,
-0.5006283521652222,
-0.37496596574783325,
0.46593931317329407,
-0.13006359338760376,
0.040404561907052994,
-0.3474166989326477,
-0.2257460653781891,
0.5580028891563416,
-0.11435757577419281,
0.5345960259437561,
0.39523860812187195,
0.00717057753354311,
-0.33947116136550903,
0.2881159484386444,
-0.028676845133304596,
-0.3521931767463684,
-0.6343143582344055,
0.2021532952785492,
-0.07979172468185425,
0.38118961453437805,
0.12656711041927338,
0.27852073311805725,
0.14275628328323364,
-0.006906159222126007,
-0.001079455018043518,
-0.3576451539993286,
-0.5789901614189148,
-0.3052067458629608,
0.13828101754188538,
0.05363057181239128,
-0.6064733862876892,
0.4031916856765747,
0.27542802691459656,
0.449800968170166,
-0.1537001132965088,
-0.143910214304924,
0.4062732756137848,
0.29083991050720215,
-0.6045385003089905,
0.1447039395570755,
-0.14642943441867828,
-0.13704009354114532,
0.645545244216919,
-0.27508655190467834,
0.07714436948299408,
0.06205475330352783,
0.3256881535053253,
-0.3245767056941986,
-0.108549103140831,
0.28469398617744446,
-0.44560402631759644,
-0.8292731046676636,
-0.083663210272789,
-0.13855507969856262,
0.2777968645095825,
0.136649027466774,
-0.09878094494342804,
0.28131791949272156,
-0.7306340932846069,
-6.089611530303955,
0.06388776749372482,
0.2729344367980957,
-0.2610597312450409,
-0.07657858729362488,
0.3741169571876526,
0.43003910779953003,
-0.5492531657218933,
0.2767793834209442,
0.04217926785349846,
-0.38571006059646606,
0.39096030592918396,
-0.41919469833374023,
0.2283688187599182,
0.03911220654845238,
0.2539471983909607,
-0.06344102323055267,
0.23466025292873383,
0.27645859122276306,
-0.02483970671892166,
0.5800960659980774,
-0.39747288823127747,
-0.08901148289442062,
-0.10218877345323563,
-0.18112729489803314,
0.3684001863002777,
-0.571985125541687,
0.379551500082016,
-0.28258848190307617,
-0.2107173204421997,
-0.08807971328496933,
-0.18113547563552856,
-0.36491715908050537,
0.06566811352968216,
-0.11187192797660828,
0.1872447431087494,
0.6555901169776917,
0.34624943137168884,
0.7304124236106873,
0.0749770998954773,
0.4581911861896515,
0.596574068069458,
0.5406131148338318,
0.032565563917160034,
0.12988999485969543,
0.33251968026161194,
-0.5415387153625488,
-0.18395093083381653,
-0.1830785721540451,
0.5816044807434082,
0.036673709750175476,
-0.5171881914138794,
0.06325029581785202,
-0.012002559378743172,
-0.3071994185447693,
-0.11805576086044312,
0.05357061326503754,
-0.09625580161809921,
0.23410074412822723,
0.6816504001617432,
0.3026496171951294,
-0.08908054977655411,
-0.12585920095443726,
-0.9491188526153564,
-0.6578728556632996,
-0.008894825354218483,
-0.30016839504241943,
-0.06710405647754669,
0.7699886560440063,
0.1351747214794159,
0.2608654201030731,
0.34422731399536133,
0.019741101190447807,
-1.0018373727798462,
-0.2691260278224945,
-0.4978179931640625,
-0.06488287448883057,
-0.25531861186027527,
-0.6226274967193604,
0.5729310512542725,
-0.1397271454334259,
-0.3893808424472809,
0.011109933257102966,
0.3381640613079071,
0.07950409501791,
-0.14888092875480652,
-0.4249710440635681,
0.045490000396966934,
0.06637729704380035,
0.12095565348863602,
1.495004415512085,
-0.4011738896369934,
-0.033216044306755066,
0.05185256525874138,
0.030277814716100693,
0.17339061200618744,
0.14822959899902344,
0.24408753216266632,
0.6205770373344421,
-0.1709655225276947,
0.0254184752702713,
-0.12245119363069534,
0.08304563909769058,
-0.9607445001602173,
-0.5999003648757935,
-0.19209808111190796,
-0.6115273237228394,
-0.12212446331977844,
0.5649860501289368,
0.02180873602628708,
-0.13879062235355377,
-0.26850318908691406,
-0.3549948036670685,
-0.36469414830207825,
0.2951822578907013,
-0.2953029274940491,
-0.5727086067199707,
0.39131781458854675,
0.1250610649585724,
-0.9705673456192017,
0.5366801619529724,
0.11465425789356232,
-0.07625161856412888,
-0.7150499820709229,
-0.24593424797058105,
-0.7124001979827881,
-0.007054641842842102,
0.2617904245853424,
-0.3324662148952484,
0.31363043189048767,
-0.33710977435112,
0.573456346988678,
-0.016019996255636215,
0.3041001558303833,
0.24652978777885437,
-0.06992136687040329,
-0.9864479303359985,
0.12708225846290588,
0.5298882126808167,
0.0931563749909401,
0.3689686357975006,
-0.43238288164138794,
0.21786418557167053,
0.13527970016002655,
0.5335260629653931,
0.42690497636795044,
0.3899746835231781,
-0.6913233399391174,
-0.20239326357841492,
-0.2203361839056015,
0.17431914806365967,
-0.35165688395500183,
0.22785446047782898,
0.018555020913481712,
-0.18438094854354858,
0.02231008931994438,
0.4503125846385956,
0.12376473844051361,
-0.6016775369644165,
-0.019904473796486855,
0.34805867075920105,
0.201431006193161,
-0.9715492129325867,
0.038880087435245514,
0.1946883499622345,
0.15743325650691986,
-0.09784529358148575,
-0.33924973011016846,
0.10786321014165878,
0.43056803941726685,
0.05181141197681427,
-0.35347065329551697,
0.04793314263224602,
-0.6746448874473572,
0.3074614405632019,
0.41642117500305176,
0.054590269923210144,
-0.06754201650619507,
-0.6520822048187256,
0.19838672876358032,
0.02949650213122368,
0.28027579188346863,
-0.5444293022155762,
0.41886746883392334,
0.25803378224372864,
-0.6002315282821655,
-0.6214576959609985,
0.08245577663183212,
-0.41191810369491577,
-0.22338752448558807,
-0.08948098868131638,
-0.45826542377471924,
0.6023149490356445,
0.44574856758117676,
-0.0968528613448143,
-0.45358988642692566,
-0.2668802738189697,
0.2479264736175537,
-0.25839197635650635,
-0.5482981204986572,
-0.05122242867946625,
0.15215247869491577,
0.05319016054272652,
0.2050856649875641,
-0.26899632811546326,
-0.7317736148834229,
0.04231341555714607,
-0.1280849426984787,
-0.6346083283424377,
0.14591366052627563,
-0.6273362636566162,
-0.7361085414886475,
0.7385173439979553,
0.3909527659416199,
-0.739626407623291,
0.44464340806007385,
0.09823084622621536,
-0.1702444702386856,
-0.6208425760269165,
-0.1719384789466858,
0.07010234147310257,
0.16788743436336517,
-0.16936682164669037,
-0.059067048132419586,
-0.9171952605247498,
0.4167022407054901,
0.6260347366333008,
0.10554084926843643,
0.11754639446735382,
0.083204485476017,
-0.5102790594100952,
-0.18222913146018982,
-0.3315905034542084,
-0.5349225401878357,
-0.09448982775211334,
-0.2738957703113556,
0.0767916887998581,
0.3887462913990021,
-0.2559239864349365,
0.3462825119495392,
0.4705030024051666,
0.14956313371658325,
-0.186738982796669,
-0.014966681599617004,
-0.3231874704360962,
0.10329486429691315,
0.34904247522354126,
-0.07176513969898224,
-0.09674150496721268,
0.8233469724655151,
0.06376394629478455,
0.08761414885520935,
-0.5225977897644043,
0.42908355593681335,
1.1520310640335083,
-0.1858561933040619,
-0.33460476994514465,
0.10682360827922821,
-0.13185162842273712,
0.04349576309323311,
0.32382264733314514,
0.010595542378723621,
-0.5950236320495605,
-0.15103749930858612,
-0.17249126732349396,
0.2219528704881668,
-0.1777500957250595,
-0.3334304690361023,
0.33731868863105774,
0.07228369265794754,
0.09853366762399673,
0.006034765392541885,
0.22817018628120422,
0.7329863905906677,
0.4858379065990448,
0.17383520305156708,
-0.3623958230018616,
0.10157168656587601,
0.030614977702498436,
0.060852691531181335,
-0.3274443745613098,
-0.021001061424613,
0.37792372703552246,
-0.04781537130475044,
-0.3843294680118561,
-0.25037699937820435,
-0.010368719696998596,
0.020544327795505524,
-0.08480818569660187,
0.3078267276287079,
-0.23204398155212402,
-0.3469752371311188,
0.08608575165271759,
0.39850708842277527,
-0.3265286386013031,
-0.2638988494873047,
-0.18950943648815155,
0.3474377989768982,
-0.12197325378656387,
0.2272554486989975,
-0.1639750748872757,
0.019974326714873314,
0.699063777923584,
-0.10369360446929932,
0.0896347314119339,
0.30881398916244507,
0.026022769510746002,
0.024136321619153023,
-0.5552371144294739,
-0.07627227157354355,
-0.29214349389076233,
-0.7022254467010498,
-0.10884834825992584,
0.2729719281196594,
-0.8857453465461731,
-0.00016316033725161105,
0.3160945177078247,
0.054272785782814026,
0.35213202238082886,
-0.07083804160356522,
0.8463603854179382,
0.2955446243286133,
-0.04201051592826843,
0.09113019704818726,
-0.15339776873588562,
0.6696428060531616,
-0.01919437199831009,
-0.31371334195137024,
0.5577086210250854,
0.17392629384994507,
0.49160701036453247,
-0.14486528933048248,
0.08721119910478592,
0.33516639471054077,
0.07736026495695114,
-0.08101041615009308,
-0.25150054693222046,
0.014681955799460411,
-0.02388305403292179,
0.4455263912677765,
0.502710223197937,
0.09388181567192078,
-0.7408273816108704,
-0.11735989153385162,
-0.3386191725730896,
0.37454891204833984,
0.09508970379829407,
-0.2748526930809021,
0.23633629083633423,
-0.22798685729503632,
-0.23008234798908234,
-0.051710523664951324,
0.1399783343076706,
0.4722428023815155,
-0.0912136510014534,
0.4973052442073822,
0.22321943938732147,
0.18129326403141022,
0.3522154986858368,
0.2787207365036011,
0.1152387261390686,
0.2761082947254181,
0.45837873220443726,
0.18323089182376862,
-0.5185090899467468,
0.48348739743232727,
-0.0010931810829788446,
-0.6390308737754822,
0.07721730321645737,
0.040633950382471085,
-0.4210521876811981,
-0.09468315541744232,
-0.36647966504096985,
0.2766978442668915,
-0.09234391897916794,
-0.3000667989253998,
-0.2131570726633072,
-0.11968836933374405,
-0.28489914536476135,
0.27424538135528564,
-0.169808492064476,
0.33408963680267334,
-0.532313883304596,
-0.29990050196647644,
-0.6518399715423584,
-0.5513126254081726,
-0.2990904152393341,
-0.13891270756721497,
0.06503621488809586,
-0.25986582040786743,
-0.42981985211372375,
-0.5293181538581848,
0.1935652792453766,
0.12060463428497314,
-0.31318867206573486,
0.07693644613027573,
0.3481508791446686,
0.32458800077438354,
-0.09253967553377151,
0.12826330959796906,
0.0643838569521904,
0.0383683443069458,
-0.13603170216083527,
0.08559154719114304,
0.11800680309534073,
0.06988348811864853,
-0.5518528819084167,
0.14689862728118896,
0.13687151670455933,
0.33576276898384094,
0.11453573405742645,
0.10233360528945923,
-0.09160494059324265,
0.12565730512142181,
-0.0039816321805119514,
-0.04426925629377365,
0.6689464449882507,
-0.12487876415252686,
0.018761850893497467,
0.24978895485401154,
0.028133323416113853,
-0.6194054484367371,
-0.021357504650950432,
0.35722580552101135,
0.1394023597240448,
-0.01948561519384384,
0.7826183438301086,
-0.4540981352329254,
-0.7937861084938049,
0.34712180495262146,
0.33829227089881897,
0.42580628395080566,
-0.5508919954299927,
0.36129528284072876,
-0.8143699765205383,
-0.38924553990364075,
-0.09183201938867569,
-0.38813090324401855,
0.19307354092597961,
-0.21109743416309357,
0.4423602521419525,
0.2988845407962799,
0.4676634967327118,
-0.03573378920555115,
-0.24961884319782257,
-0.16227225959300995,
-0.25752073526382446,
-0.49480071663856506,
-0.5541375279426575,
0.22338829934597015,
-0.40375953912734985,
-0.10794562846422195,
0.6316649913787842,
-0.4714434742927551,
0.16289804875850677,
0.2230001538991928,
0.28265780210494995,
-0.3570323586463928,
0.1307222843170166,
-0.45015373826026917
] |
233463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-player%20game | Zero-player game | A zero-player game or no-player game is a simulation game that has no sentient players.
Types
There are various different types of games that can be considered "zero-player".
Determined by initial state
A game that evolves as determined by its initial state, requiring no further input from humans is considered a zero-player game.
Cellular automaton games that are determined by initial conditions including Conway's Game of Life are examples of this.
Progress Quest is another example, in the game the player sets up a artificial character, and afterwards the game plays itself with no further input from the player. Godville is a similar game that took inspiration from Progress Quest, in the game the player is a god that can communicate with a non-player character hero, however the game can progress with no interaction from the player.
Incremental games, sometimes called idle games, are games which do require some player intervention near the beginning however may be zero-player at higher levels. As an example, Cookie Clicker requires that players click cookies manually before purchasing assets to click cookies in the place of the player independently.
AI vs AI games
In computer games, the term refers to programs that use artificial intelligence rather than human players, for example some fighting and real-time strategy games can be put into zero-player mode where multiple AIs can play against each other. Humans may have a challenge in designing the AI and giving it sufficient skill to play the game well, but the actual evolution of the game has no human intervention.
See also
Single-player game
Two-player game
Multiplayer video game
Incremental game
References
Game theory game classes
Game artificial intelligence | [
-0.03136015683412552,
-0.27064844965934753,
-0.4038524329662323,
0.49638083577156067,
-0.22523438930511475,
-0.020753221586346626,
-0.061008624732494354,
0.3433741331100464,
-0.11790866404771805,
-0.20653071999549866,
-0.3067668080329895,
0.07368820905685425,
-0.7883091568946838,
0.4036879539489746,
0.1404702067375183,
-0.07471974939107895,
0.18902666866779327,
0.3024273216724396,
-0.14950543642044067,
-0.47342967987060547,
-0.27294212579727173,
0.03351827338337898,
0.025175374001264572,
-0.12184327840805054,
-0.2918557822704315,
-0.11069796979427338,
0.3043946921825409,
0.1115638017654419,
0.021517707034945488,
0.22287675738334656,
-0.2891179919242859,
0.485446035861969,
0.5043202638626099,
-0.2117312103509903,
0.024776747450232506,
0.2292577177286148,
-0.22737348079681396,
0.40497633814811707,
-0.16904059052467346,
-0.4719995856285095,
0.30963197350502014,
0.1400148719549179,
0.15792009234428406,
0.03940098360180855,
0.05502491816878319,
0.17578093707561493,
-1.0369911193847656,
-0.2753566801548004,
-0.21149656176567078,
-0.44664233922958374,
-0.6922050714492798,
0.45150840282440186,
0.3420111835002899,
0.840535581111908,
0.10652368515729904,
0.21864883601665497,
0.08955593407154083,
0.0488075390458107,
-0.3467850685119629,
-0.16963905096054077,
0.21927393972873688,
0.004251779988408089,
0.2265518307685852,
0.06670493632555008,
-0.027406414970755577,
0.05030232295393944,
-0.09880810230970383,
0.36015185713768005,
-0.08619000017642975,
-0.6309005618095398,
-0.598204493522644,
-0.1553143709897995,
-0.2337666153907776,
-0.2772298753261566,
-0.20239664614200592,
-0.3681681156158447,
0.6114424467086792,
0.03793564438819885,
0.17362435162067413,
0.37776055932044983,
0.0006199948838911951,
0.3703886866569519,
0.637949526309967,
-0.02793974243104458,
0.3996414244174957,
-0.1815163940191269,
-0.05584115907549858,
0.3868606686592102,
-0.30960381031036377,
0.48224642872810364,
0.28515058755874634,
-0.204412579536438,
0.4191032946109772,
-0.1608709841966629,
-0.2697066068649292,
0.30909740924835205,
0.1732516884803772,
0.5250590443611145,
0.2537291347980499,
0.159118190407753,
0.17571817338466644,
-0.12640796601772308,
-0.02888394147157669,
-0.05742504075169563,
-0.42462825775146484,
-0.4743938744068146,
-0.13458718359470367,
-0.8823883533477783,
0.1965271681547165,
0.5309257507324219,
-0.5872108340263367,
0.46747887134552,
0.01289353147149086,
0.1711675524711609,
-0.850870668888092,
0.2933655083179474,
-0.3475686311721802,
0.17881308495998383,
0.2967827022075653,
0.6222922801971436,
0.4435356855392456,
0.3670462369918823,
-0.05938410013914108,
0.3712101876735687,
-0.03360655903816223,
0.3440701961517334,
0.4296213388442993,
0.4746134877204895,
-0.2616068124771118,
0.1515289545059204,
0.2945297658443451,
0.9013836979866028,
-0.10333966463804245,
0.34252655506134033,
-0.09226975589990616,
-0.4427277445793152,
0.5487934947013855,
0.17677371203899384,
-0.0018613259308040142,
-0.13369615375995636,
-1.1475785970687866,
-0.5073921084403992,
-0.07483541965484619,
-0.0503440797328949,
0.23184408247470856,
0.19307488203048706,
0.1673405021429062,
-0.3774552047252655,
-0.14143623411655426,
-0.04034901782870293,
-0.17724482715129852,
0.33069825172424316,
-0.15232188999652863,
-0.20392350852489471,
-0.18205566704273224,
-0.22956115007400513,
-0.29076114296913147,
-0.11415894329547882,
-0.16478057205677032,
0.42150065302848816,
0.050198961049318314,
0.11822360008955002,
-0.6273505091667175,
-0.1871105283498764,
0.3625103235244751,
-0.23995758593082428,
0.3949161767959595,
0.0729781836271286,
0.13940373063087463,
-0.09617958217859268,
0.010111922398209572,
0.16331428289413452,
0.40094396471977234,
-0.5418944954872131,
0.0230733472853899,
-0.2655370533466339,
0.5342267751693726,
0.31789231300354004,
0.6936705708503723,
-0.5093052983283997,
-0.7430082559585571,
-0.4331592321395874,
0.44310906529426575,
-0.22384817898273468,
0.026770703494548798,
-0.37666377425193787,
-0.1322334259748459,
-0.3513880670070648,
0.023796480149030685,
-0.03937789425253868,
-0.4819544553756714,
0.24697060883045197,
0.11371812969446182,
-0.32301902770996094,
1.250722050666809,
-0.4206193685531616,
-0.3529152274131775,
0.12777842581272125,
0.45153388381004333,
0.11490783840417862,
0.23664328455924988,
-0.5162209272384644,
-0.009845760650932789,
0.40950310230255127,
-0.625907301902771,
0.838772714138031,
-0.28224673867225647,
0.059151019901037216,
-0.3595241606235504,
0.5146064758300781,
-0.25622501969337463,
-0.029925044625997543,
0.29794493317604065,
0.24793754518032074,
-0.0566646046936512,
0.011812937445938587,
-1.0695741176605225,
0.20874549448490143,
0.3886686861515045,
-0.5433955788612366,
0.06820769608020782,
0.068607397377491,
-0.27225884795188904,
0.3300822675228119,
-0.1219719797372818,
0.46438926458358765,
0.295123428106308,
0.0839155986905098,
0.885941207408905,
-0.7963711023330688,
0.2748676836490631,
0.5565159916877747,
0.048451535403728485,
-0.2977811098098755,
0.10112763196229935,
0.15835773944854736,
0.560441792011261,
-0.5570751428604126,
0.2526693642139435,
-0.2710925042629242,
-0.3549138009548187,
0.3256501257419586,
-0.05973322317004204,
-0.2267254889011383,
-0.20616379380226135,
0.22701528668403625,
-0.19014739990234375,
0.5104584693908691,
-0.2599179744720459,
0.17418907582759857,
0.10975127667188644,
0.3412732779979706,
0.362259179353714,
0.032678909599781036,
-0.2182864248752594,
0.20572113990783691,
-0.6983094811439514,
-0.42506325244903564,
-0.02839050255715847,
-0.19354631006717682,
-0.22612157464027405,
0.026974067091941833,
-0.40872493386268616,
-0.21615517139434814,
-0.12476324290037155,
-0.921126127243042,
-0.6243070363998413,
0.1761033833026886,
0.006366780027747154,
0.4791826605796814,
0.28506985306739807,
-0.15866611897945404,
-0.5132434368133545,
-0.3497164845466614,
-0.7302020788192749,
-0.38558003306388855,
0.3053237497806549,
0.41607728600502014,
-0.5072072148323059,
-0.22750721871852875,
0.14861580729484558,
0.20690573751926422,
0.012934659607708454,
-0.1365545094013214,
0.026082316413521767,
-0.26594626903533936,
0.1617874652147293,
-0.07435955107212067,
0.1975504606962204,
-0.5039081573486328,
-0.13493818044662476,
0.688139021396637,
-0.2757911682128906,
0.19377799332141876,
0.8450119495391846,
0.6279412508010864,
-0.15269170701503754,
0.04332967847585678,
0.9180026650428772,
0.0032686912454664707,
0.007268186192959547,
-0.4110184609889984,
-0.007862342521548271,
-0.47195857763290405,
-0.5321360230445862,
-0.45426151156425476,
-0.35876819491386414,
-0.09535141289234161,
-5.936403274536133,
0.35907164216041565,
-0.7304523587226868,
0.3751218318939209,
-0.16593047976493835,
0.2545168101787567,
0.5713649988174438,
0.10351784527301788,
-0.8890073299407959,
0.09452875703573227,
-0.3296058177947998,
0.3091140389442444,
-0.08239015936851501,
0.5011486411094666,
0.7003512978553772,
0.3424335718154907,
0.9360901117324829,
-0.3606341779232025,
-0.04058626666665077,
-0.3720288872718811,
-0.9020912051200867,
0.3572443723678589,
-0.019889093935489655,
0.25494900345802307,
0.36867791414260864,
0.8911875486373901,
-0.10817185044288635,
-0.43534934520721436,
-0.06817299127578735,
0.11794968694448471,
-0.03520866483449936,
-0.5958296060562134,
-0.5188458561897278,
-0.3690691590309143,
0.13706327974796295,
0.2576119899749756,
0.3796273469924927,
0.4433205723762512,
-0.04239758476614952,
0.03861236199736595,
-0.5102884769439697,
0.4297408163547516,
-0.11657147854566574,
0.3037146329879761,
0.6726977825164795,
0.19611814618110657,
-0.35402214527130127,
0.07821135967969894,
-0.23654118180274963,
0.13167895376682281,
0.08761864900588989,
0.19028590619564056,
0.25640249252319336,
0.43159255385398865,
0.07571722567081451,
-0.0014479740057140589,
0.22944413125514984,
-0.06310314685106277,
-0.7319090366363525,
-0.22060778737068176,
0.3734850585460663,
-0.6611289381980896,
-0.3109171986579895,
-0.03887961059808731,
0.37103185057640076,
-0.5689610838890076,
-0.19367922842502594,
-0.22260989248752594,
0.5232039093971252,
0.5411561727523804,
-0.009098428301513195,
-0.23014816641807556,
0.48854944109916687,
-0.805072009563446,
0.2644234597682953,
0.09800098091363907,
-0.4925873875617981,
0.10902145504951477,
0.23894385993480682,
0.181436225771904,
0.023883270099759102,
-0.3985975682735443,
-0.12073349952697754,
-0.0521889291703701,
-0.05462445318698883,
-0.3199164867401123,
0.36349162459373474,
0.1875458061695099,
-0.09358985722064972,
0.21403472125530243,
0.26134389638900757,
-0.16493827104568481,
0.6966912746429443,
0.06684563308954239,
0.5738779306411743,
0.9089499115943909,
0.628571093082428,
-0.11433488130569458,
0.20496487617492676,
0.10771609097719193,
0.5042207837104797,
-0.6488084197044373,
0.271348237991333,
-0.8464389443397522,
-0.25095173716545105,
0.39133548736572266,
-0.17143386602401733,
0.7834379076957703,
0.5708147287368774,
-0.12308566272258759,
0.12175165116786957,
0.3816603720188141,
-0.16043613851070404,
-0.323212593793869,
0.17267808318138123,
0.24906274676322937,
-0.3818672001361847,
0.8355511426925659,
0.3560675084590912,
0.06268729269504547,
-0.13963676989078522,
0.5927932858467102,
-0.07665081322193146,
-0.5427736639976501,
-0.46102675795555115,
0.30189502239227295,
-0.009916056878864765,
-0.1645994484424591,
0.2943097651004791,
-0.2741723954677582,
0.22152523696422577,
0.9440029263496399,
-0.4854453504085541,
-0.25836822390556335,
-0.3290255665779114,
-0.34883028268814087,
-0.20166750252246857,
-0.15631215274333954,
-0.03893023729324341,
-0.5411185622215271,
0.4115927219390869,
-0.4735153615474701,
0.3512170612812042,
-0.12957635521888733,
-0.1333695501089096,
-0.1460745483636856,
-0.014857027679681778,
-0.558904767036438,
0.38769641518592834,
0.5009113550186157,
0.005787136498838663,
-0.9036352038383484,
0.48397424817085266,
-0.35092025995254517,
-0.23843105137348175,
-0.0036957263946533203,
0.10862816125154495,
-0.21979504823684692,
0.23120589554309845,
-0.4359513521194458,
0.27410444617271423,
-0.8240906000137329,
-1.4846750497817993,
-0.4112851917743683,
0.28194382786750793,
0.2391764372587204,
-0.19710437953472137,
-0.4166592061519623,
-0.5833501815795898,
0.4232393503189087,
0.0992271900177002,
-0.6913967132568359,
-0.2207946479320526,
0.2067575603723526,
0.5203807950019836,
-0.4644203186035156,
0.07821598649024963,
-0.34205523133277893,
0.11259198188781738,
-0.4936845302581787,
-0.015613061375916004,
-0.3480741083621979,
-0.33071473240852356,
-0.1500810831785202,
0.13957498967647552,
-0.06985335797071457,
0.1663093864917755,
0.8349695205688477,
-0.09225139766931534,
0.02976512908935547,
-0.134980246424675,
0.2542499601840973,
0.6164128184318542,
-0.0991286039352417,
-0.2964085638523102,
-0.23741653561592102,
-0.01702169142663479,
0.9138576984405518,
-0.3135514259338379,
-0.3201826810836792,
0.01121553685516119,
0.19196373224258423,
-0.6629379391670227,
-0.07644263654947281,
0.7527172565460205,
-0.5803202390670776,
0.08937504142522812,
-0.22264213860034943,
-0.161354199051857,
0.15564212203025818,
-0.4968525171279907,
-0.29082953929901123,
-0.7922746539115906,
-0.1999235600233078,
-0.11719530075788498,
-0.2729964554309845,
0.09042555093765259,
-0.03804741054773331,
-0.3163496255874634,
0.4118627607822418,
-0.22806662321090698,
0.04423179477453232,
-0.4663889706134796,
-0.15622422099113464,
0.09771530330181122,
-0.0743967592716217,
0.48577699065208435,
-0.36646613478660583,
-0.09679033607244492,
0.058600157499313354,
-0.32631513476371765,
-0.11620114743709564,
0.23501189053058624,
-0.016959844157099724,
0.02939579449594021,
-0.15857848525047302,
-0.009475424885749817,
0.04777603596448898,
-0.13987717032432556,
-0.3613642454147339,
0.05598408728837967,
0.3086909055709839,
-0.00891201850026846,
-0.6923789978027344,
0.1130964457988739,
-0.03293536975979805,
0.015272554941475391,
-0.6162199378013611,
-0.6026450991630554,
0.03649437054991722,
0.11268534511327744,
-0.2879015803337097,
-0.7215174436569214,
-0.05219922214746475,
0.6913511753082275,
-0.20282013714313507,
0.2282140702009201,
0.22723302245140076,
0.3665594756603241,
-0.11109365522861481,
-0.15131136775016785,
-0.2557933032512665,
-0.4265819787979126,
-0.035866767168045044,
0.1856699436903,
-0.10239329934120178,
0.3557080328464508,
0.08069779723882675,
-0.18855853378772736,
-0.3671514391899109,
0.25709018111228943,
-0.02399490401148796,
0.8317980170249939,
0.310800164937973,
0.4867428243160248,
-0.247576504945755,
-0.15410321950912476,
0.12315002828836441,
-0.5203848481178284,
-0.10640054196119308,
-0.3455641567707062,
-0.03903043642640114,
0.21831060945987701,
-0.2857065796852112,
0.3642978072166443,
-0.7544732689857483,
0.257866770029068,
-0.049738358706235886,
-0.0034208004362881184,
-0.6222016215324402,
-0.40360862016677856,
-0.14988233149051666,
0.173075333237648,
-0.07784194499254227,
0.007446198258548975,
0.06030488386750221,
-0.49619537591934204,
-0.49810561537742615,
0.34749293327331543,
-0.33892735838890076,
-0.5462165474891663,
1.1560701131820679,
0.20807231962680817,
-0.5219277739524841,
0.2994121015071869,
0.09856554865837097,
0.4640577435493469,
-0.34941646456718445,
-0.5804985761642456,
0.20684725046157837,
0.6876500248908997,
0.2307068556547165,
-0.22437137365341187,
0.6226567029953003,
-0.1666654348373413,
-0.03615477681159973,
0.659121572971344,
-0.6275871992111206,
0.23741845786571503,
0.09033101797103882,
0.2957914173603058,
-0.5117120742797852,
0.807788074016571,
0.5204254984855652,
-0.1677507609128952,
-0.3162992596626282,
-0.28235262632369995,
-0.2010909914970398,
0.5916547775268555,
0.3024982511997223,
0.793546736240387,
0.17305539548397064,
-0.3528248071670532,
0.2644858956336975,
-0.2534536123275757,
0.041297052055597305,
0.059096936136484146,
-0.5632714033126831,
-0.5274357199668884,
0.42104145884513855,
0.4668780267238617,
0.29210907220840454,
0.3354749381542206,
-0.45178335905075073,
-0.47317785024642944,
0.3763698935508728,
0.22612935304641724,
0.2204553484916687,
-0.37191665172576904,
0.42774540185928345,
-0.03597486391663551,
-0.028695734217762947,
0.051104605197906494,
-0.06410425901412964,
-0.21643182635307312,
-0.5554208755493164,
0.406747043132782,
-0.07536344230175018,
-0.040419209748506546,
-0.2967369854450226,
0.23836137354373932,
0.14268185198307037,
0.10387992858886719,
-0.28651416301727295,
0.256341814994812,
0.22288917005062103,
0.04721491411328316,
-0.4152424931526184,
0.08143671602010727,
0.07462897896766663,
0.3142768442630768,
0.13973285257816315,
0.5277277231216431,
0.7475784420967102,
0.041390083730220795,
0.028705915436148643,
0.29231011867523193,
0.3630625307559967,
0.0608813501894474,
0.011105470359325409,
-0.07903148233890533,
0.018564220517873764,
0.05287650227546692,
0.08248603343963623,
0.4234698712825775,
-0.7209876775741577,
0.32975590229034424,
-0.18780852854251862,
0.34542033076286316,
0.08019407838582993,
0.22087639570236206,
-0.4485197067260742,
-0.4399697780609131,
-0.06819138675928116,
0.06571325659751892,
-0.006574742030352354,
0.03252715244889259,
0.4657604396343231,
0.13268595933914185,
0.5180248022079468,
0.3211541771888733,
-0.3607177436351776,
0.4579516351222992,
0.2788514792919159,
-0.5034810900688171,
0.3120929002761841,
-0.6908899545669556,
0.08363769203424454,
-1.0112638473510742,
0.19351300597190857,
0.7558557987213135,
-0.3333004117012024,
0.07214976847171783,
0.1202215850353241,
0.004068951588124037,
-0.014840174466371536,
0.6012951135635376,
-0.2752014100551605,
-0.34465622901916504,
-0.6205273270606995,
0.12586937844753265,
-0.009766444563865662,
-0.04076572135090828,
0.0038002771325409412,
-0.19901074469089508,
-0.06240959092974663,
0.4795821011066437,
-0.9481989145278931,
0.26074591279029846,
0.35585469007492065,
-0.5961425304412842,
-0.14014527201652527,
-0.10282494127750397,
0.33806148171424866,
-0.2172115296125412,
-0.3515556752681732,
0.8952224254608154,
0.49875935912132263,
0.08847936242818832,
-0.7973995804786682,
-0.10851304978132248,
0.007725798990577459,
-0.02034408412873745,
0.39101383090019226,
-0.4073094129562378,
0.20222575962543488,
-0.37947332859039307,
-0.14523069560527802,
-0.059599097818136215,
0.6558595299720764,
-0.006332842633128166,
0.17325593531131744,
0.14246788620948792,
0.08407016098499298,
-0.12967948615550995,
0.6258901953697205,
0.44812560081481934,
-0.5178260803222656,
-0.41058751940727234,
1.2296497821807861
] |
233467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Public%20Library | New York Public Library | The New York Public Library (NYPL) is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items and 92 locations, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States (behind the Library of Congress) and the fourth largest in the world. It is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing.
The library has branches in the boroughs of the Bronx, Manhattan and Staten Island and affiliations with academic and professional libraries in the New York metropolitan area. The city's other two boroughs, Brooklyn and Queens, are not served by the New York Public Library system, but rather by their respective borough library systems: the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Public Library. The branch libraries are open to the general public and consist of circulating libraries. The New York Public Library also has four research libraries, which are also open to the general public.
The library, officially chartered as The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, was developed in the 19th century, founded from an amalgamation of grass-roots libraries and social libraries of bibliophiles and the wealthy, aided by the philanthropy of the wealthiest Americans of their age.
The "New York Public Library" name may also refer to its Main Branch, which is easily recognizable by its lion statues named Patience and Fortitude that sit either side of the entrance. The branch was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and designated a New York City Landmark in 1967.
History
Founding
At the behest of Joseph Cogswell, John Jacob Astor placed a codicil in his will to bequeath $400,000 (equivalent of $ million in ) for the creation of a public library. After Astor's death in 1848, the resulting board of trustees executed the will's conditions and constructed the Astor Library in 1854 in the East Village. The library created was a free reference library; its books were not permitted to circulate. By 1872, the Astor Library was described in a New York Times editorial as a "major reference and research resource", but, "Popular it certainly is not, and, so greatly is it lacking in the essentials of a public library, that its stores might almost as well be under lock and key, for any access the masses of the people can get thereto".
An act of the New York State Legislature incorporated the Lenox Library in 1870. The library was built on Fifth Avenue, between 70th and 71st Streets, in 1877. Bibliophile and philanthropist James Lenox donated a vast collection of his Americana, art works, manuscripts, and rare books, including the first Gutenberg Bible in the New World. At its inception, the library charged admission and did not permit physical access to any literary items.
Former Governor of New York and presidential candidate Samuel J. Tilden believed that a library with citywide reach was required, and upon his death in 1886, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune—about (equivalent of $ million in )—to "establish and maintain a free library and reading room in the city of New York". This money would sit untouched in a trust for several years, until John Bigelow, a New York attorney, and Andrew Haswell Green, both trustees of the Tilden fortune, came up with an idea to merge two of the city's largest libraries.
Both the Astor and Lenox libraries were struggling financially. Although New York City already had numerous libraries in the 19th century, almost all of them were privately funded and many charged admission or usage fees (a notable exception was Cooper Union, which opened its free reading room to the public in 1859). Bigelow, the most prominent supporter of the plan to merge the two libraries found support in Lewis Cass Ledyard, a member of the Tilden Board, as well as John Cadwalader, on the Astor board. Eventually, John Stewart Kennedy, president of the Lenox board came to support the plan as well. On May 23, 1895, Bigelow, Cadwalader, and George L. Rives agreed to create "The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations". The plan was hailed as an example of private philanthropy for the public good. On December 11, John Shaw Billings was named as the library's first director. The newly established library consolidated with the grass-roots New York Free Circulating Library in February 1901.
In March, Andrew Carnegie tentatively agreed to donate (equivalent of $ million in ) to construct sixty-five branch libraries in the city, with the requirement that they be operated and maintained by the City of New York. The Brooklyn and Queens public library systems, which predated the consolidation of New York City, eschewed the grants offered to them and did not join the NYPL system; they believed that they would not get treatment equal to the Manhattan and the Bronx counterparts. Later in 1901, Carnegie formally signed a contract with the City of New York to transfer his donation to the city in order to enable it to justify purchasing the land for building the branch libraries. The NYPL Board of trustees hired consultants for the planning, and accepted their recommendation that a limited number of architectural firms be hired to build the Carnegie libraries: this would ensure uniformity of appearance and minimize cost. The trustees hired McKim, Mead & White, Carrère and Hastings, and Walter Cook to design all the branch libraries.
Collection development
The notable New York author Washington Irving was a close friend of Astor for decades and had helped the philanthropist design the Astor Library. Irving served as President of the library's Board of Trustees from 1848 until his death in 1859, shaping the library's collecting policies with his strong sensibility regarding European intellectual life. Subsequently, the library hired nationally prominent experts to guide its collections policies; they reported directly to directors John Shaw Billings (who also developed the National Library of Medicine), Edwin H. Anderson, Harry M. Lydenberg, Franklin F. Hopper, Ralph A. Beals, and Edward Freehafer (1954–1970). They emphasized expertise, objectivity, and a very broad worldwide range of knowledge in acquiring, preserving, organizing, and making available to the general population nearly 12 million books and 26.5 million additional items. The directors in turn reported to an elite board of trustees, chiefly elderly, well-educated, philanthropic, predominantly Protestant, upper-class white men with commanding positions in American society. They saw their role as protecting the library's autonomy from politicians as well as bestowing upon it status, resources, and prudent care.
Representative of many major board decisions was the purchase in 1931 of the private library of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich (1847–1909), uncle of the last tsar. This was one of the largest acquisitions of Russian books and photographic materials; at the time, the Soviet government had a policy of selling its cultural collections abroad for gold. Related collections include a significant number of important works by Russian photographers, as well as photographs relating to the House of Romanov and early Russia expert George Kennan (explorer).
The military drew extensively from the library's map and book collections in the world wars, including hiring its staff. For example, the Map Division's chief Walter Ristow was appointed as head of the geography section of the War Department's New York Office of Military Intelligence from 1942 to 1945. Ristow and his staff discovered, copied, and loaned thousands of strategic, rare or unique maps to war agencies in need of information not available through other sources.
Research libraries
Main branch building
The organizers of the New York Public Library, wanting an imposing main branch, chose a central site along Fifth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, on top of the Croton Reservoir. Dr. John Shaw Billings, the first director of the library, created an initial design that became the basis of the new building contain a huge reading room on top of seven floors of book stacks, combined with a system that was designed to get books into the hands of library users as fast as possible. The architectural firm Carrère and Hastings constructed the structure in the Beaux-Arts style, and the structure opened on May 23, 1911. It was the largest marble structure up to that time in the United States.
The two stone lions guarding the entrance were sculpted by E.C. Potter and carved by the Piccirilli Brothers. Its main reading room was contemporaneously the largest of its kind in the world at wide by long, with ceilings. An expansion in the 1970s and 1980s added storage space under Bryant Park, directly west of the library. The structure was given a major restoration from 2007 to 2011, underwritten by a $100 million gift from philanthropist Stephen A. Schwarzman, for whom the branch was subsequently renamed. Today, the branch's main reading room is equipped with computers with access to library collections and the Internet as well as docking facilities for laptops. A Fellows program makes reserved rooms available for writers and scholars, selected annually, and many have accomplished important research and writing at the library.
The Main Branch also contains several historic designations. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and designated a New York City designated landmark in 1967. The main reading room was separately made a New York City designated landmark in 2017.
Other research branches
In the 1990s, the New York Public Library decided to relocate that portion of the research collection devoted to science, technology, and business to a new location. The library purchased and adapted the former B. Altman & Company Building on 34th Street. In 1995, the 100th anniversary of the founding of the library, the Science, Industry and Business Library (SIBL), designed by Gwathmey Siegel & Associates of Manhattan, opened to the public. Upon the creation of the SIBL, the central research library on 42nd Street was renamed the Humanities and Social Sciences Library.
Today there are four research libraries that comprise the NYPL's research library system; together they hold approximately 44 million items. Total item holdings, including the collections of the Branch Libraries, are . The Humanities and Social Sciences Library on 42nd Street is still the heart of the NYPL's research library system. The SIBL, with approximately volumes and 60,000 periodicals, is the nation's largest public library devoted solely to science and business. The NYPL's two other research libraries are the Schomburg Center for Research and Black Culture, located at 135th Street and Lenox Avenue in Harlem, and the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, located at Lincoln Center. In addition to their reference collections, the Library for the Performing Arts and the SIBL also have circulating components that are administered as ordinary branch libraries.
Recent history
The New York Public Library was not created by government statute. From its earliest days, the library was formed from a partnership of city government with private philanthropy. As of 2010, the research libraries in the system are largely funded with private money, and the branch or circulating libraries are financed primarily with city government funds. Until 2009, the research and branch libraries operated almost entirely as separate systems, but that year various operations were merged. By early 2010, the NYPL staff had been reduced by about 16 percent, in part through the consolidations.
In 2010, as part of the consolidation program, the NYPL moved various back-office operations to a new Library Services Center building in Long Island City. A former warehouse was renovated for this purpose for . In the basement, a new, book sorter uses bar codes on library items to sort them for delivery to 132 branch libraries. At two-thirds the length of a football field, the machine is the largest of its kind in the world, according to library officials. Books located in one branch and requested from another go through the sorter, which use has cut the previous waiting time by at least a day. Together with 14 library employees, the machine can sort 7,500 items an hour (or 125 a minute). On the first floor of the Library Services Center is an ordering and cataloging office; on the second, the digital imaging department (formerly at the Main Branch building) and the manuscripts and archives division, where the air is kept cooler; on the third, the Barbara Goldsmith Preservation Division, with a staff of 10 (as of 2010) but designed for as many as 30 employees.
The NYPL maintains a force of NYC special patrolmen, who provide security and protection to various libraries, and NYPL special investigators, who oversee security operations at the library facilities. These officials have on-duty arrest authority granted by the New York Penal Law. Some library branches contract for security guards.
To celebrate its 125th anniversary, the NYPL calculated a list of its most checked out books. Topping the list was Ezra Jack Keats' The Snowy Day, with The Cat in the Hat and Nineteen Eighty-Four rounding out the top three.
BookOps
In February 2013, the New York and Brooklyn public libraries announced that they would merge their technical services departments. The new department is called BookOps. The proposed merger anticipates a savings of $2 million for the Brooklyn Public Library and $1.5 million for the New York Public Library. Although not currently part of the merger, it is expected that the Queens Public Library will eventually share some resources with the other city libraries. As of 2011, circulation in the New York Public Library systems and Brooklyn Public Library systems has increased by 59%. Located in Long Island City, BookOps was created as a way to save money while improving patrons service. The services of BookOps include the Selection Team which "acquires, describes, prepares, and delivers new items for the circulating collections of Brooklyn Public Library (BPL) and New York Public Library, and for the general collections of NYPL's research libraries." Under the Selection Team are the Acquisitions Department, the Cataloging Department, The Collections Processing Unit, and the Logistics Department. Before this facility opened, all the aforementioned departments were housed in different locations with no accountability between them, and items sometimes taking up to two weeks to reach their intended destination. BookOps now has all departments in one building and in 2015 sorted almost eight million items. The building has numerous rooms, including a room dedicated to caring for damaged books.
Controversies
The consolidations and changes in collections have promoted continuing debate and controversy since 2004 when David Ferriero was named the Andrew W. Mellon Director and Chief Executive of the Research Libraries. NYPL had engaged consultants Booz Allen Hamilton to survey the institution, and Ferriero endorsed the survey's report as a big step "in the process of reinventing the library". The consolidation program has resulted in the elimination of subjects such as the Asian and Middle East Division (formerly named Oriental Division), as well as the Slavic and Baltic Division.
A number of innovations in recent years have been criticized. In 2004 NYPL announced participation in the Google Books Library Project. By agreement between Google and major international libraries, selected collections of public domain books would be scanned in their entirety and made available online for free to the public. The negotiations between the two partners called for each to project guesses about ways that libraries are likely to expand in the future. According to the terms of the agreement, the data cannot be crawled or harvested by any other search engine; no downloading or redistribution is allowed. The partners and a wider community of research libraries can share the content.
The sale of the separately endowed former Donnell Library in midtown provoked controversy. The elimination of Donnell was a result of the dissolution of children's, young adult and foreign language collections. The Donnell Media Center was also dismantled, the bulk of its collection relocated at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts as the Reserve Film and Video Collection, with parts of its collection redistributed. The site was redeveloped for a luxury hotel.
Several veteran librarians have retired, and the number of age-level specialists in the boroughs have been cut back.
Branch libraries
The New York Public Library system maintains commitment as a public lending library through its branch libraries in the Bronx, Manhattan, and Staten Island, including the Mid-Manhattan Library, the Andrew Heiskell Braille and Talking Book Library, the circulating collections of the Science, Industry and Business Library, and the circulating collections of the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. The branch libraries comprise the third-largest library in the United States. These circulating libraries offer a wide range of collections, programs, and services, including the renowned Picture Collection at Mid-Manhattan Library and the Media Center, redistributed from Donnell.
The system has 39 libraries in Manhattan, 35 in the Bronx, and 13 in Staten Island. The newest is the 53rd Street Branch in Manhattan, which opened on June 26, 2016. , the New York Public Library consisted of four research centers and 88 neighborhood branch libraries in the three boroughs served. All libraries in the NYPL system may be used free of charge by all visitors. , the research collections contain 44,507,623 items (books, videotapes, maps, etc.), while the branch libraries contain 8,438,775 items. Together the collections total nearly items, a number surpassed only by the Library of Congress and the British Library.
Services
ASK NYPL
Telephone Reference, known as ASK NYPL, answers 100,000 questions per year, by phone and online, as well as in The New York Times.
Website and digital holdings
The Library website provides access to the library's catalogs, online collections and subscription databases. It also has information about the library's free events, exhibitions, computer classes and English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. The two online catalogs, LEO (which searches the circulating collections) and CATNYP (which searches the research collections) allow users to search the library's holdings of books, journals and other materials. The LEO system allows cardholders to request books from any branch and have them delivered to any branch.
The NYPL gives cardholders free access from home to thousands of current and historical magazines, newspapers, journals and reference books in subscription databases, including EBSCOhost, which contains full text of major magazines; full text of the New York Times (1995–present), Gale's Ready Reference Shelf which includes the Encyclopedia of Associations and periodical indexes, Books in Print; and Ulrich's Periodicals Directory. The New York Public Library also links to outside resources, such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook, and the CIA's World Factbook. Databases are available for children, teenagers, and adults of all ages.
The NYPL Digital Collections (formerly named Digital Gallery) is a database of over 900,000 images digitized from the library's collections. The Digital Collections was named one of Time Magazines 50 Coolest Websites of 2005 and Best Research Site of 2006 by an international panel of museum professionals.
The Photographers' Identities Catalog (PIC) is an experimental online service of the Photography Collection in the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building.
Other databases available only from within the library include Nature, IEEE and Wiley science journals, Wall Street Journal archives, and Factiva. Overall, the digital holdings for the Library consist of more than a petabyte of data as of 2015.
One NYPL
In 2006, the library adopted a new strategy that merged branch and research libraries into "One NYPL". The organizational change developed a unified online catalog for all the collections, and one card to that could be used at both branch and research libraries. The 2009 website and online-catalog transition had some initial difficulties, but ultimately the catalogues were integrated.
Community outreach
The New York Public Library offers many services to its patrons. Some of these services include services for immigrants. New York City is known for having a welcoming environment when its comes to people of diverse backgrounds. The library offers free work and life skills classes. These are offered in conjunction with volunteers and partnerships at the library. In addition, the library offers non-English speakers materials and coaching for them to acclimate to the U.S. For these non-English speakers, the library offers free ESOL classes. An initiative was taken in July 2018, NYC library card holders are allowed to visit Whitney Museum, the Guggenheim and 31 other prominent New York cultural institutions for free.
Temporary programs
In June 2017, Subway Library was announced. It was an initiative between the New York Public Library, Brooklyn Public Library, Queens Public Library, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and Transit Wireless. The Subway Library gave New York City Subway riders access to e-books, excerpts, and short stories. Subway Library has since ended, but riders can still download free e-books via the SimplyE app or by visiting SimplyE.net.
Governance
The NYPL, like all public libraries in New York, is granted a charter from the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York and is registered with the New York State Education Department. The basic powers and duties of all library boards of trustees are defined in the Education Law and are subject to Part 90 of Title 8 of the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations.
The NYPL's charter, as restated and granted in 1975, gives the name of the corporation as The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The library is governed by a board of trustees, composed of between 25–42 trustees of several classes who collectively choose their own successors, including ex officio the New York City Mayor, New York City Council Speaker and New York City Comptroller.
Other New York City library systems
The New York Public Library is one of three separate and independent public library systems in New York City. The other two library systems are the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Public Library. According to the 2006 Mayor's Management Report, New York City's three public library systems had a total library circulation of 35 million: the NYPL and BPL (with 143 branches combined) had a circulation of , and the Queens system had a circulation of through its 62 branch libraries. Altogether the three library systems hosted visitors in 2006. Taken as a whole, the three library systems in the city have 209 branches with 63 million items in their collections.
Other libraries in New York City, some of which can be used by the public, are listed in the Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers.
Cultural impact
The historian David McCullough has described the New York Public Library as one of the five most important libraries in the United States; the others are the Library of Congress, the Boston Public Library, and the university libraries of Harvard and Yale.
In popular culture
The New York Public Library has been referenced numerous times in popular culture. The library has appeared as a setting and topic multiple times in film, poetry, television, and music.
See also
Education in New York City
Google Books Library Project
List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City
Benjamin Miller Collection, collection of posted stamps
Ira D. Wallach, namesake of the Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs
The New York Public Library Desk Reference
List of New York Public Library branches
List of presidents of the New York Public Library
ReferencesNotesBibliography Chapman, Carleton B. Order out of Chaos: John Shaw Billings and America's Coming of Age (1994)
Dain, Phyllis. The New York Public Library: A History of Its Founding and Early Years (1973)
Dain, Phyllis. “Harry M. Lydenberg and American Library Resources: A Study in Modern Library Leadership.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy 47, no. 4 (1977): 451–69.
Davis, Donald G. Jr and Tucker, John Mark (1989). American Library History: a comprehensive guide to the literature. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Glynn, Tom, Reading Publics: New York City's Public Libraries, 1754–1911 (Fordham University Press, 2015). xii, 447 pp.
Harris, Michael H. and Davis, Donald G. Jr. (1978). American Library History: a bibliography. Austin: University of Texas
Myers, Andrew B. The Worlds of Washington Irving: 1783–1859 (1974)
Reed, Henry Hope. The New York Public Library: Its Architecture and Decoration (1986)
Sherman, Scott (2015). Patience and fortitude : power, real estate, and the fight to save a public library, Brooklyn; London : Melville House,
Further reading'
External links
Teachinghistory.org review of NYPL website American Shores
1895 establishments in New York (state)
Astor family
Carnegie libraries in New York City
County library systems in New York (state)
Libraries established in 1895
Libraries in Manhattan
Midtown Manhattan
Museums in Manhattan
Public libraries in New York City | [
0.17456912994384766,
-0.56451416015625,
-0.1317281723022461,
0.26972535252571106,
0.5200945138931274,
0.1584305763244629,
-0.21986839175224304,
0.5727776885032654,
-0.4830971658229828,
-0.5871819257736206,
-0.08090287446975708,
0.40636876225471497,
-0.33848491311073303,
0.2766727805137634,
-0.6606413125991821,
-0.6395774483680725,
0.6697905659675598,
0.5609923601150513,
0.30507975816726685,
-0.34981510043144226,
-0.41131341457366943,
-0.006444891914725304,
0.27311745285987854,
0.24682852625846863,
-0.12174106389284134,
-0.13349014520645142,
0.3183191120624542,
-0.5749998092651367,
0.08502763509750366,
0.11027649790048599,
-0.2577095627784729,
0.09575480967760086,
-0.04208298772573471,
-0.2045413702726364,
0.33316102623939514,
-0.3672701418399811,
-0.3905203640460968,
-0.5872088074684143,
-0.29076531529426575,
-0.5192108154296875,
-0.016119807958602905,
-0.11424567550420761,
-0.3004165291786194,
0.4974493980407715,
-0.05724206194281578,
-0.16990569233894348,
-1.055127501487732,
0.32887840270996094,
-1.5525946617126465,
-0.1403653919696808,
-0.42550525069236755,
0.07643706351518631,
0.4829203188419342,
1.0113575458526611,
0.013979801908135414,
0.3859899938106537,
-0.5524566173553467,
0.3185517191886902,
0.2168980985879898,
-0.22808122634887695,
0.04900199547410011,
0.37517982721328735,
0.4884178936481476,
-0.032096296548843384,
0.5576933026313782,
-0.24584299325942993,
0.41109514236450195,
0.42539170384407043,
-0.14804434776306152,
-0.030017388984560966,
0.13488976657390594,
0.243311807513237,
-0.054360076785087585,
0.17406362295150757,
-0.5573458075523376,
0.022149261087179184,
0.6206117272377014,
-0.34147557616233826,
-0.28706663846969604,
-0.08167240768671036,
-0.4987301826477051,
0.36955705285072327,
0.6870434880256653,
-0.026682527735829353,
0.7639551758766174,
-0.14630712568759918,
-1.3730108737945557,
-0.6243770718574524,
0.4959832727909088,
0.1309022456407547,
-0.3303619623184204,
0.34501907229423523,
0.42555001378059387,
-0.1263725459575653,
-0.029808932915329933,
-0.17386139929294586,
0.04114607349038124,
-0.02904628962278366,
0.1596514731645584,
0.20059508085250854,
-0.3554777503013611,
0.5016372799873352,
0.7732971906661987,
-0.19911298155784607,
-0.1736157387495041,
-0.0053048753179609776,
0.36082369089126587,
0.22552554309368134,
0.5407450795173645,
-0.054004788398742676,
-0.12174683809280396,
0.13657967746257782,
-0.6847354769706726,
0.05651009827852249,
0.07901562750339508,
0.5981061458587646,
1.0232430696487427,
-0.2909850776195526,
-0.5333974361419678,
-0.2845560908317566,
0.07193758338689804,
0.5232377648353577,
0.47353631258010864,
-0.005545394495129585,
0.09901086986064911,
0.12369813024997711,
0.7543520331382751,
0.25560757517814636,
0.2903771698474884,
-0.611373245716095,
0.3355608582496643,
1.1872179508209229,
-0.3424763083457947,
-0.42622360587120056,
-0.04320709407329559,
-0.21096618473529816,
-0.8303431272506714,
0.9909340739250183,
0.39232683181762695,
-0.15763859450817108,
-0.6964301466941833,
-0.0738913044333458,
-0.17649978399276733,
-0.4768446981906891,
0.7006973624229431,
-0.1454133540391922,
-0.0038604573346674442,
-0.6569448113441467,
-0.06401775032281876,
-0.07265141606330872,
0.6200818419456482,
-0.016612324863672256,
-0.4125925302505493,
0.44588008522987366,
-0.6095415949821472,
-0.38979700207710266,
0.6768565773963928,
0.014293983578681946,
0.3204622268676758,
0.7693356871604919,
-0.21891751885414124,
-0.3283918797969818,
-0.06966794282197952,
0.24418416619300842,
-1.07808256149292,
-0.1800079494714737,
-0.01739558018743992,
0.08896197378635406,
0.3348354697227478,
-0.009899628348648548,
-0.5149086117744446,
-0.6675856709480286,
0.20615509152412415,
-0.040319159626960754,
0.16396380960941315,
-0.435776948928833,
0.3285532593727112,
0.285983145236969,
0.18926788866519928,
-0.4337144196033478,
-0.6748119592666626,
0.4388480484485626,
0.3283441960811615,
-0.2097955048084259,
-0.09094130247831345,
-0.3472081422805786,
1.0120314359664917,
0.6948153376579285,
0.24775566160678864,
-0.18416418135166168,
0.4110914468765259,
-0.026630202308297157,
0.17120715975761414,
0.3292280435562134,
0.9698660373687744,
0.05932658538222313,
-0.6311767101287842,
1.163144826889038,
-0.27228009700775146,
0.18991756439208984,
-0.07667006552219391,
-0.18886317312717438,
0.666228711605072,
0.16746661067008972,
-0.9222930073738098,
-0.3279813826084137,
0.35215747356414795,
-0.04902341216802597,
0.47899511456489563,
0.09289795905351639,
0.4789367914199829,
-0.860032856464386,
0.050220757722854614,
0.05512678250670433,
-0.04285399988293648,
-0.5366626977920532,
-0.43521860241889954,
0.4673275649547577,
0.11108923703432083,
-0.053067125380039215,
1.3775169849395752,
-0.021065514534711838,
0.5059417486190796,
-0.08062314987182617,
-0.48715484142303467,
0.8989349603652954,
-0.3261193037033081,
0.07763568311929703,
0.3237101435661316,
0.1722916215658188,
0.17523193359375,
-0.4736262857913971,
0.14349032938480377,
-0.1411636918783188,
-0.2882654666900635,
-0.4594462215900421,
-0.16756771504878998,
-0.7992761135101318,
0.557614803314209,
-0.6526946425437927,
-0.11924171447753906,
-0.3562367856502533,
-0.7011721730232239,
0.04149387404322624,
0.5746141672134399,
0.037528835237026215,
-0.6615182161331177,
0.33292198181152344,
0.5898392796516418,
-0.5455619692802429,
-0.12945285439491272,
0.36166080832481384,
0.10466200113296509,
-0.4710412919521332,
0.37100115418434143,
-0.4005596935749054,
0.3375016152858734,
-0.07511597871780396,
1.055375099182129,
0.01764264889061451,
-0.3633739948272705,
0.03059844858944416,
-0.30736657977104187,
0.26564106345176697,
-0.282878577709198,
-0.5838126540184021,
-0.0914556011557579,
-0.6932125687599182,
0.1415795534849167,
0.32066601514816284,
1.0746197700500488,
-0.33521226048469543,
-0.3726934492588043,
-0.6932348608970642,
0.45090505480766296,
-0.11104051023721695,
0.6032995581626892,
0.0253106951713562,
-0.4060041904449463,
-0.9189137816429138,
0.17201168835163116,
0.52447110414505,
0.1861000508069992,
-0.3832172453403473,
-0.1359601467847824,
0.04884546250104904,
0.31048861145973206,
-0.5891316533088684,
-0.5060094594955444,
-0.06214161962270737,
-0.414345383644104,
-0.24706590175628662,
-0.4528665840625763,
0.03989977762103081,
-0.04297109320759773,
0.3832320272922516,
-0.09900342673063278,
-0.10825132578611374,
-0.18434858322143555,
-0.5587682127952576,
-0.4114333391189575,
0.14352639019489288,
-0.01197236217558384,
0.14417347311973572,
-0.460540235042572,
-0.030810533091425896,
-0.04564111307263374,
-0.11359969526529312,
-5.348349094390869,
0.3993305265903473,
-0.8444663882255554,
-0.3077748119831085,
0.13203538954257965,
-0.7858386039733887,
0.4405551850795746,
0.21809062361717224,
-0.09711920469999313,
-0.2618245482444763,
-0.0935748964548111,
-0.45473960041999817,
0.07118497043848038,
0.4826033115386963,
0.32019051909446716,
0.11356930434703827,
-0.29859694838523865,
-0.11360923200845718,
0.13984441757202148,
0.28227469325065613,
-0.14244547486305237,
0.04924849048256874,
-0.125068798661232,
0.4212007224559784,
0.5100995302200317,
0.5419185757637024,
0.008252693340182304,
-0.42074596881866455,
-1.0570156574249268,
-0.7282448410987854,
0.015084149315953255,
-0.7458575963973999,
-0.2087932825088501,
-0.49805721640586853,
-0.01260149385780096,
-0.6898353099822998,
0.7975714802742004,
0.2752237617969513,
-0.032602544873952866,
-0.6983692049980164,
0.174784317612648,
0.3106994330883026,
0.04235035181045532,
-0.04410809278488159,
0.4954102337360382,
0.19482825696468353,
-0.8369199633598328,
-0.030937694013118744,
-0.5294629335403442,
0.7215834856033325,
0.2910005748271942,
0.3252469003200531,
0.41246455907821655,
0.006058660801500082,
-0.36736899614334106,
-0.3457739055156708,
0.33299845457077026,
0.04708551988005638,
-0.2779950797557831,
-0.09798143804073334,
0.3725527822971344,
-0.3116186559200287,
0.0280565544962883,
0.0809922143816948,
-0.601766049861908,
-0.33443117141723633,
-0.22350208461284637,
0.14671394228935242,
0.38799843192100525,
0.3476584255695343,
-0.014084270223975182,
0.3309507369995117,
0.32714390754699707,
-0.796239972114563,
0.1711735725402832,
-0.5302361845970154,
-0.5740939378738403,
-0.03228051960468292,
0.5266174077987671,
-0.042074307799339294,
-0.16189777851104736,
-0.03438451513648033,
-0.40067315101623535,
0.698914647102356,
0.24024616181850433,
-0.6908566355705261,
-0.563177227973938,
0.8359857201576233,
-0.5470731258392334,
-0.42316436767578125,
0.28130918741226196,
-0.22811482846736908,
0.8515480160713196,
0.2748887240886688,
0.04118778929114342,
-0.04393090680241585,
0.31831681728363037,
0.70098876953125,
-0.2702185809612274,
0.02313811145722866,
0.5831521153450012,
0.2070389688014984,
-0.2418576329946518,
-0.894538402557373,
-0.1416713297367096,
-0.27255523204803467,
0.07257848232984543,
0.6562153100967407,
0.5131705403327942,
-0.6760258078575134,
-0.9294785857200623,
-0.7166445255279541,
-0.18607813119888306,
-1.191589593887329,
0.5467121601104736,
-0.1419343650341034,
-0.3145984411239624,
0.8385759592056274,
0.36397096514701843,
0.15113437175750732,
0.07947077602148056,
1.0479698181152344,
0.7368382215499878,
-0.35856518149375916,
-0.4228793680667877,
-0.485125333070755,
-0.023346999660134315,
-0.16932953894138336,
0.14216603338718414,
-0.18645137548446655,
0.004986828658729792,
0.3652154803276062,
0.4337853193283081,
-0.10184250771999359,
-0.29776421189308167,
0.23004218935966492,
-0.5036076903343201,
-0.27811217308044434,
0.4119621515274048,
0.4161098301410675,
0.015225188806653023,
0.48972782492637634,
0.35584694147109985,
0.309150755405426,
0.4652915298938751,
0.32437753677368164,
0.12056425958871841,
-0.3068936765193939,
-0.9604383707046509,
0.15574216842651367,
-0.3264520764350891,
-0.5427225232124329,
0.08143120259046555,
-0.218552827835083,
0.1987956315279007,
-0.43529191613197327,
0.11480576545000076,
0.11604338884353638,
0.2038927525281906,
0.18039481341838837,
-0.18373329937458038,
-0.8149669766426086,
-0.33583328127861023,
0.4045092463493347,
-0.16153812408447266,
-0.3560389578342438,
-0.3339466452598572,
0.40358373522758484,
-0.21771098673343658,
0.611292839050293,
0.27905160188674927,
0.07712452858686447,
-0.04936927184462547,
-0.04975402355194092,
0.198555588722229,
-0.006425241939723492,
0.4514312744140625,
0.094510518014431,
-0.3184650242328644,
0.19489502906799316,
0.5383145809173584,
-0.6152409911155701,
-0.42768657207489014,
0.32516804337501526,
0.7829431295394897,
-0.3963207006454468,
0.12175193428993225,
0.17640334367752075,
-0.49236199259757996,
-0.5473730564117432,
-0.14423565566539764,
-0.40479037165641785,
0.20008546113967896,
0.18487641215324402,
-0.23580631613731384,
-0.4354604482650757,
0.5211325287818909,
0.0232070479542017,
-0.43676450848579407,
-0.20095594227313995,
0.14226219058036804,
0.47279924154281616,
-0.586437463760376,
-0.08161841332912445,
-0.11002180725336075,
-0.6091820597648621,
0.18654654920101166,
0.32907435297966003,
0.2790078818798065,
0.6754260659217834,
-0.2249714434146881,
0.2964392304420471,
0.13073483109474182,
-0.1777304857969284,
-0.25054624676704407,
0.029473766684532166,
0.2777678668498993,
-0.31119099259376526,
-0.4347265660762787,
-0.24468499422073364,
0.03308962658047676,
0.4649680256843567,
-0.35060930252075195,
-0.4590378403663635,
-0.12037795782089233,
0.7904765009880066,
-0.04310953617095947,
-0.6720402240753174,
0.2836390733718872,
-0.5393502712249756,
-0.03742798790335655,
0.09126800298690796,
0.18587256968021393,
0.3560206890106201,
-0.16658632457256317,
0.4856931269168854,
0.18390268087387085,
0.35494959354400635,
0.07751451432704926,
0.8496407270431519,
-0.1829344481229782,
0.7892308831214905,
-0.1285531222820282,
-0.5262865424156189,
0.14476710557937622,
0.7898462414741516,
1.0072746276855469,
0.04220287501811981,
-0.6907974481582642,
0.39576613903045654,
0.9353103041648865,
-1.0966256856918335,
-0.6222072243690491,
0.14019125699996948,
0.8839780688285828,
0.12223134934902191,
-0.06824847310781479,
0.07305550575256348,
0.37613430619239807,
0.030887650325894356,
0.0864207074046135,
-0.5565670132637024,
-0.7266244292259216,
0.714179515838623,
0.0899273082613945,
0.14517584443092346,
-0.29183074831962585,
-0.5037251114845276,
0.2369869500398636,
-0.7247802019119263,
0.05059331655502319,
-0.19058269262313843,
-0.08733171969652176,
0.37178483605384827,
-0.2299986332654953,
0.12158414721488953,
0.057840339839458466,
-0.5206990242004395,
0.38208192586898804,
-0.5403486490249634,
-0.1255420446395874,
0.8458704948425293,
-0.17340601980686188,
-0.17373497784137726,
0.037724364548921585,
0.05616338923573494,
-0.37269434332847595,
0.633297860622406,
-0.3528205454349518,
0.2213832288980484,
-0.4904029965400696,
-0.7748640179634094,
0.22338178753852844,
-0.08298684656620026,
0.0340622253715992,
0.24591943621635437,
0.301954060792923,
0.47984132170677185,
0.39251989126205444,
0.008857924491167068,
-0.771796703338623,
0.14535020291805267,
0.4753691852092743,
0.1331954449415207,
0.2815861999988556,
0.7024033069610596,
-0.10789709538221359,
-0.2516864240169525,
-0.7574851512908936,
-0.4725765883922577,
-0.012935616075992584,
-0.9533910751342773,
0.8391467928886414,
0.8588683605194092,
-0.9047480821609497,
0.14450019598007202,
0.2908748686313629,
-0.6521273255348206,
0.0964178591966629,
-0.20353375375270844,
-0.26983919739723206,
0.15445522964000702,
0.5534920692443848,
0.5677177309989929,
-0.3037695288658142,
0.44269663095474243,
-0.07949405908584595,
-0.1855390965938568,
0.3718862533569336,
-0.6389201283454895,
0.5256937742233276,
-0.035011399537324905,
-1.3282972574234009,
0.5790582299232483,
0.17408713698387146,
-0.20163293182849884,
-0.13471479713916779,
-0.4014963209629059,
-0.7734455466270447,
0.5285296440124512,
0.8722531795501709,
0.33068937063217163,
-0.10572535544633865,
0.5454595685005188,
-0.5041793584823608,
0.6171436309814453,
0.772110641002655,
0.002119379350915551,
-0.23397085070610046,
-0.0939580500125885,
0.09231086820363998,
0.5963429808616638,
0.1600896269083023,
-0.38711607456207275,
0.32586976885795593,
-0.03774567320942879,
0.5072740316390991,
0.16828735172748566,
0.4470250606536865,
-0.6503993272781372,
-0.1998574137687683,
0.7287274599075317,
0.05603225156664848,
-0.3797818422317505,
-0.4855460226535797,
-0.4085998833179474,
0.2178349792957306,
-0.1704188585281372,
-0.4151666462421417,
0.31996455788612366,
-0.2079010009765625,
0.6596253514289856,
-0.6338263154029846,
-0.3446100950241089,
-0.0333092026412487,
0.5836637020111084,
0.10786305367946625,
0.5674020051956177,
0.4943394958972931,
0.3016437292098999,
-0.1926589459180832,
0.17417214810848236,
-0.3146391212940216,
-0.2357189804315567,
-0.019508345052599907,
-0.15794804692268372,
-0.0358959399163723,
0.005681865848600864,
0.026177188381552696,
-0.12781043350696564,
-0.017976021394133568,
-0.2601429522037506,
0.4846576154232025,
0.14428070187568665,
0.23684075474739075,
0.09993366152048111,
-0.671008288860321,
0.722386360168457,
0.08811983466148376,
-0.39531251788139343,
-0.12184743583202362,
0.28208163380622864,
-0.13139651715755463,
0.16895371675491333,
-0.4447556734085083,
0.5537427663803101,
-0.404646635055542,
-0.34591230750083923,
-0.2778148055076599,
0.4289140999317169,
0.4122125208377838,
0.3102824091911316,
-0.2171355038881302,
0.29819706082344055,
0.08526462316513062,
0.5357009172439575,
0.8155481219291687,
0.49702298641204834,
-1.1261560916900635,
-0.15875154733657837,
0.12317802011966705,
-0.20236171782016754,
0.08044280856847763,
0.34897664189338684,
-0.23488016426563263,
-0.6680135130882263,
-0.2615082263946533,
0.048727214336395264,
-0.39570245146751404,
-0.1809166967868805,
0.2373901754617691,
-0.5909880995750427,
-0.4234216809272766,
0.07311736792325974,
-0.31740328669548035,
0.607827365398407,
-0.10429531335830688,
0.684782087802887,
0.5947929620742798,
-0.5267888307571411,
-0.5995123386383057,
-0.20625188946723938,
0.18093624711036682,
-0.056515973061323166,
-0.016045480966567993,
0.18622638285160065,
-0.018139496445655823,
-0.3208405077457428,
-0.7839434146881104,
0.7712152600288391,
-0.4206577241420746,
-0.4931146204471588,
0.42547693848609924,
-0.09837280213832855,
-0.4781064987182617,
0.11932333558797836,
0.2154044508934021,
-0.0626765713095665,
-0.016247013583779335,
0.4042331278324127
] |
233469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glitch%20%28music%29 | Glitch (music) | Glitch is a genre of electronic music that emerged in the 1990s. It has been described as having an "aesthetic of failure" distinguished by the deliberate use of glitch-based audio media and other sonic artifacts.
The glitching sounds featured in glitch tracks usually come from audio recording device or digital electronics malfunctions, such as CD skipping, electric hum, digital or analog distortion, circuit bending, bit-rate reduction, hardware noise, software bugs, computer crashes, vinyl record hiss or scratches, and system errors. Sometimes devices that were already broken are used, and sometimes devices are broken expressly for this purpose. In Computer Music Journal, composer and writer Kim Cascone classified glitch as a subgenre of electronica and used the term post-digital to describe the glitch aesthetic.
History
The origins of the glitch aesthetic can be traced to the early 20th century with Luigi Russolo's Futurist manifesto L'arte dei rumori (The Art of Noises) (1913), the basis of noise music. He constructed mechanical noise generators, which he named intonarumori, and wrote multiple compositions to be played by them, including Risveglio di una città (Awakening of a City) and Convegno di automobili e aeroplani (The Meeting of Automobiles and Airplanes). In 1914, a riot broke out at one of his performances in Milan, Italy. Later musicians and composers who made use of malfunctioning technology include Michael Pinder of The Moody Blues in "The Best Way to Travel" (1968) and Christian Marclay, who used mutilated vinyl records to create sound collages beginning in 1979. Yasunao Tone used damaged CDs in his Techno Eden performance of 1985, while Nicolas Collins's 1992 album It Was a Dark and Stormy Night included a composition featuring a string quartet playing alongside the stuttering sound of skipping CDs. Yuzo Koshiro and Motohiro Kawashima's electronic soundtrack for the 1994 video game Streets of Rage 3 used automatically randomized sequences to generate "unexpected and odd" experimental sounds.
Glitch originated as a distinct movement in Germany and Japan during the 1990s, with the musical work and labels (especially Mille Plateaux) of Achim Szepanski in Germany, and the work of Ryoji Ikeda in Japan.
Oval's Wohnton, produced in 1993, helped define the genre by adding ambient aesthetics.
The earliest uses of the term glitch as related to music include electronic duo Autechre's song "Glitch" (1994) and experimental electronic group ELpH's album Worship the Glitch (1995).
Production techniques
In the later half of the 20th century, the experimental music that served as the precursor to glitch contained distortions that were often produced by manual manipulation of audio media. This came in the form of Yasunao Tone's "wounded" CDs; small bits of semi-transparent tape were placed on the CD to interrupt the reading of the audio information. Other examples of this manual tampering include Nicholas Collins' modification of an electric guitar to act as a resonator for electrical signals, and his adaption of a CD player to allow recordings played on it to be altered during live performance. Skipping CDs, scratched vinyl records, circuit bending, and other distortions resembling electronic noise figure prominently into the creation of rhythm and feeling in glitch; it is from the use of these digital artifacts that the genre derives its name. However, glitch today is often produced on computers using digital production software to splice together small "cuts" (samples) of music from previously recorded works. These cuts are then integrated with the signature of glitch music: beats made up of glitches, clicks, scratches, and otherwise erroneous-sounding noise. The glitches are often very short, and are typically used in place of traditional percussion or instrumentation. Popular software for creating glitch music includes trackers like Jeskola Buzz and Renoise, as well as modular software like Reaktor, Ableton Live, Reason, AudioMulch, Bidule, SuperCollider, FLStudio, Max/MSP, Pure Data, and ChucK. Some artists also use digital synthesizers like the Clavia Nord Modular G2 and Elektron's Machinedrum and Monomachine.
Glitch hop
Glitch hop is a term used to cover several developments of electronic dance music and hip hop music that uses some characteristics and aesthetics of glitch music. The genre typically embodies the same aesthetic as glitch music, but with a more urban approach.
Glitch hop took shape around the year 1997 from the early works of Push Button Objects at the label Chocolate Industries. In 2001 the genre gained popularity thanks to labels like Merck Records, Warp Records, and Ghostly International. Notable glitch hop artists include Machinedrum, Dabrye, Prefuse 73, edIT, Jimmy Edgar, Lackluster, and Proswell. In the late 2000s, glitch hop experienced a massive decline in content creation as practitioners of the genre began branching out into other genres. During this time, dubstep was arguably the most profitable EDM genre in the United States. Hence, many glitch hop artists began making a new style of electronic music that used the same aesthetic as dubstep, while incorporating some elements of glitch music (low fidelity manipulation, stutters, beat repeat, pitched reverses, and cuts). Instead of renaming their new genre, the artists kept the name glitch-hop. Modern glitch hop artists routinely receive criticism for using the term glitch-hop when the current style of the musical genre does not sound like a glitch or instrumental hip hop. Despite the criticism received from traditional glitch-hop fans, many glitch hop artists have had profitable careers. Popular modern glitch hop artists include David Tipper, The Glitch Mob, KOAN Sound, Pegboard Nerds, Pretty Lights, GRiZ, TheFatRat, and Hefe Heetroc.
Glitch pop
Glitch pop is a music genre which mixes glitch music with pop music. Yeule and Clarence Clarity are some of the exponents of glitch pop.
See also
Circuit bending
Clicks & Cuts Series
Drill 'n' bass
Experimental pop
Generative music
Microsound
Noise music
Raster-Noton
References
Further reading
Andrews, Ian, Post-digital Aesthetics and the return to Modernism, MAP-uts lecture, 2000, available at author's website.
Bijsterveld, Karin and Trevor J. Pinch. 'Should One Applaud?': Breaches and Boundaries in the Reception of New Technology in Music." Technology and Culture. Ed. 44.3, pp. 536–559. 2003.
Byrne, David. "What is Blip Hop?" Luakabop, 2002. Available here.
Collins, Adam, "Sounds of the system: the emancipation of noise in the music of Carsten Nicolai", Organised Sound, 13(1): 31–39. 2008. Cambridge University Press.
Collins, Nicolas. Editor. "Composers inside Electronics: Music after David Tudor." Leonardo Music Journal. Vol. 14, pp. 1–3. 2004.
Krapp, Peter, Noise Channels: Glitch and Error in Digital Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 2011.
Prior, Nick, "Putting a Glitch in the Field: Bourdieu, Actor Network Theory and Contemporary Music", Cultural Sociology, 2: 3, 2008: pp. 301–319.
Thomson, Phil, "Atoms and errors: towards a history and aesthetics of microsound", Organised Sound, 9(2): 207–218. 2004. Cambridge University Press.
Sangild, Torben: "Glitch—The Beauty of Malfunction" in Bad Music. Routledge (2004, )
Young, Rob: "Worship the Glitch", The Wire 190/191 (2000)
Noah Zimmerman, "Dusted Reviews, 2002"
Electronica
Noise music | [
0.360579252243042,
0.39539217948913574,
0.06738001853227615,
0.12012656033039093,
-0.22697551548480988,
-0.44569724798202515,
-0.3722326159477234,
0.3457622528076172,
0.047210127115249634,
-0.20191554725170135,
-0.0943460687994957,
0.7299731969833374,
-0.67650306224823,
0.5079593062400818,
-0.14306092262268066,
0.04675500467419624,
0.5184179544448853,
-0.25340181589126587,
-0.5413906574249268,
-0.332019567489624,
-0.05230359733104706,
-0.1103777214884758,
0.29383546113967896,
-0.07486649602651596,
-0.4907301962375641,
-0.04227062687277794,
-0.276492178440094,
0.1401858925819397,
-0.13184161484241486,
0.015004106797277927,
0.24291175603866577,
1.3149235248565674,
0.18649254739284515,
-0.3622252345085144,
-0.269132524728775,
0.5965520739555359,
-0.4920271039009094,
-0.5226038098335266,
0.045843470841646194,
-0.5229154825210571,
0.742893397808075,
0.26302507519721985,
0.1490771323442459,
0.5323309302330017,
-0.013119315728545189,
-0.05190819129347801,
-1.8913663625717163,
-0.01333074364811182,
-0.9943978786468506,
-0.4516901969909668,
-0.5322759747505188,
0.5783905386924744,
0.07348017394542694,
0.2625686228275299,
-0.3763713836669922,
0.1273093819618225,
-0.12071670591831207,
-0.23038959503173828,
-0.24672435224056244,
0.235117569565773,
0.5084710717201233,
-0.5371536612510681,
-0.3271622955799103,
-0.5446440577507019,
-0.26152268052101135,
-0.016640659421682358,
-0.24453739821910858,
0.6542007327079773,
-0.1695604920387268,
-0.5455030798912048,
-0.17859098315238953,
0.10537374764680862,
0.1399819403886795,
-0.5062893629074097,
-0.2947659492492676,
0.5294366478919983,
0.9399136304855347,
-0.1211516484618187,
0.16567669808864594,
0.22047393023967743,
-0.009819420985877514,
0.7434647679328918,
1.3042620420455933,
-0.00021421979181468487,
0.22841612994670868,
-0.08760606497526169,
0.017955221235752106,
0.7933855652809143,
-0.08858723938465118,
0.8159117102622986,
-0.1014518216252327,
-0.7974513173103333,
0.8456751108169556,
0.7139637470245361,
0.15484365820884705,
-0.0227410476654768,
0.3220340609550476,
-0.21793051064014435,
0.09945251047611237,
0.3035452365875244,
0.5172726511955261,
0.33056139945983887,
-0.13241733610630035,
-0.38552290201187134,
-0.14257648587226868,
-0.019108226522803307,
-0.11403944343328476,
-0.45755240321159363,
0.06916217505931854,
-0.5788529515266418,
-0.12840035557746887,
0.5060593485832214,
-0.30860576033592224,
0.39313119649887085,
0.4886811673641205,
0.4068008065223694,
-0.09142762422561646,
0.04086596146225929,
-0.15796759724617004,
0.3708682954311371,
0.2646602988243103,
0.625397801399231,
-0.36150863766670227,
-0.13008014857769012,
-0.36856403946876526,
0.7377798557281494,
0.4925455152988434,
0.6183421015739441,
-0.19797782599925995,
0.34816232323646545,
0.14623688161373138,
1.0187424421310425,
0.25494980812072754,
-0.4586902856826782,
0.22703947126865387,
0.05022898688912392,
0.9968884587287903,
-0.007955195382237434,
-0.12485481053590775,
0.09505508840084076,
-0.20989638566970825,
-0.4413709044456482,
-1.0777130126953125,
-0.6645393371582031,
0.19994927942752838,
-0.16169345378875732,
0.1076337918639183,
-0.4713940918445587,
-0.06795921921730042,
-0.12699297070503235,
0.1046113520860672,
-0.22605204582214355,
-0.4999348223209381,
-0.026120610535144806,
-0.4072296917438507,
-0.06053302437067032,
-0.14650356769561768,
-0.2782362103462219,
0.2896149754524231,
0.4720692038536072,
0.031227365136146545,
-0.2192802131175995,
-0.2759121358394623,
-0.3818743824958801,
0.022488214075565338,
-0.5297443866729736,
0.4500676989555359,
0.5940237045288086,
-0.1111925020813942,
0.63008713722229,
-0.44314706325531006,
0.2382255643606186,
-0.39202603697776794,
-0.41892188787460327,
0.17942745983600616,
0.08598943054676056,
0.8838579058647156,
0.5665507912635803,
0.42834487557411194,
0.4500207304954529,
-0.876527726650238,
-0.4186350107192993,
0.6815654039382935,
0.006052529904991388,
0.027870848774909973,
0.04930063337087631,
0.5073395371437073,
-0.11588439345359802,
-0.21260517835617065,
0.016267811879515648,
-0.3973511755466461,
-0.1396530270576477,
0.6637618541717529,
-0.3797091245651245,
1.3990260362625122,
0.10444891452789307,
-0.3838684856891632,
0.26739150285720825,
-0.001163683831691742,
0.2534622550010681,
-0.02277585305273533,
0.02266089804470539,
0.25728639960289,
-0.1785852611064911,
-0.16097798943519592,
0.40491342544555664,
0.10206436365842819,
-0.16794541478157043,
-0.5571625232696533,
-0.04758671671152115,
0.2576099932193756,
-0.0958402156829834,
0.41017401218414307,
0.5149409174919128,
0.11495070904493332,
-0.05364537239074707,
-1.0418965816497803,
0.46366316080093384,
-0.3156825006008148,
-0.5146420001983643,
0.07519768178462982,
-0.026703907176852226,
-0.5334530472755432,
0.5787933468818665,
0.13012659549713135,
1.3439940214157104,
0.09479404985904694,
0.10118043422698975,
0.5026220083236694,
-0.5329704284667969,
0.007059246767312288,
0.4825740456581116,
0.005535533186048269,
-0.3861163258552551,
-0.24318024516105652,
0.4267823398113251,
0.1775915026664734,
-0.09555713087320328,
0.5229952931404114,
-0.24441243708133698,
-0.141559436917305,
0.1599433273077011,
-1.0639616250991821,
0.033814772963523865,
0.22581370174884796,
0.021717865020036697,
-0.2545924484729767,
0.12777835130691528,
-0.5933975577354431,
0.2569640576839447,
0.3640575110912323,
0.645046591758728,
0.1096566766500473,
-0.32050544023513794,
0.0427822507917881,
-0.24438324570655823,
0.02741948515176773,
-0.4284481406211853,
-0.06662239879369736,
0.0412592887878418,
0.008421163074672222,
0.0030652452260255814,
0.7452634572982788,
-0.17412780225276947,
-0.4732629954814911,
-0.7384178042411804,
-0.13409651815891266,
-0.0523337796330452,
0.10809976607561111,
-0.5922442674636841,
-0.11104682087898254,
0.13131996989250183,
-0.3063299059867859,
-0.498341828584671,
-0.3275809586048126,
-0.4806613624095917,
-0.3829931318759918,
0.030002480372786522,
-0.3284814655780792,
-0.5982045531272888,
0.1585899293422699,
0.9965534806251526,
-0.08929703384637833,
-0.5484903454780579,
-1.1472244262695312,
0.3358203172683716,
0.14291411638259888,
-0.07837579399347305,
0.7715234160423279,
-0.16254550218582153,
-0.4061281085014343,
-0.017608752474188805,
-0.39454185962677,
0.127568781375885,
0.4126429557800293,
0.22670400142669678,
0.018731417134404182,
0.20054872334003448,
-0.32067427039146423,
-0.18876273930072784,
-0.08338847011327744,
0.3945283591747284,
-0.4243695139884949,
-0.3646617531776428,
-0.10011900216341019,
-0.4672790765762329,
-0.44787588715553284,
-0.33175915479660034,
-5.574172496795654,
0.47353291511535645,
-0.06639799475669861,
-0.3656025230884552,
-0.3013855814933777,
0.45943358540534973,
0.3142174780368805,
-0.41553014516830444,
0.13981232047080994,
-0.46567508578300476,
-0.643621027469635,
-0.09092248231172562,
-0.6656327843666077,
0.670325756072998,
0.29623138904571533,
0.12759889662265778,
0.37017568945884705,
0.34851977229118347,
-0.12329515069723129,
0.1653604358434677,
-0.003033754648640752,
0.012834939174354076,
0.56010901927948,
0.37026748061180115,
0.2026602029800415,
0.380951464176178,
-0.5307478904724121,
0.10781724750995636,
-0.31304600834846497,
0.25053954124450684,
0.23437166213989258,
0.23685742914676666,
-0.3476642668247223,
-0.32932165265083313,
0.21810457110404968,
0.6681417226791382,
0.8278306126594543,
0.23617379367351532,
0.38889917731285095,
-0.0622420608997345,
-0.028703926131129265,
0.8569445013999939,
0.08711820840835571,
-0.021327080205082893,
0.6674038171768188,
0.24509958922863007,
-0.5845739245414734,
-0.3661717176437378,
-0.45058754086494446,
0.6682513952255249,
-0.11537657678127289,
-0.7423546314239502,
0.03912928327918053,
-0.017487317323684692,
0.15177196264266968,
-0.3826068341732025,
0.4705049395561218,
0.11500567197799683,
-0.2815374732017517,
0.41070568561553955,
0.535435140132904,
-0.3114667534828186,
0.007642660290002823,
-0.6791974902153015,
-0.16149155795574188,
-0.17113785445690155,
-0.63008052110672,
-0.1001298576593399,
0.7546777129173279,
0.3947714865207672,
0.23255741596221924,
0.08664576709270477,
0.16212907433509827,
-0.7918266654014587,
-0.040753427892923355,
0.04908362776041031,
-0.00516526959836483,
-0.12161027640104294,
0.34666579961776733,
0.34334731101989746,
0.09001035988330841,
-0.48735418915748596,
-0.745591402053833,
0.12811507284641266,
-0.18117156624794006,
-0.5976030230522156,
-0.6128501892089844,
0.19715937972068787,
-0.9074863195419312,
0.24284367263317108,
1.0929464101791382,
-0.5455513000488281,
-0.14069198071956635,
0.2402169406414032,
0.2359439879655838,
0.8376415371894836,
0.8094769716262817,
0.24501027166843414,
0.1288485825061798,
-0.11421221494674683,
0.22091947495937347,
-0.43651264905929565,
-0.11305025219917297,
-0.5378376245498657,
-0.10782849043607712,
-0.5304962992668152,
-0.2775297164916992,
0.18529625236988068,
0.4863967001438141,
-0.4733525812625885,
-0.27711719274520874,
-0.12351877242326736,
-0.2109479457139969,
-0.3545340299606323,
0.3603522777557373,
-0.3322449028491974,
-0.2334413081407547,
0.13933542370796204,
0.018865881487727165,
-0.45615148544311523,
0.3652610778808594,
0.09766695648431778,
0.2554754614830017,
-0.005618897266685963,
-0.3171910047531128,
0.2761988341808319,
-0.019767506048083305,
0.1772964596748352,
-0.12019162625074387,
0.07416734099388123,
0.357677161693573,
0.09506755322217941,
-0.1245865523815155,
-0.16102059185504913,
-0.08840855211019516,
-0.6587721109390259,
-0.671221911907196,
0.3016481101512909,
0.44243288040161133,
-0.48286595940589905,
0.7178571820259094,
-0.45239773392677307,
0.4031122922897339,
0.3077186644077301,
0.48764997720718384,
0.3039402663707733,
0.3741682767868042,
-0.23508992791175842,
-0.45208582282066345,
0.03486757352948189,
0.030215347185730934,
-0.44864559173583984,
0.4251807630062103,
-0.42182719707489014,
0.05108274891972542,
0.248025044798851,
0.11685113608837128,
-0.2025364339351654,
-0.14284442365169525,
-0.6115363836288452,
0.9219053983688354,
0.271401971578598,
-0.9297145009040833,
0.3131774067878723,
-0.0043553453870117664,
0.08041905611753464,
-0.20576374232769012,
0.03240208327770233,
-0.299406498670578,
0.18832015991210938,
0.1218385323882103,
-0.07312974333763123,
-0.201052725315094,
-0.6139622926712036,
0.28784462809562683,
-0.26087623834609985,
-0.06981200724840164,
-0.2771870791912079,
-0.1483740210533142,
-0.624616265296936,
-0.09713439643383026,
-0.010927500203251839,
-0.35799187421798706,
0.17852148413658142,
0.4827038049697876,
-0.8525175452232361,
-0.4590013921260834,
0.4119361639022827,
-0.5333149433135986,
0.2922930121421814,
-0.25042709708213806,
0.21782006323337555,
0.6177895069122314,
-0.08969494700431824,
-0.20442645251750946,
-0.7034870982170105,
-0.15401558578014374,
0.3359169363975525,
-0.3740372359752655,
-0.9138970971107483,
0.34382352232933044,
0.3549206554889679,
0.21118877828121185,
0.031423766165971756,
0.7527494430541992,
-0.6884546279907227,
0.34166911244392395,
-0.042039550840854645,
-0.9962894916534424,
0.5671442151069641,
-0.07044967263936996,
-0.18473252654075623,
-0.30869948863983154,
-0.38053908944129944,
-0.2749190330505371,
-0.0489259697496891,
0.09083051234483719,
-0.39302167296409607,
-0.6164839863777161,
0.1453649401664734,
-0.24388810992240906,
0.410525918006897,
-0.3999927341938019,
0.3519233465194702,
-0.44872239232063293,
-0.22266095876693726,
-0.12989693880081177,
-0.018044723197817802,
0.0966423824429512,
-0.2118467539548874,
-0.2869669198989868,
0.03359629586338997,
0.20758330821990967,
-0.26175230741500854,
-0.23602735996246338,
0.13986161351203918,
0.02594621479511261,
0.5109279751777649,
0.4885919392108917,
0.20214375853538513,
0.19879551231861115,
0.244769886136055,
0.3708944320678711,
-0.21268032491207123,
0.10055024921894073,
0.37849223613739014,
0.050861749798059464,
-0.09989796578884125,
-1.1425610780715942,
-0.026545681059360504,
0.08533693104982376,
-0.16850093007087708,
-0.7721896171569824,
-0.5026516318321228,
0.6963047981262207,
-0.585858166217804,
0.12458354979753494,
-0.2517337203025818,
0.35142946243286133,
0.20518749952316284,
-0.09026914089918137,
-0.15957963466644287,
-0.4227268397808075,
0.4576607346534729,
0.385682612657547,
0.6349250674247742,
0.033512182533741,
0.07022964954376221,
-0.15351617336273193,
-0.26434075832366943,
0.0766056627035141,
-0.5406396985054016,
0.7616785764694214,
0.22245603799819946,
-0.4244917035102844,
-0.33526933193206787,
-0.014120408333837986,
-0.6185066103935242,
-0.025921383872628212,
-0.039006076753139496,
0.487936794757843,
0.05727074667811394,
0.6569003462791443,
-0.34103721380233765,
0.15114854276180267,
-0.6079302430152893,
-0.06629455089569092,
-0.278727650642395,
-0.03477585315704346,
-0.6035705804824829,
-0.03881454095244408,
0.2386033535003662,
0.012781684286892414,
0.6069640517234802,
0.24004143476486206,
0.1274876445531845,
-0.06328683346509933,
-0.08016428351402283,
-0.16697700321674347,
-0.3956259489059448,
-0.16756239533424377,
0.16687433421611786,
0.16793295741081238,
-0.39571499824523926,
0.8702398538589478,
-0.14746518433094025,
0.10393721610307693,
-0.149233877658844,
-0.027727035805583,
0.1296510100364685,
0.12119390070438385,
0.2054794281721115,
-0.3807418942451477,
0.9578928351402283,
-0.6744680404663086,
0.13697007298469543,
0.9055590033531189,
-0.15180648863315582,
1.227837085723877,
0.5264440178871155,
-0.1795913279056549,
-0.043323054909706116,
0.8974858522415161,
0.27013057470321655,
-0.07785451412200928,
0.34026390314102173,
-0.04646011069417,
0.24357828497886658,
0.4721161723136902,
-0.2226661741733551,
0.43884968757629395,
-0.21815046668052673,
0.20821835100650787,
0.7843970656394958,
-0.2509578764438629,
-0.8223192095756531,
-0.07927032560110092,
-0.13806578516960144,
-0.5603322982788086,
0.5847727060317993,
0.3781172037124634,
-0.1451336145401001,
0.10857503116130829,
0.40744203329086304,
-0.3339436650276184,
0.3435201644897461,
0.3434353470802307,
0.2574223577976227,
-0.15674149990081787,
-0.40609052777290344,
0.2293020635843277,
0.32596340775489807,
0.14209823310375214,
-0.01676228456199169,
0.13236074149608612,
-0.5661855936050415,
0.5415427088737488,
0.04123443737626076,
0.08792011439800262,
-0.8949631452560425,
0.4337559938430786,
0.1013326495885849,
0.5034860372543335,
-0.012534094974398613,
-0.22908489406108856,
-0.013429698534309864,
0.2511897087097168,
-0.40344834327697754,
0.4557121992111206,
0.048722054809331894,
0.11951982975006104,
0.26963385939598083,
0.28300678730010986,
0.6466591358184814,
-0.30518707633018494,
-0.6050795912742615,
0.30622753500938416,
0.27462196350097656,
-0.09660664200782776,
0.3024783432483673,
-0.37889063358306885,
0.3985554277896881,
-0.5658538341522217,
-0.3200438320636749,
0.378350168466568,
-0.3147948980331421,
-0.21470685303211212,
0.38181132078170776,
-0.17531047761440277,
-0.29067063331604004,
-0.15498706698417664,
-0.4578968286514282,
-0.34611615538597107,
0.06065487116575241,
-0.3606547713279724,
-0.551353394985199,
-0.015568836592137814,
0.5553281903266907,
-0.5492933988571167,
0.6069017648696899,
0.16617009043693542,
-0.12632596492767334,
0.27763330936431885,
0.2593425512313843,
-0.749041736125946,
0.46826690435409546,
-0.5541436076164246,
0.43722236156463623,
-0.3977378308773041,
0.6616777777671814,
0.05141405761241913,
0.1665012687444687,
0.009250848554074764,
0.34743401408195496,
0.02689550071954727,
-0.2656915783882141,
0.4827190339565277,
-0.010262404568493366,
-0.12669597566127777,
-0.18145127594470978,
0.017037879675626755,
-0.04733780771493912,
-0.11031094193458557,
-0.09715775400400162,
0.09409363567829132,
0.2076694518327713,
0.038478802889585495,
-0.2985507547855377,
0.22600245475769043,
0.40334510803222656,
-0.3552403748035431,
0.15871267020702362,
-0.5306410789489746,
0.05048367753624916,
-0.18254968523979187,
-0.17442509531974792,
0.09000471234321594,
-0.24438942968845367,
0.198893740773201,
-0.13117210566997528,
0.34459877014160156,
-0.24816206097602844,
-0.20410002768039703,
-0.04338832572102547,
-2.0145459175109863,
-0.11116917431354523,
0.3277634382247925,
0.06368537247180939,
-0.26067495346069336,
0.19124193489551544,
0.17686831951141357,
-0.3108462989330292,
0.12679989635944366,
-0.028018856421113014,
0.10032150894403458,
-0.18259212374687195,
0.28260672092437744,
-0.5348934531211853,
0.021129582077264786,
0.057018619030714035
] |
233470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhouse | Microhouse | Microhouse, buftech or sometimes just minimal, is a subgenre of house music strongly influenced by minimalism and 1990s techno.
History
Microhouse has its roots in the minimal techno, bitpop (both developed in the early 1990s), and house (developed in the early 1980s) genres of music. Its first echoes appeared in a glitch album by German experimental artist Oval, in 1993. Like many contemporary electronic genres, Microhouse has many influences, most notably techno and the "click and pop" garage house that has emerged from Yorkshire Bleeps and Bass (or "Bleep"), bitpop and minimal techno. Contrasting with tech house, which is often thought of as 'house music with elements of techno in its arrangement and instrumentation', microhouse is more aptly described as 'housey minimal techno' – a marriage of the funky and groovy backroom house elements with bitpop and the driving, repetitive sound of techno. Emphasis tended to fall on cushiony kick-drum thumps and the accompanying hi-hats, with faint textures provided by synthetic strings and dreamy keyboard tones.
Throughout the late ‘90s and early 2000s, several small labels thriving on this approach cropped up. A fair percentage of the output from already-established labels like Playhouse (Isolée, Losoul), Kompakt (Sascha Funke, M. Mayer) and Klang Elektronik (Farben) made for some of microhouse’s most thrilling moments. Other labels -- such as Force Tracks (Luomo, MRI), Perlon (Ricardo Villalobos, Pantytec) and Trapez (Akufen, M.I.A.) –- were virtually all-microhouse in scope.
The term microhouse is usually credited to music journalist and DJ Philip Sherburne, writing for the magazine The Wire in 2001, to describe, according to Stelfox, "the spectral, hypnotic interpretation of classic Chicago grooves emerging on labels such as Perlon, Kompakt, Playhouse, Ongaku, Klang Elektronik and the Mille Plateaux family of imprints-most notably Force Tracks and Force Inc- at the turn of the millennium."
Characteristics
Like house and techno, microhouse is built around a 4/4 time signature. Its tempo ranges between 115 and 130 BPM. A noticeable difference between microhouse and house is the replacement of typical house kick drums, hi-hats and other drum machine samples with clicks, static, glitches, and small bits of noise, which more often than not are stretched out and last longer in drops. Microhouse artists often experiment with different forms of sampling to achieve this effect.
One characteristic feature of microhouse is the use of sampling: extremely short ('micro') samples of the human voice, musical instruments, everyday noises and computer created wave patterns are arranged to form complex melodies (such as can be heard in Akufen's "Deck the House"). Vocals in microhouse are often simplistic, nonsensical, and monotone in nature, although some artists, such as Matthew Dear, combine singing with microhouse production. This is one of the main characteristics of microhouse compared to deep house, for example, which tends to feature no vocals and also a slower tempo going to as low as 115 BPM in some songs.
Microhouse is somewhat obscure when compared to other genres of house and techno, but several cities including Bucharest, Melbourne, Berlin, Cologne, Paris, Montreal, the San Francisco Bay Area, Seattle, Minneapolis, Detroit, Chicago, DC and Portland have budding scenes, and with the minimal techno boom of the mid-2000s, is now gaining great popularity in German, French, Canadian, Italian and Spanish clubs. Mainstream tech house records and CDs will occasionally have microhouse or minimal reworks of tracks. On top of this, several tracks have become major club hits over the years, and a few others have even gained European radioplay.
Notable microhouse record labels
The following record labels mainly release microhouse:
[a:rpia:r]
The Lab Records
Background Records
Cynosure
Perlon
Microcosm
Minisketch
Pampa Records
Ware
The following labels generally release minimal techno, deep house or other genres but also release microhouse:
Playhouse
BPitch Control
Cadenza
Cocoon
Ghostly International / Spectral Sound
Kompakt
Macro
Mille Plateaux
M nus
Traum Schallplatten
Truesoul
Raster-Noton
Notes
External links
minimal board
Allmusic article on microhouse
An article on the Minneapolis minimal/microhouse scene
An article on the click-hop subgenre of microhouse, with some discussion of microhouse as a genre
FWD – Minimal House podcast
Hyperdub article
Electrofied – Electrofied Radio Show – Electro / tech/ fidget & minimal house podcast
House music genres | [
0.8195325136184692,
-0.09151361137628555,
-0.30493709444999695,
0.0318034291267395,
-0.0537380650639534,
0.0009307962609454989,
-0.19496726989746094,
-0.08605647832155228,
-0.5807560086250305,
-0.44254887104034424,
-0.5527057647705078,
0.13078859448432922,
-0.42212459444999695,
0.7308310270309448,
-0.4122159779071808,
0.21206989884376526,
0.438616544008255,
-0.24505867063999176,
-0.3910225033760071,
0.3775147497653961,
-0.48060017824172974,
0.020875705406069756,
0.3035024404525757,
0.0012633568840101361,
-0.3909689486026764,
0.04171210527420044,
0.2735190689563751,
-0.09609620273113251,
-0.573668897151947,
-0.26861825585365295,
0.2336643636226654,
0.6424059867858887,
0.15174950659275055,
-0.7095611095428467,
0.3594212532043457,
-0.015972428023815155,
-0.46685361862182617,
-0.36815354228019714,
-0.6183614134788513,
-1.0165890455245972,
0.0012003077426925302,
0.13929417729377747,
0.3863842189311981,
0.31455057859420776,
-0.49133580923080444,
0.2671273946762085,
-1.153212547302246,
0.3756466507911682,
-1.2838997840881348,
-0.13167890906333923,
-0.18080052733421326,
0.35688653588294983,
0.471805602312088,
0.17544201016426086,
0.09968052059412003,
0.1570366770029068,
-0.5854219198226929,
-0.23618610203266144,
-0.12444765120744705,
-0.2479056864976883,
0.6397673487663269,
-0.31231048703193665,
0.08657816052436829,
-0.061561357229948044,
0.01181561965495348,
0.010820883326232433,
-0.1368856281042099,
0.18566322326660156,
-0.09105782955884933,
-0.11983737349510193,
-0.3898911476135254,
-0.33145180344581604,
0.23931510746479034,
-0.3979507088661194,
-0.5756586790084839,
-0.11773429811000824,
0.7643978595733643,
-0.3496093153953552,
0.22275342047214508,
0.5620133876800537,
-0.10350170731544495,
0.26855728030204773,
0.8880388736724854,
0.29695746302604675,
0.6395043730735779,
-0.01674509234726429,
0.07433831691741943,
0.14904607832431793,
-0.6269246339797974,
0.33349066972732544,
0.46599507331848145,
-0.6958367228507996,
1.120166301727295,
0.6305596828460693,
0.23130178451538086,
-0.021089967340230942,
0.20758461952209473,
0.09853922575712204,
-0.049158237874507904,
0.6132044792175293,
0.06806518882513046,
0.5970043540000916,
-0.08508721739053726,
0.15014736354351044,
-0.2310420572757721,
-0.013180255889892578,
-0.6662247180938721,
-0.7766971588134766,
-0.0055093117989599705,
-0.11929469555616379,
0.13382238149642944,
0.4707915782928467,
-0.2759525179862976,
0.6548445224761963,
0.6719396114349365,
0.09673016518354416,
-0.2859109044075012,
0.10849872976541519,
-0.5504626631736755,
0.28655028343200684,
0.3522945046424866,
0.6087733507156372,
-0.13138502836227417,
-0.2326398491859436,
-0.4511395990848541,
0.2932215929031372,
0.44182711839675903,
0.5262702703475952,
-0.5421863794326782,
-0.19694951176643372,
0.4207051694393158,
0.9677306413650513,
0.15143637359142303,
-0.5218668580055237,
-0.3639841079711914,
0.20251335203647614,
0.8744961619377136,
0.03258606418967247,
-0.0052718594670295715,
0.049179621040821075,
-0.47757720947265625,
-0.4787818193435669,
-0.417614221572876,
-0.2368076592683792,
-0.12008408457040787,
-0.35149145126342773,
0.1955045461654663,
-0.1315988302230835,
-0.3673722445964813,
-0.30262380838394165,
-0.059440728276968,
0.21713054180145264,
-0.33300313353538513,
-0.4757694900035858,
-0.2632560729980469,
-0.1404954195022583,
0.059075433760881424,
-0.1984546035528183,
0.5873537659645081,
0.07222173362970352,
-0.4407348036766052,
-0.00874419417232275,
-0.2289736121892929,
0.004489788319915533,
0.703887403011322,
-0.27054572105407715,
0.23527973890304565,
0.6492345333099365,
-0.2680867314338684,
0.8774363398551941,
-0.09725645929574966,
0.26524466276168823,
0.119265615940094,
-0.39399877190589905,
-0.15593087673187256,
0.04786062240600586,
1.3863195180892944,
-0.18774853646755219,
0.6142456531524658,
0.3067150115966797,
-0.8641021847724915,
0.2612578868865967,
0.40724167227745056,
-0.19558139145374298,
-0.048665601760149,
-0.4809342622756958,
0.18699292838573456,
-0.09585630148649216,
-0.16262559592723846,
0.045423272997140884,
-0.18772976100444794,
-0.00012209065607748926,
0.26270389556884766,
-0.6556783318519592,
0.9417797923088074,
0.2884822487831116,
-0.2528668940067291,
0.742565929889679,
-0.017774341627955437,
-0.007371066603809595,
0.13477952778339386,
0.1590159833431244,
0.12516231834888458,
-0.1617574393749237,
-0.40571773052215576,
-0.2739773690700531,
0.3753375709056854,
0.012751462869346142,
-0.116693876683712,
-0.08561296761035919,
0.443987101316452,
-0.592643141746521,
0.5458783507347107,
-0.00541623355820775,
0.003318656235933304,
-0.38875383138656616,
-0.47188013792037964,
0.3004273474216461,
-0.6863729953765869,
-0.31269383430480957,
0.5989534258842468,
-0.45836129784584045,
-0.5627134442329407,
0.3120701014995575,
0.003581544617190957,
0.5640560388565063,
0.19283045828342438,
-0.5721349120140076,
0.8888039588928223,
-0.18631602823734283,
0.27758556604385376,
0.49051812291145325,
-0.15469303727149963,
-0.5249149799346924,
-0.1983303278684616,
0.6273015141487122,
0.47513285279273987,
-0.01588287577033043,
0.6186502575874329,
-0.6122819781303406,
-0.7156297564506531,
-0.00547316437587142,
-0.6085872054100037,
-0.02293640747666359,
0.3561662435531616,
-0.4718884229660034,
-0.2644747793674469,
0.2939304709434509,
-0.8292768001556396,
0.7051417231559753,
0.4494519829750061,
0.5085133910179138,
0.45530056953430176,
-0.622880756855011,
-0.154814675450325,
-0.2094310224056244,
-0.3018743097782135,
-0.4503721594810486,
0.28351205587387085,
-0.06023062765598297,
-0.20176678895950317,
0.15888606011867523,
0.4970708191394806,
-0.18911640346050262,
-0.1872371882200241,
-0.8016600608825684,
-0.2369299829006195,
-0.38452985882759094,
0.22070086002349854,
-0.27736154198646545,
-0.010137276723980904,
0.20960405468940735,
-0.32181039452552795,
0.19759884476661682,
0.06732840090990067,
-0.46174564957618713,
-0.3682733476161957,
-0.3076636791229248,
-0.23227158188819885,
-0.7744126915931702,
-0.08099643886089325,
1.057338833808899,
0.19651591777801514,
-1.2076438665390015,
-0.8462517261505127,
0.07188615947961807,
0.024498334154486656,
-0.10887555778026581,
0.3425839841365814,
-0.32717791199684143,
-0.525661826133728,
0.017136747017502785,
-0.47457611560821533,
0.015166121535003185,
0.3970882296562195,
0.3339603841304779,
-0.3610900044441223,
0.24377362430095673,
-0.4716673195362091,
-0.2980225384235382,
-0.1669345200061798,
0.16139636933803558,
-0.41238778829574585,
-0.06025535240769386,
0.06748007237911224,
-0.3152819573879242,
-0.31272584199905396,
-0.2396158128976822,
-5.503954887390137,
0.2058040201663971,
-0.19820964336395264,
-0.04984632506966591,
-0.10515512526035309,
0.36645257472991943,
0.27462318539619446,
-0.3711134195327759,
-0.031636107712984085,
-0.25637975335121155,
-0.984642744064331,
-0.057473741471767426,
-0.12929034233093262,
1.0097261667251587,
0.3705049455165863,
-0.05301422253251076,
-0.4100950062274933,
0.22400717437267303,
-0.18240201473236084,
0.2411481738090515,
-0.40017977356910706,
0.1993178129196167,
0.5069009065628052,
0.2092418670654297,
0.1397230625152588,
-0.3991071581840515,
-0.7278524041175842,
0.09286420047283173,
-0.7136840224266052,
-0.055281855165958405,
-0.3590092062950134,
-0.007052066270262003,
-0.3438946306705475,
-0.5008903741836548,
0.6479007601737976,
0.9850751161575317,
0.6856011748313904,
0.28093859553337097,
0.11856257915496826,
-0.12749455869197845,
0.4574289917945862,
0.8967807292938232,
0.24105332791805267,
-0.17417708039283752,
0.5034891366958618,
0.33324119448661804,
-0.5682710409164429,
-0.4737021028995514,
-0.6639924049377441,
0.5738682746887207,
-0.1619441658258438,
-0.5229397416114807,
0.5159706473350525,
0.3110940456390381,
0.245380237698555,
-0.22873441874980927,
0.7658264636993408,
-0.3193502426147461,
-0.23928648233413696,
-0.2800107002258301,
0.19506338238716125,
-0.22139360010623932,
0.0025193956680595875,
-0.49021148681640625,
0.4744701683521271,
-0.34935009479522705,
-0.8867310285568237,
-0.051996614784002304,
0.6002017855644226,
0.3449374735355377,
0.06795471161603928,
-0.17886880040168762,
-0.23486176133155823,
-1.028342843055725,
-0.07364608347415924,
-0.17436754703521729,
0.094204843044281,
-0.22942589223384857,
0.16967147588729858,
0.34471428394317627,
0.04893825203180313,
-0.22128890454769135,
-0.767198920249939,
0.19624373316764832,
-0.6844881176948547,
-0.8834588527679443,
-0.12383560836315155,
0.41734981536865234,
-1.0721569061279297,
0.6937617659568787,
0.4186190664768219,
-0.1870097666978836,
-0.1827695518732071,
-0.1903972029685974,
0.7548516988754272,
0.35514211654663086,
0.6013225317001343,
0.17157016694545746,
0.1621885746717453,
0.3110997676849365,
0.2205885350704193,
-0.731383204460144,
-0.479478120803833,
-0.21307054162025452,
0.3339976966381073,
-0.03594246879220009,
-0.28826937079429626,
0.4082998037338257,
0.6165490746498108,
0.10272473096847534,
0.06177349388599396,
0.08643161505460739,
-0.25229954719543457,
-0.5582217574119568,
0.9231821894645691,
0.05650049448013306,
-0.325900673866272,
0.13568174839019775,
-0.0026095027569681406,
-0.1914185732603073,
0.26837509870529175,
-0.05958569422364235,
-0.24946856498718262,
0.6470642685890198,
-0.2195681482553482,
0.24639256298542023,
-0.08235059678554535,
0.2664791941642761,
-0.4562776982784271,
0.20670202374458313,
0.0475374236702919,
-0.1608174741268158,
-0.09932775050401688,
-0.21346719563007355,
0.41408565640449524,
0.29373639822006226,
0.15608812868595123,
-0.12441354990005493,
-0.07097981125116348,
-0.8042208552360535,
0.22604064643383026,
-0.49808159470558167,
0.8234254717826843,
0.46710026264190674,
0.46201685070991516,
0.8328996896743774,
-0.04377095028758049,
0.19106633961200714,
0.08525364845991135,
-0.11978215724229813,
-0.003945990931242704,
-0.5018556118011475,
0.40566688776016235,
-0.4992339611053467,
-0.11600134521722794,
-0.7198701500892639,
-0.011890807189047337,
0.048434168100357056,
0.33303284645080566,
-0.16575543582439423,
0.5394633412361145,
0.05200137197971344,
-0.9170805811882019,
0.13394176959991455,
-0.04584137350320816,
0.1787903755903244,
-0.13954849541187286,
0.023317206650972366,
-0.2713039219379425,
0.10775022208690643,
0.23938021063804626,
-0.3615992069244385,
-0.4694656431674957,
-0.7515383958816528,
0.27886050939559937,
-0.44465479254722595,
0.13272956013679504,
-0.0690188780426979,
-0.2825634479522705,
-0.13764815032482147,
0.03959038108587265,
0.26332566142082214,
-0.183538556098938,
0.19520968198776245,
0.7542375922203064,
-0.5092995762825012,
-0.32536956667900085,
0.43398401141166687,
-0.5717841386795044,
0.22266042232513428,
-0.1178460493683815,
1.220355749130249,
0.9295147061347961,
-0.06471304595470428,
-0.3303474187850952,
-0.968019425868988,
-0.11725596338510513,
0.9629457592964172,
-0.6526315808296204,
-0.5668874979019165,
0.4130365252494812,
0.3446294367313385,
-0.05018441379070282,
0.6831395030021667,
1.197920799255371,
-0.2710227966308594,
0.43438342213630676,
-0.4295769929885864,
-0.49066004157066345,
0.07688689231872559,
-0.5329119563102722,
-0.04566377401351929,
-0.19251582026481628,
-0.13844060897827148,
-0.6679649353027344,
-0.002465371508151293,
0.16107907891273499,
0.16321568191051483,
-0.2549528479576111,
-0.12647247314453125,
0.06825684756040573,
0.07626762241125107,
-0.20499230921268463,
-0.047715600579977036,
-0.5510066747665405,
0.44242653250694275,
-0.010205048136413097,
-0.18210084736347198,
-0.6403672695159912,
-0.14252901077270508,
0.3017607629299164,
-0.182157501578331,
-0.08980333805084229,
-0.25489750504493713,
-0.5163233280181885,
-0.4121885597705841,
-0.045496877282857895,
0.16767309606075287,
0.12280931323766708,
0.2948620617389679,
0.32087334990501404,
0.3055512607097626,
0.32882100343704224,
-0.6340045928955078,
-0.10322417318820953,
0.6596407294273376,
0.2161947786808014,
-0.24877434968948364,
-0.9781980514526367,
-0.09104087203741074,
0.21450220048427582,
-0.2673134207725525,
-0.6250884532928467,
-0.49183475971221924,
0.8128638863563538,
-0.7931753396987915,
-0.10538496822118759,
-0.10594721138477325,
0.6883642077445984,
0.546421468257904,
-0.0845508873462677,
-0.08813715726137161,
-0.41825494170188904,
0.4208064079284668,
0.09521444886922836,
0.46976470947265625,
0.11309430748224258,
-0.3241026699542999,
-0.5076999068260193,
-0.7570436596870422,
0.3548765182495117,
0.5998664498329163,
0.6852622032165527,
0.2436372935771942,
0.37878164649009705,
-0.515010416507721,
-0.18787968158721924,
-0.9575135111808777,
0.2456270009279251,
-0.4421691596508026,
0.4839248061180115,
0.001701433677226305,
0.0924755185842514,
-0.3757180869579315,
0.2703685462474823,
-0.5822036862373352,
-0.14226034283638,
-0.31298741698265076,
-0.03706466034054756,
-0.5972328782081604,
0.09420953691005707,
0.20172089338302612,
0.4327344000339508,
0.7751830816268921,
-0.14715775847434998,
0.34630894660949707,
0.16730858385562897,
-0.2191718965768814,
0.4526832699775696,
-0.44927525520324707,
-0.5917824506759644,
0.25897035002708435,
-0.25318363308906555,
-0.27273815870285034,
0.6209787726402283,
-0.39631402492523193,
0.4996674060821533,
-0.22994478046894073,
-0.022890007123351097,
0.46879440546035767,
-0.05460280925035477,
-0.0672372579574585,
0.22103673219680786,
0.6840560436248779,
-0.29905372858047485,
0.7252468466758728,
0.7027744054794312,
-0.7721897959709167,
1.0558310747146606,
0.383868932723999,
0.403767466545105,
-0.41226041316986084,
0.38193053007125854,
0.15799160301685333,
0.33625170588493347,
0.09158416837453842,
-0.6820786595344543,
-0.48218587040901184,
0.5788661241531372,
-0.008928637020289898,
1.0021817684173584,
0.27867889404296875,
-0.30986106395721436,
0.37120282649993896,
-0.22627630829811096,
-0.06319393217563629,
-0.6172650456428528,
0.3340943455696106,
-0.7984649538993835,
0.5075569748878479,
0.600275993347168,
-0.004025028552860022,
-0.05732768028974533,
0.2931368052959442,
-0.19869720935821533,
0.3380427658557892,
0.23919405043125153,
0.025590267032384872,
-0.23607660830020905,
0.16608098149299622,
0.29395267367362976,
-0.08993552625179291,
0.198495015501976,
0.3729594349861145,
0.10432539880275726,
-0.7315419912338257,
0.9399416446685791,
-0.2067756950855255,
0.38567450642585754,
0.0754154622554779,
0.15515761077404022,
0.5733234286308289,
-0.0628618448972702,
0.3018130362033844,
-0.16436392068862915,
-0.1503983438014984,
0.40184909105300903,
-0.9378961324691772,
0.340791255235672,
0.27042314410209656,
0.5068435668945312,
0.603803813457489,
-0.07961258292198181,
0.8077486753463745,
-0.07383055239915848,
0.21995237469673157,
0.6010787487030029,
0.5617241263389587,
-0.2708309590816498,
-0.13167299330234528,
0.04426949843764305,
0.09978475421667099,
-0.3596276342868805,
0.06681695580482483,
0.2714366614818573,
-0.4260134696960449,
-0.1558724045753479,
0.377998411655426,
-0.41207900643348694,
0.033364783972501755,
-0.30113548040390015,
-0.6496012806892395,
-0.32469791173934937,
0.4144977033138275,
-0.5385396480560303,
-0.006186754442751408,
-0.4244677722454071,
0.5505454540252686,
0.22361326217651367,
0.21624648571014404,
-0.08476444333791733,
0.30471980571746826,
0.10551538318395615,
0.3400212228298187,
-0.6729692220687866,
0.46880868077278137,
-0.46116703748703003,
-0.24850915372371674,
-0.8127573132514954,
1.1868892908096313,
0.1804819256067276,
0.11521849781274796,
0.1660815328359604,
0.44072991609573364,
0.01580052077770233,
0.5033205151557922,
0.628696858882904,
-0.5824510455131531,
-0.06716936826705933,
-0.6195736527442932,
0.5334247350692749,
-0.08426156640052795,
0.020276369526982307,
0.047104913741350174,
-0.18502654135227203,
-0.5433657765388489,
0.2508200705051422,
-0.2925198972225189,
-0.18562118709087372,
0.49167442321777344,
-0.004234484862536192,
0.2842679023742676,
-0.5643295049667358,
0.09389558434486389,
-0.5751267671585083,
-0.06965149939060211,
0.06047457456588745,
0.3244551420211792,
0.439652681350708,
-0.2104881852865219,
0.062144991010427475,
0.04190738871693611,
-0.18325141072273254,
-0.4599068760871887,
-0.5401625633239746,
0.47262877225875854,
0.26124146580696106,
0.29609912633895874,
-0.6137123703956604,
-0.32549038529396057,
0.17708615958690643,
-0.4578089714050293,
0.0825439840555191,
0.2370622456073761,
-0.14765271544456482,
-0.020631317049264908,
-0.08622456341981888,
-0.4084714651107788,
0.1148316040635109,
0.2775629162788391
] |
233471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech%20house | Tech house | Tech house is a subgenre of house music that combines stylistic features of techno with house. The term tech house developed as a shorthand record store name for a category of electronic dance music that combined musical aspects of techno, such as "rugged basslines" and "steely beats," with the harmonies and grooves of progressive house. The music originally had a clean and minimal production style that was associated with techno from Detroit and the UK.
In the mid to late 1990s, a scene developed in England around club nights such as The Drop run by the former Shamen rapper Mr C (Richard West) & Paul "Rip" Stone (co-founder with West of Plink Plonk), Heart & Soul and Wiggle run by Terry Francis and Nathan Coles. Other DJs and artists associated with the sound at that time included Charles Webster, Pure Science, Bushwacka!, Cuartero, Dave Angel, Herbert, Terry Lee Brown Jr., Funk D'Void, Ian O'Brien, Derrick Carter and Stacey Pullen. By the late 1990s, London nightclub The End, owned by Mr C and Layo Paskin, was considered the home of tech house in the UK.On the other side of the Atlantic one of the earliest innovators in the genre was Lucas Rodenbush, (E.B.E), who was releasing records on the US West Coast from 1995 onwards.
Characteristics
As a mixing style, tech-house often brings together deep or minimal techno music, the soulful and jazzy end of house, some minimal and very often some dub elements. There is some overlap with progressive house, which too can contain deep, soulful, dub and techno elements; this is especially true since the turn of the millennium, as progressive-house mixes have themselves often become deeper and sometimes more minimal. However, the typical progressive-house mix has more energy than tech-house, which tends to have a more “laid-back” feel. Tech house fans tend to appreciate subtlety, as well as the “middle ground” that adds a “splash of color to steel techno beats” and eschews the “banging” of house music for intricate rhythms.
Musical structure
As a musical (as opposed to a mixing) style, tech-house uses the same basic structure as house. However, elements of the house 'sound' such as realistic jazz sounds (in deep house) and booming kick drums are replaced with elements from techno such as shorter, deeper, darker and often distorted kicks, smaller, quicker hi-hats, noisier snares and more synthetic or acid sounding synth melodies from the TB-303, including raw electronic noises from distorted sawtooth and square wave oscillators.
Some producers also add soulful vocals and elements (David Chambers), and equally as much raw electronic sounds in their music. However, a rich techno-like kick and bassline seems to be a consistency amongst tech house music.
History
Since the early 2000s, tech house has spread in Europe. Although it has long remained in the shadow of techno music (propelled by artists such as Adam Beyer or Richie Hawtin in northern Europe such as Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden), tech house knows a huge success in Spain. Indeed, thanks to the expansion of new DJs such as Marc Maya, Oscar Aguilera or Raul Mezcolanza (all resident DJs of a box in Barcelona: the ROW14), tech house can compete with other styles of electro festivals like the Monegros Desert Festival or the Awakenings Festival. However, the highlight of tech house is also due to the promotion of this style of music by other DJs such as Carl Cox or Joris Voorn.
Modern resurgence
Tech house has become a highly popular form of dance music. As of September 2018, the Beatport top 100 is filled with tracks by artists like Green Velvet, Fisher, Solardo, Patrick Topping, and Jamie Jones, all of whom incorporate elements of tech house into their work. This resurgence in tech house can be ascribed to the recent surge in popularity of analog synth sounds, as well as the popularization of tech house artists in the United States, through labels like Dirtybird and the booking of multiple tech house DJ's at festivals like Coachella and CRSSD.
Not to be confused, the term 'Tech House' is also used for a newer, more technical form of Progressive House. In 2012 Progressive House producer Guy J founded the label ‘Lost & Found’ . This label introduced a new kind of more technical, atmospheric progressive house which moved away from the traditional Trance inspired dance floor tunes and the instruments used to produce it, with an emphasis more on listening pleasure rather than dancing. With a slightly slower tempo the music was a more moody, heavily produced type of progressive house. While still up lifting it could also venture into melancholy and deep moodiness. Emphasis was on a heavy use of multi layered spacey synthesizers & sound effects very reminiscent of Vangelis type science fiction soundtracks & soundscapes underpinned by deep baselines. Tracks were long, very melodic & mostly instrumental often with chopped choral vocal samples both male & female again moving away from normal vocals or spoken word vocal samples used on more traditional Progressive & Deep House tracks.
As the decade wore on this new kind of Prog-House became more popular in underground clubs & many producers followed the Lost & Found imprint in producing their own highly technical tracks creating their own individual signature sound as they did so. Not to be confused with Techno House which is a different sub genre of music this new style also became known as ‘Tech House’ or ‘Tech-Prog’ because of the very high musicianship of the producers who made it. As well as Guy J other leaders in the field are Sahar Z , Navar, Blusoul, Monojoke, A.J. Roland, Chris Cargo, Andre Sobota, GMJ, Volen Sentir, Black 8, Juan Deminicis, Lemon8, Matter and Guy J’s other recording tag Cornucopia. Other labels that now specialize in this brand of Tech House include ICONYC, Balkan Connection, Dreaming Awake, Higher States, Or Two Strangers, Soundteller Records, Sound Avenue and Tale & Tone. Much of this music is prompted by the Release Promo youtube channel and is now one of the most popular sub genres of House music.
References
House music genres | [
0.7333822846412659,
0.04863410443067551,
0.022568345069885254,
0.15639209747314453,
0.014458856545388699,
-0.27926957607269287,
-0.3527391254901886,
-0.12708714604377747,
-0.1731000691652298,
-0.17306365072727203,
-0.7256774306297302,
0.4316587448120117,
-0.10165335237979889,
0.283308207988739,
-0.370794415473938,
0.1426825076341629,
0.4386967718601227,
-0.028370115906000137,
0.004999731667339802,
0.1076207309961319,
-0.4728669822216034,
-0.1386989951133728,
0.3071298897266388,
-0.13134638965129852,
-0.4783627390861511,
0.09900642931461334,
-0.03927505761384964,
0.3283679187297821,
-0.20694205164909363,
-0.5680776834487915,
0.5615819692611694,
0.415145605802536,
-0.05262890085577965,
-0.659098207950592,
-0.21060366928577423,
-0.23361504077911377,
-0.5874172449111938,
-0.4254780411720276,
-0.3633233308792114,
-0.8407156467437744,
-0.19134628772735596,
-0.15226726233959198,
0.18829156458377838,
0.3219572603702545,
-0.4745095372200012,
-0.26539549231529236,
-1.505684733390808,
0.3204900622367859,
-1.0433647632598877,
-0.00881884153932333,
0.13234806060791016,
0.48803913593292236,
-0.08139584213495255,
0.026179170235991478,
0.06804115325212479,
0.44141796231269836,
-0.592332661151886,
-0.3912372291088104,
-0.1626916378736496,
-0.3844558596611023,
0.4936218559741974,
-0.05522219464182854,
0.05018030107021332,
-0.1465185135602951,
0.24453948438167572,
-0.08035138249397278,
-0.23343026638031006,
-0.011312795802950859,
-0.0933457463979721,
0.49481621384620667,
-0.2044033706188202,
-0.09535013139247894,
0.10472963750362396,
-0.4083888530731201,
-0.6067759990692139,
0.08810420334339142,
0.6957389116287231,
0.06897880136966705,
0.5669108629226685,
0.5042556524276733,
-0.05934606492519379,
-0.1426546722650528,
0.9022896885871887,
0.3314667344093323,
0.5042608380317688,
0.44133520126342773,
0.03807424008846283,
-0.10289590060710907,
-0.44421499967575073,
0.4057026505470276,
0.015959881246089935,
-0.37526988983154297,
0.8898051977157593,
0.5107221007347107,
-0.002444365294650197,
0.16795724630355835,
0.29315510392189026,
0.16428571939468384,
0.11005938053131104,
0.5671716928482056,
0.023773852735757828,
0.5312144160270691,
-0.17572474479675293,
-0.00976300798356533,
-0.039107635617256165,
0.023155102506279945,
-0.5340290665626526,
-0.4883936941623688,
-0.20062480866909027,
-0.7263253927230835,
-0.3786204755306244,
0.41198915243148804,
-0.03395447880029678,
0.9735071659088135,
0.40603864192962646,
0.13938091695308685,
-0.1685117781162262,
0.4108275771141052,
-0.5793242454528809,
0.13635261356830597,
-0.22355321049690247,
0.5584229826927185,
-0.17932988703250885,
0.03882003203034401,
-0.1067158505320549,
0.8473416566848755,
0.43098825216293335,
0.4294622838497162,
-0.2621539533138275,
-0.3575921058654785,
0.3267675042152405,
0.4680013954639435,
0.007382081355899572,
-0.17893032729625702,
-0.4756094515323639,
0.05590365454554558,
0.9703464508056641,
0.2971149682998657,
0.2863176167011261,
0.2724456787109375,
-0.6911666393280029,
-0.7891162037849426,
-0.6068475246429443,
-0.11879544705152512,
-0.15191687643527985,
0.07318603247404099,
-0.07341362535953522,
-0.3055081069469452,
-0.31434333324432373,
-0.004093298222869635,
-0.16681721806526184,
0.2930840253829956,
-0.7797972559928894,
-0.3343554735183716,
-0.30404144525527954,
0.30889859795570374,
-0.13163496553897858,
-0.21506479382514954,
0.4346257746219635,
0.13845470547676086,
-0.339280903339386,
-0.11739739775657654,
-0.3544639050960541,
0.1748960167169571,
0.6176201105117798,
-0.37404298782348633,
0.07652757316827774,
0.6236505508422852,
-0.5376960635185242,
0.5472440719604492,
-0.20712712407112122,
0.29451116919517517,
0.05201999843120575,
-0.5461353659629822,
-0.13337838649749756,
-0.11922677606344223,
0.8586527705192566,
0.022598156705498695,
0.6381010413169861,
0.39015427231788635,
-0.9612374305725098,
0.43224647641181946,
0.4576345682144165,
-0.46041277050971985,
-0.07123345881700516,
-0.04109742119908333,
0.054118476808071136,
-0.22939737141132355,
-0.34758561849594116,
-0.32329845428466797,
-0.07672620564699173,
-0.03263446316123009,
0.31961941719055176,
-0.5323221683502197,
0.8127267360687256,
-0.21188384294509888,
-0.14591071009635925,
0.9151768684387207,
-0.16147877275943756,
0.053943146020174026,
0.09651372581720352,
0.1616489738225937,
0.18959766626358032,
-0.08361969143152237,
-0.49837347865104675,
0.20530389249324799,
0.19337725639343262,
-0.3050253093242645,
-0.02066873572766781,
0.06524582207202911,
0.2080756425857544,
-0.18635113537311554,
0.5146602392196655,
-0.18033546209335327,
0.04647926986217499,
-0.07653680443763733,
-0.9409366846084595,
0.38565781712532043,
-0.34152570366859436,
-0.2957131862640381,
0.9191175699234009,
-0.3289702832698822,
-0.11768443137407303,
0.5203986167907715,
-0.042339131236076355,
0.6929008364677429,
0.06839089840650558,
-0.5471033453941345,
0.7805286645889282,
-0.5910995602607727,
0.19103440642356873,
0.4365268051624298,
-0.21065941452980042,
-0.6040193438529968,
-0.18674196302890778,
-0.08523322641849518,
0.394115686416626,
0.020765965804457664,
0.2213737964630127,
-0.28791704773902893,
-0.39964157342910767,
0.3054187595844269,
-0.7362710237503052,
0.10867075622081757,
0.536125123500824,
-0.43323031067848206,
-0.5374314785003662,
0.1240570992231369,
-0.7526282072067261,
0.21262907981872559,
0.5970156192779541,
0.4527715742588043,
0.6251282691955566,
-0.5931437015533447,
-0.20981484651565552,
-0.4140235483646393,
-0.4000203013420105,
-0.4914514720439911,
-0.4288092255592346,
-0.1679636538028717,
-0.0832173228263855,
0.09696431457996368,
0.5050880312919617,
0.11191213130950928,
0.150329127907753,
-0.5153828263282776,
-0.10486612468957901,
-0.4539724290370941,
0.3165191411972046,
-0.40602004528045654,
0.1672690510749817,
0.11052612960338593,
0.052478332072496414,
-0.6158051490783691,
0.00009212854638462886,
-0.5017184019088745,
-0.5190490484237671,
-0.46264395117759705,
0.1005149632692337,
-0.7936587333679199,
0.024601567536592484,
0.8821333050727844,
-0.014003089629113674,
-1.0551215410232544,
-0.616422712802887,
-0.004377363715320826,
0.0626952275633812,
-0.17124854028224945,
0.361333429813385,
-0.23928923904895782,
-0.014150657691061497,
-0.28078028559684753,
-0.3191658556461334,
0.2513920068740845,
0.3887801468372345,
-0.16416595876216888,
0.06340323388576508,
0.6124396920204163,
-0.5739628672599792,
-0.032896995544433594,
-0.44039833545684814,
0.3616113066673279,
-0.39299094676971436,
0.07974819093942642,
0.46405890583992004,
-0.5784652829170227,
-0.31875675916671753,
-0.031583648175001144,
-5.576250076293945,
-0.08947045356035233,
-0.2651319205760956,
-0.09050297737121582,
0.2630116939544678,
0.2803266942501068,
0.2521572411060333,
-0.6197800636291504,
-0.02554425224661827,
0.032337337732315063,
-0.5625021457672119,
-0.047580983489751816,
-0.12785345315933228,
0.4412292242050171,
0.29866325855255127,
0.11970917880535126,
-0.14522553980350494,
0.07056330889463425,
0.002854493912309408,
0.289279580116272,
-0.6122094988822937,
0.5899907946586609,
0.28847652673721313,
0.21498969197273254,
0.15775050222873688,
-0.32292360067367554,
-0.5819882750511169,
-0.046876855194568634,
-0.4481935203075409,
-0.001307925907894969,
-0.17389386892318726,
0.24493548274040222,
-0.6425797343254089,
-0.3007921576499939,
0.09282367676496506,
0.6929425001144409,
0.8944002985954285,
0.06319980323314667,
0.0486198253929615,
0.15973849594593048,
0.1526145339012146,
0.6865000128746033,
0.433001309633255,
-0.10855403542518616,
0.29332584142684937,
0.025984426960349083,
-0.3469241261482239,
-0.5079074501991272,
-0.5681307911872864,
0.7247738838195801,
-0.5344920754432678,
-0.31163185834884644,
0.5533077716827393,
0.24303893744945526,
0.2802896499633789,
-0.37258243560791016,
1.0712745189666748,
-0.18799366056919098,
-0.08748441189527512,
0.15353937447071075,
0.24480287730693817,
-0.811651885509491,
0.03884455934166908,
-0.8133456110954285,
0.4226381182670593,
-0.28549259901046753,
-0.47311729192733765,
-0.3877911865711212,
0.26120877265930176,
0.22746920585632324,
-0.018923314288258553,
-0.025999465957283974,
-0.08774691075086594,
-1.0957282781600952,
0.01468206848949194,
0.009125075303018093,
-0.06949851661920547,
0.09132509678602219,
0.20316173136234283,
0.12386725842952728,
-0.00019736656395252794,
-0.18542413413524628,
-0.3517169654369354,
0.07513712346553802,
-0.6819540858268738,
-0.8503367900848389,
-0.051713936030864716,
0.25629958510398865,
-0.6433764696121216,
0.4177709221839905,
0.3388412296772003,
-0.17595067620277405,
0.02981729619204998,
0.1454741507768631,
0.7721515893936157,
0.650967538356781,
0.43343448638916016,
0.2929759621620178,
0.36337700486183167,
-0.19815288484096527,
0.5626110434532166,
-0.3445923626422882,
-0.5038825869560242,
0.012720853090286255,
0.20461952686309814,
-0.7281644940376282,
0.12374686449766159,
0.36488020420074463,
0.37428489327430725,
-0.11168337613344193,
-0.20214305818080902,
0.06961677968502045,
-0.5218254327774048,
-0.2495565414428711,
0.7134920358657837,
-0.0656421110033989,
-0.6626370549201965,
0.2541128098964691,
0.11613156646490097,
-0.2869608700275421,
0.3106679320335388,
0.13719673454761505,
-0.21041257679462433,
0.6795609593391418,
-0.1299479901790619,
0.02376168966293335,
-0.18153764307498932,
0.10158877074718475,
-0.46429479122161865,
-0.04275071248412132,
-0.07310895621776581,
-0.2927827537059784,
0.3169998228549957,
-0.16168172657489777,
0.3442229926586151,
0.1765836477279663,
0.5358462929725647,
-0.12627288699150085,
-0.2304689586162567,
-0.8811388611793518,
0.13547444343566895,
-0.4579789638519287,
0.623345136642456,
0.6566267609596252,
0.7681064605712891,
0.3552894592285156,
-0.19273994863033295,
0.20494118332862854,
-0.1941053420305252,
0.25364217162132263,
-0.2775692641735077,
-0.8214479088783264,
0.42561256885528564,
-0.2512216866016388,
0.06903629004955292,
-0.4646972119808197,
-0.005498101934790611,
0.4180432856082916,
0.0687626302242279,
-0.23720839619636536,
0.5688691735267639,
0.0372999906539917,
-0.8013433814048767,
0.20914290845394135,
0.058780424296855927,
0.2199030965566635,
-0.5043994784355164,
0.04989943280816078,
-0.7934602499008179,
0.2447536438703537,
0.31894049048423767,
-0.15218743681907654,
-0.38400882482528687,
-0.9774847626686096,
0.014763770624995232,
-0.2567211985588074,
0.2842593193054199,
-0.07008960843086243,
0.053062595427036285,
-0.16668987274169922,
0.1778349131345749,
0.32740509510040283,
-0.1987762600183487,
0.313755065202713,
0.8077822327613831,
-0.36416929960250854,
-0.31006914377212524,
0.184373676776886,
-0.3204629421234131,
0.49019575119018555,
0.06748386472463608,
1.2331697940826416,
0.9794334769248962,
-0.13633178174495697,
0.026317022740840912,
-0.7498210072517395,
-0.044481147080659866,
0.35369378328323364,
-0.6306886076927185,
-0.7700573801994324,
0.47995108366012573,
0.5531655550003052,
0.0502898134291172,
0.7207842469215393,
1.157612919807434,
-0.4818667471408844,
0.6214518547058105,
-0.10975991934537888,
-0.5482657551765442,
0.005945950746536255,
-0.12947949767112732,
-0.33632758259773254,
-0.2594173550605774,
-0.2173265814781189,
-0.5308157205581665,
0.08921415358781815,
0.3340550363063812,
0.032702695578336716,
-0.24279560148715973,
-0.018770605325698853,
-0.010159321129322052,
-0.21479812264442444,
-0.22440893948078156,
-0.3829313814640045,
-0.7115563750267029,
0.1425478458404541,
0.1047758162021637,
0.13480930030345917,
-0.13050542771816254,
-0.2139289826154709,
0.21911866962909698,
-0.2082609236240387,
0.21430188417434692,
0.0959121435880661,
-0.471699059009552,
-0.07708875089883804,
0.1295948326587677,
0.4199489653110504,
0.14205580949783325,
-0.1012059673666954,
-0.003599972929805517,
0.3660455048084259,
0.09675107151269913,
-0.6639774441719055,
-0.1108156070113182,
0.5198550224304199,
0.2754208743572235,
0.03392205387353897,
-1.2821775674819946,
-0.1005246639251709,
0.4114695191383362,
-0.399236798286438,
-0.6080718040466309,
-0.3377513885498047,
0.6315144896507263,
-0.7565873265266418,
0.0773548111319542,
0.03339565545320511,
0.4601936340332031,
0.20905837416648865,
-0.2577105462551117,
-0.5739759206771851,
-0.5116155743598938,
0.20615218579769135,
0.03697648644447327,
0.13295914232730865,
-0.1529020369052887,
-0.3308725953102112,
-0.6324427723884583,
-0.45727694034576416,
0.14499829709529877,
0.01652209274470806,
0.812987744808197,
0.5078048706054688,
0.3331822156906128,
-0.3247345983982086,
-0.19079117476940155,
-0.7264760136604309,
0.13354159891605377,
0.06878603994846344,
1.0403491258621216,
-0.17450542747974396,
0.07388539612293243,
-0.1312762349843979,
0.490712970495224,
-0.4030918478965759,
0.04221772029995918,
-0.2882089614868164,
0.3453645706176758,
-0.41549235582351685,
-0.17841491103172302,
0.39086443185806274,
0.7548850178718567,
0.942676305770874,
0.17253294587135315,
0.389806866645813,
0.2230900675058365,
-0.29099541902542114,
0.5602799654006958,
0.027938414365053177,
-0.24219352006912231,
0.4249939024448395,
0.18466128408908844,
-0.21280992031097412,
0.6587046980857849,
0.10560642927885056,
0.2648461163043976,
-0.46334514021873474,
0.5766533017158508,
0.3813823163509369,
0.2668618857860565,
0.2415369600057602,
0.05919547379016876,
0.5987867116928101,
-0.25899189710617065,
0.47779107093811035,
0.843011736869812,
-1.017668604850769,
0.8705286383628845,
0.3634971082210541,
0.025536954402923584,
-0.4323766231536865,
0.3318710923194885,
0.08309204131364822,
0.5358263850212097,
0.1437099725008011,
-0.6532469391822815,
-0.387290358543396,
0.7857983112335205,
0.06052929535508156,
0.6766753792762756,
0.13529790937900543,
-0.0753001794219017,
0.41334816813468933,
0.044018346816301346,
-0.3896362781524658,
-0.46768850088119507,
0.3324083983898163,
-0.2847468852996826,
0.7462453842163086,
0.6262258887290955,
-0.22763293981552124,
0.1546468585729599,
0.35392624139785767,
-0.4301486313343048,
0.2971460819244385,
0.11554531753063202,
0.022516198456287384,
-0.5487499833106995,
0.3151279389858246,
0.07527266442775726,
-0.061925772577524185,
-0.09737137705087662,
0.15311068296432495,
0.3196519911289215,
-0.7127850651741028,
0.7845418453216553,
0.41649553179740906,
0.45613914728164673,
-0.3276048004627228,
0.30251094698905945,
0.45405256748199463,
0.3378413915634155,
0.20441199839115143,
-0.6822201609611511,
-0.05587821081280708,
0.4807542860507965,
-0.29854220151901245,
0.1487348973751068,
0.1756773740053177,
0.16688385605812073,
0.44315603375434875,
-0.07437938451766968,
0.4671757221221924,
0.11111854761838913,
0.21609684824943542,
0.6310937404632568,
0.23743487894535065,
-0.2990629971027374,
-0.13208946585655212,
-0.004078124649822712,
0.10672280937433243,
-0.47109177708625793,
0.10402373224496841,
0.33628353476524353,
-0.06913919001817703,
-0.6027832627296448,
0.6825540661811829,
-0.5269090533256531,
-0.18635383248329163,
-0.09306564182043076,
-0.2239566296339035,
0.33579206466674805,
0.0085592744871974,
-0.6001195907592773,
-0.04388156533241272,
-0.060687389224767685,
0.7563431859016418,
0.19535057246685028,
0.019719189032912254,
-0.08031295239925385,
0.10727042704820633,
-0.092312291264534,
0.25643250346183777,
-0.6459394097328186,
0.4794872999191284,
-0.7723732590675354,
-0.02285163663327694,
-0.38181400299072266,
1.0235260725021362,
0.14080217480659485,
-0.03428741917014122,
-0.02040187641978264,
0.14609812200069427,
-0.2089127004146576,
0.6076934933662415,
0.8779918551445007,
-0.4514438211917877,
-0.13026922941207886,
-0.4739840030670166,
0.39165106415748596,
0.3457357585430145,
0.328201025724411,
-0.28283196687698364,
-0.10809452086687088,
-0.24902470409870148,
0.027018096297979355,
-0.1690112203359604,
-0.39448291063308716,
0.35795071721076965,
0.007761773653328419,
-0.10336316376924515,
-0.7075291872024536,
0.14083531498908997,
-0.4595261216163635,
0.07746078819036484,
-0.020568545907735825,
0.17617785930633545,
0.41449108719825745,
-0.17142869532108307,
-0.05209866911172867,
0.11492561548948288,
-0.02938283607363701,
-0.3205147087574005,
-2.072314977645874,
0.09656684845685959,
-0.3612368404865265,
0.21963286399841309,
-0.5187187790870667,
-0.4093398451805115,
0.15323065221309662,
-0.031793054193258286,
0.48833540081977844,
-0.17534412443637848,
-0.16992568969726562,
-0.010489486157894135,
0.0821354016661644,
-0.6750052571296692,
0.14037279784679413,
0.2653498947620392
] |
233474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%20395 | U.S. Route 395 | U.S. Route 395 (US 395) is a U.S. Route in the western United States. The southern terminus of the route is in the Mojave Desert at Interstate 15 near Hesperia. The northern terminus is at the Canada–US border near Laurier, where the road becomes Highway 395 upon entering British Columbia, Canada. Before 1964, the route extended south to San Diego. I-15, I-215, and California State Route 163 replaced the stretch of 395 that ran from San Diego to Hesperia through Riverside and San Bernardino. "Old Highway 395" can be seen along or near I-15 in many locations before it branches off at Hesperia to head north. It has also been referred to as the "Three Flags Route."
The route runs through the U.S. states of California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. US 395 runs along the Eastern Sierra in the Owens Valley and crosses through the Modoc Plateau along its routing.
The route started out as a spur of U.S. Route 195 and ran north from Spokane. As a result, the route never intersects its parent, U.S. Route 95; it maintains a connection through US 195. US 395 developed into a parallel of its parent route when extended south in the early 1930s. US 395 stays west of its parent route, which runs through Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon and Idaho.
Route description
Southern California
US 395 begins in the Mojave Desert community of Hesperia at the junction with Interstate 15 (I-15). The highway proceeds north across the Mojave Desert crossing State Route 58 (SR 58) at Kramer Junction just east of the town of Boron. Several large solar generating fields are sited at Kramer Junction. The highway continues north until merging with SR 14, which used to be the south end of a concurrent run with US 6. From here to Bishop the highway follows the eastern escarpment of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. For most of this run the highway is also routed through the Owens Valley.
After Bishop the scenery dramatically changes as the highway ascends the Sierra Nevada, serving the ski resort town of Mammoth Lakes, California and Mammoth Mountain as well as Mono Lake and June Lake. The highway exits California at Topaz Lake to serve the Reno, Nevada metropolitan area.
Nevada
US 395 in Nevada is a major highway, the majority of which is now or is scheduled to be upgraded to Interstate Highway standards. The portion from Carson City to Reno is signed as and concurrent with I-580. The highway follows the eastern edge of the Sierra Nevada as it travels between its southern and northern California segments.
US 395 enters Nevada at Topaz Lake then descends to Carson Valley, where it becomes the primary street through Gardnerville, Minden and Carson City. Entering Reno, the highway is designated, since 1998, as the Martin Luther King Jr. Freeway. US 395 returns to California just north of Reno at the unincorporated Nevada community of Bordertown, in Cold Springs, Washoe County.
Northern California
The highway returns to California just north of Reno. This northern piece also follows the Sierra Nevada. It passes near the town of Susanville, cutting abruptly to the east after it meets with SR 36 near Johnstonville, then passes through Alturas. US 395 also serves several points of interest along this portion, such as Hallelujah Junction, Honey Lake, and the Modoc Plateau.
Oregon
US 395 enters Oregon at New Pine Creek, then heads north to Lakeview. At Lakeview, it overlaps Oregon Route 140 (OR 140) for , then continues north to Valley Falls. At Valley Falls, it turns northeast through Wagontire to Riley. Near Riley, US 395 overlaps US 20 through Hines and Burns. Approximately northeast of Burns, US 395 turns north through Seneca and Canyon City to John Day. At John Day, it overlaps US 26 and heads west to Mount Vernon. At Mount Vernon, US 395 turns north through Long Creek and Pilot Rock to Pendleton. At Pendleton, it overlaps I-84 and US 30 west to Stanfield. At Stanfield, US 395 turns north through Hermiston to Umatilla. East of Umatilla, it overlaps US 730 and heads west to I-82. It then overlaps I-82 to the Washington state line at the Columbia River.
The entire route within Oregon was designated as the World War I Veterans Memorial Highway in 2015.
Washington
US 395 enters Washington with I-82 over the Columbia River. At exit 113, US 395 splits from I-82, entering the Tri-Cities area. After departing the freeway, it passes residential areas south of Kennewick. After that there is a stoplight at 27th Avenue. The next major intersection is at 10th next to Fred Meyer, then at West Kennewick Avenue, followed by the intersections at West Clearwater Avenue and North Yelm Street, then heads toward the Columbia River. It then passes over the Columbia River as the Blue Bridge with a view of the Cable Bridge (SR 397) to the east as it proceeds toward I-182/US 12. The Blue Bridge has frequent traffic backups, especially during rush hour. US 395 joins I-182 for a short distance to Pasco, where it separates from the freeway. Past I-182, it passes the Tri-Cities Airport before resuming a north–south direction at the Oregon Avenue interchange. Outside of Pasco, US 395 crosses through farmland and little towns until it combines with I-90 at the town of Ritzville, Washington. From there it goes to Spokane and merges with US 2 as they enter the city. The concurrent highways meet US 195 at its northern terminus. US 2 and US 395 split from I-90 at the Division Street exit.
US 395 currently runs north on Division Street to travel through Spokane. The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) is constructing the US 395 North Spokane Corridor, which is a completely new freeway that will run from I-90 (around the Thor/Freya exit) northward to the existing US 395 north of Wandermere. Construction on the new freeway began between Wandermere and Francis in 2003. The freeway will take many years to complete due to funding issues. When the North Spokane Corridor is complete, US 395 will move to the new alignment while US 2 will stay on Division Street.
US 395 (along with US 2) proceeds north through Spokane as Division Street to the north edge of the city where they split; US 2 heading northeast to Idaho. US 395 then proceeds north through the towns of Deer Park, Clayton, Chewelah, Colville and Kettle Falls. It terminates at the Canada–US border where it meets British Columbia Highway 395.
History
California
US Highway 395 once extended to 11th and Ash in downtown San Diego. This part of the highway is now the alignments of Interstate 15 from Hesperia to Devore and Interstate 215 from Devore, through San Bernardino, Grand Terrace, Riverside, Moreno Valley, Perris, and Menifee to Murrieta where it meets Interstate 15 again. From Murrieta the old route follows Interstate 15 again to east of Fallbrook where the original US 395 still exists as a frontage road. "Old US 395" can be followed from north of State Route 76 through Escondido where it meets Interstate 15 again. Finally, State Route 163, the old routing of US 395, splits off Interstate 15 at the south end of Miramar and follows the Cabrillo Freeway into downtown San Diego.
Oregon and Washington
In 1926, US 395 was a spur of US 195. It started in Spokane and traveled northwest to British Columbia. As a result, it never intersected its parent, US 95; US 195 always provided the connection. US 395 developed into a parallel of its parent route when it was extended south through Oregon in 1935. In Oregon, it replaced most of Oregon Highway 11.
Originally, US 395 didn't travel concurrently with I-82, or I-84. US 395 went north from Pendleton to Cold Springs Junction, currently Oregon Route 37. From there, US 395 traveled concurrently with US 730 and US 410 (until US 410 became US 12), passing through Wallula to enter Pasco from the southeast. The concurrency with I-84 and rerouting through Hermiston was made in the 1960s. The overlap with I-82 and rerouting through Kennewick was made in the 1980s. Also noteworthy, the US 395 route north of Pasco at Eltopia to Connell was relocated in 1980 from what is now known as Blanton Road, to a route further west that offered greater expansion into a divided 4-lane highway. Today, the entire route of US 395 from Pasco to Ritzville, WA is four lane divided, but still with farm road crossings in places.
Major intersections
Southern California
in Hesperia
in Bishop
Nevada
in Carson City. The highways travel concurrently through Carson City.
in Carson City. I-580/US 395 travels concurrently to Reno.
in Reno
Northern California
No major intersections
Oregon
in Riley. The highways travel concurrently to northeast of Burns.
in John Day. The highways travel concurrently to Mount Vernon.
in Pendleton. The highways travel concurrently to Stanfield.
in Pendleton. The highways travel concurrently to Stanfield.
in Umatilla. The highways travel concurrently through Umatilla.
in Umatilla. I-82/US 395 travels concurrently to Kennewick, Washington.
Washington
in Pasco. The highways travel concurrently through Pasco.
south of Ritzville. The highways travel concurrently to Spokane.
in Spokane. The highways travel concurrently to the Spokane–Town and Country line.
in Spokane
at the Canada–US border in Laurier
See also
Jane Kim (artist) for information about the Migrating Mural on Route 395, spanning 120 miles
References
External links
Endpoints of US highway 395
The Three Flags Highway: US 395 at Floodgap Roadgap
95-3
95-3 | [
-0.0361967496573925,
0.5256645083427429,
0.37500280141830444,
0.46597006916999817,
0.1476629078388214,
0.38209763169288635,
0.2253720611333847,
0.8189730644226074,
0.09510775655508041,
-0.4127536714076996,
-0.33170607686042786,
0.31335458159446716,
0.1340000033378601,
0.36562058329582214,
0.1307843178510666,
0.3790310025215149,
-0.4898330271244049,
0.4122427701950073,
0.24563844501972198,
-0.40429797768592834,
-0.17780959606170654,
-0.08308018743991852,
0.6833364963531494,
-0.189803808927536,
-0.24401098489761353,
0.11317931860685349,
-0.4227476418018341,
-0.38971877098083496,
-0.3008958101272583,
0.296121209859848,
0.028367463499307632,
0.1536165028810501,
0.16092944145202637,
-0.155807763338089,
-0.25996777415275574,
-0.744620680809021,
0.4637495279312134,
-0.7504298686981201,
0.29670262336730957,
0.16920115053653717,
0.05493515729904175,
0.2228090912103653,
-0.3999122679233551,
-0.13952848315238953,
0.5771907567977905,
0.039507701992988586,
-1.411361813545227,
0.1267416775226593,
-0.30379730463027954,
-0.6847279071807861,
-0.3211653530597687,
0.10794949531555176,
0.2588902413845062,
0.6152269244194031,
-0.0184274110943079,
0.5045611262321472,
-0.0187953170388937,
-0.5238361954689026,
0.5104077458381653,
0.056339673697948456,
0.3611668348312378,
0.872694730758667,
-0.4547007083892822,
0.8858493566513062,
-0.007545587606728077,
-0.006055593956261873,
0.19488155841827393,
0.29859259724617004,
-0.49015671014785767,
-0.867919385433197,
-0.11472387611865997,
-0.5780923366546631,
0.1096491813659668,
0.34681734442710876,
-0.29309216141700745,
-0.3586999475955963,
-0.12809869647026062,
0.20557664334774017,
-0.38665705919265747,
-0.1838853806257248,
0.21799765527248383,
-0.045608051121234894,
0.5261617302894592,
0.17521381378173828,
0.3915778696537018,
0.03903310373425484,
-0.22095195949077606,
0.1651633232831955,
0.11030913144350052,
0.4853072762489319,
-0.6160534024238586,
0.41128894686698914,
-0.2921009361743927,
-0.17398543655872345,
0.18849843740463257,
-0.542975127696991,
0.31262627243995667,
0.21534135937690735,
0.35245293378829956,
0.2205260843038559,
-0.1971154659986496,
0.137188121676445,
0.2587243616580963,
-0.34097087383270264,
-0.6478311419487,
0.05223974958062172,
0.08064781874418259,
0.036072809249162674,
-0.04714258387684822,
0.12431028485298157,
-0.9258502721786499,
0.2890329360961914,
-0.1243983581662178,
-0.0082644522190094,
-0.1936303675174713,
0.08203396946191788,
0.5682136416435242,
-0.9605739712715149,
0.2265947163105011,
-0.16872072219848633,
0.059500373899936676,
0.015471482649445534,
-0.017595035955309868,
-0.01774330623447895,
1.1154060363769531,
0.4623388946056366,
0.0463554747402668,
-0.07361229509115219,
-0.3337979316711426,
-0.34851646423339844,
0.5305742621421814,
0.326652467250824,
0.2198331505060196,
0.05077119171619415,
0.09342748671770096,
-0.8957067728042603,
0.49065279960632324,
0.15063370764255524,
0.5076085925102234,
-0.22040751576423645,
-0.293620765209198,
-0.12038464099168777,
-0.415788471698761,
-0.5438967347145081,
0.3548566401004791,
0.5131508708000183,
0.02200397476553917,
-0.37589937448501587,
-0.4023820757865906,
0.10228092968463898,
0.42696934938430786,
-0.2209949493408203,
-0.8210063576698303,
-0.08202794194221497,
0.1771269291639328,
0.5735949873924255,
0.46647876501083374,
0.3458556532859802,
-0.07660141587257385,
0.08331185579299927,
-0.052483633160591125,
0.4920403063297272,
0.01814180798828602,
-0.13002616167068481,
-0.2003721445798874,
0.21447324752807617,
0.6111649870872498,
-0.3413952589035034,
-0.28579816222190857,
-0.6411473155021667,
-0.558344841003418,
-0.5384187698364258,
0.6193817257881165,
-0.7256438732147217,
0.11989569664001465,
-0.269988477230072,
0.7139924168586731,
0.31873685121536255,
1.0444579124450684,
0.05921463295817375,
-0.31624868512153625,
0.2928016185760498,
0.03243841230869293,
-0.2176392525434494,
-0.1168857142329216,
-0.26499658823013306,
0.4306037724018097,
-0.34753015637397766,
-0.28106215596199036,
0.17512765526771545,
-0.12071596086025238,
-0.4236204922199249,
-0.37311503291130066,
-0.7371326088905334,
0.6320604085922241,
0.7599238753318787,
-0.632115364074707,
0.45341625809669495,
-0.5649814605712891,
0.6391168832778931,
0.07813984155654907,
-0.44023939967155457,
0.6412866711616516,
-0.45139873027801514,
-0.9342286586761475,
0.6073623299598694,
0.12267107516527176,
-0.5575258135795593,
0.12986789643764496,
0.32126927375793457,
0.1975143402814865,
-0.2870407700538635,
-0.2121075689792633,
0.02879202924668789,
-0.035317666828632355,
0.19021722674369812,
0.030304083600640297,
-0.5501098036766052,
0.16398616135120392,
0.08467240631580353,
0.5986498594284058,
-0.15695452690124512,
0.7461002469062805,
0.4435044825077057,
-0.8856244087219238,
0.5849698781967163,
-0.1412174105644226,
0.992621660232544,
-0.4847095012664795,
-0.3723186254501343,
-0.274169921875,
-0.2758256494998932,
0.055173568427562714,
-0.24054470658302307,
0.16047747433185577,
0.16997142136096954,
0.3208162784576416,
-0.3623897135257721,
0.4244881868362427,
0.15045058727264404,
0.04330888390541077,
-0.020687898620963097,
-0.13163113594055176,
0.4861082136631012,
-0.14659035205841064,
-0.35227829217910767,
0.6718091368675232,
-0.8419809937477112,
0.08093801885843277,
-0.206239253282547,
-0.09627462923526764,
0.1491050273180008,
0.326839417219162,
0.18778052926063538,
-0.0977761521935463,
-0.09840711951255798,
0.33045539259910583,
-0.011184574104845524,
-0.29465290904045105,
0.12736186385154724,
-0.28980913758277893,
0.18004915118217468,
-0.20203275978565216,
0.20198789238929749,
0.10446638613939285,
-0.13439075648784637,
-0.27673447132110596,
-0.5143882632255554,
0.10956437140703201,
0.022776329889893532,
-0.44345977902412415,
0.4417092800140381,
0.2689001262187958,
-0.565697431564331,
0.16493931412696838,
0.8766098618507385,
-0.3458961546421051,
0.554676353931427,
-0.5046808123588562,
-0.18627206981182098,
0.3894416391849518,
0.6463944911956787,
0.26486736536026,
-0.3887268602848053,
-0.061123546212911606,
-0.6137572526931763,
0.39519205689430237,
-0.931656002998352,
-0.30350810289382935,
-0.03224390000104904,
0.05439802631735802,
-0.533836841583252,
-0.1033783033490181,
0.37177032232284546,
0.5683820843696594,
0.13324081897735596,
-0.0035061982925981283,
-0.2145720273256302,
0.49314603209495544,
-0.44167935848236084,
-0.18487708270549774,
0.8575848340988159,
-0.594081699848175,
-0.46435418725013733,
0.29237887263298035,
-0.3088065981864929,
-0.08599013090133667,
-0.3532584011554718,
-5.727713108062744,
0.28797101974487305,
-0.49745243787765503,
0.17260481417179108,
0.1767192929983139,
-0.17535485327243805,
0.1365976780653,
-0.22672444581985474,
-0.4280543625354767,
-0.0895816832780838,
0.885360836982727,
0.14894205331802368,
-0.38795170187950134,
-0.01717926189303398,
0.002280560554936528,
0.2526571750640869,
0.5958544015884399,
0.010372770950198174,
-0.10397467017173767,
-0.0644933208823204,
-0.036612141877412796,
-0.3667225241661072,
0.5842160582542419,
0.05008353292942047,
0.42287683486938477,
0.1536388397216797,
-0.007096892222762108,
-0.1463269144296646,
-0.45808327198028564,
0.30886760354042053,
0.41923877596855164,
0.25469762086868286,
0.2707585394382477,
0.32839396595954895,
0.20289134979248047,
-0.3541707694530487,
0.2749701738357544,
-0.3718320429325104,
1.1867122650146484,
0.46883758902549744,
0.03322286531329155,
0.005579631309956312,
-0.12119583040475845,
-0.5900850892066956,
0.18917523324489594,
-0.2940306067466736,
-0.17397214472293854,
-0.29857227206230164,
-0.03446308523416519,
0.39155086874961853,
-0.045784465968608856,
0.3180926442146301,
0.8125414848327637,
-0.22167488932609558,
0.04145846515893936,
-0.48395055532455444,
0.27704957127571106,
0.0948786810040474,
-0.4681227207183838,
-0.15888571739196777,
0.5802785158157349,
-0.21428191661834717,
-0.8961269855499268,
-0.4206618666648865,
-0.47086307406425476,
-0.49212148785591125,
-0.5171135663986206,
-0.4439709186553955,
-0.1862923502922058,
0.17264114320278168,
-0.656976580619812,
0.34821274876594543,
0.03186606988310814,
-0.7831651568412781,
-0.1120581328868866,
-0.10711529850959778,
-0.6179392337799072,
-0.11649119853973389,
-0.20159763097763062,
-0.42414963245391846,
-0.14354529976844788,
0.22831903398036957,
0.26247528195381165,
0.3208978772163391,
-0.17764371633529663,
-0.04892504960298538,
-0.2435939759016037,
-0.32098886370658875,
0.14576536417007446,
0.08694751560688019,
0.2801838219165802,
-0.18140403926372528,
0.3889384865760803,
-0.3264786899089813,
0.42333799600601196,
0.17568913102149963,
0.2868119478225708,
0.1459340900182724,
0.2660008668899536,
-0.4741052985191345,
1.1188539266586304,
-0.248581200838089,
0.015218124724924564,
-0.09611773490905762,
-0.16169893741607666,
-0.7650291919708252,
0.23306451737880707,
-0.20120078325271606,
0.7317972779273987,
-0.17830444872379303,
-0.7021180391311646,
-0.5732555389404297,
-0.09534958004951477,
-0.44164517521858215,
-0.03773117437958717,
-0.2015695869922638,
-0.26531851291656494,
0.07916459441184998,
0.5628966689109802,
-0.11636832356452942,
0.25238823890686035,
0.8302171230316162,
0.4320043921470642,
-0.20228810608386993,
0.2806127071380615,
0.11667156964540482,
0.1447019726037979,
0.4225129187107086,
-0.0536358579993248,
0.2889159321784973,
0.29210540652275085,
-0.047352440655231476,
0.6614973545074463,
-0.30179449915885925,
-0.23703663051128387,
0.33612751960754395,
0.09696692228317261,
0.06193196028470993,
-0.4235936105251312,
0.10828401148319244,
0.11763879656791687,
-0.10726609081029892,
-0.2164478749036789,
0.24822251498699188,
0.6831963062286377,
0.07407580316066742,
-0.3555915951728821,
-0.24670018255710602,
-0.3934899866580963,
0.4926590621471405,
-0.3023499548435211,
-0.6833913326263428,
-0.011252385564148426,
0.36652910709381104,
0.6101235747337341,
-0.4150170683860779,
-0.3422573208808899,
0.10225648432970047,
-0.5723927617073059,
0.0311091598123312,
0.7686251997947693,
0.06031585484743118,
-0.06309403479099274,
0.006871720310300589,
0.10557717084884644,
1.1229617595672607,
0.3090968132019043,
-0.5753956437110901,
-0.7372691035270691,
0.6875662803649902,
1.065191626548767,
-0.26453953981399536,
-0.4545027017593384,
-0.43049129843711853,
-0.1942189335823059,
0.4357970356941223,
-0.20947140455245972,
-0.43488627672195435,
0.31912651658058167,
-0.5677264332771301,
-0.15070633590221405,
-1.2182025909423828,
0.18431590497493744,
0.30524447560310364,
-0.33766230940818787,
-1.0947389602661133,
-0.2328682243824005,
-0.01919829100370407,
0.0035589924082159996,
0.30736374855041504,
0.11035965383052826,
-0.9476706385612488,
-0.014726267196238041,
0.31794410943984985,
-0.3112081289291382,
0.047782715409994125,
-0.0935995876789093,
0.3392433226108551,
-0.772598922252655,
0.25600874423980713,
-0.4769587814807892,
0.4714147448539734,
-0.6762996912002563,
0.6217365860939026,
0.2209855020046234,
-0.25750696659088135,
0.3791486322879791,
0.21528424322605133,
0.11048687249422073,
0.41255804896354675,
0.021086186170578003,
-0.6879464983940125,
0.11520516127347946,
0.6282181739807129,
0.06313993781805038,
0.29895997047424316,
0.20568600296974182,
0.26060423254966736,
-0.49502190947532654,
-0.15150867402553558,
-0.1379854530096054,
-0.2902414798736572,
-0.743378221988678,
-0.32473206520080566,
-0.15909163653850555,
1.171404480934143,
-0.27755460143089294,
-1.0104172229766846,
0.6262522339820862,
-0.3686724603176117,
-0.2890375256538391,
-0.12952595949172974,
0.3209933638572693,
0.5380070805549622,
0.7416310906410217,
-0.3934886157512665,
-0.2235114723443985,
-0.630440890789032,
0.15878288447856903,
-0.2508840560913086,
-0.1710141897201538,
0.5491102933883667,
-0.6729843020439148,
-0.1879386454820633,
0.32315701246261597,
0.5747673511505127,
-0.17736877501010895,
-0.7956866025924683,
-0.14378125965595245,
0.009353602305054665,
-0.09639174491167068,
-0.2773948907852173,
-0.2840360999107361,
-0.4743407368659973,
0.9363037347793579,
-0.15587300062179565,
-0.4785621166229248,
-0.030052803456783295,
-0.08277339488267899,
-0.19631211459636688,
-0.4910798668861389,
-0.16324441134929657,
-0.7628195881843567,
0.4444705843925476,
0.2008398324251175,
0.06887488067150116,
0.03730561211705208,
0.5645485520362854,
-0.13880978524684906,
-0.5830626487731934,
-0.012083956971764565,
-0.0075033437460660934,
0.3271782100200653,
0.1114097535610199,
-0.7351176738739014,
0.12003426998853683,
0.18761537969112396,
-0.0388234481215477,
0.40387967228889465,
-0.1848466992378235,
-0.7678490877151489,
-0.1580352485179901,
-0.5735918879508972,
-0.07817886769771576,
0.11864953488111496,
0.16383664309978485,
0.004416185896843672,
0.31398892402648926,
-0.13260304927825928,
0.5302411317825317,
-0.15290138125419617,
0.19996555149555206,
-0.7769700884819031,
0.522953987121582,
-0.5374307036399841,
0.4112853705883026,
0.3892650902271271,
0.768204927444458,
-0.058498457074165344,
-0.374245285987854,
-0.8488258123397827,
0.24139437079429626,
-0.03455597907304764,
-0.7126585245132446,
0.07376836985349655,
-0.0966235101222992,
-0.1736997812986374,
-0.3773176372051239,
0.3578241765499115,
-0.10265914350748062,
0.2825332283973694,
0.17965932190418243,
0.7478682398796082,
0.7587773203849792,
0.3144150376319885,
0.301432728767395,
0.31480374932289124,
-0.4489755928516388,
-0.3388635516166687,
0.07893585413694382,
0.00540019478648901,
0.7591502666473389,
0.17254747450351715,
-0.14554151892662048,
-0.10761547088623047,
0.41057929396629333,
-0.5967366099357605,
-0.34553471207618713,
-0.04427284002304077,
0.4548378586769104,
0.41463565826416016,
-0.8789269328117371,
-0.4544975757598877,
-0.08233015984296799,
0.5890655517578125,
-0.694051206111908,
-0.13341891765594482,
-0.7195268273353577,
-0.045679498463869095,
0.47623389959335327,
-0.17708787322044373,
0.22274355590343475,
-0.06143943592905998,
0.4400682747364044,
-0.22022822499275208,
-0.033575255423784256,
0.2602384090423584,
0.1382383555173874,
-0.4401625692844391,
-0.059279266744852066,
0.5271574258804321,
0.38538065552711487,
0.17290548980236053,
0.32299527525901794,
-0.0370512381196022,
0.04862254485487938,
0.07003827393054962,
0.011332495138049126,
-0.672308623790741,
-0.5176544785499573,
0.1468283236026764,
0.7888064980506897,
0.19459830224514008,
-0.5855705142021179,
-0.0563402883708477,
0.10728169977664948,
0.12499312311410904,
-0.020080754533410072,
-0.4591258466243744,
0.3611156642436981,
-0.12898394465446472,
0.34550052881240845,
-0.38602858781814575,
-0.3338395357131958,
0.06685482710599899,
-0.24341538548469543,
0.10127383470535278,
0.5121071934700012,
0.0800507664680481,
-0.22482629120349884,
-0.2190380096435547,
0.07414145022630692,
0.640182614326477,
-0.6989163160324097,
-0.04040157049894333,
0.24534662067890167,
0.1975284367799759,
0.04530952498316765,
-0.23741751909255981,
-0.14432920515537262,
0.10282126814126968,
0.07142767310142517,
-0.0896567702293396,
0.35101285576820374,
-0.1886148452758789,
0.1426415592432022,
-0.06297482550144196,
0.7073242664337158,
0.2550261914730072,
0.6703186631202698,
0.5629377365112305,
0.13257722556591034,
-0.13657009601593018,
0.03189735859632492,
-0.8035166263580322,
-0.24543678760528564,
-0.1284727156162262,
0.05450794845819473,
0.14999909698963165,
-0.028152965009212494,
-0.37840452790260315,
-0.0021216555032879114,
-0.12791159749031067,
-0.2606896162033081,
0.05615433678030968,
0.031131042167544365,
0.9610157012939453,
-0.09934590011835098,
0.3050568103790283,
-0.6607125997543335,
-0.14936766028404236,
-0.26598289608955383,
0.0680079460144043,
0.43827536702156067,
0.344097763299942,
-0.2949419319629669,
-0.16662877798080444,
-0.03987014293670654,
-0.14294445514678955,
0.20849812030792236,
0.09626811742782593,
-0.26754650473594666,
-1.0879554748535156,
0.29190269112586975,
0.19456203281879425,
-0.12136638909578323,
0.521327018737793,
0.5294883251190186,
0.24144156277179718,
-0.27833640575408936,
-0.27679261565208435,
0.0882340744137764,
0.3439708650112152,
0.057481735944747925,
0.10912072658538818,
-0.6068835258483887,
0.4161868095397949,
-0.5426799654960632,
-0.38021397590637207,
0.575445830821991,
0.07060426473617554,
0.5220915675163269,
0.2878643572330475,
0.3987046778202057,
0.330709844827652,
-0.3596954643726349,
0.5126234889030457,
-0.0017286065267398953,
0.1955021768808365,
0.548536479473114
] |
233475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party%20system | Multi-party system | In political science, a multi-party system is a political system in which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run for national elections, and all have the capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition. Apart from one-party-dominant and two-party systems, multi-party systems tend to be more common in parliamentary systems than presidential systems and far more common in countries that use proportional representation compared to countries that use first-past-the-post elections. Several parties compete for power and all of them have reasonable chance of forming government.
First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support for large representation in the legislature, whereas proportional representation better reflects the range of a population's views. Proportional systems may have multi-member districts with more than one representative elected from a given district to the same legislative body, and thus a greater number of viable parties. Duverger's law states that the number of viable political parties is one, plus the number of seats in a district.
Argentina, Armenia, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Sweden, Tunisia, and Ukraine are examples of nations that have used a multi-party system effectively in their democracies. In these countries, usually no single party has a parliamentary majority by itself. Instead, multiple political parties are compelled to form compromised coalitions for the purpose of developing power blocks and attaining legitimate mandate.
History
Comparisons with other party systems
A system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called a two-party system. A system where only three parties have a realistic possibility of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a "Third-party system". But, in some cases the system is called a "Stalled Third-Party System," when there are three parties and all three parties win a large number of votes, but only two have a chance of winning an election. Usually, this is because the electoral system penalises the third party, e.g. as in Canadian or UK politics.
West Germany between 1961 and 1983 was largely a stalled three party system, or "triopoly". For 22 years, only three parties - Christian Democratic Union and its Bavarian sister party Christian Social Union, Social Democratic Party and Free Democratic Party were represented in the Bundestag, since to win seats in the Bundestag, a party must win at least 5% of the vote or win three constituency seats. The Free Democratic Party would not win a single constituency seat between 1957 and 1990, but always won party list seats. From 1961 to 1998, they were included in every government except for three years of Grand coalition in 1966-1969 and were largely considered to be the kingmaker party. From 1969 to 1982, West Germany was governed by a SPD-FDP coalition and although in 1976 and 1980 CDU/CSU won a plurality of votes, they were unable to force out the SPD-FDP government. However, in 1982, FDP annulled the coalition pact with SPD and formed a new one with CDU/CSU, which would last until CDU/CSU's defeat in 1998 elections. 1983 elections ended the triopoly, with The Greens entering the parliament, and in 1990, Party of Democratic Socialism entering the parliament.
In the 2010 UK elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the first-past-the-post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats (and enough public support) to form coalitions with one of the two major parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election. Another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghan's Minority Labour Government; when Labour lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition.
In Canada, there are three major federal political parties: the Conservative Party of Canada, the Liberal Party of Canada, and the New Democratic Party. However, in recent Canadian history, the Liberals and Conservatives (and their predecessors) have been the only two parties to elect a Prime Minister in Canada, with the New Democratic Party, Bloc Quebecois and Green Party often winning seats in the House of Commons. The main exception was the 2011 Canadian election when the New Democrats were the Official Opposition and the Liberal Party was reduced to third party status.
Unlike a one-party system (or a two-party system), a multi-party system encourages the general constituency to form multiple distinct, officially recognized groups, generally called political parties. Each party competes for votes from the enfranchised constituents (those allowed to vote). A multi-party system prevents the leadership of a single party from controlling a single legislative chamber without challenge.
If the government includes an elected Congress or Parliament, the parties may share power according to proportional representation or the first-past-the-post system. In proportional representation, each party wins a number of seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. In first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts, each of which selects one person to fill one seat by a plurality of the vote. First-past-the-post is not conducive to a proliferation of parties, and naturally gravitates toward a two-party system, in which only two parties have a real chance of electing their candidates to office. This gravitation is known as Duverger's law. Proportional representation, on the other hand, does not have this tendency, and allows multiple major parties to arise. But, recent coalition governments, such as that in the U.K., represent two-party systems rather than multi-party systems. This is regardless of the number of parties in government.
A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocks, sometimes so large that they cannot agree on any overarching principles. Some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control, though this is disputed. On the other hand, if there are multiple major parties, each with less than a majority of the vote, the parties are strongly motivated to work together to form working governments. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization.
See also
Polarized pluralism
Political organisation
Ingroups and outgroups
References
Political systems
Political party systems
Elections
Government
Types of democracy | [
-0.025392210111021996,
-0.12365768104791641,
0.06072678044438362,
0.5807887315750122,
-0.25728899240493774,
-0.007473016157746315,
0.1743929535150528,
0.12910082936286926,
-0.6426355242729187,
-0.3081241250038147,
-0.3899262547492981,
-0.020717179402709007,
-0.48954060673713684,
-0.017071550711989403,
0.06266764551401138,
0.1440330296754837,
0.17326541244983673,
0.35772964358329773,
0.09742908924818039,
0.43792524933815,
-0.23490484058856964,
0.485713392496109,
-0.03246735408902168,
-0.17332075536251068,
-0.0735793486237526,
0.03656335175037384,
0.6020035743713379,
-0.13077740371227264,
0.06619862467050552,
0.1840454638004303,
0.13531892001628876,
0.548073410987854,
0.15557624399662018,
0.37310028076171875,
0.2219357192516327,
-0.2803457975387573,
0.15844935178756714,
-0.3102774918079376,
-0.04918843135237694,
-0.7760657072067261,
0.21921184659004211,
-0.6309725642204285,
0.2288578748703003,
-0.027998745441436768,
-0.3665836751461029,
-0.5595847964286804,
-1.2607895135879517,
0.1012515127658844,
-0.6260581016540527,
0.029965726658701897,
-0.837364137172699,
0.050146616995334625,
0.21021661162376404,
0.6577877998352051,
0.09365230798721313,
0.4037327170372009,
0.16330763697624207,
0.0467526838183403,
-0.20948800444602966,
-0.42834949493408203,
0.06104198470711708,
-0.016887487843632698,
0.16624173521995544,
-0.12017839401960373,
0.44539692997932434,
-0.2725074887275696,
0.01151699386537075,
-0.015020460821688175,
-0.9122805595397949,
-0.1974611133337021,
-0.45866698026657104,
-0.15168043971061707,
0.3598569929599762,
0.27054810523986816,
-0.5419730544090271,
-0.24634970724582672,
0.24868668615818024,
0.24205653369426727,
-0.2507912516593933,
-0.15139140188694,
-0.7140998244285583,
0.3356374204158783,
0.1445779651403427,
0.09912683814764023,
0.5778546333312988,
-0.10355239361524582,
-0.13393399119377136,
0.3740242123603821,
-0.24028925597667694,
0.45877179503440857,
0.24412420392036438,
-0.13316918909549713,
0.5954707860946655,
0.16782216727733612,
0.0116740046069026,
-0.14360034465789795,
0.33525100350379944,
-0.006800845265388489,
0.4068082571029663,
0.13668633997440338,
0.2327474057674408,
-0.07804085314273834,
0.17739441990852356,
-0.45634105801582336,
-0.588778018951416,
-0.291836678981781,
-0.309787392616272,
-0.46604123711586,
-0.36098963022232056,
-0.05852071940898895,
-0.555604875087738,
0.25034624338150024,
0.07563745230436325,
0.26141881942749023,
-0.6621269583702087,
0.04706963151693344,
-0.13195058703422546,
0.3256019949913025,
0.3795594573020935,
0.2700478732585907,
0.2128784954547882,
0.5216174721717834,
0.12223245203495026,
0.09446776658296585,
0.41046908497810364,
0.19941674172878265,
0.34923654794692993,
0.21798387169837952,
-0.7390571236610413,
0.18649603426456451,
0.06622963398694992,
0.476632297039032,
-0.17854060232639313,
0.11120767891407013,
-0.17458485066890717,
-0.4970743656158447,
0.357176274061203,
0.26502537727355957,
0.8124868869781494,
0.48281779885292053,
-0.6778453588485718,
-0.15409021079540253,
0.4520314037799835,
0.15859170258045197,
0.20581786334514618,
0.20515793561935425,
0.21485061943531036,
-0.6870670914649963,
-0.06680744141340256,
-0.4218066930770874,
-0.45512855052948,
0.389474481344223,
0.18788494169712067,
-0.09643282741308212,
0.19394119083881378,
0.8509812355041504,
0.35092025995254517,
-0.5039195418357849,
0.4020911157131195,
0.4588105380535126,
0.019833669066429138,
-0.13060668110847473,
-0.1955205202102661,
-0.18854966759681702,
0.08921188116073608,
-0.4892134964466095,
0.1081060990691185,
0.7235074043273926,
0.2523854374885559,
-0.13670800626277924,
0.05851522088050842,
0.2221163809299469,
-0.04043528810143471,
-0.2807008624076843,
0.1655707061290741,
-0.2756633758544922,
0.1915147602558136,
0.1531572937965393,
0.673880934715271,
-0.031221628189086914,
-0.5469393134117126,
0.19840888679027557,
0.18266624212265015,
-0.12318271398544312,
-0.18408575654029846,
0.08333837240934372,
0.10433223098516464,
-0.06065182760357857,
-0.038871243596076965,
0.1912301629781723,
-0.142853245139122,
-0.05360754579305649,
-0.16035400331020355,
-0.8546671867370605,
0.6916123628616333,
-0.21918664872646332,
-0.5930401682853699,
0.6639615893363953,
0.14374859631061554,
-0.1205054223537445,
0.10228676348924637,
-0.44172701239585876,
0.0331345796585083,
-0.2397695928812027,
-0.22222286462783813,
0.10547389090061188,
0.4561108648777008,
-0.20825013518333435,
-0.1314484030008316,
-0.16970272362232208,
0.09840808808803558,
-0.4358903169631958,
0.1155419647693634,
0.04659264534711838,
0.1468048393726349,
-0.007375209126621485,
-0.7680344581604004,
0.4887007772922516,
-0.10842819511890411,
0.4612237513065338,
1.1811094284057617,
-0.7410287857055664,
-0.09383852779865265,
1.0179917812347412,
0.003117908025160432,
0.11465489119291306,
0.7406907677650452,
0.21658305823802948,
0.7335608601570129,
-0.35277822613716125,
0.2446613758802414,
0.1952935755252838,
0.5287972688674927,
-0.4135702848434448,
-0.120479054749012,
-0.09779474884271622,
-0.010922828689217567,
-0.1609465628862381,
0.04886713996529579,
-0.38961049914360046,
-0.07677733898162842,
0.2872272729873657,
-0.18714174628257751,
0.28256547451019287,
0.131444051861763,
-0.1394324004650116,
-0.4459826350212097,
0.24055661261081696,
-0.11182667315006256,
0.15724590420722961,
0.13892482221126556,
0.029149970039725304,
0.32191014289855957,
-0.6767350435256958,
0.09835650026798248,
-0.030267581343650818,
0.38677722215652466,
0.1477646678686142,
-0.19747890532016754,
-0.21655860543251038,
-0.1842760145664215,
0.011886782012879848,
-0.4791495203971863,
-0.15487496554851532,
0.02649710141122341,
-0.4850364029407501,
-0.5175967216491699,
-0.10140742361545563,
-0.1296653300523758,
-0.06502049416303635,
0.38280701637268066,
-0.0872688964009285,
-0.27137383818626404,
-0.201136976480484,
-0.05865796282887459,
-0.40289896726608276,
-0.0052403672598302364,
0.04161805659532547,
-0.5737642645835876,
-0.9577659964561462,
-0.3917387127876282,
0.1264123022556305,
0.16497847437858582,
-0.8344631791114807,
-0.3408644497394562,
-0.30935946106910706,
0.4072788655757904,
-0.13797907531261444,
0.3117280900478363,
0.037850894033908844,
-0.04287060350179672,
0.4422522187232971,
0.08693584054708481,
-0.25077107548713684,
0.19958806037902832,
0.7931694984436035,
-0.03316621482372284,
0.38299560546875,
0.032007571309804916,
0.16412745416164398,
-0.29778748750686646,
0.1225283220410347,
-0.2747311294078827,
-0.3713795840740204,
0.33599787950515747,
-0.3229810893535614,
-0.0065056756138801575,
0.12538212537765503,
-5.986866474151611,
-0.396293044090271,
-0.14324824512004852,
-0.4408329427242279,
0.2528841495513916,
0.0719061940908432,
0.47598570585250854,
-0.2601553499698639,
-0.19204755127429962,
0.5113905668258667,
-0.3385854959487915,
0.008405826054513454,
-0.08667650818824768,
0.4943591356277466,
0.5312052965164185,
-0.1490260660648346,
0.8746178150177002,
0.3177292048931122,
0.01511931512504816,
-0.022202149033546448,
-0.2488764077425003,
0.010657774284482002,
0.4883768558502197,
0.3267173767089844,
-0.30902448296546936,
-0.20360872149467468,
0.2408279925584793,
-0.39608895778656006,
-0.18186742067337036,
-0.23863711953163147,
-0.34788668155670166,
-0.16478969156742096,
-0.4867580533027649,
-0.21913810074329376,
0.0965803936123848,
-0.04224991798400879,
0.5028110146522522,
0.2895818054676056,
0.10866957157850266,
-0.09007573872804642,
0.24709556996822357,
0.5561246275901794,
0.384091854095459,
0.1272178441286087,
0.023709921166300774,
-0.009103154763579369,
-0.0190016720443964,
-0.31769853830337524,
-1.04191255569458,
0.7479429244995117,
-0.6775388121604919,
0.397946834564209,
1.0885255336761475,
-0.16644755005836487,
0.27333545684814453,
0.14455251395702362,
0.5097277760505676,
-0.07163480669260025,
-0.45279476046562195,
0.2527908384799957,
0.2373240888118744,
-0.36386269330978394,
0.027275901287794113,
-0.5289477705955505,
-0.12872183322906494,
-0.25490766763687134,
-0.8732569813728333,
-0.3922269344329834,
1.1446830034255981,
0.3372592329978943,
-0.42046552896499634,
-0.3175625801086426,
0.510671079158783,
-0.4684802293777466,
0.5295350551605225,
-0.38926875591278076,
0.5633828043937683,
0.05720085650682449,
0.6349420547485352,
0.33557167649269104,
-0.29095935821533203,
0.24728210270404816,
-0.12225943803787231,
-0.40658628940582275,
0.23651772737503052,
0.29829829931259155,
0.1529867798089981,
0.35564789175987244,
-0.0030471982900053263,
0.1145680621266365,
0.0237041674554348,
-0.08199918270111084,
0.7132665514945984,
0.4818013906478882,
0.8080114722251892,
0.8116866946220398,
-0.43371593952178955,
0.12320787459611893,
0.09250753372907639,
-0.5561182498931885,
0.23759113252162933,
-0.2546869218349457,
-0.6680967211723328,
-0.4765605628490448,
-0.012298384681344032,
0.2717337906360626,
-0.4667579233646393,
0.26788049936294556,
-0.11923962831497192,
-0.07752785086631775,
0.023690668866038322,
-0.02698037587106228,
-0.23823125660419464,
-0.45054173469543457,
0.19456541538238525,
0.2486237734556198,
-0.9385197162628174,
0.5239959359169006,
-0.0878017395734787,
0.3512547016143799,
-0.029939860105514526,
0.4726395010948181,
-0.08805394172668457,
-0.0026844083331525326,
-0.5538316965103149,
-0.17448867857456207,
-0.33667075634002686,
-0.4511835277080536,
0.2879486083984375,
-0.24322719871997833,
0.9939529299736023,
0.24386480450630188,
-0.11652061343193054,
-0.3757183253765106,
0.11804742366075516,
0.020169200375676155,
0.23743785917758942,
0.2793727517127991,
-0.41935551166534424,
-0.504162073135376,
0.5217416882514954,
-0.12053218483924866,
0.1351035237312317,
0.039497241377830505,
-0.272840291261673,
-0.2997404634952545,
-0.6816202402114868,
0.08178110420703888,
-0.03019365482032299,
0.6351933479309082,
-0.49585846066474915,
-0.7305629253387451,
0.508232831954956,
-0.36467278003692627,
-0.15635591745376587,
-0.17633603513240814,
0.5381579399108887,
-0.007151554338634014,
0.32601258158683777,
-0.6718977689743042,
-0.2920133173465729,
-0.4253944754600525,
-1.0650185346603394,
0.2766354978084564,
0.05343746393918991,
0.2967931628227234,
-0.6247696280479431,
0.3334329426288605,
-0.16096994280815125,
0.4395971894264221,
-0.12180547416210175,
-0.37057244777679443,
-0.4405755400657654,
-0.22941429913043976,
0.15531274676322937,
0.11015014350414276,
0.536317765712738,
0.42402583360671997,
0.015486269257962704,
-0.22242410480976105,
-0.32659968733787537,
0.14851592481136322,
-0.6452829241752625,
0.07841047644615173,
0.05722241476178169,
-0.11492077261209488,
-0.05866033583879471,
0.3332024812698364,
-0.050382860004901886,
-0.2783721685409546,
0.7989409565925598,
0.42276665568351746,
0.7733752131462097,
-0.4658235013484955,
-0.19588814675807953,
-0.1759408414363861,
-0.17653563618659973,
0.12751533091068268,
-0.30309563875198364,
-0.34179216623306274,
-0.0076138838194310665,
0.13913865387439728,
-0.19087642431259155,
-0.32740628719329834,
0.3542702794075012,
-0.30961209535598755,
0.3269004225730896,
-0.21592329442501068,
-0.10252127796411514,
0.054050952196121216,
-0.4624887704849243,
-0.6324339509010315,
-0.8700814843177795,
0.1545465737581253,
-0.4331502318382263,
-0.1659788340330124,
0.007004670798778534,
-0.4042568802833557,
-0.4495394229888916,
0.2802283465862274,
0.47945868968963623,
-0.4617227613925934,
0.06537190824747086,
-0.0918184146285057,
-0.09577751159667969,
-0.011609283275902271,
0.4504892826080322,
-0.1562194675207138,
-0.13273151218891144,
0.1309158354997635,
-0.41923847794532776,
-0.6022087931632996,
0.09443394839763641,
-0.04095384106040001,
-0.1609952598810196,
-0.2493792474269867,
-0.35778310894966125,
0.18947947025299072,
-0.4347909092903137,
-0.3560442328453064,
-0.24249237775802612,
0.7287468910217285,
0.48799413442611694,
-0.7347129583358765,
-0.18926234543323517,
0.34802255034446716,
0.6518793106079102,
-0.4873664677143097,
-0.48619720339775085,
-0.09277087450027466,
0.2858995497226715,
-0.14136981964111328,
-0.5664960741996765,
-0.31660276651382446,
0.6526109576225281,
0.32966476678848267,
-0.21889472007751465,
-0.1665152907371521,
0.39296481013298035,
0.5651851296424866,
-0.5616142749786377,
-0.7751621007919312,
-0.35493212938308716,
-0.6533066034317017,
0.34404224157333374,
-0.07907791435718536,
-0.038804758340120316,
-0.44022589921951294,
0.12277652323246002,
-0.5585286617279053,
0.5076425671577454,
-0.17021189630031586,
0.167971670627594,
0.10140985995531082,
0.5512116551399231,
0.08952599763870239,
0.18766070902347565,
0.2247203290462494,
0.047824833542108536,
0.1309451460838318,
-0.31606391072273254,
-0.30185985565185547,
-0.045978154987096786,
-0.35532981157302856,
0.7361076474189758,
-0.6300229430198669,
0.20860379934310913,
-0.2114207148551941,
-0.26433730125427246,
-0.3060974180698395,
-0.6254341006278992,
0.032727114856243134,
0.1717359572649002,
0.21994440257549286,
-0.38641977310180664,
-0.01770971715450287,
0.19192524254322052,
0.17941832542419434,
-0.4092642068862915,
0.194460928440094,
-0.16227710247039795,
0.2968457043170929,
0.21172606945037842,
-0.636207103729248,
0.13429082930088043,
-0.21152670681476593,
-0.11237473785877228,
-1.211209774017334,
0.41403934359550476,
-0.11077708005905151,
0.44413232803344727,
0.2974132299423218,
0.36953428387641907,
0.33178067207336426,
-0.4714723527431488,
0.5341663956642151,
0.3609302043914795,
-0.39136117696762085,
0.9191473722457886,
0.16818851232528687,
0.6642007231712341,
-0.15036842226982117,
0.13736192882061005,
-0.07499852776527405,
0.4048702120780945,
0.590305507183075,
0.10081861168146133,
0.004051025956869125,
0.09687123447656631,
0.20945265889167786,
0.8592205047607422,
0.4965671896934509,
-0.34988659620285034,
-0.23150323331356049,
-0.22424383461475372,
-0.7752822637557983,
-0.4303951561450958,
-0.21609477698802948,
-0.4492323696613312,
0.3887856602668762,
0.26336994767189026,
0.009792009368538857,
-0.25014400482177734,
0.34614673256874084,
-0.04272130876779556,
0.059414785355329514,
0.22944404184818268,
0.3098055124282837,
-0.9781677722930908,
0.4868415594100952,
0.33984169363975525,
-0.02037719078361988,
0.1100665032863617,
0.12526512145996094,
0.06128545477986336,
-0.8000600337982178,
0.30314186215400696,
-0.12975530326366425,
0.6358238458633423,
-0.49127352237701416,
0.20344160497188568,
0.6573917865753174,
-0.21901050209999084,
0.024910276755690575,
-0.005669872742146254,
-0.14004947245121002,
0.46084100008010864,
-0.10468428581953049,
-0.0845864787697792,
-0.061110105365514755,
0.10713144391775131,
0.13613183796405792,
-0.19796960055828094,
0.5207561254501343,
-0.37073466181755066,
-0.5411864519119263,
0.35288089513778687,
0.15228569507598877,
-0.17572979629039764,
-0.031432926654815674,
-0.23502010107040405,
-0.15760518610477448,
0.14804331958293915,
-0.501271665096283,
-0.06580619513988495,
0.17077362537384033,
0.00002358029450988397,
0.3217625617980957,
-0.15098658204078674,
0.8058894276618958,
0.5392598509788513,
0.0038311334792524576,
0.02711733616888523,
0.19893260300159454,
-0.20583845674991608,
0.34162065386772156,
-0.3656104803085327,
0.6110340356826782,
0.7484504580497742,
-0.07281285524368286,
0.20794852077960968,
0.48260024189949036,
0.01421015989035368,
0.14776711165905,
-0.27244120836257935,
0.06620121747255325,
-0.3389654755592346,
-0.24779047071933746,
-0.5814768671989441,
0.059326525777578354,
0.4709620177745819,
-0.32014212012290955,
0.18216216564178467,
0.6774250864982605,
-0.15791970491409302,
0.418631374835968,
0.8167158365249634,
-0.17716656625270844,
0.33678075671195984,
-0.22837695479393005,
0.20735381543636322,
-0.18861708045005798,
0.6078130006790161,
-0.09365290403366089,
-0.0216299407184124,
-0.1663554310798645,
0.3437456488609314,
0.2801860570907593,
-0.7481016516685486,
0.9511984586715698,
-0.4421195387840271,
0.11359408497810364,
-0.12121511250734329,
0.04024798423051834,
-0.6729499101638794,
0.04762286692857742,
-0.29802653193473816,
0.11851312965154648,
0.16202042996883392,
-0.6249596476554871,
-0.11340180039405823,
0.2258506566286087,
0.1456340104341507,
-0.0988987535238266,
-0.10340001434087753,
-0.18413320183753967,
-0.16995401680469513,
0.5640656352043152,
0.018495799973607063,
-0.21043473482131958,
0.42365071177482605,
-0.09025856852531433,
0.014780623838305473,
-0.21227304637432098,
-0.19230511784553528,
0.07793606072664261,
0.3156658709049225,
-0.5415990948677063,
0.0496186800301075,
0.5944958925247192
] |
233478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackalope | Jackalope | The jackalope is a mythical animal of North American folklore, in the category of fearsome critters, described as a jackrabbit with antelope horns. The word jackalope is a portmanteau of jackrabbit and antelope. Many jackalope taxidermy mounts, including the original, are made with deer antlers.
In the 1930s, Douglas Herrick and his brother, hunters with taxidermy skills, popularized the American jackalope by grafting deer antlers onto a jackrabbit carcass and selling the combination to a local hotel in Douglas, Wyoming. Thereafter, they made and sold many similar jackalopes to a retail outlet in South Dakota, and another taxidermist continues to manufacture the horned rabbits in the 21st century. Stuffed and mounted, jackalopes are found in many bars and other places in the United States; stores catering to tourists sell jackalope postcards and other paraphernalia, and commercial entities in America and elsewhere have used the word jackalope or a jackalope logo as part of their marketing strategies. The jackalope has appeared in published stories, poems, television shows, video games, and a low-budget mockumentary film. The Wyoming Legislature has considered bills to make the jackalope the state's official mythological creature.
The underlying legend of the jackalope, upon which the Wyoming taxidermists were building, may be related to similar stories in other cultures and other historical times. Researchers suggest that at least some of the tales of horned hares were inspired by sightings of rabbits infected with the Shope papilloma virus. It causes horn- and antler-like tumors to grow in various places on a rabbit's head and body.
Folklorists see the jackalope as one of a group of tall tale animals, known as fearsome critters, common to North American culture since the turn of the twentieth century. These fabulous beasts appear in tall tales featuring hodags, giant snakes, fur-bearing trout, and many others. Some such stories lend themselves to comic hoaxing by entrepreneurs who seek attention for their own personal or their region's fortune.
Name
Jackalope is a portmanteau of jackrabbit and antelope.
Jackrabbits are actually hares rather than rabbits though both are mammals in the order Lagomorpha. Wyoming is home to three species of hares, all in the genus Lepus. These are the black-tailed jackrabbit, the white-tailed jackrabbit, and the snowshoe hare.
The antelope is actually a pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) rather than an antelope and are more closely related to giraffes, although one of its colloquial names in North America is "antelope".
Some of the largest herds of wild pronghorns, which are found only in western North America, are in Wyoming. The adults grow to about tall, weigh up to , and can run at sustained speeds approaching .
Origins
Stories or descriptions of animal hybrids have appeared in many cultures worldwide. A 13th-century Persian work depicts a rabbit with a single horn, like a unicorn. In Europe, the horned rabbit appeared in Medieval and Renaissance folklore in Bavaria (the wolpertinger) and elsewhere. Natural history texts such as Historiae Naturalis de Quadrupetibus Libri (The History Book of Natural Quadrangles) by Joannes Jonstonus (John Jonston) in the 17th century and illustrations such as Animalia Qvadrvpedia et Reptilia (Terra): Plate XLVII by Joris Hoefnagel (1522–1600) in the 16th century included the horned hare. These early scientific texts described and illustrated the hybrids as though they were real creatures, but by the end of the 18th century scientists generally rejected the idea of horned hares as a biological species.
References to horned rabbits may originate in sightings of rabbits affected by the Shope papilloma virus, named for Richard E. Shope, M.D., who described it in a scientific journal in 1933. Shope initially examined wild cottontail rabbits that had been shot by hunters in Iowa and later examined wild rabbits from Kansas. They had "numerous horn-like protuberances on the skin over various parts of their bodies. The animals were referred to popularly as 'horned' or 'warty' rabbits." Legends about horned rabbits also occur in Asia and Africa as well as Europe, and researchers suspect the changes induced by the virus might underlie at least some of those tales.
In Central America, mythological references to a horned rabbit creature can be found in Huichol legends. The Huichol oral tradition has passed down tales of a horned rabbit and of the deer getting horns from the rabbit. The rabbit and deer were paired, though not combined as a hybrid, as day signs in the calendar of the Mesoamerican period of the Aztecs, as twins, brothers, even the sun and moon.
Douglas variant
The New York Times attributes the American jackalope's origin to a 1932 hunting outing involving Douglas Herrick (1920–2003) of Douglas, Wyoming. Herrick and his brother had studied taxidermy by mail order as teenagers, and when the brothers returned from a hunting trip for jackrabbits, Herrick tossed a carcass into the taxidermy store, where it came to rest beside a pair of deer antlers. The accidental combination of animal forms sparked Herrick's idea for a jackalope. The first jackalope the brothers put together was sold for $10 to Roy Ball, who displayed it in Douglas' La Bonte Hotel. The mounted head was stolen in 1977. The jackalope became a popular local attraction in Douglas, where the Chamber of Commerce issues Jackalope Hunting Licenses to tourists. The tags are good for hunting during official jackalope season, which occurs for only one day: June 31 (a nonexistent date as June has 30 days), from midnight to 2 a.m. The hunter must have an IQ greater than 50 but not over 72. Thousands of "licenses" have been issued. In Herrick's home town of Douglas, there is an statue of a jackalope, and the town hosts an annual Jackalope Days Celebration in early June.
Building on the Herrick's success, Frank English of Rapid City, South Dakota has made and sold many thousands of jackalopes since retiring from the Air Force in 1981. He is the only supplier of the altered animal heads to Cabela's, a major outdoor-theme retail company. His standard jackalopes and "world-record" jackalopes sell for about $150.
In Man and Beast in American Comic Legend, folklorist Richard Dorson recounts the Douglas variant but also an alternative that will "surely infuriate the residents of Douglas...". According to Dorson, in Mythical Creatures of the North Country (1969), historian Walker D. Wyman acknowledged the existence of what he called the Alkali Area Jackalope of the western United States. However, he expressed doubt that it predated the Jack-pine Jackalope of Minnesota and Wisconsin, "a mythological throwback that defies even the most competent biologists of the region." Wyman claimed there were three known specimens of this primary jackalope—in Augusta in west-central Wisconsin; Cornucopia, along the south shore of Lake Superior; and in a north shore museum and lumber camp— all "presumably shot by careless hunters during the deer season."
In a 1978 revision and expansion of his book, which includes material on the rubberado porcupine, the snoligoster, the three-tailed bavalorus, the squonk, and many other creatures, Wyman devotes four pages to the jackalope. In a turnabout from his earlier claims of a North Country origin for the antlered hare, he says, "The center of its vast range seems to be Wyoming." Evidence of wide dispersal of Lepus antilocapra wyomingensis from its original range, he claims, are labels such as "Tioga, Pennsylvania," and "Hongkong" stamped on mounted jackalope heads in barrooms across the United States.
Tall tales
The jackalope is subject to many outlandish and largely tongue-in-cheek claims embedded in tall tales about its habits. Jackalopes are said to be so dangerous that hunters are advised to wear stovepipes on their legs to keep from being gored. Stores in Douglas sell jackalope milk, but The New York Times questions its authenticity on grounds that milking a jackalope is known to be fraught with risk. One of the ways to catch a jackalope is to entice it with whiskey, the jackalope's beverage of choice.
The jackalope can imitate the human voice, according to legend. During the days of the Old West, when cowboys gathered by the campfires singing at night, jackalopes could be heard mimicking their voices or singing along, usually as a tenor. It is said that jackalopes, the rare Lepus antilocapra, only breed during lightning flashes and that their antlers make the act difficult despite the hare's reputation for fertility.
Official recognition
In 2005, the legislature of Wyoming considered a bill to make the jackalope the state's official mythological creature. It passed the House by a 45–12 margin, but the session ended before the Senate could take up the bill, which died. In 2013, following the death of the bill's sponsor, Dave Edwards, the state legislature reintroduced the bill. It again passed the House but died in the rules committee of the Senate. In 2015, three state representatives put forth the jackalope proposal again, this time as House Bill 66, and again it passed the House but died in a Senate committee. One of the co-sponsors, Dan Zwonitzer, said, "I’ll keep bringing it back until it passes."
In 2014, the Wyoming Lottery adopted a jackalope logo for its lottery tickets and marketing materials. Lottery officials chose the fictitious animal, which they named YoLo, over the bucking horse and other state symbols.
In popular culture
Since Herrick and his brother began selling manipulated taxidermy heads in the 1930s, such trophies, as well as jackalope postcards and related gift-shop items, can be found in many places beyond Douglas. The student magazine of the Santa Fe University of Art and Design in New Mexico is called The Jackalope. On the other side of the world, The Hop Factory craft beer cafe in Newcastle, Australia, uses a leaping jackalope as its logo. In 1986, James Abdnor, a senator from South Dakota, gave U.S. President Ronald Reagan a stuffed jackalope (rabbit head with antlers) during a presidential campaign stop in Rapid City.
Many books, including a large number written for children, feature the jackalope. A search for "jackalope" in the WorldCat listings of early 2015 produced 225 hits, including 57 for books. Among them is Juan and the Jackalope: A Children's Book in Verse by Rudolfo Anaya. The WorldCat summary of Anaya's book says: "Competing for the hand of the lovely Rosita and her rhubarb pie, Juan rides a Jackalope in a race against Pecos Bill." A short story, "Jackalope Wives" by Ursula Vernon, has been nominated for a 2014 Nebula Award.
Musicians have used the jackalope in various ways. R. Carlos Nakai, a Native American flute player, formerly belonged to a group called Jackalope. In the late 1980s, it performed what Nakai called "synthacousticpunkarachiNavajazz", which combined "improvisation, visual art, storytelling, dance and dramatic theatrical effects." Nakai said he wanted people to dream as they listened to the music. Jakalope is a Canadian alternative pop/rock group formed in 2003 by Dave "Rave" Ogilvie. The band Miike Snow uses the jackalope as its logo. Band member Andrew Wyatt said during an interview in 2012 that the logo was meant to signify experiment and adventure. Of the 225 Worldcat hits resulting from a search for "jackalope", 95 were related to music.
Jackalopes have appeared in movies and on television. A jackalope named "Jack Ching Bada Bing" was a recurring character in a series of sketches on the television show America's Funniest People. The show's host, Dave Coulier, voiced the rascally hybrid. In 2003, Pixar featured a jackalope in the short animation Boundin'. The jackalope gave helpful advice to a lamb who was feeling sad after being shorn.
Jackalopes have appeared in video games. In Red Dead Redemption, the player is able to hunt and skin jackalopes. In Redneck Rampage, jackalopes, including one the size of a bus, are enemies. Jackalopes are part of the action in Guild Wars 2.
A low-budget jackalope mockumentary, Stagbunny, aired in Casper and Douglas in 2006. The movie included interviews with the owner of a Douglas sporting goods store who claimed to harbor a live jackalope on his premises and with a paleontologist who explained the natural history of the jackalope and its place in the fossil record.
Beginning in 1997, the Central Hockey League included a team called the Odessa Jackalopes. The team joined the South Division of the North American Hockey League before the 2011–12 season. An Odessa sports writer expressed concern about the team's name, which he found insufficiently intimidating and which sounded like "something you might eat for breakfast."
Jackalope Brewing Company, the first commercial brewery in Tennessee founded by women, opened in Nashville in 2011. Its craft beers include Thunder Ann, Sarka, Fennario, Bearwalker, and Lovebird.
Some people claimed that the jackelope was first encountered by John Colter.
Scholarly interpretations
Folklorist John A. Gutowski sees in the Douglas jackalope an example of an American tall tale publicized by a local community that seeks wider recognition. Through a combination of hoax and media activity, the town or other community draws attention to itself for social or economic reasons. A common adjunct to this activity involves the creation of an annual festival to perpetuate the town's association with the local legend.
Gutowski finds evidence of what he calls the "protofestival" pattern throughout the United States. In addition to the jackalope, his examples include the sea serpent of Nantucket, which in 1937 led to "stories of armadas hunting the monster, and footprint discoveries by local businessmen", accompanied by wide publicity. In similar fashion, Newport, Arkansas, publicized its White River Monster, and Algiers, Louisiana, claimed to be home to a flying Devil Man. Ware, Massachusetts, drew media attention to its local reputation for alligator sightings. Perry, New York, held Silver Lake Sea Serpent Festivals based on a local hoax. The Hodag Festival in Rhinelander, Wisconsin, celebrates "discovery" of a prehistoric creature in a nearby pit. Willow Creek, California, hosts an annual Bigfoot Festival. Since 1950, Churubusco, Indiana, has celebrated Turtle Days, based on a story, part real and part invented, about the hunt for the Beast of Busco, a snapping turtle said to be living in a nearby lake.
Common to these tales, Gutowski says, is the recurring motif of the quest for the mythical animal, often a monster. The same motif, he notes, appears in American novels such as Moby Dick and Old Man and the Sea and in monster movies such as King Kong and Jaws and in world literature such as Beowulf. The monster motif also appears in tales of contemporary places outside the United States, such as Scotland, with its Loch Ness Monster. What is not global, Gutowski says, is the embrace of local monster tales by American communities that put them to use through "public relations hoaxes, boisterous boosterism, and [a] carnival atmosphere... ".
Folklorist Richard M. Dorson also cites the "booster impulse, mingled with entrepreneurial hoaxing" as the way that Douglas with its jackalope, Churubusco with its giant turtle, and other towns with their own local legends rise above anonymity. He traces the impulse and the methods to the promotional literature of colonial times that depicted North America as an earthly paradise. Much later, in the 19th century, settlers transferred that optimistic vision to the American West, where it culminated in "boosterism". Although other capitalist countries advertise their products, Dorson says, "...the intensity of the American ethos in advertising, huckstering, attention-getting, media-manipulating to sell a product, a personality, a town is beyond compare."
See also
Al-mi'raj
Lepus cornutus
Rogue taxidermy
Skvader
Rasselbock
References
External links
Limited Non-Resident Jackalope License
Fearsome critters
Fictional hybrid life forms
Mythological hybrids
Mythological Leporidae
Symbols of Wyoming
Taxidermy hoaxes | [
-0.19419623911380768,
0.39178675413131714,
-0.7805802226066589,
0.12177451699972153,
0.38087427616119385,
0.3311808109283447,
0.46442893147468567,
0.8884323835372925,
-0.324371337890625,
0.01920255459845066,
-0.5129000544548035,
0.4591895341873169,
-0.3953154981136322,
0.2704348862171173,
-0.5350404977798462,
0.11121141165494919,
0.9181162118911743,
0.6507989764213562,
-0.2732194662094116,
-0.5268867611885071,
-0.5469658970832825,
-0.6551591753959656,
-0.29548415541648865,
-0.5355268716812134,
0.5764779448509216,
0.16360703110694885,
-0.005025938618928194,
-0.09657694399356842,
-0.22946326434612274,
0.4287627339363098,
-0.21718721091747284,
0.5674135684967041,
0.08099162578582764,
-0.4972473978996277,
-0.3776462972164154,
-0.21477901935577393,
-0.7912019491195679,
-0.4727132022380829,
-0.1553923338651657,
-0.2649242579936981,
0.3636813461780548,
0.10966020822525024,
0.6675743460655212,
0.6756601929664612,
-0.121741883456707,
-0.08398137241601944,
-1.4634910821914673,
0.25407299399375916,
-0.22534538805484772,
0.10497984290122986,
0.15617208182811737,
0.6733173727989197,
-0.3189420700073242,
0.6603984832763672,
0.16397562623023987,
-0.08417397737503052,
-0.8826273083686829,
-0.4547344744205475,
0.3298772871494293,
0.1807010918855667,
-0.05139085650444031,
0.1340615600347519,
0.6276745796203613,
-0.05676103010773659,
-0.061699122190475464,
0.4636613428592682,
0.5817877054214478,
0.6435419917106628,
-0.33753669261932373,
0.21366994082927704,
-0.3140954375267029,
-0.3254181146621704,
-0.3979341387748718,
-0.09462423622608185,
-0.1969539076089859,
-0.46234190464019775,
0.1842057704925537,
0.37641647458076477,
-0.3157370984554291,
0.7476218938827515,
0.11123555153608322,
0.8070977926254272,
1.1553643941879272,
0.343365341424942,
-0.10203183442354202,
0.09260775148868561,
-0.5665318965911865,
0.3475435674190521,
-0.3829127848148346,
0.3480394780635834,
-0.2736254036426544,
0.1637788563966751,
-0.22893217206001282,
-0.14903318881988525,
-0.6364066004753113,
0.1177525743842125,
0.16733503341674805,
-0.37252116203308105,
0.1871049851179123,
0.12572090327739716,
0.12293010205030441,
0.27749890089035034,
1.0437802076339722,
-0.22035199403762817,
-0.26309719681739807,
-0.09201138466596603,
0.37646639347076416,
0.0946778655052185,
-0.38256314396858215,
0.10290829837322235,
-0.32955607771873474,
0.01036121416836977,
0.6216040849685669,
0.23812566697597504,
0.6269093155860901,
0.6128090023994446,
0.27732735872268677,
-0.30269068479537964,
-0.3409980833530426,
-0.32429295778274536,
0.1616087108850479,
0.11130105704069138,
-0.17224685847759247,
0.06885580718517303,
0.4833323359489441,
-0.01586444303393364,
-0.05401422083377838,
0.560641348361969,
0.023659570142626762,
-0.445907860994339,
0.45974960923194885,
0.7273582816123962,
-0.19346341490745544,
-0.661967396736145,
-0.4318038523197174,
0.11956983059644699,
-0.15479117631912231,
0.08471758663654327,
0.4530456066131592,
0.5043115615844727,
-0.8061324954032898,
-0.12044920772314072,
-0.6045264005661011,
0.058929260820150375,
0.3335411846637726,
0.4296261668205261,
-0.3207600712776184,
0.040607087314128876,
-0.2559073865413666,
0.16636095941066742,
-0.18206140398979187,
-0.1590050607919693,
0.17421653866767883,
-0.3222559988498688,
-0.030527744442224503,
-0.3926030695438385,
-0.5806884169578552,
-0.5491564273834229,
0.3819528818130493,
-0.5580410361289978,
-0.650669515132904,
-0.10779284685850143,
0.10426715761423111,
-0.4744430184364319,
-0.6840459108352661,
-0.08112018555402756,
0.566667377948761,
-0.18375658988952637,
-0.5935851335525513,
0.511522114276886,
0.08061148226261139,
0.15493005514144897,
0.4705928862094879,
0.2847518026828766,
-0.12652090191841125,
-0.16196922957897186,
0.5200521349906921,
-0.025618325918912888,
0.1315476894378662,
0.17771218717098236,
-0.791164219379425,
0.0868416503071785,
0.31814855337142944,
-0.8405016660690308,
-0.4198339879512787,
0.017925309017300606,
0.4299923777580261,
-0.12643159925937653,
0.046667519956827164,
-0.40718400478363037,
-0.3860853612422943,
0.02406996861100197,
0.12241855263710022,
0.020292187109589577,
1.1352537870407104,
-0.04325907304883003,
-0.31728318333625793,
-0.02402491122484207,
0.288614422082901,
0.00210504699498415,
-0.21052472293376923,
-0.3488251864910126,
0.9954692125320435,
0.06426170468330383,
-0.9338918328285217,
0.04039662331342697,
-0.07947361469268799,
0.4373507797718048,
1.0363330841064453,
-0.19534115493297577,
0.35132771730422974,
-0.08030682057142258,
0.38660991191864014,
-0.3064057230949402,
-0.08243902772665024,
0.13795238733291626,
0.6671444773674011,
0.3214564919471741,
-0.16784946620464325,
-0.7006561160087585,
0.34985828399658203,
-0.39709869027137756,
-0.42986685037612915,
-0.3392561674118042,
0.08280010521411896,
0.7408611178398132,
-0.2630417048931122,
-0.1300695538520813,
0.39330270886421204,
-0.11916139721870422,
-0.22244411706924438,
-0.12310929596424103,
-0.09368998557329178,
-0.32137390971183777,
-0.2381121665239334,
-0.37305963039398193,
0.2224821150302887,
-0.3272801339626312,
-0.33153262734413147,
0.0965028628706932,
-0.1973305195569992,
0.15681196749210358,
-0.8202451467514038,
-0.22498320043087006,
0.5185185670852661,
-0.729791522026062,
0.01876634918153286,
0.35979241132736206,
-0.2185547798871994,
-0.3350386917591095,
-0.08002012968063354,
0.22543925046920776,
0.46420952677726746,
-0.14515310525894165,
0.47704359889030457,
-0.4556891620159149,
0.0913519337773323,
0.12000473588705063,
0.79954594373703,
0.3321804404258728,
0.16976016759872437,
0.45176994800567627,
-0.4824196696281433,
0.06119592860341072,
-0.6667595505714417,
-0.8080678582191467,
-0.11270110309123993,
0.3479616045951843,
-0.14235912263393402,
0.6468304991722107,
1.158237338066101,
0.10653391480445862,
-0.2208084762096405,
-0.16549111902713776,
0.2227030247449875,
-0.20136721432209015,
0.3293819725513458,
-0.38526150584220886,
0.5041891932487488,
-0.38898542523384094,
-0.20188601315021515,
-0.00004432449713931419,
-0.20177407562732697,
-0.4053124487400055,
0.30400827527046204,
-0.5545703768730164,
0.050427213311195374,
-0.9714633822441101,
-0.09869755059480667,
-0.42170271277427673,
-0.25963178277015686,
0.3860013484954834,
-0.12574750185012817,
0.43639060854911804,
-0.5737196803092957,
-0.030195405706763268,
-0.0493885800242424,
0.9765994548797607,
0.2940768301486969,
-0.6099822521209717,
0.26934579014778137,
0.4282762110233307,
-0.1516140252351761,
0.06999542564153671,
0.8414610624313354,
0.5340284109115601,
-0.14150984585285187,
0.14329710602760315,
-5.543816089630127,
0.4077177345752716,
-0.11692838370800018,
-0.5291532874107361,
0.506374716758728,
0.4115311801433563,
0.3014145791530609,
-0.15768484771251678,
0.47314321994781494,
0.49810025095939636,
-0.23592886328697205,
0.019968479871749878,
-0.25185683369636536,
-0.1856180727481842,
0.014069626107811928,
-0.4676477313041687,
-1.0482769012451172,
0.17032282054424286,
-0.6619635224342346,
0.04810190945863724,
0.14323458075523376,
-0.07374482601881027,
-0.23037180304527283,
0.3918538987636566,
-0.45236721634864807,
0.19332240521907806,
-0.41769441962242126,
-0.7991375923156738,
-0.2275884747505188,
-0.17666040360927582,
-0.40201717615127563,
-0.16058391332626343,
0.09773165732622147,
-0.4456937909126282,
-0.003092612372711301,
-0.2162170559167862,
0.746741771697998,
0.11149236559867859,
0.35168102383613586,
-0.2283804714679718,
-0.41773268580436707,
0.07410570234060287,
0.6432925462722778,
-0.02336737886071205,
1.1225180625915527,
0.30741092562675476,
0.123594731092453,
-0.7860190272331238,
-0.27087968587875366,
0.22386862337589264,
-0.01466011069715023,
-0.14660988748073578,
-0.3181898891925812,
-0.016019431874155998,
0.7650359869003296,
-0.03305860981345177,
0.2235405594110489,
0.06229813024401665,
-0.17167361080646515,
-0.013874726369976997,
0.7226281762123108,
-0.587306022644043,
-0.4078446626663208,
0.33654212951660156,
-0.057285577058792114,
-0.2543601095676422,
-0.40955886244773865,
0.2783516049385071,
0.7530306577682495,
-0.06010374054312706,
0.32374781370162964,
0.09185728430747986,
0.13762225210666656,
-0.9222697019577026,
0.7438467144966125,
0.1299816370010376,
-0.5570290684700012,
0.29330548644065857,
-0.6065448522567749,
0.1836073249578476,
-0.35725468397140503,
-0.010042179375886917,
-0.0946577787399292,
-0.15194422006607056,
0.07282854616641998,
-0.2667253613471985,
-0.8035156726837158,
-0.2294217348098755,
-0.7399230599403381,
-0.08693220466375351,
0.4782172441482544,
-0.35211440920829773,
-0.151163250207901,
0.15977032482624054,
0.557290256023407,
0.056030549108982086,
-0.07360071688890457,
0.6275940537452698,
0.191059872508049,
0.5928921699523926,
0.6165959239006042,
-0.2119721919298172,
0.325359046459198,
0.1066490113735199,
0.07774840295314789,
0.008822672069072723,
0.219142347574234,
0.4579152762889862,
0.8454148769378662,
0.1166972815990448,
-0.04242798313498497,
-0.19226746261119843,
-0.23907408118247986,
-0.4821629226207733,
0.19805744290351868,
0.3778763711452484,
0.44489026069641113,
0.4544807970523834,
0.9104564785957336,
-0.21001294255256653,
0.0710330456495285,
0.4108792245388031,
-0.20849652588367462,
-0.004277246538549662,
0.10791085660457611,
-0.4993892312049866,
0.3043561279773712,
-0.06183457374572754,
0.21667836606502533,
-0.2354498952627182,
-0.29932931065559387,
0.240169495344162,
0.30820825695991516,
0.13588036596775055,
0.12837930023670197,
0.18851113319396973,
-0.9164557456970215,
-0.6581217646598816,
0.14777886867523193,
-0.05332355201244354,
-0.3906104266643524,
-0.4585663378238678,
0.5820478796958923,
-0.04854811728000641,
0.031204111874103546,
-0.1853587031364441,
-0.3220617175102234,
-0.4284541606903076,
-0.39487558603286743,
0.3744116425514221,
-0.07384064793586731,
0.2327449917793274,
0.00871213898062706,
-0.05219750478863716,
-0.4287869334220886,
-0.5661207437515259,
0.20890426635742188,
0.3353089988231659,
-0.36348557472229004,
-0.31215700507164,
0.03382385894656181,
-0.4155096709728241,
-0.6082143783569336,
0.015192779712378979,
0.3943462669849396,
0.2770652174949646,
-0.21024656295776367,
-0.5745434761047363,
0.22742043435573578,
0.7688291072845459,
-0.2449338585138321,
-0.2308916449546814,
-0.44280725717544556,
0.29549264907836914,
0.22507335245609283,
-0.3717542886734009,
-0.2819952964782715,
-0.10525083541870117,
-0.37346333265304565,
-0.1661798506975174,
-0.03190861642360687,
0.3046037256717682,
0.19344842433929443,
-0.13097107410430908,
0.5255340337753296,
-0.8852967023849487,
0.250005304813385,
0.19316959381103516,
-0.2227988839149475,
0.2999328374862671,
-0.047942113131284714,
0.09678270667791367,
-0.17108666896820068,
0.8196428418159485,
-0.9174187779426575,
0.49317899346351624,
-0.20373743772506714,
0.151846781373024,
0.34586814045906067,
-0.030217144638299942,
-0.21497026085853577,
-0.4434052109718323,
-0.13281869888305664,
-0.20099598169326782,
0.5497313141822815,
-0.4322401285171509,
0.5486461520195007,
-0.1566884070634842,
-0.09363199025392532,
0.42139965295791626,
-0.4600032866001129,
-0.5393107533454895,
-0.29403766989707947,
0.5672284960746765,
0.12575344741344452,
-0.1457732915878296,
0.24503657221794128,
-0.4399113953113556,
-0.4506347179412842,
-0.3061099946498871,
0.12615936994552612,
0.08004295825958252,
-0.07998592406511307,
0.2993653118610382,
-0.04261847585439682,
0.6513274908065796,
0.002944573061540723,
-0.1300334334373474,
0.9514982104301453,
-0.5340563058853149,
-0.13556049764156342,
-0.0057915146462619305,
-0.27736136317253113,
0.6707904934883118,
-0.36243724822998047,
-0.20758691430091858,
0.42307889461517334,
-0.019153418019413948,
0.17814266681671143,
1.1693534851074219,
0.6744530200958252,
0.5024024248123169,
0.06018255650997162,
-0.10524975508451462,
-0.44819560647010803,
0.12219404429197311,
-0.24460744857788086,
-0.4194793701171875,
-0.21817755699157715,
-0.04489336535334587,
0.08525192737579346,
-0.5448790788650513,
0.08965740352869034,
0.0640072226524353,
0.465971976518631,
-0.2531425356864929,
-0.25385311245918274,
0.029206035658717155,
-0.15819397568702698,
-0.3882850408554077,
0.027110911905765533,
0.08601318299770355,
-0.11446720361709595,
0.4056694805622101,
-0.15408435463905334,
-0.3832694888114929,
-0.9390479326248169,
-0.2135753333568573,
0.3418855369091034,
-0.2353571206331253,
0.29962095618247986,
-0.10413059592247009,
1.1214998960494995,
0.3969152867794037,
-0.15404485166072845,
0.3544057011604309,
0.3067499101161957,
-1.0773017406463623,
-0.1991117298603058,
-0.13810475170612335,
-0.2176438421010971,
0.8370405435562134,
-0.49518492817878723,
-0.12725135684013367,
-0.06950376182794571,
-0.061127740889787674,
0.10015764832496643,
-0.7935978770256042,
0.5588719844818115,
-0.11745849996805191,
-0.11307266354560852,
0.5821778774261475,
0.17937278747558594,
0.4258284568786621,
0.011425947770476341,
-0.22041846811771393,
0.36924704909324646,
0.05263885483145714,
0.7248892188072205,
0.4063815772533417,
-1.2472620010375977,
0.2586497962474823,
0.3555471897125244,
-0.39378809928894043,
0.37673553824424744,
0.020235354080796242,
-0.5855711102485657,
0.04606679454445839,
-0.930056631565094,
-0.11435339599847794,
-0.08835845440626144,
-0.08439737558364868,
-0.3724493682384491,
0.6144281625747681,
-0.2365523725748062,
0.031157508492469788,
0.3049495816230774,
-0.8580244183540344,
0.20914742350578308,
0.9412773847579956,
0.49552813172340393,
-0.3502526581287384,
0.12077536433935165,
-0.08799988031387329,
0.284929096698761,
0.3732750415802002,
-0.0570010207593441,
0.1201489269733429,
0.6023557186126709,
0.5021761059761047,
0.6927595138549805,
-0.5576111674308777,
-0.0370321162045002,
-0.17398124933242798,
0.401081919670105,
-0.3594205677509308,
-0.006379854399710894,
-0.26331591606140137,
-0.32519760727882385,
1.0365567207336426,
0.14052943885326385,
-0.025441786274313927,
-0.7792467474937439,
0.2283497005701065,
-0.036463670432567596,
0.4173447787761688,
0.29363858699798584,
-0.39875489473342896,
0.2600078284740448,
0.44222819805145264,
0.3857567012310028,
-0.03276151418685913,
0.14127925038337708,
-0.4901156425476074,
0.7006539702415466,
0.09538252651691437,
-0.06967984884977341,
-0.021888958290219307,
-0.9855883717536926,
0.14064782857894897,
0.2828550636768341,
0.7451097369194031,
0.6211119890213013,
0.08973849564790726,
0.19081847369670868,
0.5356413125991821,
-0.8231450319290161,
-0.08790799975395203,
-0.7159410715103149,
0.16580045223236084,
0.32003459334373474,
0.20721514523029327,
-0.7252294421195984,
0.11213625967502594,
0.316331684589386,
0.757381796836853,
0.46377286314964294,
0.16645991802215576,
-0.0024654166772961617,
0.10041962563991547,
-0.3400479257106781,
-0.3283059000968933,
0.1667974293231964,
-0.46449050307273865,
0.37093862891197205,
-0.11645328998565674,
-0.3953476846218109,
-0.19026347994804382,
-0.5420039892196655,
-0.27506598830223083,
-0.36395907402038574,
-0.33424440026283264,
0.6812248826026917,
-0.026248760521411896,
0.2263643741607666,
-0.6621114611625671,
0.2846691608428955,
0.9207847714424133,
-0.5027299523353577,
0.09592357277870178,
0.3966232240200043,
-0.04375773295760155,
-0.3937966823577881,
-0.24790692329406738,
-0.18929444253444672,
0.03104150854051113,
-0.2621813416481018,
-0.47979995608329773,
-0.23814718425273895,
0.38670533895492554,
0.35840338468551636,
-0.029717450961470604,
0.1000731810927391,
-0.2219279557466507,
-0.3733345866203308,
0.10246908664703369,
1.0027722120285034,
-0.1721457690000534,
-0.06980612874031067,
-0.9711124897003174,
0.5442134141921997,
-0.4032488167285919,
-0.3650960922241211,
0.6329321265220642,
-0.3841756284236908,
-0.021340196952223778,
0.9926329851150513,
-0.6329775452613831,
-1.2598295211791992,
0.09603344649076462,
-0.0020387175027281046,
0.1006292849779129,
-0.32852044701576233,
-0.14463230967521667,
-0.13943476974964142,
-0.7495707869529724,
0.7233210206031799,
0.3947709798812866,
0.1831710785627365,
-0.5731893181800842,
0.19124560058116913,
-0.06334049254655838,
-0.27104783058166504,
-0.33336198329925537,
-0.4117288589477539,
0.06550378352403641,
0.15126793086528778,
-0.44737568497657776,
-0.42904284596443176,
0.39716991782188416,
0.21819977462291718,
-0.29282402992248535,
-0.28904804587364197,
-0.09633846580982208,
0.17404982447624207,
0.3836962878704071,
-0.044936638325452805,
-0.3287619650363922,
0.4867163300514221,
-0.6063081622123718
] |
233482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changeling%20%28disambiguation%29 | Changeling (disambiguation) | A changeling is a figure in West European folklore.
Changeling, The Changeling, or The Changelings may also refer to:
Books
The Changeling (The Fey), a 1996 novel by Kristine Kathryn Rusch
The Changelings (novel), 1955, by Jo Sinclair
The Changeling (Ōe novel), 2000
The Changeling (play), 1622, by Thomas Middleton and William Rowley
The Changeling (LaValle novel), a 2017 novel by Victor LaValle
The Changeling (Snyder novel), 1970
The Changeling (Williams novel), 2008
Changeling (Mike Oldfield autobiography)
Changeling (novel), 1980, by Roger Zelazny
The Changelings: A Classical Japanese Court Tale or Torikaebaya Monogatari
Animorphs or The Changelings, a young adult book series by K. A. Applegate
The Changeling, an 1898 novel by Sir Walter Besant
The Changeling, a 1942–1944 serialized science fiction novel by A. E. van Vogt
The Changeling, a 1958 novel by Robin Jenkins
Changeling, a 1989 novel by Stephen Leigh in the Isaac Asimov's Robots and Aliens series
The Changeling, a 1995 novel by Terri Windling
Changeling, a 2006 novel by Delia Sherman
Changeling, a novel by Steve Feasey, shortlisted for the 2009 Waterstones Children's Book Prize
Changeling, a novel by Philippa Gregory
Comics
Changeling (Marvel Comics) or Kevin Sydney, a shapeshifter
Changeling (DC Comics) or Beast Boy, a shapeshifting superhero
Changeling, a manga by Shio Satō
Film and television
Changeling (film), a 2008 American drama
Changeling (soundtrack), soundtrack album based on the film
The Changeling (TV drama), a 1974 British production of the 1622 Middleton & Rowley play
The Changeling (film), a 1980 Canadian horror film
"The Changeling" (Star Trek: The Original Series), a 1967 television episode
Changeling (Star Trek), a fictional race of shapeshifters
Changelings, a reformed villain species from My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic
"The Changeling" (Stargate SG-1), a television episode
"Changelings" (Once Upon a Time), a television episode
"The Changeling", a season 7 episode of The Waltons
Changelings, a proposed TV series based on the Tara Bray Smith novel Betwixt
"The Changeling" , an episode in series 3 of the BBC series Merlin
Gaming
Changeling: The Dreaming, a role-playing game published in the 1990s
Changeling: The Lost, a role-playing game published in 2007
Changeling (Dungeons & Dragons), a player character race
Music
Changeling (album), 2012, by Camille O'Sullivan
The Changeling (album), 1982, by Toyah
"Changeling" (song), a 2013 song by Alison Moyet
"The Changeling" (song), a 1971 song by the Doors
"Changeling", a song by DJ Shadow from Endtroducing.....
"Changeling", a song by Madder Mortem from Desiderata
"Changeling", a song by Simple Minds from Real to Real Cacophony
See also
Changling (disambiguation)
Shapeshifting, mythical ability of a being or creature to transform its physical form or shape | [
-0.17018723487854004,
-0.17660653591156006,
-0.17623260617256165,
-0.10070694237947464,
-0.2136545330286026,
0.4498805105686188,
0.6256521940231323,
0.3741462528705597,
-0.5874108076095581,
0.06931565701961517,
-0.43328219652175903,
-0.07881999760866165,
-0.22306008636951447,
0.34021273255348206,
-0.03754452243447304,
-0.03661968559026718,
-0.060755014419555664,
0.2974279522895813,
0.03582524508237839,
-0.0937870442867279,
-0.35388684272766113,
-0.17792658507823944,
0.14200106263160706,
-0.5363056063652039,
0.09432341903448105,
-0.08791515231132507,
0.42939701676368713,
0.1508152335882187,
-0.22774340212345123,
0.22335022687911987,
-0.2655831277370453,
0.6643725037574768,
-0.13170531392097473,
-0.06145331636071205,
-0.15229465067386627,
-0.12715786695480347,
-0.206280916929245,
-0.8800428509712219,
-0.320162832736969,
-0.7013843655586243,
0.15235848724842072,
0.0058970339596271515,
0.03281090036034584,
0.5046911835670471,
-0.6544079184532166,
-0.4969470202922821,
-1.8885425329208374,
0.5295963883399963,
-0.30598244071006775,
-0.24780435860157013,
-0.6405731439590454,
0.19227294623851776,
0.1867525428533554,
0.43156734108924866,
-0.14810828864574432,
0.2653134763240814,
-0.8633561134338379,
-0.05169503018260002,
0.1567688137292862,
0.031301748007535934,
0.5815730094909668,
0.0219135545194149,
0.14389479160308838,
-0.21831014752388,
0.11473853886127472,
0.26979145407676697,
0.28315138816833496,
0.3578164577484131,
-0.19036486744880676,
-0.9037737250328064,
-0.12459484487771988,
0.2881656885147095,
-0.1626245230436325,
0.5635542273521423,
-0.3347338140010834,
-0.11617153882980347,
0.5719645619392395,
-0.09499519318342209,
0.6493524312973022,
-0.15230989456176758,
-0.18939541280269623,
0.7011998891830444,
0.855225682258606,
-0.1625044196844101,
0.432868093252182,
-0.760360598564148,
-0.2361019402742386,
0.22492142021656036,
-0.24591976404190063,
0.18093667924404144,
-0.3219795823097229,
-0.5099892616271973,
0.06860894709825516,
0.38518112897872925,
-0.2503076493740082,
0.05246058851480484,
0.19575047492980957,
-0.24719363451004028,
0.055038247257471085,
-0.19135679304599762,
-0.11964597553014755,
0.03541506081819534,
0.431744784116745,
-0.4297550916671753,
-0.011558514088392258,
-0.6356242299079895,
-0.0775291696190834,
0.05386081337928772,
-0.09076671302318573,
-0.4726499021053314,
-0.7204616069793701,
-0.04845741391181946,
0.3806968033313751,
0.3575953543186188,
0.18930821120738983,
0.5074285268783569,
0.1888224482536316,
-0.08308979868888855,
-0.2331138253211975,
0.3314933180809021,
0.48832938075065613,
-0.15502186119556427,
0.0686887800693512,
-0.10768746584653854,
0.21630562841892242,
-0.037947025150060654,
0.19511868059635162,
0.532004714012146,
-1.137074589729309,
-0.019066378474235535,
0.378454327583313,
1.0937349796295166,
-0.36334770917892456,
-0.5420134663581848,
0.1790345460176468,
-0.13072237372398376,
0.10208113491535187,
0.21453940868377686,
0.2504178583621979,
0.2704206705093384,
-0.5521572232246399,
0.23764628171920776,
-1.2384015321731567,
0.34250959753990173,
0.42052629590034485,
0.18790774047374725,
-0.17342375218868256,
-0.17769338190555573,
-0.044316571205854416,
-0.04629313573241234,
-0.24932265281677246,
0.2826102375984192,
0.20833857357501984,
0.3755399286746979,
-0.006740738172084093,
0.1595737487077713,
-0.4580076336860657,
-0.45216915011405945,
0.2469598352909088,
-0.09561779350042343,
-0.11378224194049835,
0.3642409145832062,
-0.3038634955883026,
-0.23301345109939575,
0.49076583981513977,
-0.6006855368614197,
-0.29803720116615295,
0.18032188713550568,
-0.41873258352279663,
-0.06326992809772491,
-0.39251086115837097,
0.3067686855792999,
0.5351957678794861,
0.19287066161632538,
0.19148001074790955,
0.23712149262428284,
-0.13276728987693787,
-0.16861043870449066,
0.04095180705189705,
-0.02322779968380928,
-0.8632599115371704,
0.276394784450531,
0.21669331192970276,
-0.12381827086210251,
0.022012632340192795,
0.44118446111679077,
-0.12105448544025421,
0.6234932541847229,
0.24611693620681763,
-0.2567268908023834,
-0.35204577445983887,
0.07374700903892517,
0.19730384647846222,
-0.05231624096632004,
0.6163851618766785,
-0.2759159207344055,
-0.5347098112106323,
0.4376179277896881,
0.10183733701705933,
0.2799561023712158,
-0.009847328998148441,
-0.7640759348869324,
0.09801347553730011,
0.23173640668392181,
0.2566677927970886,
0.7297602891921997,
0.031316470354795456,
0.11245982348918915,
0.5322961211204529,
0.07572896033525467,
0.523247480392456,
-0.29159846901893616,
0.4839012920856476,
0.09252911806106567,
-0.4298543632030487,
0.2434321939945221,
-0.25161874294281006,
0.0648246482014656,
-0.031014446169137955,
-0.1729143112897873,
0.2532748878002167,
0.1841406524181366,
-0.4017210304737091,
-0.5491671562194824,
0.25597426295280457,
0.672879159450531,
-0.024345524609088898,
-0.1849709153175354,
0.783470869064331,
-0.7718408703804016,
-0.2580644190311432,
0.5513837933540344,
-0.07133719325065613,
-0.06451170891523361,
-0.6158840656280518,
-0.6059646010398865,
0.24275529384613037,
-0.2274218052625656,
0.1454145908355713,
-0.1258782297372818,
0.057927656918764114,
0.19032645225524902,
-0.5677002668380737,
0.3652145266532898,
0.40257176756858826,
0.4124597907066345,
-0.24654631316661835,
0.4196477234363556,
-0.24353347718715668,
-0.23102188110351562,
0.32777056097984314,
0.3960919678211212,
-0.1105203703045845,
-0.4092429578304291,
0.40096160769462585,
-0.39482054114341736,
-0.1397409588098526,
-0.03614094480872154,
0.39809489250183105,
0.24146777391433716,
0.08977577835321426,
0.20324181020259857,
-0.2537540793418884,
-0.505558431148529,
-0.25540128350257874,
-0.5142757892608643,
-0.7806167602539062,
0.012811603955924511,
0.21326829493045807,
0.195982426404953,
0.31222406029701233,
0.05786709859967232,
-0.596703827381134,
-0.5134145021438599,
-0.03680534288287163,
-0.4119967520236969,
0.49034568667411804,
-0.051199015229940414,
-0.078714519739151,
-0.11087451130151749,
-0.594963788986206,
0.2883383631706238,
-0.063593789935112,
-0.4897879362106323,
-0.24366164207458496,
-0.3931078016757965,
0.2367280274629593,
0.14079152047634125,
0.06932655721902847,
-0.1910020112991333,
-0.31722110509872437,
0.42433884739875793,
-0.06724390387535095,
0.15074463188648224,
-0.45481353998184204,
0.041864294558763504,
0.08934030681848526,
0.5190510153770447,
0.3536483645439148,
0.09636732935905457,
-0.16012190282344818,
0.49152570962905884,
-0.065897136926651,
-0.22145961225032806,
0.018824702128767967,
0.13413900136947632,
-0.3737727701663971,
0.07091096043586731,
-6.039263725280762,
-0.0007140902453102171,
-0.1933641880750656,
-0.3085050880908966,
-0.22082827985286713,
0.09200559556484222,
0.6179097890853882,
0.4016668200492859,
-0.057151615619659424,
0.20668700337409973,
-0.042562197893857956,
-0.04418133199214935,
-0.15609943866729736,
0.3949120044708252,
0.011473698541522026,
0.2161923497915268,
0.12588046491146088,
0.19184350967407227,
-0.4151904582977295,
0.40051519870758057,
-0.19512079656124115,
0.36298859119415283,
-0.4292519688606262,
0.602096676826477,
-0.47848695516586304,
0.21194928884506226,
-0.37790822982788086,
-0.30031952261924744,
-0.6946447491645813,
-0.2904224097728729,
0.1498967409133911,
0.18674468994140625,
0.09623319655656815,
-0.32632824778556824,
0.17646555602550507,
0.2919003665447235,
0.1612369269132614,
0.16528327763080597,
0.2713809907436371,
-0.27302634716033936,
-0.5700914859771729,
0.07951421290636063,
0.4359239935874939,
0.065730981528759,
0.42756590247154236,
-0.04983039200305939,
-0.18020592629909515,
-0.39805588126182556,
-0.3949221968650818,
0.6059777736663818,
-0.1742519587278366,
-0.014279897324740887,
0.7717755436897278,
-0.02692786604166031,
0.4638301134109497,
0.28668662905693054,
0.10082565993070602,
-0.04142749682068825,
-0.29331105947494507,
-0.02414780668914318,
0.6083137392997742,
-0.03635692596435547,
-0.10797432065010071,
-0.1636257767677307,
-0.5209071040153503,
-0.4081301987171173,
-0.7152531743049622,
-0.3085891306400299,
0.6529965400695801,
-0.023194951936602592,
-0.32316580414772034,
0.4326832890510559,
-0.06637422740459442,
-0.8280795812606812,
0.349365770816803,
-0.0767488107085228,
-0.5750799775123596,
0.1913960725069046,
0.3357416093349457,
-0.05206502228975296,
-0.44125211238861084,
-0.018193071708083153,
-0.3748932182788849,
0.24671317636966705,
0.25364920496940613,
-0.2912725806236267,
-0.1447678953409195,
-0.2122945636510849,
-0.5285256505012512,
-0.049810927361249924,
1.1333414316177368,
0.10054793953895569,
-0.16564223170280457,
0.03052881918847561,
0.20428608357906342,
0.679636538028717,
-0.1789555549621582,
0.03223016485571861,
0.4464104175567627,
0.22748664021492004,
0.8182094693183899,
-0.36616358160972595,
0.09188182651996613,
0.05229048803448677,
0.039330411702394485,
-0.10099219530820847,
-0.28006166219711304,
0.29506224393844604,
0.7376514077186584,
-0.4392220377922058,
0.21870288252830505,
-0.1928263008594513,
-0.16452941298484802,
-0.37405630946159363,
0.20649823546409607,
0.5341734886169434,
0.4381934106349945,
0.606715738773346,
0.6760345697402954,
0.04654955863952637,
0.6248062252998352,
0.41700610518455505,
-0.24012799561023712,
-0.15098321437835693,
0.07901860773563385,
-0.3209986090660095,
-0.14712032675743103,
0.14872726798057556,
-0.0068593984469771385,
0.08032847940921783,
-0.021665962412953377,
0.03371220827102661,
0.39593783020973206,
-0.7111755013465881,
0.4109659492969513,
0.07075341045856476,
-0.24300430715084076,
0.047003261744976044,
-0.14992544054985046,
-0.6645463705062866,
0.04948900640010834,
-0.6440010666847229,
0.23790135979652405,
0.12135682255029678,
0.43731188774108887,
-0.4177159070968628,
0.3653204143047333,
-0.2031378149986267,
-0.4317634403705597,
0.7003105282783508,
0.3016631305217743,
0.17478254437446594,
0.3182756304740906,
-0.38822096586227417,
-0.44997912645339966,
-0.2131865918636322,
0.4952673017978668,
0.21252816915512085,
0.374764621257782,
-0.11619836091995239,
-0.20338571071624756,
-0.4234980642795563,
-0.49101418256759644,
0.030625469982624054,
0.05680046230554581,
-0.24186228215694427,
-0.22763346135616302,
-0.5401173830032349,
0.24072006344795227,
0.6042572259902954,
-0.6460055708885193,
-0.1372263878583908,
-0.8307622671127319,
0.469519704580307,
0.8816620111465454,
-0.15767212212085724,
-0.3040437400341034,
0.0337391272187233,
-0.18723435699939728,
-0.1417081207036972,
-0.03662393242120743,
0.32746365666389465,
-0.38563796877861023,
-0.13926704227924347,
0.6771543025970459,
-0.31354933977127075,
0.06897677481174469,
0.04996408149600029,
-0.5284792184829712,
-0.2503635585308075,
-0.1584480255842209,
0.495016485452652,
-0.004788829945027828,
0.31873252987861633,
-0.7678492069244385,
0.37909987568855286,
-0.30336618423461914,
-0.150114506483078,
0.48298898339271545,
0.009205259382724762,
0.47271373867988586,
0.3036709129810333,
-0.21276149153709412,
-0.13428014516830444,
0.5869991183280945,
-0.6047154664993286,
0.1393405646085739,
-0.3091636002063751,
-0.2922869324684143,
0.1483253389596939,
0.06602028012275696,
-0.5204465389251709,
-0.5605385899543762,
0.18145346641540527,
-0.1793396919965744,
-0.24864573776721954,
0.18219012022018433,
-0.7487793564796448,
-0.5392993092536926,
-0.09866580367088318,
0.10454142838716507,
-0.22376136481761932,
0.011384295299649239,
0.2262328714132309,
-0.13977013528347015,
-0.5823349356651306,
0.37816745042800903,
-0.05437588319182396,
0.7138683199882507,
0.15508908033370972,
0.3398784101009369,
0.09437230974435806,
0.1736849546432495,
-0.031597793102264404,
-0.16140814125537872,
0.02912325970828533,
0.04957227408885956,
0.03287382051348686,
0.27230051159858704,
0.7204828262329102,
0.7577095627784729,
0.647068440914154,
0.226036936044693,
-0.28993597626686096,
-0.58814936876297,
0.14001256227493286,
0.13132645189762115,
-0.6582282185554504,
-0.2745717465877533,
0.08258835971355438,
0.073466956615448,
-0.4428355395793915,
0.05126778408885002,
-0.04759862273931503,
0.8162955045700073,
-0.02817578613758087,
0.40007519721984863,
0.00914285983890295,
0.5905551910400391,
-0.20126663148403168,
0.5106686353683472,
0.07877250760793686,
0.053599148988723755,
-0.19009648263454437,
-0.15004098415374756,
0.011691732332110405,
-0.44201231002807617,
0.1735551804304123,
0.47931912541389465,
-0.3301224708557129,
0.15412910282611847,
-0.09151817113161087,
0.48459839820861816,
0.05156690999865532,
-0.36308717727661133,
-0.02462826669216156,
-0.5348469614982605,
-0.6595590710639954,
0.1974124312400818,
-0.3230852484703064,
0.2090817242860794,
0.5164740681648254,
0.20185506343841553,
0.09766576439142227,
-0.25482746958732605,
0.3153383731842041,
0.3214796781539917,
-0.501503586769104,
-0.19038917124271393,
-0.3304648697376251,
-0.28504905104637146,
0.4871339797973633,
0.2621499001979828,
0.7113340497016907,
0.41773441433906555,
0.15144981443881989,
-0.22360287606716156,
0.2761654257774353,
0.30510106682777405,
0.0027778290677815676,
-0.8258808255195618,
0.30530065298080444,
0.44324836134910583,
-0.6535850763320923,
0.12738054990768433,
0.03155893459916115,
-0.043730076402425766,
-0.4025140106678009,
-0.09574662894010544,
-0.19143620133399963,
0.3664153218269348,
0.12356888502836227,
-0.3894628882408142,
0.7059470415115356,
0.5252661108970642,
-0.0738757848739624,
0.0934491977095604,
-0.28034862875938416,
0.12923382222652435,
0.62961345911026,
0.45321518182754517,
-0.014641751535236835,
0.5886479616165161,
-0.09620408713817596,
-0.12510518729686737,
0.4510252773761749,
-0.08590766042470932,
0.4039519727230072,
-0.055209945887327194,
0.3002132475376129,
0.13984690606594086,
-0.026712538674473763,
0.052588559687137604,
0.17352795600891113,
-0.06435272842645645,
-0.21105654537677765,
0.7281652688980103,
0.19861271977424622,
-0.25305935740470886,
0.6621890664100647,
0.1041511818766594,
-0.04602004960179329,
-0.39590132236480713,
0.06950997561216354,
0.06430184096097946,
0.3403562903404236,
-0.2779846787452698,
0.049265723675489426,
0.437499463558197,
0.34338629245758057,
0.3764583468437195,
-0.33868208527565,
0.08527075499296188,
-0.9364635944366455,
0.36235541105270386,
-0.44838038086891174,
0.1524127721786499,
-0.447847843170166,
-0.5714293122291565,
-0.620322048664093,
0.10991493612527847,
0.12984712421894073,
0.23910972476005554,
-0.18773096799850464,
-0.07326184213161469,
0.2423161119222641,
-0.34724241495132446,
-0.11832109093666077,
-0.30468663573265076,
0.12863333523273468,
0.5274967551231384,
0.055802322924137115,
-0.4350816309452057,
0.20331928133964539,
0.3089146316051483,
-0.14322607219219208,
0.8482698202133179,
0.05488526448607445,
-0.12645819783210754,
0.08700975775718689,
-0.5473897457122803,
0.258295476436615,
0.2194197028875351,
-0.17478208243846893,
0.11461537331342697,
-0.37816789746284485,
0.1639072299003601,
-0.059810250997543335,
-0.19455856084823608,
0.1673891246318817,
0.09297928214073181,
-0.019641641527414322,
-0.0809490755200386,
0.2977433204650879,
-0.5346171259880066,
-0.3969590961933136,
-0.19265034794807434,
0.5385592579841614,
-0.5600593090057373,
-0.2519688308238983,
0.257398396730423,
0.043615300208330154,
-0.126417875289917,
0.23723284900188446,
-0.3851982653141022,
0.07888530194759369,
-0.4693561792373657,
-0.07337214052677155,
-0.4827656149864197,
0.3973822295665741,
0.7847039699554443,
-0.5779817700386047,
0.1559450924396515,
0.0288002360612154,
-0.13400565087795258,
-0.15778835117816925,
0.2130863517522812,
0.22195103764533997,
-0.17371734976768494,
-0.08429306745529175,
0.22219246625900269,
-0.1221952885389328,
0.10625146329402924,
0.09943021088838577,
-0.7640807032585144,
-0.01256246492266655,
0.2802978754043579,
0.3279239535331726,
-0.5942395329475403,
0.5403673648834229,
-0.37557321786880493,
0.26870715618133545,
-0.30559414625167847,
0.36859816312789917,
0.1440596580505371,
-0.05629831552505493,
0.5831440091133118,
0.2865821421146393,
0.07061020284891129,
-0.08185046166181564,
0.21861398220062256,
0.2130970060825348,
0.2301841378211975,
0.018308425322175026,
-1.3114691972732544,
-0.30866560339927673,
0.2474447637796402,
-0.16887985169887543,
-0.5461653470993042,
-0.22809875011444092,
0.1942862868309021,
-0.4839032292366028,
-0.04959360137581825,
-0.3927438259124756,
0.14568448066711426,
0.1033613458275795,
0.00040174979949370027,
-0.6512106657028198,
-0.16126081347465515,
0.24466358125209808
] |
233483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bigelow | John Bigelow | John Bigelow Sr. (November 25, 1817 – December 19, 1911) was an American lawyer, statesman and a historian who edited the complete works of Benjamin Franklin.
Early life
Born in Malden-on-Hudson, New York, he graduated in 1835 from Union College, where he was a member of the Sigma Phi Society and the Philomathean Society and was admitted to the bar in 1838. From 1849 to 1861, he was one of the editors and co-owners of the New York Evening Post.
Political career
Bigelow began his political career as a reform Democrat, working with William Cullen Bryant in New York. In 1848, his antislavery convictions led him to leave the party, and he joined the Free Soil Party. In 1856, he led other former Democrats into the newly formed Republican Party and wrote a campaign biography of John C. Frémont, who won the Republican presidential nomination that year. In 1860, after the Republican Party's nominee, Abraham Lincoln, was elected president, Lincoln appointed him American Consul in Paris in 1861, progressing to Chargé d'Affaires and Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of Napoleon III. In this capacity, working together with Charles Francis Adams, the American ambassador to the United Kingdom, Bigelow helped to block the attempts to have France and the United Kingdom intervene in the American Civil War in favor of the Confederacy, and thereby played a material role in the Union victory. In 1865, he was appointed American ambassador to France. After leaving this position, he went to Germany, where he lived for three years, through the period of the Franco-Prussian War, and became a friend of Otto von Bismarck.
After the war's conclusion, he returned to New York, where he assisted his old friend Samuel J. Tilden in opposing the corruption that flourished in New York City under William Magear Tweed. Because of the universal respect in which Bigelow was held in New York, he was offered nominations by both political parties for state office in 1872. Under the influence of Tilden, Bigelow decided to rejoin the Democratic party, accepted its nomination, and was elected Secretary of State of New York, a position he held until 1876. When the Democrats nominated Tilden for President in 1876, he served as Tilden's campaign manager, and in that capacity advised Tilden in the famous dispute over the result of the presidential election. Tilden died almost a decade after the dispute was decided in favor of his rival, Rutherford B. Hayes, and Bigelow then acted as one of Tilden's Estate Trust Executors. He carried out Tilden's wishes, over several years, to develop, design, and establish the New York Public Library and served as its first president from May 27, 1895 until his death on December 19, 1911.
He was a staunch proponent of the development of the Panama Canal. He was a friend of Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who brought Panama's declaration of Independence to Bigelow's home. Panama's first proposed flag, made there by Mrs. Bunau Varilla, was rejected by the Panamanians, who made their own.
Bigelow's writing career, begun with Bryant on the New York Evening Post, included several books. He was one of the first Americans to visit Haiti with an open mind, and published The Wisdom of the Haitians, which, before the Civil War, was one of the few American works to take a positive view of Haitian independence. He published an edition of The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin in 1868 and The Life of Samuel J. Tilden in 1895.
Personal life
On June 11, 1850, Bigelow married Jane Tunis Poultney and they had nine children. They included:
John Bigelow Jr. (May 12, 1854 – February 29, 1936) graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1877. He served in the United States Army in Texas with the Buffalo Soldiers, taught at West Point, served again in the West, and fought and was seriously wounded in Cuba. He retired in October 1904. From 1905 to 1910, he was a professor at M.I.T. During World War I, he was recalled to active duty and served in Washington. He traveled and wrote until his death in 1936.
Poultney Bigelow (1855-1954) was a lawyer and a noted journalist and editor.
Flora Bigelow, married firstly Charles S. Dodge and secondly The Hon. Lionel Guest (1880–1935), son of Ivor Bertie Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne (1835–1914).
In 1854 he had a life-changing experience he wrote about in the book The Bible That Was Lost and is Found.
Legacy
On August 8, 2001, New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani signed a bill adding the name "John Bigelow Plaza" to the intersection of 41st Street and Fifth Avenue, Manhattan, directly in front of the New York Public Library Main Branch. His estate at Highland Falls, New York, known as The Squirrels, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.
References
Sources
The Life Of Samuel J. Tilden, Written by John Bigelow, 1895. Revised and edited by; Nikki Oldaker 2009: Samuel Tilden.com
Mr. Lincoln and Friends: John Bigelow
Retrospections of an Active Life. 3 volumes. New York: Baker & Taylor Co., 1909.
Bigelow Genealogy at fp.enter.net
Bigelow and Union College, in NYT on May 18, 1913
Clapp, Margaret A. (1947). Forgotten First Citizen: John Bigelow.
John Bigelow Papers, The New York Public Library.
The Correspondence of John Bigelow, Union College
External links
1817 births
1911 deaths
People from Saugerties, New York
Secretaries of State of New York (state)
Ambassadors of the United States to France
Union College (New York) alumni
American Swedenborgians
19th-century American diplomats
New York (state) Democrats
New York (state) Free Soilers
New York (state) Republicans
Presidents of the New York Public Library | [
-0.6839740872383118,
0.8695856928825378,
-0.9323111176490784,
-0.40945881605148315,
-0.5828306078910828,
0.6505018472671509,
1.1197240352630615,
0.6590197682380676,
-0.636825442314148,
-0.20414970815181732,
0.27380406856536865,
-0.23210649192333221,
-0.3673363924026489,
1.0701038837432861,
-0.13147684931755066,
0.3871046304702759,
-0.12784931063652039,
0.7153730392456055,
0.3654744029045105,
-0.3588631749153137,
0.0884031429886818,
-0.385969340801239,
-0.020706189796328545,
0.18076428771018982,
-0.0685875415802002,
0.3654758632183075,
-0.2703644335269928,
-0.6645154356956482,
0.06179432570934296,
0.2470492571592331,
0.36700639128685,
0.6024423837661743,
0.5049186944961548,
-0.21943014860153198,
0.18457171320915222,
-0.06013196334242821,
0.3243030905723572,
-0.3070239722728729,
0.24669478833675385,
-0.12058942019939423,
-0.06497589498758316,
0.3078262507915497,
0.38084104657173157,
0.011652578599750996,
0.011875071562826633,
-0.3057153522968292,
-2.0888566970825195,
-0.6807317137718201,
-0.6662490963935852,
-0.21433500945568085,
0.40145400166511536,
-0.11363036930561066,
0.49130019545555115,
0.6921619772911072,
-0.2708287537097931,
0.5652524828910828,
-0.6953116059303284,
0.47814038395881653,
0.764746367931366,
0.34191492199897766,
0.3794957101345062,
-0.16673481464385986,
0.07926197350025177,
-0.17910653352737427,
0.1886381357908249,
0.01965690590441227,
-0.5205382108688354,
0.9855786561965942,
-0.27101844549179077,
0.10407181829214096,
-0.5914034247398376,
-0.5411165356636047,
0.9339343309402466,
0.05015215650200844,
-0.4108787477016449,
-0.27186086773872375,
0.10457422584295273,
0.0338360033929348,
-0.11460831761360168,
-0.42027950286865234,
0.2804769277572632,
0.0476272813975811,
-0.03386077657341957,
0.09616716206073761,
0.1878625750541687,
0.16324014961719513,
-0.5139832496643066,
-0.21847586333751678,
0.01432526670396328,
0.5333060026168823,
-0.5621699690818787,
0.0710543617606163,
-0.23564667999744415,
0.05348149687051773,
-0.06660567969083786,
-0.11720135062932968,
0.06259122490882874,
-0.026918068528175354,
-0.06099057197570801,
0.387526273727417,
0.25550538301467896,
0.22326168417930603,
0.6278043389320374,
-0.11190753430128098,
-0.31421512365341187,
-0.10776204615831375,
-0.0550643652677536,
0.17936038970947266,
0.03762532398104668,
-2.0055432319641113,
-0.5758737921714783,
0.037017323076725006,
-1.102614402770996,
-0.4316939413547516,
-0.461088091135025,
0.9662876725196838,
0.8263309597969055,
-0.5728404521942139,
-0.06896007061004639,
-0.5886411070823669,
-0.26155611872673035,
0.9835991263389587,
-1.022395372390747,
0.37090569734573364,
-0.7060926556587219,
0.6231451034545898,
0.061886999756097794,
0.07364208251237869,
0.9191312193870544,
0.4363096058368683,
-0.29876428842544556,
1.0438191890716553,
-0.07192052155733109,
-0.7280051112174988,
-0.15460717678070068,
-0.3417048454284668,
0.7776844501495361,
0.8435539603233337,
-0.038286253809928894,
-0.23289838433265686,
-0.25877171754837036,
-0.17551644146442413,
-2.198542356491089,
0.1809147447347641,
0.9567816853523254,
0.1695331633090973,
-0.6254275441169739,
0.44117623567581177,
0.03261236101388931,
0.3047488331794739,
0.29316428303718567,
-0.3948709964752197,
0.3561955392360687,
0.29710593819618225,
-0.18514156341552734,
0.23311524093151093,
0.050707992166280746,
-0.5577918291091919,
0.6474106311798096,
0.9971991777420044,
-0.10470361262559891,
0.04457593336701393,
0.18745797872543335,
0.0027463287115097046,
-0.4537825584411621,
0.6574956178665161,
1.094719409942627,
-0.43489667773246765,
-0.3158982992172241,
0.2714049518108368,
-0.6073926687240601,
0.1369515210390091,
-0.1378239244222641,
-0.6831760406494141,
0.025207020342350006,
0.019848061725497246,
0.9613764882087708,
0.20875294506549835,
-0.21076680719852448,
-0.6380820274353027,
-0.5144441723823547,
0.1371171623468399,
0.34884634613990784,
0.018657978624105453,
0.7403643131256104,
0.282270222902298,
0.5259076952934265,
0.28024470806121826,
-0.23070217669010162,
-0.06541699171066284,
0.3305271565914154,
-0.5280009508132935,
0.0572495199739933,
-0.1937856823205948,
1.0523008108139038,
0.2605806589126587,
-0.012471777386963367,
-0.10921008884906769,
0.40460002422332764,
0.975140392780304,
-0.3968763053417206,
-0.4952700734138489,
0.06792256236076355,
-0.4279909133911133,
-0.3564947545528412,
2.2560293674468994,
0.4196000397205353,
0.10410618036985397,
0.8839393854141235,
0.7623395919799805,
0.623109757900238,
-0.4682639539241791,
-0.5873502492904663,
-0.13308799266815186,
0.213673934340477,
-0.31180068850517273,
0.3934772312641144,
-0.04991872236132622,
-0.05003443360328674,
-0.45364198088645935,
0.2746339440345764,
0.11029303073883057,
-0.06218040734529495,
0.1686875820159912,
0.18747323751449585,
0.8576356768608093,
-0.14008313417434692,
-0.0008988625486381352,
-0.17251430451869965,
-0.7550803422927856,
0.6626901626586914,
-0.25416237115859985,
-0.6159048676490784,
-0.4304809272289276,
-0.08450490236282349,
-0.000585665344260633,
-0.4385799467563629,
-0.2702670693397522,
0.08518121391534805,
0.14866486191749573,
0.2551458775997162,
-0.14060348272323608,
-0.7371022701263428,
0.08027820289134979,
-0.5529743432998657,
0.10804295539855957,
0.08723989129066467,
-0.19245217740535736,
0.18183785676956177,
-0.3765743374824524,
0.31163403391838074,
0.2987927794456482,
0.6298797726631165,
-0.6963822245597839,
0.2630665600299835,
0.09746144711971283,
0.021764492616057396,
-0.23356318473815918,
-0.23337393999099731,
-0.23536784946918488,
0.008169963955879211,
0.29638779163360596,
0.10474005341529846,
-0.3922564685344696,
-0.45413586497306824,
-0.8025111556053162,
-0.3828936219215393,
-0.22521688044071198,
0.11200113594532013,
-0.39644867181777954,
0.028872288763523102,
-0.5016697645187378,
-0.050086598843336105,
-2.909644603729248,
1.051159143447876,
0.6642271876335144,
-0.06545515358448029,
0.6379590034484863,
-0.6917325258255005,
-0.2909139096736908,
0.6726855039596558,
0.8521056175231934,
-0.43553343415260315,
-0.03660581633448601,
-0.2726804316043854,
0.37913617491722107,
0.08645100891590118,
-0.32098162174224854,
0.43196341395378113,
-0.15769526362419128,
0.4619172215461731,
-0.1578224152326584,
-0.9625571370124817,
0.11014138162136078,
-0.1139502227306366,
0.6431016325950623,
-0.08026063442230225,
-0.45556649565696716,
0.1237083151936531,
-0.42358434200286865,
-0.6093542575836182,
0.47948285937309265,
-0.7205927968025208,
0.050246551632881165,
0.5435392260551453,
0.2610470950603485,
0.17380812764167786,
-0.09574553370475769,
-3.1695497035980225,
0.2872227132320404,
-0.25933146476745605,
-0.7547157406806946,
-0.07639773935079575,
-0.777925431728363,
0.42371734976768494,
-0.08208015561103821,
-0.14008747041225433,
0.35223913192749023,
-0.16031122207641602,
0.07399168610572815,
-0.471716046333313,
0.7113133668899536,
0.584889829158783,
0.9469593167304993,
1.1760637760162354,
0.30952557921409607,
0.21944531798362732,
0.10728363692760468,
0.22985854744911194,
-0.22830955684185028,
-0.22565260529518127,
-0.1091407760977745,
0.6899051666259766,
0.5851299166679382,
0.00224797404371202,
0.12621323764324188,
-0.9610902667045593,
0.23149335384368896,
-0.18516215682029724,
0.2886238098144531,
0.09700196236371994,
-1.054413914680481,
-0.42544910311698914,
-0.42615869641304016,
0.04589715600013733,
0.5648177862167358,
0.461048424243927,
-0.2995842695236206,
-0.09660924226045609,
0.23648473620414734,
-0.5698007941246033,
0.4811161160469055,
0.29694029688835144,
0.23742060363292694,
-0.9592537879943848,
-0.6338998675346375,
0.06364363431930542,
0.38884642720222473,
-0.19830916821956635,
-0.49428749084472656,
1.2381188869476318,
0.24481670558452606,
0.6141483783721924,
-0.586150586605072,
0.8930901885032654,
-0.2408878356218338,
-0.8145534992218018,
0.05134366452693939,
0.7918205857276917,
-0.3118082284927368,
0.05130595713853836,
0.09664295613765717,
0.8386520743370056,
-1.0429860353469849,
0.20843997597694397,
-0.3307284712791443,
-0.5535768270492554,
0.25122523307800293,
0.12355416268110275,
0.7237955927848816,
-0.03690101206302643,
-0.6177453398704529,
-0.325358122587204,
-0.11362211406230927,
-0.35307711362838745,
0.5804155468940735,
0.08302412927150726,
0.21705417335033417,
0.25725555419921875,
0.007823077961802483,
-0.3773767352104187,
0.8730602860450745,
0.49129530787467957,
0.14300884306430817,
-0.5733345746994019,
0.20978547632694244,
-1.1061738729476929,
-0.28829824924468994,
-0.6065457463264465,
0.0933888778090477,
-0.05771526321768761,
0.5184239149093628,
0.25431329011917114,
-0.26158416271209717,
0.20029094815254211,
-0.5206713080406189,
-0.042409271001815796,
-0.30214428901672363,
-0.414461225271225,
-0.44556403160095215,
-0.3456624150276184,
-0.5456527471542358,
-0.27057915925979614,
-0.41547882556915283,
-0.4553579092025757,
0.5998193025588989,
-0.14482751488685608,
0.18972130119800568,
0.06464259326457977,
0.18974003195762634,
-0.15036505460739136,
-0.15751028060913086,
1.3214805126190186,
-0.09483738243579865,
0.007912454195320606,
0.6945371627807617,
0.43339839577674866,
0.5847113132476807,
0.9794100522994995,
0.9051361083984375,
0.07327835261821747,
0.12998007237911224,
0.07265053689479828,
-0.2174934595823288,
0.6902698874473572,
-0.03291869908571243,
-0.62657231092453,
-0.35497933626174927,
-0.37071335315704346,
0.3104607164859772,
-0.3855198919773102,
-0.20688661932945251,
-0.5317825078964233,
-0.7177333235740662,
-0.4836883246898651,
0.035550426691770554,
0.3583355247974396,
-0.5502170920372009,
0.062265779823064804,
0.11296804249286652,
0.011676541529595852,
0.32564204931259155,
-0.14928936958312988,
0.8332633972167969,
0.20771850645542145,
-0.10262635350227356,
-0.4149475693702698,
-0.36753222346305847,
-0.44386523962020874,
-0.8227663040161133,
0.16062933206558228,
-0.6917126178741455,
-0.43266287446022034,
-0.14270420372486115,
-0.5257087349891663,
-0.042414721101522446,
-0.12074131518602371,
-0.021660536527633667,
-0.5092794895172119,
0.47504106163978577,
-0.956810712814331,
0.1350269764661789,
0.9493733048439026,
-0.35726046562194824,
0.5467735528945923,
-0.02792436070740223,
-0.8320171236991882,
0.9285272359848022,
0.26291635632514954,
-0.0572020448744297,
-0.5612806081771851,
-0.5287907123565674,
0.342225581407547,
0.08491772413253784,
0.29550331830978394,
0.11677975207567215,
0.052626658231019974,
0.2016250193119049,
0.20560455322265625,
0.07008665800094604,
0.08669833093881607,
0.5197760462760925,
0.18751147389411926,
-0.31493908166885376,
-0.7127704620361328,
-0.08024804294109344,
-0.33640432357788086,
0.2806369960308075,
-0.3605569899082184,
-0.12986773252487183,
0.8327592015266418,
0.20657968521118164,
-0.7844281792640686,
-0.5184544324874878,
0.2764093577861786,
-0.24281074106693268,
0.29781201481819153,
-0.29634106159210205,
0.043551620095968246,
0.7614739537239075,
0.25320419669151306,
0.273967444896698,
0.4151900112628937,
-1.1290574073791504,
0.13612070679664612,
0.6902822256088257,
-0.6849609017372131,
1.1479319334030151,
0.2811260223388672,
-0.5464076399803162,
0.17924953997135162,
0.5364951491355896,
-0.2850235104560852,
-0.4269767999649048,
0.8356252312660217,
0.536720871925354,
-0.5902026295661926,
-0.9049363136291504,
0.22365479171276093,
-0.4770515263080597,
-0.424722820520401,
-0.9026417136192322,
-0.5995933413505554,
0.7677508592605591,
-0.11717784404754639,
-0.47926339507102966,
0.8781684041023254,
-0.7177630662918091,
-0.8949428796768188,
-0.11438366025686264,
0.06390181928873062,
0.4394603371620178,
-0.204806387424469,
0.035693369805812836,
-0.21020439267158508,
0.5253720283508301,
0.4971238672733307,
0.036540787667036057,
0.34910473227500916,
0.7077500820159912,
0.5936421751976013,
-0.18200434744358063,
-0.309368371963501,
0.049988292157649994,
-0.345500648021698,
0.2275560051202774,
0.15196767449378967,
0.2956203818321228,
-0.07261835783720016,
-0.18146321177482605,
-0.7684562802314758,
-0.27741238474845886,
0.9028307795524597,
0.17423668503761292,
0.13301783800125122,
0.39921221137046814,
-0.10958541184663773,
-0.21746860444545746,
-0.3257747292518616,
0.4663560688495636,
-0.40237921476364136,
0.5548273921012878,
0.477260023355484,
0.6052354574203491,
-0.19934770464897156,
0.08874157071113586,
0.4141444265842438,
-0.7281252145767212,
-0.2611140012741089,
-0.013211061246693134,
-0.5706470012664795,
-0.29522445797920227,
-0.4030429720878601,
0.015390181913971901,
0.3977733552455902,
-0.5674275159835815,
0.2118791937828064,
-0.029473846778273582,
1.1216871738433838,
0.1169116422533989,
0.8890771269798279,
-0.05810117721557617,
0.2973340153694153,
-0.4126075804233551,
-0.8861302137374878,
-0.41219574213027954,
-0.15013021230697632,
0.31342023611068726,
-0.6912851929664612,
-0.5024551749229431,
-0.35162630677223206,
0.3313700556755066,
-0.3523355722427368,
0.024131296202540398,
-0.45469042658805847,
-0.42453232407569885,
-0.7493093609809875,
0.18873991072177887,
-0.9435487389564514,
0.9432533979415894,
-0.2259051501750946,
0.10804856568574905,
0.6351453065872192,
0.5855642557144165,
0.12923265993595123,
-0.3507099151611328,
0.08165406435728073,
0.07590849697589874,
-0.24482594430446625,
-0.0642203614115715,
0.22200873494148254,
0.8995845913887024,
-0.3536943197250366,
0.23908723890781403,
0.5640010833740234,
-0.32820698618888855,
0.23797816038131714,
0.19761231541633606,
-0.23370139300823212,
-0.8676714897155762,
0.7677343487739563,
-0.05893736332654953,
-0.3353007435798645,
1.2791118621826172,
-0.42923396825790405,
-0.7557061314582825,
0.4666798412799835,
-0.05341671407222748,
0.05459928512573242,
-0.04644570127129555,
-0.9482955932617188,
0.5073875188827515,
-0.3678262233734131,
0.28960368037223816,
-0.05107579380273819,
-0.26093408465385437,
-0.014571350067853928,
0.5088185667991638,
0.07658201456069946,
0.16900229454040527,
0.057417482137680054,
0.05463952198624611,
-0.24473148584365845,
-0.33765336871147156,
-0.46504491567611694,
0.9396095275878906,
0.12077531963586807,
0.0010020277695730329,
0.08165670186281204,
-0.10923115164041519,
-0.006875390186905861,
-0.24682846665382385,
0.07135309278964996,
-0.3281078636646271,
0.6376480460166931,
-0.2181660234928131,
-0.2578035891056061,
-2.664625406265259,
-0.2275221347808838,
-0.04246044158935547,
0.8136485815048218,
0.4019297659397125,
0.5260942578315735,
-0.4113999009132385,
0.23904463648796082,
0.045362021774053574,
-0.03400364890694618,
0.8939880728721619,
0.5212079882621765,
-0.21709604561328888,
0.3431851863861084,
0.39584580063819885,
0.5532317161560059,
0.17089907824993134,
-0.026502754539251328,
-0.999662458896637,
0.049065861850976944,
-0.5730599164962769,
0.42722824215888977,
0.3098883032798767,
-0.5510731935501099,
-0.4244244396686554,
0.37886038422584534,
0.07075423747301102,
-0.39562925696372986,
0.253709077835083,
0.32123926281929016,
-0.34308475255966187,
0.0023213266395032406,
-0.3616851270198822,
0.060322776436805725,
0.6537021398544312,
-0.46389251947402954,
-0.0009724075789563358,
-0.3458385765552521,
0.2881794571876526,
-0.13565970957279205,
0.21465279161930084,
0.05967831611633301,
0.311829537153244,
-0.05818844586610794,
0.20434868335723877,
-0.10266587138175964,
0.1863684356212616,
-0.9504112005233765,
0.37797003984451294,
-0.527309775352478,
0.5155656337738037,
-0.4799516499042511,
-0.11986831575632095,
-0.46735113859176636,
0.7076994180679321,
0.09036947041749954,
0.10980471223592758,
0.1537453532218933,
-0.649328351020813,
-0.3202487528324127,
-0.21646223962306976,
-0.10198933631181717,
0.09332527220249176,
0.29348599910736084,
0.4256298243999481,
-0.3464024066925049,
-0.7028912305831909,
0.06710811704397202,
0.029564479365944862,
-0.10769523680210114,
0.14866051077842712,
-0.16008219122886658,
0.06719756871461868,
0.3222920894622803,
-0.9339336156845093,
0.2717178463935852,
-0.06755023449659348,
0.1391456574201584,
0.9229167699813843,
0.9251883625984192,
-0.04153849184513092,
0.15893685817718506,
-0.2549574077129364,
0.6328570246696472,
0.2873061001300812,
-4.981390953063965,
-0.9448068141937256,
0.06364336609840393,
-1.0484027862548828,
0.9181976318359375,
0.4537648558616638,
0.1401696354150772,
0.14179040491580963,
-0.25047966837882996,
0.07204756140708923,
0.341828852891922,
0.015072442591190338,
0.08463232219219208,
-0.4292636811733246,
0.7068501114845276,
-0.30205002427101135
] |
233486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changelings%20%28Once%20Upon%20a%20Time%29 | Changelings (Once Upon a Time) | "Changelings" is the ninth episode of the sixth season of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, which aired on November 27, 2016. In this episode, Belle's pregnancy is sped up, and Aladdin becomes a genie. In flashbacks, Rumpelstiltskin confronts his mother, the Black Fairy, for abandoning him.
Plot
Opening sequence
A swing set from the Dream World is featured in the forest.
In the characters' past
At Rumplestiltskin's castle, Belle is stunned to see Rumplestiltskin bring a child back with him, but as she asks questions, he makes her stop before he leaves again. While reading "Her Handsome Hero" Belle calms the baby down as she plots to track down the parents. Belle enters his secret room and deciphers a scroll with an incantation, but Rumple finds her, locks Belle in the room and disappears with the baby. She is then rescued by The Blue Fairy, who enlists Belle to save the child before he can use it as a way to seek revenge on The Black Fairy, who, like Rumple, is known to take children.
That night in the forest, with the incantation, Rumple summons the Black Fairy and throws squid ink on her to paralyze her. When she warns him that the squid ink won't hold her for long, he tells her that his ability to kill her with his Dagger would compel her to stay. He questions her about abandoning babies, and why she abandoned her own child, and she suddenly realizes that the baby he is referring to was Rumplestiltskin himself, as it turns out that he is her son. Though shocked, she recovers and tells him that she abandoned him because "sometimes, you have to choose power over love." Moments later, Belle shows up to rescue the baby, and the Black Fairy overcomes the effects of the squid ink, and leaves Rumplestiltskin guessing about why she really abandoned him. Afterwards, Belle returns the baby to its parents, as Rumplestiltskin watches, observing the happiness of a family that he never had.
In Storybrooke
In the present day at an undisclosed location, Gold chases down and captures a nun, and the Evil Queen has shown up to witness what he planned to do to her, as she is aware of his hatred towards fairies. As Gold reminds the Evil Queen that she is supposed to kill Zelena on his behalf, he proceeds to toss magical dust on the fairy, causing her to age immediately, which he wants to serve as a message to the fairies. This has Belle more worried after seeing the aged nun and knowing that he'll use everything to take their child away. While doing research on how to stop Gold, Belle comes across a "Manual on Defeating the Dark One" book and as she opens it; a red string appears on the floor that matches the page on the book. She follows it to her son, who tells her the answer was in front of her. She suddenly wakes up on top of the book, realizing that she was dreaming while searching for the answer.
In the meantime, Jasmine tells Snow that she is nervous about the lamp, assuming that a genie's magic could help her find Agrabah, but fears what the genie will want in return. She decides to summon the genie anyway, but when she rubs the lamp, all that comes out are two cuffs, implying that the genie was freed. Aladdin then puts the cuffs on, turning himself into a genie instead. Around the same time, the Evil Queen confronts Zelena and is ready to kill her, but she is stopped by Regina, who squeezes her own heart. Since both are connected, whatever happens to one also affects the other. During Regina's confrontation with the Evil Queen, in an effort to save Zelena, Regina tells the Evil Queen that Gold is using her. Since Regina cannot kill the Evil Queen because she would also die, she allows the Evil Queen to get away. Despite saving Zelena's life, Regina continues to blame her for Robin's death and tells Zelena she cannot forgive her.
The book that Belle slept on captures the attention of Hook as the book is written in Squid ink, and suggests that he and Emma take care of the situation. When they arrive to the Pawn Shop, Hook provokes Gold's anger to allow Emma to use the ink on him. As they are searching the shop, Emma sees the sword from her visions and has a vision upon touching the sword, resulting in her hands shaking again. When Hook & Emma check on Gold, they realize he escaped the squid ink. Gold, ready to confront Belle with the aging dust, tells her that he thinks their son may be the only person who could ever love him and is willing to do anything to steal their child from her. However, Gold starts having second thoughts after Belle tells him that he might also lose her forever.
At Granny's, Belle, Emma, and Hook have a conversation. As Emma tells Hook that a new vision involving her death has appeared, Belle drops her mug on the ground, revealing that the tea she was drinking had a potion that causes her pregnancy to accelerate and she goes into labor. As Emma and the fairies help Belle deliver, she finds herself again in the dream world talking to her son, who gives his mother a message, “you know what you must do." As Belle successfully delivers the baby, she asks Mother Superior to make a request to be his fairy godmother and to take him far away from Storybrooke, where he will be safe from Gold. Belle then names her son Gideon, in honor of her favorite book hero before Mother Superior sends the child away. The nuns/fairies & Emma had placed a protection on the nunnery to prevent Gold from entering until the baby was delivered. Thus Gold enters after the Blue Fairy/Mother Superior has already taken his son. Belle refuses to tell Gold their son's name, but he vows to find him regardless.
When Gold returns to his shop, the Evil Queen is waiting and tells him that she is responsible for placing the spell in Belle's tea that resulted in her pregnancy to accelerate. The Evil Queen tells Gold that he just “made an enemy” of her, but he counters that she is merely a pawn in his game and vows to get even, but not before she leaves with a message about the way "Fairies make great mothers" (now that she knows that The Black Fairy is Gold's mother), then he throws everything to the ground. Finally, after Hook tells her that Regina reversed the aging spell on the nun, Emma tells Hook that she feels stronger than ever, ready to confront her vision, returned to the shop, where she finds the sword that will kill her in her vision and takes it.
Cultural references
The episode's name "Changelings" refers to the myth of fairies abducting children and replacing them with "changelings" or "faerie-babies."
A changeling is a creature found in folklore and folk religion. A changeling was believed to be a black fairy that had been left in place of a human child stolen by the fairies.
A Celtic cross is seen in Belle's Dream World.
Production notes
Josh Dallas is credited but not featured in this episode.
Reception
Ratings
The episode saw an improvement from the previous outing, placing a 1.0/3 rating among 18-49s with 3.28 million viewers tuning in.
Reviews
Christine Laskodi of TV Fantic gave the episode a mild review: 3.5 out of 5.0
Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B.
References
External links
2016 American television episodes
Once Upon a Time (season 6) episodes | [
-0.5428176522254944,
-0.21756717562675476,
0.3249615728855133,
0.4406144618988037,
0.5266849398612976,
0.20718804001808167,
0.7755722403526306,
0.12994657456874847,
0.2157474309206009,
-0.7409412860870361,
-0.08067897707223892,
0.2574217915534973,
0.10658017545938492,
1.1492774486541748,
0.3661227226257324,
0.34200212359428406,
0.24692340195178986,
0.1277235746383667,
0.033007215708494186,
-0.8085148334503174,
0.13482913374900818,
-0.2547176778316498,
0.48232999444007874,
-0.03585248440504074,
0.36992648243904114,
-0.5730068683624268,
0.140089213848114,
0.4734744727611542,
0.4746028184890747,
0.26248371601104736,
-0.0813465267419815,
0.5041914582252502,
-0.02576131746172905,
-0.4818197190761566,
-0.5917714834213257,
-0.0390368215739727,
-0.31700024008750916,
-0.6655856966972351,
-0.5220586657524109,
-0.4666239023208618,
-0.2896386384963989,
-0.3951907157897949,
-0.08588112145662308,
0.3312208354473114,
-0.12137148529291153,
-0.3659108877182007,
-1.6220355033874512,
-0.021923350170254707,
-0.890733540058136,
-0.49092113971710205,
-0.010716702789068222,
0.4331870675086975,
-0.08059017360210419,
-0.45836320519447327,
-0.0678536593914032,
0.7127158641815186,
-0.7065093517303467,
-0.012721715494990349,
-0.4441126883029938,
-0.03142276778817177,
0.24316570162773132,
0.12511667609214783,
-0.306032657623291,
0.010359040461480618,
0.5538648962974548,
-0.02515622042119503,
0.4774594306945801,
0.13845014572143555,
-0.027279747650027275,
-0.559697151184082,
-0.12858979403972626,
0.08637285977602005,
0.34031617641448975,
0.37409111857414246,
0.003465949557721615,
0.0700000524520874,
0.42662137746810913,
0.5603340864181519,
-0.020220518112182617,
-0.1108488142490387,
-0.7600599527359009,
0.2913673520088196,
1.2316113710403442,
0.29871734976768494,
-0.05486215278506279,
-0.54608154296875,
-0.378352552652359,
-0.06540826708078384,
-0.4401756227016449,
0.6054668426513672,
-1.1228837966918945,
-0.40142157673835754,
0.7353004217147827,
0.5801185965538025,
0.8126473426818848,
-0.26384395360946655,
-0.4506882429122925,
0.09346140921115875,
0.3653460741043091,
0.24969284236431122,
-0.41524389386177063,
0.43579667806625366,
0.6418387293815613,
-0.5618596076965332,
-0.18099883198738098,
-0.7272058725357056,
-0.0024342655669897795,
-0.532021701335907,
0.16794945299625397,
-0.20074599981307983,
-0.847740113735199,
0.6548815965652466,
0.48786818981170654,
0.05590280145406723,
-0.18074946105480194,
0.9697455763816833,
0.6674030423164368,
0.5116069316864014,
0.048394158482551575,
0.4942828118801117,
0.5250239372253418,
0.3920554220676422,
0.057748910039663315,
0.5287554264068604,
-0.2501526474952698,
0.5813836455345154,
0.11714959889650345,
-0.2077977955341339,
-0.4077572524547577,
-0.29304078221321106,
0.33577316999435425,
1.0377392768859863,
-0.8127621412277222,
-0.07329490780830383,
-0.0399361327290535,
0.06971868127584457,
-0.14404524862766266,
-0.059816259890794754,
0.5971260070800781,
0.7356610298156738,
-0.7138805985450745,
-0.32364028692245483,
-0.6416677832603455,
-0.4070902168750763,
0.6871263384819031,
-0.24480919539928436,
-0.17829886078834534,
-0.3328065276145935,
-0.3178583085536957,
-0.020240796729922295,
-0.7232516407966614,
-0.543975830078125,
-0.21056151390075684,
0.10907238721847534,
-0.019609667360782623,
0.30577895045280457,
0.09119784832000732,
-0.1114172711968422,
-0.35147207975387573,
1.0101101398468018,
0.46774977445602417,
0.5942460894584656,
0.20048464834690094,
-0.030923357233405113,
0.5441668629646301,
0.10072533786296844,
0.20141270756721497,
-0.0544174462556839,
0.009960071183741093,
-0.16965976357460022,
-0.24215205013751984,
0.8370543718338013,
0.3063812851905823,
-0.7575515508651733,
0.43980222940444946,
0.022462109103798866,
0.5637667179107666,
0.48445838689804077,
-0.3540060222148895,
0.07495846599340439,
-0.5575252771377563,
-0.586746096611023,
0.305737167596817,
-0.40415143966674805,
0.30692920088768005,
-0.07205184549093246,
-0.26318684220314026,
0.2664543390274048,
0.6008653044700623,
0.19797487556934357,
-0.8582990765571594,
0.26698118448257446,
0.773017942905426,
0.09836781024932861,
0.866094708442688,
0.049831416457891464,
-0.1566995531320572,
1.5527349710464478,
-0.2883985936641693,
0.21590329706668854,
0.3127206563949585,
-0.41162964701652527,
0.9612090587615967,
0.9105326533317566,
0.0786382257938385,
0.1712045967578888,
-0.127058207988739,
-0.20446829497814178,
0.5615484118461609,
0.6575993895530701,
-0.31571826338768005,
0.34866365790367126,
0.41188862919807434,
0.9205238223075867,
0.38540834188461304,
-0.5797238349914551,
0.03137306496500969,
-0.2656671702861786,
-0.08751188218593597,
-0.5863999128341675,
0.46984875202178955,
0.13153210282325745,
-0.0008876335341483355,
-0.24165964126586914,
-0.016627194359898567,
0.48227378726005554,
-0.0010594004997983575,
0.27840980887413025,
0.09994059801101685,
-0.9420803189277649,
-0.49305078387260437,
0.8017804622650146,
-0.47755756974220276,
-0.23230570554733276,
-0.2993984520435333,
0.005384351126849651,
0.15973512828350067,
-0.7022343277931213,
-0.1987854689359665,
-0.8938894271850586,
-0.10762005299329758,
0.09577781707048416,
-0.6464906334877014,
0.4411572217941284,
0.17795626819133759,
0.6575921773910522,
0.2722178101539612,
0.6967766880989075,
0.006528039928525686,
-0.6409392356872559,
-0.07252787053585052,
-0.14252504706382751,
0.4843246042728424,
-0.17932941019535065,
-0.08874776214361191,
0.293270468711853,
-0.35170692205429077,
-0.41144460439682007,
0.07908517122268677,
-0.3044792413711548,
0.40239855647087097,
0.06049186736345291,
0.3037455081939697,
-0.4237247407436371,
-0.17806407809257507,
-0.5816236138343811,
-0.483180433511734,
-0.3895982503890991,
0.1379590928554535,
0.26632896065711975,
0.4566787779331207,
-0.37920308113098145,
-0.5289992690086365,
-0.17238308489322662,
-0.177688330411911,
-0.29247260093688965,
0.0800577849149704,
-0.6066197752952576,
-0.41434499621391296,
-0.4517025947570801,
0.7191282510757446,
0.9078401327133179,
0.45563042163848877,
0.01697663404047489,
-0.4108830988407135,
-0.7211867570877075,
0.30626407265663147,
0.2505451440811157,
0.07534883171319962,
-0.2998131811618805,
-0.31865978240966797,
-0.220663920044899,
-0.628519594669342,
0.18514204025268555,
0.32765334844589233,
-0.04959416016936302,
0.03096887655556202,
0.5449833869934082,
0.3493756055831909,
0.4141072928905487,
-0.537710428237915,
0.37286046147346497,
-0.4480006992816925,
0.11651021242141724,
0.23030968010425568,
-0.5118651390075684,
-0.39037665724754333,
-0.27494126558303833,
-5.263528823852539,
0.005327765829861164,
-0.12522447109222412,
-0.07907336950302124,
-0.13157851994037628,
0.2609608471393585,
0.34270498156547546,
0.16359925270080566,
-0.14546842873096466,
-0.08054642379283905,
-0.5806604623794556,
-0.2686864733695984,
-0.091744065284729,
0.31158918142318726,
-0.14941395819187164,
0.01822163350880146,
0.5509700775146484,
-0.12734313309192657,
0.0830523818731308,
0.28949856758117676,
-0.6319951415061951,
-0.07156246900558472,
-0.7784022688865662,
0.3428272604942322,
0.7938587665557861,
0.14614784717559814,
-0.5448449850082397,
-0.4567951560020447,
-0.6065426468849182,
0.09548374265432358,
-0.17339743673801422,
-0.03179964795708656,
-0.15249736607074738,
0.024388156831264496,
-0.10349377244710922,
-0.0743631049990654,
-0.11141946911811829,
-0.5266930460929871,
0.374053031206131,
-0.5684006810188293,
-0.5828768014907837,
-0.04523606225848198,
-0.2867855429649353,
0.35354098677635193,
0.1385401338338852,
0.060640014708042145,
-0.4818146526813507,
0.13281404972076416,
0.47060781717300415,
0.9501556754112244,
0.283194363117218,
0.3906450867652893,
0.43631142377853394,
0.48527899384498596,
-0.0709104835987091,
0.5797439813613892,
0.3947497606277466,
0.26503849029541016,
-0.39491498470306396,
-0.16454102098941803,
0.0738128125667572,
-0.4694201350212097,
0.035188015550374985,
-0.4411485493183136,
0.21801038086414337,
-1.1982519626617432,
-0.42996078729629517,
0.38712039589881897,
0.2666770815849304,
-0.12701325118541718,
-0.3626859784126282,
0.6611337065696716,
-0.0355527326464653,
-1.0462220907211304,
0.9389983415603638,
-0.403123140335083,
-0.9385327100753784,
-0.0374167263507843,
0.020166058093309402,
-0.04406699165701866,
0.38167116045951843,
-0.004988290369510651,
0.18007329106330872,
-0.16439667344093323,
0.24856780469417572,
-0.4820961654186249,
-0.07590380311012268,
-0.5850605368614197,
-0.008914852514863014,
-0.04387049749493599,
0.6188390254974365,
-0.38011208176612854,
-0.1317238211631775,
0.06940595805644989,
0.3949749767780304,
0.41973865032196045,
0.6014611124992371,
0.29687556624412537,
0.42451611161231995,
0.5370351672172546,
0.4439627230167389,
-0.6326406598091125,
0.5398568511009216,
-0.4092182219028473,
-0.73332679271698,
-0.19820661842823029,
-0.011891195550560951,
0.4454472064971924,
0.4675148129463196,
-0.10848810523748398,
0.34991857409477234,
-0.43721890449523926,
-0.35617393255233765,
-0.03861493244767189,
0.12668442726135254,
0.2025853991508484,
0.11922692507505417,
1.0857831239700317,
0.38209769129753113,
0.3459048569202423,
0.20014561712741852,
-0.24518482387065887,
-0.7013651728630066,
-0.1241711974143982,
0.07346059381961823,
-0.2739366888999939,
-0.13607974350452423,
0.014604524709284306,
0.38729313015937805,
-0.21952931582927704,
-0.21409326791763306,
-0.05733402445912361,
-0.4903638958930969,
-0.18493740260601044,
0.06057051941752434,
-0.3419904112815857,
-0.5263659358024597,
-0.09377854317426682,
0.5845394134521484,
-0.023314470425248146,
-0.10677605867385864,
-0.5755090117454529,
-0.08362875133752823,
0.007543845102190971,
0.39723557233810425,
-0.6222501397132874,
1.221013069152832,
-0.5099921822547913,
-0.7619106769561768,
0.6673500537872314,
0.06651149690151215,
0.18287141621112823,
0.2739483714103699,
-0.6806479692459106,
-0.18975047767162323,
0.16507844626903534,
0.6124684810638428,
0.3358018696308136,
-0.23694553971290588,
-0.7827096581459045,
-0.1641998142004013,
-0.43852150440216064,
-0.8551576733589172,
-0.1957952082157135,
-0.2861763536930084,
-0.6941729187965393,
-0.6958896517753601,
-0.36185720562934875,
-0.5375912189483643,
0.5127038955688477,
-0.4142968952655792,
0.5844542980194092,
-0.4130387008190155,
0.21762047708034515,
0.6902595162391663,
-0.640279233455658,
-0.1872536838054657,
0.09968829154968262,
0.17136412858963013,
-0.5365858674049377,
-0.4745531976222992,
0.12864528596401215,
-0.32120388746261597,
-0.6143214702606201,
0.277962863445282,
-0.09378353506326675,
-0.10682248324155807,
-0.22282494604587555,
0.2163352072238922,
-0.741143524646759,
-0.33293846249580383,
0.10927212983369827,
-0.12254027277231216,
0.08354239165782928,
-0.5447425842285156,
0.32931089401245117,
-0.009797818027436733,
0.34928011894226074,
0.11832822859287262,
-0.1972178965806961,
0.3566679358482361,
0.31702208518981934,
-0.6590263843536377,
-0.10239019989967346,
0.9999209046363831,
-0.39140087366104126,
0.16678118705749512,
-0.09861007332801819,
0.1401224136352539,
0.4835069477558136,
0.0937347486615181,
-0.8215257525444031,
0.08739685267210007,
0.09351800382137299,
-0.1317862868309021,
-0.2692023515701294,
0.06549260020256042,
-0.5354312658309937,
-0.5565734505653381,
-0.4116377532482147,
-0.27047184109687805,
-0.4502389132976532,
-0.0778532475233078,
-0.222653329372406,
-1.3439594507217407,
-0.19579783082008362,
0.7410390377044678,
-0.3034062385559082,
0.5824471712112427,
-0.5083929896354675,
0.32011348009109497,
0.2945481240749359,
0.5454024076461792,
0.7807035446166992,
0.12769277393817902,
-0.14162497222423553,
-0.9887616634368896,
-0.44904759526252747,
-0.13568808138370514,
0.576677143573761,
0.3604022264480591,
0.4892331659793854,
0.5060995221138,
-1.1578705310821533,
-0.4417749047279358,
-0.7702521681785583,
-0.007789138238877058,
0.381973534822464,
-0.03453131392598152,
0.16393084824085236,
0.9172618985176086,
-0.6444363594055176,
0.06311051547527313,
0.2879681885242462,
0.3152526617050171,
-0.8769717812538147,
-0.34490352869033813,
0.5558061599731445,
-0.5297610759735107,
0.24088147282600403,
-0.03558336943387985,
-0.24424557387828827,
-0.16354802250862122,
0.26306626200675964,
0.583665668964386,
0.05060359463095665,
-0.03799771890044212,
0.11013932526111603,
-0.10098524391651154,
-0.20652282238006592,
0.027727114036679268,
0.1788681149482727,
0.16917653381824493,
0.07404486835002899,
-0.008144937455654144,
-0.23436617851257324,
0.0002482779964338988,
-0.49551793932914734,
0.3581196069717407,
-0.054631829261779785,
-0.4237405061721802,
0.8136674761772156,
-0.39600318670272827,
-0.594051718711853,
0.2902464270591736,
-0.7074465751647949,
0.2761114835739136,
-0.02560715563595295,
-0.4338568150997162,
0.08328577876091003,
0.013810215517878532,
0.518340528011322,
-0.07169080525636673,
0.24461865425109863,
0.5464126467704773,
-0.23759451508522034,
-0.07241445034742355,
0.3678993880748749,
0.5019996762275696,
0.19267885386943817,
-0.8964027166366577,
0.8185186386108398,
0.4508824944496155,
-0.3094210922718048,
-0.3554716110229492,
0.312698632478714,
0.30276840925216675,
0.04038003459572792,
-0.6522935628890991,
0.21542617678642273,
0.8883198499679565,
-0.12163980305194855,
0.30991747975349426,
0.6316343545913696,
-0.08575024455785751,
0.06809192150831223,
0.0655294805765152,
-0.44339725375175476,
-0.24224619567394257,
0.3831542134284973,
-0.4690302610397339,
0.039025649428367615,
0.32579147815704346,
-0.5030187368392944,
-0.11049818992614746,
0.9153749942779541,
-0.008011529222130775,
0.5384672284126282,
0.10080958902835846,
0.7289108633995056,
-0.2950509190559387,
-0.2827797532081604,
0.023096319288015366,
0.36119386553764343,
0.1510375738143921,
-0.33835551142692566,
0.2034085988998413,
-0.18187181651592255,
0.09741386026144028,
0.9193608164787292,
0.6084728837013245,
-0.04663261026144028,
0.2685571014881134,
0.4908256530761719,
0.2790448069572449,
0.2713295817375183,
0.16858938336372375,
0.3993671238422394,
0.4419885277748108,
-0.1564749777317047,
-0.09401530772447586,
0.8055093884468079,
0.0577603243291378,
-0.8844854831695557,
0.6343837380409241,
-0.38329780101776123,
0.23400406539440155,
0.20342674851417542,
-0.8718109726905823,
-0.08915039896965027,
0.1053372323513031,
-0.6054418683052063,
-0.16450995206832886,
0.029428545385599136,
0.2879149615764618,
-0.40012118220329285,
0.24937984347343445,
0.4129449725151062,
-0.3373492360115051,
-0.15151531994342804,
0.7196385860443115,
0.736620306968689,
-0.377461701631546,
-0.0022564209066331387,
0.1832355111837387,
0.5202188491821289,
0.5629239678382874,
-0.3640561103820801,
-0.021026238799095154,
-0.22928939759731293,
-0.1843395233154297,
0.32124608755111694,
-0.44634875655174255,
-0.23192141950130463,
-0.3145681619644165,
-0.2214055210351944,
0.1282634437084198,
0.26096272468566895,
0.26619088649749756,
-0.832942545413971,
0.21961256861686707,
-1.3039673566818237,
-0.3286467492580414,
-0.304501473903656,
-0.9121866822242737,
-0.4399920403957367,
0.18842346966266632,
0.8570453524589539,
0.38436418771743774,
0.4290986955165863,
0.8877933621406555,
-0.4476887583732605,
0.042913515120744705,
0.31807297468185425,
-0.6896401643753052,
0.188354954123497,
-0.5081722140312195,
0.06088154390454292,
-0.8075275421142578,
0.24443012475967407,
0.6633557081222534,
0.24716076254844666,
-0.4524674117565155,
0.8298028707504272,
-0.23825602233409882,
-0.6308175325393677,
0.6598780751228333,
0.7052884101867676,
0.21920809149742126,
-0.880102813243866,
-0.16765469312667847,
-0.13996559381484985,
-0.6851462721824646,
0.4907752573490143,
-0.7519606351852417,
-0.06142803654074669,
-0.2634292244911194,
0.26707011461257935,
0.4286256432533264,
0.42416220903396606,
-0.02816782146692276,
-0.16630330681800842,
-0.13431669771671295,
0.28373435139656067,
-0.08879958093166351,
-0.04733024910092354,
0.27265653014183044,
0.5790777206420898,
0.7008869051933289,
0.31009769439697266,
-0.07031925767660141,
-0.4431702494621277,
0.1872606873512268,
0.07583809643983841,
-0.6352068781852722,
0.23863531649112701,
-0.4648129343986511,
0.1684531420469284,
-0.5466729998588562,
0.017082862555980682,
-0.04522814601659775,
-0.6741385459899902,
0.2786806523799896,
-0.297799289226532,
-0.33896350860595703,
-0.5122252702713013,
-0.09765224903821945,
-0.20128239691257477,
0.019602447748184204,
-0.2174910008907318
] |
233487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachometer | Tachometer | A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.
The word comes from Greek τάχος (táchos "speed") and μέτρον (métron "measure"). Essentially the words tachometer and speedometer have identical meaning: a device that measures speed. It is by arbitrary convention that in the automotive world one is used for engine and the other for vehicle speed. In formal engineering nomenclature, more precise terms are used to distinguish the two.
History
The first tachometer was described by Bryan Donkin in a paper to the Royal Society of Arts in 1810 for which he was awarded the Gold medal of the society. This consisted of a bowl of mercury constructed in such a way that centrifugal force caused the level in a central tube to fall when it rotated and brought down the level in a narrower tube above filled with coloured spirit. The bowl was connected to the machinery to be measured by pulleys.
The first mechanical tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force, similar to the operation of a centrifugal governor. The inventor is assumed to be the German engineer Dietrich Uhlhorn; he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817. Since 1840, it has been used to measure the speed of locomotives.
In automobiles, trucks, tractors and aircraft
Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the engine's crankshaft, and typically have markings indicating a safe range of rotation speeds. This can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the driving conditions. Prolonged use at high speeds may cause inadequate lubrication, overheating (exceeding capability of the cooling system), exceeding speed capability of sub-parts of the engine (for example spring retracted valves) thus causing excessive wear or permanent damage or failure of engines. On analogue tachometers, speeds above maximum safe operating speed are typically indicated by an area of the gauge marked in red, giving rise to the expression of "redlining" an engine — revving the engine up to the maximum safe limit. Most modern cars typically have a revolution limiter which electronically limits engine speed to prevent damage. Diesel engines with traditional mechanical injector systems have an integral governor which prevents over-speeding the engine, so the tachometers in vehicles and machinery fitted with such engines sometimes lack a redline.
In vehicles such as tractors and trucks, the tachometer often has other markings, usually a green arc showing the speed range in which the engine produces maximum torque, which is of prime interest to operators of such vehicles. Tractors fitted with a power take-off (PTO) system have tachometers showing the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardized speed required by most PTO-driven implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have a speedometer for use on a road. To save fitting a second dial, the vehicle's tachometer is often marked with a second scale in units of speed. This scale is only accurate in a certain gear, but since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use on-road, this is sufficient. Tractors with multiple 'road gears' often have tachometers with more than one speed scale. Aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engine's designed cruising speed range.
In older vehicles, the tachometer is driven by the RMS voltage waves from the low tension (LT) side of the ignition coil, while on others (and nearly all diesel engines, which have no ignition system) engine speed is determined by the frequency from the alternator tachometer output. This is from a special connection called an "AC tap" which is a connection to one of the stator's coil output, before the rectifier. Tachometers driven by a rotating cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine (usually on the camshaft) exist - usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic or no electrical systems. On recent EMS found on modern vehicles, the signal for the tachometer is usually generated from an ECU which derives the information from either the crankshaft or camshaft speed sensor.
Traffic engineering
Tachometers are used to estimate traffic speed and volume (flow). A vehicle is equipped with the sensor and conducts "tach runs" which record the traffic data. These data are a substitute or complement to loop detector data. To get statistically significant results requires a high number of runs, and bias is introduced by the time of day, day of week, and the season. However, because of the expense, spacing (a lower density of loop detectors diminishes data accuracy), and relatively low reliability of loop detectors (often 30% or more are out of service at any given time), tach runs remain a common practice.
In trains and light rail vehicles
Speed sensing devices, termed variously "wheel impulse generators" (WIG), speed probes, or tachometers are used extensively in rail vehicles. Common types include opto-isolator slotted disk sensors and Hall effect sensors.
Hall effect sensors typically use a rotating target attached to a wheel, gearbox or motor. This target may contain magnets, or it may be a toothed wheel. The teeth on the wheel vary the flux density of a magnet inside the sensor head. The probe is mounted with its head a precise distance from the target wheel and detects the teeth or magnets passing its face. One problem with this system is that the necessary air gap between the target wheel and the sensor allows ferrous dust from the vehicle's underframe to build up on the probe or target, inhibiting its function.
Opto-isolator sensors are completely encased to prevent ingress from the outside environment. The only exposed parts are a sealed plug connector and a drive fork, which is attached to a slotted disk internally through a bearing and seal. The slotted disk is typically sandwiched between two circuit boards containing a photo-diode, photo-transistor, amplifier, and filtering circuits which produce a square wave pulse train output customized to the customers voltage and pulses per revolution requirements. These types of sensors typically provide 2 to 8 independent channels of output that can be sampled by other systems in the vehicle such as automatic train control systems and propulsion/braking controllers.
The sensors mounted around the circumference of the disk provide quadrature encoded outputs and thus allow the vehicle's computer to determine the direction of rotation of the wheel. This is a legal requirement in Switzerland to prevent rollback when starting from standstill. Strictly, such devices are not tachometers since they do not provide a direct reading of the rotational speed of the disk. The speed has to be derived externally by counting the number of pulses in a time period. It is difficult to prove conclusively that the vehicle is stationary, other than by waiting a certain time to ensure that no further pulses occur. This is one reason why there is often a time delay between the train stopping, as perceived by a passenger, and the doors being released. Slotted-disk devices are typical sensors used in odometer systems for rail vehicles, such as are required for train protection systems — notably the European Train Control System.
As well as speed sensing, these probes are often used to calculate distance travelled by multiplying wheel rotations by wheel circumference.
They can be used to automatically calibrate wheel diameter by comparing the number of rotations of each axle against a master wheel that has been measured manually. Since all wheels travel the same distance, the diameter of each wheel is proportional to its number of rotations compared to the master wheel. This calibration must be done while coasting at a fixed speed to eliminate the possibility of wheel slip/slide introducing errors into the calculation. Automatic calibration of this type is used to generate more accurate traction and braking signals, and to improve wheel slip detection.
A weakness of systems that rely on wheel rotation for tachometry and odometry is that the train wheels and the rails are very smooth and the friction between them is low, leading to high error rates if the wheels slip or slide. To compensate for this, secondary odometry inputs employ Doppler radar units beneath the train to measure speed independently.
In analogue audio recording
In analogue audio recording, a tachometer is a device that measures the speed of audiotape as it passes across the head. On most audio tape recorders the tachometer (or simply "tach") is a relatively large spindle near the ERP head stack, isolated from the feed and take-up spindles by tension idlers.
On many recorders the tachometer spindle is connected by an axle to a rotating magnet that induces a changing magnetic field upon a Hall effect transistor. Other systems connect the spindle to a stroboscope, which alternates light and dark upon a photodiode.
The tape recorder's drive electronics use signals from the tachometer to ensure that the tape is played at the proper speed. The signal is compared to a reference signal (either a quartz crystal or alternating current from the mains). The comparison of the two frequencies drives the speed of the tape transport. When the tach signal and the reference signal match, the tape transport is said to be "at speed." (To this day on film sets, the director calls "Roll sound!" and the sound man replies "Sound speed!" This is a vestige of the days when recording devices required several seconds to reach a regulated speed.)
Having perfectly regulated tape speed is important because the human ear is very sensitive to changes in pitch, particularly sudden ones, and without a self-regulating system to control the speed of tape across the head, the pitch could drift several percent. This effect is called a wow-and-flutter, and a modern, tachometer-regulated cassette deck has a wow-and-flutter of 0.07%.
Tachometers are acceptable for high-fidelity sound playback, but not for recording in synchronization with a movie camera. For such purposes, special recorders that record pilottone must be used.
Tachometer signals can be used to synchronize several tape machines together, but only if in addition to the tach signal, a directional signal is transmitted, to tell slave machines in which direction the master is moving.
See also
Redline
Tachograph
References
Avionics
Aircraft instruments
Automotive technologies
Vehicle parts
Speed sensors
Measuring instruments | [
0.3760494589805603,
-0.1283477395772934,
0.32278820872306824,
0.7512890100479126,
-0.058580562472343445,
0.41029831767082214,
-0.2576613128185272,
-0.21992941200733185,
-0.3092566430568695,
-0.0644637942314148,
0.11292296648025513,
0.5677004456520081,
0.23652920126914978,
0.6135461926460266,
-0.015780285000801086,
0.0781330093741417,
0.37504225969314575,
-0.1264946013689041,
-0.19329999387264252,
-0.21277491748332977,
-0.2794738709926605,
0.28574374318122864,
0.5111161470413208,
-0.6583479642868042,
-0.44268688559532166,
-0.006728999316692352,
-0.3464410603046417,
-0.2916191518306732,
-0.6254891157150269,
-0.09636878222227097,
0.16614565253257751,
0.5180444717407227,
0.33450305461883545,
-0.01194049697369337,
0.006649206858128309,
-0.27136528491973877,
0.22278650104999542,
-0.025072433054447174,
-0.16641020774841309,
-0.5348824858665466,
-0.07444875687360764,
-0.29522377252578735,
0.24556231498718262,
0.19654622673988342,
-0.8357698917388916,
-0.38436779379844666,
-1.0455092191696167,
0.1551620364189148,
-0.45677316188812256,
0.0715646967291832,
-0.3649759292602539,
0.5670282244682312,
0.5054076910018921,
0.546453058719635,
0.10164576768875122,
0.7432786822319031,
-0.6957761645317078,
-0.15894585847854614,
0.09165243059396744,
-0.2764233648777008,
0.47654780745506287,
0.04207146540284157,
-0.259613573551178,
0.29941487312316895,
0.470462828874588,
-0.041909441351890564,
-0.16386593878269196,
-0.20532523095607758,
-0.08358337730169296,
-0.2482127994298935,
-0.1025020182132721,
-0.21837405860424042,
-0.2826254069805145,
0.34669366478919983,
-0.1275959610939026,
-0.46617597341537476,
-0.03526964411139488,
0.044811446219682693,
-0.0001765394990798086,
-0.27318674325942993,
0.29851260781288147,
0.4183894097805023,
0.7941771149635315,
-0.3300535976886749,
0.3832058012485504,
0.23644421994686127,
-0.42894211411476135,
0.35797327756881714,
0.01647009886801243,
0.4025247395038605,
0.2915176749229431,
-0.5364863872528076,
0.16389118134975433,
0.10388702154159546,
-0.45789292454719543,
-0.21854594349861145,
0.474901020526886,
-0.3671528398990631,
0.17271336913108826,
0.2857891917228699,
0.39230039715766907,
-0.09081274271011353,
0.8149302005767822,
0.41049614548683167,
0.39058300852775574,
-0.31390380859375,
0.05235665664076805,
-0.20135265588760376,
0.24737650156021118,
-0.0740041583776474,
-0.635900616645813,
0.1808347851037979,
-0.09507426619529724,
0.1708552986383438,
-0.1462584137916565,
-0.19031192362308502,
0.026432614773511887,
0.05092138797044754,
0.343763142824173,
0.12569637596607208,
0.5013411045074463,
0.3061462640762329,
0.7014996409416199,
-0.31263378262519836,
-0.2634407579898834,
0.4787929058074951,
0.4327258765697479,
0.7865872979164124,
-0.45906364917755127,
-0.3004460632801056,
0.23722119629383087,
0.9916596412658691,
0.045031122863292694,
-0.03936518728733063,
-0.15694834291934967,
-0.17583788931369781,
0.3063609302043915,
-0.2743520438671112,
-0.06746315956115723,
0.8887688517570496,
-0.09185438603162766,
-0.3391580879688263,
-0.6614067554473877,
-0.8217949271202087,
-0.3021942675113678,
-0.312008798122406,
0.07258723676204681,
-0.4473690986633301,
-0.3008032441139221,
0.24573677778244019,
0.16737227141857147,
0.40054014325141907,
-0.2127494513988495,
-0.12243115156888962,
-0.6464018821716309,
-0.9510558843612671,
-0.33703815937042236,
0.26103639602661133,
-0.4142830967903137,
0.04243306443095207,
-0.06543365865945816,
0.1868230104446411,
-0.6797930598258972,
0.050493884831666946,
-0.019590092822909355,
-0.43037039041519165,
1.152230143547058,
0.673524796962738,
-0.04461531341075897,
0.6888013482093811,
-0.35221725702285767,
0.08606675267219543,
0.2708466053009033,
0.528164803981781,
-0.5360170006752014,
0.38755255937576294,
0.2720812261104584,
0.061741169542074203,
1.0050121545791626,
0.20965717732906342,
-0.649071216583252,
0.23160091042518616,
0.32650890946388245,
0.21311558783054352,
0.365715354681015,
-0.1764526665210724,
0.42310258746147156,
-0.068552665412426,
0.041404590010643005,
-0.4188098907470703,
-0.32456672191619873,
-0.334992915391922,
-0.3051096200942993,
-0.5542665123939514,
0.8631917238235474,
-0.17765897512435913,
-0.2555679380893707,
0.20203897356987,
-0.44722801446914673,
0.27537351846694946,
-0.7014502882957458,
-0.09685924649238586,
0.1386386901140213,
-0.015511034056544304,
-0.2530507743358612,
0.15387161076068878,
0.6157012581825256,
-0.15497806668281555,
0.3322295844554901,
-0.3232285976409912,
0.002028674352914095,
-0.8236607909202576,
0.5307415127754211,
-0.5925851464271545,
-0.5011190176010132,
0.4115997552871704,
-0.8068935871124268,
0.1541721522808075,
-0.318517804145813,
0.25831934809684753,
0.618827760219574,
0.10707961022853851,
-0.12781885266304016,
0.781243622303009,
-0.2589590549468994,
0.47286471724510193,
0.5533314943313599,
0.778011679649353,
0.16897469758987427,
-0.8860577344894409,
0.08560506254434586,
-0.363097608089447,
0.48815658688545227,
-0.37003961205482483,
-0.36245545744895935,
0.5526328086853027,
-0.013697241432964802,
-0.5724290609359741,
0.5237200260162354,
-0.24888072907924652,
0.3954891860485077,
0.3917962312698364,
-0.21033595502376556,
0.7829059362411499,
0.7012689709663391,
0.07648366689682007,
-0.014520986936986446,
0.27233466506004333,
-0.014231069944798946,
-0.022317277267575264,
-0.004545566160231829,
0.2084524780511856,
0.2344755232334137,
-0.3671659231185913,
-0.7088620662689209,
-0.05623920261859894,
0.27639031410217285,
-0.02183396741747856,
0.2875204384326935,
0.6352662444114685,
-0.14810723066329956,
-0.230656236410141,
0.38707292079925537,
-0.45466893911361694,
-0.23391282558441162,
-0.5917796492576599,
-0.570266604423523,
0.029554134234786034,
0.2697904706001282,
0.2141105830669403,
0.1321813464164734,
0.947782576084137,
-0.6756717562675476,
-0.2022169828414917,
-0.3462703824043274,
-0.6369653344154358,
0.07036557793617249,
0.12619268894195557,
-0.5229863524436951,
-0.3080536127090454,
0.12577523291110992,
0.2561580538749695,
0.17951832711696625,
-0.017400288954377174,
-0.2087005078792572,
-0.34162113070487976,
-0.13993598520755768,
-0.26670077443122864,
-0.1356678605079651,
-0.6401111483573914,
-0.6972097754478455,
0.6062934398651123,
-0.2605140507221222,
0.28699150681495667,
0.25231364369392395,
0.3105158507823944,
-0.061035942286252975,
-0.7847148180007935,
0.7836281061172485,
-0.6314723491668701,
-0.17267748713493347,
0.08293983340263367,
-0.368706613779068,
-0.2586740255355835,
-0.15684249997138977,
-0.5468443632125854,
0.10289092361927032,
-0.3331659436225891,
-5.622092247009277,
0.28110259771347046,
-0.5813631415367126,
-0.7736849784851074,
0.4951423704624176,
0.3334183394908905,
0.6256810426712036,
0.355241596698761,
-0.9795404672622681,
0.4218321144580841,
-0.3856266140937805,
-0.1608012467622757,
-0.10122667253017426,
0.43449684977531433,
0.7433313727378845,
0.36841487884521484,
0.6729700565338135,
-0.09782573580741882,
0.04922792688012123,
0.2935979962348938,
0.06943602114915848,
-0.41987356543540955,
0.07181601226329803,
0.775314450263977,
0.2298332005739212,
-0.09176237136125565,
-0.3912402093410492,
-0.10693435370922089,
-0.5345718860626221,
0.1559225469827652,
0.2322104424238205,
0.10750886052846909,
-0.35014620423316956,
-0.5464184284210205,
0.20441637933254242,
0.016642693430185318,
0.3914045989513397,
0.03769495338201523,
0.07468896359205246,
0.16397452354431152,
-0.11999589949846268,
1.1751010417938232,
0.5899677872657776,
-0.1251150369644165,
0.23176753520965576,
0.06533484905958176,
-0.11846005916595459,
-0.03571373596787453,
-0.6021823883056641,
0.4404747784137726,
-0.4302240014076233,
0.282707542181015,
0.12741844356060028,
-0.5612204670906067,
-0.424774169921875,
-0.3749973177909851,
0.37083548307418823,
0.3884062170982361,
-0.58573979139328,
0.27382397651672363,
0.010381259955465794,
-0.493049293756485,
-0.4074382781982422,
-0.5973501205444336,
-0.6234237551689148,
-0.5032432079315186,
-0.46909376978874207,
-0.29940304160118103,
0.8643234968185425,
0.5308839082717896,
-0.26786836981773376,
0.49314290285110474,
0.2804658114910126,
-0.9033799767494202,
0.08589635044336319,
-0.02217319793999195,
0.5459030270576477,
0.28335994482040405,
0.04719928279519081,
0.30925777554512024,
-0.39405518770217896,
-0.44164785742759705,
-0.44561412930488586,
0.4019509255886078,
-0.08520927280187607,
-0.2091834396123886,
-0.5707312822341919,
-0.521483302116394,
-0.2716918885707855,
0.1623014658689499,
1.207205057144165,
0.07893835753202438,
0.6753419041633606,
-0.687829852104187,
0.2979642152786255,
0.1849934309720993,
0.07207362353801727,
0.2787645161151886,
0.18910576403141022,
-0.761066734790802,
0.03632427006959915,
-0.02766444906592369,
0.6549785137176514,
-0.12488546222448349,
0.11705170571804047,
-0.3850007951259613,
-0.4419093430042267,
0.2247849553823471,
0.5673527717590332,
0.3567318618297577,
-0.015847748145461082,
-0.09925954043865204,
-0.2591283321380615,
-0.16123442351818085,
-0.0025277603417634964,
-0.10400385409593582,
-0.41984906792640686,
0.14676420390605927,
0.3967815935611725,
-0.23398204147815704,
-0.11090804636478424,
-0.22446388006210327,
-0.5751177668571472,
-0.8572180271148682,
-0.46450966596603394,
-0.5407938361167908,
-0.2694288492202759,
0.37491121888160706,
0.45692992210388184,
0.0867316722869873,
0.4315809905529022,
0.5780572295188904,
-0.1810324490070343,
0.08784345537424088,
-0.26034438610076904,
-0.2689993977546692,
-0.15554027259349823,
0.47672733664512634,
-0.1293218433856964,
-0.41479775309562683,
0.1925540566444397,
-0.34187591075897217,
0.22840367257595062,
-0.2060600370168686,
0.954323410987854,
0.4026795029640198,
-0.045892808586359024,
0.026034006848931313,
-0.15361833572387695,
0.6072050929069519,
0.3093302547931671,
-0.4185107350349426,
-0.11666293442249298,
-0.1935970038175583,
0.7340101599693298,
0.25077131390571594,
-0.18286974728107452,
0.21826967597007751,
0.19391730427742004,
-0.6879792213439941,
0.23124812543392181,
0.4459207355976105,
-0.7649365663528442,
-0.2739481031894684,
-0.20037339627742767,
0.5769694447517395,
-1.0375168323516846,
-0.2845202684402466,
0.6363080739974976,
0.8751977682113647,
-0.028143875300884247,
-0.31783705949783325,
-0.5097354054450989,
-0.6745805144309998,
0.17699368298053741,
0.5186310410499573,
0.2754434049129486,
0.10746153444051743,
-0.07249753922224045,
-0.7435835599899292,
-0.06759420037269592,
0.0730346292257309,
-0.1868865042924881,
0.510783314704895,
-0.025123784318566322,
-0.7476769685745239,
-0.3130895793437958,
0.2122921347618103,
0.04805115610361099,
0.10690134763717651,
0.3468915820121765,
0.003463579108938575,
0.11337032914161682,
-0.31045475602149963,
-0.43945807218551636,
-0.5307173728942871,
-0.09590400010347366,
1.1640921831130981,
-0.49397554993629456,
-0.2970210909843445,
-0.38699936866760254,
0.7002614736557007,
-0.27162665128707886,
0.10020051151514053,
0.2641505002975464,
-0.5796489119529724,
0.4496943950653076,
0.013339865952730179,
-0.44454944133758545,
0.35588255524635315,
-0.4987446069717407,
-0.5154309868812561,
-0.34867459535598755,
0.2837412655353546,
-0.30863767862319946,
0.10210972279310226,
0.4241901934146881,
-0.25439009070396423,
0.08199837803840637,
-0.5904699563980103,
0.0380375050008297,
0.846565306186676,
-0.6313328742980957,
-0.0843248963356018,
0.1563233882188797,
-0.5804388523101807,
0.22068341076374054,
-0.13276536762714386,
0.6330187320709229,
0.38226789236068726,
-0.6152435541152954,
0.10463766753673553,
0.2476973533630371,
-0.561334490776062,
-0.036941517144441605,
-0.1360970437526703,
-0.6589038968086243,
0.23146937787532806,
-0.04378357157111168,
-0.22800517082214355,
0.5115699768066406,
0.6552847027778625,
0.32045304775238037,
0.324910968542099,
0.010264518670737743,
0.21909983456134796,
0.24959796667099,
-0.9997074604034424,
-0.5239667296409607,
0.6262820959091187,
0.05263654887676239,
-0.3723147213459015,
-1.113228678703308,
-0.2889995872974396,
0.3047808110713959,
0.23793064057826996,
0.28525054454803467,
-0.29592663049697876,
0.5412986874580383,
0.7071958184242249,
-0.3585168719291687,
-0.23713436722755432,
-0.3707069456577301,
-0.06885037571191788,
-0.3074534237384796,
0.4171440303325653,
-0.25575152039527893,
-0.264020711183548,
0.6127264499664307,
-1.003303050994873,
0.6059462428092957,
-0.03383947163820267,
0.36083388328552246,
0.5708359479904175,
0.5407159924507141,
0.0658160001039505,
0.23376718163490295,
-0.23979820311069489,
-0.2132701873779297,
-0.3741777241230011,
-0.08392119407653809,
0.17029570043087006,
0.5567458271980286,
-0.10452312231063843,
0.2297557294368744,
0.4908849895000458,
-0.062180232256650925,
-0.0877731516957283,
-0.21477439999580383,
0.19894258677959442,
-0.6385001540184021,
0.056428056210279465,
0.3427521288394928,
0.8722072243690491,
-0.4258660078048706,
0.19087733328342438,
0.6303787231445312,
0.6123314499855042,
-0.30113500356674194,
0.05389329046010971,
-0.4081794321537018,
0.14647778868675232,
0.5171840786933899,
-0.7917929887771606,
0.40405261516571045,
-0.29474061727523804,
0.1955617070198059,
-0.08264247328042984,
-0.49608492851257324,
-0.28318285942077637,
0.14974233508110046,
-0.002958196448162198,
-0.27344563603401184,
0.6355641484260559,
0.43562114238739014,
-0.7258591651916504,
0.41609981656074524,
0.15322189033031464,
-0.3326685428619385,
0.44163280725479126,
0.11213892698287964,
0.298982173204422,
0.4843415915966034,
-0.904034435749054,
-0.03748564422130585,
-0.14401192963123322,
-0.49678197503089905,
0.19009125232696533,
-0.02954205684363842,
-0.10690034180879593,
0.5683790445327759,
0.3527345061302185,
-0.39207616448402405,
0.4694617688655853,
-0.03359870985150337,
-0.5358644723892212,
0.24715904891490936,
-0.36195504665374756,
-0.046572815626859665,
0.4981934726238251,
0.21321922540664673,
0.6655629277229309,
0.501904308795929,
0.4277038276195526,
-0.06636184453964233,
0.06622236222028732,
-0.04164818674325943,
0.26972752809524536,
-0.6870972514152527,
-0.08541763573884964,
-0.051818981766700745,
0.007153093349188566,
0.5789299607276917,
-0.5455629229545593,
0.0321417897939682,
-0.155715674161911,
0.485723614692688,
-0.04270860180258751,
0.2446027249097824,
0.067790687084198,
-0.4943782687187195,
0.7449160218238831,
0.1301242858171463,
-0.6320900917053223,
0.01843343675136566,
0.1999625712633133,
0.5509738326072693,
-0.8294981718063354,
0.1530732363462448,
0.03313027694821358,
0.49668073654174805,
0.6456255912780762,
-0.42133158445358276,
0.3122524321079254,
0.09312622994184494,
-0.30976536870002747,
0.8114657402038574,
0.4109184741973877,
-0.3422733545303345,
-0.5124119520187378,
-0.26155439019203186,
0.34298598766326904,
-0.3509436249732971,
-0.6143718957901001,
-0.17193765938282013,
0.22890500724315643,
0.15884193778038025,
-0.09103845059871674,
0.19169767200946808,
0.029544519260525703,
0.3395928144454956,
-0.5576968193054199,
0.07268940657377243,
-0.6758962869644165,
-0.5186486840248108,
-0.18335840106010437,
-0.27179768681526184,
0.5317505598068237,
0.016604047268629074,
0.13568876683712006,
-0.05328572168946266,
-0.09629687666893005,
-0.01642811857163906,
-0.24438944458961487,
-0.5304375886917114,
0.3504849374294281,
0.33516672253608704,
0.849438488483429,
-0.161276176571846,
0.2435346096754074,
0.588117241859436,
-0.9428356289863586,
0.0921873077750206,
0.27591386437416077,
-0.21395811438560486,
-0.2328517735004425,
0.4289052486419678,
-0.3408070206642151,
-0.0897538959980011,
-0.44413435459136963,
-0.3423684537410736,
0.10406895726919174,
0.3334582448005676,
0.08643684536218643,
-0.024357732385396957,
-0.30891069769859314,
0.6499401330947876,
-0.2715579569339752,
-0.40850189328193665,
0.17250604927539825,
-0.8939716815948486,
0.27296972274780273,
-0.4469127357006073,
0.22943256795406342,
-0.2541588246822357,
-0.6359273791313171,
0.03948675096035004,
0.38666263222694397,
0.35375502705574036,
-0.37521758675575256,
0.3463108539581299,
0.2230696827173233,
-0.23577940464019775,
-0.0297760758548975,
-0.19521552324295044,
0.296573281288147,
-0.6251575350761414,
-0.3105614483356476,
-0.5191458463668823,
0.252824991941452,
0.32082638144493103,
-0.5706565380096436,
-0.4715592861175537,
-0.10813379287719727,
0.17504115402698517,
-0.37205758690834045,
0.11007897555828094,
-0.6685289740562439,
-0.11598699539899826,
0.503418505191803
] |
233488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20learning | Machine learning | Machine learning (ML) is the study of computer algorithms that can improve automatically through experience and by the use of data. It is seen as a part of artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a model based on sample data, known as training data, in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as in medicine, email filtering, speech recognition, and computer vision, where it is difficult or unfeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks.
A subset of machine learning is closely related to computational statistics, which focuses on making predictions using computers; but not all machine learning is statistical learning. The study of mathematical optimization delivers methods, theory and application domains to the field of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through unsupervised learning. Some implementations of machine learning use data and neural networks in a way that mimics the working of a biological brain. In its application across business problems, machine learning is also referred to as predictive analytics.
Overview
Learning algorithms work on the basis that strategies, algorithms, and inferences that worked well in the past are likely to continue working well in the future. These inferences can be obvious, such as "since the sun rose every morning for the last 10,000 days, it will probably rise tomorrow morning as well". They can be nuanced, such as "X% of families have geographically separate species with color variants, so there is a Y% chance that undiscovered black swans exist".
Machine learning programs can perform tasks without being explicitly programmed to do so. It involves computers learning from data provided so that they carry out certain tasks. For simple tasks assigned to computers, it is possible to program algorithms telling the machine how to execute all steps required to solve the problem at hand; on the computer's part, no learning is needed. For more advanced tasks, it can be challenging for a human to manually create the needed algorithms. In practice, it can turn out to be more effective to help the machine develop its own algorithm, rather than having human programmers specify every needed step.
The discipline of machine learning employs various approaches to teach computers to accomplish tasks where no fully satisfactory algorithm is available. In cases where vast numbers of potential answers exist, one approach is to label some of the correct answers as valid. This can then be used as training data for the computer to improve the algorithm(s) it uses to determine correct answers. For example, to train a system for the task of digital character recognition, the MNIST dataset of handwritten digits has often been used.
History and relationships to other fields
The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an American IBMer and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence. Also the synonym self-teaching computers was used in this time period. A representative book of the machine learning research during the 1960s was the Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification. Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973. In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.
Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E." This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?".
Modern day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. Where as, a machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.
Artificial intelligence
As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence. In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what was then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics. Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.
However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation. By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor. Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval. Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.
Machine learning (ML), reorganized as a separate field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics and probability theory.
The difference between ML and AI is frequently misunderstood. ML learns and predicts based on passive observations, whereas AI implies an agent interacting with the environment to learn and take actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.
As of 2020, many sources continue to assert that ML remains a subfield of AI. Others have the view that not all ML is part of AI, but only an 'intelligent subset' of ML should be considered AI.
Data mining
Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as "unsupervised learning" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.
Optimization
Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).
Generalization
The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms.
Statistics
Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns. According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics. He also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.
Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model, wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random forest.
Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call statistical learning.
Theory
A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience. Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases.
The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization error.
For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer.
In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time.
Approaches
Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning system:
Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.
Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).
Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize.
Supervised learning
Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs. The data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative optimization of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs. An optimal function will allow the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task.
Types of supervised learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression. Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email.
Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.
Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning algorithms take a set of data that contains only inputs, and find structure in the data, like grouping or clustering of data points. The algorithms, therefore, learn from test data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. A central application of unsupervised learning is in the field of density estimation in statistics, such as finding the probability density function. Though unsupervised learning encompasses other domains involving summarizing and explaining data features.
Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density and graph connectivity.
Semi-supervised learning
Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy.
In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.
Reinforcement learning
Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In machine learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques. Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP, and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent.
Dimensionality reduction
Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables. In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called "number of features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction.
One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA).
PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data.
The manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularization.
Other types
Other approaches have been developed which don't fit neatly into this three-fold categorisation, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example topic modeling, meta learning.
As of 2020, deep learning has become the dominant approach for much ongoing work in the field of machine learning.
Self learning
Self-learning as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning named crossbar adaptive array (CAA). It is a learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.
The self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine:
In situation s perform an action a;
Receive consequence situation s’;
Compute emotion of being in consequence situation v(s’);
Update crossbar memory w’(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s’).
It is a system with only one input, situation s, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations.
Feature learning
Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training. Classic examples include principal components analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.
Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorization and various forms of clustering.
Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors. Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.
Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded to attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms.
Sparse dictionary learning
Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of basis functions, and is assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately. A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the K-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.
Anomaly detection
In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data. Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions.
In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object, and many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless it has been aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.
Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist. Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model.
Robot learning
Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning, and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).
Association rules
Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of "interestingness".
Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction. Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems.
Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets. For example, the rule found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.
Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make predictions.
Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule-learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs.
Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting. Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples. The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.
Models
Performing machine learning involves creating a model, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems.
Artificial neural networks
Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.
An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called "artificial neurons", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times.
The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis.
Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.
Decision trees
Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision making.
Support-vector machines
Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category or the other. An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces.
Regression analysis
Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularization (mathematics) methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space.
Bayesian networks
A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.
Genetic algorithms
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s. Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.
Training models
Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts to society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result from data not fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams.
Federated learning
Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google.
Applications
There are many applications for machine learning, including:
Agriculture
Anatomy
Adaptive website
Affective computing
Astronomy
Banking
Bioinformatics
Brain–machine interfaces
Cheminformatics
Citizen science
Climate science
Computer networks
Computer vision
Credit-card fraud detection
Data quality
DNA sequence classification
Economics
Financial market analysis
General game playing
Handwriting recognition
Information retrieval
Insurance
Internet fraud detection
Knowledge graph embedding
Linguistics
Machine learning control
Machine perception
Machine translation
Marketing
Medical diagnosis
Natural language processing
Natural language understanding
Online advertising
Optimization
Recommender systems
Robot locomotion
Search engines
Sentiment analysis
Sequence mining
Software engineering
Speech recognition
Structural health monitoring
Syntactic pattern recognition
Telecommunication
Theorem proving
Time-series forecasting
User behavior analytics
Behaviorism
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million. Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly. In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis. In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors' jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software. In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists. In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning. In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19. Machine learning is recently applied to predict the green behavior of human-being. Recently, machine learning technology is also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone.
Limitations
Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results. Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.
In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision. Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.
Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.
Bias
Machine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on man-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society. Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases. Machine learning systems used for criminal risk assessment have been found to be biased against black people. In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas, and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all. Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems. In 2016, Microsoft tested a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language. Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains. Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that "There’s nothing artificial about AI...It’s inspired by people, it’s created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.”
Overfitting
Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data, but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.
Other limitations
Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses. A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often don't primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in "adversarial" images that the system misclassifies.
Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. Some systems are so brittle that changing a single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification.
Model assessments
Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy.
In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC).
Ethics
Machine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems which are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices. For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names. Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants. Responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system thus is a critical part of machine learning.
AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on objectivity and logical reasoning. Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases.
Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.
Hardware
Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units. By 2019, graphic processing units (GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI. OpenAI estimated the hardware compute used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.
Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks
A physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. "Physical" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse.
Embedded Machine Learning
Embedded Machine Learning is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and microcontrollers. Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration, using approximate computing, optimization of machine learning models and many more.
Software
Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:
Free and open-source software
Caffe
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit
Deeplearning4j
DeepSpeed
ELKI
Infer.NET
Keras
LightGBM
Mahout
Mallet
ML.NET
mlpack
MXNet
Neural Lab
OpenNN
Orange
pandas (software)
ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)
scikit-learn
Shogun
Spark MLlib
SystemML
TensorFlow
Torch / PyTorch
Weka / MOA
XGBoost
Yooreeka
Proprietary software with free and open-source editions
KNIME
RapidMiner
Proprietary software
Amazon Machine Learning
Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO
Azure Machine Learning
Ayasdi
IBM Watson Studio
Google Prediction API
IBM SPSS Modeler
KXEN Modeler
LIONsolver
Mathematica
MATLAB
Neural Designer
NeuroSolutions
Oracle Data Mining
Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service
PolyAnalyst
RCASE
SAS Enterprise Miner
SequenceL
Splunk
STATISTICA Data Miner
Journals
Journal of Machine Learning Research
Machine Learning
Nature Machine Intelligence
Neural Computation
Conferences
AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD)
International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)
International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)
See also
References
Sources
.
Further reading
Nils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning.
Trevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman (2001). The Elements of Statistical Learning, Springer. .
Pedro Domingos (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books,
Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., .
Ethem Alpaydin (2004). Introduction to Machine Learning, MIT Press, .
David J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, .
Christopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press. .
Stuart Russell & Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach. Pearson, .
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56–62, 1957.
Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI.
Kevin P. Murphy (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction, MIT Press.
External links
International Machine Learning Society
mloss is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.
Cybernetics
Learning | [
0.05819692090153694,
-0.20299048721790314,
-0.13430255651474,
0.6053638458251953,
0.10267981141805649,
0.2962356209754944,
-0.12553098797798157,
0.3179636299610138,
-0.22083747386932373,
-0.8525235652923584,
-0.40916386246681213,
0.865574061870575,
-0.25249066948890686,
-0.1389695703983307,
-0.27842649817466736,
-0.023733898997306824,
0.05422701686620712,
-0.3234209716320038,
-0.0006628481787629426,
-0.12220477312803268,
-0.28463509678840637,
0.38686254620552063,
-0.08783731609582901,
0.23088912665843964,
0.05679377168416977,
-0.08679685741662979,
-0.011594321578741074,
-0.07331816852092743,
0.05938183143734932,
0.028137734159827232,
-0.012430127710103989,
0.14390189945697784,
0.006964245345443487,
-0.349071204662323,
-0.2639336585998535,
0.2758719325065613,
-0.2706550657749176,
-0.01267408486455679,
-0.2303667962551117,
-0.23185819387435913,
0.27379897236824036,
0.14598006010055542,
-0.47975388169288635,
0.3332557678222656,
-0.42781031131744385,
-0.7543231844902039,
-1.8003530502319336,
0.0493219792842865,
-0.5684646964073181,
-0.01587115228176117,
-0.7567548751831055,
0.30057936906814575,
0.3211597800254822,
0.07823877036571503,
-0.1061413362622261,
0.6818056106567383,
0.1579221487045288,
-0.19593334197998047,
0.23441986739635468,
-0.12464651465415955,
0.3734439015388489,
0.029311418533325195,
-0.18689057230949402,
0.18697446584701538,
-0.10126636922359467,
-0.26453736424446106,
0.08253546059131622,
-0.20256350934505463,
-0.6450371742248535,
-0.7336295247077942,
0.05645686388015747,
-0.2228674292564392,
-0.3545910716056824,
0.26153698563575745,
-0.5873329043388367,
-0.6116116642951965,
0.4363316297531128,
-0.22017551958560944,
-0.31689801812171936,
0.0951409861445427,
-0.616949737071991,
0.9530974626541138,
0.562012255191803,
0.11431510001420975,
0.6434454917907715,
0.6190267205238342,
-0.46209099888801575,
0.8081841468811035,
-0.257828027009964,
0.18493422865867615,
-0.12457329034805298,
-0.4353419542312622,
0.3640373647212982,
0.09314409643411636,
0.16123969852924347,
0.31040188670158386,
0.4066535532474518,
-0.012805475853383541,
-0.0982453003525734,
0.4123176038265228,
-0.2241804152727127,
-0.3280138373374939,
0.4592799246311188,
-0.07593442499637604,
0.32604101300239563,
0.054860811680555344,
0.3062005937099457,
-0.531724750995636,
-0.2970501184463501,
-0.3748975098133087,
-0.7497076988220215,
0.502935528755188,
-0.20938043296337128,
0.119669608771801,
-0.6893921494483948,
0.2747228443622589,
0.20383451879024506,
0.23086392879486084,
-0.6157397031784058,
0.33609503507614136,
-0.25634241104125977,
0.5140737891197205,
0.1534872204065323,
0.4052965044975281,
-0.34653809666633606,
0.30239078402519226,
0.5167444348335266,
0.6639126539230347,
-0.3854992985725403,
-0.7448841333389282,
0.5376641154289246,
0.6762422323226929,
0.07364428043365479,
-0.04219495505094528,
-0.07625535130500793,
0.3495124876499176,
0.5211668610572815,
0.01804843172430992,
-0.382412314414978,
0.23528458178043365,
-0.814085841178894,
-0.4553373157978058,
-0.5303800702095032,
-0.1293737143278122,
0.3171217143535614,
-0.1790839284658432,
0.5398621559143066,
-0.622671365737915,
-0.2193097323179245,
-0.10609330236911774,
-0.3940558433532715,
0.2982204556465149,
-0.8301165103912354,
0.08648841083049774,
0.13479715585708618,
0.7447713613510132,
-0.10940816253423691,
0.040425751358270645,
-0.21823352575302124,
0.11437799036502838,
-0.16036520898342133,
-0.12080584466457367,
-0.5842459797859192,
-0.43818405270576477,
-0.121375173330307,
-0.7488420009613037,
0.5192356109619141,
0.7311160564422607,
0.31763869524002075,
0.32872816920280457,
-0.27603086829185486,
-0.4438626766204834,
0.28590714931488037,
-0.6788790822029114,
-0.3948363959789276,
-0.23942555487155914,
0.19025205075740814,
0.2917253375053406,
0.8100122213363647,
-0.057684943079948425,
-0.6376482844352722,
0.14757795631885529,
0.4332863688468933,
-0.1969761997461319,
0.23191872239112854,
-0.30821025371551514,
0.4951569736003876,
-0.3265834152698517,
-0.29426366090774536,
-0.09667985886335373,
-0.3459942042827606,
0.019864331930875778,
0.2519572079181671,
-0.677259087562561,
1.131294846534729,
0.21351942420005798,
-0.6934891939163208,
1.1066325902938843,
-0.6261862516403198,
0.21701310575008392,
0.19923214614391327,
-0.34992343187332153,
0.18173371255397797,
-0.5951545238494873,
-0.7397000193595886,
0.4346250295639038,
0.13698138296604156,
-0.021618174389004707,
-0.47630545496940613,
0.22597549855709076,
0.4732241928577423,
-0.16217529773712158,
0.008430988527834415,
-0.3404679000377655,
0.25581949949264526,
0.47727644443511963,
-0.8500358462333679,
0.3369457721710205,
0.21474124491214752,
-0.1325225830078125,
1.055084228515625,
-0.2627277374267578,
0.21317361295223236,
0.5756993293762207,
0.16844621300697327,
0.8510723114013672,
0.5006617903709412,
0.5827241539955139,
1.070233941078186,
-0.6154804825782776,
0.006200626492500305,
-0.2036280632019043,
0.4764902889728546,
-0.15274430811405182,
-0.5066187381744385,
0.3094014823436737,
0.11287488043308258,
-0.5425093173980713,
-0.016099432483315468,
-0.29884833097457886,
-0.1476520299911499,
0.09443224966526031,
-0.19328255951404572,
0.08055278658866882,
0.32105767726898193,
-0.25352275371551514,
-0.37331128120422363,
0.46253862977027893,
-0.2928144633769989,
-0.2565397322177887,
0.01926502212882042,
0.5861104130744934,
0.4379112720489502,
-0.2625846862792969,
-0.5343266129493713,
-0.3951345682144165,
-0.266472190618515,
0.00672253267839551,
0.10749141871929169,
0.6100266575813293,
0.01621835306286812,
-0.31957393884658813,
0.16467741131782532,
0.0811988040804863,
0.09535065293312073,
-0.8548543453216553,
-0.4632629156112671,
-0.22288234531879425,
0.13085827231407166,
0.17263005673885345,
0.6724733114242554,
-0.30069175362586975,
0.11845778673887253,
-0.4392448365688324,
-0.1807919144630432,
-1.2558681964874268,
0.499057412147522,
0.1996650993824005,
-0.7616377472877502,
-0.5055553317070007,
0.25211697816848755,
0.18254394829273224,
0.6364546418190002,
-0.12272883951663971,
-0.6842966079711914,
0.07738777995109558,
-0.5402987599372864,
-0.2397906333208084,
0.28158822655677795,
0.08347369730472565,
-0.3846961557865143,
0.5212504267692566,
-0.3666243851184845,
-0.015569737181067467,
0.5409774780273438,
0.5991845726966858,
-0.03329050540924072,
0.05965421721339226,
0.26523780822753906,
-0.4425519108772278,
-0.2366131693124771,
0.2762761116027832,
-0.1306922435760498,
-0.062022414058446884,
-0.3177940845489502,
-0.27506783604621887,
0.031104376539587975,
0.27600905299186707,
-5.681463718414307,
-0.581600546836853,
0.0005377887864597142,
-0.09696009755134583,
-0.11885950714349747,
-0.10901889950037003,
0.7119803428649902,
0.08393900096416473,
-0.3017156422138214,
-0.33556440472602844,
-0.20939013361930847,
0.13152126967906952,
-0.2830061912536621,
0.6202520132064819,
0.36401575803756714,
0.37813371419906616,
0.24869948625564575,
-0.24463939666748047,
-0.03329279273748398,
0.7477216720581055,
-0.09821967035531998,
-0.3140149712562561,
-0.4573611915111542,
0.6505985856056213,
-0.3282843232154846,
-0.026531364768743515,
-0.45246660709381104,
0.13936932384967804,
-0.4291614294052124,
0.029360292479395866,
0.04890760779380798,
-0.6044190526008606,
-0.4877723753452301,
-0.09175335615873337,
0.27759289741516113,
0.2830025255680084,
0.7674598693847656,
0.3698936402797699,
0.3343487083911896,
-0.1974545568227768,
-0.008455251343548298,
0.21095015108585358,
0.056570351123809814,
-0.43990546464920044,
0.17692209780216217,
0.09466992318630219,
-0.348637193441391,
-0.043698735535144806,
-0.4595120847225189,
0.37264683842658997,
-0.6007033586502075,
0.1575193703174591,
0.20804399251937866,
-0.21165306866168976,
0.6827225685119629,
-0.46427884697914124,
0.610642671585083,
-0.06212989240884781,
-0.0721316933631897,
0.3309350907802582,
0.18393485248088837,
-0.5356628894805908,
0.2546886205673218,
-1.02846360206604,
-0.3029434084892273,
0.12525326013565063,
-0.5817199945449829,
-0.9222375750541687,
0.2896398603916168,
0.18384914100170135,
-0.02533004619181156,
0.5502265095710754,
0.1884911209344864,
-0.3830219507217407,
0.1515146642923355,
-0.4387376606464386,
-0.05519936606287956,
-0.2538898289203644,
0.49306660890579224,
0.4297579526901245,
-0.1222274899482727,
-0.9027341604232788,
-0.45543527603149414,
-0.3677979111671448,
0.09103667736053467,
-0.15797512233257294,
-0.017817849293351173,
-0.11462124437093735,
-0.5327569842338562,
-0.09358289837837219,
0.8811891674995422,
0.12142547965049744,
0.3691768944263458,
0.39126381278038025,
0.644398033618927,
-0.16418245434761047,
0.5087330937385559,
0.2591747045516968,
0.16961604356765747,
-0.16653980314731598,
0.29627111554145813,
-0.6492950916290283,
-0.3363139033317566,
-0.4271211326122284,
0.2519736588001251,
0.18929296731948853,
-0.49657273292541504,
0.21152442693710327,
1.0662188529968262,
-0.3764825463294983,
-0.12073415517807007,
0.3704223036766052,
-0.3473691940307617,
0.3038962781429291,
-0.4232085645198822,
0.41129714250564575,
-0.6666874885559082,
-0.21942274272441864,
0.30819350481033325,
-0.3109138309955597,
-0.24293115735054016,
-0.12600252032279968,
-0.13458862900733948,
0.01614188589155674,
0.7848731875419617,
-0.43952319025993347,
0.46998947858810425,
0.3081774115562439,
0.3018791675567627,
-0.33692994713783264,
0.3390229344367981,
0.4107271432876587,
0.02184528298676014,
0.2512833774089813,
-0.018001416698098183,
-0.3012377917766571,
-0.016019141301512718,
0.5018509030342102,
0.028662066906690598,
-0.649335503578186,
0.7751647233963013,
-0.11137698590755463,
0.611699104309082,
-0.2878020703792572,
0.7691959142684937,
0.18964356184005737,
-0.27916502952575684,
-0.21518707275390625,
-0.2415245920419693,
0.22330035269260406,
0.0472114123404026,
-0.232321098446846,
-0.27844032645225525,
0.14479245245456696,
0.2381749451160431,
0.03172503784298897,
-0.1615423709154129,
0.008801305666565895,
0.3143691420555115,
-0.26377567648887634,
0.27427664399147034,
-0.07669886946678162,
-0.933840274810791,
-0.35729163885116577,
-0.19517970085144043,
0.46608850359916687,
-0.6865739822387695,
0.009635291993618011,
0.0007814235868863761,
0.18530398607254028,
0.21017436683177948,
-0.6644573211669922,
-0.34886956214904785,
-0.6314025521278381,
0.11719992011785507,
0.14169158041477203,
0.30590105056762695,
-0.09802182763814926,
-0.37863656878471375,
-0.34731584787368774,
0.21818317472934723,
-0.6575849056243896,
-0.2243160456418991,
0.5516582727432251,
0.5026020407676697,
-0.2648608684539795,
0.3789958953857422,
0.29689016938209534,
-0.4867924451828003,
-0.013313667848706245,
0.26388001441955566,
0.24749861657619476,
0.5457585453987122,
0.22228780388832092,
0.3059527277946472,
-0.4169929325580597,
0.1443866342306137,
0.09604059904813766,
-0.04761720821261406,
-0.7326642870903015,
-0.17803823947906494,
0.5206333994865417,
-0.3009362816810608,
-0.009830139577388763,
0.41607028245925903,
-0.5420763492584229,
-0.32072338461875916,
-0.3661808967590332,
-0.17069588601589203,
0.033088549971580505,
-0.8909922242164612,
0.08394444733858109,
-0.04988621547818184,
-0.026727093383669853,
-0.5282301306724548,
-0.037773024290800095,
0.7214118242263794,
-0.017221257090568542,
-0.5685968995094299,
0.1612611711025238,
0.21918796002864838,
0.1572636514902115,
-0.31118881702423096,
-0.053741808980703354,
-0.2534398138523102,
-0.15821950137615204,
0.07168697565793991,
-0.1340981423854828,
0.14573322236537933,
0.11657640337944031,
-0.22849158942699432,
-0.3057612180709839,
0.02436264604330063,
0.09366568922996521,
0.12509100139141083,
-0.13945575058460236,
-0.058419119566679,
1.0007364749908447,
-0.27672189474105835,
-1.159813404083252,
0.42825305461883545,
1.095127820968628,
-0.5523996353149414,
0.11895586550235748,
0.05325622111558914,
0.4649534225463867,
0.04425453022122383,
-0.2126416116952896,
-0.6663238406181335,
-0.20143437385559082,
0.1941618025302887,
-0.052502818405628204,
-0.0031347288750112057,
0.41172710061073303,
0.3209434449672699,
0.09285178780555725,
0.1315455287694931,
-0.46924611926078796,
0.28797444701194763,
0.14111897349357605,
0.16825959086418152,
-0.5056912899017334,
-0.2632593810558319,
-0.305062860250473,
0.27224698662757874,
0.17042158544063568,
-0.2315569370985031,
-0.134957417845726,
0.28395286202430725,
-0.2790433168411255,
0.3931540548801422,
-0.5715324282646179,
-0.0063504306599497795,
0.6816458702087402,
0.5147488713264465,
-0.03742777556180954,
0.0031304655130952597,
-0.012391618452966213,
-0.29397645592689514,
-0.18409858644008636,
0.14207424223423004,
-0.07707693427801132,
0.32147449254989624,
-0.8328515291213989,
0.14344307780265808,
-0.45049023628234863,
0.7247961163520813,
0.010274593718349934,
-0.3659610152244568,
-0.13539059460163116,
-0.5560373067855835,
0.19741953909397125,
-0.08347383141517639,
0.46580642461776733,
-0.429388165473938,
-0.4400375485420227,
0.17555825412273407,
0.07963866740465164,
-0.3683689534664154,
0.13683176040649414,
-0.21120312809944153,
0.4685920774936676,
0.23393158614635468,
-0.9373518228530884,
0.6241335272789001,
0.17845742404460907,
0.14002545177936554,
-0.017306631430983543,
-0.19961822032928467,
-0.23938384652137756,
0.11698486655950546,
0.003874238347634673,
0.06467220187187195,
0.5632349848747253,
-0.27206870913505554,
-0.07072027027606964,
0.3637646436691284,
-0.41241732239723206,
0.6772979497909546,
0.5878677368164062,
-0.19441084563732147,
0.1703748106956482,
0.6514127850532532,
-0.4731777012348175,
-0.02236074209213257,
0.5235217213630676,
-0.06946560740470886,
0.018063250929117203,
0.17798008024692535,
0.17946261167526245,
0.6245768666267395,
-0.05320412293076515,
-0.14531733095645905,
0.7813364267349243,
0.05335459113121033,
-0.43019354343414307,
0.5803832411766052,
-0.34416186809539795,
0.02740509808063507,
0.19913308322429657,
1.068062424659729,
0.082381971180439,
0.08862145990133286,
0.8524705767631531,
-0.43901336193084717,
0.3669883906841278,
0.5853703618049622,
0.8007102608680725,
-0.8068451881408691,
0.07477473467588425,
0.5071303844451904,
-0.591434121131897,
0.8051143884658813,
-0.2240026295185089,
0.06845401972532272,
-0.6997689604759216,
0.6352136135101318,
0.048784174025058746,
-0.1821499466896057,
-0.11226187646389008,
0.47418412566185,
0.5620899200439453,
0.9022807478904724,
-0.348932683467865,
0.25025177001953125,
0.2880806028842926,
0.4039760231971741,
-0.37062978744506836,
-0.10016360133886337,
0.5856792330741882,
-0.33513936400413513,
0.40223291516304016,
-0.01459114532917738,
0.5233228802680969,
0.15245890617370605,
-0.3353685140609741,
-0.12803776562213898,
0.4204840362071991,
-0.028772756457328796,
-0.01943129301071167,
0.4429372549057007,
-0.03047754056751728,
-0.028822818771004677,
-0.13313926756381989,
-0.06575590372085571,
-0.23503994941711426,
-0.40341609716415405,
0.225948765873909,
-0.4106561839580536,
0.014321740716695786,
-0.39395612478256226,
-0.4468485116958618,
0.23549814522266388,
0.060442425310611725,
0.2355986088514328,
0.25512048602104187,
-0.31117451190948486,
0.8279151320457458,
0.09517624974250793,
0.12495484948158264,
-0.1816706657409668,
-0.07684754580259323,
0.004822170827537775,
0.2658575773239136,
-0.9449023008346558,
-0.19743947684764862,
-0.5093753933906555,
0.2529374063014984,
-0.3263230323791504,
0.5777551531791687,
0.6272334456443787,
-0.25286489725112915,
-0.02182089351117611,
0.207991823554039,
0.02055615745484829,
0.54068922996521,
0.07012245059013367,
-0.3912109136581421,
0.3182045817375183,
0.07125845551490784,
0.039414990693330765,
0.09909258782863617,
0.7253684997558594,
0.08834325522184372,
0.13993635773658752,
0.1997072845697403,
0.004979858640581369,
0.044253844767808914,
-0.09176260232925415,
0.010715807788074017,
-0.09159296751022339,
0.13712067902088165,
-0.5296831727027893,
0.6743209958076477,
-0.12762248516082764,
-0.4931637644767761,
0.2261711061000824,
0.14129884541034698,
-0.013573967851698399,
-0.3485095500946045,
-0.17658324539661407,
0.02696281298995018,
-0.2349972128868103,
0.24859830737113953,
-1.4783358573913574,
0.3357284963130951,
0.03424772247672081,
-0.24431027472019196,
-0.23367372155189514,
0.06345580518245697,
0.49287092685699463,
-0.05212460085749626,
-0.15943963825702667,
0.029836125671863556,
-0.45843032002449036,
0.7083708047866821,
0.17863638699054718,
-0.5107730031013489,
-0.6533805131912231,
0.323477178812027
] |
233490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minaret | Minaret | Minaret (; , , , from or المنارة menara) is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets serve multiple purposes. While they provide a visual focal point, they are generally used for the Muslim call to prayer (adhan), though they may also exist as standalone non-religious structures, especially in the Indian subcontinent. Minarets can have a variety of forms, from thick, squat towers to soaring, pencil-thin spires. The top is often decorated with a conical or onion-shaped crown.
Functions
In the early 9th century, the first minarets were placed opposite the qibla wall. Oftentimes, this placement was not beneficial in reaching the community for the call to prayer. They served as a reminder that the region was Islamic and helped to distinguish mosques from the surrounding architecture.
In addition to providing a visual cue to a Muslim community, the other function is to provide a vantage point from which the call to prayer, or adhan, is made. The call to prayer is issued five times each day: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. In most modern mosques, the is called from the (prayer hall) via microphone to a speaker system on the minaret.
Construction
The region's socio-cultural context have influenced the shape, size and form of miranets. Stairs circle the shaft in a counter-clockwise fashion, providing necessary structural support to the highly elongated shaft. The gallery is a balcony that encircles the upper sections from which the muezzin may give the call to prayer. It is covered by a roof-like canopy and adorned with ornamentation, such as decorative brick and tile work, cornices, arches and inscriptions, with the transition from the shaft to the gallery typically displaying muqarnas.
History
The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller tower structures. Hadiths relay that the early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the roof of the house of Muhammad, which doubled as a place for prayer.
Scholarly findings trace the origin of minarets to the Umayyad Caliphate and explain that these minarets were a copy of church steeples found in Syria in those times. The first minarets were derived architecturally from the Syrian church tower. Other references suggest that the towers in Syria originated from ziggurats of Babylonian and Assyrian shrines of Mesopotamia.
The first known minarets appear in the early 9th century under Abbasid rule, and were not widely used until the 11th century. These early minaret forms were originally placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. These towers were built across the empire in a height to width ratio of 3:1.
However, there is a report that the first minaret was dated during the early days of Umayyad caliphate in 6th century AD, which built by Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari, the governor of Egypt during that time
In the Indian subcontinent, minars can often exist as non-religious structures, in addition to being used in mosques. Prominent examples of such minars include the Kos minars, which served as distance markers, Chand minar and Firoz minar. Minars have also been used as memorials in the post-colonial era, especially in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore and Fateh Burj near Chandigarh are examples of this.
The oldest minaret survived toward 20th century is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia and it is consequently the oldest minaret still standing. The construction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan dates to the year 836. The mosque is constituted by three levels of decreasing widths that reach 31.5 meters tall.
Minarets have had various forms (in general round, squared, spiral or octagonal) in light of their architectural function. Minarets are built out of any material that is readily available, and often changes from region to region. The number of minarets by mosques is not fixed, originally one minaret would accompany each mosque, then the builder could construct several more.
Local styles
Central Asia
During the Seljuk period, minarets were highly decorated with geometric and calligraphic design. They were built prolifically, even at smaller mosques or mosque complexes. Additionally, minarets during the Seljuk period were characterized by their circular plans and octagonal bases. The Bukhara minaret remains the most well known of the Seljuk minarets for its use of brick patterns and inscriptions.
The "international Timurid" style surfaced in central Asia during the 17th century and is categorized by the use of multiple minarets. Examples of this style include the minarets on the roof of the south gate in Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra (1613), the minarets on the Tomb of Jahangir (1628-1638), as well as the four minarets surrounding the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal.
Egypt
The styles of minarets have varied slightly throughout the history of Egypt. Most minarets were on a square base, however, the shaft could be plain or decorated and topped with various crowns and pavilions. The tiers of the minaret are often separated by balconies.
The Mosque of al-Hakim, built between 990 and 1010, has a square base with a shaft that tapers towards the crown.
East China
Eastern Chinese minarets were heavily influenced by the Islamic minarets of Iran. They often had circular platforms and cylindrical shafts with decorative patterns of the Chinese landscape. The Tower of Light, also known as the Guangta minaret (1350), merges aspects of Islamic and Chinese architecture.
Iraq
The Great Mosque of Samarra (848–852) is one of the earliest minarets and is characterized by a cylindrical tower outside the walls of the mosque. A common Abbasid style of minaret, also seen in Iraq, is characterized by a structure with a polygonal base and a thick cylindrical shaft. It is also typically found on the roof of the mosque.
Two examples of this style are the Mosque of al-Khaffafin and the Mosque of Qumriyya.
IranThe minarets of 12th century Iran often had cylindrical shafts with square or octagonal bases that taper towards their capitals. These minarets became the most common style across the Islamic world. These forms were also highly decorated. Pairs of minaret towers that flank the mosque entrance originate from Iran.
Southeast Asia
Tower minarets were not as common in Southeast Asia as mosques were designed to function more as community structures. Mosques were designed to be much smaller and occasionally contained staircase minarets.
Tunisia
The minaret at the Great Mosque of Kairouan, built in 836, influenced all other minarets in the Islamic west. It is the oldest minaret in the Muslim world.
Turkey
The Seljuks of Rum, a successor state of the Seljuks, built paired portal minarets from brick that had Iranian origins.
In general, minarets in Anatolia were singular and received decorative emphasis while the mosque remained plain. The minarets were used at the corners of mosques, as seen in the Divrigi Great Mosque.
The Ottoman Empire continued the Iranian tradition of cylindrical tapering minaret forms with a square base. Minarets were often topped with crescent moon symbols. Use of more than one minaret, and larger minarets, was used to show patronage.
For example, the Suleymaniye Dome has minarets reaching 70 meters.
West Africa
West African minarets are characterized by glazed ceramics that allowed the structures to take on new monumental forms. Typically, they are a single, square minaret with battered walls. Notable exceptions include a few octagonal minarets in northern cities - Chefchaouen, Tetouan, Rabat, Ouezzane, Asilah, and Tangier - and the round minaret of Moulay Idriss.
See also
List of oldest minarets
List of tallest minarets
2009 Swiss minaret referendum
List of tallest mosques
References
Sources
Further reading
Jonathan M. Bloom (1989), Minaret, symbol of Islam, Oxford University Press.
External links
"The Minaret, Symbol of a Civilization"
Islamic architectural elements
Mosque architecture
Architectural elements
Arabic architecture
Islamic terminology
Architecture of Iran | [
0.25122055411338806,
0.4557841122150421,
-0.21068742871284485,
-0.4078499972820282,
-0.014814171940088272,
0.26441672444343567,
0.7456830143928528,
-0.35568955540657043,
-0.4201648533344269,
-0.248960480093956,
-0.9070637226104736,
0.10165202617645264,
-0.4894883930683136,
0.3998415768146515,
-0.42041829228401184,
0.26076361536979675,
1.0190845727920532,
0.5400614738464355,
-0.2074001282453537,
-0.028193160891532898,
-0.056668881326913834,
-0.3631531894207001,
0.4036083221435547,
-0.8359616994857788,
0.5984909534454346,
-0.07712331414222717,
0.4060870110988617,
0.30409061908721924,
-0.19546569883823395,
0.4129860997200012,
0.4572663903236389,
0.5450385808944702,
0.1335383504629135,
-0.35765448212623596,
0.3661558926105499,
-0.08268623799085617,
0.6000763177871704,
-0.3621520400047302,
-0.3729146122932434,
-0.6049317717552185,
0.1716785877943039,
-0.58194500207901,
0.4987426698207855,
0.9052067995071411,
-0.6514331102371216,
-1.0548652410507202,
-1.120072364807129,
0.3003290891647339,
-0.89459228515625,
0.06096043065190315,
-0.29846620559692383,
0.21290183067321777,
-0.00846953596919775,
0.07931000739336014,
0.5170900225639343,
1.1602898836135864,
-1.0920040607452393,
-0.08713369816541672,
0.20305919647216797,
-0.3824492394924164,
1.0118001699447632,
0.2625458538532257,
0.4111912250518799,
0.2663392126560211,
0.27038681507110596,
-0.14264245331287384,
-0.31300902366638184,
-0.06816470623016357,
-0.11716540902853012,
0.499163419008255,
-0.3250703811645508,
-0.15678519010543823,
-0.3222792148590088,
-0.40506163239479065,
-0.4817171096801758,
0.32266363501548767,
-0.29677096009254456,
-0.5479298233985901,
0.209059938788414,
-0.5121447443962097,
0.018864665180444717,
-0.091628797352314,
-0.19366006553173065,
0.2640937864780426,
0.11807558685541153,
0.1984729915857315,
-0.46110305190086365,
-0.0031344573944807053,
-0.2237781435251236,
0.2449231594800949,
-0.0014569888589903712,
0.06524799019098282,
0.1711624711751938,
0.9005812406539917,
0.09514053165912628,
0.18367666006088257,
0.061232391744852066,
0.304716557264328,
-0.2340834140777588,
0.3007200062274933,
0.32129400968551636,
0.37339094281196594,
0.08578561991453171,
-0.09555403143167496,
-0.08225981146097183,
-0.21623043715953827,
-0.4200332760810852,
-0.38564351201057434,
-0.6526501178741455,
-0.18427033722400665,
-0.18979057669639587,
0.6777839064598083,
0.20906324684619904,
-0.194853276014328,
0.0808630958199501,
0.09034670144319534,
0.4253956079483032,
0.03931540995836258,
-0.6710807681083679,
-0.34336936473846436,
-0.3413647711277008,
0.5065576434135437,
0.09112513810396194,
-0.3139132559299469,
0.22914183139801025,
-0.3810420036315918,
0.22316959500312805,
0.745841920375824,
-1.073643684387207,
0.5274056792259216,
0.3129134774208069,
0.58194500207901,
0.020699217915534973,
-0.15186600387096405,
-0.200165256857872,
-0.5438993573188782,
0.4762304723262787,
-0.4563326835632324,
1.126395344734192,
0.5697970986366272,
-1.1676684617996216,
0.1537618190050125,
-0.4134242534637451,
-0.029234470799565315,
0.21646694839000702,
-0.4086299538612366,
0.057944267988204956,
-0.3190360963344574,
-0.7590499520301819,
-0.5173293352127075,
-0.44047510623931885,
-0.26348134875297546,
0.09397052973508835,
-0.16698023676872253,
-0.022967416793107986,
-0.07885424792766571,
0.26514628529548645,
-0.1225992813706398,
-0.21922196447849274,
-0.3747243583202362,
-0.00500057777389884,
-0.05391713231801987,
0.2926420271396637,
0.06678628921508789,
0.19471375644207,
0.30618786811828613,
0.5564838647842407,
0.47842204570770264,
0.5600415468215942,
0.4052087962627411,
-0.11190346628427505,
-0.42268985509872437,
0.12066859006881714,
0.0872613862156868,
-0.1871025115251541,
-0.15987275540828705,
1.2307562828063965,
0.08571021258831024,
0.43410611152648926,
0.05659470707178116,
-0.6972914934158325,
0.031146086752414703,
0.4243389666080475,
-0.04741421341896057,
0.8472985625267029,
0.1398480236530304,
0.028036339208483696,
0.09648048877716064,
-0.37609148025512695,
-0.7292583584785461,
-0.2830067276954651,
-0.4183502495288849,
-0.31004759669303894,
0.04252467304468155,
0.5752820372581482,
-0.038554780185222626,
-0.33450937271118164,
0.881018877029419,
0.15573294460773468,
0.41581809520721436,
0.26469549536705017,
0.14428263902664185,
0.8711380958557129,
-0.5442981123924255,
-0.2715112566947937,
0.35573437809944153,
0.6995124220848083,
0.5591767430305481,
0.3148016631603241,
0.129538893699646,
1.0315494537353516,
-0.8870602250099182,
-0.04562101513147354,
0.1017991378903389,
-0.085595041513443,
-0.2282276302576065,
-0.12366627901792526,
0.07406219840049744,
-0.22083865106105804,
0.12856540083885193,
0.7268803715705872,
-0.14838910102844238,
-0.4474138915538788,
0.5879728198051453,
-0.3093101382255554,
-0.00760004622861743,
-0.1571779102087021,
-0.037079859524965286,
0.35728445649147034,
0.014441235922276974,
0.19600972533226013,
-0.17485198378562927,
0.8557338714599609,
-0.10136593878269196,
-0.9792594313621521,
0.20401985943317413,
0.09065910428762436,
0.17416033148765564,
0.7204451560974121,
-0.6448764204978943,
-0.5586085319519043,
0.0819387212395668,
-0.30630505084991455,
0.19361668825149536,
0.6466556191444397,
-0.6944286823272705,
-0.1555653065443039,
0.08023050427436829,
0.230439692735672,
0.09252942353487015,
0.05328156799077988,
-0.19769644737243652,
0.24243998527526855,
-0.8235614895820618,
0.7523955702781677,
-0.03493204712867737,
0.1173098161816597,
0.1641976237297058,
0.21836541593074799,
0.12101774662733078,
-0.9698922634124756,
0.8947345018386841,
0.4586470425128937,
0.05819759517908096,
-0.3002772927284241,
0.1319696605205536,
0.38515380024909973,
-0.22772890329360962,
0.2223975658416748,
0.31536316871643066,
0.37707218527793884,
-0.34534335136413574,
-0.6332980394363403,
0.20299720764160156,
0.2444113790988922,
-0.47390252351760864,
0.0014892088947817683,
-0.06543758511543274,
-0.35474061965942383,
-0.0925532877445221,
0.3780258595943451,
0.3539479672908783,
0.6377706527709961,
-0.5694746375083923,
-0.17725998163223267,
-0.5737223029136658,
0.29419711232185364,
-0.5848298072814941,
0.08098585158586502,
-0.510665774345398,
-0.7277557253837585,
0.5786170959472656,
0.008451889269053936,
0.22257660329341888,
-0.12735430896282196,
0.3564101457595825,
-0.41598159074783325,
-0.20827001333236694,
0.30990156531333923,
-0.21544891595840454,
-0.235677570104599,
0.3510066866874695,
-0.5970311164855957,
-0.059934213757514954,
-0.07452812790870667,
0.5787619352340698,
-0.19759789109230042,
0.2937360405921936,
-5.615096569061279,
-0.09467216581106186,
0.22046008706092834,
-0.2603919804096222,
0.32473137974739075,
-0.20688754320144653,
0.6178317070007324,
-0.6253253221511841,
0.06117476150393486,
-0.421851247549057,
0.07003723084926605,
-0.12618616223335266,
0.4335085451602936,
0.5713348388671875,
0.04847729951143265,
-0.02095125988125801,
-0.059886232018470764,
-0.04308038577437401,
0.3352455198764801,
-0.32256025075912476,
0.4490237534046173,
-0.18118056654930115,
-0.2167799025774002,
0.45008406043052673,
0.3994031250476837,
-0.050019361078739166,
-0.31987378001213074,
0.05438792705535889,
-0.5504356622695923,
-0.34260180592536926,
0.11186272650957108,
-0.10118190944194794,
-0.043070025742053986,
0.003635336412116885,
0.2565494179725647,
0.4600315988063812,
0.7804442048072815,
-0.1989845484495163,
0.42123815417289734,
0.07906363159418106,
0.2747408151626587,
0.5212093591690063,
0.4211871922016144,
0.39729705452919006,
0.479111909866333,
-0.603607177734375,
-0.017424391582608223,
-0.6470226049423218,
-0.12794648110866547,
0.6931412816047668,
0.14489376544952393,
0.24875560402870178,
0.49421948194503784,
-0.7331190705299377,
-0.42405545711517334,
-0.01830175705254078,
0.2525727152824402,
-0.3278944492340088,
-0.29273146390914917,
0.19875431060791016,
-0.16798032820224762,
-0.17980432510375977,
0.25792738795280457,
-0.499582439661026,
0.9525104761123657,
-0.443850576877594,
-0.4060717225074768,
-0.18082374334335327,
0.7151833176612854,
0.03801840916275978,
-0.6177599430084229,
0.15529680252075195,
-0.12015335261821747,
-0.9728362560272217,
0.5874095559120178,
-0.3991471230983734,
0.038070015609264374,
-0.11642512679100037,
-0.10483089089393616,
-0.48042628169059753,
-0.1449512392282486,
-0.10630618035793304,
0.1514817625284195,
0.18560868501663208,
0.41826191544532776,
-0.8115208148956299,
-0.12361299246549606,
0.0016531477449461818,
-0.1379774510860443,
-0.17620299756526947,
1.155106782913208,
-0.7363460063934326,
0.46525177359580994,
0.1746593415737152,
0.14340132474899292,
0.9405679702758789,
-0.07242025434970856,
-0.008594473823904991,
0.9498518109321594,
0.10070931911468506,
-0.23895950615406036,
-0.20733734965324402,
0.6436541676521301,
0.5018825531005859,
0.02114257775247097,
-0.059775471687316895,
-0.6457899808883667,
0.523665726184845,
0.6037307977676392,
-0.17998749017715454,
-0.1663222312927246,
0.17847506701946259,
-0.5477716326713562,
-0.31760334968566895,
0.26864784955978394,
-0.15352033078670502,
-0.0747903436422348,
0.876491129398346,
0.1651206910610199,
0.1549834907054901,
0.2386985719203949,
0.06196695938706398,
-0.3038228154182434,
-0.14928646385669708,
0.05360213294625282,
-0.04976692423224449,
-0.09582112729549408,
-0.3590404987335205,
0.19675953686237335,
-0.3714164197444916,
0.6895611882209778,
-0.010012752376496792,
-0.10392184555530548,
-0.027508938685059547,
-0.14915914833545685,
-0.4438759386539459,
-0.4962858557701111,
-0.39859282970428467,
-0.4401110112667084,
-0.26874202489852905,
-0.2560982406139374,
-0.4334622621536255,
0.016194241121411324,
0.5335249900817871,
0.42691078782081604,
0.5132297277450562,
-0.005253585521131754,
0.5740649700164795,
-0.06197667121887207,
0.6770535111427307,
-0.6871081590652466,
-0.0989745482802391,
0.3302188515663147,
-0.8041297793388367,
-0.22612106800079346,
0.3916388154029846,
0.757265031337738,
0.7405274510383606,
-0.7524317502975464,
-0.39815422892570496,
-0.19426783919334412,
-0.09002281725406647,
-0.7075244188308716,
-0.1226341649889946,
-0.766345739364624,
0.4383167028427124,
-0.059529367834329605,
0.5476154685020447,
-0.4531015157699585,
0.5354517102241516,
0.07062578946352005,
-0.5640807747840881,
-0.6750255227088928,
-0.39443618059158325,
0.6409716010093689,
0.32850223779678345,
0.4473276436328888,
0.4266265630722046,
0.09318629652261734,
-0.5098766684532166,
-0.4049166440963745,
0.3175991475582123,
0.30820703506469727,
0.7900540828704834,
0.6495667695999146,
0.04450682923197746,
-0.496398389339447,
-0.2912675440311432,
-0.49086397886276245,
0.12174811214208603,
0.4633292853832245,
-0.31299713253974915,
0.13548094034194946,
-0.1047283187508583,
-0.0372367724776268,
-0.5425217747688293,
-0.10650833696126938,
0.5253804326057434,
0.09261948615312576,
-0.07077901810407639,
-0.3273942470550537,
0.20295360684394836,
-0.7916032075881958,
0.724791407585144,
-0.1992163360118866,
-0.41928690671920776,
0.7507254481315613,
0.017949463799595833,
-0.11066149175167084,
0.22046427428722382,
-0.35474294424057007,
-0.5505537986755371,
0.15790392458438873,
0.6657313108444214,
-0.2563804090023041,
-0.5013511180877686,
-0.07900484651327133,
0.1720280796289444,
-0.20132564008235931,
-0.6130364537239075,
0.2269718050956726,
-1.0006608963012695,
-0.03341636434197426,
0.08772940933704376,
-0.4856441617012024,
0.2106175273656845,
-0.4771798253059387,
-0.34915193915367126,
0.22194693982601166,
-0.13329221308231354,
0.40877294540405273,
0.26452675461769104,
0.2553137540817261,
0.051144350320100784,
0.15171873569488525,
-0.9683888554573059,
-0.07457209378480911,
-0.3265731632709503,
-0.33500367403030396,
0.46047016978263855,
0.13746006786823273,
0.29880475997924805,
0.09201546758413315,
-0.5017090439796448,
-0.4367961585521698,
0.18594002723693848,
-0.2008478045463562,
-0.5053526163101196,
-0.2573850750923157,
0.16754326224327087,
0.34054896235466003,
0.10648632049560547,
-0.5742708444595337,
-0.22264958918094635,
0.27949264645576477,
-0.04929608479142189,
0.21334640681743622,
0.3841489851474762,
-0.04890437051653862,
0.5594009757041931,
0.3493799865245819,
-0.3288812041282654,
-0.45477092266082764,
0.13814155757427216,
-0.08899138867855072,
-0.5037372708320618,
-0.6109148859977722,
-0.25574561953544617,
0.21888989210128784,
0.04943332448601723,
-0.24845555424690247,
-0.3729996681213379,
0.7146857380867004,
0.42569437623023987,
-0.15696167945861816,
0.14172309637069702,
-0.20958758890628815,
-0.24108606576919556,
0.21371468901634216,
0.2472468614578247,
-0.7004860639572144,
-0.3559557795524597,
-0.3514373004436493,
-0.3170083463191986,
0.17315888404846191,
-0.5425692200660706,
0.01940222643315792,
0.29319503903388977,
-0.1194206029176712,
-0.08921588212251663,
-0.4461424946784973,
-0.22461718320846558,
0.03437062352895737,
1.0664576292037964,
0.16150082647800446,
0.38582244515419006,
0.532250165939331,
0.768865704536438,
-0.2904694676399231,
0.13869275152683258,
-0.5956217646598816,
-0.2849246859550476,
-0.11367112398147583,
-0.24638423323631287,
0.5679115056991577,
-0.11217723041772842,
0.2411983758211136,
-0.11790883541107178,
-0.03523370996117592,
-0.15158742666244507,
-0.38964158296585083,
0.14957855641841888,
0.6765281558036804,
0.5831944942474365,
-0.4259920120239258,
-0.035877592861652374,
0.434110164642334,
-0.02056756801903248,
-0.3035092055797577,
0.4483359158039093,
-0.0017462786054238677,
-0.16647712886333466,
0.029366642236709595,
0.13673534989356995,
-0.11013692617416382,
0.09335837513208389,
0.24669501185417175,
-0.6922504305839539,
-0.2415732741355896,
0.37234193086624146,
0.818670928478241,
0.3951551020145416,
-0.35623684525489807,
-0.24880351126194,
-0.07242999970912933,
-0.7101233005523682,
-0.48221340775489807,
-0.12407151609659195,
0.24257171154022217,
0.3076438307762146,
0.46901920437812805,
-0.1528211086988449,
-0.4466380476951599,
0.09473558515310287,
-0.011440863832831383,
0.6364728808403015,
0.3688281178474426,
0.5651640295982361,
0.25894367694854736,
0.21373315155506134,
0.021552618592977524,
-0.04186788201332092,
0.459187388420105,
-0.4374614953994751,
0.15348996222019196,
0.028677498921751976,
0.6016440987586975,
0.05724682658910751,
0.047827888280153275,
0.24503520131111145,
-0.1733943223953247,
0.468778520822525,
0.251665323972702,
-0.12945479154586792,
0.16869282722473145,
0.312432199716568,
0.15646211802959442,
-0.37016648054122925,
-0.11116640269756317,
0.05579651519656181,
0.21150876581668854,
0.05467183515429497,
-0.8097953200340271,
0.567600429058075,
0.37644070386886597,
0.41148415207862854,
-0.03471099212765694,
0.20536644756793976,
0.04576729238033295,
-0.41835927963256836,
0.46800124645233154,
-0.3041059672832489,
-0.13435518741607666,
-0.3607806861400604,
-0.5494537949562073,
0.3594430387020111,
-0.23531551659107208,
-0.11413666605949402,
-0.7564506530761719,
-0.18047979474067688,
-0.27906787395477295,
0.108448825776577,
-0.2020515352487564,
-0.2791922092437744,
-0.41763734817504883,
-0.24233800172805786,
0.21631261706352234,
0.7111861705780029,
-0.21323218941688538,
-0.07275225222110748,
0.05176279693841934,
0.42670148611068726,
0.22888851165771484,
-0.06163815036416054,
-0.5834646224975586,
-0.363911896944046,
0.6828516721725464,
-0.08937101811170578,
-0.623519778251648,
-0.18444864451885223,
-0.09868013858795166,
-0.08569636940956116,
0.33622875809669495,
0.09476954489946365,
-0.5215895175933838,
-0.07607147097587585,
0.10428548604249954,
-0.11895207315683365,
0.20359277725219727,
-0.5812736749649048,
0.4771019518375397,
-0.7469074726104736,
0.0013470180565491319,
0.04606502130627632,
-0.5434437394142151,
-0.04104161262512207,
0.4405735433101654,
0.04459493234753609,
-0.6179007887840271,
-0.1885095089673996,
0.08229022473096848,
-0.06323902308940887,
-0.638505756855011,
-0.35818490386009216,
-0.7996301054954529,
0.32612356543540955,
0.5966148376464844,
0.22148215770721436,
0.45721226930618286,
-0.37236544489860535,
0.14354956150054932,
-0.2604617178440094,
-0.2380981594324112,
-0.02415359579026699,
-0.27778759598731995,
0.32323458790779114,
-0.37494874000549316,
-0.09828570485115051,
0.24610091745853424,
0.1639062762260437,
0.6007491946220398,
-0.4732339084148407,
-0.0171834547072649,
-0.41578882932662964,
-0.2819376587867737,
-0.6069610714912415,
-0.14386026561260223,
-0.723069429397583,
0.10147424042224884,
-0.15637028217315674
] |
233491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathakali | Kathakali | Kathakali () is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up, costumes and face masks that the traditionally male actor-dancers wear. Kathakali is a performing art in the Malayalam-speaking southwestern region of Kerala.
Kathakalī's roots are unclear. The fully developed style of Kathakalī originated around the 17th century, but its roots are in the temple and folk arts (such as Krishnanattam and religious drama of the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut) southwestern Indian peninsula), which are traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE. A Kathakali performance, like all classical dance arts of India, synthesizes music, vocal performers, choreography and hand and facial gestures together to express ideas. However, Kathakali differs in that it also incorporates movements from ancient Indian martial arts and athletic traditions of South India. Kathakalī also differs in that the structure and details of its art form developed in the courts and theatres of Hindu principalities, unlike other classical Indian dances which primarily developed in Hindu temples and monastic schools.
The traditional themes of the Kathakalī are folk stories, religious legends and spiritual ideas from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. The vocal performance has traditionally been performed in Sanskritised Malayalam. In modern compositions, Indian Kathakali troupes have included women artistes, and adapted Western stories and plays such as those by Shakespeare.
Etymology and nomenclature
The term Kathakali is derived from Kathā () which means "story or a conversation, or a traditional tale", and kaḷi () which means "performance" or "play". The dance symbolises the eternal fight between good and evil.
History
Elements and aspects of Kathakalī are taken from ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. The kathakali is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE.
The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures – all of which are part of Indian classical dances including Kathakali. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient Hindu text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.
The roots of Kathakalī are unclear. Jones and Ryan state it is more than 500 years old. Kathakalī emerged as a distinct genre of performance art during the 16th and 17th centuries in a coastal population of south India that spoke Malayalam (now Kerala). The roots of Kathakalī, states Mahinder Singh, are more ancient and some 1500 years old.
Links to older performance arts: Kutiyattam and Krishnanattam
According to Farley Richmond and other scholars, Kathakali shares many elements such as costumes with ancient Indian performance arts such as Kutiyattam (classical Sanskrit drama) and medieval era Krishnanattam, even though a detailed examination shows differences. Kutiyattam, adds Richmond, is "one of the oldest continuously performed theatre forms in India, and it may well be the oldest surviving art form of the ancient world". Kutiyattam, traditionally, was performed in theatres specially designed and attached to Hindu temples, particularly dedicated to the Shiva and later to Krishna. The designs of these theatres usually matched the dimensions and architecture recommended as "ideal" in the ancient Natya Shastra, and some of them could house 500 viewers.
Krishnanattam is the likely immediate precursor of Kathakalī, states Zarrilli. Krishnanattam is dance-drama art form about the life and activities of Hindu god Krishna, that developed under the sponsorship of Sri Manavedan Raja, the ruler of Calicut (1585-1658 AD). The traditional legend states that Kottarakkara Thampuran (also known as Vira Kerala Varma) requested the services of a Krishnanattam troupe, but his request was denied. So Kottarakkara Thampuran created another art form based on Krishnanattam, called it Ramanattam because the early plays were based on the Hindu epic Ramayana, which over time diversified beyond Ramayana and became popular as 'Kathakali'.
Another related performance art is Ashtapadiyattom, a dance drama based on the Gita Govinda of the twelfth-century poet Jayadeva, told the story of Krishna embodied as a humble cowherd, his consort Radha, and three cow girls. Kathakali also incorporates several elements from other traditional and ritualistic art forms like Mudiyettu, Theyyam and Padayani besides folk arts such as Porattu Nadakam that shares ideas with the Tamil Therukoothu tradition. The south Indian martial art of Kalarippayattu has also influenced Kathakali.
Despite the links, Kathakalī is different from temple-driven arts such as "Krishnanattam", Kutiyattam and others because unlike the older arts where the dancer-actor also had to be the vocal artist, Kathakali separated these roles allowing the dancer-actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal artists focused on delivering their lines. Kathakali also expanded the performance repertoire, style and standardized the costume making it easier for the audience to understand the various performances and new plays.
Repertoire
Kathakalī is structured around plays called Attakatha (literally, "enacted story"), written in Sanskritized Malayalam. These plays are written in a particular format that helps identify the "action" and the "dialogue" parts of the performance. The Sloka part is the metrical verse, written in third person – often entirely in Sanskrit - describing the action part of the choreography. The Pada part contains the dialogue part. These Attakatha texts grant considerable flexibility to the actors to improvise. Historically, all these plays were derived from Hindu texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana.
A Kathakalī repertoire is an operatic performance where an ancient story is playfully dramatized. Traditionally, a Kathakali performance is long, starting at dusk and continuing through dawn, with interludes and breaks for the performers and audience. Some plays continued over several nights, starting at dusk every day. Modern performances are shorter. The stage with seating typically in open grounds outside a temple, but in some places, special theatres called Kuttampalam built inside the temple compounds have been in use.
The stage is mostly bare, or with a few drama-related items. One item, called a Kalivilakku (kali meaning dance; vilakku meaning lamp), can be traced back to Kutiyattam. In both traditions, the performance happens in the front of a huge Kalivilakku with its thick wick sunk in coconut oil, burning with a yellow light. Traditionally, before the advent of electricity, this special large lamp provided light during the night. As the play progressed, the actor-dancers would gather around this lamp so that the audience could see what they are expressing.
The performance involves actor-dancers in the front, supported by musicians in the background stage on right (audience's left) and with vocalists in the front of the stage (historically so they could be heard by the audience before the age of microphone and speakers). Typically, all roles are played by male actor-dancers, though in modern performances, women have been welcomed into the Kathakali tradition.
Costumes
Of all classical Indian dances, Kathakali has the most elaborate costuming consisting of head dresses, face masks and vividly painted faces. It typically takes several evening hours to prepare a Kathakali troupe to get ready for a play. Costumes have made Kathakali's popularity extend beyond adults, with children absorbed by the colors, makeup, light and sound of the performance.
The makeup follows an accepted code, that helps the audience easily identify the archetypal characters such as gods, goddesses, demons, demonesses, saints, animals and characters of a story. Seven basic makeup types are used in Kathakali, namely Pachcha (green), Pazhuppu (ripe), Kathi, Kari, Thaadi, Minukku and Teppu. These vary with the styles and the predominant colours made from rice paste and vegetable colors that are applied on the face. Pachcha (green) with lips painted brilliant coral red portrays noble characters and sages such as Krishna, Vishnu, Rama, Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Nala and philosopher-kings.
Thaadi (red) is the code for someone with an evil streak such as Dushasana and Hiranyakashipu. Some characters have a green face (representing heroic or excellence as a warrior) with red dots or lines on their cheeks or red-coloured moustache or red-streaked beard (representing evil inner nature), while others have a full face and beard coloured red, the latter implying excessively evil characters. Kari (black) is the code for forest dwellers, hunters, and middle ground character. Demonesses and treacherous characters are also painted black but with streaks or patches of red.
Yellow is the code for monks, mendicants, and women. Minukka (radiant, shining) with a warm yellow, orange or saffron typifies noble, virtuous feminine characters such as Sita, Panchali and Mohini. Men who act the roles of women also add a false top knot to their left and decorate it in a style common to the region. Vella Thadi (white beard) represents a divine being, someone with virtuous inner state and consciousness such as Hanuman. Teppu is for special characters found in Hindu mythologies, such as Garuda, Jatayu and Hamsa who act as messengers or carriers, but do not fit the other categories. Face masks and headgear is added to accentuate the inner nature of the characters. The garments colours have a similar community accepted code of silent communication.
The character types, states Zarrilli, reflect the Guṇa theory of personalities in the ancient Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. There are three Guṇas, according to this philosophy, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world. These three Guṇas are (goodness, constructive, harmonious, virtuous), (passion, aimless action, dynamic, egoistic), and (darkness, destructive, chaotic, viciousness). All of these three gunas (good, evil, active) are present in everyone and everything, it is the proportion that is different, according to the Hindu worldview. The interplay of these gunas defines the character of someone or something, and the costumes and face colouring in Kathakali often combines the various colour codes to give complexity and depth to the actor-dancers.
Acting
Like many classical Indian arts, Kathakali is choreography as much as it is acting. It is said to be one of the most difficult styles to execute on stage, with young artists preparing for their roles for several years before they get a chance to do it on stage. The actors speak a "sign language", where the word part of the character's dialogue is expressed through "hand signs (mudras)", while emotions and mood is expressed through "facial and eye" movements. In parallel, vocalists in the background sing rhythmically the play, matching the beats of the orchestra playing, thus unifying the ensemble into a resonant oneness.
Several ancient Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra and Hastha Lakshanadeepika discuss hand gestures or mudras. Kathakali follows the Hastha Lakshanadeepika most closely, unlike other classical dances of India.
There are 24 main mudras, and numerous more minor ones in Kathakali. There are nine facial expressions called Navarasas, which each actor masters through facial muscle control during his education, in order to express the emotional state of the character in the play. The theory behind the Navarasas is provided by classical Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra, but sometimes with different names, and these are found in other classical Indian dances as well. The nine Navarasas express nine Bhava (emotions) in Kathakali as follows: Sringara expresses Rati (love, pleasure, delight), Hasya expresses Hasa (comic, laugh, mocking), Karuna expresses Shoka (pathetic, sad), Raudra expresses Krodha (anger, fury), Vira expresses Utsaha (vigor, enthusiasm, heroic), Bhayanaka expresses Bhaya (fear, concern, worry), Bibhatsa expresses Jugupsa (disgust, repulsive), Adbhuta expresses Vismaya (wondrous, marvel, curious) and Shanta expresses Sama (peace, tranquility).
Sequence
A Kathakalī performance typically starts with artists tuning their instruments and warming up with beats, signalling to the arriving audience that the artists are getting ready and the preparations are on. The repertoire includes a series of performances. First comes the Thodayam and Purappadu performances, which are preliminary 'pure' (abstract) dances that emphasize skill and pure motion. Thodayam is performed behind a curtain and without all the costumes, while Purappadu is performed without the curtain and in full costumes.
The expressive part of the performance, which constitutes the dance-drama, is split into four types: Kalasham (major and most common), Iratti (special, used with battles-related Chempata rhythm), Thonkaram (similar to Iratti but different music), and Nalamiratti (used for exits or link between the chapters of the play).
The entrance of characters onto the Kathakalī stage can be varied. Many of these ways are not found in other major Indian classical dance traditions. Kathakalī employs several methods: 1) direct without special effects or curtain; 2) through the audience, a method that engages the audience, led by torchbearers since Kathakalī is typically a night performance; 3) tease and suspense called nokku or thirasheela or tiranokku, where the character is slowly revealed by the use of a curtain. The "tease" method is typically used for characters with hidden, dangerous intentions.
Songs and musical instruments
The play is in the form of verses that are metered and lyrical, sung by vocalists whose voice has been trained to various melodies (ragas), music and synchronized with the dance-acting on the stage. The vocalists not only deliver the lines, but help set the context and express the inner state of the character by modulating their voice. For example, anger is expressed by the use of sharp high voice and pleading is expressed by the use of a tired tone.
Music is central to a Kathakali performance. It sets the mood and triggers emotions resonant with the nature of the scene. It also sets the rhythm to which the actor-dancers perform the choreography and scenes. Some major musical patterns, according to Clifford and Betty, that go with the moods and content of the scene are: Chempada (most common and default that applies to a range of moods, in battles and fights between good and evil, also to conclude a scene); Chempa music (depict tension, dispute, disagreement between lovers or competing ideas); Panchari (for odious, preparatory such as sharpening a sword); Triputa (thought-provoking, scenes involving sages and teachers); Adantha (scenes involving kings or divine beings); Muri Adantha musical style (for comic, light-hearted, or fast-moving scenes involving heroic or anger-driven activity).
Many musical instruments are used in Kathakali. Three major drums found are Maddalam(barrel-shaped), Chenda (cylindrical drum played with curved sticks) and Idakka (Idakka, hourglass-shaped drum with muted and melodious notes played when female characters perform).
Traditional plays
Over five hundred Kathakalī plays (Aattakatha) exist, most of which were written before the 20th century. Of these, about four dozen are most actively performed. These plays are sophisticated literary works, states Zarrilli, and only five authors have written more than two plays. The late 17th century Unnayi Variyar, in his short life, produced four plays which are traditionally considered the most expressive of the Kathakali playwrights. Typically, his four plays are performed on four nights, and they relate to the mythical Hindu love story of Nala and Damayanti. The Nala-Damayanti story has roots in the texts of 1st millennium BCE and is found in the Mahabharata, but the Kathakali play version develops the characters, their inner states, the emotions and their circumstances far more than the older texts.
A tradition Kathakalī play typically consists of two interconnected parts, the third-person Shlokas and first-person Padams. The Shlokas are in Sanskrit and describe the action in the scene, while Padams are dialogues in Malayalam (Sanskritized) for the actors to interpret and play. A Padam consists of three parts: a Pallavi (refrain), Anupallavi (subrefrain) and Charanam (foot), all of which are set to one of the ancient Ragas (musical mode), based on the mood and context as outlined in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. In historic practice of a play performance, each Padam was enacted twice by the actor while the vocalists sang the lines repeatedly as the actor-dancer played his role out.
The traditional plays were long, many written to be performed all night, some such as those based on the Ramayana and the Mahabharata written to be performed for many sequential nights. However, others such as the Prahlada Charitham have been composed so that they can be performed within four hours. Modern productions have extracted parts of these legendary plays, to be typically performed within 3 to 4 hours.
Offshoots and modern adaptations
Kathakalī is still practiced in its Traditional ways and there are experimental plays based on European classics and Shakespeare's plays. Recent productions have adapted stories from other cultures and mythologies, such as those of Miguel de Cervantes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare.
Styles: Sampradayam
Kathakalī has lineages or distinctive schools of play interpretation and dance performance called Sampradayam. These developed in part because of the Gurukul system of its transmission from one generation to the next. By the 19th-century, many such styles were in vogue in Malayalam speaking communities of South India, of which two major styles have crystallized and survived into the modern age.
The Kidangoor style is one of the two, that developed in Travancore, and it is strongly influenced by Kutiyattam, while also drawing elements of Ramanattam and Kalladikkotan. It is traditionally attributed to Nalanunni, under the patronage of Utram Tirunal Maharaja (1815-1861).
The Kalluvazhi style is second of the two, which developed in Palakkad (Olappamanna Mana) in central Kerala, and it is a synthesis of the older Kaplingadan and Kalladikkotan performance arts. It is traditionally attributed to Unniri Panikkar, in a Brahmin household (~1850), and became the dominant style established in Kerala Kalamandalam – a school of performance arts.
Training centres and awards
Kathakali has traditionally been an art that has continued from one generation to the next through a guru-disciples (gurukkula) based training system. Artist families tended to pick promising talent from within their own extended families, sometimes from outside the family, and the new budding artist typically stayed with his guru as a student and treated like a member of the family. The guru provided both the theoretical and practical training to the student, and the disciple would accompany the guru to formal performances. In modern times, professional schools train students of Kathakali, with some such as those in Trivandrum Margi school emphasizing a single teacher for various courses, while others such as the Kerala Kalamandalam school wherein students learn subjects from different teachers. Kathakali schools are now found all over India, as well as in parts of Western Europe and the United States.
A typical Kathakalī training centre auditions for students, examining health and physical fitness necessary for the aerobic and active stage performance, the body flexibility, sense of rhythm and an interview to gauge how sincere the student is in performance arts. A typical course work in Kathakali emphasizes physical conditioning and daily exercises, yoga and body massage to tone the muscles and sculpt the growing body, along with studies and dance practice. Per ancient Indian tradition, young students continue to start their year by giving symbolic gifts to the guru, such as a few coins with betel leaves, while the teacher gives the student a loincloth, a welcome and blessings.
Kathakalī is still hugely male-dominated, but since the 1970s, women have made entry into the art form on a recognisable scale. The central Kerala temple town of Tripunithura has a ladies' troupe (Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe) who perform Kathakali. The troupe won a national award, i.e. Nari Shakti Puraskar, for their work.
Awards for Kathakali artistes
Sangeet Natak Akademi Awardees - Kathakalī (1956–2005)
Nambeesan Smaraka Awards — For artistic performances related kathakali (1992-2008)
International Centre for Kathakali Award
Related dance forms
The theory and foundations of Kathakalī are same as other major classical Indian dances, traceable to Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra, but the expression style in each is very different and distinctive. Kathakali is different from a similar-sounding Kathak, though both are Indian classical dance traditions of "story play" wherein the stories have been traditionally derived from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. Kathak is an ancient performance art that emerged in North India, with roots in traveling bards retelling mythical and spiritual stories through dance-acting. Kathak traditionally has included female actor-dancers, unlike Kathakali which has traditionally been performed by an all-male troupe. Kathak deploys much simpler costumes, makeup and no face masks. Both dance forms employ choreography, face and hand gestures traceable to the Natya Shastra, but Kathak generally moves around a straight leg and torso movements, with no martial art leaps and jumps like Kathakali. Kathak uses the stage space more, and does not typically include separate vocalists. Both deploy a host of similar traditional Indian musical instruments.
Kathakalī-style, costume rich, musical drama are found in other cultures. For example, the Japanese Noh (能) integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized gestures while the costumes communicate the nature of the characters in a Noh performance, as in Kathakali. In both, costumed men have traditionally performed all the roles including those of women in the play. The training regimen and initiation of the dance-actors in both cultures have many similarities.
Kabuki, another Japanese art form, has similarities to Kathakali. Jīngjù, a Chinese art of dance-acting (zuo), like Kathakali presents artists with elaborate masks, costumes and colorfully painted faces.
See also
Koodiyattam
Krishnanattam
Mohiniyattam
Chakyar koothu
Nangiar koothu
Garudan Thookkam
Ottan Thullal
Koothambalam
Kerala Kalamandalam
Panchavadyam
Kabuki
Peking Opera
Noh
Bugaku
Notes
References
Sources
Alice Boner (1935), "Kathakali", Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, June 1935, pp 1–14.
, Table of Contents
External links
Theatre in India
Arts of Kerala
Classical theatre of india | [
0.16689640283584595,
0.13937540352344513,
-0.38367244601249695,
-0.03251688927412033,
-0.33125409483909607,
0.24358873069286346,
0.8250303268432617,
-0.024205219000577927,
-0.7228407263755798,
-0.30195561051368713,
-0.5609872341156006,
-0.11255037784576416,
-0.12761837244033813,
0.3809575140476227,
-0.3916739821434021,
0.8083286285400391,
0.6349217891693115,
-0.12807147204875946,
0.5849887728691101,
-0.09651689976453781,
-0.4270375967025757,
-0.0402815155684948,
0.4017097055912018,
0.15329056978225708,
-0.15510526299476624,
-0.314178466796875,
0.42230871319770813,
0.2794215977191925,
0.26171329617500305,
-0.2886962890625,
0.0222624521702528,
0.6347395181655884,
0.07566911727190018,
-0.16006676852703094,
0.2724824845790863,
-0.13330599665641785,
0.25943949818611145,
-0.08218872547149658,
0.07901573181152344,
-0.7243185043334961,
-0.004014176782220602,
-0.1896732598543167,
0.8040341734886169,
0.5165676474571228,
0.10887134820222855,
-0.34467628598213196,
-1.2397241592407227,
0.8033809065818787,
-1.0041152238845825,
0.023400375619530678,
-0.11806352436542511,
0.39799022674560547,
1.0016952753067017,
0.31009429693222046,
0.4546683430671692,
0.7368229627609253,
-0.7538152933120728,
0.666743814945221,
0.1380196511745453,
0.1936783343553543,
0.5599924921989441,
0.5431774854660034,
0.3313021659851074,
-0.34611064195632935,
0.10558536648750305,
0.34521111845970154,
-0.33712711930274963,
-0.13965395092964172,
0.015796218067407608,
0.12239058315753937,
-0.2764183282852173,
0.10466331243515015,
-0.18428511917591095,
0.4933023154735565,
-0.47693952918052673,
-0.2718871533870697,
0.2050008922815323,
-0.286874920129776,
0.36532947421073914,
-0.002723129466176033,
-0.3357110619544983,
0.41044265031814575,
0.6146560311317444,
0.9395875930786133,
0.7315189242362976,
-0.49681973457336426,
-0.3644275367259979,
-0.22430700063705444,
0.18516278266906738,
0.45254984498023987,
-0.4785672426223755,
-0.17579248547554016,
0.5780330896377563,
0.4435155689716339,
-0.1622975617647171,
0.23336979746818542,
0.07807887345552444,
-0.5389555096626282,
0.30148419737815857,
-0.11458005011081696,
0.042062319815158844,
-0.021703602746129036,
-0.27526962757110596,
-0.004024863243103027,
-0.44283220171928406,
0.2816988527774811,
-0.2627575993537903,
-0.23518012464046478,
0.07920972257852554,
-0.6110795736312866,
-0.5848293900489807,
0.09959246963262558,
-0.05215087905526161,
-0.07474721968173981,
-0.2812066674232483,
0.04060426354408264,
-0.5467249751091003,
-0.2892121970653534,
-0.9167302250862122,
0.14228497445583344,
-0.01230605412274599,
0.6479697823524475,
-0.021494999527931213,
0.21468442678451538,
-0.45696380734443665,
0.556491494178772,
0.6555909514427185,
0.5589951276779175,
-0.11214351654052734,
0.05666167289018631,
0.2947670519351959,
0.6562536954879761,
-0.35885629057884216,
-0.6065595746040344,
-0.2373124361038208,
-0.2358921766281128,
1.0936528444290161,
0.022906795144081116,
0.6960002183914185,
0.24463486671447754,
-0.6608272790908813,
-0.2808038592338562,
-1.1072232723236084,
0.06456637382507324,
0.6885955929756165,
-0.3905845880508423,
0.48698490858078003,
-0.15794268250465393,
-0.36463335156440735,
-0.7384313941001892,
-0.10792025178670883,
0.7169322967529297,
-0.14631560444831848,
0.04660382121801376,
-0.7319062948226929,
0.30425336956977844,
0.471368670463562,
-0.115629181265831,
0.8826519846916199,
0.22944577038288116,
-0.31857895851135254,
-0.34534651041030884,
0.157209575176239,
-0.3252672851085663,
-0.06322355568408966,
0.17348326742649078,
0.25936824083328247,
0.5459712743759155,
-0.11020560562610626,
0.3590877056121826,
-0.442511647939682,
0.2243383377790451,
-0.03618181124329567,
-0.47595706582069397,
-0.5474589467048645,
-0.41228535771369934,
-0.5710898041725159,
0.5161958932876587,
0.3885926604270935,
-0.193974569439888,
-0.6446012258529663,
0.3589741885662079,
0.2953944504261017,
0.2643382251262665,
0.08062584698200226,
0.21326565742492676,
0.06955794245004654,
0.284566193819046,
0.3948151767253876,
-0.2598647177219391,
0.11939145624637604,
0.027594415470957756,
-0.15912124514579773,
-0.12729832530021667,
1.4910298585891724,
0.057406626641750336,
-0.4177040457725525,
0.9517461061477661,
0.697307288646698,
0.5035048127174377,
0.40993958711624146,
0.23916177451610565,
0.11410459876060486,
0.38782745599746704,
-0.29782989621162415,
0.5218268632888794,
-0.22809626162052155,
0.35289597511291504,
0.5758895874023438,
-0.008006495423614979,
0.31545552611351013,
-0.40581151843070984,
0.12382041662931442,
-0.27908605337142944,
0.1816999763250351,
-0.20171834528446198,
-0.4264902174472809,
0.8863903284072876,
0.2768791913986206,
-0.15389437973499298,
0.791958749294281,
-0.6371154189109802,
-0.19812946021556854,
-0.2611299753189087,
0.032008808106184006,
1.062611699104309,
-0.6611339449882507,
-0.09498448669910431,
0.35913774371147156,
-0.30643442273139954,
0.09804199635982513,
-0.42207810282707214,
-0.24055197834968567,
-0.2421017736196518,
-0.8925290703773499,
-0.5751489400863647,
0.43248867988586426,
-0.4806750416755676,
0.6021221876144409,
-0.6998709440231323,
0.07095979154109955,
0.39791905879974365,
-0.1042562797665596,
0.06744258850812912,
-0.26298844814300537,
-0.16762158274650574,
-0.5675311088562012,
-0.09939447045326233,
-0.5154170989990234,
0.33865177631378174,
0.33856648206710815,
-0.022569017484784126,
0.24697691202163696,
-0.3582976162433624,
-0.2550638020038605,
0.13537724316120148,
-0.06287138164043427,
-0.512374222278595,
0.20343492925167084,
-0.10568869858980179,
0.22657613456249237,
-0.28867220878601074,
0.5938398241996765,
-0.16445063054561615,
-0.6946664452552795,
-0.6984208822250366,
-0.24407169222831726,
-0.07139661908149719,
0.28000059723854065,
0.5507721900939941,
0.6399333477020264,
-0.8511359095573425,
-0.31361502408981323,
-0.7599961757659912,
-0.08102619647979736,
-0.3837689757347107,
0.17748118937015533,
-0.1063261553645134,
-0.7034394145011902,
-0.06844209134578705,
0.05458192527294159,
0.7283636927604675,
0.1286638230085373,
-0.38430190086364746,
-0.6352803707122803,
0.4148620367050171,
0.12420256435871124,
-0.4772533178329468,
0.36118435859680176,
0.38582029938697815,
0.7670233845710754,
0.5902311205863953,
-0.3229149580001831,
-0.4118373692035675,
0.19170568883419037,
0.11279983073472977,
-0.4091135859489441,
0.8457255959510803,
-0.3712632954120636,
-0.43917134404182434,
-0.43256059288978577,
0.5222455263137817,
0.019137300550937653,
-0.3404102027416229,
-0.26406797766685486,
-0.10038025677204132,
-0.4761950969696045,
-0.2795931398868561,
-5.25977897644043,
-0.3830180764198303,
-0.4216518998146057,
-0.5760098695755005,
0.4659706950187683,
0.40879932045936584,
0.33517682552337646,
0.0475376658141613,
0.1849120706319809,
0.16608719527721405,
-0.44780972599983215,
-0.1011534258723259,
-0.2587519586086273,
0.2021760642528534,
0.06160304322838783,
0.3326481878757477,
-0.2971104681491852,
0.1060614138841629,
0.28119394183158875,
0.19571810960769653,
-0.1971721649169922,
0.8244522213935852,
0.05431549996137619,
0.7345132231712341,
0.1057070642709732,
0.07065407186746597,
-0.3491990566253662,
-0.46585825085639954,
-0.42663678526878357,
0.18098823726177216,
-0.45261350274086,
-0.030897172167897224,
0.45459482073783875,
-0.5589966177940369,
0.02181190997362137,
0.2545204162597656,
0.4392821788787842,
-0.06406359374523163,
0.2551136314868927,
-0.566980242729187,
-0.5290666222572327,
-0.10018622875213623,
-0.028946256265044212,
-0.39782851934432983,
0.6519535779953003,
-0.10174095630645752,
-0.23454292118549347,
-0.04696577042341232,
-0.11980639398097992,
0.6882379055023193,
-0.22589243948459625,
-0.3762546479701996,
0.3144604563713074,
-0.09479881078004837,
0.138348788022995,
-0.3236084282398224,
0.5121609568595886,
-0.3562980592250824,
0.4543766677379608,
0.07353679835796356,
0.26733648777008057,
-0.18776436150074005,
-0.1495361030101776,
-0.7697270512580872,
0.47525081038475037,
-0.5288839936256409,
-0.4905860722064972,
-0.7057666778564453,
0.21887589991092682,
0.1838119775056839,
-0.419295996427536,
0.04698687046766281,
-0.21723462641239166,
-0.7925539612770081,
0.16353757679462433,
-0.5723998546600342,
-0.23038248717784882,
0.020548047497868538,
0.09249956160783768,
0.3623381555080414,
-0.3337709307670593,
-0.5322830677032471,
-0.1947551667690277,
0.3395969867706299,
0.12512077391147614,
-0.06564364582300186,
-0.48199063539505005,
-0.0902266651391983,
-0.9878076910972595,
0.1117190420627594,
1.282956838607788,
-0.12173128128051758,
-0.5171421766281128,
0.41085749864578247,
0.6305118799209595,
0.41029417514801025,
0.28461089730262756,
-0.3082828223705292,
0.5739328861236572,
-0.48966264724731445,
0.6244574189186096,
-0.22414641082286835,
-0.014871264807879925,
0.3646421432495117,
0.20252268016338348,
-0.07194391638040543,
-0.04800000414252281,
0.12963035702705383,
1.2629139423370361,
-0.46512457728385925,
-0.13673146069049835,
-0.2638762295246124,
0.27752718329429626,
0.031440023332834244,
0.9055914878845215,
-0.2380913943052292,
-0.262783020734787,
-0.0775587409734726,
-0.20064759254455566,
0.2155018448829651,
0.4917449951171875,
-0.11581584066152573,
0.009740008972585201,
0.39532527327537537,
0.11282524466514587,
-0.27951890230178833,
0.06918865442276001,
0.03773890808224678,
-0.8944659233093262,
0.0475190170109272,
0.4634011685848236,
-0.05838456377387047,
0.03063712827861309,
-0.21385519206523895,
-0.2626856565475464,
0.43640974164009094,
0.34537288546562195,
0.3878399133682251,
-0.030034754425287247,
-0.9749499559402466,
-0.07424277067184448,
-0.16268499195575714,
-0.17868705093860626,
0.7299319505691528,
0.33604857325553894,
0.3996122479438782,
0.06948458403348923,
-0.564808189868927,
-0.8065784573554993,
0.43344491720199585,
0.28872933983802795,
-0.6249933242797852,
0.22157888114452362,
-0.22240714728832245,
-0.6249653697013855,
-0.6006691455841064,
0.4370482861995697,
0.30489352345466614,
-0.006459112279117107,
0.0021194301079958677,
-0.4288598299026489,
-0.3172060549259186,
-1.0900927782058716,
-0.09372852742671967,
-0.1198066920042038,
-0.9723842144012451,
-0.740226686000824,
-0.36934900283813477,
-0.017177805304527283,
0.2413787692785263,
0.45936712622642517,
-0.24009869992733002,
-0.2364228069782257,
-0.16064894199371338,
0.2604820132255554,
-0.03016001358628273,
-0.22858989238739014,
0.19529667496681213,
-0.17610253393650055,
0.0144443204626441,
0.06679315865039825,
-0.7486569285392761,
-0.2775207459926605,
0.6314491629600525,
0.4412323236465454,
-0.18298517167568207,
0.030621906742453575,
-0.20706918835639954,
-0.4994613528251648,
0.6789147257804871,
0.3194301128387451,
0.6200060844421387,
0.45209968090057373,
-0.40522050857543945,
0.00406633410602808,
-0.3225267231464386,
-0.5008074641227722,
0.2944706976413727,
-0.2391178458929062,
-0.9983927607536316,
0.847316324710846,
0.5550591349601746,
-0.5566741824150085,
0.6234888434410095,
0.6515011191368103,
-0.5720078349113464,
0.7334766387939453,
0.6446382999420166,
-0.15692415833473206,
-0.46024006605148315,
-0.19101987779140472,
-0.34018638730049133,
0.04967871308326721,
-0.13764262199401855,
-0.43987715244293213,
0.4063677191734314,
-0.14142484962940216,
-0.8362748622894287,
0.4697379469871521,
-0.20231549441814423,
0.22052544355392456,
-0.27808043360710144,
-0.09461364895105362,
-0.2619592547416687,
-0.8625062704086304,
-0.1677427440881729,
-0.015311026945710182,
-0.65982586145401,
0.17993448674678802,
-0.03670261427760124,
0.08004526793956757,
-0.444485068321228,
-0.06032529100775719,
-0.5391932129859924,
-0.5137524604797363,
-0.24722248315811157,
-0.5155329704284668,
-0.07690401375293732,
0.803901731967926,
0.5252941846847534,
0.14845427870750427,
0.6952022910118103,
0.020400583744049072,
-0.005203934386372566,
-0.7102223634719849,
0.00763141643255949,
0.4062259793281555,
-0.42720818519592285,
-1.0619313716888428,
0.006645238492637873,
0.4675416350364685,
-0.4975818991661072,
-0.31563177704811096,
-0.9112329483032227,
0.7672759294509888,
-0.7203660011291504,
-0.12731502950191498,
0.39775294065475464,
0.15082857012748718,
-0.010822744108736515,
-0.34700077772140503,
-0.2562706768512726,
-0.3589310348033905,
-0.10604522377252579,
-0.31610482931137085,
-0.07377097010612488,
-0.06485943496227264,
-0.18754151463508606,
0.4558221399784088,
-0.6120944023132324,
0.10314307361841202,
-0.5876970291137695,
0.7421552538871765,
-0.37840986251831055,
0.6896703243255615,
0.17461220920085907,
-0.18206678330898285,
-0.8908085227012634,
0.5228580832481384,
0.18704377114772797,
1.0770918130874634,
0.032907843589782715,
0.3083500266075134,
-0.10327376425266266,
0.4636927545070648,
-0.7840740084648132,
0.1926870346069336,
-0.13492637872695923,
-0.7140213847160339,
-0.5544710755348206,
-0.40327543020248413,
0.10373463481664658,
0.4702965021133423,
0.9083670377731323,
-0.06063532084226608,
0.2149152159690857,
0.24482883512973785,
0.3212337791919708,
-0.29028329253196716,
0.1318429410457611,
-0.42180129885673523,
0.6071354150772095,
-0.11001058667898178,
-0.14998304843902588,
0.0348048098385334,
0.07740107923746109,
0.5972913503646851,
-0.8905364274978638,
0.3360041081905365,
0.3895106017589569,
0.18480050563812256,
0.1078043133020401,
0.5320914387702942,
0.43386372923851013,
-0.5331832766532898,
-0.06805571913719177,
0.5186424851417542,
-0.5326933860778809,
0.5490207076072693,
0.6075497269630432,
0.2227611541748047,
-0.8880552649497986,
1.0223608016967773,
0.046958740800619125,
0.585385799407959,
0.21821962296962738,
-0.2854826748371124,
-0.16639165580272675,
0.39742258191108704,
0.2841864824295044,
0.6513866782188416,
-0.2791719436645508,
-0.5612542629241943,
-0.3384697139263153,
0.3207774758338928,
-0.6952610611915588,
0.26370906829833984,
-0.12899331748485565,
-0.9489262700080872,
0.7791888117790222,
0.8267385363578796,
-0.0394575409591198,
-0.15758493542671204,
0.21671265363693237,
-0.3590829372406006,
0.2559915781021118,
0.5177363753318787,
0.636969804763794,
-0.44751110672950745,
-0.19503173232078552,
0.4050229489803314,
0.2250356376171112,
0.10344430804252625,
0.09152170270681381,
0.6995040774345398,
-0.1048673689365387,
1.0799394845962524,
-0.32396644353866577,
0.29195868968963623,
-0.46553274989128113,
0.09311949461698532,
0.015195355750620365,
0.3860016167163849,
0.1581372320652008,
0.06789872795343399,
-0.1353278011083603,
0.1628882735967636,
-0.7898493409156799,
-0.27696511149406433,
-0.018053609877824783,
0.02489803358912468,
0.14549347758293152,
-0.4361453056335449,
0.46416783332824707,
0.5482226014137268,
0.1530449539422989,
0.054078005254268646,
0.060812074691057205,
0.2416352927684784,
0.10369868576526642,
-0.2400827407836914,
-0.09421957284212112,
-0.2264786809682846,
-0.7526777386665344,
0.2663854956626892,
0.04002043977379799,
0.07786212861537933,
0.6282488703727722,
-0.37867623567581177,
0.18813331425189972,
-0.17293214797973633,
0.271101176738739,
0.12912990152835846,
0.4379519820213318,
-0.6037762761116028,
0.1616632044315338,
-0.6352900266647339,
0.4682081341743469,
0.15632253885269165,
-0.20370478928089142,
0.13725583255290985,
0.6777149438858032,
0.036859817802906036,
0.16736416518688202,
-0.04511675238609314,
0.031735289841890335,
-0.8274889588356018,
0.029146282002329826,
-0.789413332939148,
0.23769301176071167,
0.13535717129707336,
0.02195841632783413,
0.05793220177292824,
0.11392989754676819,
0.02255251258611679,
0.575022280216217,
0.5494970083236694,
-1.2275484800338745,
-0.26398879289627075,
-0.37248313426971436,
0.47553762793540955,
-0.06708649545907974,
0.2160821110010147,
0.14170943200588226,
-0.8333065509796143,
-0.7546319961547852,
0.26598918437957764,
0.3303270936012268,
-0.5151953101158142,
0.01773187331855297,
-0.3258837163448334,
0.5319219827651978,
-0.6974518299102783,
0.6701213717460632,
-0.17123006284236908,
0.07386691123247147,
0.41364771127700806,
0.3247232735157013,
0.7293209433555603,
-0.5441645979881287,
0.1262381225824356,
-0.21445778012275696,
0.22599023580551147,
-0.19357849657535553,
-1.764872431755066,
0.017801806330680847,
-0.24111124873161316,
0.1921120136976242,
-0.3827863335609436,
0.38068217039108276,
0.16854818165302277,
-0.6398804783821106,
0.5267757177352905,
-0.11589223146438599,
-0.2268076390028,
0.3479483127593994,
-0.0475294329226017,
-0.9677517414093018,
0.189560204744339,
0.7547956705093384
] |
233492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton%20Hill%20University | Seton Hill University | Seton Hill University is a private Catholic university in Greensburg, Pennsylvania. Formerly a women's college, it became a coeducational university in 2002 and enrolls about 2,200 students.
History
The school was founded in 1885 by the Sisters of Charity. It is named for Elizabeth Ann Seton (1774–1821), who founded the Sisters of Charity and who, after her death, was canonized as the United States' first native-born saint. (Seton Hall University and Saint Elizabeth University in New Jersey are also named after Elizabeth Ann Seton.)
In 1914, Seton Hill Junior college was opened by the Sisters of Charity. With the approval of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Seton Hill College was created four years later.
In 1946, 40 male World War II veterans were accepted as students at Seton Hill. During the 1980s, men were regularly admitted to many programs at Seton Hill College, including music and theater. In 2002, Seton Hill was officially granted university status by the Pennsylvania Department of Education.
Seton Hill University received widespread public attention after announcing a technology plan that includes providing an iPad to all full-time students, as well a 13" MacBook to all incoming freshmen. Upon graduation, students keep both devices. Beginning in the fall of 2013, new full-time students will receive an iPad Mini and new full-time freshmen will be provided with a MacBook Air. Seton Hill University is recognized as an Apple Distinguished School.
Academics
Seton Hill divides its undergraduate programs into six schools: Business, Education & Applied Social Sciences, Humanities, Natural & Health Sciences, and Visual & Performing Arts. In addition to their major, all students take liberal arts core classes in arts, mathematics, sciences, culture, history, and writing.
The university also offers twelve graduate programs. Subjects include art, writing, education, therapy, business, orthodontics, and physician assistant studies.
Seton Hill has a student-to-faculty ratio of 15:1. The typical class size for courses in the major is about 20-25. Liberal arts core classes tend to be larger, at 30-45 students.
Centers
National Catholic Center for Holocaust Education
Child Development Center
Center for Family Therapy
SHU Center for Orthodontics
The Wukich Center for Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Performing Arts Center
Dance and Visual Arts Center
Robert M. Brownlee Mathematics Enrichment Center
Athletics
After president JoAnne Boyle formalized the school's new status as a university, the teams' nickname was changed from "Spirits" to "Griffins," and several men's athletics teams were added, including football. In 2006, Seton Hill announced it was transferring to NCAA Division II and joining the West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC). They had belonged to the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). In 2012, Seton Hill announced its move to the Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference (PSAC).
Seton Hill athletics, known as the Griffins, compete in Division II of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). During the 2012–2013 academic year, Seton Hill was a member of the West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC). As of July 1, 2013, following the breakup of the WVIAC, along with the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown, also from the WVIAC, Seton Hill is a member of the Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference (PSAC).
Seton Hill varsity men's and women's sports include football, men's & women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, men's wrestling, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's track and field, softball, baseball, women's cheerleading, women's field hockey, women's equestrian, men's and women's soccer, women's volleyball, women's golf, and women's tennis.
In 2005, 60% of the entering class was male, due to an influx of male students who were interested in new sports programs such as football. In 2008, the football team had a 10-3 record. The football team and the men's soccer team each won the inaugural West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference's team sportsmanship award in 2008.
In 2006, the baseball team received a berth to the NAIA World Series in the program's third year of existence.
In 2014, the baseball team had its most successful season; winning the PSAC, the Atlantic Regional, and advancing to the College World Series. The team ended up finishing top six in the country.
Notable alumni
Eileen DeSandre, actor
Admiral Ronne Froman, who graduated from Seton Hill College in 1969, served 31 years in the United States Navy, retiring as a rear admiral, and was the first female US Navy admiral to be "in charge of naval bases and stations around the world". She then filled several civilian positions in San Diego, California.
Dr. Patricia A. Gabow, alumna of 1965, CEO of Denver Health from 1992–2012
Dr. Margaret C. Heagarty, class of 1957 and founder of the pediatric AIDS unit at Harlem Hospital in New York City.
Former First Lady of Pennsylvania, Michele Moore Ridge, alumna of 1969 and former chair of the Board of Trustees
Ethel LeFrak, wife of billionaire Samuel J. LeFrak and New York City philanthropist.
Justice Maureen O'Connor, alumna of 1973 and sixth woman to serve as an Ohio Supreme Court justice.
Kameron Taylor (born 1994), basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv in the Israeli Basketball Premier League and the EuroLeague
Jane Tutoki, Chief Executive Officer of Cunningham Lindsay.
Stephanie M. Wytovich (born c 1989), editor, novelist and poet working in the horror genre.
Daniel Day, Highest football winning percentage as Head Coach in school history (as of the 2021 football season)
References
External links
Official website
Former women's universities and colleges in the United States
Catholic universities and colleges in Pennsylvania
Educational institutions established in 1883
Universities and colleges in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Greensburg, Pennsylvania
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
1883 establishments in Pennsylvania | [
-0.6099342107772827,
-0.4529955983161926,
0.2476327270269394,
-0.024442721158266068,
0.2729989290237427,
0.6290537714958191,
0.7035067677497864,
0.7454593777656555,
-0.6984506845474243,
-0.8656511902809143,
0.035208411514759064,
0.04736541211605072,
0.3726811408996582,
0.12336549907922745,
-0.2301218956708908,
-0.09870877116918564,
0.2647070586681366,
0.6651172637939453,
-0.07003438472747803,
-0.4645034372806549,
-0.40912315249443054,
-0.3178146779537201,
0.45000892877578735,
0.38767316937446594,
-0.04725801944732666,
0.07368143647909164,
0.3471446931362152,
-0.11470431834459305,
0.18672135472297668,
0.42761528491973877,
0.2220669388771057,
0.2596234083175659,
0.08461148291826248,
-0.3517987132072449,
0.22382238507270813,
-0.4561673104763031,
-0.3118107318878174,
-0.02087780088186264,
0.5012675523757935,
-0.326852023601532,
-0.6403921842575073,
-0.16122694313526154,
-0.2949722707271576,
0.18096977472305298,
0.23812074959278107,
-0.5442759990692139,
-0.8254076242446899,
0.13358977437019348,
-0.6683025360107422,
0.531961977481842,
-0.7474121451377869,
0.27245011925697327,
0.24712471663951874,
0.28112930059432983,
-0.19747376441955566,
0.23432166874408722,
-0.7098201513290405,
0.4356083571910858,
0.33628469705581665,
-0.4501574635505676,
-0.27820053696632385,
0.4421728253364563,
0.15426005423069,
0.19343583285808563,
-0.5042637586593628,
0.0403095968067646,
-0.29386451840400696,
0.45718875527381897,
-0.5330288410186768,
-0.14908123016357422,
0.2637912929058075,
-0.11884840577840805,
-0.18864159286022186,
0.16504546999931335,
0.10357888787984848,
-0.8471971154212952,
-0.03917480260133743,
0.02924945019185543,
-0.1934671252965927,
0.2498280256986618,
-0.151899054646492,
0.27056238055229187,
0.4662902057170868,
0.3000832498073578,
0.4937557876110077,
0.5171561241149902,
-1.0143693685531616,
-0.28798216581344604,
0.13172443211078644,
0.07450667768716812,
-0.5484626293182373,
0.384356826543808,
-0.1529908925294876,
0.19085581600666046,
0.009179575368762016,
-0.047029998153448105,
-0.0502752810716629,
-0.09295761585235596,
-0.13965994119644165,
0.29400646686553955,
-0.09560274332761765,
0.3531528413295746,
0.3460693061351776,
-0.2710275948047638,
-0.46569254994392395,
-0.17995278537273407,
0.022843418642878532,
0.13300417363643646,
0.2859196066856384,
-0.5986292362213135,
-1.2601337432861328,
0.24816815555095673,
-0.1706734448671341,
-0.20387259125709534,
-0.0947151929140091,
0.8138793110847473,
0.6459218263626099,
-0.840049684047699,
-0.4916403889656067,
-0.27902713418006897,
-0.20676355063915253,
0.5014195442199707,
0.04856707900762558,
0.10654954612255096,
0.39817845821380615,
0.48581814765930176,
0.36240705847740173,
0.1353631168603897,
-0.18369431793689728,
-0.2016354650259018,
0.5780020356178284,
0.4284064471721649,
0.06479833275079727,
0.3517723083496094,
0.19208762049674988,
-0.03562278300523758,
0.1767617017030716,
0.49230483174324036,
0.18336988985538483,
0.2433536946773529,
-0.9630007147789001,
-0.11498019099235535,
-0.8117599487304688,
-0.5056183934211731,
0.0662105530500412,
-0.5664356350898743,
-0.39253464341163635,
-0.0829819068312645,
0.392196923494339,
-0.05503491684794426,
0.6538540124893188,
-0.13206982612609863,
-0.3949289321899414,
0.5284349322319031,
-0.10520555824041367,
0.0438806526362896,
0.7201471328735352,
0.24918492138385773,
0.730889618396759,
0.33058589696884155,
-0.08718747645616531,
0.3961484134197235,
-0.13232675194740295,
-0.09971851855516434,
-0.2043268382549286,
0.17981164157390594,
0.07086643576622009,
-0.17847366631031036,
-0.24988368153572083,
0.052903756499290466,
-0.4411417245864868,
-0.2290227711200714,
-0.0476730652153492,
-0.5656909346580505,
0.11080651730298996,
-0.3419567942619324,
0.48880213499069214,
-0.09677288681268692,
0.19585081934928894,
-0.48330968618392944,
-0.6284144520759583,
0.5439483523368835,
0.7735022306442261,
-0.20030328631401062,
-0.6672815084457397,
-0.38122257590293884,
0.20193427801132202,
-0.202540323138237,
-0.09726008027791977,
0.4585636854171753,
-0.8673644065856934,
-0.20072577893733978,
0.345451682806015,
0.27537715435028076,
1.1199504137039185,
0.19836311042308807,
-0.9643393158912659,
0.843237042427063,
-0.833603024482727,
0.45707181096076965,
-0.1830451935529709,
-0.8540525436401367,
-0.012629280798137188,
-0.17753612995147705,
-1.46417236328125,
0.2060139775276184,
0.18700605630874634,
0.0905672237277031,
0.5912570357322693,
0.36000847816467285,
0.3851523697376251,
-0.8813515305519104,
-0.1488971710205078,
0.32103148102760315,
0.1330321580171585,
-0.2689270079135895,
-0.521578311920166,
-0.4030066728591919,
0.3384757936000824,
-0.6319313049316406,
1.0795727968215942,
-0.0895700752735138,
0.9158235788345337,
0.06985120475292206,
0.012491642497479916,
0.18200969696044922,
-0.292845755815506,
0.4794212877750397,
0.3753923177719116,
-0.005696820095181465,
0.4826730489730835,
-0.17374970018863678,
-0.2947607934474945,
-0.5794904828071594,
-0.060097601264715195,
-0.23493312299251556,
-0.2161482572555542,
-0.5797508955001831,
0.5666777491569519,
-0.31049439311027527,
-0.15880320966243744,
0.25985580682754517,
-1.326985478401184,
0.41463324427604675,
0.3452387750148773,
-0.3549382984638214,
0.18945030868053436,
-0.0021673499140888453,
0.13554026186466217,
-0.5790712833404541,
0.15124809741973877,
0.5792185664176941,
0.0875023826956749,
0.037746723741292953,
0.1452941596508026,
0.38559237122535706,
0.4690503180027008,
0.6911109089851379,
0.3220471143722534,
-0.24184773862361908,
-0.13404139876365662,
0.17530259490013123,
0.013443712145090103,
0.39282864332199097,
-0.17438621819019318,
-0.11554038524627686,
-0.41964903473854065,
-0.6628063321113586,
-0.05795113742351532,
-0.093827985227108,
0.5135394334793091,
-0.5581393241882324,
-0.21274060010910034,
-0.7418453693389893,
-0.47553718090057373,
0.09384157508611679,
0.2081041783094406,
0.024174967780709267,
-0.8246118426322937,
-0.5119990706443787,
0.10087145864963531,
0.374891996383667,
0.13483114540576935,
-0.5010999441146851,
0.3000430762767792,
-0.11699876189231873,
0.37438660860061646,
0.19278067350387573,
-0.3463594913482666,
-0.02503463812172413,
-0.36147522926330566,
0.014579648151993752,
0.03058588318526745,
0.44770699739456177,
0.09555009752511978,
0.12154391407966614,
0.7843600511550903,
-0.2742588222026825,
0.5088772177696228,
-0.24767839908599854,
-0.7638381719589233,
0.34960848093032837,
0.12099885940551758,
-0.11590252071619034,
-0.2462519258260727,
-0.4351285994052887,
0.06606467068195343,
-0.19358943402767181,
-5.451794624328613,
0.4817151427268982,
-0.5053966641426086,
-0.20660072565078735,
0.5742464661598206,
-0.469287246465683,
0.5198337435722351,
-0.5508155822753906,
-0.39812764525413513,
-0.12173760682344437,
0.17420721054077148,
-0.23331952095031738,
0.22014011442661285,
0.15677118301391602,
0.08542259782552719,
0.778221070766449,
0.5972968339920044,
-0.4311939775943756,
0.0038592074997723103,
0.16033470630645752,
-0.3746965825557709,
-0.04968176409602165,
-0.10962218791246414,
-0.00646879430860281,
0.15044865012168884,
1.1184568405151367,
-0.5223973989486694,
-0.1324801743030548,
-0.5930419564247131,
-0.4131116271018982,
0.3874090313911438,
-0.24324922263622284,
0.1623607724905014,
-0.26431044936180115,
-0.1508011817932129,
-0.6098935604095459,
0.47842738032341003,
0.1943804919719696,
0.16282911598682404,
-0.2654137909412384,
0.02212967723608017,
0.024548932909965515,
-0.2696555554866791,
-0.11950194090604782,
0.35898634791374207,
-0.2998118996620178,
-0.2377380132675171,
-0.06429982930421829,
-0.31938326358795166,
0.8686864376068115,
-0.1494128555059433,
-0.31688880920410156,
0.5712789297103882,
0.45282939076423645,
-0.28377747535705566,
-0.4398011565208435,
0.33218619227409363,
0.37940600514411926,
0.1497502326965332,
0.02158757485449314,
0.375251442193985,
-0.526765763759613,
-0.09243446588516235,
-0.8529395461082458,
-0.3006201386451721,
0.011942056007683277,
-0.32165175676345825,
0.23584707081317902,
0.19344642758369446,
0.29524558782577515,
-0.012689427472651005,
0.03289997577667236,
-0.24009796977043152,
-0.9119595289230347,
-0.24686381220817566,
-0.6022659540176392,
-0.9670668840408325,
-0.2469913214445114,
-0.012560184113681316,
-0.259710431098938,
-0.2107035368680954,
0.15918219089508057,
-0.006245107855647802,
0.7521419525146484,
0.12667012214660645,
-0.24156121909618378,
-0.280352383852005,
-0.4391985535621643,
-0.06579875946044922,
-0.2987532615661621,
0.2834968566894531,
-0.15111751854419708,
0.5124354362487793,
-0.03455236181616783,
-0.2707741856575012,
0.17445772886276245,
0.36432451009750366,
0.4232187569141388,
-0.7089189887046814,
-0.16531731188297272,
0.5794594287872314,
-0.516171395778656,
0.1671474426984787,
0.0433366484940052,
-0.3204841911792755,
-0.05858559161424637,
-0.1646299660205841,
0.5261700749397278,
0.646226704120636,
-0.026829088106751442,
-0.382786363363266,
-0.6013309359550476,
-0.1526016891002655,
-0.6762381196022034,
0.14807738363742828,
-0.09409338235855103,
-0.3120451867580414,
0.4969137907028198,
0.42354875802993774,
0.10727768391370773,
0.5534754395484924,
0.16668079793453217,
0.6530970931053162,
-0.26387643814086914,
-0.1404702216386795,
-0.533267080783844,
0.3564280867576599,
0.2877456545829773,
-0.1858995407819748,
0.0938008576631546,
0.1924867331981659,
0.26026231050491333,
0.16095052659511566,
0.4801916182041168,
-0.5112525820732117,
-0.24549627304077148,
-0.05338253453373909,
-0.6377922892570496,
-0.01463635079562664,
0.11762116849422455,
0.18423913419246674,
-0.018391691148281097,
-0.4358873963356018,
0.5332475900650024,
0.5040205717086792,
0.750876784324646,
0.08134175837039948,
0.10194344073534012,
-1.0117180347442627,
0.6991519331932068,
-0.20360171794891357,
-0.8430161476135254,
0.1450517326593399,
0.019123675301671028,
0.40617966651916504,
0.43585190176963806,
-0.2558586597442627,
0.32788750529289246,
-0.1017083153128624,
0.49124595522880554,
-0.01108460407704115,
0.001821713405661285,
-0.9553355574607849,
-0.03441590443253517,
-0.16998223960399628,
-0.07095067948102951,
-0.02344479225575924,
-0.3757888376712799,
-1.2751564979553223,
0.2824079692363739,
0.22192969918251038,
-0.30038148164749146,
-0.4932110905647278,
-0.4993019700050354,
0.2921352684497833,
-0.0865040123462677,
0.10053931921720505,
0.3333923816680908,
-0.22241495549678802,
0.32625770568847656,
0.6870552897453308,
-0.8383529186248779,
-0.047816552221775055,
0.22937683761119843,
0.39857664704322815,
-0.4730317294597626,
-0.2834013104438782,
-0.590419590473175,
-0.13928362727165222,
0.36014094948768616,
0.17361322045326233,
-0.21850456297397614,
-0.20239658653736115,
0.5649306178092957,
-0.19692037999629974,
-0.26896512508392334,
-0.0310361385345459,
0.2701459527015686,
-0.06169610470533371,
0.2866681218147278,
0.2808518707752228,
0.8391839265823364,
-0.733159065246582,
0.7679137587547302,
-0.0940663069486618,
-0.14508593082427979,
0.40085408091545105,
0.10635416209697723,
-0.2648330330848694,
0.4025566279888153,
-0.23574873805046082,
-0.4433688819408417,
0.7524617910385132,
0.4049834907054901,
-0.682151734828949,
0.05921860784292221,
-0.06830819696187973,
-0.4291163980960846,
-0.7203391194343567,
0.12520256638526917,
-0.10631284862756729,
0.34738802909851074,
-0.001722000539302826,
0.030895311385393143,
-0.5907072424888611,
0.75019770860672,
0.1122543215751648,
-0.3831404149532318,
0.28100135922431946,
-0.48476749658584595,
-0.014453082345426083,
-0.4382340908050537,
0.08678765594959259,
0.27089521288871765,
0.3148428797721863,
0.42749693989753723,
-0.054242704063653946,
0.10991270840167999,
-0.15393036603927612,
0.31130656599998474,
0.20430631935596466,
0.6791342496871948,
-0.7689181566238403,
-0.794971227645874,
-0.12082028388977051,
0.1512836515903473,
0.43723535537719727,
-0.10458674281835556,
-0.6151520013809204,
0.48581662774086,
0.4684770703315735,
-0.8282337188720703,
-0.3795861601829529,
-0.12312579154968262,
0.5125783085823059,
0.05141144245862961,
-0.11371162533760071,
0.05444964021444321,
0.26626917719841003,
-0.740631103515625,
-0.008043334819376469,
0.0343037024140358,
-0.980207085609436,
0.2878616452217102,
0.11662696301937103,
-0.5219597816467285,
0.23080112040042877,
-0.4619331955909729,
0.4281637370586395,
-0.7586867809295654,
-0.11631660163402557,
-0.4329780340194702,
0.23407572507858276,
0.009872089140117168,
-0.8844389915466309,
0.387401282787323,
-0.21267607808113098,
-0.6055232286453247,
0.46827855706214905,
-0.3170846402645111,
-0.4108327329158783,
0.19779150187969208,
-0.49052825570106506,
0.22779349982738495,
0.70986407995224,
-0.2218284010887146,
0.35406604409217834,
0.3950676918029785,
-0.2725837528705597,
0.38656342029571533,
-0.3129744529724121,
-0.7579809427261353,
0.05904658883810043,
-0.1174209862947464,
-0.5714274048805237,
0.26155808568000793,
0.6524075269699097,
-0.21392923593521118,
0.42841029167175293,
0.2288871854543686,
-0.7231013774871826,
0.7600073218345642,
0.607093334197998,
-0.13553433120250702,
0.6828926801681519,
-0.14673151075839996,
-0.050801828503608704,
-0.20001758635044098,
0.20357464253902435,
-0.5602121949195862,
-0.014730924740433693,
0.1131843775510788,
0.5902672410011292,
0.5356438755989075,
-0.6433642506599426,
0.18263967335224152,
-0.022068573161959648,
-0.7196812033653259,
0.33203455805778503,
0.14290612936019897,
-0.4625993072986603,
0.3887879550457001,
0.3299764096736908,
0.5861718654632568,
0.14013998210430145,
0.8970135450363159,
0.3727651536464691,
-0.581825315952301,
0.9350365996360779,
0.22866803407669067,
-0.08120951056480408,
-0.2786785364151001,
-0.2829778492450714,
0.7761051654815674,
0.08003120869398117,
0.09661252051591873,
0.3840493857860565,
-0.8695574998855591,
-0.9898650646209717,
1.2686799764633179,
0.6804633736610413,
0.739084005355835,
0.08857963234186172,
0.3959898054599762,
-0.6102602481842041,
0.20749101042747498,
0.01545580942183733,
0.502588152885437,
0.24744193255901337,
-0.6435010433197021,
0.12354171276092529,
0.1305207908153534,
0.06350959092378616,
-0.14138539135456085,
-0.2061258852481842,
0.5215412378311157,
0.05772746354341507,
-0.6057066917419434,
-0.6692858338356018,
-0.532090425491333,
-0.0610371008515358,
0.4051859676837921,
0.6087550520896912,
-0.15307369828224182,
0.1273525357246399,
-0.3134820759296417,
0.26022639870643616,
-0.18015725910663605,
-0.40137478709220886,
0.7688643932342529,
-0.04504574462771416,
0.5760055780410767,
0.10245208442211151,
-0.48053717613220215,
0.33229464292526245,
0.6633099317550659,
0.02980826050043106,
0.7013309001922607,
0.22322258353233337,
0.3005516231060028,
-0.40555649995803833,
0.2404814064502716,
-0.19479034841060638,
0.07046107202768326,
0.09710890799760818,
0.08030126243829727,
-0.3722555935382843,
0.30900847911834717,
-0.03238335996866226,
0.2540535032749176,
0.14260557293891907,
-0.39424675703048706,
0.46419158577919006,
0.3014576733112335,
0.1215730533003807,
0.5564329624176025,
-0.21068206429481506,
0.5236064791679382,
0.10185408592224121,
0.4566735327243805,
0.09069183468818665,
-0.16920627653598785,
-0.28179827332496643,
0.31959640979766846,
-0.9087530374526978,
0.21401260793209076,
0.21996231377124786,
-0.05450790375471115,
-0.3864592909812927,
0.21390527486801147,
0.2548471689224243,
0.48793843388557434,
-0.021946940571069717,
0.16808101534843445,
-0.11180521547794342,
0.7107007503509521,
0.8398773074150085,
-0.23775412142276764,
-1.0081995725631714,
-0.5863363146781921,
-0.0032985832076519728,
-0.24645575881004333,
-0.016381636261940002,
1.1675812005996704,
0.42029428482055664,
-0.5524641871452332,
-0.07624095678329468,
0.680412769317627,
-0.24687857925891876,
0.24172137677669525,
0.08081930130720139,
0.0045129768550395966,
-0.45184066891670227,
0.2007049024105072,
-0.014560380950570107,
0.7020229697227478,
-0.02351928874850273,
0.644741415977478,
0.4969000220298767,
-0.2180168479681015,
0.05423573777079582,
-0.4622991681098938,
0.4481561779975891,
0.1561923623085022,
-0.6649091243743896,
-0.16522753238677979,
-0.03410002961754799,
-0.19479329884052277,
-0.8679527640342712,
0.29960015416145325,
-0.22035092115402222,
-0.847445011138916,
0.5833069682121277,
-0.2614986002445221,
-0.40243202447891235,
0.36095479130744934,
-0.03727097436785698,
0.02043343149125576,
0.4270784854888916,
0.662125825881958
] |
233493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Columbia%20Eagle%20incident | SS Columbia Eagle incident | The SS Columbia Eagle incident refers to a mutiny that occurred aboard the U.S. flagged merchant vessel Columbia Eagle in March 1970 when two crewmembers seized the vessel with the threat of a bomb and handgun, and forced the master to sail to Cambodia. The ship was under contract with the Military Sea Transportation Service to carry napalm bombs to be used by the U.S. Air Force during the Vietnam War and was originally bound for Sattahip, Thailand. During the mutiny, 24 of the crew were forced into two lifeboats and set adrift in the Gulf of Thailand while the remainder of the crew were forced to take the ship to a bay near Sihanoukville, Cambodia. The two mutineers requested political asylum from the Cambodian government which was initially granted but they were later arrested and jailed. Columbia Eagle was returned to U.S. control in April 1970. This is the only mutiny of a United States Ship in recent history.
Background
Columbia Eagle
The Columbia Eagle was a Victory-type cargo ship constructed by Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation of Portland, Oregon in 1945 for the U.S. Navy and originally christened SS Pierre Victory. She was designed to carry all types of dry supplies and munitions to Pacific theaters of World War II. SS Pierre Victory survived three separate kamikaze attacks by the Japanese in 1945. After World War II the Pierre Victory was converted to a livestock ship, also called a Seagoing cowboys ship. Pierre Victory made 6 trips with 780 horses on each trip to war torn Poland and Greece.
SS Pierre Victory served as merchant marine ship supplying goods for the Korean War. Like most of the ships of the Victory-type, Pierre Victory was decommissioned after the war then sold to commercial shipping company. In 1968, she was purchased by the Columbia Steamship Company, renamed Columbia Eagle and contracted out to the Military Sea Transportation Service for the purpose of hauling supplies and ammunition to Southeast Asian ports in South Vietnam and Thailand during the Vietnam War. Because Columbia Eagle was a U.S. flagged ship, she was a part of the Merchant Marine fleet and therefore eligible under government contracting rules to haul military supplies to the war zone.
Clyde William McKay, Jr.
Clyde McKay was born on 20 May 1944 near Hemet, California. His father was in the military at the time and often had duty away from the family. While a teenager, he suffered a misdiagnosed bowel obstruction and was seriously ill for a year. Because of this, he lost a year in school and never finished high school and decided to join the merchant marine. McKay received his merchant marine documents on 23 October 1963 and joined the Seafarers International Union shortly thereafter.
Alvin Leonard Glatkowski
Alvin Glatkowski was born on 11 September 1949 at Augusta, Georgia. His father was also in the military at the time of his birth but shortly after Glatkowski was born, his father abandoned the family. His mother married a Navy third-class machinist mate named Ralph Hagan when Glatkowski was three. Hagan was abusive to Glatkowski when he was home, but was often on duty or cruises and Glatkowski learned to be independent at an early age. As a teenager, Glatkowski assumed the role of head of the household when Hagan was at sea and this made Hagan very angry when he returned home. He often took out his frustrations on Glatkowski violently, which led him to leave home at eighteen. Glatkowski went to New York and enrolled in the Seafarers Harry Lundeberg School of Seamanship operated by the Seafarers International Union. Lundeberg School taught the skills needed to get deck, engine and steward jobs on merchant marine ships. On 17 April 1967, Glatkowski received his merchant mariner papers stating he was eligible for entry-level jobs on U.S. flagged ships.
Timeline of the mutiny
McKay and Glatkowski had been planning the operation for some time but had little plan with the exception of bringing a gun on board.
On 14 March 1970, McKay and Glatkowski used guns they had smuggled aboard to seize control of their ship, SS Columbia Eagle, in the first armed mutiny aboard an American ship in 150 years. The ship had been sailing on a Department of Defense supply charter carrying Napalm to the U.S. Air Force bases in Thailand for use in the Vietnam War.
McKay and Glatowski had planned their action to ensure that they would involve the least amount of crew members, knowing full well that they were risking their freedom if not their lives. In order to give themselves the maximum amount of time to secure the ship and their freedom, they planned their action right after the daily radio-communication of the ship's location, ensuring they had 24h before anyone would notice the ship's change of course.
In order to involve the least amount of crew member during the operation, McKay and Glatkowski decided that triggering fire drill would be a good time to get most of the crew off board the ship. After triggering the fire alarm, all but a few members of the crew took position into life boats, as per fire protocol. McKay and Glatowski then took the captain hostage and, claiming that they had a live bomb on board the ship, they requested that the captain orders severing the life boat lines, leaving 24 of the crewmen in the lifeboats. McKay and Glatowski had planned their action right after the daily radio-communication of the ship's location to ensure that the crew on the life boats would be found and rescued. The ship's cargo, 3,500 500-pound bombs and 1,225 750-pound bombs, gave provided leverage and credibility to the bomb threat.
When the crewmen departed in lifeboats, an SOS was transmitted. A Lockheed P-3B from VP-1 Crew 6, the "Scalf Hunters", operating from U-Tapao Royal Thai Navy Airfield, Thailand, was directed to launch a search and rescue (SAR) mission to find the SS Columbia Eagle and assist as needed. Upon arrival at the ship, they found a small crew and the presence of small arms, and immediately reported their assessment that the ship had been hijacked and was heading for Cambodia. Crew 6 maintained communications and status reporting until the ship anchored in Cambodian waters. Afterwards, they were relieved and other P-3 Orion aircrews kept the Columbia Eagle under constant surveillance from outside Cambodian territorial waters.
The merchant ship Rappahanock picked up the lifeboats and crew members and broadcast the news of the mutiny. The United States Coast Guard cutter was the first US military vessel to pursue the Columbia Eagle. The amphibious transport dock was diverted to relieve Mellon in its pursuit. The destroyer, , was detached from station at I Corps to pursue the Columbia Eagle at flank speed and to intervene. However, the Columbia Eagle reached Cambodian waters before any U.S. naval ships could intercept.
With only 13 crewmen remaining aboard besides the mutineers, they sailed into Cambodian waters, where they assumed they would be welcomed as heroes. They anchored within the territorial limit claimed by Cambodia on the afternoon of 15 March.
At 09:51 on 16 March, Denver anchored from the coast in the Gulf of Siam, remaining outside Cambodian waters. Mellon joined shortly thereafter with Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven, as the senior officer present. Two CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters landed on Denver from bases in South Vietnam to assist in visual surveillance. Meanwhile, the mutineers had turned the ship over to Cambodia's Prince Norodom Sihanouk's government, declared themselves anti-war revolutionaries, and been granted asylum.
On 17 March, the helicopters were detached and Denver, with Commander, Amphibious Squadron Seven, departed for Singapore, passing on-scene command to Mellon.
Turner Joy remained on station in a cruising pattern within shipping lanes and in sight of the harbor channel.
On 18 March at 06:36, Denver reversed her course; Prince Sihanouk had been deposed by a coup led by the pro-U.S. Sirik Matak and Lon Nol. If the Cambodians could be persuaded to release Columbia Eagle, Denver'''s flight deck could help the rescued crew members rejoin their ship. The coup was unfortunate for mutineers, McKay and Glatkowski; as they had hoped to find asylum in a pro-Communist country; instead, they became prisoners of the new Cambodian government. At 23:59 on 18 March, Denver anchored in the Gulf of Siam from the coast of Cambodia.
Sihanouk, now in exile, charged that the CIA had masterminded the mutiny to deliver weapons to Lon Nol. Both the mutineers and U.S. officials denied his charges.
When it became clear that Columbia Eagle's release was not imminent, Denver was detached to proceed to Da Nang.
On 8 April, Columbia Eagle was permitted to leave Cambodian waters. She rendezvoused with where a Navy explosive ordnance disposal team inspected the ship while Chase departed to An Thoi Naval Base to pick up the Columbia Eagle crew and return them to the ship. With the crew and ship reunited, Chase escorted her to U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay arriving 12 April.
Status
McKay and Glatkowski were held by the post-coup Cambodian government for several months after their capture. A United Press newspaper interview from August 1970 describes them as living under guard in "a rusting World War II landing ship moored in the Mekong River," regularly using marijuana supplied by their guards, and making statements supporting the Manson Family and violent overthrow of the United States government. Both claimed they were supporters of Students for a Democratic Society.
Mr. McKay said to a reporter: "We are sympathetic with the Asian people and, while I'm not an authority on the war in Vietnam I respect the opinions of people who were authorities like Bertrand Russell and Jean Paul Sartre who said the war in Asia was genocide" and "I intend to carry on my actions against the American Government". In June both men were indicted in absentia by a federal grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of mutiny, kidnapping and assault.
Glatkowski
After months of imprisonment Glatowski was released and, after seeking asylum at the Chinese and Russian embassies he turned himself in at a US Embassy in Phnom Penh and was extradited to the United States to face trial. He was charged with mutiny, kidnapping, assault and neglect of duty, was convicted, and served his sentence. He has admitted to mistakes in the hijacking but remained unapologetic about their goal of interrupting the napalm shipment. United States federal judge Manuel Real heard the testimony of four psychiatrists; three of the psychiatrists reported that Glatkowski was currently sane and was sane at the time of the mutiny incident. On 2 March 1971 Glatkowski pled guilty in a Los Angeles District Court to mutiny and assault. He was sentenced by Judge Manuel Real to 10 years in Federal prison and served seven of the ten years in a Lompoc, California federal prison.Baltimore Sun, Echoes of 1970 in Lindh case, by Roberto Loiederman, 25 February 2002Pomona Progress Bulletin Newspaper Archives, Thursday, 25 February 1971, Page 50
McKay
McKay escaped from his captors along with U.S. Army deserter Larry Humphrey in October 1970 and sought out the Khmer Rouge. He was officially declared accounted for with a date of Loss on 4 November 1970 without being located by the authorities until 2005.
According to an article entitled "The Last Mutineer" by Richard Linnett and Roberto Loiederman, co-authors of the book "The Eagle Mutiny" for the February 2005 issue of Penthouse,'' remains of a corpse brought back from Cambodia were positively identified as Clyde McKay's at the Central Identification Laboratory - Hawaii (CILHI), the U.S. Navy's forensic lab in Hawaii. Subsequently, the remains were cremated and the ashes were buried by his family in their cemetery plot in Hemet, California, where McKay had spent his youth.
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
"Deep Water" musical account of the Columbia Eagle incident, written by Joe DeFilippo and performed by the R.J. Phillips Band
Article on Columbia Eagle Mutiny
Maritime incidents in 1970
Conflicts in 1970
Vietnam War
Mutinies
1970 in Vietnam
Maritime incidents in Vietnam
International maritime incidents
March 1970 events in Asia | [
-0.5217783451080322,
-0.06341253221035004,
-1.068063735961914,
0.35005420446395874,
-0.052351344376802444,
-0.0017354568699374795,
0.3610823452472687,
-0.01505773700773716,
-0.635878324508667,
0.18236400187015533,
0.2267167866230011,
0.2963411808013916,
-0.6364540457725525,
0.6858944296836853,
-0.15705160796642303,
-0.24131682515144348,
0.18165387213230133,
0.46839815378189087,
-0.1142914891242981,
-0.6778606176376343,
-0.06608767062425613,
0.21460896730422974,
0.5699687600135803,
-0.32181841135025024,
0.2943135201931,
-0.22048771381378174,
0.01453685387969017,
-0.2821209132671356,
-0.1844763308763504,
0.4967307448387146,
0.3207295835018158,
0.6567514538764954,
0.38356125354766846,
-0.29475831985473633,
-0.4411934018135071,
-0.1316937655210495,
-0.3274267315864563,
-0.03564690053462982,
-0.06930726021528244,
-0.45169520378112793,
-0.4680913984775543,
-0.41498130559921265,
0.1366216242313385,
0.008357010781764984,
0.5756239295005798,
0.23294201493263245,
-1.2067738771438599,
-0.026876647025346756,
0.12144137918949127,
-0.029485467821359634,
-0.4076334536075592,
0.2677028179168701,
0.2805130183696747,
0.207804337143898,
-0.056353334337472916,
0.8631123304367065,
-0.8221700191497803,
-0.12078236043453217,
-0.08158323168754578,
-1.2187751531600952,
1.020994782447815,
0.6982926726341248,
0.5001721382141113,
-0.12224182486534119,
0.1675727367401123,
0.3749168813228607,
0.19242443144321442,
1.161470890045166,
-0.056415606290102005,
-0.6500368714332581,
-0.1274387091398239,
-0.2391464114189148,
0.5407482385635376,
-0.006909790448844433,
-0.07452354580163956,
-0.37222814559936523,
0.14146628975868225,
0.24574676156044006,
-0.206246480345726,
-0.2369462251663208,
0.17836637794971466,
0.32926145195961,
0.15281826257705688,
-0.1918848305940628,
-0.014684325084090233,
-0.23535996675491333,
-0.9980564117431641,
-0.0597025528550148,
-0.06481040269136429,
0.7719420194625854,
-0.37134525179862976,
-0.25165995955467224,
0.8031132817268372,
0.5516915917396545,
0.041819099336862564,
-0.07834099233150482,
-0.06712349504232407,
0.29421135783195496,
0.08984790742397308,
0.38794752955436707,
-0.23019756376743317,
0.2043694406747818,
0.7827802896499634,
0.48858633637428284,
0.28988468647003174,
0.09210313856601715,
0.2570546269416809,
-0.12227477878332138,
-0.07648825645446777,
-0.5426052212715149,
0.34154531359672546,
-0.03275272995233536,
-0.7429481148719788,
-0.3400619924068451,
-0.8925403952598572,
0.3424988389015198,
0.5399710536003113,
-0.7567797303199768,
0.3974217474460602,
-0.6329292058944702,
-0.11248407512903214,
0.5993443131446838,
-0.6374102234840393,
-0.12367623299360275,
-0.005845408421009779,
0.38016289472579956,
0.7127830982208252,
0.034458599984645844,
-0.2881150245666504,
0.5200979113578796,
-0.2010216861963272,
1.3154575824737549,
-0.427242636680603,
0.26950550079345703,
-0.30088821053504944,
0.09295065701007843,
0.5089704394340515,
0.594752311706543,
0.15749651193618774,
0.19172686338424683,
-1.0402426719665527,
-0.5265594720840454,
-0.6609898805618286,
-0.06837819516658783,
0.5445310473442078,
0.14654245972633362,
0.0881679579615593,
0.02554203011095524,
0.07471101731061935,
-0.08716464042663574,
0.15423187613487244,
-1.1681187152862549,
0.21244476735591888,
0.4727942645549774,
0.02032637782394886,
-0.03732534125447273,
0.7617664337158203,
-0.8745669722557068,
0.21859174966812134,
0.6689335107803345,
0.21745647490024567,
0.22362513840198517,
-0.282806396484375,
-0.39526158571243286,
-0.4156070649623871,
0.1713598221540451,
-0.11128277331590652,
0.008338878862559795,
-0.2569035589694977,
-0.35338032245635986,
-0.22189956903457642,
-0.038402259349823,
0.17087659239768982,
-0.31499430537223816,
0.08122348040342331,
0.232217937707901,
0.08677022904157639,
0.14416633546352386,
0.16556888818740845,
-0.2178068310022354,
-0.44103819131851196,
0.41881319880485535,
-0.3058895170688629,
-0.08730825036764145,
0.22642143070697784,
0.32526353001594543,
0.3382929861545563,
0.0612950325012207,
-0.2034868746995926,
0.06943907588720322,
-0.23038224875926971,
-0.5401523113250732,
0.1630229949951172,
-0.16639935970306396,
1.4409009218215942,
0.13401687145233154,
-0.5605930685997009,
0.7586096525192261,
0.8373087048530579,
0.32589179277420044,
-0.5328385233879089,
0.6016995906829834,
0.28176525235176086,
-0.08297790586948395,
-0.752633273601532,
0.5789085030555725,
-0.003193600568920374,
0.4669577479362488,
-0.12435378134250641,
0.7099350690841675,
0.0035441413056105375,
-0.23536546528339386,
0.2943931818008423,
-0.0033364249393343925,
0.4400079846382141,
0.14577367901802063,
-0.4651925563812256,
-0.12934426963329315,
1.0728002786636353,
-0.4531750977039337,
-0.015096738003194332,
-0.05308673903346062,
0.5729117393493652,
0.17657361924648285,
0.17441898584365845,
0.3786136209964752,
-0.5305584669113159,
0.6684713959693909,
-0.05152139440178871,
-0.6358681321144104,
0.35605552792549133,
0.049763962626457214,
-0.10199648141860962,
-0.23332171142101288,
0.016561729833483696,
-0.28939324617385864,
-0.16924405097961426,
-0.10569322854280472,
0.2137461155653,
0.06629016995429993,
0.6880943179130554,
0.6789296269416809,
-0.861748218536377,
0.669567346572876,
0.012485556304454803,
-0.2191082090139389,
-0.005535687319934368,
-0.43069541454315186,
0.18934792280197144,
-0.5902306437492371,
0.40876516699790955,
0.5719492435455322,
-0.1296166479587555,
-0.8300051093101501,
-0.24861961603164673,
-0.003530349349603057,
0.14006660878658295,
-0.0740649476647377,
0.05236588418483734,
-0.371662437915802,
0.0006576635641977191,
0.40825897455215454,
-0.07274001836776733,
0.8523892164230347,
0.1927308291196823,
-0.17631307244300842,
-0.6738474369049072,
-0.00009277864592149854,
0.1701989620923996,
0.053050555288791656,
0.3810597062110901,
-0.13823573291301727,
-0.003455167869105935,
-0.49433714151382446,
0.3389640748500824,
0.8505827188491821,
-0.1688772290945053,
0.18738991022109985,
-0.36190178990364075,
-0.48705703020095825,
0.3008868098258972,
0.39419373869895935,
-0.037674203515052795,
-0.9305791258811951,
0.006943173706531525,
0.1621280461549759,
-0.054197344928979874,
-0.17452354729175568,
-0.3028094470500946,
-0.5036608576774597,
-0.05593258887529373,
-0.5965723991394043,
0.21268866956233978,
0.41143807768821716,
0.16791915893554688,
0.04262092709541321,
0.1295255571603775,
0.7130826115608215,
0.7558479309082031,
-0.1362476348876953,
-0.38741692900657654,
0.8190990090370178,
-0.9460715055465698,
-0.5578965544700623,
0.45903700590133667,
0.019129443913698196,
0.15482956171035767,
0.06876880675554276,
-5.348700523376465,
0.3307296633720398,
-0.4656775891780853,
-0.01884840987622738,
-0.3297455906867981,
-0.02722630463540554,
0.7421703338623047,
-0.5102387070655823,
-0.17575876414775848,
0.045833367854356766,
0.6092430353164673,
0.3599487841129303,
0.23459738492965698,
-0.10136611759662628,
0.43350714445114136,
0.4967520236968994,
1.484890103340149,
-0.6664613485336304,
0.03551706299185753,
-0.008964215405285358,
0.3424011468887329,
-0.13064365088939667,
-0.33531320095062256,
0.5782603621482849,
0.25356748700141907,
0.30520355701446533,
-0.03461579605937004,
0.022847715765237808,
-0.43682172894477844,
0.3759022057056427,
0.2718353271484375,
0.010480900295078754,
-0.38756051659584045,
-0.34621718525886536,
-0.389972984790802,
-0.8684260845184326,
0.5408180952072144,
-0.29043957591056824,
0.11934342235326767,
-0.08286989480257034,
-1.0388602018356323,
-0.40741467475891113,
-0.1288980394601822,
0.011533519253134727,
0.5335166454315186,
0.15602725744247437,
-0.2889411747455597,
0.20294715464115143,
0.2448597550392151,
0.6770285964012146,
-0.10987886786460876,
-0.2130242884159088,
0.25296396017074585,
0.41107022762298584,
0.10391411930322647,
0.27731582522392273,
-0.1593368649482727,
0.08785542845726013,
-0.21782170236110687,
-0.20629474520683289,
0.6914103031158447,
-0.154059499502182,
0.3239261507987976,
-0.3831760883331299,
-0.16073520481586456,
-0.3831024169921875,
0.4527779519557953,
-0.2218794971704483,
0.1543528288602829,
-0.14384670555591583,
-0.08894244581460953,
1.175093412399292,
-0.3581698536872864,
-1.166751742362976,
0.18468579649925232,
-0.35495033860206604,
-0.30648934841156006,
0.5271565914154053,
-0.027124205604195595,
-0.013554947450757027,
-0.2790232002735138,
0.3649235665798187,
-0.5099872946739197,
-0.09043477475643158,
0.4624326527118683,
-0.11734747886657715,
-0.4812343418598175,
0.19512781500816345,
-0.5360668301582336,
-0.044418178498744965,
0.3863626718521118,
0.041592661291360855,
0.11115726083517075,
0.946815013885498,
0.250985711812973,
0.27583447098731995,
0.03367360308766365,
0.36839136481285095,
0.46843862533569336,
0.1353766769170761,
0.17109611630439758,
-0.9268826246261597,
-0.05821545049548149,
-0.7435248494148254,
-0.38494157791137695,
-0.3416542708873749,
-0.2036820948123932,
-0.4097920060157776,
0.5677730441093445,
0.03509592264890671,
0.33188626170158386,
-0.738139271736145,
-0.004008290357887745,
-0.19248230755329132,
0.5676770806312561,
0.2147025465965271,
0.6639389395713806,
0.3430212438106537,
0.544459879398346,
0.2512900233268738,
0.10382580757141113,
0.0628073588013649,
-0.741974949836731,
0.15474089980125427,
-0.3390573263168335,
-0.6493202447891235,
0.37687891721725464,
-0.20224407315254211,
-0.35562863945961,
0.0695200264453888,
-0.22935403883457184,
0.1361023634672165,
-0.26338857412338257,
0.37497642636299133,
0.3308652341365814,
-0.7007886171340942,
0.37942269444465637,
-0.3779452443122864,
0.5671772956848145,
0.2204916775226593,
-0.21531353890895844,
0.05568515136837959,
-0.40466001629829407,
-0.1847124695777893,
0.8202437162399292,
0.9426549077033997,
-0.0769912600517273,
-0.20009280741214752,
-0.2599100172519684,
0.8882622122764587,
-0.9433614611625671,
-0.570907711982727,
0.1023736521601677,
-0.22245188057422638,
-0.14928491413593292,
0.25803467631340027,
0.4181574583053589,
0.2525782585144043,
-0.6417366862297058,
0.4697279930114746,
0.2966805696487427,
-0.023794444277882576,
-0.7508058547973633,
-0.08442851155996323,
-0.027594802901148796,
-0.14429298043251038,
-0.4428446292877197,
-0.6104200482368469,
-0.2175256907939911,
0.6245457530021667,
-0.2425590604543686,
-0.19213831424713135,
-0.3150637149810791,
0.22771917283535004,
0.7885581851005554,
0.401030033826828,
-0.579700767993927,
-0.27114665508270264,
0.3048563301563263,
-0.39366376399993896,
-0.6099372506141663,
0.22700069844722748,
-0.5417346358299255,
0.7496855854988098,
-0.3461529612541199,
-0.6088941693305969,
-0.5454801917076111,
-0.18710723519325256,
-0.4080888330936432,
-0.06369909644126892,
-0.28849703073501587,
0.40970519185066223,
0.2582957148551941,
0.28402331471443176,
-0.7901099920272827,
0.0942019522190094,
-0.47357577085494995,
-0.09806427359580994,
0.38262972235679626,
-0.19996243715286255,
0.13849283754825592,
0.6921656131744385,
0.03614228963851929,
0.46091604232788086,
-0.44041600823402405,
-0.9094109535217285,
-0.06872612982988358,
0.4141516089439392,
-0.45283713936805725,
0.5858966708183289,
0.12051970511674881,
-1.2158373594284058,
-0.24279823899269104,
1.1022013425827026,
0.11995304375886917,
-0.20075206458568573,
0.42730629444122314,
-0.13936300575733185,
-0.12303394824266434,
-0.22316984832286835,
-0.23821456730365753,
0.10627413541078568,
-0.30087924003601074,
-1.089066743850708,
-0.5365691781044006,
0.6613889932632446,
-0.2200542837381363,
-0.7499253153800964,
1.0857261419296265,
-0.38379907608032227,
-0.6542485356330872,
-0.019122643396258354,
-0.37652379274368286,
0.0381353534758091,
0.11266717314720154,
0.042382121086120605,
-0.037589702755212784,
-0.06867367029190063,
0.11551012843847275,
-0.1821233034133911,
0.06387396156787872,
0.800940990447998,
0.6277331709861755,
-0.7621179223060608,
0.012181777507066727,
0.014541473239660263,
0.6875120401382446,
0.08190528303384781,
-0.19336506724357605,
-0.05939798429608345,
-0.09089019894599915,
-0.3854295313358307,
-0.8823813199996948,
-0.6572654247283936,
0.8383423089981079,
-0.7933628559112549,
-0.11368563026189804,
-0.18488548696041107,
-0.25321751832962036,
-0.17166851460933685,
0.12449804693460464,
0.5077705383300781,
-1.531716227531433,
0.21324722468852997,
0.06325440853834152,
0.5635634064674377,
-0.3399060368537903,
-0.06277194619178772,
0.1936081051826477,
-0.15026536583900452,
0.17120540142059326,
-0.2679360508918762,
-0.29181405901908875,
0.26426324248313904,
-0.2801344394683838,
0.23481138050556183,
-0.23864544928073883,
-0.5375956296920776,
0.011916019022464752,
-0.0006750710308551788,
-0.25544559955596924,
-0.09334923326969147,
-0.6182659268379211,
-0.502051830291748,
0.3329916298389435,
-0.36929112672805786,
-0.5125239491462708,
-0.932280957698822,
-0.8409026861190796,
-0.01791752129793167,
-0.259863018989563,
0.0653446763753891,
-0.1354142278432846,
-0.13001425564289093,
0.4293546974658966,
-0.03809681907296181,
-0.1444893181324005,
0.1565828174352646,
-0.3809397220611572,
0.1571265459060669,
-1.2228628396987915,
0.2106899619102478,
-0.07083963602781296,
-0.07759539783000946,
0.1892421543598175,
0.05078771710395813,
-0.3955819010734558,
0.09323674440383911,
-0.09723030775785446,
0.016789162531495094,
0.1941261887550354,
-0.38103923201560974,
-0.19296391308307648,
-0.12886151671409607,
-0.4325363337993622,
-0.06121828779578209,
0.5793138146400452,
-0.5663720369338989,
-0.13977818191051483,
0.0975564494729042,
0.02870689518749714,
-0.02571256086230278,
0.8496735095977783,
0.19150270521640778,
0.17902909219264984,
0.3297199010848999,
-0.4479840397834778,
-0.15730798244476318,
-0.025771839544177055,
0.6432497501373291,
0.3423047363758087,
-0.4563141167163849,
-0.4845355153083801,
0.06544789671897888,
-0.20366062223911285,
-0.1044379249215126,
0.5777480006217957,
-0.9667737483978271,
-0.5253379344940186,
0.5595256686210632,
0.1714101880788803,
0.4647441506385803,
0.5058411955833435,
-0.5731358528137207,
-0.10250160098075867,
-0.3787834346294403,
-0.2457733452320099,
0.4070533215999603,
0.4267878830432892,
0.06707824021577835,
-0.0976378545165062,
0.034768279641866684,
0.36782315373420715,
-0.9558323621749878,
0.8804596066474915,
0.07253275066614151,
-0.03476123884320259,
-0.15143926441669464,
-0.6662972569465637,
-0.3559458255767822,
-0.6275815367698669,
0.0547867976129055,
0.7607440948486328,
0.20210473239421844,
0.08013512939214706,
-0.07074317336082458,
-0.24589338898658752,
0.4548972249031067,
0.045005906373262405,
-0.08021733909845352,
0.8323928713798523,
-0.2825450897216797,
-0.2663332223892212,
0.20006142556667328,
0.6218324303627014,
0.3613430857658386,
0.37516480684280396,
-0.048395510762929916,
0.4993377923965454,
0.25652119517326355,
-0.018124965950846672,
0.6608200073242188,
0.0006943656480871141,
-0.7532117962837219,
0.4635985195636749,
-0.02307754196226597,
0.12162961065769196,
0.6182040572166443,
0.5299570560455322,
-0.26289102435112,
0.5658866167068481,
-0.18597735464572906,
-0.14155922830104828,
0.6143581867218018,
0.18258710205554962,
0.02174835465848446,
-0.0646502897143364,
0.5712743401527405,
-0.0191093347966671,
0.22867819666862488,
0.08721202611923218,
-0.10006503015756607,
0.35490211844444275,
0.27579042315483093,
-0.4024912416934967,
0.35783037543296814,
-0.6589038372039795,
0.33032405376434326,
-0.4730619490146637,
0.1065792441368103,
-0.23153917491436005,
-0.11763175576925278,
-0.1634548455476761,
0.20873793959617615,
-0.42146551609039307,
-0.3740023970603943,
0.8018059134483337,
-0.6698011159896851,
-0.8831229209899902,
0.1405726671218872,
-0.7281733155250549,
-0.31690236926078796,
-0.09024133533239365,
0.05298367887735367,
-0.562476396560669,
-0.31637492775917053,
-0.13589991629123688,
0.08366934955120087,
0.40132445096969604,
0.44689056277275085,
0.21161220967769623,
-0.16841183602809906,
-0.10534775257110596,
0.3684205710887909,
0.5266079902648926,
-0.7497296929359436,
0.27936285734176636,
0.567825973033905,
0.6688592433929443,
-0.1936465948820114,
0.7283251881599426,
-0.4552910625934601,
0.4205525517463684,
-0.34594812989234924,
-0.1805775910615921,
-0.08435559272766113,
0.15435916185379028,
-0.7130941152572632,
0.8333666920661926,
0.43126875162124634,
0.5287485718727112,
-0.07342185080051422,
-0.3270314037799835,
-0.4119459390640259,
-0.0361131876707077,
-0.46396711468696594,
0.29167336225509644,
-0.6047501564025879,
0.04637712240219116,
0.11466515809297562
] |
233496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilottone | Pilottone | Pilottone (or Pilotone) and the related neo-pilottone are special synchronization signals recorded by analog audio recorders designed for use in motion picture production, to keep sound and vision recorded on separate media in step. Before the adoption of timecode by the motion picture industry in the late 1980s, pilottone-sync was the basis of all professional magnetic motion picture sound recording systems, whereas most amateur film formats used pre-striped magnetic coating on the film itself for live-sound recording.
History
According to Carsten Diercks, camera operator and filmmaker at West-German Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) during the 1950s, pilottone was invented at the NWDR studio in Hamburg-Lokstedt, West Germany by NWDR technical engineer Adalbert Lohmann and his assistant Udo Stepputat in the early 1950s for single-camera 16mm TV news gathering and documentaries. The first program featuring the use of pilottone was the documentary Musuri - Es geht aufwärts am Kongo ("Musuri: Upstream/progress at the Congo"), shot in early 1954 in Africa and first broadcast on ARD on March 31, 1954. The new technology required new editing suites, and Musuri camera operator Diercks turned to a small nearby 6-man workshop named Steenbeck. The subsequent success of priorly shunned 16mm for TV program gathering facilitated by the pilotone system turned Steenbeck into a multinational corporation.
Neo-pilottone was invented in 1957 by Stefan Kudelski with the Nagra III tape recorder.
The new technology of pilottone was brought to international attention by its use by Richard Leacock, former cameraman of filmmaker Robert Flaherty, in his documentary feature Primary (1960), documenting the competing Democratic presidential nominee candidates Hubert Humphrey and John F. Kennedy. Diercks himself helped the spread of pilottone in the USA when he was the only Western reporter allowed to shoot in Havana during the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961. CBS secured the licensing rights to Diercks's material via Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR had split in 1956 into NDR and WDR), and brought it on air on May 14, 1961, ten days prior to the German broadcast of the same material. At a time when North-American TV program gathering was dominated by either Movietone (see also Movietone News) or magnetic pre-striping for live-sound recording, and the use of pilottone was still unheard of, according to Diercks the US TV networks were impressed with the system demonstrated by the 60-minute documentary feature.
Technology
The synchronization is obtained when a pulse cable is connected from Motion picture camera to an audio recorder such as those made by Nagra. A camera with a Sync motor sends a 60/50 Hz signal to the recorder, which is recorded as a sine wave pilot tone.
The recorder has a double recording head, similar to a two-track recorder. Each of the two cores of the recording head records both the audio signal, and the pilot tone. The audio signal to be recorded is applied identically to both cores of the recording head, and the pilot tone sine wave is applied in a push-pull arrangement (180 degrees out-of-phase).
Unlike the recording head, the playback head has a single core. The playback head gap covers both of the tracks created by the record head. The magnetic field changes across the width of the gap are effectively added in the playback head, so the playback head reproduces the audio signal, which is the same in both tracks. But the pilot tone cancels itself in the playback head: at a point on the tape where it has a certain intensity on the upper track, it has the opposite intensity on the lower track, and so always sums to zero.
On playback, the record head is used as a push-pull playback head in order to reproduce the pilot tone. All speed variations of the camera and tape can be detected as deviations from 60/50 Hz, and compared at the time of playback with in built quartz reference oscillator. For cinematic audio, speed variations are rectified (resolved) at the time of transfer to the perforated 35mm/16mm audio tape. At that time the mains power supply frequency is also taken as reference. (The selection of the 60/50 Hz equipment depends on the power supply in the country where filming is being conducted. North America has a supply of 60 Hz whereas Europe and some Asian countries have 50 Hz.)
Normal audio tape recorders have good regulation of tape speed, but not sufficiently precise to guarantee that a playback machine will exactly match the speed of the recorder over long periods of time. Such a system would need to record exactly how much tape passes the head in such an amount of time, and would have to be accurate to a quarter inch after 800 feet or more. Pilottone provides such a system.
When the tape is played back on a pilottone-reading tape player, it needs to only resolve the pilottone signal on the tape. The player has a quartz oscillator of its own, and when the operator hits play, the player tries to match the sine wave of the recorded pilottone with the pilottone being generated by its own quartz crystal. When they match up, the player knows that the tape is moving across its play head exactly as fast as it was across the record head when it was originally recorded.
Obsolescence
The pilottone system became obsolete in the 1980s when the virtually universal use of crystal controlled motors on cameras, and crystal controlled digital frequency sampling on audio recorders assured accurate synchronization of picture and sound.
With the speed of both camera and recorder free of significant variation there is no longer a need for a synchronization cable to connect them. This has made the work of a sound technician much simpler. It also allows more freedom of camera movement during filming.
Also, the use of SMPTE time code on source recordings simplifies finding match points in post production between picture and audio in both the film and television worlds.
See also
Cinéma vérité
Direct Cinema
References
External links
Interview with pilottone pioneer Carsten Diercks (3:17 min, RealMedia; in German), with excerpts from Musuri - Es geht aufwärts am Kongo (1954), world's first use of pilottone
Small illustrated biography of Carsten Diercks at Filmmuseum Hamburg (in German)
Film and video technology
Synchronization
de:Pilotton | [
0.2653462886810303,
0.11536391079425812,
-0.05687409266829491,
0.5921742916107178,
0.3002568781375885,
-0.0077603887766599655,
-0.21500089764595032,
-0.2910926043987274,
0.30559903383255005,
-0.2815929055213928,
-0.3422310948371887,
0.5351623296737671,
-0.09605728834867477,
0.07579686492681503,
-0.35646575689315796,
0.1320531815290451,
0.5764469504356384,
0.10215569287538528,
-0.2061498910188675,
-0.829491913318634,
-0.4481739103794098,
0.287095308303833,
0.12886352837085724,
-0.4574180245399475,
-0.21010175347328186,
0.15771110355854034,
-0.22783294320106506,
0.2397228628396988,
-0.20025023818016052,
0.5404423475265503,
0.044310376048088074,
0.3029114902019501,
0.23692850768566132,
-0.37702471017837524,
-0.04896755889058113,
0.10478393733501434,
-0.2744883596897125,
-0.2182639241218567,
0.05395306274294853,
-0.1368335634469986,
0.22242262959480286,
-0.32566216588020325,
0.4118111729621887,
0.320072203874588,
-0.6177997589111328,
0.5276381373405457,
-1.955331563949585,
0.13424094021320343,
-0.11846660822629929,
0.21060478687286377,
-0.0347299762070179,
0.4239077568054199,
-0.08717261254787445,
0.6678159236907959,
0.2168140858411789,
0.410794198513031,
-0.39273178577423096,
-0.18951484560966492,
0.39754846692085266,
-0.1987004429101944,
0.12211189419031143,
-0.5817562937736511,
-0.015257063321769238,
0.197555810213089,
0.041636813431978226,
0.17478609085083008,
0.11204550415277481,
-0.5654212236404419,
-0.3498298227787018,
-0.23189495503902435,
0.3320119082927704,
0.004683213774114847,
0.1342063993215561,
-0.22511160373687744,
-0.11871205270290375,
0.131688192486763,
-0.006048503331840038,
0.07435236871242523,
0.3979489207267761,
-0.02495199628174305,
0.39145779609680176,
0.24993550777435303,
0.3129565119743347,
0.10068696737289429,
-0.2699928879737854,
0.13906541466712952,
-0.14724214375019073,
0.1547860950231552,
-0.6276309490203857,
0.08872977644205093,
-0.26730960607528687,
-0.712529182434082,
0.33451536297798157,
0.14692017436027527,
-0.24541017413139343,
-0.01152606401592493,
0.19074979424476624,
0.02312362752854824,
0.21570855379104614,
0.37112393975257874,
0.028048619627952576,
0.0031626697164028883,
0.7276679873466492,
-0.14904797077178955,
-0.017939794808626175,
-0.2233153134584427,
-0.5961701273918152,
0.03141830861568451,
-0.5453824996948242,
0.3711644113063812,
-0.48431840538978577,
-0.23073481023311615,
0.5683658123016357,
0.08446197211742401,
-0.5524762868881226,
-0.4649718701839447,
-0.08143644779920578,
0.38792848587036133,
-0.12410236150026321,
0.19467388093471527,
0.26688212156295776,
0.5288118720054626,
-0.007406309247016907,
-0.5701629519462585,
-0.13291099667549133,
0.4233967363834381,
0.6620422601699829,
0.6514933109283447,
-0.49604615569114685,
-0.451885849237442,
-0.20367272198200226,
0.6184930801391602,
-0.07575667649507523,
-0.010210597887635231,
0.18024985492229462,
-0.5529255270957947,
-0.16298030316829681,
-0.25893834233283997,
-0.3380087912082672,
0.37068188190460205,
-0.28536295890808105,
-0.06081068888306618,
-0.5753151774406433,
-0.5277628302574158,
0.14775091409683228,
0.265481561422348,
-0.5267370939254761,
-0.04269792139530182,
-0.36209478974342346,
0.23219521343708038,
-0.11767002195119858,
0.13092145323753357,
0.22943215072155,
-0.8539799451828003,
-0.36663857102394104,
-0.35336431860923767,
0.29513901472091675,
-0.13426923751831055,
-0.16768577694892883,
-0.416768878698349,
-0.20730318129062653,
-0.28293341398239136,
-0.18008951842784882,
0.49576336145401,
0.24956181645393372,
-0.08142529428005219,
0.19342154264450073,
0.46516066789627075,
-0.26788273453712463,
0.4665085971355438,
0.26949208974838257,
0.10689496994018555,
0.03982970863580704,
0.05442887917160988,
-0.49520033597946167,
-0.05364459380507469,
0.2569239139556885,
0.45792853832244873,
0.22740493714809418,
-0.07510281354188919,
-0.6826450824737549,
0.011754835955798626,
-0.027553454041481018,
-0.46435174345970154,
-0.19232575595378876,
0.14284291863441467,
0.37613752484321594,
-0.07807568460702896,
-0.5116749405860901,
-0.3387310206890106,
-0.29801926016807556,
-0.6852819323539734,
-0.00717133330181241,
-0.6690693497657776,
0.41185691952705383,
-0.2903846204280853,
-0.4505327045917511,
0.4597162902355194,
0.3437296450138092,
0.29300472140312195,
0.06084534153342247,
0.08560073375701904,
0.5546486377716064,
-0.10573352128267288,
0.12927989661693573,
0.2784856855869293,
0.3737795352935791,
0.23843549191951752,
0.42172741889953613,
-0.7624441981315613,
0.4023122489452362,
-0.21522335708141327,
0.4687154293060303,
0.35498687624931335,
0.11014297604560852,
-0.28352221846580505,
-0.6475736498832703,
0.0676238089799881,
0.0974011942744255,
0.041083067655563354,
-0.1767576038837433,
-0.020979706197977066,
-0.24099288880825043,
0.12325884401798248,
0.06571239978075027,
0.8517012000083923,
0.045917145907878876,
0.04724988341331482,
0.2544631063938141,
0.07318651676177979,
-0.07482897490262985,
-0.2925594449043274,
-0.3061710000038147,
-0.10089144110679626,
0.03234851732850075,
-0.0886954739689827,
0.25618839263916016,
-0.008800774812698364,
0.11036470532417297,
-0.20186004042625427,
0.0282290056347847,
0.15176616609096527,
-0.4382515549659729,
-0.23037177324295044,
0.42370855808258057,
0.03532283008098602,
0.27561646699905396,
0.11799353361129761,
-0.04368605464696884,
-0.02231260947883129,
-0.07664947211742401,
0.19728943705558777,
-0.11298588663339615,
-0.21517901122570038,
0.3154028356075287,
-0.1404263973236084,
0.1273937225341797,
-0.08949671685695648,
-0.020536603406071663,
-0.1318977326154709,
-0.05418962612748146,
0.4322577118873596,
0.5790021419525146,
-0.39023956656455994,
-0.35276371240615845,
-0.9506154656410217,
-0.1036553680896759,
0.1165534034371376,
0.7303040027618408,
0.3302934765815735,
-0.18203651905059814,
0.6211444735527039,
-0.2549111843109131,
-0.07049592584371567,
-0.8251775503158569,
-0.4586079716682434,
0.22393935918807983,
-0.00629898626357317,
-0.12970566749572754,
-0.3681749403476715,
0.5062781572341919,
-0.049038421362638474,
0.12894801795482635,
-0.19456514716148376,
-0.19464638829231262,
-0.280265212059021,
-0.24026913940906525,
-0.37037134170532227,
0.16792283952236176,
-0.18809321522712708,
-0.43806010484695435,
0.5071887969970703,
0.04346545413136482,
0.09527212381362915,
0.36802032589912415,
0.37160220742225647,
-0.02224055677652359,
0.16679148375988007,
0.05477556586265564,
-0.4425402283668518,
-0.42278432846069336,
-0.05061468854546547,
-0.07312354445457458,
-0.6400344967842102,
0.02802719548344612,
0.533614456653595,
0.1472885012626648,
-0.23762673139572144,
-6.232362270355225,
0.5407953262329102,
0.08564164489507675,
-0.4712163209915161,
0.40031641721725464,
0.35941705107688904,
0.38905754685401917,
-0.15605124831199646,
0.23135094344615936,
0.212301567196846,
-0.28132790327072144,
-0.011188126169145107,
0.21363665163516998,
0.29887136816978455,
-0.07362442463636398,
-0.4849938154220581,
-0.30398622155189514,
0.061569929122924805,
-0.02388742007315159,
0.44594958424568176,
-0.13891735672950745,
-0.04001874476671219,
0.6031135320663452,
0.7418683171272278,
-0.15170958638191223,
-0.29528433084487915,
-0.3026651442050934,
0.4556586444377899,
-0.38722696900367737,
-0.26390913128852844,
0.17050862312316895,
0.042127400636672974,
-0.15273861587047577,
0.36019501090049744,
0.1206250712275505,
0.18189723789691925,
0.8044535517692566,
0.30377069115638733,
0.25556060671806335,
-0.28953829407691956,
0.058304138481616974,
0.6928627490997314,
0.01817801222205162,
-0.3279902935028076,
0.20441842079162598,
0.24952881038188934,
0.22948406636714935,
0.04183743894100189,
0.025584954768419266,
0.33330029249191284,
-0.01466416660696268,
0.10175402462482452,
0.3445957899093628,
-0.20344877243041992,
-0.17559680342674255,
0.22721190750598907,
0.2961914837360382,
-0.2681772708892822,
0.0876760184764862,
0.3797384798526764,
0.07006963342428207,
-0.2655930519104004,
-0.38318049907684326,
-0.1345778852701187,
-0.20393134653568268,
-0.5778889060020447,
-0.6325488686561584,
0.29753416776657104,
0.616401195526123,
0.32620006799697876,
0.03221311420202255,
-0.12600301206111908,
0.145555779337883,
-0.8949857950210571,
0.291759192943573,
-0.23382510244846344,
0.44296127557754517,
-0.38496825098991394,
-0.28269582986831665,
0.72881680727005,
-0.09686066955327988,
-0.05400976911187172,
0.17401377856731415,
0.08583371341228485,
0.09027829766273499,
-0.17169438302516937,
-0.6057640910148621,
0.09162364900112152,
0.5973778367042542,
-0.0015243260422721505,
0.5092861652374268,
-0.3529650568962097,
0.1916738748550415,
-0.07192926853895187,
0.2015029639005661,
0.08837635070085526,
0.13356918096542358,
0.372896283864975,
0.7615882754325867,
0.1264297515153885,
-0.1195296123623848,
-0.20466604828834534,
0.04450950026512146,
-0.4812503159046173,
-0.06449062377214432,
-0.48468077182769775,
-0.1854739636182785,
0.23998191952705383,
0.3127448260784149,
-0.04406924545764923,
-0.07953481376171112,
0.05719427764415741,
-0.3680880069732666,
0.020968947559595108,
0.42160627245903015,
-0.5817397832870483,
0.19046516716480255,
0.3081943094730377,
0.13073699176311493,
-0.734856367111206,
-0.3467211127281189,
0.24590924382209778,
-0.3188111186027527,
0.019875196740031242,
-0.07951385527849197,
-0.1344282031059265,
-0.7538105249404907,
0.234800323843956,
-0.06530692428350449,
0.11906014382839203,
0.13892613351345062,
0.5032788515090942,
-0.12689101696014404,
0.565016508102417,
0.246985524892807,
-0.8800405859947205,
-0.48690512776374817,
0.43202105164527893,
-0.16607004404067993,
-0.44348806142807007,
0.42984169721603394,
-0.33484673500061035,
0.03063783049583435,
-0.2745720446109772,
1.0446648597717285,
0.16437114775180817,
-0.12068773806095123,
-0.8593965172767639,
-0.030097123235464096,
-0.0038434332236647606,
0.5907938480377197,
0.033046502619981766,
-0.05428536236286163,
-0.4247720539569855,
-0.11677280068397522,
0.18960092961788177,
-0.37820377945899963,
-0.1695772409439087,
-0.06490032374858856,
-0.25082579255104065,
0.4606321454048157,
0.4000246226787567,
-0.7570145130157471,
-0.27729931473731995,
0.048558980226516724,
0.15289559960365295,
-0.5604310035705566,
-0.09470152854919434,
0.11558245867490768,
-0.18290814757347107,
-0.24303826689720154,
-0.27522727847099304,
-0.14821380376815796,
-0.2840597629547119,
0.24745719134807587,
0.30000239610671997,
-0.4086444675922394,
0.2771807909011841,
0.09505976736545563,
-0.3106931149959564,
-0.004625857342034578,
0.04325444623827934,
-0.1820761114358902,
0.08587689697742462,
-0.16256749629974365,
-0.4327220916748047,
-0.1958925724029541,
0.24130302667617798,
-0.3539183437824249,
-0.3223254382610321,
0.27197709679603577,
0.15291033685207367,
-0.09010080248117447,
-0.08048944175243378,
-0.3135736584663391,
-0.19726510345935822,
0.023531584069132805,
0.5810543298721313,
0.13511095941066742,
0.1788661926984787,
0.21881915628910065,
0.11258785426616669,
-0.42957085371017456,
0.2002481371164322,
0.525799036026001,
-0.1699613630771637,
0.2228856235742569,
0.1625991314649582,
-0.7326796054840088,
-0.004205150064080954,
-0.07314909994602203,
-0.8607958555221558,
-0.27794596552848816,
-0.08173366636037827,
-0.018031269311904907,
0.23288984596729279,
0.2859284579753876,
-0.5175549387931824,
0.1606850028038025,
-0.4624275863170624,
0.7241946458816528,
0.23535975813865662,
-0.1596871316432953,
0.27887558937072754,
-0.3599449098110199,
-0.1219792291522026,
0.05252508446574211,
0.29905086755752563,
0.5574504733085632,
-0.09372342377901077,
-0.10136370360851288,
-0.10388389974832535,
-0.24371305108070374,
0.10244609415531158,
-0.49934059381484985,
-0.5588651895523071,
-0.9159976840019226,
-0.13064000010490417,
-0.0005057933740317822,
0.1284312903881073,
0.44719094038009644,
0.4955315887928009,
0.43773797154426575,
0.2554052770137787,
-0.574728786945343,
0.5333011746406555,
0.10725454241037369,
-0.6394134759902954,
-0.30682745575904846,
0.5277857780456543,
-0.022636115550994873,
-0.11214577406644821,
-0.48095783591270447,
0.4012764096260071,
0.38793841004371643,
-0.112386554479599,
0.03096439316868782,
-0.2325466275215149,
0.06357099860906601,
0.5026711821556091,
-0.09719511866569519,
-0.25538304448127747,
-0.1888880580663681,
0.12618659436702728,
-0.199033722281456,
0.21425524353981018,
-0.33730602264404297,
-0.22818619012832642,
0.14296624064445496,
-0.4737493097782135,
0.5231819152832031,
0.1971835047006607,
0.2534920871257782,
0.10458783060312271,
0.15437819063663483,
0.5191127061843872,
0.4456620216369629,
-0.021176714450120926,
-0.2116367518901825,
0.04151766747236252,
-0.32651999592781067,
-0.2508491575717926,
-0.01679157093167305,
-0.5754749774932861,
-0.39657142758369446,
0.1805824488401413,
0.16289480030536652,
-0.2879234850406647,
-0.3057693541049957,
-0.21903595328330994,
-0.13152100145816803,
0.5816712379455566,
-0.06949328631162643,
0.6701319217681885,
-0.1910606473684311,
-0.41192319989204407,
0.31709182262420654,
0.6375923752784729,
0.2951655387878418,
-0.423627108335495,
-0.10373017191886902,
0.08455595374107361,
0.24070610105991364,
-0.4266975224018097,
0.2970806360244751,
-0.2190537005662918,
0.24211348593235016,
-0.6465618014335632,
-0.4728833734989166,
0.15192216634750366,
0.35378918051719666,
0.06231917813420296,
-0.3240032196044922,
0.782622754573822,
0.40267205238342285,
-0.0881863683462143,
0.6888898015022278,
0.45422038435935974,
0.2034476399421692,
0.6708014011383057,
0.28928735852241516,
0.10228957235813141,
0.48616960644721985,
-0.2705512046813965,
-0.663531482219696,
0.08094096928834915,
0.10619658976793289,
-0.12158474326133728,
-0.028293998911976814,
0.12194249033927917,
0.8686628937721252,
0.014241482131183147,
0.19944165647029877,
0.5091339945793152,
-0.5220340490341187,
-0.6520901322364807,
-0.12853041291236877,
-0.16979825496673584,
-0.14507731795310974,
0.02792787365615368,
0.05828116089105606,
0.12070766091346741,
0.2875083088874817,
0.18651443719863892,
0.5841598510742188,
-0.073439821600914,
0.3648269772529602,
0.1363878846168518,
-0.18365995585918427,
-0.02587965503334999,
0.11377115547657013,
0.14230094850063324,
0.5110272169113159,
-0.16276656091213226,
0.34965282678604126,
-0.14949312806129456,
0.46519041061401367,
0.017033396288752556,
-0.04771660268306732,
0.2175627499818802,
-0.0868101492524147,
0.6190151572227478,
0.29467225074768066,
-0.23773013055324554,
-0.6809172630310059,
-0.585908055305481,
0.40031397342681885,
-0.013734468258917332,
0.13509711623191833,
-0.3490167558193207,
0.24113334715366364,
0.5717595219612122,
-0.46750810742378235,
0.1687897890806198,
-0.08088824152946472,
-0.4859437644481659,
0.7955040335655212,
0.12738671898841858,
0.30280357599258423,
-0.22035834193229675,
-0.15156513452529907,
-0.19355720281600952,
-0.02466006949543953,
-0.5568846464157104,
-0.2717541456222534,
-0.3779841363430023,
-0.22968655824661255,
0.20781588554382324,
0.19911448657512665,
0.012685726396739483,
0.2089955359697342,
-0.6513462662696838,
-0.05078201740980148,
-0.0638008788228035,
-0.12225918471813202,
-0.09343207627534866,
0.15335695445537567,
0.4296691119670868,
0.20053251087665558,
0.2991766333580017,
0.08612014353275299,
0.4694027900695801,
0.43218666315078735,
-0.3634704649448395,
-0.2775006890296936,
0.21041281521320343,
-0.3288886845111847,
0.2118811160326004,
-0.3610534071922302,
0.41497373580932617,
0.6388071179389954,
-0.031189177185297012,
0.05453844368457794,
0.36138269305229187,
-0.026694364845752716,
-0.1277124136686325,
0.7381808757781982,
0.21045878529548645,
0.22779712080955505,
-0.4927825331687927,
0.1906765103340149,
-0.16339421272277832,
0.05793385952711105,
-0.07725626230239868,
-0.19158224761486053,
0.09833403676748276,
0.28940263390541077,
0.0005056058871559799,
-0.5996137857437134,
0.36977699398994446,
-0.4114738404750824,
0.11485196650028229,
-0.1693357527256012,
0.0803263708949089,
-0.5136574506759644,
-0.7419658303260803,
-0.8060303926467896,
0.4633544981479645,
0.15238343179225922,
-0.6348729729652405,
-0.06776697933673859,
0.7027641534805298,
-0.37295982241630554,
0.02246035635471344,
0.06866031885147095,
-0.32102304697036743,
0.04849554970860481,
-0.2764297127723694,
-0.19012632966041565,
0.3349435031414032,
0.13090266287326813,
-0.44453760981559753,
0.22492948174476624,
-0.09421741217374802,
-0.10638826340436935,
-0.08622770756483078,
0.27913039922714233,
-0.12760815024375916,
-0.017612578347325325,
-0.049887724220752716
] |
233497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsupervised%20learning | Unsupervised learning | Unsupervised learning is a type of algorithm that learns patterns from untagged data. The hope is that through mimicry, which is an important mode of learning in people, the machine is forced to build a compact internal representation of its world and then generate imaginative content from it. In contrast to supervised learning where data is tagged by an expert, e.g. as a "ball" or "fish", unsupervised methods exhibit self-organization that captures patterns as probability densities or a combination of neural feature preferences. The other levels in the supervision spectrum are reinforcement learning where the machine is given only a numerical performance score as guidance, and semi-supervised learning where a smaller portion of the data is tagged. Two broad methods in Unsupervised Learning are Neural Networks and Probabilistic Methods.
Neural networks
Tasks vs. Methods
Neural network tasks are often categorized as discriminative (recognition) or generative (imagination). Often but not always, discriminative tasks use supervised methods and generative tasks use unsupervised (see Venn diagram); however, the separation is very hazy. For example, object recognition favors supervised learning but unsupervised learning can also cluster objects into groups. Furthermore, as progress marches onward some tasks employ both methods, and some tasks swing from one to another. For example, image recognition started off as heavily supervised, but became hybrid by employing unsupervised pre-training, and then moved towards supervision again with the advent of dropout, relu, and adaptive learning rates.
Training
During the learning phase, an unsupervised network tries to mimic the data it's given and uses the error in its mimicked output to correct itself (ie. correct its weights & biases). This resembles the mimicry behavior of children as they learn a language. Sometimes the error is expressed as a low probability that the erroneous output occurs, or it might be express as an unstable high energy state in the network.
In contrast to Supervised method's dominant use of Backpropagation, Unsupervised Learning also employ other methods including: Hopfield learning rule, Boltzmann learning rule, Contrastive Divergence, Wake Sleep, Variational Inference, Maximum Likelihood, Maximum A Posteriori, Gibbs Sampling, and backpropagating reconstruction errors or hidden state reparameterizations. See the table below for more details.
Energy
An energy function is a macroscopic measure of a network's activation state. In Boltzmann machines, it plays the role of the Cost function. This analogy with physics is inspired by Ludwig Boltzmann's analysis of a gas' macroscopic energy from the microscopic probabilities of particle motion p eE/kT, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature. In the RBM network the relation is p = e−E / Z, where p & E vary over every possible activation pattern and Z = e -E(pattern). To be more precise, p(a) = e-E(a) / Z, where a is an activation pattern of all neurons (visible and hidden). Hence, early neural networks bear the name Boltzmann Machine. Paul Smolensky calls -E the Harmony. A network seeks low energy which is high Harmony.
Networks
This table shows connection diagrams of various unsupervised networks, the details of which will be given in the section Comparison of Network. Of the networks bearing people's names, only Hopfield worked directly with neural networks. Boltzmann and Helmholtz lived before the invention of artificial neural networks, but they did inspire the analytical methods that were used.
History
Specific Networks
Here, we highlight some characteristics of each networks. Ferromagnetism inspired Hopfield networks, Boltzmann machines, and RBMs. A neuron correspond to an iron domain with binary magnetic moments Up and Down, and neural connections correspond to the domain's influence on each other. Symmetric connections enables a global energy formulation. During inference the network updates each state using the standard activation step function. Symmetric weights guarantees convergence to a stable activation pattern.
Comparison of Networks
Hebbian Learning, ART, SOM
The classical example of unsupervised learning in the study of neural networks is Donald Hebb's principle, that is, neurons that fire together wire together. In Hebbian learning, the connection is reinforced irrespective of an error, but is exclusively a function of the coincidence between action potentials between the two neurons. A similar version that modifies synaptic weights takes into account the time between the action potentials (spike-timing-dependent plasticity or STDP). Hebbian Learning has been hypothesized to underlie a range of cognitive functions, such as pattern recognition and experiential learning.
Among neural network models, the self-organizing map (SOM) and adaptive resonance theory (ART) are commonly used in unsupervised learning algorithms. The SOM is a topographic organization in which nearby locations in the map represent inputs with similar properties. The ART model allows the number of clusters to vary with problem size and lets the user control the degree of similarity between members of the same clusters by means of a user-defined constant called the vigilance parameter. ART networks are used for many pattern recognition tasks, such as automatic target recognition and seismic signal processing.
Probabilistic methods
Two of the main methods used in unsupervised learning are principal component and cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is used in unsupervised learning to group, or segment, datasets with shared attributes in order to extrapolate algorithmic relationships. Cluster analysis is a branch of machine learning that groups the data that has not been labelled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, cluster analysis identifies commonalities in the data and reacts based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. This approach helps detect anomalous data points that do not fit into either group.
A central application of unsupervised learning is in the field of density estimation in statistics, though unsupervised learning encompasses many other domains involving summarizing and explaining data features. It can be contrasted with supervised learning by saying that whereas supervised learning intends to infer a conditional probability distribution conditioned on the label of input data; unsupervised learning intends to infer an a priori probability distribution .
Approaches
Some of the most common algorithms used in unsupervised learning include: (1) Clustering, (2) Anomaly detection, (3) Approaches for learning latent variable models. Each approach uses several methods as follows:
Clustering methods include: hierarchical clustering, k-means, mixture models, DBSCAN, and OPTICS algorithm
Anomaly detection methods include: Local Outlier Factor, and Isolation Forest
Approaches for learning latent variable models such as Expectation–maximization algorithm (EM), Method of moments, and Blind signal separation techniques (Principal component analysis, Independent component analysis, Non-negative matrix factorization, Singular value decomposition)
Method of moments
One of the statistical approaches for unsupervised learning is the method of moments. In the method of moments, the unknown parameters (of interest) in the model are related to the moments of one or more random variables, and thus, these unknown parameters can be estimated given the moments. The moments are usually estimated from samples empirically. The basic moments are first and second order moments. For a random vector, the first order moment is the mean vector, and the second order moment is the covariance matrix (when the mean is zero). Higher order moments are usually represented using tensors which are the generalization of matrices to higher orders as multi-dimensional arrays.
In particular, the method of moments is shown to be effective in learning the parameters of latent variable models. Latent variable models are statistical models where in addition to the observed variables, a set of latent variables also exists which is not observed. A highly practical example of latent variable models in machine learning is the topic modeling which is a statistical model for generating the words (observed variables) in the document based on the topic (latent variable) of the document. In the topic modeling, the words in the document are generated according to different statistical parameters when the topic of the document is changed. It is shown that method of moments (tensor decomposition techniques) consistently recover the parameters of a large class of latent variable models under some assumptions.
The Expectation–maximization algorithm (EM) is also one of the most practical methods for learning latent variable models. However, it can get stuck in local optima, and it is not guaranteed that the algorithm will converge to the true unknown parameters of the model. In contrast, for the method of moments, the global convergence is guaranteed under some conditions.
See also
Automated machine learning
Cluster analysis
Anomaly detection
Expectation–maximization algorithm
Generative topographic map
Meta-learning (computer science)
Multivariate analysis
Radial basis function network
Weak supervision
References
Further reading
(This book focuses on unsupervised learning in neural networks)
Machine learning | [
0.02037869021296501,
-0.18660905957221985,
-0.4587034583091736,
0.3845677375793457,
-0.144212543964386,
-0.13352973759174347,
0.5406804084777832,
0.32153236865997314,
-0.15955238044261932,
-0.39558205008506775,
-0.6686611175537109,
0.2355031818151474,
-0.24219857156276703,
0.06716949492692947,
-0.3361833989620209,
0.1711723953485489,
0.3386681079864502,
0.17901238799095154,
-0.01182642113417387,
-0.48884955048561096,
-0.11376850306987762,
-0.22890037298202515,
-0.34179267287254333,
-0.12173721939325333,
0.2217501550912857,
0.025981657207012177,
0.26134994626045227,
-0.2649536430835724,
0.005381926894187927,
-0.3011331856250763,
0.03644191101193428,
0.5421074032783508,
0.3176823556423187,
-0.05755438655614853,
0.19759967923164368,
0.42744454741477966,
0.06209468096494675,
-0.2470836639404297,
0.0429723896086216,
-0.5428038835525513,
0.34924203157424927,
0.25664862990379333,
-0.44100987911224365,
0.23050634562969208,
0.09140543639659882,
-0.8635171055793762,
-1.7118817567825317,
-0.1457568109035492,
-0.4013383984565735,
-0.48741385340690613,
-0.705838680267334,
0.08498364686965942,
0.9541986584663391,
0.21351706981658936,
-0.21676495671272278,
0.40351492166519165,
-0.39619120955467224,
-0.2245723307132721,
0.5848804712295532,
0.19496804475784302,
0.2806093692779541,
-0.090614452958107,
-0.384929358959198,
0.1894868165254593,
-0.15798693895339966,
-0.10126010328531265,
-0.09779702126979828,
0.1903085708618164,
-0.34783121943473816,
-0.7950831055641174,
-0.36411282420158386,
-0.41419607400894165,
0.10790612548589706,
0.1145506501197815,
-0.5928400754928589,
-0.16664031147956848,
0.455684095621109,
0.09460999816656113,
0.050994109362363815,
-0.09070177376270294,
-0.3369310796260834,
0.9083995819091797,
0.26349881291389465,
-0.1648022085428238,
0.5380107164382935,
0.24037480354309082,
-0.5264337658882141,
0.7069302797317505,
-0.17300666868686676,
0.67281574010849,
0.1762806624174118,
0.03547995537519455,
0.36853545904159546,
0.12916159629821777,
-0.022308001294732094,
0.2253652960062027,
-0.20085960626602173,
-0.0769948735833168,
0.4334106743335724,
0.5950286984443665,
-0.1343509405851364,
-0.10221970826387405,
0.6575641632080078,
0.1330527812242508,
0.06207869574427605,
-0.13215745985507965,
-0.13446767628192902,
-0.6205831170082092,
-0.030172428116202354,
-0.836396336555481,
-0.17530007660388947,
0.6335093975067139,
-0.6245248913764954,
0.14500267803668976,
-0.2521684765815735,
0.47438159584999084,
0.30713793635368347,
0.5915846824645996,
-0.6617193222045898,
-0.06225014477968216,
-0.25015977025032043,
0.771888792514801,
0.0977785512804985,
0.21351157128810883,
-0.3021545708179474,
0.30879780650138855,
0.47852665185928345,
0.38324564695358276,
-0.2739218771457672,
0.03752848878502846,
0.16972404718399048,
0.7586302757263184,
-0.03474491462111473,
0.12793180346488953,
-0.3633449971675873,
-0.008437206037342548,
0.591770589351654,
0.35493677854537964,
0.1916322112083435,
0.0186846274882555,
-0.6536978483200073,
-0.3996473252773285,
-1.0249059200286865,
-0.04240334779024124,
0.6529712080955505,
0.006785082630813122,
0.061641063541173935,
-0.2872828245162964,
0.020095251500606537,
0.18284647166728973,
-0.10540953278541565,
0.00455027399584651,
-0.42724841833114624,
0.1242339238524437,
-0.3404243588447571,
0.3155757784843445,
-0.009095125831663609,
-0.13535630702972412,
-0.029678676277399063,
0.6839489936828613,
-0.24882198870182037,
0.36703842878341675,
-0.5972362160682678,
0.010684206150472164,
-0.13325956463813782,
-0.6996492147445679,
0.5232611894607544,
0.6508331298828125,
-0.011001409031450748,
0.2783098518848419,
-0.4875108301639557,
-0.008682715706527233,
0.15192273259162903,
-0.5563715696334839,
0.36988285183906555,
0.2969595491886139,
-0.2284741848707199,
0.07330236583948135,
0.6955966949462891,
-0.05230223014950752,
-0.7988083958625793,
0.5412429571151733,
0.6850669384002686,
-0.29260310530662537,
0.24428467452526093,
0.052713874727487564,
0.21551822125911713,
-0.133022278547287,
-0.6813510656356812,
0.04659821838140488,
-0.3594330847263336,
0.05006546527147293,
0.19773471355438232,
-0.61008620262146,
1.1262637376785278,
0.5302599668502808,
-0.17680303752422333,
1.04157555103302,
0.049919869750738144,
0.35766711831092834,
0.2815437912940979,
-0.40113312005996704,
-0.17230066657066345,
-0.12993599474430084,
-0.6400988698005676,
1.3590967655181885,
0.378934770822525,
-0.07781337201595306,
-0.3807070851325989,
-0.20743483304977417,
0.3618513345718384,
-0.14800725877285004,
-0.0037853941321372986,
-0.14372901618480682,
-0.06487326323986053,
0.2148904651403427,
-0.3481285274028778,
0.7491266131401062,
0.02241886779665947,
-0.472461998462677,
0.7586399912834167,
-0.20914074778556824,
-0.05701392889022827,
0.6442499756813049,
-0.12391702830791473,
0.9440317749977112,
0.4205164611339569,
0.5507111549377441,
0.9266753196716309,
-0.5888077020645142,
0.1476408988237381,
0.08851635456085205,
0.26937979459762573,
-0.18598541617393494,
-0.20162686705589294,
0.05777363106608391,
0.162239208817482,
-0.5431663990020752,
0.5928276181221008,
-0.09196600317955017,
-0.3342859148979187,
0.3578740954399109,
-0.0775752142071724,
0.12962131202220917,
0.00897906068712473,
-0.12994344532489777,
-0.07997854799032211,
0.7841658592224121,
-0.3118934631347656,
-0.21945498883724213,
0.28304681181907654,
0.42619094252586365,
0.2436966598033905,
-0.7889931201934814,
-0.014893412590026855,
-0.2601124346256256,
-0.5151889324188232,
-0.07136194407939911,
0.0905117392539978,
0.23642519116401672,
0.1363990753889084,
0.45284542441368103,
-0.030534520745277405,
-0.04383597522974014,
-0.04774574935436249,
-0.8671093583106995,
-0.5614867806434631,
-0.0937001183629036,
0.25816810131073,
-0.117088682949543,
0.589027464389801,
-0.4986829459667206,
-0.430218368768692,
-1.0383758544921875,
-0.5782907605171204,
-0.5881268978118896,
0.4754256308078766,
0.48427456617355347,
-0.28442856669425964,
-0.3517615497112274,
0.1258535087108612,
0.4511146545410156,
0.14890947937965393,
-0.02481914684176445,
-0.6070063710212708,
-0.2693721055984497,
-0.09893307089805603,
0.031891923397779465,
-0.23295556008815765,
-0.20844343304634094,
-0.27571555972099304,
0.7755677700042725,
0.05405862256884575,
0.2137608677148819,
0.2980384826660156,
0.7846640944480896,
-0.07883930206298828,
-0.08930577337741852,
0.4010266363620758,
-0.07939812541007996,
-0.2651323676109314,
0.012432491406798363,
-0.31201717257499695,
-0.42852893471717834,
-0.5566698908805847,
-0.3133770525455475,
0.10217079520225525,
-0.09953191876411438,
-5.549398422241211,
-0.0534859262406826,
-0.10435714572668076,
0.3511241674423218,
-0.1722729504108429,
-0.16547919809818268,
1.023175597190857,
0.033323388546705246,
-0.6739780306816101,
0.16392618417739868,
-0.37952038645744324,
-0.026244504377245903,
-0.06212889030575752,
0.45022228360176086,
0.35605040192604065,
0.009001107886433601,
0.5824815034866333,
-0.20784059166908264,
0.4441695809364319,
0.5202124118804932,
-0.5411345958709717,
0.43489840626716614,
-0.1956355720758438,
0.1570110321044922,
-0.4926818311214447,
0.15564247965812683,
-0.1516849845647812,
0.20820726454257965,
-0.6325766444206238,
-0.12797188758850098,
0.4650007486343384,
-0.49410468339920044,
-0.10082491487264633,
-0.47477641701698303,
-0.18715795874595642,
0.42871126532554626,
0.6223530769348145,
0.48582711815834045,
-0.12202313542366028,
-0.23782464861869812,
-0.09612578898668289,
0.19722294807434082,
0.23700644075870514,
0.0641985610127449,
0.4116072952747345,
0.3992040753364563,
-0.5498002767562866,
-0.6652123332023621,
0.1112637147307396,
0.26235243678092957,
-0.3416677415370941,
0.03823842108249664,
0.5208660960197449,
0.1887955218553543,
-0.06501676887273788,
-0.3678877651691437,
0.5226705074310303,
-0.051592301577329636,
-0.433994859457016,
0.3958665132522583,
0.3492760956287384,
-0.6825889348983765,
0.17349858582019806,
-0.9434875845909119,
0.23236669600009918,
-0.12872155010700226,
-0.14994145929813385,
-0.6757088303565979,
0.2816380560398102,
0.4691130816936493,
-0.1961519718170166,
0.27272504568099976,
0.4093860983848572,
-0.39772164821624756,
0.3128069341182709,
-0.5017743110656738,
-0.19296695291996002,
-0.1467140167951584,
0.5388970971107483,
0.13606303930282593,
-0.06059248745441437,
-0.6394835114479065,
-0.5074328184127808,
0.0652734711766243,
0.3649328649044037,
-0.5614349246025085,
0.17492054402828217,
0.3348439931869507,
-0.6827751994132996,
0.015742383897304535,
0.6455814838409424,
0.4767856299877167,
0.03471584990620613,
0.401434987783432,
0.462525874376297,
0.44880905747413635,
0.24261192977428436,
0.28746941685676575,
0.35435017943382263,
-0.08226432651281357,
-0.04548615217208862,
-0.8692502975463867,
-0.26062247157096863,
-0.533571720123291,
0.13127686083316803,
0.1281622350215912,
-0.4764251112937927,
0.3645910620689392,
0.8696179389953613,
-0.36645305156707764,
-0.2343960851430893,
0.5664096474647522,
-0.6913707852363586,
0.15858381986618042,
-0.012305825017392635,
-0.12412860989570618,
0.02994207665324211,
0.14462271332740784,
0.396870881319046,
0.2040906846523285,
-0.04412229359149933,
0.29578012228012085,
-0.0006577135645784438,
-0.4011647403240204,
-0.1420227587223053,
-0.6792318820953369,
0.44341036677360535,
0.024523809552192688,
0.1698409914970398,
-0.4593498408794403,
0.48948153853416443,
0.31573307514190674,
-0.43092605471611023,
-0.15394234657287598,
0.07944928854703903,
-0.8233518004417419,
0.09172508120536804,
0.6494565010070801,
-0.27262139320373535,
-0.8266069889068604,
0.5856115221977234,
-0.30014845728874207,
0.14195694029331207,
0.17784462869167328,
0.46603307127952576,
0.3552546501159668,
0.11349783837795258,
-0.4782586395740509,
-0.7607055306434631,
0.2934616208076477,
-0.11731981486082077,
-0.6492512226104736,
-0.010551541112363338,
-0.23315125703811646,
0.5632616877555847,
0.39118656516075134,
-0.12027127295732498,
-0.18073557317256927,
0.24687083065509796,
-0.41821378469467163,
0.18845319747924805,
-0.032797493040561676,
-0.71717768907547,
-0.3159823715686798,
0.03475803881883621,
0.0047058239579200745,
-0.5374159216880798,
-0.4416905343532562,
-0.4407102167606354,
0.36064326763153076,
-0.11870849877595901,
-0.35240650177001953,
-0.5470542907714844,
-0.6065998673439026,
0.2774204909801483,
-0.06110807880759239,
0.6178961396217346,
0.26933616399765015,
-0.14791519939899445,
-0.34722623229026794,
-0.22861754894256592,
-0.14579877257347107,
-0.13617156445980072,
0.24027885496616364,
0.5735184550285339,
-0.4280256927013397,
0.04096028581261635,
0.4172665476799011,
-0.8706952929496765,
-0.0005813373136334121,
0.07941150665283203,
0.5838927626609802,
0.724395215511322,
-0.12560884654521942,
-0.04788026586174965,
-0.41012832522392273,
0.010711629875004292,
0.5197073221206665,
0.11490816622972488,
-0.5291826725006104,
0.22502689063549042,
0.5245306491851807,
-0.416508287191391,
0.4903509020805359,
-0.0853302851319313,
-0.8511646389961243,
-0.20632076263427734,
0.12584024667739868,
-0.6179984211921692,
0.028215378522872925,
-0.7026848793029785,
-0.46125149726867676,
-0.22496727108955383,
0.2437935173511505,
-0.06442269682884216,
-0.06779572367668152,
0.1456090658903122,
-0.2925910949707031,
-0.11881603300571442,
0.2559369206428528,
0.0829809159040451,
0.08023583889007568,
-0.2680493891239166,
-0.07379786670207977,
-0.1623472273349762,
-0.003994552884250879,
-0.15190598368644714,
-0.5744786262512207,
0.3300425112247467,
0.15593387186527252,
-0.11348382383584976,
-0.35063329339027405,
0.3179768919944763,
0.3115715980529785,
-0.5911449193954468,
-0.06521016359329224,
-0.12231262028217316,
0.5787336230278015,
0.22945895791053772,
-0.28635215759277344,
0.5165327787399292,
0.7986512184143066,
-0.1611155867576599,
-0.2021178901195526,
-0.1827000081539154,
0.6830507516860962,
-0.05488632991909981,
-0.22618946433067322,
-0.5269308090209961,
-0.005617458373308182,
0.37150782346725464,
-0.0755523294210434,
-0.35502809286117554,
0.26460665464401245,
0.6198639273643494,
0.3564452826976776,
-0.05500968545675278,
-0.4479363262653351,
0.2540558874607086,
0.29240304231643677,
0.3385166823863983,
-0.336290180683136,
-0.12109754979610443,
-0.132950097322464,
0.16445046663284302,
0.024770839139819145,
-0.1446029543876648,
-0.04843854531645775,
0.35018208622932434,
-0.3311150372028351,
0.02616308070719242,
-0.7307367324829102,
0.186231330037117,
0.907503604888916,
0.24065688252449036,
-0.010658776387572289,
0.16860520839691162,
-0.21018455922603607,
-0.18546953797340393,
-0.010922701098024845,
0.36354702711105347,
-0.24896350502967834,
0.008627752773463726,
-0.643985390663147,
-0.020214108750224113,
-0.1299828141927719,
0.295990526676178,
-0.17012156546115875,
-0.5347222089767456,
-0.3221677839756012,
-0.8186538815498352,
0.14456963539123535,
-0.18878865242004395,
0.5085468888282776,
-0.01842288300395012,
-0.004232887644320726,
0.029027268290519714,
-0.11052082479000092,
-0.3753339648246765,
-0.437991201877594,
-0.7118276357650757,
0.5230627059936523,
0.30613189935684204,
-0.7884846329689026,
0.5512330532073975,
0.43949180841445923,
0.211880162358284,
-0.2494177371263504,
0.22775322198867798,
-0.3046736717224121,
-0.1257154643535614,
0.015539116226136684,
0.26203206181526184,
0.6301661133766174,
-0.19945932924747467,
0.024212902411818504,
0.31662219762802124,
-0.38645362854003906,
0.47567218542099,
0.4971693456172943,
0.12551602721214294,
-0.3398311138153076,
0.4545883238315582,
-0.11153004318475723,
-0.33979400992393494,
0.6670608520507812,
0.3097061514854431,
-0.30333247780799866,
0.2603585124015808,
0.3617466390132904,
0.4137180745601654,
0.013282413594424725,
-0.32047516107559204,
0.7738158702850342,
-0.038985785096883774,
-0.1075572595000267,
0.29813361167907715,
-0.48684895038604736,
-0.5609530210494995,
0.4114290773868561,
0.8058525323867798,
0.06779595464468002,
0.08275220543146133,
0.27837061882019043,
-0.5979412198066711,
-0.0385277085006237,
0.4526132643222809,
0.8991380333900452,
-0.4200451970100403,
-0.08634769171476364,
0.07093705236911774,
-0.19263623654842377,
0.5987901091575623,
-0.12292910367250443,
0.08812597393989563,
-0.8498837351799011,
0.8173621296882629,
-0.11375876516103745,
-0.42482754588127136,
-1.1945551633834839,
0.14052340388298035,
0.04970863088965416,
-0.04573514685034752,
0.005628764629364014,
0.2514212131500244,
-0.43092474341392517,
0.6823685765266418,
0.2414122372865677,
-0.056230973452329636,
0.42626023292541504,
0.1922832578420639,
0.12169722467660904,
0.180115208029747,
0.3080346882343292,
0.6498773097991943,
-0.28559422492980957,
-0.06182810664176941,
0.24288563430309296,
-0.1280188262462616,
-0.17317529022693634,
0.6574538350105286,
0.11353814601898193,
0.16608785092830658,
-0.3708237111568451,
0.18600629270076752,
-0.1417137235403061,
-0.4425150156021118,
0.348029762506485,
-0.18093492090702057,
0.012520364485681057,
-0.13931913673877716,
-0.4882076680660248,
-0.054862115532159805,
0.048265084624290466,
-0.12513844668865204,
0.1790996938943863,
-0.38176804780960083,
1.1615864038467407,
0.2030637264251709,
-0.36284130811691284,
-0.12637196481227875,
0.1320742517709732,
-0.1345391422510147,
0.25206121802330017,
-0.7294652462005615,
0.17919103801250458,
-0.6684812903404236,
0.3302123248577118,
-0.743264377117157,
0.333055317401886,
0.7687111496925354,
-0.24479232728481293,
-0.09295544773340225,
0.013818028382956982,
0.33845254778862,
0.15063156187534332,
0.2618798315525055,
-0.713080883026123,
-0.15706537663936615,
-0.06194564327597618,
0.186723530292511,
0.14998896420001984,
0.43672671914100647,
0.2036190778017044,
-0.3044045865535736,
-0.2275831550359726,
0.28011757135391235,
0.13937273621559143,
-0.2121793031692505,
0.00625920994207263,
-0.4432721734046936,
-0.0025388277135789394,
-0.299113929271698,
0.403512567281723,
0.009025962091982365,
0.04104819521307945,
0.09995220601558685,
0.9110025763511658,
0.5195562243461609,
-0.3315673768520355,
0.02226319909095764,
-0.6547926664352417,
0.28768491744995117,
0.23624800145626068,
-2.90287709236145,
0.2790829837322235,
-0.15204206109046936,
0.025895804166793823,
-0.3104037046432495,
0.30695050954818726,
0.20888233184814453,
-0.31290343403816223,
-0.15122391283512115,
-0.25599002838134766,
-0.5817932486534119,
0.5989319682121277,
-0.052558522671461105,
-0.47509047389030457,
-0.7124782204627991,
0.7617357969284058
] |
233499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaigns%20of%201792%20in%20the%20French%20Revolutionary%20Wars | Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars | The French Revolutionary Wars began on 20 April 1792 when the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. This launched the War of the First Coalition.
Background
From 1789 to early 1792, the French Revolution gradually radicalised, breaking with old institutions and practices as it went, and targeting defenders of the Ancien Régime. Some of these defenders, or people who were unintentionally caught in the crossfire, emigrated from France to avoid persecution. King Louis XVI himself attempted to escape with his family to Varennes in June 1791, but he was caught. The French king was put under surveillance, and increasingly suspected of conspiring with other European monarchs, who wished to preserve the House of Bourbon in France and restore its pre-revolutionary authority. This was explicitly stated in the Declaration of Pillnitz (17 August 1791) by king Frederick William II of Prussia and emperor Francis II (Austria, Hungary and Bohemia), who called on all monarchs in Europe to 'liberate' Louis. Leading radical revolutionaries called for the complete abolition of the monarchy, but the republican movement was dealt a severe blow in the July 1791 Champs de Mars Massacre. Although this cleared the way for the establishment of the constitutional monarchy in September, it did not secure Louis XVI's position. The uncertain future of the Bourbon monarchy caused tensions to rise between France and other European states.
In early 1792, conservative royalist Armées des Émigrés were forming just across the borders in cities such as Koblenz, readying themselves to invade and end the Revolution with the help of other monarchies. The Girondin majority in the Legislative Assembly favoured war, especially with Austria, in order to display the Revolution's strength and defend its achievements (such as the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 and the early beginnings of parliamentary democracy) against a possible return to an (Enlightened) absolutist regime. They cited the Declaration of Pillnitz to justify the urgent need to strike first. Many of the French revolutionaries wanted to spread their Revolution to other countries, and refugees from recently failed revolutions, such as Dutch Patriots and Belgian-Liégois rebels, urged their French comrades to 'liberate' the Low Countries. However, there was a real risk that France would be overwhelmed by foreign forces if a large anti-French coalition were to be formed. This is why many leftist deputies within the Assembly such as Robespierre opposed a war, arguing France was not ready for it and could lose all progress (as they saw it) made thus far during the Revolution.
Preparations
Diplomacy
Major-general Charles François Dumouriez was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in March 1792, and by mid-April had managed to obtain the neutrality of all European great powers except Austria and Prussia through diplomacy. Meanwhile, he organised plans to incite a rebellion in the Austrian Netherlands by cooperating with the Committee of United Belgians and Liégeois, who represented remnants of the rebel armies formed during the recently failed anti-Austrian Brabant Revolution and Liège Revolution (August 1789 – January 1791).
Strategy
Finally, France declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. Dumouriez planned to defeat the Austrian army within 15 days to achieve a successful quick victory. From Dunkirk to Strasbourg, the French northern frontier comprised 164,000 soldiers, divided into three armies under the leadership of general Lafayette (Armée du Centre; targets: from Givet to Namur and Liège), marshal Luckner (Armée du Rhin; targets: Flemish cities such as Menen and Kortrijk) and marshal Rochambeau (Armée du Nord; targets: Quiévrain, Mons and Brussels).
The invasion heavily relied on the presumption that Belgian and Liégois patriotic rebellions would break out spontaneously the moment French troops crossed the border, aiding them in driving out the Habsburg forces as they had done themselves 2.5 years before. Dumouriez assured his fellow ministers:
As soon as the French army enters the Belgian provinces, it will be helped by the people, who are ashamed of their own futile revolutionary efforts of [1789–1790]. They will join forces with our troops and will easily drive the dispersed hordes of Austrian mercenaries from their towns or scatter them. Paris will be defended on the banks of the Meuse. For the Country of Liège, the one most worthy of freedom of all those who have raised its flag, our negotiators will depart to dictate a wise peace, which we will under no circumstances spoil by the spirit of conquest.
State of the French military
The French army was plagued by troubles: leading generals such as Lafayette and Rochambeau were moderate royalists, and had doubts about the republican minister's intentions as well as the feasibility of his strategies; the troops were poorly equipped, many of them untrained volunteers, and they distrusted their aristocratic officers; and finally, queen Marie Antoinette, who was Austrian and feared further republican radicalisation would result in her execution, secretly passed war plans to the Austrian government in Brussels, with Louis XVI's approval. Moreover, Prussia soon joined Austria against France, later followed by other powers and the armies of émigrés, while the ferment of the Revolution caused political instability, and want of materiel and funds left France's armed forces disorganised.
More than 50% of the army's officers, which consisted solely of noblemen, had fled the country in the past three years of revolutionary upheaval. It took time to replace these by non-commissioned officers and volunteers from the middle class. There was also animosity between the old regulars (the "whites", from their uniform) and the new soldiers who joined the army as volunteers in 1791–2 (the so-called "blues"). And because of the revolutionary egalitarian ideas penetrating the ranks of the military, there was distrust against the remaining noble officers; their loyalty to the cause of the Revolution and their orders were questioned.
One lasting morale-boosting effect was the composition of the battle hymn Chant de guerre pour l'armée du Rhin ("War Song for the Rhine Army") by Rouget de Lisle in April 1792. It became popular among French soldiers nationwide, and was soon identified with a battalion from Marseille. Thus, the song became known as La Marseillaise, and on 26 Messidor III (14 July 1795) and again on 14 February 1879 it was officially recognised as the national anthem of France.
Belgian front
April: first French invasion
Despite protesting that the army was not in condition to fight, Rochambeau obeyed his orders. He departed Paris and moved towards Valenciennes on 21 April to assume command of the northern army, and make final preparations for the invasion. Rochambeau's subordinate general Biron and maréchal du camp Théobald Dillon would lead the invasion.
The French national anthem, La Marseillaise, was composed in Strasbourg, April 25, while the French were still mustering troops, as the "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin" ("War Song for the Army of the Rhine").
The French army performed poorly in the first engagements. At the Battle of Marquain near Tournai (29 April), French soldiers fled almost at first sight of the Austrian outposts and murdered their general Théobald Dillon, whom they accused of treason. Meanwhile, general Biron suffered a defeat at Quiévrain near Mons. On 30 April, the Dunkirk column marched 15 miles to Veurne, but encountered no enemy and retreated back to Dunkirk.
When both his subordinates Dillon and Biron failed in their missions, Rochambeau resigned. On 30 April, Lafayette heard of the defeats and Rochambeau's resignation, cancelled his assault on Namur and Liège as well and awaited new orders from Paris. The Belgian-Liégois Committee was disappointed and felt betrayed, claiming Lafayette could have easily taken both cities by sheer superior numbers.
May: French troops regroup
The commanders-in-chief of the armies became political "suspects"; and before a serious action had been fought, the three armies commanded respectively by Rochambeau, Lafayette and Luckner had been reorganised into two commanded by Dumouriez and Kellermann.
June: second French invasion
On 9 June, a 20,000 strong force commanded by Luckner invaded the Austrian Netherlands again, this time capturing Menen and Kortrijk (19 June). The Austrian troops under Johann Peter Beaulieu counter-attacked, however, blocking further advance. The French withdrew back to Lille on 30 June, effectively putting an end to their second northward incursion.
Rhine front
July: allies rally and issue Brunswick Manifesto
On the Rhine, a combined army of Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and French émigrés under the Duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked by two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under the supreme command of King Frederick William II of Prussia. In the Southern Netherlands, plans called for the Austrians to besiege Lille, and in the south the Piedmontese also took the field. Observing the enemy coalition gathering at its borders, the Assembly declared the 'nation in danger', and commanded 100,000 National Guards (Fédérés) to strengthen the defence of Paris; the king vetoed the decision, but he was ignored.
The first step was the issue of the Brunswick Manifesto (25 July), a proclamation which, couched in terms most insulting to the French nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards to find expression in the "armed nation" of 1793–1794, and sealed the fate of King Louis. It was issued against the advice of Brunswick himself, whose signature appeared on it; the duke, a model sovereign in his own principality, sympathised with the constitutional side of the French Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success of the enterprise. Brunswick stressed that civilians would not be harmed or looted, unless they harmed the royal family: "If the least violence, the least outrage, be done to their majesties... [my troops] will take... unforgettable vengeance [on] the city of Paris...". The Brunswick Manifesto reached Paris on 1 August and was posted in numerous places across the capital, and received much hostility and mockery. Instead of intimidating the Parisians, it confirmed their determinacy to oppose any foreign invasion, and to get rid of the royals who were increasingly, and with ever more evidence, suspected of treason against the Revolution, the Assembly and the French people.
10 August: storming of the Tuileries
With the imminent invasion of the allied European monarchies against it, radical revolutionaries in Paris could no longer tolerate the king's rule, as his foreign friends might soon restore his former powers and crush the Revolution. In the night of 9 to 10 August, the insurrectional Paris Commune was formed at the Hôtel de Ville under the leadership of Georges Danton, Camille Desmoulins and Jacques Hébert from the ranks of radical Jacobins, the sans-culottes and a patriot regiment from Marsaille. In a complicated series of actions by various groups, king Louis was isolated within his Tuileries Palace and gradually abandoned its defence until he and the royal family left it when Roederer persuaded him to seek 'safety' in the building of the Legislative Assembly instead. Most of the National Guard defected to the rebels and eventually the Tuileries were successfully stormed and most of the remaining Swiss guards slaughtered. Louis became a de facto prisoner of the Assembly, was stripped from his kingship and the royal family was imprisoned in the Temple on 13 August. The monarchy was not abolished yet, however; the question of which form of government the country should install was postponed for five more weeks. For the revolutionaries, the most important issue was quelling possible treason from within, to avoid being stabbed in the back while the armies were fighting the monarchist forces on the frontiers.
August/September: Prussian-led invasion of France
After completing its preparations in the leisurely manner of the previous generation, Brunswick's army crossed the French frontier on 19 August 1792. The Allies readily captured Longwy (23 August) and slowly marched on to besiege Verdun (29 August), which appeared more indefensible even than Longwy. The commandant there, Colonel Beaurepaire, shot himself in despair, and the place surrendered on 2 September 1792. Because this left the path to Paris wide open, radical revolutionaries in Paris and other cities panicked and started the September Massacres (2–7 September), killing hundreds of prisoners suspected of royalist sympathies and being in league with the enemy.
Brunswick now began his march on Paris and approached the defiles of the Argonne Forest. But Dumouriez, who had been training his raw troops at Valenciennes in constant small engagements, with the purpose of invading Belgium, now threw himself into the Argonne by a rapid and daring flank march, almost under the eyes of the Prussian advance guard. He barred all five road to Paris through the Argonne. Although Clerfayt seized one of the five roads and outflanked Dumouriez at Grandpré, Brunswick did not attack, instead camping for three days at Landres (15–17 September). The majority of his troops were plagued by dysentery, likely due to eating green apples in the Argonne, and needed to recover first. War Minister Servan ordered Kellermann to Dumouriez' assistance from Metz to Sainte-Menehould. Although having only 16,000 men from the Armée du Centre, these were the most professional. Kellermann moved but slowly, reaching Dampierre-le-Château on 18 September, and before he arrived the northern part of the line of defence had been forced. Dumouriez, undaunted, changed front so as to face north, with his right wing on the Argonne and his left stretching towards Châlons (where Luckner camped), and in this position Kellermann joined him at Sainte-Menehould on 19 September 1792.
Meanwhile, Brunswick had left Landres on 18 September, passed the northern defiles and then swung round to cut off Dumouriez from Châlons. He himself wanted to fight Dumouriez at Sainte-Menehould, but Prussian king Frederick William II, misled by false news that Dumouriez was withdrawing to Paris, ordered Brunswick to cut the retreat. At the moment when the Prussian manoeuvre was nearly completed, Kellermann, commanding in Dumouriez's momentary absence, advanced his left wing and took up a position between Sainte-Menehould and Valmy. The result was the Cannonade of Valmy (20 September 1792). Kellermann's infantry, nearly all regulars, stood steady. The French artillery justified its reputation as the best in Europe, and eventually, with no more than a half-hearted infantry attack, the duke broke off the action and retired.
This seemingly minor engagement proved the turning point of the campaign. Ten days later, without firing another shot, the invading army began its retreat (30 September). Dumouriez did not press the pursuit seriously; he occupied himself chiefly with a series of subtle and curious negotiations which, with the general advance of the French troops, brought about the complete withdrawal of the enemy from the soil of France. Once gone, Dumouriez refocused his military efforts on the 'liberation' of Belgium.
Post-Valmy campaigns
Launch of the Flanders Campaign
In the north, the Austrian siege of Lille had completely failed by 8 October, and Dumouriez now resumed his interrupted scheme for the invasion of the Southern Netherlands. He took commanded of the newly formed Armée de la Belgique – comprising 40,000 soldiers from the Valmy campaign – at Valenciennes on 20 October. Controlling enormously superior forces, ten days later he made his advance to Mons, late in the season and surprising the Austrians. On 6 November, he won the first great victory of the war at Jemappes near Mons and, this time advancing boldly, he overran the whole country from Namur to Antwerp within a month. He began planning the invasion of the Dutch Republic.
Piedmontese front
Meanwhile, the French forces in the south had driven back the Piedmontese and had conquered Savoy and Nice in September, annexing them in November. Army of the Var commander Anselme invaded the county of Nice on 28 September, and forced the city of Nice to surrender the next day at 4 pm. On 7 November, the army was renamed Army of Italy.
Rhineland campaign
Another French success was the daring expedition from Alsace into Germany made by Custine, leading the newly created 14,300 strong Armée des Vosges from 19 September onward. He attacked Speyer on 29 September and conquered it the next day. He went on to occupy Worms and Philippsburg without a fight. Custine captured Mainz on 21 October 1792 and penetrated as far as Frankfurt, which surrendered on 31 October.
Cultural representations
The situation of 1792, and the feeling of dire threat felt by the invaded French, are reflected in large parts of the wording of the French anthem "La Marseillaise", written at the time: Against us, tyranny's/Bloody banner is raised./Do you hear in the countryside/Those ferocious soldiers roaring?/They come right into our bosom/To slit the throats of our sons, our wives!
Custine's invasion of the German Palatinate forms the background for Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea, written a few years later. The epic poem's plot takes place in a small town near Mainz, flooded by refugees who fled their villages on the western side of the Rhine in order to seek refuge from the French troops on the eastern side.
References
Sources
Original text from 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars by year
Conflicts in 1792
1792 in France | [
-0.45779359340667725,
0.47767186164855957,
-0.6859345436096191,
0.30361318588256836,
-0.6288501024246216,
0.3963192403316498,
0.6607141494750977,
0.31122979521751404,
-0.547232449054718,
-0.41054749488830566,
0.2547827363014221,
0.4502447545528412,
-0.06138492375612259,
0.7207982540130615,
-0.19296163320541382,
0.9108837246894836,
0.4256879687309265,
-0.4774892032146454,
-0.04378755763173103,
-0.8559328317642212,
0.11464008688926697,
-0.19043093919754028,
0.6829261779785156,
0.2857527434825897,
0.2196318358182907,
-0.12392516434192657,
0.8926356434822083,
0.07116714864969254,
0.5433590412139893,
-0.9703060388565063,
0.09542826563119888,
0.4353609085083008,
0.0580277219414711,
-0.23660004138946533,
-0.3077184557914734,
0.031764160841703415,
-0.3659965395927429,
-0.4462365508079529,
-0.6609646677970886,
-0.5998952984809875,
-0.29693788290023804,
-0.40963757038116455,
0.02253231219947338,
0.14054201543331146,
0.047218624502420425,
0.2687034010887146,
-1.2792649269104004,
0.19928443431854248,
-0.34184250235557556,
-0.45680585503578186,
0.1072121188044548,
0.09969121962785721,
0.8644170761108398,
0.17358501255512238,
-0.20735490322113037,
0.2059740275144577,
-0.6477648615837097,
-0.7817085981369019,
-0.45874494314193726,
-0.2558564841747284,
0.7499164938926697,
0.5142962336540222,
0.20210395753383636,
-0.22960682213306427,
-0.10229213535785675,
-0.6362495422363281,
0.2911216914653778,
1.267310619354248,
-0.27084317803382874,
-1.0608059167861938,
0.05592288821935654,
0.0672517865896225,
0.22367346286773682,
0.2983928322792053,
0.4022519290447235,
-0.6961822509765625,
0.4370274543762207,
0.3025122880935669,
0.4563274383544922,
-0.3179531693458557,
-0.27564722299575806,
-0.043539706617593765,
0.9039885997772217,
-0.6022216081619263,
0.3268279433250427,
0.42815104126930237,
0.07878421247005463,
-0.04161939397454262,
-0.4446806311607361,
-0.03793372958898544,
0.09559634327888489,
-0.639819860458374,
0.6265716552734375,
-0.00477344635874033,
-0.008046211674809456,
-0.19518738985061646,
0.18465754389762878,
0.4345696270465851,
-0.1772485375404358,
0.33923912048339844,
0.12456765025854111,
0.62179034948349,
0.4762626588344574,
0.8169876337051392,
-0.46045780181884766,
0.16896790266036987,
0.2685191333293915,
-0.29682010412216187,
-0.32742583751678467,
-0.3287225663661957,
-0.30873483419418335,
0.24253275990486145,
-0.5584490299224854,
-0.16400831937789917,
-0.28346458077430725,
0.11578528583049774,
0.43397417664527893,
-0.27034664154052734,
0.32328930497169495,
0.466177761554718,
0.046067990362644196,
0.46557942032814026,
-0.3167574405670166,
-0.02473740465939045,
-0.4731871783733368,
0.08649838715791702,
0.3075854480266571,
-0.03904734179377556,
-0.4069875180721283,
0.16477040946483612,
0.1923493891954422,
0.9432997703552246,
-0.08294399082660675,
-0.026498893275856972,
-0.12263280153274536,
-0.24995242059230804,
0.35961076617240906,
0.4359028935432434,
-0.7107414603233337,
-0.4938242435455322,
-0.6715286374092102,
-0.5974811315536499,
0.2690623998641968,
0.05831528455018997,
-0.1357404887676239,
-0.7414982914924622,
0.5189398527145386,
-0.40003544092178345,
-0.01193834189325571,
-0.4615631401538849,
0.2764569818973541,
-0.162898451089859,
-0.35188037157058716,
0.13156644999980927,
-0.17695237696170807,
0.5233539342880249,
0.46738672256469727,
-0.19211982190608978,
0.6741134524345398,
0.21698662638664246,
0.44253674149513245,
0.2669830024242401,
-0.08740051835775375,
-0.012703695334494114,
0.3258739113807678,
0.06779539585113525,
0.4215497076511383,
-0.018335433676838875,
0.340557336807251,
-0.15788625180721283,
-0.3263342082500458,
0.039882842451334,
-0.3365524411201477,
-0.23883871734142303,
0.2500154376029968,
0.7067291140556335,
1.0386314392089844,
0.5140804648399353,
0.7387985587120056,
0.3220023512840271,
-0.29489952325820923,
0.18526051938533783,
0.5882717967033386,
-0.09392008185386658,
1.142256498336792,
0.8860858678817749,
0.6173792481422424,
-0.7256777882575989,
-0.019139645621180534,
0.40620291233062744,
-0.4188346564769745,
-0.6229469180107117,
0.34215742349624634,
-0.5873610377311707,
1.5738999843597412,
-0.2977425158023834,
-0.8045506477355957,
0.027363158762454987,
-0.23044677078723907,
0.5021355748176575,
-0.6691299080848694,
0.1290450245141983,
0.7631139159202576,
0.5671179890632629,
-0.49480295181274414,
-0.4343777000904083,
-0.3996785879135132,
0.07239080965518951,
0.36733055114746094,
1.3593931198120117,
0.3789955973625183,
0.10521294921636581,
0.0363755077123642,
0.5681293606758118,
0.19061875343322754,
-0.18774911761283875,
-0.6218360662460327,
0.34892377257347107,
0.07267340272665024,
0.154616579413414,
-0.11845483630895615,
-0.5641928911209106,
-0.5806872248649597,
0.8312181234359741,
-0.05008750036358833,
0.41579750180244446,
-0.21210409700870514,
0.18321867287158966,
-0.4962359666824341,
-0.898726224899292,
0.11088139563798904,
0.46297675371170044,
-0.3099071681499481,
0.018909906968474388,
-0.07132448256015778,
0.11275110393762589,
-0.19374693930149078,
-0.5294168591499329,
-0.23470669984817505,
-0.42334428429603577,
0.7557734847068787,
0.3442087471485138,
0.002424237783998251,
0.6664205193519592,
-0.48503515124320984,
0.6048217415809631,
0.05631956830620766,
0.10508798807859421,
0.2554331123828888,
-0.5329139828681946,
-0.013199659995734692,
0.5869447588920593,
-0.4487204849720001,
-0.5191572904586792,
-0.29855599999427795,
-0.8430901169776917,
0.7960062026977539,
-0.651658296585083,
0.023258591070771217,
0.7612733840942383,
0.19720740616321564,
-0.40912169218063354,
-0.008159473538398743,
0.4435294568538666,
0.5823496580123901,
-0.06608827412128448,
-0.7110848426818848,
0.13655780255794525,
-0.23813451826572418,
0.20892751216888428,
0.1313004344701767,
-0.033717647194862366,
-0.16135884821414948,
-0.2668476104736328,
0.34057414531707764,
-0.025128580629825592,
-0.6015058159828186,
0.4313482642173767,
-0.5448856949806213,
-0.45459917187690735,
0.04278435930609703,
0.8631508350372314,
-0.5361665487289429,
0.1945260614156723,
-0.4739232361316681,
0.24668554961681366,
0.46814337372779846,
-0.3482707738876343,
0.3844904601573944,
0.13186997175216675,
-0.052997514605522156,
-0.2650587260723114,
-0.1972542554140091,
-0.11323745548725128,
-0.02636079676449299,
-0.13474467396736145,
-0.47425803542137146,
-0.17889586091041565,
0.07596345990896225,
-0.2226276844739914,
-0.7570982575416565,
0.0844416692852974,
-0.23108147084712982,
-0.10608890652656555,
0.2768003046512604,
-0.7203480005264282,
-0.2225797325372696,
0.03283773735165596,
-5.146476745605469,
-0.6817141771316528,
0.19943489134311676,
-0.2731862962245941,
-0.4210050404071808,
-0.1820816546678543,
0.04490054026246071,
-0.2199234962463379,
-0.3120569586753845,
0.15084919333457947,
-0.09488539397716522,
-0.08848036825656891,
-0.6428868770599365,
-0.15450544655323029,
0.4656623601913452,
-0.0071667772717773914,
0.6623398661613464,
-0.5456894040107727,
0.35912859439849854,
0.3469080328941345,
0.37280896306037903,
0.5517958998680115,
0.41264808177948,
0.19392065703868866,
0.6221101880073547,
-0.3773488998413086,
0.28730499744415283,
-0.009031901136040688,
-0.646975040435791,
0.48370417952537537,
0.05139901861548424,
0.23557361960411072,
0.7939603924751282,
-0.021306494250893593,
-0.2816350758075714,
-0.513363242149353,
0.7504470944404602,
0.6989222168922424,
-0.1521688997745514,
-0.5743810534477234,
0.1910555511713028,
-0.04496505856513977,
-0.6210476756095886,
0.08735302090644836,
0.7163772583007812,
-0.7002202272415161,
-0.33496880531311035,
0.42903611063957214,
-0.43191197514533997,
0.49846845865249634,
0.16464994847774506,
-0.25656357407569885,
-0.34244537353515625,
0.024668769910931587,
-0.12374047935009003,
-0.133413627743721,
0.023592686280608177,
-0.5154411792755127,
-0.30331775546073914,
0.6951370239257812,
0.4936615228652954,
-0.22855721414089203,
0.10561412572860718,
-0.9425073266029358,
0.46120017766952515,
-0.6950060725212097,
-0.5614073872566223,
0.34195005893707275,
-0.14986708760261536,
0.40216484665870667,
0.2449069619178772,
1.0325822830200195,
-0.32821863889694214,
-0.8537840247154236,
0.20681917667388916,
-0.1011422798037529,
0.06724908947944641,
-0.34792110323905945,
0.13535086810588837,
0.12896692752838135,
-0.26521798968315125,
-0.13781055808067322,
0.1304939240217209,
0.406911700963974,
0.2792956829071045,
-0.095094233751297,
-0.5411081314086914,
0.04512793570756912,
-0.3493301570415497,
0.07881350815296173,
0.7519335150718689,
-0.5250461101531982,
0.4786343574523926,
0.18014216423034668,
0.3158782720565796,
0.20163072645664215,
0.3671693503856659,
-0.22451704740524292,
0.749620258808136,
-0.5695236325263977,
0.19254784286022186,
0.10615848749876022,
-0.07552723586559296,
-0.5387945175170898,
-0.0997769683599472,
-0.34565290808677673,
-0.44306042790412903,
0.13190752267837524,
0.7755041122436523,
0.5098370313644409,
-0.525501012802124,
-0.13787922263145447,
-0.388398677110672,
-0.4767325222492218,
-0.28736793994903564,
-0.7396076321601868,
-0.2234276831150055,
0.2767726182937622,
0.9798513054847717,
0.03828245773911476,
-0.6213175058364868,
0.014159607701003551,
-0.31374019384384155,
-0.012453360483050346,
0.9234873652458191,
-0.06879856437444687,
-0.32590150833129883,
-0.10284209996461868,
-0.5409733057022095,
0.5479825735092163,
0.22775353491306305,
-0.12672542035579681,
-0.5343610048294067,
0.18549317121505737,
0.27564918994903564,
-0.30891090631484985,
-0.12750104069709778,
-0.6132192611694336,
0.14050555229187012,
0.4063705503940582,
-0.2391914278268814,
-0.459702730178833,
-0.3770935535430908,
0.47692403197288513,
-0.06017408147454262,
0.21191269159317017,
0.1211036667227745,
-0.27693891525268555,
0.11072548478841782,
0.8948464393615723,
-0.6051313877105713,
0.3623887002468109,
0.9156185984611511,
0.5146805047988892,
0.7011557817459106,
-0.11148818582296371,
0.15448302030563354,
0.470313161611557,
-0.23283514380455017,
-0.7231963276863098,
0.32487690448760986,
-0.11495848000049591,
-0.3064797818660736,
0.04008054360747337,
0.07321452349424362,
-0.25766947865486145,
-0.23239609599113464,
-0.10817976295948029,
-0.20521844923496246,
0.64600670337677,
0.4689430594444275,
-0.019740963354706764,
-0.49108293652534485,
0.1782120019197464,
0.03431110829114914,
-0.4165273904800415,
-0.3560718595981598,
0.23131608963012695,
-0.07074222713708878,
-1.3732951879501343,
-0.15751221776008606,
-0.245973601937294,
0.3068625330924988,
0.3275839388370514,
0.514445424079895,
-0.3291975259780884,
-0.5328611731529236,
-0.14080019295215607,
-0.03508336842060089,
-0.07594433426856995,
0.04672997072339058,
0.17567342519760132,
-0.28516411781311035,
-0.2121470421552658,
-0.9566022753715515,
-0.3646717667579651,
-0.1871153563261032,
0.43630966544151306,
0.029146257787942886,
-1.0422461032867432,
-0.10809537768363953,
-0.10593729466199875,
0.17500215768814087,
-0.25788480043411255,
-0.010625266470015049,
-0.5611881017684937,
0.5750292539596558,
0.03288291394710541,
-0.938545286655426,
0.4553443193435669,
-0.06922440230846405,
-0.520456075668335,
-0.5989485383033752,
0.588833212852478,
-0.7423619627952576,
0.6517525911331177,
-0.13847099244594574,
0.48358994722366333,
-0.45762529969215393,
-0.17320531606674194,
-0.4581490159034729,
-0.7075731754302979,
-0.6323499083518982,
-0.06665533781051636,
-0.7698015570640564,
0.17609424889087677,
0.18800359964370728,
-0.16880953311920166,
0.30498605966567993,
-0.4665944278240204,
-0.12032973766326904,
-0.1623823046684265,
-0.42992040514945984,
-0.17303912341594696,
0.24454383552074432,
-0.08583523333072662,
0.8568356037139893,
0.0770384669303894,
-0.46798720955848694,
0.8726176023483276,
0.4553734362125397,
0.9117410778999329,
0.45210760831832886,
0.25519895553588867,
0.6428327560424805,
0.41926583647727966,
0.06021516025066376,
-0.4031907618045807,
-0.26677611470222473,
0.08406839519739151,
-0.6642551422119141,
0.06178076192736626,
-0.8261524438858032,
-0.0050293500535190105,
1.0321178436279297,
-0.07770310342311859,
-0.48724010586738586,
0.35396191477775574,
-0.10159038007259369,
0.5310803651809692,
-0.4096768796443939,
0.14488720893859863,
-0.3628232479095459,
-0.11501064151525497,
0.5246161222457886,
-0.14567264914512634,
-0.0944022685289383,
-0.23909509181976318,
-0.4121173918247223,
0.28935888409614563,
0.020725596696138382,
-0.7091546058654785,
-0.17377033829689026,
0.24922645092010498,
0.6326649785041809,
0.14004243910312653,
-0.05923306941986084,
-0.5221554040908813,
1.2367477416992188,
-0.3578414022922516,
-0.956807017326355,
-0.15547217428684235,
0.020304910838603973,
-0.34754905104637146,
0.712090015411377,
-1.0509082078933716,
-0.6214405298233032,
0.5442853569984436,
-0.2932846248149872,
0.5459915399551392,
0.37924227118492126,
0.025983573868870735,
-0.25043973326683044,
-0.21990157663822174,
0.21051883697509766,
0.3437860608100891,
-0.6291064023971558,
0.48804402351379395,
-0.3634245991706848,
0.7963504791259766,
-0.22341454029083252,
0.3728940188884735,
-0.20779505372047424,
-0.8959330916404724,
0.10881797224283218,
0.04685419052839279,
-0.04276939854025841,
-0.5272313952445984,
-0.24509502947330475,
0.08510170131921768,
0.6421716213226318,
-0.14222995936870575,
-0.4578072726726532,
-0.3598334789276123,
-0.4441450238227844,
0.44340503215789795,
0.6803889870643616,
-0.966783344745636,
0.03739844635128975,
-0.11322041600942612,
-0.0658811405301094,
0.1274721920490265,
0.2544727623462677,
-0.44228965044021606,
-0.19823618233203888,
0.6690829396247864,
-0.1956651210784912,
0.04078083485364914,
0.02208848111331463,
-0.3022773861885071,
-0.18802566826343536,
0.11891220510005951,
-1.009302020072937,
0.9702332019805908,
-0.5524764060974121,
0.13536737859249115,
-0.243770033121109,
-0.394959032535553,
0.284579336643219,
0.5222715139389038,
0.6488335728645325,
0.3901050090789795,
-0.4963233470916748,
-0.21268950402736664,
0.35273653268814087,
0.6204472780227661,
-0.1771760731935501,
-0.033191923052072525,
0.2853228747844696,
0.5539950132369995,
0.9089115858078003,
0.051440224051475525,
0.37391629815101624,
-0.8251978158950806,
0.34478795528411865,
0.10472581535577774,
0.0400775671005249,
0.4612984359264374,
-0.10087655484676361,
-0.11525329202413559,
0.3201788067817688,
-0.5394884943962097,
0.24434271454811096,
-0.45627903938293457,
-0.13108599185943604,
0.5525060892105103,
-0.26328045129776,
0.4952079951763153,
-0.1354074627161026,
0.24348139762878418,
0.3416990041732788,
-0.30007287859916687,
0.06243428587913513,
-0.8545057773590088,
0.17061762511730194,
-0.15342281758785248,
-0.22907237708568573,
0.09705524146556854,
-0.13278408348560333,
-0.4674271047115326,
-0.21751484274864197,
0.33872076869010925,
-0.4598545730113983,
-0.3586016893386841,
-0.4854338467121124,
-0.3341425657272339,
0.309807151556015,
0.07207822799682617,
0.29456284642219543,
-0.8213473558425903,
-0.03713280335068703,
-0.7871585488319397,
0.031150484457612038,
-0.7770767211914062,
-0.23065795004367828,
-0.19072167575359344,
-0.00816184002906084,
0.9570388793945312,
0.9870787858963013,
-0.3080589175224304,
0.5609177350997925,
0.036105070263147354,
0.27816101908683777,
-0.24547331035137177,
0.03881503641605377,
1.2814583778381348,
-0.2263767123222351,
0.06647029519081116,
-0.028592437505722046,
0.13937808573246002,
-0.15566027164459229,
0.04695344343781471,
-0.32788074016571045,
0.640937089920044,
-0.5875610113143921,
-0.835464596748352,
0.7756763100624084,
-0.5378797650337219,
0.1692192107439041,
-0.26896601915359497,
0.20704390108585358,
-0.12569640576839447,
0.1196821928024292,
0.07529128342866898,
0.09486116468906403,
-0.37458017468452454,
0.24482785165309906,
-0.025811202824115753,
0.6526923775672913,
0.7829978466033936,
0.03754650801420212,
-0.45808741450309753,
-0.3341827988624573,
0.07441180944442749,
-0.8477847576141357,
-0.5275180339813232,
0.9777067303657532,
-0.16668060421943665,
0.3627731204032898,
-0.02067059837281704,
0.07090912759304047,
-0.6058452129364014,
0.6386021971702576,
-0.07456571608781815,
-0.11543548852205276,
-0.38629692792892456,
0.3605547249317169,
-0.1626180112361908,
0.25505366921424866,
0.2710234224796295,
0.39777493476867676,
0.7013830542564392,
0.5488132834434509,
-0.46254783868789673,
0.20054593682289124,
0.02769389934837818,
0.23419475555419922,
-1.2330442667007446,
-0.2638632357120514,
0.32861098647117615
] |
233500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjet | Scramjet | A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. As in ramjets (AEHS Report on Lorin Ramjets), a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion; using shock cones, a scramjet has no shock cone and slows the airflow using shockwaves produced by its ignition source in place of a shock cone. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at extremely high speeds.
History
Before 2000
The Bell X-1 attained supersonic flight in 1947 and, by the early 1960s, rapid progress towards faster aircraft suggested that operational aircraft would be flying at "hypersonic" speeds within a few years. Except for specialized rocket research vehicles like the North American X-15 and other rocket-powered spacecraft, aircraft top speeds have remained level, generally in the range of Mach1 to Mach3.
During the US aerospaceplane program, between the 1950s and 1960s, Alexander Kartveli and Antonio Ferri were proponents of the scramjet approach.
In the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of experimental scramjet engines were built and ground tested in the US and the UK. Antonio Ferri successfully demonstrated a scramjet producing net thrust in November 1964, eventually producing 517 pounds-force (2.30 kN), about 80% of his goal. In 1958, an analytical paper discussed the merits and disadvantages of supersonic combustion ramjets. In 1964, Frederick S. Billig and Gordon L. Dugger submitted a patent application for a supersonic combustion ramjet based on Billig's PhD thesis. This patent was issued in 1981 following the removal of an order of secrecy.
In 1981, tests were made in Australia under the guidance of Professor Ray Stalker in the T3 ground test facility at ANU.
The first successful flight test of a scramjet was performed as a joint effort with NASA, over the Soviet Union in 1991. It was an axisymmetric hydrogen-fueled dual-mode scramjet developed by Central Institute of Aviation Motors (CIAM), Moscow in the late 1970s, but modernized with a FeCrAl alloy on a converted SM-6 missile to achieve initial flight parameters of Mach 6.8, before the scramjet flew at Mach 5.5. The scramjet flight was flown captive-carry atop the SA-5 surface-to-air missile that included an experimental flight support unit known as the "Hypersonic Flying Laboratory" (HFL), "Kholod".
Then, from 1992 to 1998, an additional 6 flight tests of the axisymmetric high-speed scramjet-demonstrator were conducted by CIAM together with France and then with NASA. Maximum flight velocity greater than Mach6.4 was achieved and scramjet operation during 77 seconds was demonstrated. These flight test series also provided insight into autonomous hypersonic flight controls.
Progress in the 2000s
In the 2000s, significant progress was made in the development of hypersonic technology, particularly in the field of scramjet engines.
The HyShot project demonstrated scramjet combustion on 30 July 2002. The scramjet engine worked effectively and demonstrated supersonic combustion in action. However, the engine was not designed to provide thrust to propel a craft. It was designed more or less as a technology demonstrator.
A joint British and Australian team from UK defense company Qinetiq and the University of Queensland were the first group to demonstrate a scramjet working in an atmospheric test.
Hyper-X claimed the first flight of a thrust-producing scramjet-powered vehicle with full aerodynamic maneuvering surfaces in 2004 with the X-43A. The last of the three X-43A scramjet tests achieved Mach9.6 for a brief time.
On 15 June 2007, the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA), in cooperation with the Australian Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO), announced a successful scramjet flight at Mach10 using rocket engines to boost the test vehicle to hypersonic speeds.
A series of scramjet ground tests was completed at NASA Langley Arc-Heated Scramjet Test Facility (AHSTF) at simulated Mach8 flight conditions. These experiments were used to support HIFiRE flight 2.
On 22 May 2009, Woomera hosted the first successful test flight of a hypersonic aircraft in HIFiRE (Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation). The launch was one of ten planned test flights. The series of flights is part of a joint research program between the Defence Science and Technology Organisation and the US Air Force, designated as the HIFiRE. HIFiRE is investigating hypersonics technology (the study of flight exceeding five times the speed of sound) and its application to advanced scramjet-powered space launch vehicles; the objective is to support the new Boeing X-51 scramjet demonstrator while also building a strong base of flight test data for quick-reaction space launch development and hypersonic "quick-strike" weapons.
Progress in the 2010s
On 22 and 23 March 2010, Australian and American defense scientists successfully tested a (HIFiRE) hypersonic rocket. It reached an atmospheric velocity of "more than 5,000 kilometres per hour" (Mach4) after taking off from the Woomera Test Range in outback South Australia.
On 27 May 2010, NASA and the United States Air Force successfully flew the X-51A Waverider for approximately 200 seconds at Mach5, setting a new world record for flight duration at hypersonic airspeed. The Waverider flew autonomously before losing acceleration for an unknown reason and destroying itself as planned. The test was declared a success. The X-51A was carried aboard a B-52, accelerated to Mach4.5 via a solid rocket booster, and then ignited the Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne scramjet engine to reach Mach5 at . However, a second flight on 13 June 2011 was ended prematurely when the engine lit briefly on ethylene but failed to transition to its primary JP-7 fuel, failing to reach full power.
On 16 November 2010, Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy successfully demonstrated that the high-speed flow in a naturally non-burning scramjet engine can be ignited using a pulsed laser source.
A further X-51A Waverider test failed on 15 August 2012. The attempt to fly the scramjet for a prolonged period at Mach6 was cut short when, only 15 seconds into the flight, the X-51A craft lost control and broke apart, falling into the Pacific Ocean north-west of Los Angeles. The cause of the failure was blamed on a faulty control fin.
In May 2013, an uncrewed X-51A WaveRider reached 4828 km/h (Mach3.9) during a three-minute flight under scramjet power. The WaveRider was dropped at from a B-52 bomber, and then accelerated to Mach4.8 by a solid rocket booster which then separated before the WaveRider's scramjet engine came into effect.
On 28 August 2016, the Indian space agency ISRO conducted a successful test of a scramjet engine on a two-stage, solid-fuelled rocket. Twin scramjet engines were mounted on the back of the second stage of a two-stage, solid-fueled sounding rocket called Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), which is ISRO's advanced sounding rocket. The twin scramjet engines were ignited during the second stage of the rocket when the ATV achieved a speed of 7350 km/h (Mach6) at an altitude of 20 km. The scramjet engines were fired for a duration of about 5 seconds.
On 12 June 2019, India successfully conducted the maiden flight test of its indigenously developed uncrewed scramjet demonstration aircraft for hypersonic speed flight from a base from Abdul Kalam Island in the Bay of Bengal at about 11:25 am. The aircraft is called the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle. The trial was carried out by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. The aircraft forms an important component of the country's programme for development of a hypersonic cruise missile system.
Progress in the 2020s
On 27 September 2021, DARPA announced successful flight of its Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept scramjet aircraft.
Design principles
Scramjet engines are a type of jet engine, and rely on the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer to produce thrust. Similar to conventional jet engines, scramjet-powered aircraft carry the fuel on board, and obtain the oxidizer by the ingestion of atmospheric oxygen (as compared to rockets, which carry both fuel and an oxidizing agent). This requirement limits scramjets to suborbital atmospheric propulsion, where the oxygen content of the air is sufficient to maintain combustion.
The scramjet is composed of three basic components: a converging inlet, where incoming air is compressed; a combustor, where gaseous fuel is burned with atmospheric oxygen to produce heat; and a diverging nozzle, where the heated air is accelerated to produce thrust. Unlike a typical jet engine, such as a turbojet or turbofan engine, a scramjet does not use rotating, fan-like components to compress the air; rather, the achievable speed of the aircraft moving through the atmosphere causes the air to compress within the inlet. As such, no moving parts are needed in a scramjet. In comparison, typical turbojet engines require multiple stages of rotating compressor rotors, and multiple rotating turbine stages, all of which add weight, complexity, and a greater number of failure points to the engine.
Due to the nature of their design, scramjet operation is limited to near-hypersonic velocities. As they lack mechanical compressors, scramjets require the high kinetic energy of a hypersonic flow to compress the incoming air to operational conditions. Thus, a scramjet-powered vehicle must be accelerated to the required velocity (usually about Mach4) by some other means of propulsion, such as turbojet, railgun, or rocket engines. In the flight of the experimental scramjet-powered Boeing X-51A, the test craft was lifted to flight altitude by a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress before being released and accelerated by a detachable rocket to near Mach4.5. In May 2013, another flight achieved an increased speed of Mach5.1.
While scramjets are conceptually simple, actual implementation is limited by extreme technical challenges. Hypersonic flight within the atmosphere generates immense drag, and temperatures found on the aircraft and within the engine can be much greater than that of the surrounding air. Maintaining combustion in the supersonic flow presents additional challenges, as the fuel must be injected, mixed, ignited, and burned within milliseconds. While scramjet technology has been under development since the 1950s, only very recently have scramjets successfully achieved powered flight.
Basic principles
Scramjets are designed to operate in the hypersonic flight regime, beyond the reach of turbojet engines, and, along with ramjets, fill the gap between the high efficiency of turbojets and the high speed of rocket engines. Turbomachinery-based engines, while highly efficient at subsonic speeds, become increasingly inefficient at transonic speeds, as the compressor rotors found in turbojet engines require subsonic speeds to operate. While the flow from transonic to low supersonic speeds can be decelerated to these conditions, doing so at supersonic speeds results in a tremendous increase in temperature and a loss in the total pressure of the flow. Around Mach3–4, turbomachinery is no longer useful, and ram-style compression becomes the preferred method.
Ramjets use high-speed characteristics of air to literally 'ram' air through an inlet diffuser into the combustor. At transonic and supersonic flight speeds, the air upstream of the inlet is not able to move out of the way quickly enough, and is compressed within the diffuser before being diffused into the combustor. Combustion in a ramjet takes place at subsonic velocities, similar to turbojets, but the combustion products are then accelerated through a convergent-divergent nozzle to supersonic speeds. As they have no mechanical means of compression, ramjets cannot start from a standstill, and generally do not achieve sufficient compression until supersonic flight. The lack of intricate turbomachinery allows ramjets to deal with the temperature rise associated with decelerating a supersonic flow to subsonic speeds, but this only goes so far: at near-hypersonic velocities, the temperature rise and inefficiencies discourage decelerating the flow to the magnitude found in ramjet engines.
Scramjet engines operate on the same principles as ramjets, but do not decelerate the flow to subsonic velocities. Rather, a scramjet combustor is supersonic: the inlet decelerates the flow to a lower Mach number for combustion, after which it is accelerated to an even higher Mach number through the nozzle. By limiting the amount of deceleration, temperatures within the engine are kept at a tolerable level, from both a material and combustive standpoint. Even so, current scramjet technology requires the use of high-energy fuels and active cooling schemes to maintain sustained operation, often using hydrogen and regenerative cooling techniques.
Theory
All scramjet engines have an intake which compresses the incoming air, fuel injectors, a combustion chamber, and a divergent thrust nozzle. Sometimes engines also include a region which acts as a flame holder, although the high stagnation temperatures mean that an area of focused waves may be used, rather than a discrete engine part as seen in turbine engines. Other engines use pyrophoric fuel additives, such as silane, to avoid flameout. An isolator between the inlet and combustion chamber is often included to improve the homogeneity of the flow in the combustor and to extend the operating range of the engine.
Shockwave imaging by the University of Maryland using Schlieren imaging determined that the fuel mixture controls compression by creating backpressure and shockwaves that slow and compress the air before ignition, much like the shock cone of a Ramjet. The imaging showed that the higher the fuel flow and combustion, the more shockwaves formed ahead of the combustor, which slowed and compressed the air before ignition.
A scramjet is reminiscent of a ramjet. In a typical ramjet, the supersonic inflow of the engine is decelerated at the inlet to subsonic speeds and then reaccelerated through a nozzle to supersonic speeds to produce thrust. This deceleration, which is produced by a normal shock, creates a total pressure loss which limits the upper operating point of a ramjet engine.
For a scramjet, the kinetic energy of the freestream air entering the scramjet engine is largely comparable to the energy released by the reaction of the oxygen content of the air with a fuel (e.g. hydrogen). Thus the heat released from combustion at Mach2.5 is around 10% of the total enthalpy of the working fluid. Depending on the fuel, the kinetic energy of the air and the potential combustion heat release will be equal at around Mach8. Thus the design of a scramjet engine is as much about minimizing drag as maximizing thrust.
This high speed makes the control of the flow within the combustion chamber more difficult. Since the flow is supersonic, no downstream influence propagates within the freestream of the combustion chamber. Throttling of the entrance to the thrust nozzle is not a usable control technique. In effect, a block of gas entering the combustion chamber must mix with fuel and have sufficient time for initiation and reaction, all the while traveling supersonically through the combustion chamber, before the burned gas is expanded through the thrust nozzle. This places stringent requirements on the pressure and temperature of the flow, and requires that the fuel injection and mixing be extremely efficient. Usable dynamic pressures lie in the range , where
where
q is the dynamic pressure of the gas
ρ (rho) is the density of the gas
v is the velocity of the gas
To keep the combustion rate of the fuel constant, the pressure and temperature in the engine must also be constant. This is problematic because the airflow control systems that would facilitate this are not physically possible in a scramjet launch vehicle due to the large speed and altitude range involved, meaning that it must travel at an altitude specific to its speed. Because air density reduces at higher altitudes, a scramjet must climb at a specific rate as it accelerates to maintain a constant air pressure at the intake. This optimal climb/descent profile is called a "constant dynamic pressure path". It is thought that scramjets might be operable up to an altitude of 75 km.
Fuel injection and management is also potentially complex. One possibility would be that the fuel be pressurized to 100 bar by a turbo pump, heated by the fuselage, sent through the turbine and accelerated to higher speeds than the air by a nozzle. The air and fuel stream are crossed in a comb-like structure, which generates a large interface. Turbulence due to the higher speed of the fuel leads to additional mixing. Complex fuels like kerosene need a long engine to complete combustion.
The minimum Mach number at which a scramjet can operate is limited by the fact that the compressed flow must be hot enough to burn the fuel, and have pressure high enough that the reaction be finished before the air moves out the back of the engine. Additionally, to be called a scramjet, the compressed flow must still be supersonic after combustion. Here two limits must be observed: First, since when a supersonic flow is compressed it slows down, the level of compression must be low enough (or the initial speed high enough) not to slow the gas below Mach1. If the gas within a scramjet goes below Mach1 the engine will "choke", transitioning to subsonic flow in the combustion chamber. This effect is well known amongst experimenters on scramjets since the waves caused by choking are easily observable. Additionally, the sudden increase in pressure and temperature in the engine can lead to an acceleration of the combustion, leading to the combustion chamber exploding.
Second, the heating of the gas by combustion causes the speed of sound in the gas to increase (and the Mach number to decrease) even though the gas is still travelling at the same speed. Forcing the speed of air flow in the combustion chamber under Mach1 in this way is called "thermal choking". It is clear that a pure scramjet can operate at Mach numbers of 6–8, but in the lower limit, it depends on the definition of a scramjet. There are engine designs where a ramjet transforms into a scramjet over the Mach3–6 range, known as dual-mode scramjets. In this range however, the engine is still receiving significant thrust from subsonic combustion of the ramjet type.
The high cost of flight testing and the unavailability of ground facilities have hindered scramjet development. A large amount of the experimental work on scramjets has been undertaken in cryogenic facilities, direct-connect tests, or burners, each of which simulates one aspect of the engine operation. Further, vitiated facilities (with the ability to control air impurities), storage heated facilities, arc facilities and the various types of shock tunnels each have limitations which have prevented perfect simulation of scramjet operation. The HyShot flight test showed the relevance of the 1:1 simulation of conditions in the T4 and HEG shock tunnels, despite having cold models and a short test time. The NASA-CIAM tests provided similar verification for CIAM's C-16 V/K facility and the Hyper-X project is expected to provide similar verification for the Langley AHSTF, CHSTF, and HTT.
Computational fluid dynamics has only recently reached a position to make reasonable computations in solving scramjet operation problems. Boundary layer modeling, turbulent mixing, two-phase flow, flow separation, and real-gas aerothermodynamics continue to be problems on the cutting edge of CFD. Additionally, the modeling of kinetic-limited combustion with very fast-reacting species such as hydrogen makes severe demands on computing resources.
Reaction schemes are numerically stiff requiring reduced reaction schemes.
Much of scramjet experimentation remains classified. Several groups, including the US Navy with the SCRAM engine between 1968 and 1974, and the Hyper-X program with the X-43A, have claimed successful demonstrations of scramjet technology. Since these results have not been published openly, they remain unverified and a final design method of scramjet engines still does not exist.
The final application of a scramjet engine is likely to be in conjunction with engines which can operate outside the scramjet's operating range.
Dual-mode scramjets combine subsonic combustion with supersonic combustion for operation at lower speeds, and rocket-based combined cycle (RBCC) engines supplement a traditional rocket's propulsion with a scramjet, allowing for additional oxidizer to be added to the scramjet flow. RBCCs offer a possibility to extend a scramjet's operating range to higher speeds or lower intake dynamic pressures than would otherwise be possible.
Advantages and disadvantages of scramjets
Advantages
Does not have to carry oxygen
No rotating parts makes it easier to manufacture than a turbojet
Has a higher specific impulse (change in momentum per unit of propellant) than a rocket engine; could provide between 1000 and 4000 seconds, while a rocket typically provides around 450 seconds or less.
Higher speed could mean cheaper access to outer space in the future
Special cooling and materials
Unlike a rocket that quickly passes mostly vertically through the atmosphere or a turbojet or ramjet that flies at much lower speeds, a hypersonic airbreathing vehicle optimally flies a "depressed trajectory", staying within the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. Because scramjets have only mediocre thrust-to-weight ratios, acceleration would be limited. Therefore, time in the atmosphere at supersonic speed would be considerable, possibly 15–30 minutes. Similar to a reentering space vehicle, heat insulation would be a formidable task, with protection required for a duration longer than that of a typical space capsule, although less than the Space Shuttle.
New materials offer good insulation at high temperature, but they often sacrifice themselves in the process. Therefore, studies often plan on "active cooling", where coolant circulating throughout the vehicle skin prevents it from disintegrating. Often the coolant is the fuel itself, in much the same way that modern rockets use their own fuel and oxidizer as coolant for their engines. All cooling systems add weight and complexity to a launch system. The cooling of scramjets in this way may result in greater efficiency, as heat is added to the fuel prior to entry into the engine, but results in increased complexity and weight which ultimately could outweigh any performance gains.
Vehicle performance
The performance of a launch system is complex and depends greatly on its weight. Normally craft are designed to maximise range (), orbital radius () or payload mass fraction () for a given engine and fuel. This results in tradeoffs between the efficiency of the engine (takeoff fuel weight) and the complexity of the engine (takeoff dry weight), which can be expressed by the following:
Where :
is the empty mass fraction, and represents the weight of the superstructure, tankage and engine.
is the fuel mass fraction, and represents the weight of fuel, oxidiser and any other materials which are consumed during the launch.
is initial mass ratio, and is the inverse of the payload mass fraction. This represents how much payload the vehicle can deliver to a destination.
A scramjet increases the mass of the motor over a rocket, and decreases the mass of the fuel . It can be difficult to decide whether this will result in an increased (which would be an increased payload delivered to a destination for a constant vehicle takeoff weight). The logic behind efforts driving a scramjet is (for example) that the reduction in fuel decreases the total mass by 30%, while the increased engine weight adds 10% to the vehicle total mass. Unfortunately the uncertainty in the calculation of any mass or efficiency changes in a vehicle is so great that slightly different assumptions for engine efficiency or mass can provide equally good arguments for or against scramjet powered vehicles.
Additionally, the drag of the new configuration must be considered. The drag of the total configuration can be considered as the sum of the vehicle drag () and the engine installation drag (). The installation drag traditionally results from the pylons and the coupled flow due to the engine jet, and is a function of the throttle setting. Thus it is often written as:
Where:
is the loss coefficient
is the thrust of the engine
For an engine strongly integrated into the aerodynamic body, it may be more convenient to think of () as the difference in drag from a known base configuration.
The overall engine efficiency can be represented as a value between 0 and 1 (), in terms of the specific impulse of the engine:
Where:
is the acceleration due to gravity at ground level
is the vehicle speed
is the specific impulse
is fuel heat of reaction
Specific impulse is often used as the unit of efficiency for rockets, since in the case of the rocket, there is a direct relation between specific impulse, specific fuel consumption and exhaust velocity. This direct relation is not generally present for airbreathing engines, and so specific impulse is less used in the literature. Note that for an airbreathing engine, both and are a function of velocity.
The specific impulse of a rocket engine is independent of velocity, and common values are between 200 and 600 seconds (450s for the space shuttle main engines). The specific impulse of a scramjet varies with velocity, reducing at higher speeds, starting at about 1200s, although values in the literature vary.
For the simple case of a single stage vehicle, the fuel mass fraction can be expressed as:
Where this can be expressed for single stage transfer to orbit as:
or for level atmospheric flight from air launch (missile flight):
Where is the range, and the calculation can be expressed in the form of the Breguet range formula:
Where:
is the lift coefficient
is the drag coefficient
This extremely simple formulation, used for the purposes of discussion assumes:
Single stage vehicle
No aerodynamic lift for the transatmospheric lifter
However they are true generally for all engines.
Initial propulsion requirements
A scramjet cannot produce efficient thrust unless boosted to high speed, around Mach5, although depending on the design it could act as a ramjet at low speeds. A horizontal take-off aircraft would need conventional turbofan, turbojet, or rocket engines to take off, sufficiently large to move a heavy craft. Also needed would be fuel for those engines, plus all engine-associated mounting structure and control systems. Turbofan and turbojet engines are heavy and cannot easily exceed about Mach2–3, so another propulsion method would be needed to reach scramjet operating speed. That could be ramjets or rockets. Those would also need their own separate fuel supply, structure, and systems. Many proposals instead call for a first stage of droppable solid rocket boosters, which greatly simplifies the design.
Testing difficulties
Unlike jet or rocket propulsion systems facilities which can be tested on the ground, testing scramjet designs uses extremely expensive hypersonic test chambers or expensive launch vehicles, both of which lead to high instrumentation costs. Tests using launched test vehicles very typically end with destruction of the test item and instrumentation.
Disadvantages
Difficult / expensive testing and development
Very high initial propulsion requirements
Advantages and disadvantages for orbital vehicles
Propellant
An advantage of a hypersonic airbreathing (typically scramjet) vehicle like the X-30 is avoiding or at least reducing the need for carrying oxidizer. For example, the Space Shuttle external tank held 616,432.2 kg of liquid oxygen (LOX) and 103,000 kg of liquid hydrogen (LH) while having an empty weight of 30,000 kg. The orbiter gross weight was 109,000 kg with a maximum payload of about 25,000 kg and to get the assembly off the launch pad the shuttle used two very powerful solid rocket boosters with a weight of 590,000 kg each. If the oxygen could be eliminated, the vehicle could be lighter at liftoff and possibly carry more payload.
On the other hand, scramjets spend more time in the atmosphere and require more hydrogen fuel to deal with aerodynamic drag. Whereas liquid oxygen is quite a dense fluid (1141 kg/m3), liquid hydrogen has much lower density (70.85 kg/m3) and takes up more volume. This means that the vehicle using this fuel becomes much bigger and gives more drag. Other fuels have more comparable density, such as RP-1 (810 kg/m3) JP-7 (density at 15 °C 779–806 kg/m3) and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) (793.00 kg/m3).
Thrust-to-weight ratio
One issue is that scramjet engines are predicted to have exceptionally poor thrust-to-weight ratio of around 2, when installed in a launch vehicle. A rocket has the advantage that its engines have very high thrust-weight ratios (~100:1), while the tank to hold the liquid oxygen approaches a volume ratio of ~100:1 also. Thus a rocket can achieve a very high mass fraction, which improves performance. By way of contrast the projected thrust/weight ratio of scramjet engines of about 2 mean a very much larger percentage of the takeoff mass is engine (ignoring that this fraction increases anyway by a factor of about four due to the lack of onboard oxidiser). In addition the vehicle's lower thrust does not necessarily avoid the need for the expensive, bulky, and failure-prone high performance turbopumps found in conventional liquid-fuelled rocket engines, since most scramjet designs seem to be incapable of orbital speeds in airbreathing mode, and hence extra rocket engines are needed.
Need for additional propulsion to reach orbit
Scramjets might be able to accelerate from approximately Mach5–7 to around somewhere between half of orbital speed and orbital speed (X-30 research suggested that Mach17 might be the limit compared to an orbital speed of Mach25, and other studies put the upper speed limit for a pure scramjet engine between Mach10 and 25, depending on the assumptions made). Generally, another propulsion system (very typically, a rocket is proposed) is expected to be needed for the final acceleration into orbit. Since the delta-V is moderate and the payload fraction of scramjets high, lower performance rockets such as solids, hypergolics, or simple liquid fueled boosters might be acceptable.
Theoretical projections place the top speed of a scramjet between and . For comparison, the orbital speed at low Earth orbit is .
Reentry
The scramjet's heat-resistant underside potentially doubles as its reentry system if a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle using non-ablative, non-active cooling is visualised. If an ablative shielding is used on the engine it will probably not be usable after ascent to orbit. If active cooling is used with the fuel as coolant, the loss of all fuel during the burn to orbit will also mean the loss of all cooling for the thermal protection system.
Costs
Reducing the amount of fuel and oxidizer does not necessarily improve costs as rocket propellants are comparatively very cheap. Indeed, the unit cost of the vehicle can be expected to end up far higher, since aerospace hardware cost is about two orders of magnitude higher than liquid oxygen, fuel and tankage, and scramjet hardware seems to be much heavier than rockets for any given payload. Still, if scramjets enable reusable vehicles, this could theoretically be a cost benefit. Whether equipment subject to the extreme conditions of a scramjet can be reused sufficiently many times is unclear; all flown scramjet tests only survive for short periods and have never been designed to survive a flight to date.
The eventual cost of such a vehicle is the subject of intense debate since even the best estimates disagree whether a scramjet vehicle would be advantageous. It is likely that a scramjet vehicle would need to lift more load than a rocket of equal takeoff weight to be equally as cost efficient (if the scramjet is a non-reusable vehicle).
Issues
Space launch vehicles may or may not benefit from having a scramjet stage. A scramjet stage of a launch vehicle theoretically provides a specific impulse of 1000 to 4000s whereas a rocket provides less than 450s while in the atmosphere. A scramjet's specific impulse decreases rapidly with speed, however, and the vehicle would suffer from a relatively low lift to drag ratio.
The installed thrust to weight ratio of scramjets compares very unfavorably with the 50–100 of a typical rocket engine. This is compensated for in scramjets partly because the weight of the vehicle would be carried by aerodynamic lift rather than pure rocket power (giving reduced 'gravity losses'), but scramjets would take much longer to get to orbit due to lower thrust which greatly offsets the advantage. The takeoff weight of a scramjet vehicle is significantly reduced over that of a rocket, due to the lack of onboard oxidiser, but increased by the structural requirements of the larger and heavier engines.
Whether this vehicle could be reusable or not is still a subject of debate and research.
Applications
An aircraft using this type of jet engine could dramatically reduce the time it takes to travel from one place to another, potentially putting any place on Earth within a 90-minute flight. However, there are questions about whether such a vehicle could carry enough fuel to make useful length trips. In addition, some countries ban or penalize airliners and other civil aircraft that create sonic booms. (For example, in the United States, FAA regulations prohibit supersonic flights over land, by civil aircraft.
)
Scramjet vehicle has been proposed for a single stage to tether vehicle, where a Mach12 spinning orbital tether would pick up a payload from a vehicle at around 100 km and carry it to orbit.
See also
Atmospheric reentry
Avangard (hypersonic glide vehicle)
Busemann biplane
Liquid air cycle engine
Precooled jet engine
Pulse detonation engine
Ram accelerator
Shcramjet
Single-stage to orbit
The Hy-V Scramjet Flight Experiment
SABRE (rocket engine)
List of emerging technologies
References
Citations
Bibliography
Aerospaceplane – 1961. Aerospace Projects Review, Volume 2, No 5.
Aspects of the Aerospace Plane. Flight International, 2 January 1964, pages 36–37.
External links
Aircraft engines
Jet engines
Spacecraft propulsion
Single-stage-to-orbit
Space access
Non-rocket spacelaunch
Emerging technologies
Australian inventions
de:Staustrahltriebwerk#Überschallverbrennung im Scramjet | [
0.02805747650563717,
0.16381430625915527,
0.029929878190159798,
0.2905310392379761,
-0.05052553489804268,
-0.21080170571804047,
-0.185601145029068,
0.09155101329088211,
-0.06251239031553268,
-0.12342869490385056,
-0.4896802604198456,
0.4094089865684509,
-0.1543293446302414,
0.21844416856765747,
0.08239725977182388,
0.21945041418075562,
0.04378179833292961,
0.27141544222831726,
0.2258661687374115,
-0.27899715304374695,
-0.06368755549192429,
-0.17273004353046417,
0.4695111811161041,
0.086672842502594,
0.11854168772697449,
0.006519231013953686,
0.4398726522922516,
-0.28014811873435974,
-0.2554393708705902,
0.39554691314697266,
-0.41111186146736145,
0.5968348383903503,
0.14926642179489136,
-0.18703331053256989,
0.6931199431419373,
0.1590554118156433,
-0.31157732009887695,
0.23736074566841125,
-0.38472050428390503,
-0.5348107814788818,
-0.7018378376960754,
-0.1225452721118927,
0.22264567017555237,
-0.06893143802881241,
-0.21713314950466156,
-0.20757947862148285,
-1.269349455833435,
0.2733353078365326,
-0.5678507089614868,
-0.07373557239770889,
-0.23541320860385895,
0.36620277166366577,
0.1889885663986206,
0.5310648679733276,
0.24110914766788483,
0.8488551378250122,
-0.39813232421875,
-0.012082114815711975,
0.01866035908460617,
-0.19929099082946777,
0.2858659029006958,
-0.04807692766189575,
-0.8776693344116211,
0.6162799596786499,
0.47156277298927307,
-0.3887186348438263,
-0.08269298821687698,
-0.13689839839935303,
-0.9887791872024536,
-0.7562194466590881,
-0.17627456784248352,
-0.3819766342639923,
0.08614998310804367,
0.12335732579231262,
0.06799515336751938,
-0.4561682939529419,
0.2807415723800659,
-0.1498519778251648,
-0.29138413071632385,
0.10994487255811691,
0.14311110973358154,
0.4465377628803253,
0.1687198132276535,
0.864118754863739,
-0.017007002606987953,
-0.2642848491668701,
-0.4399399757385254,
0.791793167591095,
-0.4480800926685333,
0.02345600724220276,
-0.29661825299263,
-0.3776346445083618,
0.19456933438777924,
0.08176691830158234,
-0.03519701585173607,
-0.3863722085952759,
0.03682784363627434,
0.24925082921981812,
-0.02797468565404415,
0.21462568640708923,
0.1505982130765915,
0.13749533891677856,
0.7323803305625916,
0.17017148435115814,
-0.5759038329124451,
-0.12369755655527115,
-0.823573887348175,
-0.47287842631340027,
0.21174857020378113,
0.16765418648719788,
-0.49208906292915344,
-0.035039398819208145,
-0.15041163563728333,
-0.08394917100667953,
-0.830196738243103,
0.3944868743419647,
-0.3301241993904114,
-0.2444702684879303,
0.134210467338562,
0.17095336318016052,
0.6898638606071472,
1.0354355573654175,
-0.2673254907131195,
-0.20795530080795288,
-0.14327409863471985,
0.36892813444137573,
1.4368809461593628,
0.7314437627792358,
-0.8072651028633118,
-0.16452960669994354,
0.5815704464912415,
1.1057194471359253,
-0.4461846351623535,
0.37924814224243164,
-0.437816858291626,
0.02979256398975849,
0.5442366600036621,
0.03817710652947426,
0.65582674741745,
0.23719608783721924,
-0.9502697587013245,
-0.6173960566520691,
-0.17780737578868866,
-0.47261276841163635,
0.5702176094055176,
-0.1632571518421173,
-0.203879714012146,
-0.4840003252029419,
-0.9398261308670044,
-0.3810805082321167,
-0.03229908645153046,
0.27617794275283813,
-0.39432424306869507,
-0.10315713286399841,
-0.010185526683926582,
-0.02694125659763813,
0.2905821204185486,
-0.3484543263912201,
0.21794380247592926,
0.3512270748615265,
-0.30674636363983154,
0.052939511835575104,
-0.5840263962745667,
-0.25613605976104736,
-0.14319702982902527,
-0.010209959000349045,
0.6018677353858948,
-0.07869520038366318,
0.20123504102230072,
-0.4015180170536041,
-0.2695448696613312,
0.15169841051101685,
0.8946953415870667,
-0.08218363672494888,
0.41271883249282837,
-0.2521253228187561,
1.1883243322372437,
0.16437368094921112,
0.807604968547821,
0.23688165843486786,
-0.8295923471450806,
0.27633073925971985,
-0.0024685922544449568,
0.05693482235074043,
-0.26285508275032043,
-0.03527328372001648,
0.6024712920188904,
0.026658592745661736,
0.039458926767110825,
-0.0505908764898777,
-0.6358278393745422,
-0.1826326698064804,
-0.07096026092767715,
-0.7991613745689392,
1.123974084854126,
-0.07399766892194748,
-0.1507207751274109,
0.3723335266113281,
-0.40430352091789246,
0.47867581248283386,
-0.33936208486557007,
0.4048616290092468,
0.5541990399360657,
-0.4316624104976654,
-0.27154913544654846,
-0.08657876402139664,
0.4599475860595703,
0.049875106662511826,
0.07789240777492523,
0.2087039202451706,
0.40025246143341064,
-0.2953958809375763,
0.15364781022071838,
-0.362726628780365,
-0.03129620850086212,
-0.48700180649757385,
-1.0062967538833618,
0.4311490058898926,
-0.2189939171075821,
-0.28721895813941956,
0.765133798122406,
-0.2833999991416931,
-0.6767517924308777,
0.07975064218044281,
-0.01831403747200966,
0.8021213412284851,
0.3865838944911957,
-0.06242179870605469,
0.39141395688056946,
-0.2663463056087494,
0.3021921217441559,
0.29930853843688965,
-0.044535815715789795,
-0.17895469069480896,
-0.6375182867050171,
0.12775461375713348,
0.4897010624408722,
0.07169870287179947,
0.4354790151119232,
-0.08210144191980362,
-0.13414904475212097,
0.6575199961662292,
-0.6133611798286438,
-0.06190198287367821,
0.22899286448955536,
-0.2119235247373581,
0.27717795968055725,
-0.0031248931773006916,
-0.030731268227100372,
0.2271813452243805,
-0.198747918009758,
0.40398889780044556,
0.35805439949035645,
-0.8952469825744629,
-0.023041700944304466,
0.44188639521598816,
-0.34177258610725403,
0.27830660343170166,
0.07156918942928314,
-0.20831425487995148,
-0.6436934471130371,
-0.06805121898651123,
0.1714375615119934,
0.1456965208053589,
-0.2421037256717682,
-0.5327140092849731,
-0.3145127296447754,
0.14635036885738373,
0.01764475740492344,
0.5882203578948975,
0.4228362739086151,
-0.36284592747688293,
-0.10427973419427872,
-0.2644083797931671,
-0.5358695387840271,
-0.6649598479270935,
0.07859893143177032,
0.3077006936073303,
-0.3699599504470825,
-0.1083674281835556,
0.2874232828617096,
0.9929614067077637,
0.19914554059505463,
-0.42259398102760315,
-0.20492827892303467,
0.6915047764778137,
-0.21031233668327332,
-0.12305109947919846,
-0.27818819880485535,
-0.4909363090991974,
-0.5662863254547119,
-0.3356305658817291,
-0.6970638632774353,
0.3658853769302368,
-0.19682082533836365,
0.5234546661376953,
0.10310345143079758,
-0.17792420089244843,
0.35119685530662537,
-0.29785647988319397,
-0.3800831735134125,
-0.057671546936035156,
-0.615748941898346,
-0.11365607380867004,
-0.07230354100465775,
-0.35978373885154724,
-0.6605455279350281,
0.016697704792022705,
-5.637347221374512,
-0.1572318822145462,
-0.5206499099731445,
-0.4973967373371124,
0.9511116743087769,
0.03975485637784004,
-0.4972659945487976,
-0.22885628044605255,
-0.4862212836742401,
0.006064360495656729,
-0.19161146879196167,
0.21882815659046173,
-0.19406884908676147,
0.21983125805854797,
0.3817351460456848,
0.30303430557250977,
0.40587037801742554,
-0.461259663105011,
0.39576485753059387,
-0.10151421278715134,
0.6502959132194519,
0.11073668301105499,
-0.7298171520233154,
0.7128000855445862,
0.30841243267059326,
0.05114487186074257,
-0.17585869133472443,
0.024508526548743248,
-0.6452546715736389,
0.06033861264586449,
-0.2614741027355194,
-0.28415030241012573,
-0.47719117999076843,
0.1753079742193222,
0.021447129547595978,
0.13054993748664856,
0.38836926221847534,
0.34360653162002563,
0.5487127900123596,
0.102108895778656,
0.18041913211345673,
0.05816370248794556,
-0.17464086413383484,
-0.1978801041841507,
0.43786245584487915,
-0.519952654838562,
-0.16220931708812714,
-0.12902632355690002,
0.2249602973461151,
0.4766273498535156,
0.4398641884326935,
-0.02992311492562294,
0.6422569155693054,
0.6529790163040161,
0.5895981192588806,
0.05004788190126419,
0.04663994908332825,
0.23950186371803284,
0.02049105241894722,
0.2575773298740387,
0.0862930417060852,
-0.16423822939395905,
-0.5570826530456543,
-0.1216656044125557,
-0.2916117012500763,
0.004659559577703476,
-0.2196839302778244,
-0.6789714694023132,
0.34715381264686584,
-0.01104047056287527,
-0.2518588602542877,
0.6010840535163879,
-0.04173571988940239,
-0.7474232316017151,
0.6363331079483032,
-0.3589217960834503,
0.1472439169883728,
-0.08681786060333252,
-0.32548677921295166,
0.39733099937438965,
-0.26453477144241333,
-0.22953975200653076,
-0.4493008255958557,
-0.7967546582221985,
-0.16773894429206848,
-0.4020410478115082,
-0.3031640350818634,
0.1746678203344345,
0.0256190188229084,
0.17832918465137482,
0.9628084301948547,
-0.4822692573070526,
0.7244401574134827,
-0.06930867582559586,
0.7698526382446289,
-0.2997364401817322,
-0.21755492687225342,
0.10991769284009933,
0.8505464792251587,
-0.3510653078556061,
-0.1026279628276825,
0.08348879963159561,
-0.4769599139690399,
-0.3166092038154602,
0.13115327060222626,
-0.13802838325500488,
-0.08534576743841171,
-0.05058497190475464,
0.32509294152259827,
0.4462801218032837,
0.24349987506866455,
0.4513438045978546,
-0.3850628733634949,
-0.19177134335041046,
0.09081289172172546,
0.14800626039505005,
-0.44875407218933105,
0.7345014214515686,
0.44404923915863037,
-0.2574063837528229,
-0.08743439614772797,
0.028908932581543922,
-1.044939637184143,
-0.16703945398330688,
0.38638830184936523,
-0.25725215673446655,
-0.04439293220639229,
0.7259215116500854,
0.22962865233421326,
-0.29738378524780273,
0.4204246699810028,
0.5439369678497314,
-0.08507275581359863,
-0.06331662833690643,
0.20021048188209534,
-0.7253679633140564,
-0.18372270464897156,
0.35331085324287415,
-0.20315080881118774,
-0.4230176508426666,
0.23449364304542542,
0.01913071982562542,
0.32606491446495056,
-0.6797434091567993,
0.4801311790943146,
0.7838147878646851,
-0.26325732469558716,
0.1181969866156578,
0.39981046319007874,
0.18148529529571533,
0.14581120014190674,
0.2732355296611786,
-0.17450681328773499,
-0.6198664307594299,
-0.1261349618434906,
-0.05733390524983406,
0.4847237467765808,
0.04312766343355179,
0.2949461042881012,
-0.410979300737381,
0.5654874444007874,
0.03445091471076012,
-1.1604175567626953,
-0.007229705341160297,
-0.2002689093351364,
0.6494686007499695,
-0.16413389146327972,
-0.5204516649246216,
0.14489026367664337,
0.8700177073478699,
-0.12001986801624298,
-0.785244882106781,
-0.7140079736709595,
-0.0004794565320480615,
0.887216329574585,
-0.21996356546878815,
0.22352902591228485,
-0.11354190111160278,
0.14826413989067078,
-0.28528299927711487,
-0.669790506362915,
-0.32863113284111023,
-0.3234293758869171,
0.5596960783004761,
0.15168870985507965,
-0.6278215646743774,
-0.31560617685317993,
0.22927141189575195,
-0.6212852001190186,
-0.7685211300849915,
-0.0646267905831337,
0.24821896851062775,
0.5833918452262878,
-0.06561507284641266,
-0.024950210005044937,
-0.4061306118965149,
-0.4249838590621948,
1.0535849332809448,
0.05362789332866669,
-0.3731343150138855,
0.041652921587228775,
0.3060643672943115,
-0.2841966152191162,
0.3206300139427185,
0.18620659410953522,
-0.06996254622936249,
-0.25846928358078003,
-0.16889157891273499,
0.16205920279026031,
0.2588171362876892,
0.12949365377426147,
-0.5443373322486877,
-0.028717631474137306,
0.6003579497337341,
-0.026775795966386795,
0.3452707827091217,
-0.2335653156042099,
0.021183064207434654,
-0.06646880507469177,
0.07227783650159836,
-0.24481655657291412,
0.009483187459409237,
-0.16895335912704468,
0.23289552330970764,
-0.8059996366500854,
0.2866312265396118,
0.17062994837760925,
-0.5901328325271606,
-0.08038229495286942,
-0.2291926145553589,
-0.08906242996454239,
-0.01731727086007595,
-0.6349089741706848,
-0.21681462228298187,
0.6191784739494324,
-0.48010849952697754,
-0.16557277739048004,
-0.06085795536637306,
0.07578827440738678,
-0.5087191462516785,
0.5076057314872742,
0.8850635886192322,
0.14848969876766205,
0.10240943729877472,
0.10409266501665115,
0.3628649115562439,
0.3571431040763855,
-0.9119102954864502,
-0.8856416940689087,
0.11801300942897797,
0.2017626315355301,
-0.23923234641551971,
-0.6641348600387573,
-0.00761203421279788,
1.0681092739105225,
0.1669444590806961,
-0.519997239112854,
-0.2892814874649048,
0.007169835735112429,
0.45727652311325073,
0.11074088513851166,
0.3686966598033905,
-0.7319849729537964,
-0.01751786097884178,
0.17887932062149048,
-0.04030349850654602,
-0.2692681550979614,
0.09138534218072891,
0.24422141909599304,
-0.2696819305419922,
0.4366602897644043,
0.4496932029724121,
0.1253901571035385,
0.27944105863571167,
0.37884223461151123,
0.39173534512519836,
-0.197416290640831,
-0.39864516258239746,
-0.028644703328609467,
0.8062263131141663,
-0.540454089641571,
0.004479931201785803,
0.04729865863919258,
-0.3777003586292267,
0.3315163254737854,
0.3260200023651123,
0.30631598830223083,
0.03942318633198738,
-0.2557508051395416,
-0.03548060357570648,
-0.12497270852327347,
0.1877852976322174,
-0.32393088936805725,
0.2493205964565277,
-0.5615139007568359,
-0.20321956276893616,
0.053065113723278046,
0.06762777268886566,
-0.1474577784538269,
-0.37473323941230774,
-0.3904925584793091,
0.45604005455970764,
0.08684602379798889,
-1.1084529161453247,
0.3963783383369446,
-0.6340649724006653,
0.29675641655921936,
-0.36194974184036255,
-0.19427023828029633,
-0.26130494475364685,
0.4902057647705078,
-0.15868251025676727,
-0.49979573488235474,
0.8028949499130249,
0.005842828191816807,
0.5857797265052795,
0.375855028629303,
-0.2653063237667084,
0.1541195958852768,
0.05261799693107605,
0.47634410858154297,
-0.1283223181962967,
-0.026741817593574524,
-0.5713421702384949,
-0.5450049638748169,
-0.10266324132680893,
-0.8020358681678772,
-0.7930452227592468,
0.005963618867099285,
0.16115139424800873,
0.7000637054443359,
-0.13933999836444855,
-0.49170997738838196,
0.8848596215248108,
-0.24898266792297363,
-0.1879872977733612,
0.3248976767063141,
-0.40226805210113525,
-0.5015775561332703,
0.283680260181427,
0.22604194283485413,
0.41565537452697754,
-0.17117774486541748,
0.13044682145118713,
-0.09374674409627914,
0.33580684661865234,
0.5073689222335815,
0.5766600966453552,
-0.2815840244293213,
0.3716430962085724,
-0.38287678360939026,
0.2873634099960327,
-0.19865676760673523,
-0.05714040622115135,
0.5461706519126892,
-0.47381308674812317,
0.7962416410446167,
-0.15159092843532562,
0.40873560309410095,
0.27186262607574463,
0.27746930718421936,
1.0544699430465698,
0.45093685388565063,
-0.06828354299068451,
0.21307837963104248,
0.09807518124580383,
-0.24330130219459534,
-0.6617121696472168,
0.009244468994438648,
0.0872778445482254,
-0.05662492290139198,
0.6895226836204529,
-0.30981171131134033,
-0.044562146067619324,
0.11252292990684509,
-0.08891934901475906,
0.1872318983078003,
0.41006892919540405,
-0.14180932939052582,
-0.07096751034259796,
-0.33946606516838074,
0.22851479053497314,
-0.23643748462200165,
-0.37325698137283325,
0.25303328037261963,
0.1873326152563095,
0.1069648414850235,
0.002275205450132489,
0.9934787154197693,
-0.1701885610818863,
0.2732803225517273,
-0.45407938957214355,
-0.2859032452106476,
0.049767669290304184,
-0.08176422864198685,
-0.31962117552757263,
0.03897540643811226,
0.30528920888900757,
0.32876428961753845,
0.9144896864891052,
0.35567450523376465,
0.30899885296821594,
-0.317656934261322,
0.8030461668968201,
-0.7417535781860352,
-0.027487995103001595,
0.02660723403096199,
0.18802140653133392,
-1.0820379257202148,
0.7545961141586304,
0.6151791214942932,
-0.42337995767593384,
0.18413488566875458,
-0.032149381935596466,
0.07517266273498535,
-0.09091158211231232,
0.2762368321418762,
-0.31128066778182983,
0.6984657049179077,
-0.5330941081047058,
0.17426875233650208,
-0.26664969325065613,
0.2314848154783249,
-0.1008550226688385,
-0.23542925715446472,
-0.225443497300148,
0.5274004936218262,
-0.4220883250236511,
-0.34930503368377686,
0.05673481151461601,
-0.4777161777019501,
0.6087303757667542,
-0.4951815605163574,
1.0406488180160522,
0.0052605289965868,
-0.2705298662185669,
-0.07103048264980316,
0.1343846321105957,
0.1429212987422943,
-0.17958831787109375,
0.3630701005458832,
0.14256425201892853,
-0.42384570837020874,
-0.25753727555274963,
0.002209388418123126,
-0.5709211826324463,
-0.016531797125935555,
-0.37830445170402527,
-0.1726127415895462,
0.814898669719696,
0.13451622426509857,
-0.2807338237762451,
-0.16900669038295746,
-0.12116654217243195,
0.05462782084941864,
0.18911801278591156,
0.115046426653862,
-0.6682762503623962,
-0.30719730257987976,
0.1689373105764389
] |
233501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorani%20people | Gorani people | The Gorani (, ) or Goranci (, ), are a Slavic Muslim ethnic group inhabiting the Gora region—the triangle between Kosovo, Albania, and North Macedonia. They number an estimated 60,000 people, and speak a transitional South Slavic dialect, called Goranski. The vast majority of the Gorani people adhere to Sunni Islam.
Name
The ethnonym Goranci, meaning "highlanders", is derived from the Slavic toponym gora, which means "hill, mountain". Another autonym of this people is Našinci, which literally means "our people, our ones".
In Macedonian sources, the Gorani are sometimes called Torbeši, a term used for Muslim Macedonians.
In the Albanian language, they are known as Goranët and sometimes by other exonyms, such as Bulgareci ("Bulgarians"), Torbesh ("bag carriers") and Poturë ("turkified", from po-tur, literally not Turk but, "turkified", used for Islamized Slavs).
Population
Some of the local Gorani people have over time also self declared themselves as Albanians, Macedonians, Bosniaks, Muslim Bulgarians, Serbs, Turks, or just as Muslims, due to geopolitical circumstances and in censuses.
In Kosovo, the Gorani number 10,265 inhabitants, which is drastically lower than before the Kosovo War. In 1998, it was estimated that their total population number was at least 50,000.
Settlements
In Albania, there are nine Gorani-inhabited villages: Zapod, Pakisht, Orçikël, Kosharisht, Cernalevë, Orgjost, Oreshkë, Borje and Shishtavec.
In Kosovo, there are 18 Gorani-inhabited villages: Baćka, Brod, Vranište, Globočice, Gornja Rapča, Gornji Krstac, Dikance, Donja Rapča, Donji Krstac, Zli Potok, Kruševo, Kukaljane, Lještane, Ljubošta, Mlike, Orčuša, Radeša, Restelica and the town of Dragaš. Following 1999, Dragaš has a mixed population of Gorani, whom live in the lower neighbourhood and Albanians in the upper neighbourhood that constitute the majority of inhabitants.
In North Macedonia, there are two Gorani inhabited villages located in the Polog region: Jelovjane and Urvič.
History
Contemporary
The Gora municipality and Opoja region remained separated during the Milošević period. After the war, the Gorani-majority Gora municipality was merged with the Albanian inhabited Opoja region to form the municipality of Dragaš by the United Nations Mission (UNMIK) and the new administrative unit has an Albanian majority.
In 2007 the Kosovar provisional institutions opened a school in Gora to teach the Bosnian language, which sparked minor consternation amongst the Gorani population. Many Gorani refuse to send their children to school due to societal prejudices, and threats of assimilation to Bosniaks or Albanians. Consequently, Gorani organized education per Serbia's curriculum.
Gorani activists in Serbia's proper stated they want Gora (a former municipality) to join the Association of Serb Municipalities, causing added pressure on the Gorani Community in Kosovo.
In 2018 Bulgarian activists among Gorani have filed a petition in the country's parliament demanding their official recognition as a separate minority.
Most Gorani state that the unstable situation and economic issues drive them to leave Kosovo. There is also some mention of threats and discrimination by ethnic Albanians.
Apart from the multiethnic town of Dragash, the Gorani of Kosovo continue to live in villages primarily inhabited by their community and relations with Albanians remain tense. Mixed marriage between both communities do not occur with the exception of a few Gorani families that have migrated to Prizren.
Culture
Religion
In the 18th century, a wave of Islamization began in Gora. The Ottoman abolition of the Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid and Serbian Patriarchate of Peć in 1766/1767 is thought to have prompted the Islamization of Gora as was the trend of many Balkan communities. The last Christian Gorani, Božana, died in the 19th century – she has received a cult, signifying the Gorani's Christian heritage, collected by Russian consuls Anastasiev and Yastrebov in the second half of the 19th century.
Traditions
The Gorani are known for being "the best confectioners and bakers" in former Yugoslavia.
The Slavs of Gora were Christianized after 864 when Bulgaria adopted Christianity. The Ottomans conquered the region in the 14th century, which started the process of Islamization of the Gorani and neighbouring Albanians. However, the Gorani still tangentially observe some Orthodox Christian traditions, such as Slavas and Đurđevdan, and like Serbs they know their Onomastik or saint's days.
Although most Gorani are Sunni Muslims, Sufism and in particular the Halveti and Bektashi Sufi orders are widespread.
Traditional Gorani folk music includes a two-beat dance called "oro" ('circle'), which is a circle dance focused on the foot movements: it always starts on the right foot and moves in an anti-clockwise direction. The Oro is usually accompanied by instruments such as curlje, kaval, čiftelija or tapan, and singing is used less frequently in the dances than in those of the Albanians and Serbs.
The "national" sport of Pelivona is a form of Oil wrestling popular among Gorani with regular tournaments being held in the outdoors to the accompaniment of Curlje and Tapan with associated ritualized hand gestures and dances, with origins in the Middle East through the Ottoman Empire's conquest of Balkans.
The "national" drink of the Gorani is Rakija which is commonly distilled at home by elderly people. Another popular drink is Turkish Coffee which is drunk in small cups accompanied by a glass of water. Tasseography is popular among all Gorani using the residue of Turkish Coffee.
Language
The Gorani people speak South Slavic, a local dialect known as "Našinski" or "Goranski", which is part of a wider Torlakian dialect, spoken in Southern Serbia, Western Bulgaria and part of North Macedonia. The Slavic dialect of the Gorani community is known as Gorançe by Albanians. Within the Gorani community there is a recognition of their dialects being closer to the Macedonian language, than to Serbian. The Torlakian dialect is a transitional dialect of Serbian and Bulgarian whilst also sharing features with Macedonian. The Gorani speech is classified as an Old-Shtokavian dialect of Serbian (Old Serbian), the Prizren-Timok dialect. Bulgarian linguists classify the Gorani dialect as part of a Bulgarian dialectal area. Within scholarship the Goran dialects previously classified as belonging to Serbian have been reassigned as belonging to Macedonian in the 21 century. Gorani speech has numerous loan words, being greatly influenced by Turkish and Arabic due to the influence of Islam, as well as Albanian areally. It is similar to the Bosnian language because of the numerous Turkish loanwords. Gorani speak Serbo-Croatian in school.
According to the last 1991 Yugoslav census, 54.8% of the inhabitants of the Gora municipality said that they spoke the Gorani language, while the remainder had called it Serbian. Some Gorani scholars define their language as Bulgarian, similar to the Bulgarian dialects spoken in the northwestern region of North Macedonia. Some linguists, including Vidoeski, Brozovic and Ivic, identify the Slavic-dialect of the Gora region as Macedonian. There are assertions that Macedonian is spoken in 50 to 75 villages in the Gora region (Albania and Kosovo). According to some unverified sources in 2003 the Kosovo government acquired Macedonian language and grammar books for Gorani school.
Albanian-Gorani scholar Nazif Dokle compiled the first Gorani–Albanian dictionary (with 43,000 words and phrases) in 2007, sponsored and printed by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. In 2008 the first issue of a Macedonian language newspaper, Гороцвет (Gorocvet) was published.
Verno libe
Gledaj me gledaj libe, abe verno libe,nagledaj mi se dur ti som ovde.Utre ke odim abe verno libe dalek-dalekna pusti Gurbet.Racaj poracaj libe šo da ti kupim.Ti da mi kupišabe gledaniku cerna šamija, ja da ga nosim
abe gledaniku i da ga želam.
Racaj poracaj abe verno
libe šo da ti pratim
Ti da mi pratiš abe
gledaniku šarena knjiga
Ja da ga pujem abe
gledaniku i da ga želam
Politics
Unique Gorani Party
Civic Initiative of Gora
Notable Gorani
Fahrudin Jusufi, former Yugoslav footballer, born in Zli Potok
Miralem Sulejmani, Serbian footballer, of Gorani descent
Almen Abdi, Swiss footballer, of Gorani descent
Zeli Ismail, English footballer born in Shishtavec
Zufer Avdija, former Israeli-Serbian basketball player, of Gorani descent
Deni Avdija, Israeli basketball player, of Gorani descent
Danel Sinani, Luxembourgish footballer, of Gorani descent
See also
Torbeshi
Pomaks
Gorals
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
Symposia
External links
Oberling, "Gurān", Encyclopaedia Iranica, at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/guran
Ethnic groups in Kosovo
Ethnic groups in Serbia
Ethnic groups in North Macedonia
Ethnoreligious groups in Europe
Slavic ethnic groups
Slavic highlanders
Islam in North Macedonia
South Slavs
Muslim communities in Europe
Kukës | [
0.13487713038921356,
0.09767994284629822,
-0.3580385446548462,
-0.5549114942550659,
-0.2843686640262604,
0.5465093851089478,
0.8427304029464722,
0.04233833774924278,
-0.45278605818748474,
0.019392328336834908,
-0.23267443478107452,
0.02715292014181614,
-0.762649416923523,
0.47175082564353943,
-0.7794550061225891,
0.9360958933830261,
-0.05835555121302605,
0.49399471282958984,
0.18077675998210907,
-0.06579530984163284,
0.05805337801575661,
-0.1859472244977951,
0.4309917688369751,
0.37326857447624207,
0.2923682630062103,
0.39159250259399414,
0.7071651220321655,
0.43274280428886414,
-0.025875667110085487,
0.0635003075003624,
-0.09548992663621902,
1.030389666557312,
-0.4456321597099304,
-0.36657094955444336,
0.2224622368812561,
0.5360297560691833,
-0.04092957824468613,
-0.6245999336242676,
-0.14129850268363953,
-0.4230763912200928,
0.33854103088378906,
-0.1826726794242859,
-0.19133594632148743,
1.2118371725082397,
-0.008826506324112415,
-0.4717823565006256,
-0.7738599181175232,
0.8182868957519531,
-0.42935243248939514,
-0.30719032883644104,
-0.8250813484191895,
-0.015538705512881279,
-0.034745313227176666,
0.12113920599222183,
0.1676410436630249,
0.32513418793678284,
-0.6974478363990784,
-0.18475016951560974,
0.6543712019920349,
-0.17730830609798431,
-0.10309186577796936,
0.7372452616691589,
0.26802968978881836,
-0.5563075542449951,
0.5252890586853027,
0.44802001118659973,
-0.14316745102405548,
0.7429812550544739,
0.18170322477817535,
-0.20173649489879608,
-0.47417837381362915,
0.3577565848827362,
-0.3973149061203003,
-0.11070701479911804,
-0.2409891039133072,
0.04200345277786255,
-0.37993985414505005,
-0.18826812505722046,
0.11821459978818893,
0.8251903653144836,
0.1591949313879013,
0.4980253279209137,
0.8062134385108948,
0.35736149549484253,
0.20643191039562225,
-0.4850221872329712,
-0.1587115377187729,
0.3415831923484802,
-0.25952866673469543,
0.39234307408332825,
0.21380487084388733,
-0.4759061634540558,
0.5894426107406616,
0.0539696030318737,
-0.09010232985019684,
0.48968803882598877,
-0.21737444400787354,
0.12134908884763718,
-0.45199963450431824,
-0.15335699915885925,
-0.2989282011985779,
0.8525169491767883,
-0.4226798713207245,
-0.14459066092967987,
-0.7349194884300232,
-0.33803287148475647,
-0.7129662036895752,
0.09300543367862701,
0.13576731085777283,
0.18275701999664307,
-0.48154228925704956,
0.18798916041851044,
0.12798945605754852,
-0.12993480265140533,
0.1910964846611023,
0.7604593634605408,
-0.10906670242547989,
-0.384434312582016,
-0.3413897454738617,
0.39274054765701294,
-0.33854320645332336,
0.7289114594459534,
-0.7894203662872314,
0.4222360849380493,
0.18912014365196228,
-0.00870254635810852,
1.0732125043869019,
-0.23369482159614563,
-0.45009610056877136,
0.2661612033843994,
0.3625868856906891,
0.8392412662506104,
-0.21409764885902405,
0.6568055748939514,
0.13947120308876038,
-0.24493692815303802,
-0.014490975067019463,
0.013000004924833775,
0.3306744694709778,
0.3092513382434845,
-1.0899690389633179,
-0.02243257872760296,
-0.385195255279541,
-0.1965131014585495,
0.42993515729904175,
-0.37847205996513367,
-0.2701191008090973,
-0.15980422496795654,
-0.30053994059562683,
-0.6077959537506104,
-0.2523861527442932,
-0.3006534278392792,
0.11203782260417938,
0.21875502169132233,
-0.4152647852897644,
-0.5421348214149475,
0.09484634548425674,
-0.04452238231897354,
0.7884522676467896,
-0.025817090645432472,
0.09827861934900284,
0.12068618088960648,
0.042647771537303925,
0.11462631076574326,
0.13646069169044495,
0.20396839082241058,
-0.022020766511559486,
0.676341712474823,
0.166138157248497,
-0.21323630213737488,
-0.5719302296638489,
-0.3062017560005188,
-0.15882311761379242,
-0.23465655744075775,
-0.06830129027366638,
-0.17946778237819672,
0.02558807097375393,
0.1981755495071411,
0.45469677448272705,
-0.14221185445785522,
-0.717995822429657,
-0.11820562928915024,
-0.490852028131485,
0.550819456577301,
-0.0636078491806984,
0.5928926467895508,
-0.30262550711631775,
-0.26012280583381653,
0.1529729813337326,
-0.6202237010002136,
0.16748416423797607,
-0.618719756603241,
0.2684367001056671,
0.05467640236020088,
1.524062156677246,
0.054269809275865555,
-0.04602070525288582,
0.1214715987443924,
0.15242131054401398,
0.9209837317466736,
-0.1184736043214798,
-0.6602846384048462,
0.5901034474372864,
0.012701297178864479,
-0.3161298334598541,
0.1705629825592041,
-0.16779741644859314,
0.19097571074962616,
0.6698951721191406,
0.14898371696472168,
0.4560859501361847,
-0.03307725861668587,
0.07438064366579056,
-0.007487114984542131,
-0.163004070520401,
0.033904820680618286,
-0.2094859927892685,
0.9415868520736694,
0.474958598613739,
-0.30012667179107666,
1.1080831289291382,
-0.5451109409332275,
0.23671101033687592,
0.12747080624103546,
0.04558224976062775,
0.3174351155757904,
0.5656515955924988,
0.24531948566436768,
0.27491411566734314,
-0.2852121889591217,
-0.15146492421627045,
0.30620306730270386,
0.06276779621839523,
-0.22853043675422668,
-0.9752891659736633,
-0.34472259879112244,
0.11691009998321533,
-0.5013652443885803,
0.2969489097595215,
-0.07925867289304733,
-0.29419252276420593,
0.7384137511253357,
-0.43541836738586426,
-0.5890851020812988,
0.2238314151763916,
-0.005772134754806757,
-0.3595837652683258,
0.08568117022514343,
-0.24732181429862976,
0.0868213102221489,
-0.05293380469083786,
-0.0651451125741005,
-0.051429614424705505,
-0.017761319875717163,
0.10755255818367004,
-0.01816745288670063,
0.5081825256347656,
-0.07352795451879501,
0.4486236274242401,
-0.10295172035694122,
0.01990695483982563,
-0.0833318755030632,
-0.032518740743398666,
-0.09998872131109238,
-0.04734161123633385,
-0.19828075170516968,
-0.09108304232358932,
-0.25020793080329895,
0.3118009567260742,
0.24777190387248993,
0.6013253331184387,
0.24321554601192474,
0.10439233481884003,
-0.04924793168902397,
-0.224056214094162,
-0.4328268766403198,
-0.16250352561473846,
-0.16892291605472565,
-0.5156322717666626,
-0.6834164261817932,
-0.1436106413602829,
-0.052310265600681305,
0.38989558815956116,
-0.11750613152980804,
-0.5061805248260498,
-0.4877296984195709,
0.002902514999732375,
-0.38885289430618286,
0.3376753330230713,
0.0032229963690042496,
-0.15610937774181366,
0.3803543746471405,
-0.23682773113250732,
-0.00650748610496521,
-0.34993666410446167,
-0.08337109535932541,
-0.058603785932064056,
0.4292736053466797,
0.7223473191261292,
-0.6478440165519714,
-1.0632274150848389,
0.6027619242668152,
-0.3326294422149658,
0.023242531344294548,
0.08716126531362534,
-0.07205839455127716,
-0.4028024673461914,
0.1368664801120758,
-5.478908538818359,
0.41768956184387207,
-0.7913594245910645,
-0.05982186645269394,
0.2445652037858963,
0.2185441255569458,
0.652714192867279,
-0.3831736147403717,
0.15532496571540833,
0.4663599729537964,
-0.22487051784992218,
0.13937026262283325,
-0.5804904103279114,
0.2827529013156891,
0.18112798035144806,
0.1652335673570633,
0.2010265290737152,
0.9761723279953003,
0.1576189547777176,
-0.12949222326278687,
-0.009984361939132214,
0.4222394526004791,
-0.5683286190032959,
0.5305183529853821,
0.48401471972465515,
0.6114566326141357,
-0.0022416466381400824,
-0.4290153682231903,
-0.40640366077423096,
-0.35032910108566284,
-0.2572973668575287,
-0.4920176565647125,
0.12882034480571747,
0.036355581134557724,
0.10719092935323715,
-0.0633416697382927,
0.7262204885482788,
0.4421870708465576,
0.284488320350647,
-0.4242231249809265,
0.0157431922852993,
0.26622411608695984,
0.21340957283973694,
-0.3091212213039398,
0.7853572368621826,
-0.3784222900867462,
-0.6554016470909119,
-0.12754513323307037,
-0.4203238785266876,
1.0360981225967407,
-0.08393046259880066,
-0.3435479700565338,
0.38215282559394836,
0.26102927327156067,
0.23271793127059937,
0.12225626409053802,
0.731216311454773,
0.23346510529518127,
-0.1946314573287964,
0.9439526796340942,
0.6114245057106018,
-0.3034082055091858,
-0.47525694966316223,
-1.0623621940612793,
-0.11477905511856079,
-0.02679014578461647,
-0.41707897186279297,
-0.33575892448425293,
0.013057109899818897,
-0.2497873157262802,
-0.7463818788528442,
0.1736506223678589,
-0.5698833465576172,
-0.847257137298584,
0.560057520866394,
-0.5663222074508667,
-0.7513745427131653,
0.1498175412416458,
-0.3347611129283905,
0.4174343943595886,
-0.38349851965904236,
-0.3497529625892639,
0.06868886947631836,
0.6536989212036133,
0.2152019888162613,
-0.3367612659931183,
-0.15957267582416534,
-0.34146183729171753,
-0.12711204588413239,
-0.5175482034683228,
1.2810860872268677,
-1.0249733924865723,
0.31984350085258484,
-0.028879409655928612,
0.17684997618198395,
0.8314812183380127,
0.2402333915233612,
0.14781314134597778,
0.7753278613090515,
-0.2193313091993332,
0.6363233327865601,
-0.1964740753173828,
0.24569009244441986,
0.03437807410955429,
0.0422809012234211,
0.12760432064533234,
-0.2604808509349823,
-0.04233187437057495,
1.3577630519866943,
-0.17290858924388885,
0.4250520169734955,
-0.2018415331840515,
-0.17302767932415009,
-0.19703713059425354,
0.2598356306552887,
-0.35264113545417786,
-0.13664762675762177,
0.49322226643562317,
0.5908523201942444,
0.2915535569190979,
0.16142649948596954,
-0.14967232942581177,
-0.6890891790390015,
0.3584621846675873,
-0.1818230003118515,
-0.07876110076904297,
-0.19194981455802917,
0.0865148976445198,
-0.24403397738933563,
-0.3376529812812805,
0.3837611675262451,
-0.3206983208656311,
-0.13843877613544464,
0.15264198184013367,
0.04079465940594673,
0.6551328897476196,
-0.48688286542892456,
-0.8535050749778748,
0.33725759387016296,
-0.4658541679382324,
-0.11348462849855423,
-0.9863701462745667,
-0.32604265213012695,
0.4054957926273346,
0.1487995982170105,
0.5669065117835999,
0.15371064841747284,
0.10089071840047836,
-0.7867320775985718,
-0.0020884298719465733,
0.31292086839675903,
-0.09245684742927551,
0.40677523612976074,
-0.1232367530465126,
-0.34879955649375916,
0.21797963976860046,
0.6747269630432129,
1.2972493171691895,
-0.37919583916664124,
-0.3135583698749542,
-0.3098732829093933,
-0.8368066549301147,
-0.3497582674026489,
0.2310502976179123,
0.21116268634796143,
-0.375333696603775,
-0.3676275908946991,
0.15908178687095642,
-0.2927624583244324,
0.9533959627151489,
0.3018057346343994,
-0.40813153982162476,
-0.8297165036201477,
-0.5398887991905212,
-0.03055531717836857,
-0.6292780637741089,
0.07882629334926605,
0.5569679141044617,
-0.7109659910202026,
0.14077523350715637,
0.026883305981755257,
0.3347572982311249,
-0.22799824178218842,
0.4613696336746216,
0.35651448369026184,
-0.23345163464546204,
-0.07611968368291855,
0.17912070453166962,
-0.3120885193347931,
-0.03515663370490074,
0.3004946708679199,
-0.15479853749275208,
-0.13295792043209076,
-0.44837042689323425,
-0.07948547601699829,
-0.47313544154167175,
0.09219792485237122,
0.04213076829910278,
-0.2144201546907425,
-0.669583261013031,
0.2387203574180603,
0.05201324075460434,
-0.3902099132537842,
0.41578608751296997,
-0.22944612801074982,
-0.15914146602153778,
0.8238665461540222,
-0.2726709246635437,
-0.5611666440963745,
-0.04926008731126785,
-0.3901345133781433,
-1.0032812356948853,
-0.19688275456428528,
0.24627135694026947,
-0.8450915217399597,
0.14491768181324005,
-0.16521614789962769,
0.01105955895036459,
-0.5214749574661255,
-0.6142633557319641,
-0.4082818329334259,
-0.43891263008117676,
0.40959131717681885,
0.2565993070602417,
-0.12358265370130539,
0.4692111611366272,
0.08952375501394272,
-0.3872579038143158,
-0.07635176926851273,
-0.5435733199119568,
0.3016837239265442,
-0.23897169530391693,
0.5101507902145386,
-0.015348531305789948,
-0.1344866305589676,
-0.23990881443023682,
0.156174898147583,
0.19920842349529266,
0.5184206962585449,
0.6722155809402466,
0.5586420893669128,
0.6838010549545288,
-0.02164541371166706,
-0.1688937395811081,
-0.28936830163002014,
-0.11486812680959702,
-0.2900257110595703,
-0.4177866578102112,
-0.4583257734775543,
-0.13517732918262482,
0.15650087594985962,
-0.1065148264169693,
-0.30672335624694824,
-0.43125468492507935,
0.6286293864250183,
-0.16964595019817352,
0.13074657320976257,
-0.08826491981744766,
-0.054887060075998306,
0.032408617436885834,
-0.029458865523338318,
-0.1405366212129593,
0.07955842465162277,
-0.07217715680599213,
0.1781272441148758,
-0.09393545985221863,
-0.49837228655815125,
-0.3849359154701233,
0.5748705863952637,
0.0219821035861969,
-0.306381493806839,
-0.7979294061660767,
0.8264744877815247,
0.11053641140460968,
-0.41165146231651306,
-0.02182064577937126,
-0.13667245209217072,
-0.12841583788394928,
0.41443660855293274,
0.3075782060623169,
-0.9055306911468506,
-0.20355342328548431,
-0.5630691051483154,
0.22740055620670319,
0.31255319714546204,
-0.5860893726348877,
0.10672753304243088,
0.19753435254096985,
-0.4510772228240967,
-0.010981827042996883,
-0.5396508574485779,
-0.4708574712276459,
0.1845836341381073,
0.7316051125526428,
0.3885754942893982,
-0.0013661552220582962,
0.08358681946992874,
0.2849569320678711,
-0.3136730194091797,
0.569410502910614,
-0.8359875082969666,
0.3605726361274719,
0.38834917545318604,
-0.27770113945007324,
0.46606481075286865,
0.13091203570365906,
0.17586639523506165,
-0.24690891802310944,
0.19011718034744263,
-0.22071368992328644,
0.13234232366085052,
0.48683643341064453,
0.8206637501716614,
0.8682715892791748,
-0.656417727470398,
0.05975658446550369,
0.5356754660606384,
-0.8778266310691833,
0.1769598424434662,
0.4334920644760132,
0.6730737686157227,
0.1498333066701889,
0.6058396697044373,
0.6406980156898499,
0.3103668987751007,
0.7350782752037048,
-0.2866212725639343,
-0.24826057255268097,
0.4320559501647949,
0.30895793437957764,
0.12573736906051636,
-0.5563927888870239,
-0.3930746614933014,
-0.26001784205436707,
0.016298990696668625,
-0.4652566909790039,
-0.026645321398973465,
-0.38965657353401184,
-0.5309802293777466,
1.3674672842025757,
0.6624937057495117,
0.27111393213272095,
-0.39419832825660706,
-0.03530380129814148,
-0.28716138005256653,
0.27156975865364075,
0.08973854780197144,
0.28097987174987793,
0.6065903306007385,
-0.2875742018222809,
0.4710415303707123,
-0.14118245244026184,
0.012290908955037594,
-0.33895036578178406,
-0.434110164642334,
0.38899365067481995,
0.031716447323560715,
-0.1133345440030098,
-0.7572171688079834,
0.16650046408176422,
0.7489066123962402,
-0.7152950167655945,
0.39133211970329285,
-0.1458464413881302,
0.25241875648498535,
-0.34419476985931396,
-0.42905762791633606,
-0.9610550403594971,
-0.21390753984451294,
0.04451148584485054,
0.2864783704280853,
0.11304665356874466,
-0.18904457986354828,
0.07460735738277435,
0.26364079117774963,
0.008438008837401867,
0.1410364955663681,
0.7541846036911011,
-0.3904520571231842,
-0.08959770947694778,
-0.2731603980064392,
0.3456111252307892,
0.44160881638526917,
-0.8754381537437439,
0.25579553842544556,
-0.13900326192378998,
0.19828946888446808,
0.007890666835010052,
-0.391498327255249,
0.03501129150390625,
0.05461918190121651,
-0.17667490243911743,
-0.16018711030483246,
-0.3065689504146576,
-0.47751498222351074,
-0.45129528641700745,
0.1710606962442398,
0.5333001613616943,
0.4227748513221741,
0.5316168665885925,
0.24558749794960022,
-0.18453815579414368,
0.21570567786693573,
-0.08447850495576859,
-0.6178975701332092,
0.18630923330783844,
-0.5854877829551697,
0.008006270974874496,
-0.30600693821907043,
0.0997929498553276,
0.3039521276950836,
-0.24472178518772125,
0.40299203991889954,
-0.009738919325172901,
0.06512995809316635,
0.41405272483825684,
0.40690335631370544,
-0.5772364139556885,
0.10150323063135147,
-0.8029235601425171,
0.06552398204803467,
-0.6205755472183228,
0.1484285593032837,
0.43433406949043274,
0.13120137155056,
-0.07135923951864243,
0.5077582597732544,
0.13714419305324554,
-0.8110231757164001,
0.5076426863670349,
-0.09141165018081665,
0.051427241414785385,
-0.19851574301719666,
-0.2802410125732422,
-0.2554319500923157,
-0.08882998675107956,
0.1540704071521759,
-0.16912057995796204,
0.2761857807636261,
-0.3068815767765045,
0.4944896996021271,
-0.5935742259025574,
0.3271786570549011,
0.06477124243974686,
-0.2254910171031952,
0.13015863299369812,
-0.5060312747955322,
-0.33708688616752625,
-0.7693861722946167,
0.23475560545921326,
0.11776497960090637,
-0.5764011740684509,
0.3836961090564728,
-0.17193682491779327,
-0.06999007612466812,
0.0019410343375056982,
0.1304214745759964,
-1.1018383502960205,
-0.09799826145172119,
-0.2720085680484772
] |
233507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorm%20the%20Old | Gorm the Old | Gorm the Old (, , ), also called Gorm the Languid (), was ruler of Denmark, reigning from to his death or a few years later. He ruled from Jelling, and made the oldest of the Jelling Stones in honour of his wife Thyra. Gorm was born before 900 and died perhaps around 958 or possibly 963 or 964.
Ancestry and reign
Gorm is the reported son of semi-legendary Danish king Harthacnut. Chronicler Adam of Bremen says that Harthacnut came from Northmannia to Denmark and seized power in the early 10th century. He deposed the young king Sigtrygg Gnupasson, reigning over Western Denmark. When Harthacnut died, Gorm ascended the throne.
Heimskringla reports Gorm taking at least part of the kingdom by force from Gnupa, and Adam himself suggests that the kingdom had been divided prior to Gorm's time. Gorm is first mentioned as the host of Archbishop Unni of Hamburg and Bremen in 936. According to the Jelling Stones, Gorm's son, Harald Bluetooth, "won all of Denmark", so it is speculated that Gorm only ruled Jutland from his seat in Jelling.
Marriage to Thyra
Gorm married Thyra, who is given conflicting and chronologically dubious parentage by late sources, but no contemporary indication of her parentage survives. Gorm raised one of the great burial mounds at Jelling as well as the oldest of the Jelling Stones for her, calling her tanmarkar but ("Denmark's Salvation" or "Denmark's Adornment"). Gorm was the father of three sons, Toke, Knut and Harald, later King Harald Bluetooth.
His wife, Thyra, is credited with the completion of the Danevirke, a wall between Denmark's southern border and its unfriendly Saxon neighbors to the south. The wall was not new, but it was expanded with a ditch and earthen foundation topped by a timber stockade above it. The Danevirke ran between the Schlei and the Treene river, across what is now Schleswig.
Death, burial and reburial
One theory is that Gorm died in the winter of 958–959, this based on dendrochronology that shows that the burial chamber in the northern burial mound in Jelling was made from wood of timbers felled in 958. Arild Huitfeldt relates one legend of his death in Danmarks Riges Krønike:
The three sons were Vikings in the truest sense, departing Denmark each summer to raid and pillage. Harald came back to the royal enclosure at Jelling with the news that his brother Canute had been killed in an attempt to capture Dublin, Ireland. Canute was shot with a coward's arrow while watching some games at night. No one would tell the king in view of the oath the king had made. Queen Thyra ordered the royal hall hung with black cloth and that no one was to say a single word. When Gorm entered the hall, he was astonished and asked what the mourning colors meant. Queen Thyra spoke up: "Lord King, you had two falcons, one white and the other gray. The white one flew far afield and was set upon by other birds which tore off its beautiful feathers and is now useless to you. Meanwhile, the gray falcon continues to catch fowl for the king's table." Gorm understood immediately the Queen's metaphor and cried out, "My son is surely dead, since all of Denmark mourns!" "You have said it, your majesty," Thyra announced, "Not I, but what you have said is true." According to the story Gorm was so grieved by Canute's death that he died the following day.
This account would contradict information on the Jelling Stones which point to Queen Thyra dying before Gorm. Some archaeologists and historians have suggested that Gorm was buried first in Queen Thyra's grave mound at Jelling, and later moved by his son, Harald Bluetooth, into the original wooden church in Jelling. According to this theory it is believed that the skeleton found at the site of the first Christian church of Jelling is in fact Gorm the Old, though the theory is still much debated. During the reign of Gorm, most Danes still worshipped the Norse gods, but during the reign of Gorm's son, Harold Bluetooth, Denmark officially converted to Christianity. Harald, accordingly, left the hill where Gorm had originally been interred as a memorial.
Legacy
Gorm was "old" in the sense that he was considered the traditional ancestral "head" of the Danish monarchy. Saxo Grammaticus in the Gesta Danorum asserts that Gorm was older than other monarchs and, having lived so long, was blind by the time his son Canute was killed.
References
Further reading
Birkebæk, Frank (2003). Vikingetiden i Danmark. Viborg: Sesam.
Hybel, Nils (2003). Danmark i Europa: 750–1300. København: Museum Tusculanums forlag.
Johannessen, Kåre (2001). Politikens bog om Danmarks vikingetid. Politikens håndbøger. København: Politikens forlag.
Lund, Niels (2020). Jellingkongerne og deres forgængere, Gylling: Vikingeskibsmuseet i Roskilde.
Sawyer, P. H. (1999). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thiedecke, Arendse, and Thiedecke, Johnny (2003). De danske vikinger: samfund, kongemagt og togter ca. 700–1050. Valby: Pantheon.
10th-century kings of Denmark
House of Knýtlinga
People from Vejle Municipality
9th-century births
Year of birth unknown
950s deaths
Year of death uncertain
Burials in Denmark | [
-0.7618780136108398,
0.259217232465744,
0.4109761714935303,
-0.1612590253353119,
-0.6238546371459961,
-0.15825508534908295,
-0.018708663061261177,
0.1351802498102188,
-0.6889359951019287,
0.03764413669705391,
-0.10141322761774063,
0.05074699968099594,
-0.019794011488556862,
0.03083423711359501,
-0.4733683466911316,
0.27966633439064026,
0.34680837392807007,
0.22506897151470184,
-0.5209686756134033,
-0.9115244746208191,
0.24554753303527832,
-0.4546225368976593,
0.34771621227264404,
0.2643022835254669,
0.8551759123802185,
-0.04761294648051262,
0.3355362117290497,
-0.03422803804278374,
-0.42428988218307495,
-0.12819144129753113,
-0.24951982498168945,
0.2268749475479126,
0.3102633059024811,
-0.2971525192260742,
-0.37349435687065125,
0.33405277132987976,
0.03896908462047577,
-0.028506409376859665,
-0.1979316771030426,
-0.18099889159202576,
-0.18659865856170654,
0.2859864830970764,
-0.18102039396762848,
0.5210189819335938,
-0.4706489145755768,
-0.18093015253543854,
-1.1835992336273193,
0.5441505908966064,
-0.6247938275337219,
0.0317755751311779,
-0.7948809862136841,
-0.0808725655078888,
-0.20939220488071442,
-0.039423149079084396,
0.4553665816783905,
0.18524444103240967,
-0.7524625062942505,
0.42161938548088074,
0.1584608256816864,
0.21380680799484253,
0.5874723196029663,
-0.40827488899230957,
0.21118292212486267,
-0.16978371143341064,
-0.00744291627779603,
-0.13837431371212006,
-0.0962529182434082,
0.2715684771537781,
-0.2998596429824829,
-0.7543566226959229,
-0.2759692668914795,
0.20092347264289856,
-0.2417275756597519,
0.4482051432132721,
0.18653985857963562,
-0.42343229055404663,
0.21296913921833038,
-0.2518380284309387,
0.5737497806549072,
-0.24056477844715118,
-0.2793029844760895,
-0.47075068950653076,
0.4674796164035797,
-0.02104255184531212,
0.011366665363311768,
-0.03301982581615448,
0.0414174422621727,
0.4265054166316986,
-0.8156246542930603,
-0.018918843939900398,
0.320498526096344,
-0.2940531075000763,
0.19425922632217407,
0.30727943778038025,
-0.43316563963890076,
-0.5225291848182678,
-0.17606289684772491,
-0.20567792654037476,
-0.5398945212364197,
-0.0639929473400116,
0.21854545176029205,
0.40578693151474,
-0.18894758820533752,
-0.696556031703949,
-0.28553473949432373,
-0.00213224976323545,
0.06104481965303421,
0.21261261403560638,
-0.6092297434806824,
-0.5529940128326416,
-0.5693212151527405,
0.8632188439369202,
-0.31971603631973267,
0.0242439117282629,
0.21775297820568085,
0.5594182014465332,
-0.20705056190490723,
-0.7138323783874512,
-0.4414253234863281,
-0.02156813256442547,
0.16399452090263367,
0.4676387310028076,
-0.33345136046409607,
0.04047933593392372,
0.06338533759117126,
-0.10058888047933578,
0.11447455734014511,
0.5407831072807312,
-0.23092010617256165,
-0.33803653717041016,
0.4549541771411896,
0.4925875961780548,
-0.0066957320086658,
-0.26982998847961426,
0.11068696528673172,
0.4901759922504425,
0.09172100573778152,
0.2350439578294754,
0.14392608404159546,
-0.01190639566630125,
-0.4878998100757599,
-0.7125568985939026,
-0.2824093997478485,
0.20460714399814606,
-0.19954261183738708,
-0.15298889577388763,
0.3745054602622986,
-0.34735628962516785,
-0.020869458094239235,
0.5273227095603943,
-0.024021588265895844,
-0.06844718009233475,
-0.2600504457950592,
-0.22147789597511292,
-0.32479819655418396,
0.8545144200325012,
-0.17980527877807617,
-0.05160994827747345,
0.543597400188446,
-0.008879396133124828,
-0.20532043278217316,
0.2214435338973999,
-0.5504308938980103,
-0.1362805813550949,
0.44610676169395447,
-0.09541242569684982,
0.19527317583560944,
0.5408233404159546,
-0.7028182148933411,
-0.7247304320335388,
-0.4891927242279053,
0.5245794057846069,
0.21896915137767792,
-0.23268857598304749,
-0.40484318137168884,
0.7630792260169983,
0.9605149626731873,
-0.3383767902851105,
-0.08350000530481339,
0.22263146936893463,
-0.8659834861755371,
0.24984809756278992,
0.640760600566864,
0.041960228234529495,
0.185580775141716,
0.2854287624359131,
-0.1354134976863861,
-0.12459783256053925,
0.37786510586738586,
-0.4270099401473999,
0.012001997791230679,
-0.329722136259079,
0.7094880938529968,
0.17336131632328033,
0.5564497113227844,
0.12761592864990234,
0.028562605381011963,
-0.09888484328985214,
-0.03825415298342705,
0.7327731847763062,
0.29131293296813965,
-0.7368682026863098,
0.28614863753318787,
-0.3308088481426239,
0.5920783281326294,
0.3881148397922516,
-0.16552981734275818,
0.011930478736758232,
0.30633223056793213,
0.8752517700195312,
0.768383800983429,
-0.17582371830940247,
-0.07779822498559952,
0.39562341570854187,
-0.8148925304412842,
0.14488022029399872,
-0.10088620334863663,
0.17902976274490356,
0.15039792656898499,
-0.19147220253944397,
0.8163905143737793,
0.3586830198764801,
-0.3450731337070465,
0.26448145508766174,
0.17630718648433685,
0.9688737988471985,
-0.3441137969493866,
0.06752276420593262,
0.034343522042036057,
-0.7586411237716675,
0.169463112950325,
0.10954060405492783,
0.22973226010799408,
0.12967820465564728,
0.09206523001194,
-0.324478417634964,
-0.5925462245941162,
0.05743924528360367,
0.5669930577278137,
-0.7918372750282288,
0.32312339544296265,
0.02031201869249344,
-0.27479615807533264,
0.6660993695259094,
0.3996213972568512,
0.7285539507865906,
-0.35693296790122986,
0.3554713726043701,
-0.7539259195327759,
-0.3942611813545227,
0.40269824862480164,
0.03589712083339691,
-0.2619244456291199,
0.14093361794948578,
0.67823725938797,
-0.5474833846092224,
-0.19939075410366058,
0.5373204946517944,
0.36458560824394226,
0.25156110525131226,
0.28536954522132874,
0.08132465183734894,
0.34998124837875366,
0.05475511774420738,
0.047729458659887314,
-0.35288673639297485,
-0.08898179233074188,
-0.6393805742263794,
-0.12400534003973007,
-0.1250910609960556,
-0.372994065284729,
0.07394740730524063,
-0.5155146718025208,
-0.2403772622346878,
-0.09528419375419617,
-0.9447263479232788,
0.12471574544906616,
0.19014868140220642,
-0.37216079235076904,
-0.45155638456344604,
0.5082701444625854,
0.9504355788230896,
-0.16410788893699646,
-0.1113801971077919,
-0.3333679139614105,
-0.6451269388198853,
-0.013060745783150196,
-0.2032528817653656,
0.44378358125686646,
-0.4721546173095703,
0.08208504319190979,
0.494757741689682,
-0.24938589334487915,
0.32909783720970154,
-0.11156735569238663,
0.5948928594589233,
0.20858627557754517,
-0.18353921175003052,
0.16114208102226257,
-0.23155011236667633,
-0.627967357635498,
0.09946143627166748,
-0.20778106153011322,
-0.004632463213056326,
-0.20809774100780487,
0.1658841222524643,
-0.46054738759994507,
-0.4029669463634491,
-5.628658771514893,
0.3517427146434784,
-0.14330445230007172,
-0.26054906845092773,
-0.2024240493774414,
0.3704543709754944,
0.265700101852417,
0.09257059544324875,
0.5245257616043091,
-0.4123079180717468,
0.4359355866909027,
-0.4478733539581299,
0.07172387838363647,
0.20937907695770264,
1.1694332361221313,
0.3822266459465027,
0.6857318878173828,
0.75899338722229,
-0.03333023935556412,
-0.11222399771213531,
-0.08526430279016495,
-0.3741791844367981,
-0.14888359606266022,
0.08187723904848099,
0.4648548364639282,
0.43451616168022156,
0.1497846394777298,
0.09535138309001923,
-0.8834578990936279,
-0.5092416405677795,
0.5885892510414124,
-0.22136183083057404,
0.560404360294342,
0.15531089901924133,
0.2835519015789032,
0.5438048839569092,
1.0190298557281494,
1.2168649435043335,
0.4320201277732849,
-0.3407104015350342,
0.3268360197544098,
0.24218550324440002,
-0.5882769823074341,
0.3326037526130676,
0.9329471588134766,
-0.19951194524765015,
-0.7723960280418396,
0.30354392528533936,
-0.9944624304771423,
0.5698332786560059,
0.22735236585140228,
0.01038370281457901,
0.24401557445526123,
-0.08175908774137497,
0.10666698217391968,
0.177615225315094,
-0.6815494894981384,
0.6456313133239746,
-0.41357120871543884,
-0.17190887033939362,
0.5674119591712952,
-0.28135746717453003,
-0.2984532117843628,
-0.14535489678382874,
0.02569369226694107,
-0.3733982443809509,
-0.14190228283405304,
-0.17143391072750092,
0.6045663952827454,
0.00032702990574762225,
0.3794545531272888,
-0.10788493603467941,
0.36819830536842346,
-0.36270391941070557,
-0.17352400720119476,
-1.009643316268921,
-0.4280712604522705,
0.3456359803676605,
0.2648492753505707,
-0.17693769931793213,
-0.1498248279094696,
-0.44313108921051025,
-0.018916171044111252,
0.813879132270813,
0.5583922863006592,
-0.3627658784389496,
-0.02210276946425438,
-0.263985276222229,
-0.12223445624113083,
0.08340886235237122,
0.3659472167491913,
-0.5824305415153503,
-0.5901907086372375,
0.7624523639678955,
-0.5991399884223938,
0.09713734686374664,
-0.4760526716709137,
-0.3674132227897644,
0.9798389077186584,
0.37373223900794983,
0.8814682960510254,
0.15656007826328278,
0.3950352072715759,
0.05155496299266815,
0.030107172206044197,
0.45522594451904297,
-0.38417258858680725,
0.05536982789635658,
0.7758353352546692,
0.15605305135250092,
0.40201109647750854,
-0.2576162815093994,
-0.06728386878967285,
-0.6269486546516418,
0.22519855201244354,
-0.3837510645389557,
-0.5337642431259155,
0.40877771377563477,
0.958277702331543,
-0.3359432518482208,
-0.19134706258773804,
0.2988368272781372,
-0.04077228158712387,
-0.5010725259780884,
-0.6051105260848999,
0.1649027317762375,
0.43615320324897766,
0.54296875,
-0.22872838377952576,
0.043803926557302475,
-0.3942738473415375,
0.05393146723508835,
0.339726060628891,
0.05443667247891426,
-0.6728683114051819,
-0.07098478823900223,
0.11130844801664352,
-0.5910407304763794,
-0.31732335686683655,
-0.5690401196479797,
-0.062335606664419174,
-0.30019477009773254,
0.34158724546432495,
0.09419703483581543,
0.023201920092105865,
0.05433440953493118,
0.18427450954914093,
-0.15257425606250763,
-0.6241728663444519,
0.02362815849483013,
-0.032598815858364105,
0.15869854390621185,
0.7917575836181641,
-0.549545407295227,
-0.4090522527694702,
-0.006259747315198183,
-0.13139601051807404,
0.11289937049150467,
0.047118134796619415,
-0.3041699528694153,
-0.6107546091079712,
-0.36735624074935913,
-0.6572965383529663,
-0.24649156630039215,
-0.16867861151695251,
0.05132433772087097,
-0.06921346485614777,
-0.37577369809150696,
-0.33456432819366455,
0.8008775115013123,
0.47804057598114014,
-0.367912620306015,
-1.0380918979644775,
-0.48654669523239136,
0.4074559509754181,
0.021905599161982536,
0.002857949584722519,
-0.23051582276821136,
0.3316238224506378,
0.12230557203292847,
-0.042183768004179,
0.10158180445432663,
-0.5643901824951172,
0.053997937589883804,
0.5228255391120911,
-0.4107762277126312,
-0.4308638572692871,
-0.7022759914398193,
-0.7813297510147095,
-0.4497368633747101,
0.5377435684204102,
0.21020255982875824,
0.016057243570685387,
0.6059730648994446,
-0.3288269639015198,
-0.5483918190002441,
-0.12147656828165054,
0.019174396991729736,
0.5081092119216919,
0.15490014851093292,
0.027070704847574234,
0.2989855706691742,
-0.5958241820335388,
-0.19089572131633759,
0.2841145396232605,
-0.8300594091415405,
0.029049741104245186,
-0.06558246910572052,
-0.34198930859565735,
0.504976212978363,
-0.6342697739601135,
-0.6625461578369141,
-0.06613670289516449,
0.6048228144645691,
-0.1446083039045334,
-0.0372270829975605,
0.07645910233259201,
-0.34030815958976746,
-0.0037112829741090536,
-0.7176282405853271,
-0.463189959526062,
-0.14004912972450256,
-0.3293689489364624,
0.14600612223148346,
-0.06265492737293243,
-0.19410590827465057,
0.20592406392097473,
0.2615763545036316,
0.22886957228183746,
-0.4795385003089905,
0.5622669458389282,
0.10487622022628784,
0.2705332040786743,
0.2700038254261017,
0.07261762768030167,
0.08080873638391495,
0.7981206774711609,
0.09424907714128494,
-0.11843246221542358,
0.2675694227218628,
1.0282543897628784,
1.0210624933242798,
-0.08377630263566971,
-0.020071053877472878,
0.02973751723766327,
-0.190948486328125,
-0.28826048970222473,
0.11698231846094131,
0.5229379534721375,
-0.013322493061423302,
-0.09720470756292343,
-0.09181209653615952,
0.053229670971632004,
0.3709283769130707,
1.3397570848464966,
-0.5931388139724731,
0.3715488314628601,
-0.15796853601932526,
0.5929084420204163,
-0.4294900596141815,
0.27268362045288086,
0.30365169048309326,
0.36387014389038086,
0.15200506150722504,
0.3622053563594818,
0.6075382232666016,
-0.8698810935020447,
0.25754183530807495,
0.4079188108444214,
-0.4269944429397583,
-0.5535724759101868,
-0.797787606716156,
0.08600178360939026,
-0.2650197744369507,
-0.24024736881256104,
-0.072501540184021,
0.14337006211280823,
-0.013856815174221992,
0.5917825102806091,
-0.1784634292125702,
-0.7905442118644714,
0.2590620517730713,
0.08240337669849396,
-0.26946160197257996,
-0.4550520181655884,
-0.7673032879829407,
-0.18939971923828125,
-0.09150025248527527,
-0.23303566873073578,
-0.021230453625321388,
-0.5813765525817871,
0.14858195185661316,
0.11073251813650131,
0.8305329084396362,
0.051179997622966766,
0.6928970813751221,
-0.0816258043050766,
0.8376839756965637,
-0.12000133097171783,
-0.277165949344635,
-0.8782842755317688,
0.027162611484527588,
0.2241995930671692,
-0.5009523630142212,
0.010372172109782696,
0.656229555606842,
0.13685141503810883,
-0.06467566639184952,
-0.1322677582502365,
-0.4598470628261566,
-0.018789030611515045,
0.15471740067005157,
-0.16566333174705505,
0.671977698802948,
-0.5118902325630188,
-0.8232231736183167,
0.40487200021743774,
-0.004551668185740709,
-0.1548302322626114,
0.16155119240283966,
0.8584533929824829,
-0.07314647734165192,
-0.1073872372508049,
-0.08376161754131317,
0.11599642783403397,
0.5839729309082031,
0.016507187858223915,
-0.03394569084048271,
-0.07353512197732925,
-0.10873018950223923,
-0.15398326516151428,
-0.2201404571533203,
-0.5477212071418762,
0.9898101687431335,
-0.36447346210479736,
0.280102401971817,
0.08978688716888428,
-0.4272969961166382,
-0.4957716763019562,
0.5911279916763306,
-0.19213639199733734,
0.9087356328964233,
-0.6458350419998169,
-0.3236536979675293,
-0.22372771799564362,
0.09431460499763489,
-0.7364526391029358,
-0.14078779518604279,
0.881732702255249,
-0.009514431469142437,
0.26626288890838623,
-0.6143137216567993,
0.06813851743936539,
-0.8960421681404114,
-0.06592226028442383,
0.18871669471263885,
0.2905004322528839,
0.003159674583002925,
-0.47748392820358276,
-0.5607129335403442,
0.0943412259221077,
-0.5406805276870728,
0.6072084307670593,
0.04887814074754715,
0.1286727488040924,
-0.4586373269557953,
0.0078046261332929134,
-0.450749933719635,
0.05144461244344711,
0.2692394256591797,
0.3056316375732422,
0.0007186098955571651,
0.16141347587108612,
-0.3647570312023163,
-0.2236022800207138,
0.15645277500152588,
0.5352492928504944,
-0.030829833820462227,
-0.026594404131174088,
-0.23602373898029327,
-0.17983026802539825,
-0.005052501335740089,
0.34550976753234863,
-1.0396190881729126,
-0.489029198884964,
0.13433535397052765,
0.23903468251228333,
0.0400608591735363,
-0.2699354887008667,
0.2991056740283966,
0.26326796412467957,
-0.17209884524345398,
-0.3192014992237091,
0.1735662817955017,
-0.3410208225250244,
-0.35378947854042053,
-0.17701172828674316,
0.7279418706893921,
-0.05045197531580925,
-0.14885540306568146,
-0.11220606416463852,
0.2016705870628357,
-0.1182209923863411,
0.2408508062362671,
0.19186657667160034,
0.17369064688682556,
-0.054282721132040024,
0.09168873727321625,
-0.05518561601638794,
0.6800844669342041,
0.13042746484279633,
-0.22141602635383606,
-0.4609459638595581,
0.19894424080848694,
-0.31092599034309387,
-0.4952929615974426,
0.19760437309741974,
0.05919091776013374,
0.0019634815398603678,
0.40198907256126404,
0.11326863616704941,
0.43032240867614746,
0.0723968967795372,
0.4779534637928009,
0.13039807975292206,
0.17564402520656586,
0.4506129324436188,
0.3849110007286072,
-0.7299104332923889,
0.5623090267181396,
-0.3030005097389221,
-0.09383256733417511,
-0.21831510961055756,
-0.22769853472709656,
-0.06439994275569916,
0.012163077481091022,
0.12210772931575775,
-0.30016669631004333,
-0.16466312110424042,
-0.15088841319084167,
-0.06877829134464264,
-0.30623823404312134,
1.0426806211471558,
0.416878342628479,
0.260532021522522,
0.06424739211797714,
0.25730645656585693,
-0.12580609321594238,
-0.41757336258888245,
0.5691381096839905,
0.2801421880722046,
-0.4652325510978699,
0.9074796438217163,
-0.252748042345047,
0.09148970246315002,
0.1793474555015564,
-0.07572102546691895,
-0.4443456828594208,
0.22548089921474457,
0.16149714589118958
] |
233510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharada | Sharada | Sharada or Sarada (Sanskrit for "autumnal") may refer to:
Another name for the Hindu goddess Saraswati
Sharada script, abugida writing system
Sharada (Unicode block), a Unicode block of Sharada script characters
Films
Sharada (1942 film), in Hindi
Sharada (1957 film), in Hindi
Sarada (1962 film), in Tamil
Sharada (1973 film), in Telugu
Sharada (1981 film), in Hindi
Sarada (unreleased film), in Telugu
People
Sharada (actress) (born 1945), Telugu actress
Sarada Devi or Sarada Ma (1853–1920), wife and spiritual counterpart of Hindu mystic Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Nerella Sharada, Indian politician
Princess Sharada Shah of Nepal (1943-2001), princess of Nepal
Geography
Sarada River in Andhra Pradesh, India
Sharda River, downstream renaming mainly in Uttar Pradesh of (Maha)Kali River on Nepal's western border with Uttarakhand, India
Sharad Khola tributary to Babai River, Dang and Bardiya districts, Nepal
Other
Sarada Uchiha (うちは サラダ), a main character in the manga and anime series Boruto: Naruto Next Generations
Sarada (novel), an 1892 Malayalam novel
Sharada Peeth, a temple in Sharda, Kashmir
"Sharada", a song by Skye Sweetnam on her album Noise from the Basement
Sarada (lizard), a genus of lizards
See also
Sharda (disambiguation)
Hindu given names | [
-0.3899686336517334,
0.3019164502620697,
-0.5212213397026062,
-0.19332322478294373,
-0.5259689688682556,
1.0196647644042969,
0.5911036729812622,
-0.6949175000190735,
-0.7882883548736572,
0.13178545236587524,
0.22842438519001007,
0.11275854706764221,
-0.12139029800891876,
0.31696560978889465,
-0.2543562650680542,
-0.059783563017845154,
0.43397071957588196,
0.3552951216697693,
-0.25854063034057617,
0.11441747844219208,
-0.23390881717205048,
0.34308061003685,
0.6474725008010864,
-0.008795245550572872,
0.024062465876340866,
0.1691131293773651,
0.544362485408783,
0.4420880973339081,
-0.19291390478610992,
-0.08244193345308304,
-0.315523236989975,
0.08143867552280426,
0.32168853282928467,
0.4324614405632019,
0.2340577244758606,
-0.3158073127269745,
-0.3148321211338043,
0.1602877527475357,
-0.5428688526153564,
-0.44057658314704895,
-0.26429688930511475,
-0.3625665009021759,
0.4310302138328552,
0.13880623877048492,
-0.5907022953033447,
0.3390590250492096,
-1.5663261413574219,
0.9984210729598999,
-0.5531810522079468,
0.14086587727069855,
0.3016146123409271,
0.18933725357055664,
0.6085350513458252,
-0.12539532780647278,
0.37617355585098267,
0.5705904960632324,
-0.695348858833313,
0.09077010303735733,
0.14500115811824799,
-0.5672348737716675,
0.8343561887741089,
-0.10544417053461075,
0.2271970510482788,
0.2778976857662201,
0.32778653502464294,
0.286715567111969,
-0.05298272892832756,
-0.3591573238372803,
-0.05090850964188576,
-0.3840535581111908,
-0.09177190810441971,
0.1724170297384262,
-0.33683639764785767,
0.7691662907600403,
-0.8329776525497437,
-0.531559407711029,
-0.39560750126838684,
0.02098015323281288,
0.18260060250759125,
-0.39336761832237244,
0.043215326964855194,
-0.43263500928878784,
0.6158627867698669,
0.49051809310913086,
0.08719142526388168,
-0.8937548995018005,
0.17309464514255524,
0.11712618917226791,
-0.7538265585899353,
-0.13615557551383972,
-0.21034099161624908,
-0.49096089601516724,
0.01712796464562416,
0.3836078643798828,
-0.4487890303134918,
0.22251056134700775,
-0.1795719712972641,
-0.2822897434234619,
0.781074583530426,
-0.48761388659477234,
-0.1428985595703125,
-0.2097845822572708,
0.285419762134552,
-0.37540119886398315,
-0.551670253276825,
-0.2422831952571869,
0.04049159213900566,
0.41115692257881165,
-0.183851420879364,
0.2676039934158325,
-0.18338678777217865,
0.6910851001739502,
0.3413506746292114,
-0.4071214199066162,
-0.2459741085767746,
-0.2717622220516205,
-0.9576660394668579,
-0.26199355721473694,
-0.5664863586425781,
0.2217564731836319,
0.20882441103458405,
0.3011675477027893,
0.47912681102752686,
0.41461119055747986,
-0.14504371583461761,
0.5760826468467712,
0.3231811821460724,
0.01156997587531805,
-0.45900794863700867,
0.33836865425109863,
0.009023464284837246,
0.5043469667434692,
-0.692798912525177,
0.4240491986274719,
-0.40139901638031006,
-0.510874330997467,
0.12374749779701233,
-0.2527456283569336,
0.3571309745311737,
0.03651930391788483,
-0.6760221123695374,
0.35645779967308044,
-0.4043881595134735,
0.3288782238960266,
1.2523672580718994,
-0.09140896052122116,
0.5676178932189941,
-0.28199127316474915,
-0.5589929819107056,
-0.5486060380935669,
-0.2380158007144928,
0.5413961410522461,
-0.24806275963783264,
-0.6947974562644958,
-0.042806223034858704,
0.17951780557632446,
0.23055106401443481,
-0.0778515636920929,
0.04962575063109398,
-0.3327617645263672,
-0.235559344291687,
0.3383861482143402,
-0.21857412159442902,
0.19162726402282715,
0.4262225329875946,
-0.43767398595809937,
0.3239784240722656,
0.08943788707256317,
0.204949289560318,
0.09873934835195541,
-0.4214119017124176,
0.11388897895812988,
-0.03983394429087639,
0.48987990617752075,
-0.4781699478626251,
-0.31393006443977356,
0.26693394780158997,
0.23546577990055084,
0.12504442036151886,
-0.2909424602985382,
-0.6117514967918396,
-0.01842135563492775,
-0.5363880395889282,
0.34564027190208435,
0.21248261630535126,
0.2720082402229309,
0.047847289592027664,
0.4464547038078308,
0.3292354643344879,
-0.3043171465396881,
-0.3593398332595825,
-0.26964014768600464,
-0.15916992723941803,
0.23747482895851135,
0.8717995882034302,
-0.215734601020813,
-0.3956393897533417,
0.5619713664054871,
0.13717977702617645,
0.4348418414592743,
-0.08995270729064941,
-0.3317827582359314,
0.17448589205741882,
-0.2716562747955322,
-0.09455694258213043,
-0.41158854961395264,
-0.02496377006173134,
0.44816145300865173,
0.3489324748516083,
0.5728278756141663,
-0.19438479840755463,
-0.3146483302116394,
0.1085306778550148,
-0.1840096414089203,
0.44467562437057495,
0.19086021184921265,
-0.9387853741645813,
0.287825345993042,
0.13174742460250854,
0.3530414402484894,
0.570843517780304,
-0.4613024592399597,
-0.5877335667610168,
0.019821658730506897,
0.0665048211812973,
0.7138972878456116,
0.16373062133789062,
-0.17313030362129211,
0.0977405458688736,
-0.402763307094574,
0.5151092410087585,
0.3561258018016815,
0.0404675267636776,
0.0196353979408741,
-0.0022844565100967884,
0.03684001788496971,
1.045831322669983,
0.014448216184973717,
0.39419153332710266,
-0.41691258549690247,
0.12632910907268524,
0.528214693069458,
-0.19641155004501343,
-0.02534535340964794,
0.6926891207695007,
-0.023365182802081108,
0.4732376039028168,
-0.6919171214103699,
-0.8919571042060852,
-0.2407539188861847,
0.09388988465070724,
0.5986984372138977,
0.5528285503387451,
-0.028340213000774384,
-0.174412339925766,
0.40173929929733276,
-0.1603071540594101,
-0.2115909457206726,
0.9700753688812256,
0.1834729164838791,
-0.23898814618587494,
0.012794900685548782,
0.34531474113464355,
-0.22423474490642548,
-0.1409485638141632,
0.21633405983448029,
0.6030547022819519,
-0.448207288980484,
0.6261715292930603,
0.6971060037612915,
0.017531894147396088,
0.14367170631885529,
-0.7277798652648926,
-0.02419164404273033,
-0.012294227257370949,
-0.8877975940704346,
-0.3239368498325348,
0.321281760931015,
-0.14646686613559723,
-0.21166062355041504,
-0.05775073170661926,
0.4468728005886078,
0.2507326304912567,
-0.7135383486747742,
-0.5003983378410339,
0.12869347631931305,
0.05543957278132439,
-0.4072047472000122,
-0.37499046325683594,
0.17150571942329407,
-0.23422984778881073,
0.5783517956733704,
-0.4677369296550751,
-0.5702120065689087,
-0.08129366487264633,
0.1967419534921646,
0.08883800357580185,
0.030162762850522995,
-0.030961887910962105,
-0.17575688660144806,
-0.5617218613624573,
0.2599942088127136,
0.5283946990966797,
0.43409210443496704,
0.31510937213897705,
0.39719605445861816,
-0.2974758744239807,
-0.05404377356171608,
-5.72182559967041,
-0.3076050281524658,
-0.1728452891111374,
-0.2747802734375,
0.053775299340486526,
0.0589153878390789,
-0.02545042894780636,
0.14996235072612762,
0.5234143137931824,
-0.44248735904693604,
0.22731082141399384,
0.031677331775426865,
-0.22379076480865479,
0.19977180659770966,
0.01560070738196373,
-0.13993819057941437,
0.21640081703662872,
0.6549554467201233,
-0.3048895001411438,
0.1750553399324417,
0.31533223390579224,
0.34878048300743103,
0.22586795687675476,
0.8181586265563965,
-0.14334502816200256,
0.15579578280448914,
0.16609914600849152,
0.006743683014065027,
-0.1788617968559265,
-0.9146389961242676,
-0.34358230233192444,
-0.2890733778476715,
0.2093287855386734,
0.15034781396389008,
-0.18237489461898804,
0.15274114906787872,
0.599979043006897,
0.23488163948059082,
0.8380194306373596,
-0.649022102355957,
-0.016057953238487244,
-0.00886712595820427,
-0.09946674853563309,
-0.6839877367019653,
0.10382956266403198,
-0.41926953196525574,
-0.14419236779212952,
0.6088273525238037,
-0.09758567065000534,
0.5125985741615295,
-0.07712199538946152,
-0.5749911069869995,
0.09598451107740402,
0.16987593472003937,
0.22035737335681915,
0.15994007885456085,
0.2063862532377243,
-0.047412626445293427,
0.435890793800354,
0.12387438863515854,
0.2556203603744507,
-0.44149109721183777,
-0.17392180860042572,
-0.997502863407135,
0.033928755670785904,
0.05413294583559036,
-0.3252710700035095,
-0.4212026596069336,
0.040245186537504196,
0.522506594657898,
-0.522540807723999,
-0.09567128121852875,
0.06429950147867203,
-1.1257927417755127,
0.3291444480419159,
-0.22503137588500977,
0.13575290143489838,
-0.05370137467980385,
-1.054858684539795,
0.5360913872718811,
-0.13207432627677917,
-0.3851073980331421,
0.1940000057220459,
0.11064496636390686,
0.17294801771640778,
-0.1205354630947113,
-0.11121529340744019,
-0.3427772521972656,
-0.16641083359718323,
0.07339999079704285,
0.9859497547149658,
-0.6079579591751099,
0.2334573119878769,
0.3619489371776581,
0.6492422223091125,
0.47603219747543335,
-0.3536924421787262,
-0.3197513520717621,
0.7428269982337952,
-0.4471127390861511,
0.07899609208106995,
0.13995373249053955,
0.38434547185897827,
-0.24982498586177826,
-0.07308349013328552,
-0.02782299555838108,
-0.1488829255104065,
0.04222581908106804,
0.6455811262130737,
-0.8919249176979065,
-0.4803812503814697,
-0.30986836552619934,
-0.058726515620946884,
-0.8483933806419373,
0.7408724427223206,
0.34301355481147766,
0.16713397204875946,
0.34374570846557617,
0.5572589635848999,
0.16095152497291565,
-0.2010650634765625,
0.6350128054618835,
-0.7468664646148682,
0.21484535932540894,
0.06740570813417435,
-0.4605223834514618,
-0.13776418566703796,
0.32472720742225647,
-0.06391109526157379,
0.40715742111206055,
0.41012659668922424,
0.30722329020500183,
0.08967973291873932,
-0.17198976874351501,
0.25170981884002686,
-0.5174208283424377,
-0.37636032700538635,
-0.21593527495861053,
-0.3785180449485779,
-0.40242135524749756,
0.053472355008125305,
-0.422171413898468,
-0.44240203499794006,
0.23747661709785461,
0.27403029799461365,
-0.13151077926158905,
0.11226915568113327,
-0.411678284406662,
0.41306304931640625,
0.13714490830898285,
-0.12032998353242874,
0.11395910382270813,
0.38637253642082214,
-0.3663671910762787,
-0.9019867181777954,
-0.4932270646095276,
0.19562985002994537,
0.23323653638362885,
-0.3670085370540619,
0.03898772597312927,
-0.11968994140625,
-0.48316842317581177,
-0.22198478877544403,
-0.11353098601102829,
-0.2103879302740097,
-0.3314405381679535,
0.4378852844238281,
-0.8969085812568665,
0.3642466962337494,
0.22602294385433197,
0.2592071294784546,
-0.04507191479206085,
0.05942650884389877,
0.056285418570041656,
-0.018773207440972328,
0.5632314682006836,
0.1830083429813385,
0.11398202180862427,
-0.025402531027793884,
0.2618718147277832,
-0.2925766408443451,
-0.4699617922306061,
-0.25413259863853455,
0.6334310173988342,
0.20023050904273987,
0.40096214413642883,
-0.41366368532180786,
-0.37060219049453735,
-0.6191884279251099,
0.024788573384284973,
0.1775551587343216,
-0.03432515636086464,
0.5403139591217041,
0.07446115463972092,
0.06885197013616562,
-0.09769123047590256,
0.13740521669387817,
0.44909432530403137,
-0.009685664437711239,
-0.26789361238479614,
0.31433525681495667,
0.5108441710472107,
-0.5454082489013672,
-0.05274774134159088,
0.5052815079689026,
-0.7424288392066956,
0.44450873136520386,
0.26261502504348755,
-0.11756056547164917,
-0.2934737503528595,
0.12419367581605911,
-0.26050567626953125,
0.19180551171302795,
-0.19158770143985748,
0.24930226802825928,
0.35240960121154785,
-0.20314335823059082,
-0.5202245712280273,
-0.21268215775489807,
-0.8359998464584351,
-0.12049809843301773,
-0.49056610465049744,
-0.08783100545406342,
0.1383989006280899,
-0.9418771266937256,
-0.26961010694503784,
0.15937769412994385,
-0.3699471354484558,
-0.01488720066845417,
0.367683082818985,
-0.1125461608171463,
0.457517147064209,
-0.26439759135246277,
-0.5118281245231628,
-0.3129918575286865,
-0.9007870554924011,
0.17204871773719788,
-0.5539785623550415,
0.10733053833246231,
0.7425103783607483,
0.08595031499862671,
0.8729183077812195,
0.3624204695224762,
0.3073931932449341,
0.029649296775460243,
0.5689879655838013,
-0.5551364421844482,
-0.5115450024604797,
-0.7101002335548401,
0.5115745067596436,
0.6522162556648254,
-0.18102018535137177,
-0.546495795249939,
-0.5927597880363464,
0.6691122055053711,
-0.6360545754432678,
0.0018140875035896897,
-0.2415883094072342,
-0.3214418590068817,
0.41002026200294495,
0.017080508172512054,
0.2490924745798111,
0.02236008457839489,
-0.7161222696304321,
-0.4767460525035858,
0.31277018785476685,
-0.3345172703266144,
-0.7625330090522766,
0.780244767665863,
-0.16693474352359772,
0.26854097843170166,
-0.034420039504766464,
0.6705395579338074,
-0.41033050417900085,
0.40144509077072144,
0.28844013810157776,
-0.6698760986328125,
-0.3373507261276245,
0.36280032992362976,
-0.3797387480735779,
-0.10343842953443527,
0.1837863177061081,
-0.3148787021636963,
-0.199748232960701,
-0.16845841705799103,
-0.6251140236854553,
0.4374096393585205,
-0.20028096437454224,
-0.13215352594852448,
0.03521453216671944,
-0.11924591660499573,
0.14382949471473694,
0.11451750993728638,
0.43950310349464417,
-0.6787246465682983,
0.0629742369055748,
0.40120720863342285,
0.7655808329582214,
-1.0071419477462769,
-0.3037976026535034,
0.16315340995788574,
0.19441096484661102,
0.1248755007982254,
-0.27805906534194946,
-0.6447069048881531,
0.19403904676437378,
0.3539752662181854,
-0.6716094613075256,
-0.04450203478336334,
0.4011111855506897,
0.47096988558769226,
-0.256752610206604,
0.853919506072998,
0.6307645440101624,
-0.3099628984928131,
0.5416155457496643,
0.2535797655582428,
0.09169994294643402,
0.017620554193854332,
-0.021789027377963066,
0.46488526463508606,
-0.007699586916714907,
-0.07079626619815826,
-0.3658454120159149,
-0.07462294399738312,
0.18645477294921875,
-0.06099514663219452,
0.20303639769554138,
-0.04871463403105736,
0.6643433570861816,
0.6747119426727295,
-0.5656951069831848,
0.09315086901187897,
-0.23852957785129547,
-0.37136611342430115,
-0.28663158416748047,
0.21449290215969086,
-0.06298311799764633,
-0.21083873510360718,
0.14524847269058228,
0.46242454648017883,
0.6071090698242188,
-0.7081162929534912,
-0.4193490743637085,
0.25303956866264343,
0.18782246112823486,
0.448275089263916,
0.13562807440757751,
-0.6146479249000549,
0.00480379443615675,
-0.25786495208740234,
0.13081416487693787,
-0.28934913873672485,
0.41269195079803467,
0.3299683928489685,
0.47988858819007874,
0.4072999656200409,
-0.5764245390892029,
0.9402347207069397,
0.20630820095539093,
-0.3645020127296448,
0.11621386557817459,
0.4128130078315735,
0.1248459592461586,
-0.2551681101322174,
-0.004331960342824459,
-0.37079036235809326,
-0.8356071710586548,
0.19827455282211304,
-0.2423560470342636,
-0.0037396657280623913,
0.5110409259796143,
-0.9642807841300964,
0.00652119517326355,
0.28791671991348267,
0.1481998711824417,
0.13264401257038116,
0.015088917687535286,
0.0052231475710868835,
0.07651139795780182,
-0.6358940601348877,
-0.08988483995199203,
0.015009116381406784,
-0.8911830186843872,
-0.1811552196741104,
-0.20631341636180878,
0.170307919383049,
-0.019922196865081787,
-0.2413797527551651,
-0.22626426815986633,
0.23203448951244354,
-0.3033812940120697,
0.2235623151063919,
0.08858366310596466,
-0.45238539576530457,
0.31227970123291016,
-0.08406827598810196,
0.5118245482444763,
0.6385055184364319,
0.19381040334701538,
0.1347084939479828,
0.16980981826782227,
0.2081337422132492,
0.7449133396148682,
0.07543960958719254,
0.08669617027044296,
-0.3721354901790619,
-0.11839020252227783,
-0.37049147486686707,
0.18166013062000275,
0.2042287290096283,
-0.395534873008728,
0.07620105892419815,
0.08236599713563919,
-0.09974044561386108,
0.3033059239387512,
0.5361650586128235,
-0.19476193189620972,
0.16244348883628845,
-0.39633020758628845,
-0.01813143864274025,
-0.10777369141578674,
-0.2628890573978424,
0.6700189113616943,
-0.3747054934501648,
-0.19346052408218384,
0.62115877866745,
-0.026272645220160484,
-0.7581657767295837,
-0.21718408167362213,
-0.021966876462101936,
0.17815005779266357,
0.14894653856754303,
0.8729920983314514,
-0.30460384488105774,
0.14785972237586975,
0.34235742688179016,
0.2717607021331787,
0.1782747209072113,
-0.18833640217781067,
-0.044532660394907,
0.6533153653144836,
0.2337692230939865,
0.4125828146934509,
-0.2969665229320526,
-0.05108452960848808,
-0.4774916470050812,
-0.3872612416744232,
-0.007975976914167404,
0.7311338186264038,
-0.024764325469732285,
-0.023983117192983627,
0.2170109748840332,
0.36342963576316833,
0.0989173948764801,
0.17389681935310364,
-0.2813751995563507,
-0.7339334487915039,
0.06895282864570618,
-0.01988101378083229
] |
233512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20Leslie | Lisa Leslie | Lisa Deshaun Leslie (born July 7, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. She is currently the head coach for Triplets in the BIG3 professional basketball league, as well as a studio analyst for Orlando Magic broadcasts on Fox Sports Florida.
Leslie played in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). She is a three-time WNBA MVP and a four-time Olympic gold medal winner. The number-seven pick in the 1997 inaugural WNBA draft, she followed her career at the University of Southern California with eight WNBA All-Star selections and two WNBA championships over the course of 11 seasons with the Los Angeles Sparks, before retiring in 2009. Leslie was the first player to dunk in a WNBA game. In 2011, she was voted in by fans as one of the Top 15 players in WNBA history. All throughout her WNBA career, Leslie also played for USA Basketball in international competition, winning four Olympic gold medals (1996, 2000, 2004, 2008) and two FIBA World Championships (1998, 2002).
In 2015, Leslie was inducted into both the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame.
Upon becoming coach of the Triplets in 2019, she led the team to the BIG3 Championship that very year.
Early life
Leslie was born in Compton, California, the daughter of Christine Lauren Leslie, who stood , and Walter Leslie, a former professional basketball player. Christine started her own truck driving business to support her three children. Walter left the family when her mother was four months pregnant with her. Leslie has two sisters: Dionne, who is five years older, and Tiffany, who is eight years younger. She also has a brother, Elgin (named after Elgin Baylor of the LA Lakers). She played on an all-girls team with the record 33–1.
Middle school
During the first few weeks of middle school, a classmate begged Leslie to help out the basketball team. On her first day of basketball tryouts, team members were told to split into two groups for layup drills: lefties and righties. Leslie was the only lefty in the group, so from then on, she decided to become right-hand dominant so she would not have to stand in a line by herself. That decision worked to her advantage, as she became ambidextrous.
In eighth grade, she transferred to a junior high school without a girls' basketball team, and joined a boys' basketball team. Her success there contributed to her confidence in her playing abilities.
High school
At the age of 14, before Leslie had even started high school at Morningside, she received more than a hundred college recruiting letters, including some from top Division I programs at the University of Tennessee and Stanford University.
Leslie continued her education in 1986 by enrolling at Morningside High School in Inglewood, California. She made an immediate impact on the basketball program, starting every game for the girl's varsity team. She also found time to join the volleyball team and compete in track and field. She ended up being a state qualifier in the 400-meter run and the high jump.
By the time she was a sophomore in high school, she was able to dunk the ball in the open court, even though she was not able to palm the ball. She was her team's leading scorer and rebounder and led them to the 1989 California state championship. Leslie was so talented that she was invited to participate in the USA's Junior World Championship team. Entering her senior year, she developed into the top player in the country. She led her team to a state championship averaging 27 points and 15 rebounds per game. She tied the national record for points scored by a high school basketball player with Cheryl Miller in 1990 with 101 points scored, all in the first half. She had scored 105 points but four of the points were due to a technical foul charged on the opposing team for a delay of game after halftime, which were later voided as the game was deemed to end after the first half.
College career
Leslie decided to stay close to home and attend women's basketball powerhouse the University of Southern California from 1990 to 1994. She graduated from USC with a bachelor's degree in communications and later completed her master's degree in business administration from the University of Phoenix.
Leslie played in a total of 120 college games, averaging 20.1 points, hitting 53.4% of her shots, and knocking down 69.8% of her free throws. She set the Pac-10 Conference records for scoring, rebounding, and blocked shots accumulating 2,414 points, 1,214 rebounds, and 321 blocked shots. She also holds the USC single season record for blocked shots (95).
During her college career, USC compiled an impressive 89–31 record. They won one Pac-10 conference championship and earned four NCAA tournament appearances. Leslie was honored with All-Pac-10 recognition all four years, as well as becoming the first player in Pac-10 history to obtain first team all four years and earn the Pac-10 Rookie of the Year award in 1991. Leslie was also honored on the national platform by earning the national freshman of the year award in 1991. In 1994, she won multiple national player of the year awards—the Naismith College Player of the Year award, the USBWA Women's National Player of the Year award, the Honda Sports Award for basketball, and the WBCA Player of the Year award. In 1992, 1993, and 1994, she earned All-American Honors as well.
USC statistics
WNBA career
The WNBA was incorporated in 1996 and began playing in 1997. Leslie was drafted on January 22 by the Los Angeles Sparks as part of the Initial Allocation phase of the draft. She helped the Sparks make the playoffs five consecutive times, but the team did not win a WNBA title until 2001. That year, Leslie was named the 2001 Sportswoman of the Year (in the team category) by the Women's Sports Foundation.
On July 30, 2002, Leslie became the first woman to dunk the ball in a WNBA game. That same year she became the first WNBA player to score over 3,000 total career points and contributed to the Sparks winning their second straight WNBA championship that season. Two seasons later, she became the first player to reach the 4,000-career point milestone. Leslie remains the Sparks' career scoring and rebounding leader. She is the 4th highest all-time rebound leader, after Rebekkah Brunson, Sylvia Fowles, and Tamika Catchings. Within that same season, she also became the third player in WNBA history to record a triple double, when she had 29 points, 15 rebounds and 10 blocks. In the 2005 WNBA All-Star Game, Leslie had also become the first WNBA player to dunk in an all-star game. On August 11, 2009, Leslie became the first player to score 6,000 points in a career. Earlier that month she was the first player to reach 10,000 career PRA (points + rebounds + assists), a statistic fundamental to the WNBA "Pick One Challenge" fantasy game.
Lisa Leslie announced her retirement effective at the end of the 2009 season on February 4, 2009. The Sparks held a farewell ceremony for Leslie during their final home game of the season in September. She finished holding the league records for points (6,263), rebounds (3,307) and PRA (10,444). In 2011, she was voted in by fans as one of the Top 15 players in the fifteen-year history of the WNBA. In 2016, she was voted into the WNBA Top 20@20, in celebration of the league's 20th anniversary.
National team career
Leslie was named to the USA Basketball Women's Junior National Team (now called the U19 team). She was 17 at the time, the youngest player on the USA team. The team participated in the second Junior World Championship, held in Bilbao, Spain in July 1989. The USA team lost their opening game to South Korea in overtime, then lost a two-point game to Australia. After winning their next game against Bulgaria, behind 22 points and nine rebounds from Leslie, the USA team again fell in a close game, losing by three points to Czechoslovakia. After beating Zaire in their next game, the USA team played Spain, and fell three points short. Leslie led the team in scoring, rebounds, and blocks, averaging 13.3 points and 7.0 rebounds per game and recording 21 blocks over the course of the event. The USA team finished in seventh place.
Leslie was a member of the USA team competing at the 1991 World University Games held in Sheffield, England. Leslie was the second leading scorer on the USA squad, averaging 13.0 points per game, and helped the Tara VanDerveer-coached team to a 7–0 record and the gold medal.
She competed with USA Basketball as a member of the 1992 Jones Cup Team that won the Gold in Taipei for the first time since 1987.
Leslie has made four consecutive Olympic appearances, and has earned four gold medals. She was the second female basketball player ever to earn that many gold medals, after Teresa Edwards. Leslie has also made appearances with the United States national women's basketball team where she won gold medals in 1996 and 2000, and has also earned a world championship. Leslie scored 35 points against Japan in the semifinals of the 1996 Olympics to set an American Olympic women's scoring record.
Leslie is one of seven USA Basketball's three-time Olympians, and one of two players with four gold medals. She led the U.S. team in scoring during the 2004 Olympic Games. During her third Olympic completion, she became the USA's all-time leading scorer, rebounder, and shot blocker in Olympic competition. Every time she has competed in a major international event, she has compiled double-digit scoring averages. Leslie, at age 20, was also the youngest player to participate at the USA Olympic Trials in 1992.
Leslie has had a fierce rivalry with Lauren Jackson ever since the 2000 Olympics, when the Australian star ripped out Leslie's hair extensions during a game.
WNBA career statistics
Regular season
|+Lisa Leslie WNBA regular season statistics
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 1997
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 28 || 28 || 32.2 || .431 || .261 || .598 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 9.5° || 2.6 || 1.4 || 2.1 || 3.89 || 15.9
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 1998
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 28 || 28 || 32.1 || .478 || .391 || .768 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 10.2° || 2.5 || 1.5 || 2.1 || 3.64 || 19.6
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 1999
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 32 || 32 || 29.1 || .468 || .423 || .731 || 7.8 || 1.8 || 1.1 || 1.5 || 2.94 || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2000
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 32 || 32 || 32.1 || .458 || .219 || .824 || 9.6 || 1.9 || 1.0 || 2.3 || 3.22 || 17.8
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2001†
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 31 || 31 || 33.3 || .473 || .367 || .736 || 9.6 || 2.4 || 1.1 || 2.3 || 3.16 || 19.5
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2002
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 31 || 31 || 34.2 || .466 || .324 || .727 || 10.4 || 2.7 || 1.5 || 2.9 || 3.48 || 16.9
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2003
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 23 || 23 || 34.4 || .442 || .324 || .617 || 10.0 || 2.0 || 1.3 || 2.7 || 2.83 || 18.4
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2004
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 34 || 34 || 33.8 || .494 || .273 || .712 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 9.9° || 2.6 || 1.5 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 2.9° || 3.24 || 17.6
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2005
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 34 || 34 || 32.2 || .440 || .206 || .586 || 7.3 || 2.6 || 2.0 || 2.1 || 2.94 || 15.2
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2006
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 34 || 34 || 30.7 || .511 || .400 || .650 || 9.5 || 3.2 || 1.5 || 1.7 || 3.71 || 20.0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2008
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 33 || 33 || 32.1 || .463 || .235 || .661 || 8.9 || 2.4 || 1.5 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 2.9° || 3.61 || 15.1
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2009
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 23 || 21 || 27.7 || .518 || .167 || .722 || 6.6 || 2.1 || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.60 || 15.4
|-
| style="text-align:left" | Career
| style="text-align:left" | 12 years, 1 team
| 363 || 361 || 32.0 || .470 || .316 || .695 || 9.1 || 2.4 || 1.4 || 2.3 || 3.34 || 17.3
Playoffs
|+Lisa Leslie WNBA playoffs statistics
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 1999
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 4 || 4 || 36.3 || .483 || .308 || .778 || 8.5 || 2.8 || 1.0 || 1.5 || 3.50 || 19.0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2000
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 4 || 4 || 34.8 || .491 || .000 || .826 || 10.3 || 2.0 || 0.2 || 1.2 || 3.25 || 18.8
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2001
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 7 || 7 || 37.1 || .492 || .429 || .740 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 12.3° || 3.0 || 1.7 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 4.4° || 3.71 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 22.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| 2002
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 6 || 6 || 38.7 || .535 || .625 || .731 || 7.8 || 1.8 || 1.8 || 2.8 || 1.33 || 19.3
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2003
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 9 || 9 || 36.3 || .540 || .333 || .704 || 8.9 || 2.6 || 1.3 || 3.1 || 2.67 || style="background:#D3D3D3" | 20.8°
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2004
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 3 || 3 || 36.7 || .452 || .000 || .750 || 8.7 || 0.7 || 0.3 || 2.7 || 2.67 || 11.3
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2005
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 2 || 2 || 33.5 || .357 || .000 || .615 || 6.5 || 3.5 || 2.5 || 1.5 || 1.00 || 9.0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2006
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 5 || 5 || 32.6 || .308 || .333 || .759 || 7.2 || 1.8 || 0.8 || 1.6 || 3.40 || 12.6
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2008
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 6 || 6 || 32.0 || .516 || .500 || .625 || 8.8 || 2.2 || 1.2 || 2.8 || 4.33 || 13.8
|-
| style="text-align:left" | 2009
| style="text-align:left" | Los Angeles
| 6 || 6 || 34.6 || .452 || .000 || .615 || 9.2 || 2.0 || 1.3 || 1.5 || 2.17 || 16.7
|-
| style="text-align:left" | Career
| style="text-align:left" | 10 years, 1 team
| 52 || 52 || 35.4 || .480 || .390 || .711 || 9.1 || 2.3 || 1.3 || style="background:#EOCEF2" | 2.5 || 2.90 || 17.5
Other professional endeavors
Apart from basketball, Leslie is also a fashion model and an aspiring actress. She has been featured in Vogue and Newsweek, as well as many sports publications. She has been on ESPN numerous times and has been a guest star on several television shows such as Sister Sister, The Game, and One on One. She is a guest commentator for "Sports Zone" on KABC-TV/Los Angeles and wears the Circle 7 logo from the channel when on the show. She has also acted in a variety of commercials. Early in her career she signed a modeling contract with the Wilhelmina modeling agency. Lisa also was on the show, Superstars, and she and her partner, David Charvet, took 3rd place after David injured his wrist. Leslie also played herself in an episode of the TV-show The Jersey called "Nick's a Chick", where she switched bodies with a boy named Nick Lighter (played by Michael Galeota). In addition, she played herself in one episode of The Simpsons. She also appeared in the movie Think Like A Man, and played as herself. Leslie is also a playable character in the original Backyard Basketball, alongside Kevin Garnett. She was only the fourth female professional athlete in the Backyard Sports series, after Brianna Scurry, Brandi Chastain, and Tiffeny Milbrett. She also appeared in the 2nd episode of "All in with Cam" with host, Cam Newton. In 2013, Lisa switched places with Downtown Julie Brown on the show Celebrity Wife Swap. On January 28, 2016, it was announced that she would be a contestant in The New Celebrity Apprentice (also known as Celebrity Apprentice 8). Recently, she played septuagenarian Betty Lou in Uncle Drew which hit the theaters in June 2018.
In 2009, Leslie earned a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree from the University of Phoenix.
Since her retirement from professional basketball, Leslie has worked as a sports commentator and analyst for several sports networks, such as NBC, ABC and Fox Sports Net. She had also released an autobiography called Don't Let the Lipstick Fool You. In 2011, she had become a co-owner of the Los Angeles Sparks. In 2018, Leslie joined Fox Sports Florida as a studio analyst on Orlando Magic broadcasts.
Leslie was named coach of the Triplets - an expansion team of the BIG3 three-on-three league founded by Ice Cube - on January 10, 2019, and that year led the team a 7–1 record, and winning the BIG3 Championship.
Personal life
On November 5, 2005, Leslie married Michael Lockwood, who played basketball for the Air Force Academy and is currently a pilot for UPS. In 2007, she took a year's leave from professional basketball for a pregnancy. Leslie and Lockwood have a daughter named Lauren Jolie Lockwood, who was born on June 15, 2007. After having the baby, Lisa got back in shape and returned to the WNBA for the 2008 season. Leslie had her second child, Michael Joseph Lockwood II, on April 6, 2010.
Leslie is also a Christian. In an interview, she spoke out about her faith by saying: "As a prayerful kid, I was always putting my faith and goals in the Lord’s name. That was always one of the things that helped me the most. I always wanted to fulfill His purpose. I think that’s really been the saving grace for me. When you have faith, you have to step out on it [and trust God]."
On February 4, 2020, Leslie was interviewed by Gayle King to talk about her friendship with Kobe Bryant. During the interview, Leslie was asked about Bryant's sexual assault case in 2003. Leslie responded that those accusations did not align with the person she knew.
See also
List of basketball players who have scored 100 points in a single game
List of WNBA career rebounding leaders
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists in one event
WBCBL Professional Basketball Trailblazer Award
References
Further reading
External links
Lisa Leslie at Basketball-Reference.com
WNBA chat transcript
Lisa Leslie at the United States Olympic & Paralympic Hall of Fame
101-point half
1972 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
African-American sportswomen
All-American college women's basketball players
American women's basketball players
Basketball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Basketball coaches from California
Basketball players from Los Angeles
Big3 coaches
Centers (basketball)
Los Angeles Sparks players
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
Orlando Magic announcers
People from Gardena, California
Universiade gold medalists for the United States
Universiade medalists in basketball
University of Phoenix alumni
USC Trojans women's basketball players
Women's National Basketball Association All-Stars
Participants in American reality television series
The Apprentice (franchise) contestants
Medalists at the 1991 Summer Universiade
21st-century African-American sportspeople
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American women | [
-0.32648876309394836,
-0.15206407010555267,
-0.33572763204574585,
-0.03332468494772911,
0.3685428500175476,
0.7681782841682434,
0.601965606212616,
0.5167222619056702,
-0.2954104542732239,
-0.011164531111717224,
0.6225260496139526,
0.4984242618083954,
0.1858915537595749,
-0.15701080858707428,
-0.6211023926734924,
0.266633003950119,
0.31587499380111694,
0.30401360988616943,
0.37976565957069397,
-0.2591302990913391,
0.006280712317675352,
-0.0662870705127716,
0.16129274666309357,
0.12691368162631989,
-1.1338080167770386,
1.1806085109710693,
-0.11130915582180023,
0.3422578275203705,
0.4866149425506592,
-0.2838245630264282,
0.1406465619802475,
0.2980770766735077,
0.8744701743125916,
-0.2864663004875183,
0.14242935180664062,
0.368481308221817,
-0.1898590624332428,
0.018427133560180664,
-0.7376003861427307,
0.09546998888254166,
-0.5687355995178223,
0.036879438906908035,
0.09857581555843353,
-0.24152787029743195,
0.1580657660961151,
0.21140114963054657,
-1.9303725957870483,
0.019310036674141884,
-0.33664703369140625,
-0.4068925678730011,
-0.1952073872089386,
0.19993114471435547,
0.5142306685447693,
0.07122096419334412,
0.5141066908836365,
-0.03172565996646881,
-0.32979071140289307,
-0.3703225553035736,
0.06155386567115784,
-0.31180229783058167,
0.12491104006767273,
-0.4626404643058777,
0.3060084879398346,
-0.8813783526420593,
-0.2218506634235382,
0.045000724494457245,
0.3969880938529968,
0.2542291581630707,
0.11360814422369003,
-0.2432992309331894,
0.2770591974258423,
0.005784222390502691,
0.295285165309906,
0.135792538523674,
-0.02848457731306553,
-0.27191340923309326,
0.6554107666015625,
-0.38135501742362976,
0.7229902744293213,
-0.03585308790206909,
0.07862439006567001,
-0.03665259853005409,
0.5929439663887024,
0.5978012681007385,
0.31535375118255615,
0.09143171459436417,
-0.4230533242225647,
0.1918959766626358,
-0.5270453691482544,
0.3702026605606079,
-1.5835245847702026,
0.21532957255840302,
0.34642696380615234,
0.1445833444595337,
-0.41613420844078064,
-0.7286521792411804,
0.17294660210609436,
0.3815237283706665,
1.0991915464401245,
0.5942234992980957,
-0.34469571709632874,
-0.5225102305412292,
0.10491158068180084,
-0.13376359641551971,
-0.6296094059944153,
-0.5097340941429138,
0.2914402186870575,
-0.08355847001075745,
-0.5008239150047302,
-0.4162858724594116,
-0.2518438398838043,
-0.11585541069507599,
-0.038293659687042236,
-0.048889704048633575,
-0.17683467268943787,
1.0540212392807007,
0.4132375121116638,
-0.14298324286937714,
-0.7078143358230591,
0.039477407932281494,
0.27461349964141846,
-0.23910818994045258,
0.33747398853302,
-0.2340817153453827,
-0.4397391676902771,
0.20125728845596313,
-0.11750657856464386,
-0.26984572410583496,
0.37305590510368347,
0.28075048327445984,
-0.16158924996852875,
0.33673158288002014,
-0.5598170757293701,
0.02034432254731655,
-0.18701907992362976,
-0.09449920058250427,
0.2057211846113205,
0.1280287355184555,
0.4195626378059387,
0.19385617971420288,
-0.5513585209846497,
0.08193907141685486,
-1.2058265209197998,
-0.1378030925989151,
0.28149890899658203,
-0.08835138380527496,
0.0592673197388649,
0.45464426279067993,
0.17461715638637543,
0.2749735116958618,
-0.06511635333299637,
0.4292046129703522,
0.23315511643886566,
-0.736156165599823,
-0.5520365238189697,
0.9218517541885376,
0.3514304459095001,
0.34892380237579346,
0.5047154426574707,
0.5130122900009155,
0.5014895796775818,
0.41077226400375366,
-0.19821132719516754,
-0.13708795607089996,
0.648716926574707,
0.06746435910463333,
0.40869030356407166,
-0.43601012229919434,
0.32727938890457153,
0.3447039723396301,
-0.20739269256591797,
-0.08353013545274734,
0.3028135895729065,
-0.16220760345458984,
-0.42901089787483215,
-0.0681687518954277,
0.07647496461868286,
0.4152078330516815,
-0.33027634024620056,
-0.28732118010520935,
-0.5943560600280762,
-0.6280284523963928,
0.35201507806777954,
0.20120975375175476,
0.589975118637085,
0.35951533913612366,
0.29211774468421936,
-0.143245130777359,
0.0476546436548233,
-0.1045893058180809,
-0.6265924572944641,
-0.5684120059013367,
1.0190613269805908,
0.29149171710014343,
0.3887886703014374,
0.06121138855814934,
-0.3541426956653595,
-0.5274803638458252,
-0.2827446162700653,
0.021318912506103516,
-0.45817703008651733,
-0.5095815658569336,
0.03592488169670105,
-0.4067703187465668,
-0.49955952167510986,
0.7080807089805603,
0.886580765247345,
-0.38425007462501526,
0.3460317850112915,
1.0504273176193237,
-0.25985005497932434,
-0.9374241828918457,
0.008760437369346619,
0.43946725130081177,
-0.480528324842453,
-0.6300670504570007,
-0.4996652901172638,
0.03498676419258118,
0.49377045035362244,
-0.9516589045524597,
0.0729236900806427,
0.39758244156837463,
-0.40302884578704834,
0.6522036194801331,
-0.4660244882106781,
0.5399519801139832,
-0.30115726590156555,
0.42419877648353577,
-0.11028175801038742,
0.06452972441911697,
0.006064916495233774,
0.5314256548881531,
0.07591895759105682,
-1.4230209589004517,
0.3745115101337433,
0.8341189026832581,
0.7469583749771118,
-0.13432836532592773,
0.1650717556476593,
-0.4948742985725403,
0.013161823153495789,
0.046779271215200424,
-0.44877102971076965,
-0.16802872717380524,
-0.5938528180122375,
-0.0843004435300827,
-0.06176220625638962,
-0.17277653515338898,
0.308910608291626,
-0.5086854100227356,
-0.014684509485960007,
0.5624738931655884,
0.9250982999801636,
-0.17900609970092773,
0.06861572712659836,
0.3256346583366394,
-0.13876435160636902,
0.26260560750961304,
0.5331742763519287,
0.09327521920204163,
0.28174376487731934,
0.03294778987765312,
0.2112613469362259,
0.2823571562767029,
-0.00033562310272827744,
-0.25725314021110535,
-0.4788658320903778,
-0.647213876247406,
0.1970481425523758,
0.003599675837904215,
0.21332286298274994,
-0.5989755392074585,
-0.2412237823009491,
-0.6589417457580566,
-0.14441415667533875,
0.6805607080459595,
-0.30225861072540283,
-0.475838840007782,
-0.22713948786258698,
-0.838265061378479,
0.6936691403388977,
1.290008306503296,
0.18963195383548737,
-0.08549075573682785,
0.046513475477695465,
0.07098869234323502,
0.06265208125114441,
0.09580731391906738,
-0.5816286206245422,
-0.33998939394950867,
-0.30156636238098145,
0.3292498290538788,
-0.8652471303939819,
0.6691673398017883,
-0.048844050616025925,
-0.4915068447589874,
-0.33541423082351685,
-0.19457319378852844,
0.1347370445728302,
-0.332206666469574,
-0.15564210712909698,
0.3180524408817291,
-0.11040225625038147,
0.2454630434513092,
0.468137264251709,
-0.03153977170586586,
0.0828547328710556,
-0.09043607860803604,
-5.1430134773254395,
-0.033843640238046646,
-0.11852473020553589,
-0.2314378172159195,
0.3192768394947052,
-0.02830090932548046,
-0.0646715834736824,
-0.32895514369010925,
0.013931659050285816,
0.4271336793899536,
0.43775975704193115,
0.023046398535370827,
-0.3425928056240082,
0.20245149731636047,
0.5217404961585999,
0.28255656361579895,
0.5221633315086365,
-1.3879327774047852,
0.5454304218292236,
0.6989994645118713,
0.47060054540634155,
-0.269056111574173,
-0.795315146446228,
-0.021779295057058334,
-0.5396711230278015,
0.07699694484472275,
-0.030516181141138077,
-0.07663936913013458,
-0.7175970673561096,
-0.04261494800448418,
-0.20483115315437317,
-0.16665329039096832,
-0.6929190158843994,
-0.1000913679599762,
0.10599648952484131,
-0.1244751438498497,
0.4004806578159332,
-0.04178891330957413,
-0.009540578350424767,
-0.8389822244644165,
0.1668504923582077,
0.03920367732644081,
-0.7717182040214539,
0.2520442306995392,
0.7383543252944946,
0.08962158858776093,
-0.38469377160072327,
-0.4542752504348755,
-0.2051233947277069,
0.8680262565612793,
0.16025933623313904,
0.021047238260507584,
0.4853084981441498,
0.6710270047187805,
-0.06594416499137878,
-0.6234976053237915,
-0.01304622646421194,
-0.34448742866516113,
-0.46123725175857544,
0.543556272983551,
0.23535840213298798,
-1.0724453926086426,
0.6965175867080688,
-0.15749859809875488,
-0.4437195062637329,
-0.649601399898529,
0.2817992866039276,
0.5224581360816956,
-0.29563307762145996,
-0.09383714944124222,
-0.055124592036008835,
0.35797497630119324,
-0.1929323822259903,
-1.4514987468719482,
0.43193790316581726,
-0.01457542460411787,
0.12131989002227783,
0.11070213466882706,
-0.6888194680213928,
-0.2925504446029663,
1.0012151002883911,
-0.3933992087841034,
0.8813114166259766,
0.5764014720916748,
0.20444409549236298,
-0.6718466877937317,
-0.024136854335665703,
0.5680306553840637,
0.07053089886903763,
0.034263040870428085,
0.08364325016736984,
-0.32433611154556274,
0.3440973162651062,
0.14072175323963165,
-0.028738228604197502,
0.6207925081253052,
0.9979040026664734,
-0.06636613607406616,
0.04526107758283615,
-0.635443925857544,
-0.5233185887336731,
-0.3921612799167633,
0.33171117305755615,
-0.6677089333534241,
0.02744295261800289,
-0.25095102190971375,
-0.11663057655096054,
-0.4077558219432831,
0.16873084008693695,
-0.30781084299087524,
0.21191295981407166,
0.1753074675798416,
-0.32203543186187744,
-0.4447873830795288,
0.05671617016196251,
0.02039829082787037,
-0.41214144229888916,
-0.0728607103228569,
0.41782525181770325,
0.2791610658168793,
-0.02788310870528221,
0.10632006824016571,
0.2543160021305084,
0.22926224768161774,
0.44852158427238464,
-0.4396666884422302,
0.3364968001842499,
0.19244930148124695,
-0.49631232023239136,
0.8731518983840942,
-0.08750354498624802,
0.4578360617160797,
-0.0670492872595787,
-0.01288932841271162,
-0.34461045265197754,
-0.024219021201133728,
-0.44919487833976746,
-0.2361801415681839,
-0.18927165865898132,
0.01109555084258318,
0.09156368672847748,
0.0169817004352808,
-0.008619824424386024,
0.5971257090568542,
0.026487544178962708,
0.44818079471588135,
0.3249664008617401,
-0.043987371027469635,
-0.4094110429286957,
0.6179471611976624,
-0.03901132568717003,
-0.2683964669704437,
0.7660372853279114,
-0.43574124574661255,
0.07342652976512909,
0.19899427890777588,
0.33548876643180847,
-0.20046089589595795,
-0.25330087542533875,
-0.30459529161453247,
0.10667915642261505,
-0.4608992338180542,
-0.9711233377456665,
0.8222097754478455,
-0.5309585332870483,
0.31065869331359863,
-0.7277288436889648,
-0.27649232745170593,
-0.12587180733680725,
0.3878500461578369,
0.35583898425102234,
-0.7659458518028259,
-0.46773287653923035,
0.33316168189048767,
0.2875508964061737,
-0.1972840130329132,
0.27064356207847595,
-0.2878020405769348,
-0.20100219547748566,
-0.5723441243171692,
-0.19955581426620483,
-0.6127556562423706,
-0.670199453830719,
-0.2927297055721283,
0.15847167372703552,
0.5712852478027344,
-0.8738798499107361,
-0.22994129359722137,
-0.03852840140461922,
0.40297478437423706,
0.2813118100166321,
-0.3357101380825043,
-0.36523306369781494,
0.9461468458175659,
-0.1518280953168869,
-0.5291805863380432,
0.5501605868339539,
0.21737253665924072,
-0.6585386991500854,
-0.28147730231285095,
-0.32591310143470764,
0.35672080516815186,
-0.7375633716583252,
0.48497578501701355,
0.5978277325630188,
-1.035115361213684,
0.0535094290971756,
0.3769913911819458,
-0.10452016443014145,
0.4285840392112732,
-0.4847973585128784,
0.3490961790084839,
0.3837067782878876,
0.7790268063545227,
0.14845965802669525,
0.2738058269023895,
-0.0720420852303505,
0.5287907123565674,
-0.0964556485414505,
-0.5272876024246216,
-0.8496147990226746,
-0.45433861017227173,
-0.4970262348651886,
-0.3525380790233612,
-0.8124052286148071,
0.1853882074356079,
0.6312505602836609,
-0.19906403124332428,
0.5858471989631653,
0.16725347936153412,
-0.3543679416179657,
0.26061904430389404,
0.6254158616065979,
-0.26208582520484924,
0.2258925884962082,
-0.5031489729881287,
0.02931692823767662,
0.7376092672348022,
-0.07235188037157059,
0.009748876094818115,
0.5025871992111206,
0.7596494555473328,
0.16688257455825806,
0.07364843785762787,
0.08947983384132385,
-0.2975907623767853,
-0.13339129090309143,
-0.6842883825302124,
-0.6159802675247192,
0.2675522267818451,
0.29338669776916504,
-0.26178357005119324,
-0.2444482147693634,
-0.3141803443431854,
1.0536808967590332,
-0.9630563259124756,
0.011648043058812618,
-0.3108168840408325,
0.4898557662963867,
-0.4983506202697754,
-0.13980960845947266,
-0.19741666316986084,
-0.19444087147712708,
0.16418828070163727,
-0.6036932468414307,
0.17723317444324493,
0.3115979731082916,
0.0798083171248436,
-0.09996756166219711,
-0.5091640949249268,
-0.0216304212808609,
-0.5910924673080444,
-0.22016353905200958,
1.2202858924865723,
-0.49815288186073303,
0.4213300347328186,
0.5563982725143433,
-0.25937554240226746,
0.02424481511116028,
-0.18719138205051422,
-0.013722083531320095,
-0.08121812343597412,
-0.3680715262889862,
0.1207214966416359,
0.6422538757324219,
-0.09522555023431778,
0.05547399818897247,
0.016247695311903954,
0.034554287791252136,
0.5018184781074524,
0.08237835019826889,
0.18348044157028198,
-0.027170054614543915,
0.11527123302221298,
-0.19876107573509216,
-0.16224579513072968,
0.2726972997188568,
0.47583749890327454,
-0.1424429565668106,
0.19539786875247955,
-0.25996631383895874,
0.45792558789253235,
0.14845915138721466,
-0.055594269186258316,
-0.09844869375228882,
-0.12308429926633835,
-0.3083609342575073,
-0.7139642834663391,
-0.295482337474823,
0.66434645652771,
0.4225054085254669,
-0.10348339378833771,
0.4485502541065216,
0.03129378706216812,
-0.5323950052261353,
0.0675496831536293,
0.18380944430828094,
-0.7900298833847046,
-0.44908803701400757,
0.15200479328632355,
-0.8601070046424866,
0.1799572855234146,
0.6920537352561951,
0.17930783331394196,
0.39212143421173096,
0.7399813532829285,
0.06983135640621185,
0.32934698462486267,
-0.37702810764312744,
0.3009592592716217,
-0.0979272797703743,
-0.6497408151626587,
0.02028822712600231,
0.6073910593986511,
0.1515255868434906,
-0.912319004535675,
0.19497822225093842,
-0.07225491851568222,
0.37782910466194153,
0.4240833818912506,
-0.2000243067741394,
0.5932837724685669,
0.05233248695731163,
0.4487435221672058,
-0.17766553163528442,
0.4137677550315857,
0.016447562724351883,
0.4648725390434265,
-0.05673227459192276,
-0.6901618242263794,
-0.7421746253967285,
0.24188467860221863,
0.3660041093826294,
-0.3463171720504761,
0.24858176708221436,
-0.14008614420890808,
-0.18238922953605652,
-0.6965395212173462,
-0.4800279140472412,
-0.4480433166027069,
-0.3168213665485382,
-0.9802585244178772,
1.2202558517456055,
0.3533253073692322,
-0.5802382826805115,
-0.7421407699584961,
-0.10412899404764175,
-0.33920782804489136,
0.13917815685272217,
0.29622024297714233,
0.27702638506889343,
0.6017563939094543,
-0.08284582942724228,
0.32846254110336304,
0.31363844871520996,
0.07611799240112305,
-0.12682071328163147,
-0.27254992723464966,
-0.411031037569046,
-0.5812599658966064,
-0.6184847950935364,
0.3872552514076233,
-0.3056972324848175,
-0.194701686501503,
-0.0015293594915419817,
0.21864040195941925,
-0.011424770578742027,
0.48170921206474304,
0.3354474902153015,
-0.4828375279903412,
0.5137715339660645,
-0.8128262162208557,
-0.07985187321901321,
-0.2661857604980469,
-0.20950406789779663,
0.7361423969268799,
-0.17649193108081818,
0.6186517477035522,
1.1878341436386108,
0.3291412889957428,
0.14431017637252808,
0.63505619764328,
0.2225276529788971,
0.3512791395187378,
-0.6451535224914551,
0.38979023694992065,
-0.2023329883813858,
-0.13345655798912048,
-0.4569495916366577,
0.11693164706230164,
0.0820402055978775,
0.07392027974128723,
-0.1081443727016449,
0.08274773508310318,
0.0003757403464987874,
0.6293767690658569,
0.8560307621955872,
0.26853594183921814,
0.01885107532143593,
-0.2621835172176361,
0.17293398082256317,
0.09854654967784882,
0.5584016442298889,
-0.0618930459022522,
0.293808251619339,
0.5851187705993652,
0.2402561753988266,
-0.525361180305481,
0.19436511397361755,
0.20874887704849243,
-0.38484078645706177,
-0.15622326731681824,
-0.3121235966682434,
0.23013144731521606,
-0.20565007627010345,
-0.9827339053153992,
0.781510055065155,
0.6098734736442566,
1.1980639696121216,
-0.04513019323348999,
0.5042737126350403,
0.09447172284126282,
-0.2335483282804489,
-0.1387278437614441,
-1.7980053424835205,
0.2840910255908966,
0.03483825549483299,
-0.5394178628921509,
0.6185185313224792,
-0.12152170389890671,
-0.17952007055282593,
-0.6296685934066772,
-0.3866707980632782,
-0.6737846732139587,
0.1579006165266037,
-0.5130594372749329,
0.12739884853363037,
-0.10059720277786255,
-0.0539252795279026,
0.13974030315876007
] |
233514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisburg | Louisburg | Louisburg is the name of some places in the United States and Canada:
Louisburg, Kansas
Louisburg, Minnesota
Louisburg, Missouri
Louisburg, North Carolina
Louisbourg, Nova Scotia (often spelled "Louisburg")
See also
Lewisburg (disambiguation)
Louisburgh (disambiguation) | [
-0.07402367889881134,
0.187728613615036,
0.09121459722518921,
-0.20305398106575012,
0.20159968733787537,
0.4970531165599823,
0.6504765152931213,
1.07917320728302,
-0.5247229933738708,
-0.39256587624549866,
-0.371762216091156,
-0.31681522727012634,
-0.10681065171957016,
1.028207778930664,
-0.22924338281154633,
0.20008054375648499,
0.03878192603588104,
0.7488611340522766,
0.32659992575645447,
-0.30573904514312744,
-0.22673116624355316,
0.2748749256134033,
0.8089991211891174,
0.024358920753002167,
0.4070027768611908,
-0.3096596896648407,
0.7338303327560425,
-0.31656038761138916,
-0.28560394048690796,
0.4970381557941437,
-0.632134735584259,
0.7382965087890625,
0.08219998329877853,
0.19289326667785645,
-0.15132969617843628,
-0.36639174818992615,
-0.1160869225859642,
0.06992921233177185,
-0.15752893686294556,
-0.6888113617897034,
-0.1433832049369812,
-0.3714296221733093,
0.7499891519546509,
-0.39786970615386963,
-0.04129781574010849,
-0.06930792331695557,
-1.3901755809783936,
0.3191152513027191,
-0.5996522903442383,
-0.7143860459327698,
-0.5432140231132507,
-0.060942813754081726,
0.166902095079422,
0.4496658444404602,
-0.03193584457039833,
0.02203892543911934,
-1.010195016860962,
0.007269592490047216,
0.6586152911186218,
0.5113805532455444,
0.4717360734939575,
0.542589545249939,
-0.307496041059494,
0.4714331030845642,
-0.019525917246937752,
-0.17378520965576172,
0.251840740442276,
0.3831978142261505,
-0.1808246374130249,
-0.4702756404876709,
-0.20590046048164368,
-0.05546880513429642,
0.04237094521522522,
0.03210548684000969,
0.12153515219688416,
0.5898815393447876,
-0.179899200797081,
-0.00847065169364214,
0.1368231475353241,
-0.04279165342450142,
-0.287183552980423,
-0.3197028934955597,
1.1373026371002197,
-0.5682323575019836,
0.44729679822921753,
0.5344310998916626,
-1.1089141368865967,
-0.1060008704662323,
0.175254687666893,
0.7245610952377319,
-0.7950470447540283,
0.017649570479989052,
0.2546517550945282,
0.2451625019311905,
-0.1743185669183731,
-0.32262593507766724,
0.43174564838409424,
0.5095940232276917,
0.17093819379806519,
0.34570086002349854,
-0.7330439686775208,
0.07501833885908127,
0.8793002963066101,
0.292705774307251,
-0.3424394428730011,
0.013016627170145512,
-0.010161954909563065,
0.5853629112243652,
0.14511461555957794,
-0.4943443536758423,
-0.2044661045074463,
0.06327394396066666,
0.3699953258037567,
0.03946489468216896,
-0.22827686369419098,
-0.03328099101781845,
0.21599864959716797,
-0.2970449924468994,
-0.1888304054737091,
-0.1754705309867859,
-0.010952684096992016,
0.7136495113372803,
0.16042569279670715,
-0.1298760622739792,
0.056811679154634476,
0.1872696876525879,
0.27486687898635864,
-0.11040426790714264,
-0.0789906233549118,
0.1382303386926651,
0.12199670821428299,
1.1079167127609253,
0.09017357975244522,
0.0940004289150238,
-0.14350494742393494,
-0.429976224899292,
0.01329786702990532,
-0.4170253574848175,
0.444271445274353,
0.05459483340382576,
-0.6286435127258301,
-0.029810698702931404,
-0.8971430063247681,
0.3186778426170349,
0.09388580918312073,
-0.32117512822151184,
-0.03731939569115639,
-0.1380855143070221,
0.10957552492618561,
0.0368184931576252,
0.019223205745220184,
0.30448147654533386,
-0.3233621120452881,
-0.18796484172344208,
-0.09842599928379059,
-0.2283707857131958,
0.5045619010925293,
0.22088420391082764,
0.7551051378250122,
0.18750429153442383,
-0.6213584542274475,
0.6461009383201599,
0.7164556384086609,
-0.2434299886226654,
0.34492337703704834,
-0.4305380880832672,
-0.1569572538137436,
-0.4984792470932007,
-0.2426425814628601,
0.16751891374588013,
-0.060995131731033325,
0.5683256983757019,
0.5477108955383301,
0.34538647532463074,
-0.22198224067687988,
0.1794247329235077,
0.826869785785675,
0.23446789383888245,
0.022979479283094406,
-0.5312579274177551,
-0.3441872298717499,
0.6392672657966614,
0.32615920901298523,
-0.10434198379516602,
-0.3202025592327118,
0.5069032907485962,
0.12366101145744324,
-0.2743062674999237,
-0.01788734272122383,
-0.17870593070983887,
0.19357384741306305,
-0.0891365185379982,
0.16730837523937225,
-0.4495639503002167,
0.4721892476081848,
0.16658002138137817,
-0.3910296559333801,
0.8079243302345276,
0.05627773702144623,
0.5510714054107666,
-0.5076515674591064,
-0.5704721212387085,
0.8485726714134216,
0.04982401058077812,
-0.47108787298202515,
0.8438425660133362,
0.14593805372714996,
-0.22203829884529114,
0.5243935585021973,
0.5178006291389465,
0.6065999865531921,
-0.7047308683395386,
0.13270719349384308,
0.2880721092224121,
0.018027741461992264,
-0.920534610748291,
-0.20049963891506195,
-0.5041863322257996,
0.1783195436000824,
-0.4073711931705475,
0.19573348760604858,
-0.12968403100967407,
0.22372499108314514,
-0.022966723889112473,
-0.1898355334997177,
0.2493164986371994,
-0.24155640602111816,
-0.2007884532213211,
-0.25543126463890076,
-0.3351283371448517,
-0.15286406874656677,
0.05275418981909752,
0.19117239117622375,
-0.7810878753662109,
0.20048879086971283,
-0.27231064438819885,
0.29937994480133057,
0.048166513442993164,
0.08504842221736908,
0.07280337065458298,
0.11247602105140686,
0.01581406220793724,
-0.28134143352508545,
0.2584678530693054,
0.2647641599178314,
0.5113417506217957,
0.3295993506908417,
-0.08519510924816132,
-0.020867610350251198,
-0.5424641966819763,
0.37635719776153564,
0.024719838052988052,
-0.004523256327956915,
-0.007135341875255108,
0.634231448173523,
-0.07198957353830338,
0.2635897099971771,
-0.07318468391895294,
-0.25135692954063416,
0.2892424166202545,
-0.2521483898162842,
-0.056900810450315475,
-0.6119554042816162,
0.4556286931037903,
-0.24196480214595795,
-0.12252681702375412,
-0.38468146324157715,
-0.34508979320526123,
-0.045906949788331985,
0.6096513867378235,
-0.06539904326200485,
-0.11787256598472595,
-0.29055213928222656,
-0.6334666013717651,
0.6605758666992188,
0.10519789159297943,
-0.406542032957077,
0.2952587306499481,
-0.3020935654640198,
0.07908767461776733,
0.005555907264351845,
0.946541965007782,
-0.4062470495700836,
-0.8954315185546875,
-0.07089973986148834,
-1.2843940258026123,
0.592574417591095,
-0.07486553490161896,
-0.19573208689689636,
0.2695136070251465,
-0.3631315529346466,
-0.7305037975311279,
-0.371112197637558,
-0.084254689514637,
-0.3380453884601593,
-0.1291704773902893,
0.10965713858604431,
0.19975963234901428,
-0.28385335206985474,
-0.4832172393798828,
-0.702324390411377,
0.0879625752568245,
0.06112734228372574,
0.16346678137779236,
0.4147772490978241,
-0.31410887837409973,
0.09784049540758133,
-0.08542432636022568,
-5.519548416137695,
0.2437678575515747,
-0.11379610747098923,
-0.4222852885723114,
0.21603523194789886,
-0.11834339052438736,
0.10048922896385193,
-0.34065771102905273,
-0.046235810965299606,
-0.16345269978046417,
0.6926990151405334,
-0.13331365585327148,
-0.4156133234500885,
0.416523277759552,
0.561002790927887,
-0.0961330384016037,
0.5791918635368347,
-0.11787275224924088,
-0.12933102250099182,
-0.011777359992265701,
-0.020303523167967796,
0.15311166644096375,
0.4538595974445343,
0.10669118165969849,
0.261064738035202,
0.779113233089447,
-0.10406939685344696,
-0.004328614100813866,
-0.8228415846824646,
-0.726819634437561,
-0.617699921131134,
0.3101108968257904,
0.6169944405555725,
-0.24590308964252472,
-0.023679450154304504,
-0.40502357482910156,
-0.5799925923347473,
0.16269506514072418,
0.49030688405036926,
-0.48240190744400024,
0.27202123403549194,
0.7243154048919678,
-0.17050398886203766,
-0.21099594235420227,
0.1930106282234192,
-0.27489545941352844,
-0.5472081303596497,
0.5435159802436829,
-0.6621070504188538,
0.752151370048523,
0.2437889724969864,
-0.24151015281677246,
0.20578701794147491,
0.2848232388496399,
0.25273966789245605,
-0.6337979435920715,
0.24032853543758392,
0.44269558787345886,
-0.5453104376792908,
0.44986674189567566,
0.19509808719158173,
0.01904049701988697,
-0.33807384967803955,
0.13530407845973969,
-0.06838788092136383,
-0.9519141316413879,
-0.4981383681297302,
0.6418856978416443,
0.4340391755104065,
0.1847747415304184,
-0.15670977532863617,
0.05669236183166504,
-0.058886077255010605,
-0.6884335875511169,
-0.29837486147880554,
-0.15311816334724426,
-0.8406856656074524,
0.10800482332706451,
0.0826619565486908,
0.4330483675003052,
-0.2754550874233246,
0.7296823263168335,
0.28584134578704834,
0.4317655563354492,
-0.08858169615268707,
-0.2863045334815979,
-0.6077263355255127,
1.0283452272415161,
-0.38324615359306335,
-0.49962496757507324,
-0.08002762496471405,
-0.05418774113059044,
0.8009675145149231,
-0.5421704053878784,
-0.4668029546737671,
-0.08768074214458466,
0.3699982166290283,
-0.2548680007457733,
-0.07838346064090729,
-0.5334123373031616,
0.7592376470565796,
-0.13131795823574066,
0.07239177823066711,
-0.5763885974884033,
-0.3373907804489136,
-0.01476416178047657,
-0.3154224455356598,
0.3412705063819885,
0.7502328753471375,
-0.23586000502109528,
-0.4816252887248993,
-0.027846071869134903,
-0.2773228883743286,
-0.5640974044799805,
0.5628405213356018,
-0.7805167436599731,
-0.5514014363288879,
0.1751715987920761,
0.488289475440979,
0.2078017145395279,
-0.10568561404943466,
0.15600410103797913,
-0.5010328888893127,
0.6414149403572083,
-0.22501687705516815,
-0.4367091655731201,
0.29008418321609497,
0.11957257241010666,
0.1426636129617691,
0.6970513463020325,
-0.012513685040175915,
0.005490815732628107,
0.13143157958984375,
-0.11665716767311096,
-0.41465118527412415,
-0.24081586301326752,
-0.3674040734767914,
-0.8385940790176392,
0.0716307982802391,
-0.11637504398822784,
0.26166853308677673,
0.0917593389749527,
0.09661159664392471,
0.6636092662811279,
0.039291393011808395,
0.4253643751144409,
0.6564224362373352,
0.09029121696949005,
-0.33920639753341675,
0.7103492021560669,
-0.3706038296222687,
-0.21122507750988007,
0.19203589856624603,
-0.11469811946153641,
0.14039066433906555,
-0.4055861234664917,
0.08541476726531982,
0.6819702982902527,
0.3423442244529724,
0.04729554057121277,
0.5714145302772522,
-0.25001683831214905,
-0.43444177508354187,
0.6209975481033325,
0.2879508137702942,
-0.5042849183082581,
-0.3265434503555298,
-0.056481797248125076,
-0.2190551906824112,
0.2967434823513031,
0.5086001753807068,
-0.7668346166610718,
-0.5797863006591797,
0.09563451260328293,
0.5627281665802002,
-0.38499778509140015,
-0.378269761800766,
0.3029223680496216,
0.19014540314674377,
-0.39286932349205017,
0.11783318966627121,
-0.809253990650177,
-0.5183703303337097,
0.4709175229072571,
-0.1350853145122528,
-0.1806218922138214,
0.01181507296860218,
-0.07107184082269669,
0.4340501129627228,
-0.0531989224255085,
-0.24035754799842834,
-0.3662492036819458,
-0.11951542645692825,
0.4971623122692108,
-0.08205358684062958,
-0.613153874874115,
0.17785902321338654,
0.11065229773521423,
-0.23245306313037872,
0.08399742096662521,
-0.02188105508685112,
0.7314847707748413,
-0.4620016813278198,
0.3846145570278168,
0.6224007606506348,
-0.3394697904586792,
0.6982091069221497,
0.15593260526657104,
-0.2829352617263794,
0.43461787700653076,
-0.3734106719493866,
-0.2586861252784729,
0.3395251929759979,
0.7028714418411255,
-0.06259672343730927,
0.06270921230316162,
0.3853510916233063,
-0.2560579180717468,
-0.3303549587726593,
-0.6657274961471558,
-0.27520984411239624,
-0.05522709712386131,
0.23124688863754272,
-0.3965405523777008,
-0.21074402332305908,
0.8740696907043457,
0.41408559679985046,
-0.35000914335250854,
1.1919430494308472,
-0.5210161209106445,
-0.18897795677185059,
0.16381439566612244,
0.2756454646587372,
0.302473783493042,
0.5296464562416077,
0.13455864787101746,
0.16733254492282867,
-0.7089969515800476,
-0.08372803032398224,
-0.282505601644516,
0.41590526700019836,
0.9758262038230896,
0.3217289447784424,
-0.276839017868042,
-0.4382520914077759,
-0.39614519476890564,
0.609367847442627,
-0.03885433450341225,
-1.0509482622146606,
0.4739800691604614,
0.02341337502002716,
-1.0927428007125854,
-0.7759396433830261,
-0.3868638873100281,
1.0710036754608154,
-0.6935113072395325,
0.0032038174103945494,
0.6774338483810425,
-0.04802485182881355,
0.11728078871965408,
-0.20926517248153687,
-0.3326733708381653,
0.04494905099272728,
0.6338120102882385,
0.027481885626912117,
-0.25309500098228455,
-0.6213767528533936,
-0.0462760403752327,
0.030931491404771805,
-0.867485523223877,
0.18803098797798157,
-0.2929667532444,
0.25319936871528625,
0.15958671271800995,
0.025473080575466156,
0.24486421048641205,
0.05832710489630699,
-0.4465292692184448,
-0.021339010447263718,
-0.3925764262676239,
-0.35240814089775085,
-0.0815635696053505,
-0.14943121373653412,
-0.7147279977798462,
0.7690461277961731,
-0.7366016507148743,
-0.1468113213777542,
0.28491806983947754,
-0.4812507629394531,
0.17167118191719055,
-0.2942682206630707,
0.032618310302495956,
0.003974196966737509,
-0.3585585653781891,
-0.6793656945228577,
0.02210063859820366,
0.054655157029628754,
0.8580091595649719,
0.1174091324210167,
0.2785983979701996,
-0.8704531192779541,
0.4777146577835083,
-0.390777587890625,
-0.8399251699447632,
0.2740403413772583,
-0.25217151641845703,
-0.7236602306365967,
0.02226986736059189,
-0.13876327872276306,
-0.050707705318927765,
0.6948080062866211,
-0.0027198821771889925,
0.15634669363498688,
0.3372291028499603,
-0.35774025321006775,
0.3428761661052704,
0.38924121856689453,
-0.5657337307929993,
-0.31727123260498047,
-0.1457725167274475,
-0.595786988735199,
0.07106655091047287,
0.773606538772583,
0.5640520453453064,
0.0013196758227422833,
0.8910437822341919,
-0.031073402613401413,
-0.4684102535247803,
-0.10472618043422699,
0.2760818898677826,
-0.01935824751853943,
0.196009561419487,
-1.1197881698608398,
0.5446617603302002,
-0.775014340877533,
-0.27511849999427795,
0.35447344183921814,
-0.5841169357299805,
-0.4773695468902588,
0.5406100153923035,
0.45192191004753113,
0.5755633115768433,
-0.18865379691123962,
0.06576260924339294,
0.06266099214553833,
-0.069560706615448,
0.5012459754943848,
-0.07704740017652512,
0.13534602522850037,
-0.5138429403305054,
0.24643872678279877,
-0.6030382513999939,
0.0782555341720581,
0.1661580502986908,
0.30943673849105835,
-0.3113808035850525,
-0.06385024636983871,
-0.36027052998542786,
-0.24297703802585602,
-0.4737047553062439,
-0.3285883069038391,
-0.6327584981918335,
0.5504512786865234,
-0.14402465522289276,
0.1831062138080597,
-0.09827831387519836,
0.25767529010772705,
-0.06193123757839203,
-0.43695104122161865,
0.09213539212942123,
0.7637587785720825,
0.29630446434020996,
0.28182846307754517,
-0.1678866297006607,
0.1458684206008911,
0.5724654197692871,
-0.4033632278442383,
0.6996267437934875,
0.043952468782663345,
-0.05551835894584656,
-0.1723458617925644,
0.20250757038593292,
0.45020049810409546,
0.173663929104805,
0.055619362741708755,
-0.0527978353202343,
0.08165768533945084,
0.24202144145965576,
-0.6043400168418884,
-0.31328684091567993,
0.29765722155570984,
-0.2983247637748718,
-0.21664553880691528,
0.2982390522956848,
-0.16806909441947937,
0.16011202335357666,
-0.16929902136325836,
0.4014071524143219,
0.13254667818546295,
0.852423369884491,
0.3954668641090393,
0.29489874839782715,
-0.18699860572814941,
0.10143370926380157,
-0.37325167655944824,
0.6981740593910217,
-0.2824949026107788,
0.061756398528814316,
-0.8105258345603943,
0.7054738402366638,
-0.29983189702033997,
-0.09395381063222885,
-0.3027622699737549,
0.17158624529838562,
-0.3487287163734436,
-0.3750433623790741,
0.7756286859512329,
0.12819890677928925,
-0.8098682761192322,
-0.7072911858558655,
0.48152586817741394,
-0.2568510174751282,
0.27885901927948,
0.0003755447396542877,
-0.30591896176338196,
-0.5120694637298584,
-0.13338416814804077,
0.16093331575393677,
-0.3691740334033966,
0.2930000126361847,
0.26608583331108093,
-0.8180650472640991,
-0.44768914580345154,
0.5544689297676086,
-0.6057580709457397,
-0.11860527098178864,
0.4331309199333191,
0.7912020087242126,
0.16050946712493896,
-0.3357592821121216,
-0.08435174822807312,
-0.04016796872019768,
-0.19542273879051208,
0.03887896612286568,
-1.1213489770889282,
0.3785858154296875,
-0.22382797300815582,
-0.2774830162525177,
-0.4985139071941376,
0.6201127171516418,
-0.14926551282405853,
0.009433881379663944,
-0.2701881527900696,
0.5084017515182495,
0.5840877890586853,
0.3617478609085083,
0.1129479706287384,
-0.278923362493515,
0.36253103613853455,
0.15260514616966248
] |
233516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisbourg | Louisbourg | Louisbourg is an unincorporated community and former town in Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia.
History
The French military founded the Fortress of Louisbourg in 1713 and its fortified seaport on the southwest part of the harbour, naming it in honour of Louis XIV. The harbour had been used by European mariners since at least the 1590s, when it was known as English Port and Havre à l'Anglois. The French settlement that dated from 1713. The settlement was burned the first day the British landed during the Siege of Louisbourg (1745). The French were terrorized and abandoned the Grand Battery, which the British occupied the following day. It was returned to France in 1748 but recaptured by the British in 1758.
After the capture in 1758, its fortifications were demolished in 1760 and the town-site abandoned by British forces in 1768. A small civilian population continued to live there after the military left.
English settlers subsequently built a small fishing village across the harbour from the abandoned site of the fortress. The village grew slowly with additional Loyalists settlers in the 1780s. The harbour grew more accessible with the construction of the second Louisbourg Lighthouse in 1842 on the site of the original French lighthouse destroyed in 1758. A railway first reached Louisbourg in 1877, but it was poorly built and abandoned after a forest fire. However the arrival of Sydney and Louisburg Railway in 1894 brought heavy volumes of winter coal exports to Louisbourg Harbour's ice-free waters as a winter coal port. The harbour was used by the Canadian government ship Montmagny in 1912 to land bodies from the sinking of the RMS Titanic. In 1913 the Marconi Company established a transatlantic radio transmitting station here.
Incorporated in 1901, the Town of Louisbourg was disincorporated when all municipal units in Cape Breton County were merged into a single tier regional municipality in 1995.
Name
Pronounced "Lewisburg" by its largely English-speaking population, the present community has been identified by slightly different spellings over the years by both locals and visitors. The town was originally spelled Louisburg and several companies, including the Sydney and Louisburg Railway adopted this spelling. On 6 April 1966, the Nova Scotia House of Assembly passed "An Act to Change the Name of the Town of Louisburg" which resulted in the town changing its official name to the original French spelling Louisbourg.
Economy
Louisbourg's economy is dominated by the seasonal tourism industry and seafood processing. The depletion of groundfish stocks has negatively affected local fish processing operations in recent decades.
In the 1960s, Parks Canada completed a partial reconstruction of the Fortress of Louisbourg. Today this National Historic Site of Canada is the town's dominant economic engine, employing many residents and attracting thousands of tourists every year. The fortress holds large scale historical reenactments every few years to mark important historical events and attract visitors to the town. The most recent in July 2008, commemorated the 250th anniversary of the first British siege victory over French forces in July 1758. The town's more recent history is preserved at the Sydney and Louisburg Railway Museum located in the restored railway station in the centre of town.<ref>*[http://fortress.uccb.ns.ca/historic/s_l.html "Sydney and Louisburg Railway Historical Society" UCCB Societies Page] </ref>
Annually, the community hosts the Louisbourg Crab Fest. A large golf course and residential resort is planned near the community; designed by Nick Faldo, the resort was expected to open in 2010 but development stalled in the recession.
Louisbourg is home to the Louisbourg Playhouse, a theatre company operating in an Elizabethan theatre that was used as a prop in the live-action 1994 Disney film Squanto: A Warrior's Tale.
Climate
Louisbourg experiences a marine influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). The highest temperature ever recorded in Louisbourg was on 2 September 2010 and 15 July 2013. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 18 January 1982.
Fictional usage
Louisbourg (spelt Louisberg) was mentioned in Nathaniel Hawthorne's story Feathertop. The town is also a major setting for Thomas H. Raddall's 1946 novel Roger Sudden. The town "Louisburg" is mentioned in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's Evangeline. The 2011 film Take This Waltz'' begins with a re-enactment scene from the fortress and features the lighthouse in several shots.
See also
Fortress of Louisbourg
Royal eponyms in Canada
Notes
References
Places Names of Nova Scotia, Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management, p. 375
Further reading
Communities in the Cape Breton Regional Municipality
Designated places in Nova Scotia
Former towns in Nova Scotia
General Service Areas in Nova Scotia | [
-0.42467814683914185,
0.4293474555015564,
-0.14336226880550385,
-0.27842584252357483,
0.33910322189331055,
0.5222190618515015,
0.7166025638580322,
0.37228983640670776,
-0.10224990546703339,
-0.3161276578903198,
-0.39044320583343506,
0.3199804425239563,
-0.12633302807807922,
0.12521836161613464,
0.042788125574588776,
0.5480512380599976,
-0.04888208210468292,
-0.20749841630458832,
0.005085737444460392,
-0.6618335843086243,
-0.26404693722724915,
-0.07053526490926743,
0.19097121059894562,
0.5706287026405334,
-0.09189783036708832,
0.24788036942481995,
0.2651139199733734,
0.3102208077907562,
-0.3159452974796295,
0.28603774309158325,
-0.06845718622207642,
0.7194302678108215,
-0.6748570799827576,
-0.27256205677986145,
-0.03143341839313507,
-0.23121589422225952,
0.011191497556865215,
0.019076848402619362,
-0.4022325873374939,
-0.21977807581424713,
-0.059516869485378265,
-0.036628421396017075,
0.568901538848877,
0.19927242398262024,
0.30481839179992676,
-0.07806100696325302,
-1.002761960029602,
-0.1288231760263443,
-0.3997732102870941,
-0.6640461087226868,
-0.24591568112373352,
-0.04049212858080864,
0.6907066702842712,
0.46574974060058594,
0.20608770847320557,
0.3528709411621094,
-0.9923369884490967,
-0.04508816823363304,
0.6223334670066833,
0.13632942736148834,
0.24638137221336365,
0.6686307787895203,
0.17472122609615326,
0.4658392071723938,
-0.29937252402305603,
-0.31998932361602783,
0.4061060845851898,
0.1840224713087082,
-0.13639867305755615,
-0.3411822021007538,
-0.05756452679634094,
-0.10970534384250641,
-0.0589187927544117,
-0.2123853862285614,
-0.17368149757385254,
0.5274593830108643,
0.1632714718580246,
-0.3136449456214905,
0.5823139548301697,
0.4807477295398712,
0.10485874861478806,
-0.32331377267837524,
0.5460726618766785,
-0.12363028526306152,
0.42408061027526855,
0.38290345668792725,
-0.8400978446006775,
0.37693578004837036,
-0.7687947750091553,
0.28097206354141235,
-1.214772343635559,
-0.07402335107326508,
0.2675924301147461,
0.08336404711008072,
-0.011185703799128532,
0.37853285670280457,
0.37816041707992554,
0.9059925079345703,
0.7000834941864014,
0.6366755962371826,
-0.6412189602851868,
-0.19164513051509857,
0.6358886361122131,
0.19118338823318481,
-0.7435259222984314,
0.09854165464639664,
-0.19300484657287598,
-0.12282709032297134,
-0.43431559205055237,
-0.7861821055412292,
-0.3333105444908142,
-0.19277706742286682,
-0.19810879230499268,
-0.1272309422492981,
0.1077723279595375,
0.12200802564620972,
0.019276732578873634,
0.0783073753118515,
0.1412394940853119,
0.2623802721500397,
0.231288880109787,
0.4343545138835907,
0.039646413177251816,
-0.1850891262292862,
-0.17073562741279602,
0.1422635167837143,
0.11301412433385849,
-0.141104057431221,
-0.4173295497894287,
0.327171266078949,
-0.18667402863502502,
1.1483781337738037,
-0.6839966177940369,
0.39622846245765686,
-0.41443932056427,
-0.09030484408140182,
-0.19503481686115265,
0.03669138252735138,
0.21227765083312988,
0.23259961605072021,
-0.8017796277999878,
-0.09274843335151672,
-0.8782318234443665,
0.05624721199274063,
-0.15984182059764862,
-0.26731398701667786,
0.03563704714179039,
-0.2060975879430771,
0.5244160294532776,
-0.4272306263446808,
0.23018792271614075,
-0.18911732733249664,
-0.07936117798089981,
0.02349087782204151,
-0.1299242526292801,
-0.7191382646560669,
0.459040105342865,
0.22848008573055267,
0.19992755353450775,
0.0590958297252655,
-0.22561043500900269,
0.2286868542432785,
0.5060730576515198,
-0.18181940913200378,
0.6507977247238159,
0.09223170578479767,
-0.563671886920929,
-0.6107045412063599,
0.37494662404060364,
0.2710196077823639,
-0.10208137333393097,
0.3345853388309479,
0.7634998559951782,
-0.1920631229877472,
-0.5097993612289429,
0.29260390996932983,
1.2063641548156738,
0.36534062027931213,
-0.10701502114534378,
-0.5978559851646423,
-0.7696822285652161,
-0.2088077813386917,
0.7837015390396118,
-0.1962365359067917,
0.10708662867546082,
0.4221835732460022,
0.11861603707075119,
-0.6117632985115051,
-0.1404685080051422,
0.25509971380233765,
-0.04905625805258751,
-0.3022952973842621,
0.2661871910095215,
-0.9116883277893066,
0.8569043874740601,
-0.0022786876652389765,
-0.3917117714881897,
0.810773491859436,
-0.028954287990927696,
0.033444520086050034,
-0.3311064541339874,
0.15362660586833954,
0.9611780643463135,
0.05239906162023544,
-0.8471786975860596,
0.7910484671592712,
0.18289290368556976,
0.2986149191856384,
-0.057272057980298996,
0.7994109392166138,
-0.14825959503650665,
-0.4521418511867523,
0.46723246574401855,
0.8626673221588135,
-0.11390044540166855,
-0.8419973254203796,
-0.420160174369812,
-0.3742794096469879,
0.4953524172306061,
-0.821946918964386,
0.02861453965306282,
-0.11606968194246292,
0.10643026977777481,
0.25171053409576416,
-0.3464846611022949,
0.3588693141937256,
-0.030030399560928345,
0.08504217863082886,
-0.36985477805137634,
-0.6124743223190308,
0.058191560208797455,
0.15808629989624023,
0.34197506308555603,
-0.6834545731544495,
0.09515588730573654,
0.48260626196861267,
0.15741394460201263,
-0.11698534339666367,
-0.2814924418926239,
0.03782564029097557,
0.2534923255443573,
0.029452722519636154,
-0.21430471539497375,
0.24675729870796204,
0.19408109784126282,
0.7251645922660828,
0.23684991896152496,
0.3779352009296417,
0.372359961271286,
-0.9836810231208801,
0.518126368522644,
0.024760400876402855,
0.46452298760414124,
0.2553444504737854,
0.9426982998847961,
-0.5348060131072998,
0.12604385614395142,
-0.034904830157756805,
-0.22930826246738434,
0.31691211462020874,
0.139317125082016,
-0.007425843272358179,
-0.3920122981071472,
1.002144694328308,
0.25173506140708923,
-0.710991382598877,
0.6101579070091248,
-0.4689382016658783,
0.2816517651081085,
0.2710191011428833,
0.26089662313461304,
-0.34747016429901123,
-0.2684541642665863,
-0.7797876596450806,
1.1201881170272827,
0.22679024934768677,
-0.6938214302062988,
0.4138523042201996,
-0.2794354259967804,
0.3048452138900757,
0.2828291952610016,
0.8867843747138977,
-0.7315294742584229,
-0.6750168800354004,
0.019069280475378036,
-0.207952618598938,
0.2660054862499237,
-0.45826634764671326,
0.07713969796895981,
0.05141957104206085,
-0.2378605604171753,
-0.9023219347000122,
-0.37895187735557556,
0.22610174119472504,
-0.45957300066947937,
0.10827738791704178,
-0.25246477127075195,
0.06327998638153076,
-0.08477277308702469,
-0.1283494085073471,
0.012576817534863949,
0.3675922751426697,
-0.1030467078089714,
0.3106815218925476,
-0.07740280777215958,
-0.299120157957077,
-0.1118256077170372,
-0.2155599594116211,
-5.223324775695801,
0.1915171593427658,
0.17966261506080627,
-0.34805452823638916,
-0.18259523808956146,
0.037044599652290344,
0.09703155606985092,
-0.5879784822463989,
0.007937301881611347,
-0.012451187707483768,
0.24631887674331665,
0.14545054733753204,
0.3536566495895386,
0.5277959704399109,
0.8033116459846497,
0.5218780040740967,
0.7270325422286987,
-0.6768541932106018,
0.26360848546028137,
-0.36403805017471313,
-0.01919565349817276,
0.5163132548332214,
-0.24979093670845032,
-0.27038469910621643,
0.377620667219162,
0.5103365182876587,
-0.11335506290197372,
-0.023628514260053635,
-0.6477394104003906,
-0.11831874400377274,
-0.5839173197746277,
-0.0008286310476250947,
0.42540788650512695,
0.12869685888290405,
0.10355471819639206,
-0.5965611338615417,
-0.08041734993457794,
0.5323586463928223,
0.7143147587776184,
-0.8575596809387207,
-0.02581588365137577,
0.7588179707527161,
-0.6035427451133728,
-0.4326704740524292,
0.49582111835479736,
-0.9244407415390015,
-0.4329160749912262,
0.438406378030777,
-0.060185302048921585,
0.8435505628585815,
-0.02509661205112934,
0.025517035275697708,
0.2904738783836365,
0.6871914267539978,
0.6051881909370422,
-0.5097299814224243,
0.2204524278640747,
0.03203430771827698,
-0.590252697467804,
0.9754728674888611,
0.2594883143901825,
-0.3046731650829315,
0.10117793828248978,
0.07456202059984207,
0.03877900913357735,
-0.4583030939102173,
-0.34589558839797974,
0.5243960022926331,
0.49073559045791626,
0.25831037759780884,
-0.09834738075733185,
0.4496230483055115,
0.0268081221729517,
-0.7269220948219299,
0.21052321791648865,
-0.12917166948318481,
-0.632562518119812,
0.2941220700740814,
-0.036423224955797195,
-0.3917860686779022,
0.22118699550628662,
0.5256839990615845,
0.19820891320705414,
0.723199725151062,
0.0965169370174408,
-0.46404823660850525,
-0.5316707491874695,
1.0451868772506714,
-0.7812125086784363,
-0.5840548276901245,
0.6260191798210144,
0.1485361009836197,
0.6727946400642395,
0.23368576169013977,
0.030299026519060135,
-0.08979590237140656,
0.4592929482460022,
-0.5419305562973022,
0.6621841788291931,
-0.6537244915962219,
0.5323628783226013,
-0.2391505241394043,
0.15140661597251892,
-0.7494531273841858,
-0.7532987594604492,
-0.3107888996601105,
-0.4950920045375824,
-0.053466446697711945,
0.8412166833877563,
-0.30317384004592896,
-0.17197959125041962,
0.4156706929206848,
-0.2587535083293915,
-0.4043934941291809,
0.9698421359062195,
-0.3033805787563324,
-0.5482282638549805,
0.32965436577796936,
0.7520357370376587,
0.521439790725708,
0.41154995560646057,
-0.04795723408460617,
-0.048742037266492844,
0.1902412325143814,
-0.3102412521839142,
-0.37894073128700256,
0.8547787666320801,
0.17751836776733398,
-0.5585684180259705,
0.5279416441917419,
0.15634556114673615,
-0.01136773545295,
-0.6111236810684204,
-0.379030704498291,
0.010364537127315998,
-0.658370852470398,
-0.26083511114120483,
-1.3005852699279785,
-0.10249590128660202,
0.58189857006073,
-0.08414952456951141,
-0.0897015780210495,
-0.1643553525209427,
0.48642513155937195,
-0.4274177849292755,
0.6614177227020264,
0.6102588772773743,
-0.1166577935218811,
0.25783300399780273,
0.9995281100273132,
-0.9227496385574341,
-0.13084490597248077,
0.22821322083473206,
-0.2648336887359619,
0.14453168213367462,
-0.28729844093322754,
0.6461558938026428,
0.24495981633663177,
0.10285031050443649,
-0.44096681475639343,
0.6204772591590881,
-0.00895508099347353,
-0.8118609189987183,
0.23602169752120972,
-0.2126459926366806,
-0.5125315189361572,
-0.7700809240341187,
-0.3319401741027832,
-0.2976043224334717,
0.07916750013828278,
0.35188254714012146,
-0.6153437495231628,
-0.6676755547523499,
-0.08811517804861069,
0.21778450906276703,
-0.47602593898773193,
-0.8825499415397644,
0.1978338211774826,
0.18161894381046295,
-0.6768863201141357,
0.4632960557937622,
-0.01198399905115366,
-0.3809763789176941,
-0.019207948818802834,
0.583345890045166,
-0.567708432674408,
0.058431047946214676,
0.0590967983007431,
0.2555743455886841,
0.17290405929088593,
-0.023000625893473625,
-0.025576151907444,
-0.111374132335186,
0.39786985516548157,
-0.15474580228328705,
-0.4244115352630615,
0.23297545313835144,
0.19069482386112213,
0.17669230699539185,
-0.06380541622638702,
0.05947817116975784,
0.4919237792491913,
-0.5074543356895447,
0.5034955143928528,
0.18057884275913239,
-0.42079511284828186,
0.4166055917739868,
0.10150311142206192,
-0.2963111996650696,
0.9613038897514343,
-0.7874763607978821,
-0.24726742506027222,
0.9099583029747009,
0.7321019172668457,
0.03234533593058586,
-0.0989191085100174,
0.09931322187185287,
0.19551365077495575,
-0.49292969703674316,
-0.3907422125339508,
-0.54966139793396,
-0.1263124644756317,
-0.12047970294952393,
-0.23714901506900787,
-0.5339809656143188,
0.6547223925590515,
0.6593971252441406,
0.18413138389587402,
0.3009263277053833,
-0.5699563026428223,
-0.30836716294288635,
0.0901787132024765,
0.516935408115387,
-0.5815235376358032,
0.19324596226215363,
-0.07287169247865677,
0.1234368234872818,
-0.1479104459285736,
0.2094535082578659,
0.05065016821026802,
0.5977566838264465,
1.3487838506698608,
0.4194452166557312,
-0.7867878079414368,
0.0895189717411995,
-0.27794161438941956,
0.7289993762969971,
-0.2198316603899002,
-0.89669269323349,
0.31170374155044556,
-0.10212031751871109,
-0.34773388504981995,
-0.47284001111984253,
-0.146378755569458,
0.9849507212638855,
-0.44085392355918884,
0.10440634936094284,
0.8324427604675293,
-0.11806482076644897,
-0.012427466921508312,
-0.04284340888261795,
0.10908985882997513,
-0.39626365900039673,
-0.042652301490306854,
0.3097667694091797,
-0.2800450623035431,
-0.1438782811164856,
0.25660252571105957,
-0.023707740008831024,
-0.05460580810904503,
-0.0665445327758789,
-0.37162789702415466,
0.0648055151104927,
0.7454274296760559,
-0.050781380385160446,
-0.16689066588878632,
0.2871668040752411,
-0.3406722843647003,
0.024118350818753242,
-0.3435770273208618,
-0.6981015801429749,
-0.016241660341620445,
0.009521719068288803,
-0.4591359794139862,
0.02252276800572872,
-1.1076258420944214,
0.29066503047943115,
0.3260022699832916,
-0.012858704663813114,
0.2933168411254883,
-0.09705524146556854,
-0.2514861822128296,
0.04045283421874046,
-0.4903830587863922,
-0.18649964034557343,
0.4571588933467865,
-0.4139249324798584,
0.5894075632095337,
0.027052393183112144,
0.22749873995780945,
-0.9075959920883179,
0.46809399127960205,
-0.28424298763275146,
-0.5469187498092651,
0.2695554792881012,
-0.5082669854164124,
-0.6556457877159119,
0.22723951935768127,
-0.32368022203445435,
0.7047138214111328,
0.2643643915653229,
-0.193819060921669,
0.022024154663085938,
0.23951248824596405,
-0.1524476855993271,
-0.020417628809809685,
0.8184722661972046,
-1.0028935670852661,
-0.45262330770492554,
-0.14473050832748413,
-0.25046518445014954,
0.1981755495071411,
0.5648192167282104,
0.6216522455215454,
0.09957420825958252,
1.1089417934417725,
-0.4075033366680145,
-0.3454948961734772,
-0.06521983444690704,
0.005526354536414146,
-0.03284820169210434,
0.1732860505580902,
-0.7454513311386108,
0.2826800048351288,
-1.0499566793441772,
-0.2942574620246887,
-0.06997814774513245,
-0.32182443141937256,
-0.17094387114048004,
0.186312735080719,
0.610403299331665,
0.5431163311004639,
-0.43542149662971497,
-0.47027263045310974,
-0.024169977754354477,
0.09077061712741852,
0.18949374556541443,
-0.20396766066551208,
0.3280518651008606,
-0.6885761022567749,
0.42032378911972046,
-0.45192334055900574,
-0.13250732421875,
-0.3168868124485016,
-0.1428159475326538,
0.5838769674301147,
0.30167680978775024,
-0.6643747091293335,
-0.26273807883262634,
-0.3554719090461731,
-0.2307628095149994,
-1.2224172353744507,
1.002672553062439,
0.27969178557395935,
-0.041723478585481644,
-0.1290024071931839,
0.283428817987442,
-0.10348553210496902,
0.39751386642456055,
-0.11662541329860687,
0.501855194568634,
-0.16861550509929657,
0.5723565220832825,
-0.7211735248565674,
-0.5290971994400024,
0.5073038935661316,
-0.3957359194755554,
0.596145749092102,
-0.046191342175006866,
0.22561009228229523,
-0.36469361186027527,
0.5774632096290588,
-0.07617632299661636,
-0.38539478182792664,
0.3234518766403198,
-0.8639473915100098,
-0.023786863312125206,
0.37755534052848816,
-0.20291019976139069,
-0.09159817546606064,
0.33271124958992004,
-0.5830252170562744,
-0.33511605858802795,
-0.08923348784446716,
-0.23390838503837585,
-0.26177260279655457,
0.19199617207050323,
0.45878198742866516,
0.1298217624425888,
0.6038215160369873,
-0.10374954342842102,
0.6216853857040405,
-0.4250180125236511,
0.23255309462547302,
0.4320090711116791,
0.5969212055206299,
-0.34295129776000977,
0.22635452449321747,
-0.5209269523620605,
0.4823596179485321,
0.2681739628314972,
0.5391740202903748,
-0.46851250529289246,
0.02580474317073822,
-0.24751166999340057,
-0.28301969170570374,
0.5850661396980286,
-0.151436448097229,
-0.9014869332313538,
0.0927453488111496,
-0.21252460777759552,
-0.2614879012107849,
0.37820857763290405,
-0.19882766902446747,
-0.5191477537155151,
-0.4704660475254059,
-0.4435879588127136,
-0.3874603509902954,
0.1483152061700821,
-0.03283494710922241,
0.38937610387802124,
-0.684526264667511,
-0.36507099866867065,
0.341441810131073,
-0.2857503592967987,
-0.30386242270469666,
0.5077614784240723,
0.38029375672340393,
0.23870907723903656,
-0.6311841607093811,
0.14078566431999207,
-0.14694909751415253,
-0.10332303494215012,
0.30190107226371765,
-1.4051024913787842,
-0.04559045657515526,
0.32619601488113403,
-0.6926974058151245,
-0.28042978048324585,
0.3862968683242798,
0.14896605908870697,
-0.4843286871910095,
0.5488000512123108,
-0.3473457992076874,
0.047601036727428436,
-0.2420409470796585,
0.30186814069747925,
-0.9044293761253357,
-0.3230597674846649,
0.0565933883190155
] |
233520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%3A%20The%20High%20Cost%20of%20Living | Death: The High Cost of Living | Death: The High Cost of Living is a comic, written by Neil Gaiman with art by Chris Bachalo and Mark Buckingham. It is a spin-off from Gaiman's best-selling Vertigo Comics series The Sandman, featuring the Sandman (Dream)'s elder sister, Death of the Endless. Its premise is that Death takes human form once a century, to remain grounded and in touch with humanity, an idea touched upon in several other media, for example in the 1934 film Death Takes a Holiday and in the Terry Pratchett novel Reaper Man.
A movie based on this series has been in the works for several years in various stages of development and was in the works at New Line Cinema. Gaiman had previously confirmed that this movie was in progress and that he was planning on writing the script and directing it, with Guillermo del Toro as executive producer. The film was developed under the title Death and Me, but as of 2010 development was put on hold.
Publication history
Death: The High Cost of Living was originally published as a three-issue comic book miniseries, published monthly by Vertigo, DC Comics' mature readers imprint and cover-dated March to May 1993. It was the first stand-alone mini-series derived from the then-on-going Sandman series by Gaiman, and was written by him with artwork by Bachalo and Buckingham and covers by regular Sandman cover artist Dave McKean. The High Cost of Living was one of the first new titles published under the newly created Vertigo imprint, alongside Peter Milligan's Enigma, and is also notable for being one of the very few Vertigo comics to feature an alternative cover, as #1 did. Vertigo's other output in its debut month consisted of a half-dozen continuing DC series, newly moved to the mature imprint. These continuing series' included Hellblazer and Gaiman's own The Sandman.
Collected editions
The High Cost of Living became one of Vertigo's earliest hardcover collected editions when it was published as such in November, 1993. The collection was prefaced with a foreword written by Gaiman-fan and collaborator, singer Tori Amos, as well as the hard-to-find public service announcement AIDS-awareness 8-page comic Death Talks about Life. This short comic was written by Gaiman and drawn by Dave McKean, and featured basic safe sex information about the transmission of HIV and AIDS. Included in issues of Sandman, Shade, the Changing Man and Hellblazer, it featured Death discussing life and demonstrating how to wear a condom through the use of a prop banana, and an embarrassed cameo from Hellblazer protagonist John Constantine.
The hardcover collection was reprinted as a trade paperback in June 1994 under a new McKean cover, with identical content.
Awards
The mini-series shared the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Limited Comic-Book Series for 1993 with Frank Miller's Daredevil: The Man Without Fear. For their work in the mini-series, Neil Gaiman and Karen Berger received Eisner Award in 1994 as Best Writer and Best Editor.
Plot
The main character is a teenage girl named Didi, who appears to be an eccentric, orphaned goth, but who also insists that she is Death personified, taking her one-day every hundred-year sabbatical as a living person. She guides a suicidal young male protagonist called Sexton on a journey of self-discovery. As the story goes on, Sexton gains a reason for not wishing to die, his love for the girl claiming to be Death.
Gaiman's take, as he started in issue 8 of The Sandman, is a young, attractive, perky Death in this fresh interpretation of the concept. For it was said in Sandman #21: 'One day in every century, Death takes on mortal flesh, better to comprehend what the lives she takes must feel like, to taste the bitter tang of mortality.' Didi manages to eat from street vendors, run into a number of people including a megalomaniac known only as "The Eremite" (not overtly stated, but implied to be an alternative future version of Mister E, after his return from the end of time at Death's hands in the original Books of Magic miniseries), and a British woman named Mad Hettie who is looking for her heart.
A character similar to Didi appears in Gaiman's American Gods, in which she is seen at Rock City where the "Old Gods" are about to go to battle with the "New Gods". Here, she is portrayed as a host of the Voodoo spirit Baron Samedi.
Film adaptation
For several years, a film based on Death: The High Cost of Living, to be called Death and Me, was under production at New Line Cinema. Gaiman wrote the screenplay, and would also direct, with Guillermo del Toro as executive producer. Gaiman spent several days on the set of del Toro's film Hellboy II: The Golden Army to get pointers on how to direct.
Other than two additional scenes at the beginning (set in a Tibetan monastery and Alaska), and a move from New York City to London for the main setting, the screenplay was relatively unchanged from the comic script.
After being in development hell for several years, work on it was renewed in 2007, but quickly derailed again due to the WGA strikes. According to Gaiman, the studio "may still be New Line, but Warner Independent is keen on it too." Shia LaBeouf may have had a role in the film, possibly as the lead character Sexton, due to his help in trying to get the movie developed.
On October 14, 2010, it was reported in an interview with Gaiman that as of June or July, DC and Warner Bros. had closed down work on the film and it was unclear if they would start it up again.
Other Sandman spin-offs
Death: The Time of Your Life
Destiny: A Chronicle of Deaths Foretold
See also
List of feminist comic books
Portrayal of women in comics
List of The Sandman spinoffs
References
External links
Comics Buyer's Guide Awards in 1993
1993 comics debuts
Comics about women
Fantasy comics
Feminist comics
The Sandman (comic book)
Comics about death | [
-0.0045591299422085285,
0.344107985496521,
-0.6654483079910278,
0.5832971334457397,
-0.29395535588264465,
0.4633258879184723,
-0.3324202001094818,
0.2688702642917633,
0.4451155662536621,
-0.35266634821891785,
-0.32030442357063293,
0.3394462466239929,
-0.16189241409301758,
0.2517264485359192,
0.0004204322467558086,
0.10590554028749466,
-0.3660726249217987,
0.6707696318626404,
-0.5948267579078674,
-0.35719427466392517,
-0.40151655673980713,
-0.6423198580741882,
0.5823591947555542,
-0.3846675753593445,
-0.2784937024116516,
0.13043706119060516,
0.19135159254074097,
0.008542840369045734,
-0.40138372778892517,
0.6587300896644592,
-0.0022375797852873802,
0.027937274426221848,
-0.06501439958810806,
-0.5059482455253601,
-0.2165858894586563,
-0.25821176171302795,
-0.13045719265937805,
-0.11330582946538925,
0.054340824484825134,
-0.09759549051523209,
0.26659563183784485,
0.4354695677757263,
0.057817474007606506,
0.5608891248703003,
-0.23699741065502167,
-0.5006297826766968,
-1.1159037351608276,
0.1550603210926056,
-0.9802294969558716,
-0.012606270611286163,
-0.20094124972820282,
1.1750752925872803,
-0.3785441815853119,
0.5534814596176147,
-0.18040674924850464,
0.9225755929946899,
-0.23593825101852417,
0.2239198088645935,
-0.016675662249326706,
-0.5647809505462646,
0.46765023469924927,
-0.2502652704715729,
0.006972640287131071,
0.2562235891819,
-0.13094393908977509,
0.12156374752521515,
-0.07076059281826019,
0.5222042798995972,
-0.08846843242645264,
0.053957499563694,
-0.32293009757995605,
-0.6062256693840027,
0.1340441256761551,
0.1968858242034912,
-0.14105889201164246,
0.2765412926673889,
0.09834360331296921,
-0.0603669211268425,
0.25941741466522217,
0.04559827595949173,
0.5653747916221619,
-0.18698623776435852,
0.8358783721923828,
0.5579398274421692,
0.2765474319458008,
0.14392182230949402,
0.07942160964012146,
-0.002359668491408229,
0.03556399419903755,
0.6335387825965881,
0.04516718536615372,
-0.34798839688301086,
0.6584010720252991,
0.3994642198085785,
0.5425208806991577,
-0.14015306532382965,
0.5071643590927124,
-0.21955466270446777,
-0.3263275623321533,
0.20386502146720886,
0.05224229395389557,
0.3464847505092621,
0.3225148916244507,
-0.17362041771411896,
-0.4247380793094635,
-0.4705420434474945,
0.08229369670152664,
-0.04212421551346779,
1.168305516242981,
0.1085025742650032,
-0.26673048734664917,
0.2421957403421402,
-0.29434826970100403,
0.3597166836261749,
-0.20362816751003265,
0.9195308089256287,
0.16442115604877472,
-0.2946365177631378,
-0.377780020236969,
0.03230753540992737,
-0.07799837738275528,
0.33492958545684814,
-0.12569428980350494,
0.28626328706741333,
0.09630376100540161,
0.36908093094825745,
0.500836968421936,
-0.31104421615600586,
-0.14340074360370636,
0.5743234157562256,
0.4790121018886566,
0.5127634406089783,
-0.2563904821872711,
-0.8392766714096069,
0.2776481509208679,
-0.40168461203575134,
0.3494465947151184,
0.5560665130615234,
-0.18138359487056732,
-0.15083862841129303,
-0.5271378755569458,
-0.9328535199165344,
-0.36801987886428833,
-0.3878283202648163,
0.45063695311546326,
-0.4871465861797333,
-0.1544455736875534,
-0.48322349786758423,
0.36149078607559204,
0.024374742060899734,
0.23543381690979004,
-0.0891508162021637,
-0.4502352178096771,
-0.5005626082420349,
0.3934924006462097,
0.17739471793174744,
0.9646417498588562,
-0.251892626285553,
0.23313596844673157,
0.35851186513900757,
0.6386457085609436,
0.03823196515440941,
-0.28220999240875244,
-0.2535081207752228,
0.13122059404850006,
0.026912853121757507,
0.4472086429595947,
-0.013100538402795792,
-0.45986208319664,
-0.2888730466365814,
-0.8303461074829102,
0.027409883216023445,
0.1761007308959961,
-0.699289083480835,
0.42795804142951965,
0.5871071815490723,
1.307417631149292,
0.5176237225532532,
0.3405442237854004,
-0.3847541809082031,
-0.46646642684936523,
-0.06671908497810364,
0.2873813509941101,
-0.19986465573310852,
0.26007020473480225,
-0.8244550824165344,
0.4485202133655548,
-0.19026988744735718,
-0.4081884026527405,
0.1851491779088974,
-1.2523223161697388,
-0.4366402328014374,
1.141898512840271,
-0.7146170735359192,
1.1902093887329102,
-0.022758498787879944,
-0.4222179651260376,
0.9498422741889954,
-0.10561470687389374,
0.28048455715179443,
-0.5710452198982239,
-0.0712573304772377,
0.6831938028335571,
0.14219161868095398,
-0.641150951385498,
0.4868815839290619,
-0.204856738448143,
0.25746840238571167,
-0.30484339594841003,
0.3996281921863556,
0.5931453108787537,
-0.27376505732536316,
-0.1487956941127777,
0.27612996101379395,
0.051578424870967865,
-0.7398342490196228,
-0.5221801996231079,
0.22461599111557007,
0.06887660175561905,
-0.5307992696762085,
0.48931384086608887,
-0.025106169283390045,
-0.1442459523677826,
-0.3499099910259247,
0.0643383264541626,
0.3732776939868927,
0.09449117630720139,
0.11226967722177505,
0.4567401111125946,
-0.6743075251579285,
-0.1211598813533783,
0.6107745170593262,
0.3042697012424469,
-0.04359152540564537,
-0.18824231624603271,
-0.16326914727687836,
-0.5688705444335938,
-0.41691121459007263,
0.24918390810489655,
-0.21825778484344482,
0.05586822330951691,
0.061234619468450546,
-0.5169342756271362,
0.14398548007011414,
-0.2160390466451645,
0.029500428587198257,
-0.22062809765338898,
0.4504137933254242,
-0.8054562211036682,
0.24810466170310974,
0.0592779666185379,
1.0136340856552124,
0.45051655173301697,
0.3125948905944824,
-0.06139131262898445,
-0.024534229189157486,
-0.4103392958641052,
-0.05862699821591377,
0.015294413082301617,
-0.35146740078926086,
-0.02343118004500866,
0.05743100866675377,
0.34847745299339294,
0.12908698618412018,
-0.12910149991512299,
-0.7484704256057739,
-0.5622135996818542,
-0.8035786151885986,
0.1956859976053238,
0.3366459310054779,
0.1770838499069214,
0.20846791565418243,
-0.4217248558998108,
0.22423598170280457,
0.18128079175949097,
-0.444886714220047,
0.4109254777431488,
0.015359485521912575,
-0.5818353891372681,
-0.22768810391426086,
0.04436096176505089,
1.5150364637374878,
0.30708378553390503,
-0.5046551823616028,
-0.012133881449699402,
-0.19636385142803192,
0.6179938912391663,
-0.2709951102733612,
-0.2649496793746948,
0.48253247141838074,
-0.463162362575531,
0.3406137526035309,
-0.059343840926885605,
-0.20157837867736816,
-0.0015118828741833568,
0.1841457635164261,
-0.20833651721477509,
-0.16999824345111847,
-0.14360319077968597,
0.22763580083847046,
0.16767047345638275,
0.011332252994179726,
0.034045442938804626,
0.16914822161197662,
0.08523273468017578,
-0.13953201472759247,
-0.09801098704338074,
0.28046759963035583,
-5.609500885009766,
0.17941619455814362,
0.014424449764192104,
-0.28397512435913086,
-0.062293700873851776,
0.1733807474374771,
0.6399355530738831,
-0.02686315029859543,
-0.5856826901435852,
-0.18695352971553802,
0.3385348320007324,
-0.05370525270700455,
0.6402990818023682,
0.4541831314563751,
0.3153913915157318,
0.0021623142529278994,
0.1418183147907257,
-0.1691448837518692,
-0.10392677038908005,
0.08647779375314713,
-0.13083796203136444,
-0.4083108901977539,
-0.19423207640647888,
0.23965290188789368,
0.6632636785507202,
1.4215298891067505,
-0.5218765735626221,
0.17086979746818542,
-0.5146506428718567,
0.2553959786891937,
0.7236403822898865,
-0.6517288088798523,
0.06013131141662598,
-0.2655355632305145,
0.0608246773481369,
-0.5931459069252014,
0.47563305497169495,
0.7093107104301453,
0.2366105318069458,
0.21766658127307892,
-0.2015218585729599,
0.22131794691085815,
-0.9286801815032959,
-0.07867863029241562,
1.1789727210998535,
-0.24172593653202057,
-0.39565932750701904,
0.20289628207683563,
-0.07403384149074554,
0.48336920142173767,
0.3466638922691345,
0.14487631618976593,
0.2686910033226013,
0.6971830725669861,
0.03553810343146324,
-0.13238805532455444,
-0.1109267920255661,
0.42026638984680176,
-0.4629431664943695,
-0.09468584507703781,
-0.11243467777967453,
-0.1536649912595749,
0.4535827934741974,
0.035023853182792664,
0.030442941933870316,
-0.019702067598700523,
-0.23703235387802124,
-0.5073015093803406,
-0.054267626255750656,
0.038224730640649796,
0.1380033940076828,
0.30453792214393616,
0.5270342826843262,
-0.9887030720710754,
0.09604109823703766,
-0.09427766501903534,
0.07292833924293518,
0.3652109205722809,
0.17944923043251038,
-0.6058814525604248,
0.24438758194446564,
-0.9774885177612305,
-0.3404102325439453,
-0.2600939869880676,
0.22197696566581726,
-0.7059635519981384,
-0.2282218486070633,
0.23754295706748962,
-0.12274809181690216,
0.0868198424577713,
0.1211303323507309,
-0.1658601313829422,
0.011346320621669292,
0.47477397322654724,
-0.09195289015769958,
0.213004469871521,
0.6197243332862854,
0.16484713554382324,
0.5009280443191528,
0.41645902395248413,
0.016771364957094193,
-0.09734231233596802,
0.3017924129962921,
-0.8686739802360535,
-0.46726828813552856,
-0.1947086751461029,
0.28952229022979736,
0.2964353561401367,
0.1314937174320221,
-1.006797194480896,
-0.30119603872299194,
0.07666191458702087,
-0.5666420459747314,
-0.10668162256479263,
0.5414556264877319,
-0.2643779218196869,
-0.6302074193954468,
0.09931182861328125,
0.6105021834373474,
0.48387473821640015,
-0.2459009736776352,
0.14063788950443268,
-0.5376402735710144,
-0.47901543974876404,
0.29077038168907166,
0.18898795545101166,
0.28177136182785034,
0.4911261200904846,
0.20263180136680603,
-0.30500882863998413,
-0.2703949809074402,
0.3068437874317169,
-0.23872677981853485,
0.14640378952026367,
0.11989156901836395,
-0.5688779354095459,
-0.6319650411605835,
0.12361132353544235,
0.277429461479187,
-0.05186751112341881,
0.2853030860424042,
-0.04403124749660492,
-0.08793143928050995,
0.11802149564027786,
0.3818581998348236,
0.06586679071187973,
0.26413920521736145,
-0.03985977917909622,
0.05630926415324211,
0.4860493242740631,
-0.5050681233406067,
0.27596092224121094,
0.46939536929130554,
-0.6210189461708069,
-0.3551439046859741,
0.1292978674173355,
0.018201066181063652,
0.2623959481716156,
-0.9704678654670715,
-0.0463414266705513,
0.3504672050476074,
-0.4456962049007416,
-1.877070665359497,
-0.32301366329193115,
-0.13539093732833862,
0.39417046308517456,
-0.2917606234550476,
-0.4872911870479584,
-0.7600513696670532,
0.06067769601941109,
0.2350175678730011,
0.44012635946273804,
-0.11500690877437592,
0.15402542054653168,
0.2808670103549957,
-0.48583492636680603,
-0.2224765419960022,
-0.01187483686953783,
0.07946977764368057,
-0.11743057519197464,
0.37080809473991394,
0.02795025147497654,
-0.387570858001709,
-0.32952484488487244,
0.12348531931638718,
-0.4333740770816803,
-0.148054301738739,
0.47280994057655334,
-0.4023284912109375,
-0.18798600137233734,
-0.07795247435569763,
-0.14083929359912872,
0.6179004311561584,
-0.032943110913038254,
-0.6331249475479126,
-0.47896164655685425,
0.27863574028015137,
0.1174253523349762,
0.22966855764389038,
-0.3933534324169159,
0.16269271075725555,
0.37648600339889526,
-0.6445964574813843,
0.11017178744077682,
0.4590841829776764,
-0.7753987908363342,
0.0364917553961277,
0.3298812210559845,
-0.2689070701599121,
0.5387656092643738,
-0.8142893314361572,
-0.24578407406806946,
-0.14135035872459412,
0.10700925439596176,
-0.2417052537202835,
-0.48183056712150574,
0.1675034910440445,
-0.11099269241094589,
-0.08540033549070358,
-0.3414311408996582,
0.39129677414894104,
0.13344907760620117,
-0.46066755056381226,
0.13151133060455322,
-0.593309223651886,
0.4224136173725128,
0.5606433749198914,
-0.6820662617683411,
0.3191103935241699,
-0.987775981426239,
-0.4618922770023346,
0.2404516339302063,
0.3644409477710724,
0.47336599230766296,
-0.329927533864975,
-0.08942089974880219,
0.09840225428342819,
0.06343870609998703,
-0.46269094944000244,
-0.0376746691763401,
0.12489491701126099,
0.10908850282430649,
0.3925848603248596,
-0.20675526559352875,
0.42568978667259216,
0.4795381426811218,
0.15322577953338623,
-0.31951576471328735,
-0.5484358668327332,
0.006929738447070122,
-0.01934795081615448,
-0.4591163992881775,
-0.6771466135978699,
-0.04316583275794983,
0.30701255798339844,
-0.9687746167182922,
-0.06339490413665771,
-0.11473053693771362,
-0.20938117802143097,
-0.12712498009204865,
0.12640176713466644,
0.4375685751438141,
-0.5180875062942505,
0.8244481086730957,
0.9808216094970703,
0.3063076436519623,
0.3409343957901001,
-0.11207601428031921,
0.19541995227336884,
-0.1751275509595871,
0.7348541617393494,
-0.20121322572231293,
-0.22824841737747192,
0.3777429461479187,
-0.2358609139919281,
-0.2159588485956192,
-0.4824455976486206,
-0.13884373009204865,
-0.30267220735549927,
-0.22235673666000366,
-0.35553082823753357,
-0.07309591770172119,
-0.03543328121304512,
-0.8045367002487183,
0.23438410460948944,
-1.015231966972351,
0.8678761124610901,
-0.12060202658176422,
0.15303312242031097,
0.4594211280345917,
-0.5990918278694153,
0.25826308131217957,
0.014521770179271698,
-0.486191987991333,
0.5030491352081299,
0.020201273262500763,
-0.026692498475313187,
-0.1299443393945694,
0.19040165841579437,
-0.3075672686100006,
-0.006379838101565838,
0.6423962116241455,
0.23838387429714203,
-0.11934085190296173,
0.5240238904953003,
-0.251486599445343,
-0.25868937373161316,
0.22323302924633026,
-0.409646213054657,
0.40401691198349,
-0.19235973060131073,
-0.049350157380104065,
-0.25173690915107727,
0.7901293635368347,
-0.10149064660072327,
-0.49999383091926575,
0.29112282395362854,
-0.5986265540122986,
0.5199693441390991,
0.007497884798794985,
-0.5963349342346191,
0.20117168128490448,
1.0404467582702637,
-0.2101108431816101,
-0.7588883638381958,
0.15667074918746948,
-0.2746128737926483,
0.5139188170433044,
0.15719398856163025,
-0.17397212982177734,
0.49357253313064575,
0.46573084592819214,
-0.7255855202674866,
0.35872572660446167,
-0.08839447051286697,
-0.42390990257263184,
0.32932475209236145,
-0.7123443484306335,
-0.18533656001091003,
0.40982675552368164,
0.908469021320343,
-0.2822076380252838,
0.16966280341148376,
0.6371734142303467,
-0.15623748302459717,
0.25443562865257263,
-0.10508176684379578,
0.3024110794067383,
0.14458191394805908,
0.23243126273155212,
0.2641441226005554,
0.2398557811975479,
-0.07295949757099152,
-0.9515129327774048,
0.5670871734619141,
-0.233841210603714,
-0.20280030369758606,
-0.007507710717618465,
-0.3035953640937805,
-0.10039899498224258,
-0.1278943568468094,
-0.0917397066950798,
0.030050909146666527,
0.13012288510799408,
-0.055076874792575836,
0.20613756775856018,
0.08206603676080704,
-0.24368445575237274,
-0.18233656883239746,
0.05069971829652786,
-0.007160342764109373,
0.16771142184734344,
0.4947310984134674,
0.2998487055301666,
0.11269216239452362,
0.47230926156044006,
0.5451068878173828,
0.3079076111316681,
0.42984843254089355,
0.0460955835878849,
-0.5723283290863037,
-0.37294524908065796,
-0.548736572265625,
-0.19140774011611938,
0.628604531288147,
0.040043968707323074,
0.13650265336036682,
0.040930163115262985,
0.2779381275177002,
-0.20782095193862915,
0.48811429738998413,
-0.47538331151008606,
-0.5549304485321045,
0.438482403755188,
-0.6771897673606873,
-0.46458014845848083,
0.1864088624715805,
0.4675806164741516,
-0.45463258028030396,
0.3773655593395233,
0.05232313275337219,
-0.017943168058991432,
0.2974480390548706,
0.4655705392360687,
-0.7984062433242798,
0.6044637560844421,
-0.0007735040853731334,
-0.19844335317611694,
-1.3823522329330444,
0.013455072417855263,
0.24396950006484985,
0.3680606484413147,
-0.04653986170887947,
0.3430005609989166,
-0.2964867055416107,
-0.546431303024292,
-0.32205653190612793,
-0.2880513370037079,
0.22564738988876343,
-0.32250887155532837,
-0.21540531516075134,
-0.3078136742115021,
0.0036828569136559963,
-0.013294859789311886,
-0.4398696720600128,
-0.017470547929406166,
0.017032217234373093,
-0.1435469686985016,
0.3692232370376587,
0.23798343539237976,
-0.7761620283126831,
0.3785457909107208,
-0.6471360921859741,
0.08132758736610413,
0.22867891192436218,
0.2556453347206116,
0.7142676711082458,
0.22988265752792358,
-0.3304680585861206,
-0.6961452960968018,
-0.05848662182688713,
-0.5587987303733826,
-0.1521989107131958,
0.27320021390914917,
-0.6381123065948486,
0.2672788202762604,
-0.5296747088432312,
-0.2256602942943573,
0.22749784588813782,
0.657756507396698,
0.0489216186106205,
0.22808018326759338,
0.19851800799369812,
-0.5112741589546204,
-0.20997191965579987,
-0.01080078724771738,
-0.16121818125247955,
-0.314209520816803,
0.8021771311759949,
-0.0853482261300087
] |
233523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Gridley | Richard Gridley | Richard Gridley (3 January 1710 – 21 June 1796) was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He was a soldier and engineer who served for the British Army during the French and Indian Wars and for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.
Early life and military career
Gridley married Hannah Deming 25 February 1730. They had nine children. He served as a military engineer during the French and Indian Wars from the reduction of Fortress Louisbourg in 1745 to the fall of Quebec. For his services he was awarded a captain's commission in 65th, or Shirley's Regiment of Foot, a grant of the Magdalen Islands, of land in New Hampshire, and a life annuity. Placed on half-pay in 1749, he was colonel of a Massachusetts provincial regiment during William Johnson's 1755 expedition against Fort Saint-Frédéric. In John Winslow's failed 1756 expedition against Fort Saint-Frédéric, he served as provincial colonel of artillery and chief engineer. He vehemently supported Winslow's resistance against a merger of the regular and provincial forces.
Gridley sided with the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolutionary War and was made Chief Engineer in the New England Provincial Army. He laid out the defenses on Breed's Hill and was wounded at the Battle of Bunker Hill. When the Continental Congress first created a Continental Army under command of George Washington in 1775 Gridley was named to Chief Engineer (artillery). He directed the construction of the fortifications on Dorchester Heights which forced the British to evacuate Boston in March 1776. When Washington moved his army south, Gridley remained as Chief Engineer of the Eastern Department.
Later life and death
Gridley retired in 1781 at age 70. He died from blood poisoning induced by cutting dogwood bushes, in Stoughton, Massachusetts, and is buried in Canton, Massachusetts, at the Canton Corner Cemetery. He was buried within a small enclosure near his house in what is now Canton, off Washington Street. In this spot his body rested until 28 October 1876, when a committee disinterred his remains and removed them to his final resting place in the Canton Corner Cemetery. A small queue (braided hair) was removed and pocketed during the exhumation and today is on display at the Canton Historical Society.
Legacy
The monument to Gridley at Canton Corner is of Quincy Granite and the dado of Randolph Granite are faced with polished tablets bearing several inscriptions including "I shall fight for justice and my country", "I love my God, my country, and my neighbor as myself.", and a quote by General Washington: "I know of no man better fitted to be Chief Engineer than General Gridley." The whole monument is surmounted by a cannon in the imitation of "Hancock" or "Adams," - one of the guns Gridley served with his own hands at Bunker Hill.
Gridley is widely to be understood as one of the most distinguished military characters of New England, renowned for personal bravery, skilled artillerist, a scientific engineer, and a contemporary of Prescott and Putnam and Knox, of Warren and Washington.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers considers Gridley 'America's First Chief Engineer.
Notes
This article contains public domain text from
References
External links
1710 births
1796 deaths
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
Military personnel from colonial Massachusetts
United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers | [
-0.6863572597503662,
0.3607063591480255,
-0.6586904525756836,
-0.1586945801973343,
0.14448893070220947,
1.0967650413513184,
0.8244968056678772,
0.06635680049657822,
-0.38353583216667175,
-0.3923417925834656,
0.10042166709899902,
-0.04750203341245651,
-0.28239545226097107,
0.22469015419483185,
-0.6632493138313293,
0.42871004343032837,
-0.03666578605771065,
-0.09949199110269547,
-0.29575279355049133,
0.041758086532354355,
-0.0063860975205898285,
-0.44228455424308777,
0.27839142084121704,
-0.0051770587451756,
-0.029237737879157066,
0.2524678409099579,
0.5160924792289734,
-0.5041444301605225,
-0.04454381391406059,
-0.0423441044986248,
-0.16155937314033508,
0.534772515296936,
0.7618889808654785,
-0.3426244556903839,
-0.2290291041135788,
-0.33907684683799744,
-0.34140148758888245,
0.24980318546295166,
0.4101523458957672,
0.3018796145915985,
-0.2782105505466461,
-0.12493675202131271,
-0.032567594200372696,
0.1741373986005783,
-0.15721261501312256,
-0.010144558735191822,
-2.3291666507720947,
-0.21655844151973724,
-0.7691718339920044,
-0.23281893134117126,
-0.002928841393440962,
0.02937077358365059,
0.5047210454940796,
1.2666205167770386,
-0.2976160943508148,
0.20772919058799744,
-0.2909417450428009,
-0.15115804970264435,
0.8952070474624634,
0.4050159752368927,
0.476917028427124,
0.0893477201461792,
0.16729344427585602,
0.2189880907535553,
0.07773339003324509,
-0.13026559352874756,
-0.37791118025779724,
0.524922788143158,
-0.237627774477005,
-0.018665937706828117,
-0.20974662899971008,
0.29086121916770935,
0.658963680267334,
0.30395790934562683,
0.22913268208503723,
-0.1632581204175949,
-0.28956446051597595,
0.0918470025062561,
0.2303101271390915,
0.14167365431785583,
-0.0773441269993782,
-0.23774681985378265,
0.6857208609580994,
0.15208974480628967,
-0.4637353718280792,
0.2673187255859375,
-0.07587941735982895,
-0.08986464142799377,
-0.4218599498271942,
0.22217081487178802,
0.3935870826244354,
-0.06769191473722458,
-0.3802238702774048,
0.561140239238739,
-0.2659963369369507,
0.501567006111145,
-0.32650846242904663,
0.154332235455513,
-0.4179260730743408,
-0.14818765223026276,
0.2687355577945709,
0.34369298815727234,
0.4954032301902771,
0.5468780398368835,
-0.015620251186192036,
-0.13401435315608978,
-0.07871715724468231,
0.16245144605636597,
-0.011874483898282051,
0.09285704046487808,
-0.23425984382629395,
0.42691344022750854,
-0.44275739789009094,
-0.10666093230247498,
-0.31220361590385437,
0.8741035461425781,
0.6475988626480103,
-1.0571221113204956,
-0.35708847641944885,
-0.5574261546134949,
-0.005684336181730032,
0.8325401544570923,
0.005850398447364569,
0.14411436021327972,
-0.696994960308075,
0.20503558218479156,
0.4829590916633606,
0.33683693408966064,
0.2864517271518707,
0.8898012042045593,
-0.03690428286790848,
0.9743809700012207,
-0.0515718050301075,
-0.2771688997745514,
-0.24280911684036255,
-0.6230825185775757,
-0.09892328828573227,
0.6657719612121582,
-0.3373643159866333,
0.3614670932292938,
-0.4751659333705902,
0.05791136249899864,
0.044878121465444565,
0.03320958837866783,
0.11671289056539536,
-0.1126830130815506,
0.03460129722952843,
0.0603962168097496,
-0.7493862509727478,
0.7332887053489685,
0.2780243754386902,
0.5122002363204956,
0.42339301109313965,
-0.6809374690055847,
-0.12179315835237503,
0.07827453315258026,
0.5685545206069946,
0.11540928483009338,
0.3901539444923401,
0.5458750128746033,
-0.12394005060195923,
-0.27747824788093567,
0.1768433153629303,
-0.532692551612854,
-0.21317794919013977,
0.17632338404655457,
0.6457408666610718,
-0.5751474499702454,
-0.1259050816297531,
-0.1989351361989975,
-0.7364914417266846,
-0.07957374304533005,
0.2545563876628876,
0.07173452526330948,
-0.16241241991519928,
-0.18676888942718506,
0.6578351259231567,
0.37858301401138306,
0.5689074397087097,
-0.8459380865097046,
-0.5536599159240723,
-0.26748254895210266,
0.679919958114624,
-0.29848021268844604,
0.4037052392959595,
0.20905335247516632,
0.7809250354766846,
0.3007415533065796,
0.5156604647636414,
0.33991381525993347,
-0.23640553653240204,
-0.5954936146736145,
-0.016071243211627007,
-0.49723267555236816,
1.0858181715011597,
0.32560136914253235,
-0.4196162521839142,
-0.08817127346992493,
0.4151526391506195,
0.8995047211647034,
-0.10501912236213684,
-0.35820651054382324,
0.18871116638183594,
0.07312043011188507,
0.12098421901464462,
0.2796611785888672,
0.19190175831317902,
0.026536056771874428,
0.3241308331489563,
0.24284565448760986,
0.20637553930282593,
-0.8542740941047668,
0.19268178939819336,
0.6635767221450806,
-0.12497487664222717,
-1.0981539487838745,
0.11460138857364655,
-0.4311981201171875,
0.5456262230873108,
-0.5796849131584167,
0.07556665688753128,
-0.1384224146604538,
-0.10385187715291977,
0.9908120632171631,
0.21176180243492126,
0.8796291947364807,
-0.512424111366272,
0.19628098607063293,
-0.31031644344329834,
-0.6431434750556946,
-0.42198556661605835,
0.3835426867008209,
0.4542545676231384,
-0.330502450466156,
-0.07571376115083694,
-0.26979243755340576,
-0.366363525390625,
-0.6248103380203247,
0.22321857511997223,
-0.29380273818969727,
-0.019903773441910744,
0.30088597536087036,
-0.4086904525756836,
-0.34390974044799805,
0.23822055757045746,
0.12417705357074738,
-0.21102102100849152,
-0.4963970184326172,
0.002258461667224765,
-0.6119365096092224,
0.7134191989898682,
0.4763997197151184,
0.19145189225673676,
0.27625834941864014,
0.02232501283288002,
-0.3210444450378418,
0.40319281816482544,
-0.08314528316259384,
-0.026247655972838402,
0.13633336126804352,
-0.11484409123659134,
0.024487338960170746,
-0.08226650953292847,
0.3311212360858917,
-0.11833109706640244,
-0.7882481813430786,
-0.22181402146816254,
0.0027873076032847166,
0.3968479633331299,
-0.4263554811477661,
0.784478485584259,
-0.32603296637535095,
0.10741759091615677,
0.28936177492141724,
0.26111194491386414,
-0.2915246784687042,
-0.14543768763542175,
0.1875379979610443,
-0.2748199999332428,
-0.4212767481803894,
0.30662938952445984,
0.7007448673248291,
-0.3388819992542267,
0.36691829562187195,
-0.1599559187889099,
-0.09796272963285446,
0.2592003047466278,
-0.04745426028966904,
-0.08543635904788971,
0.004219811875373125,
0.2202712595462799,
0.4014168679714203,
-0.45570579171180725,
0.16128869354724884,
-0.3189195692539215,
0.8928396701812744,
-0.5008076429367065,
-1.2584047317504883,
-0.4660795032978058,
0.5189799070358276,
-0.803299605846405,
0.15611635148525238,
-0.12409088015556335,
0.17727422714233398,
-0.15070612728595734,
-0.3574180006980896,
-0.35400623083114624,
-0.027434058487415314,
-5.3470354080200195,
-0.3219432234764099,
-0.1909843534231186,
-0.16620653867721558,
0.489406555891037,
0.07112043350934982,
0.3929709792137146,
-0.035037312656641006,
0.22678010165691376,
0.4308934211730957,
0.9330270290374756,
-0.019971277564764023,
-0.1828514039516449,
0.16965599358081818,
1.101161003112793,
0.7387569546699524,
1.4740121364593506,
0.21807420253753662,
0.4612460732460022,
-0.017076635733246803,
0.030601415783166885,
-0.5448297262191772,
0.10133684426546097,
-0.33297020196914673,
0.5559082627296448,
0.24962784349918365,
-0.2831307649612427,
0.07041346281766891,
-0.36234691739082336,
-0.5234055519104004,
0.11368197947740555,
0.3109278678894043,
-0.43187543749809265,
-0.436349481344223,
-0.30285120010375977,
-0.3127872049808502,
0.3306334912776947,
0.8750989437103271,
0.0352616049349308,
-0.2257576882839203,
0.300197035074234,
-0.08600825816392899,
-0.9587027430534363,
0.1513550877571106,
0.21455907821655273,
-0.6091000437736511,
-0.3201863765716553,
0.6999980211257935,
0.08108542859554291,
0.362091600894928,
0.26681602001190186,
0.477200984954834,
0.43954071402549744,
-0.12494508922100067,
-0.17800995707511902,
-0.2356073260307312,
0.5527319312095642,
0.4361443519592285,
-0.8545742630958557,
0.05676894634962082,
0.5391660332679749,
-0.6662582755088806,
-0.03332740068435669,
-0.18276646733283997,
0.07683534175157547,
-0.4333634674549103,
0.09506084769964218,
-0.44576582312583923,
0.11707067489624023,
-0.2110775113105774,
0.02897741086781025,
0.8932245373725891,
1.0646904706954956,
-1.219788908958435,
0.28785422444343567,
-0.40078672766685486,
-0.053120799362659454,
-0.04885564744472504,
-0.36202144622802734,
-0.5582433342933655,
-0.08649998158216476,
-0.7653375864028931,
0.6110800504684448,
1.1608645915985107,
0.6027777791023254,
0.4220949709415436,
-0.905438244342804,
0.3167952001094818,
-0.815708339214325,
-0.5217170715332031,
-0.08427830785512924,
-0.257843554019928,
0.1307533085346222,
0.3020533323287964,
0.2962717115879059,
0.28143763542175293,
0.18932384252548218,
-0.044078849256038666,
0.22155852615833282,
-0.15817274153232574,
-0.26474013924598694,
-0.005018496885895729,
-0.04742514714598656,
-0.48068341612815857,
-0.005488696973770857,
-0.24460719525814056,
-0.6320330500602722,
0.30040526390075684,
0.650322437286377,
0.3162331283092499,
-0.06379596889019012,
-0.01888481341302395,
-0.17297770082950592,
-0.3881933391094208,
-0.15371327102184296,
-0.6873712539672852,
0.48791083693504333,
0.18592320382595062,
0.692176103591919,
0.1353669911623001,
-0.3321668207645416,
0.45579764246940613,
-0.182133287191391,
-0.4621475338935852,
-0.6028990149497986,
0.2622474730014801,
0.13321582973003387,
-0.04829513654112816,
-0.6065298318862915,
-0.25535693764686584,
-0.021692994982004166,
0.5182877779006958,
-0.47779881954193115,
-0.14834585785865784,
-0.5483844876289368,
-0.4488376975059509,
-0.5303311944007874,
-0.14205501973628998,
0.04859085753560066,
-0.0608891062438488,
-0.036409229040145874,
0.07925037294626236,
-0.021365869790315628,
-0.15511363744735718,
0.3735679090023041,
0.3671276271343231,
0.6985305547714233,
-0.1456998586654663,
-1.000333309173584,
0.320695161819458,
-0.294535368680954,
-0.4287564158439636,
0.3813357353210449,
-0.518108606338501,
0.1863783746957779,
-0.07361002266407013,
-0.196549654006958,
-0.15986371040344238,
-0.3608557879924774,
0.06644400954246521,
-0.23676642775535583,
0.6252747178077698,
-0.6564127802848816,
-0.25167250633239746,
0.4834469258785248,
0.1799037605524063,
0.0233638733625412,
0.34857621788978577,
-0.3169097900390625,
0.5839003920555115,
0.3249649405479431,
-0.6040031909942627,
-0.3568192720413208,
0.044850725680589676,
0.4359018802642822,
-0.03136023133993149,
0.24616768956184387,
0.2911151051521301,
0.506662130355835,
0.1628122180700302,
0.03914719447493553,
0.02300872653722763,
-0.2655951678752899,
-0.04658150300383568,
0.8505795001983643,
0.10326015204191208,
-0.3784343898296356,
-0.8784543871879578,
0.15821996331214905,
-0.4528595209121704,
-0.27349817752838135,
-0.5374411344528198,
0.37228262424468994,
0.5782815217971802,
0.1954263150691986,
-0.3907400369644165,
0.620826780796051,
0.03436007723212242,
0.0007781139574944973,
-0.6966410279273987,
-0.3185610771179199,
0.35266226530075073,
-0.3221203088760376,
0.499999076128006,
-0.12490466982126236,
-1.3287140130996704,
-0.34002596139907837,
-0.1542072892189026,
-0.3153272271156311,
0.6635047793388367,
0.01349646970629692,
-0.3471163809299469,
0.03634833171963692,
0.07556138932704926,
-0.09439846128225327,
-0.4077591598033905,
0.37091389298439026,
0.2598372995853424,
-0.06402730941772461,
-0.6331897974014282,
-0.7772524356842041,
-0.21829785406589508,
-0.22309181094169617,
-0.30722805857658386,
-0.37790489196777344,
-0.0859651118516922,
0.28769034147262573,
-0.21493245661258698,
0.6309152841567993,
-0.21572601795196533,
-0.7281613945960999,
0.12417591363191605,
-0.4001765549182892,
0.3754250407218933,
-0.0914771780371666,
-0.3085605502128601,
0.3074067533016205,
-0.05683043971657753,
-0.42591392993927,
0.2405712604522705,
0.4760327935218811,
0.8397080898284912,
0.46371614933013916,
0.1263836771249771,
0.27388837933540344,
0.20942460000514984,
0.3923056721687317,
-0.30117836594581604,
-0.4624705910682678,
0.2879568040370941,
0.16109950840473175,
-0.600465714931488,
-0.7185958623886108,
-0.21874535083770752,
1.412177324295044,
-0.01798785664141178,
-0.010330403223633766,
0.12831813097000122,
0.03318304196000099,
0.017077673226594925,
-0.40771016478538513,
0.3451245129108429,
0.0515475869178772,
-0.24194590747356415,
0.15686126053333282,
-0.3743313252925873,
-0.12435277551412582,
-0.01813938468694687,
0.30255281925201416,
-0.20328092575073242,
-1.0840851068496704,
-0.6626611351966858,
-1.0688066482543945,
0.23074719309806824,
0.10298127681016922,
-0.40930303931236267,
0.2911021113395691,
-0.4134184718132019,
1.0686405897140503,
0.020232100039720535,
-0.9453938603401184,
0.004313200246542692,
0.06380520761013031,
-0.61148601770401,
-0.027969013899564743,
-0.05294910818338394,
-0.19039709866046906,
-0.4526735544204712,
-0.1764051616191864,
-0.0675533264875412,
-1.0143870115280151,
0.049184657633304596,
-0.14322282373905182,
-0.41665342450141907,
-0.33477982878685,
0.24088513851165771,
0.031195366755127907,
0.5442149043083191,
-0.013990715146064758,
-0.23645241558551788,
-0.6231868267059326,
1.106008529663086,
0.543414831161499,
-0.2555293142795563,
0.23357926309108734,
0.4452068507671356,
-0.34137213230133057,
-0.19672539830207825,
-0.06617344915866852,
0.07433449476957321,
0.07015161216259003,
0.05466479808092117,
0.02668840065598488,
0.5892941355705261,
-0.4282848536968231,
-0.6457627415657043,
0.8053687810897827,
-0.3140524923801422,
-0.6988511085510254,
0.21219389140605927,
0.18977302312850952,
-0.33665114641189575,
0.3154310882091522,
-0.18839101493358612,
-0.25733301043510437,
0.8318896293640137,
-0.38404765725135803,
-0.38575315475463867,
-0.6070305109024048,
0.3336944580078125,
0.014823682606220245,
-0.3344472050666809,
-1.0072649717330933,
0.4905468225479126,
-0.1833912432193756,
-0.03911208361387253,
-0.1551295518875122,
-0.17643417418003082,
-0.09243350476026535,
0.164869487285614,
0.2633317708969116,
0.7223275303840637,
-0.29012876749038696,
0.015724223107099533,
-0.46078258752822876,
-0.32013559341430664,
0.11684975773096085,
-0.02796383760869503,
-0.40983960032463074,
-0.17493288218975067,
0.34000322222709656,
0.7009397149085999,
0.2816028892993927,
-0.06280624866485596,
-0.024203510954976082,
-0.1217636689543724,
0.6384817361831665,
0.06493303179740906,
-0.49161675572395325,
-0.24189408123493195,
-0.1295238584280014,
-0.4990847706794739,
0.33871713280677795,
-0.32713818550109863,
-0.5134310722351074,
-0.2641184329986572,
0.08233527094125748,
-0.5383091568946838,
-0.17348310351371765,
0.5365383625030518,
0.11827382445335388,
-0.29944291710853577,
0.2147013247013092,
0.45124417543411255,
0.13089591264724731,
0.3870067596435547,
0.5936504006385803,
0.4804060459136963,
-0.04889477416872978,
-0.21084824204444885,
-0.5896116495132446,
-0.353671133518219,
-0.1260843425989151,
-0.31844812631607056,
0.28453177213668823,
0.15508928894996643,
-0.06629689782857895,
0.4531749486923218,
-0.2089914232492447,
-0.5735531449317932,
0.4110894203186035,
0.0956043004989624,
-0.07540972530841827,
-0.17577600479125977,
-0.8068310022354126,
0.5106411576271057,
0.004113922826945782,
0.7614807486534119,
0.2651892900466919,
0.3477981984615326,
-0.28642597794532776,
-0.035697855055332184,
0.16424958407878876,
0.08162593096494675,
-0.30081525444984436,
0.5484669804573059,
-0.4847303628921509,
0.6125237941741943,
-0.9499669671058655,
0.6133584976196289,
0.12786352634429932,
-0.020407555624842644,
-0.5581939816474915,
0.0189167782664299,
-0.6053052544593811,
-0.3283877968788147,
0.11109144240617752,
-0.24827277660369873,
0.11810317635536194,
0.34792158007621765,
0.3533358573913574,
-0.03552215173840523,
-0.4757647216320038,
0.24693746864795685,
-0.17215560376644135,
-0.462493360042572,
0.6476284265518188,
-0.5202521085739136,
-0.5043573379516602,
0.7798457145690918,
0.14575329422950745,
-0.29827815294265747,
-0.20972056686878204,
-0.5788980722427368,
-0.12772922217845917,
-0.4730125665664673,
0.2514732778072357,
0.3933285176753998,
-0.07410091906785965,
-0.503279983997345,
0.6162233352661133,
-0.2912161350250244,
-0.462362676858902,
0.3281540274620056,
-0.17539410293102264,
-0.12098433822393417,
-0.04786510393023491,
-0.28536322712898254,
1.0059010982513428,
1.2523717880249023,
0.7873784303665161,
-0.1152796521782875,
-0.07423081248998642,
-0.6178430318832397,
0.8456115126609802,
-0.11713657528162003,
0.42435190081596375,
-0.29920750856399536,
0.5155055522918701,
0.05154436454176903
] |
233525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOOSE | MOOSE | MOOSE, originally an acronym for Man Out Of Space Easiest but later changed to the more professional-sounding Manned Orbital Operations Safety Equipment, was a proposed emergency "bail-out" system capable of bringing a single astronaut safely down from Earth orbit to the planet's surface.
The design was proposed by General Electric in the early 1960s. The system was quite compact, weighing and fitting inside a suitcase-sized container. It consisted of a small twin-nozzle rocket motor sufficient to deorbit the astronaut, a PET film bag long with a flexible ablative heat shield on the back, two pressurized canisters to fill it with polyurethane foam, a parachute, radio equipment and a survival kit.
The astronaut would leave the vehicle in a space suit, climb inside the plastic bag, and then fill it with foam. The bag had the shape of a blunt cone, with the astronaut embedded in its base facing the apex of the cone. The rocket pack would protrude from the bag and be used to slow the astronaut's orbital speed enough so that he would reenter Earth's atmosphere, and the foam-filled bag would act as insulation during the subsequent aerobraking. Finally, once the astronaut had descended to where the air was sufficiently dense, the parachute would automatically deploy and slow the astronaut's fall to . The foam heat shield would serve a final role as cushioning when the astronaut touched down and as a flotation device should they land on water. The radio beacon would guide rescuers.
General Electric performed preliminary testing on some of the components of the MOOSE system, including flying samples of heat shield material on a Mercury mission, inflating a foam-filled bag with a human subject embedded inside, and test-dropping dummies and a human subject in MOOSE foam shields short distances. U.S. Air Force Capt. Joe Kittinger's historic freefall from a balloon at in August 1960 also helped demonstrate the feasibility of such extreme parachuting. However, the MOOSE system was nonetheless always intended as an extreme emergency measure when no other option for returning an astronaut to Earth existed; falling from orbit protected by nothing more than a spacesuit and a bag of foam was unlikely to ever become a particularly safe—or enticing—maneuver.
Neither NASA nor the U.S. Air Force expressed an interest in the MOOSE system, and so by the end of the 1960s the program had been quietly shelved.
See also
Paracone – Inflatable cone-shaped reentry vehicle.
Personal Rescue Enclosure – Inflatable ball-shaped space suit
Lunar Escape Systems – Proposed system to rescue Apollo astronauts from lunar surface
References
External links
Encyclopedia Astronautica article on MOOSE
Analysis and design of space vehicle flight control systems. Volume 16 - Abort see page 145
Space technology
Proposed spacecraft | [
0.14114437997341156,
0.6425078511238098,
-0.29102474451065063,
0.6315441727638245,
0.24778135120868683,
-0.06338867545127869,
0.40308308601379395,
-0.22976328432559967,
-0.4750424325466156,
0.21297074854373932,
-0.17806467413902283,
0.18822318315505981,
-0.3420020341873169,
-0.2357163429260254,
-0.3761117160320282,
-0.2819769084453583,
0.239531010389328,
0.13738395273685455,
-0.26244693994522095,
-0.33415958285331726,
0.186895489692688,
-0.36859840154647827,
0.21508248150348663,
-0.25516489148139954,
0.08503223955631256,
0.18239277601242065,
0.2843652367591858,
-0.07683350890874863,
-0.11750192195177078,
0.48207902908325195,
-0.05192897841334343,
0.026593415066599846,
-0.15262465178966522,
-0.5087447166442871,
-0.2381972372531891,
0.44330281019210815,
-0.11671216040849686,
0.2525988221168518,
-0.4555543065071106,
-0.37370139360427856,
0.4671803414821625,
-0.3534460663795471,
-0.1086844950914383,
0.07936020940542221,
-0.11210331320762634,
-0.10018161684274673,
-1.1736279726028442,
0.3748636245727539,
-0.4815123975276947,
0.03994522988796234,
-0.5463649034500122,
0.54268878698349,
-0.40465012192726135,
0.26827141642570496,
0.41610008478164673,
0.26121535897254944,
0.2182881236076355,
-0.0009806237649172544,
-0.2932637631893158,
-0.39828944206237793,
0.308521032333374,
0.3019016981124878,
0.23118261992931366,
-0.023577319458127022,
-0.19938601553440094,
-0.06789020448923111,
-0.06028267741203308,
0.33150574564933777,
-0.21078133583068848,
-0.2923111319541931,
-0.2465008646249771,
-0.5703237652778625,
-0.11282338201999664,
0.027110183611512184,
0.34514594078063965,
-0.22412481904029846,
0.589529275894165,
0.0028134954627603292,
0.16124892234802246,
0.27431195974349976,
-0.13687768578529358,
0.591882586479187,
-0.3330893814563751,
0.1317293494939804,
0.1560862511396408,
0.07805842906236649,
-0.38560786843299866,
0.20502983033657074,
0.10461249202489853,
0.324472039937973,
-0.24276995658874512,
-0.041447196155786514,
0.6633078455924988,
0.2988632023334503,
0.34428516030311584,
-0.12334892898797989,
-0.1909269243478775,
-0.029678527265787125,
0.6571218371391296,
-0.030085815116763115,
0.11031414568424225,
-0.3783178925514221,
0.7407501339912415,
-0.04213013872504234,
-0.09217112511396408,
-0.395915687084198,
0.04896444454789162,
-0.40865570306777954,
-0.5298736691474915,
0.05319545790553093,
-0.19298234581947327,
0.08034054189920425,
0.3365144729614258,
0.056782953441143036,
-0.018901413306593895,
0.42284950613975525,
0.22255346179008484,
-0.8366380333900452,
-0.09546980261802673,
0.0035253018140792847,
0.17025288939476013,
0.4175638258457184,
-0.3897947371006012,
-0.507904589176178,
0.1425894945859909,
0.3263755440711975,
0.1754838228225708,
0.4846304655075073,
-0.9831594824790955,
0.17843478918075562,
-0.2245475798845291,
0.551627516746521,
0.052265290170907974,
-0.17677006125450134,
-0.944528341293335,
0.31004345417022705,
0.48333364725112915,
-0.06906835734844208,
-0.0792040005326271,
0.03932873159646988,
-0.7001937627792358,
-0.6438968181610107,
-0.3571838140487671,
-0.1027325689792633,
0.4867252707481384,
-0.005279256496578455,
0.6373903751373291,
-0.0684310644865036,
-0.34434235095977783,
-0.0874471515417099,
-0.29552027583122253,
-0.251259446144104,
0.10085368901491165,
-0.34642457962036133,
0.353855162858963,
0.5575302839279175,
0.2987633943557739,
0.15674322843551636,
0.04657100886106491,
-0.3329611122608185,
0.3745841979980469,
0.37811458110809326,
-0.6406375765800476,
-0.3952248692512512,
0.4197915196418762,
-0.3336296081542969,
0.16302038729190826,
-0.17170941829681396,
0.22008031606674194,
0.22799111902713776,
0.06951086223125458,
0.21388834714889526,
0.17342640459537506,
0.1632879227399826,
-0.16586141288280487,
0.04496443271636963,
0.8717619180679321,
0.15305548906326294,
0.46245601773262024,
0.06202499568462372,
-0.6060389876365662,
0.0618981197476387,
0.29790326952934265,
-0.3113730847835541,
-0.09192367643117905,
-0.10259592533111572,
0.29294297099113464,
-0.017382115125656128,
-0.48113253712654114,
0.24459634721279144,
-0.8361452221870422,
-0.539866030216217,
0.4306546151638031,
-0.49700573086738586,
1.3518189191818237,
-0.4574565887451172,
-0.24034610390663147,
1.0069172382354736,
0.028379090130329132,
0.5458624362945557,
-0.3524077832698822,
0.3675258457660675,
0.4056853950023651,
-0.15391655266284943,
-0.712567150592804,
0.7963343262672424,
0.07549252361059189,
0.45336732268333435,
-0.1497296243906021,
0.09757718443870544,
0.47159355878829956,
-0.5372183918952942,
0.2678183615207672,
-0.3134276568889618,
-0.12049441784620285,
0.05632797256112099,
-0.44041818380355835,
0.4254688024520874,
-0.5674526691436768,
0.13677550852298737,
0.40952369570732117,
-0.026241689920425415,
-0.23067446053028107,
-0.24095438420772552,
-0.17775115370750427,
0.35902419686317444,
0.145766481757164,
0.028716087341308594,
0.41005298495292664,
-0.1448865681886673,
0.1591317355632782,
-0.06504399329423904,
-0.20506714284420013,
0.16879719495773315,
-0.4767214059829712,
0.06118021160364151,
0.5249627828598022,
-0.6312597393989563,
0.31601399183273315,
-0.07532580196857452,
-0.12032099813222885,
0.34929147362709045,
-0.5218824744224548,
0.17579978704452515,
-0.4595103859901428,
-0.18340644240379333,
0.30451300740242004,
0.11183714121580124,
0.278411865234375,
0.14738567173480988,
0.09344615787267685,
0.1817573457956314,
0.2853684425354004,
0.20592688024044037,
0.3813859820365906,
0.038979291915893555,
-0.1492801159620285,
0.17675308883190155,
0.2847447097301483,
0.024498797953128815,
0.2587381899356842,
0.006117045413702726,
0.1898573637008667,
-0.09373389184474945,
-0.26281681656837463,
-0.7815902233123779,
-0.25778287649154663,
0.0031441969331353903,
-0.31501850485801697,
0.7865104079246521,
0.39301222562789917,
-0.052137598395347595,
-0.27929791808128357,
-0.0217350535094738,
0.08199211210012436,
-0.5435565710067749,
0.49201950430870056,
0.7302942872047424,
-0.3051588535308838,
-0.20509618520736694,
-0.16118350625038147,
0.5759617686271667,
0.08478574454784393,
-0.29983794689178467,
0.5818043351173401,
0.07744213193655014,
-0.12884952127933502,
-0.2949557900428772,
-0.5860247015953064,
-0.1775224655866623,
0.2618350684642792,
-0.16112884879112244,
0.2528342306613922,
0.10169684141874313,
0.1699136644601822,
0.6721415519714355,
0.645465075969696,
0.2363876849412918,
0.6265265941619873,
0.445890873670578,
0.15659555792808533,
0.2077256739139557,
-0.34868890047073364,
-0.10348330438137054,
0.041049063205718994,
0.12186060100793839,
0.012076319195330143,
0.000019694267393788323,
-6.030061721801758,
0.19051998853683472,
-0.4756679832935333,
-0.19211821258068085,
-0.034448735415935516,
0.23021702468395233,
0.6518093943595886,
-0.07075992226600647,
0.01950632780790329,
0.11738289147615433,
0.054501112550497055,
0.11158248782157898,
-0.09198668599128723,
-0.09433069080114365,
0.1972152143716812,
0.07103370130062103,
0.8256294131278992,
0.07340854406356812,
0.14599452912807465,
-0.25044649839401245,
0.3437759280204773,
-0.22735156118869781,
0.025833426043391228,
0.19013598561286926,
-0.15353922545909882,
-0.011118960566818714,
-0.02281568944454193,
0.5058175325393677,
-0.1808040738105774,
0.13327372074127197,
0.18065986037254333,
-0.1832040697336197,
-0.42506957054138184,
-0.8917251825332642,
0.3381281793117523,
0.27428531646728516,
1.042945146560669,
0.12464369088411331,
0.8705518245697021,
0.07981860637664795,
-0.5913244485855103,
-0.07149547338485718,
0.3125588297843933,
-0.21088667213916779,
0.4383123517036438,
-0.5000255703926086,
0.10313844680786133,
0.3427070677280426,
-0.21857550740242004,
0.40688982605934143,
0.27078235149383545,
0.19228987395763397,
0.4679327607154846,
0.1992301642894745,
0.3038206398487091,
-0.1087624654173851,
0.2558070719242096,
0.501356303691864,
-0.679482102394104,
0.11921215057373047,
0.219136580824852,
-0.04281887039542198,
-0.32505300641059875,
-0.74540114402771,
-0.09638204425573349,
-0.46965542435646057,
-0.031468942761421204,
0.12152458727359772,
0.17170406877994537,
-0.04904777929186821,
-0.33231571316719055,
0.46525174379348755,
-0.03887909650802612,
-1.0860971212387085,
0.4610568583011627,
-0.20047935843467712,
0.16549526154994965,
0.23238448798656464,
-0.06867548823356628,
0.11991838365793228,
-0.911069393157959,
0.08032362163066864,
-0.1837177276611328,
-0.030910462141036987,
0.16555094718933105,
0.025570496916770935,
-0.5976939797401428,
-0.1402900218963623,
-0.26077765226364136,
0.36935386061668396,
0.7270448803901672,
-0.2059071809053421,
-0.19347915053367615,
0.39659804105758667,
0.09889820963144302,
0.1801643967628479,
-0.43643301725387573,
-0.17249345779418945,
0.6742388010025024,
0.12146184593439102,
0.05520857870578766,
0.1982937902212143,
0.27596813440322876,
-0.6640547513961792,
-0.34430599212646484,
-0.4141635000705719,
-0.21961882710456848,
0.32535091042518616,
0.6536690592765808,
0.16078421473503113,
-0.37136736512184143,
0.17633649706840515,
-0.12991447746753693,
-0.36959943175315857,
0.30941882729530334,
0.6920474767684937,
-0.1165887862443924,
0.21480035781860352,
0.2856520712375641,
0.3218632638454437,
-0.39954614639282227,
-0.01862494647502899,
0.09652659296989441,
-0.44520023465156555,
0.18240784108638763,
-0.18540333211421967,
-0.058797437697649,
0.06312858313322067,
0.07451882213354111,
0.11920313537120819,
0.086879663169384,
0.46366891264915466,
0.46635451912879944,
0.42163997888565063,
0.044101983308792114,
-0.04608649015426636,
-0.056355345994234085,
-0.1208793967962265,
0.033058252185583115,
-0.43535032868385315,
-0.4411945939064026,
0.13291291892528534,
0.03439128026366234,
-0.05205395445227623,
0.19692325592041016,
0.6872618198394775,
0.15814946591854095,
0.47438162565231323,
-0.02228921838104725,
0.6238585710525513,
-0.13747110962867737,
-0.6653119921684265,
0.005569254979491234,
-0.689630925655365,
0.16075892746448517,
0.005818882025778294,
0.1302529126405716,
-0.09580639749765396,
0.11245522648096085,
-0.0733136311173439,
0.4480176270008087,
-0.40729060769081116,
-0.728614091873169,
-0.3066180646419525,
-0.14358565211296082,
0.20517417788505554,
0.19443722069263458,
-0.8427682518959045,
-0.016017816960811615,
0.07821018993854523,
0.13800442218780518,
0.08728744834661484,
-0.7716372609138489,
0.4982152581214905,
0.3266823887825012,
0.29778754711151123,
-0.4358222186565399,
-0.6133691072463989,
0.3398430049419403,
0.0008115690434351563,
-0.06889476627111435,
-0.2630477845668793,
-0.2097768634557724,
0.03330204635858536,
0.25256091356277466,
-0.9064115285873413,
-0.12619344890117645,
-0.21025525033473969,
-0.0011035791831091046,
-0.3317670524120331,
-0.03083929419517517,
0.3772600591182709,
0.5507121086120605,
0.4246569275856018,
-0.026239177212119102,
0.25072264671325684,
-0.33621686697006226,
0.6960396766662598,
-0.4633791446685791,
0.1358485221862793,
-0.4473685324192047,
-0.07796334475278854,
-0.4804973900318146,
-0.06265181303024292,
0.1779477298259735,
-0.508569061756134,
0.13962557911872864,
-0.023444509133696556,
0.44760116934776306,
0.2348291575908661,
-0.3160485327243805,
-0.606510579586029,
0.06307124346494675,
0.6134640574455261,
-0.41209161281585693,
0.4277108609676361,
-0.0628918781876564,
-0.14375081658363342,
-0.2804625928401947,
-0.3093273937702179,
-0.5448406338691711,
0.24281904101371765,
-0.5709865689277649,
-0.6117291450500488,
-0.17022208869457245,
0.17498564720153809,
0.041044920682907104,
-0.26002463698387146,
0.0224932711571455,
-0.22985891997814178,
-0.45229682326316833,
-0.356256365776062,
-0.3088114261627197,
-0.23425064980983734,
-0.12056086957454681,
0.2414274960756302,
0.33796724677085876,
0.2004583179950714,
0.02434753067791462,
0.26404520869255066,
0.7439568638801575,
0.8552227020263672,
0.36592742800712585,
-0.48150166869163513,
-0.2003719061613083,
0.7330484390258789,
0.38896146416664124,
-0.3743974566459656,
-0.2795090079307556,
-0.09159290045499802,
0.244191512465477,
-0.6377320885658264,
-0.477974534034729,
0.06702300906181335,
0.39766496419906616,
-0.6475969552993774,
-0.24573707580566406,
-0.14543268084526062,
0.15138515830039978,
-0.05143584683537483,
0.10047632455825806,
0.2538785934448242,
-0.852575421333313,
-0.03981752693653107,
-0.507796585559845,
0.5429819822311401,
-0.3337964117527008,
-0.3173215985298157,
0.009683601558208466,
-0.5841299295425415,
0.52524733543396,
0.13495340943336487,
0.33311033248901367,
0.11209604144096375,
-0.31589534878730774,
0.0738513395190239,
0.34742823243141174,
-0.1807694286108017,
0.11258164793252945,
-0.22054025530815125,
-0.7307034730911255,
0.6437774896621704,
-0.22697699069976807,
-0.320976197719574,
-0.17980700731277466,
-0.5295626521110535,
0.561562716960907,
-0.013137146830558777,
0.04310344159603119,
0.46513867378234863,
-0.6808609366416931,
0.3590750992298126,
-0.6919519901275635,
-0.04214951768517494,
-0.12488862127065659,
-0.3101285398006439,
0.2173812985420227,
0.046995457261800766,
-0.18431684374809265,
0.304227739572525,
-1.2072900533676147,
0.1607126146554947,
0.044843971729278564,
-0.9485045671463013,
0.0636695995926857,
-0.07733946293592453,
0.10844163596630096,
-0.3700639307498932,
0.23467926681041718,
0.18729598820209503,
0.2761664092540741,
-0.7436670660972595,
-0.42884063720703125,
0.7367479801177979,
-0.4734019339084625,
-0.3110135793685913,
0.7301194667816162,
-0.6075019836425781,
0.1582648754119873,
0.5701740980148315,
-0.05619579926133156,
-0.1299300640821457,
-0.3827362060546875,
-0.15343134105205536,
-0.14335161447525024,
0.11019224673509598,
-0.20762553811073303,
-0.15345393121242523,
-0.35101544857025146,
0.7532027363777161,
0.4680759310722351,
-0.3804306387901306,
-0.01673550345003605,
0.3356735110282898,
-0.6517314910888672,
-0.23444432020187378,
0.6809055209159851,
-0.6821456551551819,
-0.6359543204307556,
0.3701428174972534,
-0.4122578203678131,
0.49610665440559387,
-0.26673924922943115,
-0.27282047271728516,
-0.4233510494232178,
0.5408026576042175,
0.17880591750144958,
0.09293506294488907,
0.17310939729213715,
0.6001586318016052,
-0.07766497135162354,
-0.29195934534072876,
-0.2600959539413452,
-0.2161770612001419,
-0.2012598216533661,
-0.43935754895210266,
0.5250706076622009,
-0.646009624004364,
-0.338650643825531,
0.02156800590455532,
0.11243455857038498,
-0.13244329392910004,
0.2698841691017151,
-0.12453172355890274,
0.14750179648399353,
0.1332571655511856,
0.3029041886329651,
-0.6466705799102783,
0.6627457737922668,
-0.23608514666557312,
-0.23051311075687408,
0.7166445255279541,
-0.5187574028968811,
0.22242207825183868,
-0.5292931199073792,
0.21153609454631805,
0.6205963492393494,
0.21623626351356506,
0.22893978655338287,
0.15683262050151825,
0.14022834599018097,
-0.43208780884742737,
-0.017233707010746002,
-0.41672277450561523,
0.00232185167260468,
0.008453703485429287,
0.5448574423789978,
0.505917489528656,
0.339948832988739,
0.4842095673084259,
0.19753335416316986,
-0.7167328596115112,
-0.37747326493263245,
0.46393021941185,
0.20431625843048096,
-0.04280200973153114,
-0.19009843468666077,
0.24580931663513184,
-0.037828244268894196,
0.34078332781791687,
-0.2008805274963379,
-0.10037354379892349,
0.2229211926460266,
-0.156010702252388,
-0.20619048178195953,
0.3633553087711334,
-0.2061171978712082,
-0.3663553297519684,
-0.09472823888063431,
0.5774939060211182,
0.34168121218681335,
0.013609029352664948,
0.13296888768672943,
0.03741723671555519,
0.1052771657705307,
-0.08910224586725235,
0.7574673891067505,
-0.8367147445678711,
-0.11188498884439468,
-0.06511034071445465,
-0.23002703487873077,
-0.25314825773239136,
-0.2472730129957199,
0.14611630141735077,
-0.44575244188308716,
-0.4906062185764313,
0.24962489306926727,
-0.8033079504966736,
-0.8122254014015198,
0.5471253991127014,
-0.027365906164050102,
-0.11375201493501663,
-0.5724917650222778,
0.7395089864730835,
-0.16450925171375275,
-0.6216681599617004,
0.1809120625257492,
0.59539395570755,
0.2905939817428589,
-0.3470320999622345,
0.15300172567367554,
-0.08570542186498642,
-0.3483440577983856,
0.5728558301925659,
-0.05191979929804802,
0.20688790082931519,
-0.028249412775039673,
-0.14046479761600494,
-0.05613945424556732,
0.07772860676050186,
-0.314060240983963,
-0.14610612392425537,
0.36873745918273926,
-0.4813104569911957,
-0.18596090376377106,
-0.3092072606086731,
0.30012986063957214,
-0.3438418507575989,
0.26296466588974,
0.7317006587982178
] |
233528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstem | Brainstem | The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior stalk-like part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is continuous with the thalamus of the diencephalon through the tentorial notch, and sometimes the diencephalon is included in the brainstem.
The brainstem is very small, making up around only 2.6 percent of the brain's total weight. It has the critical roles of regulating cardiac, and respiratory function, helping to control heart rate and breathing rate. It also provides the main motor and sensory nerve supply to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Ten pairs of cranial nerves come from the brainstem. Other roles include the regulation of the central nervous system and the body's sleep cycle. It is also of prime importance in the conveyance of motor and sensory pathways from the rest of the brain to the body, and from the body back to the brain. These pathways include the corticospinal tract (motor function), the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch, vibration sensation, and proprioception), and the spinothalamic tract (pain, temperature, itch, and crude touch).
Structure
The parts of the brainstem are the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata, and sometimes the diencephalon.
Midbrain
The midbrain is further subdivided into three parts: tectum, tegmentum, and the ventral tegmental area. The tectum forms the ceiling. The tectum comprises the paired structure of the superior and inferior colliculi and is the dorsal covering of the cerebral aqueduct. The inferior colliculus is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several peripheral brainstem nuclei, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex. Its inferior brachium (arm-like process) reaches to the medial geniculate nucleus of the diencephalon. The superior colliculus is positioned above the inferior colliculus, and marks the rostral midbrain. It is involved in the special sense of vision and sends its superior brachium to the lateral geniculate body of the diencephalon.
The tegmentum which forms the floor of the midbrain, is ventral to the cerebral aqueduct. Several nuclei, tracts, and the reticular formation are contained here.
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is composed of paired cerebral peduncles. These transmit axons of upper motor neurons.
Midbrain nuclei
The midbrain consists of:
Periaqueductal gray: The area of gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains various neurons involved in the pain desensitization pathway. Neurons synapse here and, when stimulated, cause activation of neurons in the nucleus raphe magnus, which then project down into the posterior grey column of the spinal cord and prevent pain sensation transmission.
Oculomotor nerve nucleus: This is the third cranial nerve nucleus.
Trochlear nerve nucleus: This is the fourth cranial nerve.
Red nucleus: This is a motor nucleus that sends a descending tract to the lower motor neurons.
Substantia nigra pars compacta: This is a concentration of neurons in the ventral portion of the midbrain that uses dopamine as its neurotransmitter and is involved in both motor function and emotion. Its dysfunction is implicated in Parkinson's disease.
Reticular formation: This is a large area in the midbrain that is involved in various important functions of the midbrain. In particular, it contains lower motor neurons, is involved in the pain desensitization pathway, is involved in the arousal and consciousness systems, and contains the locus coeruleus, which is involved in intensive alertness modulation and in autonomic reflexes.
Central tegmental tract: Directly anterior to the floor of the fourth ventricle, this is a pathway by which many tracts project up to the cortex and down to the spinal cord.
Ventral tegmental area: A dopaminergic nucleus, known as group A10 cells is located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain.
Rostromedial tegmental nucleus: A GABAergic nucleus located adjacent to the ventral tegmental area.
Pons
The pons lies between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain. The pons is separated from the midbrain by the superior pontine sulcus, and from the medulla by the inferior pontine sulcus. It contains tracts that carry signals from the cerebrum to the medulla and to the cerebellum and also tracts that carry sensory signals to the thalamus. The pons is connected to the cerebellum by the cerebellar peduncles. The pons houses the respiratory pneumotaxic center and apneustic center that make up the pontine respiratory group in the respiratory center. The pons co-ordinates activities of the cerebellar hemispheres.
The pons and medulla oblongata are parts of the hindbrain that form much of the brainstem.
Medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata, often just referred to as the medulla, is the lower half of the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord. Its upper part is continuous with the pons. The medulla contains the cardiac, dorsal and ventral respiratory groups, and vasomotor centres, dealing with heart rate, breathing and blood pressure. Another important medullary structure is the area postrema whose functions include the control of vomiting.
Appearance
From the front
In the medial part of the medulla is the anterior median fissure. Moving laterally on each side are the medullary pyramids. The pyramids contain the fibers of the corticospinal tract (also called the pyramidal tract), or the upper motor neuronal axons as they head inferiorly to synapse on lower motor neuronal cell bodies within the anterior grey column of the spinal cord.
The anterolateral sulcus is lateral to the pyramids. Emerging from the anterolateral sulci are the CN XII (hypoglossal nerve) rootlets. Lateral to these rootlets and the anterolateral sulci are the olives. The olives are swellings in the medulla containing underlying inferior nucleary nuclei (containing various nuclei and afferent fibers). Lateral (and dorsal) to the olives are the rootlets for CN IX (glossopharyngeal), CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory nerve). The pyramids end at the pontine medulla junction, noted most obviously by the large basal pons. From this junction, CN VI (abducens nerve), CN VII (facial nerve) and CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) emerge. At the level of the midpons, CN V (the trigeminal nerve) emerges. Cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) emerges ventrally from the midbrain, while the CN IV (the trochlear nerve) emerges out from the dorsal aspect of the midbrain.
Between the two pyramids can be seen a decussation of fibers which marks the transition from the medulla to the spinal cord. The medulla is above the decussation and the spinal cord below.
From behind
The most medial part of the medulla is the posterior median sulcus. Moving laterally on each side is the gracile fasciculus, and lateral to that is the cuneate fasciculus. Superior to each of these, and directly inferior to the obex, are the gracile and cuneate tubercles, respectively. Underlying these are their respective nuclei. The obex marks the end of the fourth ventricle and the beginning of the central canal. The posterior intermediate sulcus separates the gracile fasciculus from the cuneate fasciculus. Lateral to the cuneate fasciculus is the lateral funiculus.
Superior to the obex is the floor of the fourth ventricle. In the floor of the fourth ventricle, various nuclei can be visualized by the small bumps that they make in the overlying tissue. In the midline and directly superior to the obex is the vagal trigone and superior to that it the hypoglossal trigone. Underlying each of these are motor nuclei for the respective cranial nerves. Superior to these trigones are fibers running laterally in both directions. These fibers are known collectively as the striae medullares. Continuing in a rostral direction, the large bumps are called the facial colliculi. Each facial colliculus, contrary to their names, do not contain the facial nerve nuclei. Instead, they have facial nerve axons traversing superficial to underlying abducens (CN VI) nuclei. Lateral to all these bumps previously discussed is an indented line, or sulcus that runs rostrally, and is known as the sulcus limitans. This separates the medial motor neurons from the lateral sensory neurons. Lateral to the sulcus limitans is the area of the vestibular system, which is involved in special sensation. Moving rostrally, the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles are found connecting the midbrain to the cerebellum. Directly rostral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, there is the superior medullary velum and then the two trochlear nerves. This marks the end of the pons as the inferior colliculus is directly rostral and marks the caudal midbrain. Middle cerebellar peduncle is located inferior and lateral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, connecting pons to the cerebellum. Likewise, inferior cerebellar peduncle is found connecting the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum.
Blood supply
The main supply of blood to the brainstem is provided by the basilar arteries and the vertebral arteries.
Development
The human brainstem emerges from two of the three primary brain vesicles formed of the neural tube. The mesencephalon is the second of the three primary vesicles, and does not further differentiate into a secondary brain vesicle. This will become the midbrain. The third primary vesicle, the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) will further differentiate into two secondary vesicles, the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon will become the cerebellum and the pons. The more caudal myelencephalon will become the medulla.
Function
There are three main functions of the brainstem:
The brainstem plays a role in conduction. That is, all information relayed from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa must traverse the brainstem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and include the spinothalamic tract for pain and temperature sensation and the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) including the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus for touch, proprioception, and pressure sensation. The facial sensations have similar pathways and will travel in the spinothalamic tract and the DCML. Descending tracts are the axons of upper motor neurons destined to synapse on lower motor neurons in the ventral horn and posterior horn. In addition, there are upper motor neurons that originate in the brainstem's vestibular, red, tectal, and reticular nuclei, which also descend and synapse in the spinal cord.
The cranial nerves III-XII emerge from the brainstem. These cranial nerves supply the face, head, and viscera. (The first two pairs of cranial nerves arise from the cerebrum).
The brainstem has integrative functions being involved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain sensitivity control, alertness, awareness, and consciousness. Thus, brainstem damage is a very serious and often life-threatening problem.
Cranial nerves
Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves either target or are sourced from the brainstem nuclei. The nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV) are located in the midbrain. The nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) are located in the pons. The nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII) are located in the medulla. The fibers of these cranial nerves exit the brainstem from these nuclei.
Clinical significance
Diseases of the brainstem can result in abnormalities in the function of cranial nerves that may lead to visual disturbances, pupil abnormalities, changes in sensation, muscle weakness, hearing problems, vertigo, swallowing and speech difficulty, voice change, and co-ordination problems. Localizing neurological lesions in the brainstem may be very precise, although it relies on a clear understanding on the functions of brainstem anatomical structures and how to test them.
Brainstem stroke syndrome can cause a range of impairments including locked-in syndrome.
Duret haemorrhages are areas of bleeding in the midbrain and upper pons due to a downward traumatic displacement of the brainstem.
Cysts known as syrinxes can affect the brainstem, in a condition, called syringobulbia. These fluid-filled cavities can be congenital, acquired or the result of a tumor.
Criteria for claiming brainstem death in the UK have developed in order to make the decision of when to stop ventilation of somebody who could not otherwise sustain life. These determining factors are that the patient is irreversibly unconscious and incapable of breathing unaided. All other possible causes must be ruled out that might otherwise indicate a temporary condition. The state of irreversible brain damage has to be unequivocal. There are brainstem reflexes that are checked for by two senior doctors so that imaging technology is unnecessary. The absence of the cough and gag reflexes, of the corneal reflex and the vestibulo–ocular reflex need to be established; the pupils of the eyes must be fixed and dilated; there must be an absence of motor response to stimulation and an absence of breathing marked by concentrations of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. All of these tests must be repeated after a certain time before death can be declared.
Additional images
See also
Triune brain - reptilian brain
References
External links
Comparative Neuroscience at Wikiversity
Neurophysiology | [
0.4627489149570465,
0.17961448431015015,
0.31301823258399963,
0.4149617850780487,
0.10245730727910995,
0.4988864064216614,
0.29903796315193176,
0.6662934422492981,
-0.25444722175598145,
-0.5769489407539368,
-0.299938827753067,
0.5303136706352234,
0.3097172677516937,
0.2688910663127899,
-0.4654325246810913,
-0.5492405295372009,
1.0069586038589478,
0.21667899191379547,
-0.3150724172592163,
-0.117892324924469,
-0.042221978306770325,
-0.3694590628147125,
0.4397355616092682,
0.09920965135097504,
0.6190478801727295,
-0.5623992681503296,
-0.3142642378807068,
0.04597532004117966,
0.46695199608802795,
-0.15288880467414856,
-0.4708678722381592,
0.4574944078922272,
-0.2496677041053772,
-0.5620196461677551,
-0.1369154006242752,
-0.1270734816789627,
-0.4827275276184082,
-0.6448879241943359,
-0.45483508706092834,
-0.42008933424949646,
-0.2371656596660614,
0.5210182666778564,
-0.5208277106285095,
0.504977822303772,
-0.641721785068512,
-0.3486010432243347,
-0.7914801836013794,
0.6796745657920837,
-0.32338544726371765,
0.8535452485084534,
-0.879345178604126,
-0.026840174570679665,
0.4640255868434906,
-0.06710702925920486,
0.07945066690444946,
0.08005056530237198,
-0.7606887817382812,
-0.15724705159664154,
0.17670316994190216,
-0.48147720098495483,
0.047999415546655655,
0.4296300411224365,
0.27494552731513977,
-0.19437304139137268,
-0.12642160058021545,
-0.48163995146751404,
0.43091094493865967,
0.1393614113330841,
-0.6319215893745422,
0.20923790335655212,
-0.45117175579071045,
-0.08793329447507858,
-0.1089179739356041,
0.3509734272956848,
-0.736237108707428,
-0.46372196078300476,
0.2778570353984833,
-0.19331417977809906,
0.0832127034664154,
0.20198528468608856,
-0.46530699729919434,
0.27051568031311035,
0.32856208086013794,
0.053392913192510605,
0.3019044101238251,
0.5261170268058777,
-0.5432460308074951,
-0.22835750877857208,
-0.4730885326862335,
-0.08993944525718689,
-0.15690398216247559,
0.006955883000046015,
-0.0736662968993187,
0.23895883560180664,
0.38502198457717896,
-0.10784677416086197,
1.1291111707687378,
-0.5429465770721436,
-0.18196770548820496,
-0.11830426007509232,
0.051652636379003525,
0.351092129945755,
0.5468308925628662,
-0.09382128715515137,
0.18552222847938538,
-0.21204502880573273,
0.4776962399482727,
-0.759783148765564,
-0.24845914542675018,
-0.030942069366574287,
-0.7444670796394348,
-0.16384956240653992,
-0.18900223076343536,
0.12670107185840607,
-0.2826369106769562,
0.36890918016433716,
0.3695201873779297,
-0.02825029380619526,
-0.7223193049430847,
-0.6746242046356201,
-0.21236643195152283,
0.6900784969329834,
-0.09728184342384338,
-0.3426551818847656,
-0.4729019105434418,
-0.008676969446241856,
-0.10420883446931839,
-0.0015088323270902038,
-0.2648802101612091,
-0.023258578032255173,
-0.017553795129060745,
0.43523991107940674,
0.20808246731758118,
-0.287561297416687,
-0.2915513813495636,
0.13433930277824402,
0.4834636151790619,
0.44860193133354187,
0.2825751304626465,
0.5024322271347046,
-0.7290050983428955,
-1.0545378923416138,
-0.6538300514221191,
-0.577624499797821,
0.5993026494979858,
-1.075728416442871,
-0.6884155869483948,
-0.1530863344669342,
-0.12752167880535126,
-0.006437256466597319,
-0.29613396525382996,
0.2622608244419098,
0.3487444221973419,
-0.46561121940612793,
0.1653820276260376,
0.4856351912021637,
0.6527544856071472,
0.12933240830898285,
0.30042022466659546,
0.0829114094376564,
0.5693393349647522,
-0.3570280075073242,
-0.18172767758369446,
-0.228294238448143,
-0.6571716666221619,
0.28377193212509155,
1.1396377086639404,
-0.12979063391685486,
0.10866653919219971,
0.3549414575099945,
-0.029624169692397118,
-0.3729577660560608,
0.8309870958328247,
0.11076556146144867,
-0.5159094333648682,
-0.4256154000759125,
0.19915728271007538,
0.3818363845348358,
0.5792570114135742,
-0.040418852120637894,
-0.6302924752235413,
0.12088420987129211,
-0.27876368165016174,
-0.6953531503677368,
-0.3174315392971039,
-0.3047902584075928,
0.3537828326225281,
-0.41356486082077026,
-0.6659169793128967,
-0.30639368295669556,
0.7886519432067871,
-0.7835337519645691,
0.3396434783935547,
-0.10233112424612045,
1.603934407234192,
0.03681602701544762,
-0.17186148464679718,
0.032511770725250244,
-0.06544796377420425,
0.5188306570053101,
-0.2058199793100357,
-0.6316693425178528,
0.49007031321525574,
-0.22906066477298737,
-0.453267902135849,
0.4737451374530792,
0.29407453536987305,
-0.43490350246429443,
0.43578028678894043,
-0.08717402070760727,
-0.149269238114357,
-0.5174375772476196,
0.15815994143486023,
-0.5709447264671326,
0.21707700192928314,
-0.49818068742752075,
-0.40228143334388733,
0.3058750033378601,
-0.41065987944602966,
-0.3236159384250641,
0.6953926682472229,
-0.08475224673748016,
0.21795210242271423,
0.6004643440246582,
-0.22237853705883026,
0.9998343586921692,
0.3400419354438782,
0.2088371366262436,
0.27752989530563354,
-0.5603677034378052,
-0.10821351408958435,
-0.4157065153121948,
0.0782027617096901,
0.37089869379997253,
-0.8269690871238708,
-0.22370201349258423,
0.34253260493278503,
-0.2306748628616333,
0.3472091257572174,
-0.6886176466941833,
-0.04467148333787918,
0.35543292760849,
-1.1064091920852661,
-0.024231774732470512,
0.31373268365859985,
-0.2716103792190552,
0.034389205276966095,
0.46373307704925537,
-0.2562974691390991,
0.3883693814277649,
-0.4053814709186554,
0.6337043046951294,
0.5197458863258362,
-0.6334709525108337,
0.4511347711086273,
-0.5640146136283875,
0.5576181411743164,
0.22332735359668732,
0.5320954918861389,
0.15934798121452332,
0.011396723799407482,
0.3887873589992523,
-0.0744500532746315,
-0.15250149369239807,
-0.5250773429870605,
-0.7935028076171875,
0.3745478391647339,
-0.27552008628845215,
0.84300696849823,
0.1489599049091339,
0.7917841076850891,
-0.21921110153198242,
-0.09865907579660416,
0.06902848184108734,
0.10865162312984467,
-0.736146867275238,
0.397616446018219,
-0.3856968879699707,
0.0038627644535154104,
-0.7998384237289429,
-0.04296182096004486,
0.46800345182418823,
0.5443801283836365,
0.19694040715694427,
0.18295685946941376,
-0.007869599387049675,
-0.49866989254951477,
-0.4781281352043152,
0.47149473428726196,
-0.1958802044391632,
-0.3258254826068878,
-0.08838216960430145,
0.15643002092838287,
0.27217480540275574,
-0.2117321938276291,
0.7619134187698364,
0.17363998293876648,
-0.08048417419195175,
0.061143141239881516,
-0.53933185338974,
-0.859366238117218,
0.40285784006118774,
-0.037805285304784775,
0.07524507492780685,
-0.07982442528009415,
0.38934022188186646,
-0.04285017028450966,
0.7016725540161133,
-5.358920574188232,
-0.4733859598636627,
-0.31689658761024475,
-0.6461207270622253,
0.8012832999229431,
0.504484236240387,
0.19573800265789032,
-0.10892743617296219,
0.08151330053806305,
-0.42570582032203674,
-0.19560156762599945,
-0.17511077225208282,
-0.3470093905925751,
0.7749633193016052,
0.11405059695243835,
-0.4772499203681946,
-0.765417218208313,
-0.07615955173969269,
-0.013523301109671593,
0.2540401518344879,
0.0678265318274498,
-0.16921360790729523,
-0.39026734232902527,
0.41454198956489563,
-0.38896334171295166,
0.007410907186567783,
-0.6192973852157593,
-0.013581239618360996,
-0.3729713261127472,
-0.31412017345428467,
-0.10143505781888962,
-0.5476459264755249,
-0.18934597074985504,
-0.34010571241378784,
0.3608165681362152,
0.1523357331752777,
0.15875186026096344,
0.326442688703537,
0.5432097315788269,
-0.7239683866500854,
-0.408911794424057,
-0.003996049053966999,
0.5295287370681763,
-0.29544296860694885,
1.1164171695709229,
-0.3260146975517273,
-0.7133306860923767,
-0.4260164499282837,
-0.3198707699775696,
0.48915737867355347,
-0.1874491572380066,
0.20713263750076294,
-0.14372481405735016,
-0.08776938170194626,
0.4993223249912262,
-0.3150186836719513,
1.1170597076416016,
-0.2132929116487503,
-0.5761325359344482,
-0.1463862806558609,
0.42096346616744995,
-0.40059152245521545,
-0.37638911604881287,
-0.7331828474998474,
-0.1834774762392044,
0.16190016269683838,
-0.7617729306221008,
-0.12403921782970428,
0.31898337602615356,
0.311440110206604,
0.3201187551021576,
0.3845791816711426,
-0.44659489393234253,
-0.7884491682052612,
0.023512300103902817,
-0.7503957748413086,
-0.05862203240394592,
0.11442755162715912,
0.24401764571666718,
-0.166285902261734,
-0.21920201182365417,
-0.011025653220713139,
-0.6284317970275879,
0.05030094459652901,
-0.24485889077186584,
-0.34108641743659973,
-0.4007551074028015,
-0.11416614055633545,
-0.16437546908855438,
0.490274578332901,
0.4866859018802643,
-0.1446485072374344,
-0.06986367702484131,
0.5246009230613708,
-0.23447491228580475,
-0.04472248628735542,
-0.07518643885850906,
0.8502392768859863,
0.45114651322364807,
0.01017417199909687,
0.9124533534049988,
-0.2786402702331543,
-0.4990394115447998,
0.049999941140413284,
-0.8426775932312012,
0.05654306337237358,
-0.6189965009689331,
0.8345616459846497,
1.2120709419250488,
-0.23788385093212128,
-0.1685802936553955,
0.3223732113838196,
0.11178610473871231,
-0.7576903104782104,
0.12647676467895508,
-0.14725089073181152,
-0.7720686197280884,
0.6130403876304626,
1.0495615005493164,
-0.5512116551399231,
0.04946085810661316,
0.10592475533485413,
-0.2880367338657379,
0.20099224150180817,
0.08345033973455429,
-0.16371987760066986,
0.3917701542377472,
0.05439899116754532,
0.02804955281317234,
-0.23206418752670288,
0.10624437034130096,
0.1029748022556305,
0.35840433835983276,
0.7884016036987305,
-0.3030325770378113,
-0.8259584903717041,
0.20123860239982605,
0.32579511404037476,
0.33887019753456116,
-0.3276565670967102,
0.472229540348053,
0.2662026286125183,
-0.055868420749902725,
-0.22410376369953156,
-0.1517876535654068,
0.2530422508716583,
-1.149341344833374,
0.4566097855567932,
-0.8398813605308533,
0.032941777259111404,
0.335799902677536,
-0.27298516035079956,
-0.27006807923316956,
-0.020720822736620903,
0.14890645444393158,
-0.07939963042736053,
0.044279929250478745,
0.0018199102487415075,
0.0974460020661354,
-0.15030717849731445,
0.08702819794416428,
-0.4199056327342987,
-0.5917813181877136,
0.07550229877233505,
-0.17662805318832397,
0.18999885022640228,
-0.6815176010131836,
-0.4878093898296356,
-0.24891340732574463,
0.15310263633728027,
0.20578265190124512,
-0.16993413865566254,
-0.23354698717594147,
-0.645807683467865,
0.3517618179321289,
-0.04946783557534218,
-0.16318105161190033,
0.6124194264411926,
0.2589932084083557,
0.18360275030136108,
0.009746113792061806,
-0.3390040993690491,
0.6548126339912415,
-0.09165742248296738,
0.5134058594703674,
-0.2862718999385834,
0.03191687911748886,
-0.2973153591156006,
-0.11575102061033249,
-0.21066242456436157,
-0.3350016176700592,
0.16829732060432434,
-0.2082950323820114,
0.3068477511405945,
0.3036791682243347,
0.6462504267692566,
-0.39511391520500183,
0.1120651587843895,
-0.20682719349861145,
-0.45642325282096863,
0.05423935130238533,
0.27669399976730347,
-0.22970205545425415,
0.22019295394420624,
0.8520965576171875,
-0.3726905286312103,
0.6064195036888123,
0.1010880395770073,
-0.1562453806400299,
0.9630510807037354,
-0.02463565580546856,
-0.08308922499418259,
-0.221640944480896,
0.26432642340660095,
-0.14450909197330475,
0.04705369099974632,
0.1607368439435959,
-0.773882269859314,
-0.5126732587814331,
0.37570515275001526,
0.2531670033931732,
0.19946810603141785,
-0.052704107016325,
-0.4159442186355591,
-0.2926969826221466,
0.0696999579668045,
-0.05123042315244675,
-0.22065697610378265,
0.5948611497879028,
-0.43163323402404785,
-0.12227995693683624,
0.15724493563175201,
-0.13763204216957092,
0.13699588179588318,
0.11345317214727402,
-0.6266580820083618,
0.25639745593070984,
0.4396469295024872,
0.06433466076850891,
0.4746370017528534,
1.1103495359420776,
0.9211542010307312,
-0.34518882632255554,
0.4494720995426178,
0.23812934756278992,
0.9205246567726135,
0.15471185743808746,
-0.6690282225608826,
-0.286323219537735,
-0.1374388486146927,
0.986783504486084,
-0.669268786907196,
-0.27111008763313293,
0.00723067345097661,
0.6971746683120728,
-0.21523378789424896,
-0.10372570902109146,
-0.40049463510513306,
0.4095008373260498,
-0.1145695224404335,
0.37653040885925293,
-0.3132914900779724,
-0.03765185549855232,
0.17053179442882538,
0.34482094645500183,
-0.008171443827450275,
-0.9303847551345825,
0.1998741328716278,
0.5323433876037598,
-0.6058493256568909,
0.444374680519104,
0.09146322309970856,
0.15613973140716553,
-0.3324289917945862,
0.003987046889960766,
0.026491396129131317,
0.3804289400577545,
0.22495080530643463,
0.19284191727638245,
-0.4142909049987793,
0.24165646731853485,
0.3881511390209198,
0.16924534738063812,
-0.2595974802970886,
0.41092079877853394,
-0.5988495349884033,
0.2667611837387085,
-0.21752403676509857,
0.39859646558761597,
0.16244512796401978,
-0.5985050797462463,
-0.3492298126220703,
0.43514975905418396,
0.4528100788593292,
0.5381812453269958,
0.13576027750968933,
0.4993429481983185,
0.7661176323890686,
0.3796435296535492,
0.3510138690471649,
-0.884272575378418,
0.16888581216335297,
0.05946330726146698,
-1.0815649032592773,
0.3633089065551758,
0.5252312421798706,
0.005540505051612854,
-0.5053370594978333,
-0.5949245691299438,
-0.6333562135696411,
-0.2479790300130844,
-0.13119114935398102,
0.09640294313430786,
0.1505485624074936,
-0.593035101890564,
-0.2506116032600403,
0.42409130930900574,
-0.3653329312801361,
0.1080121323466301,
0.9846082329750061,
0.1286124736070633,
0.3027334213256836,
0.14848726987838745,
-0.15935713052749634,
0.09163044393062592,
0.33324363827705383,
-0.10612759739160538,
-0.27320197224617004,
0.3125855326652527,
0.6963257789611816,
0.4985290467739105,
0.052120912820100784,
-0.25579705834388733,
1.118931770324707,
0.08167283236980438,
-0.43705928325653076,
0.298836350440979,
-0.425991952419281,
-0.3123854100704193,
0.8151583671569824,
0.34125369787216187,
0.4978961944580078,
-0.3769271969795227,
0.40022292733192444,
-0.6414257287979126,
0.49555549025535583,
0.22906161844730377,
0.44679567217826843,
-0.043578438460826874,
0.4437175989151001,
0.6755732893943787,
-1.029050588607788,
0.5486768484115601,
0.12003925442695618,
0.2615894675254822,
0.017950860783457756,
0.5200825929641724,
0.11620067805051804,
-0.2186635136604309,
0.33701977133750916,
-0.41595590114593506,
0.8975096344947815,
0.4752774238586426,
0.10469525307416916,
0.6106038093566895,
0.2615104019641876,
0.33345717191696167,
-0.5816329717636108,
0.025804119184613228,
0.046054400503635406,
-0.30239394307136536,
0.8044183254241943,
-0.6581034660339355,
-0.18757902085781097,
0.013533903285861015,
0.18177996575832367,
-0.08422503620386124,
0.20763982832431793,
0.06626208126544952,
-0.5937695503234863,
-0.18525034189224243,
-0.6290575265884399,
-0.2145971953868866,
-0.6227708458900452,
-0.2560291290283203,
0.1406855434179306,
0.19929471611976624,
0.004843414295464754,
-0.3082311451435089,
0.04916667193174362,
0.08952123671770096,
-0.4971720278263092,
0.8795236349105835,
-0.7218953371047974,
0.07885932922363281,
0.4280162453651428,
-0.3078194558620453,
0.21662916243076324,
0.2030157446861267,
0.09151845425367355,
-0.17205841839313507,
0.7655928134918213,
-0.3675784766674042,
0.24082164466381073,
-0.1946718692779541,
0.437752366065979,
-0.10576740652322769,
-0.49418434500694275,
-0.4705456793308258,
-0.241178959608078,
-0.14987586438655853,
-0.1769164651632309,
-0.37277480959892273,
0.4341281056404114,
0.272934228181839,
0.4841304421424866,
0.35952427983283997,
-0.43825748562812805,
0.039400503039360046,
-0.4167092740535736,
-0.23330822587013245,
0.13755372166633606,
0.34235700964927673,
0.7680959701538086,
-0.0034105528611689806,
-0.04286786913871765,
0.8628437519073486,
-0.03871548920869827,
-1.0685449838638306,
-0.01850437931716442,
-0.5865717530250549,
0.2191007435321808,
-0.7752681970596313,
-0.03185562044382095,
-0.27082571387290955,
-0.5383203029632568,
0.48195043206214905,
0.29295605421066284,
0.24393624067306519,
-0.424868106842041,
0.07348836213350296,
0.10589855164289474,
0.15815940499305725,
0.3554841876029968,
-0.6515901684761047,
0.062484271824359894,
0.008116768673062325,
-0.7559801340103149,
-0.4629861116409302,
0.2601577937602997,
0.48147767782211304,
-0.537592351436615,
0.19484977424144745,
-0.5764303207397461,
-0.16689513623714447,
0.47335395216941833,
0.3322995603084564,
-0.23099449276924133,
-0.17707523703575134,
0.6948522329330444
] |
233529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftershock | Aftershock | In seismology, an aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to known laws. In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known as doublet earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.
Distribution of aftershocks
Most aftershocks are located over the full area of fault rupture and either occur along the fault plane itself or along other faults within the volume affected by the strain associated with the main shock. Typically, aftershocks are found up to a distance equal to the rupture length away from the fault plane.
The pattern of aftershocks helps confirm the size of area that slipped during the main shock. In the case of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2008 Sichuan earthquake the aftershock distribution shows in both cases that the epicenter (where the rupture initiated) lies to one end of the final area of slip, implying strongly asymmetric rupture propagation.
Aftershock size and frequency with time
Aftershocks rates and magnitudes follow several well-established empirical laws.
Omori's law
The frequency of aftershocks decreases roughly with the reciprocal of time after the main shock. This empirical relation was first described by Fusakichi Omori in 1894 and is known as Omori's law. It is expressed as
where k and c are constants, which vary between earthquake sequences. A modified version of Omori's law, now commonly used, was proposed by Utsu in 1961.
where p is a third constant which modifies the decay rate and typically falls in the range 0.7–1.5.
According to these equations, the rate of aftershocks decreases quickly with time. The rate of aftershocks is proportional to the inverse of time since the mainshock and this relationship can be used to estimate the probability of future aftershock occurrence. Thus whatever the probability of an aftershock are on the first day, the second day will have 1/2 the probability of the first day and the tenth day will have approximately 1/10 the probability of the first day (when p is equal to 1). These patterns describe only the statistical behavior of aftershocks; the actual times, numbers and locations of the aftershocks are stochastic, while tending to follow these patterns. As this is an empirical law, values of the parameters are obtained by fitting to data after a mainshock has occurred, and they imply no specific physical mechanism in any given case.
The Utsu-Omori law has also been obtained theoretically, as
the solution of a differential equation describing the evolution of the aftershock activity, where the interpretation of the evolution equation is based on the idea of deactivation of the faults in the vicinity of the main shock of the earthquake. Also, previously Utsu-Omori law was obtained from a nucleation process. Results show that the spatial and temporal distribution of aftershocks is separable into a dependence on space and a dependence on time. And more recently, through the application of a fractional solution of the reactive differential equation, a double power law model shows the number density decay in several possible ways, among which is a particular case the Utsu-Omori Law.
Båth's law
The other main law describing aftershocks is known as Båth's Law and this states that the difference in magnitude between a main shock and its largest aftershock is approximately constant, independent of the main shock magnitude, typically 1.1–1.2 on the Moment magnitude scale.
Gutenberg–Richter law
Aftershock sequences also typically follow the Gutenberg–Richter law of size scaling, which refers to the relationship between the magnitude and total number of earthquakes in a region in a given time period.
Where:
is the number of events greater or equal to
is magnitude
and are constants
In summary, there are more small aftershocks and fewer large aftershocks.
Effect of aftershocks
Aftershocks are dangerous because they are usually unpredictable, can be of a large magnitude, and can collapse buildings that are damaged from the main shock. Bigger earthquakes have more and larger aftershocks and the sequences can last for years or even longer especially when a large event occurs in a seismically quiet area; see, for example, the New Madrid Seismic Zone, where events still follow Omori's law from the main shocks of 1811–1812. An aftershock sequence is deemed to have ended when the rate of seismicity drops back to a background level; i.e., no further decay in the number of events with time can be detected.
Land movement around the New Madrid is reported to be no more than a year, in contrast to the San Andreas Fault which averages up to a year across California. Aftershocks on the San Andreas are now believed to top out at 10 years while earthquakes in New Madrid are considered aftershocks nearly 200 years after the 1812 New Madrid earthquake.
Foreshocks
Some scientists have tried to use foreshocks to help predict upcoming earthquakes, having one of their few successes with the 1975 Haicheng earthquake in China. On the East Pacific Rise however, transform faults show quite predictable foreshock behaviour before the main seismic event. Reviews of data of past events and their foreshocks showed that they have a low number of aftershocks and high foreshock rates compared to continental strike-slip faults.
Modeling
Seismologists use tools such as the Epidemic-Type Aftershock Sequence model (ETAS) to study cascading aftershocks and foreshocks.
Psychology
Following a large earthquake and aftershocks, many people have reported feeling "phantom earthquakes" when in fact no earthquake was taking place. This condition, known as "earthquake sickness" is thought to be related to motion sickness, and usually goes away as seismic activity tails off.
References
External links
Earthquake Aftershocks Not What They Seemed at Live Science
Seismology
Types of earthquake | [
-0.13114039599895477,
-0.0571577213704586,
-0.009972074069082737,
-0.23203390836715698,
-0.43850409984588623,
-0.09809157252311707,
0.9966564774513245,
-0.08997943252325058,
-0.31809937953948975,
-0.13448671996593475,
-0.5896138548851013,
0.3622046709060669,
0.1251208782196045,
0.25007835030555725,
-0.5069628357887268,
0.15957492589950562,
0.6487229466438293,
-0.03386615961790085,
-0.5717592835426331,
-0.2299608439207077,
0.12448198348283768,
-0.025838639587163925,
0.1479388028383255,
0.0810437947511673,
-0.24173426628112793,
-0.25794732570648193,
-0.032567098736763,
-0.2364034801721573,
0.22976066172122955,
0.02511020191013813,
-0.11696166545152664,
0.8472572565078735,
-0.3448311686515808,
-0.17310687899589539,
-0.32671722769737244,
0.7232025861740112,
0.16478490829467773,
-0.42101120948791504,
-0.7950360178947449,
-0.43259650468826294,
0.26705098152160645,
-0.3448584973812103,
0.00777802150696516,
0.6119019389152527,
-0.5720065236091614,
-0.10575806349515915,
-1.4185134172439575,
-0.27687206864356995,
-0.7750313878059387,
-0.18719936907291412,
-0.013466952368617058,
0.30777090787887573,
0.36897367238998413,
-0.04707032069563866,
-0.27936291694641113,
0.28575628995895386,
-0.4356144666671753,
-0.21096991002559662,
0.6069212555885315,
-0.5088739991188049,
0.11331216990947723,
-0.33050307631492615,
-0.3424271047115326,
-0.32154232263565063,
0.1935238093137741,
0.4984661340713501,
0.003078425768762827,
0.5889753103256226,
0.12237908691167831,
-0.20499563217163086,
-0.023166656494140625,
-0.1602729856967926,
0.09507711976766586,
-0.010219638235867023,
-0.20978355407714844,
-0.20945778489112854,
-0.2181040644645691,
-0.26129889488220215,
-0.03303852677345276,
-0.1221124529838562,
-0.25228574872016907,
0.28580182790756226,
0.0429055280983448,
-0.7477176189422607,
0.4632510244846344,
-0.28291958570480347,
-0.12395067512989044,
0.9419765472412109,
-0.6153327822685242,
0.5914955735206604,
0.1123773530125618,
-0.023236490786075592,
0.544003963470459,
0.5698540210723877,
0.016211599111557007,
-0.3078070282936096,
0.3625410795211792,
0.1023903489112854,
0.21962404251098633,
0.12302294373512268,
-0.2619173228740692,
-0.28601548075675964,
0.18256551027297974,
0.002312504919245839,
0.5562784075737,
-0.6266950964927673,
-0.13634444773197174,
-0.09724965691566467,
-0.4843694865703583,
-0.5724101066589355,
-0.5551556348800659,
0.04488477483391762,
-0.6863244771957397,
-0.04916520416736603,
-0.5755133032798767,
-0.7736063003540039,
0.32632893323898315,
-0.10827004909515381,
-0.3051125705242157,
-0.7937011122703552,
0.4786974787712097,
0.6596376299858093,
-0.06121048703789711,
-0.013846716843545437,
-0.3823801875114441,
0.23402370512485504,
0.581681489944458,
0.6779930591583252,
-0.7239665985107422,
0.42622166872024536,
-0.05510926619172096,
0.695093035697937,
0.09786059707403183,
0.10391651093959808,
0.3836745321750641,
-0.1570950150489807,
-0.23298035562038422,
0.3335145115852356,
0.0018790483009070158,
0.10842150449752808,
-0.005023364443331957,
-0.34090179204940796,
-0.40089577436447144,
0.00827915407717228,
-0.06319131702184677,
-0.35308778285980225,
-0.3298170566558838,
-0.1833183914422989,
0.0373041145503521,
0.4412454664707184,
-0.14811743795871735,
0.02739492990076542,
-0.6654050350189209,
0.45851930975914,
-0.13825500011444092,
-0.29123371839523315,
0.3163891136646271,
-0.4776250123977661,
0.1424630731344223,
0.3933131992816925,
0.19072262942790985,
-0.04363143816590309,
0.09541875123977661,
0.0759347677230835,
0.223450168967247,
-0.1729789525270462,
0.7521547079086304,
-0.08811154216527939,
0.11747679859399796,
0.20574815571308136,
-0.7276169657707214,
0.32146844267845154,
-0.18486171960830688,
-0.022753741592168808,
-0.1720244139432907,
-0.3420204818248749,
0.29855209589004517,
0.27165108919143677,
0.6060172319412231,
0.30056169629096985,
-0.5460660457611084,
-0.1258067488670349,
0.22955134510993958,
-0.04379867762327194,
0.46269601583480835,
0.14397984743118286,
0.10869403183460236,
0.34264692664146423,
0.03488212078809738,
-0.2853325307369232,
-0.22537285089492798,
-0.5829285383224487,
-0.05916174501180649,
-0.48066872358322144,
0.6177701950073242,
-0.0980229601264,
-0.06795332580804825,
1.1604037284851074,
0.38379061222076416,
0.3683517575263977,
0.014807730913162231,
-0.01579609513282776,
-0.08894803375005722,
0.1900353878736496,
-0.07902546972036362,
0.4747024476528168,
0.7493115067481995,
0.27750200033187866,
0.35024023056030273,
-0.12031354010105133,
0.5257408618927002,
-0.2428358793258667,
0.15885774791240692,
0.20194968581199646,
-0.2901436686515808,
0.31535130739212036,
-0.6725870370864868,
0.2089412957429886,
-0.21823906898498535,
-0.23320132493972778,
0.3697088658809662,
0.10149101912975311,
0.10987843573093414,
-0.049653712660074234,
0.27168548107147217,
0.4112549424171448,
0.21221357583999634,
0.08352858573198318,
0.6384199261665344,
-0.7743215560913086,
0.5554510354995728,
0.08475080877542496,
0.2762957811355591,
0.17721690237522125,
0.02451830357313156,
0.20038503408432007,
-0.08213338255882263,
-0.17950162291526794,
0.19192613661289215,
-0.38404566049575806,
-0.13725590705871582,
0.23348891735076904,
-0.0757485181093216,
0.7370858192443848,
0.232431098818779,
0.21049350500106812,
0.5816877484321594,
0.28346648812294006,
-1.0875320434570312,
0.5924800038337708,
0.049785297363996506,
0.13321779668331146,
0.25512877106666565,
-0.42118039727211,
0.12690167129039764,
-0.06603722274303436,
-0.09526973962783813,
0.0062059806659817696,
0.024722425267100334,
-0.05389278382062912,
-0.044176921248435974,
0.09114715456962585,
0.2461928278207779,
-0.21806339919567108,
-0.3350619673728943,
-0.5165604948997498,
-0.159872904419899,
-0.20176009833812714,
-0.07980339974164963,
-0.1713152974843979,
0.3686082661151886,
0.08549393713474274,
-0.6009963154792786,
-0.114314503967762,
-0.5009796023368835,
-0.7246082425117493,
0.3309929370880127,
0.6039982438087463,
-0.5840089321136475,
-0.09359817951917648,
-0.06719840317964554,
0.8518839478492737,
0.18757979571819305,
-0.8074514865875244,
-0.15615136921405792,
-0.5365567207336426,
0.14817415177822113,
-0.35692620277404785,
-0.8794140219688416,
-0.07032883912324905,
-0.576572835445404,
-0.4820594787597656,
0.2947238087654114,
0.011387708596885204,
-0.11508233845233917,
0.4333200752735138,
0.39055705070495605,
-0.008916709572076797,
0.5760126113891602,
-0.41827574372291565,
-0.8308902382850647,
-0.49285414814949036,
-0.39290496706962585,
-0.12155718356370926,
-0.5515053272247314,
-0.13140417635440826,
-0.29413947463035583,
0.31563079357147217,
-5.867590427398682,
0.12522709369659424,
0.0514177568256855,
-0.4175929129123688,
-0.1554798185825348,
0.6900152564048767,
0.8386456370353699,
0.2737498879432678,
-0.5767974257469177,
0.09606517106294632,
0.2658880650997162,
-0.23838523030281067,
0.4345396161079407,
0.436935156583786,
-0.08513341844081879,
-0.37105801701545715,
0.2704039216041565,
0.8135804533958435,
-0.22680515050888062,
0.07130323350429535,
0.3795124292373657,
0.12464639544487,
0.16875608265399933,
0.35852545499801636,
0.13176554441452026,
-0.03415907174348831,
-0.13988716900348663,
0.7282277941703796,
-0.21301081776618958,
0.022080933675169945,
0.5861474871635437,
-0.12507198750972748,
-0.06594956666231155,
0.3177381455898285,
-0.2641221582889557,
0.9269978404045105,
0.37794530391693115,
-0.04447988048195839,
0.048802800476551056,
-0.10902427136898041,
-0.1448918581008911,
-0.2044019103050232,
0.12560202181339264,
-0.1352556198835373,
0.43282392621040344,
-0.20093299448490143,
0.018704846501350403,
0.00855199620127678,
-0.19903309643268585,
0.7715570330619812,
-0.00831754133105278,
0.2810099124908447,
0.3048078715801239,
-0.04390494525432587,
0.0869249552488327,
0.16423574090003967,
0.3650996685028076,
0.06830637902021408,
-0.16149836778640747,
0.29448050260543823,
-0.29289931058883667,
0.4271980822086334,
-0.07211119681596756,
-0.6971111297607422,
0.5349255204200745,
-0.1888967603445053,
-0.6075079441070557,
-0.03708789497613907,
0.6711744070053101,
-0.42216402292251587,
-0.12539805471897125,
-0.17866159975528717,
0.05112357810139656,
-1.0258384943008423,
-0.07558313012123108,
-0.644701361656189,
0.5078830718994141,
-0.23590737581253052,
-0.3728504478931427,
0.1542702466249466,
-0.30782854557037354,
-0.07293009012937546,
-0.1835477501153946,
0.04001717269420624,
0.25689440965652466,
0.28009098768234253,
0.1876019686460495,
0.09871628135442734,
-0.036374110728502274,
-0.2405230700969696,
0.44240957498550415,
0.11236634850502014,
0.3090357780456543,
-0.23731686174869537,
-0.14419332146644592,
0.73573899269104,
-0.03523050621151924,
0.1428787112236023,
0.6560235619544983,
-0.27441367506980896,
0.005110895726829767,
-0.7900904417037964,
0.5326769351959229,
-0.3995130658149719,
0.17330722510814667,
-0.7440985441207886,
-0.11741407960653305,
0.41331180930137634,
0.3847113847732544,
-0.07649372518062592,
0.4136731028556824,
0.3751651346683502,
-0.3344927132129669,
-0.3478049635887146,
0.3092651665210724,
0.055325157940387726,
-0.36702340841293335,
-0.005579445511102676,
0.14593996107578278,
-0.18543332815170288,
0.3691241443157196,
0.11728613823652267,
-0.7924330830574036,
-0.17448768019676208,
-0.1334729641675949,
-0.369314581155777,
-0.3272104859352112,
0.4384472370147705,
0.2663608193397522,
0.06288999319076538,
0.4896203279495239,
0.7749319076538086,
0.17395992577075958,
0.3149872124195099,
-0.002976807067170739,
-0.4627267122268677,
0.20448850095272064,
-0.024343520402908325,
-0.23839114606380463,
-0.7435885071754456,
0.1524019092321396,
-0.3177127540111542,
-0.8444135189056396,
0.22133022546768188,
0.5560024380683899,
0.5700623393058777,
-0.377846360206604,
-0.1250571757555008,
0.00905297789722681,
0.20438188314437866,
-0.08453521877527237,
0.07201886177062988,
-0.28598296642303467,
-0.7282233834266663,
-0.0605149082839489,
0.5204904079437256,
0.43944689631462097,
-0.10527149587869644,
0.06711461395025253,
-0.3647141456604004,
0.11726123094558716,
-0.03438305854797363,
-0.8444194793701172,
-0.3857455849647522,
-0.08933964371681213,
-0.4259583652019501,
-1.0797398090362549,
-0.4095940589904785,
0.07120873779058456,
0.30323296785354614,
-0.11285677552223206,
-0.46057847142219543,
-0.48452991247177124,
-0.25425809621810913,
0.5510058999061584,
0.1291773021221161,
-0.017457839101552963,
-0.32519710063934326,
-0.025959372520446777,
-0.5254284143447876,
0.38136935234069824,
-0.07048211246728897,
-0.06029108539223671,
0.9955455660820007,
0.3376847803592682,
0.13505756855010986,
-0.5921450257301331,
0.20030446350574493,
-0.3716782033443451,
-0.18311360478401184,
0.6740511059761047,
-0.07729104906320572,
-0.14281347393989563,
0.005054089706391096,
0.5590555667877197,
-0.32634520530700684,
0.09225720167160034,
0.26704370975494385,
-0.3055180013179779,
-0.06119025498628616,
-0.12418844550848007,
-0.11089227348566055,
-0.40024515986442566,
0.4161328077316284,
0.28950637578964233,
-0.872948169708252,
0.40392234921455383,
-0.02733192779123783,
-0.41509997844696045,
-0.12365365028381348,
0.04061503708362579,
-0.18471235036849976,
-0.5853288769721985,
0.618482768535614,
0.4031371772289276,
0.5889569520950317,
0.2870176136493683,
-0.3761366307735443,
0.19138145446777344,
-0.38613268733024597,
-0.149741530418396,
0.2564574182033539,
0.10238004475831985,
0.002548838732764125,
-0.06869708001613617,
0.0638563483953476,
-0.06969485431909561,
-0.5659341812133789,
0.3356110155582428,
0.08408055454492569,
0.3091742694377899,
0.16286872327327728,
-0.1821557730436325,
-0.3450813293457031,
-0.04689142107963562,
-0.005187648348510265,
-0.29132500290870667,
-0.49955326318740845,
-0.19369490444660187,
-0.1412438303232193,
0.29137730598449707,
0.47086676955223083,
0.6926948428153992,
-0.3910955786705017,
-0.4244696795940399,
-0.038631290197372437,
0.3442814350128174,
-0.5869107246398926,
-0.20399940013885498,
0.9115476608276367,
0.40895387530326843,
0.03174477815628052,
-0.8723636269569397,
-0.2308393269777298,
0.24632281064987183,
-0.2390402853488922,
-0.5134860277175903,
-0.91251140832901,
-0.0049466039054095745,
0.24315515160560608,
0.21111798286437988,
-0.41630563139915466,
0.1298763006925583,
0.22128629684448242,
0.30385342240333557,
0.12270589172840118,
-0.41206443309783936,
-0.04528453201055527,
0.12785018980503082,
-0.6450093984603882,
0.31860974431037903,
0.30702444911003113,
0.24654343724250793,
-0.17849183082580566,
-0.098342165350914,
0.5783674120903015,
-0.01286064088344574,
-0.6137043833732605,
-0.17029237747192383,
0.26188594102859497,
0.22968387603759766,
-0.015180861577391624,
-0.42568662762641907,
-0.6784875392913818,
-0.1445745974779129,
-0.24778947234153748,
0.054786745458841324,
-0.35455799102783203,
-0.8319903016090393,
-0.23352737724781036,
-0.46926188468933105,
-0.12210220098495483,
-0.32589080929756165,
-0.025376999750733376,
0.3119564652442932,
0.5253475904464722,
-0.23422257602214813,
0.39975789189338684,
-0.4201953709125519,
-0.277340292930603,
-0.904695987701416,
0.5828352570533752,
-0.6867438554763794,
-0.4625590443611145,
0.22632601857185364,
-0.15081128478050232,
-0.16164730489253998,
-0.1100507378578186,
-0.07300640642642975,
-0.0489647202193737,
-0.04128437116742134,
0.0925886258482933,
-0.08161764591932297,
1.0268349647521973,
0.003041432239115238,
-0.05213356390595436,
0.6713529229164124,
-0.3825996220111847,
0.1746942102909088,
0.2822965681552887,
0.22809229791164398,
0.12003351002931595,
1.0858429670333862,
-0.18864595890045166,
-0.08659283816814423,
0.5454422831535339,
-0.5218626856803894,
0.1697935163974762,
-0.46229520440101624,
0.6420503854751587,
1.0662161111831665,
0.18305371701717377,
0.20750898122787476,
0.3043166995048523,
-0.451151967048645,
-0.4697096645832062,
0.41821396350860596,
0.19499395787715912,
-0.41036245226860046,
0.27901941537857056,
0.2501293420791626,
0.6659440994262695,
0.3754432797431946,
0.2934945225715637,
-0.6540606021881104,
0.0006224170792847872,
0.19895541667938232,
0.36174800992012024,
0.15545503795146942,
-0.128397598862648,
-0.2748992443084717,
-0.41734960675239563,
0.37828221917152405,
-0.6410982012748718,
0.2783021926879883,
-0.0000372574977518525,
0.7245119214057922,
-0.05404422804713249,
0.3062164783477783,
-0.2787756323814392,
-0.274180144071579,
0.4257691502571106,
0.3501337766647339,
0.2195730060338974,
0.3698824346065521,
-0.9187032580375671,
0.0025232324842363596,
0.07053808867931366,
-0.1526259034872055,
0.35993632674217224,
0.2649759352207184,
0.3519613444805145,
-0.13365623354911804,
0.4524517059326172,
0.6871973872184753,
0.16778777539730072,
0.28584957122802734,
0.5093371868133545,
-0.02621646411716938,
0.029884999617934227,
-0.12920287251472473,
0.3212289810180664,
-0.49413052201271057,
-0.5836367011070251,
0.05797214061021805,
0.08895997703075409,
0.21676044166088104,
0.5924220681190491,
-0.11918319016695023,
0.1180649846792221,
0.7452742457389832,
-0.38783934712409973,
-0.11225251108407974,
-0.14742419123649597,
0.002668762346729636,
-0.26981648802757263,
0.2059396207332611,
0.1479797512292862,
0.35567328333854675,
0.5168148875236511,
-0.07627616077661514,
0.21139025688171387,
0.35859042406082153,
0.06722817569971085,
-0.7038106918334961,
0.4744224548339844,
0.1680886447429657,
0.6820273995399475,
-0.6270513534545898,
0.1782747060060501,
0.4841281473636627,
-0.0021347319707274437,
0.09239505976438522,
0.2464611679315567,
-0.14376963675022125,
-0.8724691867828369,
0.33796969056129456,
-0.7059999704360962,
0.21321095526218414,
-0.28477275371551514,
-0.09146886318922043,
-0.7113665342330933,
0.27800804376602173,
-0.09244177490472794,
-0.03951472416520119,
-0.2690368890762329,
0.3202541768550873,
0.03184755519032478,
-0.10164418071508408,
0.3466050624847412,
-0.23033782839775085,
-0.12693385779857635,
-0.4401854872703552,
0.7504755854606628,
-0.574641764163971,
-0.4077610969543457,
-0.04687056690454483,
0.5306371450424194,
0.8681200742721558,
-0.31292128562927246,
0.4962072968482971,
-0.05597858130931854,
-0.3580315411090851,
0.10334265977144241,
-0.37882354855537415,
0.060339927673339844,
-0.6273884773254395,
-0.016351914033293724,
-0.46603894233703613,
0.1513468474149704,
0.5751501321792603,
0.07556616514921188,
0.34907156229019165,
0.21059554815292358,
-0.4640025496482849,
-0.33588120341300964,
-0.005699907895177603,
-0.4427542984485626,
-0.07578092813491821,
0.07977496832609177
] |
233538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20codes%20for%20Switzerland | Data codes for Switzerland | These are data codes for Switzerland.
Country
These are codes for the country itself. See country code for a fuller explanation.
CH ISO country code (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, two letter)
Internet Country code top-level domain (ccTLD) (see .ch)
Distinguishing sign of vehicles in international traffic
International Union of Railways alphabetical UIC Country Code
WIPO ST.3
CHE ISO country code (ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, three letter code)
EO39 Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS)
HB ICAO aircraft registration prefix (since 1935, before: CH)
HBA-HBZ,HEA-HEZ ITU callsign prefix
LS ICAO airport code or nationality letters for location indicator (see also: List of airport codes: LS)
SUI IOC country code
FIFA country code
ITU letter codes for member-countries
SW WMO message header country code
SZ FIPS country code
Library of Congress machine-readable cataloguing country code
41 Country calling code
85 International Union of Railways numeric UIC Country Code
228 E.212 Mobile country code
269 ITU maritime identification digits
756 ISO country code (ISO 3166-1 numeric, numeric code)
760-769 GS1 prefix of GTIN (barcodes) by GS1 Switzerland
ШВА Cyrillic three-letter country codes per GOST 7.67 or ISO 3166-88 standard
NUTS-2 regions
As a member of the EFTA, Switzerland is included in the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS). The three NUTS levels are:
NUTS-1: Switzerland (CH0)
NUTS-2: 7 Regions
NUTS-3: 26 Cantons
The seven NUTS-2 regions are the following:
Below the NUTS levels, there are two LAU levels (LAU-1: districts; LAU-2: municipalities).
Cantons
The two-letter abbreviations are widely used, e.g. on car license plates and as disambiguator for localities on postal addresses if two localities in different cantons have the same name. They are also used with the prefix "CH-" as ISO 3166-2 codes of Switzerland, e.g. CH-SZ for the canton of Schwyz.
SFSO also uses a numerical code ordering the cantons by their constitutional order (1 to 26).
The FIPS 10-4 region codes of Switzerland were used by the United States government. This standard was withdrawn in 2008.
The NUTS-3 codes are used by the European Union.
Districts
Districts are assigned three-digit numerical codes by SFSO.
Districts are used as LAU-1 level.
Municipalities
See Community Identification Number#Switzerland
Municipalities are used as LAU-2 level.
Localities
See Postal codes in Switzerland and Liechtenstein
Airports
See
List of airports by ICAO code: L#LS – Switzerland
List of airports in Switzerland
See also
Switzerland-related lists | [
0.33385783433914185,
0.6193472146987915,
-0.6511792540550232,
0.09769924730062485,
0.12398319691419601,
0.24276655912399292,
0.8311732411384583,
0.963445782661438,
-1.134226679801941,
-0.6493268013000488,
-0.3790505826473236,
-0.6124352812767029,
-0.08366797119379044,
0.07535696774721146,
-0.15241120755672455,
0.7170684337615967,
-0.02866823971271515,
0.6610250473022461,
0.5635616183280945,
-0.8120653033256531,
0.2795926034450531,
0.19483569264411926,
0.20036761462688446,
-0.1382458209991455,
-0.14029130339622498,
-0.29184257984161377,
0.195930615067482,
-0.2826351821422577,
-0.45212656259536743,
-0.33194661140441895,
0.18226858973503113,
0.9068528413772583,
-0.016871551051735878,
-0.12160354852676392,
1.0349116325378418,
-0.2197577804327011,
0.6551951766014099,
-0.44926464557647705,
0.3180302381515503,
-0.3037883937358856,
-0.46601182222366333,
-0.4863603413105011,
0.15831980109214783,
0.19790691137313843,
1.077035665512085,
-0.4211903512477875,
-1.5827054977416992,
0.02128184214234352,
-0.7640371322631836,
0.30926206707954407,
-0.09442327171564102,
0.1408184915781021,
0.22658540308475494,
0.5258423686027527,
0.554129421710968,
0.8202357292175293,
-1.4690093994140625,
0.11179766058921814,
0.33543166518211365,
0.6162671446800232,
0.4846213161945343,
-0.30927494168281555,
-0.19906498491764069,
-0.24814067780971527,
0.43785539269447327,
1.0709717273712158,
0.1216217651963234,
0.9004054665565491,
0.056141193956136703,
-0.5967421531677246,
-0.779784083366394,
-0.20802412927150726,
0.7074825763702393,
0.31060242652893066,
-0.09719937294721603,
0.3786870539188385,
-0.4994550049304962,
-0.43865007162094116,
-0.25438737869262695,
-0.40625375509262085,
-0.054717518389225006,
0.503415584564209,
0.697158694267273,
-0.25716543197631836,
0.395558625459671,
0.29140567779541016,
-0.8112921714782715,
-0.620074450969696,
-0.4021880328655243,
1.314443588256836,
-0.4411759376525879,
-0.203317329287529,
0.3527895212173462,
-0.10181300342082977,
0.02570771798491478,
0.14544327557086945,
-0.5466821789741516,
0.39917224645614624,
0.6111975908279419,
0.21054694056510925,
0.8199588060379028,
0.35827332735061646,
0.15403784811496735,
-0.08495654165744781,
-0.32435163855552673,
-0.49429556727409363,
-0.7431312203407288,
-1.1358486413955688,
0.03447145223617554,
-0.6537204384803772,
-0.48045608401298523,
-0.1589735597372055,
-0.09434922784566879,
-0.6130063533782959,
0.06121242046356201,
0.5588449239730835,
0.8180962800979614,
-0.33338287472724915,
0.009246363304555416,
0.7876780033111572,
0.3699353337287903,
1.0825235843658447,
-0.4817412197589874,
-0.3725479543209076,
0.34161993861198425,
0.846997082233429,
0.2501560151576996,
0.17020434141159058,
0.4822820723056793,
0.8768659830093384,
-0.31047943234443665,
0.6518871784210205,
-0.27047714591026306,
-0.1518605351448059,
0.12355368584394455,
-0.5093631744384766,
0.25908321142196655,
0.17425590753555298,
-0.3501746952533722,
0.6842432618141174,
-0.7400726079940796,
0.06508570909500122,
-0.6025262475013733,
-0.37884366512298584,
0.8025261759757996,
-0.18771952390670776,
-0.66148442029953,
-0.44840869307518005,
0.43915122747421265,
-0.19797520339488983,
0.22235184907913208,
-0.8673152327537537,
0.39978307485580444,
0.3419174253940582,
-0.8768975138664246,
0.6699175238609314,
0.5090270042419434,
0.2588704526424408,
0.19376064836978912,
0.09217678755521774,
0.9513295888900757,
-0.21652530133724213,
0.14777851104736328,
0.3221593499183655,
0.023186029866337776,
0.12830351293087006,
0.7076402306556702,
0.3168879747390747,
0.22133713960647583,
0.3583100736141205,
-0.8631253242492676,
-0.400116890668869,
0.31080058217048645,
-0.13248004019260406,
0.03469875082373619,
-0.20293986797332764,
0.10906612128019333,
0.48079830408096313,
0.3803877532482147,
-0.5917621850967407,
-0.7403187155723572,
0.32156074047088623,
0.33063551783561707,
0.6867994070053101,
0.39335012435913086,
0.19665870070457458,
0.9657623767852783,
0.03116017021238804,
-0.5120734572410583,
0.6036378145217896,
0.11013661324977875,
-0.06240987405180931,
0.9996168613433838,
-0.5989346504211426,
0.867402195930481,
-0.16693732142448425,
-0.4770573675632477,
0.33975234627723694,
-0.49401044845581055,
0.6049522757530212,
-0.7760980129241943,
-0.41125810146331787,
0.7568830847740173,
0.39234256744384766,
-0.03812052682042122,
1.3042912483215332,
-0.09676440805196762,
-0.4185401201248169,
-0.011066390201449394,
0.5136347413063049,
0.2306707352399826,
0.11634720861911774,
0.06303787231445312,
0.36059334874153137,
0.0012932918034493923,
-0.07858207076787949,
-0.2582409083843231,
0.5211206674575806,
-0.3596763610839844,
-0.2105446606874466,
0.8381885290145874,
-0.0537542998790741,
-0.5922254920005798,
1.1369097232818604,
0.010504934936761856,
0.6330781579017639,
0.5602343082427979,
0.3848576545715332,
0.4804859459400177,
-0.3152516484260559,
0.34298545122146606,
-0.16730386018753052,
0.016001882031559944,
0.21582286059856415,
-0.7241576910018921,
-0.15610827505588531,
-0.186140239238739,
-0.4989258050918579,
0.10967803001403809,
-0.46633121371269226,
0.38099876046180725,
0.29075008630752563,
-0.20744992792606354,
-0.15007875859737396,
0.14262013137340546,
0.5130516290664673,
0.0841679573059082,
-0.10920435190200806,
0.14354196190834045,
-0.36918747425079346,
0.635789692401886,
-0.19484049081802368,
-0.1244402602314949,
-0.8557417392730713,
-0.21282216906547546,
-0.6737173795700073,
0.556606650352478,
0.554023265838623,
0.023943794891238213,
0.28444233536720276,
-0.0035956394858658314,
0.026132801547646523,
0.1959957480430603,
0.3724653720855713,
-0.6078304052352905,
-1.1013809442520142,
-0.7340272068977356,
-0.6281859278678894,
0.07430332154035568,
0.04944659769535065,
0.2382587343454361,
-0.3666583299636841,
-0.29287704825401306,
-0.9217978119850159,
0.155866339802742,
0.5242462158203125,
-0.3916782736778259,
0.3262629210948944,
-0.7081306576728821,
0.3562716245651245,
0.06998635083436966,
0.6559075713157654,
0.36332643032073975,
-0.07906260341405869,
-0.3869788646697998,
0.2860792875289917,
0.5454967617988586,
0.1147892028093338,
-0.2591657042503357,
0.18284757435321808,
-0.4549693763256073,
0.014322084374725819,
-0.37352409958839417,
0.2991221249103546,
0.029242241755127907,
-0.3374474048614502,
-0.42747074365615845,
0.3892972767353058,
0.28571876883506775,
-0.4091087877750397,
-0.33256861567497253,
0.3617781400680542,
-0.16870948672294617,
-0.4587037265300751,
-0.6491042375564575,
-0.33989307284355164,
0.1504540890455246,
0.012498850002884865,
-3.6038153171539307,
1.0066982507705688,
-0.17256000638008118,
0.03060760349035263,
-0.5736053586006165,
-0.6811299324035645,
0.6338982582092285,
-0.199326291680336,
-0.374953955411911,
-0.09139156341552734,
-0.49783751368522644,
-1.4006911516189575,
-0.15660876035690308,
1.0986393690109253,
0.2624697983264923,
1.0502040386199951,
0.660413384437561,
0.13841071724891663,
0.5425247550010681,
0.2661806643009186,
0.11456416547298431,
-0.35575273633003235,
0.15956562757492065,
-0.7546302676200867,
0.40244361758232117,
0.5440890192985535,
-0.7129851579666138,
-0.06350581347942352,
-1.0774930715560913,
0.03731868416070938,
0.007385882083326578,
-0.013367384672164917,
0.07360915839672089,
-0.8220185041427612,
-0.4442291557788849,
-0.09428489953279495,
0.8016805648803711,
0.6662323474884033,
0.8807781338691711,
-0.8868677616119385,
-0.1977672278881073,
1.096790075302124,
-0.06508402526378632,
0.7331350445747375,
1.138566017150879,
-0.07363338023424149,
-0.6779184937477112,
0.2704175114631653,
-0.5727964043617249,
1.113471269607544,
-0.3455585837364197,
-0.823159396648407,
0.378984272480011,
0.256557434797287,
-0.7203317880630493,
-0.5771773457527161,
0.4697760343551636,
-0.4305332899093628,
-0.2057161182165146,
0.7086156606674194,
0.8237819075584412,
-0.6173137426376343,
0.24749396741390228,
-0.6562579870223999,
0.13178902864456177,
-0.9619399309158325,
-0.46216627955436707,
-0.22783273458480835,
-0.5743604302406311,
0.7174006700515747,
0.017308488488197327,
0.9697326421737671,
-0.5783466100692749,
-0.8176329731941223,
-0.03423016145825386,
-1.0222128629684448,
0.33229926228523254,
-0.03600514307618141,
0.7472803592681885,
0.20132188498973846,
-0.22688396275043488,
-0.33279532194137573,
-1.1876044273376465,
1.441428780555725,
0.6200690865516663,
0.04966187849640846,
-0.4882269501686096,
0.0029332737904042006,
-0.4279130697250366,
-0.6619885563850403,
0.24379092454910278,
-0.5647227764129639,
0.37970131635665894,
0.2055892050266266,
-0.9453822374343872,
0.5927993059158325,
1.452661156654358,
-0.7143478989601135,
0.36032021045684814,
-0.6387609839439392,
0.13641324639320374,
-1.0919603109359741,
0.002057161182165146,
-1.1183555126190186,
0.05081215500831604,
-0.6286376118659973,
0.10579559206962585,
0.9198055267333984,
-0.4177740216255188,
0.3847804665565491,
-0.678693950176239,
-0.7186681628227234,
-0.6293141841888428,
-0.2497304528951645,
0.2889854609966278,
-0.650632917881012,
0.06850717216730118,
1.0146589279174805,
0.34879106283187866,
-0.08969855308532715,
0.587995171546936,
0.5322736501693726,
0.9356844425201416,
-0.9311910271644592,
0.06251627951860428,
-0.44761922955513,
-0.22192643582820892,
-0.6868166923522949,
-0.3639228343963623,
0.12048415839672089,
-1.0673836469650269,
0.12421286851167679,
-0.577240526676178,
-0.3774021565914154,
0.22655609250068665,
-0.26681867241859436,
-0.5874727964401245,
0.1915397197008133,
0.7579426765441895,
-0.5565081834793091,
1.165308952331543,
-0.03432217240333557,
-0.568867027759552,
0.7568719387054443,
-0.4800672233104706,
0.7291108965873718,
0.2786371111869812,
-0.7626447081565857,
-0.6258569359779358,
0.08701256662607193,
-0.59031081199646,
-0.8474379777908325,
0.6897252202033997,
-0.30053555965423584,
0.12945103645324707,
-0.057577814906835556,
0.30926957726478577,
0.5584980249404907,
-0.5116623640060425,
-0.6855942010879517,
0.1195383369922638,
0.22057174146175385,
-0.4570477306842804,
0.4918562173843384,
0.46619006991386414,
-0.43469372391700745,
0.3657796382904053,
-0.5163809061050415,
-0.7583409547805786,
0.7137888669967651,
-0.11871162056922913,
-0.6017933487892151,
-0.6495000720024109,
-0.04903621971607208,
-0.30319905281066895,
-0.8727954626083374,
0.6478232145309448,
0.24606652557849884,
0.018796030431985855,
0.2182711660861969,
-0.9791697859764099,
-0.373435914516449,
-0.042107898741960526,
1.4146103858947754,
0.31517091393470764,
0.005755657330155373,
0.3666815459728241,
0.12132562696933746,
-0.14701487123966217,
-0.7605018019676208,
-0.07156691700220108,
0.6636562943458557,
0.22838450968265533,
0.049870386719703674,
-1.144465446472168,
-1.2276036739349365,
-0.1600029617547989,
0.3917233943939209,
-0.056598909199237823,
-0.37219738960266113,
0.6025738716125488,
0.7119991779327393,
-0.11207019537687302,
0.7502455711364746,
0.15552829205989838,
-0.07376071065664291,
0.09377070516347885,
0.39735081791877747,
-0.5428968071937561,
0.5120379328727722,
-0.8292695879936218,
-1.1168345212936401,
-0.22322486340999603,
0.4114871919155121,
-0.5928343534469604,
-0.042210135608911514,
0.20484168827533722,
0.04208577424287796,
-0.9156655669212341,
0.16777291893959045,
-0.2016875147819519,
-0.058184776455163956,
-0.01167021319270134,
-0.7778058052062988,
-1.0537495613098145,
0.6426408886909485,
0.3661198616027832,
-0.2830583155155182,
0.6781491041183472,
-0.7526916265487671,
-0.35811880230903625,
-0.0887904167175293,
0.09187290072441101,
-0.31698885560035706,
-0.1606438159942627,
0.3297370970249176,
-0.44778838753700256,
0.3719402253627777,
0.17370621860027313,
0.584567666053772,
0.12195669114589691,
0.06946763396263123,
0.8545524477958679,
-0.7732065320014954,
0.14108169078826904,
0.8156834840774536,
0.16463850438594818,
-0.6846540570259094,
-0.5737032890319824,
-0.08502192050218582,
-0.5023794174194336,
-0.14157867431640625,
-0.3585330843925476,
-1.0600143671035767,
1.6897495985031128,
0.34676292538642883,
-0.33090803027153015,
0.48866233229637146,
0.39116692543029785,
0.05353415384888649,
-0.47761070728302,
-0.3203689455986023,
0.2586776316165924,
0.8948925137519836,
0.47861117124557495,
0.31133121252059937,
0.7559804916381836,
0.5649895668029785,
0.5622142553329468,
0.15745823085308075,
-0.7199500203132629,
-1.142390251159668,
0.02088271453976631,
0.07088823616504669,
-0.11831425875425339,
-0.10855592787265778,
0.348592072725296,
-0.9020150303840637,
0.3813615143299103,
-0.7051073312759399,
-0.3258453607559204,
0.25020739436149597,
0.8527993559837341,
-0.18505799770355225,
0.9086094498634338,
-0.4321904182434082,
-0.36349382996559143,
0.48032549023628235,
-1.1288203001022339,
0.37371760606765747,
0.03410094231367111,
-0.2066265344619751,
-0.6810711622238159,
0.30688121914863586,
-0.08104757964611053,
0.13281548023223877,
-1.0034215450286865,
0.3223939538002014,
-0.040443677455186844,
-0.19181367754936218,
-1.2324600219726562,
1.0147297382354736,
-0.23642432689666748,
-0.7310117483139038,
-0.3869447410106659,
0.2646948993206024,
0.07845600694417953,
-0.5471703410148621,
0.3545588552951813,
0.32852786779403687,
-0.33901163935661316,
-0.15227444469928741,
0.22794538736343384,
1.1162242889404297,
0.1783861219882965,
0.4830728769302368,
0.36131638288497925,
-0.9112993478775024,
0.18022520840168,
0.6059505343437195,
-0.31442737579345703,
-0.9755247831344604,
0.6546891927719116,
0.24119055271148682,
-0.5401328802108765,
1.277739405632019,
0.3322319984436035,
-0.41850852966308594,
0.6243043541908264,
-0.18305303156375885,
0.00008442556281806901,
-0.24799689650535583,
-1.0699039697647095,
0.4914523959159851,
-0.7602527141571045,
-0.118550606071949,
0.016915936022996902,
-0.058138612657785416,
0.0958024337887764,
0.20698274672031403,
-0.6423640251159668,
1.0032291412353516,
-0.6589837074279785,
-0.44867634773254395,
0.10520467907190323,
0.3485604226589203,
-0.5564120411872864,
0.33916574716567993,
0.6335129141807556,
-0.3729018568992615,
0.3146601915359497,
1.0540459156036377,
0.1238643154501915,
0.2061913162469864,
-0.34318748116493225,
-0.05306876823306084,
-0.4113295376300812,
0.14119336009025574,
-0.3698499798774719,
-0.9515612721443176,
0.5991763472557068,
-0.5988016724586487,
-0.20936280488967896,
0.5688602924346924,
-0.305122971534729,
-0.6402021646499634,
0.5024994015693665,
0.012500998564064503,
-0.4888378381729126,
0.08665931969881058,
-0.49153274297714233,
-0.15774361789226532,
0.15841569006443024,
-0.1667070835828781,
0.21858301758766174,
-0.050186991691589355,
-0.3092203736305237,
-0.14987656474113464,
-0.34720295667648315,
-0.46354398131370544,
-0.4965088665485382,
0.6093595623970032,
-0.4252156913280487,
-0.9542348980903625,
-0.7922145128250122,
-0.2856099605560303,
-0.23275060951709747,
-0.18431654572486877,
0.5034123063087463,
0.4915129244327545,
-0.36967089772224426,
-0.4529011845588684,
0.2847670912742615,
-0.2353822886943817,
-0.14703483879566193,
-0.04838414117693901,
-0.3820089101791382,
1.1348109245300293,
1.2008147239685059,
-1.0569435358047485,
0.24242770671844482,
0.2377329170703888,
0.2551535665988922,
0.2610943913459778,
0.4860231578350067,
0.1796552687883377,
-0.5535703897476196,
0.1683163195848465,
-0.15365996956825256,
-0.11261583119630814,
0.05009439215064049,
0.39342933893203735,
-0.3277389109134674,
1.0256285667419434,
-0.13886061310768127,
0.37125709652900696,
0.547724187374115,
-0.2042977511882782,
-0.5606154799461365,
0.10195619612932205,
0.01442322600632906,
-0.3575386106967926,
0.2226269543170929,
0.6177617311477661,
-0.06786499917507172,
-0.5539681911468506,
0.3902137279510498,
-0.3571014702320099,
-0.20217260718345642,
0.609264075756073,
-0.18843144178390503,
0.33221951127052307,
0.2774266004562378,
-0.5128257870674133,
-0.5058891773223877,
0.38973408937454224,
0.10857567191123962,
0.6326236724853516,
0.0789978876709938,
0.1259334683418274,
-0.18090347945690155,
0.19655834138393402,
0.8693850040435791,
0.13543593883514404,
-2.1017982959747314,
0.3384873569011688,
-0.5949296355247498,
-0.739829421043396,
0.022518331184983253,
-0.09511391073465347,
0.6092603206634521,
-0.08999844640493393,
0.6525304913520813,
-0.8443784713745117,
-0.2900165319442749,
-0.09024102985858917,
1.1918390989303589,
-0.7244710922241211,
0.2667618691921234,
0.42708519101142883
] |
233539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Puerto%20Rican%20rums | List of Puerto Rican rums | Rum (ron in Spanish) production has been an important part of Puerto Rico's economy since the 16th century. While sugar cane harvesting has virtually disappeared in Puerto Rico (except for a few isolated farms and agricultural experiments), distilleries around the island still produce large amounts of rum every year. Don Q is the top-selling rum brand on the island, where more than 70% of the rum consumed in the United States is produced.
Rum production by city
Arecibo
The main rum producing enterprise in Arecibo is Barceló, Marqués y Co. Its flagship brand was Ron Palo Viejo. Ron Palo Viejo is now owned by Serrallés, whose flagship rum is Don Q.
Rum has been produced in Arecibo since the second half of the 19th century. Roses, García y Co. was bottling their Ron de la Casa de Roses as early as 1868. Ron Llave dates from 1891, and by 1893 they were purveyors of rum under license from the Royal house of Spain.
There were several rum producers in Arecibo by the beginning of the 20th century. Most of them merged their distillery operations into a single entity, the Puerto Rico Distilling Co., which was formally incorporated on February 2, 1911. The new company eventually became the principal supplier of partially refined or final product to rum aging, blending and bottling companies in Mayagüez and Bayamón. During Prohibition the company turned into producing denatured alcohol, bay rum (up to 265 different brands of bay rum were eventually produced at the main distilling plant, including the best-selling Alcoholado Superior 70 and Alcoholado Santa Claus) and other industrial products. Rum production returned in 1934, with Ron Candado. In 1935, a joint venture with Florida Cane Products, Inc., spawned a new corporation, Ron Rico, whose flagship product was the Ronrico rum and which had considerable success selling rum in the United States. A new distilling plant was opened in 1942.
The following are rums produced in Arecibo (or in nearby Barceloneta while the holding company was Arecibo-based):
Ron Pizá
Ron Llave
Ron Candado
Ron Tres Estrellas
Ron San Isidro
Ron Cañón
Ron Portela
Ron Granado
Ron Palo Viejo (Produced in Camuy, near Arecibo)
Bayamón
Ron del Barrilito - Edmundo B. Fernandez Inc.
The company producing it was founded by Edmundo Fernandez in the early 19th century. It has produced its rum inside a brick and mortar windmill tower located originally within a sugar cane plantation, the Hacienda Santa Ana, now an industrial park in the outskirts of Bayamón. Its yearly production run is a limited one. The company is known for a rum liqueur which is made with honey. The company was sold and recapitalized by a partnership led by a member of the Bacardi family including other local investors. It has diversified its product to include premium aged rums.
Cataño
Bacardi is produced in Cataño near San Juan. It is owned by the Bacardi family who are originally from Cuba.
Cidra
In 2014 it was announced that CC1 Industries Inc. would be constructing a new rum distillery Club Caribe Distillers in Cidra, Puerto Rico. This was the location of a pharmaceutical plant owned by GlaxoSmithKline which had closed. The new distillery however included a hospitality center and function hall contributing to local tourism. CC1 Industries Inc. is affiliated with Florida Caribbean Distillers which is based in Florida. The distillery was completed and ran its first distillation run in September 2018.
Jayuya
PitoRico - Destilería Cruz Ron Artesanal Puertorriqueño
The word pitorro is something deeply engrained into the collective consciousness of Puerto Ricans. For decades, the production of this rum has been deemed clandestine by the authorities, simply because it did not pay taxes. Destilería Cruz is a company founded by José Luis Cruz and produces PitoRico in Jayuya, Puerto Rico. Mr. Cruz, a native of Jayuya, remembers fondly how his uncle and other family members would skillfully brew the pitorro, especially during the Christmas season. The drink is made in various fruit flavor, including passion fruit, coconut, anise, and tamarind.
Juncos
Ron Caray
Mayagüez
The city of Mayagüez had various rum producing companies, some of which were contractors for United States- and Bahamian-based public and private brands. The most successful was José González Clemente y Co. (JGC); other companies were: Ron Oro Nativo (RON, whose parent company was Seagram), Alfredo Vega Toro y Co. (AVT), Baltasar Cruz y Co. (BC), Luis García y Co. (LG), Julio Maldonado y Co. (JM), the Mayagüez Rum Company (MRC), and "Primitivo Grau y Co (PG). Among the brands produced in Mayagüez were (bottler in parentheses):
Christopher Columbus Rum (RON, credited as being bottled by the Christopher Columbus Rum Co.)
Government House Rum (MRC) This was originally produced in the United States Virgin Islands.
Myers's Rum - Jamaican bulk heavy dark rum bottled once in Mayagüez by JGC, later bottled by Destilería Serrallés, Inc. in Ponce
Reserva Especial (RON)
Ron 738 (LG)
Ron Delicias (JM)
Ron El Campesino (JM)
Ron El Invencible (BC)
Ron Imporico (JCG) - an imitator of Ronrico
Ron Latino (AVT)
Ron Mister Kuba (JM)
Ron Oro Nativo (RON)
Ron Patria y Cuna (JGC)
Ron Rey de Copas (BC)
Ron Superior Escudo (BC) - an imitator of Ron Superior; use of the name was discontinued due to an injunction by JGC
Ron Superior Puerto Rico (JGC) - the best known brand, which lasted from 1909 until the company's closing in 1980.
Ron Caneca (PG) - Known to this day for the flask-shaped bottle. Now produced organically by descendants of Primitivo Grau.
Ron Toro Negro (LG)
Ron Yagüez (LG)
Samples of all these brands or their labels are kept as part of the historical collection of the Castillo Serrallés in Ponce.
Ron Pitorro - Destilería Coquí.
The Puerto Rico Sugar Company established a new rum distillery in Mayagüez in 2009, named Destilería Coquí; its production is limited to 100 bottles a day. The Destilería's main product is an artisan rum called Pitorro, analogous to the name in common use to describe Puerto Rican moonshine rum.
Ponce
Don Q (Serrallés) - Puerto Rico's top-selling rum
Blackbeard Spiced Rum (Serrallés)
Boca Chica Rum - Boca Chica Distilling Company
Caliche Rum (Serrallés)
The main rum-producing enterprise in Ponce is Destilería Serrallés, Inc., which has been producing rum in site since 1865. Its flagship brand, Ron Don Q (short for Don Quijote, the favorite character of one of the Serrallés family heirs) dates from 1932. Don Q is Puerto Rico's top-selling rum.
Illegal rum production
Pitorro (also known as "ron caña")
In addition to the brands mentioned above, illegal makers of "moonshine" rum, nicknamed cañita (not to be confused with the current "legal" brand, which merely adopted the popular term, and which had a precursor in the late 1930s) or pitorro rum, tend to operate in Puerto Rico, particularly around the Christmas season. The word "pitorro" is actually a corruption of the word "pintorro", an Andalusian term used to depict inferior-quality wine or rum that had a weak color (hence the name). Clandestine rum operations are rather uncommon nowadays in Puerto Rico, given the fact that sugar cane production has dwindled in Puerto Rico since the closing of government-owned "centrales" or mills. Nevertheless, authorities confiscate many cañita/pitorro rum productions every year. A town renowned for its "pitorro" production is Añasco, given its proximity to Mayagüez (rum production talent and recipes) and its former (and current, in some areas) harvesting of sugar cane.
Pitorro is also a term given to homemade flavored rum, prepared by adding various fruits spices and/or flavorings to ferment over a period of time. A particularly favored variety made with quenepas called Bilí is made in Vieques.
Miscellaneous rum production notes
Club Caribe - (Company: Club Caribe LLC, Cidra, Puerto Rico) created to offset the losses from Captain Morgan moving to the Virgin Islands
Don Q - the topselling rum brand in Puerto Rico
Bacardi is produced in Cataño - it is originally from Cuba.
Ron Castillo - produced by Ron de Castillo y Cia (San Juan, Puerto Rico), a subsidiary of Bacardi.
Trigo Reserva Añeja - produced by Trigo Corp, San Juan, Puerto Rico, who purchases its rum base from Bacardi. The Trigo Corp specializes in aging and blending local rums according to their own unique methods. In addition to Reserva Aneja, they produce the popular Ron Canita de Alambique, Trigo Coquito, Twin Isle and Ron Bugalu coconut rum.
Other
Marin
Ron Pascual
Three Captains
References
External links
Official Rums of Puerto Rico website
Rum
Rums
Rums produced in Puerto Rico | [
0.08300585299730301,
0.38256433606147766,
0.0025740426499396563,
-0.19065824151039124,
-0.21190793812274933,
-0.2569085657596588,
0.0799369364976883,
0.7105369567871094,
-0.7400093674659729,
0.43345239758491516,
0.3999202847480774,
0.5385364294052124,
0.2056828737258911,
0.44096624851226807,
-0.5046499967575073,
0.7261297106742859,
0.7257178425788879,
0.8931835889816284,
0.5591215491294861,
-0.5781059265136719,
-0.5468405485153198,
-0.023426897823810577,
0.40714526176452637,
-0.0337228924036026,
0.23645742237567902,
0.1253291368484497,
-0.2557480037212372,
-0.12075411528348923,
-0.4550643265247345,
0.14695733785629272,
-0.2754443883895874,
0.7972205877304077,
-0.06810760498046875,
0.16944417357444763,
0.22009432315826416,
0.23956118524074554,
0.008200866170227528,
-0.5452346205711365,
0.24882389605045319,
-0.5488736629486084,
-0.272917240858078,
-0.27642786502838135,
0.8384860754013062,
0.6923843026161194,
-0.4994286596775055,
-0.20656923949718475,
-1.139682650566101,
0.7668653726577759,
-0.6051426529884338,
0.3075435757637024,
-0.2729387879371643,
0.24016007781028748,
-0.008134085685014725,
0.2290535867214203,
-0.06260454654693604,
0.9991655349731445,
-0.9270740151405334,
0.21250979602336884,
-0.03244161605834961,
-0.11464256793260574,
0.5201429128646851,
0.9409273266792297,
0.2310815006494522,
-0.29348039627075195,
0.33513644337654114,
-0.1353531777858734,
0.38277918100357056,
0.5535550117492676,
-0.3749556839466095,
0.1813858598470688,
0.19228509068489075,
0.03523750603199005,
-0.052545931190252304,
-0.8056393265724182,
-0.21813789010047913,
-0.8264756202697754,
-0.3710147440433502,
0.14954252541065216,
-0.11501399427652359,
0.4494774043560028,
0.06118868291378021,
-0.3483269214630127,
0.5996109247207642,
-0.04439420625567436,
0.023973912000656128,
0.2956552505493164,
-0.24582739174365997,
-0.5078903436660767,
-0.4721279442310333,
0.27209800481796265,
-0.20173262059688568,
0.3280143737792969,
0.7568535208702087,
0.39452508091926575,
-0.5194802284240723,
-0.19062159955501556,
0.27416855096817017,
-0.046480827033519745,
-0.11539150029420853,
0.35297247767448425,
-0.16495583951473236,
0.7822532653808594,
0.5926374793052673,
0.49129027128219604,
-0.5468226671218872,
0.5394076704978943,
-0.5392823219299316,
-0.07641516625881195,
0.33043742179870605,
-0.26345187425613403,
0.10371172428131104,
0.4621213972568512,
0.12890635430812836,
0.8438409566879272,
-0.38316547870635986,
0.15121781826019287,
0.7135303616523743,
-0.19772890210151672,
-0.5681807398796082,
-0.3336292803287506,
-0.16664902865886688,
0.7662636637687683,
-0.4116956889629364,
-0.09346037358045578,
0.07244166731834412,
0.3026840090751648,
0.9831520318984985,
0.1972784847021103,
0.5026651620864868,
0.18424704670906067,
0.2747247815132141,
0.3503526449203491,
-0.3427235782146454,
0.17003852128982544,
-0.2487064152956009,
-0.38132381439208984,
-0.08501648157835007,
0.35855281352996826,
0.45533567667007446,
-0.23165775835514069,
-1.2645453214645386,
-0.2754591107368469,
-0.7997632026672363,
-0.029794948175549507,
0.04357365518808365,
-0.7411711812019348,
-0.26367127895355225,
-0.6420708298683167,
-0.5561186075210571,
0.12219103425741196,
0.021385634317994118,
-0.18434706330299377,
0.0057960255071520805,
0.04401816800236702,
-0.4299636483192444,
-0.14084845781326294,
0.006883726455271244,
-0.4927003085613251,
0.5078124403953552,
0.007453260011970997,
0.13455240428447723,
-0.20316311717033386,
0.10652811825275421,
0.08160645514726639,
-0.1787017434835434,
0.42647096514701843,
0.39879629015922546,
0.9120352864265442,
-0.02880476415157318,
0.01787780411541462,
-0.3485109806060791,
0.24560114741325378,
0.3745487928390503,
-1.1702308654785156,
-1.1138371229171753,
0.17509706318378448,
0.19506897032260895,
0.21316063404083252,
0.014462332241237164,
0.22010914981365204,
-0.5821723937988281,
0.940599262714386,
0.10839015245437622,
-0.6442321538925171,
0.23166963458061218,
-0.02911810763180256,
0.37696734070777893,
0.14730225503444672,
0.36318936944007874,
-0.3718333840370178,
-0.1773824840784073,
-0.2762461304664612,
-0.45005542039871216,
-0.7471191883087158,
0.5800914168357849,
0.3106403350830078,
-1.0198403596878052,
1.3780817985534668,
-0.1368674784898758,
0.3336378037929535,
-0.6676595211029053,
0.5933864116668701,
0.6931703090667725,
0.4718031883239746,
-0.9237000346183777,
0.2862463891506195,
0.10771497339010239,
0.6231530904769897,
0.8730130195617676,
0.3430486023426056,
-0.2215747833251953,
0.2101014256477356,
-0.1884128451347351,
-0.42954087257385254,
0.06717086583375931,
-0.11702421307563782,
-0.05091987922787666,
0.5254600644111633,
0.021571354940533638,
-0.5845907330513,
0.8555524945259094,
0.03738490864634514,
-0.5710690021514893,
0.7880111336708069,
-0.12648968398571014,
0.8097629547119141,
-0.02803255058825016,
-0.9084435701370239,
0.703827440738678,
-0.10886342823505402,
0.8967796564102173,
-0.548331618309021,
0.08623676747083664,
-0.7278285622596741,
-0.7486521005630493,
0.6884370446205139,
-0.014479877427220345,
0.10872570425271988,
-0.5054112076759338,
-0.12051146477460861,
0.6660305261611938,
0.4261845350265503,
-0.17660775780677795,
0.00018956602434627712,
0.3831840455532074,
-0.027469374239444733,
-0.6097044348716736,
0.29484227299690247,
-0.36711934208869934,
-0.9097089767456055,
0.313665509223938,
0.5140663385391235,
0.14940188825130463,
-0.18886321783065796,
0.6418750882148743,
-0.20190942287445068,
-0.18441155552864075,
-0.039523690938949585,
0.07828694581985474,
0.01074750442057848,
0.24710296094417572,
0.16470922529697418,
0.2390708327293396,
0.21529322862625122,
-0.05528547987341881,
-0.4427163600921631,
-0.3432072103023529,
-0.6646944284439087,
0.2822224497795105,
0.0967286080121994,
0.4760746955871582,
-0.19890999794006348,
-0.2585035264492035,
-0.11407867819070816,
0.47974348068237305,
-0.25941723585128784,
0.1322472095489502,
-0.16801027953624725,
-1.0271553993225098,
-0.48169586062431335,
-0.09761590510606766,
0.19510993361473083,
-0.008647538721561432,
-0.6867767572402954,
-0.7816348075866699,
-0.5158608555793762,
0.09823702275753021,
-0.5178620219230652,
0.13458359241485596,
0.03692566230893135,
-0.2557019293308258,
-0.4551708400249481,
-0.4275605082511902,
-0.033049918711185455,
-0.3734930455684662,
0.03982602059841156,
0.39667144417762756,
0.595027506351471,
-0.10337445139884949,
-1.1115961074829102,
-0.3609981834888458,
-0.5071412324905396,
-0.6847718358039856,
-0.44805482029914856,
0.5412471294403076,
-0.05396502837538719,
-0.13943500816822052,
-0.26990655064582825,
-5.199261665344238,
0.0829772874712944,
-0.7637326717376709,
-0.3592491149902344,
0.11303446441888809,
-0.05289473384618759,
0.3046618103981018,
-0.25648167729377747,
0.5525938272476196,
-0.11335041373968124,
-0.35134047269821167,
0.19638468325138092,
-0.26024410128593445,
0.8100147843360901,
0.27848124504089355,
0.6732393503189087,
0.3388022184371948,
-0.26054704189300537,
-0.32092586159706116,
-0.009624501690268517,
-0.09376309812068939,
-0.18974615633487701,
-0.49143800139427185,
0.308106392621994,
0.2590550482273102,
0.878638744354248,
-0.5774715542793274,
-0.13490182161331177,
-0.4562962055206299,
0.30869001150131226,
-0.6555528044700623,
0.4103277921676636,
0.4269733726978302,
-0.9270443320274353,
0.28353601694107056,
-0.0168540608137846,
-0.010517291724681854,
-0.07234134525060654,
0.06708649545907974,
-0.9261215329170227,
-0.3789101541042328,
0.5832849144935608,
-0.3842580020427704,
-0.3524134159088135,
0.5185149908065796,
-0.1400536298751831,
-0.4664260447025299,
-0.27392446994781494,
-0.04852518066763878,
0.43360382318496704,
0.17952919006347656,
-0.4780159294605255,
0.30710723996162415,
0.03230149671435356,
0.46568939089775085,
-0.695503830909729,
0.3213019073009491,
0.03852735832333565,
-0.491021066904068,
0.46718382835388184,
0.7058510780334473,
-0.46682602167129517,
0.09192831069231033,
-0.017234690487384796,
-0.3785172402858734,
0.046069636940956116,
-0.33055055141448975,
-0.4302528500556946,
0.13255807757377625,
0.2133110612630844,
0.19696848094463348,
0.285406231880188,
-0.2220325469970703,
-0.7701830267906189,
0.22327949106693268,
-0.6270191669464111,
-0.8241104483604431,
0.07831642776727676,
-0.3488098382949829,
0.29644328355789185,
0.03808751702308655,
-0.18268036842346191,
-0.8401405811309814,
0.24996837973594666,
-0.0976402685046196,
-0.5015918612480164,
0.0011342130601406097,
0.015028820373117924,
-1.0995482206344604,
-0.3810042440891266,
0.59493488073349,
-0.231517031788826,
0.3324338495731354,
0.1663448065519333,
-0.026859086006879807,
0.16762813925743103,
-0.20178860425949097,
-0.010375375859439373,
0.513724684715271,
-0.4120931923389435,
0.7808057069778442,
0.13638532161712646,
0.3726922571659088,
-0.5703926086425781,
0.3698734641075134,
-0.03605444356799126,
-0.09597976505756378,
0.7259120345115662,
0.1938895583152771,
-0.21897293627262115,
0.018792971968650818,
0.20920126140117645,
-0.8655396699905396,
-0.3978797495365143,
0.7239775657653809,
-0.17497001588344574,
-0.12688802182674408,
0.33138349652290344,
0.18561680614948273,
-0.014165575616061687,
0.9612551331520081,
-0.051641736179590225,
-0.24248602986335754,
0.2552781105041504,
-0.0982673391699791,
-0.6554917693138123,
0.25455158948898315,
0.27445971965789795,
-0.06525874882936478,
0.09993832558393478,
0.29970473051071167,
0.3077540099620819,
0.06593944132328033,
0.3703646659851074,
0.24637244641780853,
0.3571264147758484,
0.11189994215965271,
-0.7671621441841125,
0.012967086397111416,
-0.9605202674865723,
0.2715097963809967,
-0.469210684299469,
0.17722874879837036,
0.4490306079387665,
-0.3369808793067932,
1.2386356592178345,
-0.2708093523979187,
-0.5573362708091736,
-0.49731558561325073,
0.5105972290039062,
0.36922943592071533,
0.21761560440063477,
-0.2517094612121582,
-0.13382075726985931,
-0.2732296288013458,
-0.506697952747345,
0.6946267485618591,
0.4453944265842438,
-0.20202943682670593,
-0.44590792059898376,
0.16408680379390717,
-0.662834882736206,
-1.0984351634979248,
0.0876949205994606,
-0.17098456621170044,
-0.4740627110004425,
-0.6442360877990723,
0.5053347945213318,
0.09724919497966766,
1.210750937461853,
-0.2147991806268692,
-0.3469752371311188,
-0.6357392072677612,
-0.274235337972641,
0.30064430832862854,
-0.6484715342521667,
0.2929951846599579,
0.8169105648994446,
-0.11735876649618149,
0.04418032616376877,
0.09521255642175674,
0.2914862036705017,
0.2867891788482666,
0.1605374813079834,
0.389954537153244,
-0.627842128276825,
-0.1344059854745865,
0.10417234897613525,
-0.1837441772222519,
0.2907537519931793,
-0.4610579013824463,
0.8716586828231812,
0.6015453934669495,
0.0029071089811623096,
-0.6911879181861877,
-0.7044046521186829,
-0.49864083528518677,
0.8448458313941956,
0.038348641246557236,
-0.4924693703651428,
0.3083368241786957,
0.3376929759979248,
-0.3579150140285492,
0.17526206374168396,
0.30500826239585876,
-0.16803805530071259,
0.23742610216140747,
0.5573970079421997,
-0.5086246132850647,
0.488876074552536,
-0.21625114977359772,
-0.6436100602149963,
0.1449146866798401,
0.41067054867744446,
-0.12867237627506256,
-0.0963779166340828,
-0.2610686123371124,
-0.3659730553627014,
-0.0675017461180687,
-0.03750799223780632,
0.3282807469367981,
-0.3881825804710388,
0.006323427893221378,
-0.05674515292048454,
-0.3899592459201813,
1.049094796180725,
-0.04994778335094452,
-0.5817738771438599,
0.10596771538257599,
-0.345561683177948,
0.12244677543640137,
-0.4937232434749603,
0.08910709619522095,
0.28656527400016785,
-0.6742911338806152,
0.5896521806716919,
-0.17596851289272308,
0.3110179603099823,
0.0409291572868824,
0.4929802417755127,
0.09491141140460968,
0.6730629801750183,
-0.009480398148298264,
-0.10560685396194458,
-0.5393062829971313,
0.43547043204307556,
-0.009248538874089718,
0.287250280380249,
-0.030034635215997696,
-0.0842827707529068,
-0.5497031211853027,
-0.6780852675437927,
-0.3122822046279907,
0.14096558094024658,
0.713242769241333,
0.19822166860103607,
-0.10762367397546768,
0.8345836997032166,
-0.30300116539001465,
-0.1975337415933609,
0.5218393802642822,
0.623481273651123,
-0.7642316222190857,
0.34327074885368347,
0.7293051481246948,
-0.18871472775936127,
-0.200764462351799,
-0.32666704058647156,
0.596102774143219,
0.32798197865486145,
0.26844191551208496,
-0.0261063314974308,
-0.20233605802059174,
0.8133826851844788,
0.38580018281936646,
0.642622709274292,
-0.04249691590666771,
-0.4867575168609619,
0.05393632501363754,
-0.028320422396063805,
-1.0962311029434204,
-0.24064022302627563,
-0.30229461193084717,
-0.21295686066150665,
0.02277069352567196,
-0.19704298675060272,
-0.8382412791252136,
-0.1653507798910141,
0.03460337966680527,
-0.010521689429879189,
0.10583088546991348,
0.40832215547561646,
0.49134692549705505,
0.11805571615695953,
0.052797023206949234,
-0.22421960532665253,
0.02551126666367054,
0.4275266230106354,
-0.3700109124183655,
-0.15011845529079437,
-0.5761443972587585,
0.5519914031028748,
-0.1600222885608673,
-0.37813740968704224,
0.2375231236219406,
-0.10300573706626892,
0.5698707699775696,
0.24299292266368866,
-0.6604135632514954,
-0.12056205421686172,
0.009833306074142456,
-0.24263249337673187,
0.25081491470336914,
0.35522210597991943,
-0.05622689053416252,
0.16488124430179596,
0.5770912170410156,
-0.37633636593818665,
0.25263434648513794,
0.8255205154418945,
0.6636380553245544,
-0.6301294565200806,
0.5074875354766846,
0.22209498286247253,
0.30925869941711426,
0.6244656443595886,
-0.7159184813499451,
-0.22206614911556244,
0.03828907757997513,
-0.2900301218032837,
0.37485653162002563,
0.4386600852012634,
-1.0324047803878784,
0.4145565927028656,
-0.4419156014919281,
0.150883749127388,
-0.24679240584373474,
-0.21217337250709534,
-0.39843204617500305,
0.9978126287460327,
1.2790546417236328,
0.18833953142166138,
-0.4099826216697693,
-0.20459304749965668,
0.6434526443481445,
0.03373599797487259,
-0.3310186564922333,
0.11219450831413269,
0.7486485838890076,
-0.6635207533836365,
0.8316373229026794,
0.012776143848896027,
0.9565578699111938,
0.0757024735212326,
0.5635018944740295,
-0.1967991590499878,
-0.07801824808120728,
-0.44349968433380127,
-0.6627049446105957,
-0.11016722768545151,
-0.3099357485771179,
-0.018271494656801224,
0.2237575799226761,
-0.06725470721721649,
-0.37302255630493164,
-0.14636245369911194,
-0.06527052819728851,
0.4917294383049011,
-0.796992838382721,
0.32755789160728455,
0.023784497752785683,
0.08853276818990707,
-0.6514729261398315,
0.3120938241481781,
0.007679623086005449,
0.7979085445404053,
0.020020434632897377,
0.45373860001564026,
-0.316184401512146,
-0.19128303229808807,
-0.2300819605588913,
0.19859302043914795,
-0.4507123827934265,
-0.34914281964302063,
-0.2014113813638687,
0.2899346649646759,
-0.3804160952568054,
-0.1962868720293045,
-0.16134536266326904,
0.24778839945793152,
-0.3804944157600403,
-0.4388882517814636,
0.00041374648571945727,
0.2528606951236725,
-0.0027907148469239473,
-0.3366963267326355,
-0.44746482372283936,
1.0714842081069946,
0.3665454387664795,
-0.6344009637832642,
-0.07306544482707977,
0.5658020377159119,
0.08138012140989304,
0.5316441655158997,
-0.556502640247345,
0.46853533387184143,
-0.9786273837089539,
-0.08977896720170975,
0.4459867477416992,
1.2123767137527466,
-0.26184743642807007,
-0.243726447224617,
-0.060919634997844696,
-0.016723742708563805,
0.0725831538438797,
0.30773797631263733,
0.4308622181415558,
-0.7561432123184204,
-0.42004507780075073,
-0.362780898809433,
-0.07955049723386765,
-0.15459410846233368,
-0.41026294231414795,
0.4293689429759979,
-0.39523226022720337,
-0.37688183784484863,
0.040761854499578476,
-0.00279651815071702,
-1.0701345205307007,
-0.022074038162827492,
-0.16743440926074982,
0.30480706691741943,
-0.28752401471138,
0.2818213701248169,
-0.6939517855644226,
-0.6067454218864441,
0.4353484511375427,
0.4921463131904602,
0.3642692565917969,
0.10961265116930008,
0.01297236979007721,
0.10455654561519623,
0.5114881992340088,
-0.6781869530677795,
0.004704847000539303,
-0.5141781568527222,
0.6459134817123413,
-0.5416060090065002,
-0.9114448428153992,
0.2178412675857544,
0.06628067791461945,
-0.2567425072193146,
-0.33890753984451294,
0.2955635190010071,
0.073887400329113,
-0.09686369448900223,
0.5328225493431091,
-0.43533915281295776,
0.22541086375713348,
-0.12870573997497559
] |
233546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jostein%20Gaarder | Jostein Gaarder | Jostein Gaarder (; born 8 August 1952) is a Norwegian intellectual and author of several novels, short stories, and children's books. Gaarder often writes from the perspective of children, exploring their sense of wonder about the world. He often utilizes metafiction in his works and constructs stories within stories. His best known work is the novel Sophie's World: A Novel About the History of Philosophy (1991). It has been translated into 60 languages; there are over 40 million copies in print.
Family
Gaarder was born and raised in Oslo. His father was a school headmaster and his mother was a teacher and author of children’s books. Gaarder married Siri Dannevig in Oslo in 1974. They moved to Bergen, Norway in 1979 and had two sons.
In 1997, Gaarder and Siri Dannevig established the Sophie Prize. It was an environmental development prize of (USD 100,000 = 77,000 €), awarded annually until 2013, when it was announced that it would no longer be awarded due to lack of funds. It was named after the novel.
Education
Gaarder attended Oslo Cathedral School and the University of Oslo, where he studied Scandinavian languages and theology. After graduation in 1976, he was a high school teacher in Bergen, Norway, prior to his literary career.
Awards and prizes
1990 - Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature for the year's best children's or youth's literature, for Kabalmysteriet (The Solitaire Mystery)
1993 – Norwegian Booksellers' Prize for I et speil, i en gåte (Through a Glass, Darkly).
1994 – Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis for Sophie's World.
1995 – Premio Bancarella for Il Mondo di Sofia, the Italian translation of Sophie's World.<ref>{{cite web |title=Albo d'Oro |url=http://www.premiobancarella.info/bancarella/albo.php |publisher=Premio Bancarella |access-date=2010-10-08|language=it}}</ref>
1996 - Peer Gynt Prize
1997 – Buxtehude Bull for Durch einen Spiegel, in einem dunklen Wort, the German translation of I et speil, i en gåte.
2004 – the Willy-Brandt Award in Oslo.
2005 – Commander, The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav.
2005 – an Honorary degree at Trinity College, Dublin.
Environmental activism
Gaarder has been involved in the promotion of sustainable development for nearly two decades. He established the Sophie Prize in 1997, an international award bestowed on foundations and individuals concerned with the environment. Through the Sophie Prize, Gaarder contributed over $1.5 million to worthy environmental causes. The final Sophie Prize was awarded in October 2013 to Bill McKibben.
Political advocacy and religious controversy
Jostein Gaarder is active politically. The focus of his concern is the plight of Palestinian refugees, and he has vehemently criticized the Israeli occupation of Palestine. In August 2006, Gaarder wrote a controversial op-ed titled "God's Chosen People" that was published in the largest daily newspaper in Norway, Aftenposten.Gaarder, Jostein. "God's Chosen People " Retrieved on 2006-08-25 Gaarder wrote it in response to the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. He argued in favor of "recognizing the State of Israel of 1948, but not the one of 1967".
"God's Chosen People" had a broader scope than conflicting territorial claims. Gaarder described Judaism as "an archaic national and warlike religion", contrasting it with the Christian idea that the "Kingdom of God is compassion and forgiveness". Gaarder disputed allegations of anti-Semitism.
List of worksDiagnosen og andre noveller (The Diagnosis and Other Stories) (1986)Froskeslottet (The Frog Castle) (1988)Kabalmysteriet (The Solitaire Mystery) (1990) Sofies verden (Sophie's World) (1991) Julemysteriet (The Christmas Mystery) (1992) (1995 edition illustrated by Stella East )Bibbi Bokkens magiske bibliotek (Bibbi Bokken's magic library) (together with Klaus Hagerup(1993) I et speil, i en gåte (Through a Glass, Darkly) (1993) Hallo? Er det noen her? (Hello? Is Anybody There?) (1996) Vita Brevis: A Letter to St Augustine (Also published in English as That Same Flower) (1998) Maya (1999) Sirkusdirektørens datter (The Ringmaster's Daughter) (2001) Appelsinpiken (The Orange Girl) (2004) Sjakk Matt (Checkmate) (2006)De gule dvergene (The Yellow Dwarves) (2006)Slottet i Pyreneene (The Castle in the Pyrenees) (2008)Det spørs (2012) Anna. En fabel om klodens klima og miljø (" Anna. A fable about the earth's climate and environment") (2013)Anton og Jonatan (Anton and Jonatan) (2014) Dukkeføreren'' (2016)
References
External links
Jostein Gaarder's biography and foreign sales at Aschehoug Agency
The world of Jostein – Il Mondo di Jostein: Sito italiano dedicato a Jostein Gaarder
The Sophie Prize – established by Gaarder in 1997
A list of all his books and publishers
Commentary on the book: Sophie's World
Jostein Gaarder in Goodreads
20th-century Norwegian novelists
21st-century Norwegian novelists
Norwegian male short story writers
Norwegian children's writers
Critics of Judaism
Writers from Oslo
1952 births
Living people
Bancarella Prize winners
University of Oslo alumni
People educated at Oslo Cathedral School
20th-century Norwegian short story writers
21st-century Norwegian short story writers | [
-0.2432950884103775,
0.9839023351669312,
-0.30721983313560486,
-0.6437138915061951,
-0.3601223826408386,
0.5742087960243225,
0.9504135251045227,
0.007813259959220886,
-0.1863563507795334,
0.20100972056388855,
-0.41015592217445374,
0.38201791048049927,
0.1822008639574051,
-0.19741256535053253,
0.41957083344459534,
-0.055239539593458176,
-0.08185713738203049,
0.3510201871395111,
-0.6095247268676758,
-0.3617860674858093,
-0.11512134224176407,
-0.6778058409690857,
0.34075629711151123,
-0.18749983608722687,
-0.10676214098930359,
0.03174806386232376,
0.4366246163845062,
-0.08010934293270111,
-0.2432090938091278,
-0.23231624066829681,
-0.11463654041290283,
0.6292017698287964,
0.2174837738275528,
-0.19965627789497375,
-0.27546223998069763,
0.4443305432796478,
-0.3865059018135071,
-0.20769530534744263,
0.16740286350250244,
0.5603806972503662,
0.11386031657457352,
0.5402786731719971,
0.07662685960531235,
0.18158520758152008,
-0.18186379969120026,
-0.6506459712982178,
-1.2216523885726929,
0.39852651953697205,
-0.7065114378929138,
0.1361495703458786,
-0.3128189444541931,
0.2905685603618622,
0.5905471444129944,
0.3880707025527954,
0.023447034880518913,
0.27322322130203247,
-0.45393943786621094,
0.2759145498275757,
0.4149906635284424,
0.040825340896844864,
0.2986733019351959,
-0.1289636790752411,
0.48417842388153076,
-0.3123575448989868,
0.6440318822860718,
0.331294983625412,
0.2346622198820114,
0.14202524721622467,
0.06466683000326157,
-0.2960359752178192,
-0.6241702437400818,
0.5341374278068542,
-0.006091981194913387,
0.21772588789463043,
0.2960280478000641,
-0.4733854830265045,
0.1798425018787384,
-0.06289432942867279,
-0.24881252646446228,
-0.34811893105506897,
-0.13295753300189972,
0.20010490715503693,
0.6581212282180786,
0.28032660484313965,
0.22999411821365356,
-0.5759679079055786,
-0.15701481699943542,
0.2167324721813202,
-0.7719703316688538,
0.11273926496505737,
-0.15430817008018494,
-0.8865518569946289,
-0.04344746097922325,
-0.07576041668653488,
0.15973523259162903,
0.2763550579547882,
-0.07925421744585037,
0.7238611578941345,
0.0004800860187970102,
0.14402544498443604,
0.07846315950155258,
0.07924646884202957,
0.5712088942527771,
0.10043729841709137,
-0.33608323335647583,
-0.20226076245307922,
-0.03181982412934303,
-0.5801008343696594,
0.38577988743782043,
-0.5608726739883423,
-0.7623321413993835,
0.3536265790462494,
-0.33709800243377686,
0.09784816950559616,
0.16881884634494781,
0.7783084511756897,
-0.3288410007953644,
-0.30865374207496643,
-0.45192092657089233,
0.0971878319978714,
-0.004209102131426334,
-0.11169631779193878,
0.03356408327817917,
0.13973356783390045,
-0.08883628994226456,
-0.585604190826416,
-0.8727405667304993,
0.6594885587692261,
-0.5372618436813354,
0.04904811829328537,
0.5787017941474915,
-0.1401832103729248,
-0.530997633934021,
0.13393612205982208,
0.09330731630325317,
0.2511914074420929,
0.5680631399154663,
0.3676619529724121,
0.10768774151802063,
0.9052541255950928,
-0.41942092776298523,
-0.23531799018383026,
-0.24410927295684814,
-0.3907136619091034,
0.24733412265777588,
-0.32379934191703796,
-0.031370535492897034,
0.18692222237586975,
-0.055782727897167206,
0.08989869058132172,
-0.14523427188396454,
0.19219930469989777,
0.07622293382883072,
-0.38405653834342957,
-0.19742542505264282,
0.7642987966537476,
0.2691856920719147,
0.6928149461746216,
0.6811901330947876,
0.16760742664337158,
0.6024655699729919,
0.4128643870353699,
-0.318619042634964,
-0.004552995786070824,
0.03730658069252968,
-0.3540451228618622,
0.5278650522232056,
0.49454158544540405,
-0.013073140755295753,
-0.25291138887405396,
-0.05411383882164955,
-0.15982134640216827,
0.6483352184295654,
-0.07950793206691742,
-0.2771008610725403,
0.6465128064155579,
0.20157499611377716,
0.0026235852856189013,
0.1428050398826599,
-0.23937085270881653,
-0.7567802667617798,
-0.7405663132667542,
-0.16931170225143433,
0.0034123214427381754,
0.8547741174697876,
-0.31023913621902466,
0.02990942820906639,
-0.06859109550714493,
0.7938930988311768,
0.31551411747932434,
-0.9869409203529358,
-0.5127977132797241,
0.5161094665527344,
0.2526707649230957,
1.0767534971237183,
0.21576306223869324,
-0.46552613377571106,
0.23259054124355316,
-0.1653943508863449,
0.8203485608100891,
-0.3460537791252136,
-1.2565476894378662,
-0.11146930605173111,
-0.3914969563484192,
0.05829169973731041,
1.1605850458145142,
0.2915065288543701,
-0.1786489486694336,
-0.31334441900253296,
0.33712583780288696,
0.24439802765846252,
-0.41539618372917175,
0.4461621642112732,
0.45257630944252014,
-0.6779158711433411,
-0.11224613338708878,
0.19180519878864288,
-0.2050008624792099,
0.12040277570486069,
-0.2749265134334564,
0.6154508590698242,
0.23617321252822876,
-0.12527789175510406,
0.44671928882598877,
-0.08323736488819122,
0.8415173292160034,
0.6878424286842346,
0.30725574493408203,
0.3294050693511963,
-0.5112407207489014,
-0.16774335503578186,
0.27695024013519287,
0.45003825426101685,
-0.3407498300075531,
0.2948162257671356,
-0.19019348919391632,
0.15610651671886444,
-0.022542254999279976,
0.2241813689470291,
-0.49370336532592773,
0.5403051972389221,
0.17438657581806183,
-0.44768306612968445,
0.5611556768417358,
0.5261397957801819,
0.7720876932144165,
-0.1870245635509491,
0.5046270489692688,
-0.4276525676250458,
-0.10190457105636597,
0.22311125695705414,
0.44467535614967346,
0.003248461987823248,
0.3093745708465576,
-0.2480318248271942,
0.08463636040687561,
0.21603994071483612,
0.2559514045715332,
0.6679614782333374,
0.5082799196243286,
0.03964761272072792,
-0.8316434621810913,
0.17816974222660065,
-0.09534455835819244,
-0.20615321397781372,
-0.24627730250358582,
0.491098552942276,
-1.3728649616241455,
0.7573869824409485,
-0.23398242890834808,
-0.4041217863559723,
-0.43206122517585754,
-0.5567348599433899,
0.1222417876124382,
-0.014063609763979912,
-0.30200669169425964,
-0.2579866051673889,
-0.48267096281051636,
-0.6987757682800293,
0.06694047898054123,
0.18038155138492584,
0.5806654095649719,
-0.3808129131793976,
-0.02448289282619953,
-0.1252666711807251,
-0.5197818875312805,
-0.056671276688575745,
-0.6247232556343079,
-0.08517975360155106,
0.11727344244718552,
-0.26051199436187744,
0.5968364477157593,
0.049008581787347794,
-0.41136041283607483,
0.09430259466171265,
0.7527857422828674,
0.03871524706482887,
-0.3565589487552643,
0.12943078577518463,
0.47846993803977966,
-0.046352144330739975,
-0.046146366745233536,
0.039229895919561386,
0.4824991822242737,
-0.035516418516635895,
0.1825328767299652,
-0.4676828682422638,
-0.3623637855052948,
-5.559305667877197,
-0.33614540100097656,
-0.16865995526313782,
-0.27714797854423523,
-0.13790404796600342,
0.4429212808609009,
0.19811485707759857,
-0.28673920035362244,
-0.00417550653219223,
-0.7065022587776184,
0.01856750063598156,
-0.4018446207046509,
0.005220503080636263,
1.424841046333313,
0.5616633296012878,
0.7211588025093079,
0.4529370069503784,
0.32342565059661865,
-0.058427661657333374,
0.7677261829376221,
-0.0563676543533802,
-0.13678891956806183,
-0.7409162521362305,
0.0015330440364778042,
0.25221097469329834,
0.43349963426589966,
-0.6165841817855835,
-0.08317959308624268,
-0.645352303981781,
0.20236751437187195,
0.3764874041080475,
-0.34920820593833923,
-0.20459085702896118,
-0.009334607981145382,
-0.18900147080421448,
0.07095909863710403,
0.175199493765831,
0.7762506604194641,
0.3540678024291992,
0.24636781215667725,
0.2275773286819458,
0.5111417770385742,
-0.18546123802661896,
-0.1382015198469162,
0.27338412404060364,
-0.0386943556368351,
-1.1132875680923462,
0.034422148019075394,
-0.41452622413635254,
0.5449141263961792,
0.017063865438103676,
-0.1901537925004959,
0.13537710905075073,
0.06213746592402458,
-0.18506395816802979,
0.0700410008430481,
0.06904546171426773,
-0.17238469421863556,
-0.5574878454208374,
-0.07022111862897873,
0.28858253359794617,
-0.43089401721954346,
0.2882043719291687,
-0.6805450916290283,
-0.14832714200019836,
-0.366588830947876,
0.11247473210096359,
-0.15315617620944977,
0.16605965793132782,
-0.2879401445388794,
-0.31119978427886963,
0.7292888164520264,
0.5778146982192993,
-1.2620137929916382,
-0.7039636969566345,
-0.9162035584449768,
-0.30493301153182983,
-0.5730444192886353,
-0.6016413569450378,
-0.07550901174545288,
-0.2547009289264679,
-0.9491820335388184,
-0.7010668516159058,
0.6368255615234375,
0.7122150659561157,
-0.35155224800109863,
0.10527559369802475,
0.06634407490491867,
-0.06811310350894928,
-0.3619339168071747,
0.061986520886421204,
-0.5844537615776062,
0.2493923008441925,
0.1755845546722412,
0.4468279182910919,
0.6598280668258667,
-0.20892055332660675,
0.3954989016056061,
0.5273942947387695,
-0.1391458362340927,
0.40592068433761597,
-0.5483637452125549,
0.0418817400932312,
-0.08182564377784729,
0.13911862671375275,
0.3764345943927765,
0.3663540780544281,
-0.1128988265991211,
0.785893976688385,
0.09553488343954086,
-0.3030485212802887,
0.2048310935497284,
-0.28269657492637634,
-0.44136643409729004,
0.7286052107810974,
-0.13390976190567017,
-0.33176183700561523,
0.5088220238685608,
0.2345709651708603,
0.03636700287461281,
-0.1876876801252365,
0.07332056760787964,
0.4875969886779785,
-0.6779037714004517,
-0.27784430980682373,
-0.5348666310310364,
-0.09617231041193008,
-0.38351359963417053,
-0.1903029829263687,
-0.19268810749053955,
-0.320432186126709,
0.5983399748802185,
-0.0701114684343338,
-0.26480698585510254,
0.15154050290584564,
-0.4219120144844055,
-0.36068081855773926,
-0.39850252866744995,
-0.3078608810901642,
-0.019399497658014297,
0.1589578241109848,
-0.3947395980358124,
0.25526124238967896,
0.13103556632995605,
-0.4212423861026764,
0.04559187963604927,
-0.30619949102401733,
0.5918689370155334,
-0.453572541475296,
0.39347243309020996,
0.01641848124563694,
0.34431567788124084,
0.3728260099887848,
-0.35759812593460083,
-0.2934280037879944,
0.1321786791086197,
-0.5881926417350769,
0.3698219954967499,
-0.4278274178504944,
-0.018281444907188416,
0.16594180464744568,
-0.9221094250679016,
-1.1930538415908813,
-0.26862040162086487,
0.17577475309371948,
-0.4771256148815155,
-0.3527575135231018,
-0.497885525226593,
-0.706954300403595,
0.4967659115791321,
-0.24010860919952393,
-0.5742801427841187,
-0.41577157378196716,
-0.14249707758426666,
0.14391668140888214,
-0.22054439783096313,
0.24446174502372742,
0.2334350049495697,
0.17561732232570648,
0.15557658672332764,
0.12432126700878143,
0.2429981678724289,
-0.20748858153820038,
0.6885637640953064,
0.8552272319793701,
-0.6956230998039246,
0.0680159255862236,
-0.31184688210487366,
-0.1654680371284485,
-0.1083301529288292,
0.565123438835144,
0.20813150703907013,
0.6975401043891907,
0.34081050753593445,
-0.3073663115501404,
-0.31437885761260986,
-0.2950488328933716,
-0.2889367938041687,
-0.1188126802444458,
0.09873831272125244,
0.31714287400245667,
0.5264946222305298,
-0.414755254983902,
0.22999495267868042,
0.33854809403419495,
-0.6692836880683899,
-0.1635531634092331,
0.17882542312145233,
-0.19080272316932678,
0.9666783213615417,
-1.5425083637237549,
-0.42814767360687256,
-0.20381559431552887,
0.15610699355602264,
-0.4704054296016693,
0.25408241152763367,
0.39293739199638367,
-0.07958365231752396,
-0.4132668673992157,
-0.4004383981227875,
-0.586461067199707,
-0.9270934462547302,
-0.16890239715576172,
-0.11453860998153687,
-0.20859818160533905,
-0.07631391286849976,
0.4801577627658844,
-0.016613250598311424,
0.5189650058746338,
-0.5374413132667542,
0.05570882558822632,
-0.04844876378774643,
0.06778011471033096,
0.11467718333005905,
-0.5205205082893372,
-0.021791089326143265,
0.36474037170410156,
0.4075029492378235,
0.340955525636673,
0.3620888292789459,
0.9624899625778198,
0.4131027162075043,
0.099612295627594,
-0.42497625946998596,
-0.2439277321100235,
0.30016690492630005,
0.4624030888080597,
-0.4670650064945221,
-0.4028919041156769,
-0.004337702412158251,
0.39153414964675903,
-0.19657033681869507,
-0.3998755216598511,
-0.08272050321102142,
1.5906989574432373,
-0.4267306625843048,
0.08519989252090454,
-0.05204831436276436,
0.22684246301651,
-0.7243977189064026,
0.23623496294021606,
-0.2334519624710083,
-0.022030867636203766,
0.4985812306404114,
0.0874534621834755,
0.3080584704875946,
-0.26706206798553467,
-0.34503963589668274,
0.31831827759742737,
0.1434212476015091,
-0.4781467318534851,
-0.29811298847198486,
-0.08875611424446106,
0.17728501558303833,
-0.38205692172050476,
0.278748095035553,
0.15326595306396484,
0.2661915123462677,
0.42995527386665344,
-0.25167471170425415,
-0.25667375326156616,
0.2515268325805664,
0.44387388229370117,
-0.28578081727027893,
-0.5111539959907532,
-0.12849432229995728,
-0.17464181780815125,
0.022195180878043175,
-0.23146244883537292,
0.2571848928928375,
-0.6337710618972778,
-0.20546555519104004,
0.08784336596727371,
-0.04058516398072243,
-0.12223178893327713,
0.4979090392589569,
0.005482308566570282,
0.7749951481819153,
-0.4187489449977875,
-0.2392815798521042,
0.06422256678342819,
0.30223557353019714,
0.6453083753585815,
-0.7055374979972839,
0.564203679561615,
0.16527216136455536,
-0.5381539463996887,
-0.010847514495253563,
-0.06980891525745392,
0.2585583031177521,
0.22168010473251343,
0.347567081451416,
0.014537756331264973,
0.9382876753807068,
-0.48913949728012085,
-0.2442254275083542,
-0.1350754052400589,
-0.5591413378715515,
-0.23639865219593048,
0.09858956933021545,
0.19864696264266968,
-0.07194694876670837,
0.009861791506409645,
-0.28273141384124756,
0.010753332637250423,
1.0164729356765747,
0.4491961896419525,
-0.05440066382288933,
-0.27575549483299255,
-0.010042264126241207,
-0.18302838504314423,
-0.03770944103598595,
-0.30315476655960083,
-0.10119596123695374,
0.2945461571216583,
0.2149703949689865,
-0.17273414134979248,
-0.7032841444015503,
0.06851062923669815,
0.3433642089366913,
-0.04097088426351547,
0.8217555284500122,
-0.4415295422077179,
-0.06191231310367584,
-0.23386818170547485,
-0.5738813877105713,
-0.31368130445480347,
0.4319422245025635,
-0.3927983045578003,
0.3849160969257355,
0.413842111825943,
-0.1492730677127838,
-0.02612924575805664,
-0.6400355100631714,
-0.1826716959476471,
-0.15163159370422363,
-0.2635228633880615,
-0.6820895075798035,
-0.5780618190765381,
0.23640373349189758,
0.0696294903755188,
-0.6025582551956177,
0.4471750259399414,
0.3218196630477905,
0.24489474296569824,
-0.4693209230899811,
0.31677690148353577,
-0.8533934354782104,
0.47672149538993835,
0.25267255306243896,
0.16903316974639893,
0.09135445952415466,
-0.33812204003334045,
0.19350752234458923,
-0.012858783826231956,
0.021976524963974953,
0.5893614292144775,
-0.17521482706069946,
-0.08981011807918549,
0.022098056972026825,
-0.9983823299407959,
0.514554500579834,
-0.23157024383544922,
0.4029717743396759,
0.46274933218955994,
0.014177102595567703,
0.35132017731666565,
0.11583392322063446,
-0.023401862010359764,
0.18945279717445374,
0.5618137717247009,
-0.20130416750907898,
-0.21517755091190338,
0.4614414572715759,
-0.4874940514564514,
0.21020950376987457,
-0.2819015085697174,
1.0880801677703857,
0.4495011270046234,
-0.07981540262699127,
-0.2762799561023712,
0.1748500019311905,
-0.1320737898349762,
0.2845810353755951,
-0.19619131088256836,
0.013588765636086464,
-0.5558086633682251,
0.2240087389945984,
-0.2647908627986908,
0.09147124737501144,
0.10394052416086197,
0.057330772280693054,
-0.37105774879455566,
0.016725413501262665,
-0.3078366219997406,
0.03802648186683655,
0.45137736201286316,
0.29751500487327576,
0.33327481150627136,
0.2550089657306671,
0.018395939841866493,
0.28452569246292114,
-0.020694250240921974,
0.13075672090053558,
-0.10657151788473129,
0.521920919418335,
-0.27035656571388245,
-0.09533098340034485,
-0.2859101891517639,
0.18978948891162872,
-0.409186452627182,
-0.23322723805904388,
-0.2676418423652649,
-0.04022188484668732,
-0.11913380026817322,
-0.45658034086227417,
0.5109701156616211,
0.2454194575548172,
0.09898289293050766,
-0.4066665768623352,
0.1629287451505661,
-0.06308334320783615,
-0.2294495552778244,
-0.03295586630702019,
-0.8553893566131592,
0.5233370065689087,
-0.3746993839740753,
-0.25820815563201904,
-0.20537105202674866,
-0.2679348289966583,
0.08070515096187592,
-0.5845141410827637,
-0.075638048350811,
-0.23920190334320068,
0.29967501759529114,
0.29542428255081177,
0.32492321729660034,
0.14648106694221497,
0.9734176993370056,
-0.30343806743621826
] |
233549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Zug | Canton of Zug | The canton of Zug, also Zoug (, , , ); ) is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. It is located in central Switzerland and its capital is Zug. At the canton is one of the smallest of the Swiss cantons in terms of area. It is not subdivided into districts, but eleven municipalities.
History
The first trace of a settlement in the canton dates from approximately 14,000 BC, with additional finds from the Paleolithic (12,400-9250 BC) and the Mesolithic (9250-5500 BC). During the Neolithic (5500-2200 BC) and the Bronze Age (2200-850 BC) about 50 different stilt house villages were built in 33 locations around Lake Zug. Some of these sites are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps. Prehistoric sites around the lake and throughout the canton include examples from the Neolithic Egolzwiler, Cortaillod, Pfyn and Horgen cultures. Traces of the later Neolithic Bell Beaker and Corded Ware cultures as well as the early Bronze Age are less common. There were several large later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements. On the Baarburg the ruins of an Iron Age celtic prince's castle from about 500 BC contained Greek ceramics and etruscan metal vessels. Some of the names around the canton are possibly celtic in origin including Baar, Cham, Lorze, Sihl and possibly Reuss.
After the Roman conquest the area was home to as many as ten Villa rustica. In addition to a number of coin hoards, graves and ruins, a collection of 23 terracotta religious statues were discovered in Cham. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the area was incorporated into the Frankish Empire in 536/37. During the Early Middle Ages a number of parish churches were founded in the canton as the population grew. A settlement existed near the present location of Zug Castle and Cham by the 9th or 10th century. The city of Zug was founded in the first half of the 13th century.
Near the southern shore of the lake of Ägeri is the site of the Battle of Morgarten, won by the Swiss in 1315. In this battle the powerful Habsburgs were defeated. The hamlet of Morgarten (Municipality of Oberägeri) borders the canton of Schwyz and is home to the Morgarten Battle Monument (). The actual battlefield is just across the border in the hamlet of Schornen (Municipality of Sattel) in the canton of Schwyz.
During the 1798 French Invasion its inhabitants opposed the invading army until the collapse of the Ancien Regime. The canton formed part of the Tellgau and was later a district of the large canton of the Waldstätten in the French supported Helvetic Republic. The canton of Waldstätten also included what are today the cantons of Schwyz, Lucerne, Unterwalden and Uri.
In 1803, under the Act of Mediation, the canton of Zug regained its independence as a separate canton. The constitution of 1814 abolished public assemblies (Landsgemeinde), which had existed in the canton since 1376. In 1845 the canton of Zug became a member of the Sonderbund and participated in the war of 1847 which was lost to the Swiss confederation. In 1848 the remaining functions of the Landsgemeinde were abolished. Both in 1848 and in 1874 the canton voted against the federal constitutions. The constitution of 1876 was amended in 1881, and replaced by a new one in 1894.
Geography
The canton of Zug is located in central Switzerland and covers an area of . The cantons of Lucerne and Aargau lie to its west. To the north, the canton is bounded by the canton of Zürich, whereas to the east and south lies the canton of Schwyz.
Most of the land is considered productive. The Lake of Zug () and Lake Ägeri () make up a considerable part of the canton's area. Lake Ägeri is wholly within the canton, whereas the Zugersee is shared with the cantons of Lucerne and Schwyz.
The canton is located on a hilly plateau. The Höhronen (near Höhboden) is the highest elevation (1,229 m) in the east of the canton. The Zugerberg (1,039 m) in the south is another notable elevation. It connects in the south with the Rossberg massif which rises to the Wildspitz (1,583 m) east of the Zugersee. This massif separates the Zugersee from the basin and Ägerisee. It also separates the hilly district of Menzingen from the Zugersee.
The river Lorze is the principal drainage in the canton. It originates in Ägerisee, from where it flows northward through moraine deposits in a deep gorge with fine stalactite caverns. The river eventually enters the Zugersee, before flowing back out of the lake through the town of Cham, and joining the Reuss in the northern corner of the canton. The Reuss forms the boundary of the canton in the north west.
Canton Zug's borders were mainly established by nature itself: the rivers Sihl and Biber, and the Höhronen ridge in the east; the Rossberg mountain in the south, and the Rooterberg mountain, and the Reuss in the west. Only the 87.5 km-long border between the cantons of Zürich and Zug is not naturally defined. With its 1580 m peak, the Wildspitz is the highest point in the canton. The lowest point in the north of the canton is at 388 m, at Rüssspitz () on the border, the confluence of the rivers Lorzen and Reuss.
Diverse landscape
The canton of Zug is multi-faceted, despite its small size. In rough terms, there are two zones, divided by the north-south axis of Lake Zug: the western part with Ennetsee and the plateau of Zug, Steinhausen and Baar; and the eastern part consisting of the hilly and mountainous zone. In the latter is the Zugerberg with the Rossberg mountain chain, the valley of Oberägeri and Unterägeri, with Lake Ägeri, and the mountain ridge of Höhronen and the countryside of Menzingen and Neuheim.
The power of the glaciers in the ice ages are impressively shown in the lateral moraines of the mountains Walchwilerberg and Zugerberg. These are the remaining traces of the Reuss Glacier. The moraine and drumlin landscape of Menzingen and Neuheim are the result of the convergence of the Reuss Glacier and the Linth Glacier. The Swiss geologist Albert Heim (1849–1937) once noted that "this must be the most impressive moraine landscape in Switzerland". The glaciation of the Zug mountains stopped in around 15,000 BCE.
The Lorze is the only large river flowing wholly within the canton. The Sihl and Reuss both follow cantonal borders. The Lorze flows from Lake Ägeri through the deep valley of the Lorzentobel to Baar and Lake Zug. In Cham, the Lorze leaves Lake Zug and joins the Reuss at the aforementioned Reussspitz.
Political subdivisions
The canton forms a single administrative district, which comprises eleven municipalities. The legislature (Kantonsrat) has 80 members. The executive (Regierungsrat) has seven members. Members of both governments are elected directly by popular vote. The term of office in both cases is four years. The two members of the Federal Ständerat, as well as the three members of the Federal Nationalrat, are also elected by a popular vote.
Municipalities
The eleven municipalities of the canton are: Zug, Oberägeri, Unterägeri, Menzingen, Baar, Cham, Hünenberg, Steinhausen, Risch, Walchwil, Neuheim
Demographics
The population of the canton (as of ) is . , the population included 31,643 foreigners, or about 26% of the total population, up from 15.6% in 1990. The largest foreign population is to be found in the municipality of Walchwil with 33.2% foreign nationals, then Zug (31.7%), Baar (28.1%), Risch (26.3%), and Oberägeri (25.3%). The lowest rate is to be found in Menzingen (18.9%) and Hünenberg (16.5%).
The majority of the population () is Roman Catholic (62%) with a Protestant minority (18%). Until 1814, Zug was in the Diocese of Konstanz, but on the reconstruction of the diocese of Basel in 1828 it was assigned to the latter.
While the majority of the population understands standard German, most residents speak the Swiss German dialect of central Switzerland.
Historical population
The historical population is given in the following table:
Economy
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) described the economy as follows:
Since 1910 the economy has shifted dramatically in Zug. In 2014, about 1.8% of the workers in Zug work in the primary sector (the total for all of Switzerland is 3.3%) Of these 1.8%, in 2008, nearly two-thirds kept dairy cows. However, its low tax rates and business friendly climate have brought many small and medium-sized businesses in all areas of the economy. There are over 24,300 registered companies and over 70,000 jobs in the canton, with 12,900 of the registered companies based in the city of Zug.
In 2014 the secondary sector employed 22,096 or about 20.5% of the total. Of those in the secondary sector, 28.3% worked in the manufacture of data-processing equipment, electronic and optical products. About a quarter of all secondary sector workers in the canton work in construction, with 19.7% in specialized trades such as electrician or plumber and 7% in construction management or labor. The tertiary sector employed 83,591 or about 77.7% of the total. Of those in the tertiary sector, the largest group of employees (17% of all tertiary sector) work in wholesale business including wholesale pharmaceuticals. The next largest group category is education which makes up 6.22% of the sector. Due to Zug's status as a business center and tax haven, 5.74% of the tertiary sector is in management and business consultancy, 4.67% provide information technology services, 4% provide legal and tax consultancy and nearly 4% provide financial services.
In 2016, the town of Zug began accepting digital currency for small payments of municipal fees. Then, in 2021, the canton started accepting bitcoin or Ethereum for personal and company taxes up to CHF100,000. To reduce risk, Zug converts the cryptocurrency into Swiss francs. This is part of a strategy to associate Zug with new technologies.
Zug has also been referred to as the Crypto Valley by Ethereum co-founder Mihai Alisie because of the large number of companies engaged in cryptocurrency in the area. By 2018, a Crypto Valley Association had been formed with Oliver Bussmann, as its president.
At the end of 2019, the following were identified as the largest cryptocurrency companies in Zug: Ethereum ($14.4 billion), Dfinity ($2bn), Polkadot ($1.2bn), Bitmain ($1bn), Libra ($1bn), Tezos ($924m), Cardano ($869m) and Cosmos ($818m). By 2021, the term ‘Crypto Valley’ was being used to cover Switzerland and Liechtenstein with 960 companies; Zug accounted for 433 companies, followed by Zurich (178). Eleven companies were described as ‘unicorns’ with the largest – Ethereum ($157 billion), Cardano ($41bn) and Polkadot ($29bn), all being based in the canton.
The canton of Zug has one of the lowest tax rates in Switzerland.
Transport
Zug is located on the north side of the transalpine north–south axis via the Thalwil–Arth-Goldau railway, connecting the Gotthard line to Zürich. It is also a major railway junction of the Zug–Lucerne railway and the north–south axis.
The motorway A4 traverses the canton west of the Zugersee.
Politics
Federal election results
FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
"*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
Part of a coalition with the SP
Part of a coalition with the Green Party
References
External links
Canton of Zug's official page
Official statistics
Zug-Zuerich border photos
Kanton Zug - All photographs index
Zug
14th-century establishments in the Old Swiss Confederacy
1350s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1352 establishments in Europe | [
-0.3508991599082947,
0.06459654122591019,
0.02759871445596218,
0.004694813396781683,
-0.07672233879566193,
0.2452879697084427,
-0.02971537411212921,
0.5490404367446899,
-0.6983972787857056,
-0.5948740839958191,
-0.4400630593299866,
-0.2207295447587967,
-0.269114226102829,
0.07779783755540848,
-0.7291070818901062,
0.8506240248680115,
0.5250756740570068,
0.14532750844955444,
-0.16512303054332733,
-1.0867897272109985,
0.20330670475959778,
0.06586482375860214,
0.06637778133153915,
0.3021355867385864,
-0.19163230061531067,
-0.11656344681978226,
0.5824412107467651,
0.4022979736328125,
0.6701419949531555,
0.2319742888212204,
-0.28293874859809875,
0.6730807423591614,
-0.08958791196346283,
-0.5362697839736938,
-0.07772285491228104,
0.15817905962467194,
0.047463156282901764,
-0.9122348427772522,
-0.04121405631303787,
-0.3902284502983093,
0.05256316065788269,
0.29104113578796387,
-0.2900371849536896,
0.3557906448841095,
0.011452635750174522,
0.20668534934520721,
-1.1535017490386963,
0.5929297804832458,
-0.5504516363143921,
0.2718532383441925,
-0.6496641635894775,
0.34365060925483704,
0.12939710915088654,
-0.016615135595202446,
-0.05320838838815689,
0.09038742631673813,
-1.0762664079666138,
-0.18087029457092285,
0.3309811055660248,
-0.02149655483663082,
0.34646525979042053,
0.22429241240024567,
-0.247272327542305,
0.17541033029556274,
-0.2060256153345108,
0.13223762810230255,
0.12966027855873108,
0.6507754921913147,
-0.11993967741727829,
-0.6171432733535767,
-0.271345853805542,
0.0973951667547226,
-0.18153846263885498,
0.232944518327713,
0.07979150116443634,
0.18843375146389008,
-0.5505043268203735,
-0.02453766204416752,
0.2913278639316559,
0.030939575284719467,
-0.5304815769195557,
0.19920359551906586,
0.6952019333839417,
0.12996478378772736,
0.35305577516555786,
0.20786893367767334,
-0.3379174768924713,
0.23099419474601746,
-0.330024778842926,
1.1046568155288696,
-0.30274707078933716,
-0.4315580427646637,
0.122503362596035,
-0.5835098028182983,
0.5068824291229248,
-0.4047117829322815,
0.05409056693315506,
0.24131150543689728,
0.3169640600681305,
0.4218275845050812,
0.1841527223587036,
0.42013996839523315,
0.4552537500858307,
-0.02198268473148346,
-0.5259425044059753,
-0.40025559067726135,
-0.20726417005062103,
-0.7413458228111267,
-0.647931694984436,
-0.032705165445804596,
-0.35326385498046875,
0.028080331161618233,
0.13700640201568604,
0.024728795513510704,
0.1933790147304535,
-0.06322211772203445,
0.34452974796295166,
-0.6323781609535217,
0.21450957655906677,
-0.05669170245528221,
0.3355179727077484,
0.7800228595733643,
-0.12113147974014282,
-0.12085043638944626,
0.7207168340682983,
-0.31440451741218567,
0.15181158483028412,
0.3243536949157715,
-0.6141510009765625,
-0.08984869718551636,
-0.08235423266887665,
0.5963184833526611,
-0.004693752154707909,
0.15405938029289246,
0.09799635410308838,
-0.7483574748039246,
0.1612224280834198,
0.12158731371164322,
0.4186922609806061,
0.2988729476928711,
-1.3197035789489746,
0.5238747596740723,
-0.29218271374702454,
-0.13766241073608398,
0.26680129766464233,
-0.4779030978679657,
-0.3436638414859772,
-0.7491689920425415,
0.33030790090560913,
-0.0731690376996994,
-0.5025774240493774,
0.0752008780837059,
-0.09822182357311249,
0.35384276509284973,
-1.0671746730804443,
0.7159567475318909,
0.3750622570514679,
-0.1909196674823761,
0.6335294842720032,
0.2951773405075073,
0.3339722454547882,
-0.647689700126648,
0.04980792477726936,
-0.03508349508047104,
0.7133690714836121,
-0.1557883620262146,
0.16518190503120422,
-0.013901476748287678,
-0.21767480671405792,
-0.27870357036590576,
-0.6796416640281677,
-0.646195650100708,
0.22198204696178436,
-0.6100841760635376,
-0.3409382700920105,
-0.2651345729827881,
-0.09308900684118271,
0.30055326223373413,
0.11068916320800781,
-0.32694894075393677,
-0.5754523277282715,
0.05042295902967453,
0.4529717266559601,
0.5238721370697021,
0.38083508610725403,
0.45807480812072754,
0.02859613113105297,
0.10982360690832138,
-0.16907936334609985,
0.4423183798789978,
0.15887168049812317,
-0.3706565201282501,
0.4200652241706848,
-0.16167376935482025,
0.7411195635795593,
0.10922712832689285,
-0.33382657170295715,
0.4464462399482727,
-0.2611069679260254,
-0.05090712383389473,
-0.6543850302696228,
-0.3587612509727478,
0.45018720626831055,
0.0154768917709589,
0.12565863132476807,
0.4325251281261444,
-0.19265402853488922,
-0.19363509118556976,
-0.09230713546276093,
0.2936391532421112,
0.16205069422721863,
-0.17123325169086456,
0.7503902316093445,
0.27912357449531555,
-0.1512203961610794,
0.058236218988895416,
-0.35690122842788696,
0.28922292590141296,
-0.3616858124732971,
-0.07960691303014755,
0.6441658735275269,
0.08780443668365479,
-0.31990063190460205,
0.5555880665779114,
-0.04197579249739647,
0.4971809685230255,
0.2747834622859955,
0.24739569425582886,
-0.004498460330069065,
-0.15786831080913544,
-0.012758300639688969,
-0.051595259457826614,
0.5115870237350464,
-0.2516622245311737,
0.44616594910621643,
-0.06443864107131958,
-0.3720413148403168,
-0.19546166062355042,
-0.014505147002637386,
-0.5383707880973816,
0.39151573181152344,
0.08155158907175064,
-0.10790020227432251,
0.008156975731253624,
0.3644743859767914,
0.7962797284126282,
-0.005577014293521643,
0.5030144453048706,
-0.5334651470184326,
-0.38187772035598755,
0.2080734223127365,
0.0827745869755745,
0.3015577495098114,
-0.1251704841852188,
0.1012209877371788,
-0.794145405292511,
0.8122861385345459,
0.2278556376695633,
0.35696232318878174,
0.6144540905952454,
0.32403168082237244,
-0.10199941694736481,
-0.23791858553886414,
-0.07667882740497589,
-0.5393791794776917,
0.003332964377477765,
-0.20954713225364685,
-0.2612745463848114,
0.01880904845893383,
-0.15842270851135254,
-0.09574513882398605,
-0.2150544822216034,
-0.6337041854858398,
0.19944177567958832,
0.09434184432029724,
-0.11587613821029663,
-0.4296319782733917,
0.10534368455410004,
-0.555286705493927,
0.26646772027015686,
-0.12140718102455139,
0.604921281337738,
0.24387697875499725,
-0.3095433712005615,
-0.12854909896850586,
-0.2597273290157318,
0.6668367385864258,
-0.33875614404678345,
0.02091163769364357,
0.12316183000802994,
0.28055068850517273,
0.4468260705471039,
-0.16487817466259003,
-0.05399378389120102,
-0.039569832384586334,
-0.1907244622707367,
-0.41783493757247925,
0.2969673275947571,
0.36362648010253906,
-0.5809590816497803,
-0.7405019402503967,
0.14457309246063232,
0.29368898272514343,
-0.3336012363433838,
0.03652992472052574,
-0.6062668561935425,
0.10309913754463196,
0.3136337995529175,
-5.594849109649658,
-0.23333318531513214,
0.10128547996282578,
-0.01920831762254238,
-0.5415313243865967,
-0.43683910369873047,
-0.08211729675531387,
-0.5628949999809265,
-0.24985086917877197,
-0.09632091969251633,
-0.3149908483028412,
-0.4029765725135803,
-0.17877264320850372,
0.2456987053155899,
0.01848612166941166,
0.3868137300014496,
0.22465787827968597,
0.43912672996520996,
0.019374508410692215,
0.044339172542095184,
-0.3106696605682373,
-0.03459780663251877,
0.731451690196991,
0.12274256348609924,
0.04034779965877533,
-0.08296885341405869,
-0.039239708334207535,
-0.26710736751556396,
-0.48339855670928955,
-0.7255846261978149,
0.30829179286956787,
0.05372362956404686,
0.34296730160713196,
0.370175838470459,
-0.021580951288342476,
-0.21871685981750488,
0.9025332927703857,
0.5524634718894958,
0.937500536441803,
-0.38151463866233826,
0.21367353200912476,
1.115240216255188,
0.10259207338094711,
0.08015516400337219,
0.5207693576812744,
-0.6515709161758423,
-0.6883822679519653,
-0.03576483950018883,
-0.579060971736908,
0.9716832041740417,
0.5058582425117493,
-0.6911816000938416,
0.2942970097064972,
-0.4834807515144348,
-0.0398019514977932,
0.014400593005120754,
0.1639934778213501,
0.27994614839553833,
-0.5127246975898743,
0.678356945514679,
0.44286927580833435,
0.05272221565246582,
-0.13825608789920807,
-0.5789640545845032,
-0.3740960955619812,
-0.2076333463191986,
-0.5572866797447205,
0.7544646263122559,
0.575576901435852,
0.23553580045700073,
-0.02032744325697422,
0.5897560715675354,
0.09231816232204437,
-0.5521683692932129,
-0.16302135586738586,
-0.4653359651565552,
-0.5988934636116028,
-0.20070727169513702,
0.1969982087612152,
0.6403911709785461,
-0.34718456864356995,
0.5568329691886902,
0.37754160165786743,
0.83209228515625,
0.28371360898017883,
-0.26836398243904114,
-0.4621303379535675,
0.6802524328231812,
0.11275647580623627,
-0.06545722484588623,
-0.1292581707239151,
-0.625347375869751,
0.5495117902755737,
0.6156980991363525,
-0.6411488056182861,
0.8702356815338135,
0.047762803733348846,
-0.10161633044481277,
0.151925727725029,
-0.41915661096572876,
1.0643646717071533,
-0.06773055344820023,
-0.019917182624340057,
-0.012514806352555752,
-0.2689838707447052,
0.2722998261451721,
0.2551005184650421,
0.8876852989196777,
0.5153523683547974,
0.64848393201828,
-0.20257720351219177,
-0.007031087297946215,
-0.29595813155174255,
-0.8091205954551697,
0.32496777176856995,
-0.8248189091682434,
-1.0726020336151123,
0.4188539385795593,
0.04431041702628136,
0.36476999521255493,
0.04614338278770447,
0.6451380252838135,
0.026260389015078545,
-0.3918466567993164,
-0.35898420214653015,
0.06700986623764038,
0.029993368312716484,
0.059842370450496674,
-0.04163357615470886,
0.6661115884780884,
-0.07020305097103119,
-0.4012278914451599,
0.1853572130203247,
-0.44097214937210083,
0.27381736040115356,
0.01845565438270569,
-0.504859447479248,
-0.3893156945705414,
-0.11278953403234482,
-0.3645177185535431,
0.8667723536491394,
0.1395837813615799,
-0.37461763620376587,
0.4097878336906433,
0.019852787256240845,
-0.020487509667873383,
-0.19057020545005798,
0.03374866023659706,
-0.6308021545410156,
0.17022165656089783,
0.0451236292719841,
-0.6740046143531799,
0.35560357570648193,
0.11477450281381607,
-0.2692631781101227,
-0.36793744564056396,
0.13059084117412567,
0.5461138486862183,
0.529778242111206,
-0.5426435470581055,
0.13294517993927002,
-1.0201970338821411,
-0.22732341289520264,
0.6385809183120728,
0.6067965030670166,
0.5057214498519897,
-0.016474375501275063,
-0.39159145951271057,
-0.6561209559440613,
0.6454442143440247,
0.069020576775074,
-0.38602983951568604,
-0.3968459367752075,
-0.19036909937858582,
-0.42976996302604675,
-0.4026990830898285,
0.04531022533774376,
0.012549076229333878,
0.010005451738834381,
0.06960590928792953,
-0.1415775865316391,
-0.4542471170425415,
0.23284028470516205,
0.8013893365859985,
0.5695521235466003,
-0.39304497838020325,
-0.325345516204834,
0.6160417199134827,
-0.2023952603340149,
-0.4237779378890991,
0.679836630821228,
-0.5134186148643494,
0.25714951753616333,
0.37790077924728394,
-0.3322979807853699,
-0.9701619148254395,
0.14057256281375885,
-0.21666215360164642,
0.11832013726234436,
-0.5156028270721436,
-0.10065135359764099,
0.20132431387901306,
-0.2068796008825302,
0.4433916211128235,
0.24003185331821442,
-0.006205099169164896,
0.08445722609758377,
0.2427995204925537,
-0.46851012110710144,
0.11657854914665222,
-0.8209105134010315,
-0.9372029304504395,
0.08102745562791824,
0.4104065001010895,
-0.6340566873550415,
0.19027583301067352,
0.13368041813373566,
-0.6755818128585815,
-0.7025941610336304,
0.016735104843974113,
-0.28050824999809265,
-0.36625322699546814,
-0.036662086844444275,
-0.07385854423046112,
-0.12543949484825134,
0.5921589136123657,
0.11651872843503952,
-0.1473570317029953,
0.8971719145774841,
-0.36916384100914,
0.1411096453666687,
0.23436716198921204,
0.2037200927734375,
-0.6262101531028748,
-0.17001838982105255,
-0.4622562527656555,
0.8211456537246704,
0.6755576729774475,
-0.028231345117092133,
0.4882234036922455,
0.29943665862083435,
1.1540855169296265,
0.3086164593696594,
-0.5006082057952881,
0.10191189497709274,
-0.19363416731357574,
0.2862411439418793,
-0.7333099842071533,
-0.3400997817516327,
0.5060996413230896,
-0.04347534850239754,
-0.2973388731479645,
-0.38236716389656067,
-0.4254220128059387,
0.6154754757881165,
-0.0659090057015419,
-0.14008928835391998,
0.42052218317985535,
0.10167127847671509,
-0.23288406431674957,
-0.12326321750879288,
0.3539751172065735,
-0.05366426706314087,
-0.12751169502735138,
0.14798645675182343,
-0.10044008493423462,
-0.39482006430625916,
0.005931705702096224,
0.38799214363098145,
0.1459810733795166,
0.11775792390108109,
-0.4296706020832062,
-0.023944027721881866,
0.22428160905838013,
-0.40679556131362915,
0.5367318391799927,
-0.08892320096492767,
0.22594425082206726,
0.22182875871658325,
-0.18971434235572815,
-0.9615670442581177,
0.110508993268013,
0.1905398666858673,
-0.2756224274635315,
0.5396016836166382,
-0.6443759799003601,
-0.7741750478744507,
0.6403132081031799,
-0.6510696411132812,
0.35671913623809814,
-0.023579327389597893,
-0.5954722762107849,
-0.07961884140968323,
-0.228209987282753,
-0.02594330534338951,
0.471035361289978,
-0.3535066843032837,
0.16437852382659912,
0.21220341324806213,
0.235975980758667,
-0.6546735167503357,
0.2889210283756256,
0.2365773618221283,
-0.6566898226737976,
0.11400680989027023,
0.18225668370723724,
-0.48865970969200134,
-0.2749372124671936,
-0.1830051988363266,
-0.42705684900283813,
0.09192782640457153,
-0.03566544130444527,
-0.23696929216384888,
0.7937373518943787,
-0.6558855175971985,
0.5283167362213135,
0.3398464024066925,
-0.2238331139087677,
0.020273910835385323,
0.530696451663971,
0.14613229036331177,
0.13671760261058807,
0.23542919754981995,
0.15554943680763245,
-0.2122611552476883,
0.7196997404098511,
0.25248196721076965,
-0.6620103716850281,
-0.08890765905380249,
-0.18971849977970123,
0.12710347771644592,
0.18766747415065765,
-0.5444011688232422,
0.6994750499725342,
-0.5532809495925903,
-0.4100041091442108,
0.021108707413077354,
-0.6333033442497253,
-0.16723349690437317,
0.2295076549053192,
-0.06288063526153564,
1.2100659608840942,
-0.6968215703964233,
-0.17882810533046722,
0.20976515114307404,
0.29400286078453064,
-0.26542532444000244,
-0.13620322942733765,
0.9588618278503418,
-0.16869142651557922,
0.8238485455513,
0.17921246588230133,
-0.015088638290762901,
0.2917104661464691,
-0.47149738669395447,
0.29485175013542175,
-0.11597011238336563,
0.2965395152568817,
-0.3608209192752838,
0.2311396449804306,
0.20136992633342743,
-0.33807334303855896,
0.08554451912641525,
0.011531401425600052,
-0.08757287263870239,
-0.3340432345867157,
-0.29368463158607483,
0.220716193318367,
-0.6480808854103088,
0.16257861256599426,
-0.16259217262268066,
-0.08325120061635971,
0.18616726994514465,
-0.2699401080608368,
0.07998397946357727,
-0.06441531330347061,
-0.41535910964012146,
0.7835542559623718,
-0.2285146564245224,
0.5213831067085266,
-0.5191880464553833,
0.24134132266044617,
0.05324222892522812,
-0.4865410625934601,
-0.650482714176178,
-0.19273194670677185,
0.09654108434915543,
-0.003960475791245699,
0.5595557689666748,
0.20324696600437164,
0.1135208010673523,
-0.3650244474411011,
-0.5911014676094055,
-0.6177539229393005,
0.2214609980583191,
-0.5096572041511536,
-0.2567998170852661,
0.6724280118942261,
0.9416964054107666,
-0.2904115915298462,
0.2728675901889801,
0.09792840480804443,
-0.21271538734436035,
-0.29113736748695374,
0.3271954655647278,
0.3065396845340729,
0.020563064143061638,
-0.1121910959482193,
-0.421265184879303,
0.40310266613960266,
0.5201484560966492,
-0.16004444658756256,
-0.3550877571105957,
1.2385929822921753,
-0.12651337683200836,
0.18702565133571625,
0.8436122536659241,
0.09519755840301514,
-0.2492387294769287,
-0.2791149914264679,
0.16904212534427643,
-0.05081893131136894,
0.13497209548950195,
0.7638994455337524,
0.48151737451553345,
-0.051363807171583176,
0.048965442925691605,
-0.31840384006500244,
-0.5737142562866211,
0.6477171778678894,
0.06316164135932922,
-0.0899585708975792,
-0.16489626467227936,
-0.4617992639541626,
-0.7838223576545715,
-0.26863574981689453,
0.7116028666496277,
-0.44656211137771606,
-0.25487276911735535,
-0.3198051452636719,
-0.3708113431930542,
-0.27487269043922424,
0.18230077624320984,
-0.026811879128217697,
-0.3374395966529846,
0.3060998320579529,
0.01861652545630932,
-0.5593520402908325,
-0.5696661472320557,
0.08696145564317703,
0.24445225298404694,
-0.07647185772657394,
0.5595096349716187,
-0.25554484128952026,
-0.31516769528388977,
0.03389785811305046,
0.5693585872650146,
-0.453104168176651,
0.37034285068511963,
0.03859664872288704
] |
233553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Thomas | John Thomas | John Thomas may refer to:
Politics
United Kingdom
John Thomas (c. 1490–1540/42), British Member of Parliament for Truro
John Thomas (c. 1531–1581/90), British Member of Parliament for Mitchell
John Aeron Thomas (1850–1935), British Member of Parliament for Gower, 1900–1906
John Thomas (Welsh politician) (born 1852), Welsh county councillor and miners' agent
John Thomas (British politician) (1897–1968), British Member of Parliament for Dover
John Stradling Thomas (1925–1991), Welsh Conservative Party politician
John Thomas, Baron Thomas of Cwmgiedd (born 1947), British judge
Sir John Thomas, 1st Baronet, Sheriff of Glamorgan in 1700
United States
John Chew Thomas (1764–1836), U.S. congressman from Maryland
John Thomas (New York politician) (1792–1866), New York politician
John Warwick Thomas (1800–1871), North Carolina state legislator and founder of Thomasville, North Carolina
John Addison Thomas (1811–1858), U.S. Assistant Secretary of State
John J. Thomas (1813–1895), Confederate politician
John E. Thomas (politician) (1829–?), Wisconsin state assemblyman and senator
John Lewis Thomas Jr. (1835–1893), U.S. congressman from Maryland
John O. Thomas (1867–1961), Wisconsin state assemblyman
John R. Thomas (1846–1914), U.S. congressman from Illinois
John W. Thomas (Wisconsin politician) (1846–1925), Wisconsin state assemblyman
John W. Thomas (1874–1945), U.S. Senator from Idaho
John W. Thomas (sheriff) (1815–1888), sheriff of Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Elmer Thomas (John William Elmer Thomas, 1876–1965), U.S. Senator from Oklahoma
J. Parnell Thomas (1895–1970), U.S. congressman from New Jersey
John M. Thomas, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State in the 1970s
John Charles Thomas (judge) (born 1950), Virginia supreme court justice
John W. E. Thomas, American businessman, educator, and Illinois politician
Military
John Thomas (American general) (1724–1776), American general in the American Revolutionary War
John Thomas (VC) (1886–1954), English soldier and recipient of the Victoria Cross
John Wallace Thomas (1888–1965), Newfoundland and Canadian merchant mariner who served in First and Second World Wars
John Wellesley Thomas (1822–1908), British military officer
Religion and theology
John Thomas (bishop of Winchester) (1696–1781), previously Bishop of Salisbury
John Thomas (bishop of Rochester) (1712–1793), previously Dean of Westminster
John Thomas (bishop of Salisbury) (1691–1766), previously Bishop of St Asaph and Bishop of Lincoln
John Thomas (priest, born 1736) (1736–1769), Welsh Anglican priest and antiquarian
John Thomas (priest, born 1891) (1891–1959), Welsh Anglican priest
John Thomas (Christadelphian) (1805–1871), British Christian theologian, and founder of the Christadelphians
John Lloyd Thomas (1908–1984), Anglican clergyman
John Christopher Thomas (born c. 1955), American Pentecostal theologian
John H. Thomas (born c. 1950), American clergyman, General Minister and President of the United Church of Christ, 1999–2009
Jack Thomas (bishop) (John James Absalom Thomas; 1908–1995), Bishop of Swansea and Brecon
Sport
John Thomas (American football) (born 1935), American football player for the San Francisco 49ers
John Thomas (Australian footballer) (1935–2011), Australian rules footballer for Geelong
John Thomas (athlete) (1941–2013), American high jumper
John Thomas (Australian cricketer) (1852–1915), cricketer for Tasmania
John Thomas (English cricketer) (1879–1949), cricketer for Somerset
John Thomas (basketball) (born 1975), American basketball player
John Thomas (figure skater) (born 1960), Canadian ice dancer
John Thomas (Welsh footballer) (died 1920), Welsh footballer for Sheffield United and Gainsborough Trinity in the 1890s
John Thomas (Irish footballer), Irish international footballer
John Thomas (footballer, born 1958), English footballer for Preston North End and Bolton Wanderers
John Thomas (ice hockey) (1936–1995), Australian ice hockey player
John Thomas (lacrosse) (born 1952), American lacrosse player
John Webster Thomas (1900–1977), American college football player for the Chicago Maroons
Ron Thomas (bowls) (John Ronald Thomas), Welsh international lawn and indoor bowler
John Thomas (baseball), American baseball player
Music
John Charles Thomas (1891–1960), American baritone opera singer
John Rogers Thomas (1830–1896), American composer
John Thomas (harpist) (1826–1913), Welsh composer and musician
John Weston Thomas (1921–1992), Welsh harpmaker
"Big" John Thomas (1952–2016), British lead guitarist with Budgie
Art
John Thomas (sculptor) (1813–1862), British sculptor who worked on British palaces
John Evan Thomas (1810–1873), Welsh sculptor
John Paul Thomas (1927–2001), American artist, principally in Hawaii
Film
John G. Thomas (born 1948), American filmmaker
John Thomas (cinematographer), winner of the 1995 Independent Spirit Award for Best Cinematography
John Thomas (screenwriter) (fl. late 20th century), co-screenwriter for the movie Predator
Education
John L. Thomas (c. 1927–2005), American historian
John Martin Thomas (1869–1952), Twelfth president of Rutgers University
John Peyre Thomas Sr. (1833–1912), South Carolina educator, politician and historian
John R. Thomas (professor), American intellectual property professor
Other areas
John Thomas (photographer) (1838–1905), Welsh photographer
John Jacob Thomas (1841–1889), Trinidadian linguist and writer
John Rochester Thomas (1848–1901), American architect
John Henry Thomas (1854–1928), Australian composer, editor, and conductor
John Henry Thomas (shipping) (1869–1931), American shipping business and port director
John Hudson Thomas (1878–1945), American architect
John B. Thomas (1925–2018), American electrical engineer, educator and professor
John E. Thomas (1926–1996), Canadian philosopher
John Meurig Thomas (1932–2020), British chemist and materials scientist
John Floyd Thomas Jr. (born 1936), Californian murderer
John Henry Malamah Thomas, Sierra Leonean entrepreneur and mayor of Freetown, Sierra Leone
John Thomas Idlet (1931–2002), American Beat poet
Other uses
UK slang for penis
John Thomas sign
See also
Johnny Thomas (disambiguation) | [
0.25578922033309937,
0.22271272540092468,
-0.4645737111568451,
-0.2765193581581116,
0.04632149636745453,
0.7211228609085083,
0.5452123284339905,
0.24093525111675262,
-1.0916334390640259,
-0.23172402381896973,
-0.20809867978096008,
0.13403159379959106,
-0.47020718455314636,
0.20831166207790375,
0.08005774021148682,
0.29329434037208557,
-0.023413019254803658,
0.6551609039306641,
-0.31024324893951416,
-0.6807851195335388,
0.05408352240920067,
-0.2594200670719147,
0.07976230978965759,
-0.36699435114860535,
0.305518239736557,
-0.06638652086257935,
-0.003739243606105447,
-0.685519814491272,
-0.41956186294555664,
-0.05441960319876671,
0.16872389614582062,
0.2638228237628937,
0.35444679856300354,
-0.12709864974021912,
-0.14148610830307007,
-0.6135127544403076,
-0.2585057318210602,
-0.4000634253025055,
0.04004794731736183,
0.07157184183597565,
-0.2148655652999878,
-0.5615831017494202,
0.3002530634403229,
0.5212641954421997,
0.12394361943006516,
-0.0021953636314719915,
-1.8115670680999756,
-0.14739447832107544,
-0.5519610643386841,
0.4609462022781372,
0.4354870319366455,
-0.03463149815797806,
-0.13905076682567596,
0.4525667130947113,
-0.26918789744377136,
0.25605347752571106,
-0.2724551260471344,
-0.029678812250494957,
0.4881548583507538,
-0.15725868940353394,
0.5183519124984741,
-0.23399151861667633,
-0.05096844211220741,
0.5861496329307556,
0.6402220129966736,
-0.04078943654894829,
-0.12236606329679489,
1.0912026166915894,
-0.6802189350128174,
0.38703829050064087,
0.06248120591044426,
0.015615332871675491,
0.3079664707183838,
0.5026196837425232,
0.03760991990566254,
-0.27062562108039856,
-0.19256550073623657,
0.07016869634389877,
0.1310242861509323,
-0.0692850798368454,
0.1738346666097641,
-0.0989316999912262,
0.38813647627830505,
0.34247010946273804,
0.2532941997051239,
0.621351420879364,
-0.27508407831192017,
-0.14969320595264435,
0.01620499975979328,
-0.07617870718240738,
0.2718919515609741,
0.14042821526527405,
-0.2831449806690216,
-0.10386624932289124,
-0.5139113664627075,
0.17654967308044434,
0.14772051572799683,
-0.08304918557405472,
-0.08864057809114456,
-0.13562323153018951,
0.017069973051548004,
0.61271071434021,
0.5986157059669495,
-0.12197380512952805,
-0.24920570850372314,
0.5773346424102783,
-0.1418355405330658,
0.3144853711128235,
0.5067330598831177,
-0.7345282435417175,
-0.20983651280403137,
0.3732357621192932,
-0.16286928951740265,
0.19626542925834656,
-0.003483128035441041,
-0.10655723512172699,
0.6558247208595276,
-0.55128014087677,
-0.23520365357398987,
-0.3822019696235657,
-0.2426295429468155,
0.9100403189659119,
-0.38704586029052734,
0.4141470491886139,
-0.26515644788742065,
0.03192305564880371,
0.4391784071922302,
0.26007673144340515,
0.5616675019264221,
0.173520028591156,
0.40110301971435547,
0.9756737351417542,
-0.16579221189022064,
-0.2613477408885956,
-0.4793514013290405,
0.21819500625133514,
0.3724067509174347,
0.40458568930625916,
0.15449050068855286,
0.23259244859218597,
-0.4844813346862793,
0.038018904626369476,
-0.8224801421165466,
0.4367504119873047,
0.19062002003192902,
0.272630900144577,
-0.24482323229312897,
-0.09481089562177658,
0.42932724952697754,
0.015111738815903664,
-0.04051334410905838,
0.3928801119327545,
-0.0825105756521225,
0.220500648021698,
-0.5998076796531677,
0.5018303394317627,
0.3431500792503357,
-0.32672855257987976,
0.4307711720466614,
0.19295357167720795,
-0.14499951899051666,
0.31711718440055847,
0.3709668219089508,
-0.28333890438079834,
0.31611305475234985,
0.16808955371379852,
0.5055803656578064,
-0.1484142243862152,
-0.3651200830936432,
-0.46072736382484436,
-0.5763494968414307,
-0.05439581349492073,
0.16518345475196838,
-0.34304895997047424,
-0.4617542028427124,
0.25833818316459656,
0.36850911378860474,
0.4081571400165558,
0.5910471677780151,
-0.5058908462524414,
-0.5190677642822266,
0.2669285535812378,
0.15225543081760406,
-0.7753268480300903,
-0.20647011697292328,
0.3823920786380768,
0.5854477882385254,
-0.18622392416000366,
-0.13204325735569,
0.09431365877389908,
-0.3932279050350189,
-0.4873221218585968,
-0.15000462532043457,
-0.14337997138500214,
0.6204021573066711,
0.03524748608469963,
-0.15217545628547668,
0.35851311683654785,
0.07877662032842636,
1.21658456325531,
-0.2935851514339447,
-0.39077895879745483,
-0.08759123086929321,
-0.09782187640666962,
-0.5450230240821838,
1.3889341354370117,
0.539537250995636,
0.4454009234905243,
1.2195069789886475,
0.3528662323951721,
0.583795964717865,
-0.011685210280120373,
0.16863487660884857,
-0.06186627969145775,
-0.16246114671230316,
-0.30576303601264954,
0.09245971590280533,
-0.43565744161605835,
0.22495943307876587,
0.3366902470588684,
0.5775766968727112,
0.11955375224351883,
0.3275263011455536,
0.8532769083976746,
0.13954231142997742,
0.679221510887146,
0.05517511069774628,
-0.0165917556732893,
-0.14805656671524048,
-0.9280708432197571,
-0.09910054504871368,
0.22860373556613922,
-0.4122501611709595,
-0.3198225498199463,
-0.05918729305267334,
-0.23239928483963013,
0.012273600324988365,
-0.22050853073596954,
-0.38307493925094604,
-0.3013637363910675,
0.5239503979682922,
0.33415138721466064,
-0.00006549181853188202,
0.18100745975971222,
0.22867494821548462,
0.5188335180282593,
-0.21698184311389923,
-0.33638256788253784,
0.27908217906951904,
-0.35450655221939087,
0.3524925708770752,
0.4045131504535675,
0.3858526349067688,
-0.23243844509124756,
0.6254916787147522,
-0.17824819684028625,
0.3888889253139496,
0.14900684356689453,
-0.5187558531761169,
0.20732718706130981,
-0.41199201345443726,
0.15516725182533264,
-0.06838870048522949,
0.2941857576370239,
0.009592641144990921,
-0.4897080361843109,
-0.18697883188724518,
-0.43698111176490784,
0.2996883690357208,
0.14097163081169128,
0.30585917830467224,
-0.03453459590673447,
-0.12870383262634277,
-1.4494106769561768,
0.5562427639961243,
-0.04573116451501846,
-0.23464561998844147,
0.38492727279663086,
-0.08860939741134644,
-0.5173307061195374,
0.1587989628314972,
0.39454564452171326,
-0.1830720752477646,
-0.3053630590438843,
0.06244157627224922,
0.4799618422985077,
0.35034406185150146,
-0.2106114625930786,
0.2764242887496948,
0.22313259541988373,
0.2320622056722641,
-0.5302867293357849,
0.008587535470724106,
0.2550891637802124,
0.456789493560791,
-0.13122576475143433,
0.003508409019559622,
-0.4833170771598816,
-0.3481406569480896,
-0.6676629781723022,
-0.6198416352272034,
0.1581132411956787,
-0.3505382537841797,
0.17948004603385925,
0.66070955991745,
-0.018916871398687363,
-0.23231832683086395,
-0.23038046061992645,
-5.629209041595459,
0.3472321927547455,
0.1255427896976471,
-0.16463465988636017,
0.827444314956665,
-0.09201015532016754,
0.5535223484039307,
-0.5173388123512268,
0.3665348291397095,
0.028921080753207207,
0.16545426845550537,
0.12965817749500275,
-0.029443368315696716,
0.39641013741493225,
0.594054102897644,
0.5700905323028564,
0.6221702098846436,
0.5252583622932434,
0.5851212739944458,
-0.2357891947031021,
-0.24233177304267883,
0.4336400330066681,
0.05848277732729912,
0.12733161449432373,
0.2104455828666687,
0.4854636490345001,
-0.04584471881389618,
-0.28649094700813293,
-0.600518524646759,
-0.09800534695386887,
-0.27754098176956177,
0.44707638025283813,
0.23786687850952148,
-0.29791173338890076,
-0.5964128375053406,
-0.7731077075004578,
0.2926003634929657,
0.6650097370147705,
0.1405702382326126,
0.19988684356212616,
-0.218501478433609,
0.29945996403694153,
-0.44110652804374695,
0.13775332272052765,
-0.006734335795044899,
-0.36144813895225525,
-0.9283263087272644,
-0.15202338993549347,
-0.41911980509757996,
0.7355849146842957,
-0.4969664514064789,
-0.355331689119339,
0.5013489723205566,
-0.32561802864074707,
0.4526306092739105,
0.005489950533956289,
0.5385494232177734,
0.11135470867156982,
-0.1893017292022705,
0.025906113907694817,
0.4690948724746704,
-0.3051019012928009,
0.20136824250221252,
-0.20154716074466705,
-0.23926064372062683,
-0.17651833593845367,
0.05197109282016754,
-0.5508859157562256,
0.21244634687900543,
0.14740923047065735,
-0.3838641941547394,
0.19754965603351593,
0.23307105898857117,
-1.1638368368148804,
0.09690524637699127,
-0.1524457186460495,
-0.5983652472496033,
0.7443713545799255,
0.049734633415937424,
-0.2560942769050598,
-0.34005749225616455,
0.04801332578063011,
-0.19446979463100433,
0.6343598365783691,
-0.06160150095820427,
0.2634013593196869,
-0.657011091709137,
0.010685477405786514,
-0.0698733702301979,
-0.878546416759491,
0.23472559452056885,
-0.265997976064682,
-0.030278535559773445,
0.3520186245441437,
0.5066583752632141,
0.23194792866706848,
0.10168716311454773,
-0.13014429807662964,
0.2233627438545227,
-0.12991450726985931,
-0.2752048969268799,
-0.09890127927064896,
-0.4416205883026123,
-0.9317488074302673,
0.2348858267068863,
-0.3968324661254883,
-0.7976679801940918,
0.42732417583465576,
-0.39062565565109253,
0.4058164656162262,
0.23870112001895905,
-0.14996764063835144,
-0.42828118801116943,
-0.061694275587797165,
0.01057411078363657,
-0.25704094767570496,
-0.03533419594168663,
-0.046190034598112106,
0.7717432379722595,
-0.28898507356643677,
0.31245720386505127,
0.38304847478866577,
-0.3689526319503784,
-0.2507386803627014,
-0.4542369246482849,
-0.1613868921995163,
0.11240772157907486,
-0.24928396940231323,
-0.017334280535578728,
0.08502762764692307,
0.03705613687634468,
0.6003344058990479,
0.4063419699668884,
-0.12191716581583023,
-0.057702112942934036,
-0.3761627674102783,
0.31207242608070374,
-0.5164114236831665,
-0.17537778615951538,
-0.28126001358032227,
-0.1657457947731018,
-0.28503328561782837,
-0.18976964056491852,
0.5149533748626709,
0.39760226011276245,
0.17928127944469452,
-0.46291279792785645,
0.4839782118797302,
-0.09628817439079285,
0.5558938384056091,
-0.42823097109794617,
-0.7495327591896057,
0.5291063785552979,
-0.28043729066848755,
-0.05314759910106659,
-0.3814558684825897,
-0.25097164511680603,
-0.011101881973445415,
-0.49865663051605225,
0.03383415937423706,
-0.15118874609470367,
0.3908015489578247,
-0.8539720177650452,
-0.009103547781705856,
0.7175354957580566,
-0.6653437614440918,
0.012659991160035133,
-0.07502979785203934,
-0.30765119194984436,
0.7460790872573853,
-0.14267367124557495,
-0.17721743881702423,
-0.4242006242275238,
-0.3208771049976349,
0.7217244505882263,
-0.20287707448005676,
0.16863541305065155,
0.8190774321556091,
0.2550249695777893,
-0.1473173201084137,
0.10870744287967682,
0.14730726182460785,
-0.22401858866214752,
0.6505717039108276,
0.8997161984443665,
-0.8378536701202393,
-0.2070353925228119,
-0.804809033870697,
-0.02416214533150196,
-0.22981254756450653,
0.04153027758002281,
0.25827106833457947,
0.44955480098724365,
0.6487458348274231,
-0.309994101524353,
0.04463520646095276,
0.35691893100738525,
0.07528634369373322,
0.25923627614974976,
-0.15616874396800995,
0.1048712357878685,
0.09373167902231216,
-0.19416746497154236,
0.001853124238550663,
0.20749039947986603,
-0.7267102003097534,
-0.09789558500051498,
-0.19065822660923004,
-0.7549349665641785,
0.5964605212211609,
0.5881083607673645,
-0.8397063612937927,
0.36859503388404846,
0.40984636545181274,
-0.12156163901090622,
-0.2583320736885071,
0.20785890519618988,
0.14519713819026947,
-0.2394600212574005,
-0.7952553033828735,
-0.1406196653842926,
-0.21411283314228058,
-0.3279476463794708,
0.2601209878921509,
0.07348896563053131,
0.5602174401283264,
0.3189658522605896,
-0.4256737232208252,
0.7746512293815613,
-0.4143049716949463,
-0.7613562941551208,
0.068117156624794,
0.12314384430646896,
0.17843714356422424,
0.17393815517425537,
0.0199599452316761,
0.19920702278614044,
-0.113767609000206,
-0.11190792173147202,
-0.05541594326496124,
0.20234136283397675,
1.2559654712677002,
0.397440642118454,
-0.5220059156417847,
-0.2814914584159851,
0.05762926861643791,
0.08867229521274567,
-0.49258601665496826,
-0.16041074693202972,
0.06889863312244415,
0.20300327241420746,
0.21749374270439148,
-0.4013936519622803,
-0.13519436120986938,
0.5067330598831177,
-0.44736143946647644,
-0.19859035313129425,
0.11662500351667404,
0.07747498154640198,
0.25653326511383057,
-0.20026196539402008,
0.013252467848360538,
-0.08285953849554062,
0.41957661509513855,
0.35304853320121765,
0.022120913490653038,
-0.19361616671085358,
-0.3259279429912567,
0.004838101100176573,
-0.609707772731781,
-1.1731176376342773,
-0.03455130010843277,
-0.10761266201734543,
0.4091559946537018,
0.2879502475261688,
-0.17222194373607635,
0.05093339458107948,
-0.7345080971717834,
0.4834539294242859,
-0.028283044695854187,
-0.1914607733488083,
0.06762014329433441,
0.5142711400985718,
-0.42228564620018005,
0.3115621507167816,
-0.5403836369514465,
-0.08930923044681549,
-0.3825299143791199,
-0.09660587459802628,
-0.15288548171520233,
-0.2932360768318176,
-0.23148195445537567,
0.2859424650669098,
-0.03280606493353844,
-0.5126780867576599,
0.1561015248298645,
-0.5961567759513855,
-0.11662846803665161,
-0.3310815691947937,
-0.4412801265716553,
-0.5216102600097656,
0.5765533447265625,
0.2891174256801605,
0.11355412751436234,
0.36822375655174255,
0.2526226043701172,
-0.21445445716381073,
-0.6136629581451416,
-0.6023077368736267,
-0.20300918817520142,
0.1632600873708725,
-0.14454343914985657,
0.114276222884655,
0.15574011206626892,
-0.004254315048456192,
-0.4250064194202423,
0.29617756605148315,
-0.6882566213607788,
-0.34287846088409424,
0.2723613679409027,
0.10141360014677048,
-0.29895949363708496,
0.0669860914349556,
-0.012516533955931664,
0.35801729559898376,
0.584898829460144,
-0.34452325105667114,
-0.18812158703804016,
0.06998899579048157,
-0.2495867758989334,
0.17867246270179749,
-0.05197476968169212,
-0.8906607627868652,
0.5585039258003235,
-0.15100015699863434,
-0.017271462827920914,
0.0681387260556221,
-0.45476460456848145,
0.06807009875774384,
0.3825770318508148,
0.13196702301502228,
0.6696617603302002,
-0.12309107929468155,
-0.09721563011407852,
-0.0036068798508495092,
0.25107812881469727,
-0.31805408000946045,
-0.3605802655220032,
-0.12312967330217361,
0.23950795829296112,
0.3114925026893616,
0.012155523523688316,
0.3619907796382904,
-0.17604507505893707,
-0.02626488171517849,
0.18949191272258759,
-0.05018695816397667,
0.12614943087100983,
0.08221171051263809,
-1.5959091186523438,
0.19616948068141937,
-0.04436289519071579,
0.3966733515262604,
0.07566259056329727,
0.2627035081386566,
-0.10306890308856964,
0.13657645881175995,
-0.023181019350886345,
0.022827237844467163,
0.5225021243095398,
0.10321356356143951,
-0.5431435704231262,
0.007476225960999727,
-0.013636276125907898,
0.11322388052940369,
-0.3389657735824585,
0.6755552291870117,
-0.12298424541950226,
0.08407889306545258,
-0.6010560989379883,
-0.6187556385993958,
-0.1911013275384903,
-0.13202497363090515,
-0.3876062333583832,
0.28425052762031555,
-0.10997387766838074,
-0.4547818899154663,
-0.07153399288654327,
-0.6796305179595947,
-0.00563949765637517,
0.02397342398762703,
-0.04909111559391022,
0.05145809426903725,
0.5399754643440247,
-0.814486563205719,
0.1590462028980255,
-0.5563160181045532,
0.498350590467453,
0.8499518632888794,
-0.1616831123828888,
-0.08555864542722702,
0.3978261649608612,
-0.1932264119386673,
0.5099895596504211,
-0.02170831337571144,
0.3621464669704437,
-0.49833473563194275,
0.0011321281781420112,
-0.48063886165618896,
0.827076256275177,
-0.34541723132133484,
0.16294220089912415,
-0.5033113956451416,
0.5149716138839722,
-0.2458357810974121,
0.03005688078701496,
0.5357242226600647,
-0.37869155406951904,
0.13524317741394043,
-0.09593059122562408,
0.2671167254447937,
0.018403323367238045,
0.2912379503250122,
-0.1325974315404892,
-0.5099806785583496,
-0.4923867881298065,
0.4018009603023529,
-0.002734001260250807,
-0.3956213593482971,
0.23332031071186066,
0.09645166993141174,
0.5091603994369507,
-0.4052059054374695,
-0.33623015880584717,
-0.120608851313591,
-0.026145992800593376,
0.3151535093784332,
0.4447058439254761,
-0.23669582605361938,
-0.08366653323173523,
-0.06623534858226776,
0.29995816946029663,
0.2806209921836853,
0.33251258730888367,
-2.4867846965789795,
-0.4090469181537628,
0.413669615983963,
-0.4137858748435974,
0.3055136501789093,
0.16529667377471924,
0.3993508815765381,
0.007718117441982031,
0.05710703879594803,
0.1271301507949829,
0.3736432194709778,
-0.3302302360534668,
-0.24843978881835938,
-0.31700220704078674,
0.06428308039903641,
0.003132783342152834
] |
233554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxian | Marxian | Marxian is a term generally used to refer to things related to Karl Marx other than Marxism. It can refer to:
Marxian economics
Marxist philosophy
Marxian class theory
See also
Marxism, which is usually referred to as "Marxist", rather than "Marxian" | [
0.01619778200984001,
0.12224940955638885,
-0.4402690827846527,
0.09364763647317886,
-0.4215303361415863,
0.34050825238227844,
0.11504755914211273,
0.37197983264923096,
-0.1257360577583313,
-0.1597243845462799,
-0.1291278898715973,
0.07808669656515121,
-0.26228150725364685,
0.6860746145248413,
0.35020336508750916,
0.0681467056274414,
0.1984739750623703,
-0.10321605950593948,
-0.3738615810871124,
-0.4568413197994232,
-0.1752820461988449,
0.029792360961437225,
0.276806116104126,
-0.21061499416828156,
-0.19944791495800018,
-0.1117844432592392,
0.23330846428871155,
-0.25115904211997986,
-0.031138189136981964,
0.3588923215866089,
-0.37360408902168274,
0.786202609539032,
-0.10775485634803772,
0.3069462478160858,
-0.3908199071884155,
0.059725321829319,
-0.3678668737411499,
-0.13436082005500793,
0.15663978457450867,
-0.5722337961196899,
0.2668072283267975,
-0.07049835473299026,
0.25221481919288635,
0.35182783007621765,
-0.3783859610557556,
-0.3937043845653534,
-1.6736502647399902,
0.17180414497852325,
-0.6366543769836426,
-0.5086336135864258,
-0.10630302876234055,
0.24992536008358002,
0.5855630040168762,
0.6241177320480347,
-0.4663437008857727,
0.34880077838897705,
-1.2731008529663086,
-0.21128173172473907,
-0.01579298824071884,
-0.3707617223262787,
0.43783730268478394,
0.3101128339767456,
0.28656303882598877,
0.4022630453109741,
0.9137202501296997,
0.19298578798770905,
-0.5689283013343811,
0.06006055325269699,
-0.7144505381584167,
-0.6188625693321228,
-0.5218576788902283,
-0.6023853421211243,
-0.18892937898635864,
0.24415141344070435,
-0.21143221855163574,
-0.4267154037952423,
0.22942674160003662,
-0.12794870138168335,
-0.36783668398857117,
0.3176132142543793,
-0.5242013931274414,
0.533548891544342,
0.6344678401947021,
0.35889002680778503,
0.6764412522315979,
-0.188100665807724,
-0.3974277377128601,
0.5103322267532349,
-0.11537116765975952,
0.4193490445613861,
0.32584983110427856,
0.25941774249076843,
0.7805132865905762,
-0.0906631201505661,
-0.42103514075279236,
0.39020025730133057,
0.619384765625,
0.38462579250335693,
-0.16339543461799622,
0.24146772921085358,
0.11289561539888382,
0.4558766186237335,
0.4484896659851074,
-0.5090667605400085,
-0.41559910774230957,
-0.4483761191368103,
0.3063991069793701,
-0.5352233052253723,
-0.22873543202877045,
-0.5943933129310608,
-1.1105105876922607,
0.46948423981666565,
-0.12401923537254333,
0.1410643607378006,
-0.08301497995853424,
-0.12870749831199646,
-0.15976646542549133,
-0.25983065366744995,
0.10572686791419983,
0.3976183831691742,
-0.06770302355289459,
0.2579948306083679,
-0.25486013293266296,
0.6260554790496826,
0.08492116630077362,
0.07618752866983414,
0.2294563204050064,
0.8073675632476807,
-0.6212857961654663,
-0.10023467242717743,
0.08449763059616089,
1.136962652206421,
-0.015815747901797295,
0.18268895149230957,
-0.2811695337295532,
-0.11620218306779861,
0.9625744819641113,
0.02442593313753605,
-0.47262656688690186,
0.6186483502388,
-0.6393241286277771,
-0.2604762315750122,
-0.6149927973747253,
-0.19646672904491425,
0.12111766636371613,
-0.5998159050941467,
0.3033088445663452,
-0.07225986570119858,
-0.037355076521635056,
-0.1906936913728714,
-0.33192557096481323,
0.04838712140917778,
0.029837874695658684,
-0.15718743205070496,
-0.1247098371386528,
-0.06686241179704666,
0.6639072299003601,
0.0748024582862854,
0.5140805244445801,
0.13724716007709503,
-0.396525114774704,
-0.10498174279928207,
-0.415944367647171,
0.2067573219537735,
0.5123313665390015,
-0.8720459342002869,
0.1817767471075058,
0.1991623342037201,
-0.00476480508223176,
0.3208484649658203,
0.005671151913702488,
0.005401690024882555,
0.006830747704952955,
0.08186028152704239,
0.19953586161136627,
0.014266889542341232,
-0.14653950929641724,
0.4137003421783447,
0.3414222300052643,
-0.4352838695049286,
-0.5197484493255615,
0.49019935727119446,
0.18690399825572968,
0.03860663250088692,
0.23692387342453003,
0.2678820788860321,
-0.037104394286870956,
-0.0401582270860672,
-0.26614710688591003,
-0.14297370612621307,
-0.04654548689723015,
-0.18603026866912842,
-0.06523153185844421,
-0.9007759690284729,
0.897515058517456,
-0.08591293543577194,
-0.24233530461788177,
0.9776321649551392,
-0.5222551226615906,
0.18082214891910553,
-0.22528469562530518,
-0.8713086843490601,
-0.38406944274902344,
0.22693903744220734,
0.13540898263454437,
0.9183700680732727,
0.08759716153144836,
0.1891746073961258,
0.022229423746466637,
0.3926233649253845,
0.24692758917808533,
-0.178334042429924,
0.2907014787197113,
-0.11369763314723969,
-0.4363885819911957,
0.0698964074254036,
-0.34144020080566406,
0.15074342489242554,
-0.45348867774009705,
0.26460251212120056,
1.069138765335083,
-0.5180510878562927,
0.2702658474445343,
0.2715807855129242,
0.005614508409053087,
0.2904852628707886,
0.552841305732727,
0.5969054102897644,
0.3574029207229614,
-0.43660297989845276,
0.08238695561885834,
0.40470683574676514,
0.31806811690330505,
0.1266399472951889,
0.14089380204677582,
-0.12634649872779846,
-0.35393014550209045,
-0.44092339277267456,
-0.20313455164432526,
-0.21644286811351776,
0.6747055053710938,
-0.16063189506530762,
0.04792727530002594,
0.5967330932617188,
0.011055384762585163,
-0.12210571020841599,
-0.4309939742088318,
0.3995494544506073,
-0.8175914883613586,
0.21528011560440063,
-0.5298869609832764,
0.47900471091270447,
0.1630280762910843,
-0.46395444869995117,
-0.7058336734771729,
0.04560985043644905,
-0.327582448720932,
0.06264486163854599,
0.15110811591148376,
0.3473537266254425,
0.04665021970868111,
0.19524627923965454,
-0.5599921345710754,
-0.2694324851036072,
-0.2062518298625946,
-0.42986181378364563,
-0.22551697492599487,
-0.3454909920692444,
-0.03944277763366699,
0.4372656047344208,
0.8417750000953674,
-0.2933773398399353,
-0.769519031047821,
-0.12185299396514893,
-0.18708544969558716,
-0.8267484903335571,
-0.5490887761116028,
-0.017590854316949844,
-0.7424371242523193,
-0.11955785006284714,
-0.45290622115135193,
0.3131123185157776,
0.2446376234292984,
-0.5328142046928406,
-0.2858086824417114,
-0.34633830189704895,
-0.13331492245197296,
-0.2686021625995636,
0.6708985567092896,
-0.6784660220146179,
0.15549281239509583,
0.43307241797447205,
-0.14536181092262268,
-0.6756734251976013,
0.21112877130508423,
0.7594690918922424,
-0.2808922827243805,
0.2054215967655182,
0.26585066318511963,
-0.4679480493068695,
-0.806214451789856,
0.6406344175338745,
0.08743751049041748,
-0.11284519731998444,
0.39036825299263,
0.14868120849132538,
-0.1164933368563652,
-0.042111124843358994,
-5.796027183532715,
0.24173234403133392,
-0.10201990604400635,
-0.16908293962478638,
0.15396901965141296,
0.23941516876220703,
0.5208219885826111,
-0.1707865446805954,
-0.5040221214294434,
-0.19570760428905487,
-0.35129669308662415,
-0.042178187519311905,
-0.4200991690158844,
0.6742476224899292,
0.2642270028591156,
0.10554921627044678,
0.03912307694554329,
0.11831042170524597,
0.143551766872406,
0.052802782505750656,
-0.3630807101726532,
0.36659303307533264,
-0.13732361793518066,
0.9061466455459595,
0.324361652135849,
0.3950777053833008,
-0.03399208188056946,
0.19776710867881775,
-0.4708501398563385,
0.11271493881940842,
-0.3263848125934601,
-0.1530078947544098,
0.03897224739193916,
-0.1909886598587036,
0.5581088662147522,
0.3240152597427368,
0.31321460008621216,
0.39859434962272644,
-0.27673763036727905,
0.5615845918655396,
-0.2569812536239624,
0.8642743825912476,
-0.03079283982515335,
-0.03824418783187866,
0.22237417101860046,
0.07508538663387299,
-0.23591668903827667,
-0.21812228858470917,
-0.7969794273376465,
0.6087424755096436,
-0.325527161359787,
-0.31581223011016846,
0.3485827147960663,
-0.695318877696991,
0.41437748074531555,
0.24583281576633453,
0.726867139339447,
-0.16140101850032806,
-0.6403710842132568,
0.2939148545265198,
0.32722651958465576,
-0.2067834436893463,
0.3947356343269348,
-0.3934093415737152,
-0.758456826210022,
-0.3694968819618225,
-0.625212550163269,
-0.34136271476745605,
0.6041927337646484,
-0.016182390972971916,
-0.8428301215171814,
0.6985595226287842,
0.5065218806266785,
-0.8281881809234619,
0.04410587623715401,
-0.03223046660423279,
-0.6392858028411865,
-0.07181034237146378,
0.1541244387626648,
0.5281344652175903,
-0.08425977826118469,
-0.18671005964279175,
-0.2781055271625519,
-0.07103879749774933,
0.32669103145599365,
0.3454867899417877,
0.03616432845592499,
0.34500882029533386,
-0.6606093049049377,
0.7050794363021851,
0.15470902621746063,
-0.27313730120658875,
0.48505619168281555,
0.05833713710308075,
0.22867518663406372,
0.6511340141296387,
-0.010555313900113106,
-0.3201446235179901,
0.34199702739715576,
-0.042658548802137375,
0.046795062720775604,
-0.5147468447685242,
-0.3177366256713867,
-0.19647707045078278,
0.20547020435333252,
-0.06258409470319748,
-0.18190829455852509,
0.6957508325576782,
0.5764827132225037,
0.24489983916282654,
0.3912937641143799,
0.2037057876586914,
0.018550049513578415,
-0.6319130063056946,
0.7991957068443298,
0.2249993085861206,
-0.5503719449043274,
0.22788366675376892,
-0.06251917034387589,
0.3838399350643158,
0.10615626722574234,
0.10281864553689957,
-0.7373718023300171,
0.034015487879514694,
-0.38425129652023315,
-0.2947801649570465,
0.13150076568126678,
0.2690163850784302,
-0.2956639528274536,
0.47502097487449646,
-0.16128170490264893,
0.12104034423828125,
0.20496656000614166,
-0.21900956332683563,
0.41533154249191284,
-0.16316749155521393,
-0.1606941968202591,
0.045708224177360535,
0.0013662122655659914,
-0.8417282700538635,
0.4104260504245758,
0.07546103000640869,
0.1076921746134758,
0.4694873094558716,
0.34525352716445923,
0.09354401379823685,
0.029963456094264984,
-0.1886969655752182,
-0.257996141910553,
0.27026310563087463,
0.28703251481056213,
-0.28976958990097046,
0.45604780316352844,
0.19604730606079102,
-0.03562043607234955,
-0.06637434661388397,
-0.20773954689502716,
0.30976369976997375,
0.6134129762649536,
0.0374286025762558,
0.34893497824668884,
-0.08132416754961014,
-0.4307291805744171,
-0.06097037345170975,
0.485321044921875,
-0.506215512752533,
-0.34772491455078125,
-0.29433804750442505,
0.11249374598264694,
0.42286086082458496,
0.14399974048137665,
-0.17306721210479736,
0.0061832633800804615,
-0.703268826007843,
0.5672326683998108,
0.21171030402183533,
-0.0007351371459662914,
0.32171884179115295,
0.01271192729473114,
-0.5692026019096375,
0.3082640767097473,
0.06450586020946503,
-0.4142267107963562,
0.8920596241950989,
0.2837437093257904,
-0.23099789023399353,
-0.033229779452085495,
0.26703330874443054,
-0.756762683391571,
0.2802487909793854,
0.3313506245613098,
0.4139184355735779,
0.5326820611953735,
0.27755600214004517,
-0.13008511066436768,
-0.475040078163147,
-0.0880584642291069,
-0.3071202039718628,
-0.01324964314699173,
-0.6847237944602966,
0.3419724106788635,
0.5155650973320007,
-0.01826079934835434,
0.035061243921518326,
0.5379895567893982,
-0.7036339640617371,
0.3659391403198242,
-0.45171281695365906,
-0.4778958261013031,
0.06157531961798668,
-0.9643154740333557,
-0.690322756767273,
-0.5375095009803772,
-0.2640015482902527,
-0.4732634425163269,
0.23943917453289032,
0.869471549987793,
-0.5125448703765869,
-0.630460798740387,
0.4805070459842682,
0.36599984765052795,
0.13670581579208374,
-0.5154122114181519,
-0.23247377574443817,
-0.013502349145710468,
0.3143232762813568,
0.12877212464809418,
-0.3991588056087494,
0.6180810332298279,
-0.29996609687805176,
-0.47650620341300964,
-0.42691877484321594,
-0.11159347742795944,
-0.13727830350399017,
0.007558961398899555,
-0.6391975283622742,
0.2251175194978714,
0.5821796655654907,
-0.5026054382324219,
-0.4997360408306122,
0.2247479110956192,
0.3775929808616638,
0.13687670230865479,
-0.4251856207847595,
0.13239705562591553,
-0.2327539324760437,
0.8201781511306763,
-0.17593911290168762,
-0.7371765971183777,
0.29023030400276184,
0.2788476049900055,
0.13728031516075134,
-0.680894672870636,
-0.4788473844528198,
0.5059040784835815,
-0.1736651510000229,
-0.18147726356983185,
-0.168485626578331,
0.663300633430481,
-0.12800541520118713,
-0.11169390380382538,
-0.6399375200271606,
-0.3188827633857727,
-0.1926666498184204,
-0.28934046626091003,
0.6098127961158752,
0.20272019505500793,
-0.12826286256313324,
0.0385308600962162,
-0.5868510007858276,
0.017811469733715057,
-0.1851755976676941,
0.19929394125938416,
0.21484476327896118,
0.22187933325767517,
0.14774493873119354,
-0.4823656678199768,
-0.15780538320541382,
-0.4833872616291046,
-0.03208048269152641,
-0.43289661407470703,
-0.1593986302614212,
0.25045499205589294,
-0.6485816240310669,
-0.0034453473053872585,
-0.3247142732143402,
0.3079128563404083,
-0.1962055116891861,
-0.7182920575141907,
0.22656457126140594,
-0.40030261874198914,
0.033441975712776184,
0.18301469087600708,
0.20573830604553223,
-0.4351995587348938,
0.02976769395172596,
-0.17017273604869843,
0.14005771279335022,
-0.020526129752397537,
-0.10936516523361206,
-0.17401760816574097,
0.07194796949625015,
-0.214689239859581,
-0.17890429496765137,
0.7692956924438477,
0.0007305060280486941,
-0.17403411865234375,
-0.2847316563129425,
0.4065243899822235,
0.24486707150936127,
0.2503229081630707,
0.3366660475730896,
-0.024645237252116203,
0.447407066822052,
-0.4047201871871948,
0.06723745167255402,
0.8819143772125244,
-0.3170914649963379,
0.5956102013587952,
0.2893047034740448,
0.1617620587348938,
0.2289445698261261,
0.6156946420669556,
-0.43614062666893005,
-0.14120793342590332,
0.7200865745544434,
-0.588297963142395,
-0.16189467906951904,
-0.18961764872074127,
-0.05433492735028267,
0.5849195718765259,
1.0090854167938232,
-0.3680773377418518,
0.543628454208374,
-0.28132855892181396,
-0.11966010928153992,
0.02505912259221077,
-0.5684517621994019,
-0.11377374082803726,
0.601255476474762,
0.03702079504728317,
0.07391771674156189,
-0.22344134747982025,
0.38134443759918213,
0.10206538438796997,
0.2541290521621704,
-0.09406918287277222,
0.2221382111310959,
-0.33378687500953674,
0.5041707754135132,
0.8620588183403015,
-0.12291500717401505,
-0.12107505649328232,
-0.6111312508583069,
0.10612821578979492,
-0.44285058975219727,
0.2363722324371338,
0.14709018170833588,
-0.26977792382240295,
-0.532464325428009,
0.11193343997001648,
0.4503021836280823,
-0.45795419812202454,
-0.3874603807926178,
0.3725947439670563,
0.2958345413208008,
0.11190749704837799,
-0.5137232542037964,
0.10341981053352356,
-0.07487690448760986,
0.2526314854621887,
-0.26146870851516724,
-0.056362006813287735,
0.5389891266822815,
0.33901968598365784,
-0.31019917130470276,
0.9216715693473816,
0.517377495765686,
0.19963809847831726,
0.06640692800283432,
-0.13911332190036774,
0.3042316138744354,
-0.4192773699760437,
0.04312797635793686,
-0.07337305694818497,
-0.3052501678466797,
0.05065734311938286,
0.1366301029920578,
-0.5184320211410522,
0.30916425585746765,
-0.16035684943199158,
-0.44641929864883423,
0.08932855725288391,
0.40468668937683105,
-0.22858719527721405,
-0.26933106780052185,
-0.7409313917160034,
0.5185802578926086,
0.19670838117599487,
-0.05869951844215393,
-0.5110567212104797,
0.09718795120716095,
-0.3371257483959198,
0.4107673466205597,
-0.19580531120300293,
-0.33953922986984253,
-0.6339911222457886,
0.2680008113384247,
-0.8793205618858337,
0.8339740633964539,
0.42512813210487366,
-0.2982736825942993,
-0.250034898519516,
0.859009861946106,
0.21214497089385986,
0.3779512047767639,
0.249966099858284,
-0.27718213200569153,
0.08579004555940628,
-0.04129428416490555,
-0.15002262592315674,
-0.25378626585006714,
0.4144481122493744,
0.26235586404800415,
-0.5011723637580872,
-0.0338626503944397,
0.4136209189891815,
0.0934869796037674,
0.15808579325675964,
-0.2108490765094757,
0.02896084636449814,
0.2202700972557068,
-0.5029367804527283,
0.5833713412284851,
-0.28739380836486816,
0.05798434838652611,
0.018809190019965172,
-0.16632457077503204,
0.19860492646694183,
-0.2788707911968231,
0.15690208971500397,
0.14346449077129364,
0.0734003409743309,
0.13937067985534668,
-1.0591716766357422,
0.428229421377182,
-0.15760725736618042,
0.1642582267522812,
-0.3768377900123596,
0.2457992434501648,
0.14520005881786346,
0.1285644918680191,
0.04797877371311188,
-0.40503695607185364,
0.19279789924621582,
-0.1432151049375534,
0.2006959766149521,
-0.6789010763168335,
0.497854083776474,
0.06901084631681442
] |
233555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20Trad | Urban Trad | Urban Trad is a Belgian folk music group, consisting of both Flemish and French speaking people and a close connection with Galicia.
Members
Yves Barbieux: flutes and Galician bagpipe
Veronica Codesal: vocals
Soetkin Collier: vocals
Sophie Cavez (replaced Didier Laloy): diatonic accordion
Philip Masure: acoustic guitar
Michel Morvan: drums (died 3 July 2010)
Dirk Naessens: violin
Marie-Sophie Talbot: vocals, piano and percussions (no longer with the band)
Bo Waterschoot: bass
Eurovision Song Contest
Urban Trad participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, where they ended second with the song "Sanomi", a modern folk song with vocals in an imaginary language. A few months before the contest, the selectors dropped singer Soetkin Collier on the advice of the Belgian security services, who claimed that she'd had extreme right sympathies in the past. Collier vigorously denied the claims, and later that year after an investigation it was concluded that the accusations were exaggerated and based on outdated information.
As a result of this, two versions of the song exist on record. One was the standard album version (4:08) and another version was released on single and on the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 collaboration album. Often known as the Eurovision edit, it cut down to 3:01 and it had Soetkin Collier's vocals removed.
Discography
One o Four (2001)
1. Subway Call
2. Avreel
3. La Belle Jig
4. Vodka Time
5. Waltzing Dranouter
6. Basement Scotch
7. Baline
8. Brass Corto
9. Bamboo
10. Free Wheel
11. Rap A Doo
12. Mecanix (Who'S Who) (after Waltzing Dranouter)
Kerua (2003)
1. Mecanix Remix
2. Kerua
3. Sanomi
4. Il Est Bien Temps
5. Lampang
6. Berim Dance
7. Quimper - Moscou
8. Get Reel
9. The Roses
10. Medina
11. Leina Street
12. Alto
13. Sanomi (Eurovision Edit)
14. Galicia
Elem (2004)
1. Rodgrod Med Flode
2. De Luz, Amor Y Nada
3. Vigo
4. Jorden/Terra
5. Bourrée d'Erasme
6. De L'Air
7. Valse
8. Two Hornpipes
9. Zout
10. Mind the Gap
11. V.T. Intro
12. Vodka Time (Mass'Mix)
13. Bonus : Lampang/Mideau Rhemila (live)
Erbalunga (2007)
1. Sans garde-fou
2. Hedningarden
3. Oh la belle
4. Le serpent
5. Erbalunga
6. Fields of Deeley
7. L'olivier
8. Bourrée Tappen
9. Accovi / Onderweg
10. Polaire
11. Noite Longa
12. Scottiche de la tête
13. Asturiana
14. A Terra
15. Diama Den (bonus)
References
External links
Belgian folk music groups
World music groups
New-age music groups
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Belgium
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003 | [
0.08318821340799332,
-0.10674431174993515,
0.12256009131669998,
-0.1583268642425537,
-0.23962533473968506,
0.3928641676902771,
0.2627074718475342,
0.5598717331886292,
-0.775097131729126,
-0.42357346415519714,
-0.2051907479763031,
0.016743695363402367,
0.15644949674606323,
0.1430145502090454,
-0.2077612429857254,
0.7084271907806396,
0.001492792391218245,
0.4672098755836487,
0.09793584048748016,
-0.2504037618637085,
-0.47150900959968567,
-0.5993043184280396,
0.3320823907852173,
0.13644926249980927,
-0.009661107324063778,
-0.20937436819076538,
0.40370798110961914,
0.5591357946395874,
-0.0658164918422699,
-0.46842479705810547,
-0.3669916093349457,
0.9365944266319275,
0.006134659517556429,
-0.2365739643573761,
0.29013386368751526,
0.2044878751039505,
-0.08450693637132645,
-0.7712014317512512,
-0.1958817094564438,
-0.5240076184272766,
0.6859891414642334,
-0.01893184520304203,
0.09336157888174057,
0.38168010115623474,
-0.03837732970714569,
-0.510836660861969,
-0.9305333495140076,
0.8986754417419434,
-0.7308809161186218,
0.0698377713561058,
-0.4874057471752167,
0.14813776314258575,
0.16859453916549683,
0.7808104753494263,
-0.25307944416999817,
-0.013863926753401756,
-1.2306381464004517,
-0.03867895528674126,
0.28691795468330383,
0.08472529798746109,
-0.03291148319840431,
0.47104576230049133,
-0.19256626069545746,
-0.5120190382003784,
0.039607301354408264,
-0.06661101430654526,
-0.19577065110206604,
0.6028039455413818,
-0.14617623388767242,
-0.5314605236053467,
-0.03859803080558777,
-0.17152516543865204,
0.18455995619297028,
-0.3430558443069458,
-0.1682090163230896,
-0.5656185746192932,
0.49197229743003845,
-0.0992530807852745,
0.024580705910921097,
0.6343309283256531,
-0.03705045208334923,
-0.008566047996282578,
1.2572396993637085,
0.18164758384227753,
1.1305983066558838,
0.11020825058221817,
-0.2536604404449463,
-0.06242175027728081,
-0.6615014672279358,
-0.2742711901664734,
-0.5782291293144226,
-0.879554808139801,
0.5060176849365234,
0.21568076312541962,
0.23378686606884003,
0.7083872556686401,
0.21544982492923737,
0.2501463294029236,
-0.08621165156364441,
0.36739617586135864,
-0.20037128031253815,
0.5003255009651184,
-0.2694927453994751,
0.002872284036129713,
-1.059646725654602,
-0.15995366871356964,
-0.3325195908546448,
0.0746317058801651,
0.3988378643989563,
-0.47838878631591797,
-0.20242539048194885,
0.27389946579933167,
-0.18291552364826202,
0.23535850644111633,
0.9435795545578003,
-0.03435865789651871,
0.4436628222465515,
-0.23532888293266296,
-0.3360483944416046,
0.19113574922084808,
-0.11269881576299667,
0.8925325274467468,
-0.14289356768131256,
0.4408365786075592,
-0.13742755353450775,
0.547282338142395,
0.4131189286708832,
0.3351508378982544,
-0.20003584027290344,
0.38724493980407715,
0.4802274703979492,
1.126377820968628,
0.04125929996371269,
-0.5505918264389038,
-0.24584859609603882,
0.0490310974419117,
0.2681805193424225,
0.5705474615097046,
0.36239492893218994,
0.24921509623527527,
-1.1385853290557861,
-0.09295172244310379,
-0.30744805932044983,
0.236647829413414,
0.42823195457458496,
-0.4776514768600464,
-0.5691253542900085,
-0.16232343018054962,
-0.2093963772058487,
-0.2620956301689148,
0.15716776251792908,
-0.17368829250335693,
-0.396678626537323,
-0.10903308540582657,
-0.16470667719841003,
0.7546412944793701,
0.3402618169784546,
-0.4710571765899658,
1.115365743637085,
0.6239123344421387,
0.17567476630210876,
-0.07106707245111465,
-0.17333419620990753,
0.11311287432909012,
0.10675866901874542,
-0.5115679502487183,
-0.3510143756866455,
0.3217662274837494,
-0.14144563674926758,
0.3563479781150818,
-0.8069922924041748,
-0.1995520293712616,
0.014058840461075306,
-0.016179166734218597,
-0.21190884709358215,
0.14579473435878754,
0.8635209798812866,
0.01996043510735035,
0.18917253613471985,
0.08780829608440399,
-0.6131593585014343,
0.34599629044532776,
0.08512698113918304,
-0.1672888994216919,
0.20003388822078705,
0.32669249176979065,
-0.07612486928701401,
0.1123473048210144,
-0.02213176339864731,
-0.3613230884075165,
-0.23016174137592316,
-0.5829023122787476,
0.3815045654773712,
-0.3700803518295288,
1.067946195602417,
-0.20757955312728882,
-0.15713079273700714,
0.5127694010734558,
0.030515968799591064,
0.46210503578186035,
-0.21800179779529572,
-0.3099692761898041,
0.5098981261253357,
0.11709591001272202,
-0.017781395465135574,
0.5719060897827148,
0.12456637620925903,
-0.20159530639648438,
0.02160407416522503,
0.303148478269577,
-0.22617609798908234,
-0.34538477659225464,
0.7034252285957336,
-0.00045239602332003415,
0.0016151034506037831,
-0.3151659071445465,
-0.19801092147827148,
0.06717406958341599,
0.021960657089948654,
0.06934113055467606,
0.5834265947341919,
-0.6192501783370972,
-0.11755792796611786,
0.15322530269622803,
-0.4181543290615082,
0.36632484197616577,
0.313978910446167,
0.25175151228904724,
0.6712144017219543,
-0.622772753238678,
-0.28031256794929504,
0.609526515007019,
-0.3651595413684845,
-0.5653300285339355,
-0.40824493765830994,
-0.29141196608543396,
0.31842905282974243,
-0.2863917946815491,
0.06600835919380188,
0.15600129961967468,
-0.1271999627351761,
0.3486746549606323,
-0.5755777359008789,
0.06607108563184738,
-0.053406722843647,
0.12503859400749207,
-0.6253467202186584,
0.15968798100948334,
0.30025503039360046,
-0.1711788773536682,
0.5110571384429932,
0.25175097584724426,
-0.21554560959339142,
-0.09749414026737213,
0.035166945308446884,
-0.32263410091400146,
0.693726658821106,
-0.9473976492881775,
0.48684459924697876,
-0.11661797016859055,
-0.2715177536010742,
-0.46932125091552734,
-0.09649103879928589,
0.26170530915260315,
0.30512216687202454,
-0.7656257152557373,
-0.20530235767364502,
-0.46224457025527954,
0.3776243031024933,
0.18917177617549896,
0.06325926631689072,
0.1798669546842575,
-0.24711284041404724,
0.06551893800497055,
0.13537701964378357,
0.0332384929060936,
-0.5398408770561218,
0.20834657549858093,
-0.6341238617897034,
-0.6113606691360474,
-0.7045236229896545,
0.5559669733047485,
0.5282068252563477,
-0.7971606850624084,
0.0395553782582283,
0.3240150511264801,
0.18367384374141693,
-0.15376847982406616,
-0.3178923428058624,
-0.2305522859096527,
0.09407908469438553,
-0.5438444018363953,
-0.12742412090301514,
0.07749021798372269,
0.4400658905506134,
0.008937166072428226,
0.09015402942895889,
0.4015233516693115,
0.18191547691822052,
-0.19941960275173187,
-0.4095063805580139,
0.188172847032547,
-0.0664060115814209,
0.07897994667291641,
0.29459142684936523,
-0.3327801525592804,
-0.5107714533805847,
0.16258329153060913,
-5.739431381225586,
0.35406985878944397,
-0.5807600617408752,
-0.10027960687875748,
-0.5220081210136414,
-0.12781743705272675,
0.1573389768600464,
-0.12028059363365173,
-0.03855426236987114,
0.07839448004961014,
-0.6919199824333191,
0.11350605636835098,
-0.30033984780311584,
0.7714053392410278,
0.433915913105011,
0.27699244022369385,
-0.0014932575868442655,
0.08441046625375748,
0.44241228699684143,
-0.321818470954895,
0.2360139936208725,
-0.1798626035451889,
-0.4510497450828552,
0.6268858313560486,
0.5238185524940491,
0.29103946685791016,
-0.20180828869342804,
0.24340996146202087,
-0.6228704452514648,
-0.23808012902736664,
0.06727530807256699,
-0.26652008295059204,
0.29695162177085876,
-0.13195420801639557,
0.13633529841899872,
0.34931299090385437,
0.5294803380966187,
0.36688077449798584,
0.1849733144044876,
-0.6926645636558533,
-0.3317214548587799,
0.478954553604126,
0.035046014934778214,
0.1738993525505066,
0.04945237562060356,
-0.281205415725708,
-0.8384616374969482,
0.027559541165828705,
-0.23162299394607544,
1.0952527523040771,
0.02729347161948681,
-0.7556469440460205,
0.7418691515922546,
0.3114553391933441,
0.14093643426895142,
-0.20669099688529968,
0.7962660193443298,
-0.06051509082317352,
0.12389056384563446,
0.3638766407966614,
0.753183126449585,
-0.03254685178399086,
-0.08324258029460907,
-0.6052626967430115,
-0.13979721069335938,
-0.046916067600250244,
-0.062008120119571686,
-0.22841118276119232,
0.06926383078098297,
-0.38703158497810364,
0.025046054273843765,
0.500308632850647,
-0.5695198774337769,
-0.9855176210403442,
-0.44797462224960327,
-0.005760181695222855,
-0.5819051265716553,
0.0976296216249466,
0.2617836892604828,
0.15059319138526917,
-0.45439428091049194,
0.0018882504664361477,
-0.3121337592601776,
0.013529399409890175,
-0.3691037893295288,
-0.07662040740251541,
0.0708983987569809,
0.35516801476478577,
-0.4749663472175598,
-0.002343017840757966,
0.5365556478500366,
-0.4544590711593628,
0.14262770116329193,
0.7329359650611877,
0.049864232540130615,
0.50943922996521,
0.40935075283050537,
-0.01025946531444788,
0.08382377028465271,
-0.1986188441514969,
0.7161893248558044,
-0.24212251603603363,
-0.15447525680065155,
-0.09851609170436859,
0.02298005484044552,
-0.10127431154251099,
-0.3043144643306732,
0.21257364749908447,
0.851510763168335,
0.18553678691387177,
0.11706046015024185,
0.17951981723308563,
-0.20251373946666718,
-0.6217876076698303,
0.5843696594238281,
-0.08132666349411011,
-0.061827465891838074,
0.29220953583717346,
0.4091888666152954,
0.034309886395931244,
0.1281377077102661,
0.48719245195388794,
0.026858065277338028,
0.6293414831161499,
-0.368154376745224,
0.009630800224840641,
0.1552211046218872,
0.28859367966651917,
-0.5105316638946533,
-0.1442900449037552,
-0.5690822601318359,
-0.12687338888645172,
0.3635786473751068,
-0.16867782175540924,
0.2897223234176636,
-0.019946526736021042,
0.01771753467619419,
-0.2236773520708084,
0.6074814200401306,
-0.4237958490848541,
0.19634608924388885,
-0.5089085698127747,
-0.11266354471445084,
0.24331356585025787,
0.11190851777791977,
0.4074617922306061,
0.015519184991717339,
-0.05374189838767052,
-0.7851718068122864,
0.4578757882118225,
0.22669105231761932,
0.24034450948238373,
0.558112382888794,
-0.2379821538925171,
0.08323386311531067,
-0.3400455713272095,
0.029507923871278763,
0.1814933717250824,
0.6751099228858948,
-0.2056463360786438,
0.3761224150657654,
-0.33769112825393677,
-0.7410362958908081,
0.376179039478302,
0.6850162148475647,
-0.6806069612503052,
0.12220708280801773,
-0.6637867093086243,
-0.38130998611450195,
0.5458287596702576,
-0.2267027497291565,
-0.277043879032135,
-0.17710568010807037,
-0.15325917303562164,
0.19025146961212158,
-0.6413691639900208,
-0.03413693979382515,
0.08700345456600189,
-0.4492994546890259,
0.0024461194407194853,
0.09500180929899216,
0.058938875794410706,
-0.0927753895521164,
0.39834699034690857,
0.7738344073295593,
-0.3356141149997711,
-0.29094910621643066,
-0.12715908885002136,
-0.21613472700119019,
-0.030837897211313248,
-0.1361752152442932,
0.7443896532058716,
0.38839972019195557,
0.20313946902751923,
-0.2665116786956787,
-0.7647945880889893,
-0.1010000929236412,
0.17834089696407318,
-0.5251389741897583,
-0.6754552721977234,
-0.02235778421163559,
0.098379947245121,
-0.23472094535827637,
0.26011714339256287,
0.4121250808238983,
-0.6290940642356873,
0.606091320514679,
-0.4220619201660156,
-0.748648464679718,
-0.08050059527158737,
-0.6268995404243469,
-0.48621195554733276,
-0.005269730929285288,
0.06921109557151794,
-0.5477766990661621,
-0.1445532590150833,
0.3396575450897217,
-0.24384179711341858,
-1.0482735633850098,
0.33478549122810364,
-0.4277801811695099,
-0.3186253011226654,
-0.44332316517829895,
-0.025597939267754555,
-0.8341567516326904,
0.7905317544937134,
0.2017861008644104,
-0.5494370460510254,
0.25778913497924805,
-0.4508574903011322,
0.24984212219715118,
-0.30073681473731995,
0.1309494823217392,
-0.03180791437625885,
-0.4360353350639343,
0.29958218336105347,
0.2944105267524719,
0.3959299623966217,
0.30400413274765015,
0.6590720415115356,
0.5818398594856262,
0.10005170851945877,
-0.058053962886333466,
-0.7345654964447021,
0.344668447971344,
0.12405139207839966,
0.326395183801651,
-0.2533546984195709,
-0.8383992910385132,
-0.3289411962032318,
0.29909059405326843,
-0.5172097682952881,
-0.5335492491722107,
-0.48735618591308594,
1.278611183166504,
-0.3860241174697876,
-0.48263657093048096,
0.012861737050116062,
0.5997931361198425,
0.15178366005420685,
0.39678558707237244,
-0.9178771376609802,
-0.02901470474898815,
0.4047190845012665,
0.00611201673746109,
0.12980572879314423,
-0.16154222190380096,
-0.3461504578590393,
0.11130526661872864,
0.06855805218219757,
-0.0013624074636027217,
0.09441081434488297,
0.4606272876262665,
0.08612307161092758,
-0.299125999212265,
-0.7243142127990723,
-0.3811766505241394,
-0.6921551823616028,
0.34265202283859253,
-0.2547433078289032,
-0.5367770791053772,
0.17500431835651398,
0.022391589358448982,
0.30793094635009766,
0.08206331729888916,
-0.09771055728197098,
-0.3918907642364502,
-0.02831088937819004,
-0.46273377537727356,
0.17345812916755676,
-0.0037264192942529917,
-0.169062077999115,
-0.14844267070293427,
0.5139350295066833,
0.2025119662284851,
-0.21172046661376953,
-0.02827959693968296,
-0.10287179797887802,
0.21585264801979065,
0.34153035283088684,
-0.6900372505187988,
0.8272387385368347,
0.22572863101959229,
-0.6280790567398071,
0.20005854964256287,
0.23544228076934814,
0.41130995750427246,
-0.14453785121440887,
0.16231130063533783,
0.3305663764476776,
0.24594199657440186,
0.034332193434238434,
-0.049964942038059235,
1.2930656671524048,
-0.3868284821510315,
0.3460950255393982,
0.3032113313674927,
-1.060611367225647,
0.4399637281894684,
0.28816092014312744,
0.32564815878868103,
-0.1317039132118225,
0.39279302954673767,
0.4016733765602112,
0.14919109642505646,
0.7305275201797485,
-0.19543667137622833,
-0.39613062143325806,
0.45626744627952576,
0.20917072892189026,
0.3870803713798523,
0.589911699295044,
-0.7309083938598633,
0.32616451382637024,
-0.42042699456214905,
-0.0016043187351897359,
0.21443195641040802,
-0.4115908145904541,
-0.007317404728382826,
0.5862512588500977,
-0.09535679221153259,
-0.015656746923923492,
-0.7795040607452393,
0.09671823680400848,
-0.2923186421394348,
0.47982168197631836,
-0.10319436341524124,
-0.205713152885437,
0.11027641594409943,
0.07512933015823364,
0.4579445421695709,
-0.14199736714363098,
-0.3909046947956085,
-0.15971410274505615,
0.03600731119513512,
-0.025246599689126015,
0.23956887423992157,
0.3158414959907532,
-0.00923705194145441,
0.4038822054862976,
0.2950921356678009,
0.1789844036102295,
0.13661284744739532,
-0.27852076292037964,
-0.4728355407714844,
-0.4797040522098541,
0.27345913648605347,
-0.2936260402202606,
-0.2014961987733841,
0.2895068824291229,
0.08820229768753052,
0.3596990704536438,
-0.3978655934333801,
0.26829272508621216,
-0.37339913845062256,
0.041470687836408615,
0.5468596816062927,
0.3025238513946533,
-0.24102529883384705,
0.17509154975414276,
-0.33653056621551514,
0.3915642201900482,
-0.040797315537929535,
0.32327669858932495,
-0.026894722133874893,
-0.6542702317237854,
0.1872512847185135,
0.22906184196472168,
0.020315496250987053,
-0.10381101071834564,
-0.03210042044520378,
-0.5874155759811401,
0.11368272453546524,
-0.11673327535390854,
-0.3706541061401367,
-0.5880263447761536,
-0.4412635564804077,
1.258724570274353,
0.14340151846408844,
0.04893583431839943,
0.21842321753501892,
0.05221252515912056,
-0.0428137443959713,
0.19948455691337585,
-0.32250767946243286,
0.34725144505500793,
-0.6867439150810242,
-0.3586309552192688,
-0.538202166557312,
0.32975339889526367,
0.3818255066871643,
-0.27427980303764343,
-0.08604439347982407,
0.04874912276864052,
0.2994025647640228,
0.28477513790130615,
0.43038487434387207,
-0.45138198137283325,
-0.18410411477088928,
-0.8048315048217773,
-0.08389867842197418,
-0.1349848508834839,
0.2662090063095093,
0.2812439799308777,
0.09701302647590637,
-0.10338699817657471,
0.29984381794929504,
0.04886931926012039,
-0.2427491694688797,
0.16356618702411652,
0.10259609669446945,
0.08528478443622589,
-0.7741830348968506,
0.09554297477006912,
-0.6882907748222351,
0.1888231784105301,
0.5880333781242371,
-0.01638209819793701,
0.4629645049571991,
0.06699474155902863,
0.05845631659030914,
-0.4497210681438446,
0.06273902952671051,
0.00022126823023427278,
-0.8731651902198792,
0.14836333692073822,
-0.056884415447711945,
0.3313863277435303,
-0.9906824231147766,
0.3942203223705292,
-0.09150122851133347,
-0.21289092302322388,
0.42646723985671997,
-0.09960375726222992,
0.0788230150938034,
-0.2776568531990051,
0.35447296500205994,
-0.828944206237793,
0.15609735250473022,
0.029412325471639633
] |
233565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parjanya | Parjanya | Parjanya ( ) according to the Vedas is a deity of rain, thunder, lightning, and the one who fertilizes the earth.
Description
It is assumed Parjanya is the udder and lightning is the teats of the rain-cow, accordingly rain represents her milk. Also he is sometimes considered as a rain-bull controlled by the superior Indra. The thunder is his roar. He is the father of arrow or reed which grows rapidly in rainy season. He is also considered as a protector of poets and an enemy of flesh-eating fire.
Meanings
According to his 1965 Sanskrit–English Dictionary, Vaman Shivram Apte gives the following meanings:
Rain-cloud, thunder cloud, a cloud in general;
Rain (as referred in the Shloka from Bhagavad Gita Chapter 3 Verse 14);
The god (deva) of rain i.e. Indra.
In hymns
Two hymns of the Rigveda, 5.83 and 7.101, are dedicated to Parjanya. In Vedic Sanskrit Parjanya means "rain" or "raincloud". Prayers dedicated to Parjanya, to invoke the blessings of rains are mentioned in the Atharvaveda.
Parjanya was also one of the Saptarishi (Seven Great Sages Rishi) in the fifth Manvantara. He is one of the 12 Adityas and according to the Vishnu Purana, the guardian of the month of Kartik, a Gandharva and a Rishi in the Harivamsa.
In relation to other deities
The deity was adopted by various tribes later such as Slavic Perun, Lithuanian Perkūnas, Latvian Pērkons and Finnish Perkele "god of thunder", Gothic fairguni "mountain", and Mordvin language Pur'ginepaz.
Rig Veda hymns to Parjanya
RV 5.83 in the translation of Jamison and Brereton:
Buddhism
Parjanya also features is Buddhist literature. In the Pali Canon of the Theravāda, he is known as Pajjuna.
He is king of the vassavalāhaka devas who have limited control over the clouds and weather. He has a daughter named Kokanadā.
References
Hindu gods
Rigvedic deities
Sky and weather gods
Thunder gods
Gandharvas
Buddhist gods | [
0.05077873915433884,
0.6283052563667297,
-0.7705268859863281,
-0.4739469289779663,
-0.7123985886573792,
0.7599855661392212,
1.2380927801132202,
-0.06377610564231873,
-0.39336007833480835,
0.3736538589000702,
-0.17291371524333954,
0.39104413986206055,
-0.47603440284729004,
0.7754648327827454,
-0.02509825862944126,
0.3936607241630554,
0.5733460783958435,
0.56710284948349,
0.8073174357414246,
-0.0964997336268425,
0.13595320284366608,
-0.05622389167547226,
0.4366821050643921,
-0.14202390611171722,
0.47559863328933716,
-0.023105565458536148,
0.4611504077911377,
0.6755447387695312,
-0.182359516620636,
-0.25803476572036743,
-0.5178332924842834,
0.8834565281867981,
-0.032437510788440704,
-0.46349474787712097,
-0.07794762402772903,
-0.4198221266269684,
0.032408714294433594,
-0.4810371398925781,
-0.3090053200721741,
-0.3244067132472992,
0.052221350371837616,
-0.18500037491321564,
0.22611455619335175,
0.10160991549491882,
-0.7948346734046936,
-0.2092401534318924,
-1.7669918537139893,
0.572141706943512,
-0.8345215916633606,
0.2213849425315857,
-0.157282292842865,
0.4492741823196411,
0.1790425330400467,
0.13276846706867218,
0.1794382929801941,
0.802211582660675,
-0.705314576625824,
0.5274537205696106,
0.25594431161880493,
-0.2975764274597168,
0.39229610562324524,
-0.23463380336761475,
0.18792366981506348,
0.3262293338775635,
0.6880636215209961,
0.14374703168869019,
-0.2999032735824585,
-0.053304657340049744,
-0.007930628024041653,
0.2512305676937103,
-0.8227183818817139,
-0.1715603768825531,
-0.45837366580963135,
0.9286999106407166,
-0.8800371289253235,
-0.745606541633606,
-0.13316333293914795,
-0.5153345465660095,
0.02803034707903862,
0.10749746114015579,
-0.05307818949222565,
0.14078639447689056,
0.48827919363975525,
0.4550158679485321,
0.4467991292476654,
-0.1959712952375412,
0.09755727648735046,
-0.14519180357456207,
-0.2079891711473465,
-0.01880882866680622,
-0.016189737245440483,
-0.10387393832206726,
0.32224175333976746,
0.23189452290534973,
-0.6059646606445312,
-0.09180564433336258,
-0.16237683594226837,
-0.6049612760543823,
0.12109971791505814,
-0.5971124768257141,
0.12032724171876907,
0.10645010322332382,
-0.12549471855163574,
-0.17619213461875916,
-0.3519764542579651,
0.11460112035274506,
-0.4043367803096771,
-0.8763435482978821,
-0.044254571199417114,
0.3006264865398407,
-0.1868697702884674,
0.6084445118904114,
0.008529202081263065,
0.21173128485679626,
-0.20738501846790314,
0.480793833732605,
-0.4590504467487335,
-0.5455742478370667,
-0.44572558999061584,
0.008448249660432339,
0.7185085415840149,
0.5459170937538147,
0.4774007201194763,
0.4504600763320923,
-0.312692791223526,
-0.038684941828250885,
0.19192121922969818,
0.5481329560279846,
-0.09069729596376419,
0.5923346877098083,
0.2959508001804352,
0.7106425166130066,
-0.1764029711484909,
-0.33165109157562256,
-0.33060166239738464,
-0.6920412182807922,
-0.03703732043504715,
-0.1752794086933136,
0.8922247290611267,
0.6753759384155273,
-1.1761256456375122,
-0.2693084180355072,
0.18069808185100555,
-0.4377365708351135,
0.5982161164283752,
0.19635501503944397,
0.6412397623062134,
0.1131339967250824,
-0.7604619860649109,
-0.19059611856937408,
0.27770480513572693,
1.0288832187652588,
-0.09016459435224533,
0.08267583698034286,
-0.21992848813533783,
0.6325697302818298,
-0.0017228530487045646,
0.44480109214782715,
-0.2263564169406891,
0.011269831098616123,
-0.4241310954093933,
0.23442165553569794,
0.11831575632095337,
0.12163842469453812,
0.11705633997917175,
-0.03280843794345856,
0.5447476506233215,
0.31794312596321106,
0.18214823305606842,
-0.26425546407699585,
-0.4611983299255371,
0.021891430020332336,
-0.15053437650203705,
-0.1240311786532402,
-0.08369218558073044,
-0.2258789837360382,
0.7507191300392151,
-0.24609997868537903,
0.542887270450592,
0.0052078175358474255,
-0.6175519824028015,
0.5816414952278137,
-0.16932830214500427,
0.6162508130073547,
0.2722363770008087,
-0.4037924110889435,
-0.20826591551303864,
0.14996767044067383,
0.39272424578666687,
-0.29768502712249756,
-0.24963758885860443,
-0.2618706524372101,
-0.2776566445827484,
-0.1183161586523056,
1.0596855878829956,
-0.23167401552200317,
-0.5119706988334656,
0.6974306106567383,
0.7345675826072693,
0.4555688500404358,
-0.07484181970357895,
-0.13765034079551697,
-0.08877535164356232,
-0.6025866866111755,
-0.5878828167915344,
0.4093547463417053,
-0.3609648644924164,
0.3517054319381714,
0.6310731768608093,
0.1611374467611313,
-0.3724029064178467,
-0.24990230798721313,
0.7297561764717102,
-0.9732120633125305,
-0.2281920611858368,
-0.006867869757115841,
-0.7148199081420898,
0.712089478969574,
0.33989450335502625,
0.12171392142772675,
0.615738570690155,
-0.13979731500148773,
-0.17853793501853943,
0.4752342998981476,
0.19119605422019958,
0.5017244219779968,
-0.03826889023184776,
-0.3826223909854889,
0.023518141359090805,
-0.7766850590705872,
0.7133398056030273,
0.03790442273020744,
0.25239405035972595,
-0.1098983883857727,
-0.6072149872779846,
0.11156773567199707,
0.2344171106815338,
-0.5669022798538208,
0.30448782444000244,
-0.6255711913108826,
-0.36136138439178467,
0.7343937158584595,
-0.21569520235061646,
0.10126449167728424,
-0.11337964236736298,
0.06980744004249573,
-0.21489286422729492,
-0.4107312262058258,
-0.6399011015892029,
0.15896981954574585,
0.4610975682735443,
-0.005367975682020187,
0.12672024965286255,
0.18962019681930542,
-0.04718133062124252,
-0.25019651651382446,
-0.6543699502944946,
0.07048173248767853,
0.620630145072937,
0.4939045011997223,
-0.6022638082504272,
-0.6664930582046509,
0.2271837741136551,
-0.0026672740932554007,
0.062469348311424255,
-0.26759690046310425,
0.2015342116355896,
-0.049951765686273575,
0.22145158052444458,
0.5894330739974976,
0.0951618030667305,
-0.3703191578388214,
-0.20070743560791016,
0.7209190726280212,
-0.2154395431280136,
-1.1019117832183838,
0.5449402332305908,
0.4616871774196625,
-0.5944855213165283,
-0.11353608965873718,
0.11859595030546188,
0.6207932829856873,
-0.18414823710918427,
-1.0180143117904663,
0.006311619188636541,
-0.060444723814725876,
0.5196515321731567,
-0.41320565342903137,
0.28746065497398376,
0.08407129347324371,
0.01879563368856907,
0.30751892924308777,
0.1629200577735901,
-0.39421623945236206,
0.26824676990509033,
0.28529152274131775,
-0.04760032147169113,
0.11817265301942825,
0.25173240900039673,
-0.4337957799434662,
0.09423412382602692,
0.16012737154960632,
-0.24234291911125183,
0.49812498688697815,
0.2526126205921173,
0.3802631199359894,
-0.3939346671104431,
-0.24282275140285492,
-5.389681339263916,
-0.3050684928894043,
-0.10472625494003296,
-0.5051015019416809,
0.5880817174911499,
0.5563655495643616,
0.6414957642555237,
0.4461662173271179,
0.4740429222583771,
0.12025118619203568,
-0.10669117420911789,
-0.280987948179245,
0.05760087072849274,
0.04639820381999016,
0.32187798619270325,
0.1413407027721405,
0.948310911655426,
-0.20801173150539398,
0.2814241051673889,
0.4353589415550232,
-0.13217195868492126,
0.36072519421577454,
-0.41252636909484863,
0.5285812616348267,
0.07478846609592438,
-0.38667625188827515,
0.08801338076591492,
-0.06668513268232346,
0.049823224544525146,
0.33524569869041443,
0.3280995786190033,
-0.40601539611816406,
0.1366131454706192,
-0.2108207494020462,
-0.1017371192574501,
0.3795371651649475,
0.4897301197052002,
-0.1165621280670166,
0.5399395227432251,
0.10748766362667084,
0.040414173156023026,
-0.39780986309051514,
0.23548515141010284,
-0.19842612743377686,
0.1865968257188797,
-0.7322794198989868,
-0.6783789992332458,
-0.06343059241771698,
-0.1615452766418457,
0.7081688046455383,
-0.3690146505832672,
-0.4513865113258362,
0.5118163228034973,
-0.6044639945030212,
0.20565885305404663,
0.3632614314556122,
0.38366255164146423,
-0.1062091812491417,
-0.3474121391773224,
-0.3728153705596924,
-0.18376688659191132,
-0.4594694674015045,
0.1447589248418808,
-0.4695357084274292,
0.5757125616073608,
0.031644389033317566,
-0.19567596912384033,
-0.9077518582344055,
-0.12943129241466522,
-0.061117157340049744,
-0.29892852902412415,
0.0802316889166832,
-0.1771194040775299,
-1.0523064136505127,
-0.12116968631744385,
-0.5304327607154846,
-0.026323655620217323,
0.3883565068244934,
-0.28914177417755127,
0.07633896172046661,
-0.6190491318702698,
-0.6625689268112183,
-0.4097275137901306,
0.03041194938123226,
0.6483595967292786,
0.47006455063819885,
0.1310824304819107,
-0.8099954128265381,
-0.9022422432899475,
0.13838398456573486,
1.22701096534729,
-0.07960503548383713,
0.21730051934719086,
0.799804151058197,
0.2717098295688629,
1.3291878700256348,
-0.5469005107879639,
-0.0022044123616069555,
0.6338943243026733,
-0.15703780949115753,
0.6394045352935791,
0.1382439136505127,
0.521274209022522,
0.5788779258728027,
-0.2005731463432312,
-0.21764521300792694,
-0.12847371399402618,
-0.14186881482601166,
0.23661354184150696,
-0.2180136740207672,
0.020477233454585075,
-0.15208880603313446,
-0.0013170872116461396,
0.2571753263473511,
0.6258034706115723,
1.259308099746704,
-0.2615714967250824,
1.0133384466171265,
0.7055426836013794,
-0.028916863724589348,
0.3173366189002991,
0.47010648250579834,
-0.7151669263839722,
-0.3479752540588379,
-0.19559043645858765,
-0.5088586211204529,
-0.18591216206550598,
-0.14767217636108398,
0.05550101771950722,
0.02862684056162834,
0.6456884741783142,
-0.5554398894309998,
-0.13600791990756989,
-0.22055009007453918,
-0.038209255784749985,
0.2575214207172394,
0.16816702485084534,
-0.5328992009162903,
-0.7964320182800293,
-0.3103392720222473,
-0.8362076282501221,
-0.01988859288394451,
-0.54062819480896,
0.10035894066095352,
0.6304304003715515,
-0.02404210716485977,
-0.1673978716135025,
-0.3314604163169861,
0.09300710260868073,
0.1694953441619873,
0.1194596067070961,
-0.3809225857257843,
0.44515711069107056,
-1.1036043167114258,
-1.2696415185928345,
-0.15934839844703674,
0.055962804704904556,
0.21007689833641052,
-0.07314416766166687,
-0.0715903490781784,
-0.5150032043457031,
-1.0042431354522705,
-1.015760064125061,
-0.38502001762390137,
0.14347337186336517,
-0.6415524482727051,
-0.20324935019016266,
-0.8616002798080444,
-0.26771223545074463,
0.39089494943618774,
0.23736616969108582,
0.30384689569473267,
-0.37916597723960876,
0.1550762802362442,
0.3877526521682739,
0.3293748199939728,
0.16412313282489777,
0.05395989492535591,
-0.008388598449528217,
0.40038809180259705,
-0.401796817779541,
-0.5421168804168701,
-0.40432411432266235,
0.40191102027893066,
0.4039132297039032,
-0.5172940492630005,
-0.16158805787563324,
-0.36164408922195435,
-0.4343659281730652,
0.21162059903144836,
0.13924917578697205,
0.09430049359798431,
0.24142137169837952,
-0.3436168134212494,
-0.3769339621067047,
-0.5979332327842712,
-0.25264444947242737,
0.3205454647541046,
-0.3644503951072693,
-1.0257961750030518,
0.13506190478801727,
0.13830062747001648,
-0.7634135484695435,
0.25442877411842346,
0.23497211933135986,
-0.7826976180076599,
0.6704267859458923,
0.28194528818130493,
-0.25765788555145264,
-0.18196991086006165,
0.28980910778045654,
0.3032206892967224,
0.17459411919116974,
-0.2817050814628601,
-0.12426963448524475,
-0.16411414742469788,
0.020462121814489365,
-0.10365800559520721,
-0.10351614654064178,
-0.8620227575302124,
0.3896426558494568,
-0.16317938268184662,
0.39055514335632324,
-0.11301621049642563,
-0.1658676415681839,
-0.49973639845848083,
0.7614125609397888,
-0.6792863011360168,
0.31347641348838806,
0.015170663595199585,
-0.2859342694282532,
0.2907406985759735,
-0.190402552485466,
-0.25661560893058777,
-0.249110147356987,
-0.21586595475673676,
0.04192627593874931,
0.026638545095920563,
0.299695760011673,
0.12580490112304688,
-0.34576573967933655,
-0.17296954989433289,
0.14650899171829224,
-0.1287469118833542,
-0.43663647770881653,
-0.13445210456848145,
-0.2891070544719696,
-0.5017140507698059,
-0.6255365014076233,
-0.008618160150945187,
0.7215496897697449,
0.4131355285644531,
-0.460358202457428,
-0.24180838465690613,
0.8245968222618103,
-0.6803285479545593,
-0.15871378779411316,
0.038068920373916626,
0.31253042817115784,
0.00480947270989418,
0.05501411110162735,
0.00901843048632145,
-0.11711931973695755,
-0.030025087296962738,
-0.197935089468956,
-0.018860841169953346,
-0.674949586391449,
-0.14812113344669342,
0.6318182945251465,
-0.8272994756698608,
0.1619367152452469,
-0.3052418828010559,
0.20474395155906677,
-0.40078213810920715,
0.5298956036567688,
0.22182437777519226,
-0.6504411101341248,
-0.7186606526374817,
0.5588352084159851,
-0.2577422559261322,
0.027070946991443634,
-0.09578754752874374,
-0.007419432979077101,
0.5107545852661133,
0.034091174602508545,
-0.9552400708198547,
0.2957038879394531,
0.08885006606578827,
-0.15017470717430115,
-0.40842872858047485,
-0.4870527982711792,
0.3500588834285736,
0.48844113945961,
0.026463251560926437,
-0.32856541872024536,
0.16659052670001984,
0.03981573134660721,
0.3874093294143677,
-0.494067907333374,
-0.04397999867796898,
-0.48315760493278503,
0.012490108609199524,
0.8196499943733215,
-0.14151108264923096,
-0.6506651043891907,
0.5087051391601562,
0.6970595717430115,
-0.21185480058193207,
-0.11211472749710083,
-0.33889898657798767,
-0.013226157054305077,
0.3724527657032013,
0.6272310018539429,
0.5113443732261658,
-0.6025598645210266,
0.12590685486793518,
0.40614914894104004,
-0.37030279636383057,
0.132152259349823,
0.7520431876182556,
0.5380766987800598,
-1.0206563472747803,
0.5298356413841248,
-0.40349507331848145,
0.5527476668357849,
0.6728779077529907,
-0.4637136459350586,
0.04944745823740959,
-0.08029444515705109,
0.19147492945194244,
0.779336154460907,
-0.3196617662906647,
-0.9423083662986755,
-0.08876049518585205,
0.25952887535095215,
-0.2940453886985779,
0.06483615934848785,
-0.2546766996383667,
-0.8431244492530823,
0.19333188235759735,
0.8631840944290161,
0.7013699412345886,
-0.2799126207828522,
0.3492298126220703,
0.10492276400327682,
0.517139196395874,
0.5954878330230713,
0.2598456144332886,
-0.2134428173303604,
0.4039382040500641,
-0.05102701485157013,
0.2117050290107727,
0.20299385488033295,
-0.5150685906410217,
0.3126613199710846,
-0.3288900554180145,
0.802435576915741,
0.1382932811975479,
0.4664958417415619,
0.029652602970600128,
-0.06482132524251938,
0.3471660315990448,
0.10532547533512115,
0.1264873743057251,
-0.2339741438627243,
-0.21896378695964813,
0.07138242572546005,
-0.6070834398269653,
-0.32672104239463806,
0.08523805439472198,
0.044166743755340576,
0.23773889243602753,
-1.2151292562484741,
0.4498814046382904,
0.31548911333084106,
0.30181482434272766,
0.21095693111419678,
-0.2334253489971161,
0.17636866867542267,
-0.00007724780880380422,
-0.4073939621448517,
-0.16090336441993713,
-0.1380801498889923,
-0.6333589553833008,
-0.006696144584566355,
0.254243940114975,
0.19254276156425476,
0.4747777283191681,
-0.5604316592216492,
0.45822492241859436,
0.07806765288114548,
0.8294277191162109,
-0.4362562298774719,
0.4611537754535675,
-0.6920061707496643,
0.41217079758644104,
-0.10700643062591553,
0.5174497365951538,
0.5086435079574585,
-0.1152094155550003,
0.3219214677810669,
0.3279028832912445,
0.10680311918258667,
0.2913322150707245,
0.10714544355869293,
-0.39258548617362976,
-0.24123479425907135,
-0.14996501803398132,
-0.8390958905220032,
-0.2265021950006485,
0.34852632880210876,
-0.15281465649604797,
-0.029436394572257996,
0.12795454263687134,
-0.10853135585784912,
-0.327914297580719,
0.49210143089294434,
-0.58591228723526,
0.49032118916511536,
-0.6351683139801025,
0.3436260521411896,
-0.05593371018767357,
-0.17474199831485748,
0.8325831294059753,
-0.7272920608520508,
-0.7251600027084351,
0.7189128994941711,
0.24320192635059357,
-0.5442547798156738,
0.24992814660072327,
0.15989883244037628,
-0.13983243703842163,
-0.3914201259613037,
0.49844253063201904,
-0.11214424669742584,
-0.47046133875846863,
0.39324426651000977,
0.16532692313194275,
0.12108493596315384,
-0.7429686188697815,
-0.1557082235813141,
-0.24074208736419678,
0.3439894914627075,
-0.210025817155838,
-0.05885627865791321,
0.0321236290037632,
-0.294475793838501,
-0.02988874912261963,
-0.32068565487861633,
0.07923543453216553,
0.02284700982272625,
-0.3089005947113037,
0.18110781908035278,
0.12504133582115173,
-0.014956161379814148,
-0.18040898442268372,
0.2007049024105072,
-0.13693709671497345,
0.4312796890735626,
0.36411890387535095
] |
233567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misiones%20Province | Misiones Province | Misiones (, Missions) is one of the 23 provinces of Argentina, located in the northeastern corner of the country in the Mesopotamia region. It is surrounded by Paraguay to the northwest, Brazil to the north, east and south, and Corrientes Province of Argentina to the southwest.
This was an early area of Roman Catholic missionary activity by the Society of Jesus in what was then called the Province of Paraguay, beginning in the early 17th century. In 1984 the ruins of four mission sites in Argentina were designated World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
History
Indigenous peoples of various cultures lived in the area of the future province for thousands of years. At the time of European encounter, it was occupied by the Kaingang and Xokleng, later followed by the Guarani. The first European to visit the region, Sebastian Cabot, discovered Apipé Falls while navigating the Paraná River in December 1527. In 1541 Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca reached the Iguazú Falls.
In the 17th century, members of the Society of Jesus came to the region as missionaries, initially led by Diego de Torres Bello. They began to establish a string of Jesuit Reductions, most notably that of San Ignacio. In a few years they set up 30 mission villages. They taught the Guarani western-style agriculture and crafts. Their crafts were sold and traded along the river and they shared in the Reductions' prosperity.
In 1759 the Portuguese government, at the insistence of its anti-Jesuit Secretary of State, the Marquis de Pombal, ordered all Reductions closed in its territory (which then included much of present-day Misiones Province). The Marquis eventually prevailed in 1773 on Pope Clement XIV to have the Jesuit Order suppressed. With the abandoning of the missions, the prosperous trade surrounding these Reductions quickly vanished. Colonists imposed a brutal plantation economy in the region, forcing the Guarani to act as slave labor.
In 1814, Gervasio Posadas, the Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, declared Misiones annexed to Argentina's Corrientes (at this time Argentina was quasi-independent but nominally still a Spanish colony). Argentina did not exert de facto control over Misiones, which was claimed by several countries and effectively governed itself. In 1830 Argentine military forces from Corrientes Province took control of Misiones.
In 1838 Paraguay occupied Misiones, claiming the area on the basis that the Misiones population consisted of indigenous Guarani, the major ethnic group of Paraguay. In 1865 Paraguayan forces invaded Misiones again in what became the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870). Following the defeat of Paraguay and its peace agreement with Argentina (eventually signed in 1876), Paraguay gave up its claim to the Misiones territory.
Although Argentina had claimed Misiones since 1814, academics tend to interpret Argentine possession of Misiones as beginning with the defeat of Paraguay in the War of the Triple Alliance. Bethell writes that "the treaty of alliance [i.e. against Paraguay] contained secret clauses providing for the annexation of disputed territory in northern Paraguay by Brazil and regions in the east and west of Paraguay by Argentina... After a long and harrowing war (1865–70), Argentina got it from a prostrate Paraguay territory in Misiones." Scobie states that "the political status of Misiones remained vague" and that Argentina gained the region "as a by-product of the Paraguayan war in the 1860s".
The War of the Triple Alliance left Paraguay much impoverished, and Misiones benefited economically from belonging to Argentina. In 1876 the Argentine President Nicolás Avellaneda, assisted by his close friend, General Pietro Canestro (an Italian nobleman who devoted much of his life and wealth to the achievement and sustainability of the peace in the region), proclaimed the Immigration and Colonization Law. This law fostered the immigration of European colonists in order to populate the vast unspoiled Argentinian territories.
Several colonizing companies formed under this law. One of them, Adolf Schwelm's Eldorado Colonización y Explotación de Bosques Ltda. S.A., founded the city of Eldorado in 1919 with a port on the Upper Paraná. Its agricultural colonies and experimental farms, the orange- and grapefruit-tree plantations, and the cultivation of yerba mate, the mills and the dryers for such product are characteristic of this area. Swedish-Argentines became well known for growing yerba mate.
Misiones received many immigrants, mostly from Europe, coming mainly via Southern Brazil. Some came from Buenos Aires, and from Eastern Europe, in particular large numbers of Poles and Ukrainians. Since then, Misiones has continued to benefit economically and has developed politically within Argentina. It has been successfully integrated into the Argentine state. control of the province is not contested. On December 10, 1953 the "National Territory of Misiones" gained provincial status in accordance with Law 14.294, and its constitution was approved on April 21, 1958.
Misiones received more attention from national policy-makers following an international agreement (1973) to construct the Yacyretá hydroelectric dam on a point in the Paraná River shared by Paraguay and Corrientes Province. When the dam became fully operative in the 1990s, the Paraná's waters all along the Misiones shores rose. They flooded lands that the dam's authorities had failed to clear and condition adequately, resulting in the onset of mosquito-transmitted illnesses, such as leishmaniasis, yellow fever, dengue, and malaria. The entire Misiones shores along the Paraná River is now confined by two dams, one of them Yaciretá, downstream of the river, and the other Itaipú, located in Brazil and Paraguay, upstream of the river and north of Puerto Iguazú. Argentina is pursuing an agreement with Paraguay to expand the reservoir works in order to double the facility's electricity production.
Geography
Misiones is the second smallest province after Tucumán.
The Misiones plateau includes a part of Brazil across the border. The rocks contain significant quantities of iron which forms a part of the soil, giving it a reddish color. At the center of the plateau rises the Sierra de Misiones, its highest peak, 843 m, near Bernardo de Irigoyen, in the Cerro Rincón.
The province is embraced by three big rivers including the Paraná, Uruguay and Iguazú. Iguazu Falls are spectacular waterfalls on the Iguazú River in the northwest corner of the province, near the city of Puerto Iguazú. Misiones shares the falls with the Brazilian state of Paraná (in that nation's Southern Region). Meanwhile, the international border with Paraguay is close by.
Climate
The province has a humid subtropical climate characterized by a lack of a dry season and abundant rainfall throughout the year. Under the Köppen climate classification, it is classified as Cfa. There are four distinct seasons although winters and autumns are fairly short. The mean annual temperature is around . June–August typically register the coldest days when temperatures can fall below . However, rare incursions of polar air into the province from the south can lead to frost. Summers are hot with temperatures exceeding from December to February. One of the main characteristic is the presence of hills in the central and northern parts of the province leading to lower temperatures as a result of the higher elevation. Average annual rainfall ranges from a low of in the south to in the north. The rainfall pattern in the province has a bimodal distribution with two peaks occurring in Spring and Autumn with winters being the driest. The exceptions are the north and higher altitude areas where precipitation is well distributed throughout the year. Snowfall has occurred at the higher hills. For example, during the winter of 1975, snowfall was observed and accumulated in Bernando de Irigoyen, one of the coldest towns in the province due to its high altitude . Owing to the humid climate and high rainfall, relative humidity is high.
The vegetation is the so-called "". Part of it has been transformed by mankind to implant cultures and ranching. The original biome is protected in Iguazú National Park, part of the Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, in turn part of the Atlantic Forest biome.
Population
There are 1,101,593 people living in Misiones according to the national census of 2010. A part of the population is descendant of indigenous peoples (especially Guaranis) and also Spanish who reached during the colonization and mixed with natives. Another part of the residents are descendants of European immigrants. Unlike many regions of Argentina, where the immigrants came through Buenos Aires, most of the immigrants who settled in Misiones came through Southern Brazil. The ethnic groups who settled in Misiones after Spaniards are Italians, Germans, Poles, Ukrainians, Swiss, Russians, Swedes, Danes and a small number of Arabs, Japanese and, recently, Laotians (in the late 1970s) and Chinese (in the 2000s). From the 1960s, the province has also received immigrants from Brazil (mostly descendants of East Europeans) and Paraguay (mostly descendants both of indigenous peoples and Spaniards).
The literacy rate is 91.4%.
Economy
Misiones' economy, like most in northern Argentina, is relatively underdeveloped yet fairly well-diversified. Its 2006 output was estimated at US$4.8 billion (which shall be around US$7.2 billion in 2011, according to Argentina's economical growing) or US$4,940 per capita (around US$6,500 in 2011), over 40% below the national average.
Though its rainy, erosion-prone geography discourages intensive crop farming, agriculture makes an important contribution to the province's economy, adding about 10% to the total. Misiones' thick forests have long provided for the ample production of roundwood without excessive impact on its ecosystem. The principal exploited trees are the Paraná pine, Guatambú, Cedar, Petiribí, Incense, Cane water-pipe, Anchico, Eucalyptus and Gueycá.
Misiones' chief source of agricultural income, however, has long been the cultivation of yerba mate: Misiones is Argentina's leading producer (yielding about half a million tons, annually). Tea, citrus fruit and, in minor amounts, tobacco, sugar cane, rice, coffee, cocoa and coconut are also cultivated in Misiones.
Light manufacturing and tourism also contribute to the local economy, each adding about 13% to the total.
Government
The provincial government is divided into the usual three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoint the cabinet; the legislative; and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court.
The Constitution of Misiones Province forms the formal law of the province.
In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police but the additional work is carried out by the Misiones Provincial Police.
Political division
The province is divided in 17 departments (Spanish: departamentos):
Notable people
Clotilde González de Fernández (1880-1935), pioneer of education in Misiones Province
See also
Hito Tres Fronteras
Yaciretá dam
Immigrant's Festival
History of yerba mate
References
Books
External links
Gobierno de la Provincia de Misiones Official website
French Culture in Misiones
Pictures of Misiones
Provinces of Argentina
Misiones, Argentina
States and territories established in 1953
Territorial disputes of Argentina
Territorial disputes of Paraguay | [
-0.2410544902086258,
0.18081918358802795,
0.10881130397319794,
0.1983485072851181,
-0.29277724027633667,
0.29313716292381287,
0.23327355086803436,
1.0013179779052734,
-0.6286441683769226,
-0.475667268037796,
0.26301613450050354,
-0.24190548062324524,
-0.2046070396900177,
0.8096754550933838,
-0.3106272220611572,
1.1191273927688599,
0.13886474072933197,
0.4856880307197571,
0.17762452363967896,
-0.7446593046188354,
-0.3695891201496124,
-0.5965104103088379,
0.08343198895454407,
-0.09233727306127548,
0.20398768782615662,
0.08065726608037949,
0.2314833551645279,
0.4277496933937073,
0.32572072744369507,
-0.11557553708553314,
0.1575126349925995,
0.03173688054084778,
-0.2506784200668335,
-0.08113262802362442,
0.4559330940246582,
0.033309947699308395,
0.16636966168880463,
-0.7781630158424377,
-0.38835152983665466,
-0.3782971203327179,
0.2582753598690033,
-0.38830873370170593,
-0.11995113641023636,
0.06732875108718872,
0.06957481056451797,
-0.5389654040336609,
-1.0866754055023193,
1.2726181745529175,
-0.351261705160141,
0.004950067028403282,
-1.2189801931381226,
0.6851252913475037,
0.23161937296390533,
-0.4482860863208771,
-0.3454824686050415,
0.5137547254562378,
-0.7613050937652588,
0.28818172216415405,
-0.12935999035835266,
-0.03295089676976204,
-0.7185038924217224,
1.4148662090301514,
-0.02384190261363983,
0.12077455967664719,
-0.1978534460067749,
-0.07915524393320084,
0.47125840187072754,
0.37390175461769104,
-0.09396503120660782,
-0.5620559453964233,
-0.04991375654935837,
0.42344191670417786,
0.004163078498095274,
-0.07492603361606598,
0.00464437622576952,
-0.9279409646987915,
-0.32198360562324524,
0.028586113825440407,
0.049810171127319336,
0.9595954418182373,
-0.2656339704990387,
0.13945551216602325,
0.39433789253234863,
-1.0449765920639038,
1.2922428846359253,
0.027933601289987564,
-0.5939821004867554,
0.3923245370388031,
-0.2968499958515167,
0.07602747529745102,
-0.006762176752090454,
-0.4836220443248749,
0.3314566910266876,
-0.282047301530838,
0.21200452744960785,
-0.5483980774879456,
-0.017733458429574966,
0.009627627208828926,
-0.7207112312316895,
0.4222472608089447,
0.07523582875728607,
0.7642478346824646,
0.1139570102095604,
0.42938360571861267,
-0.41531988978385925,
0.16102135181427002,
-0.571090042591095,
-0.47357285022735596,
-0.3580869138240814,
-0.22182540595531464,
-0.41157039999961853,
-0.2513231039047241,
-0.2412637621164322,
0.13792991638183594,
0.258386492729187,
-0.07384556531906128,
0.4102630019187927,
-0.08004879206418991,
0.42444372177124023,
-0.12355204671621323,
-0.23932917416095734,
0.6431657671928406,
-0.38534560799598694,
-0.09755033254623413,
-0.012635554186999798,
0.14545051753520966,
0.5571133494377136,
-0.7079360485076904,
-0.47646409273147583,
0.1846129149198532,
-0.022150130942463875,
0.8191426396369934,
-0.12378159165382385,
0.19784969091415405,
0.4408825933933258,
-0.9981654286384583,
-0.5033730268478394,
0.36824581027030945,
0.31525734066963196,
-0.000329422065988183,
-1.029793381690979,
0.2176486849784851,
-0.4593581259250641,
-0.4060817062854767,
0.44298383593559265,
-0.5610954165458679,
-0.22896715998649597,
-0.6380858421325684,
-0.4266323745250702,
-0.5446881651878357,
0.2646982967853546,
0.212995246052742,
-0.3245124816894531,
0.16134817898273468,
-0.3618773818016052,
-0.22359496355056763,
0.17530906200408936,
-0.41670849919319153,
0.5912908911705017,
0.032895930111408234,
0.16150015592575073,
0.07838994264602661,
0.15853992104530334,
0.1406400203704834,
-0.1907743364572525,
-0.06392914056777954,
0.4087131917476654,
0.7371674180030823,
0.14608819782733917,
0.19031138718128204,
-0.43052938580513,
0.08268504589796066,
0.5073058605194092,
-1.0848191976547241,
0.18590468168258667,
-0.03275264799594879,
0.04640772566199303,
0.3959479331970215,
0.031639695167541504,
-0.4101048707962036,
-0.5096054077148438,
0.4413248300552368,
-0.23877768218517303,
0.700320839881897,
-0.16096673905849457,
0.22720946371555328,
0.647405207157135,
0.5960302352905273,
-0.5167971253395081,
0.1875445544719696,
-0.500619113445282,
-0.6472612023353577,
-0.10888093709945679,
-0.788948118686676,
0.8770727515220642,
0.6093502640724182,
-0.01071306224912405,
0.7426273226737976,
-0.3356650769710541,
0.4140744209289551,
-0.8199477791786194,
0.29074278473854065,
0.4564395844936371,
0.3193877041339874,
-0.06731653958559036,
0.13609954714775085,
0.2103499472141266,
0.15471883118152618,
0.16038718819618225,
0.9780727028846741,
-0.059797704219818115,
0.016787074506282806,
0.12872314453125,
-0.1019514873623848,
-0.44013044238090515,
-0.5654000043869019,
-0.025071095675230026,
-0.1913001984357834,
0.17817960679531097,
-0.10187030583620071,
0.4044269919395447,
-0.251955509185791,
-0.4378974735736847,
0.5884386301040649,
-0.33715420961380005,
0.4317018687725067,
0.5615013837814331,
0.20479518175125122,
0.5286971926689148,
-0.5181431770324707,
0.19869762659072876,
-0.2561063766479492,
0.19840635359287262,
-0.23982414603233337,
-0.6553424596786499,
-0.06554627418518066,
-0.008804858662188053,
-0.2479572296142578,
-0.13436974585056305,
-0.6296293139457703,
-0.12067753076553345,
0.4115506708621979,
-0.11756949126720428,
0.09113392978906631,
0.35954737663269043,
0.43404892086982727,
-0.5951155424118042,
0.42598676681518555,
0.23867562413215637,
0.3499755859375,
0.028145071119070053,
0.08848471194505692,
-0.0301151592284441,
-0.3056088089942932,
0.04306827113032341,
0.1219736710190773,
0.2546479403972626,
-0.3165897727012634,
0.17827260494232178,
0.2952117919921875,
-0.7058093547821045,
0.285446435213089,
-0.6354012489318848,
0.2568798065185547,
-0.32545986771583557,
-0.20715203881263733,
0.033758025616407394,
-0.697985053062439,
0.1360032558441162,
-0.39619022607803345,
-0.03094172663986683,
-0.23786139488220215,
-0.37976694107055664,
0.03757712244987488,
0.26355794072151184,
-0.20380818843841553,
0.184640571475029,
0.4151943325996399,
-1.0817506313323975,
0.02599780447781086,
-0.051628228276968,
0.8129579424858093,
-0.16437911987304688,
-0.8579259514808655,
-1.1068741083145142,
-0.11792492866516113,
0.4900425970554352,
-0.3792992830276489,
-0.5700452923774719,
0.272641122341156,
-0.287524938583374,
0.07360043376684189,
-0.34268853068351746,
0.7669176459312439,
-0.7194400429725647,
-0.23692850768566132,
0.1280267983675003,
-0.5703921914100647,
1.2091726064682007,
-0.6786856651306152,
-0.6988539099693298,
0.25184476375579834,
0.09080774337053299,
-0.10314709693193436,
-0.07463763654232025,
-0.08936338126659393,
-0.43630608916282654,
0.23668590188026428,
-5.267104148864746,
-0.14781427383422852,
-0.4025084376335144,
-0.4305480122566223,
0.5765625238418579,
-0.5370892286300659,
0.21376587450504303,
-0.15923075377941132,
0.2667010426521301,
0.06814748793840408,
0.09277208894491196,
0.3997972905635834,
0.2213810682296753,
0.31306397914886475,
0.33377426862716675,
0.6793805956840515,
-0.2167396992444992,
0.05033952742815018,
0.3746865689754486,
-0.2959385812282562,
-0.7630218863487244,
0.1185557171702385,
0.15833383798599243,
0.5465211868286133,
0.8871962428092957,
0.42256608605384827,
-0.48459210991859436,
-0.5928190350532532,
-0.7336450815200806,
-0.15602092444896698,
-0.0766257792711258,
0.0756249651312828,
0.11189216375350952,
0.1285918653011322,
-0.09347554296255112,
-0.27483639121055603,
0.4165087044239044,
-0.25586140155792236,
0.14032144844532013,
-0.25279685854911804,
-0.3266754746437073,
0.41747984290122986,
0.14535056054592133,
0.029076801612973213,
0.1969481259584427,
-0.13536159694194794,
-0.4792359471321106,
-0.37231943011283875,
0.23660466074943542,
0.7729915380477905,
0.7969481945037842,
-0.3774391710758209,
0.19513250887393951,
-0.17977510392665863,
0.1863631308078766,
-0.20723268389701843,
0.660887598991394,
-0.6418848037719727,
-0.7915421724319458,
0.6546360850334167,
0.7442832589149475,
-0.29617971181869507,
-0.6014140844345093,
-0.34512943029403687,
0.02725168690085411,
0.20052359998226166,
0.4481643736362457,
-0.03195774182677269,
0.4801809787750244,
0.2026536762714386,
-0.28647130727767944,
0.5427851676940918,
-0.5003098845481873,
-0.5229403376579285,
-0.40362298488616943,
-0.16132624447345734,
-0.6860923767089844,
0.30756843090057373,
0.1029486209154129,
0.0013300682185217738,
-0.62000572681427,
-0.048536427319049835,
-0.26101189851760864,
0.061638619750738144,
-0.37739694118499756,
-0.30519604682922363,
0.26037612557411194,
0.15721654891967773,
-0.13732023537158966,
0.13270041346549988,
0.4039992094039917,
-0.5436026453971863,
0.9112071394920349,
-0.21010276675224304,
-0.27127131819725037,
0.2591503858566284,
-0.19752462208271027,
0.8084520101547241,
-0.26708313822746277,
-0.7003543376922607,
0.9347276091575623,
-0.4583015739917755,
0.6318702697753906,
-0.04509659856557846,
0.11863815039396286,
-0.4294205605983734,
0.563420295715332,
0.5964260101318359,
0.016861094161868095,
-0.06874009966850281,
0.030077246949076653,
0.22754018008708954,
-0.6325643658638,
-0.18813970685005188,
0.14410071074962616,
-0.46363574266433716,
-0.06871521472930908,
0.1642954796552658,
0.49269306659698486,
0.6342911720275879,
0.24453571438789368,
0.1658589243888855,
-0.18240399658679962,
0.18677501380443573,
-0.5934804677963257,
-0.054825346916913986,
0.13694524765014648,
0.4052681624889374,
0.7278726100921631,
0.395170658826828,
0.055489681661129,
-0.26678621768951416,
0.3043293356895447,
-0.65909343957901,
0.20174166560173035,
0.42645418643951416,
0.09177855402231216,
-0.7032249569892883,
0.1610330045223236,
-0.5214215517044067,
0.42676717042922974,
-0.08463431894779205,
-0.20238500833511353,
0.5837545990943909,
-0.05882668495178223,
0.018981892615556717,
-0.48806947469711304,
-0.5572723150253296,
-1.130338191986084,
0.3204774260520935,
-0.1496255099773407,
-0.36691543459892273,
-0.5837817788124084,
-0.2973449230194092,
-0.26877138018608093,
-0.2922033965587616,
0.085793137550354,
-0.1262185424566269,
0.5085254311561584,
-0.08475398272275925,
-0.2550504207611084,
-0.4587419033050537,
-0.7030109167098999,
0.32754582166671753,
0.5853626132011414,
0.11363491415977478,
-0.29242193698883057,
-0.7083701491355896,
-0.15615969896316528,
1.0483053922653198,
-0.16514045000076294,
-0.22022686898708344,
-0.26754382252693176,
-0.5141305327415466,
0.11731689423322678,
-0.03815155848860741,
0.40538763999938965,
0.2555532157421112,
-0.031201403588056564,
0.26128649711608887,
-0.27029556035995483,
-0.11642060428857803,
0.16476744413375854,
0.28387191891670227,
0.0908442959189415,
-0.1452181339263916,
-0.9792463779449463,
-0.5307217240333557,
-0.49557963013648987,
0.002272052923217416,
0.528302788734436,
0.3945695757865906,
-0.13116386532783508,
0.14412406086921692,
-0.7316681146621704,
-0.35915201902389526,
-0.35704630613327026,
0.16643820703029633,
-0.19245079159736633,
-0.2828046679496765,
-0.196237251162529,
0.3662848472595215,
-0.4844411313533783,
0.49519646167755127,
-0.11415781825780869,
-0.41365060210227966,
0.07850152999162674,
0.45557594299316406,
-0.7362412810325623,
-0.011495878919959068,
-0.33870193362236023,
-0.42319944500923157,
0.2489660084247589,
0.40974161028862,
0.1946505606174469,
-0.26667270064353943,
0.5014697313308716,
-0.4656659960746765,
-0.300712525844574,
0.1847498118877411,
-0.4339868724346161,
-0.20071309804916382,
0.30709436535835266,
-0.02731662057340145,
0.09105934202671051,
0.9330201745033264,
0.4131665825843811,
-1.429202914237976,
0.5563044548034668,
-0.2601267397403717,
0.8367879986763,
-0.257222443819046,
0.4480628967285156,
0.052596721798181534,
-0.20170964300632477,
0.0685713142156601,
0.2829095125198364,
0.5109494924545288,
0.5612163543701172,
0.4055844247341156,
0.29783686995506287,
0.16668632626533508,
-0.10537534952163696,
-0.054920829832553864,
-0.05464162304997444,
0.0640905499458313,
0.3650735914707184,
-0.42013072967529297,
-0.5971294641494751,
0.1804538518190384,
0.06285188347101212,
-0.5491875410079956,
-0.21385033428668976,
0.030518846586346626,
0.3348406255245209,
0.27060264348983765,
-0.32458266615867615,
0.7239145636558533,
0.13408921658992767,
-0.29707100987434387,
0.1787327080965042,
0.14308947324752808,
0.4120029807090759,
-0.1800932139158249,
0.20506468415260315,
-0.30959299206733704,
0.13696475327014923,
-0.581636905670166,
0.9381382465362549,
0.16931234300136566,
-0.24923478066921234,
0.1386961042881012,
0.27975156903266907,
0.43254706263542175,
-0.00018147382070310414,
0.2687346935272217,
-0.23524586856365204,
-0.02277006395161152,
0.2158089131116867,
-0.3815687298774719,
-1.0622539520263672,
0.3749147653579712,
-0.5206702947616577,
0.39400869607925415,
0.004359929822385311,
0.09084268659353256,
-0.2265772670507431,
0.5298067927360535,
-0.39558911323547363,
0.13694532215595245,
-0.04338564723730087,
-0.4066520929336548,
0.0006586135714314878,
-0.42889270186424255,
0.23020458221435547,
-0.12595421075820923,
-0.6932566165924072,
0.27143460512161255,
-0.0744953528046608,
0.5771192312240601,
-0.3407716751098633,
0.7986308336257935,
0.20946723222732544,
-0.4763053357601166,
-0.13222648203372955,
-0.3133377730846405,
0.5610992908477783,
0.2338830828666687,
-0.2765570878982544,
-0.24348540604114532,
0.20961782336235046,
0.3896327316761017,
0.23525455594062805,
0.3754386603832245,
-0.2639103829860687,
0.5667874217033386,
0.5799190998077393,
-0.504737913608551,
-0.10629498958587646,
1.0445683002471924,
0.2837812602519989,
0.15819913148880005,
-0.1992533951997757,
0.21093887090682983,
0.4497571885585785,
1.1651110649108887,
-0.5041506290435791,
-0.9018762111663818,
-0.2334478795528412,
0.1638566106557846,
-0.04658081382513046,
-0.3258812427520752,
-1.1230653524398804,
0.3615053594112396,
-0.6974851489067078,
-0.18403968214988708,
0.1347796767950058,
-0.5525120496749878,
-0.24991115927696228,
0.4782434105873108,
1.2113349437713623,
0.8428229093551636,
-0.388787180185318,
0.008789336308836937,
0.2170121818780899,
0.25531014800071716,
0.9066788554191589,
0.04244840517640114,
0.6223666071891785,
-0.3128105103969574,
0.46277424693107605,
0.38917994499206543,
0.2459275871515274,
0.027419136837124825,
-0.1292780041694641,
0.1198456659913063,
0.09080727398395538,
0.37121692299842834,
-0.865184485912323,
-0.19892960786819458,
-0.36261260509490967,
-0.38764864206314087,
-0.2728654146194458,
-0.46935567259788513,
-0.12011510133743286,
-0.3919156789779663,
0.656783938407898,
0.08519523590803146,
-0.7439287900924683,
0.4587576985359192,
-0.3018229901790619,
-0.01904379390180111,
-0.05756016820669174,
0.03839016333222389,
0.24050545692443848,
0.26068219542503357,
0.3244915008544922,
1.262696385383606,
-0.31796324253082275,
0.5750886797904968,
0.15461082756519318,
0.5302451848983765,
0.2258220762014389,
-0.5667656064033508,
-0.5076793432235718,
-0.18785609304904938,
0.2808837294578552,
0.17413148283958435,
0.3548440933227539,
-0.016313718631863594,
0.38522079586982727,
-0.40983137488365173,
-0.3327603042125702,
0.42960265278816223,
0.07204576581716537,
-0.6614859104156494,
-0.35175418853759766,
1.0405150651931763,
0.8897784352302551,
-0.3930870294570923,
0.7191094160079956,
-0.14110305905342102,
0.28989800810813904,
0.4096634089946747,
-0.3755203187465668,
-0.03235393762588501,
-0.14399775862693787,
0.20600172877311707,
-1.017823576927185,
-0.23602762818336487,
0.5501449108123779,
0.14481495320796967,
-0.3876512050628662,
-0.07773156464099884,
-0.4789581596851349,
0.16949981451034546,
0.4461473226547241,
-0.8358384966850281,
0.2626970410346985,
-0.8544338941574097,
0.3851282596588135,
-0.14819800853729248,
0.045830972492694855,
0.9504269957542419,
0.17169086635112762,
-0.5128652453422546,
0.47984200716018677,
0.20065200328826904,
-0.7129627466201782,
0.4397953152656555,
0.5446563363075256,
0.012635966762900352,
-0.4629879295825958,
0.11317569017410278,
-0.20735862851142883,
-0.18057718873023987,
0.29278209805488586,
0.6058909296989441,
0.6180265545845032,
-0.12229051440954208,
-0.06533100455999374,
-0.1687207669019699,
0.13475069403648376,
-0.608785092830658,
0.31613045930862427,
0.21761633455753326,
-0.4881782829761505,
-0.15061414241790771,
-0.6054942011833191,
0.6933745741844177,
-0.13711048662662506,
0.475277304649353,
-0.11789523810148239,
-0.15413835644721985,
-0.3557572364807129,
-0.30836352705955505,
0.48126208782196045,
-1.19608473777771,
0.5300207138061523,
0.4090912342071533
] |
233569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puntland | Puntland | Puntland (, , or Paese di Punt), officially the Puntland State of Somalia (, ), is a Federal Member State in northeastern Somalia. The capital city is the city of Garoowe in the Nugal region, and its leaders declared the territory an autonomous state in 1998. Geographically to the west, Puntland lays claim to the intra-46th meridian territories which were outside European colonial rule during parts of the Scramble for Africa period.
Puntland is bordered by Somaliland to its west, the Gulf of Aden in the north, the Guardafui Channel in the northeast, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, the central Galmudug region in the south, and Ethiopia in the southwest. There are several major geographical apexes in Puntland, including the Cape Guardafui which forms the tip of the Horn of Africa, Ras Hafun the easternmost place on the entire African continent, and the beginning of the Karkaar mountain range. It also has the northernmost major city in Somalia, Bosaso, located at a line of latitude higher than 11° north.
The name "Puntland" is derived from the Land of Punt mentioned in ancient Egyptian sources, although the exact location of the fabled territory is still a mystery. Many studies suggest that the Land of Punt was located in present-day Somalia, whereas others propose that it was situated elsewhere.
History
Majeerteen Sultanates
The Osman Mahamuud clan was among powerful clans in northeastern region.
Boqor Osman was one of the prominent Darood clan chiefs who ruled the ancient towns of Bosaso, Alula, Bargaal and Hafun and subsequently emerged as a powerful traditional elder who fully controlled areas under his rule.
The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was founded in the mid-18th century. It rose to prominence the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud. Centred in Aluula, it controlled much of northern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.
The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly destroyed in the mid-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid. After almost five years of battle, the young upstart was finally forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to overpower the local clans and establish the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878.
In late 1889, Boqor Osman entered into a treaty with Italy, making his realm an Italian protectorate. His rival Sultan Kenadid had signed a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Sultanate the year before. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist objectives, with Boqor Osman looking to use Italy's support in his ongoing power struggle with Kenadid over the Majeerteen Sultanate. Boqor Osman and Sultan Kenadid also hoped to exploit the conflicting interests among the European imperial powers that were then looking to control the Somali peninsula, so as to avoid direct occupation of their territories by force.
With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of European colonial rule, all three sultanates were annexed to Italian Somaliland in the early 20th century.
Establishment of Puntland
Following the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991, a home-grown constitutional conference was held in Garoowe in 1998 over a period of three months. Attended by the area's political elite, traditional elders (Issims), members of the business community, intellectuals and other civil society representatives, the autonomous Puntland State of Somalia was established to deliver services to the population, offer security, facilitate trade, and interact with domestic and international partners. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed served as the fledgling state's founding president.
As stipulated in Article 1 of the Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, Puntland is a part of the Federal State of Somalia. As such, the region seeks the unity of Somalis and adheres to a federal system of government. Unlike the republic of Somaliland to its west, Puntland is not trying to obtain international recognition as a separate nation. However, both regions have one thing in common: they base their support upon clan elders and their organizational structure along lines based on clan relationships and kinship. However, a key difference was that Puntland was formed as a descendant-based entity unlike in Somaliland. The state was established as a "homeland" for the Harti community of Northern Somalia, whereby the Majeerten were deemed as the "chief architects" of the entity. Since its establishment in 1998, Puntland has also been in territorial disputes with Somaliland over the Sool, Sanaag and Ayn regions.
The legal structure of Puntland consists of the judiciary, legislative (House of Representatives) and the executive (the President and his nominated Council of Ministries) branches of government. Though relatively peaceful, the region briefly experienced political unrest in 2001 when then President of Puntland, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, one of the founding fathers of the Puntland State and its first president, wanted his term extended. Ahmed and Jama Ali Jama fought for control of the region, with Ahmed emerging victorious the following year. Ahmed served his second term as president until October 2004, when he was elected President of Somalia. He was succeeded in office by Mohamed Hashi, who served until January 2005 when he lost a re-election bid in parliament to General Mohamud Muse Hersi "Adde".
Politics
General Adde Muse administration
In March 2005, President Muse began an ambitious plan to build an airport in Puntland's commercial capital of Bosaso, a project which is now complete and referred to as Bender Qassim International Airport.
In April 2007, Muse held meetings with Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi, the crown prince and deputy ruler of Ras al-Khaimah in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where the two leaders signed an agreement on a deal for setting up of a dedicated livestock quarantine facility to facilitate the import of livestock from Somalia to the UAE. In October 2008, Muse also signed a Dh170 million agreement with Dubai's Lootah Group to support the construction of an airport, seaport and free zone in the coastal city of Bosaso. Muse indicated that "I believe that when we finish all these projects our people will benefit by getting good health services, education and overall prosperity."
Farole administration
In January 2009, Abdirahman Farole was elected the new president of Puntland. Upon assuming office, the Farole administration implemented a number of reforms, particularly in the security and judicial sectors. To bolster the region's justice system, numerous new prosecutors, judges and other court personnel as well as additional prison guards were hired and trained. In July 2010, the Puntland Council of Ministers unanimously approved a new anti-terrorism law to more efficiently handle terror suspects and their accomplices; a special court is also expected to be established within the region's existing criminal courts system to facilitate the task.
Fiscally, a transparent, budget-based public finance system was established, which has reportedly helped increase public confidence in government. In addition, a new regional constitution was drafted and later passed on 15 June 2009, which is believed to represent a significant step toward the eventual introduction of a multi-party political system to the region for the first time; such a system already exists in the adjacent Somaliland region.
More modest reforms were also put into motion in the social sector, particularly in the education and healthcare fields. The regional government has hired more healthcare workers and teachers, with major plans under way for school and hospital renovations. One of the most significant new reforms enacted by the incumbent Puntland administration is the launching in May 2009 of the Puntland Agency For Social Welfare (PASWE), the first organization of its kind in Somali history. The agency provides medical, educational and counselling support to vulnerable groups and individuals such as orphans, the disabled and the blind. PASWE is overseen by a Board of Directors, which consists of religious scholars (ulema), business people, intellectuals and traditional elders.
Democratization process
On 15 June 2009, the Puntland government passed a new regional draft constitution, representing a significant step toward the eventual introduction of a multi-party political system to the region for the first time.
On 15 April 2012, the Puntland government opened a four-day constitutional convention officially inaugurating the new Constitution of Puntland. Overseen by the Puntland Electoral Commission (PEC), the constitution represented the final step in the extant regional democratization process and was scheduled to be followed by the formation of political parties.
On 12 September 2012, the Puntland Electoral Commission announced that the registration process for political parties in Puntland was now open. This came after the passing of the Political Association Law, the Referendum Act, the District Elections Law and the inauguration of the state constitution. They will also be challengers in the next elections, scheduled for January 2014.
On 14 November 2012, President Farole announced the launching of his new political party, Horseed. The association counts over 200 members and represents the incumbent Puntland government, including Vice President Abdisamad Ali Shire and the state Ministers. It is the first prospective party to register for an application with the Transitional Puntland Electoral Commission (TPEC). According to Farole, the general public will be eligible for membership in the organization once it is selected as an official political party. Five other political associations were established the following month, including the Development and Justice Party (Xisbiga Horumarinta iyo Cadaalada) or Horcad Party which was launched by an entrepreneur and businessman Omar Ismail Waberi along other members, the Union of the People of the Regions or UPR (Ururka Gobolada Umadaha Bahoobey or UGUB), Midnimo, Talowadaag (Consensus-building), and GAHAYR or Golaha Aqoonta iyo Horumarinta ee Asaaska Yoolka Runta (Council of Education and Development towards Founding the True Goal).
Dr. Abdiweli Mohamed Ali Gaas administration
On 8 January 2014, former Prime Minister of Somalia Abdiweli Mohamed Ali was elected as the 5th President of Puntland overcoming Dr. Farole by a single electoral vote. Abdihakim Abdullahi Haji Omar was concurrently elected Puntland's vice president.
Dani administration
On 8 January 2019 the former Federal Minister for Planning and International Cooperation, Said Abdullahi Dani, was declared the new president. The election was closely contested, going to a third round of voting. Dani defeated former intelligence officer, Asad Osman Diyano. Dani got 35 votes, to Diayno's 31 votes.
Dani addressed the lawmakers after being declared the winner. He said he would continue the policies of his predecessor, Abdiweli Gaas.
Speakers of the Puntland Parliament
State flag
On 22 December 2009, Puntland MPs introduced a new state flag at a parliamentary session in Garowe. With 38 of 41 legislators endorsing the motion, it also permitted the creation of a new state anthem.
Puntland's new regional flag consists of three colours: white, blue and green.
Top: the blue stripe with the white star in the centre symbolizes the flag of Somalia
Centre: the white stripe in the centre represents peace and stability in the region
Bottom: the green stripe symbolizes the natural wealth of the Puntland State of Somalia
Administrative divisions
Regions
As stipulated in Article 3 of the Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, Puntland consists of the following claimed regions:
Redistricting and border disputes
In January 2009, the short-lived quasi-state of Maakhir was officially incorporated into Puntland.
Control of the western Sool, Sanaag and Cayn (SSC) provinces is disputed with Somaliland.
On 8 April 2013, the Puntland government announced the creation of a new region named Gardafuul. Carved out of the Bari region, it consists of three districts and has its capital at Aluula. Prior to naming this new region, the previous government of Puntland created three regions, all carved out of the existing regions: Karkaar was carved out of Bari, Haylaan out of Sanaag, and Ayn out of Togdheer region.
Geography
Puntland is geographically situated in the northeastern portion of Somalia. It is bordered by Somaliland to its west, the Gulf of Aden in the north, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and Ethiopia in the southwest. Puntland occupies a total land area of or roughly one-third of Somalia's geographical area. Mountains include Golis Mountains, Galgala, and Al Madow.
Climate
The region is semi-arid, with a warm climate and average daily temperatures ranging from to . These climatic conditions favor pastoralism as the most effective use of land in most parts of the region. Grazing lands include the Hawd region in the high plateau to the west of the Mudug and Sool regions, into the lush green land of Sanaag and into Ethiopia and the low Nugaal valley. Mild temperatures, by contrast, are experienced only along the high mountain ranges of Bari.
Rainfall is sparse and variable, with no single area receiving more than of rain annually. Nomads primarily rely on wells as a source of water rather than surface water. There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. Puntland's seasons are:
Jilal – from January to March; the harshest dry season of the year
Gu – from April to June; the main rainy season
Xagaa – from July to September; the second dry season
Deyr – from October to December; the shorter and less reliable rainy season
Education
Following the outbreak of the civil war in Somalia, numerous problems arose with regard to access to education in rural areas and along gender lines, quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula, educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing. To address these concerns, the Puntland government is in the process of developing an educational policy to guide the region's scholastic process as it embarks on the path of reconstruction and economic development. The latter includes a gender sensitive national education policy compliant with world standards, such as those outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Examples of this and other educational measures at work are the government's enactment of legislation aimed at securing the educational interests of girls, promoting the growth of an Early Childhood Development (ECD) program designed to reach parents and care-givers in their homes as well as in the ECD centers for 0- to 5-year-old children, and introducing incentive packages to encourage teachers to work in remote rural areas. Puntland's education system is considered the most progressive, and is attempting to close the gender gap so that more females will be able to attend school. Other regions are following Puntland's lead in that regard.
Within the Puntland government, the Ministry of Education is responsible for developing and managing the region's educational needs. It is headed by the Minister Mohamud Bile Dubbe, under whom a Vice Minister and Director General help oversee a Post-Primary Education Division (PPED) and a Basic Education Directorate (BED), among other boards.
The educational system of Puntland comprises two years of Early Childhood Development (ECD), eight years of primary education (four years of lower primary and four years of upper primary) and four years of secondary education. Tertiary education comprises an average of four years, with the region currently counting seven major universities: Puntland State University in Garowe, Puntland State University in Galkayo, Bosaso College in Bosaso, East Somalia University in Qardho, Mogadishu University (Puntland branch) in Bosaso, Maakhir University in Badhan, Sanaag, and Nugaal University in Las Anod. East Africa University also has six branches in Puntland, with campuses in Bosaso, Erigavo, Galdogob, Galkayo, Garowe and Qardho. Thus, it is a 2-4-4-4 system. Puntland's Ministry of Education also recognizes non-formal education (NFE) and technical/vocational education and training (TVET) as integral parts of the region's educational system.
From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, there was a significant increase in the number of schools in Puntland, up 137 institutions from just one year prior. During the same period, the number of classes in the region increased by 504, with 762 more teachers also offering their services. Total student enrollment increased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lagging only slightly behind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class enrollment was observed in the northernmost Bari region, and the lowest was observed in the under-populated Ayn region. The distribution of classrooms was almost evenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupils attending and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.
Following the COVID-19 crisis, the Government of Puntland launched the Learning Passport, a digital remote learning platform where children can access educational content both online and offline from their homes. The Learning Passport is a ground-breaking partnership between UNICEF, Microsoft and the University of Cambridge.
Demographics and religion
As of 2005, the population of Puntland is estimated at 2 million residents, 65% of whom are nomads. The region is primarily inhabited by people from the Somali ethnic group, with the Darod especially well-represented. There are also a number of Mehri residents.
Currently, 30% of the region's residents live in the fast-growing towns of Bosaso, Gardo, Galdogob, Garowe and Galkayo. Approximately 70% of the population is also below the age of 30.
The population density in Puntland is estimated at about .
As with the rest of Somalia, Islam is the main religion of the Puntland region with all of the residents being Muslims.
Transport
Municipal bus services operate in Bosaso, Garowe, Las Anod, Galkayo and Qardho. Shuttle services between the region's major towns and adjacent hamlets are also available via different types of vehicles, such as 4 wheel drives and light goods vehicles (LGV). As of May 2015, over 70,000 vehicles are registered with the Puntland Ministry of Works and Transport.
Puntland is traversed by a north–south highway. It connects major cities in the northern part of Somalia, such as Garowe, Bosaso and Galkayo, with towns in the south. In 2012, the Puntland Highway Authority completed rehabilitation work on the central artery linking Garowe with Galkayo. The transportation body also started an upgrade and repair project in June 2012 on the large thoroughfare between the regional capital and Bosaso. Additionally, renovations began in October 2012 on the freeway linking Bosaso with Qardho. Plans are also in the works to construct new roads connecting littoral towns in the region to the main highway.
Bosaso has a major seaport, which was constructed during the mid-1980s for annual livestock shipments to the Middle East. In January 2012, a renovation project was launched, with KMC contracted to upgrade the harbor. The initiative's first phase saw the clean-up of unwanted materials from the dockyard and was completed within the month. The second phase involves the reconstruction of the port's adjoining seabed, with the objective of accommodating larger ships. In 2012, a team of engineers was also enlisted by the Puntland authorities to assess the ongoing renovations taking place at the Las Khorey port. According to the Minister of Ports, Said Mohamed Rage, the Puntland government intends to launch more such development projects in Las Khorey.
Local airlines offer flights to various domestic and international locations, such as Djibouti, Addis Ababa, Dubai and Jeddah; they also provide flights for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages. The most prominent airlines in Puntland are Jubba Airways, Osob Air and Daallo Airlines, which operate from Bender Qassim International Airport in Bosaso and Abdullahi Yusuf International Airport (formerly Galkayo Airport) in Galkayo, among other places. In late September 2013, a launching ceremony of a tender process for the Bosaso airport's renovations was held at the facility. The renovations will include the extension of the airport's gravel runway from 1,800 m to 2,650 m. The runway's width will also be widened from 30 m to 45 m, and feature 7.5 m gravel shoulders on both sides. According to Puntland Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation Abdiqani Gelle, the Puntland government plans to carry out similar upgrades at the Garowe International Airport in Garowe, the Abdullahi Yusuf International Airport in Galkayo, and the Qardho Airport in Qardho.
Military
The Puntland Security Force (PSF) is the armed force of the autonomous Puntland region. Commanders and senior officials of the military are appointed by a qualified panel approved by the Council of Ministers. The Puntland security apparatus also has an independent military judiciary.
The PSF includes the Puntland Dervish Force (PDF), its official paramilitary division. It operates its own police force, which includes a Special Protection Unit.
The Puntland Intelligence Agency (PIA) is the intelligence bureau of Puntland's military. It was established in 2001 as the Puntland Intelligence Service during the rule of President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, with help from the United States.
The Puntland Maritime Police Force (PMPF) is a locally recruited, professional maritime security force. It is primarily aimed at preventing, detecting and eradicating piracy, illegal fishing, and other illicit activity off of the coast of Somalia, and at generally safeguarding the nation's marine resources. In addition, the Force provides civic support, including repairing wells, rehabilitating hospitals and clinics, and refurbishing roads, airports and other infrastructure. It also offers skills training programs to local communities.
Economy
Puntland has of coastline, which is abundant with fish and other natural marine resources. Additional economic products and activities of the region include livestock, frankincense, myrrh, gum arabic, manufacturing and agriculture. Agricultural products such as mangoes, bananas, guavas, lemons, sugarcanes, and peanuts are grown on plantations around the state.
Food items and consumer goods imported via Berbera, Somaliland sell more cheaply compared to those imported via Bosaso. Therefore, in exchange live animals originating from Puntland are exported via Berbera. The key trading centres in Puntland are centred in Bosaso and Galkayo. However, other towns such as Qardho and Garowe act as second-grade market places.
Income is generated through the following industries: livestock, fishery, frankincense, and petty trading. Animals originating from Puntland are exported via Bosaso. The key trading centres in Puntland are centred in Bosaso and Galkayo. Milk collectors ( aanoley in Somali ) are based in markets in the cities of Qardho , Garowe and Boosaso.
Puntland has the lowest rate of poverty in Somalia, with 27%, compared to 50% in Somaliland and 57% in Mogadishu. Experts believe this is because of higher consumption and higher labour force participation. Households in Puntland consume a higher quantity per capita per item and more items per household. The lower rate of poverty does not appear to be driven by household size, as the average in Puntland is 5.2, compared to 5.7 in Somaliland and 4.5 in Mogadishu. Puntland is doing better in various important indicators of well-being. For instance, the literacy rate in Puntland is 64% compared to the national average of 55%. Additionally, households in Puntland also outperform the average in other educational outcomes such as enrolment and educational attainment. 70% of households in Puntland have access to improved water sources compared to the national average of 58%. Therefore, Puntland's higher performance on non-monetary indicators of well-being are inline with its lower rate of poverty.
In December 2011, a new commercial market opened in Bosaso's northern Dayaha ("Star") neighborhood, near the seaport. Approximately half a kilometer in size, it was designed to ensure easy vehicle access. The market is the result of careful planning between Puntland government officials and civil society representatives.
Bosaso is also home to Golis Telecom Somalia, the largest telecommunications operator in northeastern Somalia. Founded in 2002 with the objective of supplying the country with GSM mobile services, fixed line and internet services, it has an extensive network that covers all of the nation's major cities and more than 40 districts in both Puntland and Somaliland. Additionally, Netco has its headquarters in the city. Other telecommunication firms serving the region include Telcom and NationLink.
In April 2013, the Puntland Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources officially inaugurated a new fish market in Garowe. Constructed in conjunction with the UK authorities and the UNDP, it is part of a larger regional development plan which will see two other similar marketplaces launched within the year in Galkayo and Qardho.
In August 2014, in conjunction with the government of Djibouti and an international construction firm headquartered in China, the Puntland Transport and Seaports Ministry launched a project to establish new seaports in the regional state. The initiative is part of a broader campaign by the Puntland administration to focus on tapping into the region's commercial potential through various development projects.
Oil exploration
In the 2000s, the Puntland government began official negotiations with foreign oil companies over exploration rights in the area. The provincial authorities in October 2005 granted Range Resources a majority stake in two sizable land-based mineral and hydrocarbon exploration licenses, in addition to offshore rights. The onshore Nugaal and Dharoor Valley blocks in question span over , respectively. Two years later, Range Resources obtained a 100% interest in the two blocks and concurrently farmed out 80% of that share to Canmex Minerals.
In January 2007, the Puntland administration, which was then led by President Mohamud Muse Hersi, signed the Puntland Product Sharing Agreement (PSA) with Range Resources Limited and the Canmex Minerals subsidiary Canmex Holdings (Bermuda) II Limited.
Following a change in leadership in 2009, the Puntland government, now led by President Abdirahman Mohamud Farole, sought to renegotiate the profit sharing agreement with Range Resources to ensure more favorable terms for the region. In 2012, the Puntland government gave the green light to the first official oil exploration project in Puntland and Somalia at large.
In 2017, Puntland ministers held a cabinet meeting where they approved an oil exploration deal with Chinese company CCECC, in return for constructing a road connecting Eyl and Garowe as well as renovations and refurbishments to the Abdullahi Yusuf Airport.
Media
Puntland has its own television channel and studios. Puntland TV and Radio is the public broadcasting network of the autonomous Puntland state of Somalia. Its headquarters are at the regional capital of Garowe. The service also maintains an office in London. Founded in April 2013, Puntland TV and Radio broadcasts locally in Somali via terrestrial service. It also airs programs globally through satellite. Radio Puntland broadcasts internationally via shortwave, with its transmission reaching as far as Finland. Its standard programming includes general news, focusing on regional developments, sports and entertainment.
The private stations Eastern Television Network (ETN TV) and Somali Broadcasting Corporation (SBC TV) broadcast from Bosaso.
Established in 2004, Radio Garowe is a community radio station based in Garowe. The station broadcasts daily from Somalia at 89.8 FM, covering all the latest headlines in Somali news, politics, and society. It also broadcasts other special programming on Garowe Online, its online sister website.
LaasqorayNET is another privately owned website based in Badhan, Bosaso, Dubai and London. The website features articles written in Somali and English. In addition, the website hosts some audio, though the latter is not regularly updated.
Radio Gaalkacyo is the state radio station. Based in Galkayo, it was formerly known as Radio Free Somalia.
Horseed Media was established in 2002 by a group of Somali intellectuals in the Netherlands and Finland. The station broadcasts from Bosaso and has a listening audience of about 80,000 people, with a reach of . It also operates a website that counts over 10,000 daily visitors.
Based in Garowe, Puntland Post was established in 2001 by Somali expatriates in Denmark. Its website publishes daily domestic and international news reports and analysis in both Somali and English, with an emphasis on Puntland affairs.
Established in 2014, Puntland Star presents breaking news, stories and documentaries from Somalia and the rest of the world.
Other media organizations include Raxanreeb Online (RBC Radio). Launched in 2006, RBC presents Somali news to a global audience in both Somali and English. With direct sources based in Somalia, it covers local politics and society.
See also
Federated state
Somaliland-Puntland dispute
Somali Salvation Democratic Front
Majeerteen Sultanate
Sultanate of Hobyo
References
External links
Puntland Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation
Puntland Statistical Department
Somalia Control Map
States of Somalia
Geography of Somalia
Divided regions
States and territories established in 1998
1998 establishments in Africa | [
0.12685135006904602,
-0.29387542605400085,
0.12439204007387161,
-0.08142326027154922,
0.24298794567584991,
0.0920657142996788,
-0.46843042969703674,
0.6939960718154907,
-0.6841983199119568,
0.10082674771547318,
-0.8426527380943298,
0.07220907509326935,
-0.5837591290473938,
0.7679575085639954,
-0.11060105264186859,
0.9463132619857788,
0.20529551804065704,
0.3524930775165558,
-0.3369940221309662,
-0.46278470754623413,
-0.5041088461875916,
0.13367608189582825,
0.15056219696998596,
0.38549408316612244,
0.012892444618046284,
-0.011337798088788986,
0.9637720584869385,
0.2699533700942993,
-0.016550693660974503,
-0.2508087754249573,
0.32513344287872314,
0.39599448442459106,
-0.5051306486129761,
0.28267982602119446,
-0.14221511781215668,
0.06960395723581314,
-0.32350796461105347,
-0.45021694898605347,
-0.21049746870994568,
-0.1749308854341507,
-0.36270755529403687,
-0.350911408662796,
0.30074989795684814,
0.8771278858184814,
0.5258498191833496,
-0.9099111557006836,
-0.8619359135627747,
0.796937882900238,
-0.4039561152458191,
0.19996051490306854,
-0.9488352537155151,
0.3649185597896576,
-0.235240638256073,
0.30345380306243896,
0.2987746596336365,
0.21774789690971375,
-0.6252956986427307,
-0.24311135709285736,
0.511799693107605,
-0.45549413561820984,
0.7424806952476501,
0.2981395125389099,
0.1112571507692337,
0.03610808774828911,
-0.3946167230606079,
0.14524638652801514,
0.3319060206413269,
0.5963550806045532,
0.20685511827468872,
-0.44290322065353394,
-0.07725052535533905,
0.028717178851366043,
-0.39245250821113586,
-0.0605088509619236,
0.13174819946289062,
-0.29629597067832947,
0.07461884617805481,
-0.05647249147295952,
0.0731552466750145,
0.20014186203479767,
-0.0638960525393486,
0.2943451404571533,
0.6161407232284546,
-0.12683145701885223,
0.1946730613708496,
-0.18150390684604645,
-0.11520975083112717,
0.370665967464447,
0.04106956347823143,
0.8562183976173401,
-0.13981814682483673,
-0.01677076332271099,
0.20817063748836517,
-0.2715526223182678,
-0.08984499424695969,
-0.4414961636066437,
-0.038316767662763596,
0.46237000823020935,
0.24892285466194153,
0.14701826870441437,
-0.17179454863071442,
0.525309145450592,
-0.15379992127418518,
0.15809820592403412,
-0.5540805459022522,
0.28003984689712524,
-0.3602854013442993,
0.00014683448534924537,
-0.43518581986427307,
0.04931335523724556,
-0.2961015999317169,
0.03605860099196434,
0.05838577076792717,
-0.04937273636460304,
-0.3747250437736511,
-0.0825047567486763,
0.13601450622081757,
-0.17457368969917297,
-0.31927353143692017,
-0.6237566471099854,
0.06355112046003342,
-0.010210043750703335,
-0.1958647519350052,
-0.14266788959503174,
0.5518315434455872,
-0.1705508679151535,
0.2316025048494339,
0.1514211893081665,
-1.2174140214920044,
0.48508936166763306,
0.9145360589027405,
0.3436874449253082,
-0.5259232521057129,
0.5373702645301819,
0.0763656347990036,
-0.17877903580665588,
-0.11234384775161743,
0.4106443226337433,
0.7432599067687988,
-0.5735035538673401,
-1.3937625885009766,
0.32544732093811035,
-1.1995638608932495,
0.17698124051094055,
0.2576427757740021,
-0.674633264541626,
0.21873193979263306,
-0.35973408818244934,
-0.4168636202812195,
-0.33799657225608826,
-0.39296048879623413,
-0.37652891874313354,
-0.09597201645374298,
0.22376394271850586,
-0.5705292224884033,
0.055344756692647934,
0.8583739399909973,
-0.12050358206033707,
1.03520929813385,
0.4319740831851959,
0.5386430621147156,
-0.014684123918414116,
0.05265666916966438,
-0.220596045255661,
0.13951988518238068,
-0.05435796454548836,
-0.13320791721343994,
0.6346717476844788,
0.7557616829872131,
0.06344351172447205,
-0.6898913979530334,
0.27736160159111023,
0.44848066568374634,
-0.5341861844062805,
-0.3501152992248535,
0.003553875023499131,
0.10550951212644577,
0.17534507811069489,
0.19690822064876556,
0.172917440533638,
-0.6785144805908203,
0.12090753763914108,
0.08406812697649002,
0.07062415033578873,
-0.05854545161128044,
-0.06979337334632874,
0.29084786772727966,
-0.18106204271316528,
0.20279236137866974,
0.1639416515827179,
-0.18542519211769104,
-0.8692111968994141,
0.3494938015937805,
0.08944795280694962,
0.5431830286979675,
0.43283799290657043,
-0.2670675218105316,
0.8201770186424255,
-0.16272857785224915,
0.5006455183029175,
-0.1514841616153717,
-0.0994192361831665,
0.4464658796787262,
-0.13797879219055176,
-0.29816123843193054,
0.8852771520614624,
0.4570162296295166,
0.5800738334655762,
-0.0030869971960783005,
0.38025927543640137,
0.48096999526023865,
-0.4795593023300171,
-0.0363464429974556,
-0.5943066477775574,
0.24825122952461243,
0.21515072882175446,
-0.04958263039588928,
0.10642223805189133,
-0.10358092188835144,
0.11276516318321228,
0.5515416860580444,
0.14126023650169373,
-0.4990256130695343,
0.49883395433425903,
0.5858177542686462,
0.5541868805885315,
-0.0198824405670166,
0.6572970747947693,
0.41895708441734314,
0.48126882314682007,
-0.23520596325397491,
-0.0009815371595323086,
0.7263969779014587,
-0.2851843237876892,
-0.06232655793428421,
-0.20005778968334198,
-0.43255215883255005,
-0.0323052704334259,
0.19073668122291565,
-0.14919522404670715,
0.2128174602985382,
0.025184929370880127,
-0.6425067782402039,
-0.3093641996383667,
0.250507116317749,
-0.07945065945386887,
-0.49739277362823486,
-0.09094507247209549,
-0.14992700517177582,
0.16189159452915192,
0.4528690278530121,
-0.18837961554527283,
0.5032634139060974,
0.06518924236297607,
0.36817237734794617,
-0.5743411183357239,
0.06409001350402832,
-0.02066807635128498,
0.4756125509738922,
-0.4200799763202667,
0.005629037506878376,
0.22834928333759308,
-0.5581762194633484,
0.4662459194660187,
0.08682103455066681,
-0.5776289105415344,
-0.3601343333721161,
-0.295238196849823,
-0.10170332342386246,
0.17002445459365845,
0.6429727673530579,
0.2027186155319214,
-0.07480321079492569,
0.06474200636148453,
-0.003250631969422102,
0.2638990879058838,
0.4141146242618561,
-0.3414975106716156,
-0.7549617290496826,
-0.18022938072681427,
0.09849779307842255,
0.1602892279624939,
0.35071173310279846,
-0.9441391825675964,
-0.7037791013717651,
-0.39824753999710083,
-0.3796692490577698,
-0.2726055383682251,
-0.4226780831813812,
0.17073670029640198,
-0.017036015167832375,
0.11403198540210724,
0.119318388402462,
0.5753434896469116,
-0.5198116898536682,
-0.05933725833892822,
0.04118605703115463,
0.46354034543037415,
0.406014084815979,
-1.029548168182373,
-0.799771249294281,
0.5624054074287415,
-0.4849092662334442,
-0.10731791704893112,
0.1301288902759552,
-0.08461523801088333,
-0.6768198609352112,
-0.0354192852973938,
-5.564431667327881,
0.06320363283157349,
-0.42822128534317017,
0.1692584753036499,
0.05695963650941849,
-0.1746753603219986,
0.5972238183021545,
-0.6316844820976257,
0.5224272608757019,
-0.47022199630737305,
-0.4145738184452057,
0.015063850209116936,
-0.1008673757314682,
0.4699542820453644,
0.12952551245689392,
0.5799713730812073,
0.2792390286922455,
0.5773290395736694,
0.12767654657363892,
0.25493600964546204,
-0.5875904560089111,
0.047209449112415314,
-0.3528388738632202,
-0.07806798815727234,
0.16419479250907898,
0.09802096337080002,
-0.40162765979766846,
-0.32305094599723816,
-0.3881871700286865,
-0.23528540134429932,
-0.3774077594280243,
-0.16477452218532562,
0.24401149153709412,
0.25517433881759644,
-0.01854836195707321,
-0.24913844466209412,
0.47736549377441406,
0.22976139187812805,
0.14405857026576996,
-0.8239064812660217,
-0.4194515347480774,
0.5347853302955627,
0.08043891936540604,
-0.2950066030025482,
0.1614043116569519,
-0.4417327642440796,
-0.6492159962654114,
-0.45653846859931946,
-0.021851342171430588,
1.1189080476760864,
-0.18002799153327942,
-0.1721763014793396,
-0.3181549906730652,
-0.019951269030570984,
0.002769110957160592,
-0.46741074323654175,
-0.02713114023208618,
-0.02766013890504837,
-0.3317403197288513,
0.9212425947189331,
0.3928237855434418,
0.010224857367575169,
0.11977998912334442,
-0.38574647903442383,
-0.5623887777328491,
0.33316004276275635,
-0.39247816801071167,
-0.13580544292926788,
0.4752642810344696,
0.12297839671373367,
-0.7461156249046326,
0.274094820022583,
-0.4216303825378418,
-0.5321291089057922,
0.2558351457118988,
-1.0685713291168213,
-0.8578640818595886,
-0.49163803458213806,
-0.0056163109838962555,
0.31798115372657776,
-0.35118377208709717,
-0.06970864534378052,
0.3059295415878296,
0.41650956869125366,
-0.20408672094345093,
-0.7886925339698792,
0.2622179687023163,
-0.41900020837783813,
0.25582170486450195,
-0.11477674543857574,
0.1912854164838791,
-0.5886635184288025,
0.7486600875854492,
0.04922022670507431,
-0.12465954571962357,
0.5442155003547668,
-0.25103968381881714,
0.5797829031944275,
0.6851974725723267,
-0.6689091920852661,
0.7197505235671997,
-0.5469873547554016,
-0.34119126200675964,
0.33695489168167114,
0.20590649545192719,
0.32272300124168396,
0.5761641263961792,
0.14445634186267853,
0.8415247797966003,
-0.6528604626655579,
0.1618202030658722,
0.28374579548835754,
-0.6410657167434692,
0.3516620099544525,
0.5671871304512024,
-0.24441590905189514,
-0.12635725736618042,
0.4243102967739105,
0.01806446723639965,
0.27328553795814514,
0.34368428587913513,
-0.13687318563461304,
0.24868933856487274,
0.0802903100848198,
0.5863369703292847,
0.15225715935230255,
-0.06680095195770264,
-0.038590207695961,
0.4252881705760956,
0.23920461535453796,
0.523228108882904,
-0.16664943099021912,
0.5174016952514648,
-0.690606415271759,
0.8649085760116577,
-0.6872698068618774,
-0.1876225769519806,
-0.7519693374633789,
-0.23543329536914825,
-0.300028920173645,
-0.06668036431074142,
-0.5985869765281677,
0.076938197016716,
0.2749752104282379,
0.45086801052093506,
-0.012666338123381138,
-0.29635268449783325,
-0.034948136657476425,
-0.6166245937347412,
0.0456271655857563,
-0.1543828248977661,
-0.23623375594615936,
-0.12324877828359604,
-0.3772159814834595,
-0.17533788084983826,
-0.3504871129989624,
0.8126109838485718,
0.17381535470485687,
0.0055609517730772495,
-0.602512001991272,
0.3664744794368744,
-0.7193387150764465,
-0.4560531675815582,
0.870295524597168,
0.06367179751396179,
-0.05476567894220352,
-0.4251239001750946,
0.020632287487387657,
0.47850728034973145,
0.5473097562789917,
0.2553439736366272,
-0.28270646929740906,
-0.4564684331417084,
-0.06876339018344879,
0.33221232891082764,
-0.48982346057891846,
-0.09621206670999527,
0.49553751945495605,
-0.23099969327449799,
-0.006904248613864183,
-0.2653822898864746,
0.048359956592321396,
-0.45062530040740967,
0.36264243721961975,
0.09764385223388672,
-0.35961008071899414,
-0.2523323893547058,
0.13459351658821106,
-0.3645963966846466,
0.3104408383369446,
0.6614995002746582,
0.5494496822357178,
-0.09545295685529709,
0.5984673500061035,
0.03687231242656708,
-0.4965575635433197,
-0.24250011146068573,
0.18683430552482605,
0.004298925865441561,
-0.13370682299137115,
0.10062780231237411,
-0.005389863159507513,
-0.44332051277160645,
0.36000320315361023,
-0.4272337555885315,
0.4822024405002594,
0.6266384720802307,
-0.2227197140455246,
-0.5926681160926819,
0.2451217919588089,
-0.8131347894668579,
-0.3876231014728546,
0.11002034693956375,
0.9632702469825745,
-0.4729960560798645,
0.2985595166683197,
-0.10522199422121048,
-0.39662984013557434,
-0.193424254655838,
0.22384552657604218,
-0.1678929328918457,
-0.46097519993782043,
0.36148667335510254,
0.3447644114494324,
-0.41838526725769043,
0.8100193738937378,
0.23575328290462494,
-0.6692425608634949,
-0.08622312545776367,
0.2604507803916931,
0.1825353354215622,
-0.6161653399467468,
0.5992017388343811,
0.44456997513771057,
-0.10193828493356705,
0.2680351734161377,
0.27822205424308777,
0.2685779333114624,
0.1708196997642517,
0.47065895795822144,
0.24022062122821808,
0.8920141458511353,
0.07270962744951248,
-1.0470906496047974,
-0.2970139682292938,
-0.08344301581382751,
0.03056989796459675,
-0.33779212832450867,
-0.278547465801239,
0.3950654864311218,
-0.019723068922758102,
-0.025207659229636192,
-0.6038027405738831,
-0.029294347390532494,
0.38622981309890747,
-0.2673376500606537,
-0.18143720924854279,
-0.0027753787580877542,
-0.13878010213375092,
-0.14370185136795044,
0.3227088153362274,
0.39704015851020813,
-0.00019434264686424285,
0.33852237462997437,
0.3158913254737854,
-0.7072089910507202,
-0.6556803584098816,
-0.24789266288280487,
0.1231137290596962,
0.1009049192070961,
-0.5460515022277832,
-0.4938719570636749,
0.34160658717155457,
0.1807260662317276,
0.2991468012332916,
0.3180517852306366,
0.18111534416675568,
-0.27421948313713074,
-0.019305221736431122,
0.4342782497406006,
-1.0021400451660156,
-0.13078714907169342,
-0.11029606312513351,
-0.3556346595287323,
0.00965177733451128,
-0.8042339086532593,
-0.23284019529819489,
0.3439227342605591,
-0.4735330045223236,
-0.09142503142356873,
0.424352765083313,
-0.10636407881975174,
-0.2518444359302521,
-0.16274504363536835,
-0.2348327338695526,
0.10060828179121017,
0.45393210649490356,
0.4102061986923218,
-0.28959059715270996,
0.00812471006065607,
-0.4654724597930908,
0.45390400290489197,
-0.04757733270525932,
-0.41394561529159546,
0.23777031898498535,
-0.42939698696136475,
-0.25208884477615356,
-0.04703088849782944,
0.7418943643569946,
-0.15000005066394806,
0.4717657268047333,
-0.15065088868141174,
0.02652059495449066,
0.8588964343070984,
-0.10253041237592697,
0.0775575041770935,
0.8557569980621338,
-0.19665725529193878,
0.028403034433722496,
0.8521483540534973,
0.47984305024147034,
-0.2541208565235138,
-0.016692128032445908,
0.7320723533630371,
0.13027876615524292,
0.6573423147201538,
0.05240069329738617,
-0.41391870379447937,
0.5903826355934143,
0.3690461814403534,
0.05821150913834572,
-0.6425910592079163,
-0.2599317729473114,
0.5259323716163635,
-0.4060486853122711,
-0.34169307351112366,
0.6179925203323364,
-0.2562100887298584,
0.06550997495651245,
0.691415548324585,
0.43995940685272217,
-0.048119913786649704,
-0.17092980444431305,
0.10682404041290283,
-0.02893834002315998,
0.21968606114387512,
-0.2637779712677002,
0.39685285091400146,
0.2778530418872833,
-0.6004686951637268,
0.671119749546051,
-0.14536261558532715,
0.3738550543785095,
-0.2971488833427429,
-0.04727344587445259,
-0.06117326766252518,
0.13840380311012268,
-0.15259100496768951,
-0.41821664571762085,
0.11780547350645065,
0.590811550617218,
0.02893887646496296,
0.49046292901039124,
0.24746878445148468,
0.6877692937850952,
-0.5756234526634216,
-0.24654752016067505,
-0.5466032028198242,
-0.10953599959611893,
0.13967305421829224,
0.3308884799480438,
0.05642610415816307,
-0.2226051390171051,
0.41405612230300903,
0.17531916499137878,
0.509991466999054,
-0.5164331793785095,
0.9791966676712036,
-0.14108487963676453,
0.3738258183002472,
-0.16035182774066925,
-0.09355001896619797,
0.3742330074310303,
-0.6080291271209717,
-0.1185372993350029,
-0.50738126039505,
0.1998288780450821,
0.08658318221569061,
-0.19987118244171143,
0.3738609850406647,
-0.41990017890930176,
-0.7932915687561035,
-0.3718225359916687,
-0.2865649461746216,
0.09342719614505768,
-0.6900274157524109,
-0.10712511092424393,
1.110862135887146,
0.5841455459594727,
-0.6389238238334656,
0.14003536105155945,
0.3437049388885498,
0.08459141850471497,
0.2381410300731659,
-0.2927488684654236,
-0.259981244802475,
-0.0351526141166687,
0.4219547212123871,
-0.43487459421157837,
0.3434458076953888,
0.40451204776763916,
0.26872578263282776,
0.020411022007465363,
0.3202357888221741,
0.23290355503559113,
0.3563861548900604,
0.5438773036003113,
-0.5801413655281067,
0.19591888785362244,
-0.8020032644271851,
0.04143355041742325,
-0.44212427735328674,
-0.8721362352371216,
0.26169198751449585,
0.2072409987449646,
0.21622374653816223,
-0.3832230269908905,
0.6726081371307373,
-1.2326759099960327,
0.8805661201477051,
0.09633933007717133,
-0.16006912291049957,
-0.868880569934845,
-0.12983903288841248,
-0.4898938834667206,
-0.19082340598106384,
0.00788872316479683,
-0.12484467774629593,
-0.031562093645334244,
-0.18591390550136566,
-0.42894670367240906,
-0.49778443574905396,
-0.1423337459564209,
-0.5404700040817261,
-0.24734997749328613,
-0.5868043899536133,
-0.09367729723453522,
0.09377436339855194,
-0.6762149333953857,
0.47414907813072205,
0.2672412693500519,
-0.47048449516296387,
0.2275444120168686,
-0.23536407947540283,
-0.2316264808177948,
-0.49139443039894104,
0.09313146024942398,
-0.2792814373970032,
0.7566364407539368,
-0.15552575886249542
] |
233570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romsdal | Romsdal | Romsdal is a traditional district in the Norwegian county Møre og Romsdal, located between Nordmøre and Sunnmøre. The district of Romsdal comprises Aukra, Fræna, Midsund, Molde, Nesset, Rauma, Sandøy, and Vestnes. It is named after the valley of Romsdalen, which covers part of Rauma.
The largest town is Molde, which is also the seat of Møre og Romsdal County Municipality. Åndalsnes is a town located near the mouth of the river Rauma in the municipality of Rauma. The Rauma Line comes from Dombås and terminates at Åndalsnes.
Naming
The Old Norse form of the name was Raumsdalr. The first element is the genitive case of a name *Raumr, probably the old (uncompounded) name of Romsdal Fjord, again derived from the name of the river Rauma, i.e. "The Dale of Rauma". The name Rauma is itself a mystery, but a tantalizing clue may be found in the works of the Gothic historian Jordanes. He mentions a tribe called "Raumii", which might be the origin of both the landscape Romerike (o.no raumariki) and the river Rauma.
The Norwegian comedy group KLM (named after the surnames of the three comedians Trond Kirkvaag, Knut Lystad and Lars Mjøen), in their feuilleton series Brødrene Dal (The Brothers Dale – as in ‘valley’), named their three protagonists after the valleys Gausdal, Romsdal and Brumunddal.
Geography
The valley of Romsdalen, through which the Rauma river passes to the Romsdalfjord. It is surrounded by the Romsdalsalpene mountain range. The 1,550 meter tall Romsdalhorn has been compared to the Matterhorn. Trolltindane peaks stands opposite across the Rauma. The North Face of Trollryggen peak (1,740 m), Trollveggen (Troll Wall), is the tallest vertical cliff in Europe. Norway's most famous hair-pin road is Trollstigen, or "Troll's Trail", which leads to the south out of Åndalsnes to the Geirangerfjord.
The Rauma river originates in Lesjaskogsvatnet, a lake with outlets at both ends, in the adjacent mountain municipality of Lesja. A dam was constructed by the Lesja Iron Works in the 1660s to improve transportation obstructed the Rauma and caused the water to flow both west to the Rauma and eastward into the river Lågen.
History
Legendary history
According to legend, Romsdal is an eponym after Raum the Old, son of the equally eponymous Nór who appears in Hversu Noregr byggðist as the legendary founder of Norway. Jøtunbjørn the Old was the son of Raum the Old and Bergdis, a giant's daughter. He inherited Raumsdal (modern: Romsdal) from his father, and was himself the father of King Raum, who was the father of Hrossbjörn, who was the father of Orm Broken-shell, who was the father of Knatti, who had two sons: Thórolf and Ketill Raum (in one version, Thórolf and Ketill Raum are sons of Orm). According to legend, among Thórolf's descendants came some of the first settlers of Iceland.
The Laxdæla saga says that Raumsdal was the home of Ketill Flatnose, a descendant of Ketill Raum. In the 850s, Ketil was a prominent chieftain. He conquered the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. Some sources refer to him as "King of the Sudreys" (Hebrides), but there is little evidence that he himself claimed that title. Harald Fairhair appointed him the ruler of these islands, but he failed to pay tribute to the Norwegian king and was outlawed. He and his family left Norway and fled westwards across the sea, to Scotland, then Ireland, where he married off his daughter, Aud the Deep-Minded, to Olaf the White, king of Dublin. Aud went eventually to Iceland where she began that country's shift to Christianity.
9th century
Before Harald Fairhair, Romsdal was a petty kingdom. Ragnvald Eysteinsson (Ragnvald Mørejarl) was jarl (earl) of Møre, which was roughly equivalent to today's Møre og Romsdal. He died at the Orkney Islands. He was son of King Eystein "Glumra (the Noisy)" Ivarsson of Oppland, and a contemporary of Harald Fairhair who he supported in the unification process and from whom he received his fiefdom. He is likely to have resided on or nearby the important township of Veøya, Romsdal's Viking Era hub for commerce and communication. The legend says Ragnvald was the one to cut the hair of Harald Fairhair after he became king over all of Norway.
Ragnvald Eysteinsson was the father of several sons. With Ragnhild Rolfsdatter, he had the sons: Tore (Thorir Ragnvaldsson) who inherited the earldom after his father's death and Hrolf Ganger (Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson). Although historians are quite divided its accuracy in this regard, the Orkneyinga saga claims Hrolf Ganger is identical to Rollo of Normandy ancestor of William I of England. Turf-Einar (Einarr Ragnvaldsson), a son by a concubine, was an ancestor of the Norse Earls of Orkney.
12th century
In 1122, while staying as a guest at the village of Hustad in Romsdal, King Eystein I was taken ill and died. His body was taken in impressive funeral procession to burial at Nidaros.
At Veøy, an island in the middle of the Romsdalfjord, there had been in time immemorial a religious site. At the close of the 12th century, Veøy gamle kirke, a church dedicated to St. Peter, was constructed over an ancient site of pagan worship.
17th century
During the 1600s, Romsdal market (Romsdalsmarkedet) was opened as a trading center at Devold on the Rauma river upstream from Åndalsnes. This was an important outlet for the ironworks at Lesja, providing an outlet for their products as well as a source of supplies. Molde later inherited the role as the principal market town for the region.
A Scottish mercenary force landed in Romsdal at Isfjorden on its way to Sweden. The incursion was stopped at the Battle of Kringen.
In the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the Trondheim region of Norway was ceded to Sweden, down to the north bank of the Romsdalfjord. The Romsdal farmers defied the Swedish taxes and military conscription, and the Swedish governor was forced to send a full company of soldiers, and 50 cavalry besides, to collect taxes. Following the attack on Copenhagen and the city's successful defence, and the reconquest by Norwegian forces of Trondheim, the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660 restored that province to Norway. The few months of experience with Swedish taxation and conscription left such a bitter taste that it strengthened Norwegian unity and patriotism, making resistance to Swedish invasions of Norway stronger over the next 80 years.
20th century
After the World War II German Military invasion of Norway in April 1940, British troops landed in Åndalsnes as a part of a pincer movement to retake the key mid-Norwegian city of Trondheim.
See also
Nordmøre
Sunnmøre
References
Related Reading
Welle-Strand, Erling (1996) Adventure Roads in Norway (Nortrabooks)
Stagg, Frank Noel (1954) West Norway and its Fjords (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.)
Stagg, Frank Noel (1953) The Heart of Norway (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.)
Districts of Møre og Romsdal
Petty kingdoms of Norway | [
0.014551537111401558,
0.48885971307754517,
0.2364814579486847,
-0.429177463054657,
-0.3708188533782959,
-0.1508970558643341,
0.3473154604434967,
-0.1974959671497345,
-0.61358642578125,
-0.5904884338378906,
0.36935779452323914,
-0.08192405104637146,
-0.05622980743646622,
0.24211636185646057,
-0.48844102025032043,
0.33807218074798584,
0.13069675862789154,
0.8223550915718079,
-0.18450132012367249,
-0.5302865505218506,
0.18136446177959442,
-0.8295297622680664,
0.35543516278266907,
0.654549241065979,
-0.1106351763010025,
-0.19102589786052704,
0.8814849853515625,
-0.13980206847190857,
0.2072017788887024,
0.597227931022644,
-0.5419134497642517,
0.32999446988105774,
-0.011367205530405045,
-0.3157176673412323,
0.32575568556785583,
0.22289863228797913,
-0.33362877368927,
-0.018463023006916046,
0.061435624957084656,
0.32951825857162476,
-0.08194003254175186,
-0.5333510637283325,
-0.3266787528991699,
0.08983670175075531,
0.21117599308490753,
-1.0627940893173218,
-0.9271695613861084,
0.49174219369888306,
-0.9947075843811035,
0.6571474075317383,
-0.7453852295875549,
0.10138031095266342,
-0.2834496796131134,
0.9593654274940491,
0.6980306506156921,
-0.022919749841094017,
-0.5247867703437805,
0.5456020832061768,
0.34975066781044006,
0.5934904217720032,
-0.13567768037319183,
0.6663950085639954,
-0.9300764799118042,
-0.2473881095647812,
0.3275917172431946,
0.19409368932247162,
-0.09567967057228088,
0.05711285024881363,
0.008403189480304718,
-0.8197579383850098,
-0.6939627528190613,
0.30728429555892944,
0.169713094830513,
-0.16770584881305695,
0.02509642206132412,
-0.08993887901306152,
0.3122080862522125,
0.03871861845254898,
0.07781688123941422,
0.024907059967517853,
-0.11169437319040298,
-0.21849092841148376,
0.7904971241950989,
0.6256950497627258,
0.06722468882799149,
-0.20072446763515472,
-0.25785863399505615,
-0.7584970593452454,
-0.22000554203987122,
0.07434558123350143,
-0.008538421243429184,
-0.07456818968057632,
-0.056586235761642456,
0.4063883423805237,
0.30603933334350586,
-0.22005148231983185,
-0.7466128468513489,
0.6370278596878052,
-0.3314792513847351,
0.6681863069534302,
-0.1841799020767212,
0.8972455263137817,
0.9853125214576721,
0.6783716678619385,
-0.053108468651771545,
-0.37856578826904297,
-0.05068100988864899,
0.009600999765098095,
-0.1281285434961319,
-0.43991899490356445,
-0.8081579804420471,
0.6951238512992859,
-0.20652708411216736,
-0.21988387405872345,
0.6176046133041382,
0.2557968199253082,
-0.060781415551900864,
-0.322140634059906,
0.0112271998077631,
-0.1556219756603241,
0.2671666145324707,
1.0444332361221313,
0.4969736337661743,
-0.042041972279548645,
0.17841127514839172,
0.07872331142425537,
0.044718917459249496,
0.5433474183082581,
-0.3235088586807251,
0.26131805777549744,
0.5553422570228577,
0.8466744422912598,
0.023568633943796158,
0.3888145387172699,
0.22861334681510925,
-0.3011568486690521,
0.67134028673172,
0.10624786466360092,
0.5546757578849792,
0.22689424455165863,
-0.49975788593292236,
-0.18090391159057617,
-0.2581353187561035,
-0.26518458127975464,
0.07877082377672195,
-1.242409348487854,
0.15414880216121674,
-0.5118309855461121,
-0.30666664242744446,
-0.32802534103393555,
1.309857964515686,
-0.06524769216775894,
0.2852095365524292,
-0.47259271144866943,
-0.1835632622241974,
0.17488354444503784,
0.31789642572402954,
0.5664039850234985,
0.37326371669769287,
0.3361556828022003,
0.3708800971508026,
-0.03760881721973419,
0.5293170809745789,
-0.1146787777543068,
0.657237708568573,
0.14065851271152496,
0.10753578692674637,
0.2372826337814331,
0.40208765864372253,
0.37897562980651855,
-0.704192578792572,
0.20630478858947754,
0.9344528317451477,
-0.14599677920341492,
0.13310635089874268,
0.16448189318180084,
0.19240647554397583,
0.9396935701370239,
-0.06505732983350754,
-0.5641632676124573,
-0.8431971669197083,
0.3427686393260956,
0.18974563479423523,
-0.4399440586566925,
0.10938920080661774,
0.1809413880109787,
0.6285560131072998,
0.48218661546707153,
-0.11195015162229538,
0.25558510422706604,
-0.5127138495445251,
-0.6119897365570068,
1.4428248405456543,
0.38237205147743225,
1.2463740110397339,
0.34079280495643616,
-0.01760779321193695,
-0.39281585812568665,
-0.6212214827537537,
0.5473608374595642,
-0.3478876054286957,
-0.9073296189308167,
0.44469112157821655,
-0.6466890573501587,
0.2111399620771408,
0.48121824860572815,
-0.2837427258491516,
-0.5109962821006775,
-0.3172348141670227,
-0.2353106439113617,
-0.1671369969844818,
-0.3439136743545532,
0.3785329759120941,
0.8713299036026001,
0.21790583431720734,
0.05086570233106613,
-0.10356015712022781,
-0.14157842099666595,
0.2003273367881775,
-0.727229654788971,
-0.14799794554710388,
0.12004166841506958,
-0.33903589844703674,
-0.022609738633036613,
-0.11744967848062515,
0.6444798111915588,
0.0646786242723465,
0.327342689037323,
0.03459358215332031,
-0.2782180607318878,
0.40843430161476135,
0.3512321412563324,
0.44659507274627686,
0.27025291323661804,
0.3531755208969116,
-0.8243677020072937,
0.35449889302253723,
0.2360983043909073,
0.3570196032524109,
-0.6018860340118408,
0.09478596597909927,
0.23560750484466553,
-0.7651678919792175,
-0.07129058241844177,
0.06439949572086334,
1.1127409934997559,
-0.6616755723953247,
0.36048567295074463,
0.17431534826755524,
0.052139587700366974,
-0.022370265796780586,
-0.2903037965297699,
-0.3895179033279419,
-0.2690626084804535,
-0.06651709228754044,
-0.3900626301765442,
0.5792109370231628,
0.8626728057861328,
0.22539304196834564,
-0.04120171070098877,
-0.6991825699806213,
-0.4786079525947571,
-0.04361008107662201,
0.15501108765602112,
-0.2511238753795624,
-0.44350141286849976,
0.23527729511260986,
-0.06428469717502594,
1.1945470571517944,
0.06852380931377411,
-0.4248943328857422,
-0.40065619349479675,
-0.6775045394897461,
0.15182539820671082,
0.2564600706100464,
-0.715339183807373,
-0.0638573169708252,
-0.16019600629806519,
-0.2482328563928604,
-0.5149826407432556,
0.25785237550735474,
1.161699652671814,
-0.4419161379337311,
-1.1178491115570068,
-0.3393450379371643,
-0.07473418861627579,
0.4931657910346985,
0.22448237240314484,
-0.3951842486858368,
0.13254766166210175,
-0.16317301988601685,
0.06984162330627441,
-0.27625125646591187,
0.10425085574388504,
0.11758892238140106,
0.44000571966171265,
-0.011760563589632511,
-0.025674592703580856,
0.7553081512451172,
-0.3029085695743561,
-0.5040760040283203,
-0.21938861906528473,
-0.26084306836128235,
0.5365368723869324,
-0.5956066846847534,
0.10950297862291336,
-0.7931490540504456,
-0.26458531618118286,
-4.802562236785889,
0.06442486494779587,
-0.42866724729537964,
-0.16693337261676788,
-0.4442705512046814,
0.10468747466802597,
0.17009501159191132,
-0.41455310583114624,
0.03567520156502724,
-0.42107531428337097,
0.17203585803508759,
-0.7080707550048828,
0.505776047706604,
1.1258034706115723,
0.5607117414474487,
1.2512964010238647,
0.9893750548362732,
0.3647429347038269,
-0.08819109946489334,
-0.11968661844730377,
0.48860472440719604,
-0.5600919723510742,
-0.16447998583316803,
0.3524022400379181,
0.5615198016166687,
0.7743195295333862,
-0.19358722865581512,
-0.26823189854621887,
-0.668913722038269,
-0.7478947639465332,
0.7218450903892517,
-0.09530925750732422,
0.3994850218296051,
-0.18142229318618774,
-0.14646488428115845,
0.3661341369152069,
0.4478670656681061,
0.8006237149238586,
0.2760673761367798,
-0.45391079783439636,
0.8221011757850647,
0.9291927814483643,
0.17330792546272278,
-0.6919658184051514,
-0.14852871000766754,
0.031972486525774,
-0.7604895830154419,
0.11366540938615799,
-0.517659604549408,
0.8317390084266663,
0.20606616139411926,
-0.22124582529067993,
0.31034380197525024,
0.14726153016090393,
-0.4251890778541565,
-0.4454933702945709,
0.5163474678993225,
-0.12563306093215942,
-0.35153353214263916,
0.6983957886695862,
0.33981937170028687,
-0.08946142345666885,
-0.5273010730743408,
-1.1204283237457275,
0.06255825608968735,
-0.38935738801956177,
-0.5471872687339783,
-0.2315053939819336,
0.32089415192604065,
0.17757222056388855,
0.4435169994831085,
0.31523215770721436,
-0.6316210031509399,
-0.8947581648826599,
-0.7900812029838562,
-1.2462563514709473,
-0.8682001829147339,
-0.3895813822746277,
-0.059848953038454056,
0.3113749027252197,
-0.5333239436149597,
-0.6740424633026123,
-0.046461865305900574,
0.41192033886909485,
0.31790950894355774,
-0.06774131208658218,
-0.6344219446182251,
-0.6132538318634033,
0.03102472983300686,
-0.7907567620277405,
0.18928270041942596,
-1.1650508642196655,
0.05356366187334061,
0.21351690590381622,
-0.1787002980709076,
0.4701952636241913,
-0.03986517712473869,
-0.1879369467496872,
0.3945549726486206,
-0.6701046228408813,
0.9094523191452026,
0.1412457972764969,
0.466105580329895,
0.3338162899017334,
-0.605116069316864,
-0.4374803304672241,
0.39086470007896423,
-0.2159263640642166,
-0.07336817681789398,
-0.010099153965711594,
-0.2406461238861084,
-0.20023439824581146,
-0.5764932036399841,
-1.0596082210540771,
0.6740322709083557,
-0.46388038992881775,
-0.4898222088813782,
1.2836593389511108,
0.4397275447845459,
-0.3851928412914276,
0.4503808617591858,
-0.04957564175128937,
-0.020510461181402206,
-0.2633292078971863,
-0.4241361916065216,
-0.6364064812660217,
-0.29925164580345154,
0.051038388162851334,
-0.3368381857872009,
0.33381545543670654,
0.08820196241140366,
-0.2858792245388031,
-0.5102077126502991,
-0.3941238522529602,
0.15247535705566406,
-0.02557993307709694,
-0.05519900843501091,
-0.040965184569358826,
-0.5370593070983887,
0.1935836225748062,
0.42033305764198303,
-0.4276714026927948,
0.4773405194282532,
0.6870760917663574,
-0.07937243580818176,
0.15635016560554504,
-0.1474626511335373,
-0.26591676473617554,
-0.9897216558456421,
0.1751609891653061,
-0.8461317420005798,
0.2717745006084442,
-0.030784262344241142,
-0.8864177465438843,
0.08372774720191956,
-0.33266016840934753,
0.14748667180538177,
0.1885603666305542,
-0.0686357319355011,
-0.6148734092712402,
0.10460638999938965,
-0.6939263939857483,
-1.0799957513809204,
0.35103607177734375,
0.1495981365442276,
-0.5646074414253235,
-0.8314396739006042,
-0.3478942811489105,
-0.28770580887794495,
0.5700065493583679,
-0.08347289264202118,
-0.748857855796814,
-0.45324188470840454,
-0.3208034336566925,
0.05230631306767464,
-0.41948139667510986,
0.2864297032356262,
0.5831203460693359,
-0.17729097604751587,
-0.4491768479347229,
-0.2831740081310272,
-0.06372550874948502,
0.16380827128887177,
0.5119871497154236,
0.6850762367248535,
-0.5703230500221252,
-1.1495083570480347,
0.3211226761341095,
-0.5911493897438049,
-0.6704140901565552,
0.5393027067184448,
-0.30434784293174744,
0.3281790018081665,
0.18729020655155182,
-0.033242348581552505,
-0.5363872051239014,
0.09203904122114182,
-0.03623780980706215,
0.11129048466682434,
0.03518354520201683,
-0.04436201602220535,
0.3051277697086334,
-0.09296873956918716,
0.9505546689033508,
0.30149155855178833,
0.017972607165575027,
0.09227029979228973,
0.6798071265220642,
-0.8275801539421082,
0.36196795105934143,
-1.017162799835205,
-0.4488746225833893,
-0.06711309403181076,
0.5812257528305054,
-0.3008807301521301,
0.24275153875350952,
0.49480143189430237,
-0.22532689571380615,
-0.06669848412275314,
-0.44580090045928955,
-0.7345182299613953,
-0.4588686525821686,
-0.56425940990448,
-0.38147714734077454,
-0.5746725797653198,
0.4442794919013977,
0.13733519613742828,
-0.3534972071647644,
0.11591323465108871,
-0.3968873918056488,
0.5635568499565125,
0.08153899013996124,
0.3688288629055023,
0.2633359432220459,
-0.15483196079730988,
0.46559908986091614,
-0.24141770601272583,
0.27367499470710754,
0.565155029296875,
1.0661299228668213,
0.9920978546142578,
0.4982127547264099,
0.35159429907798767,
0.05292299762368202,
0.029799992218613625,
0.37258800864219666,
0.9383079409599304,
-0.4948508143424988,
-0.6594095230102539,
0.4665420353412628,
-0.32716959714889526,
-0.1529044359922409,
-0.6635186672210693,
-0.15310637652873993,
1.570723295211792,
0.14903788268566132,
-0.36859264969825745,
0.4606426954269409,
0.5541715621948242,
0.49742040038108826,
0.18451562523841858,
0.05004960671067238,
0.2405681014060974,
0.27029457688331604,
0.5617960095405579,
-0.11129934340715408,
0.3525318205356598,
0.1878853738307953,
0.5750789642333984,
0.09044939279556274,
-0.7867162227630615,
-0.12591926753520966,
0.215089812874794,
-0.10723091661930084,
-0.4663727879524231,
-0.3376599848270416,
0.10713092237710953,
-0.5203552842140198,
0.5166893601417542,
-0.664100170135498,
-0.6220894455909729,
-0.1936422437429428,
0.2711549997329712,
-0.40187373757362366,
-0.7465298175811768,
-0.45685574412345886,
-0.14923211932182312,
0.026988480240106583,
-0.4491443932056427,
0.18910372257232666,
-0.6371527910232544,
-0.6485062837600708,
0.14740237593650818,
-0.3275166153907776,
0.058734048157930374,
0.502916693687439,
-0.11665791273117065,
0.6151261329650879,
-0.2773244380950928,
-0.14095889031887054,
-0.6109959483146667,
0.20590414106845856,
-0.16164982318878174,
-0.6935640573501587,
0.18598292768001556,
0.2929522693157196,
-0.33381253480911255,
-0.2225145399570465,
-0.3210291862487793,
0.12859714031219482,
0.3732084631919861,
-0.33731186389923096,
0.0021313512697815895,
1.2988624572753906,
-0.32333657145500183,
0.23335786163806915,
0.9924984574317932,
-0.11335662752389908,
0.09821607917547226,
0.9771654009819031,
0.6956228017807007,
-0.26905226707458496,
0.32455652952194214,
0.4221031069755554,
0.17899197340011597,
1.1065826416015625,
-0.14651799201965332,
-0.363867849111557,
-0.1012917086482048,
-0.1940789371728897,
-0.5460377931594849,
-0.3007591962814331,
-1.015040397644043,
0.8280951380729675,
-0.7717830538749695,
-0.41760316491127014,
-0.20952074229717255,
-0.16592298448085785,
-0.0358080118894577,
0.18604429066181183,
0.1126047894358635,
0.7811112999916077,
0.24150758981704712,
0.15841759741306305,
0.19338752329349518,
-0.49430906772613525,
0.5409038066864014,
-0.5134708285331726,
0.07895193248987198,
-0.5843374133110046,
-0.020654728636145592,
-0.8134399056434631,
0.17624427378177643,
-0.1139821857213974,
0.21462354063987732,
0.04903210327029228,
0.07141274213790894,
-0.10752231627702713,
-0.3018991947174072,
0.2610560655593872,
-0.28484949469566345,
-0.5728139281272888,
-0.2912476360797882,
0.3879457116127014,
-0.6527962684631348,
-0.4655190408229828,
-0.1112903282046318,
-0.06062735244631767,
-0.6185443997383118,
0.5281182527542114,
0.33890071511268616,
-0.12330438941717148,
0.4324593245983124,
-0.2681197226047516,
-0.5614140033721924,
0.017243869602680206,
0.4395774304866791,
-0.03243947774171829,
0.0005622911266982555,
-0.03275517001748085,
0.3233983814716339,
0.47274574637413025,
0.5677339434623718,
-0.6717654466629028,
0.5344841480255127,
-0.5205333828926086,
0.3653827905654907,
0.04074219986796379,
0.6324159502983093,
-0.16963230073451996,
0.7392715811729431,
-0.19135932624340057,
-0.11467602103948593,
0.20885387063026428,
-0.849895179271698,
0.12528494000434875,
-0.42128753662109375,
1.0931470394134521,
0.4000067114830017,
-0.24306391179561615,
-0.2793314456939697,
0.7570717930793762,
-0.16447390615940094,
0.8608323335647583,
-0.10409243404865265,
0.340493381023407,
-0.1452561467885971,
-0.1432403028011322,
-0.15891335904598236,
0.6299220323562622,
0.3497053384780884,
0.49209243059158325,
-0.13259190320968628,
-0.011817031539976597,
-0.9302636981010437,
-0.7844378352165222,
0.4407041668891907,
-0.35361865162849426,
-0.0003637584450189024,
0.1853412240743637,
0.47844746708869934,
0.4155968427658081,
-0.19794124364852905,
0.39042606949806213,
0.11737214028835297,
-0.3808227777481079,
0.1522732526063919,
0.28529712557792664,
-0.19589675962924957,
0.23607532680034637,
0.2609561085700989,
-0.19295164942741394,
-0.259980708360672,
0.04531704634428024,
-0.23461578786373138,
0.020917261019349098,
0.07234935462474823,
0.07930891960859299,
0.03736928105354309,
-0.3161499798297882,
0.2904669940471649,
-0.008912472054362297,
-0.38639751076698303,
0.07452946901321411,
-0.7150587439537048,
0.7433506846427917,
-0.7308964133262634,
-0.35759174823760986,
-0.9802101254463196,
0.13583888113498688,
-0.018030133098363876,
-0.6850713491439819,
0.3378645181655884,
-0.36255472898483276,
0.24036744236946106,
-0.8357470035552979,
0.40735548734664917,
-0.20042462646961212,
0.6120626330375671,
0.24475976824760437
] |
233579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormancy | Dormancy | Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserve energy. Dormancy tends to be closely associated with environmental conditions. Organisms can synchronize entry to a dormant phase with their environment through predictive or consequential means. Predictive dormancy occurs when an organism enters a dormant phase before the onset of adverse conditions. For example, photoperiod and decreasing temperature are used by many plants to predict the onset of winter. Consequential dormancy occurs when organisms enter a dormant phase after adverse conditions have arisen. This is commonly found in areas with an unpredictable climate. While very sudden changes in conditions may lead to a high mortality rate among animals relying on consequential dormancy, its use can be advantageous, as organisms remain active longer and are therefore able to make greater use of available resources.
Animals
Hibernation
Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to reduce energy expenditure and survive food shortages over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature. In addition to shivering, some hibernating animals also produce body heat by non-shivering thermogenesis to avoid freezing. Non-shivering thermogenesis is a regulated process in which the proton gradient generated by electron transport in mitochondria is used to produce heat instead of ATP in brown adipose tissue. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate.
Diapause
Diapause is a predictive strategy that is predetermined by an animal's genotype. Diapause is common in insects, allowing them to suspend development between autumn and spring, and in mammals such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, the only ungulate with embryonic diapause), in which a delay in attachment of the embryo to the uterine lining ensures that offspring are born in spring, when conditions are most favorable.
Aestivation
Aestivation, also spelled estivation, is an example of consequential dormancy in response to very hot or dry conditions. It is common in invertebrates such as the garden snail and worm but also occurs in other animals such as lungfish, salamanders, desert tortoises, and crocodiles.
Brumation
While endotherms and other heterotherms are described scientifically as hibernating, the way ectotherms such as lizards become dormant in cold is very different, and a separate name was invented for it in the 1920s: brumation. It differs from hibernation in the metabolic processes involved.
Reptiles generally begin brumation in late autumn (more specific times depend on the species). They often wake up to drink water and return to "sleep". They can go for months without food. Reptiles may eat more than usual before the brumation time but eat less or refuse food as the temperature drops. However, they do need to drink water. The brumation period is anywhere from one to eight months depending on the air temperature and the size, age, and health of the reptile. During the first year of life, many small reptiles do not fully brumate, but rather slow down and eat less often. Brumation is triggered by a lack of heat and a decrease in the hours of daylight in winter, similar to hibernation.
Plants
In plant physiology, dormancy is a period of arrested plant growth. It is a survival strategy exhibited by many plant species, which enables them to survive in climates where part of the year is unsuitable for growth, such as winter or dry seasons.
Many plant species that exhibit dormancy have a biological clock that tells them when to slow activity and to prepare soft tissues for a period of freezing temperatures or water shortage. On the other hand, dormancy can be triggered after a normal growing season by decreasing temperatures, shortened day length, and/or a reduction in rainfall. Chemical treatment on dormant plants has been proven to be an effective method to break dormancy, particularly in woody plants such as grapes, berries, apples, peaches, and kiwis. Specifically, hydrogen cyanamide stimulates cell division and growth in dormant plants, causing buds to break when the plant is on the edge of breaking dormancy. Slight injury of cells may play a role in the mechanism of action. The injury is thought to result in increased permeability of cellular membranes. The injury is associated with the inhibition of catalase, which in turn stimulates the pentose phosphate cycle. Hydrogen cyanamide interacts with the cytokinin metabolic cycle, which results in triggering a new growth cycle. The images below show two particularly widespread dormancy patterns amongst sympodially growing orchids:
Seeds
When a mature and viable seed under a favorable condition fails to germinate, it is said to be dormant. Seed dormancy is referred to as embryo dormancy or internal dormancy and is caused by endogenous characteristics of the embryo that prevent germination (Black M, Butler J, Hughes M. 1987). Dormancy should not be confused with seed coat dormancy, external dormancy, or hardheadedness, which is caused by the presence of a hard seed covering or seed coat that prevents water and oxygen from reaching and activating the embryo. It is a physical barrier to germination, not a true form of dormancy (Quinliven, 1971; Quinliven and Nichol, 1971).
Seed dormancy is desired in nature, but the opposite in the agriculture field. This is because agricultural practice desires rapid germination and growth for food whereas in nature, most plants are only capable of germinating once every year, making it favorable for plants to pick a specific time to reproduce. For many plants, it is preferable to reproduce in spring as opposed to fall even when there are similar conditions in terms of light and temperature due to the ensuing winter that follows fall. Many plants and seeds recognize this and enter a dormant period in the fall to stop growing. The grain is a popular example in this aspect, where they would die above ground during the winter, so dormancy is favorable to its seedlings but extensive domestication and crossbreeding has removed most dormancy mechanisms that their ancestors had.
While seed dormancy is linked to many genes, abscisic acid (ABA), a plant hormone, has been linked as a major influencer to seed dormancy. In a study on rice and tobacco plants, plants defective in zeaxanthin epoxidase gene, which are linked to ABA-synthesis pathway. Seeds with higher ABA content, from over-expressing zeaxanthin epoxidase, led to an increased dormancy period while plants with lower numbers of zeaxanthin epoxidase were shown to have a shorter period of dormancy. A simple diagram can be drawn of ABA inhibits seed germination, while gibberellin (GA, also plant hormone) inhibits ABA production and promotes seed germination.
Trees
Typically, temperate woody perennial plants require chilling temperatures to overcome winter dormancy (rest). The effect of chilling temperatures depends on species and growth stage (Fuchigami et al. 1987). In some species, rest can be broken within hours at any stage of dormancy, with either chemicals, heat, or freezing temperatures, effective dosages of which would seem to be a function of sublethal stress, which results in stimulation of ethylene production and increased cell membrane permeability.
Dormancy is a general term applicable to any instance in which a tissue predisposed to elongate or grow in some other manner does not do so (Nienstaedt 1966). Quiescence is dormancy imposed by the external environment. Correlated inhibition is a kind of physiological dormancy maintained by agents or conditions originating within the plant, but not within the dormant tissue itself. Rest (winter dormancy) is a kind of physiological dormancy maintained by agents or conditions within the organ itself. However, physiological subdivisions of dormancy do not coincide with the morphological dormancy found in white spruce (Picea glauca) and other conifers (Owens et al. 1977). Physiological dormancy often includes early stages of bud-scale initiation before measurable shoot elongation or before flushing. It may also include late leaf initiation after shoot elongation has been completed. In either of those cases, buds that appear to be dormant are nevertheless very active morphologically and physiologically.
Dormancy of various kinds is expressed in white spruce (Romberger 1963). White spruce, like many woody plants in temperate and cooler regions, requires exposure to low temperature for a period of weeks before it can resume normal growth and development. This "chilling requirement" for white spruce is satisfied by uninterrupted exposure to temperatures below 7 °C for 4 to 8 weeks, depending on physiological condition (Nienstaedt 1966, 1967).
Tree species that have well-developed dormancy needs may be tricked to some degree, but not completely. For instance, if a Japanese maple (Acer palmatum) is given an "eternal summer" through exposure to additional daylight, it grows continuously for as long as two years. Eventually, however, a temperate-climate plant automatically goes dormant, no matter what environmental conditions it experiences. Deciduous plants lose their leaves; evergreens curtail all new growth. Going through an "eternal summer" and the resultant automatic dormancy is stressful to the plant and usually fatal. The fatality rate increases to 100% if the plant does not receive the necessary period of cold temperatures required to break the dormancy. Most plants require a certain number of hours of "chilling" at temperatures between about 0 °C and 10 °C to be able to break dormancy (Bewley, Black, K.D 1994).
Short photoperiods induce dormancy and permit the formation of needle primordia. Primordia formation requires 8 to 10 weeks and must be followed by 6 weeks of chilling at 2 °C. Bud break occurs promptly if seedlings are then exposed to 16-hour photoperiods at the 25 °C/20 °C temperature regime. The free growth mode, a juvenile characteristic that is lost after 5 years or so, ceases in seedlings experiencing environmental stress (Logan and Pollard 1976, Logan 1977).
Bacteria
Many bacteria can survive adverse conditions such as temperature, desiccation, and antibiotics by forming endospores, cysts, or states of reduced metabolic activity lacking specialized cellular structures. Up to 80% of the bacteria in samples from the wild appear to be metabolically inactive—many of which can be resuscitated. Such dormancy is responsible for the high diversity levels of most natural ecosystems.
Recent research has characterized the bacterial cytoplasm as a glass forming fluid approaching the liquid-glass transition, such that large cytoplasmic components require the aid of metabolic activity to fluidize the surrounding cytoplasm, allowing them to move through a viscous, glass-like cytoplasm. During dormancy, when such metabolic activities are put on hold, the cytoplasm behaves like a solid glass, 'freezing' subcellular structures in place and perhaps protecting them, while allowing small molecules like metabolites to move freely through the cell, which may be helpful in cells transitioning out of dormancy.
Viruses
Dormancy, in its rigid definition, does not apply to viruses, as they are not metabolically active. However, some viruses such as poxviruses and picornaviruses, after entering the host, can become latent for long periods of time, or even indefinitely until they are externally activated. Herpesviruses, for example, can become latent after infecting the host, and after years they can activate again if the host is under stress or exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
See also
Plant physiology
Scotobiology
Torpor
Notes
References
Bewley, J. D. and Black, M. (1994). Seeds: physiology of development and germination, 2nd end. New York, London: Plenum Press.
Black, M.; Butler, J. and Hughes, M. (1987). "Control and development of dormancy in cereals". In: Mares DJ, ed. Fourth International Symposium on Pre-Harvest Sprouting in Cereals, Boulder, Co., USA: Westview Press, 379–92.
Scholar team. (2002). "SQA Adv. Higher Biology". Environmental Biology. Heriot-Watt University, 93–95.
Plant physiology
Physiology
Ethology | [
0.42713552713394165,
0.11244586110115051,
-0.35162353515625,
0.09054844081401825,
0.5689316987991333,
-0.19868502020835876,
1.0445215702056885,
0.5769615173339844,
-0.4248490333557129,
-0.3264803886413574,
-0.5565733909606934,
-0.26682141423225403,
-0.2631073296070099,
0.7707059383392334,
-0.2720385789871216,
-0.04560106247663498,
0.6781092882156372,
0.32796066999435425,
-0.13829417526721954,
-0.1326775997877121,
-0.11837242543697357,
-0.02101832814514637,
-0.1395445019006729,
-0.29262346029281616,
-0.15604574978351593,
-0.7363759279251099,
-0.1989472210407257,
0.02677912265062332,
0.10543670505285263,
0.05700355023145676,
-0.057865507900714874,
-0.16067321598529816,
0.014498832635581493,
0.15555612742900848,
0.3970167934894562,
-0.04491175338625908,
-0.17093002796173096,
-0.22908112406730652,
-0.32081979513168335,
-0.6808810234069824,
0.169324591755867,
-0.049071308225393295,
-0.0814291387796402,
0.1582823544740677,
-0.8379391431808472,
0.03807499632239342,
-0.8239871263504028,
0.027936553582549095,
-0.4978119730949402,
-0.19366298615932465,
-0.4405970275402069,
-0.06140413135290146,
0.8924712538719177,
-0.22657927870750427,
-0.431112676858902,
-0.12135955691337585,
-0.2190423309803009,
0.019673030823469162,
-0.1310834288597107,
-0.42863622307777405,
0.6827706098556519,
-0.4473154842853546,
-0.4655979573726654,
0.22208507359027863,
0.008472736924886703,
0.005055473186075687,
0.25597667694091797,
-0.46649137139320374,
0.31657060980796814,
-0.3365143835544586,
-0.5475817322731018,
-0.006930265575647354,
0.0396214984357357,
0.06762176007032394,
-0.7624833583831787,
-0.08205222338438034,
0.12736240029335022,
-0.5060018301010132,
0.024459458887577057,
0.1319325566291809,
-0.13380570709705353,
0.5194385647773743,
0.16380108892917633,
-0.27325162291526794,
0.34249165654182434,
-0.39120835065841675,
-0.36270830035209656,
0.31885114312171936,
-0.5071642398834229,
0.6683371067047119,
0.056613970547914505,
0.30649372935295105,
1.0258455276489258,
0.259299635887146,
-0.05536874011158943,
0.17020688951015472,
0.08738110959529877,
-0.031025080010294914,
-0.2463047355413437,
0.38665062189102173,
-0.3592590391635895,
-0.4322141110897064,
0.14509573578834534,
-0.33075350522994995,
0.25146085023880005,
-0.6629951000213623,
-0.244803786277771,
-0.3520388603210449,
0.03204939886927605,
-0.29720136523246765,
-0.40110287070274353,
0.2362130582332611,
-0.2560357451438904,
0.2269839644432068,
-0.5109506845474243,
0.09332413971424103,
-0.09247937053442001,
0.09732265025377274,
0.05335095524787903,
-0.06539132446050644,
-0.18402670323848724,
-0.010695032775402069,
-0.19030387699604034,
-0.6426693797111511,
-0.6546605825424194,
0.13406945765018463,
-0.0968301072716713,
-0.49406370520591736,
-0.9445908665657043,
-0.13919590413570404,
-0.10220956802368164,
0.5803912878036499,
-0.2559957206249237,
0.0729508027434349,
0.23539705574512482,
0.08455237001180649,
0.31560057401657104,
0.03407105803489685,
0.4745558202266693,
0.058111853897571564,
-0.3202334940433502,
-0.3635104298591614,
-0.2859027087688446,
0.4045394957065582,
0.17473605275154114,
-0.2567502558231354,
0.1528688371181488,
-0.37034064531326294,
-0.13183711469173431,
-0.2684297263622284,
-0.07218343019485474,
-0.15714706480503082,
-0.29065027832984924,
-0.22530339658260345,
-0.17081817984580994,
-0.20411965250968933,
-0.047657400369644165,
-0.1316540390253067,
0.13678182661533356,
-0.21874496340751648,
0.2548447251319885,
0.11122062057256699,
-0.0756390318274498,
0.17726390063762665,
0.2870086133480072,
-0.2908115088939667,
0.2781977355480194,
0.35486355423927307,
-0.07087867707014084,
-0.04909563064575195,
-0.15587201714515686,
0.1683276742696762,
0.3533823788166046,
-0.6340592503547668,
-0.5816973447799683,
0.28298813104629517,
0.6351190209388733,
0.15053901076316833,
0.6843995451927185,
0.2639075219631195,
-0.37307244539260864,
-0.11969929188489914,
0.24100752174854279,
0.4291144907474518,
0.4279395043849945,
-0.6268544793128967,
0.10417088866233826,
0.0012198835611343384,
-0.19600917398929596,
-0.22258201241493225,
-0.1928664892911911,
0.262501984834671,
0.2619568705558777,
-0.4287431538105011,
0.5455759167671204,
-0.540574312210083,
-0.35759198665618896,
0.7997605204582214,
0.24720589816570282,
0.11841544508934021,
-0.23123866319656372,
0.04494808241724968,
0.31929054856300354,
0.10711193829774857,
-0.3163694441318512,
0.4509836733341217,
0.16026292741298676,
0.2734348773956299,
-0.08126296103000641,
0.07273086905479431,
0.14463378489017487,
-0.27448809146881104,
0.5054096579551697,
0.2665121853351593,
0.28575798869132996,
-0.13390231132507324,
-0.624220073223114,
-0.08157512545585632,
-0.37301138043403625,
-0.5358545780181885,
0.34705275297164917,
-0.20792803168296814,
0.07405257970094681,
0.5798324346542358,
-0.17832256853580475,
0.09340117126703262,
0.43408456444740295,
-0.28036490082740784,
1.062146782875061,
-0.8538888096809387,
0.35434624552726746,
-0.2751132845878601,
-0.24705512821674347,
0.4006430506706238,
-0.014825258404016495,
0.8623332977294922,
0.270289808511734,
-0.17534886300563812,
0.11161955446004868,
-0.42982956767082214,
-0.34306901693344116,
-0.39392727613449097,
0.103517085313797,
0.26788657903671265,
0.40049120783805847,
-0.050484273582696915,
0.3462671637535095,
0.7163371443748474,
-1.3979843854904175,
0.158881276845932,
0.46498316526412964,
0.31093156337738037,
0.39702844619750977,
-0.035102397203445435,
0.2528952658176422,
-0.7640190720558167,
-0.3930374085903168,
0.1266438364982605,
0.1595465987920761,
0.09505494683980942,
-0.1668999195098877,
0.19956009089946747,
0.37145841121673584,
-0.44273412227630615,
-0.43776580691337585,
-0.5761494636535645,
-0.13893866539001465,
-0.580956220626831,
-0.21929161250591278,
0.3783210813999176,
0.4191030263900757,
0.15131047368049622,
-0.6027228832244873,
0.4020468592643738,
-0.40720134973526,
-0.4441956877708435,
0.712770938873291,
-0.09380762279033661,
0.11821188777685165,
0.41794195771217346,
0.411178857088089,
0.3425516188144684,
0.04860353842377663,
-0.7722295522689819,
-0.14432494342327118,
-0.6393086314201355,
0.03488127887248993,
-0.013605855405330658,
0.06237245723605156,
-0.1262289136648178,
-0.27218541502952576,
0.05535497888922691,
0.4069226384162903,
0.3275418281555176,
-0.0071996646001935005,
0.3259259760379791,
0.1596950888633728,
-0.0585169680416584,
0.4868636429309845,
0.2147192358970642,
0.16430886089801788,
-0.7576100826263428,
-0.1799136996269226,
0.16738466918468475,
-0.22967948019504547,
0.06078365072607994,
0.17240551114082336,
-0.402994841337204,
-5.919155120849609,
0.3436358571052551,
-0.08763238042593002,
-0.14964254200458527,
-0.056104909628629684,
0.06939335912466049,
0.9531304836273193,
0.32294961810112,
-0.6782395243644714,
0.24743404984474182,
-0.4473824203014374,
-0.04629453271627426,
0.550449013710022,
0.8115867972373962,
0.21762308478355408,
-0.41989126801490784,
0.0799887552857399,
-0.08937549591064453,
-0.6729763150215149,
0.10723038017749786,
-0.21588708460330963,
0.3464422821998596,
-0.14179441332817078,
0.3110167980194092,
0.20544779300689697,
-0.4855813980102539,
0.005752202123403549,
0.1720111221075058,
-0.7794288396835327,
0.18833698332309723,
-0.37994036078453064,
-0.35719043016433716,
0.0921650156378746,
-0.25188884139060974,
0.40538686513900757,
0.8337051272392273,
-0.06595873832702637,
0.44650498032569885,
0.07681652158498764,
-0.26081401109695435,
0.3031931519508362,
0.23727551102638245,
0.15873098373413086,
0.37299516797065735,
-0.12429220229387283,
0.6307681798934937,
-0.34863385558128357,
-0.1148412823677063,
-0.13707949221134186,
0.8376162648200989,
-0.09974443167448044,
0.9176572561264038,
1.0520371198654175,
-0.11069086194038391,
-0.1406075805425644,
-0.026197662577033043,
0.40264201164245605,
-0.29061365127563477,
-0.4671354293823242,
-0.3229440152645111,
-0.27501556277275085,
-0.36916032433509827,
-0.09872639924287796,
-0.40558353066444397,
0.4856506586074829,
-0.15884482860565186,
-0.7709594368934631,
-0.025320671498775482,
0.3172515630722046,
0.5289248824119568,
-0.3193010985851288,
-0.22490468621253967,
0.742456316947937,
-1.078471302986145,
-0.31462767720222473,
-0.5477742552757263,
-0.45991700887680054,
-0.46985360980033875,
0.5336376428604126,
-0.13327786326408386,
0.06367745250463486,
0.130301833152771,
-0.43625059723854065,
0.27364450693130493,
0.4408746361732483,
-0.6587958931922913,
-0.10226791352033615,
0.42712539434432983,
-0.271058589220047,
0.33495235443115234,
0.546232283115387,
0.28939539194107056,
0.16964922845363617,
-0.3786260485649109,
0.3520691394805908,
0.588344156742096,
-0.1254168450832367,
-0.04437626898288727,
0.7133703827857971,
0.06489566713571548,
0.8460894227027893,
-0.15816307067871094,
0.051346033811569214,
-0.3675791323184967,
-0.1503809541463852,
-0.19460800290107727,
-0.5106029510498047,
0.47486624121665955,
0.38371098041534424,
0.003848562017083168,
-0.14058923721313477,
0.4113542139530182,
-0.07803495228290558,
-0.6424622535705566,
0.16411162912845612,
0.25225189328193665,
-0.17649969458580017,
0.9338430166244507,
0.3093278110027313,
-0.1502595990896225,
-0.3077339828014374,
0.0917586088180542,
-0.22324565052986145,
-0.0671248808503151,
-0.0045687491074204445,
0.5029827952384949,
0.21632838249206543,
-0.18903039395809174,
0.16254061460494995,
-0.21507978439331055,
0.3178139328956604,
0.6941625475883484,
0.18228276073932648,
0.002970547415316105,
-0.2557888329029083,
-0.2739033102989197,
-0.20424596965312958,
0.06432688236236572,
-0.1716453582048416,
-0.7271519303321838,
0.11186833679676056,
-0.4174467623233795,
0.25317052006721497,
-0.36490973830223083,
0.05999206379055977,
0.12949404120445251,
0.1213851198554039,
-0.4771425426006317,
0.01578618213534355,
0.3301667273044586,
0.10531795769929886,
-0.8004721403121948,
-0.20823799073696136,
0.2037147730588913,
-0.3490600287914276,
-0.5180727243423462,
0.4709573984146118,
0.03414676710963249,
0.37638068199157715,
-0.4133455753326416,
-0.19282320141792297,
-0.5354082584381104,
-0.7579919099807739,
-0.7017616033554077,
-0.1118135154247284,
0.2527363896369934,
0.006614383310079575,
-0.19567671418190002,
-0.4395972490310669,
0.4910818040370941,
-0.4731128215789795,
0.2858027219772339,
-0.5304926037788391,
-0.2730717957019806,
0.40843385457992554,
-0.24421624839305878,
0.10821280628442764,
-0.041644517332315445,
-0.016319191083312035,
-0.10271508991718292,
0.2604779899120331,
-0.0026326242368668318,
-0.2066817581653595,
0.17718040943145752,
0.5622455477714539,
-0.20752260088920593,
0.31078335642814636,
0.044862423092126846,
-0.2927132248878479,
-0.32199931144714355,
0.5257853269577026,
0.1420026570558548,
0.48147809505462646,
-0.21004675328731537,
0.014354881830513477,
0.029486751183867455,
-0.3389011025428772,
0.789406418800354,
0.053159214556217194,
0.03362846374511719,
0.24917548894882202,
0.05994023010134697,
-0.7800023555755615,
0.27025288343429565,
0.8062833547592163,
-0.5121482610702515,
0.04681786522269249,
-0.07952890545129776,
-0.04722066968679428,
0.37586304545402527,
-0.5929285287857056,
-0.3246830403804779,
-0.5099455714225769,
0.20766204595565796,
0.1903131753206253,
0.28336119651794434,
-0.1199510246515274,
-0.66691654920578,
-0.1939280778169632,
-0.04937814548611641,
0.3699348270893097,
0.41859954595565796,
0.16457493603229523,
-0.1646379828453064,
-0.33323293924331665,
-0.5427345037460327,
0.35364556312561035,
0.0099726477637887,
0.06821533292531967,
-0.2800077497959137,
0.11725535988807678,
-0.12238062173128128,
0.1778922975063324,
-0.2798059284687042,
-0.6427528858184814,
-0.5961142778396606,
0.40212392807006836,
-0.5009011030197144,
-0.0441756397485733,
0.26558589935302734,
0.06812453269958496,
0.8796889781951904,
0.13197565078735352,
-0.6161335706710815,
-0.2638513445854187,
0.22779271006584167,
0.031572770327329636,
-0.4690261483192444,
-0.14789003133773804,
0.10197599232196808,
0.1583571434020996,
-0.37795770168304443,
-0.11070379614830017,
0.24836227297782898,
0.40082886815071106,
-0.05338625982403755,
0.09162390977144241,
-0.30229029059410095,
0.464420884847641,
0.25914323329925537,
0.4214625060558319,
-0.11178300529718399,
0.18352632224559784,
0.07829592376947403,
0.39549899101257324,
0.11824841052293777,
-0.11171372979879379,
0.7194528579711914,
0.1422998011112213,
-0.5253602862358093,
0.9652772545814514,
-0.047496192157268524,
0.3527124226093292,
-0.15606294572353363,
0.5955328941345215,
0.3874451518058777,
-0.05686686187982559,
-0.2792072892189026,
-0.028330402448773384,
-0.2889989912509918,
0.2559053897857666,
-0.07394395768642426,
-0.3565363883972168,
-0.5099244117736816,
0.2694539427757263,
-0.6114136576652527,
0.27111944556236267,
-0.19181765615940094,
-0.699194610118866,
-0.2596195638179779,
-0.15325868129730225,
-0.09890624135732651,
0.32531023025512695,
0.4068242609500885,
0.22046077251434326,
0.5268042683601379,
-0.3423477113246918,
0.3309990465641022,
0.18816344439983368,
-0.29567140340805054,
-0.9840779304504395,
0.36448922753334045,
0.24420692026615143,
-0.43444371223449707,
0.3020080029964447,
-0.13781219720840454,
0.22773237526416779,
-0.7911674380302429,
-0.5534980893135071,
-0.0331677570939064,
0.6705012321472168,
0.44212523102760315,
0.24108512699604034,
0.47713181376457214,
-0.11822059005498886,
0.12501640617847443,
0.15871939063072205,
-0.3803866505622864,
0.1634649783372879,
0.08199567347764969,
0.5499457120895386,
-0.4335228502750397,
0.22459149360656738,
-0.6373882293701172,
0.16434888541698456,
0.4457721710205078,
-0.14368003606796265,
0.4160402715206146,
0.19597452878952026,
0.4258153736591339,
1.0693891048431396,
-0.01196769904345274,
0.2719336748123169,
0.43064332008361816,
-0.28042304515838623,
-0.27866286039352417,
-0.050270963460206985,
-0.5814657807350159,
-0.8156754374504089,
0.28456971049308777,
1.1737366914749146,
0.6124606132507324,
-0.1818084865808487,
0.4294604957103729,
-0.1495940238237381,
0.11405151337385178,
-0.3074701726436615,
0.8128393292427063,
0.003878223244100809,
0.09909974038600922,
0.2332289218902588,
-0.5187827944755554,
0.5628941655158997,
0.014636741951107979,
0.12618453800678253,
-0.5392302870750427,
0.997808575630188,
-0.17351019382476807,
-0.19116860628128052,
-0.49419790506362915,
-0.294489324092865,
0.3011845648288727,
-0.224323570728302,
-0.0007115652551874518,
0.5190953016281128,
-0.6481963992118835,
0.4237841069698334,
-0.11204990744590759,
-0.17404112219810486,
-0.2510747015476227,
0.6325048208236694,
0.36196398735046387,
-0.04317549243569374,
-0.402249813079834,
0.4792337715625763,
-0.21063509583473206,
0.40628018975257874,
0.5819620490074158,
-0.11029286682605743,
-0.36358582973480225,
0.1932622641324997,
-0.09926573932170868,
-0.08665712177753448,
-0.3827124834060669,
-0.2904963791370392,
0.013078608550131321,
0.21401609480381012,
0.08069494366645813,
-0.14207381010055542,
0.2479855716228485,
0.5973837971687317,
-0.11727315932512283,
-0.03861086443066597,
0.1643766611814499,
0.200602725148201,
-0.07744705677032471,
0.08435232192277908,
0.400252103805542,
0.6117962002754211,
-0.3964542746543884,
0.19451993703842163,
-0.21079517900943756,
-0.05617842078208923,
-0.025953998789191246,
-0.5206231474876404,
0.42573392391204834,
-0.2914014160633087,
-0.3677748143672943,
-0.751855194568634,
0.6613894701004028,
0.673172652721405,
-0.20852753520011902,
-0.23228199779987335,
1.0643479824066162,
0.0741652399301529,
0.39165425300598145,
0.05267389118671417,
-0.47274938225746155,
-0.0023232540115714073,
-0.5408604741096497,
0.23100686073303223,
-0.30491918325424194,
0.1992919147014618,
-0.3519385755062103,
-0.36858126521110535,
0.013564972206950188,
-0.03784910589456558,
-0.1487552672624588,
0.12089680135250092,
0.6499296426773071,
-0.4655263125896454,
0.1651555448770523,
-0.18872524797916412,
0.5080485343933105,
-0.7289156317710876,
-0.2187897264957428,
0.20674605667591095,
0.041898634284734726,
0.22731654345989227,
-0.3909173905849457,
0.06500955671072006,
-0.042212385684251785,
0.4135875701904297,
0.04205619916319847,
0.10221198201179504,
-0.050239983946084976,
-0.5163837671279907,
-0.19723941385746002,
-0.33680522441864014,
-0.6125606894493103,
0.2994979918003082,
-0.3006381690502167,
0.15554460883140564,
0.0678311213850975,
-0.4884795844554901,
0.21397767961025238,
-0.14008715748786926,
0.027407331392169,
-0.3615315854549408,
0.9574115872383118
] |
233585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo%20Eustachi | Bartolomeo Eustachi | Bartolomeo Eustachi (c. 1500–1510 – 27 August 1574), also known by his Latin name of Bartholomaeus Eustachius (), was an Italian anatomist and one of the founders of the science of human anatomy.
Biography
He came from San Severino, near Macerata, Italy, and was a contemporary of Andreas Vesalius, with whom he shares the reputation of having created the science of human anatomy.
He is known as a supporter of Galen and extended the knowledge of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the tube that bears his name. He is the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus and the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea. He is the first who studied accurately the anatomy of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and second dentition. Eustachius also discovered the adrenal glands (reported in 1563).
His greatest work, which he was unable to publish, is his Anatomical Engravings. These were completed in 1552, nine years after Vesalius was published.
First published in 1714 by Giovanni Maria Lancisi at the expense of Pope Clement XI, and again in 1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, and again in 1744 by Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, and subsequently at Bonn in 1790, the engravings show that Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and diligence, and taken the utmost pains to give just views of the shape, size, and relative position of the organs of the human body.
The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys and some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear. The eighth represents the heart, the ramifications of the vena azygos, and the valve of the vena cava, named from the author. In the seven subsequent plates is given a succession of different views of the viscera of the chest and abdomen. The seventeenth contains the brain and spinal cord; and the eighteenth more accurate views of the origin, course, and distribution of the nerves than had been given before. Fourteen plates are devoted to the muscles.
Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure of organs with assiduity and success. What was too minute for unassisted vision he inspected by means of glasses (early microscopes). Structure that could not be understood in the recent state he unfolded by maceration in different fluids, or rendered more distinct by injection and exsiccation.
Eustachius died in Fossombrone.
Works
Bartolomeo Eustachi (1728), Tabulae anatomicae – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library
Notes
References
Choulant, L. History and bibliography of anatomic illustration. Trans. and annotated by Mortimer Frank. (New York: Hafner, 1962). pp. 200–204.
Dizionario biografico degli italiani. (Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1960- ). Vol. 43, pp. 531–536.
Roberts, K. B. "Eustachius and his anatomical plates." Newsletter of the Canadian Society for the History of Medicine, (1979) Apr.: 9–13.
External links
Bartholomeo Eustachi: Tabulae anatomicae (Rome, 1783). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
Selected images from Tabulae anatomicae From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library
Italian anatomists
1574 deaths
16th-century Italian physicians
History of anatomy
Year of birth uncertain | [
-0.3195309340953827,
0.38825365900993347,
-0.24518445134162903,
0.2309284508228302,
-0.5719190835952759,
0.6492489576339722,
0.4609936773777008,
0.5875259041786194,
-1.256455659866333,
-0.7712273597717285,
0.21014642715454102,
-0.34081658720970154,
-0.2554655373096466,
0.3402574956417084,
-0.2755800485610962,
0.11706474423408508,
0.4665229618549347,
0.09615255892276764,
0.0207754448056221,
-0.546951413154602,
0.6909735798835754,
-0.596921980381012,
-0.016742397099733353,
-0.2397608906030655,
-0.3119406998157501,
0.11709292232990265,
0.049528274685144424,
-0.30713608860969543,
0.1536647230386734,
-0.03037954308092594,
-0.08933507651090622,
0.42420199513435364,
0.28849631547927856,
-0.10295454412698746,
-0.010211097076535225,
0.2105705589056015,
0.3173615336418152,
0.5614390969276428,
-0.01571894995868206,
-0.18460041284561157,
0.0831512063741684,
0.16647030413150787,
0.6893283128738403,
0.5278644561767578,
0.00004934515891363844,
-0.1208355575799942,
-2.090325117111206,
-0.20894190669059753,
-0.7594631314277649,
-0.522746205329895,
1.0258519649505615,
-0.3318544924259186,
0.44524654746055603,
0.9751403331756592,
-0.7099555730819702,
1.1378507614135742,
-0.9136938452720642,
-0.40518006682395935,
0.8365148901939392,
0.14611609280109406,
0.5031499266624451,
0.2968355417251587,
0.1814238429069519,
0.062485791742801666,
0.7196436524391174,
0.2497943490743637,
-0.5922825932502747,
1.375954508781433,
-0.1410829871892929,
0.298059344291687,
-0.46492481231689453,
0.43653205037117004,
0.5852823853492737,
0.05012453347444534,
0.08461295068264008,
-0.8643466830253601,
-0.23466144502162933,
0.333503782749176,
0.040527019649744034,
-0.6194185614585876,
0.13598698377609253,
0.11344698816537857,
0.9521308541297913,
0.2672949731349945,
0.3631760776042938,
0.7119393348693848,
-0.3183254301548004,
-1.266266107559204,
-0.5289890766143799,
0.3122158944606781,
-0.07012125104665756,
-0.4584905207157135,
-0.11599098145961761,
0.4133956730365753,
-0.01107852067798376,
0.2180970013141632,
-0.36983880400657654,
0.18855375051498413,
-0.29769203066825867,
0.3933855891227722,
-0.5058836340904236,
0.8182108402252197,
-0.09819011390209198,
0.22688737511634827,
-0.2486206293106079,
0.13701508939266205,
-0.4435631334781647,
-0.14963746070861816,
-0.15970656275749207,
-0.8699483275413513,
0.19531849026679993,
0.19546769559383392,
-1.0337610244750977,
-0.16744810342788696,
-0.6025639176368713,
-0.021580373868346214,
1.1242505311965942,
-0.6362011432647705,
-0.5098810791969299,
-0.7519358396530151,
0.5950760841369629,
1.0295007228851318,
-0.6876117587089539,
-0.37302786111831665,
-0.7621548175811768,
0.2517539858818054,
0.6084562540054321,
0.053220100700855255,
0.3467824161052704,
0.28230994939804077,
0.69373619556427,
1.3475701808929443,
-0.29270148277282715,
-0.46910035610198975,
-0.48015305399894714,
-0.18910954892635345,
0.4599264860153198,
1.2561851739883423,
-0.4669836163520813,
-0.3702930808067322,
-0.9415498375892639,
-0.39584147930145264,
-1.4947047233581543,
-0.21155771613121033,
0.5820481777191162,
0.5048907399177551,
-0.020298294723033905,
-0.05566130578517914,
-0.20580533146858215,
0.028624476864933968,
-0.33655640482902527,
-0.5309426784515381,
0.1417418271303177,
0.051052022725343704,
0.1917845755815506,
0.37891459465026855,
0.6610028147697449,
-0.09910687804222107,
0.20354843139648438,
0.22489917278289795,
0.2012067288160324,
0.09644631296396255,
-0.3853258788585663,
-0.18255867063999176,
-0.0748383030295372,
0.4458135664463043,
0.620401918888092,
0.05973818153142929,
-0.03346527740359306,
0.09026660025119781,
-0.9159994125366211,
0.08879588544368744,
-0.5783054232597351,
-0.9462984204292297,
0.4158257842063904,
0.021036216989159584,
0.7533302903175354,
0.4651736915111542,
0.30522409081459045,
-0.8917784094810486,
-0.860770046710968,
0.17884284257888794,
0.10831592231988907,
-0.28030145168304443,
0.2467246800661087,
0.33530041575431824,
1.312265396118164,
0.02421453408896923,
-0.18178586661815643,
-0.08355315029621124,
-0.3763091564178467,
0.13413430750370026,
-0.13955473899841309,
-0.3428807854652405,
1.0300407409667969,
0.5882377624511719,
-0.5172271728515625,
0.20381669700145721,
0.3888244926929474,
0.8085278272628784,
-0.9311940670013428,
-0.28724873065948486,
0.17961037158966064,
0.1914343535900116,
0.024472281336784363,
2.0073862075805664,
0.6969667673110962,
0.19064466655254364,
0.8431609272956848,
0.6182377934455872,
1.0725353956222534,
0.2715148329734802,
0.1309870332479477,
0.009325801394879818,
-0.36035218834877014,
-0.22091883420944214,
-0.5965681076049805,
0.25844070315361023,
-0.37165409326553345,
-0.6694169044494629,
0.1038510650396347,
0.044123679399490356,
-0.49410659074783325,
1.0079610347747803,
-0.12439629435539246,
1.65413236618042,
-0.1958332359790802,
0.2817968726158142,
-0.5029605031013489,
-0.8507502675056458,
0.4113824963569641,
0.1674758791923523,
-0.2052324116230011,
0.007091009058058262,
-0.8497331738471985,
0.0026549743488430977,
-0.17609311640262604,
-0.8645443320274353,
0.48853421211242676,
-0.21498382091522217,
0.8399033546447754,
0.8169448375701904,
-0.5215323567390442,
0.4671802520751953,
-0.2906188666820526,
0.3661942183971405,
0.2996596693992615,
0.11088451743125916,
0.02797958254814148,
-0.5616012811660767,
0.30775296688079834,
0.27809786796569824,
-0.3928305506706238,
-0.9063421487808228,
-0.08118993043899536,
-0.8876737356185913,
0.3453652560710907,
-0.4117487370967865,
-0.6775546073913574,
-0.23817883431911469,
0.17574644088745117,
0.2386316955089569,
0.596545934677124,
0.4777102768421173,
-0.04480994865298271,
-0.8392069339752197,
-0.25714311003685,
0.022600455209612846,
-0.03701396286487579,
-0.7589263319969177,
0.24789871275424957,
-0.4785836637020111,
-0.5521708130836487,
-1.6135071516036987,
0.17351599037647247,
0.42323657870292664,
-0.21141068637371063,
0.4630745053291321,
-0.3490253984928131,
-0.02365424856543541,
-0.06565044820308685,
0.4662325382232666,
-0.6290568709373474,
0.4027644693851471,
-1.195945143699646,
0.9562679529190063,
0.5147337913513184,
-0.32350316643714905,
0.15051878988742828,
-0.3387369215488434,
0.32083645462989807,
-0.44621965289115906,
-0.4877854585647583,
0.357683002948761,
0.2056322544813156,
0.6487679481506348,
-0.20388008654117584,
-0.6648827195167542,
0.10431374609470367,
-0.6205814480781555,
-1.057859182357788,
0.19469739496707916,
-0.18700666725635529,
0.38676658272743225,
-0.04208914190530777,
-0.25459396839141846,
-0.07440653443336487,
0.18417450785636902,
-3.378084421157837,
0.6344809532165527,
-0.08533883839845657,
0.45244860649108887,
0.193083718419075,
-0.3279699385166168,
0.8320603370666504,
-0.19448591768741608,
0.07263946533203125,
0.5205108523368835,
0.4311046302318573,
-0.3907986879348755,
-0.5051369667053223,
0.8100139498710632,
0.7594312429428101,
0.6107206344604492,
0.36932530999183655,
0.045044977217912674,
0.2979123294353485,
-0.529382586479187,
-0.15213021636009216,
0.12152542918920517,
-0.12578660249710083,
0.10906063765287399,
0.8361806273460388,
-0.017086219042539597,
-0.4266362488269806,
0.2371406853199005,
-1.079390525817871,
0.3038671612739563,
-0.25315022468566895,
-0.0097977789118886,
-0.08315664529800415,
-0.2360694259405136,
-0.997154951095581,
-0.33033233880996704,
1.2499572038650513,
1.0378936529159546,
0.21695610880851746,
-0.10213112086057663,
-0.032975610345602036,
0.30656737089157104,
-0.4373125433921814,
0.8206833600997925,
0.451398104429245,
-0.041457898914813995,
-1.4782400131225586,
-0.1622152030467987,
0.08616666495800018,
0.7017090916633606,
0.059123143553733826,
-0.483023464679718,
0.4619036614894867,
0.5762976408004761,
0.39097437262535095,
-0.49649062752723694,
0.5819002389907837,
-0.20701953768730164,
-0.7528150081634521,
0.4625638723373413,
0.45973455905914307,
-0.3476466238498688,
0.1850680708885193,
-0.010951263830065727,
0.5866023302078247,
-0.5149721503257751,
0.1050887331366539,
-0.6570364832878113,
-0.1921912133693695,
-0.049167223274707794,
-0.3434789478778839,
0.8820242881774902,
-0.3481481671333313,
-1.3524279594421387,
0.7469340562820435,
-0.1281120479106903,
-0.5451290011405945,
0.3106164038181305,
0.4658023715019226,
-0.012885794043540955,
0.5617681741714478,
-0.3504791557788849,
-0.3549669086933136,
0.9471330046653748,
0.6612501740455627,
1.223083257675171,
-0.24980579316616058,
0.016372064128518105,
-0.9121320247650146,
-0.3629094660282135,
-0.17198500037193298,
-0.16789354383945465,
0.07671321928501129,
0.7863627076148987,
-0.6140928864479065,
0.3632684648036957,
0.5254455208778381,
-0.24871712923049927,
0.598724901676178,
-0.17320749163627625,
0.04269465431571007,
-0.33066678047180176,
-0.6693399548530579,
0.028823964297771454,
-0.3932202458381653,
-1.0118261575698853,
-0.8392095565795898,
-0.06426652520895004,
0.3675270974636078,
0.601436972618103,
0.1492505520582199,
-0.39049577713012695,
-0.1721009761095047,
0.569640576839447,
0.27812591195106506,
-0.6406955718994141,
-0.26161786913871765,
0.3444024920463562,
0.4004512429237366,
-0.22207564115524292,
0.768099844455719,
0.19747567176818848,
0.1531156599521637,
-0.8388283848762512,
-0.35992151498794556,
0.1754855215549469,
-0.31020158529281616,
0.393340140581131,
-0.08754788339138031,
-0.20918545126914978,
-0.47993364930152893,
0.17840172350406647,
-0.6977637410163879,
-0.032804399728775024,
0.014419803395867348,
-0.6605743765830994,
-0.2593413293361664,
-0.187615767121315,
0.45528697967529297,
-0.48026397824287415,
0.14633651077747345,
-0.4988998472690582,
-0.6359158158302307,
0.321228563785553,
-0.09053419530391693,
0.940577507019043,
0.8029128909111023,
0.1163099929690361,
-1.1955125331878662,
0.3142683506011963,
-0.3318532705307007,
-0.9352502822875977,
0.26518532633781433,
-0.6127417087554932,
0.07974059134721756,
-0.06486010551452637,
0.2435312420129776,
0.5529308319091797,
0.09158172458410263,
-0.1285254806280136,
-0.15794077515602112,
1.0173685550689697,
-0.6516996622085571,
0.28511035442352295,
0.4062689244747162,
-0.35383227467536926,
-0.0651029422879219,
-0.44665050506591797,
-0.7199851274490356,
0.8850190043449402,
0.19523721933364868,
0.13917633891105652,
-0.6958616971969604,
-0.09943874180316925,
0.38276544213294983,
-0.03779597207903862,
0.4204406142234802,
0.36504337191581726,
0.6748306751251221,
-0.2812999486923218,
0.19236800074577332,
-0.17596717178821564,
0.20986294746398926,
-0.44530728459358215,
0.8751535415649414,
-0.5357099771499634,
-0.5812413096427917,
-0.7270713448524475,
-0.6515944004058838,
-0.21132314205169678,
-0.7036398649215698,
0.3366234600543976,
-0.0696646049618721,
0.035232700407505035,
-0.35866251587867737,
-0.6123332977294922,
0.21906572580337524,
0.7340036630630493,
0.40603959560394287,
-0.9843900799751282,
0.11736904829740524,
0.7464951872825623,
-0.34158360958099365,
0.5429442524909973,
-0.4700902998447418,
-0.8097392916679382,
0.10830391943454742,
0.3622860908508301,
-1.2090343236923218,
0.8900368809700012,
-0.04639452323317528,
-1.1906676292419434,
-0.15639939904212952,
0.9017605185508728,
-0.27567142248153687,
-0.06735183298587799,
0.2555292248725891,
-0.05202658846974373,
-0.8576647043228149,
-0.40065285563468933,
-0.18640770018100739,
-0.5701623558998108,
-0.683737576007843,
-0.3854975998401642,
-0.8356592059135437,
0.15907292068004608,
0.14398299157619476,
-0.3368406295776367,
0.6558830738067627,
-0.7054751515388489,
-0.3029080927371979,
0.08517679572105408,
0.7116490602493286,
-0.1767635941505432,
-0.4060920774936676,
0.018398603424429893,
-0.23540516197681427,
0.23379991948604584,
-0.27603235840797424,
0.1185905858874321,
0.203571155667305,
0.889914870262146,
0.4494808316230774,
-0.0010974797187373042,
0.1520533710718155,
0.6691626906394958,
-0.12250665575265884,
0.1623018980026245,
-0.18003161251544952,
0.08094815909862518,
-0.03576580435037613,
-0.4252758324146271,
-0.4489104449748993,
-0.6200457811355591,
1.05526602268219,
-0.18613602221012115,
0.09851095080375671,
0.5317544937133789,
-0.18611453473567963,
0.07755313813686371,
0.17754872143268585,
0.944449782371521,
-0.23064102232456207,
0.8334069848060608,
0.008179735392332077,
0.24056518077850342,
0.23427383601665497,
-0.33541372418403625,
-0.024491947144269943,
-0.21551008522510529,
-0.8959693908691406,
-0.4988633990287781,
-0.3928154706954956,
0.5425962805747986,
0.277658611536026,
-0.057859670370817184,
0.5299831032752991,
-0.7558425068855286,
1.2988818883895874,
-0.40753915905952454,
-0.27148857712745667,
0.8292271494865417,
0.18010485172271729,
-0.6795762777328491,
-0.39752328395843506,
0.05927608907222748,
-0.7572294473648071,
0.22800172865390778,
-0.18009310960769653,
0.608407735824585,
-0.5762919783592224,
-0.2849630117416382,
0.07716567069292068,
0.518690288066864,
0.4849293828010559,
0.9290915131568909,
-0.8692401647567749,
-0.7023797035217285,
-0.30680808424949646,
0.19643643498420715,
-1.184395432472229,
0.4411272406578064,
0.8797904849052429,
0.39098840951919556,
0.6209437251091003,
0.4624934494495392,
-0.576149582862854,
-0.28890976309776306,
-0.7425863742828369,
-0.12091118842363358,
-0.17234887182712555,
0.22483953833580017,
0.10411343723535538,
-0.2758520841598511,
0.26171875,
-0.2113288938999176,
0.5062354803085327,
-0.13433903455734253,
-0.4158950746059418,
0.17903046309947968,
0.6193593740463257,
-0.43065309524536133,
1.072291374206543,
-0.06040800362825394,
0.4281967282295227,
0.16108019649982452,
-0.6134816408157349,
-0.7361114621162415,
-0.07145378738641739,
0.0009793827775865793,
-0.3503536283969879,
0.04399716481566429,
-1.4345316886901855,
1.1548762321472168,
0.09418090432882309,
0.3633970618247986,
0.06145206093788147,
-0.7019496560096741,
0.1990392953157425,
0.3683815896511078,
0.1517840474843979,
1.2190223932266235,
-0.25547483563423157,
-0.6355916261672974,
-0.9510179162025452,
0.2699469029903412,
-0.6406499743461609,
-0.04045763239264488,
-0.1909973919391632,
0.2564239203929901,
0.12232907861471176,
0.4554797410964966,
0.1295938938856125,
-0.1668262630701065,
-0.16350199282169342,
0.3007833957672119,
0.6251295804977417,
0.501646101474762,
-0.2308012843132019,
-1.661252737045288,
-0.20681658387184143,
-0.08297361433506012,
1.040749430656433,
-0.23426106572151184,
-0.358578085899353,
0.12498080730438232,
-0.6742221713066101,
-0.04662748798727989,
-0.4306168258190155,
0.09596095979213715,
0.24370189011096954,
-0.8179430961608887,
0.4536678194999695,
0.6705992221832275,
0.7450397610664368,
0.20371995866298676,
0.15890812873840332,
0.210731640458107,
-0.06647077947854996,
-0.48448941111564636,
-0.9308261275291443,
-0.0058899070136249065,
-0.24907523393630981,
-0.050954341888427734,
0.4678286612033844,
-0.39487046003341675,
-0.3212868273258209,
0.031444184482097626,
0.5041236281394958,
-0.3779228925704956,
-0.47695192694664,
-0.1964195817708969,
0.4202219247817993,
0.4833418130874634,
-1.1046617031097412,
0.20193131268024445,
-0.30052638053894043,
0.4811190366744995,
-0.5412065386772156,
-0.5509856343269348,
0.24006050825119019,
0.2838493883609772,
-0.3275218904018402,
0.032707519829273224,
-0.1008654236793518,
0.15661904215812683,
-0.5149796009063721,
0.9942558407783508,
-0.7001749873161316,
-0.06267928332090378,
-0.3499234914779663,
-0.15401284396648407,
-0.42171511054039,
0.7725288271903992,
-0.4737849235534668,
-0.09109998494386673,
0.9701592326164246,
-0.6478707194328308,
-0.6228755116462708,
0.5774654150009155,
0.15153302252292633,
-0.30608415603637695,
-0.015056106261909008,
0.05523860082030296,
0.012140956707298756,
-0.5764597058296204,
0.46311742067337036,
-0.08302329480648041,
0.41851383447647095,
0.09487887471914291,
0.42783936858177185,
0.239020437002182,
-0.4969835579395294,
-0.6394436955451965,
-0.08909759670495987,
-0.21411804854869843,
0.8664543032646179,
0.18162637948989868,
0.6204249262809753,
-0.5394647121429443,
0.6173740029335022,
-0.06850099563598633,
0.7787600159645081,
0.23331789672374725,
-3.369809865951538,
-0.4618588387966156,
0.39980554580688477,
-0.6678830981254578,
0.9948288202285767,
0.6948990821838379,
0.216244637966156,
0.6276165843009949,
0.1551709771156311,
-0.3505792021751404,
0.41777852177619934,
0.4662686586380005,
-0.375571072101593,
-0.6904018521308899,
0.08613889664411545,
0.6431099772453308
] |
233586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustachian%20tube | Eustachian tube | In anatomy, the Eustachian tube, also known as the auditory tube or pharyngotympanic tube, is a tube that links the nasopharynx to the middle ear, of which it is also a part. In adult humans, the Eustachian tube is approximately long and in diameter. It is named after the sixteenth-century Italian anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachi.
In humans and other tetrapods, both the middle ear and the ear canal are normally filled with air. Unlike the air of the ear canal, however, the air of the middle ear is not in direct contact with the atmosphere outside the body; thus, a pressure difference can develop between the atmospheric pressure of the ear canal and the middle ear. Normally, the Eustachian tube is collapsed, but it gapes open with swallowing and with positive pressure, allowing the middle ear's pressure to adjust to the atmospheric pressure. When taking off in an aircraft, the ambient air pressure goes from higher (on the ground) to lower (in the sky). The air in the middle ear expands as the plane gains altitude, and pushes its way into the back of the nose and mouth; on the way down, the volume of air in the middle ear shrinks, and a slight vacuum is produced. Active opening of the Eustachian tube (through actions like swallowing or the Valsalva maneuver) is required to equalize the pressure between the middle ear and the ambient atmosphere as the plane descends. A diver also experiences this change in pressure, but with greater rates of pressure change; active opening of the Eustachian tube is required more frequently as the diver goes deeper, into higher pressure.
Structure
The Eustachian tube extends from the anterior wall of the middle ear to the lateral wall of the nasopharynx, approximately at the level of the inferior nasal concha. It consists of a bony part and a cartilaginous part.
Bony part
The bony part () nearest to the middle ear is made of bone and is about 12 mm in length. It begins in the anterior wall of the tympanic cavity, below the septum canalis musculotubarius, and, gradually narrowing, ends at the angle of junction of the squamous and the petrous parts of the temporal bone, its extremity presenting a jagged margin which serves for the attachment of the cartilaginous part.
The vestibule of the Eustachian tube is known as the protympanum, The protympanum is also known as the anterior part of the bony part of the tube.
Cartilaginous part
The cartilaginous part of the Eustachian tube is about 24 mm in length and is formed of a triangular plate of elastic fibrocartilage, the apex of which is attached to the margin of the medial end of the bony part of the tube, while its base lies directly under the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, where it forms an elevation, the torus tubarius or cushion, behind the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube.
The upper edge of the cartilage is curled upon itself, being bent laterally so as to present on transverse section the appearance of a hook; a groove or furrow is thus produced, which is open below and laterally, and this part of the canal is completed by fibrous membrane. The cartilage lies in a groove between the petrous part of the temporal bone and the great wing of the sphenoid; this groove ends opposite the middle of the medial pterygoid plate. The cartilaginous and bony portions of the tube are not in the same plane, the former inclining downward a little more than the latter. The diameter of the tube is not uniform throughout, being greatest at the pharyngeal opening, least at the junction of the bony and cartilaginous portions, and again increased toward the tympanic cavity; the narrowest part of the tube is termed the isthmus.
The position and relations of the pharyngeal opening are described with the nasal part of the pharynx. The mucous membrane of the tube is continuous in front with that of the nasal part of the pharynx, and behind with that of the tympanic cavity; it is covered with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia and is thin in the osseous portion, while in the cartilaginous portion it contains many mucous glands and near the pharyngeal orifice a considerable amount of adenoid tissue, which has been named by Gerlach the tube tonsil.
Muscles
There are four muscles associated with the function of the Eustachian tube:
Levator veli palatini (innervated by the vagus nerve)
Salpingopharyngeus (innervated by the vagus nerve)
Tensor tympani (innervated by the mandibular nerve of CN V)
Tensor veli palatini (innervated by the mandibular nerve of CN V)
The tube is opened during swallowing by contraction of the tensor veli palatini and levator veli palatini, muscles of the soft palate.
New anatomical perspectives
More recently, two developments have enhanced our understanding of the anatomy of the eustachian tube: Valsalva computerized tomography and endoscopic ear surgery.
Given the greater access to the ear anatomy using endoscopic methods, it has been suggested that the bony part of the eustachian tube is really the anterior extension of the middle ear cavity, or the "Protympanum". The term "Eustachian Tube" should be limited to the fibrocartilaginous structure connecting the protympanum to the nasopharynx.
The Eustachian tube is a sac like irregular structure rather than a tubular structure.
The ear side of the eustchian tube is by far the narrowest segment, called isthmus, and is probably the site of possible obstructive pathology causing chronic ear disease.
Development
The Eustachian tube is derived from the dorsal part of the first pharyngeal pouch and second endodermal pouch, which during embryogenesis forms the tubotympanic recess. The distal part of the tubotympanic sulcus gives rise to the tympanic cavity, while the proximal tubular structure becomes the Eustachian tube. It helps transformation of sound waves.
Function
Pressure equalization
Under normal circumstances, the human Eustachian tube is closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to prevent damage by equalizing pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere. Pressure differences cause temporary conductive hearing loss by decreased motion of the tympanic membrane and ossicles of the ear. Various methods of ear clearing such as yawning, swallowing, or chewing gum may be used to intentionally open the tube and equalize pressures. When this happens, humans hear a small popping sound, an event familiar to aircraft passengers, scuba divers, or drivers in mountainous regions. Devices assisting in pressure equalization include an ad hoc balloon applied to the nose, creating inflation by positive air pressure.
Some people learn to voluntarily 'click' their ears, together or separately, performing a pressure equalizing routine by opening their Eustachian tubes when pressure changes are experienced, as in ascending/descending in aircraft, mountain driving, elevator lift/drops, etc. Some are even able to deliberately keep their Eustachian tubes open for a brief period, and even increase or decrease air pressure in the middle ear. The 'clicking' can actually be heard by putting one's ear to another's while performing the clicking sound. This voluntary control may be first discovered when yawning or swallowing, or by other means (above). Those who develop this ability may discover that it can be done deliberately without force even when there are no pressure issues involved.
Mucus drainage
The Eustachian tube also drains mucus from the middle ear. Upper respiratory tract infections or allergies can cause the Eustachian tube, or the membranes surrounding its opening to become swollen, trapping fluid, which serves as a growth medium for bacteria, causing ear infections. This swelling can be reduced through the use of decongestants such as pseudoephedrine, oxymetazoline, and phenylephrine. Ear infections are more common in children because the tube is horizontal and shorter, making bacterial entry easier, and it also has a smaller diameter, making the movement of fluid more difficult. In addition, children's developing immune systems and poor hygiene habits make them more prone to upper respiratory infections.
Clinical significance
Otitis media, or inflammation of the middle ear, commonly affects the Eustachian tube. Children under 7 are more susceptible to this condition, one theory being that this is because the Eustachian tube is shorter and at more of a horizontal angle than in the adult ear. Others argue that susceptibility in this age group is related to immunological factors and not Eustachian tube anatomy.
Barotitis, a form of barotrauma, may occur when there is a substantial difference in air or water pressure between the outer and the middle ear – for example, during a rapid ascent while scuba diving, or during sudden decompression of an aircraft at high altitude.
Some people are born with a dysfunctional Eustachian tube that is much slimmer than usual. The cause may be genetic, but it has also been posited as a condition in which the patient did not fully recover from the effects of pressure on the middle ear during birth (retained birth compression). It is suggested that Eustachian tube dysfunction can result in a large amount of mucus accumulating in the middle ear, often impairing hearing to a degree. This condition is known as otitis media with effusion.
A patulous Eustachian tube is a rare condition in which the Eustachian tube remains intermittently open, causing an echoing sound of the person's own heartbeat, breathing, and speech. This may be temporarily relieved by holding the head upside down.
Smoking can also cause damage to the cilia that protect the Eustachian tube from mucus, which can result in the clogging of the tube and a buildup of bacteria in the ear, leading to a middle ear infection.
Recurring and chronic cases of sinus infection can result in Eustachian tube dysfunction caused by excessive mucus production which, in turn, causes obstruction to the openings of the Eustachian tubes.
Ventilation tubes
In severe cases of childhood middle ear infections and Eustachian tube blockage, ventilation can be provided by a surgical puncturing of the eardrum to permit air equalization, known as myringotomy. The eardrum would normally naturally heal and close the hole, so a tiny plastic rimmed grommet is inserted into the hole to hold it open. This is known as a tympanostomy tube. As a child grows, the tube is eventually naturally expelled by the body. Longer-lasting vent grommets with larger flanges have been researched, but these can lead to permanent perforation of the eardrum.
Dilation of the Eustachian tube
More recently, dilation of the eustachian tube using balloon catheter has gained attention as a method of treating eustachian tube obstruction. There are two methods of performing this procedure depending on the route of the catheter introduction and the area of the Eustachian tube to be dilated. Dennis Poe have popularized the transnasal introduction and the dilation of the nose side of the eustachian tube. Muaaz Tarabichi pioneered the transtympanic (ear) introduction of the balloon catheter and the dilatation of the proximal part (the ear side) of the cartilaginous eustachian tube.
Other animals
In the equids (horses) and some rodent-like species such as the desert hyrax, an evagination of the Eustachian tube is known as the guttural pouch and is divided into medial and lateral compartments by the stylohyoid bone of the hyoid apparatus. This is of great importance in equine medicine as the pouches are prone to infections, and, due to their intimate relationship to the cranial nerves (VII, IX, X, XI) and the internal and external carotid artery, various syndromes may arise relating to which is damaged. Epistaxis (nosebleed) is a very common presentation to veterinary surgeons and this may often be fatal unless a balloon catheter can be placed in time to suppress bleeding.
References
External links
Ear | [
0.21338742971420288,
0.3658080995082855,
-0.39084020256996155,
-0.0638376772403717,
0.3953022062778473,
0.6834040284156799,
0.5757614374160767,
0.14867140352725983,
-0.052298326045274734,
-0.7536182999610901,
-0.08649283647537231,
0.453782320022583,
0.07630275934934616,
-0.02635776996612549,
-0.03236251696944237,
-0.2669060528278351,
0.8477804660797119,
0.06842656433582306,
0.09548690915107727,
-0.5746520161628723,
-0.19245469570159912,
-0.038505103439092636,
0.29720205068588257,
-0.24491901695728302,
0.577857494354248,
-0.19556821882724762,
0.0730733573436737,
-0.2445438802242279,
0.5983431935310364,
-0.36330652236938477,
0.10829826444387436,
0.8127484321594238,
-0.11611660569906235,
-1.0943206548690796,
0.06792417168617249,
-0.3669252097606659,
-0.1763155311346054,
-0.5926060676574707,
-0.20371216535568237,
-0.5243025422096252,
0.02937333658337593,
0.14238892495632172,
0.37408462166786194,
0.3249738812446594,
-0.5045706033706665,
-0.0796366035938263,
-1.5630303621292114,
0.4695306420326233,
-0.44314154982566833,
0.3618031144142151,
-0.1833939254283905,
-0.1500306874513626,
0.809636116027832,
0.3512825071811676,
-0.28626155853271484,
0.1998806744813919,
-0.6997700929641724,
0.19945886731147766,
0.4998864531517029,
-0.3571702837944031,
0.002028811490163207,
0.7899055480957031,
0.028256604447960854,
0.24633434414863586,
0.6157493591308594,
0.2920531630516052,
0.3316344618797302,
0.3872775137424469,
-0.5715506672859192,
0.20955942571163177,
-0.1738806664943695,
-0.10966484993696213,
0.10444854944944382,
0.1266675740480423,
-0.5120612978935242,
-0.15594889223575592,
-0.37145090103149414,
0.07382887601852417,
0.7351294755935669,
0.09060847759246826,
0.1265704333782196,
0.136870875954628,
0.07294883579015732,
0.49039527773857117,
-0.31677162647247314,
-0.10589028149843216,
-0.7845703959465027,
0.22069552540779114,
-0.9264465570449829,
0.023964257910847664,
-0.2976587116718292,
-0.8401383757591248,
0.17290028929710388,
0.0807962566614151,
0.01632562093436718,
0.052642133086919785,
0.3309907913208008,
-0.060068730264902115,
0.035067521035671234,
0.25818511843681335,
-0.4090268313884735,
-0.1719830185174942,
0.10168440639972687,
-0.3598146140575409,
0.23655971884727478,
0.12065350264310837,
-0.26552098989486694,
-0.48102158308029175,
-0.3476560413837433,
0.5437295436859131,
-0.61746746301651,
-0.26734957098960876,
-0.08910233527421951,
-0.1840960830450058,
-0.452167272567749,
-0.11357759684324265,
0.3602374792098999,
-0.2857174575328827,
-0.47798287868499756,
-0.7435968518257141,
0.3170362412929535,
0.45149147510528564,
0.2195974439382553,
-0.4313153624534607,
-0.3170340061187744,
-0.4527428448200226,
0.3331165015697479,
0.23270796239376068,
-0.3991909623146057,
-0.053659580647945404,
-0.11469264328479767,
0.9144937992095947,
0.26216986775398254,
0.07228728383779526,
-0.37175253033638,
-0.009518311358988285,
-0.013586491346359253,
0.6310456991195679,
0.47867852449417114,
0.5892108082771301,
0.01262348797172308,
-0.19841746985912323,
-1.070322036743164,
-0.00031429476803168654,
0.047479622066020966,
-0.09372398257255554,
-0.6060930490493774,
0.43405666947364807,
-0.3177046775817871,
-0.31317102909088135,
0.3490472137928009,
0.12260949611663818,
0.19638100266456604,
-0.4418979287147522,
-0.048050656914711,
-0.1161658838391304,
0.4788387417793274,
-0.11613687127828598,
0.14124377071857452,
0.17570343613624573,
0.3052119016647339,
-0.20465128123760223,
-0.13193857669830322,
0.16499248147010803,
-0.3862355053424835,
0.27249875664711,
0.40274935960769653,
-0.11657244712114334,
-0.10558297485113144,
0.38261690735816956,
0.14609836041927338,
0.08390342444181442,
0.3442328870296478,
-0.09775833785533905,
-0.1239866241812706,
-0.1649283915758133,
0.7104495763778687,
0.6656373143196106,
0.49886342883110046,
-0.5684110522270203,
-0.6836934089660645,
0.11501280218362808,
-0.3123658299446106,
-0.5673067569732666,
0.39567819237709045,
-0.024535898119211197,
0.3398073613643646,
0.14177079498767853,
-0.5266391038894653,
-0.02616214193403721,
0.04101606458425522,
-0.9968600869178772,
-0.041488368064165115,
-0.03090456873178482,
1.1026691198349,
0.26066240668296814,
0.012001932598650455,
0.18558304011821747,
0.41522809863090515,
0.0006889501819387078,
-0.17877928912639618,
-0.1313057541847229,
0.18219108879566193,
-0.21284885704517365,
-0.7648955583572388,
0.47169145941734314,
0.43139442801475525,
-0.28448641300201416,
0.750096321105957,
-0.08189447224140167,
0.381770521402359,
-0.5199669003486633,
0.08941714465618134,
-0.6811884045600891,
0.15083779394626617,
-0.6335065364837646,
0.04354939982295036,
0.07447478920221329,
-0.4125908315181732,
-0.3425813615322113,
0.4895087778568268,
-0.48500004410743713,
0.3691490888595581,
0.014224535785615444,
0.024496138095855713,
0.8708732724189758,
0.03169965371489525,
0.4453597068786621,
0.0008400349179282784,
-0.4899671673774719,
-0.3265206813812256,
-0.26036375761032104,
0.35029321908950806,
0.17071589827537537,
-0.06522627919912338,
-0.4609920382499695,
-0.004746909253299236,
-0.9870129823684692,
0.6768143177032471,
-0.4411047101020813,
0.09658504277467728,
-0.07951744645833969,
-0.7855422496795654,
0.4286046326160431,
0.36144471168518066,
-0.3402610123157501,
0.2894986569881439,
0.20817182958126068,
0.09333870559930801,
-0.008349628187716007,
0.29330840706825256,
0.7081336379051208,
0.21600684523582458,
-0.19579212367534637,
0.4752519428730011,
-0.14138978719711304,
0.3032325506210327,
0.16699989140033722,
0.28961122035980225,
-0.10614273697137833,
-0.36898118257522583,
0.553918719291687,
0.37802404165267944,
0.31220608949661255,
-0.06806126981973648,
-0.23619207739830017,
0.1319677233695984,
-0.33310627937316895,
1.3066126108169556,
0.06896180659532547,
0.7998400926589966,
0.38426563143730164,
-0.6873447895050049,
0.33255234360694885,
-0.34515324234962463,
-0.16085001826286316,
0.3649683892726898,
-0.05629219487309456,
-0.036562856286764145,
-0.7915921211242676,
-0.0440446175634861,
0.5724177360534668,
-0.17893972992897034,
-0.15482169389724731,
0.09578898549079895,
0.250020295381546,
-0.2983122766017914,
-0.15864188969135284,
0.10433638840913773,
-0.9043779373168945,
-0.2727949023246765,
0.15391390025615692,
0.18666140735149384,
0.13341526687145233,
-0.33816710114479065,
0.47178220748901367,
-0.23674558103084564,
0.1187410056591034,
0.18721777200698853,
-0.7368717193603516,
-0.6336972713470459,
0.037572044879198074,
-0.16788755357265472,
0.1965450495481491,
0.24154363572597504,
-0.16623227298259735,
0.19301922619342804,
0.7237747311592102,
-5.705315113067627,
0.26067280769348145,
-0.09234579652547836,
0.11413278430700302,
0.7408912181854248,
0.33462777733802795,
0.4324357211589813,
-0.5084800720214844,
-0.2789797782897949,
-0.20000040531158447,
-0.15928058326244354,
0.6328715085983276,
0.33637067675590515,
0.40932363271713257,
-0.1585584133863449,
0.013247452676296234,
-1.2114436626434326,
-0.014748078770935535,
0.1525910645723343,
-0.060132186859846115,
0.11311890929937363,
-0.0068374439142644405,
-0.048636049032211304,
0.37858152389526367,
0.230763241648674,
-0.7781868577003479,
-0.06951295584440231,
0.4419654905796051,
-0.300313800573349,
-0.3849683403968811,
0.13401688635349274,
-0.4646873474121094,
0.010560698807239532,
0.11518178135156631,
0.0774812325835228,
-0.39893463253974915,
0.4964151978492737,
0.08729236572980881,
0.5907443165779114,
-0.5416664481163025,
-0.7957782745361328,
0.13014204800128937,
0.41529855132102966,
0.13014189898967743,
0.24541541934013367,
-0.3291820287704468,
-0.05580306053161621,
-0.44704216718673706,
0.2554948627948761,
0.941918671131134,
0.08699490875005722,
0.269828736782074,
-0.05864041671156883,
0.31944650411605835,
0.6332828402519226,
-0.026861775666475296,
0.32599592208862305,
0.1578706055879593,
0.08154123276472092,
0.1284416764974594,
0.48209765553474426,
-0.5385178923606873,
-0.9696284532546997,
-0.761554479598999,
0.22756369411945343,
-0.34902423620224,
-0.9354944825172424,
0.1250205636024475,
0.1794189214706421,
0.4024805426597595,
-0.08270744979381561,
0.1063326895236969,
-0.1312456876039505,
-0.911681056022644,
0.4559131860733032,
-0.2529805898666382,
-0.21332146227359772,
-0.02894619293510914,
0.0815463662147522,
0.07510079443454742,
-0.18876495957374573,
-0.2060416340827942,
-0.27497172355651855,
0.3283554017543793,
-0.20934250950813293,
-0.4367283284664154,
-0.5395784378051758,
-0.07290942221879959,
-0.20943059027194977,
-0.2622446119785309,
0.37767860293388367,
-0.2756417393684387,
-0.5819776654243469,
0.6552718281745911,
-0.16238687932491302,
0.2867375910282135,
-0.0324535109102726,
0.8402929306030273,
1.152984857559204,
0.13276363909244537,
0.5614714026451111,
-0.3497079014778137,
-0.3393833041191101,
0.34839099645614624,
0.18516257405281067,
-0.326865017414093,
-0.43596571683883667,
0.1674123853445053,
0.9131225347518921,
-0.11264802515506744,
-0.0009429068304598331,
0.10489355027675629,
-0.10410256683826447,
-0.24340425431728363,
0.08239477127790451,
-0.4843491017818451,
-0.23169924318790436,
0.13735243678092957,
0.9330897331237793,
-0.3692469596862793,
0.5277414917945862,
0.3676187992095947,
-0.5196111798286438,
0.24425341188907623,
-0.4168308973312378,
0.17181408405303955,
0.14198093116283417,
-0.05995909869670868,
-0.8961732983589172,
-0.3347666561603546,
0.14771097898483276,
-0.33678171038627625,
0.08672961592674255,
-0.12076537311077118,
0.1986987292766571,
-0.3430367410182953,
-0.2565692663192749,
0.06330659985542297,
0.04764503985643387,
-0.13170267641544342,
-0.03809670731425285,
-0.4972548186779022,
-0.3523879647254944,
-0.3640892505645752,
0.46527618169784546,
0.4834509491920471,
-0.5083619952201843,
-0.03852401673793793,
-0.6995726227760315,
0.45994898676872253,
-0.31901001930236816,
-0.39715704321861267,
-0.011332977563142776,
-0.18952001631259918,
0.1527879238128662,
-0.04770961031317711,
-0.27924296259880066,
-0.1151554211974144,
-0.14747354388237,
-0.20662260055541992,
0.1960555762052536,
-0.29315829277038574,
-0.5582593083381653,
0.236567422747612,
0.11583433300256729,
-0.133954718708992,
-0.490213006734848,
-0.6843175292015076,
-0.3403821587562561,
0.08870958536863327,
0.02083967812359333,
0.2284838706254959,
-0.053791776299476624,
0.11325303465127945,
0.26945796608924866,
-0.05571331828832626,
-0.41268494725227356,
0.8933842182159424,
-0.427428275346756,
-0.2055809199810028,
0.054252542555332184,
-0.12826187908649445,
0.29669973254203796,
-0.2643652856349945,
0.17551930248737335,
-0.017476754263043404,
-0.6337127089500427,
-0.18407011032104492,
-0.3649868965148926,
-0.43081754446029663,
-0.39916545152664185,
0.33002981543540955,
-0.47168636322021484,
0.06388404220342636,
-0.24530629813671112,
0.36321428418159485,
-0.47698310017585754,
0.21822583675384521,
-0.06537242233753204,
-0.40419134497642517,
0.13481000065803528,
0.07901528477668762,
-0.27879148721694946,
0.3093205392360687,
0.30273520946502686,
-0.4744037389755249,
0.7094809412956238,
0.02718568779528141,
-0.2953591048717499,
0.9999961256980896,
0.22093524038791656,
-0.8097959160804749,
-0.48448261618614197,
0.7450667023658752,
-0.4564063549041748,
0.030454102903604507,
0.1721201390028,
-0.22026057541370392,
-0.31363916397094727,
-0.20286555588245392,
0.24096547067165375,
-0.17310674488544464,
-0.3392665386199951,
-0.15705053508281708,
-0.5337804555892944,
0.5139263272285461,
-0.43833792209625244,
-0.503200888633728,
0.6215395927429199,
-0.39478999376296997,
-0.5376849174499512,
-0.007250880356878042,
0.44883623719215393,
0.2145780771970749,
-0.2791414260864258,
-0.33387303352355957,
-0.5666244626045227,
-0.03436335176229477,
-0.6334003806114197,
0.39028772711753845,
0.938818097114563,
0.6113889217376709,
-0.05198105424642563,
0.2683832347393036,
-0.210257425904274,
0.716032862663269,
0.06578702479600906,
-0.3203239440917969,
-0.4317074418067932,
-0.23395346105098724,
0.9426339864730835,
-0.1224750205874443,
-0.25709232687950134,
-0.26262596249580383,
0.49030545353889465,
-0.17295844852924347,
0.2709200084209442,
-0.05345861241221428,
-0.08294563740491867,
0.30644866824150085,
0.26463866233825684,
-0.4874132573604584,
-0.25941261649131775,
0.3244624435901642,
0.24954085052013397,
0.006857347674667835,
-0.3484868109226227,
-0.055056024342775345,
-0.07084575295448303,
-0.6268425583839417,
0.2835606336593628,
0.3187853991985321,
0.3430127501487732,
-0.3587927222251892,
-0.1593862771987915,
0.16488492488861084,
0.25921323895454407,
-0.3226011395454407,
0.29214560985565186,
-0.23847170174121857,
-0.0831894800066948,
0.2017292082309723,
-0.5115801692008972,
-0.32419025897979736,
-0.18122166395187378,
-0.12348699569702148,
-0.14039106667041779,
-0.33696284890174866,
0.46229976415634155,
-0.19210787117481232,
-0.06216110661625862,
-0.5404623746871948,
-0.3964001536369324,
0.8375535607337952,
0.3096054494380951,
0.0711594969034195,
-0.0009009789791889489,
0.3828341066837311,
0.32678747177124023,
0.01844785176217556,
-1.0863856077194214,
0.30346739292144775,
0.6387680172920227,
-0.2305956482887268,
0.46655747294425964,
0.5933401584625244,
-0.1965741664171219,
-0.334375262260437,
-0.05558427423238754,
-0.1116940826177597,
0.6035407185554504,
0.2127407044172287,
-0.20396605134010315,
0.5580301880836487,
-0.4210209846496582,
-0.2067321389913559,
0.6842692494392395,
-0.20501282811164856,
0.08513600379228592,
0.7276286482810974,
-0.051781199872493744,
0.008100289851427078,
0.4581148326396942,
0.3372655510902405,
-0.35390937328338623,
-0.2644613981246948,
-0.46189045906066895,
-0.03792273998260498,
0.3508009612560272,
0.9700067043304443,
1.1463366746902466,
0.39050185680389404,
0.17565615475177765,
0.7641656994819641,
0.04150267317891121,
-0.5543111562728882,
-0.31552809476852417,
-0.6102696657180786,
0.14675024151802063,
0.4756086468696594,
0.6438618898391724,
0.28078627586364746,
0.055203262716531754,
0.24635058641433716,
-0.2123735100030899,
0.6688915491104126,
0.06396167725324631,
-0.06850401312112808,
-0.4537881016731262,
0.12550665438175201,
0.12663249671459198,
0.002018461935222149,
0.5594961643218994,
-0.23416736721992493,
0.27033188939094543,
0.4461970031261444,
0.5550527572631836,
0.283746600151062,
-0.3608750104904175,
0.4900607168674469,
-0.016547705978155136,
0.45193204283714294,
0.2621021568775177,
-0.499261736869812,
-0.37717944383621216,
-0.102116160094738,
-0.5196574926376343,
-0.71559739112854,
-0.05527712404727936,
-0.1300671398639679,
0.4525045156478882,
0.16747939586639404,
-0.855113685131073,
-0.5767789483070374,
0.09138798713684082,
0.4396234452724457,
-0.12724657356739044,
-0.021624069660902023,
0.6058816909790039,
-0.30425816774368286,
-0.4112682044506073,
-0.05576537549495697,
0.048031773418188095,
-0.4894126057624817,
-0.18875010311603546,
0.31900322437286377,
0.13520537316799164,
-0.04095672443509102,
-0.252115398645401,
-0.27332478761672974,
-0.2524731159210205,
-0.40294793248176575,
0.29802608489990234,
-0.5929123759269714,
-0.20959310233592987,
-0.42373284697532654,
0.13729578256607056,
0.4872117042541504,
0.3713340759277344,
0.29874372482299805,
-0.012590437196195126,
1.0240288972854614,
-0.2800702452659607,
-0.40719708800315857,
-0.04858836159110069,
0.8575605750083923,
-0.058360062539577484,
0.33398643136024475,
-0.39573198556900024,
-0.17911572754383087,
0.4323706030845642,
0.35304364562034607,
0.024575885385274887,
0.43971964716911316,
0.4525565207004547,
0.6922875046730042,
0.01814546063542366,
-0.12337315082550049,
-0.16297753155231476,
0.03880072012543678,
-0.28071632981300354,
0.001537523465231061,
-0.16859695315361023,
0.11538723111152649,
-0.3660682439804077,
0.08072508126497269,
0.5877562165260315,
-0.03977890685200691,
-0.5830380320549011,
0.5157754421234131,
-0.2016206681728363,
-0.006872605532407761,
-0.9940418004989624,
0.0616016760468483,
-0.42071014642715454,
0.0531025156378746,
0.10002908110618591,
0.4908830523490906,
0.2709856331348419,
-0.3569626212120056,
-0.031239096075296402,
-0.2402513027191162,
0.2947888970375061,
0.6504147052764893,
-0.14996010065078735,
-0.4202224314212799,
-0.31777259707450867,
-0.7130709290504456,
-0.5861254930496216,
0.6207300424575806,
0.34352871775627136,
-0.6535409688949585,
0.21931321918964386,
-0.10123967379331589,
-0.23346275091171265,
0.029716547578573227,
0.24425970017910004,
-0.21305115520954132,
0.14091619849205017,
0.5604962706565857
] |
233587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustachius | Eustachius | Eustachius may refer to:
Saint Eustachius
Bartolomeo Eustachi (c. 1500–1510 – 1574), anatomist
Eustáquio van Lieshout (1890-1943), Dutch missionary in Brazil
Eustochius, fifth bishop of Tours from 443 to 460
Eustathius, son of Macrobius | [
0.07628963142633438,
0.6199710369110107,
-0.6141068339347839,
0.07422712445259094,
-0.42971596121788025,
0.6996996402740479,
0.6619537472724915,
0.18763886392116547,
-0.863682210445404,
-0.8474187850952148,
0.011580714024603367,
-0.2677909731864929,
-0.2427757829427719,
-0.2574504613876343,
-0.07926449924707413,
-0.14850443601608276,
0.3626914322376251,
0.3492095470428467,
-0.40727493166923523,
-0.8040870428085327,
-0.056036386638879776,
-0.5443270802497864,
0.13662555813789368,
-0.11165066808462143,
0.20805680751800537,
0.2038007229566574,
0.014832936227321625,
-0.5774455070495605,
-0.09981444478034973,
-0.1367569863796234,
0.259778767824173,
0.5323390364646912,
0.5978063344955444,
-0.2283148616552353,
-0.43966126441955566,
0.18150241672992706,
0.43411773443222046,
0.42653101682662964,
0.09097672253847122,
-0.21679525077342987,
0.4586949050426483,
-0.18828840553760529,
0.6052790284156799,
0.3198758363723755,
-0.36087292432785034,
-0.06284241378307343,
-1.9287457466125488,
0.18598037958145142,
-0.6530671119689941,
-0.4346999526023865,
0.8127442002296448,
0.0915159210562706,
0.12995228171348572,
0.9609691500663757,
-0.9084845781326294,
0.7461186647415161,
-1.2909460067749023,
-0.44975587725639343,
0.750550389289856,
-0.025128547102212906,
0.47299689054489136,
0.5373089909553528,
0.26787108182907104,
0.1849147081375122,
0.44113296270370483,
-0.24715499579906464,
-0.4710750877857208,
0.9472506642341614,
-0.28801393508911133,
-0.11749109625816345,
-0.018028128892183304,
0.0796496719121933,
-0.4130130410194397,
0.21001073718070984,
0.06939925998449326,
-0.7756724953651428,
-0.06781892478466034,
0.2477254569530487,
0.5065243244171143,
-0.15823839604854584,
-0.09450987726449966,
0.1608659327030182,
0.7723398208618164,
0.3423626124858856,
0.23239818215370178,
0.6011991500854492,
-0.3502248525619507,
-0.1418556421995163,
-0.5457416772842407,
-0.5652656555175781,
0.39234626293182373,
-0.585198163986206,
-0.04411964491009712,
0.25177597999572754,
-0.000017959431716008112,
0.3470463156700134,
-0.1229424849152565,
0.06216173246502876,
-0.4708266258239746,
0.11697380989789963,
-0.6149149537086487,
0.5150492191314697,
-0.38558369874954224,
-0.12148301303386688,
0.21748314797878265,
0.01168051827698946,
-0.1085922122001648,
-0.27427637577056885,
0.029172545298933983,
-0.16481846570968628,
0.005390135105699301,
-0.007670322433114052,
-0.5865424871444702,
-0.28192317485809326,
-0.07579760998487473,
0.05399695411324501,
0.6597694754600525,
-0.6363437175750732,
-0.5004454851150513,
-0.4376821219921112,
0.3400331139564514,
0.992976725101471,
-0.13805490732192993,
-0.13521486520767212,
-0.4056599736213684,
0.04037792980670929,
0.3806384205818176,
0.6617671847343445,
-0.0452134795486927,
-0.06671254336833954,
0.16864658892154694,
1.3230578899383545,
-0.10553841292858124,
-0.0700477808713913,
-0.12329325824975967,
0.25263890624046326,
0.3267521858215332,
0.44468867778778076,
-0.43408623337745667,
0.05845004692673683,
-0.470888614654541,
-0.36031755805015564,
-0.7289517521858215,
0.20988696813583374,
0.16004332900047302,
0.22294586896896362,
0.23039831221103668,
-0.0801614299416542,
0.029498964548110962,
0.21177279949188232,
-0.3369247317314148,
-0.03423013538122177,
0.3153253197669983,
0.2916345000267029,
-0.41843390464782715,
0.5042967200279236,
0.40668776631355286,
-0.05958393216133118,
0.04185290262103081,
0.09675025194883347,
-0.10718231648206711,
0.2764311730861664,
-0.3096139132976532,
-0.5179436802864075,
0.11884201318025589,
0.1274961531162262,
0.2537054121494293,
-0.1443423181772232,
-0.4254336357116699,
-0.36165669560432434,
-0.7201492190361023,
-0.05455184727907181,
-0.3328954875469208,
-0.5768293142318726,
0.11829522252082825,
0.3784693777561188,
0.8086657524108887,
0.13953320682048798,
0.04986634850502014,
-0.8041723370552063,
-0.8173871040344238,
0.3338389992713928,
-0.34874242544174194,
-0.7161863446235657,
0.25508615374565125,
0.6813781261444092,
0.5264204740524292,
0.5455431342124939,
-0.05033053830265999,
-0.12429384142160416,
-0.27270227670669556,
-0.4720568060874939,
-0.3782042860984802,
-0.21124087274074554,
1.1191309690475464,
0.20513863861560822,
-0.685696542263031,
0.0989544615149498,
0.2704311013221741,
0.5024910569190979,
-0.5885934233665466,
-0.20830145478248596,
-0.10742681473493576,
0.05213005840778351,
-0.060574401170015335,
1.066552996635437,
0.32172828912734985,
0.298800528049469,
1.073030948638916,
0.4596496522426605,
0.9888904094696045,
0.03817044571042061,
0.4890196621417999,
0.35917985439300537,
-0.6954312920570374,
-0.12784665822982788,
-0.5370633602142334,
0.14619779586791992,
-0.17282593250274658,
-0.49768418073654175,
0.1817435622215271,
-0.4048576056957245,
0.07419351488351822,
0.7167353630065918,
-0.2984588146209717,
0.932210385799408,
-0.13676005601882935,
-0.21273934841156006,
-0.004626157693564892,
-0.8871654868125916,
0.25005027651786804,
0.21095281839370728,
0.12384190410375595,
-0.05402125045657158,
-0.5060874223709106,
-0.5878118872642517,
0.012342873029410839,
-1.0612815618515015,
0.33210134506225586,
-0.5499290227890015,
0.30522048473358154,
0.5674487352371216,
-0.43874403834342957,
0.3206424117088318,
0.27401506900787354,
0.14911577105522156,
0.4449167251586914,
0.04660342261195183,
-0.0020155988167971373,
-0.16976399719715118,
0.13908901810646057,
0.4110928773880005,
0.0010732769733294845,
-0.3332183361053467,
-0.03937456011772156,
-0.15355084836483002,
0.5415117144584656,
0.44312548637390137,
-0.8544198870658875,
-0.007683131378144026,
-0.16516423225402832,
0.15014329552650452,
0.3780375123023987,
0.5944254398345947,
0.4506615400314331,
-0.46108657121658325,
-0.059960298240184784,
-0.17365583777427673,
0.5190422534942627,
-0.6954032182693481,
0.6101430058479309,
-0.23997004330158234,
-0.7669415473937988,
-0.029735038056969643,
0.20775024592876434,
0.011230007745325565,
-0.37784454226493835,
0.5377925634384155,
-0.1669624000787735,
-0.7304235100746155,
-0.6882143616676331,
0.6629881858825684,
-0.7298725247383118,
0.2889268100261688,
-0.7208313345909119,
0.6387348771095276,
0.011186819523572922,
-0.40959495306015015,
0.07793770730495453,
-0.5322628617286682,
0.29855209589004517,
0.016845304518938065,
0.07326724380254745,
0.2664775550365448,
0.37775635719299316,
0.6669782996177673,
0.02149798721075058,
-0.20197419822216034,
-0.2865532338619232,
-0.31292247772216797,
-0.8284322023391724,
-0.03419370576739311,
0.1530587077140808,
0.10598156601190567,
0.756980836391449,
-0.12024204432964325,
-0.14967168867588043,
0.1903158575296402,
-5.318904876708984,
0.39340999722480774,
0.11748142540454865,
0.41587451100349426,
0.41194459795951843,
-0.11610888689756393,
0.4605220854282379,
-0.5261956453323364,
0.032514072954654694,
0.22047705948352814,
-0.1208210438489914,
0.06884501129388809,
-0.1653626561164856,
0.6004558205604553,
0.5845176577568054,
0.6537160873413086,
0.3013138175010681,
-0.3519449830055237,
0.25177302956581116,
-0.05401214584708214,
-0.3418627083301544,
0.14484934508800507,
0.09332621842622757,
0.8733862042427063,
0.5697523355484009,
-0.11345680058002472,
-0.37161728739738464,
0.5336911082267761,
-0.7130798101425171,
0.04676409065723419,
0.35852813720703125,
-0.26879948377609253,
-0.07115732133388519,
-0.05738089233636856,
-0.38294288516044617,
-0.14273041486740112,
0.6480008363723755,
0.5675012469291687,
0.33917179703712463,
0.046352460980415344,
-0.33282673358917236,
-0.12490444630384445,
-0.5010303258895874,
0.31261327862739563,
-0.30782654881477356,
-0.20950430631637573,
-1.1145211458206177,
-0.1215401217341423,
-0.27083128690719604,
0.6936859488487244,
0.0010531990556046367,
-0.2756964862346649,
0.3226206600666046,
0.14077222347259521,
0.5339831113815308,
-0.5522176623344421,
0.740973174571991,
0.46054384112358093,
-0.409940242767334,
0.12579850852489471,
0.548098087310791,
-0.10273995250463486,
-0.210576131939888,
-0.5317543745040894,
0.5283647179603577,
-0.3091013431549072,
-0.3912022113800049,
-0.3461129069328308,
-0.2258290797472,
-0.05813534930348396,
-0.2528844177722931,
0.9432716369628906,
0.0842830166220665,
-1.2172019481658936,
0.16106261312961578,
-0.05849157273769379,
-0.7081488370895386,
0.3541438579559326,
0.21437489986419678,
0.1348489224910736,
0.3465102016925812,
-0.6280237436294556,
0.09892474114894867,
0.8102063536643982,
0.5128239989280701,
1.101183533668518,
0.1828124225139618,
0.16639238595962524,
-0.5187219977378845,
0.01438143104314804,
0.17853248119354248,
-0.1014321967959404,
-0.04845229536294937,
0.6935198903083801,
-0.303330659866333,
0.14088252186775208,
-0.16169816255569458,
0.17695781588554382,
0.679375410079956,
0.31248921155929565,
0.1457366645336151,
-0.11030980199575424,
-0.35282468795776367,
0.04993822053074837,
-0.011068250052630901,
-0.6845564842224121,
-0.5110436677932739,
0.0262957401573658,
0.8626691102981567,
0.8559634685516357,
0.44884735345840454,
-0.48519623279571533,
-0.5109283328056335,
0.06812866032123566,
-0.25170281529426575,
-0.24216999113559723,
0.11684755235910416,
0.20464670658111572,
0.40349748730659485,
-0.15654884278774261,
0.25462156534194946,
0.09998354315757751,
-0.5802593231201172,
-0.12656262516975403,
-0.6376486420631409,
0.23502545058727264,
-0.2379785180091858,
0.2540125250816345,
-0.4971140921115875,
-0.30497369170188904,
0.17143920063972473,
-0.23585475981235504,
-0.37624067068099976,
0.03722347691655159,
-0.19462156295776367,
-0.3287910521030426,
-0.09031100571155548,
-0.7291524410247803,
0.49171850085258484,
-0.35945984721183777,
0.039794642478227615,
-0.4329433739185333,
-0.6695770025253296,
0.43606361746788025,
0.2672120928764343,
0.6747740507125854,
-0.014793246053159237,
0.24156711995601654,
-0.6944839358329773,
0.44993624091148376,
0.04732419550418854,
-0.8247034549713135,
0.5355177521705627,
-0.1597570776939392,
-0.1973978579044342,
0.1810920089483261,
0.01268785074353218,
0.40549081563949585,
-0.1858075112104416,
0.10546539723873138,
-0.08930240571498871,
0.3675919473171234,
-0.7063204050064087,
-0.0856175422668457,
0.1647549867630005,
0.07505663484334946,
0.17913611233234406,
-0.8936140537261963,
-0.4377455413341522,
0.7311627864837646,
0.09785007685422897,
0.1775636225938797,
-0.5365376472473145,
-0.24168765544891357,
0.8086541295051575,
-0.05849470570683479,
0.07334611564874649,
0.27234572172164917,
0.561397135257721,
-0.24584409594535828,
0.4063556492328644,
-0.11632980406284332,
-0.036754678934812546,
-0.45645904541015625,
0.6370601058006287,
-0.19382049143314362,
-0.483858197927475,
-1.2124029397964478,
-0.49144628643989563,
-0.27613601088523865,
-0.6293385028839111,
0.4686492085456848,
-0.14223317801952362,
0.4966423511505127,
-0.013405071571469307,
-0.38699454069137573,
0.004265712108463049,
-0.08126997947692871,
0.29850149154663086,
-0.3408059775829315,
-0.07894723862409592,
0.4158676564693451,
-0.31486228108406067,
0.4088969826698303,
-0.2118874490261078,
-0.9087681174278259,
0.15477879345417023,
0.15555718541145325,
-0.5650314688682556,
0.4367947280406952,
0.12042626738548279,
-0.8119310736656189,
-0.6689811944961548,
0.6368690133094788,
-0.18188215792179108,
-0.07594256103038788,
0.15377989411354065,
-0.19757896661758423,
-0.9228439331054688,
-0.36872389912605286,
-0.49281662702560425,
0.04100417345762253,
-0.2678348124027252,
-0.4581550061702728,
-0.021202879026532173,
0.07865799963474274,
0.11181841045618057,
-0.18288317322731018,
0.8282909989356995,
-0.24062322080135345,
-0.31006133556365967,
0.08742713928222656,
0.3802705705165863,
-0.22109273076057434,
-0.4876781702041626,
-0.5316812992095947,
0.27803459763526917,
0.012979877181351185,
-0.5061596632003784,
-0.3886263072490692,
-0.17070485651493073,
0.985564649105072,
0.007917978800833225,
-0.5762872695922852,
0.35701197385787964,
-0.009735742583870888,
0.061168570071458817,
0.1967373490333557,
0.15438838303089142,
-0.08633002638816833,
0.1939373016357422,
-0.08605282753705978,
-0.21293005347251892,
-0.2409510612487793,
0.6437094211578369,
-0.6092763543128967,
-0.3061217963695526,
-0.04550265520811081,
0.1579391360282898,
-0.03776473179459572,
0.4843149781227112,
0.07827018201351166,
-0.29973798990249634,
0.4004306197166443,
-0.22631755471229553,
0.3452427387237549,
0.1723487377166748,
-0.07655416429042816,
0.01899583823978901,
-0.6539650559425354,
-0.5755581855773926,
-0.1906268149614334,
-0.2270163744688034,
0.37128955125808716,
0.22883068025112152,
0.0065180580131709576,
0.19507776200771332,
-0.18759751319885254,
0.794451117515564,
-0.0784933865070343,
-0.7002061009407043,
0.24863356351852417,
-0.059825580567121506,
-0.2977233827114105,
-0.1343621164560318,
-0.6208599209785461,
-0.27033811807632446,
-0.15277709066867828,
-0.00045572646195068955,
0.058734867721796036,
-0.6509037613868713,
0.0035717401187866926,
0.4393726587295532,
0.40355074405670166,
-0.2674357295036316,
0.3366483151912689,
-0.5670543909072876,
-0.40011557936668396,
0.1268041431903839,
-0.2669507563114166,
-0.9323012232780457,
0.23383623361587524,
0.8594338893890381,
0.1622801125049591,
0.13333478569984436,
0.4735416769981384,
-0.006678731180727482,
-0.24390925467014313,
-0.9122278094291687,
0.08434200286865234,
0.3050338327884674,
-0.11790674179792404,
0.030740657821297646,
-0.4327859580516815,
0.08576416224241257,
-0.4821029007434845,
0.6002902388572693,
-0.03089502453804016,
-0.08471570163965225,
0.10322445631027222,
0.21303674578666687,
0.26288697123527527,
0.9609218835830688,
0.1392139196395874,
0.14351359009742737,
0.2748553156852722,
-0.29882606863975525,
0.1027790755033493,
-0.4334224462509155,
0.32477861642837524,
0.19836337864398956,
0.036915991455316544,
-1.2698373794555664,
1.1985191106796265,
0.24531610310077667,
-0.12538781762123108,
0.17614755034446716,
-0.9599916934967041,
-0.48190605640411377,
-0.0278022438287735,
0.35725677013397217,
1.3635549545288086,
-0.03995529189705849,
0.023891039192676544,
-0.712864339351654,
0.6534609794616699,
-0.7550767660140991,
-0.27956482768058777,
-0.45722848176956177,
0.3105083405971527,
0.527076780796051,
0.292949914932251,
0.0372014120221138,
-0.23690637946128845,
-0.3092377185821533,
0.46403011679649353,
0.367546945810318,
0.28592342138290405,
-0.6035465598106384,
-0.8616966009140015,
-0.005967742297798395,
-0.2128513604402542,
0.679375410079956,
-0.389948308467865,
-0.3653869926929474,
0.3269132375717163,
-0.24672503769397736,
-0.40389689803123474,
-0.37981337308883667,
0.24895475804805756,
0.009788919240236282,
-0.3580850064754486,
0.2875566780567169,
0.4573233127593994,
0.317633718252182,
0.1336820274591446,
0.4370292127132416,
0.1556822806596756,
0.2528480589389801,
-0.5046998262405396,
-0.6155876517295837,
0.11491315811872482,
-0.2300041913986206,
-0.1715506613254547,
0.40291842818260193,
-0.2705538272857666,
-0.22446487843990326,
0.030264250934123993,
-0.4125945568084717,
-0.3822987377643585,
-0.1654825508594513,
-0.30870139598846436,
0.02685888484120369,
0.3890894055366516,
-0.6146320700645447,
0.0886600986123085,
-0.14171864092350006,
0.5531654357910156,
-0.011716275475919247,
-0.5127334594726562,
-0.23577715456485748,
-0.22045160830020905,
-0.4224284589290619,
0.1480998694896698,
-0.32225313782691956,
-0.1447007805109024,
-0.04467834532260895,
0.7451581954956055,
-0.8850970268249512,
0.3896850049495697,
-0.014147750101983547,
0.2604233920574188,
-0.05348537862300873,
0.4279358386993408,
0.22054627537727356,
0.16297970712184906,
0.849335789680481,
-0.1320156753063202,
-0.38055962324142456,
0.7301068902015686,
0.013210291974246502,
0.5132696032524109,
0.2410966008901596,
0.07360383868217468,
-0.3975599408149719,
0.23211847245693207,
-0.2243526428937912,
0.2239837497472763,
-0.1080232784152031,
0.32596567273139954,
0.12500447034835815,
0.04773876816034317,
-0.6691911816596985,
0.14927957952022552,
0.12242433428764343,
-0.0002514442312531173,
0.9985129237174988,
0.18987196683883667,
0.256605863571167,
-0.6100489497184753,
0.6538386344909668,
0.07562599331140518,
0.27965444326400757,
0.3496171534061432,
-1.2792013883590698,
0.07242254912853241,
0.25757670402526855,
-0.32470065355300903,
0.5133110880851746,
0.7301956415176392,
0.5511998534202576,
-0.1417609304189682,
0.014851633459329605,
-0.4229367971420288,
0.13709178566932678,
0.27926403284072876,
-0.09899190068244934,
-0.18010668456554413,
0.4925394654273987,
0.5943958759307861
] |
233592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele%20Falloppio | Gabriele Falloppio | Gabriele Falloppio (1523 – 9 October 1562) was an Italian Catholic priest and anatomist often known by his Latin name Fallopius. He was one of the most important anatomists and physicians of the sixteenth century, giving his name to the Fallopian tube.
Early life
Falloppio was born in Modena and died in Padua. His family was noble but very poor and it was only by a hard struggle he succeeded in obtaining an education. Financial difficulties led him to join the clergy, and in 1542, he became a canon at Modena's cathedral. He studied medicine at the University of Ferrara, at that time one of the best medical schools in Europe. He received his medical doctorate in 1548 under the guidance of Antonio Musa Brassavola. After taking his degree he worked at various medical schools and then became professor of anatomy at Ferrara, in 1548. Hieronymus Fabricius was one of his famous students. He was called the next year to the University of Pisa, then the most important university in Italy. In 1551 Falloppio was invited to occupy the chair of anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua. He also held the professorship of botany and was superintendent of the botanical gardens. Though he died before his fortieth birthday, he had made his mark on anatomy for all time.
Medical contributions
Falloppio's own work dealt mainly with the anatomy of the head. He added much to what was known before about the internal ear and described in detail the tympanum and its relations to the osseous ring in which it is situated. He also described minutely the circular and oval windows (fenestræ) and their communication with the vestibule and cochlea. He was the first to point out the connection between the mastoid cells and the middle ear. His description of the lacrimal ducts in the eye was a marked advance on those of his predecessors and he also gave a detailed account of the ethmoid bone and its cells in the nose. His contributions to the anatomy of the bones and muscles were very valuable. It was in myology particularly that he corrected Vesalius. He studied the reproductive organs in both sexes, and described the Fallopian tube, which leads from the ovary to the uterus and bears his name to this day.
The aquaeductus Fallopii, the canal through which the facial nerve passes after leaving the auditory nerve, is also named after him. Falloppio's contributions to neuroanatomy, however, are still of interest today due to attempts to better understand the structures he first found. He was interested in the sensory systems in the face. He centered his research on understanding the path of the nerves of the face and structures that lie in their tracks. Here, he left his name to two parts of the human face, only emphasizing his enormous influence on the study of the head. The facial canal was first described by Falloppio, who studied its path, structure, and contents. He also described the Fallopian hiatus, an opening in the anterosuperior part of the petrosal bone.
His contributions to practical medicine were also important. He was the first to use an aural speculum for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the ear, and his writings on surgical subjects are still of interest. He published two treatises on ulcers and tumors, a treatise on surgery, and a commentary on Hippocrates's book on wounds of the head. In his own time he was regarded as somewhat of an authority in the field of sexuality. Fallopio was the first to describe a condom (in his writings, a linen sheath wrapped around the penis), and he advocated the use of such sheaths to prevent syphilis. In an early example of a clinical trial, Falloppio reported that he tested these condoms in 1,100 men, none of whom contracted syphilis. Falloppio was also interested in every form of therapeutics. He wrote a treatise on baths and thermal waters, another on simple purgatives, and a third on the composition of drugs. None of these works, except his Anatomy (Venice, 1561), were published during his lifetime. As we have them, they consist of manuscripts of his lectures and notes of his students. They were published by Volcher Coiter (Nuremberg, 1575).
Falloppio argued against Fracastoro's theory of fossils, as described as follows in Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology:
Falloppio of Padua conceived that petrified shells had been generated by fermentation in the spots where they were found, or that they had in some cases acquired their form from 'the tumultuous movements of terrestrial exhalations.' Although a celebrated professor of anatomy, he taught that certain tusks of elephants dug up in his time at Puglia were mere earthy concretions, and, consistently with these principles, he even went so far as to consider it not improbable, that the vases of Monte Testaceo at Rome were natural impressions stamped in the soil.
Legacy
Various anatomical structures were described by Falloppio, including Fallopian tube, Fallopian Canal, and Fallopian ligament.
Works
Kunstbuch Des hocherfarnen und weytberhümpten Herrn Gabrielis Fallopij, der Artzney Doctorn von mancherley nutzlichen Künsten . Sampt einem andern büchlin / durch Christophorum Landrinum außgangen. Manger, Augspurg 1578 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Gabrielis Fallopii Wunderlicher menschlichem Leben gewisser und sehr nutzlicher Secreten drey Bücher : vom Authore selbst in Ttalienischer Sprach publicirt, jetzund aber Teutscher Nation zu gutem in unser Muttersprach ubersetzet . Iennis / N. Hoffmann, Franckfurt am Mayn 1616 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Omnia, quæ adhuc extant opera (1584)
Falloppio, Gabriele. 1562. Observationes anatomicae. Venetiis: Apud Marcum Antonium Vlman.
See also
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
References
External links
http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2288.html
1523 births
1562 deaths
16th-century Latin-language writers
History of anatomy
Italian anatomists
Italian Roman Catholics
16th-century Italian physicians
People from Modena
University of Padua faculty
University of Ferrara alumni
Catholic clergy scientists
University of Pisa faculty | [
-0.4166576564311981,
0.025408925488591194,
-0.5196067094802856,
0.11659349501132965,
-0.3671916723251343,
1.2150943279266357,
1.371660590171814,
0.021346647292375565,
-0.4008290767669678,
-0.38165006041526794,
-0.0396929606795311,
-0.3454851806163788,
-0.7244982123374939,
0.29312366247177124,
0.032608404755592346,
-0.34474602341651917,
0.3669954836368561,
-0.3488119840621948,
0.37229275703430176,
-0.04676872119307518,
0.2202300727367401,
-0.4837123155593872,
0.1394963562488556,
-0.1716105192899704,
-0.651012122631073,
-0.20581108331680298,
-0.1638566255569458,
-0.14797669649124146,
0.368554949760437,
-0.3579118251800537,
0.09561046212911606,
0.6674193143844604,
0.5220561623573303,
-0.3645058870315552,
-0.3493611216545105,
0.06454066932201385,
-0.3154050409793854,
-0.17427581548690796,
-0.14891400933265686,
0.11634988337755203,
-0.382631778717041,
-0.2745283246040344,
-0.1354866623878479,
-0.330912321805954,
-0.3383474349975586,
-0.4315294325351715,
-1.3388296365737915,
0.3889995813369751,
-0.6898211240768433,
-0.6314418911933899,
0.2362958788871765,
0.014232599176466465,
0.3698638677597046,
0.9764984846115112,
-0.6539894342422485,
-0.06761676073074341,
-0.9088048934936523,
-0.14722000062465668,
0.37273016571998596,
-0.3885500133037567,
0.5246178507804871,
0.30664196610450745,
0.3176342844963074,
-0.003420747583732009,
0.2452455759048462,
0.2648622691631317,
0.4853968620300293,
1.1516319513320923,
-0.4406326413154602,
-0.4193304479122162,
-0.21916000545024872,
0.31658583879470825,
0.058340881019830704,
0.04877665266394615,
0.49702367186546326,
-1.1799129247665405,
-0.18124616146087646,
0.16584685444831848,
0.993682861328125,
0.23432719707489014,
0.11364429444074631,
0.04339340701699257,
0.6721078753471375,
0.5181066393852234,
0.1700214445590973,
0.40062591433525085,
-0.45178794860839844,
0.20162086188793182,
-0.3698316514492035,
-0.21558767557144165,
-0.09758736938238144,
-0.7038860321044922,
0.42520871758461,
-0.14135338366031647,
0.37981724739074707,
0.46656984090805054,
-0.3403075933456421,
0.32862022519111633,
-0.8846935629844666,
-0.04075523465871811,
-0.04855030030012131,
-0.03869270160794258,
-0.042401332408189774,
0.1473967283964157,
0.6155201196670532,
-0.22815173864364624,
-0.28132784366607666,
-0.07498010247945786,
-0.07589080184698105,
0.5028173327445984,
-0.5131645202636719,
-0.3252750635147095,
-0.48515453934669495,
-0.1449580192565918,
-0.6752858757972717,
0.5748500823974609,
0.405815988779068,
-1.3765640258789062,
-0.5396130084991455,
-0.38273489475250244,
0.08090967684984207,
0.5195566415786743,
0.21460916101932526,
-0.20468510687351227,
-1.0386356115341187,
-0.0862826481461525,
0.383354127407074,
0.2397056519985199,
0.15056085586547852,
0.6925094723701477,
0.507466733455658,
1.298136591911316,
0.001588712097145617,
-0.3647004961967468,
0.193766787648201,
-0.41536304354667664,
-0.10177122056484222,
0.5970042943954468,
-0.6856114864349365,
0.08082986623048782,
-0.04950566217303276,
-0.4170994758605957,
-0.48216861486434937,
0.5011285543441772,
0.11120124161243439,
0.17316727340221405,
-0.2937917113304138,
0.20442883670330048,
0.052730754017829895,
-0.5141201019287109,
-0.629180371761322,
0.2662150263786316,
-0.12322912365198135,
-0.4086059033870697,
0.0874755010008812,
0.6543198227882385,
0.806063711643219,
-0.4240154027938843,
0.15437954664230347,
0.03135276213288307,
0.6746219992637634,
0.08734303712844849,
-0.79984050989151,
0.081255704164505,
0.1724012941122055,
-0.3044489920139313,
0.6954234838485718,
-0.4730662703514099,
-0.25455644726753235,
0.15314160287380219,
-0.43600237369537354,
-0.09249561280012131,
0.15674538910388947,
-0.2580873668193817,
0.4342518448829651,
0.2843015193939209,
0.7154247760772705,
-0.28324171900749207,
0.3531642258167267,
-0.6736881732940674,
-0.3084154725074768,
0.03146135434508324,
-0.4629996418952942,
0.09816671907901764,
0.5629397034645081,
0.6177696585655212,
1.1454778909683228,
0.21127648651599884,
0.0980525091290474,
-0.44449472427368164,
-0.4904558062553406,
-0.6111390590667725,
-0.06993874907493591,
0.20220045745372772,
1.4317563772201538,
-0.00840820837765932,
-0.6505254507064819,
1.0925759077072144,
0.2926177382469177,
0.01360545214265585,
-0.7314406037330627,
-0.11952012777328491,
0.44232457876205444,
0.31492239236831665,
-0.44197437167167664,
0.32573699951171875,
0.2284342348575592,
-0.09183340519666672,
0.9221102595329285,
0.9299595952033997,
0.8639978766441345,
-0.5950872302055359,
-0.00685783801600337,
0.09338159114122391,
-0.6394883990287781,
-0.04465033859014511,
-0.9551883339881897,
-0.03628777712583542,
0.5257436633110046,
-0.36724981665611267,
0.23465126752853394,
-0.15243946015834808,
-0.18713022768497467,
0.3593466579914093,
0.28681132197380066,
1.1953176259994507,
0.05262185260653496,
-0.2502347528934479,
-0.2385684698820114,
-1.1658644676208496,
-0.051495589315891266,
0.1631285697221756,
0.5285173058509827,
0.10677342116832733,
-0.5859169363975525,
-0.21369703114032745,
0.08116336166858673,
-1.1738784313201904,
0.2679843604564667,
-0.6054159998893738,
0.9065721035003662,
0.8570654988288879,
-0.07930654287338257,
-0.00011558507685549557,
0.009764740243554115,
-0.025900447741150856,
0.52200847864151,
-0.2438785582780838,
-0.1880764365196228,
0.3880501687526703,
-0.1137523502111435,
1.121290683746338,
-0.5770108103752136,
0.023921754211187363,
0.6402008533477783,
-0.08836457133293152,
0.3763235807418823,
-0.18998323380947113,
-0.05559511482715607,
0.21421490609645844,
0.5697571039199829,
0.14298033714294434,
0.5296633839607239,
0.23275963962078094,
-0.03552206605672836,
-0.39362218976020813,
-0.09428929537534714,
-0.03642462193965912,
0.5837084650993347,
-0.553751528263092,
0.9668106436729431,
-0.050299160182476044,
-0.3963388204574585,
0.7333332896232605,
-0.28460630774497986,
-0.39071258902549744,
0.03223004564642906,
0.3986113667488098,
-0.30071353912353516,
-0.44386526942253113,
0.03580814227461815,
0.6511518359184265,
-0.13973653316497803,
-0.1480967402458191,
-0.4660947620868683,
0.43272483348846436,
0.24585460126399994,
0.14916644990444183,
0.05522525683045387,
-0.10870169848203659,
-0.20770181715488434,
0.24326565861701965,
-0.267550528049469,
-0.2665174603462219,
-0.7896900773048401,
0.046184904873371124,
-0.3870694935321808,
-0.6170348525047302,
0.6365140676498413,
0.010168385691940784,
-0.9405151605606079,
0.3191843032836914,
0.022992610931396484,
-0.06596555560827255,
-0.04374745488166809,
0.03577977046370506,
0.3003104329109192,
0.03178783878684044,
-5.010733127593994,
0.27313798666000366,
0.024886196479201317,
0.3969268798828125,
0.4693170189857483,
0.4800947606563568,
0.7618222236633301,
-0.20765149593353271,
-0.25344547629356384,
-0.0011557071702554822,
0.5186116695404053,
0.23524339497089386,
0.27724820375442505,
0.1819269359111786,
0.5129020810127258,
0.2689761519432068,
-0.06767915934324265,
-0.2329856902360916,
0.4051992893218994,
0.08212509751319885,
-0.0887669026851654,
0.14430731534957886,
-0.17304159700870514,
0.6135109066963196,
0.3328592777252197,
-0.46067750453948975,
-0.2594505846500397,
0.5857279896736145,
-0.7990697622299194,
-0.28294920921325684,
-0.008096403442323208,
-0.26108384132385254,
-0.6285263895988464,
-0.06795935332775116,
-0.43657001852989197,
-0.44524693489074707,
0.8911528587341309,
0.2896530032157898,
0.19322170317173004,
0.13326884806156158,
-0.4149860441684723,
-0.8760738372802734,
-0.7647210955619812,
-0.20613017678260803,
-0.11025220155715942,
0.023892275989055634,
-0.7212225794792175,
0.3422420918941498,
-0.42097723484039307,
0.5376135110855103,
0.48890194296836853,
-0.17602434754371643,
-0.421077698469162,
0.27655476331710815,
0.36935991048812866,
-0.29646721482276917,
0.5561442375183105,
0.5532476902008057,
-0.5404674410820007,
0.5631204843521118,
0.44795840978622437,
-0.13035117089748383,
-0.12598593533039093,
0.08604952692985535,
0.3780486285686493,
0.10782890766859055,
0.18680264055728912,
-0.26055559515953064,
0.06872159987688065,
0.05772016942501068,
0.3195604383945465,
1.2402818202972412,
0.10258634388446808,
-1.3413699865341187,
0.28812384605407715,
-0.2809411585330963,
0.08879578858613968,
-0.2775774598121643,
-0.5577616691589355,
-0.018850790336728096,
-0.058084636926651,
-1.0672768354415894,
-0.03898124396800995,
0.5130780935287476,
0.9255424737930298,
0.6996117830276489,
-0.4597748816013336,
0.10735578835010529,
-0.43422481417655945,
-0.314826101064682,
-0.19241295754909515,
0.08541479706764221,
0.10884066671133041,
0.11903148889541626,
-0.5428058505058289,
0.7281749844551086,
-0.5007143616676331,
0.4833160638809204,
0.25756698846817017,
0.3403984308242798,
-0.011053900234401226,
-0.0040014456026256084,
-0.16305141150951385,
-0.42435920238494873,
0.8580722212791443,
-0.6659407615661621,
-0.4460541009902954,
0.22165915369987488,
0.712893009185791,
0.1495225876569748,
0.07810225337743759,
0.6037020683288574,
0.07674399018287659,
-0.06809207797050476,
0.11859704554080963,
-0.4406968951225281,
0.03263773024082184,
0.13338105380535126,
0.12248514592647552,
-0.010361290536820889,
-0.1829778105020523,
-0.049755219370126724,
-0.3399740159511566,
-0.9290837049484253,
0.5291776657104492,
-0.028169356286525726,
-0.21042732894420624,
0.12374542653560638,
-0.5452347993850708,
-0.17347653210163116,
-0.45319682359695435,
0.9451262950897217,
-0.257612407207489,
-0.07410310208797455,
0.08703126758337021,
-0.6173158288002014,
-0.3038375973701477,
-0.7057338953018188,
0.3002818524837494,
-0.11287262290716171,
0.06351678818464279,
-0.0913032665848732,
-0.4406535029411316,
0.3612872064113617,
0.3361399471759796,
0.14189766347408295,
0.09721455723047256,
-0.7002866268157959,
-0.4708535373210907,
0.47002482414245605,
0.16245543956756592,
-0.6087924242019653,
0.41748878359794617,
-0.2338687926530838,
0.05974481254816055,
0.17826277017593384,
0.10105253756046295,
0.12023219466209412,
-0.4725794196128845,
-0.01692815311253071,
-0.5568326115608215,
0.26092833280563354,
-0.9136599898338318,
-0.22333063185214996,
-0.05319805070757866,
0.6564725637435913,
-0.40578174591064453,
-0.7311273813247681,
-0.15505705773830414,
-0.0016015286091715097,
-0.30161672830581665,
-0.675796389579773,
-0.4777757227420807,
0.4541648030281067,
0.32341477274894714,
-0.022625884041190147,
-0.37185803055763245,
0.14831499755382538,
-0.27588045597076416,
-0.15656504034996033,
0.10139090567827225,
0.08234753459692001,
-0.4584020972251892,
-0.4292677342891693,
0.42425402998924255,
0.2487984597682953,
-0.42427361011505127,
-1.1794553995132446,
-0.5771084427833557,
-0.09525585919618607,
-0.5462051033973694,
0.14396269619464874,
-0.20161926746368408,
0.34476691484451294,
-0.03394678235054016,
-0.5303567051887512,
-0.3545282781124115,
0.09201628714799881,
0.17490597069263458,
-0.7812268733978271,
-0.1905013471841812,
0.44049715995788574,
0.22395440936088562,
-0.16724424064159393,
0.2199007123708725,
-1.4854463338851929,
0.08877231180667877,
0.7942758798599243,
-0.2449679970741272,
0.6387882232666016,
0.09443763643503189,
-0.4950160086154938,
-0.31403636932373047,
1.0699198246002197,
-0.2696633040904999,
0.1640079766511917,
0.20912356674671173,
-0.08095086365938187,
-0.5803336501121521,
-0.5608537197113037,
-0.5879597067832947,
0.25326502323150635,
-0.40249329805374146,
-0.7344733476638794,
-0.4768465459346771,
0.056149132549762726,
0.5080403685569763,
0.0595865435898304,
1.3407886028289795,
-0.07281625270843506,
-0.001048642909154296,
-0.2585175335407257,
0.08272984623908997,
0.13767723739147186,
-0.662187933921814,
-0.08074667304754257,
0.1686752885580063,
-0.12968310713768005,
-0.6346578001976013,
-0.2554035186767578,
0.4995355010032654,
0.986334502696991,
-0.06672272831201553,
-0.11272291839122772,
0.4921502470970154,
0.0025214659981429577,
0.2966134250164032,
-0.2727130353450775,
0.3886632025241852,
-0.034390080720186234,
-0.23365671932697296,
-0.291105717420578,
-0.05157407745718956,
-0.592036783695221,
0.7984143495559692,
0.08937788009643555,
-0.10583803057670593,
-0.3818913996219635,
0.2927350401878357,
-0.43572333455085754,
0.1152745708823204,
0.36206093430519104,
0.24940818548202515,
0.4857519567012787,
-0.03778614476323128,
0.1038312092423439,
0.41487449407577515,
0.08029020577669144,
0.2405504733324051,
-0.8947697877883911,
0.23809121549129486,
-0.2990161180496216,
-0.31459125876426697,
0.39232054352760315,
-0.2784744203090668,
0.583541214466095,
0.1984417587518692,
-0.47419023513793945,
0.5839731097221375,
-0.09760214388370514,
-0.8252837061882019,
0.062746562063694,
0.05329587310552597,
0.008383317850530148,
-0.39693987369537354,
-0.2703533470630646,
-0.07284341752529144,
-0.029118400067090988,
-0.07121684402227402,
0.20959573984146118,
-0.8216348886489868,
0.4889381229877472,
-0.23061664402484894,
0.22209808230400085,
0.1643281728029251,
0.5759878754615784,
-0.7036224007606506,
0.40521547198295593,
-0.611710786819458,
-1.0116323232650757,
-0.5696396827697754,
0.7339429259300232,
0.6863582134246826,
-0.2183179408311844,
-0.07350041717290878,
0.12410223484039307,
-0.32123878598213196,
-0.05492584407329559,
0.04158543422818184,
0.12252922356128693,
0.7741193771362305,
0.06462674587965012,
-0.09889944642782211,
-0.15457384288311005,
-0.4220108687877655,
-0.3098025918006897,
0.3065567910671234,
0.18391339480876923,
-0.5454460978507996,
0.3661630153656006,
0.4024668037891388,
0.4906751811504364,
0.876588761806488,
-0.7562828063964844,
-0.3799889385700226,
0.5841753482818604,
0.16323132812976837,
0.12607909739017487,
-0.1754331737756729,
0.39825356006622314,
0.5686230063438416,
-0.3731124997138977,
-0.8278692364692688,
0.8484386801719666,
-0.05099932476878166,
-0.37564903497695923,
-0.08521704375743866,
-0.8853768706321716,
-0.15688051283359528,
0.06576040387153625,
0.6095350980758667,
1.1717535257339478,
-0.10448252409696579,
0.30195388197898865,
-0.6579325795173645,
0.5041874051094055,
-0.4585675895214081,
-0.21696209907531738,
0.12481708079576492,
0.16953058540821075,
0.196781724691391,
0.02278563380241394,
0.3175577223300934,
-0.577827513217926,
0.38546743988990784,
0.18261496722698212,
0.7336316108703613,
-0.3119024336338043,
-0.5889425873756409,
-0.2563651502132416,
-0.5339162349700928,
-0.25300195813179016,
1.0518889427185059,
0.06378929316997528,
-0.37093237042427063,
0.11931981146335602,
-0.4922212064266205,
-0.40110138058662415,
-0.09701333940029144,
-0.3818889558315277,
0.40401336550712585,
-0.4835447669029236,
-0.12665076553821564,
0.9037370085716248,
0.7256577014923096,
0.5493136644363403,
0.7379798293113708,
0.24458247423171997,
-0.34026652574539185,
-0.5566717386245728,
-0.6873536109924316,
-0.19370323419570923,
-0.2813897430896759,
-0.07979024201631546,
0.34935933351516724,
0.05026775598526001,
-0.12047433853149414,
-0.03203367814421654,
0.40858906507492065,
-0.4315175712108612,
0.010097888298332691,
-0.2514580190181732,
0.7689144015312195,
0.32226747274398804,
-0.620097279548645,
-0.12433171272277832,
0.5789646506309509,
0.6491671800613403,
-0.13422603905200958,
-0.023098960518836975,
0.23766513168811798,
0.22369223833084106,
-0.10939064621925354,
-0.1452799141407013,
-0.34407150745391846,
0.4820469915866852,
-0.12729421257972717,
0.4653286039829254,
-1.2080656290054321,
0.5863713026046753,
-0.09013236314058304,
-0.041950151324272156,
-0.4982708990573883,
0.21428637206554413,
-0.08435652405023575,
0.03022170625627041,
0.1342325061559677,
-0.43241897225379944,
-0.6923056244850159,
-0.13248233497142792,
0.23602721095085144,
-0.3429877460002899,
0.10100795328617096,
-0.460592120885849,
-0.29265424609184265,
0.06146889552474022,
0.16127343475818634,
-0.17168202996253967,
-0.32043522596359253,
0.21602049469947815,
-0.4260440766811371,
0.4157647490501404,
-0.3955083191394806,
-0.4531726837158203,
-0.1471037119626999,
-0.10836339741945267,
0.6404224634170532,
0.5862060189247131,
0.3834811747074127,
-0.8848150968551636,
0.5435062050819397,
-0.09793416410684586,
-0.11971649527549744,
0.42935171723365784,
1.0405516624450684,
0.04675429314374924,
-0.12445402145385742,
-0.766707718372345,
0.6562406420707703,
0.6807240843772888,
0.12639155983924866,
0.23732583224773407,
0.4151298701763153,
-0.8598974347114563,
-0.1471826285123825,
0.6672315001487732,
0.05497097596526146,
-0.09111347049474716,
0.3632841110229492,
0.036724645644426346
] |
233593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Filippo%20Ingrassia | Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia | Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia or Ioannis Philippi Ingrassiae (1510–1580) was an Italian physician, student of Vesalius, professor at the University of Naples, Protomedicus of Sicily and a major figure in the history of medicine and human anatomy.
Early life and education
Ingrassia was born in Regalbuto, Sicily. His family was well-educated and Ingrassia received a classical education that included the study of Latin and Greek. From 1532 to 1537 he attended the University of Padua studying under the famous anatomist Vesalius and leaving with a degree in medicine. He then worked as personal physician to nobleman near Palermo.
University of Naples
In 1544 he became professor of anatomy and medicine at the University of Naples. He conducted dissection studies and recorded his findings in the book In Galeni librum de ossibus doctissima et expectatissima commentaria, a critical commentary on Galen's De Ossibus that was published posthumously in 1603. He gave the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid and the ethmoid bone as well as several other bones of the head, and has the merit of first describing (1546) the third ear bone, the stapes.
His work De tumoribus praeter naturam (1553) contains what is probably the first description of scarlet fever: he reported on a disease of children different from measles that caused a red rash all over the body, however he didn't mention the common symptom of a sore throat. The book also contains a detailed study of the penis and the mechanism of its erection. In addition, it contains a description of 163 different types of tumors.
Palermo
In 1556 he was recruited to Palermo as lecturer of medicine and anatomy, working at the monastery of Saint Domenicus. The following year he was asked by the Sicilian Senate to help the government manage an outbreak of pandemic influenza that arrived in Sicily through Palermo. He proposed the a system for managing contagious fevers would aid in epidemic responses. His fame increased considerably in 1562 when he was able to heal a persistent wound of the Duke of Terranova. In 1563 he became Protomedicus (chief medical administrator) of Sicily. In this capacity, he emphasized the continuing education of physicians and insisted that medicine be treated as a scientific discipline that collected objective knowledge to ensure optimal treatments.
He established Sicily's first Board of Health and Sanitary Code.
His 1560 work Trattato assai bello et utile dei doi mostri nati in Palermo in differenti tempi contains the detailed description of two cases of Siamese twins born in Palermo.
To combat endemic malaria, he ordered the draining of surrounding swamps and instituted isolation hospitals for contagious patients.
He managed the outbreak of the plague in Sicily in 1575/1576 by ordering measures of hygiene and separating suspected, confirmed and convalescing cases in different hospital wards. In his 1576 book Informatione del pestifero, et contagioso morbo he described the disease, traced its outbreak in Sicily, and was the first to recommend public health countermeasures.
In 1578 he wrote Methodus dandi relationes pro mutilatis torquendis aut a tortura exusandi, an evaluation, from an anatomical standpoint, of the contemporary methods of torture employed by the Roman Inquisition. The work was not published until 1914.
He died in 1580 in Palermo and was buried there in the Church of San Domenico.
Further reading
References
External links
"Ingrassia, Giovanni Filippo." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com.
Ingrassia, Giovanni Filippo, The Scientific Revolution, by Robert A. Hatch.
1510 births
1580 deaths
People from the Province of Enna
Physicians from Sicily
Italian anatomists | [
-0.11247715353965759,
0.22019615769386292,
0.06220739707350731,
0.1211145669221878,
-0.02005898952484131,
1.0111368894577026,
0.615277886390686,
-0.24944888055324554,
-0.5702369809150696,
-0.8781082630157471,
0.1673543006181717,
0.009635183960199356,
-0.40973204374313354,
0.3030300438404083,
0.15052451193332672,
0.2574334144592285,
0.22251471877098083,
-0.3338426947593689,
-0.1011730208992958,
0.14411328732967377,
-0.12217644602060318,
-0.2700621783733368,
0.27512267231941223,
0.29409343004226685,
-0.013507915660738945,
-0.4502437710762024,
0.05773643031716347,
0.11998669058084488,
-0.033975619822740555,
-0.1863653063774109,
0.17881302535533905,
0.6286557912826538,
-0.007031731773167849,
-0.5094501376152039,
-0.9726794958114624,
0.1459076702594757,
-0.26229751110076904,
0.2931538224220276,
0.04942191392183304,
-0.04989781230688095,
-0.21679271757602692,
0.16348828375339508,
0.3149639964103699,
0.13310310244560242,
-0.17915795743465424,
-0.37678661942481995,
-1.4307889938354492,
0.3730522692203522,
-0.2715160846710205,
-0.09842763841152191,
0.6660962700843811,
0.10240745544433594,
0.28525403141975403,
0.6848714351654053,
-0.8997774124145508,
0.6392415165901184,
-0.9155335426330566,
0.058070551604032516,
0.2238580882549286,
-0.3559839129447937,
0.6369250416755676,
0.7451543211936951,
0.3947674036026001,
0.25309720635414124,
0.6449800133705139,
0.525120198726654,
0.07447679340839386,
0.5485435724258423,
-0.07677120715379715,
0.11134885996580124,
0.052269503474235535,
0.25774887204170227,
-0.004146900959312916,
0.23547197878360748,
0.567391574382782,
-0.7055050134658813,
-0.3180588483810425,
0.22904199361801147,
0.21731233596801758,
0.2846713364124298,
0.3200734257698059,
-0.25692930817604065,
0.8390916585922241,
0.22927922010421753,
0.07201988250017166,
0.15251918137073517,
-0.6548367142677307,
0.499166339635849,
-0.23396283388137817,
-0.6415727734565735,
0.2763459384441376,
-0.5165178775787354,
0.6953544616699219,
-0.29587090015411377,
0.33022376894950867,
0.6489768624305725,
-0.5094268321990967,
0.18636275827884674,
-0.9658961892127991,
-0.08166907727718353,
-0.1981218308210373,
0.19532568752765656,
-0.16988518834114075,
-0.1365329623222351,
0.15548723936080933,
0.0993681326508522,
-0.21161097288131714,
0.2800740599632263,
0.07278832793235779,
0.3866671323776245,
-0.772698700428009,
0.014902451075613499,
-0.3928934931755066,
-0.2985219359397888,
-0.6289947032928467,
0.6070706844329834,
0.22810159623622894,
-1.0752402544021606,
-0.555401086807251,
-0.49649500846862793,
-0.06510616838932037,
0.42457854747772217,
0.02144148014485836,
0.3755207657814026,
-0.7173155546188354,
0.02180526591837406,
0.40807217359542847,
0.07942939549684525,
-0.16149190068244934,
0.6476061344146729,
0.26074880361557007,
1.211643934249878,
-0.03874998167157173,
-0.4136984944343567,
-0.014591692946851254,
-0.005557873751968145,
-0.07904815673828125,
0.4921433627605438,
-0.46176281571388245,
0.005728322546929121,
-0.29182836413383484,
-0.4429757297039032,
-0.6908506155014038,
0.24116116762161255,
-0.42134198546409607,
-0.07642578333616257,
0.2520250678062439,
-0.36939966678619385,
-0.09761688858270645,
-0.5845956206321716,
-0.40827131271362305,
0.16967657208442688,
-0.3998681902885437,
-0.24205933511257172,
0.4837634563446045,
0.6769635081291199,
0.3538765013217926,
-0.18069276213645935,
0.3935515880584717,
-0.15931907296180725,
0.27611368894577026,
-0.0012341896072030067,
-0.3629138767719269,
-0.04450616613030434,
0.35483506321907043,
-0.6670467853546143,
0.16324034333229065,
-0.16735805571079254,
-0.10718636959791183,
0.2410569041967392,
-0.2723892629146576,
-0.20215079188346863,
0.0025726824533194304,
-0.19336341321468353,
0.3456004858016968,
0.6252627372741699,
0.3061555027961731,
0.07638353109359741,
0.3543410897254944,
-0.4442201554775238,
-0.7834065556526184,
0.19110584259033203,
-0.45404699444770813,
-0.1389889121055603,
0.5787487030029297,
0.23905999958515167,
0.6392335295677185,
0.2662794589996338,
0.44733813405036926,
-0.26223573088645935,
-0.2971319258213043,
-0.6115332841873169,
-0.4457196295261383,
-0.07380495220422745,
0.8071867823600769,
0.28913265466690063,
-0.798517107963562,
1.1664310693740845,
0.03924552723765373,
0.20637358725070953,
-0.06651316583156586,
-0.11365221440792084,
-0.1835387796163559,
0.5976384878158569,
-0.3182876706123352,
0.3228321969509125,
0.2938327491283417,
-0.4136449098587036,
0.31227990984916687,
0.7075908780097961,
0.6446197628974915,
-0.5015454888343811,
0.178791344165802,
-0.5213420987129211,
-0.6016538143157959,
-0.07536909729242325,
-0.5035722851753235,
0.14963237941265106,
0.020244257524609566,
-0.1873849779367447,
0.19119320809841156,
-0.20263348519802094,
0.03925067558884621,
0.5137884020805359,
0.3619350790977478,
0.9242370128631592,
0.15855003893375397,
0.3493056893348694,
0.028380004689097404,
-1.2530516386032104,
0.03442663699388504,
-0.1680978685617447,
0.7728121876716614,
-0.04315512627363205,
-0.24665804207324982,
0.08576029539108276,
0.04715269058942795,
-0.6585305333137512,
0.18366283178329468,
-0.29259368777275085,
0.5510817170143127,
0.6607527136802673,
-0.4499731659889221,
0.2590504586696625,
0.4100659489631653,
0.0417439229786396,
-0.21718446910381317,
-0.12014614045619965,
-0.2708204686641693,
0.275738388299942,
0.082952581346035,
0.5726292133331299,
-0.4823986291885376,
0.17057886719703674,
0.1497887670993805,
-0.5584105253219604,
0.5792644619941711,
0.013820072636008263,
-0.07525043189525604,
0.002206584671512246,
-0.05345411226153374,
0.09119750559329987,
0.43563172221183777,
0.09397907555103302,
0.22165876626968384,
-0.009746850468218327,
-0.22297002375125885,
-0.49759286642074585,
0.5498977303504944,
0.14488379657268524,
1.2325282096862793,
0.2966274321079254,
-0.39249521493911743,
0.27878937125205994,
-0.15002818405628204,
-0.8645665645599365,
-0.24646474421024323,
0.20308732986450195,
-0.42381155490875244,
-0.23309272527694702,
0.0718141570687294,
0.6412315964698792,
-0.2500975728034973,
-0.2707986533641815,
-0.4593406319618225,
-0.012322238646447659,
-0.26290035247802734,
-0.1146778091788292,
-0.2880231440067291,
0.016468333080410957,
-0.004879322834312916,
0.39865079522132874,
-0.5579823851585388,
0.08660059422254562,
-0.11947224289178848,
0.156672865152359,
-0.30462542176246643,
-0.12724873423576355,
0.49382102489471436,
-0.6797835230827332,
-1.1845636367797852,
0.20646438002586365,
0.4162561595439911,
0.07220585644245148,
0.29470720887184143,
-0.16276121139526367,
0.04519149288535118,
0.1900435984134674,
-5.615188121795654,
0.192831888794899,
-0.3183286488056183,
0.3975743055343628,
0.016140475869178772,
0.06471391022205353,
0.8754740953445435,
0.2739278972148895,
0.3524743318557739,
-0.09818868339061737,
-0.024840176105499268,
0.46242421865463257,
-0.018341410905122757,
0.5527892708778381,
0.10496033728122711,
0.6431275010108948,
-0.6444399356842041,
-0.142866313457489,
0.05111437290906906,
0.09346073865890503,
-0.2532307207584381,
0.212851420044899,
-0.24885892868041992,
0.6154730319976807,
0.4104260206222534,
0.10104036331176758,
-0.4204750955104828,
0.6198447942733765,
-0.8938986659049988,
-0.39518317580223083,
0.005200001876801252,
-0.11507678031921387,
0.04870566725730896,
0.05415019765496254,
0.12550798058509827,
-0.2690085470676422,
0.423060804605484,
0.06648004800081253,
0.040237586945295334,
0.2728222608566284,
-0.5516371726989746,
-0.27729088068008423,
-0.46359896659851074,
0.2905406057834625,
-0.25775352120399475,
-0.5588240623474121,
-0.32196518778800964,
0.42250481247901917,
-0.16271743178367615,
0.5208947658538818,
0.14495743811130524,
-0.022959081456065178,
-0.24951954185962677,
0.3193816542625427,
-0.09992437064647675,
0.39821872115135193,
0.2693048119544983,
0.5050135850906372,
-0.670735239982605,
0.20465198159217834,
0.13592317700386047,
-0.31282278895378113,
-0.23418442904949188,
-0.10916587710380554,
0.5687515735626221,
-0.0028159557841718197,
0.3468385636806488,
-0.7899464964866638,
-0.1688409298658371,
0.1018182784318924,
0.30422231554985046,
1.022688627243042,
0.09659893810749054,
-1.1077568531036377,
0.19905363023281097,
-0.36889466643333435,
-0.5058693885803223,
0.1304917186498642,
-0.05504285544157028,
-0.46092119812965393,
-0.4335622787475586,
-0.5498172044754028,
-0.20951978862285614,
0.890836238861084,
0.3722662031650543,
0.5911880135536194,
-0.151206374168396,
-0.2375122606754303,
-0.4255405366420746,
0.20604516565799713,
-0.18867550790309906,
-0.020792191848158836,
0.4881998598575592,
0.09481967985630035,
-0.6926128268241882,
0.32532456517219543,
-0.6129758954048157,
0.5166818499565125,
0.5768336057662964,
0.19665977358818054,
0.32444652915000916,
-0.07643557339906693,
-0.4073401689529419,
-0.052337080240249634,
0.8745906949043274,
-0.49133750796318054,
-0.3041952848434448,
0.30137985944747925,
1.0405538082122803,
-0.05627940595149994,
-0.1853373497724533,
0.3217869997024536,
-0.22654567658901215,
0.16339197754859924,
0.2613089680671692,
-0.05962574854493141,
0.193613201379776,
0.02603411115705967,
0.44846051931381226,
-0.11891739070415497,
-0.04195891320705414,
0.24152302742004395,
-0.0565202571451664,
-0.5158013105392456,
0.609936535358429,
0.12888391315937042,
0.1240178644657135,
0.030099542811512947,
-0.16265468299388885,
-0.002611445263028145,
0.051476847380399704,
0.5628994703292847,
-0.16173116862773895,
0.1880001425743103,
0.1400652974843979,
-0.14536598324775696,
-0.41583052277565,
-0.728807806968689,
0.3423387110233307,
-0.14779032766819,
0.07508499920368195,
-0.055295754224061966,
-0.3195858895778656,
0.26153114438056946,
0.4318251311779022,
0.19001652300357819,
-0.20999538898468018,
-0.10647252202033997,
-0.602975070476532,
0.4183386564254761,
-0.01438596285879612,
-0.4045558571815491,
-0.22230419516563416,
-0.055594101548194885,
-0.4858194887638092,
0.2080756276845932,
-0.10488327592611313,
0.3255529999732971,
-0.2642752528190613,
0.06120017170906067,
0.08057750761508942,
0.18937821686267853,
-0.9108426570892334,
-0.40605348348617554,
0.11569205671548843,
-0.0016914219595491886,
-0.6372591853141785,
-0.6799528002738953,
-0.4684460461139679,
0.6001905202865601,
-0.04342363029718399,
-0.5319125652313232,
-0.35540542006492615,
-0.06617703288793564,
0.12733185291290283,
-0.12625494599342346,
-0.4003934860229492,
0.7447463870048523,
0.07344924658536911,
0.06356915831565857,
0.47216472029685974,
-0.29535651206970215,
-0.6186632513999939,
0.0058715734630823135,
0.445090115070343,
0.24337583780288696,
-0.2028774470090866,
-1.0463767051696777,
-0.5096248388290405,
-0.28770071268081665,
-0.4256986379623413,
0.12862339615821838,
-0.4218718707561493,
0.451839417219162,
0.04436956346035004,
-0.41922274231910706,
-0.33303356170654297,
-0.3726713955402374,
0.1219032034277916,
-0.5533880591392517,
0.11799722909927368,
0.40944337844848633,
-0.36930349469184875,
-0.03782063350081444,
-0.22794564068317413,
-0.8728953003883362,
-0.08998195081949234,
0.2905953526496887,
-0.5626201629638672,
0.41793379187583923,
0.07063028216362,
-0.7728304862976074,
-0.032814208418130875,
0.9176045656204224,
-0.4183649718761444,
0.3626001477241516,
0.143744096159935,
-0.20576874911785126,
-0.9298842549324036,
-0.11088041216135025,
-0.2457910180091858,
0.25410187244415283,
-0.1976786106824875,
-0.46422460675239563,
-0.1516716629266739,
0.26001569628715515,
0.44069525599479675,
-0.029194200411438942,
0.8953506350517273,
-0.14296557009220123,
0.12111279368400574,
0.07518623769283295,
0.06254945695400238,
0.3865183889865875,
-0.7063816785812378,
-0.2079157531261444,
0.21307557821273804,
0.0018137929728254676,
-0.4210916757583618,
0.25976964831352234,
0.07211538404226303,
0.8611106276512146,
-0.41415613889694214,
-0.20739217102527618,
0.4489089250564575,
0.42663344740867615,
0.357251912355423,
-0.45239588618278503,
0.13482248783111572,
0.09309366345405579,
0.35858088731765747,
-0.3682258725166321,
-0.3757999837398529,
-0.48254674673080444,
0.6825690269470215,
0.15885968506336212,
0.1904367059469223,
0.26139035820961,
-0.0978204756975174,
-0.09477110207080841,
-0.014695901423692703,
0.4697728753089905,
-0.015777230262756348,
-0.046678103506565094,
0.027143776416778564,
-0.04750889167189598,
-0.15091314911842346,
-0.24024850130081177,
0.3319297134876251,
-0.45839911699295044,
0.09157681465148926,
-0.5566139817237854,
0.10876978933811188,
0.434705913066864,
-0.09735064208507538,
0.4775758981704712,
0.0644371286034584,
-0.3959724009037018,
0.7734884023666382,
-0.1425172984600067,
-0.846932590007782,
0.17391246557235718,
-0.1813105344772339,
-0.15267817676067352,
-0.8745549321174622,
-0.21126677095890045,
-0.018710194155573845,
0.3527509272098541,
-0.1593749076128006,
0.48346325755119324,
-0.285796582698822,
-0.08205055445432663,
0.1353708654642105,
0.07697436213493347,
0.22143247723579407,
0.2551361918449402,
-0.7240675687789917,
0.1640423685312271,
-0.03762180730700493,
-0.640051007270813,
-0.9459017515182495,
0.7360652685165405,
0.7246454358100891,
0.16061009466648102,
0.011736736632883549,
0.19064678251743317,
0.21011874079704285,
0.04348962754011154,
-0.09720412641763687,
-0.18107204139232635,
0.589175283908844,
-0.33118483424186707,
-0.20954430103302002,
-0.10892583429813385,
-0.4076879322528839,
-0.09716733545064926,
0.6130151748657227,
-0.07716641575098038,
-0.19563250243663788,
0.4552202522754669,
0.28880178928375244,
-0.1778358519077301,
0.38353848457336426,
-0.3995361924171448,
-0.12481804937124252,
0.13510510325431824,
0.029885374009609222,
0.25133803486824036,
-0.4324457347393036,
1.1365896463394165,
0.4888969957828522,
0.058819327503442764,
-0.7152265310287476,
0.832060694694519,
0.15031789243221283,
0.03137078136205673,
-0.07642625272274017,
-0.8633557558059692,
-0.17833212018013,
0.3182232677936554,
0.6336849331855774,
1.2422518730163574,
-0.26465266942977905,
0.19072169065475464,
-0.15874962508678436,
0.35319992899894714,
-0.384175181388855,
0.061219532042741776,
-0.12836919724941254,
-0.29655057191848755,
0.20662227272987366,
0.13409827649593353,
0.27634289860725403,
-0.3819831609725952,
-0.256008118391037,
0.46225428581237793,
0.35742655396461487,
-0.42645764350891113,
-0.5296610593795776,
0.39053091406822205,
-0.3071739375591278,
-0.3079743981361389,
0.7358288764953613,
-0.44237515330314636,
-0.4229685068130493,
0.49774304032325745,
-0.07862991839647293,
-0.6651219725608826,
-0.08160492777824402,
-0.14094731211662292,
-0.09818430244922638,
-0.5862205028533936,
-0.47060975432395935,
0.7509371638298035,
0.2649115025997162,
0.04472726956009865,
0.8532761335372925,
0.4867829978466034,
-0.013363203965127468,
0.16194163262844086,
-0.6529879570007324,
-0.006822779309004545,
-0.06657174229621887,
-0.35593345761299133,
0.10100053250789642,
-0.0329388864338398,
-0.1365315467119217,
0.07270045578479767,
0.30106329917907715,
-0.10539567470550537,
-0.45609229803085327,
-0.36470726132392883,
0.06081768870353699,
0.21411611139774323,
-0.5238447189331055,
-0.2363673895597458,
-0.1423073410987854,
0.6821346879005432,
0.0886099711060524,
-0.7399165034294128,
-0.2574054002761841,
-0.07501016557216644,
-0.27944716811180115,
-0.3500439524650574,
-0.8224538564682007,
0.6349226236343384,
-0.11749984323978424,
0.2942514717578888,
-0.5685557723045349,
0.41672271490097046,
-0.10959266126155853,
0.36553671956062317,
-0.13763485848903656,
-0.013372758403420448,
-0.47546878457069397,
-0.14053566753864288,
0.29068130254745483,
-0.5237037539482117,
-0.33959484100341797,
-0.16836698353290558,
-0.00901098269969225,
-0.12688621878623962,
-0.11157891154289246,
-0.28643471002578735,
-0.5794654488563538,
0.033928196877241135,
-0.012378491461277008,
0.2779069244861603,
0.2384708970785141,
0.686184287071228,
-0.10839595645666122,
0.5599700212478638,
-0.7542783617973328,
-0.34418967366218567,
-0.2202601581811905,
0.29561305046081543,
0.4439884424209595,
0.15772131085395813,
0.1211661621928215,
-0.34394118189811707,
0.5411736369132996,
-0.15795214474201202,
-0.2023864984512329,
0.38928818702697754,
0.6623488664627075,
-0.15033623576164246,
-0.7368136644363403,
-0.3037043511867523,
0.4165828227996826,
0.5693551898002625,
-0.009597095660865307,
0.13651138544082642,
0.49767395853996277,
-0.5373204946517944,
-0.08034025877714157,
0.2670026421546936,
-0.11918392777442932,
-0.7464313507080078,
0.6150542497634888,
0.1340007483959198
] |
233594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Fernel | Jean Fernel | Jean François Fernel (Latinized as Ioannes Fernelius; 1497 – 26 April 1558) was a French physician who introduced the term "physiology" to describe the study of the body's function. He was the first person to describe the spinal canal. The lunar crater Fernelius is named after him.
Fernel suggested that taste buds are sensitive to fat, an idea which research in the early 21st century proved to be correct.
Life
He was born in Montdidier and, after receiving his early education at Clermont, he entered the College of Sainte-Barbe, Paris. At first he devoted himself to mathematical and astronomical studies; but from 1534 he gave himself up entirely to medicine, in which he graduated in 1530. His general erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to revive the study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a reputation, and ultimately the office of physician to the court. Catherine de' Medici, wife of King Henry II of France, sought his advice regarding their difficulty in conceiving a child. He practiced with success, and at his death at Paris in 1558 left him a large fortune. His remains were entombed at the Church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie.
Work
Astronomy and geodesy
Fernel's Cosmotheoria (1528) records a determination (arc measurement) of a degree of arc of the meridian, which he made by counting the revolutions of his carriage wheels on a journey between Paris and Amiens. Using his measurements he calculated the circumference of the earth to within one percent of the correct value. He computated a degree of a meridian would have been long 56,746 toises instead of the 57,024 that were subsequently measured. His works on mathematical and astronomical subjects also include Monalosphaerium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii structura et usus (1526), and De proportionibus (1528).
Physiology
As a physician and professor of medicine at the Collège de Coenouailles for over 20 years, Fernel is credited with the neologism, physiology, a discipline which became one of the central topics of education and research in the field of medicine. His early understanding of physiology, especially of the brain, was represented by three statements commonly quoted in physiological history:
“Anatomy is to physiology as geography is to history; it describes the theatre of events.”
The brain was “the seat of the mind and its parts; the mind being endowed with numerous faculties, man has rightly been provided with a larger accommodation for it than the other creature possess, and this accommodation is associated with more instruments.”
“The brain is the citadel and dwelling of the human mind, the abode of thoughts and of the reason, the wellspring and origin of movement and of every sense; it occupies the highest point of the body, looking upwards, nearest to heaven.”
His medical works included De naturali parte medicinae (1542), De vacuandi ratione (1545), De abditis rerum causis (1548) which included a chapter on angelology and demonology. What has been called his "crowning work", Universa Medicina, comprises three parts: the Physiologia (developed from the De naturali parte), the Pathologia, and the Therapeutice.
References
Further reading
Hiro Hirai, "Jean Fernel and His Christian Platonic Interpretation of Galen," in: Hiro Hirai, Medical Humanism and Natural Philosophy: Renaissance Debates on Matter, Life and the Soul (Boston-Leiden: Brill, 2011), 46–79.
Charles Scott Sherrington, The Endeavour of Jean Fernel with a List of the Editions of His Writings. Canberra: U.P., 1946.
External links
Jean Fernel by Victor de Beauvillé (in French)
16th-century French physicians
French Roman Catholics
1497 births
1558 deaths
Demonologists
Metrologists
Court of Henry II of France
French astronomers
French geodesists | [
0.082769475877285,
-0.21710261702537537,
-0.5613704919815063,
0.14224958419799805,
0.07707269489765167,
1.0077177286148071,
0.9324687123298645,
-0.34945425391197205,
-0.25162574648857117,
-0.60114985704422,
0.17759136855602264,
0.6135851144790649,
-0.18138150870800018,
-0.013228820636868477,
-0.4332246780395508,
0.22119250893592834,
0.41884103417396545,
-0.5192878246307373,
0.2243259698152542,
-0.05745512247085571,
-0.10809554159641266,
0.05648193880915642,
0.17750810086727142,
0.17964895069599152,
0.07329216599464417,
-0.17614689469337463,
-0.3637157678604126,
0.09674739837646484,
-0.12115631997585297,
-0.14823979139328003,
0.09189850836992264,
0.012818265706300735,
-0.2583175301551819,
-0.3928510248661041,
-0.5528295636177063,
0.010790257714688778,
-0.26250189542770386,
0.24699226021766663,
-0.26947736740112305,
-0.36907923221588135,
-0.4745887517929077,
0.400557279586792,
-0.140859916806221,
0.3744604289531708,
-0.5109614133834839,
-0.3205321729183197,
-1.1466788053512573,
0.043114688247442245,
-0.7016600370407104,
-0.26361656188964844,
0.03595586121082306,
-0.11143608391284943,
0.28187108039855957,
0.5794156789779663,
-0.7454172372817993,
0.3088792562484741,
-0.6730649471282959,
0.20014062523841858,
-0.10331251472234726,
-0.9907025694847107,
0.5372514128684998,
0.43288272619247437,
0.36140337586402893,
0.3271123766899109,
0.6632090210914612,
0.5062504410743713,
-0.08611743897199631,
0.2969589829444885,
0.18050186336040497,
0.006983641069382429,
0.35016369819641113,
0.516988217830658,
-0.012510683387517929,
0.4479697048664093,
0.34159550070762634,
-0.5236690044403076,
-0.056848905980587006,
-0.1466485857963562,
0.44914311170578003,
0.42982977628707886,
0.24406841397285461,
-0.07510128617286682,
0.6006757020950317,
0.6497665643692017,
-0.24767325818538666,
0.5252435803413391,
-0.38829076290130615,
1.0685477256774902,
-0.2820357382297516,
-0.6608814597129822,
0.04295243322849274,
-0.6088453531265259,
0.2557290196418762,
-0.417058527469635,
0.02537076361477375,
0.23077194392681122,
-0.025522703304886818,
-0.29799604415893555,
-0.8589236736297607,
-0.5062528848648071,
-0.2030644416809082,
-0.21737642586231232,
-0.2701532542705536,
-0.3252541124820709,
0.002244234085083008,
-0.14817360043525696,
-0.3453958034515381,
-0.04988827928900719,
0.17869088053703308,
0.2835905849933624,
-0.5711430907249451,
0.1594865471124649,
-0.469978928565979,
0.19620895385742188,
-0.46790388226509094,
0.5905629396438599,
0.14289167523384094,
-0.511993944644928,
-0.8196202516555786,
0.07753155380487442,
-0.3025543689727783,
0.19776347279548645,
0.6264888644218445,
0.0048359758220613,
-0.8361029028892517,
0.011407798156142235,
0.30312374234199524,
-0.042835135012865067,
0.38286447525024414,
0.6204470992088318,
0.3669506311416626,
0.9001638889312744,
0.30587294697761536,
-0.48295748233795166,
-0.37554749846458435,
0.13371257483959198,
0.2925616204738617,
0.1871214061975479,
-0.782130241394043,
0.9612728357315063,
-0.1282406747341156,
-0.5464780330657959,
-0.16705776751041412,
0.10527017712593079,
-0.39290913939476013,
-1.0433309078216553,
0.11543186753988266,
-0.008458403870463371,
-0.10337314754724503,
-0.09279203414916992,
-0.7904027104377747,
0.7329348921775818,
0.0323580764234066,
-0.44466346502304077,
0.4240304231643677,
1.0525809526443481,
0.22901085019111633,
0.1699674129486084,
0.13159239292144775,
-0.5225974321365356,
0.06790871918201447,
-0.08639027178287506,
-0.663766622543335,
-0.04187918081879616,
0.5527905225753784,
-0.5014032125473022,
0.5904679894447327,
-0.2018059343099594,
0.27750715613365173,
0.09817366302013397,
-0.345523476600647,
-0.5471782088279724,
-0.07548408955335617,
0.2877645492553711,
-0.260336309671402,
0.3582727909088135,
0.2316100150346756,
-0.1989537924528122,
0.7314488887786865,
-0.0915549248456955,
-0.7263378500938416,
0.06786789745092392,
-0.4942924380302429,
-0.24720731377601624,
0.6886414289474487,
-0.014753264375030994,
1.1674399375915527,
0.055835526436567307,
-0.43928393721580505,
-0.3160940408706665,
-0.371606707572937,
-0.4794117510318756,
-0.29160794615745544,
0.010804083198308945,
1.3506711721420288,
-0.011154845356941223,
-0.4793751537799835,
1.2052522897720337,
-0.4358140528202057,
-0.2929699122905731,
-0.17728030681610107,
-0.5288630127906799,
-0.06005527824163437,
0.36888962984085083,
-0.1351809799671173,
0.059079427272081375,
0.7894973158836365,
-0.3489760756492615,
0.4196346700191498,
0.18862463533878326,
0.412615031003952,
-0.2286357879638672,
0.02064554952085018,
-0.5487370491027832,
-0.48729079961776733,
-0.3837846517562866,
-0.6649909019470215,
0.655397891998291,
0.2556144595146179,
0.03482535853981972,
0.6661368012428284,
0.05622908100485802,
-0.04469433054327965,
0.8838297724723816,
0.3271401822566986,
0.755081832408905,
0.18871718645095825,
-0.00172466563526541,
-0.028384413570165634,
-1.0444649457931519,
-0.12503479421138763,
-0.31689274311065674,
0.5772645473480225,
0.36756569147109985,
-0.618965208530426,
-0.19230325520038605,
-0.04494248703122139,
-0.580973207950592,
-0.04662253335118294,
-0.951479434967041,
0.5734256505966187,
0.5094088315963745,
0.05528441444039345,
0.8089902400970459,
-0.007077518384903669,
-0.15388773381710052,
-0.12407664954662323,
0.6236603260040283,
-0.1625625342130661,
-0.05737274885177612,
-0.3518121838569641,
1.1721216440200806,
-0.20066994428634644,
0.582344651222229,
0.1749795377254486,
-0.4524524211883545,
0.43790823221206665,
0.597089946269989,
0.7187228798866272,
0.4636450707912445,
0.43051356077194214,
-0.20336796343326569,
0.46128049492836,
0.35428646206855774,
0.08262928575277328,
0.0650232657790184,
-0.3031193017959595,
-0.722302258014679,
0.1870269775390625,
0.26382389664649963,
1.196972370147705,
0.23400980234146118,
-0.3809339106082916,
0.13597090542316437,
-0.07550857961177826,
-0.7992334961891174,
0.5390182733535767,
0.2124936431646347,
-0.523204505443573,
-0.2619941234588623,
-0.28846824169158936,
1.0353642702102661,
-0.08962846547365189,
-0.13050805032253265,
0.20762373507022858,
-0.35549071431159973,
-0.15566085278987885,
-0.11624550819396973,
-0.16532152891159058,
0.024064406752586365,
-0.3875467777252197,
0.4809063971042633,
-0.5280753970146179,
-0.5047147274017334,
-0.4515153169631958,
0.24716702103614807,
0.04042650759220123,
-0.6865073442459106,
0.2710512578487396,
-0.26047080755233765,
-1.0697121620178223,
-0.005735882092267275,
0.41104814410209656,
0.013744725845754147,
0.2783978283405304,
-0.2702866792678833,
0.5439853668212891,
0.2815955877304077,
-5.29935359954834,
-0.026369299739599228,
0.6218205094337463,
-0.03985542804002762,
0.3662557601928711,
0.49654698371887207,
0.3692387342453003,
-0.045448895543813705,
-0.07167814671993256,
0.06803419440984726,
-0.20763595402240753,
0.2158305048942566,
0.1599324345588684,
0.4095177948474884,
0.46303245425224304,
0.0939633920788765,
0.0017652767710387707,
0.40269190073013306,
-0.1785985380411148,
-0.02636188454926014,
-0.026725446805357933,
0.005932361353188753,
-0.04585019871592522,
0.4741072356700897,
0.1453298181295395,
-0.2571311593055725,
-0.6028296947479248,
0.8448097109794617,
-0.011866538785398006,
-0.18053342401981354,
0.12975117564201355,
0.17646898329257965,
0.2329046130180359,
-0.45714521408081055,
0.33161836862564087,
-0.23060180246829987,
0.21895109117031097,
0.19138868153095245,
0.49737119674682617,
0.11836767941713333,
-0.2143871933221817,
0.2778441905975342,
-0.3844318687915802,
-0.017641616985201836,
-0.4586409628391266,
-0.41111502051353455,
-0.4428156316280365,
0.35202232003211975,
-0.4594639539718628,
-0.014148079790174961,
0.2784454822540283,
-0.24302253127098083,
0.1878541260957718,
0.07267241925001144,
0.278779000043869,
-0.15673644840717316,
0.15671534836292267,
0.5659555792808533,
-0.6064878106117249,
0.3084225356578827,
-0.12411506474018097,
-0.6042259931564331,
-0.3760773539543152,
-0.3938463628292084,
0.23246906697750092,
0.37687233090400696,
-0.016548901796340942,
-0.4520381987094879,
-0.14791236817836761,
-0.23366862535476685,
0.041898347437381744,
1.3547474145889282,
0.1763145923614502,
-1.0778850317001343,
-0.15264378488063812,
-0.20936459302902222,
-0.5075969099998474,
-0.2359057366847992,
0.1486247330904007,
-0.24749499559402466,
-0.3938911557197571,
-0.9348350167274475,
-0.23435208201408386,
1.0841304063796997,
0.6945708990097046,
0.13713255524635315,
-0.24311697483062744,
-0.005534777883440256,
-0.16945593059062958,
-0.18115432560443878,
0.48822811245918274,
0.0176475141197443,
0.20843376219272614,
0.033964261412620544,
-0.39312079548835754,
0.1923520863056183,
-0.6506844758987427,
-0.060966551303863525,
0.29262498021125793,
0.2527243494987488,
0.1821986436843872,
0.4608527719974518,
0.21352456510066986,
-0.3578519821166992,
1.3054639101028442,
-0.6593007445335388,
-0.49944156408309937,
0.2168479859828949,
1.2144216299057007,
-0.01346308272331953,
-0.035607580095529556,
0.7439740896224976,
-0.2744050621986389,
0.06220553442835808,
-0.25479447841644287,
-0.23267406225204468,
-0.48983752727508545,
-0.23681865632534027,
0.5108584761619568,
-0.06697041541337967,
-0.21446198225021362,
0.16391636431217194,
-0.2946527302265167,
-0.46746379137039185,
0.9027064442634583,
0.16123659908771515,
0.1856677085161209,
-0.17612677812576294,
-0.24418556690216064,
0.012165753170847893,
-0.04158984497189522,
0.5108293890953064,
-0.06107722967863083,
0.48802655935287476,
0.21230562031269073,
-0.004719852469861507,
-0.04501676559448242,
-0.6301001310348511,
-0.057710178196430206,
-0.16815410554409027,
-0.013988773338496685,
0.13543632626533508,
-0.07132093608379364,
0.2365579605102539,
0.4925018548965454,
0.09894616901874542,
-0.17767196893692017,
-0.0532991997897625,
-0.8163527846336365,
0.4615316092967987,
0.41280338168144226,
-0.4911118149757385,
0.05473724752664566,
0.1899951547384262,
-0.27573922276496887,
0.05461239442229271,
0.29078152775764465,
0.4374174475669861,
0.1650572270154953,
-0.02686861716210842,
-0.07190298289060593,
0.15643008053302765,
-0.9565292596817017,
-0.41776907444000244,
-0.12294664233922958,
0.7413313984870911,
-0.4431963562965393,
-0.658837080001831,
-0.1934797167778015,
0.054950051009655,
0.10516361892223358,
-0.7596381902694702,
-0.20235593616962433,
-0.48246678709983826,
-0.3617810010910034,
0.22224749624729156,
-0.2415023297071457,
0.39382776618003845,
0.12146520614624023,
0.45359674096107483,
0.673797070980072,
-0.7704423666000366,
-0.01557834167033434,
-0.17005608975887299,
0.7833439707756042,
-0.1981109231710434,
-0.26810112595558167,
-0.650834321975708,
-0.330440878868103,
-0.034914854913949966,
-0.1740197390317917,
0.2567586302757263,
-0.030817242339253426,
0.39491328597068787,
0.03651928901672363,
0.08668909221887589,
-0.47877344489097595,
0.17554141581058502,
0.12161645293235779,
-0.5713589787483215,
-0.0051141344010829926,
-0.13499276340007782,
0.1929979771375656,
-0.16793173551559448,
0.17353114485740662,
-1.056074857711792,
-0.4510074257850647,
0.03720949962735176,
-0.4905947744846344,
0.7325870394706726,
-0.2857763469219208,
-0.20323769748210907,
0.5832264423370361,
0.4624403119087219,
-0.6173499822616577,
0.17350436747074127,
0.09596634656190872,
-0.42214104533195496,
-0.5121495723724365,
-0.5772607326507568,
-0.3486779034137726,
0.4806029796600342,
-0.5206636786460876,
-0.31646883487701416,
-0.220346599817276,
-0.7295786738395691,
0.44780632853507996,
0.1593300849199295,
0.5327661037445068,
-0.03564046695828438,
-0.03492531180381775,
-0.3673902750015259,
0.08196509629487991,
-0.1317548304796219,
-0.33106398582458496,
-0.6114931702613831,
0.3721292316913605,
0.2724146544933319,
0.1505804806947708,
-0.6692137718200684,
0.4303332269191742,
1.3571734428405762,
-0.365852415561676,
0.3757626712322235,
0.23034901916980743,
0.938713788986206,
0.34286874532699585,
-0.7767012119293213,
0.2756733000278473,
-0.17552326619625092,
0.11206013709306717,
-0.023619212210178375,
-0.3832274377346039,
-0.5833398103713989,
0.4764900803565979,
-0.15081267058849335,
0.2154475897550583,
0.4308100938796997,
0.26546403765678406,
-0.13447101414203644,
0.24564187228679657,
0.3261210024356842,
-0.05489145964384079,
-0.4834502339363098,
-0.3520745038986206,
0.2303500920534134,
-0.33160632848739624,
-0.15982528030872345,
0.35744863748550415,
-0.6730520129203796,
0.2567795217037201,
-0.4158436954021454,
-0.9504140019416809,
0.18772254884243011,
0.20375163853168488,
0.49805793166160583,
0.012734171003103256,
-0.24940939247608185,
1.169326901435852,
-0.3066820204257965,
-0.4332524836063385,
0.09251876175403595,
-0.3094346523284912,
-0.1876610368490219,
0.06306591629981995,
-0.45187410712242126,
0.1170869842171669,
-0.14229686558246613,
-0.2453296184539795,
0.5307416915893555,
-0.8268364071846008,
0.05627790093421936,
0.0030101281590759754,
-0.32102715969085693,
0.334750235080719,
0.41260406374931335,
-0.2931218445301056,
0.5355481505393982,
-0.49081629514694214,
-0.4437588155269623,
-0.5947384834289551,
0.5053544044494629,
0.8646478652954102,
-0.4314791262149811,
-0.06228181719779968,
0.1432875394821167,
0.36540478467941284,
-0.034968193620443344,
-0.4940754175186157,
0.06493096053600311,
0.45737674832344055,
0.3320797085762024,
-0.17565488815307617,
-0.1521342545747757,
-0.23232997953891754,
-0.47198307514190674,
0.09477536380290985,
-0.30894145369529724,
-0.2629333436489105,
0.6721886992454529,
0.4487784802913666,
-0.045051828026771545,
0.6690211296081543,
-0.8758638501167297,
-0.17595401406288147,
0.17437434196472168,
0.05162384361028671,
0.620307207107544,
-0.7829336524009705,
0.7326080799102783,
0.5668820142745972,
-0.16230645775794983,
-0.24035032093524933,
0.4477599263191223,
-0.13639549911022186,
-0.0678907185792923,
0.24193952977657318,
-0.31408706307411194,
-0.34982022643089294,
0.328181654214859,
0.2913679778575897,
1.618730902671814,
-0.17634768784046173,
-0.051736295223236084,
-0.44360536336898804,
0.35213109850883484,
-0.1855943351984024,
0.13134758174419403,
-0.4537569284439087,
-0.17964237928390503,
0.3984643816947937,
-0.48327767848968506,
0.5093430876731873,
-0.13221734762191772,
-0.09212957322597504,
0.002363816602155566,
0.7740190029144287,
-0.27544596791267395,
-0.21100619435310364,
0.5252842307090759,
-0.5733978152275085,
0.13171976804733276,
1.3103448152542114,
-0.6050556302070618,
0.209418386220932,
0.6139261722564697,
-0.30914151668548584,
-0.7753028869628906,
0.49580979347229004,
-0.031137051060795784,
-0.5198193192481995,
-0.38584598898887634,
-0.4323072135448456,
-0.30634281039237976,
-0.017458317801356316,
0.21088756620883942,
0.7878539562225342,
0.43715977668762207,
-0.22512419521808624,
-0.6019578576087952,
-0.10742607712745667,
-0.32953861355781555,
-0.21387937664985657,
-0.21767748892307281,
-0.13103994727134705,
0.07581101357936859,
-0.24320408701896667,
0.21540115773677826,
0.24269869923591614,
-0.23207396268844604,
0.018176807090640068,
-0.09530983120203018,
0.5149445533752441,
-0.06686390936374664,
-0.3314501941204071,
-0.012762656435370445,
-0.10130093991756439,
0.4075908362865448,
0.30392739176750183,
-0.9079793095588684,
-0.386421799659729,
0.6207435727119446,
-0.25978294014930725,
-0.49255964159965515,
-0.778678834438324,
0.7219836711883545,
-0.43782660365104675,
0.628832221031189,
-0.6713589429855347,
0.14703041315078735,
0.07603579759597778,
-0.08275286853313446,
0.0685325488448143,
-0.21077610552310944,
-0.028545940294861794,
0.1869930624961853,
0.31434762477874756,
-0.9585766196250916,
-0.468523770570755,
-0.2827993929386139,
-0.1391008049249649,
0.260667622089386,
0.06590139865875244,
-0.12382975220680237,
-0.36741092801094055,
0.07845824211835861,
0.14381533861160278,
-0.4435453712940216,
-0.6122363805770874,
0.6301608085632324,
-0.48836615681648254,
0.3798128068447113,
-1.0951292514801025,
-0.2036840170621872,
0.13104373216629028,
-0.4151824116706848,
0.36233752965927124,
0.39213934540748596,
-0.06977038830518723,
-0.1504913866519928,
0.6893357038497925,
0.6506377458572388,
-0.056961677968502045,
0.48042020201683044,
0.39621421694755554,
-0.14677724242210388,
-0.7766260504722595,
-0.2038303017616272,
-0.09060901403427124,
0.19722402095794678,
0.16644476354122162,
0.2795480787754059,
0.666413426399231,
-0.9559324383735657,
0.08212312310934067,
0.006450241897255182,
0.22899015247821808,
-0.5874025225639343,
0.5376527905464172,
0.5898990035057068
] |
233596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20ruble | Russian ruble | The Russian ruble or rouble ( rublʹ; symbol: ₽, руб; code: RUB) is the official currency of the Russian Federation, and unofficially used in the four partially recognised republics of Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Donetsk and Luhansk. The ruble is subdivided into 100 kopeks (sometimes written as kopecks or copecks; kopeyka, plural: kopeyki). As of April 2019, the Russian ruble is the seventeenth most traded currency in the world, and a free-floating currency.
In September 1993, the Soviet ruble (code: SUR) was replaced with the Russian ruble (code: RUR) at the rate 1 SUR = 1 RUR. In 1998, preceding the financial crisis, the Russian ruble was redenominated with the new code "RUB" and was exchanged at the rate of 1,000 RUR = 1 RUB.
The ruble was the currency of the Russian Empire and of the Soviet Union (as the Soviet ruble). However, today only Russia, Belarus and Transnistria use currencies with the same name. The ruble was the first currency in Europe to be decimalised, in 1704, when the ruble became equal to 100 kopeks, and the ruble is also the second-oldest currency still in circulation, behind Pound sterling.
History
The ruble has been used in the Russian territories since the 14th century. Initially an uncoined unit of account, the ruble became a circulating coin in 1704 just before the establishment of the Russian Empire. It was then succeeded by the Soviet ruble (code: SUR), which was used from 1917 to 1991.
The first modern Russian ruble (code: RUR) was created in December 1991 and used in parallel with the Soviet ruble, which remained in circulation until September 1993. This first ruble was replaced in 1998 by the second Russian ruble (code: RUB) at the rate of 1 RUB = 1,000 RUR.
RUR (1992–1998)
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet ruble remained the currency of the Russian Federation until 1992. A new set of coins was issued in 1992 and a new set of banknotes was issued in the name of Bank of Russia in 1993. The Russian ruble with the ISO 4217 code RUR and number 810 replaced the Soviet ruble at the rate 1 SUR = 1 RUR.
The ruble's exchange rate versus the U.S. dollar depreciated significantly from $1 = 125 RUR in January 1992 to approximately $1 = 6,000 RUR when the currency was redenominated in 1998.
RUR Coins
After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation introduced new coins in 1992 in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 rubles. The coins depict the double-headed eagle without a crown, sceptre and globus cruciger above the legend "Банк России" ("Bank of Russia"). It is exactly the same eagle that the artist Ivan Bilibin painted after the February Revolution as the coat of arms for the Russian Republic. The 1- and 5-ruble coins were minted in brass-clad steel, the 10- and 20-ruble coins in cupro-nickel, and the 50- and 100-ruble coins were bimetallic (aluminium-bronze and cupro-nickel-zinc). In 1993, aluminium-bronze 50-ruble coins and cupro-nickel-zinc 100-ruble coins were issued, and the material of 10- and 20-ruble coins was changed to nickel-plated steel. In 1995 the material of 50-ruble coins was changed to brass-plated steel, but the coins were minted with the old date 1993. As high inflation persisted, the lowest denominations disappeared from circulation and the other denominations became rarely used.
During this period, the commemorative one-ruble coin was regularly issued. It is practically identical in size and weight to a 5-Swiss franc coin (worth approx. €4.39 / US$5.09 as of August 2018). For this reason, there have been several instances of (now worthless) ruble coins being used on a large scale to defraud automated vending machines in Switzerland.
RUR Banknotes
In 1961, new State Treasury notes were introduced for 1, 3 and 5 rubles, along with new State Bank notes worth 10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles. In 1991, the State Bank took over production of 1-, 3- and 5-ruble notes and also introduced 200-, 500- and 1,000-ruble notes, although the 25-ruble note was no longer issued. In 1992, a final issue of notes was made bearing the name of the USSR before the Russian Federation introduced 5,000- and 10,000-ruble notes. These were followed by 50,000-ruble notes in 1993, 100,000 rubles in 1995 and, finally, 500,000 rubles in 1997 (dated 1995).
Since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian ruble banknotes and coins have been notable for their lack of portraits, which traditionally were included under both the Tsarist and Communist regimes. With the issue of the 500-ruble note depicting a statue of Peter I and then the 1,000-ruble note depicting a statue of Yaroslav, the lack of recognizable faces on the currency has been partially alleviated.
RUB (1998–present)
In 1998 the Russian ruble was redenominated with the new ISO 4217 code "RUB" and number 643, and was exchanged at the rate of 1 RUB = 1,000 RUR. All Soviet coins issued between 1961 and 1991, as well as 1-, 2- and 3-kopek coins, issued before 1961, were also exchangeable for Russian rubles at the rate of 1 RUB = 1,000 SUR. The redenomination was an administrative step that reduced the unwieldiness of the old ruble but occurred on the brink of the 1998 Russian financial crisis. The ruble lost 70% of its value against the US dollar in the six months following this financial crisis, from $1 = 6 RUB to approximately 20 RUB. Further pressure during the Russian invasion of Ukraine furthered the decline to a low of $1 = 119 RUB.
Ruble symbol
A currency symbol was used for the ruble between the 16th century and the 18th century. The symbol consisted of the Russian letters "Р" (rotated 90° counter-clockwise) and "У" (written on top of it). The symbol was placed over the amount number it belonged to. This symbol, however, fell into disuse by the mid-19th century.
No official symbol was used during the final years of the Empire, nor was one introduced in the Soviet Union. The characters R and руб. were used and remain in use today, though they are not official.
In July 2007, the Central Bank of Russia announced that it would decide on a symbol for the ruble and would test 13 symbols. This included the symbol РР (the initials of "Russian ruble"), which received preliminary approval from the Central Bank. However, one more symbol, a Р with a horizontal stroke below the top similar to the Philippine peso sign, was proposed unofficially. Proponents of the new sign claimed that it is simple, recognizable and similar to other currency signs. This symbol is also similar to the Armenian letter ք or the Latin letter Ꝑ.
On 11 December 2013, the official symbol for the ruble became , a Cyrillic letter Er with a single added horizontal stroke, though the abbreviation "руб." is in wide use. In Unicode version 7.0 it was assigned the encoding .
On 4 February 2014, the Unicode Technical Committee during its 138th meeting in San Jose accepted symbol for Unicode version 7.0; the symbol was then included into Unicode 7.0 released on 16 June 2014. In August 2014, Microsoft issued updates for all of its mainstream versions of Microsoft Windows that enabled support for the new ruble sign.
The ruble sign can be entered on a Russian computer keyboard as on Windows and Linux, or (Qwerty position) on macOS.
Trivia
In the countries of the former USSR there is a tradition associated with the colour of money. Denominations of 10 almost always have a red tinge, and are called "chervonets" (), which comes from the old Russian word "chervony" () meaning "red". In the Russian Empire, the high-grade gold from which the coins were made was called "red gold". Then the corresponding denominations worth 10 rubles began to be issued with a red tinge that were subject to exchange for gold. In the USSR (which included almost all the regions of the former Russian Empire) in the early 1920s, banknotes of one chervonets were also issued, which were provided with gold.
Coins
In 1998, the following coins were introduced in connection with the ruble revaluation are currently in circulation:
One- and 5-kopek coins are rarely used (especially the 1-kopek coin) due to their low value and in some cases may not be accepted by stores or individuals. In some cases, the 10-kopek coin is disregarded (refused by individuals but is accepted by vendors and is mandatory for offer in exchange).
These coins began being issued in 1998, although some of them bear the year 1997. Kopek denominations all depict St George and the Dragon, and all ruble denominations (with the exception of commemorative pieces) depict the double headed eagle. Mint marks are denoted by "СП" or "M" on kopeks and the logo of either the Saint Petersburg or Moscow mint on rubles. Since 2000, many bimetallic 10-ruble circulating commemorative coins have been issued. These coins have a unique holographic security feature inside the "0" of the denomination 10.
In 2008, the Bank of Russia proposed withdrawing 1- and 5-kopek coins from circulation and subsequently rounding all prices to multiples of 10 kopeks, although the proposal has not been realized yet (though characteristic "x.99" prices are treated as rounded in exchange). The Bank of Russia stopped minting one-kopek and five-kopek coins in 2012, and kopeks completely in 2018.
The material of 1-, 2- and 5-ruble coins was switched from copper-nickel-zinc and copper-nickel clad to nickel-plated steel in the second quarter of 2009. Ten and 50 kopeks were also changed from brass to brass-plated steel.
In October 2009, a new 10-ruble coin made of brass-plated steel was issued, featuring optical security features. The 10-ruble banknote would have been withdrawn in 2012, but a shortage of 10-ruble coins prompted the Central Bank to delay this and put new ones in circulation. Bimetallic commemorative 10-ruble coins will continue to be issued.
A series of circulating Olympic commemorative 25-ruble coins started in 2011. The new coins are made of cupronickel. A number of commemorative smaller denominations of these coins exist in circulation as well, depicting national historic events and anniversaries.
The Bank of Russia issues other commemorative non-circulating coins ranging from 1 to 50,000 rubles.
Banknotes
On 1 January 1998 a new series of banknotes dated 1997 was released in denominations of 5 ₽, 10 ₽, 50 ₽, 100 ₽ and 500 ₽. The 1,000 ₽ banknote was first issued on 1 January 2001 and the 5,000 ₽ banknote was first issued on 31 July 2006. Modifications to the series were made in 2001, 2004, and 2010.
In April 2016, the Central Bank of Russia announced that it will introduce two new banknotes – 200 ₽ and 2,000 ₽ — in 2017. In September 2016, a vote was held to decide which symbols and cities will be displayed on the new notes. In February 2017, the Central Bank of Russia announced the new symbols. The 200 ₽ banknote will feature symbols of Crimea: the Monument to the Sunken Ships, a view of Sevastopol, and a view of Chersonesus. The 2,000 ₽ banknote will bear images of the Russian Far East: the bridge to Russky Island and the Vostochny Cosmodrome in the Amur Oblast.
In 2018, the Central Bank issued a 100-ruble "commemorative" banknote designed to recognize Russia's role as the host of the 2018 World Cup soccer tournament. The banknote is printed on a polymer substrate, and has several transparent portions as well as a hologram. Despite the note being intended for legal tender transactions, the Central Bank has simultaneously refused to allow the country's automated teller machines (ATMs) to recognize or accept it.
In March 2021, the Central Bank announced plans to gradually update the designs of the 10, 50, 100, 1,000 and 5,000-ruble banknotes and make them more secure; this is expected to be completed in 2025.
For the rest of the 2017–2025 series, the following designs are planned:
10 ₽ (2025): Novosibirsk on the obverse, Siberian Federal District on the reverse
50 ₽ (2025): Saint Petersburg on the obverse, Northwestern Federal District on the reverse
100 ₽ (2022): Moscow on the obverse, Central Federal District on the reverse
500 ₽ (2024): Pyatigorsk on the obverse, North Caucasian Federal District on the reverse
1,000 ₽ (2023): Nizhny Novgorod on the obverse, Volga Federal District on the reverse
5,000 ₽ (2023): Yekaterinburg on the obverse, Ural Federal District on the reverse
Printing
All Russian ruble banknotes are currently printed at the state-owned factory Goznak in Moscow, which was founded on 6 June 1919 and operated ever since. Coins are minted in Moscow and at the Saint Petersburg Mint, which has been operating since 1724.
100-ruble bill controversy
On 8 July 2014, State Duma deputy and Vice-Chairman of the Duma Regional Political Committee Roman Khudyakov alleged that the image of Apollo driving Quadriga on the portico of the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow on the 100-ruble banknote constitutes pornography that should only be available to persons over the age of 18. Since it is impractical to limit the access of minors to banknotes, he requested in his letter to the Governor of the Bank of Russia Elvira Nabiullina to immediately change the design of the banknote.
Khudyakov, a member of parliament for the LDPR party stated, "You can clearly see that Apollo is naked, you can see his genitalia. I submitted a parliamentary request and forwarded it directly to the head of the central bank asking for the banknote to be brought into line with the law protecting children and to remove this Apollo." Khudyakov's efforts did not lead to any changes being made to the design.
Crimea controversy
On 13 October 2017, the National Bank of Ukraine issued a decree forbidding the country's banks, other financial institutions and Ukraine's state postal service to circulate Russian banknotes which use images of Crimea, a territory that is regarded as Russian-occupied by Ukraine and regarded as part of Ukraine by the majority of UN member states. The NBU stated that the ban applies to all financial operations, including cash transactions, currency exchange activities and interbank trade. Crimea is featured on three banknotes that are currently in circulation – the 100 ruble commemorative notes issued in 2015 and 2018, as well as the 200 ruble note issued in 2017.
Commemorative banknotes
On 30 October 2013, a special banknote in honour of the 2014 Winter Olympics held in Sochi was issued. The banknote is printed on high-quality white cotton paper. A transparent polymer security stripe is embedded into the paper to make a transparent window incorporating an optically variable element in the form of a snowflake. The highlight watermark is visible in the upper part of the banknote. Ornamental designs run vertically along the banknote. The front of the note features a snowboarder and some of the Olympic venues of the Sochi coastal cluster. The back of the note features the Fisht Olympic Stadium in Sochi. The predominant colour of the note is blue.
On 23 December 2015, another commemorative 100-ruble banknote was issued to celebrate the "reunification of Crimea and Russia". The banknote is printed on light-yellow-coloured cotton paper. One side of the note is devoted to Sevastopol, the other one—to Crimea. А wide security thread is embedded into the paper. It comes out on the surface on the Sevastopol side of the banknote in the figure-shaped window. A multitone combined watermark is located on the unprinted area in the upper part of the banknote. Ornamental designs run vertically along the banknote. The Sevastopol side of the note features the Monument to Sunken Ships in Sevastopol bay and a fragment of the painting "Russian Squadron on the Roads of Sevastopol" by Ivan Aivazovsky. The Crimea side of the note features the Swallow's Nest, a decorative castle and local landmark. In the lower part of the Sevastopol side of the banknote in the green stripe there is a QR-code containing a link to the Bank of Russia's webpage, which lists historical information related to the banknote. The predominant colour of the note is olive green.
On 22 May 2018, a special banknote to celebrate the 2018 FIFA World Cup was issued. The banknote is printed on polymer. The top part of the note bears a transparent window that contains a holographic element. The design of the note is vertically oriented. The main images of the obverse are a boy with a ball under his arm and a goalkeeper diving for a ball. The main image of the reverse is a stylized image of the globe in the form of a football with green image of the Russian territory outlined on it. On the reverse there is the number 2018 that marks both the issue of the banknote and the World Cup, as well as the name of the host cities in the Russian language. The bottom right corner of the obverse bears a QR-code, which contains a link to the page of the Bank of Russia website with the description of the note's security features. Predominant colours of the note are blue and green.
Economics
The use of other currencies for transactions between Russian residents is punishable, with a few exceptions, with a fine of 75% to 100% of the value of the transaction.
International trade
On 23 November 2010, at a meeting of Russian President Vladimir Putin and Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, it was announced that Russia and China had decided to use their own national currencies for bilateral trade, instead of the US dollar. The move is aimed to further improve relations between Beijing and Moscow and to protect their domestic economies during the Great Recession. The trading of the Chinese yuan against the ruble has started in the Chinese interbank market, while the yuan's trading against the ruble was set to start on the Russian foreign exchange market in December 2010.
In January 2014, President Putin said there should be a sound balance on the ruble exchange rate; that the Central Bank only regulated the national currency exchange rate when it went beyond the upper or lower limits of the floating exchange rate; and that the freer the Russian national currency is, the better it is, adding that this would make the economy react more effectively and timely to processes taking place in it.
Exchange rates
The first Russian ruble (RUR) introduced in January 1992 depreciated significantly versus the U.S. dollar from $1 = 125 RUR to approximately $1 = 6,000 RUR (or 6 RUB or new rubles) when it was redenominated in 1998.
The financial crisis in Russia in 2014–2016 was the result of the collapse of the Russian ruble beginning in the second half of 2014. A decline in confidence in the Russian economy caused investors to sell off their Russian assets, which led to a decline in the value of the Russian ruble and sparked fears of a Russian financial crisis. The lack of confidence in the Russian economy stemmed from at least two major sources. The first is the fall in the price of oil in 2014. Crude oil, a major export of Russia, declined in price by nearly 50% between its yearly high in June 2014 and 16 December 2014. The second was the result of international economic sanctions imposed on Russia following Russia's annexation of Crimea and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine.
The crisis affected the Russian economy, both consumers and companies, and regional financial markets, as well as Putin's ambitions regarding the Eurasian Economic Union. The Russian stock market in particular experienced large declines, with a 30% drop in the RTS Index from the beginning of December through 16 December 2014. From July 2014 to February 2015 the ruble fell dramatically against the U.S. dollar. A 6.5 percentage point interest rate rise to 17 percent failed to prevent the currency hitting record lows in a "perfect storm" of low oil prices, looming recession and Western sanctions over the Ukraine crisis.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Goznak official site
Russian Ruble (Catalog of banknotes)
Foreign Currency Market | Bank of Russia
Russian Currency Exchange Rate History
Historical Russian Ruble eXchange Rates: RUB
History of the Russian paper money
Images of historic and modern Russian bank notes
Historical and current banknotes of Russia
including banknotes of the Soviet Union
Economy of Russia
Economic history of Russia
Currencies of Russia
Currencies of Ukraine | [
-0.04829910025000572,
-0.053375232964754105,
0.07401573657989502,
0.09203822165727615,
0.026998747140169144,
0.5733006000518799,
-0.4116484820842743,
0.2855082154273987,
-0.5273579359054565,
0.12903937697410583,
-0.5220546722412109,
0.12248114496469498,
-0.3513320982456207,
0.5948317050933838,
-0.5526731014251709,
0.6559554934501648,
0.29820525646209717,
0.7772898077964783,
0.021532515063881874,
-0.19261281192302704,
-0.24162203073501587,
0.4208720922470093,
0.7098110318183899,
-0.27362415194511414,
0.32349610328674316,
-0.4005659818649292,
0.4556838572025299,
0.33786240220069885,
-0.5973430275917053,
0.33313947916030884,
-0.24398785829544067,
0.7582327127456665,
-0.25614508986473083,
0.3210638463497162,
0.3970336616039276,
-0.1285242885351181,
-0.3319794237613678,
-0.29015716910362244,
-0.44073599576950073,
-0.7877328395843506,
0.5740448832511902,
-0.34580478072166443,
-0.0550788976252079,
0.2589525878429413,
-0.13550879061222076,
-1.1360207796096802,
-1.247509241104126,
0.5502978563308716,
-0.5562058091163635,
0.46520093083381653,
-0.20791077613830566,
0.6543188691139221,
0.0418541394174099,
-0.22980651259422302,
0.26319146156311035,
0.5419352054595947,
-1.0198620557785034,
-0.026986293494701385,
0.07020790874958038,
-0.032124113291502,
0.7440217137336731,
-0.18576748669147491,
0.14602918922901154,
0.24245604872703552,
0.9275000691413879,
-0.29051974415779114,
0.017773209139704704,
0.19032667577266693,
-0.3753756284713745,
-0.5570966601371765,
-0.16464009881019592,
-0.07889954745769501,
-0.3335062265396118,
-0.4652889370918274,
-0.23404963314533234,
-0.45146146416664124,
-0.41568782925605774,
0.26777830719947815,
0.13220307230949402,
0.7174104452133179,
0.06705695390701294,
0.06399396806955338,
0.3144775927066803,
-0.04843202233314514,
0.30386146903038025,
-0.1332467496395111,
-0.5215587615966797,
0.21441851556301117,
0.0789252296090126,
0.9471486210823059,
0.4447147250175476,
0.2324375957250595,
0.8077783584594727,
-0.004812920931726694,
-0.46238529682159424,
-0.6985118389129639,
-0.5116209387779236,
-0.18348795175552368,
-0.1306367665529251,
0.09926902502775192,
-0.19904109835624695,
0.20165137946605682,
0.2851846516132355,
0.22505885362625122,
-0.25885528326034546,
-0.3608642518520355,
-0.43755343556404114,
-0.24115204811096191,
0.23606619238853455,
-0.3422560393810272,
-0.05063961073756218,
-0.37582603096961975,
0.14337779581546783,
0.6712564826011658,
0.37493428587913513,
-0.34711161255836487,
0.013137931004166603,
-0.5282815098762512,
-0.14359767735004425,
0.49147114157676697,
0.4933931529521942,
0.1016877219080925,
0.05893132835626602,
-0.42384764552116394,
0.6813536882400513,
-0.44774600863456726,
0.3299064040184021,
0.5167179107666016,
-0.7050580382347107,
-0.00982989463955164,
0.02406221069395542,
0.942251443862915,
-0.45104238390922546,
0.002542120637372136,
-0.31743577122688293,
-0.1494683176279068,
0.06246458366513252,
-0.6563847661018372,
-0.03520927205681801,
0.35710522532463074,
-0.5697076916694641,
0.40755924582481384,
-0.2811231315135956,
-0.2152361124753952,
-0.18335339426994324,
-0.22525840997695923,
0.0919651985168457,
-0.5144994258880615,
-0.7990750670433044,
-0.42421385645866394,
-0.09959492832422256,
-0.11286009848117828,
0.21408537030220032,
0.6259843111038208,
-0.3260129690170288,
-0.6106846332550049,
0.7439152002334595,
-0.12043839693069458,
0.08230551332235336,
0.18761233985424042,
0.019647493958473206,
0.22551922500133514,
0.19888141751289368,
0.16123279929161072,
-0.31262215971946716,
-0.019349804148077965,
0.5882545113563538,
1.160602331161499,
-0.27022743225097656,
0.026960771530866623,
0.03991902619600296,
0.12062415480613708,
1.1869912147521973,
0.49518269300460815,
0.015602325089275837,
0.15216203033924103,
-0.5062584280967712,
0.10361521691083908,
0.6454738974571228,
-0.04895038157701492,
-0.5043942928314209,
0.6279736757278442,
0.022578518837690353,
0.7030608654022217,
-0.033163346350193024,
0.26222190260887146,
0.06648851186037064,
0.13782915472984314,
0.266030490398407,
-0.054013632237911224,
-0.3448578119277954,
-0.5434896349906921,
-0.5593509078025818,
0.06375683099031448,
0.7089304327964783,
-0.10377753525972366,
-0.4165882170200348,
0.3766551911830902,
-0.11641756445169449,
0.8826876878738403,
-0.7224166989326477,
-0.4225463569164276,
0.30656442046165466,
-0.06137338653206825,
0.2698827087879181,
0.014151890762150288,
0.010336717590689659,
0.33255505561828613,
0.160728320479393,
0.5843559503555298,
0.14457044005393982,
-0.5691441893577576,
0.8399510979652405,
-0.5841118693351746,
-0.3183045983314514,
0.13010498881340027,
-0.45638129115104675,
-0.09010718017816544,
-0.4595326781272888,
0.48452985286712646,
0.8328887820243835,
-0.10451214015483856,
0.06114950031042099,
0.33963248133659363,
-0.33563515543937683,
-0.14274360239505768,
-0.009606209583580494,
0.32874900102615356,
-0.03303752839565277,
-0.34231746196746826,
-0.24935175478458405,
-0.6803715229034424,
0.4308058023452759,
-0.14699268341064453,
-0.41944071650505066,
-0.04876921698451042,
-0.3778529465198517,
-0.3233169913291931,
0.6699663400650024,
-0.3667479455471039,
0.056552134454250336,
0.4029220938682556,
0.26939624547958374,
0.16697879135608673,
0.17884618043899536,
0.22248049080371857,
-0.258734792470932,
0.06282654404640198,
-0.3262891173362732,
-0.6995617747306824,
0.05634421110153198,
-0.11487849801778793,
-0.34276843070983887,
-0.054141782224178314,
-0.1501583456993103,
-0.3130621016025543,
0.8803443908691406,
0.3672032952308655,
-0.048224758356809616,
0.10583905130624771,
0.028537170961499214,
0.210652157664299,
-0.24919046461582184,
-0.3092588484287262,
-0.15930791199207306,
-0.05385499447584152,
-0.031616270542144775,
0.0988767072558403,
0.2727048397064209,
0.2679246664047241,
0.41500136256217957,
0.13640180230140686,
-0.37251517176628113,
0.2532427906990051,
0.410340815782547,
-0.505142867565155,
0.5663442015647888,
0.17449945211410522,
-0.8796645402908325,
-0.9255315661430359,
-0.24383243918418884,
0.4958835244178772,
0.3055483400821686,
-0.7003350257873535,
-0.023560656234622,
-0.7887812852859497,
-0.12883597612380981,
-0.16479548811912537,
0.023512128740549088,
-0.46378839015960693,
-0.6302587985992432,
0.2637430727481842,
-0.2776508629322052,
0.15715742111206055,
-0.5635122060775757,
0.4749833643436432,
0.27389800548553467,
0.39504703879356384,
0.6748189926147461,
-0.2553204894065857,
-0.2612256407737732,
0.05177251622080803,
0.3989352583885193,
-0.39825597405433655,
0.2983331084251404,
-0.5507827401161194,
-0.7281127572059631,
0.5021073222160339,
-5.545643329620361,
0.07215351611375809,
-1.0678476095199585,
-0.3476381301879883,
0.03427696228027344,
0.5055863261222839,
0.35645434260368347,
0.21261096000671387,
0.21467936038970947,
-0.615561842918396,
-0.21680252254009247,
-0.15634699165821075,
-0.3988195061683655,
-0.11632505804300308,
0.40809789299964905,
0.008480928838253021,
0.35608023405075073,
0.2213437408208847,
-0.1409292072057724,
0.33799314498901367,
-0.4180384874343872,
-0.48077192902565,
-0.13153113424777985,
0.7204793095588684,
0.5050983428955078,
0.3339110314846039,
0.047968361526727676,
-0.32351335883140564,
-0.3664517104625702,
-0.0625516027212143,
-0.6702198386192322,
-0.2626395523548126,
0.6295233368873596,
-0.5121813416481018,
0.7591152191162109,
-0.3539851903915405,
0.1828368902206421,
0.6440314054489136,
0.09431003779172897,
-0.2580901086330414,
0.00032331663533113897,
0.8300225734710693,
0.40987324714660645,
-0.3415106236934662,
0.5740973949432373,
-0.3350274860858917,
-0.2566085159778595,
0.22178590297698975,
-0.9870067834854126,
0.3201933801174164,
0.3424120545387268,
0.026958899572491646,
-0.19853335618972778,
-0.75312340259552,
0.3974652588367462,
0.44168621301651,
0.22159099578857422,
0.08579249680042267,
-0.32945120334625244,
0.2200343906879425,
0.10725719481706619,
-0.11296920478343964,
0.01308444794267416,
0.08233007043600082,
-0.4004456102848053,
-0.6800689697265625,
-0.6595253348350525,
-0.07232353836297989,
0.2562708258628845,
0.5983349084854126,
-0.9026904702186584,
0.2928348183631897,
-0.4046221971511841,
-0.45449915528297424,
-0.04167604446411133,
-0.490937739610672,
0.309065580368042,
0.2065124213695526,
-0.37774723768234253,
0.6357271075248718,
-0.6624607443809509,
-0.597671389579773,
0.008225671015679836,
0.2555766999721527,
0.0915963277220726,
-0.6383232474327087,
-0.2006700485944748,
0.45787620544433594,
-0.3267982006072998,
-0.05934365838766098,
0.7201563119888306,
-0.664804220199585,
0.51163250207901,
-0.4504432678222656,
-0.047634221613407135,
-0.44412553310394287,
0.22092977166175842,
-0.47902700304985046,
-0.04004081338644028,
-0.1275961995124817,
0.6296212077140808,
-0.3886653780937195,
0.17160359025001526,
-1.3046706914901733,
-0.16125835478305817,
-0.3408944010734558,
-0.1315132975578308,
0.674152135848999,
0.719569206237793,
-0.11158272624015808,
-0.1906105875968933,
-0.03429471328854561,
0.22171266376972198,
-0.5285572409629822,
0.4993474781513214,
0.16333970427513123,
0.2646176517009735,
0.20218026638031006,
-0.18702815473079681,
0.19180981814861298,
0.08141127228736877,
-0.1490052342414856,
-0.31917011737823486,
-0.1630883365869522,
-0.5777095556259155,
-0.013689292594790459,
-0.15421941876411438,
-0.22372950613498688,
0.467632532119751,
0.4284084737300873,
0.740452766418457,
0.043737269937992096,
-0.32124626636505127,
0.09173040837049484,
0.5329945683479309,
0.9005979895591736,
0.17625868320465088,
-0.44922563433647156,
-0.05912495031952858,
-1.0381158590316772,
0.4636002779006958,
-0.35269421339035034,
0.3001710772514343,
0.09998851269483566,
0.056096017360687256,
-0.0695795789361,
-0.14859075844287872,
0.08278591185808182,
-0.1180916428565979,
0.28657588362693787,
0.12904581427574158,
0.08146461844444275,
-0.4419246315956116,
-0.40665751695632935,
-0.19158855080604553,
0.25900527834892273,
0.2465050369501114,
0.186800017952919,
0.2355969399213791,
-0.22897355258464813,
0.14989504218101501,
0.08998097479343414,
-0.6733189821243286,
-0.30127763748168945,
0.22337104380130768,
-0.441660076379776,
-0.7628934383392334,
-0.26681622862815857,
0.4077640473842621,
1.1946167945861816,
0.4306143820285797,
-0.5866712927818298,
-0.3556988537311554,
-0.22334742546081543,
0.02579156868159771,
0.0022785598412156105,
0.23528030514717102,
-0.44963815808296204,
0.10363173484802246,
0.41710928082466125,
-0.02987806499004364,
-0.04933527484536171,
-0.12091144174337387,
0.8649694323539734,
-0.06553539633750916,
0.12852273881435394,
0.21850618720054626,
0.27529847621917725,
0.002111065899953246,
0.06862793117761612,
-0.06308145821094513,
-0.09304797649383545,
-0.1517575979232788,
-0.002592985052615404,
-0.1756390631198883,
-0.33707568049430847,
-0.21095874905586243,
1.0878044366836548,
-0.3193299472332001,
0.40527230501174927,
0.2643887400627136,
0.39562278985977173,
-0.660991370677948,
-0.449043869972229,
0.12263170629739761,
-0.0012521337484940886,
0.7286788821220398,
0.16361041367053986,
-0.018810568377375603,
0.16431696712970734,
-0.6932151913642883,
-0.48437824845314026,
-0.6892876029014587,
0.4508470892906189,
-0.16622158885002136,
0.018994944170117378,
0.10424651950597763,
-0.5555118918418884,
-0.5365090370178223,
-0.26175346970558167,
-0.6715441346168518,
0.6420309543609619,
-0.17067886888980865,
-0.29207250475883484,
0.0898001492023468,
0.22578881680965424,
-0.14161351323127747,
-0.22262969613075256,
-0.3713602125644684,
0.00467407563701272,
0.2806139588356018,
-0.6875713467597961,
0.4356529116630554,
-0.27149030566215515,
0.10789462178945541,
0.19003887474536896,
-0.22103697061538696,
-0.24219855666160583,
0.05386558547616005,
0.048716362565755844,
0.3800293207168579,
0.37175217270851135,
0.024756375700235367,
-0.1697354018688202,
-0.4835425913333893,
0.2795376181602478,
0.552217960357666,
-0.11900743842124939,
-0.4547879993915558,
1.218373417854309,
0.0746338814496994,
-0.3169597387313843,
-0.8535237312316895,
-0.04772062599658966,
0.11043106764554977,
-0.4313318133354187,
0.5941368341445923,
-0.11470230668783188,
-0.2703038156032562,
0.62041836977005,
-0.10121713578701019,
0.00036261556670069695,
-0.06743336468935013,
-0.44151756167411804,
0.15637046098709106,
0.3525548279285431,
-0.3159428834915161,
-0.481664776802063,
0.47325319051742554,
0.11700968444347382,
-0.1980527937412262,
-0.13322420418262482,
0.23492880165576935,
-0.034095846116542816,
-0.2664205729961395,
0.2895314395427704,
0.09312915802001953,
0.21355929970741272,
-1.0673493146896362,
0.5078275203704834,
-0.686758816242218,
0.48212000727653503,
0.07049307972192764,
-0.22450518608093262,
0.23659300804138184,
-0.48904576897621155,
0.09195739775896072,
0.20699095726013184,
-0.5331658124923706,
-0.3795672357082367,
0.2849113643169403,
-0.07091663777828217,
-0.5010377168655396,
0.3316231667995453,
-0.5780718326568604,
-0.18473277986049652,
0.37185174226760864,
0.29209426045417786,
-0.06972859799861908,
0.6673240661621094,
-0.5389217734336853,
0.598855197429657,
-0.04315395653247833,
-0.15580010414123535,
0.3684535622596741,
0.40076515078544617,
0.059917740523815155,
0.5515030026435852,
0.20109543204307556,
-0.1241828054189682,
0.05665259063243866,
-0.1297319531440735,
0.13811306655406952,
0.1406853049993515,
-0.053633201867341995,
0.02156229317188263,
0.5282053351402283,
0.007525305729359388,
-0.31283241510391235,
0.6714873909950256,
0.6095371246337891,
-0.12646739184856415,
-0.1751534342765808,
0.3792882561683655,
-0.4379102885723114,
0.48739415407180786,
-0.4850231111049652,
-0.00683655496686697,
0.3251911401748657,
0.5666123628616333,
0.4145357310771942,
0.2148791253566742,
-0.5213625431060791,
-0.24077367782592773,
0.03917328640818596,
-0.5763834118843079,
-0.18413369357585907,
-0.5687509775161743,
-0.0585697740316391,
0.917324960231781,
0.07025665044784546,
0.2250550389289856,
-0.7367379665374756,
0.0190317090600729,
0.4692811369895935,
0.3232472538948059,
-0.12345872074365616,
-0.19852092862129211,
0.03270544856786728,
0.06815947592258453,
1.0034748315811157,
0.02889969013631344,
-0.20252159237861633,
-0.2700011432170868,
0.11102378368377686,
-0.399593323469162,
0.16399280726909637,
-0.6150349974632263,
-0.1131715402007103,
-0.0034153172746300697,
0.10692094266414642,
0.6766073107719421,
-0.010636123828589916,
-0.04031931981444359,
0.01735047996044159,
0.2692640721797943,
0.3059333264827728,
-0.4959474503993988,
-0.36252331733703613,
-0.48704448342323303,
0.27023711800575256,
0.5870840549468994,
0.22717510163784027,
0.6338684558868408,
-0.06493553519248962,
0.10012636333703995,
0.5830389857292175,
0.3980374038219452,
0.1991523951292038,
0.18072570860385895,
0.05786598101258278,
0.10434817522764206,
0.10369887948036194,
-1.2290513515472412,
-0.674441397190094,
-0.07557252049446106,
0.14951306581497192,
-0.48544517159461975,
0.19219593703746796,
-0.4698287844657898,
-0.03904414176940918,
-0.7097975015640259,
-0.2560771703720093,
0.047082677483558655,
0.10935351997613907,
-0.8597082495689392,
-0.6642478704452515,
0.7268831729888916,
0.16065822541713715,
0.5989893674850464,
0.39770743250846863,
-0.29109281301498413,
0.1969432532787323,
0.2384091019630432,
-0.7915418744087219,
0.19466353952884674,
-0.06146983057260513,
0.20043210685253143,
-0.45537665486335754,
0.015286857262253761,
0.6903038024902344,
-0.5656283497810364,
0.24083462357521057,
0.658611536026001,
-0.26143667101860046,
0.01353190466761589,
0.8047128319740295,
-0.5327830910682678,
0.23565898835659027,
-1.0933787822723389,
0.39312508702278137,
-0.19717496633529663,
0.17479313910007477,
0.7004786729812622,
0.09241637587547302,
-0.2977321147918701,
-0.01023961789906025,
0.6982496380805969,
-0.6449887752532959,
0.3385051190853119,
-1.0309425592422485,
0.11519798636436462,
0.15752294659614563,
0.2989726960659027,
-0.4617723226547241,
0.07735264301300049,
0.07858262956142426,
0.18247582018375397,
-0.32290005683898926,
-0.6891590356826782,
0.5738868117332458,
0.34281817078590393,
-0.09391463547945023,
0.19562466442584991,
0.4102650582790375,
0.8736342787742615,
-0.7708105444908142,
0.477460116147995,
-0.7630017995834351,
0.12307056039571762,
0.12982188165187836,
-0.24669717252254486,
0.832943320274353,
0.004687347449362278,
0.34674525260925293,
-0.2778695225715637,
0.17896722257137299,
-0.5745139718055725,
0.3405786454677582,
0.20719896256923676
] |
233606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20China%20Normal%20University | East China Normal University | East China Normal University (ECNU) is a comprehensive public research university in Shanghai, China. It was formed in 1951 by the merger of the Great China University (est. 1924) and Kwang Hua University (est. 1925) and originated from the St. John's College founded in 1879. Established as a normal school, it had an original mission to train teachers for secondary and higher education, but soon housed top-class researchers and developed into an elite research-intensive university.
At of 2020, ECNU is organized into 22 schools, colleges, and institutes, located in two campuses throughout Minhang and Putuo. The university comprises 2 affiliated schools across the Shanghai metropolitan area: NYU Shanghai in Pudong, Asia-Europe Business School in Zizhu International Education Park. It also maintains a National Forest Ecosystem Observation and Research Station in Tiantong National Forest Park, Ningbo.
ECNU is designated by the Ministry of Education of China as a Class A Double First Class University.
It is often considered to be one of the most prestigious universities in China and is internationally recognized. Sponsored by the national program “Double First Class University Plan”, "Project 211" and "Project 985", the university is a frontrunner in the nation's research and innovation, and has been dubbed as the "Columbia of the East". The university also has strong ties with the China Meteorological Administration, State Oceanic Administration and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It is a highly selective university that only accepts students with a National College Entrance Examination score at top 2%.
According some rankings in 2021, East China Normal University is ranked 301-400 among world universities, comparable to George Washington University (U.S.) and Durham University (U.K.).
History
Origins
East China Normal University traces its roots to the formation of the St. John's College (later to become St. John's University) in 1879, and its heritage has had a deep influence in the development of Chinese modern higher education.
In 1879, St. John's College was founded by William Jones Boone and Joseph Schereschewsky, Bishop of Shanghai, by combining two pre-existing Anglican colleges in Shanghai. In 1905, the College became St. John's University and was registered in Washington D.C. in the United States. It was the first institution to grant bachelor's degrees in China, starting in 1907.
After the May Thirtieth Movement in 1925, some academics and students left the St. John's University, later forming the private Kwang Hua University to support the labor and anti-imperialist movement during the middle period of the Republic of China era.
In 1924, after a student protest at the Xiamen University in Fujian some academics fled north to Shanghai, where they established what became the Great China University (also known as Daxia University).
Establishment of the university
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, East China Normal University was officially formed in 1951 by the merger of the Great China University and the Kwang Hua University, and was joined at the same time by a number of faculty members from Fudan University, Tongji University, University of Shanghai and East China PE Academy, making it the first national teacher training university of the People's Republic of China. This was done in part due to the government's desire to pool these institutions' resources into a single, stronger entity, cultivate talents with professional knowledge and promote the development of education in the country.
In the 1950s, the Chinese government regrouped the country's higher education institutions in an attempt to build a Soviet-style system. Under this policy, most of faculties from Saint John's University, Zhejiang University, University of Shanghai, Utopia University, Aurora University were incorporated into ECNU to form a comprehensive multi-disciplinary university. Some of the academics at the Tongji University and Jiaotong University were also transferred to ECNU.
In March 1959, ECNU was authenticated as one of the first 16 National Key Universities in China, and this status was reaffirmed in 1978. From 1972 to 1980 (during the Cultural Revolution in mainland China), five schools including ECNU were merged to create Shanghai Normal University, and in 1980 its original name was resumed.
1980 to present
In June 1986, ECNU was selected to be one of the first 33 higher education institutions authorized, by the State Council, to establish their graduate schools. In 1996, ECNU passed the prerequisites appraisal and became one of universities sponsored by the major national program "Project 211". In 2006, the Ministry of Education and Shanghai Municipality signed into a partnership for co-sponsoring the development of the university, qualifying ECNU as a member of the "Project 985" and facilitating ECNU's efforts and progress toward a comprehensive, research-oriented and internationalized world-class university.
ECNU is now under the direct auspices of the Ministry of Education. The University sponsors or supervises publication of more than 20 academic journals and periodicals. The library collection exceeds 4,000,000 volumes. 25 primary or secondary schools are affiliated to the university.
International partnerships
The university has established strategic cooperative partnership with universities such as École Normale Supérieure and its group in France, the University of Pennsylvania and Cornell University in USA, Tokyo University and Kobe University in Japan, and the University of Melbourne in Australia, the University of Warwick in the UK, etc. It has been carrying out academic exchanges with over 150 universities and institutions of Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, the United States, Canada, Australia, Korea, and Russia, etc. ECNU plays host to a CIEE satellite campus, where 100 American college students study each semester. The university also runs an Online College of the Chinese language in collaboration with the National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (NOCFL), which is the first of its kind to be established in the country with over 5,800 students in 137 countries and regions. In 2008, it set up the NOCFL Study and Training Base for International Chinese Teachers.
In 2002 the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris, the École normale supérieure de Cachan, and the École normale supérieure de Lyon set up a Master's-PhD programme at East China Normal University in Shanghai. An ENS campus is housed in the ECNU at the Aspiring Researchers Institute and at the Franco-Chinese Advanced Studies Institute.
In 2007, the EMLYON Business School opened the official EMLYON Asia Campus in the heart of the ECNU campus.
In 2008, the Cornell-ECNU Center for Comparative Culture was jointly funded by Cornell University and ECNU.
China's first Sino-American university – New York University Shanghai (NYU Shanghai) – was co-established by New York University and ECNU and was approved by the Ministry of Education in early 2011.
Study China Programme
Along with several other Chinese universities, East China Normal University has hosted the United Kingdom (UK) government-funded Study China Programme for a number of years. In this programme, students from UK institutions spend one to two summer months studying Mandarin Chinese and Chinese culture at a university in China. The programme is organised by the University of Manchester and is fully funded by UK government bodies, such as the Department of Business, Innovation and Skills. Its purpose is to strengthen ties between UK university students and China, in particular as relatively few British students enroll in degrees in China. The programme has increased relations between ECNU and numerous leading UK universities.
Diplomats' Program
Sponsored by Shanghai Municipal Education Commission and Shanghai Foreign Affairs Office, the Diplomats' Program has been organized by ECNU since 2011. In this program, consular officials from over 20 countries spend two months during summer studying at East China Normal University.
Academics
At present the university is made up of 24 full-time schools and colleges, 2 unconventional colleges and 5 advanced research institutes, with 58 departments offering 79 undergraduate programs. The University also comprises 3 affiliated schools: NYU Shanghai, Asia-Europe Business School and ECNU-UNC School of Sino-American Innovative Education.
Full-time schools and colleges
Faculty of Education
Faculty of Economics and Management
School of Humanities and Social Science
School of Social Development
School of Foreign Languages
International College of Chinese Studies
School of Psychology and Cognitive Science
Preschool and Special Education School
School of Sports and Health
School of Communication
School of Art
School of Design
School of Urban and Regional Science
School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences
School of Geographic Sciences
School of Life Sciences
School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
School of Science and Engineering
School of Information Science and Technology
School of Computer Science and Software Engineering
International Teachers College of Chinese Language and Culture
Meng Xiancheng College (Teachers College)
School of Data Science and Engineering
Unconventional colleges
College of Continuing Education
College of Distance Education
Advanced research institutes
Institute of Estuary and Coastal Research
Institute for Advanced International and Regional Studies
Institute for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies
Institute of Arts
Si-mian Institute for Advanced Studies in Humanities
The Software Engineering Institute is one of the 35 statewide pilot schools of software engineering granted by Ministry of Education in 2001; the International College of Chinese Studies is among the eight State Bases for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language, certified by the Ministry of Education. ECNU is designated as one of the National Liberal Arts and Basic Sciences Training and Research Bases in its disciplines of Chinese, History, Mathematics, Geography, Psychology and Physics.
ECNU's Business School was founded by the pioneer of China's Economics and Financing studies, Prof. Chen Biao Ru. Hence, the Business School of ECNU inherited the good tradition and enjoys top reputation in the economic and financial circle in China.
The Ministry of Education's Training Center for Secondary School Principals at ECNU is a state base for the training of secondary school principals in Mainland China and advanced studies of those in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. ECNU is the only university in China designated as a national training center for elite secondary school principals and enjoys the reputation as the "Whampoa Military Academy" for secondary school principals.
Research
The university is officially authorized to offer programs:
in two of the Primary Disciplines and five of the Sub-Disciplines, which are enlisted as National Key Disciplines;
in five of the disciplines, which are enlisted as Preparatory National Key Disciplines,
in 12 disciplines enlisted as Shanghai Key Disciplines.
Key laboratories
It has two State Key Laboratories, one National Field Observation and Research Station, six Key Labs or Engineering Centers, and six Key Research Bases for Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education. ECNU is authorized to offer 112 doctoral programs covering 14 Primary Disciplines, 178 master's programs in six specialties, i.e., Education, Public Administration, Engineering, Physical Education and Business Administration, and to set up 14 post-doctoral mobile research stations.
State key laboratories
State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research
State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy
Key laboratories of provincial level and ministerial level
Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education
Key Laboratory of Geography-Information Science, Ministry of Education
Shanghai Institute of Brain Functional Genomics
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Green Chemical Process
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Urbanization and Ecological Restoration
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Trustworthy Computing
Key research bases in humanities and social science
Institute of Curriculum and Instruction
Institute of Modern Chinese Thought and Culture
Center for Russian Studies
Center for the Study of Chinese Characters and Their Applications
Institute of Schooling Reform and Development
Center for Modern Chinese City Studies
Joint Research Centre
Cornell-ECNU Center for Comparative Culture
KUL-ECNU Sino-Euro Culture Research Center
ECNU-UBC Joint Research Core Group on China in Modern World
Intercultural Education and Communication Research Center (with Humboldt University of Berlin)
Faculty and staff
ECNU has a faculty body of over 4,000, among whom there are 2000 full-time teachers (including over 1,200 professors or associate professors), 14 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences or Chinese Academy of Engineering (six of them are academicians of both academies), 11 members of the State Council Academic Appraisal Committee, eight specially hired professors or lecture professors for the Yangtze Scholar Award Program sponsored by the Ministry of Education, nine "state-level talents" chosen by the New-Century Talents Project, ten National Outstanding Youth Fund award winner, 80 specially hired professors or lecture professors for ECNU's Zijiang Scholar Award Program, and 105 tenured professors.
Campus
With campuses in Minhang and Putuo District totalling an area of over 220 hectares.
North Zhongshan Road Campus (Putuo Campus)
The previous main campus was located in the Putuo District of Shanghai, formerly a campus of the Great China University. The campus is an enclosed campus of gardens, lawns, and historic buildings interspersed with modern facilities, in a location in downtown Shanghai. The University also provides transportation by shuttle bus to its new Minhang Campus.
The campus still houses a variety of scientific research institutions, such as State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research and State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy.
The university's athletic facilities include an outdoor track, outdoor basketball courts, indoor basketball courts, and indoor tennis and badminton courts.
Minhang Campus
The Minhang new campus is located in the Minhang District on the outskirts of metropolitan Shanghai. Most administrative and academic framework of the university and the majority of undergraduate and graduate students are situated at this campus, which is accompanied by the Minhang Campus of Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
Rankings and Reputation
ECNU has always been ranked the top two or three among the mainland Chinese universities in Education according to the most recent QS World University Rankings by Subjects and Academic Ranking of World Universities by Subjects.
In 2021, it was ranked 37th globally in the Times Higher Education Rankings by Subjects in "Education", which is historical strengths of the university as suggested in the name "Normal".
Global University Rankings of ECNU:
2021 QS World University Ranking: 501–510th globally
2021 Academic Ranking of World Universities: 301–400th globally
2022 Times Higher Education World University Rankings : 301–350th globally
Notable people
Alumni
Writer
Chen Danyan (): Writer.
Dai Houying (): Writer.
Ge Fei (): Writer. Professor of literature at Tsinghua University.
Mu Shiying (穆时英): Writer.
Academics
Yu Lizhong: Chancellor of New York University Shanghai.
Wang Xingyu (): President of East China University of Science and Technology (1994.03–2004.07).
Lu Shanzhen (): President of Beijing Normal University (1995–1999).
Wu Haishun (): President of Shanxi Normal University (2005.11-),
Jia Suotang (): President of Shanxi University (2012.08-).
Zhu Min (): Chair of the University Council of Donghua University (2012.11-).
Yuan Zihuang (): Chair of the University Council of Hefei University of Technology (2014.05-).
Ma Qinrong (): Chair of the University Council of Shanghai University of Finance and Economics (2004.07–2012.07).
Chen Dubin (): Chair of the University Council of Fuzhou University (2007.03–2011.12).
Xi Nanhua (): Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Vice-President of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Song Daxiang (): Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Xue Yongqi (): Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Zhu Shiyao (): Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Liu Boli: Academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering.
Stephen Cheng (): Academician of the National Academy of Engineering, United States.
Lu Bai (): Senior Investigator of National Institutes of Health.
Joe Z. Tsien: Neuroscientist, Georgia Health Sciences University.
He Jifeng: Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and academic at ECNU.
Yuan Zhongyi: Archaeologist, praised as "the father of the Terracotta Warriors".
Mitchell Ho (): Senior Investigator, National Institutes of Health.
In politics
He Xian (): Vice Minister of the Ministry of Personnel of the P.R.China.
Han Zheng (): Chinese politician, and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, serving as First Vice Premier of the State Council since March 2018.
Chen Hao (): Governor of Yunnan, China.
Yin Yicui (): Chairwoman of the Shanghai People's Congress.
In business and media
Daniela Anahi Bessia (): Celebrity performer for the China Central Television, Hunan Television, Shanghai Media Group, etc | Culture and Entertainment.
Xue Peijian (): President of Shanghai Media and Entertainment Group.
Jason Jiang (): Founder of Focus Media.
Dong Qing (): Television host.
In sport
Liu Xiang (): Gold medalist of 110-meter hurdles in the 2004 Summer Olympics.
Study abroad
Glenn Duffie Shriver: From Grand Valley State University, he did a study abroad program at ECNU. He was later convicted in the U.S. of attempting to commit espionage.
Notable faculty members
Meng Xiancheng: Educator, the first president of East China Normal University.
Li Linsi: Educator and diplomat who has been recognized as one of the key figures in modern Chinese cultural and diplomatic history.
Shen Zhihua: Professor of history at ECNU, expert in the history of the Soviet Union, Sino-Soviet relations, and the Cold War.
Lü Simian: Chinese historian, former professor of history at ECNU.
Shi Zhecun: Author, former professor of Chinese Language and Literature.
Hu Huanyong: Demographer, forefather of modern Chinese demography and the founder of China's population geography.
He Jifeng: Computer scientist, member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Ghil'ad Zuckermann: Linguist, revivalist.
Alumni associations
East China Normal University Alumni Association
East China Normal University Alumni Association in US
East China Normal University Alumni Association in North California
Addresses
North Zhongshan Road (Putuo) Campus: 3663 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, P.R. China.
Minhang Campus: 500 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200241, P.R. China.
See also
No. 1 High School Affiliated to East China Normal University
No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University
East China Normal University Press
References
External links
Official website
Official Facebook page
Campus Tour
Global Education Center/International Students Office, ECNU
NYU Shanghai（上海纽约大学）
1951 establishments in China
Educational institutions established in 1951
Universities and colleges in Shanghai
Teachers colleges in China
Project 985
Project 211
Plan 111 | [
-0.17004232108592987,
-0.29179495573043823,
-0.02764134295284748,
-0.030849648639559746,
0.28622230887413025,
0.23081226646900177,
-0.12321943789720535,
0.7640735507011414,
-0.3366067409515381,
-0.13728107511997223,
-0.30636197328567505,
-0.36781489849090576,
0.2195410132408142,
0.07691965997219086,
0.12551651895046234,
-0.2537311017513275,
0.36598899960517883,
0.2681822180747986,
-0.36935147643089294,
-0.3521742522716522,
-0.16168713569641113,
-0.10780075192451477,
0.43756788969039917,
0.4218263626098633,
-0.17373932898044586,
-0.051284562796354294,
0.46490347385406494,
0.06393259763717651,
0.5733136534690857,
-0.2561935484409332,
-0.18171736598014832,
0.544908881187439,
0.060499079525470734,
-0.287980854511261,
0.16694936156272888,
-0.014361928217113018,
-0.47402143478393555,
-0.4539298713207245,
-0.3147646188735962,
0.1719478964805603,
-0.16480419039726257,
-0.23016412556171417,
-0.18303143978118896,
0.43030446767807007,
0.4136836528778076,
-1.4701586961746216,
-1.266733169555664,
0.06922061741352081,
-0.6915728449821472,
0.2771463692188263,
-0.26638323068618774,
0.6324624419212341,
0.4708474278450012,
0.42664074897766113,
-0.29305532574653625,
0.26024532318115234,
-0.60346919298172,
-0.19452160596847534,
0.23248128592967987,
-0.12580229341983795,
0.4106948971748352,
0.3776552379131317,
-0.07108688354492188,
0.5789240002632141,
0.08480098843574524,
0.0233334768563509,
-0.18936042487621307,
-0.09850618988275528,
-0.21714136004447937,
-0.27769574522972107,
-0.33116966485977173,
0.026515278965234756,
-0.4983192980289459,
-0.15608349442481995,
-0.5815032124519348,
-0.9836667776107788,
0.41872796416282654,
-0.5697885155677795,
-0.12321864813566208,
0.0846615806221962,
0.2511045038700104,
0.30499234795570374,
0.37872564792633057,
-0.07382241636514664,
0.8183850646018982,
0.24373078346252441,
-0.8968663215637207,
-0.34710127115249634,
-0.2270026057958603,
0.259640097618103,
-0.1919136643409729,
0.008445133455097675,
-0.036347828805446625,
-0.12179228663444519,
-0.5042073726654053,
0.29391443729400635,
-0.20485827326774597,
0.23501288890838623,
-0.1013578325510025,
-0.07791300117969513,
-0.3056580126285553,
0.4336572587490082,
0.5016480684280396,
0.26248764991760254,
-0.10285432636737823,
-0.43332186341285706,
-0.12189191579818726,
-0.6422885060310364,
0.12764999270439148,
-0.4705953001976013,
-1.4255902767181396,
0.2993571162223816,
-0.24763204157352448,
-0.19040639698505402,
-0.07145318388938904,
0.24830509722232819,
0.3455427587032318,
-0.6051566004753113,
-0.19365037977695465,
-0.1626429706811905,
-0.17245101928710938,
0.32675886154174805,
-0.34127140045166016,
0.6000073552131653,
0.23972421884536743,
0.8379603028297424,
0.24742820858955383,
0.26383069157600403,
-0.4195329248905182,
0.0479593463242054,
0.4897148013114929,
0.4395073354244232,
-0.1473059207201004,
-0.09637008607387543,
0.18193715810775757,
-0.22271068394184113,
0.45940157771110535,
0.6123159527778625,
-0.29665088653564453,
0.15728744864463806,
-1.025389313697815,
-0.27485156059265137,
-0.3108738958835602,
-0.3593980371952057,
-0.4595290422439575,
-0.04449969530105591,
-0.7520520091056824,
-0.30108198523521423,
-0.3341062366962433,
-0.2730548083782196,
0.12419099360704422,
-0.1387266367673874,
-0.8171024322509766,
0.16738547384738922,
-0.1186307966709137,
0.7118480205535889,
0.8031246662139893,
0.09883661568164825,
0.6210143566131592,
0.06121845170855522,
0.1858472228050232,
-0.2753937840461731,
-0.675894558429718,
-0.18262426555156708,
-0.33905941247940063,
-0.3096364438533783,
0.3531931936740875,
0.18870909512043,
-0.24919958412647247,
0.15735697746276855,
-0.6139958500862122,
-0.20865124464035034,
0.45893141627311707,
-0.5781054496765137,
0.12417126446962357,
-0.39352744817733765,
0.36232855916023254,
0.33977919816970825,
0.40482690930366516,
0.10612156242132187,
-1.039208173751831,
0.9463434815406799,
0.5671248435974121,
-0.16838012635707855,
-0.15543831884860992,
0.39978474378585815,
0.18210339546203613,
0.2454570084810257,
-0.2715795338153839,
0.9489465355873108,
-0.006939349230378866,
-0.2054610252380371,
-0.4648580551147461,
0.47514283657073975,
0.5746336579322815,
-0.014875654131174088,
-0.10902245342731476,
1.4817990064620972,
-0.595296323299408,
0.0345066636800766,
-0.29223012924194336,
-0.3294549584388733,
-0.09217679500579834,
-0.24226291477680206,
-0.7303101420402527,
0.13940495252609253,
0.29595932364463806,
0.2139427214860916,
0.0104735242202878,
0.22463642060756683,
0.3669701814651489,
-0.6739863753318787,
0.4870869815349579,
-0.10518305003643036,
-0.030895402655005455,
-0.621896505355835,
-0.8150274753570557,
-0.458774596452713,
0.19520796835422516,
-0.43088027834892273,
1.1205074787139893,
-0.5455503463745117,
0.6360865235328674,
1.098461389541626,
0.5530573129653931,
0.23717334866523743,
0.11958613991737366,
0.8485620617866516,
-0.061568424105644226,
-0.040502555668354034,
0.346963107585907,
-0.46690183877944946,
0.13531501591205597,
0.3680984675884247,
0.016467032954096794,
-0.2543961703777313,
-0.49605488777160645,
-0.05017402023077011,
0.7977901697158813,
-0.44541773200035095,
-0.2140810638666153,
-0.10763415694236755,
-0.5407241582870483,
0.6045017242431641,
0.37001287937164307,
-0.7523572444915771,
-0.5525974631309509,
0.42410537600517273,
-0.06850603967905045,
-0.45078539848327637,
0.05688460171222687,
-0.4215528964996338,
0.15618765354156494,
-0.3827807903289795,
0.09564502537250519,
-0.10861048102378845,
0.6712508797645569,
0.5997196435928345,
0.5311660170555115,
-0.24759235978126526,
0.21324481070041656,
-0.009381064213812351,
0.008304285816848278,
0.16689106822013855,
-0.1616867035627365,
-0.18969272077083588,
-0.19273529946804047,
-1.083630919456482,
0.29571250081062317,
-0.39900439977645874,
0.7903515696525574,
0.4266365170478821,
0.032377827912569046,
-0.25491461157798767,
-0.7336472272872925,
-0.7066113352775574,
-0.09322138130664825,
0.7101708650588989,
-1.256307601928711,
-0.5289100408554077,
0.2870883643627167,
0.38272666931152344,
-0.20011337101459503,
-0.9118663668632507,
-0.060323599725961685,
0.35065242648124695,
-0.37124764919281006,
0.016175532713532448,
-0.0053538731299340725,
-0.15063247084617615,
-0.36740145087242126,
0.49652960896492004,
-0.059707920998334885,
0.057573750615119934,
0.028947077691555023,
0.33747634291648865,
0.4886043667793274,
-0.21829570829868317,
1.0810234546661377,
-0.2706030011177063,
-0.4013163149356842,
0.3523441255092621,
-0.11271307617425919,
0.09817147254943848,
-0.01544901356101036,
-0.14975999295711517,
0.29296159744262695,
-0.027045631781220436,
-5.4067583084106445,
-0.023029059171676636,
-0.4813075065612793,
0.42213407158851624,
0.16831298172473907,
-0.6159301400184631,
0.5796948075294495,
-0.47789618372917175,
-0.3579390048980713,
-0.2352345585823059,
-0.6829959154129028,
-0.10757263749837875,
-0.12464039027690887,
0.44629597663879395,
0.14404988288879395,
0.7992324233055115,
0.21391300857067108,
-0.37470322847366333,
0.6206034421920776,
0.14675644040107727,
-0.4776802659034729,
-0.5574771761894226,
-0.2070220559835434,
0.8419752717018127,
0.3642103672027588,
0.4721488058567047,
-0.5140575170516968,
0.14553844928741455,
-0.6660395264625549,
-0.6420829892158508,
-0.015548348426818848,
-0.6327809691429138,
-0.22977682948112488,
0.198653906583786,
0.11243601143360138,
-0.39191120862960815,
0.45140567421913147,
0.3671957850456238,
0.2249164879322052,
0.31599006056785583,
0.1356526017189026,
0.43963006138801575,
-0.122399240732193,
0.4482572078704834,
0.09517639875411987,
-0.6651475429534912,
0.280266135931015,
0.2039393037557602,
-0.5321970582008362,
0.8234118819236755,
-0.11111537367105484,
0.3561006486415863,
1.0056055784225464,
0.2996531128883362,
-0.31848782300949097,
0.053631722927093506,
0.054273005574941635,
0.42842188477516174,
-0.13964372873306274,
0.04534601792693138,
-0.017319321632385254,
-0.3776257038116455,
-0.25386741757392883,
-0.867198646068573,
-0.8878346085548401,
0.011786211282014847,
-0.002557195257395506,
-0.14478199183940887,
-0.06376241147518158,
0.46702325344085693,
0.01692490093410015,
0.19604890048503876,
-0.27959808707237244,
-0.8117297291755676,
-0.2332884967327118,
-0.6046974658966064,
-0.19496123492717743,
0.06668872386217117,
-0.10955754667520523,
-0.10894832015037537,
-0.00576908141374588,
0.0452977679669857,
0.38049936294555664,
1.1043974161148071,
-0.09991870075464249,
-0.3697129189968109,
0.46099138259887695,
0.05088244378566742,
-0.21498256921768188,
-0.055897586047649384,
0.1916975975036621,
-0.3285989761352539,
0.840305745601654,
-0.08745037019252777,
0.0715528279542923,
0.07069555670022964,
0.3742659389972687,
0.5030297040939331,
-0.14558935165405273,
-1.1267809867858887,
0.9607351422309875,
-0.14762958884239197,
-0.6811025142669678,
-0.38373658061027527,
-0.5464794039726257,
-0.6309657096862793,
0.44218212366104126,
0.15171818435192108,
0.46712571382522583,
-0.26571890711784363,
0.19223669171333313,
-0.3523375689983368,
-0.04836146906018257,
-0.331699937582016,
0.4465181529521942,
-0.1896824687719345,
-0.1738646775484085,
0.044846516102552414,
0.1057325005531311,
0.3136477768421173,
0.2115325778722763,
0.6328486204147339,
0.23003225028514862,
-0.29415711760520935,
0.25030651688575745,
-0.21810925006866455,
-0.2527013421058655,
0.5387508869171143,
-0.5741937756538391,
-0.4547383189201355,
0.19525809586048126,
-0.3234415054321289,
-0.24472759664058685,
0.2519626319408417,
-0.08244876563549042,
-0.08290798962116241,
-0.6688801050186157,
-0.05482055991888046,
0.2000148892402649,
0.1873074471950531,
0.19247062504291534,
0.20695258677005768,
-0.14495809376239777,
0.16863790154457092,
0.7238544821739197,
0.17365941405296326,
-0.4497089684009552,
0.20385821163654327,
-1.0097838640213013,
0.35320061445236206,
0.0540810227394104,
-1.2148840427398682,
0.18169455230236053,
0.46377360820770264,
0.03131118789315224,
0.44421279430389404,
-0.5067365765571594,
0.2383679747581482,
0.06434401869773865,
0.1928962916135788,
0.5487340688705444,
-0.2764495313167572,
-0.5936077833175659,
0.3088186979293823,
0.14238353073596954,
0.1038203313946724,
0.054375745356082916,
-0.49838781356811523,
-0.8078733086585999,
0.5966945886611938,
0.27806514501571655,
-0.047764770686626434,
-0.27826419472694397,
-0.49442431330680847,
0.4411313533782959,
0.10147715359926224,
0.2298363745212555,
0.2649539113044739,
0.40145593881607056,
-0.23012955486774445,
0.43644043803215027,
-0.3337901532649994,
-0.09138046950101852,
0.4371435344219208,
0.4423266053199768,
0.18192297220230103,
-0.3338254690170288,
-0.24758054316043854,
0.00048116431571543217,
-0.2574012279510498,
0.12124013900756836,
-0.3559272885322571,
0.09535975754261017,
0.357901394367218,
-0.05388168618083,
-0.45496079325675964,
-0.17481747269630432,
-0.32343512773513794,
-0.5998356342315674,
0.05587178096175194,
0.2646026015281677,
0.5156849026679993,
0.1555928885936737,
0.7673240303993225,
-0.029413623735308647,
-0.3529909551143646,
0.159433975815773,
-0.13218797743320465,
0.32057684659957886,
0.022866610437631607,
-0.7068637609481812,
-0.6424163579940796,
0.2825010418891907,
0.08064118772745132,
-0.9644628167152405,
0.05772802233695984,
0.5516344308853149,
-0.3250078558921814,
-0.6699967980384827,
-0.16365212202072144,
-0.6913594603538513,
0.48533883690834045,
-0.3092757761478424,
-0.6338197588920593,
-0.8021352887153625,
0.38806238770484924,
0.3439323902130127,
-0.055127788335084915,
0.015216049738228321,
-0.4179943799972534,
-0.34583181142807007,
-0.16432099044322968,
0.325023889541626,
0.16007286310195923,
0.5187026858329773,
-0.5255114436149597,
-0.058590155094861984,
0.07449254393577576,
-0.37009528279304504,
0.22425195574760437,
-0.09991606324911118,
0.7940959334373474,
-0.3289259076118469,
-0.5284117460250854,
-0.25758928060531616,
0.7986394762992859,
0.8278592228889465,
0.13603761792182922,
-0.7528476119041443,
-0.2521034777164459,
0.5439667701721191,
-0.8036583662033081,
-1.0803817510604858,
-0.3188517689704895,
0.22198550403118134,
-0.6330276131629944,
0.04947727546095848,
0.618751585483551,
0.08823202550411224,
-0.5567818284034729,
-0.6206529140472412,
-0.4391559958457947,
-0.6940916776657104,
-0.16606496274471283,
-0.3180895149707794,
0.20359237492084503,
-0.536191463470459,
-0.44205087423324585,
-0.18614304065704346,
-0.6692110896110535,
0.24635040760040283,
-0.8163833618164062,
0.2211887538433075,
0.5742789506912231,
-0.061737366020679474,
-0.10981108248233795,
-0.16040247678756714,
0.05252774804830551,
-0.30915752053260803,
-0.16923244297504425,
-0.539911687374115,
-0.22882957756519318,
0.234035462141037,
-0.15587495267391205,
0.09639119356870651,
-0.24967654049396515,
0.26806148886680603,
0.04651351645588875,
-0.04921074956655502,
0.2698647379875183,
-0.5196127891540527,
-0.6216323375701904,
-0.35780349373817444,
0.03977467119693756,
-0.3767487108707428,
-0.0736294612288475,
0.9958102107048035,
0.4641950726509094,
0.3585863411426544,
0.038332514464855194,
-0.23682278394699097,
0.7508118152618408,
0.8078662753105164,
0.2171201854944229,
0.3724687099456787,
0.24179565906524658,
0.25625136494636536,
0.322712242603302,
-0.16390489041805267,
0.2462977021932602,
0.6900025606155396,
-0.060415785759687424,
0.5562047958374023,
0.6798844337463379,
-0.11376778781414032,
0.29014459252357483,
0.005399396177381277,
-0.8133571147918701,
0.5626720190048218,
0.03901807963848114,
0.000653152063023299,
0.47919169068336487,
-0.00645525474101305,
0.14348915219306946,
0.035120889544487,
0.7880425453186035,
-0.33450639247894287,
-0.21464036405086517,
0.2582066059112549,
0.703056275844574,
-0.16645923256874084,
0.3549976050853729,
0.11411087960004807,
0.5531733632087708,
-0.14318504929542542,
-0.6217007040977478,
0.0706341490149498,
-0.9536055326461792,
-0.3911609351634979,
0.4031177759170532,
0.6284995675086975,
0.9542390704154968,
0.16731907427310944,
0.5723534822463989,
0.11659570038318634,
0.2280183732509613,
0.40758347511291504,
0.6434240937232971,
-0.33169472217559814,
-0.41286349296569824,
0.37415871024131775,
0.0028289491310715675,
0.36242276430130005,
-0.6374943852424622,
-0.12426413595676422,
0.01173014473170042,
-0.012259719893336296,
-0.05871818587183952,
0.33694329857826233,
0.1513643115758896,
-0.08129360526800156,
0.9262816905975342,
0.5210826992988586,
-0.47072482109069824,
0.08046276122331619,
0.3450573980808258,
0.3454858362674713,
-0.34913361072540283,
-0.6883056163787842,
0.09181332588195801,
0.20336277782917023,
0.029934586957097054,
0.3705785572528839,
-0.20246024429798126,
-0.18236105144023895,
0.25376731157302856,
-0.10506077110767365,
0.47647982835769653,
0.005002913065254688,
0.5895833969116211,
-0.5062596797943115,
0.19906263053417206,
0.09443871676921844,
-0.09341340512037277,
0.21532416343688965,
0.17640644311904907,
-0.4688485264778137,
0.5588691830635071,
-0.5871958136558533,
0.2530824840068817,
0.13439545035362244,
-0.4008098244667053,
0.09554009884595871,
0.16467489302158356,
0.10164187103509903,
0.12119196355342865,
-0.663609504699707,
0.3875003159046173,
0.2670833468437195,
0.2849603593349457,
-0.18599200248718262,
0.040476348251104355,
0.1187475398182869,
0.6977527737617493,
-0.6439844965934753,
0.4860627353191376,
-0.47919872403144836,
0.23454830050468445,
-0.5106511116027832,
0.4992527961730957,
0.7744683027267456,
0.5436508059501648,
-0.04883984848856926,
0.5146458148956299,
0.20163387060165405,
0.6774163246154785,
0.5085057616233826,
-0.15832345187664032,
-0.6673856973648071,
0.202030748128891,
-0.6563019156455994,
-0.36043494939804077,
0.03581148013472557,
0.29263269901275635,
-0.022670304402709007,
0.046836767345666885,
0.38857799768447876,
0.37752994894981384,
0.18290503323078156,
0.803453803062439,
-0.4090084135532379,
-0.18173305690288544,
-0.9143934845924377,
0.16438032686710358,
-0.05056703835725784,
0.36047494411468506,
0.47586581110954285,
0.8885964155197144,
0.335603266954422,
-0.05218798667192459,
0.2508004903793335,
0.1719883382320404,
0.1202315092086792,
0.3787190318107605,
-0.5661735534667969,
-0.27446186542510986,
-0.2421634942293167,
0.15634389221668243,
-0.8243678212165833,
0.4626457095146179,
0.22717683017253876,
-0.055922623723745346,
0.9880135655403137,
-0.4299747049808502,
-0.5896876454353333,
-0.4218286871910095,
0.2343401461839676,
-0.023872138932347298,
0.7572423219680786,
0.08543961495161057
] |
233609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination | Pollination | Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther (male part) of a plant to the stigma (female part) of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents are animals such as insects, birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves, when self-pollination occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species it can produce hybrid offspring in nature and in plant breeding work.
In angiosperms, after the pollen grain (gametophyte) has landed on the stigma, it germinates and develops a pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches an ovary. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. After entering an ovum cell through the micropyle, one male nucleus fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, while the other fuses with the ovule to produce the embryo. Hence the term: "double fertilization". This process would result in the production of a seed made of both nutritious tissues and embryo.
In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.
The study of pollination spans many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel. It is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization: the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology. There are also studies in economics that look at the positive and negative benefits of pollination, focused on bees, and how the process affects the pollinators themselves.
Process of pollination
Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced, enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow.
In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones (male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious and others dioecious. A pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by meiosis to form haploid microspores that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the pollen tube, a generative cell that will produce two sperm by mitosis, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very reduced microgametophyte, that is contained within the resistant.
The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument and the cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle ( a pore in the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a pollination drop. The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus) where fertilisation takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte's archegonium.
In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes, which are very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place.
Methods
Pollination may be biotic or abiotic. Biotic pollination relies on living pollinators to move the pollen from one flower to another. Abiotic pollination relies on wind, water or even rain. About 80% of angiosperms rely on biotic pollination.
Abiotic
Abiotic pollination uses nonliving methods such as wind and water to move pollen from one flower to another. This allows the plant to spend energy directly on pollen rather than on attracting pollinators with flowers and nectar. Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollination.
By wind
Some 98% of abiotic pollination is anemophily, pollination by wind. This probably arose from insect pollination, most likely due to changes in the environment or the availability of pollinators. The transfer of pollen is more efficient than previously thought; wind pollinated plants have developed to have specific heights, in addition to specific floral, stamen and stigma positions that promote effective pollen dispersal and transfer.
By water
Pollination by water, hydrophily, uses water to transport pollen, sometimes as whole anthers; these can travel across the surface of the water to carry dry pollen from one flower to another. In Vallisneria spiralis, an unopened male flower floats to the surface of the water, and, upon reaching the surface, opens up and the fertile anthers project forward. The female flower, also floating, has its stigma protected from the water, while its sepals are slightly depressed into the water, allowing the male flowers to tumble in.
By rain
Rain pollination is used by a small percentage of plants. Heavy rain discourages insect pollination and damages unprotected flowers, but can itself disperse pollen of suitably adapted plants, such as Ranunculus flammula, Narthecium ossifragum, and Caltha palustris. In these plants, excess rain drains allowing the floating pollen to come in contact with the stigma. In some orchids ombrophily occurs, and rain water splashes cause the anther cap to be removed, allowing for the pollen to be exposed. After exposure, raindrops causes the pollen to be shot upward, when the stipe pulls them back, and then fall into the cavity of the stigma. Thus, for the orchid Acampe rigida, this allows the plant to self-pollinate, which is useful when biotic pollinators in the environment have decreased.
Switching methods
It is possible for a plant have varying pollination methods, including both biotic and abiotic pollination. The orchid Oeceoclades maculata uses both rain and butterflies, depending on its environmental conditions.
Biotic
More commonly, pollination involves pollinators (also called pollen vectors): organisms that carry or move the pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of another. Between 100,000 and 200,000 species of animal act as pollinators of the world's 250,000 species of flowering plant. The majority of these pollinators are insects, but about 1,500 species of birds and mammals visit flowers and may transfer pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums.
Entomophily, pollination by insects, often occurs on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong scent to attract insects such as, bees, wasps and occasionally ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera). The existence of insect pollination dates back to the dinosaur era.
In zoophily, pollination is performed by vertebrates such as birds and bats, particularly, hummingbirds, sunbirds, spiderhunters, honeyeaters, and fruit bats. Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. Chiropterophily or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong scent and flower at night, whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red petals.
Insect pollinators such as honey bees (Apis spp.),
bumblebees (Bombus spp.), and butterflies (e.g., Thymelicus flavus) have been observed to engage in flower constancy, which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators, as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues.
Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to trap pollinators to increase effectiveness. Other flowers will attract pollinators by odor. For example, bee species such as Euglossa cordata are attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that the bees will become intoxicated during these visits to the orchid flowers, which last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that rely on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated species tend to be brightly coloured, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals, they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated. They also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination season were too short.
As for the types of pollinators, reptile pollinators are known, but they form a minority in most ecological situations. They are most frequent and most ecologically significant in island systems, where insect and sometimes also bird populations may be unstable and less species-rich. Adaptation to a lack of animal food and of predation pressure, might therefore favour reptiles becoming more herbivorous and more inclined to feed on pollen and nectar. Most species of lizards in the families that seem to be significant in pollination seem to carry pollen only incidentally, especially the larger species such as Varanidae and Iguanidae, but especially several species of the Gekkonidae are active pollinators, and so is at least one species of the Lacertidae, Podarcis lilfordi, which pollinates various species, but in particular is the major pollinator of Euphorbia dendroides on various Mediterranean islands.
Mammals are not generally thought of as pollinators, but some rodents, bats and marsupials are significant pollinators and some even specialise in such activities. In South Africa certain species of Protea (in particular Protea humiflora, P. amplexicaulis, P. subulifolia, P. decurrens and P. cordata) are adapted to pollination by rodents (particularly Cape Spiny Mouse, Acomys subspinosus) and elephant shrews (Elephantulus species). The flowers are borne near the ground, are yeasty smelling, not colourful, and sunbirds reject the nectar with its high xylose content. The mice apparently can digest the xylose and they eat large quantities of the pollen. In Australia pollination by flying, gliding and earthbound mammals has been demonstrated. Examples of pollen vectors include many species of wasps, that transport pollen of many plant species, being potential or even efficient pollinators.
Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small crustaceans) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators are to their ecosystems.
Mechanism
Pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination:
Cross-pollination, also called allogamy, occurs when pollen is delivered from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. Plants adapted for cross-pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at different times.
Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of the same individual. It is thought to have evolved under conditions when pollinators were not reliable vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that colonize new locations. Self-pollination may include autogamy, where pollen is transferred to the female part of the same flower; or geitonogamy, when pollen is transferred to another flower on the same plant. Plants adapted to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that can pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self-fertile. Plants that cannot fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the production of offspring.
Cleistogamy: is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The pollen is released from the anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a type of sexual breeding, in contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some cleistogamous flowers never open, in contrast to chasmogamous flowers that open and are then pollinated. Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible or self-fertile plants. Although certain orchids and grasses are entirely cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under adverse conditions. Often there may be a mixture of both cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed inflorescences. The ground bean produces cleistogamous flowers below ground, and mixed cleistogamous and chasmogamous flowers above.
An estimated 48.7% of plant species are either dioecious or self-incompatible obligate out-crossers. It is also estimated that about 42% of flowering plants have a mixed mating system in nature. In the most common kind of mixed mating system, individual plants produce a single type of flower and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types.
Pollination also requires consideration of pollenizers, the plants that serve as the pollen source for other plants. Some plants are self-compatible (self-fertile) and can pollinate and fertilize themselves. Other plants have chemical or physical barriers to self-pollination.
In agriculture and horticulture pollination management, a good pollenizer is a plant that provides compatible, viable and plentiful pollen and blooms at the same time as the plant that is to be pollinated or has pollen that can be stored and used when needed to pollinate the desired flowers. Hybridization is effective pollination between flowers of different species, or between different breeding lines or populations. see also Heterosis.
Peaches are considered self-fertile because a commercial crop can be produced without cross-pollination, though cross-pollination usually gives a better crop. Apples are considered self-incompatible, because a commercial crop must be cross-pollinated. Many commercial fruit tree varieties are grafted clones, genetically identical. An orchard block of apples of one variety is genetically a single plant. Many growers now consider this a mistake. One means of correcting this mistake is to graft a limb of an appropriate pollenizer (generally a variety of crabapple) every six trees or so.
Coevolution
The first fossil record for abiotic pollination is from fern-like plants in the late Carboniferous period. Gymnosperms show evidence for biotic pollination as early as the Triassic period. Many fossilized pollen grains show characteristics similar to the biotically dispersed pollen today. Furthermore, the gut contents, wing structures, and mouthpart morphology of fossilized beetles and flies suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between beetles and angiosperms during the early Cretaceous period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in late Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the mutualism between hymenopterans and angiosperms.
Bees provide a good example of the mutualism that exists between hymenopterans and angiosperms. Flowers provide bees with nectar (an energy source) and pollen (a source of protein). When bees go from flower to flower collecting pollen they are also depositing pollen grains onto the flowers, thus pollinating them. While pollen and nectar, in most cases, are the most notable reward attained from flowers, bees also visit flowers for other resources such as oil, fragrance, resin and even waxes. It has been estimated that bees originated with the origin or diversification of angiosperms. In addition, cases of coevolution between bee species and flowering plants have been illustrated by specialized adaptations. For example, long legs are selected for in Rediviva neliana, a bee that collects oil from Diascia capsularis, which have long spur lengths that are selected for in order to deposit pollen on the oil-collecting bee, which in turn selects for even longer legs in R. neliana and again longer spur length in D. capsularis is selected for, thus, continually driving each other's evolution.
In agriculture
The most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum are wind pollinated or self pollinating. When considering the top 15 crops contributing to the human diet globally in 2013, slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops (211 out of 1916 kcal/person/day) is dependent upon insect pollination.
Pollination management is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in monoculture situations, such as commercial fruit orchards. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in Californian almond orchards, where nearly half (about one million hives) of the US honey bees are trucked to the almond orchards each spring. New York's apple crop requires about 30,000 hives; Maine's blueberry crop uses about 50,000 hives each year. The US solution to the pollinator shortage, so far, has been for commercial beekeepers to become pollination contractors and to migrate. Just as the combine harvesters follow the wheat harvest from Texas to Manitoba, beekeepers follow the bloom from south to north, to provide pollination for many different crops.
In America, bees are brought to commercial plantings of cucumbers, squash, melons, strawberries, and many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other species of bees are also raised as pollinators. The alfalfa leafcutter bee is an important pollinator for alfalfa seed in western United States and Canada. Bumblebees are increasingly raised and used extensively for greenhouse tomatoes and other crops.
The ecological and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to agricultural crops, improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new financial opportunities. The vicinity of a forest or wild grasslands with native pollinators near agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their yield by about 20%. The benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers can also raise native crops in order to promote native bee pollinator species as shown with L. vierecki in Delaware and L. leucozonium in southwest Virginia.
The American Institute of Biological Sciences reports that native insect pollination saves the United States agricultural economy nearly an estimated $3.1 billion annually through natural crop production; pollination produces some $40 billion worth of products annually in the United States alone.
Pollination of food crops has become an environmental issue, due to two trends. The trend to monoculture means that greater concentrations of pollinators are needed at bloom time than ever before, yet the area is forage poor or even deadly to bees for the rest of the season. The other trend is the decline of pollinator populations, due to pesticide misuse and overuse, new diseases and parasites of bees, clearcut logging, decline of beekeeping, suburban development, removal of hedges and other habitat from farms, and public concern about bees. Widespread aerial spraying for mosquitoes due to West Nile fears is causing an acceleration of the loss of pollinators.
In some situations, farmers or horticulturists may aim to restrict natural pollination to only permit breeding with the preferred individuals plants. This may be achieved through the use of pollination bags.
Improving pollination in areas with suboptimal bee densities
In some instances growers’ demand for beehives far exceeds the available supply. The number of managed beehives in the US has steadily declined from close to 6 million after WWII, to less than 2.5 million today. In contrast, the area dedicated to growing bee-pollinated crops has grown over 300% in the same time period. Additionally, in the past five years there has been a decline in winter managed beehives, which has reached an unprecedented rate of colony losses at near 30%. At present, there is an enormous demand for beehive rentals that cannot always be met. There is a clear need across the agricultural industry for a management tool to draw pollinators into cultivations and encourage them to preferentially visit and pollinate the flowering crop. By attracting pollinators like honey bees and increasing their foraging behavior, particularly in the center of large plots, we can increase grower returns and optimize yield from their plantings. ISCA Technologies, from Riverside California, created a semiochemical formulation called SPLAT Bloom, that modifies the behavior of honey bees, inciting them to visit flowers in every portion of the field.
Environmental impacts
Loss of pollinators, also known as Pollinator decline (of which colony collapse disorder is perhaps the most well known) has been noticed in recent years. These loss of pollinators have caused a disturbance in early plant regeneration processes such as seed dispersal and pollination. Early processes of plant regeneration greatly depend on plant-animal interactions and because these interactions are interrupted, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are threatened. Pollination by animals aids in the genetic variability and diversity within plants because it allows for out-crossing instead for self-crossing. Without this genetic diversity there would be a lack of traits for natural selection to act on for the survival of the plant species. Seed dispersal is also important for plant fitness because it allows plants the ability to expand their populations. More than that, it permits plants to escape environments that have changed and have become difficult to reside in. All of these factors show the importance of pollinators for plants, which are a significant part of the foundation for a stable ecosystem. If only a few species of plants depended on Loss of pollinators is especially devastating because there are so many plant species rely on them. More than 87.5% of angiosperms, over 75% of tropical tree species, and 30-40% of tree species in temperate regions depend on pollination and seed dispersal.
Factors that contribute to pollinator decline include habitat destruction, pesticide, parasitism/diseases, and climate change. The more destructive forms of human disturbances are land use changes such as fragmentation, selective logging, and the conversion to secondary forest habitat. Defaunation of frugivores is also an important driver. These alterations are especially harmful due to the sensitivity of the pollination process of plants. Research on tropical palms found that defaunation has caused a decline in seed dispersal, which causes a decrease in genetic variability in this species. Habitat destruction such as fragmentation and selective logging remove areas that are most optimal for the different types of pollinators, which removes pollinators food resources, nesting sites, and leads to isolation of populations. The effect of pesticides on pollinators has been debated because it is difficult to determine that a single pesticide is the cause as opposed to a mixture or other threats. Whether exposure alone causes damage, or if the duration and potency are also factors is unknown. However, insecticides have negative effects, as in the case of neonicotinoids that harm bee colonies. Many researchers believe it is the synergistic effects of these factors which are ultimately detrimental to pollinator populations.
In the agriculture industry, climate change is causing a "pollinator crisis". This crisis is affecting the production of crops, and the relating costs, due to a decrease in pollination processes. This disturbance can be phenological or spatial. In the first case, species that normally occur in similar seasons or time cycles, now have different responses to environmental changes and therefore no longer interact. For example, a tree may flower sooner than usual, while the pollinator may reproduce later in the year and therefore the two species no longer coincide in time. Spatial disturbances occur when two species that would normally share the same distribution now respond differently to climate change and are shifting to different regions.
Examples of affected pollinators
The most known and understood pollinator, bees, have been used as the prime example of the decline in pollinators. Bees are essential in the pollination of agricultural crops and wild plants and are one of the main insects that perform this task. Out of the bees species, the honey bee or Apis mellifera has been studied the most and in the United States, there has been a loss of 59% of colonies from 1947 to 2005. The decrease in populations of the honey bee have been attributed to pesticides, genetically modified crops, fragmentation, parasites and diseases that have been introduced. There has been a focus on neonicotinoids effects on honey bee populations. Neonicotinoids insecticides have been used due to its low mammalian toxicity, target specificity, low application rates, and broad spectrum activity. However, the insecticides are able to make its way throughout the plant, which includes the pollen and nectar. Due to this, it has been shown to effect on the nervous system and colony relations in the honey bee populations.
Butterflies too have suffered due to these modifications. Butterflies are helpful ecological indicators since they are sensitive to changes within the environment like the season, altitude, and above all, human impact on the environment. Butterfly populations were higher within the natural forest and were lower in open land. The reason for the difference in density is the fact that in open land the butterflies would be exposed to desiccation and predation. These open regions are caused by habitat destruction like logging for timber, livestock grazing, and firewood collection. Due to this destruction, butterfly species' diversity can decrease and it is known that there is a correlation in butterfly diversity and plant diversity.
Food security and pollinator decline
Besides the imbalance of the ecosystem caused by the decline in pollinators, it may jeopardise food security. Pollination is necessary for plants to continue their populations and 3/4 of the plant species that contribute to the world's food supply are plants that require pollinators. Insect pollinators, like bees, are large contributors to crop production, over 200 billion dollars worth of crop species are pollinated by these insects. Pollinators are also essential because they improve crop quality and increase genetic diversity, which is necessary in producing fruit with nutritional value and various flavors. Crops that do not depend on animals for pollination but on the wind or self-pollination, like corn and potatoes, have doubled in production and make up a large part of the human diet but do not provide the micronutrients that are needed. The essential nutrients that are necessary in the human diet are present in plants that rely on animal pollinators. There have been issues in vitamin and mineral deficiencies and it is believed that if pollinator populations continue to decrease these deficiencies will become even more prominent.
Plant–pollinator networks
Wild pollinators often visit a large number of plant species and plants are visited by a large number of pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.
The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh. This means that pollinator species together can survive under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.
Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed.
Economics of pollination
While there are 200,000 - 350,000 different species of animals that help pollination, bees are responsible for majority of the pollination for consumed crops, providing between $235 and $577 US billion of benefits to global food production. Since the early 1900s, beekeepers in the United States started renting out their colonies to farmers to increase the farmer's crop yields, earning additional revenue from providing privatized pollination. As of 2016, 41% of an average US beekeeper's revenue comes from providing such pollination service to farmers, making it the biggest proportion of their income, with the rest coming from sales of honey, beeswax, government subsidy, etc. This is an example of how a positive externality, pollination of crops from beekeeping and honey-making, was successfully accounted for and incorporated into the overall market for agriculture. On top of assisting food production, pollination service provide beneficial spillovers as bees germinate not only the crops, but also other plants around the area that they are set loose to pollinate, increasing biodiversity for the local ecosystem. There is even further spillover as biodiversity increases ecosystem resistance for wildlife and crops. Due to their role of pollination in crop production, commercial honeybees are considered to be livestock by the US Department of Agriculture. The impact of pollination varies by crop. For example, almond production in the United States, an $11 billion industry based almost exclusively in the state of California, is heavily dependent on bees for pollination of almond trees. Almond industry uses up to 82% of the services in the pollination market. Each February, around 60% of the all bee colonies in the US are moved to California's Central Valley.
Over the past decade, beekeepers across the US have reported that the mortality rate of their bee colonies has stayed constant at about 30% every year, making the deaths an expected cost of business for the beekeepers. While the exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, according to the US Department of Agriculture Colony Collapse Disorder Progress Report it can be traced to factors such as pollution, pesticides, and pathogens from evidences found in areas of the colonies affected and the colonies themselves. Pollution and pesticides are detrimental to the health of the bees and their colonies as the bees' ability to pollinate and return to their colonies are great greatly compromised. Moreover, California's Central Valley is determined by the World Health Organization as the location of country's worst air pollution. Almond pollinating bees, approximately 60% of the bees in the US as mentioned above, will be mixed with bees from thousands of other hives provided by different beekeepers, making them exponentially susceptible to diseases and mites that any of them could be carrying. The deaths do not stop at commercial honeybees as there is evidence of significant pathogen spillover to other pollinators including wild bumble bees, infecting up to 35-100% of wild bees within 2 km radius of commercial pollination. The negative externality of private pollination services is the decline of biodiversity through the deaths of commercial and wild bees. Despite losing about a third of their workforce every year, beekeepers continue to rent out their bees to almond farms due to the high pay from the almond industry. In 2016, a colony rented out for almond pollination gave beekeepers an income of $165 per colony rented, around three times from average of other crops that use the pollination rental service. However, a recent study published in Oxford Academic's Journal of Economic Entomology found that once the costs for maintaining bees specifically for almond pollination, including overwintering, summer management, and the replacement dying bees are considered, almond pollination is barely or not profitable for average beekeepers.
See also
Canadian Pollination Initiative
Cheating (biology)
Floral color change
Pollinator-mediated selection
Fruit tree pollination
Hand-pollination
Paul Knuth
Hermann Müller (botanist)
Plant reproductive morphology
Pollen DNA barcoding
Polli:Nation
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
Resources on Pollinators from the National Academies
The Pollination Home page
Pollination in Hydroponics
Pollination syndromes images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
Horticulture
Plant sexuality | [
-0.160282164812088,
0.08546490967273712,
-0.10546652972698212,
0.2041083723306656,
-0.26754793524742126,
0.3119436204433441,
0.557607889175415,
0.2740664780139923,
-0.002814642386510968,
-0.3892883360385895,
-0.1797691285610199,
-0.04070742428302765,
-0.39322125911712646,
0.41456788778305054,
-0.7980939149856567,
0.39072543382644653,
0.19340212643146515,
0.35816556215286255,
0.13777098059654236,
-0.19541668891906738,
0.06001412123441696,
-0.6001313328742981,
-0.16249364614486694,
-0.1813070923089981,
1.0803824663162231,
-0.7790364027023315,
-0.14663659036159515,
0.12138154357671738,
0.3840976059436798,
0.35789284110069275,
-0.14775116741657257,
0.27084773778915405,
0.578770637512207,
-0.4059935510158539,
-0.4930213689804077,
-0.4141336679458618,
-0.13691222667694092,
-0.3367669880390167,
-0.28707996010780334,
-0.5854405760765076,
-0.7220973372459412,
0.0032738582231104374,
0.03583477437496185,
-0.17052119970321655,
0.008765152655541897,
-0.4676174223423004,
-1.317010521888733,
1.176450252532959,
-0.8210334777832031,
0.17494480311870575,
-0.37669235467910767,
-0.060791291296482086,
0.39074012637138367,
0.47359856963157654,
0.4986747205257416,
1.2619819641113281,
-0.5717828273773193,
0.22783944010734558,
-0.0351085290312767,
-0.5919278860092163,
-0.20916077494621277,
0.5090169310569763,
0.11306283622980118,
0.47922223806381226,
0.7329045534133911,
-0.03984636813402176,
0.018508972600102425,
0.13044916093349457,
-0.2858324348926544,
-0.8172557950019836,
-0.5883379578590393,
-0.6802963018417358,
0.27920496463775635,
-0.1248844563961029,
-0.8164884448051453,
-0.4420362710952759,
-0.32492849230766296,
-0.10334209352731705,
-0.023958712816238403,
0.013112069107592106,
-0.08946192264556885,
0.1269189566373825,
-0.5986739993095398,
-0.08718479424715042,
0.6414568424224854,
0.07019763439893723,
-0.7733964920043945,
0.4499121904373169,
-0.19993217289447784,
-0.3068670630455017,
0.027051065117120743,
-0.27692651748657227,
0.06808208674192429,
0.4233776032924652,
0.4401649832725525,
-0.4273987114429474,
0.4464139938354492,
-0.05213170126080513,
0.16294415295124054,
-0.11851600557565689,
-0.38503214716911316,
0.2429235577583313,
0.8538435697555542,
0.02437654323875904,
-0.14622575044631958,
-0.09832475334405899,
-0.1862192153930664,
-0.46340033411979675,
0.33288779854774475,
0.05050705000758171,
0.07592593133449554,
0.12820179760456085,
0.24433957040309906,
0.4844430387020111,
-0.05127512663602829,
0.6724411249160767,
0.33337411284446716,
-0.014442085288465023,
0.10538476705551147,
-0.23220108449459076,
0.39329996705055237,
0.25854992866516113,
-0.08082568645477295,
-0.21993979811668396,
-0.8448518514633179,
-0.0021489758510142565,
0.04355303943157196,
0.5423729419708252,
-0.6076945662498474,
0.3078267574310303,
0.08467280864715576,
0.4029981195926666,
0.13790898025035858,
-0.29678675532341003,
-0.17861929535865784,
-0.7735517024993896,
0.4248051941394806,
0.17386573553085327,
1.1039694547653198,
0.8043910264968872,
-1.1345057487487793,
-0.18820558488368988,
0.021847637370228767,
0.12873691320419312,
-0.040257569402456284,
0.24446246027946472,
0.09297452121973038,
-0.3641953468322754,
-0.05541685223579407,
-0.3240792453289032,
-0.06755127012729645,
0.201429545879364,
0.3636554181575775,
-0.27206307649612427,
-0.6178375482559204,
0.21659108996391296,
0.8118863105773926,
0.1866995394229889,
-0.17890937626361847,
0.16779175400733948,
0.02672744169831276,
0.13822583854198456,
0.6182132959365845,
0.1767076849937439,
-0.3273051083087921,
-0.06765776872634888,
0.7116270661354065,
0.9216747283935547,
0.07967367023229599,
-0.3518955111503601,
-0.25781288743019104,
-0.2266807109117508,
0.4140518009662628,
-0.17351563274860382,
0.32910236716270447,
-0.7936217188835144,
0.38351377844810486,
-0.3285188674926758,
0.43786272406578064,
0.9946844577789307,
-0.6420078873634338,
0.6774020195007324,
-0.006630913354456425,
0.5254719257354736,
-0.05690578371286392,
-0.21612125635147095,
-0.05589086562395096,
0.09850367903709412,
-0.15538108348846436,
0.09335310012102127,
-0.23522618412971497,
-0.6012486815452576,
-0.8831371665000916,
-0.4075537323951721,
0.37412261962890625,
0.5017474293708801,
0.009896798990666866,
0.20393270254135132,
-0.32845595479011536,
-0.3060191571712494,
0.04531339183449745,
0.16355523467063904,
0.3267706036567688,
-0.4686651825904846,
-1.209842324256897,
0.19701598584651947,
0.33331599831581116,
0.15692472457885742,
0.36243656277656555,
0.12339960038661957,
-0.9479943513870239,
-0.3657677471637726,
0.4884434938430786,
-0.6356586217880249,
0.21866947412490845,
0.6858540773391724,
-0.632971465587616,
0.31752341985702515,
0.39262843132019043,
-0.4194141924381256,
0.5424392223358154,
0.06406302750110626,
-0.15738649666309357,
0.32473695278167725,
0.08459427952766418,
0.5927322506904602,
0.4680309295654297,
-0.22871814668178558,
0.09716000407934189,
-0.210478276014328,
0.731652557849884,
0.15945442020893097,
0.7547962665557861,
-0.6890918016433716,
-0.6716406941413879,
0.3729246258735657,
0.05407346785068512,
-0.2935371696949005,
0.19800466299057007,
-0.025363819673657417,
-0.1707824021577835,
0.5016130208969116,
-0.2248697429895401,
0.13756060600280762,
0.08233294636011124,
-0.1012832522392273,
-0.11326339095830917,
-0.5422390103340149,
0.26090511679649353,
-0.1386476457118988,
0.37454310059547424,
0.6563157439231873,
0.29619473218917847,
-0.6932538151741028,
-0.018250105902552605,
-0.3903741240501404,
-0.3994317352771759,
0.27506500482559204,
1.0800827741622925,
0.24876047670841217,
-0.13870786130428314,
-0.12486016750335693,
-0.019485699012875557,
0.1399955004453659,
-0.050703853368759155,
-0.35999879240989685,
-0.2687482535839081,
0.24723021686077118,
0.14375534653663635,
0.2365163117647171,
0.6407128572463989,
0.041980091482400894,
-0.5887726545333862,
-0.1551612764596939,
-0.3080712556838989,
-0.4048377573490143,
0.10208453238010406,
-0.36978960037231445,
-0.10111784934997559,
-0.17164264619350433,
0.40971624851226807,
0.3818943500518799,
-0.18375365436077118,
-0.9990935325622559,
-0.0646643191576004,
-0.27583977580070496,
-0.0719379335641861,
-0.22298523783683777,
0.3595137298107147,
-0.5304387211799622,
-0.4576312005519867,
0.47085994482040405,
-0.23041804134845734,
0.8348560333251953,
0.4238470494747162,
0.10319866985082626,
-0.35783740878105164,
0.3541624844074249,
0.7216581702232361,
-0.5853579044342041,
-0.10676473379135132,
-0.38535651564598083,
-0.3759269416332245,
-0.07878312468528748,
-0.25724706053733826,
-0.15222130715847015,
0.33390212059020996,
-0.34433552622795105,
-5.39919900894165,
-0.08443275839090347,
0.4480358362197876,
0.4496310353279114,
0.5638138651847839,
0.05629605054855347,
0.38689789175987244,
0.17745599150657654,
0.04734523594379425,
0.27614691853523254,
0.04632798582315445,
-0.08604106307029724,
-0.09355593472719193,
-0.017628375440835953,
0.6357082724571228,
0.34363824129104614,
-0.421644926071167,
-1.0740910768508911,
0.31769663095474243,
0.07200982421636581,
-0.39904502034187317,
0.11802339553833008,
-0.06076087802648544,
0.9487470984458923,
-0.1089722216129303,
-0.2520110607147217,
0.07718238979578018,
-0.42282894253730774,
-0.10193755477666855,
0.4012565612792969,
0.06766287982463837,
-0.3098303973674774,
-0.1490759551525116,
0.38615188002586365,
-0.33532512187957764,
0.16092684864997864,
0.5092582106590271,
-0.6286361217498779,
-0.053797680884599686,
0.39848461747169495,
0.06207439303398132,
-0.22256380319595337,
-0.24018210172653198,
0.5929267406463623,
0.2402343899011612,
-0.6488310098648071,
-0.3465340733528137,
-0.571380078792572,
-0.2167665660381317,
0.8925107717514038,
0.48687049746513367,
0.7853677868843079,
0.6799472570419312,
-0.9073629975318909,
0.09665299206972122,
0.19699415564537048,
0.22435015439987183,
-0.34921935200691223,
-0.30169200897216797,
-0.341182678937912,
0.19962632656097412,
-0.333727091550827,
0.19184766709804535,
-0.2335629165172577,
0.2764166593551636,
0.3460199236869812,
-0.7098032832145691,
-0.03038029372692108,
0.7760247588157654,
-0.4740898311138153,
-0.24870777130126953,
0.3091070055961609,
-0.23677900433540344,
-0.7220451831817627,
0.058908168226480484,
-0.4975462853908539,
-0.13754945993423462,
0.058446452021598816,
0.37939202785491943,
0.23433978855609894,
0.0595034584403038,
-0.11811043322086334,
0.4057176411151886,
-0.22508792579174042,
0.15917839109897614,
-0.7682674527168274,
-1.040704369544983,
-0.10212583839893341,
-0.3089645206928253,
-0.09750308096408844,
0.8344588279724121,
-0.4145604968070984,
0.09017929434776306,
0.009690997190773487,
0.9385751485824585,
0.784887433052063,
0.37616652250289917,
0.153428852558136,
0.49560853838920593,
-0.2396405041217804,
0.30992352962493896,
-0.1512998342514038,
-0.617428719997406,
0.24467456340789795,
0.042110953480005264,
-0.3890734910964966,
-0.7075475454330444,
0.5726509690284729,
0.7486501336097717,
-0.15398414433002472,
1.0176243782043457,
0.22782371938228607,
-0.5591752529144287,
-0.31943896412849426,
-0.17064602673053741,
0.6046239137649536,
-0.30539166927337646,
1.0646283626556396,
1.0031548738479614,
-0.04110964015126228,
-0.2745768427848816,
0.0172717422246933,
-0.9845153093338013,
0.19502940773963928,
0.3143864870071411,
-0.6157139539718628,
-0.16234834492206573,
0.3488670587539673,
0.2840772867202759,
-0.42746829986572266,
0.33524051308631897,
-0.2746240496635437,
-0.8331488370895386,
-0.2373913824558258,
-0.20169410109519958,
0.0854349136352539,
-0.16350121796131134,
-0.04960733652114868,
-0.34799113869667053,
-0.35925424098968506,
-0.25165221095085144,
-0.24004414677619934,
-0.4120487868785858,
-0.15621988475322723,
0.8785013556480408,
-0.20322123169898987,
-0.9810847640037537,
-0.8085561990737915,
0.4009470045566559,
-0.4165622591972351,
-0.08803435415029526,
-0.0318155474960804,
-0.1352536827325821,
-0.8346871733665466,
-0.21683628857135773,
-0.41252267360687256,
0.10205068439245224,
0.07613173872232437,
-0.01752639375627041,
-0.32384511828422546,
-0.5586522221565247,
-0.38734424114227295,
-0.9776654839515686,
-0.23118741810321808,
-0.3794083595275879,
0.2864246964454651,
-0.1150752454996109,
0.047314442694187164,
-0.03897950425744057,
0.36098963022232056,
0.41611403226852417,
-0.6296733617782593,
-0.39380204677581787,
-0.5665145516395569,
0.017533084377646446,
0.12736675143241882,
0.33938896656036377,
-0.1565134972333908,
-0.06661994010210037,
-0.4716941714286804,
-1.1515884399414062,
-0.7736049294471741,
-0.24654443562030792,
0.7575615644454956,
0.3774915039539337,
-0.5253468751907349,
0.003134798491373658,
-0.5552120804786682,
-0.8367798924446106,
0.30810651183128357,
-0.933427095413208,
0.1286693811416626,
0.2711421847343445,
0.30761000514030457,
-0.40285831689834595,
-0.33924978971481323,
-0.4583331048488617,
0.15564243495464325,
-0.521648108959198,
-0.9216854572296143,
0.3319006562232971,
-0.1871248483657837,
-0.38989606499671936,
-0.07373286038637161,
-0.0968802347779274,
-0.5736936926841736,
0.4322795271873474,
0.2988172769546509,
-0.7833024263381958,
-0.0905027836561203,
0.26868778467178345,
-0.11535230278968811,
-0.4160148799419403,
1.1234055757522583,
0.002724350430071354,
-0.5279011726379395,
-0.21787187457084656,
0.0834648460149765,
0.36432868242263794,
-0.06424683332443237,
0.8596331477165222,
0.02938469685614109,
-0.4345284402370453,
-0.3714052736759186,
-0.2076195329427719,
0.39408746361732483,
-0.1201508417725563,
-0.8937403559684753,
0.13641518354415894,
0.06826828420162201,
0.37193048000335693,
0.045269861817359924,
-0.5850858688354492,
0.2000468224287033,
0.05389761924743652,
-0.18691007792949677,
-0.3484765291213989,
0.39638254046440125,
0.06148064136505127,
0.27053508162498474,
0.7482876181602478,
0.44272834062576294,
-0.27032551169395447,
0.4131104648113251,
-0.1823236048221588,
0.615373432636261,
0.018426600843667984,
-0.7940658330917358,
-0.5580087304115295,
-0.14951156079769135,
0.6550227403640747,
-0.004728492349386215,
-0.34445586800575256,
0.6004113554954529,
0.07463697344064713,
-0.08398312330245972,
-0.4563964307308197,
-0.00392334908246994,
-0.2689303457736969,
0.8769944906234741,
0.33362603187561035,
0.3167787492275238,
-0.40442872047424316,
0.27300915122032166,
0.8102706670761108,
-0.6517166495323181,
-0.5927019715309143,
0.4380899667739868,
0.5166734457015991,
-0.4818829894065857,
0.6443023681640625,
-0.3744893968105316,
0.4956094026565552,
0.107066810131073,
0.5349855422973633,
0.8608033061027527,
0.02092069946229458,
0.0070129637606441975,
-0.10921502113342285,
-0.2767152786254883,
-0.22682298719882965,
-0.7123503684997559,
0.15428121387958527,
0.05849204584956169,
0.6696494221687317,
-0.3679002821445465,
0.054082293063402176,
-0.3189941346645355,
0.05138615146279335,
-0.37999311089515686,
0.06510844826698303,
-0.4160509407520294,
-0.0909581258893013,
0.5499072074890137,
0.5024992227554321,
0.678421139717102,
0.16075977683067322,
0.36986660957336426,
-0.03746999055147171,
-0.2698361873626709,
-0.5820190906524658,
0.2072645127773285,
0.1706310510635376,
-0.6911455988883972,
0.4790816605091095,
0.09691237658262253,
0.3449800908565521,
-0.22366270422935486,
-0.10153642296791077,
-0.7242414951324463,
0.08681127429008484,
0.09381025284528732,
-0.07958843559026718,
-0.3630017340183258,
-0.5663331747055054,
0.6430866718292236,
0.0887477770447731,
-0.4335413873195648,
0.355800062417984,
0.5152448415756226,
0.9658327698707581,
-0.014259884133934975,
0.33819806575775146,
-0.4831525981426239,
-0.1444072127342224,
0.41451290249824524,
0.4537656307220459,
0.09941460937261581,
0.20467793941497803,
-0.4010971188545227,
0.8988638520240784,
0.42752477526664734,
-0.15619929134845734,
0.4086866080760956,
-0.004123331047594547,
-0.33032381534576416,
0.11927606910467148,
-0.6173825263977051,
-0.2879987061023712,
0.8780342936515808,
0.4178137481212616,
0.4802914261817932,
0.5397045016288757,
0.21812842786312103,
0.07215283066034317,
0.31783947348594666,
0.1596483439207077,
0.3516596257686615,
0.042965199798345566,
0.4305865168571472,
0.14878103137016296,
-0.06004733964800835,
-0.071498803794384,
-0.6882529854774475,
0.06758583337068558,
-0.317758709192276,
0.7563231587409973,
0.06267106533050537,
-0.5742915868759155,
-0.2715550363063812,
0.17862634360790253,
0.4790949523448944,
-0.47892314195632935,
0.2976009249687195,
-0.20439182221889496,
-0.10100164264440536,
0.16971437633037567,
-0.2506474256515503,
-0.3303195536136627,
0.049031004309654236,
0.49367862939834595,
-0.4411686360836029,
-0.3396831452846527,
0.40864285826683044,
1.103790283203125,
0.5349594354629517,
0.5085586905479431,
0.17210157215595245,
0.010677697136998177,
-0.2748397886753082,
-0.07650832086801529,
-0.40550315380096436,
-0.07561484724283218,
-0.40531817078590393,
-0.590412974357605,
-0.2770940065383911,
-0.28482291102409363,
0.09692078828811646,
-0.13696099817752838,
0.09774886816740036,
0.28416818380355835,
0.1567707359790802,
0.6385658979415894,
-0.07291766256093979,
0.20185008645057678,
0.05395200103521347,
-0.06038476899266243,
0.6107843518257141,
-0.044724877923727036,
-0.5254787802696228,
0.2868156135082245,
0.5364565849304199,
-0.36729735136032104,
-0.001266712904907763,
-0.1893341839313507,
0.582648754119873,
0.14407557249069214,
-0.314784973859787,
-0.1890915483236313,
0.6409841179847717,
0.691024661064148,
-0.42994338274002075,
-0.31631678342819214,
-0.39494484663009644,
0.24625277519226074,
0.03971126675605774,
0.10578843951225281,
-0.03485353663563728,
0.2149912267923355,
-0.5099596977233887,
0.4141738712787628,
-0.3992394804954529,
0.04624653607606888,
0.8510158658027649,
-0.2593671977519989,
-0.12195085734128952,
0.5181124806404114,
0.3162379860877991,
0.04992008954286575,
0.6376527547836304,
0.12106097489595413,
0.5669992566108704,
-0.946947455406189,
0.05275624990463257,
-0.2771202623844147,
-0.1265822798013687,
-0.045882709324359894,
0.5819122791290283,
-0.06093170866370201,
-0.5019566416740417,
0.21330106258392334,
-0.44933775067329407,
0.3524528443813324,
-0.6238257884979248,
-0.2911205589771271,
-0.2105664759874344,
0.4310941696166992,
0.19434894621372223,
-0.4445984661579132,
0.13658744096755981,
0.2303403615951538,
-0.4686128497123718,
0.01574363000690937,
0.4032957851886749,
-0.5570897459983826,
-0.39709344506263733,
0.102933369576931,
-0.27138304710388184,
-0.2620238959789276,
0.6590868830680847
] |
233618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit%20knowledge | Tacit knowledge | Tacit knowledge or implicit knowledge—as opposed to formal, codified or explicit knowledge—is knowledge that is difficult to express or extract, and thus more difficult to transfer to others by means of writing it down or verbalizing it. This can include personal wisdom, experience, insight, and intuition.
For example, knowing that London is in the United Kingdom is a piece of explicit knowledge; it can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a recipient. In contrast, the ability to speak a language, ride a bicycle, knead dough, play a musical instrument, or design and use complex equipment requires all sorts of knowledge which is not always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners, and which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to other people.
Overview
Origin
The term tacit knowing is attributed to Michael Polanyi's Personal Knowledge (1958). In his later work, The Tacit Dimension (1966), Polanyi made the assertion that "we can know more than we can tell." He states not only that there is knowledge that cannot be adequately articulated by verbal means, but also that all knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge. While this concept made most of its impact on philosophy of science, education and knowledge management—all fields involving humans—it was also, for Polanyi, a means to show humankind's evolutionary continuity with animals. Polanyi describes that many animals are creative, some even have Mental representations, but can only possess tacit knowledge. This excludes humans, however, who developed the capability of articulation and therefore can transmit partially explicit knowledge. This relatively modest difference then turns into a big practical advantage, but there is no unexplained evolutionary gap.
Definition
Tacit knowledge can be defined as skills, ideas and experiences that are possessed by people but are not codified and may not necessarily be easily expressed. With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to others. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires extensive personal contact, regular interaction, and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed through practice in a particular context and transmitted through Social networks. To some extent it is "captured" when the knowledge holder joins a network or a community of practice.
Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a bike, playing the piano, driving a car, hitting a nail with a hammer, putting together pieces of a complex jigsaw puzzle, and interpreting a complex statistical equation.
In the field of knowledge management, the concept of tacit knowledge refers to knowledge that cannot be fully codified. Therefore, an individual can acquire tacit knowledge without language. Apprentices, for example, work with their mentors and learn craftsmanship not through language but by observation, imitation, and practice.
The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience. Without some form of shared experience, it is extremely difficult for people to share each other's thinking processes.
Embodied knowledge
Tacit knowledge has been described as 'know-how', as opposed to 'know-what' (facts). This distinction between know-how and know-what is considered to date back to a 1945 paper by Gilbert Ryle given to the Aristotelian Society in London. In his paper, Ryle argues against the (intellectualist) position that all knowledge is knowledge of Propositions ('know-what'), and therefore the view that some knowledge can only be defined as 'know-how'. Ryle's argument has, in some contexts, come to be called "anti-intellectualist". There are further distinctions: "know-why" (science), or "know-who" (networking).
Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account, knowing-how or embodied knowledge is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention. Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's nervous and endocrine systems.
Differences from explicit knowledge
Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually between explicit and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete in practice. The interaction between these two modes of knowing is vital for the creation of new knowledge.
Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit knowledge in three major areas:
Codifiability and mechanism of transferring knowledge: Explicit knowledge can be codified (for example, 'can you write it down' or 'put it into words' or 'draw a picture'), and easily transferred without the knowing subject. In contrast, tacit knowledge is intuitive and unarticulated knowledge that cannot be communicated, understood or used without the 'knowing subject'. Unlike the transfer of explicit knowledge, the transfer of tacit knowledge requires close interaction and the buildup of shared understanding and trust among them.
Main methods for the acquisition and accumulation: Explicit knowledge can be generated through logical deduction and acquired through practical experience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit knowledge can only be acquired through practical experience in the relevant context.
Potential of aggregation and modes of appropriation: Explicit knowledge can be aggregated at a single location, stored in objective forms, and appropriated without the participation of the knowing subject. Tacit knowledge, in contrast, is personal and contextual; it is distributed across knowing subjects, and cannot easily be aggregated. The realization of its full potential requires the close involvement and cooperation of the knowing subject.
The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit or specifiable knowledge is known as codification, articulation, or specification. The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified, but can only be transmitted via training or gained through personal experience. There is a view against the distinction, where it is believed that all propositional knowledge (knowledge that) is ultimately reducible to practical knowledge (knowledge how).
Nonaka–Takeuchi model
Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model of knowledge creation that explains how tacit knowledge can be converted to explicit knowledge, both of which can be converted into organisational knowledge. While introduced by Nonaka in 1990, the model was further developed by Hirotaka Takeuchi and is thus known as the Nonaka–Takeuchi model. In this model, tacit knowledge is presented variously as uncodifiable ("tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be codified") and codifiable ("transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is known as codification"). This ambiguity is common in the knowledge management literature.
Assuming that knowledge is created through the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge, the Nonaka–Takeuchi model postulates four different modes of knowledge conversion:
from tacit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or socialization;
from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or externalization;
from explicit knowledge to explicit knowledge, or combination; and
from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge, or internalization.
Nonaka's view may be contrasted with Polanyi's original view of "tacit knowing". Polanyi believed that while declarative knowledge may be needed for acquiring skills, it is unnecessary for using those skills once the novice becomes an expert. Indeed, it does seem to be the case that, as Polanyi argued, when people acquire a skill, they acquire a corresponding understanding that defies articulation.
Examples
One of the most convincing examples of tacit knowledge is facial recognition: one knows a person's face, and can recognize it among a thousand, indeed a million. Yet, people usually cannot tell how they recognize that face, so most of this cannot be put into words. When one sees a face, they are not conscious about their knowledge of the individual features (eye, nose, mouth), but rather see and recognize the face as a whole.
Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of language itself: it is not possible to learn a language just by being taught the rules of grammar—a native-speaker picks it up at a young age, almost entirely unaware of the formal grammar which they may be taught later.
Other examples are how to ride a bike, how tight to make a bandage, or knowing whether a senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned through personal experimentation.
Harry M. Collins showed that Western laboratories long had difficulties in successfully replicating an experiment that a team led by Vladimir Braginsky at Moscow State University had been conducting for 20 years (the experiment was measuring the quality, Q, factors of sapphire). Western scientists became suspicious of the Russian results and it was only when Russian and Western scientists conducted the measurements collaboratively that the trust was reestablished. Collins argues that laboratory visits enhance the possibility for the transfer of tacit knowledge.
The Bessemer steel process is another example: Henry Bessemer sold a patent for his advanced steelmaking process and was subsequently sued by the purchasers after they could not get it to work. In the end, Bessemer set up his own steel company because he knew how to do it, even though he could not convey it to his patent users.
When Matsushita (now Panasonic) started developing its automatic home bread-making machine in 1985, an early problem was how to mechanize the dough-kneading process, a process that takes a master baker years of practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a member of the software development team, Ikuko Tanaka, decided to volunteer herself as an apprentice to the head baker of the Osaka International Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area's best bread. After a period of imitation and practice, one day she observed that the baker was not only stretching, but also twisting the dough in a particular fashion ("twisting stretch"), which turned out to be his secret for making tasty bread. The Matsushita home bakery team drew together eleven members from completely different specializations and cultures: product planning, mechanical engineering, control systems, and software development. The "twisting stretch" motion was finally materialized in a prototype, after a year of iterative experimentation by the engineers and team members working closely together, combining their explicit knowledge. For example, the engineers added ribs to the inside of the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it is being churned. Another team member suggested a method (later patented) to add yeast at a later stage in the process, thereby preventing the yeast from over-fermenting in high temperatures.
See also
References
Further reading
Angioni, Giulio. 2004. "Doing, Thinking, Saying." Pp. 249–61 in Nature Knowledge, edited by Sanga & Ortalli. New York: Berghahm Books.
Bao, Y., and S. Zhao. 2004. "MICRO Contracting for Tacit Knowledge: A study of contractual arrangements in international technology transfer." Problems and Perspectives in Management (2):279–303.
Brohm, R. 1999. "Bringing Polanyi onto the theatre stage: a study on Polanyi applied to Knowledge Management." Pp. 57–69 in Proceedings of the ISMICK Conference. The Netherlands: Erasmus University Rotterdam.
—— 2005. "Polycentric Order in Organizations" (dissertation). Erasmus Research Institute of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam. ; ISBN 9789058920959.
Castillo, Jose. 2002. "A Note on the Concept of Tacit Knowledge." Journal of Management Inquiry 11(1):46–57. ; .
Collins, Harry M. 2001. "Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire." Social Studies of Science 31(1):71–85. . .
—— 2010. Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226113807.
Gladwell, Malcolm 2005. Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking. New York: Little, Brown and Compant.
Gourlay, Stephen. 2007. Rethinking knowledge management. Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-71010-3.
Hodgkin, R. 1991 September 27. "Michael Polanyi – Prophet of life, the universe and everything." Times Higher Educational Supplement. p. 15.
Nonaka, Ikujiro. 1990. Management of Knowledge Creation. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun-sha.
Nonaka, Ikujiro, and Hirotaka Takeuchi. 1995. The Knowledge-creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. . .
Polanyi, Michael. 1958. Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post Critical Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
—— 1966. The Tacit Dimension. Doubleday & Co.
"Tacit Knowing," chapter 1 in The Tacit Dimension (1983 reprint). Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith.
—— 1997. Science, Economics and Philosophy: Selected Papers of Michael Polanyi, edited with an introduction by R.T. Allen. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Reber, Arthur S. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: an essay on the cognitive unconscious. Oxford University Press.
Sanders, A. F. 1988. Michael Polanyi's Post-critical Epistemology: A Reconstruction of Some Aspects of 'Tacit Knowing'''. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Smith, Mark K. [2003] 2014. "Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge." The Encyclopedia of Pedagogy and Informal Education.
Tsoukas, H. 2003. "Do we really understand tacit knowledge?" Pp. 411–27 in The Blackwell handbook of organizational learning and knowledge management, edited by Easterby-Smith and Lyles. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, Timothy D. 2002. Strangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. .
Knowledge management
Cognitive psychology
Psychology of learning | [
0.11958807706832886,
0.17220108211040497,
-0.12406826764345169,
0.42555856704711914,
-0.05839868634939194,
0.0696704164147377,
0.4342404305934906,
0.21475079655647278,
0.49744272232055664,
-0.5489403605461121,
-0.48062729835510254,
0.7779104709625244,
0.2925122082233429,
-0.40489518642425537,
-0.21509768068790436,
0.45531558990478516,
0.4412877857685089,
0.266341894865036,
0.043321412056684494,
-0.049211472272872925,
-0.395928293466568,
0.3374768793582916,
-0.37943804264068604,
-0.43599969148635864,
0.5566293597221375,
0.21439297497272491,
0.0069173788651824,
-0.1140003353357315,
-0.47480538487434387,
-0.4320738911628723,
0.14625965058803558,
0.047917935997247696,
-0.47486838698387146,
-0.45441508293151855,
-0.41168367862701416,
0.11493434011936188,
0.09091608226299286,
0.08447694033384323,
-0.22023363411426544,
-0.6190714836120605,
0.32505401968955994,
0.26830220222473145,
0.052040066570043564,
0.14147593080997467,
-0.8035736680030823,
-0.5511646270751953,
-1.2552016973495483,
0.34555405378341675,
-0.4231455624103546,
-0.15024790167808533,
-0.684508204460144,
0.42064717411994934,
0.2852795422077179,
0.36917686462402344,
-0.21283262968063354,
0.546500027179718,
-0.2641802728176117,
-0.6156275868415833,
0.23161284625530243,
-0.5836918354034424,
0.14168238639831543,
0.2967042028903961,
0.3783462941646576,
0.03804399073123932,
0.2158229798078537,
-0.23157142102718353,
-0.2109391689300537,
-0.21440544724464417,
-0.17193372547626495,
-0.36683759093284607,
-0.5763907432556152,
0.04816359654068947,
-0.5883908867835999,
0.2526559829711914,
-0.9450310468673706,
-0.1510588377714157,
0.09682589024305344,
0.07305306196212769,
-0.40911853313446045,
-0.08488669246435165,
-0.5409989356994629,
0.8551080226898193,
0.27925625443458557,
-0.8639536499977112,
0.8214426040649414,
0.010155191645026207,
0.20742079615592957,
0.5990478992462158,
-0.24918802082538605,
0.12854190170764923,
0.38415539264678955,
-0.33595314621925354,
0.1545267254114151,
-0.09368634968996048,
0.1694006472826004,
-0.14015932381153107,
0.38694092631340027,
-0.06187738478183746,
-0.0903921127319336,
0.22032377123832703,
0.09975836426019669,
-0.12163111567497253,
0.5013788342475891,
-0.33590349555015564,
-0.4122369587421417,
-0.13407188653945923,
-0.14812439680099487,
-0.7991682887077332,
0.2822378873825073,
0.45296311378479004,
-0.29812997579574585,
0.18910469114780426,
-0.23001670837402344,
-0.03851877152919769,
-0.4413915276527405,
-0.07497941702604294,
0.1969137340784073,
0.40835386514663696,
-0.5822455883026123,
0.17040693759918213,
-0.16434292495250702,
0.45913201570510864,
0.3203740417957306,
-0.3555442988872528,
0.20071670413017273,
0.009838205762207508,
0.2589515447616577,
0.6840521693229675,
-0.5971047282218933,
-0.2414507120847702,
0.07831863313913345,
0.38415446877479553,
0.14514118432998657,
0.2080361396074295,
-0.7021732926368713,
0.11932393163442612,
0.6129782795906067,
0.32403260469436646,
0.0898454412817955,
0.19554367661476135,
-0.43886643648147583,
-0.6668881773948669,
-0.22005011141300201,
-0.32470548152923584,
0.440248042345047,
-0.2433420866727829,
0.3754144012928009,
-0.4166256785392761,
0.018814487382769585,
0.29264360666275024,
-0.04591265693306923,
-0.17797057330608368,
0.007658650632947683,
-0.20305420458316803,
-0.10740599036216736,
0.4470542371273041,
0.1492246836423874,
0.1624152809381485,
-0.32836899161338806,
-0.15843121707439423,
0.04186873883008957,
0.06407368928194046,
-0.47554969787597656,
-0.1534084528684616,
-0.003648936515673995,
-0.3854660391807556,
-0.08227202296257019,
0.6684693098068237,
0.5427586436271667,
0.17921635508537292,
-0.03370896726846695,
-0.15452007949352264,
0.15367813408374786,
-0.39341241121292114,
-0.08439210057258606,
0.2137318104505539,
-0.24493321776390076,
0.3165440857410431,
0.9154983162879944,
-0.40022772550582886,
-0.5791889429092407,
0.3194488286972046,
0.21841096878051758,
-0.27521803975105286,
-0.24715271592140198,
-0.4218575358390808,
0.12164601683616638,
-0.3601289987564087,
-0.3313402831554413,
0.05905725061893463,
-0.8286513090133667,
-0.35467010736465454,
0.07258004695177078,
-0.6260194182395935,
1.2065504789352417,
-0.29133591055870056,
-0.3419536352157593,
1.4842561483383179,
-0.06461451202630997,
0.16969770193099976,
0.35350897908210754,
-0.2866080105304718,
-0.06846362352371216,
-0.15171636641025543,
-0.1903027594089508,
0.29232367873191833,
0.29435938596725464,
0.24544496834278107,
0.08053981512784958,
0.02217729575932026,
-0.08051963895559311,
0.14872810244560242,
0.1637268215417862,
0.03649814799427986,
-0.23048530519008636,
0.18221604824066162,
-0.5886644721031189,
0.7684100866317749,
0.2858082056045532,
-0.38392433524131775,
0.8834734559059143,
-0.0749979242682457,
-0.06672100722789764,
0.1409042328596115,
-0.6942445039749146,
0.41896820068359375,
-0.09895004332065582,
0.6178522706031799,
0.7313697934150696,
-0.5989871025085449,
0.06388790905475616,
-0.20851868391036987,
0.361447811126709,
-0.16701820492744446,
-0.2623705267906189,
0.0896177664399147,
0.029329579323530197,
-0.23689647018909454,
0.24365220963954926,
-0.43733492493629456,
-0.15183833241462708,
-0.02393132820725441,
-0.15950043499469757,
0.3034396171569824,
0.4631960988044739,
0.25797346234321594,
-0.3187836706638336,
0.5472989082336426,
-0.09233839064836502,
0.6220362186431885,
-0.0760495513677597,
0.2826712131500244,
0.27360624074935913,
-0.1023307591676712,
-0.21829988062381744,
-0.2687765955924988,
-0.6389631628990173,
-0.03370192274451256,
0.4715786874294281,
0.18774664402008057,
-0.4264075756072998,
0.17400741577148438,
0.1050008162856102,
0.11084432154893875,
-0.015549598261713982,
-0.5709816217422485,
-0.25067490339279175,
-0.3156265318393707,
-0.08216015994548798,
0.3780590891838074,
0.45739099383354187,
-0.36704081296920776,
-0.290805459022522,
0.4635312855243683,
-0.23069265484809875,
-0.14018772542476654,
0.5512481927871704,
-0.2107291966676712,
-0.2245752364397049,
-0.44152936339378357,
-0.09978405386209488,
-0.062247663736343384,
0.19761519134044647,
-0.7044089436531067,
-0.0247491467744112,
-0.6956571936607361,
-0.007984180003404617,
-0.30163347721099854,
-0.3092857599258423,
-0.0688052847981453,
-0.3646056354045868,
0.2732268273830414,
0.03321850299835205,
0.05607006326317787,
0.7972803711891174,
0.633130669593811,
0.01984163001179695,
0.1354137510061264,
0.35126882791519165,
-0.03303919732570648,
-0.16056136786937714,
0.021404361352324486,
-0.18729789555072784,
0.07200846076011658,
0.012997845187783241,
-0.13642637431621552,
-0.11944355070590973,
0.10308273881673813,
-5.913747787475586,
0.3693837821483612,
-0.2450588047504425,
-0.2755545377731323,
0.4033156931400299,
0.17628169059753418,
0.8472991585731506,
0.003892551874741912,
-0.38814738392829895,
0.1517067849636078,
-0.11370746791362762,
0.12834323942661285,
0.2519952058792114,
0.756965696811676,
0.5876249074935913,
0.4147096872329712,
0.26427161693573,
-0.039221230894327164,
-0.08016588538885117,
0.6889864802360535,
-0.35744982957839966,
0.16886530816555023,
-0.20844610035419464,
0.834549069404602,
-0.00977108534425497,
-0.22124874591827393,
-0.4320477843284607,
0.25820761919021606,
0.024872582405805588,
0.45638740062713623,
0.4088970720767975,
-0.06260097026824951,
-0.2147611379623413,
-0.1642252802848816,
0.1914088875055313,
0.4287688136100769,
0.6584681272506714,
0.3880769908428192,
-0.053672436624765396,
-0.28648295998573303,
-0.5359046459197998,
0.6382800340652466,
0.5761227607727051,
-0.26607269048690796,
0.136056587100029,
0.2166508585214615,
-0.41830331087112427,
-0.2098110318183899,
-0.1502002328634262,
0.3580496609210968,
-0.8799734711647034,
0.27173370122909546,
0.44330498576164246,
-0.5384126305580139,
0.017321649938821793,
-0.06494150310754776,
0.7693261504173279,
-0.08262258023023605,
-0.5557363033294678,
-0.18529006838798523,
0.4230159819126129,
-0.7041829228401184,
-0.30419597029685974,
-0.8416595458984375,
-0.05947580933570862,
0.2432258278131485,
-0.5165798664093018,
-0.7353067994117737,
0.3233742117881775,
0.30563896894454956,
-0.5047951936721802,
0.16198576986789703,
0.23561036586761475,
-0.5579075217247009,
0.17179344594478607,
-0.8089495897293091,
-0.15099427103996277,
0.04725264757871628,
0.22574423253536224,
0.2505474388599396,
-0.19954289495944977,
-0.3313992917537689,
-0.30830520391464233,
0.2169126272201538,
0.6171090006828308,
0.33806076645851135,
0.3999057114124298,
-0.2774554491043091,
-0.27944326400756836,
-0.15378078818321228,
0.9715531468391418,
0.07037800550460815,
0.1305312216281891,
0.051870688796043396,
0.0015225630486384034,
0.6257616877555847,
0.18891629576683044,
0.1735631674528122,
0.47372812032699585,
-0.13791388273239136,
0.5861055254936218,
-0.4397856891155243,
0.08384353667497635,
-0.09886484593153,
-0.15583200752735138,
-0.07995367795228958,
-0.8144007325172424,
0.41703155636787415,
1.2159453630447388,
-0.3414473235607147,
-0.18274721503257751,
0.6615374684333801,
-0.5533974170684814,
0.2643524408340454,
-0.2279449850320816,
0.45502686500549316,
-0.5520994067192078,
0.3132869601249695,
0.37644654512405396,
-0.10155869275331497,
0.36147835850715637,
0.13092011213302612,
0.38755226135253906,
-0.43479812145233154,
-0.9411426186561584,
-0.45022857189178467,
-0.13326942920684814,
0.16591201722621918,
-0.1509723961353302,
-0.0316852442920208,
0.6361264586448669,
0.02633000537753105,
0.19599008560180664,
0.22341832518577576,
-0.18630340695381165,
-0.48223885893821716,
0.612148106098175,
0.14670595526695251,
-0.20539472997188568,
-0.8451572060585022,
-0.04565561190247536,
-0.3280823230743408,
0.13111989200115204,
0.18383538722991943,
0.5696627497673035,
-0.46916693449020386,
-0.47806885838508606,
-0.11430636793375015,
-0.74251389503479,
0.5210238695144653,
0.3686361610889435,
-0.2021268755197525,
0.009013173170387745,
-0.13122402131557465,
0.4047447741031647,
-0.0033819787204265594,
-0.11228235065937042,
-0.12019917368888855,
0.1937631368637085,
-0.37724995613098145,
-0.03129309415817261,
-0.08270017802715302,
-0.7664347887039185,
-0.029272455722093582,
-0.017510052770376205,
-0.3136613965034485,
-0.9141016006469727,
-0.4701666831970215,
-0.20419298112392426,
0.29665103554725647,
0.24528168141841888,
-0.49726366996765137,
-0.005218357779085636,
-0.4798162281513214,
-0.0037482392508536577,
0.32503390312194824,
0.11550146341323853,
0.24636153876781464,
0.09817910939455032,
-0.06694744527339935,
0.17834022641181946,
-0.5172350406646729,
-0.18548274040222168,
-0.31849128007888794,
0.24471141397953033,
-0.24153867363929749,
0.3976981043815613,
0.25229349732398987,
-0.29558131098747253,
-0.3623386025428772,
0.295138955116272,
0.12157239019870758,
0.448447048664093,
-0.01163189671933651,
0.09582027792930603,
0.023754475638270378,
0.7534115314483643,
0.10755269974470139,
-0.12928588688373566,
0.09100387990474701,
0.17532965540885925,
0.46258431673049927,
-0.819378674030304,
0.14520685374736786,
-0.07384658604860306,
-0.680019199848175,
0.3653465509414673,
-0.09841649979352951,
-0.6601200103759766,
0.19041836261749268,
-0.7470099329948425,
-0.49193257093429565,
-0.5031570196151733,
0.0311999823898077,
-0.08725011348724365,
-0.05615919455885887,
-0.03305967152118683,
-0.3775957226753235,
-0.20055058598518372,
0.15306298434734344,
0.49238988757133484,
0.1464320570230484,
-0.23711004853248596,
0.057052236050367355,
0.28171196579933167,
-0.21003559231758118,
0.22850410640239716,
-0.26914161443710327,
0.32381922006607056,
-0.045515529811382294,
-0.04497256502509117,
-0.16095179319381714,
0.5303633213043213,
-0.11844789236783981,
-0.10810968279838562,
0.07771303504705429,
-0.4385332465171814,
0.29746678471565247,
0.03933395445346832,
-0.42705169320106506,
0.48724672198295593,
0.9549617171287537,
-0.09786523878574371,
-0.32320037484169006,
-0.09135464578866959,
0.40187007188796997,
-0.17668159306049347,
-0.3517284095287323,
-0.821146547794342,
-0.18770015239715576,
0.7077406048774719,
-0.28379717469215393,
-0.49642935395240784,
0.13006451725959778,
0.7011134624481201,
-0.11700206995010376,
-0.18546387553215027,
-0.4315652847290039,
-0.03379920870065689,
0.14178968966007233,
0.577873945236206,
-0.8543405532836914,
-0.408536434173584,
-0.21628600358963013,
0.40737903118133545,
-0.20871563255786896,
0.07533089071512222,
0.09950162470340729,
0.16645383834838867,
-0.5514417886734009,
0.31675899028778076,
-0.5110307335853577,
0.4297240972518921,
0.2732757329940796,
0.1782495677471161,
-0.4864470958709717,
0.17203201353549957,
-0.025887276977300644,
-0.12626032531261444,
-0.4288502037525177,
0.09748751670122147,
-0.1410103589296341,
0.24974089860916138,
-0.3729292154312134,
-0.22153590619564056,
-0.2226673811674118,
0.22309333086013794,
-0.21721208095550537,
-0.7216329574584961,
-0.38785889744758606,
-1.0325243473052979,
0.02687210775911808,
-0.33978062868118286,
0.8034766316413879,
-0.2478146106004715,
0.3396846652030945,
-0.1625540405511856,
0.19551388919353485,
0.024011297151446342,
0.1705905944108963,
-0.04599205031991005,
0.3935924172401428,
0.46209657192230225,
-0.6474031805992126,
0.7898679971694946,
0.3018776774406433,
-0.046328142285346985,
-0.19567497074604034,
0.23392927646636963,
-0.3521094024181366,
0.042778510600328445,
0.3187099099159241,
0.6453739404678345,
0.34545382857322693,
0.0022607261780649424,
-0.47317710518836975,
0.4800761342048645,
-0.28020551800727844,
0.5564383864402771,
0.47942498326301575,
0.15514986217021942,
-0.6681817770004272,
0.6323299407958984,
-0.048853207379579544,
0.42351606488227844,
0.48193398118019104,
0.019631607457995415,
-0.02076851576566696,
0.08246228098869324,
-0.09742671251296997,
0.7050977349281311,
0.053213950246572495,
0.12853822112083435,
0.08405523747205734,
-0.2597843110561371,
-0.27319225668907166,
0.6633554100990295,
-0.21987265348434448,
-0.34543099999427795,
0.9627240896224976,
0.4728899598121643,
0.10340266674757004,
0.2689991891384125,
-0.13801561295986176,
-0.6440237760543823,
0.2635536789894104,
0.43729570508003235,
0.7136220932006836,
-0.454510360956192,
0.14172835648059845,
0.3762252926826477,
0.002082296647131443,
0.5523658394813538,
-0.3674917221069336,
-0.0642537996172905,
-0.49160706996917725,
0.5065909624099731,
0.10646266490221024,
-0.8547694087028503,
-0.008914043195545673,
0.0072117396630346775,
0.5497604608535767,
0.6647007465362549,
-0.5126001834869385,
0.1111375167965889,
-0.34716367721557617,
0.35560065507888794,
-0.4812045991420746,
0.3461691439151764,
0.421021044254303,
0.02847370132803917,
0.7022262215614319,
-0.5186557173728943,
0.4362194240093231,
0.312286376953125,
-0.4902469515800476,
0.6461017727851868,
0.41892731189727783,
0.05496761202812195,
-0.067069873213768,
0.05881781876087189,
-0.29613474011421204,
-0.1967255026102066,
-0.6021261215209961,
0.2111421525478363,
0.017084956169128418,
-0.06608816981315613,
0.24772115051746368,
-0.5456429123878479,
0.386834979057312,
0.051347605884075165,
-0.47761988639831543,
-0.08216778934001923,
0.07648801058530807,
-0.15398359298706055,
0.157715305685997,
-0.11394929140806198,
0.722640335559845,
0.10303518176078796,
-0.517062246799469,
-0.42587050795555115,
0.2508466839790344,
0.03388030454516411,
-0.050905629992485046,
-0.14911629259586334,
0.0970647782087326,
-0.7932286858558655,
0.06805047392845154,
-0.5976247787475586,
-0.31446146965026855,
0.5676213502883911,
-0.42512694001197815,
-0.3679908812046051,
-0.07996639609336853,
0.009495371021330357,
-0.10898669064044952,
0.21305707097053528,
0.10929910838603973,
0.38898852467536926,
0.15233571827411652,
0.19905419647693634,
0.19216136634349823,
0.3846171498298645,
0.3397500216960907,
-0.18373768031597137,
0.3012979328632355,
0.3768818974494934,
0.3241898715496063,
-0.609859049320221,
-0.04599521681666374,
-0.19506074488162994,
-0.24476252496242523,
-0.07948780059814453,
0.4065377712249756,
-0.17614372074604034,
-0.2430393546819687,
-0.15770256519317627,
0.26646488904953003,
0.44697898626327515,
-0.3837116062641144,
0.10522729158401489,
-0.3480927646160126,
0.16807921230793,
0.011671881191432476,
-0.4742598533630371,
0.16007563471794128,
-0.189342200756073,
-0.47508296370506287,
-0.7819615006446838,
0.4388788640499115,
0.3585342466831207,
-0.33208605647087097,
0.03062593564391136,
-0.5398332476615906,
-0.36633139848709106,
0.3143700659275055,
0.2657877802848816,
-0.5358552932739258,
-0.42106133699417114,
0.5798448324203491
] |
233624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational%20Unified%20Process | Rational Unified Process | The Rational Unified Process (RUP) is an iterative software development process framework created by the Rational Software Corporation, a division of IBM since 2003. RUP is not a single concrete prescriptive process, but rather an adaptable process framework, intended to be tailored by the development organizations and software project teams that will select the elements of the process that are appropriate for their needs. RUP is a specific implementation of the Unified Process.
History
Rational Software originally developed the rational unified process as a software process product. The product includes a hyperlinked knowledge-base with sample artifacts and detailed descriptions for many different types of activities. RUP is included in the IBM Rational Method Composer (RMC) product which allows customization of the process.
Philippe Kruchten, an experienced Rational technical representative was tasked with heading up the original RUP team.
These initial versions combined the Rational Software organisation's extensive field experience building object-oriented systems (referred to by Rational field staff as the Rational Approach) with Objectory's guidance on practices such as use cases, and incorporated extensive content from Jim Rumbaugh's Object Modeling Technology (OMT) approach to modeling, Grady Booch's Booch method, and the newly released UML 0.8.
To help make this growing knowledge base more accessible, Philippe Kruchten was tasked with the assembly of an explicit process framework for modern software engineering. This effort employed the HTML-based process delivery mechanism developed by Objectory. The resulting "Rational Unified Process" (RUP) completed a strategic tripod for Rational:
a tailorable process that guided development
tools that automated the application of that process
services that accelerated adoption of both the process and the tools.
This guidance was augmented in subsequent versions with knowledge based on the experience of companies that Rational had acquired.
In 1997, a requirements and test discipline were added to the approach, much of the additional material sourced from the Requirements College method developed by Dean Leffingwell et al. at Requisite, Inc., and the SQA Process method developed at SQA Inc., both companies having been acquired by Rational Software.
In 1998 Rational Software added two new disciplines:
business modeling, much of this content had already been in the Objectory Process
a Configuration and Change Management discipline, sourced through the acquisition of Pure Atria Corporation.
These additions lead to an overarching set of principles that were defined by Rational and articulated within RUP as the six best practices for modern software engineering:
Develop iteratively, with risk as the primary iteration driver
Manage requirements
Employ a component-based architecture
Model software visually
Continuously verify quality
Control changes
These best practices were tightly aligned with Rational's product line, and both drove the ongoing development of Rational's products, as well as being used by Rational's field teams to help customers improve the quality and predictability of their software development efforts.
Additional techniques including performance testing, UI Design, data engineering were included, and an update to reflect changes in UML 1.1.
In 1999, a project management discipline was introduced, as well as techniques to support real-time software development and updates to reflect UML 1.3. Besides, the first book to describe the process, The Unified Software Development Process (), was published in the same year.
Between 2000 and 2003, a number of changes introduced guidance from ongoing Rational field experience with iterative development, in addition to tool support for enacting RUP instances and for customization of the RUP framework. These changes included:
the introduction of concepts and techniques from approaches such as eXtreme Programming (XP), that would later come to be known collectively as agile methods. This included techniques such as pair programming, test-first design, and papers that explained how RUP enabled XP to scale for use on larger projects.
a complete overhaul of the testing discipline to better reflect how testing work was conducted in different iterative development contexts.
the introduction of supporting guidance - known as "tool mentors" - for enacting the RUP practices in various tools. These essentially provided step-by-step method support to Rational tool users.
automating the customization of RUP in a way that would allow customers to select parts from the RUP process framework, customize their selection with their own additions, and still incorporate improvements in subsequent releases from Rational.
IBM acquired Rational Software in February 2003.
In 2006, IBM created a subset of RUP tailored for the delivery of Agile projects - released as an OpenSource method called OpenUP through the Eclipse web-site.
Rational unified process topics
RUP building blocks
RUP is based on a set of building blocks and content elements, describing what is to be produced, the necessary skills required and the step-by-step explanation describing how specific development goals are to be achieved. The main building blocks, or content elements, are the following:
Roles (who) – A role defines a set of related skills, competencies and responsibilities.
Work products (what) – A work product represents something resulting from a task, including all the documents and models produced while working through the process.
Tasks (how) – A task describes a unit of work assigned to a Role that provides a meaningful result.
Within each iteration, the tasks are categorized into nine disciplines:
Six "engineering disciplines"
Business modelling
Requirements
Analysis and design
Implementation
Test
Deployment
Three supporting disciplines
Configuration and change management
Project management
Environment
Four project life-cycle phases
The RUP has determined a project life-cycle consisting of four phases. These phases allow the process to be presented at a high level in a similar way to how a 'waterfall'-styled project might be presented, although in essence the key to the process lies in the iterations of development that lie within all of the phases. Also, each phase has one key objective and milestone at the end that denotes the objective being accomplished. The visualization of RUP phases and disciplines over time is referred to as the RUP hump chart.
Inception phase
The primary objective is to scope the system adequately as a basis for validating initial costing and budgets.
In this phase the business case which includes business context, success factors (expected revenue, market recognition, etc.), and financial forecast is established. To complement the business case, a basic use case model, project plan, initial risk assessment and project description (the core project requirements, constraints and key features) are generated.
After these are completed, the project is checked against the following criteria:
Stakeholder concurrence on scope definition and cost/schedule estimates.
Requirements understanding as evidenced by the fidelity of the primary use cases.
Credibility of the cost/schedule estimates, priorities, risks, and development process.
Depth and breadth of any architectural prototype that was developed.
Establishing a baseline by which to compare actual expenditures versus planned expenditures.
If the project does not pass this milestone, called the life cycle objective milestone, it either can be cancelled or repeated after being redesigned to better meet the criteria.
Elaboration phase
The primary objective is to mitigate the key risk items identified by analysis up to the end of this phase.
The elaboration phase is where the project starts to take shape. In this phase the problem domain analysis is made and the architecture of the project gets its basic form.
The outcome of the elaboration phase is:
A use-case model in which the use-cases and the actors have been identified and most of the use-case descriptions are developed. The use-case model should be 80% complete.
A description of the software architecture in a software system development process.
An executable architecture that realizes architecturally significant use cases.
Business case and risk list which are revised.
A development plan for the overall project.
Prototypes that demonstrably mitigate each identified technical risk.
A preliminary user manual (optional)
This phase must pass the lifecycle architecture milestone criteria answering the following questions:
Is the vision of the product stable?
Is the architecture stable?
Does the executable demonstration indicate that major risk elements are addressed and resolved?
Is the construction phase plan sufficiently detailed and accurate?
Do all stakeholders agree that the current vision can be achieved using current plan in the context of the current architecture?
Is the actual vs. planned resource expenditure acceptable?
If the project cannot pass this milestone, there is still time for it to be canceled or redesigned. However, after leaving this phase, the project transitions into a high-risk operation where changes are much more difficult and detrimental when made.
The key domain analysis for the elaboration is the system architecture.
Construction phase
The primary objective is to build the software system.
In this phase, the main focus is on the development of components and other features of the system. This is the phase when the bulk of the coding takes place. In larger projects, several construction iterations may be developed in an effort to divide the use cases into manageable segments to produce demonstrable prototypes.
Transition phase
The primary objective is to 'transit' the system from development into production, making it available to and understood by the end user.
The activities of this phase include training the end users and maintainers and beta testing the system to validate it against the end users' expectations. The system also goes through an evaluation phase, any developer which is not producing the required work is replaced or removed. The product is also checked against the quality level set in the Inception phase.
If all objectives are met, the product release milestone is reached and the development cycle is finished.
The IBM Rational Method Composer product
The IBM Rational Method Composer product is a tool for authoring, configuring, viewing, and publishing processes. See IBM Rational Method Composer and an open source version Eclipse Process Framework (EPF) project for more details.
Certification
In January 2007 the new RUP certification examination for IBM Certified Solution Designer - Rational Unified Process 7.0 was released which replaces the previous version of the course called IBM Rational Certified Specialist - Rational Unified Process. The new examination will not only test knowledge related to the RUP content but also to the process structure elements.
To pass the new RUP certification examination, a person must take IBM's Test 839: Rational Unified Process v7.0. You are given 75 minutes to take the 52 question exam. The passing score is 62%.
Six best practices
Six best software engineering practices are defined for software projects to minimize faults and increase productivity. These are:
Develop iterativelyIt is best to know all requirements in advance; however, often this is not the case. Several software development processes exist that deal with providing solutions to minimize cost in terms of development phases.
Manage requirements Always keep in mind the requirements set by users.
Use components Breaking down an advanced project is not only suggested but in fact unavoidable. This promotes ability to test individual components before they are integrated into a larger system. Also, code reuse is a big plus and can be accomplished more easily through the use of object-oriented programming.
Model visually Use diagrams to represent all major components, users, and their interaction. "UML", short for Unified Modeling Language, is one tool that can be used to make this task more feasible.
Verify quality Always make testing a major part of the project at any point of time. Testing becomes heavier as the project progresses but should be a constant factor in any software product creation.
Control changes Many projects are created by many teams, sometimes in various locations, different platforms may be used, etc. As a result, it is essential to make sure that changes made to a system are synchronized and verified constantly. (See Continuous integration).
See also
Macroscope (methodology suite)
Agile Modeling (AM)
Agile Unified Process (AUP)
Disciplined agile delivery (DAD)
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
Computer programming
Feature-driven development (FDD)
Project life cycle
Quality assurance
Scaled Agile Framework — a descendant of RUP that incorporates Agile software development methods such as Extreme programming (XP)
Software architecture
Software component
Software development process
Software engineering
Software testing
Test-driven development (TDD)
References
Further reading
Ivar Jacobson, Grady Booch, and James Rumbaugh (1999). The Unified Software Development Process
Gary Pollice, Liz Augustine, Chris Lowe, and Jas Madhur (2003). Software Development for Small Teams: A RUP-Centric Approach
Per Kroll, Philippe Kruchten (2003). Rational Unified Process Made Easy, The: A Practitioner's Guide to the RUP
Per Kroll, Bruce Mac Isaac (2006). Agility and Discipline Made Easy: Practices from OpenUP and RUP
Philippe Kruchten (1998). The Rational Unified Process: An Introduction
Ahmad Shuja, Jochen Krebs (2007). RUP Reference and Certification Guide
Walker Royce, Software Project Management, A Unified Framework
External links
IBM Rational Unified Process Web Site
Formal methods
Unified Process
Software project management | [
-0.1667926162481308,
-0.23086751997470856,
0.29802417755126953,
0.19291511178016663,
-0.07170138508081436,
0.716774582862854,
-0.3419528603553772,
-0.055412352085113525,
-0.11337533593177795,
-0.05905568227171898,
-0.17070278525352478,
0.6411570906639099,
-0.2267058789730072,
0.19494953751564026,
0.02206619456410408,
0.15156732499599457,
-0.05336150527000427,
-0.02091888152062893,
0.18688617646694183,
-0.1171450987458229,
-0.25526535511016846,
-0.2129206657409668,
0.06378667801618576,
0.13458767533302307,
-0.23917466402053833,
0.3151293396949768,
0.37511831521987915,
0.17575453221797943,
-0.2939400374889374,
0.15406513214111328,
0.06362679600715637,
0.19188252091407776,
-0.17099590599536896,
-0.4371557831764221,
-0.1389836221933365,
0.1797657012939453,
-0.49261474609375,
0.22191758453845978,
-0.33397024869918823,
-0.6802674531936646,
0.38320595026016235,
-0.17501525580883026,
-0.17164261639118195,
0.07858673483133316,
-0.04317056015133858,
0.011669643223285675,
-1.377069354057312,
-0.2072817087173462,
-0.6926911473274231,
-0.28938475251197815,
-0.8009915351867676,
0.5314080715179443,
-0.053672660142183304,
0.31749776005744934,
-0.27010905742645264,
0.42210933566093445,
-0.14612621068954468,
-0.25280213356018066,
-0.04707661271095276,
-0.2855508625507355,
0.025457561016082764,
0.005987595766782761,
0.053297050297260284,
0.26389065384864807,
0.02005695179104805,
-0.03245820477604866,
-0.1476987600326538,
0.016347583383321762,
-0.6577571630477905,
-0.1478584259748459,
-0.16608303785324097,
-0.3929542005062103,
-0.07353676110506058,
0.41577571630477905,
-0.8182907700538635,
-0.3829667866230011,
0.28741273283958435,
-0.07212749868631363,
-0.4356899559497833,
0.7139473557472229,
-0.19164510071277618,
0.3054801821708679,
0.6631991863250732,
-0.259583443403244,
0.6291239261627197,
-0.15228307247161865,
0.07683762907981873,
0.3424566388130188,
-0.2491925060749054,
0.10539910197257996,
-0.2865954041481018,
-0.036615170538425446,
0.40153968334198,
0.046821724623441696,
0.07881945371627808,
0.26020658016204834,
-0.03323960676789284,
0.39353808760643005,
0.09296592324972153,
0.5125850439071655,
-0.10205109417438507,
0.30532747507095337,
-0.08619388192892075,
-0.310962438583374,
0.15794464945793152,
-0.8245853185653687,
-0.37715020775794983,
-1.0260051488876343,
-0.14603349566459656,
0.11703406274318695,
-0.3284030556678772,
0.3643724322319031,
0.4901121258735657,
-0.3681766092777252,
-0.3874649107456207,
0.38246622681617737,
-0.12510614097118378,
-0.04602387547492981,
0.33416301012039185,
0.26192858815193176,
0.41041213274002075,
0.9105834364891052,
-0.3514297902584076,
0.5825942754745483,
0.20915256440639496,
0.028383487835526466,
0.3623945116996765,
0.2391057163476944,
-0.8704841136932373,
0.04656829312443733,
0.3875661790370941,
0.9711050391197205,
0.1610020399093628,
0.1565711796283722,
-0.006855566520243883,
-0.3028722107410431,
0.5777071118354797,
-0.058604296296834946,
0.21074675023555756,
0.18948987126350403,
-0.6641237735748291,
-0.1910787969827652,
0.10392385721206665,
-0.544312059879303,
0.05449851602315903,
0.14955554902553558,
0.3446741998195648,
-0.5985982418060303,
-0.16826726496219635,
-0.4709540009498596,
-0.3614744246006012,
0.3748798370361328,
-0.8018386363983154,
-0.19106534123420715,
-0.03839539736509323,
0.982029914855957,
0.25112611055374146,
-0.20649375021457672,
-0.09247792512178421,
-0.1199059933423996,
-0.08557253330945969,
0.16218651831150055,
-0.43943801522254944,
-0.17462846636772156,
-0.17048050463199615,
-0.7964250445365906,
0.3826253116130829,
0.2348962277173996,
0.5473151803016663,
-0.2828766405582428,
-0.20522505044937134,
-0.3324923515319824,
0.3173134922981262,
-0.09617394208908081,
-0.07369706779718399,
-0.4177180528640747,
0.7876002788543701,
0.5073915123939514,
0.6630425453186035,
-0.14924441277980804,
-0.4496093988418579,
0.4673200845718384,
0.21769647300243378,
-0.23513437807559967,
0.31189244985580444,
0.1676623523235321,
0.7641733884811401,
-0.1798398196697235,
-0.29638463258743286,
0.3385414183139801,
-0.5465776324272156,
0.03360806778073311,
0.022228345274925232,
-0.8967403769493103,
0.9587159156799316,
-0.06324369460344315,
-0.8612458109855652,
0.8709166646003723,
-0.46223875880241394,
0.6441400051116943,
0.1537657529115677,
0.08692122250795364,
0.47075000405311584,
-0.4026394188404083,
0.3837631046772003,
-0.3698664605617523,
0.35313230752944946,
-0.04826119542121887,
-0.26148366928100586,
0.514250636100769,
-0.15988197922706604,
-0.2961582541465759,
0.3335820734500885,
-0.3874033987522125,
0.015640996396541595,
-0.46863090991973877,
-0.3156436085700989,
0.44283536076545715,
0.1283368021249771,
0.029626375064253807,
1.3714600801467896,
-0.426236629486084,
-0.22251823544502258,
0.8753079175949097,
-0.11579124629497528,
0.527840793132782,
0.8185459971427917,
0.45418524742126465,
0.7987160086631775,
-0.006796876434236765,
0.018997153267264366,
0.3305889070034027,
-0.06303266435861588,
-0.35089027881622314,
0.13574819266796112,
-0.12003085762262344,
0.1409934014081955,
-0.49865493178367615,
-0.036233749240636826,
0.23452900350093842,
0.2311045080423355,
0.2993648946285248,
-0.2846803367137909,
-0.17213228344917297,
0.34733960032463074,
-0.2779954969882965,
-0.20116055011749268,
0.22914810478687286,
0.011848507449030876,
0.2088586688041687,
-0.3105619549751282,
0.716927707195282,
0.06841428577899933,
-0.1802467405796051,
-0.4989888370037079,
0.1112181544303894,
0.1748340129852295,
-0.09922543168067932,
-0.15178027749061584,
0.46575942635536194,
-0.00532777002081275,
0.1746344268321991,
-0.4733155369758606,
-0.16123077273368835,
0.48547279834747314,
-0.6235313415527344,
-0.45924413204193115,
-0.1523485779762268,
0.17999403178691864,
0.5014175772666931,
0.30719006061553955,
-0.39180755615234375,
-0.05493966117501259,
0.16789314150810242,
-0.23099224269390106,
-0.7775238752365112,
-0.18742437660694122,
-0.1629249006509781,
-1.1946885585784912,
-0.6779485940933228,
0.27392879128456116,
0.09506316483020782,
0.17782160639762878,
-0.2019190490245819,
-0.15529166162014008,
0.09710830450057983,
-0.03592819720506668,
-0.487153023481369,
-0.16265057027339935,
-0.15193922817707062,
-0.40386122465133667,
0.12052415311336517,
-0.4003877639770508,
-0.06649826467037201,
0.2492513805627823,
0.3678491711616516,
-0.0381707139313221,
0.06340809911489487,
0.20022831857204437,
0.03603880852460861,
-0.6468462347984314,
0.21213774383068085,
-0.14208531379699707,
0.0054006800055503845,
0.6104575395584106,
-0.053769778460264206,
-0.07508062571287155,
0.19011317193508148,
-5.966278076171875,
-0.6594890356063843,
-0.6307902336120605,
-0.011392985470592976,
0.1063121110200882,
-0.011389967985451221,
0.27388080954551697,
0.06822730600833893,
-0.026132920756936073,
-0.03883965313434601,
-0.18568560481071472,
0.012472635135054588,
-0.30468279123306274,
0.41397854685783386,
0.043006181716918945,
0.3945443034172058,
0.513519823551178,
0.553844153881073,
0.27785202860832214,
0.26862406730651855,
0.026740508154034615,
-0.7571061849594116,
-0.5424320101737976,
0.2883945405483246,
0.21483437716960907,
0.2384718805551529,
-0.4213457405567169,
0.20408327877521515,
-0.5821700096130371,
-0.029637616127729416,
-0.15881453454494476,
-0.4770757853984833,
-0.24423398077487946,
0.1585659235715866,
0.08543214201927185,
-0.19413982331752777,
0.44551634788513184,
0.16274897754192352,
0.7145615816116333,
-0.22204822301864624,
0.10882207751274109,
0.13404379785060883,
-0.006471366621553898,
-0.13673947751522064,
-0.041578397154808044,
-0.4014420807361603,
-0.6232304573059082,
0.28308895230293274,
-0.47797179222106934,
0.7103825807571411,
-0.41943448781967163,
0.0641951635479927,
0.3832073211669922,
-0.1729465126991272,
-0.11758037656545639,
0.10213673859834671,
0.44007444381713867,
0.02090049907565117,
-0.3258872330188751,
0.7542755007743835,
0.5328105688095093,
-0.7855238914489746,
-0.4414355754852295,
-0.7490242123603821,
-0.8257348537445068,
-0.012045420706272125,
-0.5509563684463501,
-0.8197745680809021,
0.1347275823354721,
0.5783418416976929,
-0.242413729429245,
0.41980618238449097,
-0.03229904919862747,
-0.836519181728363,
0.5149747133255005,
-0.321603387594223,
0.2604438066482544,
-0.17176786065101624,
-0.08656863123178482,
0.33835986256599426,
-0.0013210102915763855,
-0.33257806301116943,
0.1372813880443573,
-0.18355756998062134,
-0.12732386589050293,
0.5620172619819641,
0.2590641975402832,
0.11891349405050278,
-0.19655144214630127,
0.1789356768131256,
0.5063313245773315,
-0.37903261184692383,
0.5161826014518738,
0.07800520956516266,
0.7111243009567261,
0.31137633323669434,
0.4554639756679535,
0.4096566438674927,
0.18204055726528168,
-0.6491703987121582,
0.028085611760616302,
-0.27068936824798584,
0.193938210606575,
-0.2432345747947693,
0.39853593707084656,
-0.05926230177283287,
-0.3617623746395111,
0.0006015325197950006,
0.46384233236312866,
0.5014211535453796,
0.06505073606967926,
-0.13125355541706085,
0.020206602290272713,
0.06680427491664886,
-0.1224297285079956,
0.41980937123298645,
-0.6804203391075134,
0.502029538154602,
-0.17042362689971924,
0.04647272825241089,
0.011133628897368908,
0.18752194941043854,
-0.3387335240840912,
0.05787063390016556,
0.39653918147087097,
-0.1713028848171234,
-0.2821691930294037,
0.3561049699783325,
-0.15335939824581146,
0.09967127442359924,
0.012751195579767227,
0.2516726553440094,
-0.05892364680767059,
0.18201398849487305,
0.21310800313949585,
-0.3233005702495575,
-0.3364732563495636,
0.3050551116466522,
0.43543487787246704,
-0.10168785601854324,
0.5170406699180603,
0.3640904128551483,
0.24402904510498047,
-0.6504189968109131,
0.07253523170948029,
0.11539354175329208,
-0.24992293119430542,
-0.5043231248855591,
0.06245975196361542,
-0.18249571323394775,
0.35423582792282104,
-0.6592490077018738,
0.17371626198291779,
-0.05930168554186821,
-0.2987295985221863,
-0.11646148562431335,
0.13958336412906647,
0.3624608814716339,
0.08813484013080597,
0.052888404577970505,
0.04945138096809387,
-0.212748184800148,
-0.9660608172416687,
-0.16429024934768677,
0.40008899569511414,
0.2984076738357544,
-0.34481412172317505,
-0.46779879927635193,
-0.07246391475200653,
0.5402396321296692,
-0.04001975059509277,
-0.3092041313648224,
-0.3000015616416931,
-0.9202427268028259,
0.10652285069227219,
0.05129936337471008,
0.5197275876998901,
0.001593914581462741,
-0.07881554961204529,
0.1502579152584076,
-0.09154845029115677,
-0.2733891010284424,
-0.5404947996139526,
0.4244600832462311,
-0.10545068234205246,
-0.280193954706192,
0.14503201842308044,
0.2604049742221832,
-0.2901317775249481,
-0.47191908955574036,
0.19601984322071075,
0.16532106697559357,
0.2984777092933655,
0.17924045026302338,
-0.0656246468424797,
-0.5836859345436096,
0.22594669461250305,
0.2321750968694687,
-0.4499782919883728,
-0.7998030781745911,
-0.24250392615795135,
0.6686511635780334,
-0.1641310453414917,
0.31368550658226013,
0.4412083029747009,
-0.6862214803695679,
-0.19380515813827515,
0.06277943402528763,
0.18590542674064636,
0.14072170853614807,
-0.4676392376422882,
-0.49119219183921814,
-0.36394885182380676,
-0.10710218548774719,
-0.3959847092628479,
-0.045983582735061646,
0.7224327325820923,
-0.45940521359443665,
-0.8234117031097412,
0.08791952580213547,
-0.10041201114654541,
-0.11656557768583298,
-0.42364904284477234,
0.14093084633350372,
-0.4229716956615448,
0.5073009729385376,
0.31135568022727966,
-0.6623497605323792,
-0.22696782648563385,
0.052844658493995667,
-0.2709368169307709,
-0.10836099088191986,
0.01643878035247326,
0.07308260351419449,
0.1557655930519104,
-0.3745581805706024,
-0.3258568346500397,
0.3953663110733032,
-0.2786998748779297,
-0.3240557909011841,
-0.1442834585905075,
0.8123413324356079,
0.3609512150287628,
-0.4314086139202118,
0.1111498698592186,
0.23270459473133087,
0.4915558397769928,
-0.17407625913619995,
-0.6498719453811646,
0.08282160758972168,
0.5535333156585693,
-0.36104410886764526,
-0.48123693466186523,
-0.31793177127838135,
0.8264386057853699,
0.07817613333463669,
-0.2614189684391022,
-0.5131475925445557,
-0.26178625226020813,
-0.08795898407697678,
0.1253732442855835,
-0.2938361167907715,
-0.1699618548154831,
-0.23686672747135162,
0.23178960382938385,
0.41294461488723755,
-0.055410534143447876,
-0.647834837436676,
0.3222461938858032,
-0.5213162899017334,
0.4444971978664398,
0.1854001134634018,
-0.009327404201030731,
1.0785859823226929,
0.636203944683075,
-0.060229796916246414,
0.01252162829041481,
0.20173197984695435,
0.7261481285095215,
0.07928471267223358,
-0.14447373151779175,
0.15562698245048523,
-0.02443571574985981,
-0.2992437481880188,
0.04391421005129814,
-0.29054272174835205,
0.053423721343278885,
-0.13308313488960266,
-0.21487972140312195,
0.23874151706695557,
-0.6353390216827393,
0.38234859704971313,
0.30826160311698914,
0.0647779256105423,
-0.9139116406440735,
-0.023086287081241608,
-0.02020072191953659,
0.16114304959774017,
-0.4763934314250946,
0.13298320770263672,
0.10436946898698807,
0.8426818251609802,
0.26135051250457764,
-0.5576082468032837,
0.09007112681865692,
0.5637587904930115,
-0.037609972059726715,
0.06653352826833725,
0.04986050724983215,
-0.4388287365436554,
0.3588939309120178,
-0.0694226324558258,
0.4231710135936737,
0.3152170181274414,
-0.3197879493236542,
0.15812672674655914,
0.31167900562286377,
-0.3553068935871124,
0.4504248797893524,
0.22203415632247925,
0.17800268530845642,
0.6717508435249329,
0.26795703172683716,
-0.5939420461654663,
0.08083164691925049,
0.3301858603954315,
-0.4037086069583893,
0.11984460055828094,
0.028215471655130386,
-0.2908079922199249,
0.5528436899185181,
-0.1687336266040802,
-0.1748771369457245,
-0.04918404296040535,
-0.2533319890499115,
-0.15309904515743256,
0.21892774105072021,
-0.5295001268386841,
-0.21375498175621033,
0.17980985343456268,
0.5674188137054443,
0.5656484961509705,
-0.06134849786758423,
0.22759874165058136,
-0.19536907970905304,
0.29781585931777954,
0.24923557043075562,
0.5201267004013062,
-0.2836785316467285,
0.7401593923568726,
0.16505390405654907,
-0.08136922866106033,
0.4685554802417755,
-0.30837833881378174,
-0.14632245898246765,
-0.9976372122764587,
-0.019389787688851357,
0.07774626463651657,
0.36948972940444946,
0.2610997259616852,
0.18407373130321503,
0.7915006875991821,
0.39105501770973206,
-0.30180856585502625,
-0.37759268283843994,
0.23373040556907654,
0.374766081571579,
-0.21144644916057587,
-0.23926636576652527,
0.2969162166118622,
-0.18796344101428986,
0.6000950932502747,
-0.24878060817718506,
0.7046939134597778,
-0.19561226665973663,
-0.46579718589782715,
0.31042131781578064,
0.3176068961620331,
-0.23363186419010162,
0.3413596451282501,
-0.040372084826231,
-0.2147209793329239,
0.2857944965362549,
-0.20161548256874084,
-0.23052412271499634,
-0.1489044576883316,
-0.10790210962295532,
-0.1725236028432846,
0.2733554542064667,
-0.1941600739955902,
-0.23281042277812958,
-0.24064840376377106,
-0.19434912502765656,
0.12694473564624786,
-0.11696583777666092,
0.15105387568473816,
-0.5163177251815796,
0.8344165086746216,
0.4191187918186188,
0.19149145483970642,
0.4154457449913025,
0.5214752554893494,
0.2532449960708618,
0.12034183740615845,
-0.3891056478023529,
-0.3172645568847656,
-0.4494195282459259,
0.40356963872909546,
-0.6921426057815552,
-0.1748393177986145,
0.24442538619041443,
0.12032946199178696,
-0.10601554811000824,
0.49858978390693665,
-0.40225833654403687,
0.55752032995224,
0.4859115779399872,
0.018603723496198654,
0.6751329898834229,
0.09451382607221603,
-0.5061520338058472,
-0.17283782362937927,
0.4043665826320648,
0.08754829317331314,
0.04765934497117996,
-0.12162202596664429,
0.8373773694038391,
-0.02401580475270748,
-0.4728144407272339,
0.28955137729644775,
0.30949971079826355,
-0.08574109524488449,
-0.22372376918792725,
0.46016520261764526,
-0.4950426518917084,
-0.1678745299577713,
-0.08644899725914001,
0.12264715880155563,
0.021853361278772354,
-0.6795112490653992,
-0.02111135795712471,
0.3422355651855469,
-0.42791640758514404,
0.001751377247273922,
-0.32396256923675537,
-0.154355987906456,
-0.549217700958252,
-0.4376610219478607,
-0.3335686922073364,
0.7136078476905823,
0.37613141536712646,
0.11503280699253082,
-0.061504047363996506,
-0.20440460741519928,
-0.1573754996061325,
0.2839852273464203,
0.11025763303041458,
-0.9411126375198364,
-0.021976333111524582,
-0.15093068778514862
] |
233625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom%20Zone | Phantom Zone | The Phantom Zone is a fictional prison-like parallel dimension appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with stories featuring Superman. It first appeared in Adventure Comics #283 (April 1961), and was created by Robert Bernstein and George Papp. It was frequently used in the Superman comics before the continuity was rebooted in the 1980s, after Crisis on Infinite Earths, and has appeared occasionally since.
Fictional history
Pre-Crisis
The Phantom Zone was a "pocket universe" discovered by Jor-El that existed outside the space-time continuum; it was used on the planet Krypton as a humane method of imprisoning criminals. Kryptonians had abolished the death penalty in the long distant past. In more recent history, criminals were punished by being sealed into capsules and rocketed into orbit in suspended animation with crystals attached to their foreheads to slowly erase their criminal tendencies; Klax-Ar was one criminal who received this punishment but escaped. Gra-Mo was the last to suffer the punishment, for it was then abolished in favor of the Zone.
The inmates of the Phantom Zone reside in a ghost-like state of existence from which they can observe, but cannot interact with, the regular universe. Inmates do not age or require sustenance in the Phantom Zone; furthermore, they are telepathic and mutually insubstantial. As such, they were able to survive the destruction of Krypton and focus their attention on Earth, as most of the surviving Kryptonians now reside there. Most have a particular grudge against Superman because his father created the method of their damnation, and was often the prosecutor at their trials. When they manage to escape, they usually engage in random destruction, particularly easy for them since, on Earth, each acquire the same powers as Superman. Nevertheless, Superman periodically released Phantom Zone prisoners whose original sentences had been completed, and most of these went to live in the bottle city of Kandor.
The sole inmate of the Phantom Zone who was not placed there as punishment for a crime is Mon-El, a Daxamite who fell victim to lead poisoning. Superboy was forced to cast him into the Phantom Zone to keep him alive, where he remained for nearly a thousand Earth years until the time of the Legion of Super-Heroes when Brainiac 5 created a medication that allowed him to leave safely.
Green Lantern Guy Gardner once experienced an extended and tortuous stay after an explosion of a Green Lantern Power Battery sent him there, until rescued by Superman and Green Lantern Hal Jordan, who had believed him to be dead all that time.
Phantom Girl can enter or leave the Phantom Zone as she pleases, and once did so to interrogate the prisoners about Jor-El.
Superman develops communications equipment for the Phantom Zone, like the Zone-o-Phone, and refinements to the projector. In addition, the city of Kandor uses the Phantom Zone regularly, with parole hearings sometimes chaired by Superman. However, since the departure of Kandor, that is, outside of Mon-El, most of the inhabitants were confined to lifers and generally not inclined to making conversation with their jailer. As for Superman himself, as much as he appreciates how the Zone is necessary to contain its Kryptonian inmates, who otherwise would be extremely dangerous and destructive in a yellow-sun environment, and to shelter Mon-El, he apparently privately harbors concerns about the justness of its penal use. This is illustrated in the acclaimed story "For the Man Who Has Everything" by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons, where Clark is ensnared in a fantasy illusion created by an alien parasitical plant called a Black Mercy. As his subconscious resists the illusion of a peaceful life on Krypton, among the first signs of its degeneration is the sight of his cousin, Kara Zor-El, hospitalized after being attacked by an anti-Phantom Zone militant who left literature protesting that the Phantom Zone is a method of torture.
In the Steve Gerber miniseries The Phantom Zone #1-4 (January–April 1982), it is revealed that the Zone not only has a breach through which other inmates had escaped, but that they were never heard from again. The imprisoned Superman and Quex-Ul use this method and travel through several dimensional "layers" seeking the exit into the physical universe. They finally encounter a Kryptonian wizard named Thul-Kar, who tells them that he believed Jor-El's prophecy of Krypton's doom and entered the Phantom Zone through magic. Using the same breach, he discovered the truth about the Phantom Zone: all its levels are manifestations of the consciousness of a sentient, malevolent entity called Aethyr, The Oversoul.
As explained by Thul-Kar, Aethyr itself came into being uncounted millennia ago when two spiral galaxies collided at an almost primordial stage after the physical universe's creation. Countless worlds were simultaneously destroyed and the deaths of so many beings merged somehow to form a single, evil consciousness that called itself Aethyr The Oversoul. This supremely powerful entity enclosed itself into a dimension outside the physical universe within itself, forming the Phantom Zone.
The Zone itself is an interface between the Earth-One dimension (the physical universe) and Aethyr's mind, the outer layer (where zone criminals are housed) representing its ability for abstract thought; the Zone is basically Aethyr's capacity to imagine other possibilities of existence, and is the outermost template of its consciousness. Only by entering Aethyr's core realm can a zone prisoner escape back to the physical universe, but this process is dangerous since any being who tries risks being destroyed in numerous ways as well as by forever having their souls merged with Aethyr's essence while within Aethyr's core realm. This is because as you enter deeper into Aethyr's consciousness, you no longer exist as an abstract entity and your existence becomes subject to Aethyr's whims. When attacking Superman and Quex-Ul, Aethyr personified itself as an aggressive, purple-skinned dog's head that breathed flames capable of destroying and absorbing the souls of those that it wishes to conquer. While Quex-Ul is killed by Aethyr in this fashion, Superman manages to make his way out of the Phantom Zone by avoiding those flames and flying directly through Aethyr's skull and its mind, returning to Earth through a tear in the fabric of Aethyr's mind and the physical universe, but not without encountering the horrific remains of all of the souls entrapped within Aethyr over the millennia.
Mister Mxyzptlk is later possessed by Aethyr. During the process while Mxyzptlk is imprisoned on his own home dimension, Thul-Kar communicates with Mxyzptlk and offers him an escape in exchange for the merger. This merger, however, empties the Phantom Zone of its criminal inhabitants. As the Phantom Zone villains head to Earth to conquer it, Thul-Kar and Nam-Ek are re-absorbed into Aethyr. Superman awakes and sees that the Phantom Zone villains are wreaking havoc on Earth, causing destruction to the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. and demanding Superman come out and fight them. Superman battles the Phantom Zone villains in Washington D.C. While fighting Faora Hu-Ul, he witnesses her disappearing as she is absorbed into Aethyr. Mister Mxyzpltk reveals that his strong personality has taken over Aethyr and he absorbs all the rest of the Phantom Zone inhabitants back into himself, determined to torture them endlessly and wreak havoc as he sees fit. Mxyzpltk-Aethyr leaves, intending to next take over the Fifth Dimension, and Superman is left to put out the fires in Washington and then rid Metropolis of the Kryptonite remains of Argo City.
Post-Crisis
In the Post-Crisis DC Universe, the Phantom Zone first appears after Superman returns from space with a Kryptonian artifact called the Eradicator. This device, created by his Kryptonian ancestor Kem-L, attempts to recreate Krypton on Earth, building the Fortress of Solitude; the extradimensional space in which the Eradicator finds the Kryptonian materials necessary is called the Phantom Zone. A Phantom Zone Projector is part of Superman's current Fortress. It has been used to access the Bottle City of Kandor and to trap villains such as the White Martians.
The Phantom Zone has been independently discovered by various characters where it is called the "Buffer Zone" by the Bgztlians, the "Still Zone" by the White Martians, the "Stasis Zone" by Loophole, the "Ghost Zone" by Prometheus, and the "Honeycomb" by the Queen Bee I. In Post-Crisis/Post-Zero Hour continuity, it was Loophole's "Stasis Zone" technology that exiled Mon-El, known in the new continuity as Valor/M'Onel, into the Phantom Zone for 1,000 years.
Superman fashions the Phantom Zone technology into an arrow projectile which upon striking a victim will project them into the Phantom Zone. Roy Harper, the original Speedy, steals this arrow from Superman when the original Teen Titans are invited for a visit many years ago. Roy, however, never uses the arrow and passes it on to his replacement, Mia Dearden, who uses the arrow during the events of Infinite Crisis on Superboy-Prime. He is too strong for even the Phantom Zone arrow, and manages to break out.
At one point, the White Martians imprison Batman in the Phantom Zone and take his identity as Bruce Wayne.
Batman devises a measure made after Superman recovers from his first battle with Doomsday, that, when the Justice League or any other superhero groups encounter a Doomsday Level Threat, a group of heroes, authority, and military forces will contain it within a proximity after clearing all civilians within it. If Superman and the rest fall, the Doomsday Protocol will commence by sending it to the Phantom Zone.
In Action Comics, General Zod, along with Ursa and Non, appear in search of the son of Zod and Ursa.
Supergirl #16 shows a form of life native to the Phantom Zone. These Phantoms are enraged over the use of their universe to house criminals and seek revenge on the one responsible.
During the "New Krypton" storyline, the Kryptonians in Kandor have started to take matters into their own hands and started rounding up some of Superman's enemies to throw them into the Phantom Zone. First, they attack the Science Police where they make off with the Parasite. The second target is Silver Banshee who the Kandorians chase across the skies. At Arkham Asylum, the Kryptonians knock out Nightwing and Robin where they make off with Toyman while another group knocks out Black Lightning in order to claim Toyman. Bizarro is even attacked by Thara's group while flying. While Superman, Supergirl, and Zora are disgusted at what some of the Kandorians did and demands the ones responsible to turn themselves over to the authorities, Alura would not cooperate and gives the orders to throw the villains that they rounded up into the Phantom Zone. Those who were thrown into the Phantom Zone were later freed by Superman.
In the miniseries 52 the Phantom Zone is ingested by Mister Mind while he is mutating into a giant insect form. Once full-grown, Mind regurgitates it in an attempt to destroy Booster Gold and Rip Hunter, but the attack is deflected by Supernova, who returns the Phantom Zone to its proper dimensional plane. Supernova is able to control the Zone as his supersuit's powers are based upon Phantom Zone projector technology stolen by Rip Hunter.
In Action Comics #874, the Phantom Zone vanished. Action Comics #886 offers a possible explanation as to the Phantom Zone's disappearance, the theory being that the Phantom Zone was actually the mythical Nightwing, counterpart to the Flamebird, imprisoned in an altered state of being. Having chosen a new Avatar, Chris Kent, who was freed from the Zone, he too would have been freed from his shackles, thus causing the Phantom Zone to cease to exist.
In Adventure Comics (vol. 2) #11, the Phantom Zone is recreated by Chameleon Boy and Superman.
The New 52
In The New 52, Jor-El suggests going into the Phantom Zone when Krypton was about to explode. Zod, however, appears with other Phantom Zone prisoners and attempts to escape the Phantom Zone. Krypto sacrifices himself by attacking Xa-Du, thus going into the Phantom Zone as well.
It is revealed that Doctor Xa-Du was the first Kryptonian prisoner to be sent to the Phantom Zone due to his forbidden experiments in suspended animation, with Jor-El executing the sentence. The Phantom Zone is reverted to the Pre-Crisis version.
DC Rebirth
During the Dark Days: Metal event of the DC Rebirth reboot, Superman has theorized that the Phantom Zone might be actually a permeable membrane between Earth-0 (DC Universe) and the Dark Multiverse.
Known inmates
Inmates in Pre-Crisis
Throughout the Silver Age of Comic Books, the following inhabitants of the Phantom Zone have been depicted. Based on this list, at least 34 Kryptonians were projected into the Phantom Zone on Krypton over a period of less than 256 Kryptonian days. Refer to the entry on the Kryptonian Calendar for details on the relationship between Kryptonian sun-cycles and Earth years.
Ak-Var - Ak-Var was sentenced to approximately 30 Earth years (22 Kryptonian sun-cycles) in the Phantom Zone for plotting to steal a revered relic called a Sun-Stone from a museum. After he had served his full sentence, Ak-Var was released by Superman and brought to the bottle-city of Kandor. Ak-Var became the lab assistant of Superman's cousin, Van-Zee. Sometime later, Van-Zee adopted the costumed identity of Nightwing and Ak-Var became his partner Flamebird.
Ar-Val - Ar-Val was sentenced to 50 Kryptonian sun-cycles (68.5 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone for destroying priceless knowledge and depriving Krypton of 1,000 years of scientific progress. When an alien space warship that was approaching Earth exploded, the blast opened a temporary rift in the Zone. Ar-Val escaped the Zone, captured and imprisoned Wonder Woman, then impersonated her so that she could trick Superman into marriage. Ar-Val figured that Superman would never suspect his wife of ruling the crime world. Superman uncovered her deception and returned her to the Phantom Zone.
Az-Rel - Az-Rel was a petty criminal from Bokos, the Island of Thieves. He possessed pyrotic powers. His partner, Nadira, possessed psychokinetic powers. Together they robbed helpless victims in Erkol, the oldest city of Krypton. Both were captured and sentenced to 15 Kryptonian sun-cycles (20.55 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone. The two criminals were among those freed from the Zone when Quex-Ul was manipulated into building and activating a crude Phantom Zone Projector. Later, Nadira was killed when the dying Jer-Em exposed her to green kryptonite. In her dying agony, Nadira telekinetically inflicted pain on Az-Rel, which unleashed his pyrokinesis upon himself, incinerating him.
Bal-Gra - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Bal-Gra once escaped from the Phantom Zone through a temporary space-warp. He boasted to Superman that he was the strongest man on Krypton. Lois Lane managed to expose Bal-Gra to Gold Kryptonite, which permanently robbed him of his superpowers. He was then sent back into the Zone by Lorraine Lewis, a brilliant scientist who had built her own Phantom Zone projector.
Blak-Du - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Blak-Du was Jor-El's roommate at Krypton College, and was rated as scientifically brilliant.
Cha-Mel - Cha-Mel was a clever youngster who developed a secret spray that enabled him to control his appearance. He turned to crime, but made the fatal mistake of impersonating Jor-El and attempting to rob his house. Jor-El returned home too soon and foiled Cha-Mel's attempt. The young thief was sentenced to the Phantom Zone for his crime. Years later, Cha-Mel managed to take the form of Superboy and trick the real Superboy into entering the Zone. Cha-Mel then manipulated Superboy's parents into freeing him. He tried to secure the Phantom Zone projector to free the other prisoners, but the device was destroyed in a tug-of-war with Krypto, returning him to the Phantom Zone while freeing Superboy.
General Zod – Sentenced to 40 Kryptonian sun-cycles (54.8 Earth years) for using a duplicator ray to create a private army of imperfect clones (Bizarros) to overthrow the government.
Erndine Ze-Da (Zeda) - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. One day, a South Seas volcano exploded and the concussion opened a temporary gap in the Phantom Zone, enabling both Erndine Ze-Da and Dr. Xadu to escape. They concocted a plan to trap Superboy in the Zone, but he became aware of their scheme and stranded them on the planet Exon. Years later, Erndine and Dr. Xadu, who had since married and acquired the secret of the cosmic power-grip, escaped from Exon and returned to Earth. Superman defeated them again, and placed them in separate cells on two different worlds.
Faora – A martial arts expert and hater of males, who was sentenced to 300 Kryptonian sun-cycles (411 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone for causing the deaths of 23 men in her own concentration camp. She once escaped captivity by using telepathy to manipulate an Earthman named Jackson Porter into freeing her from the Zone.
Gann Artar - In one imaginary story, a criminal named Gann Artar was sentenced to 50 Kryptonian sun-cycles (68.5 Earth years) for using his de-evolutionary ray to create large, dangerous monsters.
Gaz-Or (AKA The Mighty Gazor) - After a lifetime of scientific villainy and because he was dying of old age, the Mighty Gazor attempted to use his earthquake machine to destroy Krypton. He was stopped by Jor-El, who had arrived just in time and was sentenced to the Phantom Zone for his crime. Gazor claimed that he had received the longest sentence ever given to anyone condemned to the Phantom Zone. This contradicts the fact that Jax-Ur and Orn-Zu both received life sentences. However, after Mon-El was released from the Zone in the 30th Century, Gazor was indeed the only prisoner remaining in that ghostly dimension.
Gor-Nu - Once the greatest biochemist on Krypton, Gor-Nu's reckless experiments caused several deaths. He was sentenced to 50 Kryptonian sun-cycles (68.5 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone. When a lethal crystal-menace threatened to destroy the bottle-city of Kandor, Superman released Gor-Nu in the hope that he could figure out a way to stop it. Gor-Nu was successful, but he then tried to betray Superman. Gor-Nu's plans were foiled and he was returned to the Phantom Zone.
Gra-Mo and two assistants - The criminal Gra-Mo and his two assistants (one possibly named Ni-Van) were captured, sentenced to life for attempting to take over Krypton with Gra-Mo's robot hordes, placed in suspended animation, and imprisoned in a space capsule which was placed into orbit around Krypton. They were the last criminals to receive this type of punishment. After Krypton's destruction, the capsule drifted through space, and they eventually awakened and traveled to Earth. When Superboy learned of their criminal nature, he figured out a way to defeat them and projected them into the Phantom Zone.
The Inventor - The history and sentencing of this non-Kryptonian prisoner was not revealed.
Jackson Porter of Earth - Phantom Zone prisoner Faora used telepathy to delude Jackson Porter into believing she was the ghost of his dead wife Katie. Faora soon manipulated him into freeing her from the Phantom Zone. After she was returned to her prison, the permanently deluded Jackson chose to follow her into the Phantom Zone.
Jax-Ur – A rogue Kryptonian scientist who was sentenced to an eternity in the Phantom Zone for breaking the law forbidding anyone to experiment with an untested explosive. His rocket missed its target and destroyed Wegthor, an inhabited moon of Krypton, killing 500 colonists. He was the first prisoner projected into the Phantom Zone on Krypton. Jax-Ur also became the first prisoner to escape the Phantom Zone when a passing comet created a momentary warp through which he slipped.
Jer-Em – Jer-Em was a religious fanatic who was sentenced to 30 Kryptonian sun-cycles (41.1 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone for wiping out the superpowers of the people of Argo City (the birthplace of the future Supergirl) by guiding it back toward a red sun, leaving the residents stranded in their city in space. Jer-Em was among those freed from the Phantom Zone when Quex-Ul was manipulated into building and activating a crude Phantom Zone Projector. Later, Jer-Em purposely exposed himself to Green Kryptonite in order to enter the Kryptonian afterlife.
Kru-El - A weapons designer and cousin of Jor-El (the father of the future Superman). He was sentenced to 35 Kryptonian sun-cycles (47.95 Earth years) for developing an arsenal of super-powerful, forbidden weapons.
Kur-Dul - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Kur-Dul served his full sentence and was released by Superman and the Kandorian parole board.
Lar Gand of Daxam (Mon-El) – A superpowered youth arrived on Earth with amnesia. He was found by Superboy, who suspected the youth may be his older brother. Superboy named him Mon-El, because they met on a Monday. When Mon-El was later exposed to lead, he collapsed in pain. His memory returned, and he explained that he is from the planet Daxam, whose natives have a lethal vulnerability to lead. To save Mon-El's life, Superboy projected him into the Phantom Zone. Mon-El spent 1,000 years in the Zone before he was released and cured by the Legion of Super-Heroes.
Lar-On - Lar-On found himself inflicted with a werecreature disease for which there was no known cure. He was sent into the Phantom Zone by Jor-El until a cure could be found for the disease. Lar-On was later unwittingly freed by a scientist named Professor Jeremiah Terry when he attempted to create a portal to Earth-Two. Lar-On was captured by Superman and Batman, who returned him to the Zone.
Lester Wallace of Earth - After being mentally manipulated by the Phantom Zone prisoner Zan-Em into developing a deep hatred of aliens and causing him to betray Superboy, Lester Wallace realized he had become the very thing he despised. He projected himself into the Phantom Zone as punishment.
L. Finn - The history and sentencing of this non-Kryptonian prisoner was not revealed.
Lois Lane of Earth – Lois Lane time-traveled back to Krypton before it exploded and was accidentally trapped in the Phantom Zone by Jor-El when he was testing his new Projector device. She spent more than two and a half decades there before she was discovered and released by Superman.
Marok - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed.
Murkk - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Murkk was among a group of Phantom Zone prisoners who escaped by focusing their mental energies on a piece of Jewel Kryptonite. He was later disintegrated by the Vrangs.
Nadira Va-Dim - Nadira was a petty criminal from Bokos, the Island of Thieves. She possessed psychokinetic powers. Her partner, Az-Rel, possessed pyrotic powers. Together they robbed helpless victims in Erkol, the oldest city of Krypton. Both were captured and sentenced to 15 Kryptonian sun-cycles (20.55 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone. The two criminals were among those freed from the Zone when Quex-Ul was manipulated into building and activating a crude Phantom Zone Projector. Later, Nadira was killed when the dying Jer-Em exposed her to green kryptonite.
Nam-Ek - Rondors were hideous, foul-smelling Kryptonian beasts whose horns radiated a natural healing ray. So valuable were the animals that their slaughter was outlawed. 500 years ago, Nam-Ek, a Kryptonian scientist, killed two Rondors so that he could study their horns' powers. He extracted a serum from the healing horns, which would grant immortality. When four people died because no Rondors were available, he was charged with murder. He evaded capture and drank the serum. In the next instant, he mutated into an immortal humanoid Rondor. 500 years later when Krypton exploded, Nam-Ek was left drifting in space. Nam-Ek was later retrieved by Amalak the Kryptonian-Killer, who attempted to kill him, but discovered that it was impossible. When Amalak's spaceship entered a yellow sun-system, Nam-Ek gained superpowers and headed to Earth to warn Superman. After Amalak's defeat, Nam-Ek was projected into the Phantom Zone by Superman because he had been exhibiting dangerous bouts of insanity.
Orn-Zu - Believing that Krypton's sun would soon go nova, Orn-Zu created Jorlan, an android designed to hypnotically lure children away. He intended to use it to save his world's youth by kidnapping them and taking them away from Krypton. Orn-Zu was sentenced to an eternity in the Phantom Zone. When Jorlan arrived on Earth, it attempted to complete its mission. Orn-Zu convinced Superman to release him from the Zone, and they both confronted the android. Already dying from Pythagra Fever, Orn-Zu sacrificed his life to help stop his creation.
Py-Ron (Evil-Man) - Py-Ron was sentenced to 50 Kryptonian sun-cycles (68.5 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone for using forbidden experiments to turn humans into weird, bird-like monsters. Years later, a volcanic eruption freed Py-Ron from the Phantom Zone. He donned a costume and harassed Superman, using the name Evil-Man. Superman soon captured Py-Ron and returned him to his prison. A few years after that, when Supergirl was forced through hypnosis by the Sisterhood of Evil to test a deadly poison on a super-human, Py-Ron agreed to be her test subject. When Py-Ron appeared to die, Supergirl was then forced to give the poison to Superman and herself. Luckily, Comet the Super-Horse had learned of the poison and altered it with his X-ray vision so that it only put the victims into suspended animation for a few hours. When Py-Ron woke up, he tried to earn his right to stay out of the Zone by flying to Feminax, the Sisterhood's homeworld, and killing everyone in retaliation. For his heartless action, Superman projected Py-Ron back into the Phantom Zone.
Quex-Ul (Charlie Kweskill) – Quex-Ul was sentenced to nearly 25 Earth years (18 Kryptonian sun-cycles) in the Phantom Zone for slaying the rare Rondors and cutting off their radiant, curative horns. He was the last prisoner projected into the Phantom Zone on Krypton. When he served his full sentence, Quex-Ul notified Superman and was released. Quex-Ul intended on getting revenge on Jor-El, the man who sentenced him to the Phantom Zone, by exposing his son Superman to Gold Kryptonite. When Superman proved that Quex-Ul was innocent, having been framed by Rog-Ar, Quex-Ul attempted to stop Superman from being exposed. Quex-Ul inadvertently exposed himself and was robbed of his powers and his memory. Clark Kent set Quex-Ul up with a job at the Daily Planet using the alias Charlie Kweskill. Quex-Ul later sacrificed his life in a battle against the entity called Aethyr.
Ral-En - A college friend and associate of Jor-El and son of the famous psychologist Mag-En. With the help of his father, Ral-En used hyper-hypnotism to make everyone believe that he had gained superpowers, then attempted to become ruler of Krypton. Jor-El exposed his scheme, and Ral-En was sentenced to the Phantom Zone. The existence of both baby Kal-El (Superman) and the city of Kandor were crucial to this story. Since Kandor was stolen by Brainiac before the birth of Kal-El and the invention of the Phantom Zone projector, this entire story is impossible.
Ran-Zo - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed.
Ras-Krom - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Ras-Krom was a superstitious Kryptonian criminal who escaped the Phantom Zone when an atomic blast opened a small gap between worlds. He attempted to release the other prisoners, but was outwitted and re-imprisoned by Superman and Jimmy Olsen.
Roz-Em - The criminal Roz-Em had plastic surgery to look exactly like Nim-El (Jor-El's twin brother). He attempted to steal a valuable weapon from the Armory of Forbidden Weapons, but was captured by Jor-El and the real Nim-El. He was placed in suspended animation, and imprisoned in a space capsule which was placed into orbit around Krypton. After Krypton's destruction, the capsule drifted through space, and Roz-Em eventually awakened and traveled to Earth. He planned on getting his revenge on Nim-El's nephew, Superboy, by pretending to be a Superman created from Superboy's exposure to Red Kryptonite. Superboy discovered Roz-Em's ruse and projected him into the Phantom Zone.
Shyla Kor-Onn - A brilliant scientist named Shyla Kor-Onn was sentenced to one Kryptonian sun-cycle (1.37 Earth years) for the crime of manslaughter. She was trapped in the Phantom Zone well past her punishment period due to Krypton's destruction. After countless failures, Shyla predicted that she could use her mental powers to manipulate a jet pilot into flying his plane in a specific manner which would create a rip in the Zone. She escaped from her prison and battled Supergirl. When Shyla attempted to use the Phantom Zone Projector in Superman's Fortress of Solitude to free the other Phantom Zone prisoners, Supergirl was able to project her back into the Zone. A short time later, Shyla was freed in the bottle-city of Kandor, where she attempted to get her revenge on Supergirl.
Tal-Var of the Dark Dimension - Jimmy Olsen accidentally released the evil Tal-Var from the Dark Dimension. He intended to loot and lay waste to the Earth, then to trap and kill Superman. Using his wits, Jimmy was able to project the alien into the Phantom Zone before he could carry out his threats.
Thul-Kar - The last of the Wizards of Juru, Thul-Kar used magic to teleport himself into the Phantom Zone on the day of Krypton's destruction. He was the first to discover the Phantom Zone's connections to the entity called Aethyr.
Tor-An - Condemned to the Phantom Zone for carrying out forbidden experiments transferring the minds of a Kryptonian family into the bodies of monsters. Years later, he instructed a group of Phantom Zone prisoners to use their combined mental powers to prompt the Mayor of Midvale to ask Supergirl to perform a feat which would open a small rift in the Zone. The handsome Tor-An escaped and tricked Supergirl into marrying him. When he began to gloat that she would now be forever disgraced, he learned to his dismay that the marriage was invalid and that he himself had been tricked by Supergirl. He was quickly captured and returned to his prison.
The Toyman - The history and sentencing of this non-Kryptonian prisoner was not revealed.
Tra-Gob – Tra-Gob was the leader of a band of Kryptonian thieves which raided the priceless Science Archives. He was betrayed by his own men, but was rescued by Jor-El before they could exterminate him. Tra-Gob was sentenced to nearly 40 Earth years (29 Kryptonian sun-cycles) for his crime, but still remained deeply grateful to Jor-El. Tra-Gob was in the Phantom Zone for nearly 30 Earth years before he escaped due to a freak disruption by the aurora borealis. He rescued Superman and Lois Lane from a Kryptonian monster, repaying his debt to Jor-El. As Tra-Gob was being returned to the Zone to finish out his sentence, Superman commented that he may be pardoned in Kandor for his good behavior.
Tyb-Ol - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Tyb-Ol was among a group of Phantom Zone prisoners who escaped by focusing their mental energies on a piece of Jewel Kryptonite. He was later disintegrated by the Vrangs.
Professor Va-Kox (Professor Vakox) - Va-Kox, a mad geneticist, was sentenced to 50 Kryptonian sun-cycles (68.5 Earth years) for tossing a test tube full of his life force experiment into the Great Krypton Lake, creating a huge mutated monster.
Vax-Nor - The history and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Vax-Nor served his full sentence and was released by Superman and the Kandorian parole board.
Vorb-Un - Vorb-Un was sentenced to 10 Kryptonian sun-cycles (13.7 Earth years) in the Phantom Zone for experimenting with forbidden elements without the Science Council's permission. During a parole hearing in Kandor, Vorb-Un explained to Superman and the parole board that his sentence was almost up, and he insisted that he had repented. Due to his advanced age and his sincere remorse, he was released from his prison.
Vor-Kil - The crime and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed. Vor-Kil escaped from the Phantom Zone when sunspot activity opened a temporary gap to Earth. He battled Superman using the Kryptonian martial art of Klurkor. Superman lured him back into captivity with the help of Jimmy Olsen.
Dr. Xadu - Dr. Xadu was sentenced to 30 Kryptonian sun-cycles (41.1 Earth years) for breaking the law which forbids the use of suspended animation in any scientific research. He later escaped the Phantom Zone with a prisoner named Erndine Ze-Da when a South Seas volcano exploded and opened a temporary gap in the Phantom Zone. They concocted a plan to trap Superboy in the Zone, but he became aware of their scheme and stranded them on the planet Exon. Years later, Dr. Xadu and Erndine, who had since married and acquired the secret of the cosmic power-grip, escaped from Exon and returned to Earth. Superman defeated them again, and placed them in separate cells on two different worlds. Inexplicably, Dr. Xadu appeared in the Phantom Zone in many stories set between these two tales.
Zan-Ar - The crime and sentencing of this prisoner was not revealed.
Zan-Em - A psychic scientist who was banished to the Phantom Zone for unauthorized mind control experiments. As part of his plan to escape the Zone and trap Superboy there, Zan-Em mentally manipulated Lester Wallace into developing a hatred of aliens. When Lester projected Superboy into the Zone, Zan-Em remarked that he had been in the prison dimension for nearly two decades. Superboy escaped the Zone, leaving Zan-Em trapped in his prison.
Zo-Mar - The criminal Zo-Mar was captured, sentenced to life for attempting to enslave all of Krypton, placed in suspended animation, and imprisoned in a space capsule which was placed into orbit around Krypton. After Krypton's destruction, the capsule drifted through space, and Zo-Mar eventually awakened and traveled to Earth. With the help of the Challengers of the Unknown, Superman captured Zo-Mar and projected him into the Phantom Zone.
Unnamed Kandorian scientist - A scientist in Kandor was sentenced to 20 Kryptonian sun-cycles (27.4 Earth years) for performing experiments with the Z-Bomb, even though he was warned that it could accidentally blow up the bottle-city.
Unnamed energy creature - An alien life form whose race evolved into pure energy followed an Earth probe back to Earth. The entity was able to possess and control other physical objects and beings, and used this ability to wreak havoc. Superman and Lois Lane tricked the creature into a Superman puppet, then projected it into the Phantom Zone.
Two unnamed members of the Superman Revenge Squad - Two members of the Superman Revenge Squad attempted to enslave the people of New Krypton (a.k.a. Rokyn), but Superman foiled their plans by projecting them into the Phantom Zone.
Inmates in Post-Crisis
The following were imprisoned in the Phantom Zone:
Az-Rel and Nadira Va-Dim - In the Post-Crisis, Az-Rel and his lover Nadira Va-Dim are Kryptonians that Ursa had enlisted to be sleeper agents on Earth.
Bizarro - He was thrown into the Phantom Zone by the Kandorians.
Car-Vex - A Kryptonian criminal who was banished to the Phantom Zone. General Zod later recruited her to be a sleeper agent on Earth where she infiltrated Project 7734 under the alias of Officer Romundi of the Science Police.
Dev-Em - A Kryptonian who was arrested and imprisoned in the Phantom Zone for murder and perversion.
Doomsday - Due to his adaptive powers, Doomsday evolved in a way where his fists tore through the Phantom Zone, allowing him to escape it.
Faora -
General Zod - A Kryptonian military general who was exiled to the Phantom Zone after trying to overthrow the Kryptonian Council so he could take over Krypton.
Jax-Ur -
Non - Non is a former friend and scientific colleague of Jor-El. After leading a separatist movement that planned to tell all of Krypton on what will happen to their planet, he is abducted and lobotomized by Krypton's Science Council. This leaves him a minimally-verbal and highly-aggressive brute. Some aspects of his personality survive and surface as an extreme kindness when dealing with children. Serving as General Zod's enforcer, he also becomes guardian and caregiver for Zod's son Chris Kent.
Parasite - He was thrown into the Phantom Zone by the Kandorians.
Prankster - He was thrown into the Phantom Zone by the Kandorians.
Prometheus -
Quex-Ul - In the Post-Crisis, Quex-Ul is a Kryptonian criminal who was banished to the Phantom Zone and was later recruited by General Zod to be a sleeper agent on Earth.
Silver Banshee - She was thrown into the Phantom Zone by the Kandorians.
Tor-An - A Kryptonian who was on General Zod's side and was imprisoned in the Phantom Zone. When Ursa was charged with assigning five Krypontians as sleeper agents on Earth, Tor-An assumed the identity of a human entrepreneur named David Carter and became the CEO of the Empire Communications Network based out of Sydney Australia. He was defeated by Flamebird and Nightwing and reimprisoned in the Phantom Zone. Tor-An was later killed by Ursa.
Toyman - He was thrown into the Phantom Zone by the Kandorians.
Ursa - Ursa is the lover of General Zod and mother of Chris Kent. After Non is lobotomized by the Science Council, she instigated open rebellion along with General Zod. As a result, the three were exiled to the Phantom Zone.
Val-Ty - A Kryptonian sociopath who once fought Tomar-Re whom he eluded by destroying Xan City. He was later captured and placed in the Phantom Zone. When Zod's blanket amnesty was issued, he and the other Phantom Zone criminals were released. Unlike the group who went with Ursa, Val stayed on New Krypton, going rogue. He was the target of a manhunt by the Military Guild, and was eventually captured by Kal-El's Red Shard for which he has vowed revenge.
White Martians -
Inmates in All-Star Superman
Bar-El - A Kryptonian astronaut who was one of a few survivors of Krypton. He and Lilo were placed in the Phantom Zone until Superman can find a cure for their Kryptonite illness.
Lilo - A Kryptonian astronaut who was one of a few survivors of Krypton. She and Bar-El were placed in the Phantom Zone until Superman can find a cure for their Kryptonite illness.
Inmates in The New 52/DC Rebirth
Cyborg Superman -
General Zod -
Hades -
Jax-Ur -
Lar-On - A Kryptonian who was banished to the Phantom Zone after Red Kryptonite turned him into a werewolf. After a fight with Supergirl, he was placed in the care of the D.E.O. where they found that the Red Kryptonite mangled his DNA where Supergirl quoted: "He isn't truly Kryptonian anymore".
Lor-Zod -
Mongul -
Non -
Ras-Krom -
Ursa -
Vak-Ox -
Xa-Du -
Other versions
Superman & Batman: Generations
In the Elseworlds tale Superman & Batman: Generations, Superman is sentenced to the Phantom Zone in 1989 when he is stripped of his powers in a confrontation with the Ultra-Humanite that ends with his foe's death, after the Ultra-Humanite's actions led to the death of Superman's wife Lois Lane and his son Joel being tricked into killing Superman's daughter Kara before Joel dies himself, as well as arranging various 'accidents' for Clark Kent's other remaining loved ones. The judges reason that even if Superman feels that he may have killed his foe deliberately after the deaths of his family and friends, putting him in a conventional prison without his powers would be dangerous and solitary confinement was too extreme given his past deeds, selecting the Zone based on the suggestion of the new Batman, Bruce Wayne Junior. Superman is released in 1999 by the now-rejuvenated Bruce Wayne as Bruce returns to the role of Batman - Bruce noting that he is ending the sentence a few months early but is certain that nobody would object to early release "for good behavior" - although Superman was briefly able to appear as a phantom in the real world in 1997 to distract a foe who was about to kill Knightwing (Superman's grandson, adopted by Batman's son after the deaths of Superman's children).
In other media
Television
In the 1978 season of Super Friends there is an episode titled "Terror from the Phantom Zone" in which a comet's collision causes the Phantom Zone to release three Kryptonian villains Hul (voiced by Stanley Jones), Rom-Lok (voiced by Michael Bell), and Logar (voiced by Bob Holt) who are exclusive to this series. The villains go on a crime spree and banish the Super Friends to the Phantom Zone, but keep Superman on Earth where they exposed him to Red Kryptonite which causes him to age quickly, though the Red Kryptonite also gave Rom-Lok an appearance that resembles Shaggy Man. The villains get great enjoyment showing off "old Superman" to the world. Superman, with help from the Justice League computer, manages to figure out that Blue Kryptonite may reverse the aging process because blue kryptonite is harmful to Bizarro and therefore should be helpful to Superman. Superman finds the Blue Kryptonite and is aged back to normal, then goes on his quest to rescue the other Super Friends and ultimately send the three villains back into the Phantom Zone. The three villains later return in a "lost season" episode from 1983 titled "Return of the Phantoms". Here, they hijack an alien's time-space conveyor and go back in time to Smallville and attack Superboy, in order to prevent him from becoming Superman. Fortunately, the pilot of that craft went to warn the Super Friends about what the trio would be attempting, and guided Superman and Green Lantern to the proper time period to help the boy. The Super Friends version of the Phantom Zone is described as "far beyond the boundaries of the Milky Way. In the uncharted void of deep space. An incredible 5th dimension of space and time, lies parallel to the universe that we know. This interesting interstellar warp which holds the most sinister and ruthless criminals in the galaxy is the infamous Phantom Zone". The molecular structure of any person exiled in the Zone appears white and black. Batman's devices and the Wonder Twins' Exxor Powers are useless within the Phantom Zone.
The Phantom Zone appears in the Superman episode "The Hunter". General Zod and his female followers Ursa and Faora are shown as prisoners in the Phantom Zone.
Although the Phantom Zone is not explicitly mentioned or shown in Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, there is a similar type of medium which resembles its representation in season four episodes "Meet John Doe" and "Lois and Clarks". An Utopian from the future Andrus programmed a "time tablet" to trap fugitive Tempus in a space-time cube if he tried to control the tablet. However, Tempus tricked Superman into being trapped in the cube, which was then lost in space-time. Superman was rescued by H.G. Wells when the exact second Clark who disappeared was discovered. Another episode from that season "Battleground Earth" featured another analogue, a Kryptonian form of capital punishment (practiced by a surviving colony), devices capable of scattering a criminal's body across the universe. Superman was sentenced to this punishment, but due to newly discovered facts and a violation of procedure the process was reversed before it could be completed. It is unclear whether a fully complete procedure could be reversed, and if so, whether there is a point after which it becomes irreversible. Superman was feeling shaky immediately after the procedure (which appeared to be painful), but recovered quickly.
The Phantom Zone is first mentioned in the first episode of Superman: The Animated Series titled "The Last Son of Krypton, Part 1". Jor-El attempted to convince everyone to enter the Phantom Zone to be saved from Krypton's destruction and one man would be sent via spaceship to re-establish Krypton's population on a new world. Since this idea was not accepted by Krypton's Science Council, Jor-El sent his son in the spaceship to Earth along with the Phantom Zone projector. In the episode "Blasts from the Past", Superman discovers the Phantom Zone projector which also has a communication function that allows him to converse with the inmates. He makes contact with the convicted traitor Mala (who is a loose adaptation of Superman II'''s Ursa). He learns that Mala's 20-year sentence in the Phantom Zone is finished and releases her. Superman hoped to train Mala as his co-worker, but Superman then learns that Mala is arrogant and power-hungry, badly enough to possibly require returning her to the Phantom Zone. When she learns that Kal-El (Superman's Kryptonian name) prefers the company of a certain terrestrial named Lois Lane, Mala turns against Superman, and later releases General Jax-Ur (a version of General Zod, although named after another villain from the Superman comics) to take over Earth. They were banished once again into the Phantom Zone at the end of the story as Superman commented "Parole revoked". In "Absolute Power", Jax-Ur and Mala are later accidentally released on another remote planet where they remake it into Krypton's image. During a fight with the Kryptonian fleet, Jax-Ur and Mala are ultimately sent into a black hole.
In the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Doomsday Sanction", Superman and the Justice League send the nearly unstoppable Doomsday into the Phantom Zone after his capture. This usage of the Phantom Zone, effectively sentencing Doomsday to life imprisonment without trial, presented massive arguments about the Justice League's right to make such judgments. Batman was especially troubled by this move because their verdict on Doomsday would have been a decision that the Justice Lords would have made.
In the Legion of Super Heroes animated series, the Phantom Zone is close to its classical portrayal as a parallel dimension where criminals are sent. As a throwback to the Pre-Crisis version, inhabitants of the Zone become incorporeal - essentially, ghost-like phantoms - thus giving the Zone its name. In this series, Superman discovers his previous self's Phantom Zone projector which he accidentally uses to free a villain named Drax (voiced by Greg Ellis). The projector is eventually turned on the other Legionnaires, but with Phantom Girl's help, they manage to escape without it and send Drax back at the same time. On a related note, Drax mentioned that he was born in the Phantom Zone.
The Phantom Zone appears in the television series Smallville. Known inmates are General Zod and later his genetic clone (portrayed by Callum Blue), Faora (portrayed by Sharon Taylor), Nam-Ek (portrayed by Leonard Roberts), Aethyr (portrayed by Alana de la Garza), Dr. Hudson (portrayed by Matthew Walker), Baern (portrayed by Bow Wow), Gloria (portrayed by Amber McDonald), Aldar (portrayed by Dave Bautista), Titan (portrayed by Kane), and Slade Wilson. Some of the inmates like Zod and Faora were stripped of their corporal bodies where they became phantoms. Outside of its glass-like entrance, the Phantom Zone resembles a desert-like wasteland that has a blue sun which doesn't set. In the 5th-season premiere "Arrival", Clark Kent battles two evil Kryptonians named Nam-Ek & Aethyr that are disciples of Zod. When he refuses to join them in their quest to subjugate Earth, the Kryptonians attempt to banish Clark to the Phantom Zone using a metallic bracelet (inscribed with Kryptonian symbols) that opens up a vortex. However, Clark manages to turn the tables, sending them into the portal to the Phantom Zone instead. Aside from its entrance, the Phantom Zone is represented as a floating black square, similar to its depiction in the Superman films. In the episode "Solitude", the Kryptonian artificial intelligence known as Brainiac (posing as Professor Milton Fine) manipulates Clark into believing that Jor-El is responsible for Martha's mysterious illness. This is all part of a plot to free the imprisoned General Zod. Professor Fine persuades Clark to take him to the Fortress of Solitude, where he gives Clark a black crystal and instructs him to insert it into the Fortress' control console, misleadingly saying that it will destroy Jor-El and therefore save Martha. The crystal, once inserted into the console, instead opens up a vortex in which another black square is seen, with a figure resembling General Zod as portrayed in the Superman movies, but Brainiac's plan is thwarted once Clark removes the crystal. In the episode "Vessel", General Zod is finally freed from the Phantom Zone. After inhabiting Lex Luthor, Zod traps Clark inside the Phantom Zone using a Kryptonian bracelet similar to the one used in the episode "Arrival". In the season premiere of the 6th season, the Phantom Zone itself is shown as a desolate wasteland where Clark is rendered powerless and mortal. It is revealed to have been created by Jor-El as a prison for not only Kryptonian convicts, but also criminals from the "28 known galaxies". The more dangerous prisoners (e.g. General Zod and Bizarro) are stripped of their corporeal forms and their spirits are then cast into the Phantom Zone. Clark escapes with the help of a Kryptonian woman named Raya (portrayed by Pascale Hutton) who claims to have known Jor-El and was placed in the Phantom Zone by Jor-El to protect her from Krypton's destruction. To ensure her survival, Jor-El sent Raya to the Phantom Zone just before the destruction of Krypton. Raya reveals that those of the blood of Jor-El's house can utilize a secret exit from the Phantom Zone, therefore Clark can leave. Upon escaping the Phantom Zone, Clark accidentally releases Raya and various prisoners and phantoms to Earth. Chloe Sullivan later refers to the escaped convicts as "Zoners" and Superman had to either eliminate them or send them back to the Phantom Zone. In the season 7 finale, "Arctic", it is revealed that Brainiac has trapped Kara in the Phantom Zone. In the season eight episode "Bloodline", Clark and Lois are both trapped in the Phantom Zone, where they are reunited with Kara. Also, Zod's wife Faora takes control of Lois' body so she can be set free by Kara, and goes on a rampage in Metropolis. In the season 10 episode "Icarus", Clark uses a crystal of El to send Slade Wilson to the Phantom Zone. When Wilson is found back on Earth in "Dominion", Clark and Oliver Queen enter the Phantom Zone to see how that escape was possible. They learn that the clone of Zod - who was sent to New Krypton with the others - was sent to the Phantom Zone for his crimes. While there, he merged with the phantom of the original Zod, gaining all of his memories, and a blood transfusion from Clark allowed him to send others out of the Phantom Zone. Clark departs the Phantom Zone with Green Arrow while destroying the control console on the Phantom Zone side in order to prevent anyone else from leaving.
In the pilot episode of Supergirl, Kara's capsule accidentally ended up in the Phantom Zone - which is depicted as an actual area of real-space in which time does not pass/exist rather than a separate dimension - following Krypton's explosion. It was also shown that the Phantom Zone had a maximum security prison called Fort Rozz which housed criminals like Astra In-Ze, Caren Falqnerr, the Commander, Dr. Alphonse Luzano, Gabriel Phillips, Gor, a Hellgrammite, Indigo, Jemm, K'hund, Kerfuffle, Moyer, Mur, Non, Tor, and Vartox where they have personal issues with Alura Zor-El who had them imprisoned in Fort Rozz Prison. The Master Jailer was one of the prison guards in Fort Rozz. When Kara's capsule left the Phantom Zone, Fort Rozz was intentionally pulled out with her as Indigo revealed that she took control of Kara's escape pod in order to do that. As a result of Fort Rozz being pulled out of the Phantom Zone and crashing on Earth, many of its inmates had escaped. Additionally, there is also a Phantom Zone projector - a device used by Kryptonians to transport prisoners in Fort Rozz into the Zone. It was later collected and stored in the Fortress of Solitude by Kal-El. In "Resist", Kara, Lilian Luthor and Hank Henshaw use this projector to board into a Daxamite ship during their invasion to save Lena Luthor and Mon-El from Rhea. After rescuing them, Lilian betrays and leaves Kara and Mon-El behind while beaming her daughter and themselves to the Fortress, but Kara expected her betrayal and her friend Winn Schott Jr. put a bug device on Hank prior to the rescue operation. Supergirl turned on the device to force Hank to reactivate the projector to beam Mon-El out of the spaceship, while she stayed behind to confront Rhea. In season 5, it was revealed that the Green Martians had utilized the Phantom Zone which they used to imprison Ma'alefa'ak and Midnight. In season 6, Supergirl ended up sent to the Phantom Zone by Lex Luthor after he was hit by the fragment from the planet Jarhanpur. Due to the location information being wiped from the projector, Supergirl's group works to find her. As a result of the events of the "Crisis on Infinite Earths", the Phantom Zone was broken up like an archipelago and is infested with Phantom Zone Phantoms (known by their real names of Zulian Maletarians). It was also revealed that the vampiric Transilvanian Silas was the first to break into the Phantom Zone to look for his wrongly-convicted boyfriend. In addition, Zor-El survived the destruction of Krypton by projecting himself into the Phantom Zone. Supergirl later met the 5th Dimension Imp Nyxlygsptlnz who aids her in rescuing Zor-El, though Nyxlgyspnlnz has her own plans to return to Earth so that she can return to the 5th Dimension to get revenge on her father. When the Super Friends rescue Supergirl and Zor-El from the Phantom Zone and depart from it in the Tower, they are unaware that Nyxlygsptlnz stowed away on top of the Tower.
The Phantom Zone appears in the Justice League Action episode "Field Trip". As Superman gives Blue Beetle, Firestorm and Stargirl a tour of the Fortress of Solitude, they are shown to the Phantom Zone projector where General Zod, Faora and Quex-Ul are accidentally released and Superman is accidentally trapped. With some guidance from Martin Stein, Firestorm learns how to transmute some of the ice into Kryptonite to weaken the Kryptonian villains. Afterwards, Superman is freed from the Phantom Zone and the Kryptonian villains are thrown back into the Phantom Zone.
The Phantom Zone briefly appears in the episode "Devil's Snare" from the first season of the adult animated series Harley Quinn. Believing Harley, Poison Ivy, and their crew are behind a series of man-eating trees terrorizing Gotham, Superman and the Justice League prepare to trap them all in the Phantom Zone before Poison Ivy uses Wonder Woman's Lasso of Truth to clear their names. The Phantom Zone appears again in the second-season episode "Lovers' Quarrel" where Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman attempt to imprison Poison Ivy (who is mind controlled by Doctor Psycho) inside it, but are stopped by Harley.
The Phantom Zone is mentioned in the 2019 animated series, DC Super Hero Girls, in two-part episode "DC Super Hero Boys".
Films
Live Action
Serials
In the 1950 film serial, Atom Man vs. Superman, Lex Luthor traps Superman in another dimension. Though the Phantom Zone would not appear in the comics until 11 years later, it is styled in the same fashion and is named by Luthor as the Empty Doom.
1978 film series
In the 1978 Superman film starring Christopher Reeve, the Phantom Zone is presented as a large, flat rhombus-shaped mirror that moves by spinning. Jor-El (Marlon Brando), who developed the Phantom Zone summons it with a wand to imprison General Zod (Terence Stamp) and his co-conspirators Ursa (Sarah Douglas), and Non (Jack O'Halloran), who appear to be transferred into the two-dimensional space on the mirror's surface, which is then flung into deep space. The Phantom Zone is only referred to by name in the extended versions of Superman when it is mentioned by the Kryptonian First Elder. Superman's mother Lara refers to the Phantom Zone by name in Superman II when she first makes the revelation about the three villains contained inside it. In his DVD commentary, director Richard Donner refers to it as "the Zone of Silence".
In Superman II, as Superman saves the city of Paris from destruction by hurling a nuclear bomb into space; the resulting nuclear explosion inadvertently shatters the Phantom Zone and releases the three prisoners. Now free, General Zod and his cohorts travel to Earth, wreaking havoc with the superpowers granted to them by Earth's yellow sun. The Phantom Zone appears in Richard Donner's cut of Superman II, released in November 2006. In this version (per the original shooting script prior to being altered by director Richard Lester for the theatrical version), the Phantom Zone is shattered by the rocket Superman threw into space in the first Superman film. The Zone is shown splitting into three separate shards, one containing each villain, before it finally shatters, freeing them. Jor-El presents a visual representation of the Phantom Zone and its occupants in a recorded message embedded in the education crystals housed at the Fortress of Solitude, unaware that he is actually talking to Lex Luthor and Miss Teschmacher. After defeating Zod and his followers, Superman uses a time-warp to keep the three criminals imprisoned in the Phantom Zone while undoing the damage they had done during their time on Earth.
In the 1984 Supergirl movie, the sorceress Selena banishes Kara to the Phantom Zone by means of a summoned crystal shard. The crystal transports her to a barren, desolate world where it shatters, casting her to the ground. This depiction of the Phantom Zone suggests that the crystal shard seen in the first two Superman movies is not the Phantom Zone itself, but simply a vehicle that takes prisoners to this desolate wasteland which is referred to as the Phantom Zone, similar to the later Smallville TV series. Once in the zone, Kara loses her powers as Supergirl and becomes an ordinary mortal. In this film, it is also revealed that there is a way out of the Zone, although the trip to the exit portal is extremely dangerous and would almost lead to certain death. Kara is guided to this portal by Zaltar, another Kryptonian who was banished there. Kara is successfully able to transport herself back to Earth using this portal, although Zaltar is killed in the attempt. Following Kara's escape, the defeated Selena and her henchwoman Bianca are both banished to the Phantom Zone.
DC Extended Universe
In the 2013 reboot film Man of Steel, General Zod (portrayed by Michael Shannon), Faora (portrayed by Antje Traue), Car-Vex (portrayed by Samantha Jo), Dev-Em II (portrayed by Revard Dufresne), Jax-Ur (portrayed by Mackenzie Gray), Nadira (portrayed by Apollonia Vanova), Nam-Ek (portrayed by an uncredtied actor), Tor-An (portrayed by Richard Cetrone), and some unnamed followers of General Zod are sentenced to 300 cycles of somatic reconditioning in the Phantom Zone following their attempted coup d'état against the Kryptonian government and General Zod's murder of Jor-El. Upon sentencing, Zod and his co-conspirators are infused within a gelatinous substance, encased in a crystalline material and are subsequently loaded into a Kryptonian ship. The ship then launches into orbit around Krypton where three smaller vessels establish a window into the Phantom Zone into which the ship enters. A short time later, the destruction of Krypton triggers the release of the prisoners. As in the comics, Phantom Zone is not immune from some powerful forces (explosions, blows, and so on) that will break Phantom Zone and free the criminals who deserve their punishment. Later in the film, the vessels Zod and his army are using possess a "Phantom Drive", a collision from a smaller ship (piloted by Col. Hardy of the U.S. military with Kal-El's rocket and operated by Professor Emil Hamilton and Lois Lane) with a similar drive causes a cataclysmic reaction that creates a small singularity, returning the ship and its occupants to the Phantom Zone along with the Military plane, Hardy, and Hamilton.
Animation
In the direct-to-video animated feature Superman: Brainiac Attacks, Superman had to enter the Phantom Zone to retrieve a rare element which will cure Lois Lane of a deadly disease. This version of the Phantom Zone differs from the previous animated continuity, as it is shown to actually be populated by "phantoms" and Superman retains his powers in the Phantom Zone.
The Phantom Zone is featured in All-Star Superman. Like the comics, Superman places Bar-El (voiced by Arnold Vosloo) and Lilo (voiced by Finola Hughes) into the Phantom Zone until a cure for their Kryptonite illness can be found.
In The Lego Batman Movie, the Phantom Zone appears as a prison for the most dangerous villains in the Lego universe. The setting on the Phantom Zone Projector when releasing the inmates are "Dark Lords Only", "Witches & Queens Only", "Monsters & Robots Only", and "Release All Inmates". Its gatekeeper "Phyllis" (voiced by Ellie Kemper) resembles a generic Lego brick and reviews the bad things the new arrivals have done. The Phantom Zone's inmates consist of villains from various fictional franchises including General Zod, King Kong, Lord Voldemort from Harry Potter, the Eye of Sauron from Lord of the Rings, the Daleks from Doctor Who, the Gremlins, the Wicked Witch of the West and her Flying Monkeys from The Wizard of Oz, Lord Vampyre, the Evil Mummy, and the Swamp Creature from Lego Monster Fighters, the Kraken from Clash of the Titans, Medusa from Lego Minifigures, the skeletons from Jason and the Argonauts, Agent Smith and his clones from The Matrix, the titular great white shark from Jaws, and the Tyrannosaurus rex and Velociraptors from Jurassic Park. This group of villains have been referred to as the "Ubers" in the credits. Superman talked about it on the news program "Metropolis in Focus" as a tie-in to his latest victory over General Zod. When the Joker gets sent to the Phantom Zone by Batman, he persuades the inmates that he meets in the Phantom Zone to help him take over Gotham City. After infiltrating Arkham Asylum, Harley Quinn helps release them using the Phantom Zone Projector under the "Release All Inmates" option. With help from Robin, Batgirl, Alfred Pennyworth, and Gotham City's villains, Batman manages to defeat the villains and send them back to the Phantom Zone. This is the second depiction of the Joker being banished to the Phantom Zone, the first being in the story "Truth and Justice" by J.C. Roberts.
Video games
In the video game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, the DC portion of the story mode concludes with Emperor Shao Kahn being imprisoned in the Phantom Zone after Superman defeats Dark Kahn. In Shao Kahn's single player ending, it is revealed that the Phantom Zone has the opposite effect on him. Rather than being depowered, Shao Kahn is re-energized by the Phantom Zone's energies and breaks free of it with an untold number of prisoners who swear allegiance to Shao Kahn for releasing them. The Phantom Zone in the game resembles its portrayal from Superman: The Movie and Superman II.
The Phantom Zone appears in DC Universe Online. Lex Luthor frees General Zod from it during the Fortress of Solitude raid in order to combat Brainiac's assimilation of the Fortress. During the Phantom Zone alert, players receive a signal from it and are asked to investigate by Superman, and it turns out to be a trap meant for him. Time appears to pass at a much slower rate inside the zone, as Superman mentions weeks have passed outside during the alert as he rescues the player team.
The Phantom Zone appears in Injustice: Gods Among Us, also resembling its portrayal in Superman: The Movie and Superman II. According to some character profiles, the Phantom Zone is used by the alternate Superman to "re-educate" several supervillains into joining the Regime, suggesting that the alternate Superman spares villains if he believes they could be useful (such as Bane and Killer Frost). Near the end of Story Mode, the Zone is used by the "prime" Superman to safely seal away the alternate Doomsday after the monster is defeated. A portal leading into the Phantom Zone can be found in the Fortress of Solitude stage, combatants can be knocked into a Phantom Zone projector and then spat out of a portal taking damage. They can also be knocked into the Phantom Zone itself at the far left side of the menagerie section where they will collide with one of the crystal fragments housing a monstrous "Phantom". The inmate will proceed to take a bite out of the fighter's shoulder before being knocked off by a floating rock, and then the fighter will fall through a second Zone portal winding up in the laboratory section of the stage. The character General Zod has limited control of the Phantom Zone as part of his special moves, and can summon an inmate for help as well as momentarily trap his opponent within the Phantom Zone. If Classic Battle is cleared, a cutscene will show the Regime's Superman being sucked into the Phantom Zone's portal in the menagerie. As he is pulled closer to the portal while refusing to get away, he has several flashbacks of Lois Lane, her death at the Joker's hands, the destruction of Metropolis and his murder of the Joker, the Regime's Superman gets his soul taken by the Phantom Zone's portal before being pulled into the Phantom Zone by a "Phantom". The Regime's Superman is then seen trapped inside a diamond-shaped crystal screaming in anguish as he drifts further into the Phantom Zone. General Zod's ending in Classic Battle reveals that Zod's imprisonment has granted him the knowledge necessary to utilize some of the Phantom Zone at will (explaining some of his in-game abilities) as well as his plans to use such abilities in future conquests after he has trapped the Regime's Superman in the Phantom Zone and took over the Regime so that he can make Earth into the image of Krypton.
The Phantom Zone projector appears in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. General Zod escapes from the Phantom Zone and seals Superman in it. Maxwell manages to free Superman and place General Zod back in the Phantom Zone.
The Phantom Zone appears in Lego Dimensions. It appears as the fifth stage of the Lego Batman Movie story pack, adapting its role from the film.
The Phantom Zone appears in Injustice 2. If Batman defeats Superman in the story's climax, he depowers Superman with a machine similar to the one from Superman II and sends him into the Phantom Zone, but Superman swears to return. In Batman's character ending, Batman goes into semi-retirement to head the emergency response in the wake of Brainiac's attack as Bruce Wayne, leaving the reformed Barry Allen and Hal Jordan to lead the Justice League and train the next generation of heroes, though behind the scenes as Batman he prepares for the possibility of Superman's escape from the Phantom Zone by developing Kryptonite-based weaponry. In Sub-Zero's ending, Sub-Zero is accidentally transported to Injustice Earth by the magic unleashed by Kotal Kahn's retreat from Earthrealm to Outworld. He helps to defeat Brainiac and thanks Batman and the Justice League for offer to help him return to Earthrealm, though they inadvertently open a portal to the Phantom Zone that frees Superman, General Zod, Ursa, and Non. Feeling responsible, Sub-Zero fights alongside Batman's Justice League to defeat Superman and his Kryptonian allies.
Novels
In Kevin J. Anderson's novel The Last Days of Krypton, Jor-El discovered and was temporarily trapped in the Phantom Zone. Commissioner (later General) Dru-Zod confiscates the Phantom Zone, claiming it would be dangerous in the wrong hands, and proceeds to use it to imprison his political enemies. After Zod's insurgence/rebellion fails, his enemies are released and Zod, his consort Aethyr-Ka, and his muscle-man Nam-Ek become the sole prisoners of the Phantom Zone. In a mistaken attempt to destroy the Phantom Zone, several of Zod's former prisoners cast the Phantom Zone to the center of the Planet Krypton after being elected to the planet's ruling Council. This causes the planet's core to first implode, and then explode. Fortunately Jor-El and Lara were able to rescue their son Kal-El by sending him into space just before the planet's explosion. He arrived on Earth where he became known as Clark Kent/Superman.
Parodies and homages
In the South Park episode "Krazy Kripples", Christopher Reeve is imprisoned in one after eating too many fetuses.
In Bartman Meets Radioactive Man, Radioactive Man is imprisoned in the Limbo Zone.
Family Guy parodied the Phantom Zone in the episode "Lethal Weapons". When Peter announced that "Krypton sucks", General Zod, Non, and Ursa came by and were promptly bested in a fight by Lois, and imprisoned in a Phantom Zone reminiscent of the Superman movies. In the episode "Hot Pocket-Dial", General Zod is shown to live next door to the apartment that Glenn Quagmire moved into and told him that he was blocking his "trapezoid-shaped thing" (a reference to the Phantom Zone of the Superman movies).
An American Dad! episode "The Most Adequate Christmas Ever" shows that God imprisoned Jim Henson and Kermit the Frog in the Phantom Zone when they tried to get into Heaven. It then shows Jim Henson and Kermit the Frog flying above in their rectangular prison as they beg to be released.
A dimension referred to as the "Null Void" appears in the television series Ben 10 (and its various iterations Ben 10: Alien Force, Ben 10: Ultimate Alien, and Ben 10: Omniverse) and is used as an inter-dimensional prison for containing various alien criminals in the Ben 10 universe. It is primarily accessible via a "Null Void Generator", a device similar in design and application to Superman's Phantom Zone Projector. In some episodes of Ben 10: Alien Force and Ben 10: Ultimate Alien, there is a version of Incarcecon that is in the Null Void which is used to imprison the criminals there.
A Lego set released in 2017, titled "Batman in the Phantom Zone" features a Batman minifigure and a machine.
In the opening skit of the season 2 premiere of Robot Chicken titled "Suck It", series co-creator Seth Green, along with the robot chicken and mad scientist from the opening credits sequence, were briefly banished to the Phantom Zone (similar to that of the Superman movies) after being found guilty from his trial following the show's "cancellation" from season 1.
Lord Buckethead's manifesto in the 2017 United Kingdom general election included a promise to exile Katie Hopkins to the Phantom Zone.
Similar dimensions
There had been similar Zones that were in comparison to the Phantom Zone:
The Silver Age Phantom Zone appears to be prefigured in the 1950 Superman serial Atom Man vs. Superman, in which Lex Luthor uses a kind of matter-transmitter device to trap Superman in a limbo called the "Empty Doom" from which he can see and hear events in the "real" world, but cannot touch anything or be seen or heard.
In the Captain Future novel Planets in Peril (1942) by Edmond Hamilton, Chapter 13 "Phantom Prisoners", Captain Future is sent to the "Vault of the Unbodied"...essentially an early version of the Phantom Zone. Hamilton later went on to write some of the early DC comics Superman stories, including some Phantom Zone stories.
Additionally, in the story "Wonder Woman's Wedding Day" from Wonder Woman #70 (November 1954), Wonder Woman is sent by Professor Uxo to another dimension much like the Phantom Zone, in which she becomes a spectral observer, unable to interact with those around her. She is able to escape by telepathically overwhelming Professor Uxo with the thought she is watching his every move, forcing him to "reassemble" her in his laboratory before a barrage of bullets, which she easily deflects. Wonder Woman captures Professor Uxo and his henchmen as they are taken away by the police while his "time dimension transfer machine" is damaged beyond repair.
Notes
References
External links
Supermanica: Phantom Zone Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis'' Phantom Zone
Phantom Zone at DC Comics Wiki
Phantom Zone at Comic Vine
DC Comics dimensions
DC Comics planets
DC Comics titles
Fictional dimensions
Legion of Super-Heroes
Fictional prisons | [
-0.2718946039676666,
-0.17492890357971191,
-0.3498097360134125,
0.7282550930976868,
0.1751636564731598,
-0.24240970611572266,
0.23561345040798187,
0.9742512702941895,
-0.6319774389266968,
0.2328498661518097,
-1.1664646863937378,
-0.12464040517807007,
-0.6545581221580505,
0.6688655614852905,
0.07660611718893051,
0.07654916495084763,
0.21860341727733612,
0.22306492924690247,
-0.18417780101299286,
-0.33032429218292236,
-0.29705381393432617,
-0.006151653826236725,
0.06797672808170319,
-0.42430761456489563,
-0.29856568574905396,
-0.37857842445373535,
-0.17668010294437408,
0.10566103458404541,
-0.2516387701034546,
0.22695940732955933,
-0.07303330302238464,
0.2392999231815338,
-0.5727298259735107,
-0.0795600563287735,
-0.018017729744315147,
0.03920677676796913,
-0.6480857133865356,
-0.1741190105676651,
-0.14901575446128845,
-0.6124870181083679,
0.6524592041969299,
0.35263538360595703,
0.4739079177379608,
-0.3411538600921631,
-0.10265405476093292,
-0.30797791481018066,
-1.2226221561431885,
0.06258539110422134,
-0.7899337410926819,
-0.0736234188079834,
-0.6819130778312683,
0.7547548413276672,
0.05548717826604843,
0.2048616260290146,
0.137100949883461,
0.317342072725296,
-0.35175949335098267,
-0.23915664851665497,
0.1911398470401764,
-0.36175209283828735,
0.7829697728157043,
-0.22933544218540192,
0.13289494812488556,
0.2832065224647522,
-0.4760710597038269,
0.19968675076961517,
0.4834415316581726,
0.030054867267608643,
0.48347899317741394,
-0.6398329734802246,
-0.061245255172252655,
0.42192941904067993,
0.44856342673301697,
0.3474026918411255,
-0.7175299525260925,
0.05801382660865784,
0.3936636447906494,
-0.19944216310977936,
-0.3344731032848358,
0.24005085229873657,
0.08729936182498932,
0.5846713185310364,
0.5050848722457886,
0.05649977922439575,
0.09224554896354675,
-0.7292765974998474,
-0.6337828636169434,
0.2634049355983734,
-0.1567165106534958,
0.8366953134536743,
-0.2783367335796356,
0.3235566020011902,
0.45463305711746216,
0.17010949552059174,
-0.3128839135169983,
-0.21849149465560913,
0.31307926774024963,
-0.24697759747505188,
-0.12847915291786194,
0.4966818690299988,
-0.3593774735927582,
0.3215681314468384,
0.12030259519815445,
-0.3629504442214966,
-0.11516230553388596,
0.15565665066242218,
0.6832250952720642,
-0.1165805459022522,
-0.17415253818035126,
0.633263349533081,
-0.8029553294181824,
0.24396422505378723,
-0.014463518746197224,
0.03190268948674202,
-0.5336840152740479,
-0.07096215337514877,
0.08169703930616379,
-0.29898008704185486,
-0.23401300609111786,
-0.015107286162674427,
-0.14007727801799774,
0.5211387872695923,
0.24217624962329865,
0.09916913509368896,
0.6121184229850769,
0.2865392863750458,
0.005235856398940086,
-0.051108915358781815,
-0.5746411085128784,
0.4833582043647766,
0.14565616846084595,
0.5978609323501587,
-0.663215160369873,
0.04555639624595642,
0.38762643933296204,
-0.2623628079891205,
0.21797190606594086,
0.6677563786506653,
0.4388067126274109,
-0.22640737891197205,
-0.24586720764636993,
0.11659760028123856,
-0.613844633102417,
0.012622199021279812,
0.1900075227022171,
-0.6045907735824585,
0.08098720014095306,
-0.47614598274230957,
-0.16200773417949677,
-0.4764612317085266,
-0.22954124212265015,
-0.1277473270893097,
-0.3692677319049835,
-0.28582438826560974,
0.1763889044523239,
-0.1032940000295639,
0.7197813987731934,
0.2356378734111786,
0.1364942342042923,
-0.2836715281009674,
-0.09867659956216812,
0.44818881154060364,
-0.446012407541275,
0.21845237910747528,
-0.1360217183828354,
-0.20824512839317322,
0.39896079897880554,
-0.0612441711127758,
0.15276747941970825,
0.23100541532039642,
-0.5157756209373474,
0.2984747588634491,
0.2542394697666168,
0.09025445580482483,
-0.1475861668586731,
0.26499253511428833,
1.2631579637527466,
0.9180166721343994,
-0.0007626286242157221,
-0.48528704047203064,
-0.6196677684783936,
0.35708367824554443,
0.08273672312498093,
-0.1008777990937233,
0.023255648091435432,
-0.40868645906448364,
0.5124045014381409,
-0.13738971948623657,
-0.3084575831890106,
0.08381859958171844,
-0.9575895071029663,
0.2872728109359741,
0.09366970509290695,
-0.3133985698223114,
0.9248128533363342,
-0.10469808429479599,
-0.20148296654224396,
0.828522801399231,
-0.19247746467590332,
0.4598411023616791,
0.25034061074256897,
0.04690801352262497,
0.4821818768978119,
0.23484332859516144,
-0.24885746836662292,
0.27434566617012024,
0.13594506680965424,
0.4319973587989807,
0.22536726295948029,
-0.04472897946834564,
0.7871857285499573,
0.007716905325651169,
0.07182420790195465,
0.1026454046368599,
0.20157936215400696,
-0.45331549644470215,
-0.872498631477356,
-0.3967337906360626,
-0.06623634696006775,
-0.7191494107246399,
0.945189356803894,
-0.2265104055404663,
0.035737037658691406,
0.2958677113056183,
-0.20737594366073608,
0.9972084164619446,
-0.026816753670573235,
0.03717414662241936,
0.7738156914710999,
-0.588733434677124,
-0.4026623070240021,
0.08010397851467133,
-0.4001069962978363,
-0.34042006731033325,
0.09706597030162811,
0.4508165717124939,
0.61749666929245,
-0.31452295184135437,
0.3204696774482727,
-0.22745880484580994,
-0.4084997773170471,
-0.22389806807041168,
-0.2319323718547821,
0.5786772966384888,
0.4400157332420349,
0.021030733361840248,
-0.06387503445148468,
0.08288110047578812,
-0.5772494673728943,
-0.05270140990614891,
-0.6213210225105286,
0.3162638545036316,
0.037758953869342804,
0.3986583352088928,
0.8052517175674438,
0.3762412369251251,
-0.24976888298988342,
0.19909551739692688,
0.17999336123466492,
-0.13849331438541412,
-0.28153491020202637,
0.139082670211792,
-0.7418841123580933,
0.4165053367614746,
-0.3191027045249939,
-0.7430022358894348,
-0.015422404743731022,
-0.2640095353126526,
0.2973474860191345,
0.4947941303253174,
0.031076347455382347,
0.17705000936985016,
-0.23280929028987885,
-0.17532269656658173,
-0.44060829281806946,
-0.6368903517723083,
0.3469175100326538,
0.009797020815312862,
0.35239923000335693,
-0.04389042779803276,
-0.17922933399677277,
0.17192628979682922,
0.5465043187141418,
-0.385138601064682,
-0.20565000176429749,
-0.7014203667640686,
0.14747358858585358,
-0.43988651037216187,
-0.32303133606910706,
-0.20016156136989594,
-0.677092432975769,
-0.22147101163864136,
-0.09447139501571655,
0.4958847165107727,
-0.47463878989219666,
0.538219153881073,
-0.23280999064445496,
0.38226211071014404,
0.18606805801391602,
-0.15544261038303375,
-0.14716565608978271,
0.058892421424388885,
-0.3597431182861328,
0.09939995408058167,
-0.017397452145814896,
-0.05917397886514664,
-0.6177319884300232,
0.07553465664386749,
-5.975610256195068,
0.4840479791164398,
-0.37781986594200134,
-0.4296454191207886,
-0.770704984664917,
0.531441330909729,
0.6416698098182678,
0.07514940947294235,
-0.0771833062171936,
-0.3991122841835022,
0.005441549699753523,
-0.0742177814245224,
0.29393476247787476,
0.08330868929624557,
0.04539795592427254,
0.14851073920726776,
0.1866723746061325,
0.42839041352272034,
-0.5221455097198486,
0.02053254283964634,
-0.28793880343437195,
-0.10754285007715225,
0.3826814293861389,
0.12099269777536392,
0.2900281548500061,
0.4769379496574402,
-0.26718199253082275,
-0.06403879821300507,
-0.06070675700902939,
0.34364181756973267,
0.13100256025791168,
-0.2931286692619324,
-0.4763171672821045,
-0.006809392478317022,
0.2842806875705719,
-0.07031923532485962,
0.42081448435783386,
0.07325112819671631,
0.538827121257782,
-0.38430923223495483,
-0.5737558603286743,
0.44152504205703735,
-0.2108117938041687,
0.04773854464292526,
0.6248506903648376,
0.1817374974489212,
0.022887596860527992,
0.0069508738815784454,
0.04330495744943619,
1.1580971479415894,
-0.02179410122334957,
-0.4210801422595978,
-0.09968782216310501,
-0.33750978112220764,
0.19163356721401215,
-0.1292266696691513,
-0.3722611367702484,
-0.1066150963306427,
-0.5141494274139404,
0.12131081521511078,
0.20560072362422943,
-0.5487790703773499,
-0.23403412103652954,
-0.5514727234840393,
-0.1681402027606964,
-0.05515046417713165,
-0.9058752655982971,
-0.1677081435918808,
0.7362890839576721,
0.1358465552330017,
-0.32083895802497864,
-0.010061075910925865,
-0.14122509956359863,
-0.6126605272293091,
0.028791693970561028,
-0.21368668973445892,
-0.17304888367652893,
-0.43887025117874146,
0.2371067851781845,
-0.1743679642677307,
-0.30771228671073914,
-0.10909996926784515,
-0.5042151808738708,
-0.3849557936191559,
-0.16203516721725464,
-0.5785629749298096,
-0.037975165992975235,
0.009741133078932762,
-0.01358043123036623,
-0.1723473221063614,
0.3326558470726013,
-0.3444312810897827,
0.44425323605537415,
-0.0749211385846138,
0.6615534424781799,
0.4019758999347687,
0.3523644208908081,
0.15925991535186768,
0.42495742440223694,
-0.09206235408782959,
-0.05406048893928528,
-0.4810173511505127,
0.3408850133419037,
-0.9784164428710938,
-0.21601399779319763,
0.08764242380857468,
0.03514597564935684,
0.4094453454017639,
0.1500888466835022,
-0.2616015076637268,
-0.01673523709177971,
0.1241363137960434,
-0.18785810470581055,
-0.4587674140930176,
0.7678154110908508,
-0.19749599695205688,
0.27322572469711304,
0.8960400819778442,
0.3402630686759949,
0.11286373436450958,
-0.19277772307395935,
0.31605565547943115,
0.08974121510982513,
0.07963918149471283,
0.16846661269664764,
0.33733636140823364,
-0.030146533623337746,
0.24243254959583282,
1.0693026781082153,
0.06023025885224342,
-0.006327896844595671,
0.5194471478462219,
0.653744101524353,
0.17312993109226227,
-0.10631795227527618,
-0.6327123641967773,
-0.386913001537323,
-0.05749843642115593,
-0.17873398959636688,
-0.1269875168800354,
0.44651558995246887,
-0.324528306722641,
-0.215923473238945,
0.10512278228998184,
0.5137023329734802,
-0.5243158340454102,
0.17453911900520325,
-0.3407035768032074,
0.3943805992603302,
0.008093500509858131,
-0.09103384613990784,
-0.02583063207566738,
0.4812018871307373,
-0.560555100440979,
-0.3423057794570923,
-0.12492892891168594,
0.21543146669864655,
0.21318988502025604,
-0.14741601049900055,
0.15019604563713074,
0.6400066614151001,
-0.34058672189712524,
-0.5614612698554993,
0.30956026911735535,
0.28059470653533936,
0.04744871333241463,
-0.008483591489493847,
-0.9046879410743713,
-0.4958667755126953,
-0.058301690965890884,
-0.17432056367397308,
-0.10304726660251617,
-0.0062452503480017185,
0.05756960064172745,
-0.059233661741018295,
0.44938233494758606,
-0.28492745757102966,
0.009134833700954914,
0.3761400282382965,
-0.11302540451288223,
0.032098621129989624,
-0.062380626797676086,
-0.3562563359737396,
-0.12264151871204376,
0.1356392204761505,
-0.3156876266002655,
0.12276710569858551,
0.35551053285598755,
-0.39806294441223145,
-0.2161422222852707,
0.7709953784942627,
0.42992502450942993,
-0.16599182784557343,
0.17954018712043762,
-0.3713461756706238,
-0.1649947464466095,
-0.34351566433906555,
0.591615617275238,
0.15004581212997437,
0.16305120289325714,
-0.21728426218032837,
0.07114657014608383,
-0.8389022946357727,
0.13713061809539795,
0.31197285652160645,
-0.2971072793006897,
0.6918079257011414,
-0.06088888272643089,
0.1570640504360199,
-0.018086334690451622,
-0.502333402633667,
0.0841178148984909,
0.03918938338756561,
0.07270494103431702,
0.18118633329868317,
-0.2410547137260437,
-0.4833591878414154,
-0.4592018723487854,
-0.3485634922981262,
-0.04085641726851463,
0.3282774090766907,
-0.2608451545238495,
0.0713132917881012,
-0.07535981386899948,
-0.29256317019462585,
-0.18201492726802826,
0.6473913788795471,
-0.8624072074890137,
-0.09173628687858582,
-0.13367779552936554,
0.0667237788438797,
-0.011371110565960407,
0.09397327899932861,
0.06313996016979218,
-0.2842894494533539,
0.2703685462474823,
0.40022316575050354,
-0.1696336269378662,
0.07218463718891144,
0.06807361543178558,
0.49671655893325806,
0.16465049982070923,
-0.28732070326805115,
-0.35242730379104614,
-0.019500773400068283,
0.32415181398391724,
0.04414411634206772,
-0.35118913650512695,
-0.8343769311904907,
-0.04408935457468033,
0.19642694294452667,
-0.531197190284729,
-0.4902746081352234,
-0.004945884458720684,
0.6277145147323608,
-0.16813334822654724,
-0.22108110785484314,
0.2100883424282074,
-0.21325375139713287,
-0.41224998235702515,
0.06660191714763641,
-0.5760648250579834,
-0.48731085658073425,
0.34091442823410034,
-0.03904751315712929,
-0.23402994871139526,
-0.17246414721012115,
0.17243440449237823,
-0.4517863988876343,
-0.6494483947753906,
0.09411831200122833,
0.1966734230518341,
1.0561017990112305,
0.19071976840496063,
-0.13796819746494293,
0.09370812773704529,
0.2743028700351715,
-0.4099363684654236,
-0.44034066796302795,
-0.09756632894277573,
-0.5643476247787476,
0.14405247569084167,
-0.5217202305793762,
-0.3869982659816742,
0.29398584365844727,
-0.5221131443977356,
0.6857127547264099,
0.1481567621231079,
-0.13682593405246735,
0.03710348159074783,
0.11186782270669937,
0.16438302397727966,
0.31674566864967346,
-0.15810450911521912,
0.2709895074367523,
-0.48062941431999207,
-0.2159973531961441,
0.021996913477778435,
0.14038875699043274,
-0.15076154470443726,
-0.6459307074546814,
0.18364155292510986,
-0.07135080546140671,
-0.9130038619041443,
0.9174061417579651,
-0.33282211422920227,
0.10785435140132904,
-0.19319872558116913,
0.06225023418664932,
0.020005274564027786,
0.29683926701545715,
0.048698700964450836,
-0.12159974873065948,
0.43106746673583984,
-0.010406454093754292,
-0.16045987606048584,
0.867921769618988,
-0.23172485828399658,
0.07023753225803375,
0.0051650963723659515,
0.4899096190929413,
0.7998104095458984,
0.07896885275840759,
-0.30873918533325195,
-0.1760496348142624,
0.4421461522579193,
0.1351400911808014,
-0.01651909202337265,
0.050990525633096695,
0.06533422321081161,
0.5718737840652466,
-0.31297850608825684,
-0.16297785937786102,
0.22513696551322937,
-0.44202885031700134,
-0.425173819065094,
0.19803312420845032,
-0.07204874604940414,
0.003959816414862871,
0.408377468585968,
0.3659241795539856,
-0.013745598495006561,
-0.29752635955810547,
0.39252954721450806,
-0.3058759868144989,
0.42938846349716187,
0.4534648656845093,
0.5237027406692505,
0.13951799273490906,
0.0019837277941405773,
-0.03697674721479416,
-0.20932415127754211,
0.25388506054878235,
-0.03385711833834648,
0.43270015716552734,
-0.6013681292533875,
0.16584116220474243,
0.05742134153842926,
-0.2154233753681183,
-0.30439192056655884,
0.11308518052101135,
0.27663156390190125,
0.20609056949615479,
0.28080829977989197,
0.1014324501156807,
0.4627872109413147,
0.19498610496520996,
-0.07041646540164948,
-0.2561754584312439,
-0.5083324909210205,
0.18451309204101562,
0.22573189437389374,
-0.3705537021160126,
0.4467615485191345,
-0.014465645886957645,
0.13782553374767303,
0.7554389238357544,
0.48357152938842773,
0.14016753435134888,
-0.16253678500652313,
-0.1147482842206955,
-0.008893984369933605,
0.48658785223960876,
-0.3771166205406189,
1.0108712911605835,
0.2612326443195343,
-0.011759016662836075,
0.12478170543909073,
-0.19171267747879028,
0.1267516314983368,
-0.23289816081523895,
-0.3872699737548828,
0.24118581414222717,
-0.007551314774900675,
0.24104194343090057,
0.04930240660905838,
0.1431976705789566,
0.47427859902381897,
0.059433165937662125,
0.26788297295570374,
0.21914544701576233,
-0.10042604058980942,
0.37271732091903687,
0.22769485414028168,
-0.9364150762557983,
0.19748176634311676,
-0.36685964465141296,
-0.3558223843574524,
-1.0853776931762695,
0.286293089389801,
0.3842376470565796,
0.15624190866947174,
-0.04282592982053757,
0.3222532570362091,
-0.3143402636051178,
-0.24603797495365143,
0.10255041718482971,
0.1724397838115692,
0.26191940903663635,
-0.36456814408302307,
-0.29326632618904114,
-0.05557488277554512,
-0.06168385222554207,
0.00827731378376484,
-0.5805894136428833,
-0.35147449374198914,
0.5167919397354126,
0.12833964824676514,
-0.19883477687835693,
0.6069271564483643,
0.1493518203496933,
-0.4044402837753296,
-0.6302282810211182,
0.7556391954421997,
-0.29205265641212463,
-0.3528633713722229,
0.26927852630615234,
0.44040167331695557,
-0.06798267364501953,
-0.5697163343429565,
-0.1080862432718277,
0.034681618213653564,
-0.2522135376930237,
-0.711997389793396,
0.47575339674949646,
-0.24583770334720612,
-0.40575915575027466,
0.04082867130637169,
-0.30497246980667114,
0.48767152428627014,
0.006158356089144945,
0.25773873925209045,
0.32813844084739685,
-0.4383770525455475,
0.18196947872638702,
0.464998334646225,
0.05444028973579407,
0.22281114757061005,
0.23242604732513428,
-0.07837136089801788
] |
233626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serissa | Serissa | Serissa is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae, containing only one species, Serissa japonica. It is native to open sub-tropical woodlands and wet meadows in southeast Asia, from India, and China to Japan. It is commonly called the snowrose, tree of a thousand stars, or Japanese boxthorn; and was formerly called Serissa foetida. 'Foetida' referres to the unpleasant, vomit-like, odour that the trees give off if their leaves are pruned or bruised. Snowrose and tree of a thousand stars are different cultivars. The only method of differentiating is measuring the difference in the shape and size of the flowers produced.
Description
It is an evergreen or semi-evergreen shrub, 45–60 cm high, with oval, deep green, rather thick leaves that have an unpleasant smell if bruised (hence its name foetida). The upright stems branch in all directions and form a wide bushy dome. It is grown for its neat habit, good coverage of branches and long flowering time. It is also valued for its rough, grey trunk which tends to get lighter in colour with age.
Serissa flowers practically all year round, but particularly from early spring to near autumn. The 4- to 6-lobed flowers are funnel-shaped and 1 cm wide. They first appear as pink buds but turn to a profusion of white flowers. Fertilizing is especially important during the long flowering period.
Cultivars
Many cultivars with double flowers or variegated leaves are also available. 'Pink Snow Rose' has pale pink flowers and leaves edged off-white. Other cultivars include: 'Variegata', 'Variegated Pink', 'Pink Mystic', 'Snowflake', 'Snowleaves', 'Mt. Fuji', 'Kyoto' and 'Sapporo'.
Bonsai
Serissa is one of the most common bonsai sold in America and Europe. It is not difficult to maintain as bonsai, but is very fussy. Many beginner bonsai enthusiasts will destroy a Serissa in their uninformed attempts to care for it. The trees respond adversely by dropping leaves if over-watered, under-watered, if it's too cold, too hot, or even if just moved to a new location. The plant usually grows back to health when put back to better conditions.
Synonyms
Synonyms Leptodermis nervosa, Leptodermis venosa, Buchozia coprosmoides, Serissa kawakamii, Serissa serissoides, Serissa democritea, Serissa foetida, Dysoda foetida, Dysoda fasciculata, Democritea serissoides, Serissa crassiramea, Serissa foetida forma plena, Serissa foetida forma pleniflora, Serissa foetida var. crassiramea
Notes
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20030628040930/http://www.bonsai-bci.com/species/serissa.html
http://www.bonsai4me.com/SpeciesGuide/Serissa.html (Accessed 15 Sept 2006)
Monotypic Rubiaceae genera
Plants used in bonsai
Paederieae
ja:ハクチョウゲ | [
-0.30266281962394714,
-0.16059884428977966,
-0.4605306386947632,
-0.20787987112998962,
-0.3441198170185089,
0.7835630178451538,
0.4845139980316162,
0.14722713828086853,
-0.7425621747970581,
-0.15633739531040192,
0.1863875389099121,
-0.41300469636917114,
-0.5327031016349792,
0.7036210298538208,
-0.3020085394382477,
0.4090731143951416,
0.06156940013170242,
0.8901215195655823,
0.1358066350221634,
0.1540943831205368,
0.003725625341758132,
-0.11437248438596725,
0.7700261473655701,
-0.7378813028335571,
0.20868007838726044,
-0.18592193722724915,
0.28372588753700256,
0.9684686064720154,
0.5675176382064819,
-0.3395477831363678,
-0.3066657781600952,
0.5417430996894836,
0.17124278843402863,
-0.004255982115864754,
0.1708652675151825,
-0.042351722717285156,
-0.22550632059574127,
-0.2917373776435852,
0.15531611442565918,
-0.20476439595222473,
0.17577843368053436,
-0.036198023706674576,
0.1578909009695053,
-0.010075904428958893,
0.051866818219423294,
-0.760574460029602,
-1.2907508611679077,
0.6220167279243469,
-0.9053966403007507,
0.321077436208725,
-0.11162828654050827,
0.5088582038879395,
0.717656135559082,
-0.24583415687084198,
0.23632192611694336,
0.7861488461494446,
-0.8721651434898376,
0.3194229304790497,
0.0296176765114069,
-0.7686222195625305,
-0.39959973096847534,
-0.021566083654761314,
0.33117935061454773,
-0.0680127814412117,
0.8088811039924622,
0.20478063821792603,
0.15547384321689606,
0.07813562452793121,
-0.5947017073631287,
-0.1582712084054947,
-0.1993018537759781,
-0.303851455450058,
0.28690043091773987,
0.3899950683116913,
0.2350376397371292,
-0.6095710396766663,
-0.5357219576835632,
-0.19550824165344238,
0.14707478880882263,
0.42184847593307495,
-0.3750936686992645,
0.10769785940647125,
0.6551993489265442,
-0.4138382375240326,
0.34168103337287903,
-0.24819566309452057,
-0.7261660099029541,
0.4873892068862915,
-0.7608445286750793,
0.6091846227645874,
-0.6887918710708618,
0.10605668276548386,
0.5351691246032715,
0.19366803765296936,
-0.14650894701480865,
-0.2323876917362213,
-0.4030609428882599,
0.02622644416987896,
0.36174818873405457,
0.23860570788383484,
-0.5659701228141785,
0.04519057646393776,
0.2359696328639984,
0.028710821643471718,
-0.821590781211853,
0.00342959095723927,
-0.045470114797353745,
-0.10283616930246353,
-0.19605451822280884,
0.2031044065952301,
-0.16619472205638885,
0.4004717469215393,
-0.09497474133968353,
0.4669152796268463,
0.11343412846326828,
1.1341257095336914,
-0.012416288256645203,
-0.5846989750862122,
-0.7467567920684814,
-0.5879989862442017,
0.43102800846099854,
0.18725112080574036,
0.5236783027648926,
-0.030738465487957,
-0.2628200650215149,
0.11095425486564636,
-0.13100023567676544,
-0.06285721063613892,
-0.3578612506389618,
0.7103659510612488,
0.6626870036125183,
0.6054031252861023,
-0.3075561821460724,
0.22957304120063782,
-0.2945481836795807,
-0.5412046313285828,
-0.21862708032131195,
0.35600218176841736,
0.540365993976593,
0.34790125489234924,
-0.9651092886924744,
0.698445737361908,
-0.4253115653991699,
-0.14487695693969727,
-0.1662587821483612,
0.3598312437534332,
-0.02270197495818138,
-0.08098278939723969,
-0.37817272543907166,
-1.0525684356689453,
0.33580783009529114,
-0.17650173604488373,
0.005970807746052742,
-0.202031210064888,
-0.30519384145736694,
-0.05230892077088356,
0.6369702219963074,
0.10212314873933792,
0.3220759332180023,
-0.26021692156791687,
-0.3316287696361542,
-0.11040018498897552,
-0.17174451053142548,
0.1352444291114807,
0.15986108779907227,
-0.10165342688560486,
0.18616539239883423,
0.7040927410125732,
0.3742632269859314,
0.5476392507553101,
-0.3437044620513916,
-0.4776097238063812,
0.13457775115966797,
0.23307214677333832,
-0.07891049236059189,
-0.08238688856363297,
0.12744545936584473,
0.1670408695936203,
0.3361201286315918,
0.04582737758755684,
-0.5281920433044434,
0.5167171955108643,
-0.1419762372970581,
0.3459762930870056,
-0.0501042865216732,
-0.053185317665338516,
0.7362149357795715,
0.4606536328792572,
-0.07567905634641647,
-0.1455458253622055,
-0.8712596297264099,
-0.4135648310184479,
-0.014505604282021523,
0.6392998695373535,
0.12783308327198029,
1.0907838344573975,
-0.3420622646808624,
0.316524475812912,
-0.4990679621696472,
0.16120141744613647,
-0.6385893225669861,
0.27707695960998535,
-0.050679124891757965,
-0.4559169411659241,
-1.3312612771987915,
0.42336246371269226,
0.2333257645368576,
0.06760413199663162,
0.26204100251197815,
0.5721842646598816,
-0.6967781782150269,
-0.9045252799987793,
0.12085375934839249,
-0.24188905954360962,
-0.07396461814641953,
-0.018075160682201385,
0.022611914202570915,
-0.11870813369750977,
0.9193567037582397,
-0.33108004927635193,
0.6034145951271057,
0.10391665250062943,
0.19577784836292267,
0.5463154911994934,
-0.4374600648880005,
0.29786524176597595,
0.8178825378417969,
0.1609789878129959,
0.4112838804721832,
-0.27951517701148987,
0.07677046954631805,
-0.4925839304924011,
0.5601741075515747,
-0.7432590126991272,
0.19663770496845245,
0.9874627590179443,
0.3483095169067383,
-1.0831736326217651,
0.3368828296661377,
-0.1705198436975479,
0.2136509120464325,
0.6507847905158997,
-0.38621872663497925,
0.3230680227279663,
0.8937479257583618,
-0.17969514429569244,
-0.2274206131696701,
-0.26899001002311707,
0.13868315517902374,
-0.19627536833286285,
-0.18261703848838806,
1.1216802597045898,
-0.011336119845509529,
0.2661857604980469,
-0.6351518630981445,
0.21445415914058685,
-0.01001064945012331,
0.5727322697639465,
0.7869928479194641,
0.31635597348213196,
-0.5341883301734924,
0.2396395355463028,
0.20365436375141144,
0.11972783505916595,
0.07083021104335785,
0.29507389664649963,
0.1988603174686432,
-0.5581799149513245,
0.4750767648220062,
-0.015761684626340866,
-0.047178708016872406,
-0.5052444934844971,
-0.7938714027404785,
-0.04119802638888359,
-0.456859827041626,
-0.5170831680297852,
-0.6572403907775879,
-0.3982781767845154,
-0.229597270488739,
-0.5184462666511536,
0.339362770318985,
0.5838288068771362,
0.3991461992263794,
-0.6904845833778381,
-0.16522905230522156,
-0.5744840502738953,
0.4951448142528534,
-0.6189077496528625,
-0.19061870872974396,
-0.7481940388679504,
-0.3147772550582886,
0.5136079788208008,
-0.6079889535903931,
0.827099084854126,
-0.4092648923397064,
-0.09054800122976303,
0.07261686027050018,
0.6800101399421692,
0.7876356840133667,
-0.8682823777198792,
-0.5910642743110657,
-0.7724491953849792,
0.21867482364177704,
-0.0569109246134758,
-0.26751258969306946,
0.449000746011734,
0.5118808150291443,
-0.051871221512556076,
-5.28496789932251,
-0.4823552668094635,
-0.13050442934036255,
0.19616322219371796,
-0.06082199141383171,
0.39021021127700806,
0.026996619999408722,
-0.32714471220970154,
-0.04864032194018364,
-0.16197068989276886,
0.9173619151115417,
0.3974761664867401,
-0.19111372530460358,
-0.004890781361609697,
0.32437941431999207,
0.6088448762893677,
-0.07106982171535492,
-0.11111803352832794,
-0.039352770894765854,
-0.2947482168674469,
-0.1502264440059662,
0.0695028007030487,
-0.05476212501525879,
0.5235918760299683,
-0.4735313951969147,
0.8291317820549011,
0.32507744431495667,
-0.7016898989677429,
-0.7779403924942017,
0.14484727382659912,
-0.5190126299858093,
-0.4505946934223175,
-0.1270233392715454,
-0.03742026537656784,
-0.24153567850589752,
-0.03153827786445618,
0.23598867654800415,
-0.42370954155921936,
-0.4117520749568939,
0.06773820519447327,
-0.269961953163147,
-0.3876587450504303,
0.4879743456840515,
-0.20503844320774078,
-0.04175947979092598,
0.07997537404298782,
-0.7135738134384155,
-0.8775761723518372,
0.26916006207466125,
1.068354606628418,
0.08755689114332199,
-0.2802550494670868,
0.471896767616272,
-0.388766884803772,
-0.1634131520986557,
0.45892637968063354,
0.16612115502357483,
0.0835113376379013,
-0.610126793384552,
0.0578598715364933,
0.19310934841632843,
-0.33773377537727356,
-0.06486713886260986,
-0.3508110046386719,
-0.26890459656715393,
0.4528723955154419,
0.07237843424081802,
0.6001596450805664,
0.3905487060546875,
-0.14583633840084076,
-0.21389497816562653,
0.17222091555595398,
-0.30849847197532654,
-0.9006626009941101,
-0.5350180268287659,
-0.6015878319740295,
-0.454668253660202,
-0.09305513650178909,
-1.1145684719085693,
0.2943386733531952,
0.20212160050868988,
-0.11752486974000931,
0.2784408628940582,
0.07759193331003189,
0.2652556896209717,
-1.1533313989639282,
-0.08641894906759262,
0.17542657256126404,
-0.15352100133895874,
0.26531490683555603,
0.32320642471313477,
-0.532623291015625,
0.3685663342475891,
0.14067652821540833,
0.6342276334762573,
0.4116312563419342,
0.7130105495452881,
0.7178680896759033,
-0.0029583321884274483,
-0.5662378668785095,
0.6308156847953796,
-0.27977216243743896,
0.21959584951400757,
0.13120904564857483,
-0.10454105585813522,
-0.4327535927295685,
-0.3491784632205963,
0.4443448781967163,
0.1570427268743515,
-0.5859752893447876,
0.9436321258544922,
-0.006024423521012068,
-0.29310327768325806,
-0.10034666210412979,
0.6678199172019958,
0.5508841276168823,
-0.10266539454460144,
0.7282567024230957,
0.6957922577857971,
-0.12880700826644897,
0.22208982706069946,
0.046092770993709564,
-0.3967459797859192,
-0.18172627687454224,
-0.21847853064537048,
-0.4793396294116974,
-0.10006299614906311,
0.2394597828388214,
-0.3332175016403198,
0.2931973338127136,
-0.22125130891799927,
-0.11542192846536636,
-1.0079553127288818,
-0.14188598096370697,
-0.2156563103199005,
-0.15987823903560638,
-0.5326002836227417,
0.17159974575042725,
-0.333279550075531,
0.3534061014652252,
-0.3011505901813507,
0.025530047714710236,
-0.6552280783653259,
0.09806237369775772,
0.38769257068634033,
0.5235549211502075,
-0.3586652874946594,
-0.5558987259864807,
-0.3288101851940155,
0.26359981298446655,
0.14682815968990326,
-0.6986989378929138,
0.17894171178340912,
-0.9409462213516235,
0.08460349589586258,
-0.027434401214122772,
0.021484946832060814,
0.4130319058895111,
0.06185666471719742,
-0.02090771682560444,
-0.19716377556324005,
-0.4805603325366974,
-0.5707713961601257,
-0.33893001079559326,
-0.37434545159339905,
-0.5154165029525757,
-0.07686614990234375,
-0.7558779716491699,
-0.3510022759437561,
0.5259996652603149,
0.13822399079799652,
-0.42834174633026123,
-0.07206167280673981,
-0.5633940696716309,
0.07191631942987442,
0.2768995463848114,
-0.19674088060855865,
-0.2915506958961487,
-0.004704442340880632,
-0.12214905023574829,
-0.6107783913612366,
0.11651941388845444,
0.27718570828437805,
0.3688051700592041,
0.2589353919029236,
-0.7569566369056702,
0.09583701938390732,
-0.6075817346572876,
-0.46492281556129456,
0.2473464012145996,
-0.01817873679101467,
0.07057393342256546,
0.5574255585670471,
0.12866200506687164,
-0.4997488558292389,
-0.18351532518863678,
-0.15798519551753998,
0.5823675990104675,
-0.2849275469779968,
-0.9098768830299377,
-0.16582296788692474,
0.21114641427993774,
-0.5531322360038757,
0.6382533311843872,
-0.009033869951963425,
-0.5163593888282776,
0.5363854765892029,
0.5426654815673828,
-1.0452784299850464,
-0.3879786729812622,
-0.7072373032569885,
-0.6500709056854248,
0.06991543620824814,
0.592018187046051,
0.1626395285129547,
0.29352831840515137,
-0.20087066292762756,
0.03656633570790291,
-0.25073325634002686,
-0.2879939079284668,
-0.17860136926174164,
-0.3304620087146759,
0.22376908361911774,
-0.9878242015838623,
0.008577669970691204,
0.43031173944473267,
0.2866690456867218,
-0.1718272566795349,
0.6811042428016663,
-0.30343756079673767,
-0.027033202350139618,
-0.6858493685722351,
0.4400981068611145,
-0.6245043277740479,
0.35657522082328796,
0.042737025767564774,
0.03733769431710243,
-0.11677946895360947,
0.8386241793632507,
0.8699840903282166,
0.5168908834457397,
0.6430109739303589,
-0.24926316738128662,
-0.1733894795179367,
0.296152800321579,
0.27723315358161926,
0.25615864992141724,
-0.1926184445619583,
-0.5821040272712708,
0.12008500099182129,
0.5845552086830139,
-0.02357758767902851,
-0.608246386051178,
0.46460872888565063,
1.602376103401184,
-0.7357781529426575,
0.3366645574569702,
0.31538817286491394,
-0.48267996311187744,
-0.37014490365982056,
-0.0012334497878327966,
0.16882845759391785,
0.33944815397262573,
0.3656213879585266,
0.06058339402079582,
-0.15519453585147858,
-0.503407895565033,
-0.13958990573883057,
0.8402560949325562,
0.012560486793518066,
0.7245992422103882,
0.22679024934768677,
-0.1780984103679657,
0.3339855372905731,
-0.5328087210655212,
0.8601312041282654,
-0.04686356335878372,
-0.6006596088409424,
-0.10178731381893158,
-0.20691080391407013,
-0.8399947881698608,
-0.27696865797042847,
-0.1927742063999176,
0.3844240605831146,
0.10272236913442612,
-0.10251044481992722,
-0.48188546299934387,
0.09254784137010574,
0.0051163360476493835,
0.11326118558645248,
-0.38148218393325806,
0.03199159726500511,
0.15005278587341309,
-0.06780897825956345,
0.15223370492458344,
0.26740917563438416,
0.1857299655675888,
0.022608395665884018,
-0.7870839834213257,
-0.0008346572867594659,
-0.5703302025794983,
0.5635187029838562,
0.4879392385482788,
0.07892150431871414,
-0.20735745131969452,
0.5085675716400146,
0.3302449584007263,
0.35311636328697205,
-0.34512650966644287,
-0.4949144423007965,
0.3674120604991913,
-0.18778759241104126,
0.5149713158607483,
0.022388877347111702,
-0.517632246017456,
0.3512129783630371,
0.2264871597290039,
-0.09521690011024475,
-0.2788727283477783,
0.6828814148902893,
0.6773460507392883,
0.06706658750772476,
0.5737983584403992,
0.17148463428020477,
0.16387523710727692,
0.6784545183181763,
-0.5283553004264832,
-0.5987406373023987,
0.2120828926563263,
0.8448317050933838,
0.4583546817302704,
0.22326304018497467,
-0.39777255058288574,
0.55611252784729,
0.5093507766723633,
-0.4173195958137512,
0.15502236783504486,
0.08353346586227417,
-0.03431811183691025,
0.6766225099563599,
0.23730258643627167,
0.07200782746076584,
0.3561912775039673,
-0.2045503407716751,
0.0825141966342926,
0.12522651255130768,
0.25681573152542114,
-0.22219915688037872,
0.5292652249336243,
-0.21617092192173004,
0.27801012992858887,
0.4804771840572357,
-0.06266932934522629,
0.09916412085294724,
0.0782821774482727,
0.18112342059612274,
-0.4064495265483856,
-0.2449113428592682,
-0.5635327100753784,
0.34700581431388855,
-0.22199921309947968,
-0.3060322403907776,
-0.2565690279006958,
0.7699432373046875,
-0.9400060772895813,
0.12153018265962601,
-0.1599843055009842,
0.13093608617782593,
-0.5668017268180847,
0.26161208748817444,
0.4318429231643677,
-0.2687923312187195,
-0.009509377181529999,
0.5798906087875366,
1.1829019784927368,
0.47931942343711853,
-0.03697984665632248,
0.3227156400680542,
0.1707616150379181,
0.5100182890892029,
-0.2651137113571167,
0.6324048638343811,
0.4557322859764099,
-0.5141339302062988,
0.031828008592128754,
0.01582176238298416,
-0.019942963495850563,
-0.7318012714385986,
-0.49590355157852173,
0.14818690717220306,
0.35638487339019775,
-0.3585022985935211,
-0.51936274766922,
0.10298193246126175,
-0.5554284453392029,
-0.0667910948395729,
-0.4865309000015259,
1.0422189235687256,
0.17894673347473145,
-0.5840885639190674,
0.391223669052124,
-0.5426462888717651,
0.12641629576683044,
0.11207296699285507,
-0.16179248690605164,
0.5072587132453918,
-0.4696781039237976,
0.4146396517753601,
-0.4299471378326416,
0.20096057653427124,
0.08381747454404831,
0.5056478381156921,
0.3018829822540283,
-0.6643704175949097,
-0.774861216545105,
0.4824635088443756,
0.2849251329898834,
0.14172853529453278,
-0.14705300331115723,
-0.9063544869422913,
0.21157436072826385,
-0.6403279900550842,
0.448396772146225,
1.0161595344543457,
0.0514681339263916,
-0.1937638223171234,
-0.4705406427383423,
0.5755428671836853,
-0.41049355268478394,
0.18715263903141022,
0.4075847566127777,
0.4825762212276459,
-0.4576101005077362,
0.5181392431259155,
-0.5115659236907959,
0.20943866670131683,
0.21683315932750702,
0.26131948828697205,
-0.43415963649749756,
-0.41222429275512695,
0.17839643359184265,
-0.07300836592912674,
-0.01712653413414955,
-0.6069018840789795,
-0.009796523489058018,
0.5794030427932739,
-0.6249077320098877,
-0.33770114183425903,
-0.38512933254241943,
-0.018996812403202057,
-0.21051129698753357,
-0.3146374225616455,
0.5742661952972412,
-0.18696555495262146,
-0.033342353999614716,
0.19239051640033722,
-0.16711102426052094,
-0.15766003727912903,
0.30473101139068604,
-0.08375586569309235
] |
233631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryoelectronics | Cryoelectronics | In electronics, cryoelectronics or cryolectronics is the study of superconductivity under cryogenic conditions and its applications. It is also described as the operation of power electronic devices at cryogenic temperatures. Practical applications of this field is quite broad, although it is particularly useful in areas where cryogenic environment exists such as superconducting technologies and spacecraft design. It also became a special branch of cryophysics and cryotechnics and plays a role in operations that require high resolution and precision measurements.
Cryoelectronic devices include the SQUIDs or the superconducting quantum interference devices, which represent magnetic sensors of highest sensitivity. They serve as the backbone of applications that range from materials evaluation, geological and environmental prospecting, and medical diagnostics, among others.
Marketable Uses
A key factor in production of new technologies is whether it is cost effective and useful. Devices that make use of cryoelectronics and the applications of superconductivity such as computers, information transmission lines, and magnetocardiography have potential for commercial value outside of a few specific devices for singular purposes. At the same time, the presence of other devices made with highly specialized functions can be competitively marketed without having to rely on a large market.
Devices and activities that are derived from this and have marketable functions include:
Magnetometry: this includes magnetocardiography, communications, geomagnetism, and submarine detection. This includes several more specialized functions and some broader functions that can be derived from cryoelectronics.
Computers: being able to mass-produce cheap, compact tunneling cryotron provides a diverse base of uses and marketing.
Electrical Metrology: Allowing for more precise readings and measurements of current, voltage, power, and attenuation ratio, this will allow for more precise control over maintaining legal levels which provides a specific need and use for the technology.
Galvanometers: a range of measurement devices that will be of use to the scientific field though more precise measurements in specialized fields.
References
Superconductivity | [
0.5570047497749329,
0.4639703631401062,
-0.31373944878578186,
0.4307711124420166,
0.265190988779068,
-0.196808323264122,
0.1683240830898285,
0.06923585385084152,
-0.0865451842546463,
-0.1486392319202423,
-1.1326671838760376,
0.45118388533592224,
-0.3543926179409027,
0.3408145308494568,
-0.3067214787006378,
0.21241271495819092,
0.29669344425201416,
0.38817349076271057,
0.22893129289150238,
-0.024018241092562675,
-0.13476204872131348,
-0.13920858502388,
0.0999607965350151,
-0.13923664391040802,
0.2827979326248169,
-0.43221694231033325,
-0.048875391483306885,
0.052784569561481476,
0.18380112946033478,
0.3681001365184784,
-0.4050463140010834,
0.49010270833969116,
-0.43965595960617065,
-0.2256617248058319,
0.30229485034942627,
0.5713907480239868,
-0.5103162527084351,
-0.12433949112892151,
-0.21670547127723694,
-0.3893596827983856,
0.233660489320755,
0.04285699874162674,
0.39287427067756653,
-0.13885276019573212,
-0.6145156621932983,
-0.22653566300868988,
-1.222822666168213,
0.23184290528297424,
-0.9008747339248657,
0.17204368114471436,
-0.22630810737609863,
0.12939056754112244,
0.22063934803009033,
0.24800090491771698,
-0.34509286284446716,
-0.0007898570038378239,
-0.42880716919898987,
-0.02847987227141857,
0.21770790219306946,
-0.06975241005420685,
0.12497203052043915,
0.08303163945674896,
-0.5810546278953552,
0.10963158309459686,
0.5179858803749084,
-0.2966226041316986,
0.1240701749920845,
-0.5508638024330139,
-0.5322895646095276,
-0.4590522348880768,
-0.003830100642517209,
0.08962732553482056,
-0.0355866514146328,
0.12064754962921143,
-0.2021048218011856,
0.040614329278469086,
0.4981863498687744,
-0.17579713463783264,
-0.022522564977407455,
0.49530619382858276,
0.220314621925354,
0.9392132759094238,
0.33775466680526733,
0.2756551504135132,
0.15398049354553223,
-0.007989366538822651,
-0.6692163348197937,
1.0665676593780518,
-0.6283851265907288,
0.33373740315437317,
0.1964634507894516,
0.24638529121875763,
0.8679410815238953,
0.23830701410770416,
0.1711491048336029,
0.3904225528240204,
0.30734139680862427,
-0.33966949582099915,
-0.32056504487991333,
0.3894781172275543,
0.09901969134807587,
-0.3573959171772003,
0.15126565098762512,
-0.292987197637558,
0.5135627388954163,
-0.3827873766422272,
-0.5212587118148804,
0.11504880338907242,
-0.18370914459228516,
-0.11260993033647537,
-0.7724580764770508,
0.44235119223594666,
-0.34561389684677124,
0.35941293835639954,
-0.8461781740188599,
0.1456877440214157,
0.03213513270020485,
0.263582706451416,
-0.11696654558181763,
0.03240485489368439,
0.21843083202838898,
0.6919760704040527,
-0.09972264617681503,
-0.13048973679542542,
-0.410677433013916,
0.4196890592575073,
0.7717650532722473,
0.6206912994384766,
-0.7335669994354248,
-0.10135374963283539,
-0.007915612310171127,
1.2471610307693481,
-0.12304159998893738,
0.06953506171703339,
-0.13453179597854614,
-0.2738305926322937,
0.488487184047699,
-0.023300303146243095,
0.4303426146507263,
0.1677234172821045,
-0.5054410696029663,
-0.4601838290691376,
-0.41596341133117676,
0.13160553574562073,
0.2694143056869507,
-0.3066714406013489,
0.07415635138750076,
-0.09613273292779922,
-0.21867574751377106,
0.2618630826473236,
-0.16903559863567352,
0.07480727136135101,
-0.8496569991111755,
0.14652827382087708,
-0.1673779934644699,
-0.004629665054380894,
0.4575789272785187,
-0.09588047116994858,
-0.1721888929605484,
0.43015891313552856,
-0.23007959127426147,
-0.37725889682769775,
-0.626918375492096,
0.40795424580574036,
0.27886641025543213,
-0.5273640751838684,
0.7026275396347046,
0.7116931676864624,
-0.15695695579051971,
0.25327783823013306,
-0.13432703912258148,
-0.1834942251443863,
0.15314103662967682,
-0.04281248897314072,
0.32408377528190613,
-0.27429068088531494,
0.21016082167625427,
0.4800173044204712,
0.2951212525367737,
0.34149134159088135,
-0.8183915615081787,
0.5010891556739807,
0.334245502948761,
-0.42097848653793335,
0.1377253234386444,
-0.053536344319581985,
0.6424121856689453,
-0.10551377385854721,
-0.18501117825508118,
-0.41701361536979675,
-0.6803362369537354,
0.052458181977272034,
0.20206116139888763,
-0.7973012328147888,
0.9601085782051086,
-0.09554901719093323,
-0.2992028295993805,
0.9526417851448059,
-0.649419903755188,
0.38536468148231506,
0.03553001955151558,
0.2830810844898224,
0.3585312068462372,
-0.2918317914009094,
0.04253198206424713,
0.2804829776287079,
0.7261283993721008,
0.048148442059755325,
0.059828341007232666,
-0.007579350844025612,
1.0178756713867188,
-0.23916392028331757,
0.43325430154800415,
-0.015586118213832378,
0.1898246854543686,
-0.5051385164260864,
-1.030491590499878,
0.06352702528238297,
-0.13964691758155823,
0.06912901997566223,
0.5835589170455933,
-0.00994812324643135,
0.08156703412532806,
0.027847792953252792,
-0.05538460984826088,
0.8494734168052673,
0.4308817982673645,
-0.0829896479845047,
0.9089679718017578,
-0.5058495998382568,
0.14491933584213257,
0.22802813351154327,
-0.054572463035583496,
-0.09981611371040344,
-0.17510336637496948,
-0.05387317016720772,
0.2168903797864914,
0.0907001942396164,
0.2373671680688858,
-0.39658233523368835,
-0.4452500343322754,
0.24937079846858978,
-0.28536802530288696,
0.48506033420562744,
0.061499085277318954,
-0.04128057137131691,
0.6135045289993286,
0.19282266497612,
-0.47241711616516113,
0.08222796767950058,
-0.1367146074771881,
0.35463830828666687,
0.19873884320259094,
-0.5283381938934326,
0.1565336436033249,
-0.3834233582019806,
-0.06105324998497963,
0.2898085117340088,
-0.4747101962566376,
0.10852637141942978,
0.0923379510641098,
0.0028557099867612123,
0.2738829553127289,
-0.4120027720928192,
-0.12519584596157074,
-0.7627148628234863,
-0.0663529559969902,
-0.4800392985343933,
0.3215627372264862,
0.24523034691810608,
0.6438193321228027,
-0.20278654992580414,
-0.10228261351585388,
0.1617010533809662,
-0.7454394102096558,
-0.8888674378395081,
0.07933565229177475,
0.42119473218917847,
-0.5013028979301453,
-0.09082262963056564,
0.41513592004776,
1.0544599294662476,
0.18925191462039948,
-0.3529552221298218,
-0.6531932950019836,
-0.04099531099200249,
0.05155738443136215,
-0.33398306369781494,
0.2683233320713043,
-0.5471997857093811,
-0.2543210983276367,
-0.3721601068973541,
0.33052754402160645,
-0.18649855256080627,
-0.2954706847667694,
0.5913258790969849,
0.007634322624653578,
0.06595274806022644,
0.31428974866867065,
0.11789276450872421,
-0.7148146033287048,
-0.1584995836019516,
-0.24172180891036987,
-0.20220819115638733,
-0.34847119450569153,
-0.08238518238067627,
-0.051684897392988205,
-0.006940572522580624,
-5.811468601226807,
-0.07125445455312729,
0.03677366301417351,
-0.30542197823524475,
0.37760236859321594,
0.25021907687187195,
0.4963817894458771,
-0.01909538544714451,
-0.5979825854301453,
0.04489578679203987,
-0.5934286713600159,
0.3147784173488617,
-0.12082739174365997,
0.40523573756217957,
0.6721172332763672,
-0.04886005073785782,
0.591089129447937,
-0.31552836298942566,
0.2197771817445755,
0.1179909035563469,
-0.08207841217517853,
0.24648085236549377,
-0.048985544592142105,
0.3237280249595642,
0.17995481193065643,
-0.2535373568534851,
-0.2863212823867798,
0.5231545567512512,
-0.6754089593887329,
-0.22457830607891083,
0.14716030657291412,
-0.3324756920337677,
-0.030018894001841545,
-0.17947082221508026,
0.19169653952121735,
0.6463539600372314,
0.5337294340133667,
0.04857334494590759,
0.10239778459072113,
-0.4391341507434845,
-0.011781442910432816,
0.09680736809968948,
-0.3361055254936218,
0.21550001204013824,
0.16588260233402252,
-0.01892070472240448,
0.15972095727920532,
0.08627939224243164,
-0.014046519994735718,
0.85777348279953,
-0.08004599809646606,
0.36922478675842285,
0.7256143689155579,
-0.3628224730491638,
0.2074129283428192,
-0.054805491119623184,
0.4387245774269104,
0.18014970421791077,
0.007216653320938349,
0.12355239689350128,
0.03858845680952072,
-0.16747510433197021,
0.06834420561790466,
-0.5113373398780823,
-0.26052287220954895,
-0.03520471975207329,
-0.7932400703430176,
-0.7103271484375,
0.3389369547367096,
-0.10794273018836975,
-0.21247287094593048,
0.5918588042259216,
0.14037421345710754,
-0.7710514068603516,
-0.0019341279985383153,
-0.2731644809246063,
0.3411685526371002,
-0.3071526885032654,
0.23717930912971497,
0.5500238537788391,
-0.6791139245033264,
-0.11709176748991013,
-0.17912395298480988,
-0.17368358373641968,
0.10008500516414642,
-0.18679359555244446,
-0.03482311591506004,
-0.12765976786613464,
-0.07447842508554459,
-0.15535306930541992,
0.8730971217155457,
-0.15880927443504333,
0.21935705840587616,
0.3774731159210205,
0.38248392939567566,
0.3100844621658325,
0.21042479574680328,
0.37394630908966064,
0.47821709513664246,
0.24946197867393494,
-0.39167749881744385,
-0.10989498347043991,
-0.15729300677776337,
-0.35941752791404724,
-0.00848778709769249,
-0.6821699738502502,
-0.5184195041656494,
0.5972193479537964,
0.2123645544052124,
-0.5453488230705261,
-0.09407305717468262,
1.0024842023849487,
-0.24337199330329895,
-0.3540205657482147,
0.21821965277194977,
0.3498457372188568,
-0.40008893609046936,
0.4421846866607666,
0.16046659648418427,
-0.22257263958454132,
-0.21431486308574677,
-0.05026908963918686,
-0.037511758506298065,
-0.13855740427970886,
0.19163213670253754,
-0.10603030771017075,
-0.027402132749557495,
0.35777297616004944,
-0.17190255224704742,
-0.10361849516630173,
0.0881989374756813,
0.8603323698043823,
-0.016106190159916878,
0.2556205093860626,
0.40124282240867615,
-0.3457193672657013,
-0.3828822374343872,
0.10889462381601334,
-0.02967916615307331,
-0.5448310375213623,
0.6455899477005005,
-0.5121239423751831,
-0.036027692258358,
-0.34924831986427307,
0.45740967988967896,
0.5841677784919739,
0.0270688459277153,
-0.06665308773517609,
0.3530869781970978,
0.5988275408744812,
-0.06547190248966217,
-0.23103275895118713,
-0.2545194923877716,
-0.5144498944282532,
0.29135677218437195,
0.05462024733424187,
-0.037281859666109085,
-0.21337726712226868,
0.37371519207954407,
-0.5365699529647827,
0.24306708574295044,
0.23861072957515717,
-1.0168167352676392,
-0.38448217511177063,
-0.05748363584280014,
-0.19820059835910797,
-0.6448657512664795,
0.15328441560268402,
-0.37815386056900024,
0.15034106373786926,
-0.5666730403900146,
-0.3865143060684204,
-0.5539010763168335,
-0.39031338691711426,
0.5340471863746643,
0.1490466147661209,
0.44412699341773987,
0.051184844225645065,
-0.2040887475013733,
-0.6581858992576599,
0.5253289341926575,
-0.3291688859462738,
-0.41949543356895447,
0.16147400438785553,
0.5955312848091125,
-0.1491016447544098,
-0.21610210835933685,
-0.1890639215707779,
-0.45592084527015686,
-0.19142746925354004,
0.31317904591560364,
0.25761568546295166,
0.21943359076976776,
0.026789028197526932,
0.17065323889255524,
-0.5243406295776367,
-0.09262384474277496,
0.46348610520362854,
-0.04168839380145073,
-0.5588093996047974,
0.1863257735967636,
0.04076974093914032,
-0.2686098515987396,
0.06890719383955002,
0.37088578939437866,
-0.1848466843366623,
-0.27332550287246704,
0.22342687845230103,
-0.02835794910788536,
-0.321404367685318,
-0.2636387050151825,
-0.4311535954475403,
-0.40137267112731934,
0.12494522333145142,
-0.505401611328125,
0.12300832569599152,
0.3478647768497467,
-0.013184801675379276,
-0.5427185893058777,
-0.018545737490057945,
0.02149515599012375,
-0.08967702090740204,
0.2757205665111542,
-0.0180099755525589,
-0.28436505794525146,
0.026871947571635246,
0.025474505499005318,
-0.09304971992969513,
0.5834305882453918,
-0.4155713617801666,
-0.6639916896820068,
-0.22689685225486755,
-0.2459774762392044,
-0.24710720777511597,
0.023107804358005524,
0.25962623953819275,
-0.04949196055531502,
0.1861242800951004,
-0.6880033612251282,
-0.4217296540737152,
0.43847984075546265,
0.4084698557853699,
-0.17269884049892426,
-0.27359288930892944,
-0.5886741280555725,
0.32691535353660583,
0.5045763254165649,
-0.3932924270629883,
-0.8757347464561462,
-0.28685668110847473,
0.4375073313713074,
-0.16895326972007751,
-0.6466168165206909,
-0.05901637673377991,
0.5438627004623413,
-0.10938915610313416,
-0.018038000911474228,
-0.8163874745368958,
0.06346163898706436,
-0.03953443467617035,
-0.3434741199016571,
-0.7298673391342163,
-0.2990999221801758,
-0.014675772748887539,
0.379329651594162,
0.26460549235343933,
-0.2518562078475952,
-0.3354569673538208,
0.1748366355895996,
-0.4171026945114136,
0.1303883194923401,
0.10942142456769943,
0.7003350257873535,
0.4394247829914093,
0.4385141432285309,
0.3843908905982971,
-0.18508386611938477,
-0.7535044550895691,
-0.5580881834030151,
0.028730228543281555,
-0.30672550201416016,
-0.14587153494358063,
0.5707289576530457,
-0.44639822840690613,
0.15944379568099976,
-0.1873016208410263,
0.6352789402008057,
-0.051683537662029266,
-0.696839451789856,
-0.05084703862667084,
-0.4049546718597412,
0.12307658791542053,
-0.27929991483688354,
-0.05040770396590233,
0.04476259648799896,
-0.5472235083580017,
-0.0010130414739251137,
0.11143000423908234,
-0.07833641022443771,
-0.3679889440536499,
-0.85645991563797,
0.4730260968208313,
0.08676313608884811,
-0.87850022315979,
0.850906491279602,
0.3110347390174866,
0.32630670070648193,
-0.10476458072662354,
-0.047758638858795166,
-0.2574780583381653,
0.2315528839826584,
0.30090218782424927,
-0.6444050669670105,
1.0379163026809692,
-0.020140983164310455,
0.1706199198961258,
0.6060194373130798,
-0.45891278982162476,
0.5214776396751404,
0.4279326796531677,
-0.1080121323466301,
-0.7700147032737732,
0.3444414436817169,
-0.719194233417511,
-0.5089354515075684,
0.5524164438247681,
-0.022221609950065613,
0.05639068782329559,
-0.06362766772508621,
-0.20327745378017426,
1.0566600561141968,
0.48465076088905334,
-0.03746001049876213,
0.5239424109458923,
-0.2679765522480011,
-0.22529444098472595,
-0.05881610885262489,
-0.3365042805671692,
-0.32676100730895996,
0.6325394511222839,
0.4734021723270416,
0.6356838345527649,
-0.2715754508972168,
0.44283708930015564,
-0.18841750919818878,
0.6413083672523499,
0.3431946933269501,
0.564574658870697,
-0.5524917244911194,
0.22502292692661285,
-0.06352128088474274,
-0.19763849675655365,
0.2979118525981903,
-0.12948742508888245,
-0.2058679312467575,
-0.5915897488594055,
0.9044727683067322,
-0.039047013968229294,
0.470924973487854,
0.05816853418946266,
0.22554023563861847,
0.8709651231765747,
0.35178548097610474,
0.1194564625620842,
0.3093053698539734,
-0.20970375835895538,
0.14424090087413788,
-0.47021690011024475,
-0.15295268595218658,
-0.1952248215675354,
0.129507914185524,
0.4719046950340271,
-0.4339979588985443,
0.35189977288246155,
0.1630997508764267,
-0.034671999514102936,
0.30167248845100403,
0.44479402899742126,
-0.1042104959487915,
-0.28367799520492554,
-0.019105609506368637,
0.36227595806121826,
-0.07437533140182495,
-0.5507227182388306,
0.2678740620613098,
0.06538181006908417,
0.0120368842035532,
0.3134385049343109,
0.35771018266677856,
0.2470356523990631,
0.21882188320159912,
-0.35690635442733765,
0.07493505626916885,
0.1577526032924652,
0.07883921265602112,
-0.23636505007743835,
0.21902614831924438,
0.3005302846431732,
0.1716393679380417,
-0.027546651661396027,
0.2666958272457123,
0.37791121006011963,
0.08100158721208572,
0.13483992218971252,
-0.814050555229187,
0.7239986062049866,
-0.5757231116294861,
0.330313503742218,
-1.060215950012207,
0.46872958540916443,
0.4079994857311249,
-0.21716685593128204,
-0.12789197266101837,
0.576591432094574,
-0.5325757265090942,
-0.38082095980644226,
0.22834615409374237,
-0.47616496682167053,
0.3603484034538269,
-0.3480154275894165,
0.19047664105892181,
-0.18436889350414276,
0.3191828429698944,
-0.04749467223882675,
-0.5686392784118652,
-0.30226337909698486,
0.2404155135154724,
0.08282943069934845,
-0.3321934938430786,
0.08842294663190842,
-0.23408783972263336,
0.09706278145313263,
-0.715806782245636,
1.1084014177322388,
-0.36875665187835693,
-0.13847120106220245,
-0.40611791610717773,
0.16851335763931274,
-0.09525839239358902,
-0.9951339364051819,
-0.06152341887354851,
0.503180205821991,
-0.15236744284629822,
-0.019088678061962128,
-0.3518155813217163,
0.2940966486930847,
-0.7497847676277161,
-0.3546411693096161,
-0.11823275685310364,
0.16365180909633636,
0.30460354685783386,
-0.3272276818752289,
0.19465388357639313,
-0.3556802570819855,
-0.6642959117889404,
-0.16429445147514343,
0.23312623798847198,
-0.4837251603603363,
0.3194381892681122,
0.3950750529766083
] |
233633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%202004 | Eurovision Song Contest 2004 | The Eurovision Song Contest 2004 was the 49th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Istanbul, Turkey, following the country's victory at the with the song "Everyway That I Can" by Sertab Erener. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), the contest was held at the Abdi İpekçi Arena, and (for the first time) consisted of a semi-final on 12 May, and a final on 15 May 2004. The two live shows were presented by Turkish actors Korhan Abay and Meltem Cumbul. It was the first time that Turkey had hosted the contest, 29 years after the country made its debut, and was also the first time since the contest in Birmingham that it was not hosted in the host country's capital city.
Thirty-six countries participated in the contest, beating the record of twenty-six in the previous edition. Albania, Andorra, Belarus and Serbia and Montenegro took part for the first time this year. The old relegation system was replaced with a semi-final format. This was done in order to accommodate the increasing number of countries who wished to participate. The new format allowed all countries to participate every year, rather than being forced to sit out per the relegation rules, which had been the standard since . Because of this, Denmark, Finland, Lithuania, Macedonia, Monaco and Switzerland all returned to the contest, Monaco not having competed since .
The winner was Ukraine with the song "Wild Dances", performed by Ruslana who wrote it with Oleksandr Ksenofontov (her husband). This was Ukraine's first victory in the contest after only 1 year of participation. Serbia and Montenegro, Greece, Turkey and Cyprus rounded out the top five. Due the expansion of the contest, this year was the first time in which a non-winning entry scored over 200 points. Prior to this contest, only the winning entries in 1994 and 1997 had passed this mark. In this contest, the top 3 songs all got over 200 points. An official CD was released and, for the first time, the entire contest was released on DVD which included the Semi-final and the Grand Final.
Location
The contest was held in Istanbul following Turkey's victory in the contest in Riga, Latvia with Sertab Erener's "Everyway That I Can". Originally the Mydonose Showland, an entertainment center in the form of a giant pyramid tent near to Atatürk International Airport, was chosen by host broadcaster TRT to host the event, but was later changed to the Abdi İpekçi Arena as the contest approached due to its bigger capacity. The Mydonose Showland was demolished in 2009 after a fire destroyed it in April that year. The Abdi İpekçi Arena closed after the 2016/2017 basketball season and was demolished in early 2018. In its place, a basketball training and performance center is to be built.
A number of other venues in the city were reported as possible venues, these included Ataköy Athletics Arena and Istanbul Lütfi Kırdar International Convention and Exhibition Center (ICEC), the latter of which lost out to Mydonose Showland. Istanbul Chamber of Commerce president Mehmet Yıldırım offered the World Trade Center Istanbul (WTCI) as a venue for the event and confirmed that the Chamber would also provide financial support for the contest's organisation.
Format
This year was also notable as it was the first year that Turkey voted for Cyprus and the second year in a row that Cyprus voted for Turkey. Nevertheless, in a move that angered some Cypriots, when the country presented its votes no map of the island was shown (all other presenters were preceded with their country being highlighted on a map). This was due to Turkey's recognition of the northern half of the island as an independent republic (not recognised by any other state). It is likely Turkey pulled out of showing the map because it would have only highlighted the southern portion of the island, and thus angered the international community.
Visual design
The contest's new official generic logo was used for the first time this year, with the heart-shaped flag in the centre due to be changed for future contests. The slogan for Istanbul's contest was "Under The Same Sky", which communicated the importance of a united Europe and Turkish integration.
Voting structure
Every country in the competition, including those who did not qualify for the final, were allowed to vote for other countries. After all performances were completed, each country opened their phone lines to allow their viewers to vote for their favourite song. However, voting for the country in which you are situated is not allowed because then you would just waste money and they don’t get the vote. Each country awarded points based on the number of votes cast for each song: the song which received the most viewer votes was awarded 12 points, the second 10 points, the third 8 points and then 7, 6, 5, etc. down to 1.
In the event of a tie, the number of countries to vote for the tying songs would be counted, and the song having the most countries awarding points to it, would be the winner. In the event of a further tie, then the previously used method of counting back on the number of 12 points, 10 points etc., would be used to find an eventual winner.
This was also the first year that the scores were only re-read by the hosts in one language. Before 2004 every point was repeated in French and English, but due to 36 countries voting, and more in years to come, in 2004 to save time the hosts would only re-read each score in one language. This was in the opposite of the original country representative spoke in.
Opening and interval acts
A new ABBA video was shown in the semi-final, briefly outlining how ABBA started and what the response was of the first record company they approached. It featured small puppets of the band performing snippets of their songs (the voices being the ones of the band) and featured Rik Mayall as the record company manager. Due to copyright purposes, this was cut from the Eurovision Song Contest DVD and released separately. Because of that, references to the video that were made running up to the showing of it were also cut.
In the semi-final and the final, Meltem Cumbul warmed up the audience with a sing-a-long of Eurovision classic "Nel blu dipinto di blu (Volare)", originally by Domenico Modugno. Sertab Erener returned to the stage in the final to perform "Everyway That I Can", the 2003 winning song, and one of her new songs called "Leave". Sertab also interviewed contestants in the green room. The Turkish dance ensemble Fire of Anatolia performed as the interval act.
Incidents
Just before the Slovenian entry was about to be performed, the Turkish broadcaster accidentally took a commercial break which meant the Slovenian song was not heard by Turkish viewers and consequently, Turkey gave no votes for the song. There were technical problems when in a short hiatus halfway through the songs, (used for the advertising break), the hosts tried to contact various parties in Europe. They tried contacting Germany, Spain and Turkey, but in the end were only able to get a response from Germany. During the Romanian postcard introduction, the information for the Romanian entry appeared on the screen, but was quickly taken away. A final minor hiccup occurred when, on her way to present the winner the trophy, Sertab Erener got her shoe stuck in a speaker grill by the side of the stage and had to be freed by stagehands. However this did not delay proceedings, and other than the above the show ran smoothly.
An hour after the semi-final had been aired, the European Broadcasting Union discovered that there had been problems with the vote counting in Monaco and Croatia. Digame, an affiliate of Deutsche Telekom, who had been responsible for processing all the votes (from 2004), reported that they had encountered problems with their calculation software, and there was a problem with text message voting in Croatia. When the votes were counted, results showed that Croatia had awarded themselves 4 points, which is against Eurovision rules. Later, an official EBU statement read that there had been technical problems at the side of the Croatian mobile service provider, who neglected to delete the illegal votes from the results. Consequently, some votes were not counted in the results announced at the end of the broadcast of the semi-final. When the results were corrected to include these additional votes, they were found not to have affected which countries had qualified for the Final.
Participating countries
This year's Eurovision contest was the first to be a two-day event, with one qualifying round held on a Wednesday and the grand final held on the following Saturday. Under this new format, byes into the final were given to the 'Big 4'; , , and the (as the largest financial contributors to the European Broadcasting Union) and the ten highest placed finishers in the contest.
, , and participated in the contest for the first time, with returning after a 25-year absence. were due to return after an absence of 11 years, but later pulled out after money issues arose between RTL and the EBU. was also due to return after last participating in 1998, however at the end they did not take part in the contest. Hungary will eventually return to the contest one year later.
All participating countries had the right to vote in both the qualifying round and the grand final. This was the first year in which all 36 participating countries voted based on a public phone vote. However , and did not broadcast the semi-final (as they were not participating in it) and therefore did not give votes for it like the other thirty-three countries. In Belgium, the French-language RTBF did not broadcast the semi-final, but the Dutch-language VRT did.
Returning artists
Semi-final
The semi-final was held on 12 May 2004 at 21:00 (CET). 22 countries performed and all participants voted except France, Poland and Russia who opted not to broadcast the show. This was the first ever semi-final in Eurovision history.
Final
The finalists were:
the four automatic qualifiers , , and the ;
the top 10 countries from the 2003 contest (other than the automatic qualifiers);
the top 10 countries from the 2004 semi-final.
The final was held on 15 May 2004 at 21:00 (CET) and was won by .
Scoreboard
Semi-final
12 points
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the semi-final:
Final
12 points
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the final:
Spokespersons
Each country appointed a spokesperson to announce their respective country's points in the final. The voting order in the 2004 contest was determined alphabetically by each country's ISO two-letter country code.
Pati Molné
Mija Martina
Denis Kurian
Emel Aykanat
Loukas Hamatsos
Thomas Anders
Camilla Ottesen
Maarja-Liis Ilus
Anne Igartiburu
Anna Stenlund
Lorraine Kelly
Alexis Kostalas
Barbara Kolar
Johnny Logan
Merav Miller
Sigrún Ósk Kristjánsdóttir
Lauris Reiniks
Anne Allegrini
Karolina Petkovska
Claire Agius
Esther Hart
Ingvild Helljesen
Andreea Marin
Yana Churikova
Jovan Radomir
Peter Poles
Meltem Ersan Yazgan
Pavlo Shylko
Broadcasts
Other awards
In addition to the main winner's trophy, the AP Awards and the Marcel Bezençon Awards were contested during the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest.
AP Awards
Marcel Bezençon Awards
The Marcel Bezençon Awards, organised since 2002 by Sweden's then-Head of Delegation and 1992 representative Christer Björkman, and 1984 winner Richard Herrey, honours songs in the contest's final. The awards are divided into three categories: the Artistic Award which was voted by previous winners of the contest, the Composer Award, and the Press Award.
Official album
Eurovision Song Contest: Istanbul 2004 was the official compilation album of the 2004 contest, put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by EMI Records and CMC International on 26 April 2004. The album featured all 36 songs that entered in the 2004 contest, including the semi-finalists that failed to qualify into the grand final.
Charts
References
External links
Official website
EBU press notice regarding voting problems in the semi-final
Details about the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest in Istanbul
Video Clips (BBC Eurovision 2004) (RealPlayer)
2004
Music festivals in Turkey
2004 in Turkey
2000s in Istanbul
2004 song contests
Music in Istanbul
May 2004 events in Europe
Events in Istanbul | [
-0.8356701135635376,
0.29276132583618164,
0.3528081774711609,
0.20878291130065918,
-1.0889769792556763,
0.19934827089309692,
0.6532700061798096,
-0.040293432772159576,
-0.13790634274482727,
0.44034233689308167,
-0.3417643904685974,
0.30445414781570435,
-0.24275240302085876,
0.08497382700443268,
-0.17498920857906342,
0.14347706735134125,
0.15417195856571198,
-0.1645812839269638,
0.7242668867111206,
-0.9508795142173767,
0.06990811228752136,
-0.05357718467712402,
-0.1646953523159027,
-0.18718552589416504,
0.038922592997550964,
-0.034744128584861755,
0.2615627348423004,
0.13798613846302032,
0.36586761474609375,
-0.5739929676055908,
0.2109774947166443,
0.12105701863765717,
-0.32742562890052795,
-0.10951889306306839,
0.2324139028787613,
-0.10114668309688568,
0.6066901087760925,
-0.6218284368515015,
-0.34079352021217346,
-0.22341227531433105,
0.20108482241630554,
0.25012609362602234,
0.5479254126548767,
0.7038686275482178,
-0.0230924841016531,
-0.8750613927841187,
-1.3076586723327637,
0.08156783878803253,
-0.03144221380352974,
-0.23223373293876648,
-0.023046566173434258,
0.12309852242469788,
0.23394343256950378,
0.6382352113723755,
-0.113954558968544,
0.32517009973526,
0.026961570605635643,
-0.19820934534072876,
-0.4854716658592224,
0.3269853889942169,
0.43544450402259827,
0.3515264391899109,
-0.08597059547901154,
-0.2057603895664215,
-0.26962146162986755,
-0.09458154439926147,
0.8282639980316162,
0.8841041326522827,
-0.4074370861053467,
-1.1057186126708984,
-0.250895231962204,
-0.43876132369041443,
-0.10780496150255203,
-0.06999175995588303,
0.3838094174861908,
-0.7831233143806458,
0.559636116027832,
-0.6817647218704224,
-0.3863591253757477,
0.37135839462280273,
-0.5464057922363281,
-0.2865958511829376,
0.48165494203567505,
-0.39263805747032166,
0.5607182383537292,
-0.37353453040122986,
-0.19679759442806244,
-0.04652790352702141,
-0.5536047220230103,
0.15690292418003082,
-0.6411870718002319,
-0.9185702204704285,
0.4020077586174011,
0.6914640665054321,
0.222145676612854,
0.3171675205230713,
-0.547895610332489,
0.5361655354499817,
0.4026733338832855,
0.1904057413339615,
-0.05004061385989189,
0.5936359763145447,
0.09835298359394073,
-0.43276694416999817,
-0.7208271026611328,
-0.4384900629520416,
-0.7397605776786804,
-1.2707527875900269,
0.14773541688919067,
0.07681597769260406,
-0.06965599209070206,
0.13702167570590973,
-0.04502185434103012,
0.22199128568172455,
-0.3627398908138275,
0.35923677682876587,
-0.22071968019008636,
-0.029618168249726295,
-0.46600329875946045,
0.5327954292297363,
0.2785143256187439,
0.613016664981842,
-0.31579896807670593,
0.5860620141029358,
-0.4347955286502838,
0.8794686794281006,
0.4624674916267395,
0.5130472183227539,
-0.5259883403778076,
0.38423094153404236,
-0.09609562903642654,
0.5158846378326416,
-0.029375789687037468,
0.21702925860881805,
0.02624250017106533,
0.43035727739334106,
0.5315423011779785,
0.4121902585029602,
-0.2135552614927292,
0.11113335937261581,
0.016217708587646484,
-0.14930160343647003,
-1.0318559408187866,
0.2599460780620575,
-0.21557803452014923,
-0.0741155818104744,
-0.2813034951686859,
-0.049654729664325714,
-0.1846972405910492,
-0.2474532127380371,
0.6483467817306519,
-0.07335509359836578,
0.0019536963663995266,
0.1575288623571396,
-0.08963241428136826,
1.1270428895950317,
-0.33912864327430725,
-0.09000914543867111,
0.6408049464225769,
0.3772316575050354,
-0.12888693809509277,
0.5112144351005554,
-0.2800333499908447,
0.021317360922694206,
0.0578344464302063,
-0.019855093210935593,
0.06928105652332306,
0.28454211354255676,
0.6460916996002197,
-0.7688724398612976,
-0.26001009345054626,
0.03399617224931717,
0.30243104696273804,
-0.34527724981307983,
0.23267512023448944,
-0.31781116127967834,
0.8239918351173401,
0.08995965123176575,
0.021490972489118576,
0.14148980379104614,
-0.7417547702789307,
-0.6232858300209045,
0.22488875687122345,
0.19194623827934265,
1.2376598119735718,
0.9628749489784241,
-0.18966764211654663,
0.6914262771606445,
-0.8138756155967712,
-0.29266607761383057,
-0.8984973430633545,
-0.797092854976654,
-0.06443203240633011,
-0.24720290303230286,
0.7687221765518188,
0.2044496089220047,
-0.23213240504264832,
0.10592704266309738,
0.48967990279197693,
0.7930256724357605,
-0.2516825497150421,
-0.13864995539188385,
1.3932517766952515,
-0.22176460921764374,
0.34710681438446045,
0.41403740644454956,
0.17208155989646912,
-0.5264360904693604,
-0.260641872882843,
1.0448548793792725,
-0.4062063694000244,
-0.09442631900310516,
-0.08938445150852203,
0.4212339520454407,
-0.32911956310272217,
0.007756619714200497,
-0.32597339153289795,
0.8276475667953491,
0.3122265338897705,
0.3228605091571808,
1.1435896158218384,
0.10905557870864868,
-0.12276991456747055,
0.33822116255760193,
0.17428064346313477,
1.188349723815918,
-0.1386670172214508,
0.42442357540130615,
0.3451341688632965,
-0.07837359607219696,
-0.8368343114852905,
1.037420392036438,
0.11273014545440674,
-0.6545798182487488,
-0.4713347554206848,
-0.3523438274860382,
0.3359604775905609,
-0.23026463389396667,
-0.18395185470581055,
-0.027393246069550514,
0.17886634171009064,
0.09651143103837967,
-0.20131339132785797,
0.6434480547904968,
-0.2512619197368622,
0.6820759773254395,
0.005622954107820988,
-0.2864266335964203,
-0.010766029357910156,
-0.049574173986911774,
0.4893358051776886,
-0.2403440773487091,
0.5301715135574341,
-0.3505215048789978,
-0.2781199514865875,
0.616589367389679,
-0.07162640988826752,
-1.0351113080978394,
0.657824695110321,
0.4165056347846985,
0.37062934041023254,
-0.08375269174575806,
0.46076497435569763,
0.3555845320224762,
0.03519509360194206,
-0.5951652526855469,
-0.543809711933136,
-0.5033440589904785,
0.032109301537275314,
-0.2299230694770813,
0.02599254995584488,
-0.23353616893291473,
0.13422709703445435,
0.2696399986743927,
0.15070803463459015,
0.11062945425510406,
-0.809921145439148,
0.03895125538110733,
-0.6397866606712341,
-0.6052970290184021,
-0.17849339544773102,
0.7445387244224548,
0.3350588083267212,
-0.26933595538139343,
-0.7426754832267761,
1.0675047636032104,
-0.13787463307380676,
-0.10706932842731476,
0.5997675061225891,
-0.13326093554496765,
-0.08903835713863373,
0.5912594795227051,
-0.5612630844116211,
0.15229777991771698,
0.2039206624031067,
0.2665055990219116,
-0.1636825054883957,
-0.05515214800834656,
0.3140575587749481,
0.3089210093021393,
-0.5258103013038635,
0.7804186940193176,
-0.9074368476867676,
-0.3983480632305145,
0.3257817327976227,
-0.5389661192893982,
-0.9532576203346252,
-0.07330211251974106,
-4.961148738861084,
-0.5275843143463135,
-0.030934488400816917,
0.10686983168125153,
-0.08198834955692291,
-0.21560043096542358,
-0.28875312209129333,
-0.8352776169776917,
-0.05982506647706032,
0.24107897281646729,
0.22718854248523712,
0.09493646770715714,
-0.5275970697402954,
0.9615209102630615,
0.6283872723579407,
-0.4873282313346863,
0.6410312056541443,
0.13209913671016693,
1.0180027484893799,
0.010270833969116211,
0.4362213909626007,
-0.2290932536125183,
-0.496206670999527,
-0.4911642372608185,
-0.02482951432466507,
0.47331705689430237,
0.3868009150028229,
-0.2630932331085205,
-0.7718954086303711,
-0.2628151774406433,
0.17477743327617645,
0.6324008703231812,
0.007565267384052277,
0.004550130106508732,
-0.34268859028816223,
0.22127553820610046,
0.5615808367729187,
-0.05069974809885025,
0.8523199558258057,
-0.4008607566356659,
0.06386458873748779,
0.3633672595024109,
0.3591971695423126,
0.35776486992836,
0.42094749212265015,
-0.34210991859436035,
-0.2647435665130615,
0.5717394948005676,
-0.1979415863752365,
1.6141122579574585,
0.36929965019226074,
0.2399914264678955,
-0.16854441165924072,
0.5111062526702881,
0.0756596103310585,
-0.10865618288516998,
-0.3369312584400177,
-0.21689389646053314,
-0.3011515736579895,
0.3022223711013794,
0.47129136323928833,
-0.3955610394477844,
-0.018328208476305008,
-1.876503348350525,
-0.2413824498653412,
-0.39514949917793274,
-0.44228389859199524,
0.5928987860679626,
-0.05457114055752754,
0.5768288969993591,
-0.09404782205820084,
-0.2322947084903717,
-0.5436848402023315,
-0.5604471564292908,
-0.08794312924146652,
0.26174527406692505,
-0.23947583138942719,
0.010865059681236744,
-0.003446612972766161,
-0.487798810005188,
-0.30965787172317505,
-0.1359676867723465,
-0.32469505071640015,
-0.2615582346916199,
0.0783543512225151,
-0.511597216129303,
0.17000427842140198,
0.22810626029968262,
0.04644503816962242,
-0.7655620574951172,
0.642402708530426,
-0.578215479850769,
-0.4979075491428375,
0.644465982913971,
0.4565736949443817,
0.2780131995677948,
0.22773770987987518,
0.47800981998443604,
0.6916525363922119,
-0.587801992893219,
-0.2326394021511078,
-0.562339723110199,
0.156341090798378,
0.4186338484287262,
0.0421668216586113,
-0.4912206530570984,
-0.6684451103210449,
-0.6087934970855713,
0.686889111995697,
-0.22599472105503082,
0.11995410919189453,
-0.7672051191329956,
-0.9915049076080322,
-0.10151834785938263,
-0.07271231710910797,
-0.7590645551681519,
0.3290322422981262,
0.17165206372737885,
0.02063041925430298,
1.006885051727295,
0.6376614570617676,
-0.11743847280740738,
-0.007237755227833986,
0.6123150587081909,
0.02012408897280693,
0.4046286940574646,
-0.10180239379405975,
0.20272108912467957,
-0.1976565718650818,
0.28637731075286865,
0.5216549634933472,
-0.27425822615623474,
-0.007165879942476749,
-0.23560994863510132,
0.5515716671943665,
-0.22067880630493164,
-0.19373558461666107,
0.20411761105060577,
0.09031850844621658,
-0.07789711654186249,
-0.12153538316488266,
-0.48838749527931213,
-0.6765910983085632,
0.2868843376636505,
-0.29892197251319885,
0.026904858648777008,
-0.04167504981160164,
-0.8026361465454102,
-0.15182556211948395,
0.054635219275951385,
-0.6217250823974609,
-0.17993730306625366,
0.8691886067390442,
0.22583746910095215,
0.22352424263954163,
0.36752375960350037,
-0.07972673326730728,
0.5460353493690491,
-0.19398170709609985,
-1.4083412885665894,
-0.07372397184371948,
0.000858943909406662,
-0.7491084337234497,
0.47271621227264404,
0.6420350670814514,
-0.5535662770271301,
-0.15342731773853302,
0.11891689896583557,
-0.13991962373256683,
0.8005245923995972,
0.8246857523918152,
0.579472541809082,
-0.68213951587677,
-0.32426631450653076,
-0.18498533964157104,
-0.41488003730773926,
0.07903885096311569,
0.1209639236330986,
-0.19710087776184082,
-0.33316731452941895,
0.15221479535102844,
0.29747137427330017,
-0.5201981663703918,
0.2107512205839157,
0.25039494037628174,
-0.1938071995973587,
-0.8314709067344666,
-0.45778757333755493,
-0.20322780311107635,
-0.42082589864730835,
-0.09461654722690582,
0.31278282403945923,
0.25178608298301697,
-0.6061826348304749,
-0.9396660923957825,
-1.1124358177185059,
-0.17926239967346191,
0.02745971642434597,
-0.308324933052063,
-0.09645592421293259,
0.10978931188583374,
0.02438742108643055,
-0.42931458353996277,
0.24901409447193146,
0.2344358265399933,
-1.2699787616729736,
0.5503835082054138,
0.2591695487499237,
-0.05067453533411026,
0.44953835010528564,
-0.5839714407920837,
-0.7284730076789856,
-0.839591383934021,
0.4276469945907593,
-0.5112407207489014,
0.02193419635295868,
0.23436635732650757,
-0.011325267143547535,
-0.4630272388458252,
0.2373751848936081,
-0.6728795766830444,
-0.5047633051872253,
-1.0150078535079956,
-0.7309361696243286,
-0.6941951513290405,
-0.6573019027709961,
0.31786587834358215,
-0.5174477100372314,
0.11001735180616379,
-1.33590829372406,
-0.4801570773124695,
0.039126284420490265,
0.5724249482154846,
-0.0019936186727136374,
0.28660067915916443,
-0.47529956698417664,
0.3478316366672516,
0.034014422446489334,
-0.40979281067848206,
0.7406167387962341,
0.8002935647964478,
0.5867177844047546,
0.46806150674819946,
-0.019058069214224815,
-0.15872135758399963,
-0.29630187153816223,
0.006796038709580898,
0.15969324111938477,
-0.33965960144996643,
-0.3741379380226135,
0.15605118870735168,
0.39833390712738037,
-0.35569053888320923,
-0.6644008159637451,
0.9037513732910156,
-0.2747044563293457,
-0.5317096710205078,
0.22482362389564514,
0.3472418189048767,
-0.0676182210445404,
-0.02790020778775215,
0.04671044275164604,
-0.8492603898048401,
-0.016674673184752464,
0.11497800052165985,
0.3123285472393036,
0.10094501823186874,
-0.27464503049850464,
-0.07895862311124802,
-0.16844384372234344,
-0.4067452549934387,
-0.4950389266014099,
0.24353136122226715,
0.3569243550300598,
-0.04858221113681793,
-0.2475329488515854,
-0.05052799731492996,
-0.952168881893158,
0.18087434768676758,
0.24553699791431427,
-0.2594667077064514,
0.2057921290397644,
-0.22920693457126617,
0.5728497505187988,
-0.016761310398578644,
-0.6440993547439575,
-0.6998485922813416,
0.04941141977906227,
-0.43196120858192444,
-0.2834886610507965,
0.21276061236858368,
-0.0477634072303772,
-0.7896362543106079,
0.3284745216369629,
-0.03615782782435417,
-0.10243384540081024,
0.01921701617538929,
0.5349293947219849,
-0.48793455958366394,
-0.02367992326617241,
-0.8156729340553284,
0.6972419619560242,
0.28461065888404846,
-0.5188524127006531,
0.46418851613998413,
0.05765468254685402,
0.31149783730506897,
0.1459307074546814,
0.42962250113487244,
0.12414345145225525,
0.4080306589603424,
0.23749612271785736,
-0.1956479847431183,
0.25871574878692627,
-0.9867441058158875,
-0.10820721834897995,
0.7489158511161804,
-1.003401517868042,
0.7094851732254028,
-0.013083141297101974,
0.7066746950149536,
0.4381997585296631,
0.16583625972270966,
0.3917691707611084,
-0.30331966280937195,
0.7996128797531128,
-0.21757034957408905,
0.16419801115989685,
0.6559069156646729,
-0.5562685132026672,
0.15134398639202118,
-0.18161462247371674,
-0.38189488649368286,
0.49544569849967957,
-0.16687875986099243,
-0.6447502970695496,
-0.02076837606728077,
-1.0237257480621338,
0.006454918067902327,
0.3678816556930542,
0.254697322845459,
0.3678897023200989,
-0.2595081031322479,
0.04264193773269653,
0.028190821409225464,
-0.07105870544910431,
-0.4330848455429077,
0.07150930911302567,
0.37518176436424255,
-0.1761993020772934,
0.21634186804294586,
0.5792139768600464,
0.10988856852054596,
-0.26051855087280273,
0.26896652579307556,
0.29009154438972473,
0.6990386843681335,
0.2812498211860657,
0.14875704050064087,
0.3471595346927643,
0.8441280126571655,
0.05942447483539581,
0.9678740501403809,
0.19328252971172333,
0.11293698847293854,
-0.22731050848960876,
-0.4248635172843933,
0.3031872808933258,
0.17926539480686188,
0.47212228178977966,
0.6102639436721802,
0.11386458575725555,
-0.07603330910205841,
-0.6636181473731995,
-0.1416420191526413,
0.2448204755783081,
-0.29606306552886963,
-0.30636313557624817,
-0.5252753496170044,
0.13788244128227234,
-0.30792462825775146,
0.12873578071594238,
-0.27035367488861084,
-0.3084460198879242,
-0.7835387587547302,
-0.683498203754425,
0.4930970370769501,
0.3282555341720581,
0.3422144949436188,
-0.5736154317855835,
0.53171306848526,
-0.1933969259262085,
0.23573420941829681,
-0.31982776522636414,
-1.1489053964614868,
-0.33896154165267944,
0.20663215219974518,
0.1475098878145218,
0.41424471139907837,
-0.07244165986776352,
0.05215209722518921,
0.1873248964548111,
-0.5977210402488708,
0.896055281162262,
-0.6963746547698975,
1.0229144096374512,
-0.24223531782627106,
0.1250743865966797,
-0.6118931770324707,
0.22407317161560059,
0.37266531586647034,
0.16260723769664764,
0.21060776710510254,
0.5279434323310852,
-0.3508405387401581,
0.3463142514228821,
0.46121251583099365,
-0.06658264249563217,
0.2513071298599243,
0.5853874683380127,
-0.4281977713108063,
0.19402049481868744,
0.1399509459733963,
0.19068090617656708,
0.5723115801811218,
-0.17365427315235138,
0.577582836151123,
0.6831923723220825,
0.04726081341505051,
0.29234951734542847,
0.5353208184242249,
-0.8340977430343628,
-0.4879801571369171,
-0.11421691626310349,
-0.40302136540412903,
0.29763010144233704,
0.30541783571243286,
0.17167098820209503,
0.7430640459060669,
-0.30343639850616455,
-0.13185949623584747,
-0.338118314743042,
0.8469228744506836,
-0.12005887925624847,
-0.7206858396530151,
-0.3797191083431244,
0.48061251640319824,
-0.3306054174900055,
-0.16928865015506744,
0.2760527431964874,
0.5699959397315979,
0.12516368925571442,
0.26477569341659546,
-0.7790913581848145,
-0.12340152263641357,
0.032856494188308716,
-0.024168802425265312,
-0.5536482334136963,
0.134780615568161,
0.33487170934677124
] |
233634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia%20Beni | Claudia Beni | Claudia Beni (born 30 May 1986) is a Croatian pop singer, born in Opatija.
Biography
At the time when she first participated in Dora, the national finals for the Eurovision Song Contest, Claudia was only 12, but she was already an experienced band singer having performed all over Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia and Montenegro with the Teens - formerly known as Mići rokeri (Little Rockers).
After receiving the 2002 Porin prize, Claudia broke away from the Teens. Her first 12-song solo album “Claudia” was released just before the summer of 2002. The singles “Tako hrabar da me ostaviš” (Brave Enough To Leave Me) (one of the songs in the Best New Album awarded at the Split Festival 2001), “Ili ona ili ja” (Either Her or Me) (Zagrebfest 2001), and “Led” (Ice) (HRF 2002) gave Claudia further notability in the national music industry.
In 2003, Claudia represented Croatia at the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, singing "Više nisam tvoja".
Claudia has also worked together with another member of the Croatian pop scene, Ivana Banfić, singing the song “Hrvatice vas vole” (Croatian Women Love You), dedicated to the national football team during the World Cup in Japan which enjoyed no success.
Discography
Albums
"Claudia", released 2002
"Cista kao suza", released 2004
References
1986 births
Living people
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Croatia
21st-century Croatian women singers
Croatian pop singers
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
People from Opatija | [
0.028968743979930878,
-0.37762904167175293,
0.3029205799102783,
-0.6789093017578125,
-0.13738399744033813,
1.213811993598938,
0.6459556818008423,
-0.2947353720664978,
-0.5336711406707764,
0.22766844928264618,
0.37255847454071045,
0.24872514605522156,
-0.5133669376373291,
0.12123583257198334,
-0.2813883423805237,
0.4979030191898346,
0.6714481115341187,
0.8688291311264038,
-0.6919268369674683,
-0.5477848649024963,
-0.11740314215421677,
0.0279455054551363,
0.2357800155878067,
0.05011259391903877,
-0.8543217182159424,
0.5504949688911438,
0.19007080793380737,
0.6619455218315125,
0.18422093987464905,
-0.4434353709220886,
-0.030789589509367943,
0.7820711135864258,
0.2876623570919037,
-0.021524682641029358,
0.025288743898272514,
0.6586527824401855,
0.1930725872516632,
-0.4259421229362488,
-0.5515586137771606,
-0.6132879853248596,
-0.1322447806596756,
0.12755803763866425,
-0.3504543900489807,
0.4043048322200775,
-0.17681002616882324,
-0.62953782081604,
-1.703234314918518,
0.5028287768363953,
-0.450208842754364,
-0.520322322845459,
-0.04314325004816055,
0.14965641498565674,
-0.10902700573205948,
0.7561116814613342,
-0.199101984500885,
-0.6818869113922119,
-0.11435872316360474,
-0.8371744751930237,
0.3049714267253876,
0.2697276175022125,
0.31168314814567566,
-0.033687956631183624,
0.04368907958269119,
-0.8299947381019592,
0.2704636752605438,
-0.18482334911823273,
0.2344169318675995,
0.2988622486591339,
-0.18019767105579376,
-0.6760900020599365,
-0.5014073252677917,
0.45345067977905273,
-0.2472171187400818,
-1.3301953077316284,
-0.6934564113616943,
0.04009413719177246,
0.283095121383667,
0.04520459845662117,
0.5539071559906006,
0.5692439079284668,
0.5352160930633545,
-0.22503523528575897,
1.1365833282470703,
-0.042123354971408844,
0.403645783662796,
-0.06257209926843643,
0.00487101823091507,
-0.019173476845026016,
-1.0165702104568481,
0.22091254591941833,
-0.7648260593414307,
-0.9898465275764465,
0.2710067927837372,
0.3426959812641144,
0.21629083156585693,
0.09852313995361328,
-0.4559396505355835,
0.28960031270980835,
0.09723707288503647,
0.28752627968788147,
-0.11015497148036957,
0.2634298503398895,
-0.6208400130271912,
-0.5229158997535706,
-0.6800634264945984,
-0.2475193589925766,
-0.569871187210083,
-0.2754935622215271,
-0.3876708149909973,
0.14828038215637207,
-0.16652065515518188,
-0.19876030087471008,
-0.39354202151298523,
-0.12364403903484344,
-0.18932263553142548,
0.6517785787582397,
0.04189174622297287,
-0.457261323928833,
-0.3027094900608063,
0.5877650380134583,
0.5664506554603577,
0.17947252094745636,
-0.30609065294265747,
0.08094295114278793,
-0.13194160163402557,
0.2231646478176117,
-0.05020393058657646,
-0.047603581100702286,
-0.3123839497566223,
0.42830657958984375,
0.27959921956062317,
0.87563556432724,
-0.6399637460708618,
0.2612505257129669,
0.16190247237682343,
-0.5281820893287659,
0.0877089649438858,
0.24132731556892395,
0.48272496461868286,
-0.2121160626411438,
-0.489177942276001,
0.4020185172557831,
-0.7592753171920776,
-0.41217055916786194,
0.4951642155647278,
0.14800602197647095,
-0.6115924119949341,
-0.22439633309841156,
-0.2877945005893707,
-0.7300904393196106,
-0.3595193028450012,
-0.12745000422000885,
-0.4850851595401764,
-0.4351985454559326,
-1.0518568754196167,
0.02708270773291588,
-0.10665081441402435,
-0.5147673487663269,
0.4191036522388458,
-0.013138117268681526,
0.6455303430557251,
0.34650588035583496,
0.175797700881958,
0.5166763067245483,
0.2597101926803589,
-0.2013261914253235,
0.5721772313117981,
0.639969527721405,
0.11609838902950287,
-0.3312198519706726,
-0.5781049132347107,
0.19889257848262787,
-0.29371708631515503,
0.10636796802282333,
-0.5517005324363708,
0.06354928016662598,
0.33397144079208374,
-0.12542009353637695,
-0.055765360593795776,
-0.44776156544685364,
-0.4884515404701233,
0.25279945135116577,
0.05598079413175583,
0.08026129007339478,
0.6084251999855042,
0.5895905494689941,
-0.1404402107000351,
0.501837968826294,
0.484960675239563,
-0.273346871137619,
-0.274160236120224,
-0.6686340570449829,
0.5377565026283264,
0.43482741713523865,
0.7345234751701355,
-0.15950745344161987,
-0.08281764388084412,
0.5046769380569458,
0.1824803650379181,
-0.013958675786852837,
-0.5102202892303467,
-0.37564659118652344,
0.09491869807243347,
-0.24379807710647583,
-0.15827946364879608,
0.4610059857368469,
0.7806522250175476,
-0.5861096978187561,
-0.11210774630308151,
1.0348767042160034,
-0.3931209444999695,
-0.16920438408851624,
0.05529385060071945,
-0.1572279930114746,
-0.3108493983745575,
-0.19531632959842682,
-0.36710846424102783,
0.6699246168136597,
0.2630978524684906,
-0.18814153969287872,
0.591582179069519,
0.6447675228118896,
-0.4731435775756836,
-0.13213177025318146,
0.17022497951984406,
0.4927448630332947,
-0.1330159306526184,
-0.036499153822660446,
0.17205356061458588,
-0.4029083549976349,
-0.21078017354011536,
0.4276789128780365,
0.08764911442995071,
-0.2255215346813202,
-0.537032425403595,
0.3780458867549896,
0.08741341531276703,
0.39912888407707214,
0.2789193093776703,
-0.6363137364387512,
0.10476234555244446,
0.6821304559707642,
-0.6617423892021179,
0.18874429166316986,
-0.14488466084003448,
0.5845423340797424,
-0.35851848125457764,
0.06296584755182266,
-0.3874068856239319,
0.017399365082383156,
0.5747706890106201,
0.040324270725250244,
0.3713119328022003,
-0.26945796608924866,
0.1884186863899231,
-0.341553270816803,
0.2986057698726654,
0.34370917081832886,
0.8866958618164062,
0.37298890948295593,
0.23179416358470917,
-0.05812112241983414,
0.24830059707164764,
0.15443292260169983,
0.32183876633644104,
0.14748802781105042,
-0.11703114211559296,
-0.8155110478401184,
0.5955088138580322,
-0.4154614508152008,
0.6169638633728027,
0.1995382308959961,
-0.023544546216726303,
0.7149164080619812,
0.34193992614746094,
0.2939734160900116,
-0.5492158532142639,
-0.27998268604278564,
-0.6784670352935791,
-0.825050413608551,
0.589713454246521,
0.5608081817626953,
-0.009542846120893955,
-0.4129711389541626,
-0.8442652225494385,
0.5868303775787354,
0.3907909393310547,
-0.10406319051980972,
-0.20552679896354675,
0.1963464319705963,
-0.2653312087059021,
0.5825281143188477,
-0.3782605826854706,
0.44223499298095703,
-0.013385866768658161,
-0.16432049870491028,
0.13634708523750305,
0.937065601348877,
0.4562353789806366,
0.0492272786796093,
-0.04494086652994156,
0.30318090319633484,
-0.5272539854049683,
0.13988430798053741,
0.46328726410865784,
-0.32271477580070496,
-0.324844092130661,
0.14112460613250732,
-5.463008880615234,
0.11639376729726791,
-0.17012669146060944,
0.4077630639076233,
0.03098486363887787,
-0.45576241612434387,
-0.014816749840974808,
-0.2832162380218506,
0.2186477929353714,
0.2936881482601166,
-0.21223658323287964,
0.5099557042121887,
-0.7695480585098267,
0.5643095374107361,
0.34161457419395447,
0.3236636519432068,
0.35121726989746094,
-0.7044651508331299,
0.6832113862037659,
0.41412508487701416,
0.23003427684307098,
0.13663198053836823,
-0.24317044019699097,
0.0729999765753746,
0.20178493857383728,
0.3824884295463562,
-0.36582788825035095,
0.08343588560819626,
-0.46995675563812256,
0.16119690239429474,
-0.44225481152534485,
-0.6874565482139587,
-0.5855386853218079,
0.06895056366920471,
0.21549148857593536,
0.009537119418382645,
0.44220611453056335,
-0.3053379952907562,
0.7460642457008362,
-0.31094279885292053,
-0.16056407988071442,
0.1836455762386322,
-0.10165466368198395,
-0.24317799508571625,
0.180420383810997,
-0.1521194726228714,
-0.5281819701194763,
-0.3726113736629486,
-0.3630550801753998,
1.0782824754714966,
-0.03487043082714081,
-0.6062167286872864,
0.0714859589934349,
-0.27632176876068115,
0.5490548014640808,
-0.011336536146700382,
0.6922593712806702,
-0.05869873985648155,
-0.6460956335067749,
0.7791432738304138,
0.499287486076355,
-0.45419174432754517,
-0.313981294631958,
-0.4447208046913147,
-0.2742938697338104,
0.21111303567886353,
0.4151849150657654,
-0.2909187972545624,
-0.15511612594127655,
-0.4253475069999695,
0.47394871711730957,
-0.13950441777706146,
-0.26246610283851624,
-1.3994089365005493,
0.3409065008163452,
-0.4187178611755371,
-0.5706902742385864,
0.029193999245762825,
-0.5375990867614746,
0.05171351879835129,
0.3524738550186157,
-0.12318414449691772,
0.48644065856933594,
0.11095930635929108,
0.28225573897361755,
0.2705501914024353,
0.40395182371139526,
-0.29488688707351685,
-0.560082197189331,
-0.19442351162433624,
0.011443441733717918,
-0.7970072627067566,
0.2593720257282257,
0.2653835117816925,
-0.09945813566446304,
1.216602087020874,
0.37317079305648804,
0.4179518222808838,
0.29276207089424133,
0.021203698590397835,
0.9996836185455322,
-0.14866477251052856,
0.1425703912973404,
-0.3874186873435974,
0.6672842502593994,
-0.23547391593456268,
0.34602421522140503,
-0.5826607346534729,
0.38215747475624084,
-0.43929240107536316,
0.2466030716896057,
0.3860136568546295,
-0.21308542788028717,
-0.6143737435340881,
-0.057992689311504364,
-0.16067954897880554,
-0.42613059282302856,
0.6609415411949158,
0.3076823055744171,
0.14292368292808533,
0.4529808461666107,
-0.20051804184913635,
0.33041155338287354,
0.30856674909591675,
0.07686301320791245,
-0.027200058102607727,
-0.1311546415090561,
0.5170964002609253,
-0.7201398611068726,
0.20658259093761444,
0.16611872613430023,
0.03637400269508362,
-0.14914725720882416,
-0.42590034008026123,
0.6005279421806335,
-0.16220375895500183,
-0.43353596329689026,
-0.3758893311023712,
0.5651997327804565,
-0.18979153037071228,
-0.5777777433395386,
-0.22817860543727875,
-0.7556471824645996,
0.21267126500606537,
0.593026340007782,
0.07044775038957596,
-0.12504249811172485,
-0.29075387120246887,
-0.904772937297821,
0.3158224821090698,
0.18399658799171448,
-0.10829828679561615,
0.0663953348994255,
-0.566611647605896,
0.013022992759943008,
0.428733766078949,
0.04144754633307457,
-0.2001224309206009,
0.13001878559589386,
-0.4217071831226349,
0.2757120728492737,
-0.7701741456985474,
-0.800598680973053,
0.22609086334705353,
0.08960708230733871,
0.11277782171964645,
-0.3882550597190857,
-0.10154321789741516,
-0.5202118158340454,
0.7669957876205444,
0.029318470507860184,
-0.6577759981155396,
-0.17944781482219696,
-0.0477786660194397,
-0.06756827235221863,
-0.2333814948797226,
0.215302512049675,
0.09122324734926224,
-0.383450984954834,
0.38946232199668884,
-0.014994950033724308,
-0.13048633933067322,
-0.5869477391242981,
0.13929720222949982,
0.25011926889419556,
0.10551568865776062,
-0.20425677299499512,
-0.05682580918073654,
-0.38157564401626587,
-0.12652046978473663,
-0.39738142490386963,
0.2863234281539917,
0.10276808589696884,
0.3932883143424988,
-0.07131828367710114,
-1.1969680786132812,
-0.020802674815058708,
0.3081212639808655,
-0.16704575717449188,
-0.19028247892856598,
-0.07026832550764084,
0.44196346402168274,
-0.21951884031295776,
0.22267325222492218,
0.23409561812877655,
-0.6267713308334351,
0.30608558654785156,
0.2603408992290497,
-0.382080614566803,
0.5415695905685425,
-0.4680013954639435,
-0.3734470009803772,
0.1007690578699112,
0.767026424407959,
-0.22172127664089203,
0.061327170580625534,
0.2757883369922638,
-0.040526919066905975,
-0.8256897926330566,
-0.5580117702484131,
-0.8397545218467712,
-0.5365853309631348,
-0.39923295378685,
-0.046509407460689545,
-0.7963898777961731,
-0.16741475462913513,
0.1618519425392151,
-0.6574693322181702,
0.5599256157875061,
-0.44233089685440063,
-0.18768735229969025,
0.3115808665752411,
0.6837863922119141,
0.36408963799476624,
-0.22635288536548615,
-0.4587525725364685,
-0.21172986924648285,
0.4635221064090729,
-0.35871854424476624,
0.5289207696914673,
0.5464436411857605,
0.15914520621299744,
-0.38923048973083496,
-0.044238973408937454,
0.014331074431538582,
0.18827806413173676,
0.18899893760681152,
-0.5593531131744385,
-0.8186144828796387,
-0.2146984189748764,
0.31844642758369446,
-0.08391151577234268,
-0.279374361038208,
0.06324785947799683,
0.9133157730102539,
-0.2090168297290802,
-0.20947468280792236,
-0.2392551153898239,
-0.3830709457397461,
0.4542132318019867,
0.2860925793647766,
-0.17999525368213654,
0.19837455451488495,
0.3620619475841522,
0.4106947183609009,
0.19546271860599518,
0.4348406195640564,
-0.4575635492801666,
-0.5237720608711243,
0.1330413669347763,
-0.058662477880716324,
-0.46442633867263794,
-0.1263185292482376,
0.02070305496454239,
-0.5362802147865295,
0.32293882966041565,
0.20023909211158752,
-0.30666425824165344,
0.47583794593811035,
0.29428696632385254,
-0.20730853080749512,
0.2627018392086029,
-0.5282737016677856,
-0.07926055788993835,
-0.26822492480278015,
-0.07331892102956772,
-0.1960996389389038,
-0.011462722904980183,
0.08540157973766327,
0.19844084978103638,
0.12048834562301636,
-0.10459127277135849,
-0.5212763547897339,
0.23742851614952087,
0.17821688950061798,
0.1677752435207367,
-0.3144541382789612,
0.5010135173797607,
0.013562910258769989,
-0.4726331830024719,
-0.4106239378452301,
0.4976142346858978,
0.31839555501937866,
0.3609985113143921,
-0.09617714583873749,
-0.04906996339559555,
-0.02805372327566147,
-0.6176081299781799,
0.17866437137126923,
0.1985805481672287,
0.15785379707813263,
0.558536946773529,
0.5220528244972229,
0.5000109672546387,
-0.04900895804166794,
-0.018002862110733986,
0.7617534399032593,
-0.49410706758499146,
-0.01622696965932846,
0.09984133392572403,
-0.037848133593797684,
-0.11958179622888565,
0.49664562940597534,
0.6655101776123047,
0.19811801612377167,
0.6920331120491028,
-0.27695775032043457,
0.30598175525665283,
0.3400832712650299,
0.16646136343479156,
0.28677770495414734,
0.5086163878440857,
0.21956056356430054,
0.2076513171195984,
0.4361909031867981,
-0.539703905582428,
0.4711357057094574,
-0.3344489634037018,
0.11154738068580627,
0.8412169814109802,
0.31945595145225525,
0.5690652132034302,
-0.06333483755588531,
0.49268028140068054,
-0.2408774197101593,
0.6289793252944946,
-0.07769747078418732,
0.6345402002334595,
-0.5935255289077759,
-0.44995763897895813,
-0.2240229696035385,
0.3416857123374939,
0.0744008719921112,
-0.4729376435279846,
-0.05486715957522392,
0.13207699358463287,
0.4982244670391083,
-0.34829068183898926,
-1.012965202331543,
0.17344875633716583,
-0.0202958807349205,
-0.3046022057533264,
0.45996707677841187,
-0.006847986951470375,
-0.6915531754493713,
-0.5228630304336548,
-0.31241926550865173,
-0.1268540620803833,
0.03653452917933464,
0.12524570524692535,
0.5909011960029602,
0.11277326196432114,
0.06492724269628525,
0.4417336881160736,
0.5239602327346802,
0.08792747557163239,
-0.0014780143974348903,
0.3739570379257202,
-0.7726066708564758,
0.5998820066452026,
-0.6666731834411621,
0.605898916721344,
0.1087227389216423,
-0.00659360783174634,
-0.45719653367996216,
-0.3722449839115143,
-0.20815883576869965,
0.08764123916625977,
0.2745300531387329,
-0.09416764974594116,
0.1013970896601677,
-0.19561612606048584,
-0.29129427671432495,
0.025154810398817062,
-0.8932130336761475,
-0.4805644750595093,
0.48083820939064026,
0.9267332553863525,
0.6155762672424316,
0.5491605997085571,
0.23795388638973236,
0.843163251876831,
-0.07203817367553711,
0.4295802116394043,
-0.20994390547275543,
0.04248937591910362,
-0.2893598675727844,
0.5250240564346313,
-0.003446620889008045,
0.2352868616580963,
0.23607707023620605,
0.06833595037460327,
-0.22192391753196716,
0.14672021567821503,
-0.3170498311519623,
0.38307124376296997,
0.6469196081161499,
0.5835803151130676,
0.3852202892303467,
-0.3517782390117645,
-0.18683183193206787,
-0.2973552942276001,
0.2687985599040985,
-0.048143450170755386,
0.11861810088157654,
0.7982677221298218,
-0.6092782020568848,
-0.0782925933599472,
-0.6072872877120972,
-0.06584368646144867,
-0.48108190298080444,
-0.1213059052824974,
-0.34642139077186584,
-0.19447863101959229,
-0.8231261372566223,
-0.1719800978899002,
0.49368685483932495,
-0.45248979330062866,
0.8156834840774536,
0.006068090908229351,
0.16311515867710114,
-0.3224163055419922,
-0.04704131931066513,
0.19199435412883759,
-0.4650394916534424,
0.12772946059703827,
-0.5596874952316284,
0.0004385128850117326,
-0.119272381067276,
-0.13922472298145294,
0.2671253979206085,
-0.2850288450717926,
0.7870948314666748,
-0.5744093060493469,
-0.31357240676879883,
-0.3050777316093445,
0.16434220969676971,
-0.6888574361801147,
-0.3451022505760193,
-0.34201452136039734
] |
233636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical%20Earth | Spherical Earth | Spherical Earth or Earth's curvature refers to the approximation of figure of the Earth as a sphere.
The earliest documented mention of the concept dates from around the 5th century BC, when it appears in the writings of Greek philosophers. In the 3rd century BC, Hellenistic astronomy established the roughly spherical shape of Earth as a physical fact and calculated the Earth's circumference. This knowledge was gradually adopted throughout the Old World during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. A practical demonstration of Earth's sphericity was achieved by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano's circumnavigation (1519–1522).
The concept of a spherical Earth displaced earlier beliefs in a flat Earth: In early Mesopotamian mythology, the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the ocean with a hemispherical sky-dome above, and this forms the premise for early world maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus. Other speculations on the shape of Earth include a seven-layered ziggurat or cosmic mountain, alluded to in the Avesta and ancient Persian writings (see seven climes).
The realization that the figure of the Earth is more accurately described as an ellipsoid dates to the 17th century, as described by Isaac Newton in Principia. In the early 19th century, the flattening of the earth ellipsoid was determined to be of the order of 1/300 (Delambre, Everest). The modern value as determined by the US DoD World Geodetic System since the 1960s is close to 1/298.25.
Cause
Earth is massive enough that the pull of gravity maintains its roughly spherical shape. Most of its deviation from spherical stems from the centrifugal force caused by rotation around its north-south axis. This force deforms the sphere into an oblate ellipsoid.
Formation
The Solar System formed from a dust cloud that was at least partially the remnant of one or more supernovas that produced heavy elements by nucleosynthesis. Grains of matter accreted through electrostatic interaction. As they grew in mass, gravity took over in gathering yet more mass, releasing the potential energy of their collisions and in-falling as heat. The protoplanetary disk also had a greater proportion of radioactive elements than Earth today because, over time, those elements decayed. Their decay heated the early Earth even further, and continue to contribute to Earth's internal heat budget. The early Earth was thus mostly liquid.
A sphere is the only stable shape for a non-rotating, gravitationally self-attracting liquid. The outward acceleration caused by Earth's rotation is greater at the equator than at the poles (where is it zero), so the sphere gets deformed into an ellipsoid, which represents the shape having the lowest potential energy for a rotating, fluid body. This ellipsoid is slightly fatter around the equator than a perfect sphere would be. Earth's shape is also slightly lumpy because it is composed of different materials of different densities that exert slightly different amounts of gravitational force per volume.
The liquidity of a hot, newly formed planet allows heavier elements to sink down to the middle and forces lighter elements closer to the surface, a process known as planetary differentiation. This event is known as the iron catastrophe; the most abundant heavier elements were iron and nickel, which now form the Earth's core.
Later shape changes and effects
Though the surface rocks of Earth have cooled enough to solidify, the outer core of the planet is still hot enough to remain liquid. Energy is still being released; volcanic and tectonic activity has pushed rocks into hills and mountains and blown them out of calderas. Meteors also cause impact craters and surrounding ridges. However, if the energy release from these processes halts, then they tend to erode away over time and return toward the lowest potential-energy curve of the ellipsoid. Weather powered by solar energy can also move water, rock, and soil to make Earth slightly out of round.
Earth undulates as the shape of its lowest potential energy changes daily due to the gravity of the Sun and Moon as they move around with respect to Earth. This is what causes tides in the oceans' water, which can flow freely along the changing potential.
History of concept and measurement
The spherical shape of the Earth was known and measured by astronomers, mathematicians, and navigators from a variety of literate ancient cultures, including the Hellenic World, and Ancient India. The knowledge of the Greeks was inherited by Ancient Rome, and Christian and Islamic realms in the Middle Ages. Circumnavigation of the world in the Age of Discovery provided direct evidence. Improvements in transportation and other technologies refined estimations of the size of the Earth, and helped spread knowledge of it.
Measurement and representation
Geodesy, also called geodetics, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of Earth, its gravitational field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, Earth tides, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional time-varying space.
Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations, although it can also include the study of Earth's magnetic field. Especially in the German speaking world, geodesy is divided into geomensuration ("Erdmessung" or "höhere Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring Earth on a global scale, and surveying ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring parts of the surface.
Earth's shape can be thought of in at least two ways:
as the shape of the geoid, the mean sea level of the world ocean; or
as the shape of Earth's land surface as it rises above and falls below the sea.
As the science of geodesy measured Earth more accurately, the shape of the geoid was first found not to be a perfect sphere but to approximate an oblate spheroid, a specific type of ellipsoid. More recent measurements have measured the geoid to unprecedented accuracy, revealing mass concentrations beneath Earth's surface.
See also
Shapes of other astronomical bodies
Celestial sphere
Celestial spheres
Earth radius
Earth's rotation#Empirical tests
Geographical distance
Myth of the flat Earth
Physical geodesy
Terra Australis
WGS 84
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
You say the earth is round? Prove it (from The Straight Dope)
NASA – Most Changes in Earth's Shape Are Due to Changes in Climate
The Round Earth and Christopher Columbus, educational web site
Top 10 Ways to Know the Earth is Not Flat, science education site
Ancient astronomy
Ancient Greek astronomy
Cartography
Earth
Early scientific cosmologies
Geodesy | [
-0.25397661328315735,
0.21811801195144653,
0.4053466320037842,
0.2619350552558899,
-0.6496189832687378,
0.48850709199905396,
-0.11704514175653458,
0.20115742087364197,
-0.2716333270072937,
-0.7886067628860474,
-0.337356299161911,
0.42756831645965576,
-0.12187332659959793,
0.7272540330886841,
0.2162836790084839,
0.48895496129989624,
0.07131531834602356,
0.4796863794326782,
-0.30535656213760376,
-0.0050110542215406895,
0.08506611734628677,
-0.4236941337585449,
0.22057081758975983,
-0.359867662191391,
-0.10805612802505493,
-0.5375033020973206,
0.25706639885902405,
0.26662927865982056,
0.26954835653305054,
0.2844226658344269,
-0.2119685560464859,
0.7336934804916382,
-0.5066161751747131,
0.083182193338871,
-0.10700269043445587,
-0.7656731605529785,
-0.0017036712961271405,
0.33538520336151123,
-0.2558051347732544,
-0.3185107409954071,
0.6416394710540771,
-0.1943359225988388,
0.5079955458641052,
0.08528907597064972,
-0.5289351940155029,
-0.7670806646347046,
-1.0907115936279297,
0.41016361117362976,
-0.47406449913978577,
0.031146839261054993,
0.12184711545705795,
0.09483940899372101,
0.201875701546669,
0.9608197808265686,
-0.17189781367778778,
0.7446624636650085,
-0.7445141673088074,
-0.04152559116482735,
0.25828588008880615,
-0.061577752232551575,
0.183695450425148,
0.3233899474143982,
-0.2732468247413635,
0.08812989294528961,
0.2817780673503876,
0.8153342008590698,
-0.18249617516994476,
-0.3700660467147827,
-0.1382356733083725,
-0.36021852493286133,
-0.0715189278125763,
-0.21233440935611725,
-0.1727306991815567,
0.7300233840942383,
-0.5158501863479614,
-0.23239995539188385,
0.20377908647060394,
-0.0789237692952156,
0.03055574931204319,
0.2139677256345749,
-0.09499744325876236,
0.1846771091222763,
0.1696500927209854,
-0.2697906494140625,
-0.1197052076458931,
0.2210557907819748,
-0.4548961818218231,
0.3995135426521301,
-0.315334290266037,
0.8968194127082825,
0.6832601428031921,
-0.26334401965141296,
0.0937110185623169,
0.13475719094276428,
0.5223034024238586,
0.02639618329703808,
0.6734061241149902,
-0.3515709936618805,
0.13227474689483643,
0.08491209894418716,
-0.233409121632576,
-0.10160603374242783,
0.2958189845085144,
0.21600018441677094,
-0.04803572967648506,
-0.6350622773170471,
-0.10643114894628525,
-0.8383386135101318,
0.08103817701339722,
-0.03234654292464256,
-0.6569564938545227,
0.45813584327697754,
0.07241111993789673,
0.013860244303941727,
-0.5846279859542847,
0.21555650234222412,
0.06702534109354019,
-0.2803892493247986,
0.3454113304615021,
-0.02318345010280609,
-0.23099444806575775,
0.7828382849693298,
0.07865571230649948,
-0.023937972262501717,
0.19114774465560913,
0.4394758641719818,
0.6184788346290588,
0.5824761390686035,
-0.7784292697906494,
0.18748480081558228,
-0.05288034677505493,
0.940609335899353,
0.2728833258152008,
0.1570536345243454,
-0.05689621716737747,
-0.699942946434021,
0.3790220320224762,
-0.4192914068698883,
0.0757753774523735,
0.15981616079807281,
-0.8874747157096863,
-0.416992723941803,
-1.026771068572998,
-0.1033032238483429,
0.46017545461654663,
-0.15915189683437347,
0.1502138376235962,
-0.7868077754974365,
-0.539997935295105,
0.12086884677410126,
-0.12738730013370514,
0.3106299042701721,
-0.16418571770191193,
-0.11238650232553482,
-0.11563513427972794,
-0.25947320461273193,
0.068201944231987,
0.5877518057823181,
-0.4845861494541168,
0.0954587459564209,
0.0050193252973258495,
0.4000004529953003,
-0.3089507818222046,
-0.4026222825050354,
0.20251163840293884,
-0.5332729816436768,
1.0289477109909058,
0.4283429682254791,
0.018337413668632507,
0.5197891592979431,
-0.31662535667419434,
-0.5381620526313782,
0.36533355712890625,
0.4125598073005676,
-0.29823657870292664,
-0.4357111155986786,
0.7006877064704895,
0.00534126628190279,
0.5634973645210266,
-0.014924361370503902,
-0.6770458817481995,
0.2734322249889374,
0.6103469133377075,
-0.3349086344242096,
0.55747389793396,
-0.15990108251571655,
0.1543196588754654,
-0.11187087744474411,
0.38536563515663147,
-0.08875492215156555,
-0.2403443157672882,
-0.2914673686027527,
0.09808356314897537,
-0.7800516486167908,
0.7111531496047974,
-0.03913658484816551,
-0.5015971660614014,
0.4227432310581207,
-0.33854246139526367,
0.6290585398674011,
-0.6370572447776794,
-0.2810041010379791,
0.29188141226768494,
0.3437150716781616,
-0.43992820382118225,
0.7545170187950134,
0.38923555612564087,
0.022704530507326126,
-0.059177786111831665,
0.7159378528594971,
0.5557019710540771,
-0.3649921119213104,
0.40370261669158936,
-0.8011481761932373,
-0.31909608840942383,
-0.17927849292755127,
-0.7498767971992493,
0.3718815743923187,
-0.35542887449264526,
0.5050402283668518,
1.1026370525360107,
-0.15496447682380676,
0.21444103121757507,
0.3589355945587158,
0.14727970957756042,
0.21749161183834076,
0.4684084355831146,
0.6898034811019897,
0.11690561473369598,
-0.6305673122406006,
-0.13489817082881927,
-0.06416022032499313,
0.36922013759613037,
-0.30218827724456787,
-0.398767352104187,
0.06522347778081894,
0.7698908448219299,
-0.479770302772522,
0.48418787121772766,
-0.3447573184967041,
-0.11322984099388123,
0.3329177796840668,
-0.2961489260196686,
0.27556464076042175,
-0.39005428552627563,
0.027189644053578377,
0.03797350823879242,
-0.30782195925712585,
0.2705395817756653,
-0.26592525839805603,
-0.290457159280777,
0.1375947892665863,
-0.15953068435192108,
-0.17244240641593933,
-0.023755639791488647,
0.11926489323377609,
-0.2368510663509369,
-0.24114033579826355,
0.5369071364402771,
0.5221453309059143,
-0.41135093569755554,
-0.4053400456905365,
0.30850741267204285,
-0.2531089782714844,
-0.2615763247013092,
-0.5019826292991638,
-0.26976168155670166,
0.1653962880373001,
-0.011292061768472195,
0.8905122876167297,
0.3262021243572235,
0.13399487733840942,
-0.2809861898422241,
-0.8605875968933105,
0.18407151103019714,
-0.500636637210846,
-0.20579175651073456,
-0.08554192632436752,
-0.988390326499939,
-0.4023197293281555,
0.43013232946395874,
0.5765731334686279,
0.48029473423957825,
0.10048013925552368,
0.10621463507413864,
-0.14517256617546082,
0.3588923513889313,
-0.5299624800682068,
0.19677893817424774,
-0.13018560409545898,
-0.7319772243499756,
0.36829373240470886,
-0.3137536942958832,
0.11460506170988083,
0.46370285749435425,
0.750617265701294,
0.14024409651756287,
-0.904714822769165,
0.3228030800819397,
-0.35202232003211975,
-0.5131916403770447,
0.17713777720928192,
-0.4155373275279999,
-0.49496808648109436,
-0.21299687027931213,
-0.13084174692630768,
-0.11324761807918549,
0.07148151099681854,
-5.610069274902344,
0.0007147295982576907,
-0.31746235489845276,
-0.19331368803977966,
-0.34506404399871826,
0.36089256405830383,
0.6711943745613098,
0.18628615140914917,
-0.6396831274032593,
-0.0018632832216098905,
-0.2675190567970276,
-0.006289934739470482,
-0.5268198251724243,
0.6239572167396545,
0.8623479008674622,
0.20337846875190735,
0.653407096862793,
0.0462430901825428,
0.07193853706121445,
0.5875845551490784,
0.1235574260354042,
0.1796690672636032,
-0.004960860125720501,
0.11187592148780823,
0.520663857460022,
-0.06759216636419296,
-0.0569014735519886,
0.012989319860935211,
-0.26771724224090576,
0.19291812181472778,
0.13314804434776306,
-0.2788407504558563,
-0.21097911894321442,
-0.4339866042137146,
0.18532516062259674,
0.08994259685277939,
-0.10713133215904236,
-0.01502388808876276,
0.823829174041748,
0.01958736777305603,
-0.3303886353969574,
0.7911429405212402,
-0.08743014186620712,
-0.03893677145242691,
0.294921338558197,
-0.8643301129341125,
0.11736919730901718,
0.24520835280418396,
-0.015526311472058296,
0.8742035031318665,
-0.0933898314833641,
0.1338372826576233,
0.3534764349460602,
-0.41234713792800903,
-0.3446892499923706,
0.14683464169502258,
0.4851875603199005,
-0.053700465708971024,
-1.1477068662643433,
-0.2616024315357208,
0.6744736433029175,
-0.5801602005958557,
0.011955346912145615,
-0.5585594177246094,
-0.11752206832170486,
-0.33824506402015686,
-0.8263915777206421,
-0.26791560649871826,
0.4461742639541626,
0.2161649465560913,
-0.001547507126815617,
0.26699718832969666,
0.08597109466791153,
-0.4849461615085602,
0.24804559350013733,
-0.4885234236717224,
-0.09542391449213028,
-0.01052847970277071,
0.48137763142585754,
0.05430268868803978,
-0.4828311502933502,
-0.3706290125846863,
-0.0702895000576973,
0.4735456705093384,
-0.48014068603515625,
0.06982440501451492,
-0.4633859395980835,
-0.5102653503417969,
-0.3532131612300873,
-0.5970607995986938,
1.252804160118103,
-0.72067791223526,
0.7638429999351501,
-0.27400103211402893,
0.328110009431839,
0.09338193386793137,
0.4251871705055237,
-0.2987854778766632,
0.7368472218513489,
-0.22129946947097778,
0.13017065823078156,
-0.1389443278312683,
0.43120360374450684,
0.17204411327838898,
0.08809564262628555,
-0.17649342119693756,
-0.49795034527778625,
0.6256147027015686,
0.7913178205490112,
-0.022129647433757782,
0.27556511759757996,
0.0933351069688797,
0.040024396032094955,
0.06658291816711426,
0.28062015771865845,
0.6125237345695496,
-0.3405044972896576,
0.5010730624198914,
0.4985569715499878,
-0.16367760300636292,
0.25475049018859863,
-0.37603363394737244,
0.009208403527736664,
-0.22574111819267273,
0.11977451294660568,
0.24685737490653992,
-0.23704171180725098,
0.24450059235095978,
-0.3528822362422943,
0.3922569751739502,
0.05423464998602867,
0.7280811667442322,
0.36235111951828003,
-0.26397740840911865,
0.17934906482696533,
-0.22159352898597717,
0.1279614418745041,
-0.11941800266504288,
0.09721812605857849,
-0.44278430938720703,
0.5279770493507385,
0.4306926429271698,
-0.12270234525203705,
-0.07612427324056625,
0.6280345916748047,
0.0340493880212307,
-0.015268859453499317,
-0.14959897100925446,
-0.08696208894252777,
0.5270701050758362,
0.026447534561157227,
-0.4207881689071655,
0.3232914209365845,
-0.4486476480960846,
-0.00814251322299242,
0.28639456629753113,
-0.19741863012313843,
0.4045877754688263,
-0.18791668117046356,
-0.2013755738735199,
0.4986875355243683,
0.43106603622436523,
-0.9566712975502014,
-0.3949209451675415,
0.17238777875900269,
-0.012874913401901722,
-0.34055498242378235,
0.08280374854803085,
0.05306017026305199,
0.40239766240119934,
0.564900815486908,
-0.13575680553913116,
-0.4582673907279968,
-1.0510902404785156,
-0.37262842059135437,
0.4255678057670593,
0.35806795954704285,
0.13334324955940247,
0.34935423731803894,
-0.4356171786785126,
0.16057781875133514,
-0.44836708903312683,
-0.46283143758773804,
0.41067495942115784,
0.17043228447437286,
-0.36435601115226746,
-0.09170005470514297,
0.0523473396897316,
0.01742146722972393,
-0.07425019890069962,
-0.04673713073134422,
0.30130115151405334,
-0.1179952546954155,
-0.18679915368556976,
-0.11609155684709549,
-0.265445739030838,
0.2772839367389679,
0.3025241196155548,
-0.5687030553817749,
-0.33187034726142883,
-0.07328516244888306,
0.6664888262748718,
-1.1112322807312012,
0.7527449131011963,
0.19702555239200592,
-0.7948219776153564,
0.22902357578277588,
-0.21195673942565918,
0.1925296038389206,
-0.08070272952318192,
-0.6281312704086304,
-0.427519291639328,
-0.1985989809036255,
0.0032808270771056414,
-0.27425941824913025,
0.22854085266590118,
0.26639020442962646,
-0.2628648579120636,
-0.3738660514354706,
-0.6011085510253906,
0.06102596968412399,
0.1295020431280136,
-0.8697738647460938,
-0.08942712843418121,
-0.09888845682144165,
0.12401553988456726,
0.12077262997627258,
-0.44241270422935486,
0.781295657157898,
-0.5543072819709778,
-0.06853658705949783,
0.42185211181640625,
-0.022994963452219963,
-0.04500957578420639,
-0.36001574993133545,
-0.39468804001808167,
-0.48603105545043945,
0.1494193822145462,
-0.42138200998306274,
-0.3401228189468384,
0.6890275478363037,
0.3385995924472809,
0.12973767518997192,
-0.23694604635238647,
0.03037036769092083,
0.06993963569402695,
0.5078970193862915,
-0.9322789907455444,
-0.668947160243988,
-0.034600671380758286,
0.0815240889787674,
-0.7178394198417664,
-0.6949509382247925,
-0.7671570777893066,
0.2908152937889099,
0.0617382749915123,
0.07055049389600754,
-0.08281069248914719,
0.404186874628067,
0.46089938282966614,
-0.17468629777431488,
-0.8644864559173584,
-0.7287309765815735,
0.06427960842847824,
-0.014609579928219318,
-0.02974173054099083,
-0.29815375804901123,
0.14033792912960052,
0.44849273562431335,
-0.35178032517433167,
0.4378143846988678,
0.3093745708465576,
0.4862564504146576,
-0.016730058938264847,
0.3189024329185486,
0.06483834981918335,
0.054573915898799896,
0.20295952260494232,
0.29149556159973145,
-0.5315584540367126,
-0.30859044194221497,
0.15391714870929718,
0.7462717890739441,
-0.07935595512390137,
0.4892454743385315,
0.23019522428512573,
0.4356921315193176,
0.18052582442760468,
-0.34401509165763855,
0.17073053121566772,
-0.4286941885948181,
0.054415635764598846,
-0.39670419692993164,
0.20837852358818054,
0.11412613838911057,
0.4473224878311157,
0.4128306210041046,
0.3366113305091858,
0.26196643710136414,
-0.31258711218833923,
-0.676953911781311,
0.7318199872970581,
0.1635565459728241,
-1.0224111080169678,
0.5964358448982239,
-0.25879350304603577,
0.5347049832344055,
0.15273210406303406,
0.4025099575519562,
-0.22045040130615234,
0.370975136756897,
0.5811806917190552,
-0.24165871739387512,
0.6094900369644165,
-0.20425602793693542,
-0.1684706062078476,
0.6579588651657104,
-0.3122515380382538,
0.21658138930797577,
0.5006402730941772,
-0.5180312395095825,
-0.19833165407180786,
-0.09377185255289078,
-0.4403744637966156,
-0.8086958527565002,
0.11016973108053207,
-0.7679168581962585,
0.17426753044128418,
-0.0488775297999382,
0.13076302409172058,
0.6121504902839661,
0.22386007010936737,
-0.753065288066864,
-0.2716037929058075,
-0.2418351024389267,
-0.24413220584392548,
0.3832283914089203,
-0.3243561089038849,
-0.4441538453102112,
0.6367053389549255,
-0.04678276181221008,
0.6400321125984192,
-0.11980319768190384,
0.05149941146373749,
-0.18580882251262665,
0.4292171895503998,
-0.3465142250061035,
0.5843715667724609,
-0.36681506037712097,
-0.010136472061276436,
0.15517236292362213,
-0.20648160576820374,
0.28949683904647827,
-0.3753221333026886,
-0.3442803919315338,
-0.4292149245738983,
0.6142297387123108,
-0.31927332282066345,
-0.24529427289962769,
-0.09436983615159988,
-0.28944864869117737,
0.2958862781524658,
0.16003674268722534,
-0.1500769406557083,
0.22668559849262238,
0.3235986530780792,
0.797825276851654,
-0.38199567794799805,
0.1517408788204193,
-0.41276708245277405,
0.12472356110811234,
0.601150631904602,
-0.6207560896873474,
0.5924883484840393,
-0.07890342175960541,
-0.12546007335186005,
-0.018920257687568665,
0.296728253364563,
-0.011370197869837284,
-0.8165364861488342,
0.004753525368869305,
0.03878533095121384,
0.11483699083328247,
-0.252747118473053,
-0.41954946517944336,
-0.04319823533296585,
-0.09817656874656677,
0.19189493358135223,
-0.08060336112976074,
0.004867559764534235,
0.5110416412353516,
-0.18431928753852844,
0.14431123435497284,
-0.13871672749519348,
-0.5747101902961731,
0.2628355622291565,
-0.35593894124031067,
0.7846952080726624,
0.18303363025188446,
-0.025462979450821877,
0.07478220015764236,
0.29660817980766296,
0.41711506247520447,
0.15902405977249146,
-0.8078667521476746,
0.1450042426586151,
0.007200886961072683,
0.5581334233283997,
-1.191818356513977,
0.36201322078704834,
0.12983398139476776,
-0.6964482665061951,
0.13799752295017242,
0.10758686810731888,
-0.026554353535175323,
0.14239217340946198,
0.3018758296966553,
-0.0055049145594239235,
0.2979424297809601,
-0.3084469735622406,
-0.2967963218688965,
-0.5234832167625427,
-0.4015205204486847,
0.18576480448246002,
0.505894660949707,
-0.6576098799705505,
0.35486623644828796,
-0.11873805522918701,
0.15719689428806305,
-0.05147425830364227,
-0.1898338943719864,
0.608790397644043,
-1.254744529724121,
0.42776769399642944,
-0.1391439586877823,
-0.2517301142215729,
0.2726721167564392,
0.7013003826141357,
0.3800371289253235,
-0.38654688000679016,
-0.24323749542236328,
-0.15206655859947205,
-0.7106707096099854,
0.6270738244056702,
-1.0261071920394897,
0.332106351852417,
-0.44185975193977356,
-0.12280313670635223,
-0.4950762093067169,
0.6418328285217285,
0.3628585636615753,
-0.03773482143878937,
0.27422410249710083,
-0.37256938219070435,
-0.25163471698760986,
-0.5421744585037231,
0.11250860244035721,
-0.5995192527770996,
0.1437232494354248,
0.906770646572113
] |
233649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Bronstein | David Bronstein | David Ionovich Bronstein (; February 19, 1924 – December 5, 2006) was a Soviet and Russian chess player. Awarded the title of International Grandmaster by FIDE in 1950, he narrowly missed becoming World Chess Champion in 1951. Bronstein was one of the world's strongest players from the mid-1940s into the mid-1970s, and was described by his peers as a creative genius and master of tactics. Also a renowned chess writer, his book Zurich International Chess Tournament 1953 is widely considered one of the greatest chess books ever written.
Early life
David Bronstein was born in Bila Tserkva, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union to Jewish parents. Growing up in a poor family, he learned chess at age six from his grandfather. As a youth in Kyiv, he was trained by the renowned International Master Alexander Konstantinopolsky. He finished second in the Kyiv Championship when he was only 15, and achieved the Soviet Master title at age 16 for his second-place result in the 1940 Ukrainian SSR Chess Championship, behind Isaac Boleslavsky, with whom he became close friends both on and off the chessboard. He later went on to marry Boleslavsky's daughter, Tatiana, in 1984.
After completing high school in spring 1941, his plans to study mathematics at Kyiv University were interrupted by the spread of World War II throughout eastern Europe in the early 1940s. He had begun play in the 1941 semifinal of the Soviet Championship, but this event was cancelled as war began. Shortly after the war's conclusion, he began attending Leningrad Polytechnical Institute where he studied for approximately one year.
Judged unfit for military service, Bronstein spent the war performing various jobs; this included doing some reconstruction of war-damaged buildings and other clerical/labor type jobs. Also during the war, his father, Johonon, was unfairly imprisoned for several years in the Gulag and was detained without substantial evidence of committing any crimes, it was later revealed. The rumor that Bronstein was related to the disgraced former Soviet Communist leader Leon Trotsky (whose real family name was Bronstein), was treated as unconfirmed, but doubtful, by Bronstein in his book The Sorcerer's Apprentice (1995). This belief could have explained the imprisonment of Bronstein's father.
Towards Grandmaster
With the tide turning towards an eventual Soviet war victory over the Nazi invaders, Bronstein was able to once again play some competitive chess. His first top-standard Soviet event was the 1944 USSR Championship, where he won his individual game against eventual winner (and soon-to-be world champion) Mikhail Botvinnik. Bronstein moved to Moscow as the war wound up. Then seen as a promising but essentially unproven young player, one of dozens in the deep Soviet vanguard, he raised his playing level dramatically to place third in the 1945 USSR Championship. This result earned him a place on the Soviet team; he won both his games played on board ten, helping the Soviet team achieve victory in the famous 1945 USA vs. USSR radio chess match. He then competed successfully in several team matches, and gradually proved he belonged in the Soviet chess elite. Bronstein tied for first place in the Soviet Championships of both 1948 and 1949.
World Title Challenger (1948–1951)
Bronstein's first major international tournament success occurred at the Saltsjöbaden Interzonal of 1948, which he won. His qualifying place in this event came through nominations from foreign chess federations. He earned his Grandmaster title in 1950, when FIDE, the World Chess Federation, formalized the process. His Interzonal win qualified him for the Candidates' Tournament of 1950 in Budapest. Bronstein became the eventual Candidates' winner over Boleslavsky in a (Moscow) 1950 playoff match, following two overtime match games, after the two had tied in Budapest, and then again remained level over the 12 scheduled match games.
The period 1945–1950 saw a meteoric rise in Bronstein's development, as he reached the World Chess Championship challenge match, in 1951.
1951 World Championship match against Botvinnik
Bronstein is widely considered to be one of the greatest players not to have won the World Championship. He came close to that goal when he tied the 1951 World Championship match 12–12 with Mikhail Botvinnik, the reigning champion. Each player won five games, and the remaining 14 games were drawn.
In a match where the lead swung back and forth several times, the two players tested each other in a wide variety of opening formations, and every game (except the 24th) was full-blooded and played hard to a clear finish. Bronstein often avoided lines he had favoured in earlier events, and frequently adopted Botvinnik's own preferred variations. This strategy seemed to catch Botvinnik by surprise; the champion had not played competitively for three years since winning the title in 1948. The quality of play was very high by both players, although Botvinnik would later complain of his own weak play. He only grudgingly acknowledged Bronstein's huge talent. Bronstein claimed four of his five match wins by deep combinational play, winning before adjournment in highly complex fashion. He led by one point with two games to go, but lost the 23rd game and drew the final (24th) game. Under FIDE rules, the title remained with the holder, and Bronstein was never to come so close again.
Botvinnik wrote that Bronstein's failure was caused by a tendency to underestimate endgame technique, and a lack of ability in simple positions. Botvinnik won four virtually level endgames after the adjournments, and his fifth win came in an endgame that Bronstein resigned at move 40. These adjourned games made up four of Botvinnik's five match wins; Botvinnik had no more than a minimal advantage in these games when they were adjourned at move 40.
Bronstein's father was sometimes secretly in the audience during the 1951 title match games, at a time when he was not officially permitted in Moscow.
1953 Candidates
Bronstein challenged throughout at the 1953 Candidates Tournament in Switzerland and finished tied for second through fourth places, together with Keres and Samuel Reshevsky, 2 points behind the winner Vasily Smyslov. Bronstein's book on the tournament is considered a classic.
It has been speculated that there was pressure on the Soviet players to collude, to ensure that a Soviet player would win. Even in the wake of glasnost, however, Bronstein only partially confirmed these rumors in his public statements or writings, admitting only to 'strong psychological pressure' being applied, and that it was up to Bronstein himself whether to decide to give in to this pressure. In his final book, published in 2007, shortly after his death, Bronstein went further and alleged that he and Keres were pressured to draw their games with Smyslov, in order to ensure that Smyslov would win ahead of Reshevsky (see World Chess Championship 1954#Allegations of Soviet collusion).
Career after 1953
The 1953 Candidates result qualified him directly for the 1955 Gothenburg Interzonal, which he won with an unbeaten score. From there it was on to another near miss in the 1956 Candidates' tournament in Amsterdam, where he wound up in a large tie for third through seventh places, behind winner Smyslov and runner-up Keres.
Bronstein had to qualify for the 1958 Interzonal, and did so by placing third at the USSR Championship, Riga 1958. At the 1958 Interzonal in Portorož, Bronstein, who had been picked as clear pre-event favourite by Bobby Fischer, missed moving on to the 1959 Candidates' by half a point, dropping a last-round game to the much weaker Filipino Rodolfo Tan Cardoso, when the electrical power failed due to a thunderstorm during the game, and he was unable to regain concentration. Bronstein missed qualification at the Soviet Zonal stage for the 1962 cycle. Then at the Amsterdam 1964 Interzonal, Bronstein scored very well, but only three Soviets could advance, by a FIDE rule, and he finished behind countrymen Smyslov, Mikhail Tal, and Boris Spassky, who finished as the joint winners, along with Larsen. His last Interzonal was at age 49 when he finished sixth at Petropolis 1973.
Bronstein took many first prizes in tournaments, among the most notable being the Soviet Chess Championships of 1948 (jointly with Alexander Kotov) and 1949 (jointly with Smyslov). He also tied for second place at the Soviet Championships of 1957 and 1964–65. He tied first with Mark Taimanov at the World Students' Championship in 1952 at Liverpool. Bronstein was also a six-time winner of the Moscow Championships, and represented the USSR at the Olympiads of 1952, 1954, 1956 and 1958, winning board prizes at each of them, and losing just one of his 49 games in those events. Along the way he won four Olympiad team gold medals. In the 1954 team match against the USA (held in New York), Bronstein scored an almost unheard-of sweep at this level of play, winning all four of his games on second board.
Further major tournament victories were achieved at Hastings 1953–54, Belgrade 1954, Gotha 1957, Moscow 1959, Szombathely 1966, East Berlin 1968, Dnepropetrovsk 1970, Sarajevo 1971, Sandomierz 1976, Iwonicz Zdrój 1976, Budapest 1977, and Jūrmala 1978.
Legacy and later years
David Bronstein wrote many chess books and articles, and had a regular chess column in the Soviet newspaper Izvestia for many years. He was perhaps most highly regarded for his famous authorship of Zurich International Chess Tournament 1953 (English translation 1979). This book was an enormous seller in the USSR, going through many reprints, and is regarded among the very best chess books ever written. More recently, he co-authored the autobiographical The Sorcerer's Apprentice (1995), with his friend Tom Fürstenberg. Both have become landmarks in chess publishing history; Bronstein sought to amplify the ideas behind the players' moves rather than burdening the reader with pages of analysis of moves that never made it onto the scoresheet. Bronstein's romantic vision of chess was shown with his very successful adoption of the rarely seen King's Gambit in top-level competition. His pioneering theoretical and practical work (along with Boleslavsky and Efim Geller) in transforming the King's Indian Defence from a distrusted, obscure variation into a popular major system should be remembered, and is evidenced in his key contribution to the 1999 book Bronstein on the King's Indian. Bronstein played an exceptionally wide variety of openings during his long career, on a scale comparable with anyone else who ever reached the top level.
Two more variations are named after him. In the Caro-Kann Defence, the Bronstein–Larsen Variation goes 1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 dxe4 4.Nxe4 Nf6 5.Nxf6+ gxf6. In the Scandinavian Defence, the Bronstein Variation goes 1.e4 d5 2.exd5 Qxd5 3.Nc3 Qd8.
Bronstein refused to sign a group letter denouncing the 1976 defection of Viktor Korchnoi, and he paid a personal price for this independence, as his state-paid Master's stipend was suspended, and he was also barred from major tournaments for more than a year. He was virtually banned from high-class events for several years in the mid-1980s.
Bronstein was a chess visionary. He was an early advocate of speeding up competitive chess. In 1973 he introduced the idea of adding a small time increment for each move made, a variant of which has become very popular in recent years and is implemented on almost all digital chess clocks. He challenged computer programs at every opportunity, usually achieving good results.
Bronstein enjoyed experimenting with unusual and offbeat openings such as the King's Gambit and Latvian Gambit, however he generally did not play them in serious games. Like most grandmasters of the 1950s–1960s, he favoured e4 openings, especially the Ruy Lopez, French Defence, and Sicilian Defence. Although he had an extensive knowledge of openings and opening theory, his endgame technique was considered less reliable.
In later years, Bronstein continued to stay active in tournament play, often in Western Europe after the breakup of the USSR. He maintained a very good standard (jointly winning the Hastings Swiss of 1994–95 at the age of 70), wrote several important chess books, and inspired young and old alike with endless simultaneous displays, a warm, gracious attitude, and glorious tales of his own rich chess heritage. Bronstein died on December 5, 2006 in Minsk, Belarus of complications from high blood pressure.
His final book was nearly complete when he died; it was published in 2007: Secret Notes, by David Bronstein and Sergei Voronkov, Zürich 2007, Edition Olms, . In the introduction to the book, Garry Kasparov, a fervent admirer of Bronstein's chess contributions, offers his opinion that Bronstein, based on his play, should have won the 1951 match against Botvinnik.
Best combination
During the 1962 Moscow vs. Leningrad Match Bronstein played the top board for the Moscow team. With the white pieces he defeated Viktor Korchnoi in a game that ended with a tactic he later described as "one of the best combinations in my life, if not the best".
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Nxe4 6.d4 b5 7.Bb3 d5 8.dxe5 Be6 9.c3 Be7 10.Bc2 0-0 11.Qe2 f5 12.exf6 Bxf6 13.Nbd2 Bf5 14.Nxe4 Bxe4 15.Bxe4 dxe4 16.Qxe4 Qd7 17.Bf4 Rae8 18.Qc2 Bh4 19.Bg3 Bxg3 20.hxg3 Ne5 21.Nxe5 Rxe5 22.Rfe1 Rd5 23.Rad1 c5 24.a4 Rd8 25.Rxd5 Qxd5 26.axb5 axb5 27.Qe2 b4 28.cxb4 cxb4 29.Qg4 b3 30.Kh2 Qf7 31.Qg5 Rd7 32.f3 h6 33.Qe3 Rd8 34.g4 Kh8 35.Qb6 Rd2 36.Qb8+ Kh7 37.Re8 Qxf3 38.Rh8+ Kg6 39.Rxh6+ (diagram)
Bronstein: Korchnoi remained unruffled. He wrote down my move on his scoresheet and began carefully studying the position. I think it seemed incredible to him that White could sacrifice his last rook (I myself could not believe my eyes!). And only when he had convinced himself, did he stop the clocks. These are the variations: A) 39...Kf7 40.Qc7+ Kg8 41.Qc8+ Kf7 42.Qe6+ Kf8 43.Rh8 mate; B) 39...Kg5 40.Qe5+ Kxg4 41.Rg6+ Kh4 42.Qg5 mate; C) 39...gxh6 40.Qg8+ Kf6 41.Qf8+; D) 39...Kxh6 40.Qh8+ Kg6 41.Qh5+ Kf6 42.g5+!
Notable games
Sergei Belavenets vs. Bronstein, USSR Championship semifinal, Rostov-on-Don 1941, King's Indian Defence, Fianchetto Variation (E67), 0–1 The 17-year-old Bronstein meets the Chairman of the USSR Classification Committee, who had just awarded him the title of Master.
Ludek Pachman vs. Bronstein, tt Prague 1946, King's Indian Defence, Fianchetto Variation (E67), 0–1 A stunning original tactical onslaught which attracted worldwide acclaim.
Bronstein vs. Isaac Boleslavsky, Candidates' Playoff Match, Moscow 1950, game 1, Grunfeld Defence (D89), 1–0 Bronstein offers a far-seeing exchange sacrifice, which ties Black up, leading to a beautiful strategical win.
Mikhail Botvinnik vs. Bronstein, World Championship Match, Moscow 1951, Nimzo-Indian Defence, Rubinstein Variation (E47), 0–1 Although Bronstein had a slight minus record against Botvinnik, he beat Botvinnik several times with the black pieces. Here's one of his wins from their 1951 World Championship match.
Bronstein vs. Mikhail Botvinnik, World Championship Match, Moscow 1951, game 22, Dutch Defence, Stonewall Variation (A91), 1–0 A very deep combination exploits Black's back-rank weakness, giving Bronstein a one-game lead with two to play.
Samuel Reshevsky vs. Bronstein, Zurich Candidates' 1953, King's Indian, Fianchetto Variation (E68), 0–1 Beforehand, Bronstein was ordered by Soviet chess authorities to win this crucial game, in order to stop Reshevsky's chances of winning the tournament. He gives it everything he has, and triumphs over stout defense. This game was chosen by Grandmaster Ulf Andersson as his favourite game by another player and he analyses it in the book Learn from the Grandmasters.
Bronstein vs. Paul Keres, Goteborg Interzonal 1955, Nimzo-Indian Defence, Rubinstein Variation (E41), 1–0 A dramatic game between two attacking geniuses.
Itzak Aloni vs. Bronstein, Moscow Olympiad 1956, King's Indian Defence, Saemisch Variation (E85), 0–1 This virtuoso game sees Bronstein sacrifice three pawns to open queenside lines into Aloni's king position.
Bronstein vs. M-20(Computer), Moscow Mathematics Institute 1963, King's Gambit: Accepted, Schallop Defense (C34), 1–0 The oldest-known game between a grandmaster and a computer.
Stefan Brzozka vs. Bronstein, USSR 1963, Dutch Defence, Leningrad Variation (A88), 0–1 A surprising and deep positional breakthrough. The most interesting part of the game starts with White's 42nd move, trying to sacrifice an exchange in order to achieve a seemingly sterile blocked position.
Lev Polugaevsky vs. Bronstein, USSR 1971, English Opening, Symmetrical Variation (A34), 0–1 Bronstein offers an original, problematic pawn sacrifice, which Polugaevsky accepts, leaving him tied up for the rest of the game; Bronstein converts his positional advantage with deep tactics.
Bronstein vs. Ljubomir Ljubojevic, Petropolis Interzonal 1973, Alekhine's Defence, Four Pawns' Attack (B03), 1–0 A long-range rook sacrifice eventually brings home the point in scintillating style to win the First Brilliancy Prize.
Bronstein vs. Viktor Kupreichik, USSR Championship semifinal, Minsk 1983, King's Indian Defence (E90), 1–0 Kupreichik goes toe-to-toe with Bronstein in the King's Indian, and the old master shows the young one a trick or two!
Bronstein vs. Ivan Sokolov, Pancevo 1987, Grunfeld Defence, Russian Variation (D98), 1–0 Another young master experiences Bronstein's aging yet potent chess powers.
Stuart Conquest vs. Bronstein, London 1989, CaroKann Defence (B10), 0–1 A dazzling tactical display leaves White helpless in only 26 moves.
Bronstein vs. Walter Browne, Reykjavik 1990, Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation (B99), 1–0 In a very deep theoretical variation, Bronstein comes up with some new ideas, and even Najdorf-guru Browne, a six-time U.S. champion, can't find his way.
Books
The Chess Struggle in Practice: Lessons from the Famous Zurich Candidates Tournament of 1953, 1978,
200 Open Games, 1991,
The Modern Chess Self-Tutor, 1995,
The Sorcerer's Apprentice, 1995,
Bronstein on the King's Indian, 1999,
Secret Notes, 2007,
See also
Game clock – for the Bronstein delay
List of Jewish chess players
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Obituary by Leonard Barden at Guardian Unlimited
Obituary by Frederic Friedel at ChessBase
Download all games of David Bronstein
1924 births
2006 deaths
20th-century chess players
20th-century Russian male writers
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University alumni
Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Chess grandmasters
Chess Olympiad competitors
Chess theoreticians
Jewish chess players
Ukrainian Jews
Russian chess players
Russian chess writers
Russian male writers
Soviet chess players
Soviet chess writers
Soviet male writers | [
-0.4535122513771057,
0.12406570464372635,
-0.344908744096756,
-0.2151731550693512,
-0.221071258187294,
1.0221703052520752,
0.3876855671405792,
-0.29379719495773315,
0.20093806087970734,
0.2192237228155136,
-0.32199826836586,
0.34249094128608704,
-0.3840616047382355,
0.32737869024276733,
0.1301872432231903,
0.24417588114738464,
0.03443557396531105,
-0.8071320056915283,
-1.0801271200180054,
0.01687387190759182,
-0.4512622356414795,
-0.1520279049873352,
0.18675538897514343,
0.43809574842453003,
-0.7265252470970154,
0.30193230509757996,
0.11643045395612717,
-0.08698615431785583,
-0.15068542957305908,
0.16061368584632874,
-0.5775952935218811,
0.6443682312965393,
0.5929970145225525,
-0.17962349951267242,
-0.4683445692062378,
0.5565353631973267,
-0.13580547273159027,
-0.009727912954986095,
-0.014857761561870575,
0.020893743261694908,
0.10538611561059952,
0.8142322897911072,
0.16184505820274353,
0.12536145746707916,
0.18219882249832153,
-0.6228534579277039,
-1.9124928712844849,
0.7326226234436035,
-0.5363069176673889,
-0.8915229439735413,
-0.2786463797092438,
0.06615757942199707,
0.3445715308189392,
0.127454936504364,
0.04299680143594742,
0.03663905709981918,
-0.3183387219905853,
0.02487872540950775,
0.2482515424489975,
0.41833335161209106,
0.5951741337776184,
0.24440406262874603,
1.0072766542434692,
-0.3275749385356903,
0.9051370620727539,
0.3208323121070862,
-0.3091433346271515,
0.43569061160087585,
-0.07198459655046463,
0.032780569046735764,
-0.5193966031074524,
0.5509109497070312,
0.40577903389930725,
-0.33880022168159485,
0.5955439805984497,
-0.18754073977470398,
0.18988405168056488,
-0.04009376838803291,
0.02656160481274128,
0.22982072830200195,
-0.17768563330173492,
-0.2650200426578522,
0.42546436190605164,
0.17440754175186157,
0.08256305754184723,
-0.511786162853241,
-0.6342201828956604,
0.6735734343528748,
-0.7604582905769348,
0.11879543215036392,
-0.14598137140274048,
-0.5430421233177185,
0.44646498560905457,
0.1877783089876175,
-0.22010958194732666,
-0.0026249533984810114,
-0.11043930798768997,
0.66094571352005,
0.21646827459335327,
-0.664165198802948,
0.09578149765729904,
-0.02590896189212799,
0.40312376618385315,
-0.6296694874763489,
-0.3742595613002777,
-0.3481358587741852,
0.16671715676784515,
-0.11590282618999481,
0.10307227075099945,
-0.1475498378276825,
-0.7794303894042969,
0.29128074645996094,
-0.16818466782569885,
-0.035806141793727875,
-0.06029043346643448,
0.851193904876709,
-0.15556669235229492,
-0.4592694342136383,
-0.3604421317577362,
0.21080656349658966,
-0.32549232244491577,
0.525710940361023,
-0.3477973937988281,
0.3646585941314697,
-0.11507705599069595,
-0.34703493118286133,
0.07620033621788025,
0.5920437574386597,
-0.6218045353889465,
0.49861979484558105,
0.020418677479028702,
0.4618280827999115,
-0.2774501144886017,
0.01567216031253338,
-0.20158793032169342,
0.1915229856967926,
0.42670658230781555,
-0.26143813133239746,
-0.6706568598747253,
0.11968690901994705,
-0.9696311950683594,
-0.0727141946554184,
-0.2636558711528778,
-0.021664157509803772,
0.8810146450996399,
0.034111976623535156,
0.2713691294193268,
-0.26650068163871765,
0.23429979383945465,
-0.2502902150154114,
0.034975625574588776,
0.19185465574264526,
-0.03141910582780838,
-0.6573291420936584,
-0.5142261385917664,
0.724891722202301,
1.1352295875549316,
-0.0565510131418705,
-0.00021234902669675648,
-0.26940175890922546,
0.506275475025177,
-0.6130914688110352,
-0.019088735803961754,
0.5173652172088623,
0.364773690700531,
0.0061341519467532635,
0.1274682581424713,
0.2500388026237488,
-0.6187632083892822,
0.13452942669391632,
-0.44410258531570435,
0.14510419964790344,
0.3591200113296509,
-0.3360823690891266,
-0.48670753836631775,
0.7110664248466492,
-0.06640277802944183,
0.45415669679641724,
0.0598280131816864,
-0.7625807523727417,
-0.7226927876472473,
-0.600631058216095,
-0.19699329137802124,
0.380582720041275,
0.16395734250545502,
0.29567256569862366,
-0.07362386584281921,
-0.17345456779003143,
1.2189526557922363,
0.15272609889507294,
-0.011026866734027863,
-0.06072138622403145,
0.021014103665947914,
-0.07234358787536621,
1.1539853811264038,
0.38709717988967896,
-0.54796302318573,
0.24286125600337982,
-0.281392902135849,
0.4857962727546692,
-0.29241010546684265,
-0.4512985348701477,
-0.43984028697013855,
0.687082052230835,
0.7914591431617737,
0.7786048054695129,
0.01799919269979,
0.034274566918611526,
0.049225687980651855,
0.6444726586341858,
0.19394540786743164,
-0.6814192533493042,
0.6686181426048279,
0.6153991222381592,
-0.34200364351272583,
-0.15506181120872498,
-0.6963416934013367,
-0.1329188197851181,
0.39323294162750244,
-0.26203811168670654,
0.5854465961456299,
0.4250129163265228,
-0.04731377959251404,
0.6408169865608215,
0.033902108669281006,
1.1745240688323975,
-0.20941925048828125,
0.17141994833946228,
0.12127047032117844,
-0.48004335165023804,
-0.4031098186969757,
0.07921390980482101,
0.5926462411880493,
0.0666729211807251,
0.4062221944332123,
-0.07144526392221451,
-0.02755018137395382,
-0.5824028253555298,
0.4869897663593292,
-0.3688305914402008,
-0.2430211454629898,
-0.20131027698516846,
0.35553574562072754,
0.08540107309818268,
-0.0347796194255352,
0.7155485153198242,
-0.11257702857255936,
0.0833762139081955,
-0.11727775633335114,
0.055623859167099,
0.48345109820365906,
0.3074178695678711,
0.11936422437429428,
0.3077099621295929,
-0.31042104959487915,
-0.04012249410152435,
0.18195369839668274,
-0.05983905494213104,
0.32065287232398987,
0.3871210217475891,
0.5927115082740784,
0.058320239186286926,
-0.08387032896280289,
-0.17147330939769745,
-0.40819016098976135,
-0.6989473700523376,
-0.023047683760523796,
-0.5756660103797913,
0.3453018367290497,
-0.5456334948539734,
-0.05121072009205818,
-0.38296884298324585,
-0.5903399586677551,
0.22571802139282227,
-0.22185386717319489,
-0.3117430508136749,
-0.3781556189060211,
-0.2963747978210449,
-0.35978513956069946,
-0.33542558550834656,
0.05946539342403412,
0.5567132234573364,
0.13835252821445465,
0.07206906378269196,
-0.2858222723007202,
0.04518711566925049,
-0.7927073836326599,
-0.3944336175918579,
0.5300740599632263,
-0.3070589601993561,
-0.3592158257961273,
0.8685423731803894,
0.042968351393938065,
0.5503841638565063,
-0.23709912598133087,
0.6126881241798401,
-0.4883444607257843,
-0.785384476184845,
0.16919508576393127,
0.07609390467405319,
-0.6015456914901733,
0.029546303674578667,
-0.35500195622444153,
-0.07567787170410156,
-0.1989319771528244,
0.3275744318962097,
-0.26609840989112854,
-0.22982726991176605,
-5.285704612731934,
0.4626714885234833,
-0.10393433272838593,
-0.5038941502571106,
-0.24647574126720428,
0.05162864550948143,
-0.17733623087406158,
-0.01671481318771839,
-0.04110976308584213,
-0.5858010649681091,
-0.016144219785928726,
-0.6708551645278931,
-0.16721369326114655,
0.4723045527935028,
0.612467348575592,
0.3708990812301636,
0.45037516951560974,
-0.11924510449171066,
0.13713863492012024,
0.5037828087806702,
0.1713794618844986,
-0.4106389880180359,
-0.20257440209388733,
0.04539407417178154,
-0.35162562131881714,
0.6173698902130127,
0.1488359421491623,
0.1503211110830307,
-1.1188002824783325,
-0.7580636143684387,
-0.41948041319847107,
-0.05113382264971733,
-0.40695279836654663,
0.4927179217338562,
0.27053302526474,
-0.268709272146225,
0.6574999094009399,
0.6130900979042053,
0.18045692145824432,
0.21014304459095,
-0.095270074903965,
0.3928302228450775,
-0.22829300165176392,
0.2836250960826874,
0.23996853828430176,
-0.07743729650974274,
-0.6789879202842712,
0.47387319803237915,
-0.5984927415847778,
-0.31426504254341125,
0.6066076755523682,
-0.11447034776210785,
0.37759891152381897,
0.037515535950660706,
-0.07468602061271667,
0.043032631278038025,
0.05715719610452652,
-0.40508919954299927,
-0.5868322849273682,
0.6788171529769897,
-0.128951296210289,
-0.26876822113990784,
0.5180139541625977,
-0.4334007799625397,
0.3289845585823059,
-0.18277093768119812,
0.5520089268684387,
-0.2483447641134262,
-0.04358663409948349,
-0.35525625944137573,
-0.11754361540079117,
1.6116554737091064,
-0.10322435200214386,
-1.0087921619415283,
-0.32959139347076416,
-0.12045686691999435,
0.004155730362981558,
-0.43009331822395325,
-0.6619304418563843,
0.16811685264110565,
0.14599072933197021,
-0.9198791980743408,
-0.5236102342605591,
0.5686669945716858,
0.8772531151771545,
0.21321120858192444,
-0.10475677251815796,
0.821337103843689,
-0.09158900380134583,
-0.19450519979000092,
0.3081197738647461,
-0.32413989305496216,
0.5301358699798584,
0.3163479268550873,
0.12424806505441666,
0.045411814004182816,
-0.08451134711503983,
0.2126806378364563,
0.4850795865058899,
0.620821475982666,
-0.21423611044883728,
-0.2988216280937195,
-0.03238869830965996,
-0.9920750856399536,
0.6088183522224426,
0.014752266928553581,
0.1761300414800644,
0.378595769405365,
1.1226383447647095,
0.1516951322555542,
-0.6172800660133362,
0.6510002017021179,
-0.030801597982645035,
-0.36127969622612,
0.6857326030731201,
-0.3758013844490051,
0.07895197719335556,
0.26554515957832336,
-0.10054372996091843,
0.5115311741828918,
-0.6741538047790527,
0.04812057316303253,
-0.15428031980991364,
-0.33781546354293823,
0.45834270119667053,
-0.2549133002758026,
-0.13708508014678955,
-0.2572459876537323,
-0.12911154329776764,
0.18974795937538147,
-0.4168604016304016,
1.1106033325195312,
0.1313900649547577,
0.047583531588315964,
-0.042960263788700104,
0.028349079191684723,
-0.5545121431350708,
-0.679608941078186,
-0.4349895119667053,
0.0037602202501147985,
0.21347445249557495,
0.0020944890566170216,
0.11250089108943939,
0.4757595360279083,
-0.16834862530231476,
0.1178954541683197,
-0.048511166125535965,
0.12182175368070602,
-0.6058287620544434,
0.5754178762435913,
0.21349379420280457,
0.044229958206415176,
0.810738205909729,
-0.17809276282787323,
-0.4944496154785156,
0.1662248820066452,
-0.5382348895072937,
-0.2893000543117523,
0.35029637813568115,
0.257530152797699,
0.4452977776527405,
-0.3337879776954651,
-0.9582491517066956,
-0.12509053945541382,
0.2958983778953552,
-0.11522002518177032,
-0.5794802308082581,
-0.1665937453508377,
-0.389082133769989,
0.7269454002380371,
0.14812645316123962,
-0.14528320729732513,
-0.2602815628051758,
0.06605036556720734,
-0.04089978337287903,
0.3972579836845398,
-0.11607082188129425,
-0.6069843173027039,
0.0796012356877327,
-0.25921502709388733,
0.1864233911037445,
-0.08955994993448257,
-0.6907554268836975,
0.8146964907646179,
0.4964524507522583,
-0.182500958442688,
-0.5402063131332397,
0.018113842234015465,
-0.3850858807563782,
-0.4872094690799713,
0.14200459420681,
-0.33874374628067017,
0.15055528283119202,
0.2642008066177368,
0.3389207124710083,
-0.2420133352279663,
0.3201657831668854,
-0.22003009915351868,
-0.8813774585723877,
0.10664592683315277,
0.26017117500305176,
-0.010627258569002151,
-0.5809497237205505,
-0.37528905272483826,
0.23192468285560608,
-1.0345779657363892,
-0.010791310109198093,
0.4461360573768616,
0.0015525567578151822,
0.48829972743988037,
-0.9889765381813049,
-0.6274795532226562,
-0.28571799397468567,
0.13014532625675201,
-0.06897853314876556,
0.410553902387619,
0.2383401244878769,
0.008654150180518627,
-0.8887995481491089,
-0.2187189906835556,
-0.41284042596817017,
-0.28193020820617676,
-0.03641456365585327,
-0.11923905462026596,
-0.5597547888755798,
-0.6166840195655823,
0.255501389503479,
0.002530141035094857,
0.35035982728004456,
-0.049365490674972534,
-0.031105633825063705,
-0.47760358452796936,
-0.3345581889152527,
-0.13738299906253815,
-0.040055565536022186,
-0.33882561326026917,
0.3084319531917572,
0.255683958530426,
-0.6502357125282288,
-0.3847094476222992,
0.6464186906814575,
0.7193343639373779,
0.06730926781892776,
0.4510965943336487,
0.12627257406711578,
-0.1400715857744217,
0.5494393706321716,
-0.07959702610969543,
0.22872115671634674,
0.2343357503414154,
0.4755420386791229,
-0.25471457839012146,
-0.7406817674636841,
-0.27750855684280396,
0.5558592081069946,
-0.2882441580295563,
0.13505703210830688,
0.11596816778182983,
0.513095498085022,
0.7401725053787231,
-0.21374987065792084,
0.23955561220645905,
0.027118172496557236,
-0.39484599232673645,
-0.2370614856481552,
0.36484116315841675,
-0.02614756114780903,
-0.37061306834220886,
-0.25413060188293457,
-0.11367031186819077,
-0.19793546199798584,
-0.7028481364250183,
0.13119161128997803,
0.3731671869754791,
-0.7404769659042358,
0.5091804265975952,
0.5321210026741028,
0.28748542070388794,
-0.2898188829421997,
-0.15764428675174713,
-1.1396790742874146,
0.06676282733678818,
0.19417864084243774,
-0.5739020109176636,
-0.7409338355064392,
-0.36126068234443665,
-0.10847573727369308,
0.22646018862724304,
-0.2048693597316742,
0.44703587889671326,
-0.5887683033943176,
0.15769244730472565,
-0.6240246891975403,
-0.026741018518805504,
-0.1115475594997406,
-0.22990842163562775,
-0.4474996030330658,
0.9977173805236816,
-0.1578332930803299,
-0.16229544579982758,
-0.40956270694732666,
0.7208042740821838,
0.18487608432769775,
0.5135942101478577,
0.5939280390739441,
0.5779315829277039,
0.15829800069332123,
-0.09459149837493896,
-0.3809860944747925,
0.290340393781662,
0.06895028799772263,
0.08655213564634323,
0.15058989822864532,
0.3555792272090912,
-0.2627604603767395,
-0.16367702186107635,
0.6722396016120911,
-0.20039793848991394,
-0.7891889810562134,
-0.5981116890907288,
0.4077679216861725,
0.31047019362449646,
0.6848693490028381,
-0.6860884428024292,
-0.2857951521873474,
0.9495474100112915,
0.30454903841018677,
-0.7872290015220642,
-0.4415540099143982,
0.31481167674064636,
0.293138712644577,
0.39018866419792175,
-0.26648634672164917,
0.19918596744537354,
0.3800840377807617,
-0.5182210803031921,
-0.177904412150383,
-0.6892085671424866,
0.42727717757225037,
0.1594610959291458,
0.1873021274805069,
1.5136522054672241,
-0.5925873517990112,
0.23403619229793549,
0.045754194259643555,
0.35612720251083374,
0.04407058283686638,
0.9889250993728638,
-0.6879693865776062,
-0.2540160119533539,
0.49579736590385437,
-0.22043780982494354,
0.022172529250383377,
-0.6892452836036682,
-0.2940009534358978,
0.058236606419086456,
0.1721702218055725,
-0.5587778687477112,
0.37505653500556946,
-0.09808247536420822,
0.3316621780395508,
-0.09891372919082642,
0.9628297090530396,
-0.22496527433395386,
0.0206561591476202,
-0.3566220998764038,
-0.15844567120075226,
-1.016185998916626,
0.06478001177310944,
-0.025730889290571213,
-0.3651627004146576,
-0.2985798418521881,
0.02886698953807354,
0.4722662568092346,
0.08600207418203354,
0.2874813377857208,
0.5648654103279114,
0.2764722406864166,
-0.3194524645805359,
0.5225092768669128,
-0.46656885743141174,
0.10833976417779922,
-0.3830692768096924,
-0.07624015212059021,
0.11408200860023499,
-0.6285511255264282,
-0.015158489346504211,
0.13466350734233856,
0.1872609257698059,
-0.3361862301826477,
-0.03414475917816162,
-0.5839453339576721,
-0.46719709038734436,
0.9073984026908875,
-0.47665104269981384,
-0.30312618613243103,
-0.6998687982559204,
0.4134402573108673,
0.4480532705783844,
0.38028684258461,
0.11019541323184967,
-0.20292475819587708,
0.49623411893844604,
0.01786642149090767,
-0.5319573283195496,
0.018919846042990685,
-0.5391712784767151,
0.1927221119403839,
-0.9905167818069458,
0.9192318320274353,
0.3551222085952759,
0.1697627753019333,
-0.6414714455604553,
0.7319434285163879,
-0.30674171447753906,
0.14172156155109406,
0.3593185245990753,
-0.16587677597999573,
-0.17808642983436584,
-0.25815534591674805,
0.16310971975326538,
-0.30733126401901245,
0.08404965698719025,
-0.12362580746412277,
0.0263771153986454,
0.4757353961467743,
0.41826438903808594,
-0.15793102979660034,
-0.1597030609846115,
0.16996480524539948,
-0.08733069151639938,
-0.27000606060028076,
-0.291988343000412,
-0.1815054565668106,
0.17046715319156647,
-0.6157183647155762,
1.1642138957977295,
0.6089615225791931,
0.674732506275177,
-0.8883740305900574,
0.4048389792442322,
0.17895196378231049,
-0.33448144793510437,
0.07586566358804703,
-0.45108354091644287,
0.4419277012348175,
-0.3509352207183838,
-0.302069753408432,
0.12001386284828186,
0.0798182338476181,
-0.14524154365062714,
-0.40931740403175354,
0.6550479531288147,
-0.6726502776145935,
0.4879792630672455,
0.22904297709465027,
0.002049910370260477,
-0.26210975646972656,
0.27384552359580994,
0.2594684064388275
] |
233654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Geodetic%20System | World Geodetic System | The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard for use in cartography, geodesy, and satellite navigation including GPS. This standard includes the definition of the coordinate system's fundamental and derived constants, the normal gravity Earth Gravitational Model (EGM), a description of the associated World Magnetic Model (WMM), and a current list of local datum transformations.
The latest revision is WGS 84 (also known as WGS 1984, EPSG:4326), established and maintained by the United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency since 1984, and last revised in 2014. Earlier schemes included WGS 72, WGS 66, and WGS 60. WGS 84 is the reference coordinate system used by the Global Positioning System.
As CRS standard, and expressing by URN, , it is composed of:
a standard reference ellipsoid model, named ;
and this ellipsoid is located a standard horizontal datum, named .
Definition
The coordinate origin of WGS 84 is meant to be located at the Earth's center of mass; the uncertainty is believed to be less than .
The WGS 84 meridian of zero longitude is the IERS Reference Meridian, 5.3 arc seconds or east of the Greenwich meridian at the latitude of the Royal Observatory.
The WGS 84 datum surface is an oblate spheroid with equatorial radius = at the equator and flattening = 1/. The refined value of the WGS 84 gravitational constant (mass of Earth's atmosphere included) is = . The angular velocity of the Earth is defined to be = .
This leads to several computed parameters such as the polar semi-minor axis which equals = , and the first eccentricity squared, = .
WGS 84 uses the Earth Gravitational Model 2008. This geoid defines the nominal sea level surface by means of a spherical harmonics series of degree 2160. It is an improvement over the 1996 EGM96 model, which was in turn an improvement over the original WGS 84 geoid, referred to as EGM84. The deviations of the EGM96 geoid from the WGS 84 reference ellipsoid range from about to about .
WGS 84 currently also uses the World Magnetic Model 2020. The next regular update (WMM2025) will occur in December 2024.
History
Efforts to supplement the various national surveying systems began in the 19th century with F.R. Helmert's famous book (Mathematical and Physical Theories of Physical Geodesy). Austria and Germany founded the Zentralbüro für die Internationale Erdmessung (Central Bureau of International Geodesy), and a series of global ellipsoids of the Earth were derived (e.g., Helmert 1906, Hayford 1910/ 1924).
A unified geodetic system for the whole world became essential in the 1950s for several reasons:
International space science and the beginning of astronautics.
The lack of inter-continental geodetic information.
The inability of the large geodetic systems, such as European Datum (ED50), North American Datum (NAD), and Tokyo Datum (TD), to provide a worldwide geo-data basis
Need for global maps for navigation, aviation, and geography.
Western Cold War preparedness necessitated a standardised, NATO-wide geospatial reference system, in accordance with the NATO Standardisation Agreement
In the late 1950s, the United States Department of Defense, together with scientists of other institutions and countries, began to develop the needed world system to which geodetic data could be referred and compatibility established between the coordinates of widely separated sites of interest. Efforts of the U.S. Army, Navy and Air Force were combined leading to the DoD World Geodetic System 1960 (WGS 60). The term datum as used here refers to a smooth surface somewhat arbitrarily defined as zero elevation, consistent with a set of surveyor's measures of distances between various stations, and differences in elevation, all reduced to a grid of latitudes, longitudes, and elevations. Heritage surveying methods found elevation differences from a local horizontal determined by the spirit level, plumb line, or an equivalent device that depends on the local gravity field (see physical geodesy). As a result, the elevations in the data are referenced to the geoid, a surface that is not readily found using satellite geodesy. The latter observational method is more suitable for global mapping. Therefore, a motivation, and a substantial problem in the WGS and similar work is to patch together data that were not only made separately, for different regions, but to re-reference the elevations to an ellipsoid model rather than to the geoid.
In accomplishing WGS 60, a combination of available surface gravity data, astro-geodetic data and results from HIRAN and Canadian SHORAN surveys were used to define a best-fitting ellipsoid and an earth-centered orientation for each of initially selected datum. (Every datum is relatively oriented with respect to different portions of the geoid by the astro-geodetic methods already described.) The sole contribution of satellite data to the development of WGS 60 was a value for the ellipsoid flattening which was obtained from the nodal motion of a satellite.
Prior to WGS 60, the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force had each developed a world system by using different approaches to the gravimetric datum orientation method. To determine their gravimetric orientation parameters, the Air Force used the mean of the differences between the gravimetric and astro-geodetic deflections and geoid heights (undulations) at specifically selected stations in the areas of the major datums. The Army performed an adjustment to minimize the difference between astro-geodetic and gravimetric geoids. By matching the relative astro-geodetic geoids of the selected datums with an earth-centered gravimetric geoid, the selected datums were reduced to an earth-centered orientation. Since the Army and Air Force systems agreed remarkably well for the NAD, ED and TD areas, they were consolidated and became WGS 60.
1966 version
Improvements to the global system included the Astrogeoid of Irene Fischer and the astronautic Mercury datum. In January 1966, a World Geodetic System Committee composed of representatives from the United States Army, Navy and Air Force was charged with developing an improved WGS, needed to satisfy mapping, charting and geodetic requirements. Additional surface gravity observations, results from the extension of triangulation and trilateration networks, and large amounts of Doppler and optical satellite data had become available since the development of WGS 60. Using the additional data and improved techniques, WGS 66 was produced which served DoD needs for about five years after its implementation in 1967. The defining parameters of the WGS 66 Ellipsoid were the flattening (1/298.25 determined from satellite data) and the semimajor axis ( determined from a combination of Doppler satellite and astro-geodetic data). A worldwide 5° × 5° mean free air gravity anomaly field provided the basic data for producing the WGS 66 gravimetric geoid. Also, a geoid referenced to the WGS 66 Ellipsoid was derived from available astrogeodetic data to provide a detailed representation of limited land areas.
1972 version
After an extensive effort over a period of approximately three years, the Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1972 was completed. Selected satellite, surface gravity and astrogeodetic data available through 1972 from both DoD and non-DoD sources were used in a Unified WGS Solution (a large scale least squares adjustment). The results of the adjustment consisted of corrections to initial station coordinates and coefficients of the gravitational field.
The largest collection of data ever used for WGS purposes was assembled, processed and applied in the development of WGS 72. Both optical and electronic satellite data were used. The electronic satellite data consisted, in part, of Doppler data provided by the U.S. Navy and cooperating non-DoD satellite tracking stations established in support of the Navy's Navigational Satellite System (NNSS). Doppler data was also available from the numerous sites established by GEOCEIVERS during 1971 and 1972. Doppler data was the primary data source for WGS 72 (see image). Additional electronic satellite data was provided by the SECOR (Sequential Collation of Range) Equatorial Network completed by the U.S. Army in 1970. Optical satellite data from the Worldwide Geometric Satellite Triangulation Program was provided by the BC-4 camera system (see image). Data from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory was also used which included camera (Baker–Nunn) and some laser ranging.
The surface gravity field used in the Unified WGS Solution consisted of a set of 410 10° × 10° equal area mean free air gravity anomalies determined solely from terrestrial data. This gravity field includes mean anomaly values compiled directly from observed gravity data wherever the latter was available in sufficient quantity. The value for areas of sparse or no observational data were developed from geophysically compatible gravity approximations using gravity-geophysical correlation techniques. Approximately 45 percent of the 410 mean free air gravity anomaly values were determined directly from observed gravity data.
The astrogeodetic data in its basic form consists of deflection of the vertical components referred to the various national geodetic datums. These deflection values were integrated into astrogeodetic geoid charts referred to these national datums. The geoid heights contributed to the Unified WGS Solution by providing additional and more detailed data for land areas. Conventional ground survey data was included in the solution to enforce a consistent adjustment of the coordinates of neighboring observation sites of the BC-4, SECOR, Doppler and Baker–Nunn systems. Also, eight geodimeter long line precise traverses were included for the purpose of controlling the scale of the solution.
The Unified WGS Solution, as stated above, was a solution for geodetic positions and associated parameters of the gravitational field based on an optimum combination of available data. The WGS 72 ellipsoid parameters, datum shifts and other associated constants were derived separately. For the unified solution, a normal equation matrix was formed based on each of the mentioned data sets. Then, the individual normal equation matrices were combined and the resultant matrix solved to obtain the positions and the parameters.
The value for the semimajor axis () of the WGS 72 Ellipsoid is . The adoption of an -value 10 meters smaller than that for the WGS 66 Ellipsoid was based on several calculations and indicators including a combination of satellite and surface gravity data for position and gravitational field determinations. Sets of satellite derived station coordinates and gravimetric deflection of the vertical and geoid height data were used to determine local-to-geocentric datum shifts, datum rotation parameters, a datum scale parameter and a value for the semimajor axis of the WGS Ellipsoid. Eight solutions were made with the various sets of input data, both from an investigative point of view and also because of the limited number of unknowns which could be solved for in any individual solution due to computer limitations. Selected Doppler satellite tracking and astro-geodetic datum orientation stations were included in the various solutions. Based on these results and other related studies accomplished by the committee, an -value of and a flattening of 1/298.26 were adopted.
In the development of local-to WGS 72 datum shifts, results from different geodetic disciplines were investigated, analyzed and compared. Those shifts adopted were based primarily on a large number of Doppler TRANET and GEOCEIVER station coordinates which were available worldwide. These coordinates had been determined using the Doppler point positioning method.
1984 version
In the early 1980s, the need for a new world geodetic system was generally recognized by the geodetic community as well as within the US Department of Defense. WGS 72 no longer provided sufficient data, information, geographic coverage, or product accuracy for all then-current and anticipated applications. The means for producing a new WGS were available in the form of improved data, increased data coverage, new data types and improved techniques. GRS 80 parameters together with available Doppler, satellite laser ranging and very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations constituted significant new information. An outstanding new source of data had become available from satellite radar altimetry. Also available was an advanced least squares method called collocation that allowed for a consistent combination solution from different types of measurements all relative to the Earth's gravity field, measurements such as the geoid, gravity anomalies, deflections, and dynamic Doppler.
The new world geodetic system was called WGS 84. It is the reference system used by the Global Positioning System. It is geocentric and globally consistent within . Current geodetic realizations of the geocentric reference system family International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) maintained by the IERS are geocentric, and internally consistent, at the few-cm level, while still being metre-level consistent with WGS 84.
The WGS 84 originally used the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid, but has undergone some minor refinements in later editions since its initial publication. Most of these refinements are important for high-precision orbital calculations for satellites but have little practical effect on typical topographical uses. The following table lists the primary ellipsoid parameters.
The very small difference in the flattening thus results in a tiny difference of in the semi polar axis.
Longitudes on WGS 84
WGS 84 uses the IERS Reference Meridian as defined by the Bureau International de l'Heure, which was defined by compilation of star observations in different countries.
The longitude positions on WGS 84 agree with those on the older North American Datum 1927 at roughly 85° longitude west, in the east-central United States.
Updates and new standards
All components of WGS84 are regularly updated. The Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, Its Definition and Relationships With Local Geodetic Systems document, initially published in 1984, has been revised in 1997, in 2004 (as three editions of the TR8350.2), and finally in 2014 as the first edition of NGA.STND.0036. The regularly-updated documents provide refined descriptions of the Earth and realizations of the system for higher precision.
The geoid component of WGS84 is being continuously updated as a separate Earth Gravitational Model (EGM).
The Earth Gravitational Model 1996 (EGM96) was first published in 1996, with revisions as recent as 2004. The geoid has approximately resolution versus for the original WGS 84. The use of EGM96 was confirmed in the 1997 update.
Many of the original authors of WGS 84 contributed to a new higher-fidelity model, called EGM2008. This new model has a geoid with accuracy approaching , requiring over 4.6 million terms in the spherical expansion (versus 130,317 in EGM96 and 32,757 in WGS 84). The use of EGM2008 was confirmed in the 2014 update.
An update was planned for EGM2020.
The magnetic model is also being regularly updated as World Magnetic Model (WMM). As stated in the Definition section, the magnetic model is currently World Magnetic Model 2020.
See also
Degree Confluence Project
EGM96
ETRS89
geo URI scheme
Geo (microformat) – for marking up WGS 84 coordinates in (X)HTML
Geotagging
NAD 83
Point of interest
TRANSIT system
References
External links
Geodesy for the Layman, Chapter VIII, "The World Geodetic System"
NIMA Technical Report TR8350.2 Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, Its Definition and Relationships With Local Geodetic Systems, Third Edition, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. This is the official publication of the standard, including addenda. Note this report actually documents the EGM 96 model (a revision of WGS 84). The original WGS 84 is documented in versions prior to 1996.
Main NGA (was NIMA) page on Earth gravity models
Description of the difference between the geoid and the ellipsoid from the US NOAA National Geodetic Survey GEOID page
NASA GSFC Earth gravity page
GeographicLib provides a utility GeoidEval (with source code) to evaluate the geoid height for the EGM84, EGM96, and EGM2008 earth gravity models. Here is an online version of GeoidEval.
Spatial reference for EPSG:4326
Coordinate systems
Geodesy
Global Positioning System
Navigation | [
0.37081092596054077,
0.3364885747432709,
0.5822914242744446,
0.31508249044418335,
-0.030317164957523346,
0.05060494691133499,
-0.19586387276649475,
0.25797781348228455,
-0.3237299621105194,
-0.6901058554649353,
-0.4598373472690582,
0.1847817450761795,
-0.39340654015541077,
0.32721567153930664,
0.17285843193531036,
0.4233708381652832,
0.19966824352741241,
0.16205190122127533,
-0.197134867310524,
-0.023663800209760666,
-0.3885645866394043,
-0.08869042247533798,
0.2284378558397293,
-0.7342597842216492,
-0.10210216790437698,
-0.04165288433432579,
-0.03825227916240692,
0.35768643021583557,
0.07898052781820297,
0.442747563123703,
0.19696453213691711,
0.5351639986038208,
-0.13336798548698425,
0.22698631882667542,
-0.22235071659088135,
-0.08497793972492218,
-0.22930315136909485,
0.07938879728317261,
-0.3058759570121765,
-0.7399045825004578,
0.4637088477611542,
-0.2498505860567093,
-0.010701392777264118,
0.3453107476234436,
-0.31422358751296997,
-0.31533339619636536,
-1.294980525970459,
0.03400079533457756,
-0.6041342616081238,
-0.14726190268993378,
-0.38374823331832886,
0.49274733662605286,
0.16939198970794678,
0.4117758870124817,
-0.12132610380649567,
0.28482794761657715,
-0.3641757071018219,
-0.18049053847789764,
0.06549933552742004,
0.04031017795205116,
0.22732311487197876,
-0.2810432016849518,
-0.22793109714984894,
0.42597565054893494,
0.28390631079673767,
-0.2860877811908722,
0.01869623363018036,
-0.2754705250263214,
-0.018063150346279144,
-0.10915332287549973,
-0.03135436400771141,
-0.05936373397707939,
-0.21443550288677216,
0.217429056763649,
-0.7777688503265381,
-0.1618892103433609,
0.1253528892993927,
-0.03424674645066261,
-0.015220077708363533,
0.17234373092651367,
-0.49305471777915955,
0.17979475855827332,
0.1972726285457611,
-0.39649876952171326,
-0.11650452762842178,
0.1089184582233429,
-0.26688629388809204,
0.1391417533159256,
-0.3983830511569977,
1.0019094944000244,
0.6118758320808411,
-0.15070019662380219,
0.4315564036369324,
-0.406142920255661,
0.2756060063838959,
-0.2765287160873413,
-0.3710128962993622,
-0.1908624768257141,
0.16960866749286652,
-0.032251518219709396,
-0.2745340168476105,
-0.03598613664507866,
0.46421778202056885,
-0.06464386731386185,
0.12555499374866486,
-0.7118760347366333,
-0.08969660103321075,
-0.6331179738044739,
0.13894440233707428,
-0.018200986087322235,
-0.42221447825431824,
0.19033783674240112,
0.46817871928215027,
-0.10445023328065872,
0.18015804886817932,
0.18435056507587433,
0.432827353477478,
-0.26772433519363403,
0.19941692054271698,
0.03212650492787361,
0.3822596073150635,
0.4547881782054901,
0.0973435491323471,
-0.2638501226902008,
0.5164082050323486,
0.2276548147201538,
0.9148847460746765,
-0.024670559912919998,
-0.7555215954780579,
-0.20748496055603027,
-0.3962855935096741,
0.818528950214386,
0.07328259944915771,
0.006055728066712618,
-0.5206007957458496,
-0.015964705497026443,
0.5135303139686584,
-0.1043650209903717,
0.27872925996780396,
0.3626768887042999,
-0.24725447595119476,
-0.3891414999961853,
-0.386562317609787,
-0.17523542046546936,
0.31313738226890564,
0.6131535768508911,
0.22849515080451965,
-1.2175731658935547,
-0.5600696206092834,
-0.04794279485940933,
0.07120153307914734,
0.38293781876564026,
-0.24374991655349731,
-0.0076240249909460545,
-0.30880096554756165,
0.3259107172489166,
0.06468569487333298,
0.39090776443481445,
-0.23992788791656494,
-0.14931844174861908,
-0.04565398767590523,
0.1835843324661255,
-0.3297368586063385,
0.0062560695223510265,
0.023749131709337234,
-0.5266252160072327,
0.6251500248908997,
0.516660213470459,
-0.05093581601977348,
-0.11977756768465042,
0.300277441740036,
-0.5786572694778442,
0.05535314232110977,
0.270855188369751,
-0.32291704416275024,
0.24743874371051788,
0.8216022253036499,
0.5243310332298279,
0.9878767728805542,
-0.021706076338887215,
-0.33589497208595276,
-0.07989972084760666,
0.45235326886177063,
-0.17357592284679413,
0.8472094535827637,
0.2153308093547821,
0.510455846786499,
0.33189356327056885,
0.28232237696647644,
-0.04184042289853096,
-0.2115866243839264,
-0.4044017195701599,
-0.07362231612205505,
-0.5555880069732666,
0.4931432008743286,
-0.33769118785858154,
-0.28619521856307983,
0.498145192861557,
-0.4206003248691559,
0.2004179060459137,
-0.3581979274749756,
0.002596236765384674,
0.13863973319530487,
0.18770790100097656,
-0.27263855934143066,
-0.13206514716148376,
0.25368112325668335,
-0.07316789776086807,
-0.16321150958538055,
-0.13211973011493683,
0.07421881705522537,
-0.5169251561164856,
-0.11645577847957611,
-0.44551053643226624,
0.2700074017047882,
-0.19956134259700775,
-0.5441759824752808,
0.5313856601715088,
-0.5832750797271729,
0.09712926298379898,
1.153295636177063,
-0.06655099242925644,
-0.4527651369571686,
0.26447853446006775,
-0.29448333382606506,
0.10585174709558487,
0.16889871656894684,
0.9054550528526306,
0.5662838816642761,
-0.7894809246063232,
-0.007197234779596329,
-0.26553332805633545,
0.34597906470298767,
-0.3613739013671875,
-0.11784439533948898,
-0.1083180382847786,
0.4317038953304291,
-0.4619496166706085,
0.029147041961550713,
-0.15462017059326172,
0.18990929424762726,
0.29802778363227844,
-0.39222225546836853,
0.021451063454151154,
-0.12311918288469315,
-0.2938899099826813,
0.08503905683755875,
-0.3487897217273712,
-0.44296181201934814,
-0.0012738723307847977,
0.03424494341015816,
0.5487858057022095,
0.1976955235004425,
-0.0311927180737257,
-0.5581768155097961,
0.025486459955573082,
-0.0025837053544819355,
-0.2625352442264557,
0.4491525888442993,
0.5111340880393982,
0.2576526999473572,
-0.03009798377752304,
-0.16226011514663696,
0.037706151604652405,
-0.35775771737098694,
-1.197614073753357,
-0.43662261962890625,
-0.048114024102687836,
0.09797476977109909,
0.7002741098403931,
0.4755967855453491,
0.14126914739608765,
-0.10207659751176834,
-0.16997624933719635,
-0.08590531349182129,
-0.9275935888290405,
0.5394355654716492,
0.048867367208004,
-0.4418640434741974,
-0.566955029964447,
0.36425620317459106,
0.05790052190423012,
0.6814400553703308,
-0.12234528362751007,
-0.08912789821624756,
-0.6136612892150879,
-0.06454472243785858,
-0.2578156292438507,
0.2641896605491638,
-0.2426048368215561,
-0.4662277400493622,
0.7547770738601685,
-0.014064650982618332,
-0.11194702982902527,
0.11157430708408356,
0.6028775572776794,
0.13472451269626617,
-0.6078832745552063,
-0.06149611994624138,
0.15396931767463684,
-0.5335140228271484,
0.001399609842337668,
0.22273431718349457,
-0.4404599666595459,
-0.07814082503318787,
0.03599940612912178,
-0.3179330825805664,
0.39340659976005554,
-5.927498817443848,
0.018099011853337288,
-0.28682902455329895,
-0.6760459542274475,
-0.4134913682937622,
0.02430216781795025,
0.8711709976196289,
0.46518686413764954,
-0.0626729428768158,
-0.1125069111585617,
-0.02336759679019451,
-0.2929697632789612,
-0.09623856097459793,
0.009794117882847786,
0.5075268149375916,
0.27458852529525757,
0.15928012132644653,
0.015681061893701553,
-0.02654808945953846,
0.5248040556907654,
0.11664183437824249,
-0.28436583280563354,
0.37600117921829224,
0.12232144922018051,
0.10077261179685593,
0.3437807857990265,
-0.42504215240478516,
0.01994205079972744,
-0.028477497398853302,
0.06790288537740707,
0.2842017114162445,
-0.3516990542411804,
-0.2567717432975769,
-0.1424393355846405,
0.08525937050580978,
-0.49377068877220154,
0.18372632563114166,
0.6521342992782593,
0.43300169706344604,
-0.44011998176574707,
-0.05435027554631233,
0.4194558560848236,
-0.08286727964878082,
-0.07151719927787781,
0.23079754412174225,
-0.11160800606012344,
-0.10848486423492432,
0.3300815224647522,
-0.521220862865448,
0.7663998603820801,
-0.184646874666214,
-0.004951131995767355,
0.017828797921538353,
-0.8248767256736755,
-0.27277928590774536,
-0.266421377658844,
0.8476535081863403,
0.4594348669052124,
-0.791047990322113,
0.0015726712299510837,
0.8587411046028137,
-0.6051152348518372,
0.18612642586231232,
-1.2059743404388428,
-0.3992582857608795,
0.03091706894338131,
-1.4674659967422485,
-0.31471696496009827,
0.2900136411190033,
0.3435506224632263,
0.08493795990943909,
0.0539240762591362,
0.3444061279296875,
-0.5697011351585388,
0.35821911692619324,
-0.4809987545013428,
0.5701188445091248,
-0.19696253538131714,
0.30776098370552063,
-0.05857900157570839,
-0.3110228478908539,
-0.5853232741355896,
0.034154925495386124,
-0.0030241755302995443,
-0.14473100006580353,
-0.1730172038078308,
-0.42724958062171936,
-0.4661226272583008,
-0.3814716935157776,
-0.19603408873081207,
1.0687127113342285,
-0.6826103329658508,
0.7937046885490417,
0.3500172197818756,
0.97542405128479,
0.18065811693668365,
0.31012192368507385,
0.1411825567483902,
0.7629936337471008,
-0.5705652832984924,
0.3129826486110687,
-0.12854976952075958,
0.5109912157058716,
-0.26337912678718567,
0.09029971808195114,
-0.10507781058549881,
-0.40539801120758057,
0.6177176833152771,
0.8574844598770142,
0.3190775513648987,
0.2770492434501648,
0.21262888610363007,
0.03691274672746658,
-0.35737863183021545,
-0.34309399127960205,
0.13250410556793213,
-0.6038620471954346,
0.2765566408634186,
0.3834335207939148,
-0.17016419768333435,
0.2147771120071411,
0.24912385642528534,
0.41197794675827026,
-0.13153348863124847,
0.1029793992638588,
-0.13288553059101105,
-0.18123334646224976,
-0.0077332924120128155,
-0.14132951200008392,
-0.08598469942808151,
0.576185941696167,
0.4538455009460449,
0.5465387105941772,
-0.26332542300224304,
0.49053677916526794,
0.22910842299461365,
-0.5646148920059204,
0.29877766966819763,
0.43244069814682007,
-0.49331948161125183,
0.10212504118680954,
0.06323157250881195,
0.10713839530944824,
0.16014596819877625,
0.24713215231895447,
-0.13840726017951965,
-0.02707051858305931,
-0.3089413642883301,
0.639666736125946,
0.44645678997039795,
0.19245116412639618,
-0.3920130133628845,
-0.04431382939219475,
0.1802685260772705,
-0.21031434834003448,
0.11365002393722534,
0.16690467298030853,
-0.09956564009189606,
0.11820834875106812,
-0.37766459584236145,
0.2497033029794693,
-0.2263018935918808,
-0.7641282677650452,
-0.1802569329738617,
0.3002968430519104,
0.1302182823419571,
-0.22639863193035126,
0.17993609607219696,
0.1120610162615776,
0.6001463532447815,
0.3155745267868042,
-0.5236172676086426,
-0.6674409508705139,
-0.7441723942756653,
-0.6363767385482788,
0.5605908036231995,
0.0774843767285347,
0.14551468193531036,
0.1562364548444748,
0.03532586619257927,
-0.29566603899002075,
-0.22164449095726013,
-0.2335631102323532,
0.2848896086215973,
-0.28171592950820923,
-0.12727543711662292,
0.15115326642990112,
0.3169071078300476,
0.1496323049068451,
0.08142703771591187,
0.20375128090381622,
0.3549804091453552,
0.033593032509088516,
0.08756782859563828,
-0.2917277216911316,
-0.28925779461860657,
-0.10296811908483505,
0.6533263921737671,
-0.07346569001674652,
-0.2361336499452591,
-0.48024970293045044,
0.44932907819747925,
-0.41865140199661255,
0.2465827912092209,
0.17326469719409943,
-0.7485256195068359,
0.22847895324230194,
0.018259214237332344,
0.09573573619127274,
-0.5799047946929932,
-0.7667648792266846,
0.152725949883461,
-0.4198357164859772,
0.21469959616661072,
-0.5175797343254089,
-0.38849902153015137,
0.5041004419326782,
-0.22139360010623932,
-0.34541502594947815,
-0.36179524660110474,
0.22129152715206146,
0.8154831528663635,
-0.32266750931739807,
0.45178312063217163,
0.18265372514724731,
0.4516547620296478,
0.21544526517391205,
-0.23206259310245514,
0.04080455005168915,
0.020934484899044037,
-0.33000656962394714,
0.023924443870782852,
-0.11043328046798706,
0.23891232907772064,
-0.08549410104751587,
-0.23113106191158295,
-0.5564740300178528,
-0.16681982576847076,
-0.02535662241280079,
0.16344499588012695,
0.07238521426916122,
0.5314648747444153,
0.163104847073555,
-0.6240105032920837,
0.09894470870494843,
0.2136857658624649,
0.4854118824005127,
-0.6564814448356628,
-0.2126079499721527,
-0.23858164250850677,
0.18801632523536682,
-0.589309573173523,
-0.5364109873771667,
-0.12286034226417542,
0.8644309639930725,
0.38577258586883545,
-0.42911890149116516,
-0.5443528294563293,
-0.0005344270612113178,
-0.13432197272777557,
0.21616652607917786,
-0.05016680806875229,
-0.45098477602005005,
0.08530949056148529,
0.6044983267784119,
0.20208968222141266,
-0.28652000427246094,
0.04266459867358208,
0.09664582461118698,
-0.4475763142108917,
0.33020198345184326,
-0.21548907458782196,
0.20706138014793396,
0.6126457452774048,
0.583919882774353,
-0.16798074543476105,
0.31163331866264343,
-0.012093028984963894,
0.4543863832950592,
-0.14612580835819244,
-0.7020552158355713,
0.2825397253036499,
0.29326748847961426,
-0.17057479918003082,
0.2417038381099701,
-0.16684338450431824,
0.22020673751831055,
0.060643162578344345,
0.02741382084786892,
-0.13055089116096497,
-0.6998496055603027,
0.2305251806974411,
-0.6737669110298157,
0.4905121624469757,
-0.6844164133071899,
-0.3767063319683075,
0.2528819441795349,
0.05782943218946457,
-0.04577665403485298,
-0.16722863912582397,
-0.3601709306240082,
0.3618883490562439,
0.4248567819595337,
-0.5952284336090088,
1.0381951332092285,
-0.1602284461259842,
0.10464737564325333,
0.04718773439526558,
0.01042395830154419,
-0.010987748391926289,
-0.03480417653918266,
-0.23633994162082672,
0.04983687773346901,
0.537905752658844,
-0.5729697942733765,
0.3218453526496887,
0.30780839920043945,
-0.04033094272017479,
0.9375231862068176,
0.4496913254261017,
0.09010294824838638,
0.09048354625701904,
0.14864730834960938,
-0.0162824634462595,
-0.22233377397060394,
0.2970871329307556,
-0.20909036695957184,
-0.06989192962646484,
0.19702138006687164,
-0.1290956735610962,
0.5754297375679016,
0.0752255842089653,
-0.3892116844654083,
0.12748239934444427,
-0.22645607590675354,
-0.05928736925125122,
-0.21997685730457306,
-0.3229632079601288,
-0.36498895287513733,
0.4916078746318817,
-0.08480309695005417,
0.43772056698799133,
0.05642545223236084,
0.20566529035568237,
-0.48044779896736145,
0.05834366753697395,
-0.4008142054080963,
0.5433124303817749,
-0.24804796278476715,
-0.10076875984668732,
0.33271390199661255,
0.0969691127538681,
0.5021163821220398,
0.05390654504299164,
0.05424179136753082,
-0.277902215719223,
0.610788881778717,
-0.21945177018642426,
0.0324297659099102,
-0.24721576273441315,
-0.1384444534778595,
0.590020477771759,
0.020117489621043205,
-0.11269158869981766,
0.2567228674888611,
0.023751333355903625,
0.19611801207065582,
-0.524462878704071,
0.2559095323085785,
0.13173063099384308,
-0.027512207627296448,
0.8018646836280823,
-0.5457453727722168,
0.9471834897994995,
-0.4483744204044342,
-0.08462214469909668,
-0.009327555075287819,
0.4585070013999939,
0.09660188108682632,
-0.5851980447769165,
-0.2338009774684906,
0.05917045474052429,
0.20608922839164734,
-0.8184900879859924,
-0.5721853375434875,
-0.07656960934400558,
-0.045634206384420395,
-0.08279905468225479,
0.21340623497962952,
0.33120906352996826,
0.27524852752685547,
-0.8598186373710632,
-0.2408778816461563,
-0.5931521058082581,
-0.042056355625391006,
0.2823314666748047,
0.05290554463863373,
0.8277656435966492,
0.28807419538497925,
0.11589757353067398,
-0.11169321089982986,
-0.024837300181388855,
0.1439359039068222,
-0.22653590142726898,
-0.4238738715648651,
-0.05902458727359772,
0.3336143493652344,
0.5881495475769043,
-0.142582505941391,
0.3532850444316864,
0.22214074432849884,
-0.3880020081996918,
0.2371312975883484,
0.32630670070648193,
-0.27495110034942627,
0.27998659014701843,
0.5202242732048035,
-0.3305695950984955,
0.3164396584033966,
-0.19515162706375122,
-0.4193456172943115,
-0.20080643892288208,
-0.3613719344139099,
0.12176422029733658,
-0.09644638001918793,
-0.6272948980331421,
0.46230626106262207,
0.15856869518756866,
-0.5335198640823364,
0.5194924473762512,
0.06608743220567703,
-0.006423011887818575,
-0.9642425775527954,
0.30172955989837646,
-0.6751686930656433,
-0.46126100420951843,
-0.40640607476234436,
0.45293936133384705,
0.19624920189380646,
-0.7508164048194885,
-0.2256554812192917,
-0.14618247747421265,
-0.47312188148498535,
0.3332868814468384,
-0.46958425641059875,
-0.020105674862861633,
0.11491885036230087,
-0.08789660781621933,
-0.8388490080833435,
0.7984521389007568,
0.40076786279678345,
-0.17543058097362518,
-0.1270536184310913,
-0.5239247679710388,
0.0677095279097557,
0.34521248936653137,
0.32139530777931213,
-0.646916925907135,
0.38552501797676086,
0.6168687343597412
] |
233656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiton | Chiton | Chitons () are marine molluscs of varying size in the class Polyplacophora (), formerly known as Amphineura. About 940 extant and 430 fossil species are recognized.
They are also sometimes known as sea cradles or coat-of-mail shells, or more formally as loricates, polyplacophorans, and occasionally as polyplacophores.
Chitons have a shell composed of eight separate shell plates or valves. These plates overlap slightly at the front and back edges, and yet articulate well with one another. Because of this, the shell provides protection at the same time as permitting the chiton to flex upward when needed for locomotion over uneven surfaces, and even allows the animal to curl up into a ball when dislodged from rocks. The shell plates are encircled by a skirt known as a girdle.
Habitat
Chitons live worldwide, from cold waters through to the tropics. They live on hard surfaces, such as on or under rocks, or in rock crevices.
Some species live quite high in the intertidal zone and are exposed to the air and light for long periods. Most species inhabit intertidal or subtidal zones, and do not extend beyond the photic zone, but a few species live in deep water, as deep as .
Chitons are exclusively and fully marine. This is in contrast to the bivalves, which were able to adapt to brackish water and fresh water, and the gastropods which were able to make successful transitions to freshwater and terrestrial environments.
Morphology
Shell
All chitons bear a protective dorsal shell that is divided into eight articulating aragonite valves embedded in the tough muscular girdle that surrounds the chiton's body. Compared with the single or two-piece shells of other molluscs, this arrangement allows chitons to roll into a protective ball when dislodged and to cling tightly to irregular surfaces. In some species the valves are reduced or covered by the girdle tissue. The valves are variously colored, patterned, smooth, or sculptured.
The most anterior plate is crescent-shaped, and is known as the cephalic plate (sometimes called a head plate, despite the absence of a complete head). The most posterior plate is known as the anal plate (sometimes called the tail plate, although chitons do not have tails.)
The inner layer of each of the six intermediate plates is produced anteriorly as an articulating flange, called the articulamentum. This inner layer may also be produced laterally in the form of notched insertion plates. These function as an attachment of the valve plates to the soft body. A similar series of insertion plates may be attached to the convex anterior border of the cephalic plate or the convex posterior border of the anal plate.
The sculpture of the valves is one of the taxonomic characteristics, along with the granulation or spinulation of the girdle.
After a chiton dies, the individual valves which make up the eight-part shell come apart because the girdle is no longer holding them together, and then the plates sometimes wash up in beach drift. The individual shell plates from a chiton are sometimes known as butterfly shells due to their shape.
Girdle ornament
The girdle may be ornamented with scales or spicules which, like the shell plates, are mineralized with aragonite – although a different mineralization process operates in the spicules to that in the teeth or shells (implying an independent evolutionary innovation). This process seems quite simple in comparison to other shell tissue; in some taxa, the crystal structure of the deposited minerals closely resembles the disordered nature of crystals that form inorganically, although more order is visible in other taxa.
The protein component of the scales and sclerites is minuscule in comparison with other biomineralized structures, whereas the total proportion of matrix is 'higher' than in mollusc shells. This implies that polysaccharides make up the bulk of the matrix. The girdle spines often bear length-parallel striations.
The wide form of girdle ornament suggests it serves a secondary role; chitons can survive perfectly well without them. Camouflage or defence are two likely functions.
Spicules are secreted by cells that do not express engrailed, but these cells are surrounded by engrailed-expressing cells. These neighbouring cells secrete an organic pellicle on the outside of the developing spicule, whose aragonite is deposited by the central cell; subsequent division of this central cell allows larger spines to be secreted in certain taxa.
The organic pellicule is found in most polyplacophora (but not basal chitons, such as Hanleya) but is unusual in aplacophora. Developmentally, sclerite-secreting cells arise from pretrochal and postrochal cells: the 1a, 1d, 2a, 2c, 3c and 3d cells. The shell plates arise primarily from the 2d micromere, although 2a, 2b, 2c and sometimes 3c cells also participate in its secretion.
Internal anatomy
The girdle is often ornamented with spicules, bristles, hairy tufts, spikes, or snake-like scales. The majority of the body is a snail-like foot, but no head or other soft parts beyond the girdle are visible from the dorsal side.
The mantle cavity consists of a narrow channel on each side, lying between the body and the girdle. Water enters the cavity through openings in either side of the mouth, then flows along the channel to a second, exhalant, opening close to the anus. Multiple gills hang down into the mantle cavity along part or all of the lateral pallial groove, each consisting of a central axis with a number of flattened filaments through which oxygen can be absorbed.
The three-chambered heart is located towards the animal's hind end. Each of the two auricles collects blood from the gills on one side, while the muscular ventricle pumps blood through the aorta and round the body.
The excretory system consists of two nephridia, which connect to the pericardial cavity around the heart, and remove excreta through a pore that opens near the rear of the mantle cavity. The single gonad is located in front of the heart, and releases gametes through a pair of pores just in front of those used for excretion.
The mouth is located on the underside of the animal, and contains a tongue-like structure called a radula, which has numerous rows of 17 teeth each. The teeth are coated with magnetite, a hard ferric/ferrous oxide mineral. The radula is used to scrape microscopic algae off the substratum. The mouth cavity itself is lined with chitin and is associated with a pair of salivary glands. Two sacs open from the back of the mouth, one containing the radula, and the other containing a protrusible sensory subradular organ that is pressed against the substratum to taste for food.
Cilia pull the food through the mouth in a stream of mucus and through the oesophagus, where it is partially digested by enzymes from a pair of large pharyngeal glands. The oesophagus, in turn, opens into a stomach, where enzymes from a digestive gland complete the breakdown of the food. Nutrients are absorbed through the linings of the stomach and the first part of the intestine. The intestine is divided in two by a sphincter, with the latter part being highly coiled and functioning to compact the waste matter into faecal pellets. The anus opens just behind the foot.
Chitons lack a clearly demarcated head; their nervous system resembles a dispersed ladder. No true ganglia are present, as in other molluscs, although a ring of dense neural tissue occurs around the oesophagus. From this ring, nerves branch forwards to innervate the mouth and subradula, while two pairs of main nerve cords run back through the body. One pair, the pedal cords, innervate the foot, while the palliovisceral cords innervate the mantle and remaining internal organs.
Some species bear an array of tentacles in front of the head.
Senses
The primary sense organs of chitons are the subradular organ and a large number of unique organs called aesthetes. The aesthetes consist of light-sensitive cells just below the surface of the shell, although they are not capable of true vision. In some cases, however, they are modified to form ocelli, with a cluster of individual photoreceptor cells lying beneath a small aragonite-based lens. Each lens can form clear images, and is composed of relatively large, highly crystallographically-aligned grains to minimize light scattering. An individual chiton may have thousands of such ocelli. These aragonite-based eyes make them capable of true vision; though research continues as to the extent of their visual acuity. It is known that they can differentiate between a predator's shadow and changes in light caused by clouds. An evolutionary trade-off has led to a compromise between the eyes and the shell; as the size and complexity of the eyes increase, the mechanical performance of their shells decrease, and vice versa.
A relatively good fossil record of chiton shells exists, but ocelli are only present in those dating to or younger; this would make the ocelli, whose precise function is unclear, likely the most recent eyes to evolve.
Although chitons lack osphradia, statocysts, and other sensory organs common to other molluscs, they do have numerous tactile nerve endings, especially on the girdle and within the mantle cavity.
The order Lepidopleurida also have a pigmented sensory organ called the Schwabe organ, but its function still remains unknown.
However, chitons lack a cerebral ganglion.
Homing ability
Similar to many species of saltwater limpets, several species of chiton are known to exhibit homing behaviours, journeying to feed and then returning to the exact spot they previously inhabited. The method they use to perform such behaviors has been investigated to some extent, but remains unknown. One theory has the chitons remembering the topographic profile of the region, thus being able to guide themselves back to their home scar by a physical knowledge of the rocks and visual input from their numerous primitive eyespots.
The sea snail Nerita textilis (like all gastropods) deposits a mucus trail as it moves, which a chemoreceptive organ is able to detect and guide the snail back to its home site. It is unclear if chiton homing functions in the same way, but they may leave chemical cues along the rock surface and at the home scar which their olfactory senses can detect and home in on. Furthermore, older trails may also be detected, providing further stimulus for the chiton to find its home.
The radular teeth of chitons are made of magnetite, and the iron crystals within these may be involved in magnetoception, the ability to sense the polarity and the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field . Experimental work has suggested that chitons can detect and respond to magnetism.
Culinary uses
Chitons are eaten in several parts of the world. This includes islands in the Caribbean, such as Trinidad, Tobago, The Bahamas, St. Maarten, Aruba, Bonaire, Anguilla and Barbados, as well as in Bermuda. They are also traditionally eaten in certain parts of the Philippines, where it is called kibet if raw and chiton if fried. Native Americans of the Pacific coasts of North America eat chitons. They are a common food on the Pacific coast of South America and in the Galápagos. The foot of the chiton is prepared in a manner similar to abalone. Some islanders living in South Korea also eat chiton, slightly boiled and mixed with vegetables and hot sauce. Aboriginal people in Australia also eat chiton, for example they are recorded in the Narungga Nation Traditional Fishing Agreement.
Life habits
A chiton creeps along slowly on a muscular foot. It has considerable power of adhesion and can cling to rocks very powerfully, like a limpet.
Chitons are generally herbivorous grazers, though some are omnivorous and some carnivorous. They eat algae, bryozoans, diatoms, barnacles, and sometimes bacteria by scraping the rocky substrate with their well-developed radulae.
A few species of chitons are predatory, such as the small western Pacific species Placiphorella velata. These predatory chitons have enlarged anterior girdles. They catch other small invertebrates, such as shrimp and possibly even small fish, by holding the enlarged, hood-like front end of the girdle up off the surface, and then clamping down on unsuspecting, shelter-seeking prey.
Reproduction and life cycle
Chitons have separate sexes, and fertilization is usually external. The male releases sperm into the water, while the female releases eggs either individually, or in a long string. In most cases, fertilization takes place either in the surrounding water, or in the mantle cavity of the female. Some species brood the eggs within the mantle cavity, and the species Callistochiton viviparus even retains them within the ovary and gives birth to live young, an example of ovoviviparity.
The egg has a tough spiny coat, and usually hatches to release a free-swimming trochophore larva, typical of many other mollusc groups. In a few cases, the trochophore remains within the egg (and is then called lecithotrophic – deriving nutrition from yolk), which hatches to produce a miniature adult. Unlike most other molluscs, there is no intermediate stage, or veliger, between the trochophore and the adult. Instead, a segmented shell gland forms on one side of the larva, and a foot forms on the opposite side. When the larva is ready to become an adult, the body elongates, and the shell gland secretes the plates of the shell. Unlike the fully grown adult, the larva has a pair of simple eyes, although these may remain for some time in the immature adult.
Predators
Animals which prey on chitons include humans, seagulls, sea stars, crabs, lobsters and fish.
Evolutionary origins
Chitons have a relatively good fossil record, stretching back to the Devonian. Before this, some organisms have been interpreted (tentatively) as stem-group polyplacophora, potentially stretching the record of polyplacophora back to the Ordovician.
Kimberella and Wiwaxia of the Precambrian and Cambrian may be related to ancestral polyplacophora. Matthevia is a Late Cambrian polyplacophoran preserved as individual pointed valves, and sometimes considered to be a chiton, although at the closest, it can only be a stem-group member of the group.
Based on this and co-occurring fossils, one plausible hypothesis for the origin of polyplacophora has that they formed when an aberrant monoplacophoran was born with multiple centres of calcification, rather than the usual one. Selection quickly acted on the resultant conical shells to form them to overlap into protective armour; their original cones are homologous to the tips of the plates of modern chitons.
The chitons evolved from multiplacophora during the Palaeozoic, with their relatively conserved modern-day body plan being fixed by the Mesozoic.
History of scientific investigation
Chitons were first studied by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Since his description of the first four species, chitons have been variously classified. They were called Cyclobranchians (round arm) in the early 19th century, and then grouped with the aplacophorans in the subphylum Amphineura in 1876. The class Polyplacophora was named by de Blainville 1816.
Etymology
The name chiton is New Latin derived from the Ancient Greek word khitōn, meaning tunic (which also is the source of the word chitin). The Ancient Greek word khitōn can be traced to the Central Semitic word *kittan, which is from the Akkadian words kitû or kita'um, meaning flax or linen, and originally the Sumerian word gada or gida.
The Greek-derived name Polyplacophora comes from the words poly- (many), plako- (tablet), and -phoros (bearing), a reference to the chiton's eight shell plates.
Taxonomy
Most classification schemes in use today are based, at least in part, on Pilsbry's Manual of Conchology (1892–1894), extended and revised by Kaas and Van Belle (1985–1990).
Since chitons were first described by Linnaeus (1758), extensive taxonomic studies at the species level have been made. However, the taxonomic classification at higher levels in the group has remained somewhat unsettled.
The most recent classification, by Sirenko (2006), is based not only on shell morphology, as usual, but also other important features, including aesthetes, girdle, radula, gills, glands, egg hull projections, and spermatozoids. It includes all the living and extinct genera of chitons.
Further resolution within the Chitonida has been recovered through molecular analysis.
This system is now generally accepted.
Class Polyplacophora de Blainville, 1816
Subclass Paleoloricata Bergenhayn, 1955
Order Chelodida Bergenhayn, 1943
Family Chelodidae Bergenhayn, 1943
Chelodes Davidson & King, 1874
Euchelodes Marek, 1962
Calceochiton Flower, 1968
Order Septemchitonida Bergenhayn, 1955
Family Gotlandochitonidae Bergenhayn, 1955
Gotlandochiton Bergenhayn, 1955
Family Helminthochitonidae Van Belle, 1975
Kindbladochiton Van Belle, 1975
Diadelochiton Hoare, 2000
Helminthochiton Salter in Griffith & M'Coy, 1846
Echinochiton Pojeta, Eernisse, Hoare & Henderson, 2003
Family Septemchitonidae Bergenhayn, 1955
Septemchiton Bergenhayn, 1955
Paleochiton A. G. Smith, 1964
Thairoplax Cherns, 1998
Subclass Loricata Shumacher, 1817
Order Lepidopleurida Thiele, 1910
Suborder Cymatochitonina Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Family Acutichitonidae Hoare, Mapes & Atwater, 1983
Acutichiton Hoare, Sturgeon & Hoare, 1972
Elachychiton Hoare, Sturgeon & Hoare, 1972
Harpidochiton Hoare & Cook, 2000
Arcochiton Hoare, Sturgeon & Hoare, 1972
Kraterochiton Hoare, 2000
Soleachiton Hoare, Sturgeon & Hoare, 1972
Asketochiton Hoare & Sabattini, 2000
Family †Cymatochitonidae Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Cymatochiton Dall, 1882
Compsochiton Hoare & Cook, 2000
Family Gryphochitonidae Pilsbry, 1900
Gryphochiton Gray, 1847
Family Lekiskochitonidae Smith & Hoare, 1987
Lekiskochiton Hoare & Smith, 1984
Family Permochitonidae Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Permochiton Iredale & Hull, 1926
Suborder Lepidopleurina Thiele, 1910
Family Abyssochitonidae (synonym: Ferreiraellidae) Dell' Angelo & Palazzi, 1991
Glaphurochiton Raymond, 1910
?Pyknochiton Hoare, 2000
?Hadrochiton Hoare, 2000
Ferreiraella Sirenko, 1988
Family Glyptochitonidae Starobogatov & Sirenko, 1975
Glyptochiton Konninck, 1883
Family Leptochitonidae Dall, 1889
Colapterochiton Hoare & Mapes, 1985
Coryssochiton DeBrock, Hoare & Mapes, 1984
Proleptochiton Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Schematochiton Hoare, 2002
Pterochiton (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1882
Leptochiton Gray, 1847
Parachiton Thiele, 1909
Terenochiton Iredale, 1914
Trachypleura Jaeckel, 1900
Pseudoischnochiton Ashby, 1930
Lepidopleurus Risso, 1826
Hanleyella Sirenko, 1973
Family †Camptochitonidae Sirenko, 1997
Camptochiton DeBrock, Hoare & Mapes, 1984
Pedanochiton DeBrock, Hoare & Mapes, 1984
Euleptochiton Hoare & Mapes, 1985
Pileochiton DeBrock, Hoare & Mapes, 1984
Chauliochiton Hoare & Smith, 1984
Stegochiton Hoare & Smith, 1984
Family Nierstraszellidae Sirenko, 1992
Nierstraszella Sirenko, 1992
Family Mesochitonidae Dell' Angelo & Palazzi, 1989
Mesochiton Van Belle, 1975
Pterygochiton Rochebrune, 1883
Family Protochitonidae Ashby, 1925
Protochiton Ashby, 1925
Deshayesiella (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1879
Oldroydia Dall, 1894
Family Hanleyidae Bergenhayn, 1955
Hanleya Gray, 1857
Hemiarthrum Dall, 1876
Order Chitonida Thiele, 1910
Suborder Chitonina Thiele, 1910
Superfamily Chitonoidea Rafinesque, 1815
Family Ochmazochitonidae Hoare & Smith, 1984
Ochmazochiton Hoare & Smith, 1984
Family Ischnochitonidae Dall, 1889
Ischnochiton Gray, 1847
Stenochiton H. Adams & Angas, 1864
Stenoplax (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1879
Lepidozona Pilsbry, 1892
Stenosemus Middendorff, 1847
Subterenochiton Iredale & Hull, 1924
Thermochiton Saito & Okutani, 1990
Connexochiton Kaas, 1979
Tonicina Thiele, 1906
Family Callistoplacidae Pilsbry, 1893
Ischnoplax Dall, 1879
Callistochiton Carpenter MS, Dall, 1879
Callistoplax Dall, 1882
Ceratozona Dall, 1882
Calloplax Thiele, 1909
Family Chaetopleuridae Plate, 1899
Chaetopleura Shuttleworth, 1853
Dinoplax Carpenter MS, Dall, 1882
Family Loricidae Iredale & Hull, 1923
Lorica H. & A. Adams, 1852
Loricella Pilsbry, 1893
Oochiton Ashby, 1929
Family Callochitonidae Plate, 1901
Callochiton Gray, 1847
Eudoxochiton Shuttleworth, 1853
Vermichiton Kaas, 1979
Family Chitonidae Rafinesque, 1815
Subfamily Chitoninae Rafinesque, 1815
Chiton Linnaeus, 1758
Amaurochiton Thiele, 1893
Radsia Gray, 1847
Sypharochiton Thiele, 1893
Nodiplax Beu, 1967
Rhyssoplax Thiele, 1893
Teguloaplax Iredale & Hull, 1926
Mucrosquama Iredale, 1893
Subfamily Toniciinae Pilsbry, 1893
Tonicia Gray, 1847
Onithochiton Gray, 1847
Subfamily Acanthopleurinae Dall, 1889
Acanthopleura Guilding, 1829
Liolophura Pilsbry, 1893
Enoplochiton Gray, 1847
Squamopleura Nierstrasz, 1905
Superfamily Schizochitonoidea Dall, 1889
Family Schizochitonidae Dall, 1889
Incissiochiton Van Belle, 1985
Schizochiton Gray, 1847
Suborder Acanthochitonina Bergenhayn, 1930
Superfamily Mopalioidea Dall, 1889
Family Tonicellidae Simroth, 1894
Subfamily Tonicellinae Simroth, 1894
Lepidochitona Gray, 1821
Particulazona Kaas, 1993
Boreochiton Sars, 1878
Tonicella Carpenter, 1873
Nuttallina (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1871
Spongioradsia Pilsbry, 1894
Oligochiton Berry, 1922
Subfamily Juvenichitoninae Sirenko, 1975
Juvenichiton Sirenko, 1975
Micichiton Sirenko, 1975
Nanichiton Sirenko, 1975
Family Schizoplacidae Bergenhayn, 1955
Schizoplax Dall, 1878
Family Mopaliidae Dall, 1889
Subfamily Heterochitoninae Van Belle, 1978
Heterochiton Fucini, 1912
Allochiton Fucini, 1912
Subfamily Mopaliinae Dall, 1889
Aerilamma Hull, 1924
Guildingia Pilsbry, 1893
Frembleya H. Adams, 1866
Diaphoroplax Iredale, 1914
Plaxiphora Gray, 1847
Placiphorina Kaas & Van Belle, 1994
Nuttallochiton Plate, 1899
Mopalia Gray, 1847
Maorichiton Iredale, 1914
Placiphorella (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1879
Katharina Gray, 1847
Amicula Gray, 1847
Superfamily Cryptoplacoidea H. & A. Adams, 1858
Family Acanthochitonidae Pilsbry, 1893
Subfamily Acanthochitoninae Pilsbry, 1893
Acanthochitona Gray, 1921
Craspedochiton Shuttleworth, 1853
Spongiochiton (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1882
Notoplax H. Adams, 1861
Pseudotonicia Ashby, 1928
Bassethullia Pilsbry, 1928
Americhiton Watters, 1990
Choneplax (Carpenter MS) Dall, 1882
Cryptoconchus (de Blainville MS) Burrow, 1815
Subfamily Cryptochitoninae Pilsbry, 1893
Cryptochiton Middendorff, 1847
Family Hemiarthridae Sirenko, 1997
Hemiarthrum Carpenter in Dall, 1876
Weedingia Kaas, 1988
Family Choriplacidae Ashby, 1928
Choriplax Pilsbry, 1894
Family Cryptoplacidae H. & A. Adams, 1858
Cryptoplax de Blainville, 1818
Incertae sedis
Family Scanochitonidae Bergenhayn, 1955
Scanochiton Bergenhayn, 1955
Family Olingechitonidae Starobogatov & Sirenko, 1977
Olingechiton Bergenhayn, 1943
Family Haeggochitonidae Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Haeggochiton Bergenhayn, 1955
Family Ivoechitonidae Sirenko & Starobogatov, 1977
Ivoechiton Bergenhayn, 1955
References
External links
Extensive list of species, classified by families
Chitons
Extant Devonian first appearances | [
0.3043254315853119,
-0.07279010862112045,
-0.7120282649993896,
0.12176492810249329,
-0.4054375886917114,
0.21956561505794525,
-0.08088468760251999,
0.38247257471084595,
-0.298515260219574,
0.12628032267093658,
0.09718972444534302,
0.0935424342751503,
-0.26993072032928467,
0.7210223078727722,
0.13128376007080078,
0.6121264696121216,
0.590641438961029,
0.2508011758327484,
-0.32045337557792664,
-0.02758345566689968,
-0.5556678175926208,
-0.44119736552238464,
0.28681182861328125,
-0.6263318657875061,
0.6294799447059631,
0.27965235710144043,
-0.11167588829994202,
0.4823313355445862,
0.6596744656562805,
-0.20647990703582764,
-0.3527621626853943,
0.8578057885169983,
-0.0580279678106308,
0.04557317867875099,
0.09522639214992523,
-0.2667407989501953,
-0.7587912678718567,
-0.39926114678382874,
-0.10177290439605713,
-0.9368569850921631,
0.5630151033401489,
-0.1645532101392746,
0.20226415991783142,
0.5788757801055908,
-0.6010625958442688,
0.09655393660068512,
-0.9623550772666931,
0.5245002508163452,
-0.8434593677520752,
0.719279408454895,
0.007638759911060333,
0.22786536812782288,
0.5772916674613953,
0.34255412220954895,
0.035165607929229736,
0.5219202041625977,
-0.7556443214416504,
0.17782878875732422,
0.36199724674224854,
-0.8808475136756897,
0.1400369256734848,
0.15399108827114105,
0.00963666569441557,
-0.49006977677345276,
0.3718157112598419,
0.43040770292282104,
0.19094789028167725,
-0.15624499320983887,
-0.7046532034873962,
0.3026558458805084,
-0.2415703535079956,
-0.5122896432876587,
-0.27496424317359924,
0.4185401499271393,
-0.8429462313652039,
-0.2704068124294281,
-0.3619688153266907,
-0.22428132593631744,
0.8237443566322327,
0.06965717673301697,
-0.3440578281879425,
0.45695778727531433,
0.7227697968482971,
0.2662147283554077,
0.24041815102100372,
0.025874517858028412,
-0.49563127756118774,
0.5911048650741577,
-0.8578060865402222,
0.6262636780738831,
-0.04231966286897659,
-0.14188840985298157,
0.6595267057418823,
0.7163293957710266,
-0.16371609270572662,
-0.2938791811466217,
-0.2749863862991333,
0.05587850138545036,
0.25751450657844543,
0.22121980786323547,
-0.16431847214698792,
-0.03338342532515526,
0.3947291672229767,
0.6140599250793457,
-0.6907922029495239,
-0.10355505347251892,
-0.11916014552116394,
-0.5653610229492188,
0.14784930646419525,
-0.1619594693183899,
-0.4985634982585907,
-0.35196545720100403,
-0.03165562450885773,
-0.07851079851388931,
-0.14337940514087677,
-0.11908136308193207,
-0.015106207691133022,
-0.30433952808380127,
-0.5495785474777222,
-0.4060898721218109,
-0.05200697109103203,
-0.21218207478523254,
-0.21138900518417358,
-0.10176249593496323,
0.044558458030223846,
0.29051950573921204,
0.29951515793800354,
0.5873392820358276,
-0.39832451939582825,
-0.1497427076101303,
0.20275156199932098,
1.0045714378356934,
-0.13783250749111176,
0.3587394654750824,
0.5646180510520935,
-0.833976149559021,
-0.13484635949134827,
-0.0914342924952507,
0.6174702048301697,
0.2623465657234192,
-0.7341192960739136,
0.1242852658033371,
-0.6477778553962708,
-0.20784281194210052,
0.08923043310642242,
-0.27522191405296326,
-0.5684722661972046,
0.04760007932782173,
-0.35730767250061035,
-0.2928079664707184,
0.05382859706878662,
-0.1622103452682495,
-0.16010646522045135,
-0.08559568226337433,
-0.29816508293151855,
-0.6676135659217834,
0.00034623811370693147,
-0.11407706141471863,
0.4355175793170929,
0.012210829183459282,
-1.0570604801177979,
-0.3048863410949707,
-0.7059487700462341,
-0.19355225563049316,
0.20044684410095215,
-0.23414559662342072,
0.7295932769775391,
0.5046857595443726,
-0.4988473355770111,
0.8611787557601929,
-0.2467910200357437,
-0.2473543882369995,
0.5859013199806213,
0.46991053223609924,
-0.7152978181838989,
-0.5664876699447632,
0.07614628970623016,
-0.14404387772083282,
0.6916847229003906,
-0.6433537006378174,
-0.8969073295593262,
0.3023466467857361,
0.6912986636161804,
0.3360097408294678,
0.39075273275375366,
0.02117944322526455,
0.24908243119716644,
0.2668813169002533,
0.07266807556152344,
-0.10542890429496765,
0.25325313210487366,
-0.029365569353103638,
0.26687344908714294,
0.2352885603904724,
1.284324288368225,
-0.09773729741573334,
-1.0208977460861206,
0.09931913763284683,
0.1348404735326767,
0.0715344175696373,
-0.24571818113327026,
0.3973701298236847,
0.3504098653793335,
-0.42044562101364136,
-0.9674341082572937,
0.18126103281974792,
0.4074147641658783,
-0.4608295261859894,
-0.025107258930802345,
-0.1286148577928543,
-0.12859581410884857,
-0.4921259880065918,
0.3117305040359497,
-0.8499003052711487,
-0.13863231241703033,
-0.7212637662887573,
-0.34884411096572876,
0.19331315159797668,
-0.13324730098247528,
-1.0467023849487305,
1.0567636489868164,
-0.4168386161327362,
-0.10995268076658249,
0.6801406741142273,
0.03278766945004463,
1.0315579175949097,
0.45773592591285706,
-0.22828525304794312,
0.44777417182922363,
0.2913874387741089,
0.07350905239582062,
-0.2676107883453369,
0.010368788614869118,
-0.08850042521953583,
0.004422059282660484,
0.2176143229007721,
0.16679701209068298,
-0.6070578098297119,
0.5032364726066589,
-0.2968318462371826,
0.18355552852153778,
0.20720702409744263,
-0.946836531162262,
-0.20214203000068665,
0.7532456517219543,
-0.1968780755996704,
0.13427488505840302,
0.43582332134246826,
-0.8379238843917847,
0.29777657985687256,
-0.18581080436706543,
0.30565351247787476,
0.5525543093681335,
-0.6614193320274353,
-0.04586159437894821,
-0.12346561253070831,
0.40466931462287903,
0.015070302411913872,
-0.09762036800384521,
-0.11563762277364731,
-0.5528662800788879,
0.3933773934841156,
-0.2419140785932541,
-0.38177403807640076,
-0.4958440363407135,
-0.5663926601409912,
0.5684686303138733,
-0.17938320338726044,
1.3882646560668945,
0.2753610610961914,
0.6767585873603821,
0.3965582251548767,
-0.24238865077495575,
-0.10836158692836761,
-0.04505190625786781,
-0.5561152100563049,
-0.12792497873306274,
-0.008389689028263092,
-0.3931952118873596,
-0.4827978014945984,
0.3564126193523407,
0.37158089876174927,
0.23289722204208374,
-0.04656077176332474,
0.00027573446277529,
-0.0627119317650795,
0.4689408540725708,
-0.8669431805610657,
0.05587509647011757,
-0.5532010793685913,
-0.6943644285202026,
-0.18611028790473938,
-0.7044740915298462,
-0.024072818458080292,
-0.5714020133018494,
-0.0718579962849617,
-0.39297807216644287,
-0.27868446707725525,
-0.2507379949092865,
-0.4971536099910736,
-0.8251336812973022,
-0.19780682027339935,
-0.27594947814941406,
0.16544027626514435,
-0.11261069029569626,
0.12534518539905548,
0.40288788080215454,
0.4620635509490967,
-5.293317794799805,
-0.5531269907951355,
-0.6120442152023315,
0.47561267018318176,
0.2490772008895874,
0.6930624842643738,
0.41735929250717163,
-0.2745722532272339,
-0.11749915778636932,
-0.15996429324150085,
-0.08940888941287994,
0.5275529026985168,
-0.16627538204193115,
0.35945430397987366,
0.3625144958496094,
0.11190979182720184,
-0.10984727740287781,
-0.11603069305419922,
-0.027884982526302338,
-0.31312882900238037,
-0.015957245603203773,
0.3021518588066101,
0.14056137204170227,
0.9397593140602112,
-0.27816280722618103,
-0.0024053528904914856,
-0.37588077783584595,
-0.019292911514639854,
-0.29070761799812317,
-0.15182670950889587,
-0.8291156888008118,
-0.5120633840560913,
-0.20938363671302795,
-0.2510688602924347,
-0.1178300753235817,
0.2600644528865814,
0.3171144425868988,
0.298534631729126,
0.21715329587459564,
-0.572572648525238,
-0.6905965805053711,
-0.15649740397930145,
-0.04254298284649849,
-0.8785141706466675,
0.7763034105300903,
0.11087168753147125,
-0.5792789459228516,
-0.173422172665596,
-0.5400347709655762,
0.9186657667160034,
-0.17634370923042297,
0.12941625714302063,
0.7406575083732605,
0.3093160390853882,
0.5586837530136108,
-0.21659018099308014,
0.24818003177642822,
0.12861134111881256,
-0.3304212987422943,
0.12739495933055878,
0.7120264172554016,
-0.1809990406036377,
-0.4629265069961548,
-0.7841735482215881,
-0.379750519990921,
0.09972420334815979,
-0.401592493057251,
0.40601834654808044,
0.6518117785453796,
0.3543265163898468,
-0.753825843334198,
0.04725116863846779,
-0.0952887311577797,
-0.7148027420043945,
0.7509416937828064,
-0.548448383808136,
-0.04233404994010925,
0.22771447896957397,
-0.29199278354644775,
0.5597485899925232,
-0.1783524453639984,
-0.6803302764892578,
-0.1778421252965927,
0.5311020016670227,
-0.11773621290922165,
-0.9198633432388306,
-0.45151081681251526,
-0.1448102593421936,
-0.025286799296736717,
0.026576073840260506,
0.22156666219234467,
0.050005167722702026,
0.23719464242458344,
-0.18227939307689667,
0.8525018095970154,
0.19224701821804047,
0.13654085993766785,
0.08683562278747559,
0.749381422996521,
-0.6120312213897705,
0.6218563318252563,
-0.20777015388011932,
0.19501663744449615,
0.06205654516816139,
-0.2221158891916275,
-0.8623831272125244,
0.3318379819393158,
0.2249220311641693,
0.5658529996871948,
0.20536082983016968,
0.07304689288139343,
-0.24778179824352264,
-0.4173502027988434,
-0.1295856535434723,
0.07494622468948364,
-0.2574676275253296,
-0.3499608337879181,
0.38750317692756653,
0.34357932209968567,
-0.00952467042952776,
0.15809817612171173,
0.6097086668014526,
-0.33519384264945984,
-0.3398263454437256,
-0.07215291261672974,
-0.3769911825656891,
0.3372032344341278,
0.00523021537810564,
-0.6561577320098877,
-0.5108032822608948,
0.37751632928848267,
0.6117516160011292,
-0.3216494917869568,
0.18617193400859833,
-0.28711527585983276,
0.2762962281703949,
-0.3571029305458069,
-0.29515403509140015,
-0.3539775609970093,
-0.34181296825408936,
0.3709631562232971,
-0.38213464617729187,
-0.5021427869796753,
0.003983700647950172,
0.5114728212356567,
0.5362080931663513,
-0.1469709575176239,
-0.1933196634054184,
-0.42386558651924133,
1.0749562978744507,
0.2995511293411255,
-0.4719669222831726,
0.3962019681930542,
-0.1185007318854332,
0.22749055922031403,
0.3030480742454529,
0.27394863963127136,
0.3601875305175781,
-0.2847610414028168,
-0.12049049139022827,
-0.6575882434844971,
0.28843018412590027,
-0.7113749384880066,
0.05808664485812187,
-0.05249473825097084,
0.029963942244648933,
-1.3866581916809082,
-0.10253995656967163,
0.06741725653409958,
0.005366526078432798,
-0.1481805294752121,
0.05389478802680969,
-0.599042534828186,
-0.34209203720092773,
-0.1908220797777176,
-0.4566315710544586,
0.49539217352867126,
0.629581093788147,
-0.3932359218597412,
-0.3014496862888336,
0.47509679198265076,
0.1931334137916565,
0.30421215295791626,
-0.3319016098976135,
0.42519575357437134,
-0.17557376623153687,
0.2369934767484665,
-0.08662058413028717,
-0.3308939039707184,
0.25466638803482056,
0.12633848190307617,
-0.045130547136068344,
0.48763027787208557,
0.11617094278335571,
-0.5566750764846802,
0.11587125808000565,
0.5277012586593628,
0.498892217874527,
0.05472785606980324,
-0.8892775177955627,
0.056657999753952026,
0.4355383813381195,
-0.717249870300293,
0.2590506672859192,
0.1341686099767685,
-0.4734379053115845,
0.4008309841156006,
-0.021853046491742134,
0.3384779691696167,
0.25990796089172363,
-0.21895530819892883,
-0.45358821749687195,
0.4361764192581177,
0.00038551611942239106,
-0.0389203280210495,
0.14708928763866425,
0.1096905842423439,
-0.05476587265729904,
0.06969287991523743,
-0.7525663375854492,
0.17910094559192657,
0.3525691628456116,
0.16691100597381592,
-0.510037899017334,
-0.528019905090332,
0.05299139767885208,
0.509789228439331,
0.38206061720848083,
-0.3065725266933441,
-0.5241028070449829,
0.36016348004341125,
-0.16459310054779053,
-0.43533653020858765,
-0.06771678477525711,
0.2267533242702484,
-0.19837717711925507,
0.07449571788311005,
-0.06375820189714432,
-0.05098817124962807,
0.24378269910812378,
1.2112964391708374,
1.0884366035461426,
0.64324951171875,
0.3404575288295746,
-0.0969729870557785,
0.13934968411922455,
0.6696983575820923,
0.06259049475193024,
-0.884723424911499,
0.25144827365875244,
0.8955971002578735,
-0.7972795367240906,
-1.047803521156311,
-0.3295649290084839,
0.8744829297065735,
-0.3745891749858856,
0.39151906967163086,
-0.040947217494249344,
0.0029756524600088596,
0.2621990740299225,
0.011165410280227661,
-0.2105228453874588,
-0.33131900429725647,
-0.004700522404164076,
-0.17793694138526917,
-0.28770625591278076,
-0.5918421745300293,
0.4740159213542938,
0.6298967003822327,
-0.3767334520816803,
0.5631564259529114,
0.5863743424415588,
0.3272823989391327,
0.6075834035873413,
0.2210046797990799,
0.2386510670185089,
-0.09488783031702042,
-0.17539924383163452,
0.4331115782260895,
-0.09961160272359848,
-0.11474965512752533,
0.4415352940559387,
0.23302467167377472,
-0.07474038749933243,
-0.12258315831422806,
-0.4568999111652374,
-0.1465928852558136,
0.01235697977244854,
-0.10302383452653885,
-0.15972793102264404,
-0.3864390254020691,
-0.26606762409210205,
0.14324814081192017,
0.2746586203575134,
0.23474162817001343,
0.3377692997455597,
0.6476803421974182,
0.4857625663280487,
-0.6389274001121521,
0.8478224873542786,
-0.7236697673797607,
0.8240123391151428,
0.45131757855415344,
-0.6869773864746094,
0.054017648100852966,
0.19123412668704987,
-0.38851869106292725,
0.05393097549676895,
-0.23114487528800964,
0.4628058075904846,
-0.06731632351875305,
0.25007492303848267,
0.07811077684164047,
0.5762800574302673,
-0.35796958208084106,
0.21184612810611725,
0.1867743879556656,
-0.5491060614585876,
0.43666785955429077,
0.33247557282447815,
0.06136471405625343,
0.21279147267341614,
-0.3028925657272339,
0.17808644473552704,
0.1719587743282318,
-0.28235551714897156,
-0.555298924446106,
-0.3044302761554718,
0.23834915459156036,
0.4460355341434479,
0.2906287610530853,
0.11939283460378647,
-0.6552093625068665,
-0.5394327044487,
-0.10868467390537262,
-0.3817473351955414,
-0.39174988865852356,
0.15508005023002625,
-0.381997674703598,
1.474452257156372,
1.2382022142410278,
-0.06354566663503647,
-0.23849284648895264,
-0.11612401157617569,
0.27135413885116577,
0.41680097579956055,
-0.5624100565910339,
0.05411645025014877,
0.2663736045360565,
0.3552348017692566,
0.5339535474777222,
0.20280450582504272,
1.0075159072875977,
-0.5664394497871399,
0.1238889992237091,
0.17092588543891907,
-0.0024501197040081024,
-0.05268120765686035,
0.12406478822231293,
0.1425459384918213,
-0.49048912525177,
0.35394081473350525,
0.0748993530869484,
-0.11121752113103867,
-0.645237386226654,
0.5188033580780029,
-0.3669113516807556,
-0.4234530031681061,
-0.2291271686553955,
-0.07104460150003433,
0.7965717911720276,
0.5820824503898621,
-0.06180758774280548,
0.2675970196723938,
0.12527303397655487,
-0.2175617665052414,
-0.06274488568305969,
0.5607075095176697,
0.12652051448822021,
-0.04448476433753967,
-0.6095346212387085,
-0.3602324426174164,
-0.32562923431396484,
-0.9860275983810425,
0.44917094707489014,
0.1964118629693985,
0.0705985426902771,
-0.050057221204042435,
-0.17542952299118042,
0.5761577486991882,
0.29365190863609314,
-0.3181789517402649,
0.19468313455581665,
0.5230016112327576,
-0.6514278650283813,
-0.16873140633106232,
-0.15868155658245087,
0.9598924517631531,
-0.15962593257427216,
-0.08242463320493698,
-0.012256131507456303,
0.6218138337135315,
0.34005334973335266,
-0.024144448339939117,
-0.5882755517959595,
-0.06284011900424957,
-0.20547382533550262,
-0.30667856335639954,
-0.8909335136413574,
-0.08477883040904999,
1.566482663154602,
-0.07087694108486176,
-0.28385764360427856,
0.31658250093460083,
-0.11484195291996002,
0.3730058968067169,
0.4590979814529419,
-0.22470229864120483,
-0.37262946367263794,
0.12273254990577698,
-0.11652442812919617,
-0.46231839060783386,
-0.03711595758795738,
0.6241359710693359,
0.13874368369579315,
0.02485557273030281,
0.7784901857376099,
-0.5638877749443054,
-0.7414018511772156,
0.08877170830965042,
-0.8214641809463501,
0.8006974458694458,
-0.035686276853084564,
0.09352091699838638,
0.14506149291992188,
-0.24542781710624695,
0.38420775532722473,
0.9261177182197571,
0.14431196451187134,
-0.2526557743549347,
0.24513950943946838,
0.21483534574508667,
0.3356175124645233,
-0.3239288926124573,
-0.05122464522719383,
0.17226088047027588,
-0.2540922164916992,
-0.6910169720649719,
-0.7230231761932373,
-0.35373654961586,
0.34125345945358276,
-0.5404982566833496,
0.29902637004852295,
0.1746014654636383,
-0.39718225598335266,
-0.13851971924304962,
0.25211143493652344,
-0.197566419839859,
0.022009961307048798,
0.07713694870471954
] |
233663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20geodesy | History of geodesy | The history of geodesy deals with the historical development of measurements and representations of the Earth. The corresponding scientific discipline, geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdɪsi/), began in pre-scientific antiquity and blossomed during the Age of Enlightenment.
Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat (see flat Earth), and the heavens a physical dome spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses were seen as circular shadows which could only be caused by a spherical Earth, and that Polaris is seen lower in the sky as one travels South.
Hellenic world
Initial development from a diversity of views
Though the earliest written mention of a spherical Earth comes from ancient Greek sources, there is no account of how the sphericity of Earth was discovered, or if it was initially simply a guess. A plausible explanation given by the historian Otto E. Neugebauer is that it was "the experience of travellers that suggested such an explanation for the variation in the observable altitude of the pole and the change in the area of circumpolar stars, a change that was quite drastic between Greek settlements" around the eastern Mediterranean Sea, particularly those between the Nile Delta and Crimea.
Another possible explanation can be traced back to earlier Phoenician sailors. The first circumnavigation of Africa is described as being undertaken by Phoenician explorers employed by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II c. 610–595 BC. In The Histories, written 431–425 BC, Herodotus cast doubt on a report of the Sun observed shining from the north. He stated that the phenomenon was observed by Phoenician explorers during their circumnavigation of Africa (The Histories, 4.42) who claimed to have had the Sun on their right when circumnavigating in a clockwise direction. To modern historians, these details confirm the truth of the Phoenicians' report. The historian Dmitri Panchenko hypothesizes that it was the Phoenician circumnavigation of Africa that inspired the theory of a spherical Earth, the earliest mention of which was made by the philosopher Parmenides in the 5th century BC. However, nothing certain about their knowledge of geography and navigation has survived; therefore, later researchers have no evidence that they conceived of Earth as spherical.
Speculation and theorizing ranged from the flat disc advocated by Homer to the spherical body reportedly postulated by Pythagoras. Anaximenes, an early Greek philosopher, believed strongly that the Earth was rectangular in shape. Some early Greek philosophers alluded to a spherical Earth, though with some ambiguity. Pythagoras (6th century BC) was among those said to have originated the idea, but this might reflect the ancient Greek practice of ascribing every discovery to one or another of their ancient wise men. Pythagoras was a mathematician, and he supposedly reasoned that the gods would create a perfect figure which to him was a sphere. Some idea of the sphericity of Earth seems to have been known to both Parmenides and Empedocles in the 5th century BC, and although the idea cannot reliably be ascribed to Pythagoras, it might nevertheless have been formulated in the Pythagorean school in the 5th century BC although some disagree. After the 5th century BC, no Greek writer of repute thought the world was anything but round. The Pythagorean idea was supported later by Aristotle. Efforts commenced to determine the size of the sphere.
Plato
Plato (427–347 BC) travelled to southern Italy to study Pythagorean mathematics. When he returned to Athens and established his school, Plato also taught his students that Earth was a sphere, though he offered no justifications. "My conviction is that the Earth is a round body in the centre of the heavens, and therefore has no need of air or of any similar force to be a support". If man could soar high above the clouds, Earth would resemble "one of those balls which have leather coverings in twelve pieces, and is decked with various colours, of which the colours used by painters on Earth are in a manner samples". In Timaeus, his one work that was available throughout the Middle Ages in Latin, he wrote that the Creator "made the world in the form of a globe, round as from a lathe, having its extremes in every direction equidistant from the centre, the most perfect and the most like itself of all figures", though the word "world" here refers to the heavens.
Aristotle
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was Plato's prize student and "the mind of the school". Aristotle observed "there are stars seen in Egypt and [...] Cyprus which are not seen in the northerly regions". Since this could only happen on a curved surface, he too believed Earth was a sphere "of no great size, for otherwise the effect of so slight a change of place would not be quickly apparent".
Aristotle reported that mathematicians had calculated the circumference of the Earth (which is actually slightly over 40,000 km) to be 400,000 stadia (between 62,800 and 74,000 km or 46,250 and 39,250 mi).
Aristotle provided physical and observational arguments supporting the idea of a spherical Earth:
Every portion of Earth tends toward the centre until by compression and convergence they form a sphere.
Travelers going south see southern constellations rise higher above the horizon.
The shadow of Earth on the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round.
The concepts of symmetry, equilibrium and cyclic repetition permeated Aristotle's work. In his Meteorology he divided the world into five climatic zones: two temperate areas separated by a torrid zone near the equator, and two cold inhospitable regions, "one near our upper or northern pole and the other near the [...] southern pole", both impenetrable and girdled with ice. Although no humans could survive in the frigid zones, inhabitants in the southern temperate regions could exist.
Aristotle's theory of natural place relied on a spherical Earth to explain why heavy things go down (toward what Aristotle believed was the center of the Universe), and things like air and fire go up. In this geocentric model, the structure of the universe was believed to be a series of perfect spheres. The Sun, Moon, planets and fixed stars were believed to move on celestial spheres around a stationary Earth.
Though Aristotle's theory of physics survived in the Christian world for many centuries, the heliocentric model was eventually shown to be a more correct explanation of the Solar System than the geocentric model, and atomic theory was shown to be a more correct explanation of the nature of matter than classical elements like earth, water, air, fire, and aether.
Archimedes
Archimedes gave an upper bound for the circumference of the Earth of 3,000,000 stadia (483,000 km or 300,000 mi) using the Hellenic stadion which scholars generally take to be 185 meters or of a geographical mile.
In proposition 2 of the First Book of his treatise "On floating bodies", Archimedes demonstrates that "The surface of any fluid at rest is the surface of a sphere whose centre is the same as that of the Earth". Subsequently, in propositions 8 and 9 of the same work, he assumes the result of proposition 2 that Earth is a sphere and that the surface of a fluid on it is a sphere centered on the center of Earth.
Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), a Hellenistic astronomer from what is now Cyrene, Libya working in Alexandria, Egypt, estimated Earth's circumference around 240 BC, computing a value of 252,000 stades. The length that Eratosthenes intended for a "stade" is not known, but his figure only has an error of around one to fifteen percent. Assuming a value for the stadion between 155 and 160 metres, the error is between −2.4% and +0.8%. Eratosthenes described his technique in a book entitled On the measure of the Earth, which has not been preserved. Eratosthenes could only measure the circumference of Earth by assuming that the distance to the Sun is so great that the rays of sunlight are practically parallel.
Eratosthenes' method to calculate the Earth's circumference has been lost; what has been preserved is the simplified version described by Cleomedes to popularise the discovery. Cleomedes invites his reader to consider two Egyptian cities, Alexandria and Syene, modern Assuan:
Cleomedes assumes that the distance between Syene and Alexandria was 5,000 stadia (a figure that was checked yearly by professional bematists, mensores regii);
he assumes the simplified (but false) hypothesis that Syene was precisely on the Tropic of Cancer, saying that at local noon on the summer solstice the Sun was directly overhead;
he assumes the simplified (but false) hypothesis that Syene and Alexandria are on the same meridian.
Under the previous assumptions, says Cleomedes, you can measure the Sun's angle of elevation at noon of the summer solstice in Alexandria, by using a vertical rod (a gnomon) of known length and measuring the length of its shadow on the ground; it is then possible to calculate the angle of the Sun's rays, which he claims to be about 7°, or 1/50th the circumference of a circle. Taking the Earth as spherical, the Earth's circumference would be fifty times the distance between Alexandria and Syene, that is 250,000 stadia. Since 1 Egyptian stadium is equal to 157.5 metres, the result is 39,375 km, which is 1.4% less than the real number, 39,941 km.
Eratosthenes' method was actually more complicated, as stated by the same Cleomedes, whose purpose was to present a simplified version of the one described in Eratosthenes' book. The method was based on several surveying trips conducted by professional bematists, whose job was to precisely measure the extent of the territory of Egypt for agricultural and taxation-related purposes. Furthermore, the fact that Eratosthenes' measure corresponds precisely to 252,000 stadia might be intentional, since it is a number that can be divided by all natural numbers from 1 to 10: some historians believe that Eratosthenes changed from the 250,000 value written by Cleomedes to this new value to simplify calculations; other historians of science, on the other side, believe that Eratosthenes introduced a new length unit based on the length of the meridian, as stated by Pliny, who writes about the stadion "according to Eratosthenes' ratio".
1,700 years after Eratosthenes, Christopher Columbus studied Eratosthenes's findings before sailing west for the Indies. However, ultimately he rejected Eratosthenes in favour of other maps and arguments that interpreted Earth's circumference to be a third smaller than it really is. If, instead, Columbus had accepted Eratosthenes' findings, he may have never gone west, since he did not have the supplies or funding needed for the much longer eight-thousand-plus mile voyage.
Seleucus of Seleucia
Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BC), who lived in the city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia, wrote that Earth is spherical (and actually orbits the Sun, influenced by the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus of Samos).
Posidonius
A parallel later ancient measurement of the size of the Earth was made by another Greek scholar, Posidonius (c. 13551 BC), using a similar method as Eratosthenes. Instead of observing the sun, he noted that the star Canopus was hidden from view in most parts of Greece but that it just grazed the horizon at Rhodes. Posidonius is supposed to have measured the angular elevation of Canopus at Alexandria and determined that the angle was 1/48 of a circle. He used a distance from Alexandria to Rhodes, 5000 stadia, and so he computed the Earth's circumference in stadia as 48 × 5000 = 240,000. Some scholars see these results as luckily semi-accurate due to cancellation of errors. But since the Canopus observations are both mistaken by over a degree, the "experiment" may be not much more than a recycling of Eratosthenes's numbers, while altering 1/50 to the correct 1/48 of a circle. Later, either he or a follower appears to have altered the base distance to agree with Eratosthenes's Alexandria-to-Rhodes figure of 3750 stadia, since Posidonius' final circumference was 180,000 stadia, which equals 48 × 3750 stadia. The 180,000 stadia circumference of Posidonius is suspiciously close to that which results from another method of measuring the Earth, by timing ocean sunsets from different heights, a method which is inaccurate due to horizontal atmospheric refraction. Posidonius furthermore expressed the distance of the Sun in Earth radii.
The above-mentioned larger and smaller sizes of the Earth were those used by later Roman author Claudius Ptolemy at different times: 252,000 stadia in his Almagest and 180,000 stadia in his later Geographia. His mid-career conversion resulted in the latter work's systematic exaggeration of degree longitudes in the Mediterranean by a factor close to the ratio of the two seriously differing sizes discussed here, which indicates that the conventional size of the Earth was what changed, not the stadion.
Ancient India
While the textual evidence has not survived, the precision of the constants used in pre-Greek Vedanga models, and the model's accuracy in predicting the Moon and Sun's motion for Vedic rituals, probably came from direct astronomical observations. The cosmographic theories and assumptions in ancient India likely developed independently and in parallel, but these were influenced by some unknown quantitative Greek astronomy text in the medieval era.
Greek ethnographer Megasthenes, c. 300 BC, has been interpreted as stating that the contemporary Brahmans believed in a spherical Earth as the center of the universe. With the spread of Hellenistic culture in the east, Hellenistic astronomy filtered eastwards to ancient India where its profound influence became apparent in the early centuries AD. The Greek concept of an Earth surrounded by the spheres of the planets and that of the fixed stars, vehemently supported by astronomers like Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta, strengthened the astronomical principles. Some ideas were found possible to preserve, although in altered form.
The Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550 CE) was a pioneer of mathematical astronomy on the subcontinent. He describes the Earth as being spherical and says that it rotates on its axis, among other places in his Sanskrit magnum opus, Āryabhaṭīya. Aryabhatiya is divided into four sections: Gitika, Ganitha ("mathematics"), Kalakriya ("reckoning of time") and Gola ("celestial sphere"). The discovery that the Earth rotates on its own axis from west to east is described in Aryabhatiya (Gitika 3,6; Kalakriya 5; Gola 9,10). For example, he explained the apparent motion of heavenly bodies as only an illusion (Gola 9), with the following simile:
Just as a passenger in a boat moving downstream sees the stationary (trees on the river banks) as traversing upstream, so does an observer on earth see the fixed stars as moving towards the west at exactly the same speed (at which the earth moves from west to east.)
Aryabhatiya also estimates the circumference of the Earth. He gives this as 4967 yojanas and its diameter as 1581 yojanas. The length of a yojana varies considerably between sources; assuming a yojana to be 8 km (4.97097 miles) this gives a circumference of , close to the current equatorial value of .
Roman Empire
The idea of a spherical Earth slowly spread across the globe, and ultimately became the adopted view in all major astronomical traditions.
In the West, the idea came to the Romans through the lengthy process of cross-fertilization with Hellenistic civilization. Many Roman authors such as Cicero and Pliny refer in their works to the rotundity of Earth as a matter of course. Pliny also considered the possibility of an imperfect sphere "shaped like a pinecone".
Strabo
It has been suggested that seafarers probably provided the first observational evidence that Earth was not flat, based on observations of the horizon. This argument was put forward by the geographer Strabo (c. 64 BC – 24 AD), who suggested that the spherical shape of Earth was probably known to seafarers around the Mediterranean Sea since at least the time of Homer, citing a line from the Odyssey as indicating that the poet Homer knew of this as early as the 7th or 8th century BC. Strabo cited various phenomena observed at sea as suggesting that Earth was spherical. He observed that elevated lights or areas of land were visible to sailors at greater distances than those less elevated, and stated that the curvature of the sea was obviously responsible for this.
Claudius Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (90–168 AD) lived in Alexandria, the centre of scholarship in the 2nd century. In the Almagest, which remained the standard work of astronomy for 1,400 years, he advanced many arguments for the spherical nature of Earth. Among them was the observation that when a ship is sailing towards mountains, observers note these seem to rise from the sea, indicating that they were hidden by the curved surface of the sea. He also gives separate arguments that Earth is curved north-south and that it is curved east-west.
He compiled an eight-volume Geographia covering what was known about Earth. The first part of the Geographia is a discussion of the data and of the methods he used. As with the model of the Solar System in the Almagest, Ptolemy put all this information into a grand scheme. He assigned coordinates to all the places and geographic features he knew, in a grid that spanned the globe (although most of this has been lost). Latitude was measured from the equator, as it is today, but Ptolemy preferred to express it as the length of the longest day rather than degrees of arc (the length of the midsummer day increases from 12h to 24h as you go from the equator to the polar circle). He put the meridian of 0 longitude at the most western land he knew, the Canary Islands.
Geographia indicated the countries of "Serica" and "Sinae" (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (Southeast Asian peninsula).
Ptolemy also devised and provided instructions on how to make maps both of the whole inhabited world (oikoumenè) and of the Roman provinces. In the second part of the Geographia, he provided the necessary topographic lists, and captions for the maps. His oikoumenè spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean to China, and about 81 degrees of latitude from the Arctic to the East Indies and deep into Africa. Ptolemy was well aware that he knew about only a quarter of the globe.
Late Antiquity
Knowledge of the spherical shape of Earth was received in scholarship of Late Antiquity as a matter of course, in both Neoplatonism and Early Christianity. Calcidius's fourth-century Latin commentary on and translation of Plato's Timaeus, which was one of the few examples of Greek scientific thought that was known in the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe, discussed Hipparchus's use of the geometrical circumstances of eclipses in On Sizes and Distances to compute the relative diameters of the Sun, Earth, and Moon.
Theological doubt informed by the flat Earth model implied in the Hebrew Bible inspired some early Christian scholars such as Lactantius, John Chrysostom and Athanasius of Alexandria, but this remained an eccentric current. Learned Christian authors such as Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose and Augustine of Hippo were clearly aware of the sphericity of Earth. "Flat Earthism" lingered longest in Syriac Christianity, which tradition laid greater importance on a literalist interpretation of the Old Testament. Authors from that tradition, such as Cosmas Indicopleustes, presented Earth as flat as late as in the 6th century. This last remnant of the ancient model of the cosmos disappeared during the 7th century. From the 8th century and the beginning medieval period, "no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth".
Such widely read encyclopedists as Macrobius and Martianus Capella (both 5th century AD) discussed the circumference of the sphere of the Earth, its central position in the universe, the difference of the seasons in northern and southern hemispheres, and many other geographical details. In his commentary on Cicero's Dream of Scipio, Macrobius described the Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos.
Islamic world
Islamic astronomy was developed on the basis of a spherical Earth inherited from Hellenistic astronomy. The Islamic theoretical framework largely relied on the fundamental contributions of Aristotle (De caelo) and Ptolemy (Almagest), both of whom worked from the premise that Earth was spherical and at the centre of the universe (geocentric model).
Early Islamic scholars recognized Earth's sphericity, leading Muslim mathematicians to develop spherical trigonometry in order to further mensuration and to calculate the distance and direction from any given point on Earth to Mecca. This determined the Qibla, or Muslim direction of prayer.
Al-Ma'mun
Around 830 CE, Caliph al-Ma'mun commissioned a group of Muslim astronomers and geographers to measure the distance from Tadmur (Palmyra) to Raqqa in modern Syria. To determine the length of one degree of latitude, by using a rope to measure the distance travelled due north or south (meridian arc) on flat desert land until they reached a place where the altitude of the North Pole had changed by one degree.
Al-Ma'mun's arc measurement result is described in different sources as 66 2/3 miles, 56.5 miles, and 56 miles. The figure Alfraganus used based on these measurements was 56 2/3 miles, giving an Earth circumference of . 66 miles results in a calculated planetary circumference of .
Another estimate given by his astronomers was 56 Arabic miles (111.8 km) per degree, which corresponds to a circumference of 40,248 km, very close to the currently modern values of 111.3 km per degree and 40,068 km circumference, respectively.
Ibn Hazm
Andalusian polymath Ibn Hazm gave a concise proof of Earth's sphericity: at any given time, there is a point on the Earth where the Sun is directly overhead (which moves throughout the day and throughout the year).
Al-Farghānī
Al-Farghānī (Latinized as Alfraganus) was a Persian astronomer of the 9th century involved in measuring the diameter of Earth, and commissioned by Al-Ma'mun. His estimate given above for a degree (56 Arabic miles) was much more accurate than the 60 Roman miles (89.7 km) given by Ptolemy. Christopher Columbus uncritically used Alfraganus's figure as if it were in Roman miles instead of in Arabic miles, in order to prove a smaller size of Earth than that propounded by Ptolemy.
Biruni
Abu Rayhan Biruni (973–1048) used a new method to accurately compute Earth's circumference, by which he arrived at a value that was close to modern values for Earth's circumference. His estimate of for Earth's radius was only less than the modern mean value of . In contrast to his predecessors, who measured Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top. This yielded more accurate measurements of Earth's circumference and made it possible for a single person to measure it from a single location. Biruni's method was intended to avoid "walking across hot, dusty deserts", and the idea came to him when he was on top of a tall mountain in India (present day Pind Dadan Khan, Pakistan).
From the top of the mountain, he sighted the dip angle which, along with the mountain's height (which he calculated beforehand), he applied to the law of sines formula to calculate the curvature of the Earth.< While this was an ingenious new method, Al-Biruni was not aware of atmospheric refraction. To get the true dip angle the measured dip angle needs to be corrected by approximately 1/6, meaning that even with perfect measurement his estimate could only have been accurate to within about 20%.
Biruni also made use of algebra to formulate trigonometric equations and used the astrolabe to measure angles.
According to John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson,
Jamal-al-Din
A terrestrial globe (Kura-i-ard) was among the presents sent by the Persian Muslim astronomer Jamal-al-Din to Kublai Khan's Chinese court in 1267. It was made of wood on which "seven parts of water are represented in green, three parts of land in white, with rivers, lakes[, et cetera]". Ho Peng Yoke remarks that "it did not seem to have any general appeal to the Chinese in those days".
Applications
Muslim scholars who held to the spherical Earth theory used it for a quintessentially Islamic purpose: to calculate the distance and direction from any given point on Earth to Mecca. Muslim mathematicians developed spherical trigonometry; in the 11th century, al-Biruni used it to find the direction of Mecca from many cities and published it in The Determination of the Co-ordinates of Cities. This determined the Qibla, or Muslim direction of prayer.
Magnetic declination
Muslim astronomers and geographers were aware of magnetic declination by the 15th century, when the Egyptian astronomer 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i (d. 1469/1471) measured it as 7 degrees from Cairo.
Medieval Europe
Greek influence
In medieval Europe, knowledge of the sphericity of Earth survived into the medieval corpus of knowledge by direct transmission of the texts of Greek antiquity (Aristotle), and via authors such as Isidore of Seville and Beda Venerabilis. It became increasingly traceable with the rise of scholasticism and medieval learning.
Revising the figures attributed to Posidonius, another Greek philosopher determined as the Earth's circumference. This last figure was promulgated by Ptolemy through his world maps. The maps of Ptolemy strongly influenced the cartographers of the Middle Ages. It is probable that Christopher Columbus, using such maps, was led to believe that Asia was only west of Europe.
Ptolemy's view was not universal, however, and chapter 20 of Mandeville's Travels (c. 1357) supports Eratosthenes' calculation.
Spread of this knowledge beyond the immediate sphere of Greco-Roman scholarship was necessarily gradual, associated with the pace of Christianisation of Europe. For example, the first evidence of knowledge of the spherical shape of Earth in Scandinavia is a 12th-century Old Icelandic translation of Elucidarius. A list of more than a hundred Latin and vernacular writers from Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages who were aware that Earth was spherical has been compiled by Reinhard Krüger, professor for Romance literature at the University of Stuttgart.
It was not until the 16th century that his concept of the Earth's size was revised. During that period the Flemish cartographer, Mercator, made successive reductions in the size of the Mediterranean Sea and all of Europe which had the effect of increasing the size of the earth.
Early Medieval Europe
Isidore of Seville
Bishop Isidore of Seville (560–636) taught in his widely read encyclopedia, The Etymologies, that Earth was "round". The bishop's confusing exposition and choice of imprecise Latin terms have divided scholarly opinion on whether he meant a sphere or a disk or even whether he meant anything specific. Notable recent scholars claim that he taught a spherical Earth. Isidore did not admit the possibility of people dwelling at the antipodes, considering them as legendary and noting that there was no evidence for their existence.
Bede the Venerable
The monk Bede (c. 672–735) wrote in his influential treatise on computus, The Reckoning of Time, that Earth was round. He explained the unequal length of daylight from "the roundness of the Earth, for not without reason is it called 'the orb of the world' on the pages of Holy Scripture and of ordinary literature. It is, in fact, set like a sphere in the middle of the whole universe." (De temporum ratione, 32). The large number of surviving manuscripts of The Reckoning of Time, copied to meet the Carolingian requirement that all priests should study the computus, indicates that many, if not most, priests were exposed to the idea of the sphericity of Earth. Ælfric of Eynsham paraphrased Bede into Old English, saying, "Now the Earth's roundness and the Sun's orbit constitute the obstacle to the day's being equally long in every land."
Bede was lucid about Earth's sphericity, writing "We call the earth a globe, not as if the shape of a sphere were expressed in the diversity of plains and mountains, but because, if all things are included in the outline, the earth's circumference will represent the figure of a perfect globe... For truly it is an orb placed in the centre of the universe; in its width it is like a circle, and not circular like a shield but rather like a ball, and it extends from its centre with perfect roundness on all sides."
Anania Shirakatsi
The 7th-century Armenian scholar Anania Shirakatsi described the world as "being like an egg with a spherical yolk (the globe) surrounded by a layer of white (the atmosphere) and covered with a hard shell (the sky)".
High and late medieval Europe
During the High Middle Ages, the astronomical knowledge in Christian Europe was extended beyond what was transmitted directly from ancient authors by transmission of learning from Medieval Islamic astronomy. An early student of such learning was Gerbert d'Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II.
Saint Hildegard (Hildegard von Bingen, 1098–1179), depicted the spherical Earth several times in her work Liber Divinorum Operum.
Johannes de Sacrobosco (c. 1195c. 1256 AD) wrote a famous work on Astronomy called Tractatus de Sphaera, based on Ptolemy, which primarily considers the sphere of the sky. However, it contains clear proofs of Earth's sphericity in the first chapter.
Many scholastic commentators on Aristotle's On the Heavens and Sacrobosco's Treatise on the Sphere unanimously agreed that Earth is spherical or round. Grant observes that no author who had studied at a medieval university thought that Earth was flat.
The Elucidarium of Honorius Augustodunensis (c. 1120), an important manual for the instruction of lesser clergy, which was translated into Middle English, Old French, Middle High German, Old Russian, Middle Dutch, Old Norse, Icelandic, Spanish, and several Italian dialects, explicitly refers to a spherical Earth. Likewise, the fact that Bertold von Regensburg (mid-13th century) used the spherical Earth as an illustration in a sermon shows that he could assume this knowledge among his congregation. The sermon was preached in the vernacular German, and thus was not intended for a learned audience.
Dante's Divine Comedy, written in Italian in the early 14th century, portrays Earth as a sphere, discussing implications such as the different stars visible in the southern hemisphere, the altered position of the Sun, and the various time zones of Earth.
Early modern period
The invention of the telescope and the theodolite and the development of logarithm tables allowed exact triangulation and arc measurements.
Ming China
Joseph Needham, in his Chinese Cosmology reports that Shen Kuo (1031-1095) used models of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse to conclude the roundness of celestial bodies.
However, Shen's ideas did not gain widespread acceptance or consideration, as the shape of Earth was not important to Confucian officials who were more concerned with human relations. In the 17th century, the idea of a spherical Earth, now considerably advanced by Western astronomy, ultimately spread to Ming China, when Jesuit missionaries, who held high positions as astronomers at the imperial court, successfully challenged the Chinese belief that Earth was flat and square.
The Ge zhi cao (格致草) treatise of Xiong Mingyu (熊明遇) published in 1648 showed a printed picture of Earth as a spherical globe, with the text stating that "the round Earth certainly has no square corners". The text also pointed out that sailing ships could return to their port of origin after circumnavigating the waters of Earth.
The influence of the map is distinctly Western, as traditional maps of Chinese cartography held the graduation of the sphere at 365.25 degrees, while the Western graduation was of 360 degrees. The adoption of European astronomy, facilitated by the failure of indigenous astronomy to make progress, was accompanied by a sinocentric reinterpretation that declared the imported ideas Chinese in origin:
Although mainstream Chinese science until the 17th century held the view that Earth was flat, square, and enveloped by the celestial sphere, this idea was criticized by the Jin-dynasty scholar Yu Xi (fl. 307–345), who suggested that Earth could be either square or round, in accordance with the shape of the heavens. The Yuan-dynasty mathematician Li Ye (c. 1192–1279) firmly argued that Earth was spherical, just like the shape of the heavens only smaller, since a square Earth would hinder the movement of the heavens and celestial bodies in his estimation. The 17th-century Ge zhi cao treatise also used the same terminology to describe the shape of Earth that the Eastern-Han scholar Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) had used to describe the shape of the Sun and Moon (as in, that the former was as round as a crossbow bullet, and the latter was the shape of a ball).
Circumnavigation of the globe
The Portuguese exploration of Africa and Asia, Columbus's voyage to the Americas (1492) provided more direct evidence of the size and shape of the world.
The first direct demonstration of Earth's sphericity came in the form of the first circumnavigation in history, an expedition captained by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. The expedition was financed by the Spanish Crown. On August 10, 1519, the five ships under Magellan's command departed from Seville. They crossed the Atlantic Ocean, passed through what is now called the Strait of Magellan, crossed the Pacific, and arrived in Cebu, where Magellan was killed by Philippine natives in a battle. His second in command, the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano, continued the expedition and, on September 6, 1522, arrived at Seville, completing the circumnavigation. Charles I of Spain, in recognition of his feat, gave Elcano a coat of arms with the motto Primus circumdedisti me (in Latin, "You went around me first").
A circumnavigation alone does not prove that Earth is spherical: it could be cylindric, irregularly globular, or one of many other shapes. Still, combined with trigonometric evidence of the form used by Eratosthenes 1,700 years prior, the Magellan expedition removed any reasonable doubt in educated circles in Europe. The Transglobe Expedition (1979–1982) was the first expedition to make a circumpolar circumnavigation, travelling the world "vertically" traversing both of the poles of rotation using only surface transport.
European calculations
In the Carolingian era, scholars discussed Macrobius's view of the antipodes. One of them, the Irish monk Dungal, asserted that the tropical gap between our habitable region and the other habitable region to the south was smaller than Macrobius had believed.
In 1505 the cosmographer and explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira calculated the value of the degree of the meridian arc with a margin of error of only 4%, when the current error at the time varied between 7 and 15%.
Jean Picard performed the first modern meridian arc measurement in 1669–1670. He measured a baseline using wooden rods, a telescope (for his angular measurements), and logarithms (for computation). Gian Domenico Cassini then his son Jacques Cassini later continued Picard's arc (Paris meridian arc) northward to Dunkirk and southward to the Spanish border. Cassini divided the measured arc into two parts, one northward from Paris, another southward. When he computed the length of a degree from both chains, he found that the length of one degree of latitude in the northern part of the chain was shorter than that in the southern part (see illustration).
This result, if correct, meant that the earth was not a sphere, but a prolate spheroid (taller than wide). However, this contradicted computations by Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens. In 1659, Christiaan Huygens was the first to derive the now standard formula for the centrifugal force in his work De vi centrifuga. The formula played a central role in classical mechanics and became known as the second of Newton's laws of motion. Newton's theory of gravitation combined with the rotation of the Earth predicted the Earth to be an oblate spheroid (wider than tall), with a flattening of 1:230.
The issue could be settled by measuring, for a number of points on earth, the relationship between their distance (in north–south direction) and the angles between their zeniths. On an oblate Earth, the meridional distance corresponding to one degree of latitude will grow toward the poles, as can be demonstrated mathematically.
The French Academy of Sciences dispatched two expeditions. One expedition (1736–37) under Pierre Louis Maupertuis was sent to Torne Valley (near the Earth's northern pole). The second mission (1735–44) under Pierre Bouguer was sent to what is modern-day Ecuador, near the equator. Their measurements demonstrated an oblate Earth, with a flattening of 1:210. This approximation to the true shape of the Earth became the new reference ellipsoid.
In 1787 the first precise trigonometric survey to be undertaken within Britain was the Anglo-French Survey. Its purpose was to link the Greenwich and Paris' observatories. The survey is very significant as the forerunner of the work of the Ordnance Survey which was founded in 1791, one year after William Roy's death.
Johann Georg Tralles surveyed the Bernese Oberland, then the entire Canton of Bern. Soon after the Anglo-French Survey, in 1791 and 1797, he and his pupil Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler measured the base of the Grand Marais (German: Grosses Moos) near Aarberg in Seeland. This work earned Tralles to be appointed as the representative of the Helvetic Republic on the international scientific committee meeting in Paris from 1798 to 1799 to determine the length of the metre.
The French Academy of Sciences had commissioned an expedition led by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain, lasting from 1792 to 1799, which attempted to accurately measure the distance between a belfry in Dunkerque and Montjuïc castle in Barcelona at the longitude of Paris Panthéon. The metre was defined as one ten-millionth of the shortest distance from the North Pole to the equator passing through Paris, assuming an Earth's flattening of 1/334. The committee extrapolated from Delambre and Méchain's survey the distance from the North Pole to the Equator which was 5 130 740 toises. As the metre had to be equal to one ten-million of this distance, it was defined as 0,513074 toises or 443,296 lignes of the Toise of Peru (see below).
Asia and Americas
A discovery made in 1672-1673 by Jean Richer turned the attention of mathematicians to the deviation of the Earth's shape from a spherical form. This astronomer, having been sent by the Academy of Sciences of Paris to Cayenne, in South America, for the purpose of investigating the amount of astronomical refraction and other astronomical objects, notably the parallax of Mars between Paris and Cayenne in order to determine the Earth-Sun distance, observed that his clock, which had been regulated at Paris to beat seconds, lost about two minutes and a half daily at Cayenne, and that in order to bring it to measure mean solar time it was necessary to shorten the pendulum by more than a line (about 1⁄12th of an in.). This fact was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by the subsequent observations of Varin and Deshayes on the coasts of Africa and America.
In South America Bouguer noticed, as did George Everest in the 19th century Great Trigonometric Survey of India, that the astronomical vertical tended to be pulled in the direction of large mountain ranges, due to the gravitational attraction of these huge piles of rock. As this vertical is everywhere perpendicular to the idealized surface of mean sea level, or the geoid, this means that the figure of the Earth is even more irregular than an ellipsoid of revolution. Thus the study of the "undulation of the geoid" became the next great undertaking in the science of studying the figure of the Earth.
19th century
In the late 19th century the Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung (Central European Arc Measurement) was established by several central European countries and a Central Bureau was set up at the expense of Prussia, within the Geodetic Institute at Berlin. One of its most important goals was the derivation of an international ellipsoid and a gravity formula which should be optimal not only for Europe but also for the whole world. The Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung was an early predecessor of the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) one of the constituent sections of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) which was founded in 1919.
Prime meridian and standard of length
In 1811 Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was selected to direct the U.S. coast survey, and sent on a mission to France and England to procure instruments and standards of measurement. The unit of length to which all distances measured in the U.S. coast survey were referred is the French metre, of which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought a copy in the United States in 1805.
The Scandinavian-Russian meridian arc or Struve Geodetic Arc, named after the German astronomer Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, was a degree measurement that consisted of a nearly 3000 km long network of geodetic survey points. The Struve Geodetic Arc was one of the most precise and largest projects of earth measurement at that time. In 1860 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve published his Arc du méridien de 25° 20′ entre le Danube et la Mer Glaciale mesuré depuis 1816 jusqu’en 1855. The flattening of the earth was estimated at 1/294.26 and the earth's equatorial radius was estimated at 6378360.7 metres.
In the early 19th century, the Paris meridian's arc was recalculated with greater precision between Shetland and the Balearic Islands by the French astronomers François Arago and Jean-Baptiste Biot. In 1821 they published their work as a fourth volume following the three volumes of "Bases du système métrique décimal ou mesure de l'arc méridien compris entre les parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelone" (Basis for the decimal metric system or measurement of the meridian arc comprised between Dunkirk and Barcelona) by Delambre and Méchain.
Louis Puissant declared in 1836 in front of the French Academy of Sciences that Delambre and Méchain had made an error in the measurement of the French meridian arc. Some thought that the base of the metric system could be attacked by pointing out some errors that crept into the measurement of the two French scientists. Méchain had even noticed an inaccuracy he did not dare to admit. As this survey was also part of the groundwork for the map of France, Antoine Yvon Villarceau checked, from 1861 to 1866, the geodesic opérations in eight points of the meridian arc. Some of the errors in the operations of Delambre and Méchain were corrected. In 1866, at the conference of the International Association of Geodesy in Neuchâtel Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero announced Spain's contribution to the remeasurement and extension of the French meridian arc. In 1870, François Perrier was in charge of resuming the triangulation between Dunkirk and Barcelona. This new survey of the Paris meridian arc, named West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc by Alexander Ross Clarke, was undertaken in France and in Algeria under the direction of François Perrier from 1870 to his death in 1888. Jean-Antonin-Léon Bassot completed the task in 1896. According to the calculations made at the central bureau of the international association on the great meridian arc extending from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, the Earth equatorial radius was 6377935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15.
Many measurements of degrees of longitudes along central parallels in Europe were projected and partly carried out as early as the first half of the 19th century; these, however, only became of importance after the introduction of the electric telegraph, through which calculations of astronomical longitudes obtained a much higher degree of accuracy. Of the greatest moment is the measurement near the parallel of 52° lat., which extended from Valentia in Ireland to Orsk in the southern Ural mountains over 69 degrees of longitude. F. G. W. Struve, who is to be regarded as the father of the Russo-Scandinavian latitude-degree measurements, was the originator of this investigation. Having made the requisite arrangements with the governments in 1857, he transferred them to his son Otto, who, in 1860, secured the co-operation of England.
In 1860, the Russian Government at the instance of Otto Wilhelm von Sturve invited the Governments of Belgium, France, Prussia and England to connect their triangulations in order to measure the length of an arc of parallel in latitude 52° and to test the accuracy of the figure and dimensions of the Earth, as derived from the measurements of arc of meridian. In order to combine the measurements, it was necessary to compare the geodetic standards of length used in the different countries. The British Government invited those of France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, Austria, Spain, United States and Cape of Good Hope to send their standards to the Ordnance Survey office in Southampton. Notably the standards of France, Spain and United States were based on the metric system, whereas those of Prussia, Belgium and Russia where calibrated against the toise, of which the oldest physical representative was the Toise of Peru. The Toise of Peru had been constructed in 1735 for Bouguer and De La Condamine as their standard of reference in the French Geodesic Mission, conducted in actual Ecuador from 1735 to 1744 in collaboration with the Spanish officers Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa.
Meanwile Friedrich Bessel was responsible for the nineteenth-century investigations of the shape of the Earth by means of the pendulum's determination of gravity and the use of Clairaut's theorem. The studies he conducted from 1825 to 1828 and his determination of the length of the pendulum beating the second in Berlin seven years later marked the beginning of a new era in geodesy. Indeed, the reversible pendulum as it was used by geodesists at the end of the 19th century was largely due to the work of Bessel, because neither Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger, its inventor, nor Henry Kater who used it in 1818 brought the improvements which would result from the precious indications of Bessel, and which converted the reversible pendulum into one of the most admirable instruments which the scientists of the nineteenth century could use. The reversible pendulum built by the Repsold brothers was used in Switzerland in 1865 by Émile Plantamour for the measurement of gravity in six stations of the Swiss geodetic network. Following the example set by this country and under the patronage of the International Geodetic Association, Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Russia and Saxony undertook gravity determinations on their respective territories.
However, these results could only be considered provisional insofar as they did not take into account the movements that the oscillations of the pendulum impart to its suspension plane, which constitute an important factor of error in measuring both the duration of the oscillations and the length of the pendulum. Indeed, the determination of gravity by the pendulum is subject to two types of error. On the one hand the resistance of the air and on the other hand the movements that the oscillations of the pendulum impart to its plane of suspension. These movements were particularly important with the device designed by the Repsold brothers on Bessel's indications, because the pendulum had a large mass in order to counteract the effect of the viscosity of the air. While Emile Plantamour was carrying out a series of experiments with this device, Adolphe Hirsch found a way to highlight the movements of the pendulum suspension plane by an ingenious optical amplification process. Isaac-Charles Élisée Cellérier, a Genevan mathematician and Charles Sanders Peirce would independently develop a correction formula which would make it possible to use the observations made using this type of gravimeter.
As Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero stated. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, it could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. Indeed, how to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs as a function of a single unit, and all the determinations of the force of gravity with the pendulum, if metrology had not created a common unit, adopted and respected by all civilized nations, and if in addition one had not compared, with great precision, to the same unit all the rulers for measuring geodesic bases, and all the pendulum rods that had hitherto been used or would be used in the future? Only when this series of metrological comparisons would be finished with a probable error of a thousandth of a millimeter would geodesy be able to link the works of the different nations one with another, and then proclaim the result of the measurement of the Globe.
Alexander Ross Clarke and Henry James published the first results of the standards' comparisons in 1867. The same year Russia, Spain and Portugal joined the Europäische Gradmessung and the General Conference of the association proposed the metre as a uniform length standard for the Arc Measurement and recommended the establishment of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
The Europäische Gradmessung decided the creation of an international geodetic standard at the General Conference held in Paris in 1875. The Conference of the International Association of Geodesy also dealt with the best instrument to be used for the determination of gravity. After an in-depth discussion in which Charles Sanders Peirce took part, the association decided in favor of the reversion pendulum, which was used in Switzerland, and it was resolved to redo in Berlin, in the station where Bessel made his famous measurements, the determination of gravity by means of apparatus of various kinds employed in different countries, in order to compare them and thus to have the equation of their scales.
The Metre Convention was signed in 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was created under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures. The first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures was the Spanish geodesist Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero. He also was the president of the Permanent Commission of the Europäische Gradmessung from 1874 to 1886. In 1886 the association changed its name to the International Geodetic Association and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was reelected as president. He remained in this position until his death in 1891. During this period the International Geodetic Association gained worldwide importance with the joining of United States, Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Japan. In 1883 the General Conference of the Europäische Gradmessung had proposed to select the Greenwich meridian as prime meridian in the hope that United States and Great Britain would accede to the Association. Moreover, according to the calculations made at the central bureau of the international association on the West Europe-Africa Meridian-arc the meridian of Greenwich was nearer the mean than that of Paris.
Geodesy and mathematics
In 1804 Johann Georg Tralles was made a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1810 he became the first holder of the chair of mathematics at the Humboldt University of Berlin. In the same year he was appointed secretary of the mathematics class at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. Tralles maintained an important correspondence with Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel and supported his appointment to the University of Königsberg.
In 1809 Carl Friedrich Gauss published his method of calculating the orbits of celestial bodies. In that work he claimed to have been in possession of the method of least squares since 1795. This naturally led to a priority dispute with Adrien-Marie Legendre. However, to Gauss's credit, he went beyond Legendre and succeeded in connecting the method of least squares with the principles of probability and to the normal distribution. He had managed to complete Laplace's program of specifying a mathematical form of the probability density for the observations, depending on a finite number of unknown parameters, and define a method of estimation that minimises the error of estimation. Gauss showed that the arithmetic mean is indeed the best estimate of the location parameter by changing both the probability density and the method of estimation. He then turned the problem around by asking what form the density should have and what method of estimation should be used to get the arithmetic mean as estimate of the location parameter. In this attempt, he invented the normal distribution.
In 1810, after reading Gauss's work, Pierre-Simon Laplace, after proving the central limit theorem, used it to give a large sample justification for the method of least squares and the normal distribution. In 1822, Gauss was able to state that the least-squares approach to regression analysis is optimal in the sense that in a linear model where the errors have a mean of zero, are uncorrelated, and have equal variances, the best linear unbiased estimator of the coefficients is the least-squares estimator. This result is known as the Gauss–Markov theorem.
The publication in 1838 of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel’s Gradmessung in Ostpreussen marked a new era in the science of geodesy. Here was found the method of least squares applied to the calculation of a network of triangles and the reduction of the observations generally. The systematic manner in which all the observations were taken with the view of securing final results of extreme accuracy was admirable. Bessel was also the first scientist who realised the effect later called personal equation, that several simultaneously observing persons determine slightly different values, especially recording the transition time of stars.
Most of the relevant theories were then derived by the German geodesist Friedrich Robert Helmert in his famous books Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorien der höheren Geodäsie, Volumes 1 & 2 (1880 & 1884, resp.). Helmert also derived the first global ellipsoid in 1906 with an accuracy of 100 meters (0.002 percent of the Earth's radii). The US geodesist Hayford derived a global ellipsoid in ~1910, based on intercontinental isostasy and an accuracy of 200 m. It was adopted by the IUGG as "international ellipsoid 1924".
See also
Bedford Level experiment
Figure of the Earth
History of the metre
History of cadastre
History of cartography
History of hydrography
History of navigation
History of surveying
Paris meridian#History
Notes
References
An early version of this article was taken from the public domain source at http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/Geodesy4Layman/TR80003A.HTM#ZZ4.
J. L. Greenberg: The problem of the Earth's shape from Newton to Clairaut: the rise of mathematical science in eighteenth-century Paris and the fall of "normal" science. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1995
M .R. Hoare: Quest for the true figure of the Earth: ideas and expeditions in four centuries of geodesy. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004
D. Rawlins: "Ancient Geodesy: Achievement and Corruption" 1984 (Greenwich Meridian Centenary, published in Vistas in Astronomy, v.28, 255–268, 1985)
D. Rawlins: "Methods for Measuring the Earth's Size by Determining the Curvature of the Sea" and "Racking the Stade for Eratosthenes", appendices to "The Eratosthenes–Strabo Nile Map. Is It the Earliest Surviving Instance of Spherical Cartography? Did It Supply the 5000 Stades Arc for Eratosthenes' Experiment?", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, v.26, 211–219, 1982
C. Taisbak: "Posidonius vindicated at all costs? Modern scholarship versus the stoic earth measurer". Centaurus v.18, 253–269, 1974
Further reading
Geodesy
Articles containing video clips
G | [
-0.03871694207191467,
0.5680773258209229,
-0.32006287574768066,
0.3346969485282898,
-0.23622609674930573,
0.5547371506690979,
0.23682977259159088,
0.6346771121025085,
-0.5123510360717773,
-1.1137679815292358,
-0.2694844603538513,
0.23943723738193512,
-0.22324223816394806,
0.721153736114502,
-0.10793737322092056,
0.30277949571609497,
0.1798945814371109,
-0.049422476440668106,
-0.2819881737232208,
-0.09015675634145737,
-0.184766948223114,
-0.042889032512903214,
-0.08298831433057785,
-0.3386927545070648,
0.1910707801580429,
-0.3657852113246918,
-0.000640963320620358,
0.20518800616264343,
0.2363976240158081,
0.12216166406869888,
0.10691501200199127,
0.30819815397262573,
-0.3949196934700012,
0.07822072505950928,
-0.5028785467147827,
-0.13694094121456146,
-0.24988968670368195,
0.08949174731969833,
-0.54457026720047,
-0.6371506452560425,
0.39679381251335144,
0.15908728539943695,
0.12487112730741501,
0.2614520788192749,
-0.266946405172348,
-0.3924613296985626,
-1.3859723806381226,
0.40649476647377014,
-0.7019997239112854,
-0.08044738322496414,
-0.3429871201515198,
-0.131448894739151,
0.2948620617389679,
0.4723670780658722,
-0.5976666808128357,
0.7251013517379761,
-0.8062583208084106,
0.0965479165315628,
0.3211110532283783,
0.5451645851135254,
0.2837134003639221,
0.6074090600013733,
-0.2995431125164032,
0.007529572118073702,
0.16430895030498505,
0.07555815577507019,
-0.3351515531539917,
0.35247793793678284,
-0.09873056411743164,
-0.14369402825832367,
0.035566821694374084,
0.09132065623998642,
-0.21724532544612885,
0.38728928565979004,
-1.0336698293685913,
-0.39489853382110596,
0.5586912035942078,
-0.029821887612342834,
-0.1406063586473465,
-0.15661846101284027,
-0.2903560698032379,
0.3682081699371338,
0.4639310836791992,
-0.4501771628856659,
0.4072560667991638,
0.21916323900222778,
-0.5448474287986755,
-0.02884535863995552,
-0.2730279564857483,
0.7089560627937317,
0.8269020915031433,
0.04943438246846199,
0.5930601358413696,
-0.2954941391944885,
0.19376784563064575,
-0.06838376075029373,
-0.11709965020418167,
-0.10647676140069962,
-0.21927089989185333,
-0.22850960493087769,
-0.4126141369342804,
0.2178345024585724,
0.10857631266117096,
0.09323456138372421,
0.3981746733188629,
-0.3075711727142334,
0.14720337092876434,
-0.16393715143203735,
-0.2307511568069458,
-0.4309283196926117,
-0.5018897652626038,
0.16682496666908264,
-0.28326648473739624,
0.527271032333374,
-0.23302511870861053,
0.36146098375320435,
0.5168798565864563,
-0.42080819606781006,
-0.05749368295073509,
-0.0708521381020546,
-0.5108405947685242,
0.5528315305709839,
-0.19786006212234497,
-0.14874280989170074,
-0.3146941661834717,
0.35486018657684326,
0.884599506855011,
0.3389602303504944,
-0.8314365148544312,
-0.1831260770559311,
-0.22911855578422546,
1.1060116291046143,
0.30750688910484314,
-0.06861266493797302,
0.07395245879888535,
-0.20495130121707916,
0.7266345620155334,
-0.007952013052999973,
-0.17327795922756195,
0.17947199940681458,
-0.14434199035167694,
-0.6879997253417969,
-0.8347704410552979,
0.06023669242858887,
0.048082608729600906,
-0.351676344871521,
0.690869152545929,
-0.9247883558273315,
-0.45319125056266785,
0.17384278774261475,
-0.14760079979896545,
0.23936676979064941,
-0.3077625632286072,
0.36982056498527527,
-0.40347611904144287,
0.37227192521095276,
-0.22356835007667542,
0.8573411703109741,
0.13728156685829163,
0.368338018655777,
-0.2847558557987213,
-0.32795941829681396,
-0.25454825162887573,
-0.06523118168115616,
0.036829132586717606,
-0.4769933223724365,
1.2138471603393555,
0.5799503326416016,
0.17921696603298187,
0.2860802114009857,
-0.34696653485298157,
-0.17856602370738983,
-0.0640016570687294,
0.21505391597747803,
-0.3884536325931549,
0.18239563703536987,
0.4208053648471832,
0.48684176802635193,
0.5076169371604919,
0.1211622804403305,
-0.5546951293945312,
0.06470368057489395,
0.24197739362716675,
-0.3475528955459595,
1.2738659381866455,
-0.09956824034452438,
0.7946069240570068,
0.31340518593788147,
0.10090701282024384,
-0.21772052347660065,
-0.4533797800540924,
0.08886367827653885,
0.060210295021533966,
-0.6439149975776672,
1.0367579460144043,
0.13259871304035187,
-0.5530266761779785,
0.04218790680170059,
-0.44500866532325745,
0.7871778011322021,
-0.5473420023918152,
-0.4425969421863556,
0.08987335860729218,
0.3738180994987488,
0.3769247829914093,
0.4817180931568146,
0.20873907208442688,
-0.2420654445886612,
0.45778441429138184,
0.18842971324920654,
0.4701625406742096,
-0.570065975189209,
0.12193353474140167,
-0.29636967182159424,
0.16355423629283905,
0.21387316286563873,
-0.5032997727394104,
0.4856659770011902,
-0.47511017322540283,
-0.25988441705703735,
0.6840612292289734,
-0.1788082718849182,
0.13786308467388153,
0.37356048822402954,
0.19820474088191986,
0.1497512012720108,
0.27137652039527893,
0.5519892573356628,
0.5985004901885986,
-1.1021121740341187,
-0.10975674539804459,
-0.4628307521343231,
0.5353030562400818,
-0.5139752626419067,
-0.35248398780822754,
-0.19271573424339294,
0.1070668026804924,
-0.8048750162124634,
-0.13683634996414185,
-0.12380793690681458,
0.38351374864578247,
0.06023247167468071,
-0.2300536185503006,
0.5057082176208496,
0.0233523640781641,
0.02988428808748722,
0.17311310768127441,
-0.2687559723854065,
-0.4959135353565216,
-0.16112205386161804,
-0.6622158885002136,
0.5897103548049927,
0.24835988879203796,
-0.2270270586013794,
-0.4377044439315796,
-0.21745750308036804,
0.0869801789522171,
-0.09516853839159012,
0.4274912178516388,
0.241978719830513,
0.12002556771039963,
-0.20103879272937775,
0.31927284598350525,
0.17587921023368835,
0.09592024236917496,
-0.6686680912971497,
-0.28701263666152954,
-0.19053304195404053,
-0.013842704705893993,
0.3880644738674164,
1.231484293937683,
-0.2908453345298767,
-0.0934736430644989,
-0.3036019802093506,
0.049670834094285965,
-1.0835403203964233,
0.08665422350168228,
-0.018877675756812096,
-0.6343396902084351,
-0.42565488815307617,
0.19294193387031555,
0.3863029181957245,
0.005926146171987057,
0.016948945820331573,
-0.21849171817302704,
-0.3303004503250122,
0.22714123129844666,
-0.31585830450057983,
0.5163330435752869,
0.22237209975719452,
0.09980792552232742,
0.35949602723121643,
-0.7436668276786804,
-0.18911787867546082,
0.08806844800710678,
0.8606946468353271,
0.05734294652938843,
-0.49450230598449707,
0.02862085960805416,
-0.4483925998210907,
-0.9091387987136841,
0.21172183752059937,
-0.327528178691864,
-0.3146430253982544,
0.032588060945272446,
-0.3421841561794281,
-0.4157155454158783,
0.47578737139701843,
-5.48124885559082,
-0.2411305010318756,
-0.008480063639581203,
-0.35644805431365967,
-0.2841811180114746,
0.349624902009964,
0.8988432884216309,
0.202021524310112,
-0.06232043728232384,
-0.051228493452072144,
-0.4568103551864624,
-0.3459409475326538,
-0.23249854147434235,
0.525808572769165,
0.6698448061943054,
0.7247039079666138,
0.6549714207649231,
0.2671726644039154,
-0.07078620046377182,
0.5333091020584106,
-0.12437386810779572,
-0.37267863750457764,
-0.020983869209885597,
0.34283217787742615,
0.2326679676771164,
0.08805176615715027,
-0.5184905529022217,
0.23303718864917755,
0.016741950064897537,
0.5011307597160339,
0.24838164448738098,
-0.36581113934516907,
0.3423164188861847,
-0.16176235675811768,
-0.051716409623622894,
-0.017151890322566032,
0.5411401987075806,
0.6465361714363098,
0.28760555386543274,
-0.23577195405960083,
-0.3427194058895111,
0.41854164004325867,
-0.2902972400188446,
0.31136366724967957,
-0.03017842397093773,
-0.6152182221412659,
-0.19213935732841492,
0.4224919080734253,
-0.47599202394485474,
0.711772620677948,
-0.30382949113845825,
0.21963675320148468,
0.1321571171283722,
-0.7464343309402466,
-0.4655735194683075,
0.24104714393615723,
0.9108656048774719,
0.2097584456205368,
-0.8872163891792297,
0.02065431699156761,
0.9822947978973389,
-0.8169968128204346,
0.18697120249271393,
-1.1094557046890259,
0.39688900113105774,
-0.49555543065071106,
-1.2008416652679443,
-0.5064539313316345,
0.10792045295238495,
0.35307908058166504,
-0.020844031125307083,
0.6941592693328857,
-0.026074787601828575,
-0.34551185369491577,
0.23782499134540558,
-0.38637471199035645,
0.07126068323850632,
-0.37364715337753296,
0.573473334312439,
0.3196339011192322,
-0.1786089539527893,
-0.2966165542602539,
-0.1546509712934494,
0.611138641834259,
-0.31476613879203796,
0.15241901576519012,
-0.46289902925491333,
-0.4075881838798523,
-1.137266755104065,
-0.24339163303375244,
1.184888243675232,
-0.5867000222206116,
0.31085485219955444,
0.5628015995025635,
0.40293359756469727,
0.2907065749168396,
-0.12022879719734192,
-0.40746408700942993,
0.7983415722846985,
-0.42449286580085754,
0.2029138207435608,
-0.022077566012740135,
0.2685568034648895,
-0.09683452546596527,
0.15292102098464966,
-0.6262118816375732,
-0.3886197507381439,
0.9355220198631287,
0.7350452542304993,
0.1487971842288971,
0.0718185156583786,
0.381136417388916,
-0.32722634077072144,
-0.057538583874702454,
-0.04475953057408333,
0.5504927039146423,
-0.1315641850233078,
-0.037038423120975494,
0.4835936427116394,
-0.17332367599010468,
0.29781031608581543,
-0.14160780608654022,
0.4097200036048889,
-0.3431796729564667,
0.08559104800224304,
-0.15585051476955414,
0.12516820430755615,
0.29267528653144836,
-0.1623261570930481,
0.1483885943889618,
0.36555954813957214,
0.5671282410621643,
0.07244310528039932,
0.02574627846479416,
-0.038656916469335556,
0.14163407683372498,
0.10722029954195023,
-0.34635597467422485,
0.1094781905412674,
-0.3480251133441925,
0.37780502438545227,
-0.27053141593933105,
0.4689249098300934,
0.12946906685829163,
0.48139965534210205,
0.17985084652900696,
0.028715679422020912,
-0.10243521630764008,
0.06309548765420914,
0.43720585107803345,
0.006542096380144358,
-0.7845979928970337,
0.32429248094558716,
-0.1738044172525406,
-0.046569086611270905,
0.12587499618530273,
0.047398172318935394,
-0.36410266160964966,
-0.33261460065841675,
-0.604191780090332,
0.3141093850135803,
0.1965647041797638,
-0.7137280106544495,
0.0626295730471611,
0.022129114717245102,
-0.1276780217885971,
-1.1532052755355835,
-0.01817517727613449,
0.2086581438779831,
0.5464058518409729,
0.6794790029525757,
-0.49243661761283875,
-0.5711024403572083,
-0.8587712049484253,
-0.07517916709184647,
0.5531340837478638,
0.3529420793056488,
0.4995720088481903,
-0.10503249615430832,
-0.33330419659614563,
0.15239094197750092,
-0.3985942602157593,
-0.25737065076828003,
0.4201829135417938,
0.2332940548658371,
-0.3039278984069824,
0.08881045132875443,
0.31883716583251953,
-0.2719513475894928,
0.36953970789909363,
0.03854447975754738,
0.36200836300849915,
0.024868443608283997,
0.4240838587284088,
-0.30108940601348877,
-0.43895602226257324,
0.020709818229079247,
0.25658389925956726,
-0.30849605798721313,
-0.4350759983062744,
-0.06999557465314865,
0.4934457838535309,
-0.13462306559085846,
-0.0243031345307827,
0.01653711497783661,
-0.7012485861778259,
0.36381107568740845,
0.2732398211956024,
-0.5905455946922302,
-0.21044687926769257,
-0.35161516070365906,
-0.05804578587412834,
-0.434436559677124,
0.2015451043844223,
-0.5161675810813904,
0.3332778811454773,
0.6857182383537292,
-0.26207438111305237,
-0.3351188600063324,
-0.6568478941917419,
0.24979270994663239,
0.4822137653827667,
-0.592357337474823,
0.24079930782318115,
0.13378456234931946,
0.23205718398094177,
0.20963452756404877,
-0.14913994073867798,
0.12471900880336761,
-0.11974266171455383,
-0.19243448972702026,
0.08767253905534744,
-0.23776911199092865,
-0.008778298273682594,
0.14818643033504486,
0.10242195427417755,
0.16030210256576538,
0.35952600836753845,
-0.20435337722301483,
0.0638548731803894,
0.6869121789932251,
0.5223701596260071,
0.18474072217941284,
-0.17343661189079285,
0.26232099533081055,
-0.025499848648905754,
0.4918750822544098,
-0.42170292139053345,
-0.18134386837482452,
-0.44186121225357056,
0.027412554249167442,
-0.6088557243347168,
-0.7409812211990356,
-0.3714245855808258,
0.341561883687973,
0.48320749402046204,
-0.3198176622390747,
0.0694916620850563,
0.17698244750499725,
-0.2043318897485733,
0.08065583556890488,
-0.32346025109291077,
-0.6513053774833679,
-0.4376995861530304,
0.20522978901863098,
-0.2995613217353821,
-0.33119064569473267,
0.20050156116485596,
0.3951640725135803,
-0.09360835701227188,
0.003063919022679329,
-0.5608723163604736,
0.15824654698371887,
0.49866241216659546,
0.506935715675354,
-0.1770990490913391,
0.46579253673553467,
-0.10519333928823471,
0.44827699661254883,
-0.7544575929641724,
-0.35605311393737793,
-0.06003262847661972,
0.2878762185573578,
-0.43197742104530334,
0.4539715647697449,
-0.3684600591659546,
0.27415886521339417,
-0.12022964656352997,
-0.13572272658348083,
-0.02072763629257679,
-0.4137803912162781,
-0.0726807564496994,
-0.5560881495475769,
0.43384185433387756,
0.12834885716438293,
0.24320916831493378,
-0.01836610585451126,
-0.030999761074781418,
0.0011430735467001796,
0.28422582149505615,
-0.6543756723403931,
0.7182568907737732,
0.1632348895072937,
-0.5405910015106201,
0.6878894567489624,
0.14472006261348724,
0.6340067982673645,
0.45436471700668335,
0.11621708422899246,
-0.46410202980041504,
0.30343398451805115,
0.13368187844753265,
-0.1979493349790573,
0.5473419427871704,
-0.6310178637504578,
-0.4790751039981842,
0.9107467532157898,
-0.7729219198226929,
1.0589301586151123,
0.3669854700565338,
-0.3057158291339874,
0.009026038460433483,
0.1790555864572525,
-0.30362921953201294,
-0.18660597503185272,
0.2897384464740753,
-0.5859147906303406,
0.12079811096191406,
-0.18788647651672363,
-0.5243810415267944,
0.6573981046676636,
0.5954685211181641,
-0.5072298645973206,
0.47390779852867126,
0.21842096745967865,
-0.16915196180343628,
0.16442188620567322,
-0.5560880899429321,
0.013140558265149593,
0.9752841591835022,
-0.17165005207061768,
0.7129859328269958,
-0.1908537596464157,
0.23489417135715485,
-0.7480859756469727,
0.3276483416557312,
-0.30327168107032776,
0.16028328239917755,
-0.1345025897026062,
-0.18575118482112885,
0.36853158473968506,
0.156855508685112,
0.6937886476516724,
0.07170094549655914,
-0.17547444999217987,
-0.3116978406906128,
0.5849159955978394,
0.19060160219669342,
-0.10901179909706116,
-0.446519672870636,
-0.06405673176050186,
0.6176021099090576,
0.24032685160636902,
-0.028574686497449875,
0.1371619701385498,
0.6561216115951538,
0.035528793931007385,
-0.9005467891693115,
0.20972487330436707,
0.12422041594982147,
0.2363159954547882,
0.5647454857826233,
-0.3517070412635803,
0.3873308002948761,
-0.1221613883972168,
-0.02009810134768486,
0.26198798418045044,
0.2849283516407013,
0.28282222151756287,
-1.1205881834030151,
-0.23749656975269318,
-0.01416003331542015,
-0.23467917740345,
-1.0498186349868774,
-0.4371120035648346,
0.17743346095085144,
-0.018565943464636803,
0.37739160656929016,
0.1990746408700943,
0.2869417071342468,
-0.3258284628391266,
-0.8710043430328369,
0.2217247635126114,
-0.3307155966758728,
-0.671265721321106,
-0.042855922132730484,
-0.18567992746829987,
0.6881728768348694,
0.317386269569397,
-0.16239719092845917,
0.04199161380529404,
0.3059307932853699,
-0.1788342148065567,
-0.5592221617698669,
-0.6622201800346375,
0.5029601454734802,
-0.2420794814825058,
0.43753504753112793,
-0.37558093667030334,
0.324171245098114,
-0.05566918104887009,
-1.178733229637146,
0.042895540595054626,
-0.0010364531772211194,
-0.5320615768432617,
-0.29099375009536743,
0.4624386727809906,
-0.057450391352176666,
-0.1679060459136963,
-0.11659788340330124,
0.036470964550971985,
-0.07118222117424011,
-0.5442053079605103,
0.12154681980609894,
-0.3517659604549408,
-0.8595411777496338,
0.33622652292251587,
0.35723599791526794,
0.1357143372297287,
0.6626811027526855,
0.06039368733763695,
0.42769932746887207,
-1.3152273893356323,
-0.025449711829423904,
-0.14705640077590942,
-0.3513020873069763,
-0.14115899801254272,
0.47581902146339417,
0.20599308609962463,
-0.8452296853065491,
-0.18209968507289886,
-0.1678498387336731,
-0.04859562963247299,
0.5020057559013367,
-1.1385598182678223,
-0.1003231406211853,
-0.1861068308353424,
0.008389067836105824,
-0.4963018298149109,
0.9072643518447876,
0.4769420921802521,
0.35700157284736633,
0.1944771260023117,
-0.48041027784347534,
0.05755795165896416,
-0.6405581831932068,
0.10594598203897476,
-1.0587120056152344,
0.677980363368988,
0.7806086540222168
] |
233664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nach%20dir%2C%20Herr%2C%20verlanget%20mich%2C%20BWV%20150 | Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 | (For Thee, O Lord, I long), , is an early church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach composed for an unknown occasion. It is unique among Bach's cantatas in its sparse orchestration and in the independence and prominence of the chorus, which is featured in four out of seven movements. The text alternates verses from Psalm 25 and poetry by an unknown librettist. Bach scored the work for four vocal parts and a small Baroque instrumental ensemble of two violins, bassoon and basso continuo.
Many scholars think that it may be the earliest extant cantata by Bach, possibly composed in Arnstadt in 1707.
History and text
Bach's original score is lost. The music survives in a copy made by C F Penzel, one of Bach's last pupils, after the composer's death. The date of composition is not known, and sources differ as to when and where Bach composed the work. However, the balance of opinion has moved towards a date at the beginning of Bach's career. It is not currently in dispute that it is one of Bach's earliest surviving cantatas.
Suggestions for the place of composition have been:
Weimar, where Bach worked from 1708. The conductor and academic Jonathan Green dates the work c. 1708–1710; the Bach scholar William G. Whittaker dates it c. 1712.
Mühlhausen, where Bach worked in 1707/1708. The Zwang catalogue (which attempts to list the cantatas chronologically) dated it as the sixth of the surviving cantatas by Bach, and placed Aus der Tiefen rufe ich, Herr, zu dir, BWV 131, as the earliest. Aus der Tiefen rufe ich, Herr, zu dir is known to have been composed in Mühlhausen in 1707/1708.
Arnstadt, where Bach worked until his move to Mühlhausen in the summer of 1707. Recent scholarship suggests Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich could have been composed at Arnstadt.
The Bach scholar Andreas Glöckner argued in 1988 that the cantata may have been composed in Arnstadt. The scholar Hans-Joachim Schulze identified in 2010 a remarkable acrostic in the concluding four movements (which he described in the 2010 Bach-Jahrbuch, the journal of the Neue Bachgesellschaft). Adjusting for transposition errors by the copyist, the initial letters should spell DOKTOR CONRAD MECKBACH and plausibly therefore the work was composed to mark this Mühlhausen councillor's 70th birthday in April 1707. On this basis the cantata may date from Bach's time in Arnstadt. Possibly the cantata was heard a few weeks later after the end of Lent, and thus it may have formed a test-piece for the Mühlhausen appointment, composed in Arnstadt with Bach's supporter Meckbach in mind.
The cantata is, as John Eliot Gardiner notes, "generally accepted to be Bach's very first church cantata." Gardiner conducted in 2000 the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage and performed the cantata in the church for which it was then probably composed, at Bach's time called Neue Kirche (new church), now the Johann-Sebastian-Bach-Kirche.
The libretto alternates between biblical verses and free contemporary poetry, which is common in Bach's later cantatas, but rare among his early cantatas. The text of movements 2, 4, and 6 are selected psalm verses, . The author of the poetry is unknown. On the basis of the text, it has been suggested that the work was written for a penitential service.
The cantata was first published in 1884 in the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe, the first edition of Bach's complete works. The composer Johannes Brahms, who served on the editorial board of the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe, took an interest in the cantata as it was being published. He used an adapted version of the bass line of the closing chaconne for a work he completed in 1885, his Symphony No. 4.
Structure and scoring
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements, an opening instrumental sinfonia and four choral movements interspersed by only two arias. He scored it for four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass), a four-part choir, and a small Baroque instrumental ensemble of two violins (Vl), bassoon (obbligato) (Fg) and basso continuo. The duration of the cantata is about 17 minutes.
In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown.
Music
The work begins with a sinfonia and then alternates choral movements and arias. There are no recitatives, no da capo repeats, and there is no chorale tune, unusually for Bach's cantatas. Bach makes extensive use of choral fugues and imitative polyphony, often shifting the tempo and character of the music within movements very quickly to accommodate a new musical idea with each successive phrase of text.
The sinfonia and the opening choral movement are both based on the motive of an octave leap followed by five descending half steps. This chromatic figure, sometimes dubbed the "lamento bass" or passus duriusculus, has been utilized by composers as early as Monteverdi as a musical representation of anguish, pain, and longing. The sinfonia also introduces thematic material developed later in the work, uses asymmetric phrasing, and "a seamless flow of unstoppable melody".
The first chorus on the beginning of Psalm 25, "" (Lord, I long for you. My God, I hope in you.), is "waywardly constructed despite its relative brevity". It is episodic, emphasizing a descending chromatic scale motif. The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes "the graphically chromatic phrases of the opening sinfonia and the following chorus; these are evocative of the suffering of the world".
The following soprano aria, "" (Yet I am and remain content), is also brief but includes significant word painting.
The fourth movement, "" (Lead me in your Truth and teach me), is another short and episodic chorus, divided into four sections.
Movement five, "" (Cedars must, before the winds,
often feel much hardship), is one of only a handful of vocal trios to be found in Bach's oeuvre, as well as the only movement in the cantata in all major. Isoyama writes: "the continuo part drives the music forward with its phrase describing the trials of the stormwinds".
The penultimate movement, "", features a "celestial haze" of instruments as part of a complex texture. It is in binary form and modulates from D major through B minor to B major.
The final movement, "", is a chaconne, a form which is typically constructed over a repeated ground bass. Bach uses a ground bass which is possibly a borrowing from Pachelbel. It is the inversion of the chromatic fourth ostinato from the opening movement. Bach's orchestration includes strumming effects which could be seen as recalling the origin of the chaconne in Spanish guitar music. From a theological point of view, both the inversion of the lamento bass and the series of modulations in this movement express in baroque musical affect how Christ leads from sorrow to joy.
Selected recordings
Heinrich-Schütz-Chor Heilbronn, Württembergisches Kammerorchester Heilbronn, dir. Fritz Werner. Les Grandes Cantates de J.S. Bach Vol. 28. Erato, 1973.
Knabenchor Hannover, Collegium Vocale Gent, Leonhardt-Consort, dir. Gustav Leonhardt. J.S. Bach: Das Kantatenwerk – Complete Cantatas Vol. 36. Teldec, 1985
Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir, dir. Ton Koopman. J.S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 1. Antoine Marchand, 1994.
Bach Collegium Japan, dir. Masaaki Suzuki. Bach Cantatas Vol. 1. BIS, 1995.
Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists, dir. John Eliot Gardiner. Bach Cantatas. Soli Deo Gloria, 2000.
Voces8, dir. Barnaby Smith. After Silence III. Redemption. Voces8, 2020.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150: performance by the Netherlands Bach Society (video and background information)
Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich BWV 150; BC B 24 / Sacred cantata Leipzig University on Bach digital
Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150 University of Vermont
Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach
Psalm-related compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach | [
-0.6861488223075867,
0.5017300248146057,
0.25674086809158325,
-0.4835224747657776,
0.2755396068096161,
0.8413877487182617,
0.9283247590065002,
-0.1697765439748764,
-0.16048109531402588,
-0.6257423162460327,
0.0012112449621781707,
-0.07619625329971313,
0.34604600071907043,
0.48028436303138733,
-0.20735293626785278,
0.43754032254219055,
0.790323793888092,
-0.480338990688324,
-0.06797369569540024,
-0.9479613304138184,
0.04661351814866066,
-0.48649513721466064,
0.6894723773002625,
0.02640397660434246,
0.3662444055080414,
0.08000850677490234,
0.028611985966563225,
-0.11443055421113968,
-0.13734742999076843,
0.3899191617965698,
0.3670308291912079,
0.258334755897522,
0.38000503182411194,
-0.17114472389221191,
-0.49403199553489685,
-0.10544940084218979,
-0.058814723044633865,
-0.5858151912689209,
0.029401341453194618,
-0.11197831481695175,
-0.451321005821228,
-0.02462962083518505,
0.3258261978626251,
0.24522437155246735,
0.25371748208999634,
0.2119418978691101,
-1.2282848358154297,
0.4014325737953186,
-1.2219266891479492,
-0.11297575384378433,
0.17904314398765564,
-0.022632230073213577,
0.6137728095054626,
0.44430217146873474,
-0.5178126692771912,
-0.36676880717277527,
-0.5773374438285828,
-0.39718127250671387,
0.024587929248809814,
-0.9409950375556946,
0.3140884339809418,
0.19748854637145996,
0.4159526228904724,
0.16483081877231598,
0.023191731423139572,
0.027613623067736626,
-0.8897114396095276,
-0.14756591618061066,
0.5547778010368347,
-0.8014866709709167,
0.06937159597873688,
0.17046032845973969,
-0.8105144500732422,
0.5969210267066956,
0.5155043601989746,
-0.27794405817985535,
-0.11625020951032639,
0.04460178688168526,
0.19184786081314087,
0.20428740978240967,
-0.1729813814163208,
-0.40612170100212097,
0.8123953938484192,
0.47278517484664917,
0.3357723653316498,
-0.07017172127962112,
0.3484222888946533,
0.08882885426282883,
-0.21293975412845612,
-0.8480603694915771,
0.2247302383184433,
-1.1820056438446045,
-0.27503934502601624,
0.10731419175863266,
0.10251191258430481,
0.28068822622299194,
0.10790660232305527,
0.2692682445049286,
-0.37538766860961914,
0.21106769144535065,
0.2148650884628296,
-0.2720775008201599,
0.3431757092475891,
-0.5240007042884827,
-0.8852993845939636,
0.27859386801719666,
-0.053002651780843735,
-0.33577239513397217,
0.482617050409317,
0.20846593379974365,
-0.19926747679710388,
-0.008060852997004986,
-0.08975329250097275,
0.1330137401819229,
-0.006536626722663641,
-0.22102880477905273,
0.481058269739151,
-0.6336190104484558,
-0.2498142272233963,
-0.03533649817109108,
0.38821572065353394,
0.41472870111465454,
0.8083887696266174,
0.04631679877638817,
-0.18172092735767365,
-0.24982991814613342,
0.13227204978466034,
0.5429849028587341,
-0.3245179355144501,
0.1367291957139969,
0.5407739877700806,
0.5754073262214661,
0.26753658056259155,
-0.21587622165679932,
-0.5991369485855103,
0.5448557138442993,
0.28416499495506287,
-0.520938515663147,
-0.4196273982524872,
0.17559760808944702,
-0.7621034383773804,
-0.010705169290304184,
0.3421402871608734,
-0.4816926419734955,
0.08217083662748337,
-0.4627978801727295,
-0.3673495054244995,
-0.41559073328971863,
0.2588697373867035,
0.17082278430461884,
-0.11360165476799011,
0.17999252676963806,
0.07027462124824524,
-0.010919779539108276,
-0.3654424548149109,
0.2715948820114136,
0.0010886812815442681,
0.8265213966369629,
0.35994452238082886,
0.2486545890569687,
0.044859305024147034,
0.7476699948310852,
0.04463875666260719,
-0.45929890871047974,
0.5791003108024597,
-0.22984862327575684,
0.5352407693862915,
0.054581768810749054,
-0.4236491918563843,
-0.3061075508594513,
-0.23816224932670593,
-0.21338066458702087,
0.07391612976789474,
-0.1135411337018013,
-0.07740596681833267,
0.08389750868082047,
0.23970013856887817,
-0.16624225676059723,
-0.24169065058231354,
-0.14323750138282776,
-0.5924162268638611,
-0.17022526264190674,
0.08863028883934021,
-0.16716451942920685,
0.3565489947795868,
0.5369052886962891,
-0.5188726782798767,
0.28391894698143005,
0.11544615775346756,
0.24509082734584808,
-0.7829431295394897,
-1.0435749292373657,
0.6864591240882874,
0.28665655851364136,
0.5766835808753967,
0.10524363070726395,
0.03056497313082218,
0.10723438858985901,
-0.18440435826778412,
-0.2441476285457611,
-0.44704577326774597,
-0.0112789710983634,
0.5026340484619141,
0.5691120624542236,
0.008531923405826092,
-0.03887423127889633,
-0.3919178247451782,
-0.0738135352730751,
0.013966050930321217,
-0.20273129642009735,
0.4167015850543976,
0.060193587094545364,
0.0732012391090393,
0.7417032122612,
-0.31264838576316833,
-0.47349876165390015,
0.2022733986377716,
0.288478285074234,
-0.1383657604455948,
-0.04297179356217384,
0.5439364314079285,
0.027013462036848068,
0.2906065583229065,
0.8568571209907532,
-0.3094041049480438,
0.8089420199394226,
-0.4400119185447693,
-0.2921406328678131,
-0.28247275948524475,
0.07051073759794235,
-0.22109219431877136,
0.4898483455181122,
0.0011364361271262169,
0.34659314155578613,
0.675395667552948,
0.4710143804550171,
0.18392418324947357,
-0.08938489109277725,
0.3989277184009552,
-0.5595920085906982,
0.6562033295631409,
-0.042265065014362335,
-0.37059926986694336,
0.7015873789787292,
0.020926324650645256,
-0.45056042075157166,
0.5237981677055359,
-0.23195584118366241,
-0.019204307347536087,
0.33348995447158813,
-0.5346803665161133,
0.4664648175239563,
-0.3465185761451721,
-0.13051356375217438,
-0.30546918511390686,
-0.10403259843587875,
0.11227647215127945,
-0.17629599571228027,
-0.4445088803768158,
0.21180926263332367,
0.0011290410766378045,
0.3230462968349457,
0.7144607305526733,
-0.6864599585533142,
-0.3361814320087433,
-0.9546977281570435,
-0.067452073097229,
-0.12824437022209167,
0.36244380474090576,
-0.09025994688272476,
-0.19088681042194366,
0.3368641138076782,
-0.9090109467506409,
0.48936277627944946,
0.1997174173593521,
-0.030994651839137077,
0.3145693242549896,
-0.27857542037963867,
-0.29766079783439636,
-0.9860637784004211,
0.12945261597633362,
0.6876686811447144,
-0.2578332722187042,
-0.3624177575111389,
-0.17233498394489288,
0.7732729315757751,
1.109023094177246,
-0.11326424032449722,
-0.35960638523101807,
0.3625757098197937,
0.3849506676197052,
0.2896546721458435,
0.2625279426574707,
-0.5024120211601257,
0.4889531135559082,
0.7620394229888916,
0.24065236747264862,
-0.5552307963371277,
0.2185477614402771,
-0.43425774574279785,
-0.5492291450500488,
-0.3471260666847229,
0.2824346721172333,
0.25156885385513306,
0.23399169743061066,
-0.5037980675697327,
0.028832050040364265,
0.01717458851635456,
-5.4796929359436035,
-0.425004243850708,
0.5390732884407043,
0.2427220642566681,
0.04190516471862793,
0.350351482629776,
0.38242092728614807,
-0.39300620555877686,
0.20648404955863953,
-0.3137211501598358,
-0.30471107363700867,
-0.13566817343235016,
0.25454744696617126,
0.33312445878982544,
0.16017477214336395,
-0.24685955047607422,
-0.040327027440071106,
0.033205196261405945,
-0.015074435621500015,
0.07669548690319061,
0.024340519681572914,
-0.23418061435222626,
0.24300463497638702,
0.28291186690330505,
0.25852635502815247,
0.0814623013138771,
-0.442619264125824,
0.7835841178894043,
-0.6512388586997986,
0.332058310508728,
-0.0014955302467569709,
-0.09584051370620728,
0.016894493252038956,
0.12482888996601105,
-0.5046979784965515,
-0.018676400184631348,
0.43079063296318054,
-0.007028117310255766,
0.8234564065933228,
0.11126409471035004,
0.7326257824897766,
-0.2750009596347809,
0.06694906949996948,
-0.44517606496810913,
-0.6435275673866272,
-0.14641405642032623,
-0.9457679390907288,
-0.7440266609191895,
-0.2939055562019348,
0.7571552395820618,
-0.33373913168907166,
-0.40746164321899414,
0.4955237805843353,
-0.5815854072570801,
-0.03950486704707146,
0.5090368390083313,
-0.9323204755783081,
0.13144779205322266,
0.4244949519634247,
0.13255631923675537,
0.4635895788669586,
-0.041622161865234375,
0.27922719717025757,
-0.5787751078605652,
-0.38308650255203247,
0.18697354197502136,
-0.17147895693778992,
0.10580562800168991,
-0.18279743194580078,
0.4040634036064148,
0.11684998869895935,
0.9995083212852478,
0.47885584831237793,
-1.1952728033065796,
-0.36321327090263367,
-0.6617633700370789,
-0.29541245102882385,
-0.5949329733848572,
-0.633399486541748,
-0.05356195196509361,
0.4605275094509125,
-0.6304807066917419,
0.35404878854751587,
0.12155614048242569,
0.2916015386581421,
-0.09372840076684952,
-0.64738929271698,
-0.3665570020675659,
0.040933772921562195,
0.1118171438574791,
0.5915615558624268,
-0.4392320513725281,
-0.21943314373493195,
0.26597338914871216,
0.2446412593126297,
0.9605416655540466,
-0.427944540977478,
-0.026022469624876976,
0.5069013833999634,
0.6355836987495422,
0.4447244703769684,
0.6219407320022583,
-0.09670567512512207,
0.663926362991333,
0.5450835824012756,
-0.32711899280548096,
-0.14448384940624237,
0.15051022171974182,
0.34192198514938354,
0.6387776732444763,
0.23352670669555664,
-0.2946963906288147,
0.2933194935321808,
-0.5068526864051819,
-0.7517440915107727,
-1.349317193031311,
-0.2937004566192627,
0.2066190093755722,
0.35621505975723267,
0.14560091495513916,
0.2974526882171631,
-0.19726653397083282,
-0.2850504219532013,
-1.0079036951065063,
-0.8392068147659302,
0.09261510521173477,
0.43619057536125183,
0.19281214475631714,
-0.4590247571468353,
0.22178103029727936,
0.21477217972278595,
0.07358865439891815,
-0.008822653442621231,
-0.43718773126602173,
0.05826549604535103,
-0.12960399687290192,
-0.15067601203918457,
-0.40674763917922974,
-0.11016272008419037,
-0.08189454674720764,
-0.12914544343948364,
-0.7506945133209229,
-0.3530707061290741,
-0.20619139075279236,
0.3266091048717499,
0.5410100817680359,
0.43379655480384827,
-0.4925306439399719,
-0.7983256578445435,
0.277615487575531,
0.12272441387176514,
-0.17980721592903137,
0.9396330118179321,
-0.0006824995507486165,
-0.77752286195755,
0.09896748512983322,
0.42143532633781433,
-0.012713830918073654,
0.024002503603696823,
0.6280636191368103,
-0.3816041350364685,
-0.06428644806146622,
-0.809076189994812,
-0.22358258068561554,
-0.29840341210365295,
0.4742896556854248,
-0.17619149386882782,
-0.5010455250740051,
0.22701102495193481,
-0.1658451408147812,
-0.22984610497951508,
-0.05885586142539978,
0.22443009912967682,
0.16066929697990417,
0.05459197610616684,
-0.18426842987537384,
0.18814755976200104,
-0.2537974417209625,
-0.3241206109523773,
0.3533690869808197,
0.0599684901535511,
-0.18422666192054749,
-0.8884466290473938,
0.49539005756378174,
0.4686993956565857,
-0.2045951783657074,
-1.0230212211608887,
-0.19037626683712006,
-0.6259268522262573,
0.5771561861038208,
0.13627731800079346,
-0.3227463662624359,
0.5901633501052856,
-0.0692736878991127,
-0.3059220314025879,
-0.5198498368263245,
0.7419601082801819,
-0.09771862626075745,
-0.13463179767131805,
-0.2867662012577057,
0.3362117409706116,
0.24497291445732117,
-0.47291299700737,
-0.1662619560956955,
-0.06384089589118958,
-0.7249050736427307,
0.33559614419937134,
-0.599480926990509,
-0.45882225036621094,
0.8042712807655334,
0.08840593695640564,
-0.4519004821777344,
0.01601681113243103,
0.6251272559165955,
-0.05926961451768875,
-0.012612774968147278,
0.13977931439876556,
-0.6512088775634766,
-0.6101971864700317,
-0.2454497069120407,
0.1636195033788681,
0.1788511723279953,
-0.5098444223403931,
0.1386984884738922,
-1.2148112058639526,
-0.8272983431816101,
-0.11808837205171585,
-0.5885491967201233,
-0.49730390310287476,
-0.11897154897451401,
-0.15313827991485596,
-0.053394388407468796,
-0.40372753143310547,
0.2339787632226944,
-0.06552621722221375,
-0.7545523047447205,
-0.21838700771331787,
-0.15966933965682983,
-0.06612838804721832,
0.6503176689147949,
0.7639799118041992,
1.0324287414550781,
0.8732567429542542,
-0.005094347987323999,
-0.05411003530025482,
0.37366658449172974,
-0.10514408349990845,
-0.11241139471530914,
-0.03441687673330307,
0.6148202419281006,
0.038181424140930176,
0.43715864419937134,
-0.11367394030094147,
-0.2177933305501938,
0.7791321873664856,
-0.29588231444358826,
-0.14963573217391968,
0.46333223581314087,
-0.2662126421928406,
0.47805795073509216,
0.21841388940811157,
0.6834002733230591,
-0.16323857009410858,
-0.2586885392665863,
-0.047779083251953125,
0.4218909442424774,
0.19414658844470978,
-0.125725656747818,
-0.2865028977394104,
-0.003682410577312112,
-0.06278695911169052,
-0.02465360425412655,
-0.02725236676633358,
-0.5788549184799194,
-0.04788019880652428,
0.8766499161720276,
-0.12002921849489212,
-0.2744772732257843,
0.8367099165916443,
-0.12170636653900146,
-0.32511070370674133,
0.04154067859053612,
-0.22644254565238953,
-0.042244456708431244,
-0.24862614274024963,
-0.41745251417160034,
-0.6709774136543274,
-0.26491543650627136,
0.04136621206998825,
0.3798133432865143,
-0.2689965069293976,
0.24780875444412231,
0.20542775094509125,
0.008763757534325123,
0.27295342087745667,
-0.13243301212787628,
-0.06762682646512985,
-0.4360623359680176,
-0.8664785027503967,
-0.011099440045654774,
0.052713792771101,
-0.3657139837741852,
1.067445158958435,
-0.5757104754447937,
0.2222912311553955,
-0.02009456232190132,
0.14891299605369568,
-0.1911211907863617,
-1.3164656162261963,
0.04760775715112686,
-0.08060399442911148,
-0.1074167788028717,
-0.35348770022392273,
0.7670563459396362,
-0.1357135772705078,
0.11165013164281845,
0.8928832411766052,
0.18115316331386566,
0.26753199100494385,
0.046582791954278946,
0.42985421419143677,
-0.5908110737800598,
1.4037823677062988,
0.05119026452302933,
-0.3024020493030548,
0.06409738212823868,
0.20559009909629822,
0.15438881516456604,
-0.8481571674346924,
0.5356139540672302,
0.0300130657851696,
-0.17497028410434723,
-0.6736711263656616,
0.8328887224197388,
-0.06868115067481995,
0.8252460360527039,
-0.13577480614185333,
-0.1262277513742447,
-1.021497368812561,
0.16083776950836182,
0.12831826508045197,
0.24416173994541168,
0.09399955719709396,
-0.1108350083231926,
-0.3767017424106598,
0.4934258460998535,
-0.4469602704048157,
-0.204750657081604,
0.33168259263038635,
-0.21330556273460388,
-0.04555564001202583,
0.9498509764671326,
0.0072124917060136795,
-0.3728591501712799,
-0.41697582602500916,
0.35858824849128723,
0.42427340149879456,
-0.15956448018550873,
0.48459234833717346,
0.21053408086299896,
0.082945317029953,
0.14710097014904022,
-0.06419827044010162,
-0.19962064921855927,
-0.9054098725318909,
0.024517564103007317,
0.079153873026371,
-0.4745562970638275,
-0.14076340198516846,
-0.06681600958108902,
0.18993988633155823,
0.12781061232089996,
0.17058470845222473,
-0.056537527590990067,
0.3385733366012573,
-0.7594395875930786,
-0.08369063585996628,
-0.33312660455703735,
0.10042337328195572,
0.34745028614997864,
-0.7131029963493347,
-0.14401954412460327,
0.2582967281341553,
0.007805023342370987,
-0.07553139328956604,
0.24117079377174377,
-0.23765434324741364,
-0.5386155247688293,
-0.0023391745053231716,
0.08399743586778641,
0.3081168830394745,
-0.5558569431304932,
-0.08615250140428543,
-0.15227441489696503,
-0.35347577929496765,
-0.26781150698661804,
0.31887248158454895,
0.4416632354259491,
0.16417494416236877,
0.005975021049380302,
0.7291283011436462,
0.035215314477682114,
0.2938143312931061,
0.5380132794380188,
-0.06096961349248886,
0.08824007958173752,
-0.7055516242980957,
0.7872795462608337,
-0.16474473476409912,
-0.11525192111730576,
0.401210218667984,
0.3256601393222809,
-0.19495950639247894,
0.21684588491916656,
-0.043727047741413116,
-0.4735105037689209,
0.597240149974823,
0.2488812357187271,
0.12360343337059021,
-0.012447643093764782,
-0.12219750136137009,
0.0581287182867527,
0.05042269825935364,
0.12999600172042847,
-0.051446910947561264,
0.18983811140060425,
0.26568979024887085,
-0.4477372467517853,
-0.0300473403185606,
0.9531332850456238,
-0.06431129574775696,
0.22078052163124084,
0.016731780022382736,
0.1340596079826355,
0.006962926127016544,
0.4372859001159668,
0.6809583306312561,
-0.43476402759552,
-0.061379071325063705,
-0.31746095418930054,
0.24906617403030396,
-0.3441360592842102,
-0.22294728457927704,
0.1781795173883438,
0.36982566118240356,
0.3178199529647827,
0.12889006733894348,
-0.6034277677536011,
-0.8456470370292664,
-0.23402856290340424,
1.0192316770553589,
-0.3626902997493744,
0.6733067035675049,
-0.4212051331996918,
-0.16891592741012573,
-0.04664802551269531,
0.026523955166339874,
-0.22068890929222107,
-0.171334370970726,
0.34086713194847107
] |
233668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure%20of%20the%20Earth | Figure of the Earth | Figure of the Earth is a term of art in geodesy that refers to the size and shape used to model Earth. The size and shape it refers to depend on context, including the precision needed for the model. The sphere is an approximation of the figure of the Earth that is satisfactory for many purposes. Several models with greater accuracy have been developed so that coordinate systems can serve the precise needs of navigation, surveying, cadastre, land use, and various other concerns.
Motivation
Earth's topographic surface is apparent with its variety of land forms and water areas. This topographic surface is generally the concern of topographers, hydrographers, and geophysicists. While it is the surface on which Earth measurements are made, mathematically modeling it while taking the irregularities into account would be extremely complicated.
The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a simple surface that is easy to deal with mathematically. Many astronomical and navigational computations use a sphere to model the Earth as a close approximation. However, a more accurate figure is needed for measuring distances and areas on the scale beyond the purely local. Better approximations can be had by modeling the entire surface as an oblate spheroid, using spherical harmonics to approximate the geoid, or modeling a region with a best-fit reference ellipsoid.
For surveys of small areas, a planar (flat) model of Earth's surface suffices because the local topography overwhelms the curvature. Plane-table surveys are made for relatively small areas without considering the size and shape of the entire Earth. A survey of a city, for example, might be conducted this way.
By the late 1600s, serious effort was devoted to modeling the Earth as an ellipsoid, beginning with Jean Picard's measurement of a degree of arc along the Paris meridian. Improved maps and better measurement of distances and areas of national territories motivated these early attempts. Surveying instrumentation and techniques improved over the ensuing centuries. Models for the figure of the earth improved in step.
In the mid- to late 20th century, research across the geosciences contributed to drastic improvements in the accuracy of the figure of the Earth. The primary utility of this improved accuracy was to provide geographical and gravitational data for the inertial guidance systems of ballistic missiles. This funding also drove the expansion of geoscientific disciplines, fostering the creation and growth of various geoscience departments at many universities. These developments benefited many civilian pursuits as well, such as weather and communication satellite control and GPS location-finding, which would be impossible without highly accurate models for the figure of the Earth.
Models
The models for the figure of the Earth vary in the way they are used, in their complexity, and in the accuracy with which they represent the size and shape of the Earth.
Sphere
The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a sphere. The Earth's radius is the distance from Earth's center to its surface, about . While "radius" normally is a characteristic of perfect spheres, the Earth deviates from spherical by only a third of a percent, sufficiently close to treat it as a sphere in many contexts and justifying the term "the radius of the Earth".
The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC, but remained a matter of philosophical speculation until the 3rd century BC. The first scientific estimation of the radius of the Earth was given by Eratosthenes about 240 BC, with estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes's measurement ranging from −1% to 15%.
The Earth is only approximately spherical, so no single value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points on the surface to the center range from to . Several different ways of modeling the Earth as a sphere each yield a mean radius of . Regardless of the model, any radius falls between the polar minimum of about and the equatorial maximum of about . The difference correspond to the polar radius being approximately 0.3% shorter than the equatorial radius.
Ellipsoid of revolution
Since the Earth is flattened at the poles and bulges at the Equator, geodesy represents the figure of the Earth as an oblate spheroid. The oblate spheroid, or oblate ellipsoid, is an ellipsoid of revolution obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis. It is the regular geometric shape that most nearly approximates the shape of the Earth. A spheroid describing the figure of the Earth or other celestial body is called a reference ellipsoid. The reference ellipsoid for Earth is called an Earth ellipsoid.
An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by two quantities. Several conventions for expressing the two quantities are used in geodesy, but they are all equivalent to and convertible with each other:
Equatorial radius (called semimajor axis), and polar radius (called semiminor axis);
and eccentricity ;
and flattening .
Eccentricity and flattening are different ways of expressing how squashed the ellipsoid is. When flattening appears as one of the defining quantities in geodesy, generally it is expressed by its reciprocal. For example, in the WGS 84 spheroid used by today's GPS systems, the reciprocal of the flattening is set to be exactly .
The difference between a sphere and a reference ellipsoid for Earth is small, only about one part in 300. Historically, flattening was computed from grade measurements. Nowadays, geodetic networks and satellite geodesy are used. In practice, many reference ellipsoids have been developed over the centuries from different surveys. The flattening value varies slightly from one reference ellipsoid to another, reflecting local conditions and whether the reference ellipsoid is intended to model the entire Earth or only some portion of it.
A sphere has a single radius of curvature, which is simply the radius of the sphere. More complex surfaces have radii of curvature that vary over the surface. The radius of curvature describes the radius of the sphere that best approximates the surface at that point. Oblate ellipsoids have constant radius of curvature east to west along parallels, if a graticule is drawn on the surface, but varying curvature in any other direction. For an oblate ellipsoid, the polar radius of curvature is larger than the equatorial
because the pole is flattened: the flatter the surface, the larger the sphere must be to approximate it. Conversely, the ellipsoid's north–south radius of curvature at the equator is smaller than the polar
where is the distance from the center of the ellipsoid to the equator (semi-major axis), and is the distance from the center to the pole. (semi-minor axis)
Geoid
It was stated earlier that measurements are made on the apparent or topographic surface of the Earth and it has just been explained that computations are performed on an ellipsoid. One other surface is involved in geodetic measurement: the geoid. In geodetic surveying, the computation of the geodetic coordinates of points is commonly performed on a reference ellipsoid closely approximating the size and shape of the Earth in the area of the survey. The actual measurements made on the surface of the Earth with certain instruments are however referred to the geoid. The ellipsoid is a mathematically defined regular surface with specific dimensions. The geoid, on the other hand, coincides with that surface to which the oceans would conform over the entire Earth if free to adjust to the combined effect of the Earth's mass attraction (gravitation) and the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation. As a result of the uneven distribution of the Earth's mass, the geoidal surface is irregular and, since the ellipsoid is a regular surface, the separations between the two, referred to as geoid undulations, geoid heights, or geoid separations, will be irregular as well.
The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is everywhere equal and to which the direction of gravity is always perpendicular (see equipotential surface). The latter is particularly important because optical instruments containing gravity-reference leveling devices are commonly used to make geodetic measurements. When properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument coincides with the direction of gravity and is, therefore, perpendicular to the geoid. The angle between the plumb line which is perpendicular to the geoid (sometimes called "the vertical") and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid (sometimes called "the ellipsoidal normal") is defined as the deflection of the vertical. It has two components: an east–west and a north–south component.
Other shapes
The possibility that the Earth's equator is better characterized as an ellipse rather than a circle and therefore that the ellipsoid is triaxial has been a matter of scientific inquiry for many years. Modern technological developments have furnished new and rapid methods for data collection and, since the launch of Sputnik 1, orbital data have been used to investigate the theory of ellipticity. More recent results indicate a 70-m difference between the two equatorial major and minor axes of inertia, with the larger semidiameter pointing to 15° W longitude (and also 180-degree away).
Pear shape
The theory of a slightly pear-shaped Earth arose and gained publicity after the first artificial satellites observed long periodic orbital variations, indicating a depression at the South Pole and a bulge of the same degree at the North Pole. This theory contends that the northern middle latitudes are slightly flattened and the southern middle latitudes correspondingly bulged. U.S. Vanguard 1 satellite data from 1958 confirms that the southern equatorial bulge is greater than that of the north, which is corroborated by the South Pole's sea level being lower than that of the north. A pear-shaped Earth had first been theorized in 1498 by Christopher Columbus, based on his incorrect readings of the North Star's diurnal motion.
John A. O'Keefe and co-authors are credited with the discovery that the Earth had a significant third degree zonal spherical harmonic in its gravitational field using Vanguard 1 satellite data. Based on further satellite geodesy data, Desmond King-Hele refined the estimate to a 45-m difference between north and south polar radii, owing to a 19-m "stem" rising in the North Pole and a 26-m depression in the South Pole. The polar asymmetry is small, though: it is about a thousand times smaller than the earth's flattening and even smaller than the geoidal undulation in some regions of the Earth.
Modern geodesy tends to retain the ellipsoid of revolution as a reference ellipsoid and treat triaxiality and pear shape as a part of the geoid figure: they are represented by the spherical harmonic coefficients and , respectively, corresponding to degree and order numbers 2.2 for the triaxiality and 3.0 for the pear shape.
Local approximations
Simpler local approximations are possible.
Local tangent plane
The local tangent plane is appropriate for very small distances.
Osculating sphere
The best local spherical approximation to the ellipsoid in the vicinity of a given point is the Earth's osculating sphere. Its radius equals Earth's Gaussian radius of curvature, and its radial direction coincides with the geodetic normal direction. The center of the osculating sphere is offset from the center of the ellipsoid, but is at the center of curvature for the given point on the ellipsoid surface. This concept aids the interpretation of terrestrial and planetary radio occultation refraction measurements and in some navigation and surveillance applications.
Earth rotation and Earth's interior
Determining the exact figure of the Earth is not only a geometric task of geodesy, but also has geophysical considerations. According to theoretical arguments by Isaac Newton, Leonhard Euler, and others, a body having a uniform density of 5.515 g/cm that rotates like the Earth should have a flattening of 1:229. This can be concluded without any information about the composition of Earth's interior. However, the measured flattening is 1:298.25, which is closer to a sphere and a strong argument that Earth's core is extremely compact. Therefore, the density must be a function of the depth, ranging from 2.6 g/cm at the surface (rock density of granite, etc.), up to 13 g/cm within the inner core.
Global and regional gravity field
Also with implications for the physical exploration of the Earth's interior is the gravitational field, which is the net effect of gravitation (due to mass attraction) and centrifugal force (due to rotation). It can be measured very accurately at the surface and remotely by satellites. True vertical generally does not correspond to theoretical vertical (deflection ranges up to 50") because topography and all geological masses disturb the gravitational field. Therefore, the gross structure of the earth's crust and mantle can be determined by geodetic-geophysical models of the subsurface.
See also
Clairaut's theorem
EGM96
Gravity formula
Gravity of Earth
Meridian arc
Theoretical gravity
History
Pierre Bouguer
Earth's circumference#History
Earth's radius#History
Flat Earth
Friedrich Robert Helmert
History of geodesy
History of the metre
Meridian arc#History
Seconds pendulum
References
Attribution
Further reading
Guy Bomford, Geodesy, Oxford 1962 and 1880.
Guy Bomford, Determination of the European geoid by means of vertical deflections. Rpt of Comm. 14, IUGG 10th Gen. Ass., Rome 1954.
Karl Ledersteger and Gottfried Gerstbach, Die horizontale Isostasie / Das isostatische Geoid 31. Ordnung. Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen Band 5, TU Wien 1975.
Helmut Moritz and Bernhard Hofmann, Physical Geodesy. Springer, Wien & New York 2005.
Geodesy for the Layman, Defense Mapping Agency, St. Louis, 1983.
External links
Reference Ellipsoids (PCI Geomatics)
Reference Ellipsoids (ScanEx)
Changes in Earth shape due to climate changes
Jos Leys "The shape of Planet Earth"
Earth
Geodesy
Geophysics | [
0.2098170518875122,
0.04025750607252121,
-0.22690153121948242,
0.4670008718967438,
-0.2823120355606079,
0.6118516325950623,
-0.04412887245416641,
0.4269660711288452,
-0.6803812384605408,
-0.9331045150756836,
-0.2890925407409668,
0.19642189145088196,
-0.01802920177578926,
0.510653018951416,
-0.061192095279693604,
0.19754232466220856,
0.2148246169090271,
0.5452203750610352,
-0.4420895278453827,
0.06044406443834305,
-0.31123030185699463,
-0.7306926846504211,
0.18474909663200378,
-0.5528075695037842,
-0.01815691404044628,
-0.5443958640098572,
0.2516075372695923,
0.3126443326473236,
0.3865475654602051,
0.05598052591085434,
-0.39084702730178833,
0.029965436086058617,
-0.3996451199054718,
-0.2557970881462097,
-0.1895657479763031,
-0.6007674932479858,
-0.32914334535598755,
0.047112543135881424,
-0.2626327574253082,
-0.6418194770812988,
0.5815735459327698,
0.05988200008869171,
0.43402987718582153,
0.290044367313385,
-0.2785532474517822,
-0.6114552021026611,
-1.2036243677139282,
0.41163986921310425,
-0.7551257014274597,
0.4067496657371521,
-0.3297487199306488,
0.3622700870037079,
0.5105224251747131,
0.7654104232788086,
-0.2467641681432724,
0.7467859983444214,
-0.5720095038414001,
0.18707837164402008,
0.08185644447803497,
-0.34386536478996277,
0.2663339078426361,
0.4755520820617676,
-0.04381995648145676,
-0.07913844287395477,
-0.13246600329875946,
0.1934686154127121,
-0.11432347446680069,
-0.04514358565211296,
0.0715889185667038,
-0.03376014903187752,
-0.13076168298721313,
-0.2992226183414459,
-0.17420969903469086,
0.7244106531143188,
-0.4301804304122925,
-0.32332298159599304,
0.48626577854156494,
-0.07672972232103348,
0.08507323265075684,
0.2930724024772644,
-0.23113811016082764,
0.45408549904823303,
0.27903681993484497,
-0.05795281380414963,
0.313966304063797,
0.6807205677032471,
-0.5791603922843933,
0.24405537545681,
-0.18982858955860138,
0.6471188068389893,
0.5426128506660461,
-0.14442013204097748,
0.3480145335197449,
-0.09895288199186325,
0.28274959325790405,
-0.04376399144530296,
0.10481495410203934,
-0.2768600583076477,
-0.17724460363388062,
0.18247157335281372,
0.022861022502183914,
-0.10584001988172531,
0.42065057158470154,
-0.005029937718063593,
0.13655216991901398,
-0.44515886902809143,
0.07293859869241714,
-0.2610398828983307,
0.1665426790714264,
0.17568621039390564,
-0.3258349299430847,
0.0020043738186359406,
-0.09938012808561325,
0.13880327343940735,
-0.1989818811416626,
0.26640960574150085,
0.0940592885017395,
0.02849242091178894,
-0.537121593952179,
-0.0920872688293457,
-0.31429725885391235,
0.3524421751499176,
0.31152480840682983,
-0.29645922780036926,
-0.09896989166736603,
0.12025027722120285,
0.6353157162666321,
0.6828146576881409,
-0.9012642502784729,
0.13555972278118134,
0.47106465697288513,
0.6535692811012268,
0.42608872056007385,
-0.3076504170894623,
0.06435982882976532,
-0.5850481390953064,
0.4460221230983734,
0.06429567188024521,
0.004757902584969997,
0.18417999148368835,
-0.7257174849510193,
-0.5422648787498474,
-0.6395574808120728,
-0.238592267036438,
0.20812079310417175,
-0.736912190914154,
0.31390684843063354,
-0.6707817316055298,
-0.3056372106075287,
0.14114634692668915,
-0.024985209107398987,
0.19848330318927765,
-0.22615158557891846,
-0.2294856458902359,
-0.1688593178987503,
0.5604187846183777,
-0.05025021731853485,
0.367968887090683,
-0.10714516788721085,
-0.09262460470199585,
0.019179124385118484,
0.14907808601856232,
-0.14977805316448212,
-0.305741548538208,
0.08053585886955261,
-0.5136461853981018,
0.7769165635108948,
0.4816502332687378,
0.031193863600492477,
0.44548800587654114,
-0.3907013535499573,
-0.31860172748565674,
0.012039914727210999,
0.3585027754306793,
-0.4462766647338867,
-0.4572545289993286,
0.21256181597709656,
0.1975182741880417,
0.6957195401191711,
-0.11104024946689606,
-0.6486090421676636,
0.07308754324913025,
0.5683110952377319,
-0.6509116888046265,
0.359303742647171,
-0.5947151780128479,
0.6257463693618774,
0.22119201719760895,
-0.3538341522216797,
-0.1381562203168869,
-0.35448193550109863,
-0.07509069889783859,
0.3539597690105438,
-0.6588071584701538,
1.177645206451416,
-0.15710540115833282,
-0.965149998664856,
0.43921345472335815,
-0.41232654452323914,
0.45143529772758484,
-0.3798481225967407,
-0.07781742513179779,
-0.31434929370880127,
-0.21569515764713287,
-0.09843911230564117,
0.45998111367225647,
0.302002489566803,
0.2148282825946808,
0.25462958216667175,
0.0016068723052740097,
0.22689291834831238,
-0.6154310703277588,
0.47528162598609924,
-0.5354614853858948,
-0.10340865701436996,
0.018614137545228004,
-0.7071921229362488,
0.5861464142799377,
-0.3385692834854126,
-0.04147079214453697,
0.9750885367393494,
-0.027451010420918465,
-0.38017821311950684,
0.20687612891197205,
-0.23765917122364044,
0.007811227347701788,
-0.013661271892488003,
0.31490206718444824,
0.5437097549438477,
-0.8530471324920654,
-0.1761317104101181,
0.1920928806066513,
0.5154770612716675,
-0.43684127926826477,
-0.43423882126808167,
-0.3783271014690399,
0.618224561214447,
-0.36917078495025635,
0.6018834710121155,
-0.17091301083564758,
0.21428778767585754,
0.10792765021324158,
-0.3812292814254761,
-0.012155435048043728,
0.27712807059288025,
0.1965819150209427,
-0.06315243989229202,
0.20002616941928864,
-0.3638182282447815,
0.042381737381219864,
-0.38025519251823425,
0.3878977298736572,
0.25058698654174805,
-0.23472344875335693,
-0.4021739065647125,
-0.4467020034790039,
-0.4005148112773895,
-0.3252275288105011,
0.3577333688735962,
0.5418420433998108,
-0.014498037286102772,
-0.45707592368125916,
-0.014553367160260677,
0.1879478543996811,
-0.17290379106998444,
-0.5967361927032471,
-0.02082129940390587,
-0.23519231379032135,
0.15472371876239777,
0.8585332632064819,
0.9303044676780701,
0.05133891850709915,
-0.134752094745636,
-0.623991072177887,
0.5668591260910034,
-0.6470833420753479,
0.29056814312934875,
0.006116880569607019,
-0.40908998250961304,
-0.8100343346595764,
0.07840059697628021,
0.6289600133895874,
0.6994573473930359,
-0.15981093049049377,
0.08286868780851364,
0.07320868223905563,
0.8809673190116882,
-0.31725001335144043,
0.0196601040661335,
-0.01588200218975544,
0.014052464626729488,
0.48828697204589844,
0.0448419451713562,
0.055267542600631714,
0.36947953701019287,
0.6078144907951355,
-0.04778503254055977,
-0.6610853672027588,
0.20318515598773956,
-0.39719000458717346,
-0.4014296233654022,
0.08163876831531525,
-0.0024728048592805862,
-0.2399005889892578,
-0.2066885530948639,
0.09311915934085846,
0.21042850613594055,
0.442383348941803,
-5.88845157623291,
-0.4556892514228821,
-0.20458418130874634,
-0.3517451882362366,
-0.25180816650390625,
0.2329949587583542,
0.6754016876220703,
0.4372665286064148,
-0.20892122387886047,
0.09744788706302643,
0.18751980364322662,
-0.11962925642728806,
0.03049030713737011,
0.7821551561355591,
0.8903413414955139,
0.6537994146347046,
0.7066929340362549,
0.1497604101896286,
-0.15468710660934448,
0.8313527703285217,
0.07300242781639099,
0.06994616985321045,
0.36809560656547546,
0.389774352312088,
0.20199058949947357,
0.07372795045375824,
-0.7779156565666199,
-0.01314309611916542,
-0.07779806852340698,
0.27458322048187256,
0.19496984779834747,
-0.2565353810787201,
-0.00016790817608125508,
-0.48478302359580994,
0.12715500593185425,
0.179177924990654,
0.48313426971435547,
0.1048039048910141,
0.22606056928634644,
-0.00042990269139409065,
-0.4754602611064911,
0.4712692201137543,
-0.09270062297582626,
0.06447961926460266,
0.44604188203811646,
-0.43923255801200867,
-0.39219340682029724,
-0.18744054436683655,
-0.1932731419801712,
0.6589932441711426,
-0.3255065977573395,
0.4725291430950165,
0.559349536895752,
-0.6401390433311462,
-0.06353254616260529,
0.2954769432544708,
0.6156678199768066,
0.42088213562965393,
-0.5928796529769897,
-0.1442725658416748,
0.7618667483329773,
-0.5828315615653992,
0.08397834748029709,
-0.6352394223213196,
-0.14446836709976196,
-0.1729675531387329,
-0.6282907128334045,
-0.2824001908302307,
0.2286241203546524,
0.14672976732254028,
-0.0000453862885478884,
0.19979481399059296,
-0.15644526481628418,
-0.6794829368591309,
0.15574932098388672,
-0.12103883922100067,
0.10483767837285995,
-0.3897564113140106,
0.27548298239707947,
0.017955882474780083,
-0.6183375120162964,
-0.5879762768745422,
0.07173727452754974,
0.25278306007385254,
-0.16918136179447174,
0.3381536304950714,
-0.31229060888290405,
-0.5124619603157043,
-0.6848002672195435,
-0.2609642446041107,
0.8504109382629395,
-0.3770792484283447,
0.24587902426719666,
0.3932555615901947,
0.30190280079841614,
0.17151571810245514,
0.706785261631012,
-0.5151646733283997,
0.48365518450737,
-0.3231576383113861,
0.010752256028354168,
0.04092671349644661,
0.11069279909133911,
0.3254804313182831,
-0.07525305449962616,
-0.5305312275886536,
-0.08903125673532486,
0.542144775390625,
0.5276760458946228,
-0.050418827682733536,
0.17764554917812347,
0.43508660793304443,
-0.24277445673942566,
-0.13619418442249298,
0.00243405275978148,
0.839623749256134,
-0.16460397839546204,
0.27763307094573975,
0.35031911730766296,
-0.17012234032154083,
0.2527469992637634,
-0.21873389184474945,
0.14174902439117432,
-0.032088812440633774,
0.13250936567783356,
-0.09299984574317932,
0.18432219326496124,
0.19940656423568726,
-0.012585356831550598,
0.12275204062461853,
0.2874224781990051,
0.6110596060752869,
0.35092946887016296,
-0.24889162182807922,
0.3834141492843628,
-0.16027460992336273,
0.392617791891098,
-0.0751349925994873,
0.01738305203616619,
-0.26890939474105835,
0.19968654215335846,
0.03226342424750328,
-0.07023146003484726,
0.1659126579761505,
0.5700832009315491,
0.013362256810069084,
-0.4932594299316406,
-0.25716081261634827,
-0.10448628664016724,
0.6164882779121399,
0.13038364052772522,
-0.21691371500492096,
0.4130914807319641,
-0.3234884440898895,
0.1366317719221115,
-0.47185519337654114,
-0.577273428440094,
-0.28613296151161194,
-0.17778649926185608,
-0.2905882000923157,
0.3370071053504944,
0.27148348093032837,
-1.1343754529953003,
-0.33305904269218445,
-0.018626613542437553,
-0.021538836881518364,
-0.5284342169761658,
-0.3542499542236328,
0.422369122505188,
0.21996061503887177,
0.40824902057647705,
-0.4518826901912689,
-0.10223682969808578,
-0.5063278079032898,
-0.2847490906715393,
0.20960970222949982,
0.12751467525959015,
0.18455740809440613,
0.19890843331813812,
-0.2722078263759613,
0.021102340891957283,
-0.24646346271038055,
0.03801694139838219,
-0.08115701377391815,
0.166823148727417,
-0.06747102737426758,
-0.028901686891913414,
0.6661384105682373,
-0.1812477707862854,
0.03937527909874916,
0.14541801810264587,
0.21335920691490173,
-0.029994500800967216,
0.12074293196201324,
-0.33211982250213623,
0.12473002821207047,
0.3400219976902008,
0.09173209965229034,
-0.06862647831439972,
-0.39866578578948975,
-0.21915099024772644,
0.19415801763534546,
-1.0455234050750732,
0.3522586226463318,
0.3260727822780609,
-0.9013836979866028,
0.2357836663722992,
0.17485393583774567,
-0.11218705773353577,
-0.06938526779413223,
-0.4758341610431671,
0.026909446343779564,
-0.2055739015340805,
-0.207904651761055,
-0.43205296993255615,
0.3175213932991028,
0.4620817303657532,
-0.6504982113838196,
0.002806704957038164,
-0.4546666145324707,
-0.07013075053691864,
0.4292641282081604,
-0.9332762956619263,
0.14646580815315247,
0.2909211814403534,
0.01276062335819006,
0.4021328389644623,
-0.23479056358337402,
0.3168165683746338,
-0.30296191573143005,
0.03980432078242302,
0.05650116130709648,
-0.32430019974708557,
-0.25459417700767517,
-0.2975958287715912,
-0.08871935307979584,
0.30661317706108093,
0.1500653624534607,
-0.266278475522995,
0.04659964144229889,
0.41532808542251587,
0.7125611901283264,
-0.07404784113168716,
-0.24325230717658997,
0.3269868493080139,
0.36129361391067505,
0.3222643733024597,
-0.9076465368270874,
-0.6415597200393677,
-0.13067910075187683,
0.31978926062583923,
-0.643044650554657,
-0.528318464756012,
-0.4761500358581543,
0.15441718697547913,
0.144171342253685,
0.19723813235759735,
-0.08497635275125504,
0.2724916636943817,
0.08720811456441879,
-0.08514895290136337,
-0.6395381689071655,
-0.6472774147987366,
-0.12325742095708847,
0.3319534957408905,
-0.19597342610359192,
0.08447245508432388,
0.1837388426065445,
0.3258155882358551,
-0.3949296474456787,
0.2485070526599884,
0.41969355940818787,
0.013338509947061539,
0.2782653272151947,
0.2017139047384262,
-0.4523577392101288,
-0.2321515828371048,
-0.4908156096935272,
0.1393527090549469,
-0.5108682513237,
-0.1590791642665863,
0.5091581344604492,
0.1733151376247406,
0.05661837011575699,
0.1773766130208969,
0.031564947217702866,
0.5022184252738953,
-0.17825603485107422,
-0.4283529222011566,
-0.07511921972036362,
-0.7075325846672058,
-0.0800698846578598,
-0.04641508311033249,
0.24944981932640076,
0.061148881912231445,
0.40863776206970215,
0.267375648021698,
-0.07704465836286545,
0.4272213280200958,
-0.16371822357177734,
-0.5010800361633301,
0.8362876176834106,
-0.07872519642114639,
-0.45887815952301025,
0.544825553894043,
-0.2892407178878784,
0.09989823400974274,
-0.20000213384628296,
0.21127688884735107,
0.052792709320783615,
0.0876980870962143,
0.2475178837776184,
-0.28337380290031433,
0.6575565338134766,
-0.1685788631439209,
-0.4219857454299927,
0.7019414901733398,
-0.441341757774353,
0.4848403036594391,
0.269239217042923,
-0.18873660266399384,
-0.19597439467906952,
-0.0625804141163826,
-0.20144887268543243,
-0.24358615279197693,
0.318899005651474,
-0.6710079312324524,
-0.07436967641115189,
0.0318506695330143,
0.1597307324409485,
0.7268595099449158,
0.5172396302223206,
-0.7218359112739563,
0.048626795411109924,
-0.34819313883781433,
-0.4850955605506897,
0.43848270177841187,
0.13589806854724884,
-0.29141855239868164,
0.5716965198516846,
-0.18590404093265533,
0.2388768047094345,
-0.08429598808288574,
0.030863633379340172,
-0.34658318758010864,
0.24815787374973297,
-0.09822595864534378,
0.22684507071971893,
-0.24145682156085968,
0.3054596483707428,
0.4070276618003845,
-0.0753183513879776,
0.541307270526886,
-0.06115596741437912,
-0.16596847772598267,
-0.37422987818717957,
0.7645867466926575,
0.15877854824066162,
-0.27869510650634766,
0.015932686626911163,
-0.2970753312110901,
0.5340548753738403,
0.21596267819404602,
-0.04780013486742973,
-0.2600642144680023,
0.34033042192459106,
0.060751236975193024,
-0.10527662932872772,
-0.2708682119846344,
-0.2232286036014557,
0.09217459708452225,
0.6652209162712097,
-0.5357254147529602,
0.46343380212783813,
-0.05310617387294769,
0.07836244255304337,
0.2264176607131958,
0.5268681049346924,
0.02694067172706127,
-0.3074556291103363,
-0.24537760019302368,
-0.22456936538219452,
0.010442952625453472,
-0.6206591129302979,
-0.08159376680850983,
-0.14253027737140656,
0.33495888113975525,
0.7649107575416565,
-0.1318117380142212,
0.39680421352386475,
-0.18240611255168915,
-0.07927630096673965,
0.22607001662254333,
0.10394297540187836,
-0.6025696396827698,
0.17895211279392242,
-0.4293281137943268,
1.0733377933502197,
-0.2647758424282074,
-0.39470916986465454,
-0.2400241196155548,
0.27132362127304077,
-0.06603056192398071,
-0.2900325655937195,
-0.7623470425605774,
0.13171842694282532,
-0.34591400623321533,
0.3090876042842865,
-1.0665658712387085,
0.10415641218423843,
0.16833019256591797,
-0.741578221321106,
0.31105440855026245,
0.014979546889662743,
-0.3634589612483978,
0.30352094769477844,
-0.08199489861726761,
-0.09953232109546661,
0.4207973778247833,
-0.15278343856334686,
0.023913918063044548,
-0.2402449995279312,
-0.27148258686065674,
0.3823179006576538,
-0.02580486610531807,
-0.5565575957298279,
0.2713940143585205,
-0.013436449691653252,
-0.2646573781967163,
0.14182943105697632,
0.08966851234436035,
0.5181293487548828,
-0.8488456010818481,
0.3497175872325897,
0.005923939403146505,
-0.021463025361299515,
0.0988457128405571,
0.6756405234336853,
0.4728974997997284,
-0.738493800163269,
0.07800401002168655,
-0.15898022055625916,
-0.266493558883667,
-0.03900562599301338,
-1.1442512273788452,
0.2727133631706238,
-0.728895366191864,
-0.0820876732468605,
-0.051729023456573486,
0.34413132071495056,
0.28215861320495605,
0.21425709128379822,
0.2706199586391449,
-0.46615490317344666,
-0.5558454990386963,
-0.4770547151565552,
0.3697589933872223,
-0.684944212436676,
0.6474775075912476,
0.7534122467041016
] |
233670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Flying%20Corps | Royal Flying Corps | The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC supported the British Army by artillery co-operation and photographic reconnaissance. This work gradually led RFC pilots into aerial battles with German pilots and later in the war included the strafing of enemy infantry and emplacements, the bombing of German military airfields and later the strategic bombing of German industrial and transport facilities.
At the start of World War I the RFC, commanded by Brigadier-General Sir David Henderson, consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron (RFC No 1 Squadron) and four aeroplane squadrons. These were first used for aerial spotting on 13 September 1914 but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on 9 May 1915. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year. By 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet and were interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. Parachutes were not available to pilots of heavier-than-air craft in the RFC – nor were they used by the RAF during the First World War – although the Calthrop Guardian Angel parachute (1916 model) was officially adopted just as the war ended. By this time parachutes had been used by balloonists for three years.
On 17 August 1917, South African General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the 'devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale', he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy. The formation of the new service would also make the under-used men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) available for action on the Western Front and end the inter-service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, the Royal Air Force (RAF), under the control of the new Air Ministry. After starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel, by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel in some 150 squadrons.
Origin and early history
With the growing recognition of the potential for aircraft as a cost-effective method of reconnaissance and artillery observation, the Committee of Imperial Defence established a sub-committee to examine the question of military aviation in November 1911. On 28 February 1912 the sub-committee reported its findings which recommended that a flying corps be formed and that it consist of a naval wing, a military wing, a central flying school and an aircraft factory. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps. The Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May.
The Flying Corps' initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of that year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson, the Director of Military Training, and had separate branches for the Army and the Navy. Major Sykes commanded the Military Wing and Commander C R Samson commanded the Naval Wing. The Royal Navy however, with different priorities to that of the Army and wishing to retain greater control over its aircraft, formally separated its branch and renamed it the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 July 1914, although a combined central flying school was retained.
The RFC's motto was Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity to the stars"). This remains the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF) and other Commonwealth air forces.
The RFC's first fatal crash was on 5 July 1912 near Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. Killing Captain Eustace B. Loraine and his observer, Staff Sergeant R.H.V. Wilson, flying from Larkhill Aerodrome. An order was issued after the crash stating "Flying will continue this evening as usual", thus beginning a tradition.
In August 1912 RFC Lieutenant Wilfred Parke RN became the first aviator to be observed to recover from an accidental spin when the Avro G cabin biplane, with which he had just broken a world endurance record, entered a spin at 700 feet above ground level at Larkhill. Four months later on 11 December 1912 Parke was killed when the Handley Page monoplane in which he was flying from Hendon to Oxford crashed.
Ranks in the RFC
Aircraft
Aircraft used during the war by the RFC included:
Airco DH 2, DH 4, DH 5, DH 6, and DH 9
Armstrong-Whitworth F.K.8
Avro 504
Bristol's Bristol Scout single-seat fighter, F2A and F2B Fighter two-seaters
Handley Page O/400
Martinsyde G.100
Morane-Saulnier Bullet Biplane Parasol
Nieuport Scout 17, 24, 27
Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2a, B.E.2b, B.E.2c, B.E.2e, B.E.12, F.E.2b, F.E.8, R.E.8, S.E.5a
Sopwith Aviation Company 1½ Strutter, Pup, Triplane, Camel, Snipe, Dolphin
SPAD S.VII
Vickers FB5
Structure and growth
On its inception in 1912 the Royal Flying Corps consisted of a Military and a Naval Wing, with the Military Wing consisting of three squadrons each commanded by a major. The Naval Wing, with fewer pilots and aircraft than the Military Wing, did not organise itself into squadrons until 1914; it separated from the RFC that same year. By November 1914 the Royal Flying Corps, even taking the loss of the Naval Wing into account, had expanded sufficiently to warrant the creation of wings consisting of two or more squadrons. These wings were commanded by lieutenant-colonels. In October 1915 the Corps had undergone further expansion which justified the creation of brigades, each commanded by a brigadier-general. Further expansion led to the creation of divisions, with the Training Division being established in August 1917 and RFC Middle East being raised to divisional status in December 1917. Additionally, although the Royal Flying Corps in France was never titled as a division, by March 1916 it comprised several brigades and its commander (Trenchard) had received a promotion to major-general, giving it in effect divisional status. Finally, the air raids on London and the south-east of England led to the creation of the London Air Defence Area in August 1917 under the command of Ashmore who was promoted to major-general.
Squadrons
Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers: No. 1 Company (a balloon company) becoming No. 1 Squadron, RFC, and No. 2 Company (a 'heavier-than-air' company) becoming No. 3 Squadron, RFC. A second heavier-than-air squadron, No. 2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day.
No. 4 Squadron, RFC was formed from No. 2 Sqn in August 1912, and No. 5 Squadron, RFC from No. 3 Sqn in July 1913.
By the end of March 1918, the Royal Flying Corps comprised some 150 squadrons.
The composition of an RFC squadron varied depending on its designated role, although the commanding officer was usually a major (in a largely non-operational role), with the squadron 'flights' (annotated A, B, C etc.) the basic tactical and operational unit, each commanded by a captain. A 'recording officer' (of captain/lieutenant rank) would act as intelligence officer and adjutant, commanding two or three NCOs and ten other ranks in the administration section of the squadron. Each flight contained on average between six and ten pilots (and a corresponding number of observers, if applicable) with a senior sergeant and thirty-six other ranks (as fitters, riggers, metalsmiths, armourers, etc.). The average squadron also had on complement an equipment officer, armaments officer (each with five other ranks) and a transport officer, in charge of twenty-two other ranks.
The squadron transport establishment typically included one car, five light tenders, seven heavy tenders, two repair lorries, eight motorcycles and eight trailers.
Wings
Wings in the Royal Flying Corps consisted of a number of squadrons.
When the Royal Flying Corps was established it was intended to be a joint service. Owing to the rivalry between the British Army and Royal Navy, new terminology was thought necessary in order to avoid marking the Corps out as having a particularly Army or Navy ethos. Accordingly, the Corps was originally split into two wings: a Military Wing (i.e. an army wing) and a Naval Wing. By 1914, the Naval Wing had become the Royal Naval Air Service, having gained its independence from the Royal Flying Corps.
By November 1914 the Flying Corps had significantly expanded and it was felt necessary to create organizational units which would control collections of squadrons; the term "wing" was reused for these new organizational units.
The Military Wing was abolished and its units based in Great Britain were regrouped as the Administrative Wing. The RFC squadrons in France were grouped under the newly established 1st Wing and the 2nd Wing. The 1st Wing was assigned to the support of the 1st Army whilst the 2nd Wing supported the 2nd Army.
As the Flying Corps grew, so did the number of wings. The 3rd Wing was established on 1 March 1915 and on 15 April the 5th Wing came into existence. By August that year the 6th Wing had been created and in November 1915 a 7th Wing and 8th Wing had also been stood up. Additional wings continued to be created throughout World War I in line with the incessant demands for air units. The last RFC wing to be created was the 54th Wing in March 1918, just prior to the creation of the RAF.
Following the creation of brigades, wings took on specialised functions. Corps wings undertook artillery observation and ground liaison duties, with one squadron detached to each army corps. Army wings were responsible for air superiority, bombing and strategic reconnaissance. United Kingdom based forces were organised into home defence and training wings. By March 1918, wings controlled as many as nine squadrons.
Brigades
Following Sir David Henderson's return from France to the War Office in August 1915, he submitted a scheme to the Army Council which was intended to expand the command structure of the Flying Corps. The Corps' wings would be grouped in pairs to form brigades and the commander of each brigade would hold the temporary rank of brigadier-general. The scheme met with Lord Kitchener's approval and although some staff officers opposed it, the scheme was adopted.
In the field, most brigades were assigned to the army. Initially a brigade consisted of an army wing and corps wing; beginning in November 1916 a balloon wing was added to control the observation balloon companies. Logistics support was provided by an army aircraft park, aircraft ammunition column and reserve lorry park.
The following brigades were established (the date of establishment is shown in parentheses):
I Brigade (16 January 1916)
II Brigade (23 October 1915)
III Brigade (16 January 1916)
IV Brigade (1 April 1916)
V Brigade (15 December 1915)
VI Brigade (15 January 1916)
Middle East Brigade (1 July 1916)
Palestine Brigade (5 October 1917)
VII Brigade (October 1917)
Training Brigade (Middle East) (14 December 1917)
VIII Brigade (28 December 1917)
IX Brigade (6 March 1918)
The X and XI brigades were formed as part of the Royal Air Force and never existed as RFC formations.
Stations
All operating locations were officially called "Royal Flying Corps Station name". A typical Squadron may have been based at four Stations – an Aerodrome for the HQ, and three Landing Grounds, one per each flight. Stations tended to be named after the local railway station, to simplify the administration of rail travel warrants.
Typically a training airfield consisted of a grass square. There were three pairs plus one single hangar, constructed of wood or brick, x in size. There were up to 12 canvas Bessonneau hangars as the aircraft, constructed from wood, wire and fabric, were liable to weather damage. Other airfield buildings were typically wooden or Nissen huts.
Landing Grounds were often L-shaped, usually arrived at by removing a hedge boundary between two fields, and thereby allowing landing runs in two directions of . Typically they would be manned by only two or three airmen, whose job was to guard the fuel stores and assist any aircraft which had occasion to land. Accommodation for airmen and pilots was often in tents, especially on the Western Front. Officers would be billeted to local country houses, or commandeered châteaux when posted abroad, if suitable accommodation had not been built on the Station.
Landing Grounds were categorised according to their lighting and day or night capabilities:
First Class Landing Ground – Several buildings, hangars and accommodation.
Second Class Landing Ground – a permanent hangar, and a few huts.
Third Class Landing Ground – a temporary Bessonneau hangar
Emergency (or Relief) Landing Ground – often just a field, activated by telephone call to the farmer, requesting he move any grazing animals out.
Night Landing Grounds would be lit around the perimeter with gas lights and might have a flarepath laid out in nearby fields.
Stations that were heavily used or militarily important grew by compulsorily purchasing extra land, changing designations as necessary. Aerodromes would often grow into sprawling sites, due to the building of headquarters/administration offices, mess buildings, fuel and weapon stores, wireless huts and other support structures as well as the aircraft hangarage and repair facilities. Narborough and Marham both started off as Night Landing Grounds a few miles apart. One was an RNAS Station, the other RFC. Narborough grew to be the largest aerodrome in Britain at with of buildings including seven large hangars, seven motorised transport (MT) garages, five workshops, two coal yards, two Sergeants' Messes, three dope sheds and a guardhouse. Marham was . Both these Stations are now lost beneath the present RAF Marham. Similarly, Stations at Easton-on-the-Hill and Stamford merged into modern day RAF Wittering although they are in different counties.
Canada
The Royal Flying Corps Canada was established by the RFC in 1917 to train aircrew in Canada. Air Stations were established in southern Ontario at the following locations:
Camp Borden 1917–1918
Armour Heights Field 1917–1918 (pilot training, School of Special Flying to train instructors)
Leaside Aerodrome 1917–1918 (Artillery Cooperation School)
Long Branch Aerodrome 1917–1918
Curtiss School of Aviation (flying-boat station with temporary wooden hangar on the beach at Hanlan's Point on Toronto Island 1915–1918; main school, airstrip and metal hangar facilities at Long Branch)
Camp Rathbun, Deseronto 1917–1918 (pilot training)
Camp Mohawk (now Tyendinaga (Mohawk) Airport) 1917–1918 – located at the Tyendinaga Indian Reserve (now Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory) near Belleville 1917–1918 (pilot training)
Hamilton (Armament School) 1917–1918
Beamsville Camp (School of Aerial Fighting) 1917–1918 – located at 4222 Saan Road in Beamsville, Ontario; hangar remains and property now used by Global Horticultural Incorporated
Other locations
St-Omer, France 1914–1918 (headquarters) – now Saint-Omer-Wizernes Airport and site of British Air Services Memorial
Ismailia, Egypt (training – No. 57 TS, 32 (Training) Wing HQ) – now Al Ismailiyah Air Base
Aboukir, Egypt 1916–1918 (training – No. 22 TS & No. 23 TS, 20 (Training) Wing HQ)
Abu Sueir, Egypt 1917–1918 (training – No. 57 TS & No. 195 TS) – now Abu Suwayr Air Base, also used by RAF during World War II
El Ferdan, Egypt (training – No. 17 TDS)
El Rimal, Egypt 1917–1918 (training – No. 19 TDS) – later as RAF El Amiriya and now abandoned (after World War II)
Camp Taliaferro, North Texas, USA 1917–1918 (training) – sites now either residential development or commercial/industrial parks
First World War
The RFC was also responsible for the manning and operation of observation balloons on the Western front. When the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) arrived in France in August 1914, it had no observation balloons and it was not until April 1915 that the first balloon company was on strength, albeit on loan from the French Aérostiers. The first British unit arrived 8 May 1915, and commenced operations during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Operations from balloons thereafter continued throughout the war. Highly hazardous in operation, a balloon could only be expected to last a fortnight before damage or destruction. Results were also highly dependent on the expertise of the observer and was subject to the weather conditions.
To keep the balloon out of the range of artillery fire, it was necessary to locate the balloons some distance away from the front line or area of military operations. However, the stable platform offered by a kite-balloon made it more suitable for the cameras of the day than an aircraft.
For the first half of the war, as with the land armies deployed, the French air force vastly outnumbered the RFC, and accordingly did more of the fighting. Despite the primitive aircraft, aggressive leadership by RFC commander Hugh Trenchard and the adoption of a continually offensive stance operationally in efforts to pin the enemy back led to many brave fighting exploits and high casualties – over 700 in 1916, the rate worsening thereafter, until the RFC's nadir in April 1917 which was dubbed 'Bloody April'.
This aggressive, if costly, doctrine did however provide the Army General Staff with vital and up-to-date intelligence on German positions and numbers through continual photographic and observational reconnaissance throughout the war.
1914–15: Initial actions with the British Expeditionary Force
At the start of the war, numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 Squadrons were equipped with aeroplanes. No. 1 Squadron had been equipped with balloons but all these were transferred to the Naval Wing in 1913; thereafter No. 1 Squadron reorganised itself as an 'aircraft park' for the British Expeditionary Force. The RFC's first casualties were before the Corps even arrived in France: Lt Robert R. Skene and Air Mechanic Ray Barlow were killed on 12 August 1914 when their (probably overloaded) plane crashed at Netheravon on the way to rendezvous with the rest of the RFC near Dover. Skene had been the first Englishman to perform a loop in an aeroplane.
On 13 August 1914, 2, 3, and 4 squadrons, comprising 60 machines, departed from Dover for the British Expeditionary Force in France and 5 Squadron joined them a few days later. The aircraft took a route across the English Channel from Dover to Boulogne, then followed the French coast to the Bay of the Somme and followed the river to Amiens. When the BEF moved forward to Maubeuge the RFC accompanied them. On 19 August the Corps undertook its first action of the war, with two of its aircraft performing aerial reconnaissance. The mission was not a great success; to save weight each aircraft carried a pilot only instead of the usual pilot and observer. Because of this, and poor weather, both of the pilots lost their way and only one was able to complete his task.
On 22 August 1914, the first British aircraft was lost to German fire. The crew—pilot Second Lieutenant Vincent Waterfall and observer Lt. Charles George Gordon Bayly, of 5 Squadron—flying an Avro 504 over Belgium, were killed by infantry fire. Also on 22 August 1914, Captain L E O Charlton (observer) and his pilot, Lieutenant Vivian Hugh Nicholas Wadham, made the crucial observation of the 1st German Army's approach towards the flank of the British Expeditionary Force. This allowed the BEF Commander-in-Chief Field Marshal Sir John French to realign his front and save his army around Mons.
Next day, the RFC found itself fighting in the Battle of Mons and two days after that, gained its first air victory. On 25 August, Lt C. W. Wilson and Lt C. E. C. Rabagliati forced down a German Etrich Taube, which had approached their aerodrome while they were refuelling their Avro 504. Another RFC machine landed nearby and the RFC observer chased the German pilot into nearby woods. After the Great Retreat from Mons, the Corps fell back to the Marne where in September, the RFC again proved its value by identifying von Kluck's First Army's left wheel against the exposed French flank. This information was significant as the First Army's manoeuvre allowed French forces to make an effective counter-attack at the Battle of the Marne.
Sir John French's (the British Expeditionary Force commander) first official dispatch on 7 September included the following: "I wish particularly to bring to your Lordships' notice the admirable work done by the Royal Flying Corps under Sir David Henderson. Their skill, energy, and perseverance has been beyond all praise. They have furnished me with most complete and accurate information, which has been of incalculable value in the conduct of operations. Fired at constantly by friend and foe, and not hesitating to fly in every kind of weather, they have remained undaunted throughout. Further, by actually fighting in the air, they have succeeded in destroying five of the enemy's machines."
Markings
Early in the war RFC aircraft were not systematically marked with any national insignia. At a squadron level, Union Flag markings in various styles were often painted on the wings (and sometimes the fuselage sides and/or rudder). However, there was a danger of the large red St George's Cross being mistaken for the German Eisernes Kreuz (iron cross) marking, and so of RFC aircraft being fired upon by friendly ground forces. By late 1915, therefore, the RFC had adopted a modified version of the French cockade (or roundel) marking, with the colours reversed (the blue circle outermost). In contrast to usual French practice, the roundel was applied to the fuselage sides as well as the wings. To minimise the likelihood of "friendly" attack, the rudders of RFC aircraft were painted to match the French, with the blue, white and red stripes – going from the forward (rudder hingeline) to aft (trailing edge) – of the French tricolour. Later in the war, a "night roundel" was adopted for night flying aircraft (especially Handley Page O/400 heavy bombers), which omitted the conspicuous white circle of the "day" marking.
Roles and responsibilities
Wireless telegraphy
Later in September, 1914, during the First Battle of the Aisne, the RFC made use of wireless telegraphy to assist with artillery targeting and took aerial photographs for the first time.
Photo-reconnaissance
From 16,000 feet a photographic plate could cover some of front line in sharp detail. In 1915 Lieutenant-Colonel JTC Moore-Brabrazon designed the first practical aerial camera. These semi-automatic cameras became a high priority for the Corps and photo-reconnaissance aircraft were soon operational in numbers with the RFC. The camera was usually fixed to the side of the fuselage, or operated through a hole in the floor. The increasing need for surveys of the western front and its approaches, made extensive aerial photography essential. Aerial photographs were exclusively used in compiling the British Army's highly detailed 1:10,000 scale maps introduced in mid-1915. Such were advances in aerial photography that the entire Somme Offensive of July–November 1916 was based on the RFC's air-shot photographs.
Artillery observation
One of the initial and most important uses of RFC aircraft was observing artillery fire behind the enemy front line at targets that could not be seen by ground observers. The fall of shot of artillery fire were easy enough for the pilot to see, providing he was looking in the right place at the right time; apart from this the problem was communicating corrections to the battery.
Development of procedures had been the responsibility of No 3 Squadron and the Royal Artillery in 1912–13. These methods usually depended on the pilot being tasked to observe the fire against a specific target and report the fall of shot relative to the target, the battery adjusted their aim, fired and the process was repeated until the target was effectively engaged. One early communication method was for the flier to write a note and drop it to the ground where it could be recovered but various visual signalling methods were also used. This meant the pilots had to observe the battery to see when it fired and see if it had laid out a visual signal using white marker panels on the ground.
The Royal Engineers' Air Battalion had pioneered experiments with wireless telegraphy in airships and aircraft before the RFC was created. Unfortunately the early transmitters weighed 75 pounds and filled a seat in the cockpit. This meant that the pilot had to fly the aircraft, navigate, observe the fall of the shells and transmit the results by morse code by himself. Also, the wireless in the aircraft could not receive. Originally only a special Wireless Flight attached to No. 4 Squadron RFC had the wireless equipment. Eventually this flight was expanded into No. 9 Squadron under Major Hugh Dowding. However, in early 1915 the Sterling lightweight wireless became available and was widely used. In 1915 each corps in the BEF was assigned a RFC squadron solely for artillery observation and reconnaissance duties. The transmitter filled the cockpit normally used by the observer and a trailing wire antenna was used which had to be reeled in prior to landing.
The RFC's wireless experiments under Major Herbert Musgrave, included research into how wireless telegraphy could be used by military aircraft. However, the most important officers in wireless development were Lieutenants Donald Lewis and Baron James in the RFC HQ wireless unit formed in France in September 1914. They developed both equipment and procedures in operational sorties.
An important development was the Zone Call procedure in 1915. By this time maps were 'squared' and a target location could be reported from the air using alphanumeric characters transmitted in Morse code. Batteries were allocated a Zone, typically a quarter of a mapsheet, and it was the duty of the RFC signallers on the ground beside the battery command post to pick out calls for fire in their battery's Zone. Once ranging started the airman reported the position of the ranging round using the clock code, the battery adjusted their firing data and fired again, and the process was repeated until the pilot observed an on-target or close round. The battery commander then decided how much to fire at the target.
The results were mixed. Observing artillery fire, even from above, requires training and skill. Within artillery units, ground observers received mentoring to develop their skill, which was not available to RFC aircrew. There were undoubtedly some very skilled artillery observers in the RFC, but there were many who were not and there was a tendency for 'optimism bias' – reported on-target rounds that weren't. The procedures were also time-consuming.
The ground stations were generally attached to heavy artillery units, such as Royal Garrison Artillery Siege Batteries, and were manned by RFC wireless operators, such as Henry Tabor. These wireless operators had to fend for themselves as their squadrons were situated some distance away and they were not posted to the battery they were colocated with. This led to concerns as to who had responsibility for them and in November 1916 squadron commanders had to be reminded "that it is their duty to keep in close touch with the operators attached to their command, and to make all necessary arrangements for supplying them with blankets, clothing, pay, etc" (Letter from Headquarters, 2nd Brigade RFC dated 18 November 1916 – Public Records Office AIR/1/864)
The wireless operators' work was often carried out under heavy artillery fire in makeshift dug-outs. The artillery batteries were important targets and antennas were a lot less robust than the guns, hence prone to damage requiring immediate repair. As well as taking down and interpreting the numerous signals coming in from the aircraft, the operator had to communicate back to the aircraft by means of cloth strips laid out on the ground or a signalling lamp to give visual confirmation that the signals had been received. The wireless communication was one way as no receiver was mounted in the aircraft and the ground station could not transmit. Details from:
By May 1916, 306 aircraft and 542 ground stations were equipped with wireless.
Covert operations
An unusual mission for the RFC was the delivery of spies behind enemy lines. The first mission took place on the morning of 13 September 1915 and was not a success. The plane crashed, the pilot and spy were badly injured and they were both captured (two years later the pilot, Captain T.W. Mulcahy-Morgan escaped and returned to England). Later missions were more successful. In addition to delivering the spies the RFC was also responsible for keeping them supplied with the carrier pigeons that were used to send reports back to base. In 1916 a Special Duty Flight was formed as part of the Headquarters Wing to handle these and other unusual assignments.
Aerial bombardment
The obvious potential for aerial bombardment of the enemy was not lost on the RFC, and despite the poor payload of early war aircraft, bombing missions were undertaken. Front line squadrons (at the prompting of the more inventive pilots) devised several methods of carrying, aiming and dropping bombs. Lieutenant Conran of No 3 Squadron attacked an enemy troop column by dropping hand grenades over the side of his cockpit; the noise of the grenades caused the horses to stampede. At No 6 Squadron, Captain Louis Strange managed to destroy two canvas-covered trucks with home-made petrol bombs.
In March 1915 a bombing raid was flown, with Captain Strange flying a modified Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c, to carry four 20 lb Cooper bombs on wing racks released by pulling a cable fitted in the cockpit. Attacking Courtrai railway station. Strange approached from low level and hit a troop train causing 75 casualties. The same day Captain Carmichael of No 5 Squadron dropped a 100 lb bomb from a Martinsyde S1 on the railway junction at Menin. Days later, Lieutenant William Barnard Rhodes-Moorhouse of No 2 Squadron was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross after bombing Courtrai station in a BE2c.
In October 1917 No 41 Wing was formed to attack strategic targets in Germany. Consisting of No 55 Squadron (Airco DH.4), No 100 (Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2b) and No 16 (Naval) Squadron (Handley Page 0/100) the wing was based at Ochey commanded by Lt Colonel Cyril Newall. Its first attack was on Saarbrücken on 17 October with 11 DH-4s and a week later nine Handley Page O/100s carried out a night attack against factories in Saarbrücken, while 16 F.E.2bs bombed railways nearby. Four aircraft failed to return. The wing was expanded with the later addition of Nos 99 and 104 Squadrons, both flying the DH-4 into the Independent Air Force.
Ground attack—army support
Aircraft were increasingly engaged in ground attack operations as the war wore on, aimed at disrupting enemy forces at or near the front line and during offensives. While formal tactical bombing raids were planned and usually directed at specific targets, ground-attack was usually carried out by individual pilots or small flights against targets of opportunity. Although the fitted machine guns were the primary armament for ground attack, bomb racks holding 20 lb Cooper bombs were soon fitted to many single-seat aircraft. Ground attack sorties were carried out at very low altitude and were often highly effective, in spite of the primitive nature of the weaponry involved, compared with later conflicts. The moral effect on ground troops subjected to air attack could even be decisive. Such operations became increasingly hazardous for the attacking aircraft, as one hit from small arms fire could bring an aircraft down and troops learned deflection shooting to hit relatively slow moving enemy aeroplanes.
During the Battle of Messines in June 1917, Trenchard ordered the British crews to fly low over the lines and strafe all available targets. Techniques for Army and RFC co-operation quickly evolved and improved and during the Third Battle of Ypres over 300 aircraft from 14 RFC squadrons, including the Sopwith Camel, armed with four 9 kg (20 lb) bombs, constantly raided enemy trenches, troop concentrations, artillery positions and strongholds in co-operation with tanks and infantry.
The cost to the RFC was high, with a loss rate of ground attack aircraft approaching 30 per cent. The first British production armoured type, the Sopwith Salamander, did not see service during the First World War.
Home defence
In the UK the RFC Home Establishment was not only responsible for training air and ground crews and preparing squadrons to deploy to France, but providing squadrons for home defence, countering the German Zeppelin raids and later Gotha raids. The RFC (and the Royal Naval Air Service) initially had limited success against the German raids, largely through the problem of locating the attackers and having aircraft of sufficient performance to reach the operating altitude of the German raiders.
With the bulk of the operational squadrons engaged in France few could be spared for home defence in the UK. Therefore, training squadrons were called on to supply home defence aircraft and aircrews for the duration of the war. Night flying and defence missions were often flown by instructors in aircraft deemed worn-out and often obsolete for front-line service, although the pilots selected as instructors were often among the most experienced in the RFC.
The RFC officially took over the role of Home Defence in December 1915 and at that time had 10 permanent airfields. By December 1916 there were 11 RFC home defence squadrons:
Saint-Omer
As the war moved into the period of the mobile warfare commonly called the Race to the Sea, the Corps moved forward again. On 8 October 1914 the RFC arrived in Saint-Omer and a headquarters was established at the aerodrome next to the local race course. Over the next few days the four squadrons arrived and for the next four years Saint-Omer was a focal point for all RFC operations in the field. Although most squadrons only used Saint-Omer as a transit camp before moving on to other locations, the base grew in importance as it increased its logistic support to the RFC.
Trenchard in command in France
Hugh Trenchard was the commander of the Royal Flying Corps in France from August 1915 until January 1918. Trenchard's time in command was characterised by three priorities. First was his emphasis on support to and co-ordination with ground forces. This support started with reconnaissance and artillery co-ordination and later encompassed tactical low-level bombing of enemy ground forces. While Trenchard did not oppose the strategic bombing of Germany in principle, he opposed moves to divert his forces on to long-range bombing missions as he believed the strategic role to be less important and his resource to be too limited. Secondly, he stressed the importance of morale, not only of his own airmen, but more generally the detrimental effect that the presence of an aircraft had upon the morale of opposing ground troops. Finally, Trenchard had an unswerving belief in the importance of offensive action. Although this belief was widely held by senior British commanders, the RFC's offensive posture resulted in the loss of many men and machines and some doubted its effectiveness.
1916–1917
Before the Battle of the Somme the RFC mustered 421 aircraft, with 4 kite-balloon squadrons and 14 balloons. These made up four brigades, which worked with the four British armies. By the end of the Somme offensive in November 1916, the RFC had lost 800 aircraft and 252 aircrew killed (all causes) since July 1916, with 292 tons of bombs dropped and 19,000 Recce photographs taken.
As 1917 dawned the Allied Air Forces felt the effect of the German Air Force's increasing superiority in both organisation and equipment (if not numbers). The recently formed Jastas, equipped with the Albatros fighter, inflicted very heavy losses on the RFC's obsolescent aircraft, culminating in Bloody April, the nadir of the RFC's fortunes in World War I.
To support the Battle of Arras beginning on 9 April 1917, the RFC deployed 25 squadrons, totalling 365 aircraft, a third of which were fighters (scouts). The British lost 245 aircraft with 211 aircrew killed or missing & 108 as prisoners of war. The German Air Services lost just 66 aircraft from all causes.
By the summer of 1917, the introduction of the next generation of technically advanced combat aircraft (such as the SE5, Sopwith Camel and Bristol Fighter) ensured losses fell and damage inflicted on the enemy increased.
Close support and battlefield co-operation tactics with the British Army were further developed by November 1917, when low-flying fighter aircraft co-operated highly effectively with advancing columns of tanks and infantry during the Battle of Cambrai.
1917 saw 2,094 RFC aircrew killed in action or missing.
Italy
The disastrous defeat of the Italian Army by Austro-Hungarian and German forces in the Battle of Caporetto led to the transfer of 3 RFC Sopwith Camel fighter squadrons (28, 45 and 66), two two-seater squadrons (34 and 42, with RE8s) and No. 4 Balloon Wing to the Italian Front in November 1917. No. 139 Squadron (Bristol Fighters) were added in July 1918.
Other theatres of operations
RFC Squadrons were also deployed to the Middle East and the Balkans. In July 1916 the Middle-East Brigade of the RFC was formed under the command of Brigadier General W G H Salmond, concentrating RFC units based in Macedonia, Mesopotamia, Palestine and East Africa under one unified command.
In the Middle East units had to make do with older, often obsolete equipment before being given more modern aircraft. The Palestine Brigade of the RFC was formed in October 1917 to support General Allenby's ground offensive against the Ottomans in Palestine.
Despite their relatively small numbers the RFC gave valuable assistance to the Army in the eventual defeat of Ottoman forces in Palestine, Trans Jordan and Mesopotamia (Iraq).
1918
The German Offensive in March 1918 was an all-out effort to win the war before the German economy collapsed from the pressures exerted on it by the Royal Navy's blockade and the strains of war In the weeks following the launch of the attack, RFC crews flew unceasingly, with all types of aircraft bombing and strafing ground forces, often from extremely low level, meantime also bringing back vital reports of the fluid ground fighting.
The RFC contributed significantly to slowing the German advance and ensuring the controlled retreat of the Allied Armies did not turn into a rout. The battle reached its peak on 12 April, when the newly formed RAF dropped more bombs, and flew more missions than any other day during the war. The cost of halting the German advance was high however, with over 400 aircrew killed and 1000 aircraft lost to enemy action.
Amalgamation with the RNAS
On 17 August 1917, General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the 'devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale', he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy. Pilots were seconded to the RFC from other regiments and could return when they were no longer able to fly but in a separate service this would be impossible. The formation of the new service would make underused RNAS resources available for the Western Front, as well as ending the inter-service rivalry that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form the Royal Air Force, under the control of a new Air Ministry. After starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel.
Recruitment and training
Many pilots were initially seconded to the RFC from their original regiments by becoming an observer. Some RFC ground crew (often NCO's or below) also volunteered for these flying duties as they then received supplementary flying pay. There was no formal training for observers until 1917 and many were sent on their first sortie with only a brief introduction to the aircraft from the pilot. Once certified as fully qualified the observer was awarded the coveted half-wing brevet. Once awarded this could not be forfeited so it essentially amounted to a decoration. Originally in the RFC, as in most early air forces, the observer was nominally in command of the aircraft with the pilot having the role of a "chauffeur". In practice, this was reversed at an early stage in the RFC, so that the pilot normally commanded the aircraft. Most operational two seaters of the period did not have dual controls (an exception was the F.K. 8), so that the death or incapacity of the pilot normally meant an inevitable crash – but nonetheless many observers gained at least rudimentary piloting skills, and it was very common for experienced observers to be selected for pilot training.
Applicants for aircrew generally entered the RFC as a cadet via the depot pool for basic training. The cadet would then generally pass on to the School of Military Aeronautics at either Reading or Oxford. Following this period of theoretical learning the cadet was posted to a Training Squadron, either in the UK or overseas.
Colonel Robert Smith-Barry, a former CO of 60 Squadron, appalled at the poor standard of newly trained pilots and high fatality rate during training in 1915–16, formulated a comprehensive curriculum for pilot training, and with the agreement of Trenchard, returned to the UK to implement his training ethos at Gosport in 1917. The immediate effect was to halve fatalities in training.
The curriculum was based on a combination of classroom theory and dual flight instruction. Students were not to be discouraged from potentially dangerous manoeuvres but were exposed to them in a controlled environment so that the student could learn to safely rectify errors of judgement.
Dual flying training usually weeded out those not suitable for flying training (approximately 45% of the initial class intake) before the remaining cadets were taught in the air by an instructor ( initially a 'tour-expired' pilot sent for a rest from an operational squadron in France, without any specific training on how to instruct). After flying 10 to 20 hours dual instruction, the pupil would be ready to 'go solo'.
In May 1916 pilots under instruction were further trained for fighting in the air. Schools of Special Flying were set up at Turnberry, Marske, Sedgeforth, Feiston, East Fortune and Ayr, where finished pilots could simulate combat flying under the supervision of veteran instructors.
During 1917 experienced pilots were redeployed from the Sinai and Palestine campaign to set up a new flying school and train pilots in Egypt and staff another in Australia. Seven Training Squadrons were eventually established in Egypt at five Training Depot Stations.
In 1917, the American, British, and Canadian Governments agreed to join forces for training. Between April 1917 and January 1919, Camp Borden in Ontario hosted instruction on flying, wireless, air gunnery and photography, training 1,812 RFC Canada pilots and 72 for the United States. Training also took place at several other Ontario locations.
During winter 1917–18, RFC instructors trained with the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps on three airfields in the United States accommodating about six thousand men, at Camp Taliaferro near Fort Worth, Texas. Training was hazardous; 39 RFC officers and cadets died in Texas. Eleven remain there, reinterred in 1924 at a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery where a monument honours their sacrifice.
As the war drew on the RFC increasingly drew on men from across the British Empire including South Africa, Canada and Australia. As well as individual personnel, the separate Australian Flying Corps (AFC) deployed Nos 1, 2, 3 and 4 Squadrons AFC (which the RFC referred to as 67, 68, 69 and 71 Squadrons). Over 200 Americans joined the RFC before the United States became a combatant. Eventually Canadians made up nearly a third of RFC aircrew.
Although as the war progressed and training became far safer, by the end of the war, some 8,000 had been killed while training or in flying accidents.
Parachutes
Parachuting from balloons and aircraft, with very few accidents, had been a popular "stunt" for several years before the war. In 1915 inventor Everard Calthrop offered the RFC his patented parachute. On 13 January 1917, Captain Clive Collett, a New Zealander, made the first British military parachute jump from a heavier-than-air craft. The jump, from 600 feet, was successful but although parachutes were issued to the crews of observation balloons, the higher authorities in the RFC and the Air Board were opposed to the issuing of parachutes to pilots of heavier-than-air craft. It was felt at the time that a parachute might tempt a pilot to abandon his aircraft in an emergency rather than continuing the fight. The parachutes of the time were also heavy and cumbersome, and the added weight was frowned upon by some experienced pilots as it adversely affected aircraft with already marginal performance. It was not until 16 September 1918 that an order was issued for all single-seater aircraft to be fitted with parachutes, and this did not eventuate until after the war.
End of the war
At the end of the war there were 5,182 pilots in service (constituting 2% of total RAF personnel). In comparison, the casualties from the RFC/RNAS/RAF for 1914–18 totalled 9,378 killed or missing, with 7,245 wounded. Some 900,000 flying hours on operations were logged, and 6,942 tons of bombs dropped. The RFC claimed some 7,054 German aircraft and balloons either destroyed, sent 'down out of control' or 'driven down'.
Eleven RFC members received the Victoria Cross during the First World War. Initially the RFC did not believe in publicising the victory totals and exploits of their aces. Eventually, however, public interest and the newspapers' demand for heroes led to this policy being abandoned, with the feats of aces such as Captain Albert Ball raising morale in the service as well as on the "home front". More than 1000 airmen are considered as "aces" (see List of World War I flying aces from the British Empire). However, the British criteria for confirming air victories were much lower compared to those from Germany or France and do not meet modern standards (see Aerial victory standards of World War I).
For a short time after the formation of the RAF, pre-RAF ranks such as Lieutenant, Captain and Major continued to exist, a practice which officially ended on 15 September 1919. For this reason some early RAF memorials and gravestones show ranks which no longer exist in the modern RAF. A typical example is James McCudden's grave, though there are many others.
Commanders and personnel
Commanders
The following had command of the RFC in the Field:
Major General Sir David Henderson, 5 August 191422 November 1914
Colonel F H Sykes, 22 November 191420 December 1914
Major General Sir David Henderson, 20 December 191419 August 1915
Brigadier General, later Major General, H M Trenchard, 25 August 19153 January 1918
Major General J M Salmond, 18 January 19184 January 1919 (General Officer Commanding the RAF in the Field from 1 April)
The following served as chief of staff for the RFC in the Field:
Colonel Frederick Sykes 5 August 191422 November 1914
Post vacant
Colonel Frederick Sykes 20 December 191426 May 1915
Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Brooke-Popham 26 May 191512 March 1916
Brigadier General Philip Game 19 March 191614 October 1918 (RAF in the Field from 1 April)
Some members of the RFC
Militarily prominent
Alfred Atkey – high scoring ace
Albert Ball, VC – high scoring ace with 44 victories
William George Barker – high scoring ace
Billy Bishop, VC – first or second (see also Edward Mannock, below) highest scoring British Empire flying ace of World War I
Donald Cunnell – high scoring ace
Hugh Dowding – later commander of RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain
Tryggve Gran – Norwegian ace 1916–21; had been member of Scott's 1910–13 Antarctic Expedition; first to fly across the North Sea, 1914
Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris ("Bomber" Harris) – later commander of RAF Bomber Command
H.D. Harvey-Kelly, No.2 Squadron – first RFC pilot to land in France at the outbreak of the First World War
Lanoe Hawker VC, DSO – first British ace, killed in action by the "Red Baron" Manfred von Richthofen
Jeejeebhoy Piroshaw Bomanjee Jeejeebhoy – first Indian pilot
Air Marshal George Owen Johnson CB, MC RCAF
Trafford Leigh-Mallory – later head of Fighter Command
Donald MacLaren – high scoring ace
James McCudden VC – high scoring ace with 57 victories
George McElroy – high scoring ace
Edward Mannock VC – although his score is disputed, often acknowledged as the first or second highest scoring British Empire ace
John Moore-Brabazon, 1st Lord Brabazon of Tara – later Minister of Aircraft Production under Winston Churchill
Eric Moxey – Captain in the RFC, later Squadron Leader in an RAF Special Duties squadron where he was killed at Biggin Hill and posthumously awarded the first George Cross of World War II
Keith Park – commander of Nº11 Group, Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain
Noel Stephen Paynter – later chief intelligence officer of RAF Bomber Command
Sir Charles Portal – Chief of Air Staff throughout most of the Second World War
Indra Lal Roy, DFC – first Indian ace, and the first Indian pilot to receive the DFC
Henry Tizard – scientist and inventor, chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee 1933–44
Hugh Trenchard – commander of RFC and later Chief of the Air Staff
Otherwise prominent
Vernon Castle, ballroom dancer
Sir Jack Cohen, founder of the Tesco supermarket chain
O. G. S. Crawford, later Archaeology Officer of the Ordnance Survey
Air Vice-Marshal Sir William Cushion, RAF and BOAC
Charles Galton Darwin F.R.S., grandson of Charles Darwin
Karl Brooks Heisey, mining engineer and executive
Jack Hobbs, cricketer
W. E. Johns, author of the Biggles books
John Lennard-Jones, scientist
Cecil Lewis, author of Sagittarius Rising
Francis Peabody Magoun, Military cross winner 1918 and Harvard professor
Oswald Mosley, founder of the British Union of Fascists
Malcolm Nokes, Olympic medal winner, schoolmaster and scientist
Mick O'Brien, footballer
Cuthbert Orde, war artist noted for portraits of Battle of Britain pilots
Phelps Phelps, 38th Governor of American Samoa and United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic
Sir Charles Kingsford Smith, Australian aviation pioneer, first to cross the Pacific Ocean in 1928 using Fokker trimotor monoplane Southern Cross. First to cross the Atlantic Ocean west to east. First to cross the Tasman Sea also using the Southern Cross. He also set many records for flying solo between England and Australia and vice versa.
Robert Smith-Barry, systematised the training of pilots and set up a formal curriculum of flying training (the "Gosport System") that was subsequently taken up worldwide
William Stephenson, head of British Security Coordination during the Second World War. Played key role in formation of the CIA. The first non-US citizen to receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
George Morgan Trefgarne, 1st Baron Trefgarne
Hubert Williams (1895–2002), last surviving Royal Flying Corps pilot. In 1995 on his 100th birthday he was allowed to take over the controls of a Concorde flying to New York.
William Young (1900–2007), last surviving veteran of the Royal Flying Corps
Fictional representations of the RFC
Novels and short stories
Winged Victory (1934) by Victor M Yeates, a First World War pilot. Sought after by Battle of Britain pilots for its authentic descriptions of aerial warfare. Published by Jonathan Cape.
The Biggles series (1932–1999): a series of youth-oriented novels and short story collections by W. E. Johns, an RFC veteran
The Bandy Papers (1962–2005): a series of novels by Donald Jack chronicling the exploits of a fighter ace, Bartholomew Wolfe Bandy
Goshawk Squadron (1971) and its prequels, by Derek Robinson
The Bloody Red Baron (1995): the second novel of the alternate-history Anno Dracula series by Kim Newman, which primarily follows the exploits of a unit of the RFC and their enemy rivals
Phoenix and Ashes (2004): a fantasy novel by Mercedes Lackey
Across the Blood-Red Skies (2010), by Robert Radcliffe
Film and TV
Hell's Angels (1930): a film directed by Howard Hughes, starring Jean Harlow
The Dawn Patrol (1938): a film directed by Edmund Goulding, starring Errol Flynn, Basil Rathbone and David Niven (a remake of a 1930 original).
"The Last Flight" (1960): an episode of The Twilight Zone TV series
Aces High (1976): a film directed by Jack Gold, starring Malcolm McDowell, Christopher Plummer and Simon Ward
Wings (1977–78): a BBC TV series
"Private Plane" (1989): an episode of the Blackadder TV series
Games
Battlefield 1
Songs
The Hymn of Hate (1918)
See also
Army Air Corps
Canadian Aviation Corps
Royal Canadian Naval Air Service
Australian Flying Corps
Union Defence Force
South African Aviation Corps
List of aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps
List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons
British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I
Notes
References
Reprinted in 1971.
External links
Royal Engineers Museum Origins of the Royal Flying Corps/Royal Air Force
Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Aeronautics
Army Air Corps
RAF Museum
The Museum of Army Flying
https://web.archive.org/web/20050702075751/http://www.wwiaviation.com/toc.shtml
http://www.spartacus-educational.com/FWWRFC.htm
http://www.acepilots.com/wwi/br_mccudden.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20070224071857/http://www.airforce.forces.ca/16wing/heritage/hist1_e.asp
Bermudian Great War Aviators
Silhouettes of Aeroplanes and Airships (RFC handbook, 1916)
RFC Wireless Operator's diary from 1916 Battle of the Somme
1912 establishments in the United Kingdom
Aviation history of the United Kingdom
Military units and formations disestablished in 1918
Military units and formations established in 1912
Disbanded air forces | [
0.8316861987113953,
0.16717533767223358,
0.2347339242696762,
-0.43675681948661804,
-0.4448539912700653,
0.06796660274267197,
0.226170614361763,
-0.09311727434396744,
-0.39443469047546387,
-0.053669653832912445,
-0.6812331080436707,
0.07605662941932678,
-0.3811700642108917,
0.20976701378822327,
-0.2922302782535553,
0.17415690422058105,
-0.07337342202663422,
0.24542225897312164,
0.807963490486145,
-0.6785593628883362,
-0.4686616063117981,
0.1976245641708374,
-0.5034860372543335,
-0.2141447365283966,
0.3955528736114502,
0.1225779578089714,
0.2754644453525543,
0.18013271689414978,
0.32588979601860046,
-0.2883493900299072,
0.5919414162635803,
-0.34160885214805603,
0.047541938722133636,
-0.34957021474838257,
-0.34242141246795654,
-0.34130731225013733,
-0.313355028629303,
-0.2863127887248993,
-0.08492381870746613,
-1.045242190361023,
-0.27951565384864807,
-0.10537145286798477,
0.4316054880619049,
0.01562708057463169,
-0.2311612069606781,
-0.03338843211531639,
-0.9858224987983704,
0.5285047292709351,
0.36791548132896423,
0.5953353047370911,
-0.1783740520477295,
0.5461414456367493,
0.20645637810230255,
-0.16481685638427734,
0.2766879200935364,
0.3999834954738617,
-0.5521726608276367,
-0.0907076969742775,
-0.3652552664279938,
-0.2536350190639496,
0.4209948778152466,
0.35438841581344604,
0.4125472903251648,
0.38908761739730835,
0.5076555013656616,
-0.6002599596977234,
0.05496172234416008,
0.1719663441181183,
-0.048224616795778275,
-0.18343083560466766,
0.4981032907962799,
-0.08553986996412277,
0.010912000201642513,
-0.07719610631465912,
-0.44227150082588196,
-0.6462742686271667,
0.49746736884117126,
0.1389600783586502,
0.44635921716690063,
0.14638075232505798,
0.7806733250617981,
0.06148161366581917,
0.12638866901397705,
0.2633047103881836,
0.07483676075935364,
0.5341571569442749,
-1.1584641933441162,
-0.4039096236228943,
-0.4551316499710083,
0.1646362841129303,
0.0008766742539592087,
-0.10168338567018509,
0.38756701350212097,
-0.3297051787376404,
-0.10759230703115463,
-0.12221037596464157,
0.021286368370056152,
0.22934436798095703,
-0.20211274921894073,
-0.5825746655464172,
-0.03419611603021622,
0.31254303455352783,
0.3680512607097626,
-0.14554622769355774,
-0.6725724935531616,
0.27691325545310974,
-0.40336763858795166,
-0.5500138401985168,
-0.4619120657444,
0.2162739783525467,
-0.26654085516929626,
-0.8546499013900757,
-0.07726816833019257,
0.26143404841423035,
-0.24681469798088074,
-0.14611685276031494,
0.26688092947006226,
-0.1691415160894394,
0.1611444652080536,
0.22842061519622803,
-0.5811552405357361,
0.9302035570144653,
-0.22296616435050964,
0.10896586626768112,
-0.6539379358291626,
0.5661993026733398,
0.4849622845649719,
-0.030939599499106407,
-0.7354544401168823,
-0.7620642781257629,
0.4756219983100891,
1.2831600904464722,
-0.9434823989868164,
-0.29599693417549133,
-0.10218531638383865,
-0.23026178777217865,
0.14206892251968384,
-0.14137166738510132,
-0.04484006389975548,
0.47212937474250793,
-0.5758247971534729,
-0.3047146797180176,
-0.08351829648017883,
0.23062510788440704,
0.030365947633981705,
-0.2910141944885254,
0.07155334949493408,
-0.4876713454723358,
-0.33923569321632385,
-0.7318060994148254,
-0.12717343866825104,
-0.2620587944984436,
-0.24909791350364685,
0.17165055871009827,
0.04629667475819588,
0.07341513782739639,
0.6264259219169617,
-0.004700078628957272,
0.6349756717681885,
0.04201085492968559,
0.03681271895766258,
-0.08266925811767578,
0.07683037966489792,
0.5158326625823975,
0.16985604166984558,
0.1962445229291916,
-0.2435317188501358,
0.13379524648189545,
-0.3571525812149048,
0.08457793295383453,
-0.6171095967292786,
-0.42937061190605164,
0.395135760307312,
0.2616012692451477,
-0.5778166055679321,
0.2034943401813507,
0.871405303478241,
-0.005007545463740826,
0.5518351197242737,
-0.0321202389895916,
-0.3563203811645508,
0.6603567600250244,
-0.06870002299547195,
-0.1792486160993576,
0.19554397463798523,
0.2534247040748596,
0.3440459370613098,
-0.4032907783985138,
-0.2747935652732849,
0.08755116164684296,
-0.16527964174747467,
-0.7194375991821289,
0.1418410986661911,
-0.8892855048179626,
1.433250069618225,
-0.09797001630067825,
-0.2114943265914917,
0.371003657579422,
-0.4425511360168457,
0.6382387280464172,
0.36230170726776123,
0.05605615675449371,
0.4301239252090454,
-0.3096392750740051,
-0.000044809250539401546,
-0.0037761973217129707,
0.4136177599430084,
0.2814025282859802,
0.005207542330026627,
0.068929024040699,
0.2884378731250763,
0.06678814440965652,
-0.11622682958841324,
-0.033603060990571976,
0.35971349477767944,
-0.29399606585502625,
-0.724270224571228,
0.37363728880882263,
-0.3117488920688629,
-0.44293487071990967,
0.10614115744829178,
-0.2492668479681015,
-0.039666660130023956,
0.18843795359134674,
0.508989691734314,
-0.12818913161754608,
0.4520399868488312,
-0.008984982967376709,
-0.09447291493415833,
-0.6073326468467712,
0.3142496943473816,
-0.04405182972550392,
-0.4535132050514221,
0.12218579649925232,
0.03797021880745888,
-0.04255504533648491,
0.31903690099716187,
-0.04275842756032944,
-0.23954589664936066,
-0.15666493773460388,
-0.036818720400333405,
-0.2599402964115143,
-0.5040833950042725,
0.18504926562309265,
-0.5532311797142029,
0.31093543767929077,
0.08303941041231155,
0.22929061949253082,
0.06669175624847412,
-0.292900413274765,
-0.03227108344435692,
0.4266962707042694,
0.4368370771408081,
-0.3520751893520355,
0.03572933375835419,
-0.1666332185268402,
0.3766861855983734,
-0.03750474005937576,
0.4141201972961426,
0.1843426376581192,
-0.2655049264431,
0.10272970795631409,
0.19427691400051117,
0.47258907556533813,
0.08871298283338547,
-0.5952979326248169,
-1.0555051565170288,
-0.3755478858947754,
0.7255841493606567,
0.2807155251502991,
0.5214596390724182,
-0.17279788851737976,
0.46295589208602905,
0.12428995221853256,
0.26133257150650024,
-0.10231421142816544,
0.1024087518453598,
0.19676373898983002,
-0.5847448110580444,
-0.28410327434539795,
0.11806759983301163,
0.3033272922039032,
0.11155952513217926,
-0.5152254700660706,
-0.13947422802448273,
0.03724759444594383,
-0.006250328384339809,
-0.19818657636642456,
0.14074347913265228,
-0.12563464045524597,
-0.4721619784832001,
0.3873773217201233,
-0.18717004358768463,
0.3077237904071808,
-0.33275336027145386,
-0.16871877014636993,
-0.13282163441181183,
0.11596827954053879,
-0.10499565303325653,
-0.447715163230896,
-0.562038242816925,
1.0197832584381104,
-0.2835772931575775,
-0.27778321504592896,
0.04908137023448944,
-0.049291666597127914,
-0.13649071753025055,
-0.029016869142651558,
-5.902194976806641,
-0.027586545795202255,
-0.34276920557022095,
0.02271139807999134,
0.11242352426052094,
-0.08739688247442245,
-0.3194449245929718,
-0.4788174033164978,
-0.1364891529083252,
-0.557869553565979,
0.2093687206506729,
-0.004357460420578718,
0.2927311956882477,
0.3692125380039215,
0.35307577252388,
0.269044429063797,
0.35404467582702637,
-0.20025178790092468,
0.35003194212913513,
0.5907375812530518,
0.023616177961230278,
-0.05121640861034393,
0.5553497076034546,
0.4516172707080841,
0.01676594838500023,
-0.2005227655172348,
-0.07936052232980728,
0.1345706284046173,
-0.2704496681690216,
-0.08821763843297958,
0.17538993060588837,
-0.22278477251529694,
0.6533746123313904,
-0.43731653690338135,
-0.18837855756282806,
-0.5259628891944885,
0.7180294394493103,
0.5244397521018982,
0.07287774980068207,
-0.09870198369026184,
-0.0662483423948288,
-0.09146716445684433,
-0.504499614238739,
-0.29786965250968933,
0.23154981434345245,
-0.3648299276828766,
-0.21037594974040985,
0.32357507944107056,
-0.042264629155397415,
0.4332823157310486,
0.32000207901000977,
0.35266998410224915,
0.4264962375164032,
-0.5996987223625183,
-0.14639796316623688,
-0.41105085611343384,
-0.17441844940185547,
-0.2294411063194275,
-0.050546444952487946,
-0.10990765690803528,
-0.02720740996301174,
-0.33304473757743835,
-0.15103067457675934,
0.055847685784101486,
-0.15016326308250427,
-0.0040429262444376945,
-0.4212550222873688,
0.06976189464330673,
0.39176711440086365,
0.03597218170762062,
0.18020017445087433,
0.5555837750434875,
-0.045055244117975235,
-0.6098788976669312,
-0.04020916670560837,
-0.6710629463195801,
0.7252550721168518,
-0.03787633031606674,
0.3790161907672882,
0.3065957725048065,
0.3596780598163605,
-0.27087754011154175,
0.1431698054075241,
0.01634514331817627,
0.0335860438644886,
-0.5228082537651062,
-0.19021949172019958,
0.18902674317359924,
0.07819395512342453,
0.060118868947029114,
0.5278706550598145,
-0.19156450033187866,
0.5034106373786926,
0.6821948885917664,
0.40414753556251526,
-0.4643787741661072,
0.3206717371940613,
0.09552206099033356,
0.23598788678646088,
-0.0009190259734168649,
0.07290924340486526,
0.5522869825363159,
0.286691814661026,
-0.38906607031822205,
-0.26805180311203003,
-0.6419935822486877,
0.05928995460271835,
0.02888859063386917,
0.3455899953842163,
-0.26892945170402527,
-0.19665180146694183,
-0.5242553949356079,
-0.2105850726366043,
-0.07803503423929214,
-0.5142605900764465,
-0.523735761642456,
-0.00735100032761693,
0.015153386630117893,
0.16911810636520386,
0.06171279400587082,
-0.5532150864601135,
0.1411104053258896,
-0.17407386004924774,
-0.05883552134037018,
-0.3533075749874115,
0.34272557497024536,
-0.10250874608755112,
-0.34940823912620544,
0.20820675790309906,
-0.07763797044754028,
0.03187131881713867,
0.2627582252025604,
0.046950068324804306,
0.6677671670913696,
0.24918313324451447,
-0.13001373410224915,
-0.38723304867744446,
0.3543315529823303,
0.6724328994750977,
0.008924697525799274,
0.030654719099402428,
0.3024871051311493,
0.31749311089515686,
0.07087436318397522,
0.7984560132026672,
0.22799386084079742,
-0.2994794547557831,
-0.48881611227989197,
0.46704402565956116,
0.25266233086586,
0.2757674753665924,
-0.3395210802555084,
0.26848435401916504,
0.19793909788131714,
-0.3066742420196533,
-0.47856730222702026,
-0.17574414610862732,
-0.1331297904253006,
-0.008958754129707813,
-0.6400589346885681,
-0.22380204498767853,
-0.3196735084056854,
-0.6462150812149048,
-0.507194459438324,
0.7864177227020264,
0.10001715272665024,
-0.42813873291015625,
-0.08305808156728745,
0.020303303375840187,
0.027059346437454224,
-0.2817758619785309,
-0.7022896409034729,
-0.5605421662330627,
0.17683377861976624,
0.1361120194196701,
0.5769428014755249,
-0.47110870480537415,
-0.40479499101638794,
-0.23898275196552277,
0.06451728940010071,
-0.2202911674976349,
0.06089993566274643,
-0.26096993684768677,
-0.16457514464855194,
-0.07378699630498886,
-0.21714024245738983,
0.19067372381687164,
-0.35684704780578613,
0.11897121369838715,
0.021458471193909645,
0.06783746927976608,
-0.3434194326400757,
0.35300853848457336,
0.1785852611064911,
-0.8417841196060181,
-0.001566751510836184,
-0.36109066009521484,
0.6339033246040344,
-0.11609547585248947,
-0.16614055633544922,
0.4223334789276123,
0.2103625237941742,
-0.08548617362976074,
-0.3951908051967621,
-0.05633525922894478,
0.19716620445251465,
-0.09025974571704865,
-0.00680362107232213,
-0.31054604053497314,
0.43753179907798767,
-0.1925710290670395,
-0.7498127222061157,
0.15598276257514954,
0.27189138531684875,
-0.49656036496162415,
0.19361241161823273,
-0.11541465669870377,
0.5464046001434326,
-0.16380974650382996,
-0.3825705647468567,
-0.1421910524368286,
0.3847602605819702,
-0.4810123145580292,
-0.1116098165512085,
-0.8568549752235413,
0.31311550736427307,
0.21426428854465485,
-0.3366604745388031,
0.1832677274942398,
-0.04398056119680405,
-0.24058382213115692,
0.00034555469756014645,
-0.23344407975673676,
-0.0799785777926445,
0.28586170077323914,
-0.0898636132478714,
0.3312550187110901,
0.02834053710103035,
0.1722424030303955,
-0.039557065814733505,
0.3675990700721741,
1.096299648284912,
0.07389141619205475,
-0.14913475513458252,
0.2743484079837799,
0.540030837059021,
0.7326464056968689,
-0.778709888458252,
-0.1511993110179901,
0.039928168058395386,
0.2308986485004425,
0.10475940257310867,
-0.44354212284088135,
0.543885350227356,
-0.07734141498804092,
0.23357011377811432,
-0.20021860301494598,
0.22557364404201508,
-0.13095875084400177,
-0.06543532758951187,
0.43005236983299255,
0.623349130153656,
-0.11816632002592087,
0.04076513648033142,
0.4073300063610077,
0.3321093022823334,
-0.6962891221046448,
-0.4768886864185333,
0.01288306713104248,
-0.4457642436027527,
0.9021483063697815,
0.2861306369304657,
-0.21022893488407135,
0.5637851357460022,
0.834176242351532,
0.10564407706260681,
-0.08876464515924454,
-0.17149873077869415,
0.8171049356460571,
0.08408180624246597,
-0.49753275513648987,
-0.17353911697864532,
0.2987586557865143,
-0.29630470275878906,
0.17171165347099304,
-1.314262866973877,
0.06801743805408478,
0.7439462542533875,
0.266277939081192,
0.23359142243862152,
0.14345023036003113,
-0.13268308341503143,
-0.27131086587905884,
0.42963171005249023,
-0.073734812438488,
-0.29804572463035583,
-0.6804875135421753,
0.34791049361228943,
0.6778377890586853,
0.3226724863052368,
-0.6588292121887207,
0.05584198981523514,
0.045968614518642426,
-0.4085756242275238,
-0.35979557037353516,
0.34412312507629395,
0.01942075975239277,
-0.6430509686470032,
-0.41873934864997864,
0.17764978110790253,
0.429087370634079,
-0.8803883194923401,
-0.20765803754329681,
0.15273089706897736,
-0.3153133690357208,
-0.23961655795574188,
0.3523600697517395,
-0.3427845239639282,
0.3672514855861664,
-0.075306236743927,
-0.5254665613174438,
0.5203102231025696,
0.10700459778308868,
-0.06526214629411697,
-0.7560077905654907,
0.26973220705986023,
-0.2758830785751343,
0.06539788097143173,
-0.230057954788208,
-0.22406792640686035,
0.4158284068107605,
-0.0800093561410904,
-0.38541120290756226,
1.3044743537902832,
-0.18529388308525085,
-0.4093741774559021,
0.417537122964859,
-1.0056568384170532,
0.10915564745664597,
0.38915202021598816,
1.0017764568328857,
-0.05461819842457771,
0.18452297151088715,
-0.2109965831041336,
0.13413842022418976,
0.538916289806366,
0.5581539869308472,
0.15442080795764923,
0.3218495845794678,
0.4982878267765045,
0.32801875472068787,
0.3873179852962494,
0.5747022032737732,
-0.020706696435809135,
0.07223150879144669,
-0.3099091947078705,
0.04544005170464516,
-0.05899546295404434,
0.4846741855144501,
-0.19247516989707947,
-0.5487973093986511,
0.35115912556648254,
0.08358894288539886,
-0.26624712347984314,
-0.12252607196569443,
0.475055992603302,
1.0086009502410889,
-0.36697497963905334,
0.2953976094722748,
0.4158872961997986,
-0.21381083130836487,
0.41121211647987366,
-0.3675691783428192,
-0.4909001886844635,
-0.6730625033378601,
-0.22259511053562164,
0.6267017722129822,
0.6444458365440369,
0.34267428517341614,
-0.49202877283096313,
0.262279748916626,
-0.05986228957772255,
-0.015555400401353836,
-0.9542188048362732,
-0.04735628515481949,
-0.5198367238044739,
-0.5275722742080688,
-0.17494292557239532,
0.1142992228269577,
-0.11801150441169739,
0.039838340133428574,
-0.8381037712097168,
-0.33151775598526,
-0.033737946301698685,
-0.1750973016023636,
0.06656761467456818,
-0.14527271687984467,
0.5343262553215027,
1.07974112033844,
-0.40880611538887024,
-0.07532338052988052,
0.48564061522483826,
-0.1332286149263382,
-0.5004376769065857,
0.2249087244272232,
0.32567429542541504,
0.01673884317278862,
-0.7170034646987915,
0.06991911679506302,
0.5349915623664856,
0.24946725368499756,
0.3072313368320465,
0.049357034265995026,
0.678806483745575,
-0.3545610010623932,
-0.10646016895771027,
0.9147613644599915,
-0.4618081748485565,
-0.07832791656255722,
-0.056027479469776154,
-0.06845731288194656,
0.3813425898551941,
0.17079700529575348,
-0.05474576726555824,
-0.1901402622461319,
-0.12306717783212662,
-0.174446240067482,
0.10438212752342224,
0.2089042067527771,
0.692451536655426,
-0.5442172288894653,
-0.4601897895336151,
-0.6068735122680664,
-0.4219916760921478,
-0.5491637587547302,
-0.4252301752567291,
0.4512551724910736,
0.5063443183898926,
0.1272810399532318,
-0.2346518188714981,
-0.01889854297041893,
0.1260877102613449,
0.3732486665248871,
-0.09054621309041977,
0.6899834275245667,
0.05914158746600151,
0.1436099112033844,
0.02508251741528511,
-0.4651258587837219,
0.3536229431629181,
-0.0571950264275074,
0.0211432296782732,
0.3772824704647064,
-0.5871009230613708,
-0.07579759508371353,
-0.02183966152369976,
0.07709982991218567,
0.19461354613304138,
-0.12152760475873947,
0.45664045214653015
] |
233682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Greek%20phrases | List of Greek phrases |
Αα
(h)a
Ageōmétrētos mēdeìs eisítō.
"Let no one untrained in geometry enter."
Motto over the entrance to Plato's Academy (quoted in Elias' commentary on Aristotle's Categories: Eliae in Porphyrii Isagogen et Aristotelis categorias commentaria, CAG XVIII.1, Berlin 1900, p. 118.13–19).
Aeì Libýē phérei ti kainón.
"Libya always bears something new", Aristotle, Historia Animalium.
Compare Latin Ex Africa semper aliquid novi "From Africa always something new", Pliny.
Aeì koloiòs parà koloiôi hizánei.
"A jackdaw is always found near a jackdaw"
Similar to English "birds of a feather flock together."
Aei ho theos geōmetreî.
"God always geometrizes" — Plato
Plutarch elaborated on this phrase in his essay Πῶς Πλάτων ἔλεγε τὸν θεὸν ἀεί γεωμετρεῖν "What is Plato’s meaning when he says that God always applies geometry". Based on the phrase of Plato, above, a present-day mnemonic for π (pi) was derived:
Aeì ho theòs ho mégas geōmetreî tò sýmpan.
Always the great God applies geometry to the universe
Aetoû gêras, korydoû neótēs.
"An eagle's old age (is worth) a sparrow's youth".
aièn aristeúein
“Ever to Excel“
Motto of the University of St Andrews (founded 1410), the Edinburgh Academy (founded 1824), and Boston College (founded 1863). The source is the sixth book of Homer's Iliad, (Iliad 6. 208) in a speech Glaucus delivers to Diomedes:
"Hippolocus begat me. I claim to be his son, and he sent me to Troy with strict instructions: Ever to excel, to do better than others, and to bring glory to your forebears, who indeed were very great ... This is my ancestry; this is the blood I am proud to inherit."
aika.
"If."
Plutarch reports that Phillip II of Macedon sent word to the Spartans, saying that "if I should invade Laconia, I shall drive you out" (ἂν ἐμβάλω εἰς τὴν Λακωνικήν, ἀναστάτους ὑμᾶς ποιήσω). The Spartans laconically responded with "if."
Anánkāi d'oudè theoì mákhontai.
"Not even the gods fight necessity" — Simonides, 8, 20.
allá ti ēi moi taúta perí drun ē perí pétrēn.
"But why all this about oak or stone?"
English : Why waste time on trivial subjects, or "Why make a mountain out of a mole hill?"
Hesiod, Theogony, 35.
Andrôn gàr epiphanôn pâsa gê táphos.
For illustrious men have the whole earth for their tomb. Pericles' Funeral Oration from Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 2.43.3
Anerrhíphthō kýbos.
Alea iacta est.
Latin: "The die has been cast"; Greek: "Let the die be cast."
Julius Caesar as reported by Plutarch, when he entered Italy with his army in 49 BC. Translated into Latin by Suetonius as alea iacta est.
Ánthrōpos métron.
"Man [is] the measure [of all things]"
Motto of Protagoras (as quoted in Plato's Theaetetus 152a).
Hápax legómenon.
"Once said"
A word that only occurs once.
Apò mēkhanês Theós
Deus ex machina
"God from the machine"
The phrase originates from the way deity figures appeared in ancient Greek theaters, held high up by a machine, to solve a problem in the plot.
Apò toû hēlíou metástēthi
"Stand a little out of my sun"
Legendary reply of Diogenes the Cynic when Alexander the Great asked him if he had any wish he desired to fulfil — version recounted by Plutarch
Áriston mèn hýdōr.
"Greatest however [is] water" — Pindar, Olymp. 1, 1
Used as the inscription over the Pump Room at Bath.
autòs épha
Ipse dixit
"He himself said it"
Argument from authority made by the disciples of Pythagoras when appealing to the pronouncements of the master rather than to reason or evidence. The Latin translation of the phrase comes from Marcus Tullius Cicero in De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods)
Ββ
b
Basileía tôn ouranôn
"kingdom of the heavens"
"Heaven" is a foundational theological concept in Christianity and Judaism.
"God's Kingdom" (Βασιλεία τοῦ Θεοῦ, Basileia tou Theou), or the "Kingdom of [the] Heaven[s]" was the main point of Jesus Christ's preaching on earth. The phrase occurs more than a hundred times in the New Testament.
Bellerophóntēs tà grámmata
"Bellerophontic letter"
King Proetus dared not to kill a guest, so he sent Bellerophon to King Iobates, his father-in-law, bearing a sealed message in a folded tablet: "Pray remove the bearer from this world: he attempted to violate my wife, your daughter."
Brôma theôn
"Food of the gods"
Allegedly said by Nero of the poisoned mushrooms with which his mother Agrippina the Younger murdered Claudius.
Γγ
g
Gēraskō d' aíeí pollâ didaskómenos.
"I grow old always learning many things."
Solon the Athenian, one of the seven Sages of Greece, on learning.
Glaûk’ Athḗnaze / eis Athḗnas
"Owls (Athenian drachmas) to Athens" — Aristophanes, The Birds, 302, also in 1106
E.g., coals to Newcastle, ice to the Eskimos.
Gnôthi seautón.
"Know thyself"
Aphorism inscribed over the entrance to the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
Górdios desmós
"Gordian Knot"
The Gordian Knot is a legend associated with Alexander the Great. It is often used as a metaphor for an intractable problem, solved by a bold stroke
Δδ
d
Deîmos kaì Phóbos
"Horror and Fear"
Deimos and Phobos, the moons of Mars, are named after the sons of the Greek god Ares (Roman Mars): Deimos "horror" and Phobos "fear".
Déspota, mémneo tôn Athēnaíōn.
"Master, remember the Athenians."
When Darius was informed that Sardis had been captured and burnt by the Athenians he was furious. He placed an arrow on his bow and shot it into the sky, praying to the deities to grant him vengeance on the Athenians. He then ordered one of his servants to say three times a day the above phrase in order to remind him that he should punish the Athenians.
Diaírei kaì basíleue.
"Divide and rule."
Diploûn horôsin hoi mathóntes grámmata.
"Those who know the letters see double [twice as much as those who don't]."
Attributed to Pythagoras. — Inscription in Edinburgh from 1954:
Δ
Dôs moi pâ stô, kaì tàn gân kīnā́sō.
"Give me somewhere to stand, and I will move the earth".
Archimedes as quoted by Pappus of Alexandria, Synagoge, Book VIII.
Εε
(h)e
Ean ēis philomathēs, esei polymathēs
"If you are fond of learning, you will soon be full of learning"
Isocrates, To Demonicus 18
Heîs oiōnòs áristos, amýnesthai perì pátrēs
"There is only one omen, to fight for one's country"
The Trojan prince Hector to his friend and lieutenant Polydamas when the latter was superstitious about a bird omen. The omen was an eagle that flew with a snake in its talons, still alive and struggling to escape. The snake twisted backward until it struck the bird on the neck, forcing the eagle to let the snake fall.
Ek tôn hôn ouk áneu
Sine qua non
"Without things which [one can]not [be] without"
Hellḗnōn promachoûntes Athēnaîoi Marathôni chrysophórōn Mḗdōn estóresan dýnamin
Fighting in the forefront of the Hellenes, the Athenians at Marathon brought low the Medes' gilded power.
Epigram by Simonides on the tomb of the Athenians who died in the Battle of Marathon.
Hèn oîda hóti oudèn oîda
"I know one thing, that I know nothing"
Socrates, paraphrased from Plato's Apology.
Enthen mén Skýllē, hetérōthi de dîa Charubdis
"On one side lay Scylla and on the other divine Charybdis"
Odysseus was forced to choose between Scylla and Charybdis, two mythical sea monsters, an expression commonly known as Between Scylla and Charybdis.
Epeì d' oûn pántes hósoi te peripoloûsin phanerôs kaì hósoi phaínontai kath' hóson àn ethélōsin theoì génesin éskhon, légei pròs autoùs ho tóde tò pân gennḗsas táde
"When all of them, those gods who appear in their revolutions, as well as those other gods who appear at will had come into being, the creator of the universe addressed them the following" — Plato, Timaeus, 41a, on gods and the creator of the universe.
Heúrēka!
"I have found [it]!"
While Archimedes was taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water rose as he got in, and he realized that the volume of water displaced must be equal to the volume of the part of his body he had submerged. This meant that the volume of irregular objects could be measured with precision, a previously intractable problem. He was so excited that he ran through the streets naked and still wet from his bath, crying "I have found it!".
Ζζ
Zôion dípoun ápteron
"two-legged featherless animal"
Plato's definition of humans, latinized as "Animal bipes implume"
To criticize this definition, Diogenes the Cynic plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy saying:
Oûtós estin o Plátōnos ánthrōpos
"Here is Plato's man."
In response, Plato added to his definition:
Platyṓnychon
"Having broad nails"
As quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers
Zôion politikòn
"Man is by nature a political animal", i.e. animal of the polis or social being
Aristotle, Politics, book 1:
Ηη
(h)ē
Ḕ tā̀n ḕ epì tâs
"Either [with] it [your shield], or on it"
Meaning "either you will win the battle, or you will die and then be carried back home on your shield".
It was said by Spartan mothers to their sons before they went out to battle to remind them of their bravery and duty to Sparta and Greece.
A hoplite could not escape the field of battle unless he tossed away the heavy and cumbersome shield. Therefore, "losing one's shield" meant desertion. (Plutarch, Moralia, 241)
Hē phýsis oudèn poieî hálmata.
Natura non facit saltus.
"Nature does not make [sudden] jumps."
A principle of natural philosophies since Aristotle's time, the exact phrase coming from Carl von Linné.
Êlthon, eîdon, eníkēsa.
Veni, vidi, vici.
"I came, I saw, I conquered."
With these words, Julius Caesar described his victory against Pharnaces, according to Plutarch.
Θθ
th
Thálassa kaì pŷr kaì gynḗ, kakà tría.
"Sea and fire and woman, three evils."
Thálatta, thálatta.
“The Sea! The Sea!“
Thalatta! Thalatta! from Xenophon's Anabasis. It was the shouting of joy when the roaming 10,000 Greeks saw Euxeinos Pontos (the Black Sea) from Mount Theches (Θήχης) in Armenia after participating in Cyrus the Younger's failed march against Persian Empire in the year 401 BC.
Thánatos oudèn diaphérei tou zên.
"Death is no different than life."
Thales' philosophical view to the eternal philosophical question about life and death.
Ιι
(h)i
Iatré, therápeuson seautón.
"Physician, take care of yourself!"
"Medice cura te ipsum."
An injunction urging physicians to care for and heal themselves first before dealing with patients. It was made famous in the Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate. The proverb was quoted by Jesus, recorded in the Gospel of Luke chapter 4:23. Luke the Evangelist was a physician.
Iēsoûs Khristòs Theoû Hyiòs Sōtḗr
"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." As an acronym: ΙΧΘΥΣ (Ichthys) — "fish".
Iskhýs mou hē agápē toû laoû.
"The people's love [is] my strength.“
Motto of the Royal House of Glücksburg.
Ikhthỳs ek tês kephalês ózein árkhetai.
"A fish starts to stink from the head."
Greek equivalent of the English phrase "A fish rots from the head down"; attested in fifteenth century CE Paroemiae of Michael Apostolius Paroemiographus.
Κκ
k, c
Kaì sỳ téknon?
"You too, child?" or "You too, young man?"
On March 15, 44 BC, Julius Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Marcus Junius Brutus, a senator and Caesar's adopted son. Suetonius (in De Vita Caesarum, LXXXII) reported that some people thought that, when Caesar saw Brutus, he spoke those words and resigned himself to his fate. Among English speakers, much better known are the Latin words Et tu, Brute?, which William Shakespeare gave to Caesar in his play, Julius Caesar (act 3, scene 1,85). This means simply "You too, Brutus?"
Kakodaimonistai
"Worshippers of the evil deamon"
The name of a dining club in ancient Athens ridiculing Athenian tradition and the gods.
Kakoû kórakos kakòn ōón.
"From a bad crow, a bad egg"
I.e. like father, like son.
Kakòs anḕr makróbios
"A bad man lives long"
Kallístēi
"For the prettiest one", "To the most beautiful"
From the myth of the Golden Apple of Discord.
Kátthane, Diagóra, ou kaì es Ólympon anabḗsē.
"Die, Diagoras — you will certainly not ascend Olympus."
A Spartan spectator to Diagoras of Rhodes, a former Olympic champion himself, during the 79th Olympiad, when his two sons became Olympic champions and carried him around the stadium on their shoulders.
Krêtes aeì pseûstai
"Cretans always lie" — One of the earliest logical paradoxes attributed to Epimenides of Knossos known as the Epimenides paradox. As Epimenides is a Cretan himself, it leads to the conclusion that the above statement is not true, hence the paradox.
ktêma es aeí
"possession for eternity" (Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.22; "κτῆμά τε ἐς αἰεὶ [ktêma te es aieí]" in the original).
Kýrie eléēson
"Lord have mercy" — a very common phrase in Greek Orthodox liturgies, and also used in Greek in the Roman Catholic Mass.
Λλ
l
Láthe biṓsas
"Live hidden"
An Epicurean phrase, because of his belief that politics troubles men and doesn't allow them to reach inner peace. So Epicurus suggested that everybody should live "Hidden" far from cities, not even considering a political career. Cicero criticized this idea because, as a stoic, he had a completely different opinion of politics, but the sentiment is echoed by Ovid's statement bene qui latuit bene vixit ("he has lived well who has stayed well hidden", Tristia 3.4.25). Plutarch elaborated in his essay Is the Saying "Live in Obscurity" Right? () 1128c.
Légein tà legómena
Prodenda, quia prodita or Relata refero
"I tell as I was told" or "I report reports"
From Herodotus (7,152 etc.):
Egṑ dè opheílō légein tà legómena, peíthesthaí ge mèn ou pantápasi opheílō.
And I must tell what I am told, since I don't have to be persuaded completely.
Μμ
m
Mataiótes mataiotéton, tá pánta mataiótes.
"Vanity of vanities, and everything is vanity."
Métron áriston
"Moderation is best"
On occasions where neither too much nor too little is a good choice, as when eating or celebrating. Cleobulus, according to Diogenes Laërtius.
Mḕ moû toùs kúklous táratte.
"Do not disturb my circles."
The last words attributed to Archimedes (paraphrased from Valerius Maximus' Memorable Doings and Sayings). During the raid of Syracuse by the Romans, Archimedes was busy drawing mathematical circles. He was eventually attacked and killed by a Roman soldier as he was too engrossed in thought to obey the soldier’s orders.
Mḕ kheíron béltiston.
"The least bad [choice] is the best."
The lesser of two evils principle known from the Platonean times.
Mēdèn ágan.
"Nothing in excess"
Inscription from the temple of Apollo at Delphi
Mêlon tês Éridos.
"Apple of Discord"
goddess Eris tossed the Apple of Discord "to the fairest". Paris was the judge of the prettiest one.
Mēkéti hydropótei, all' oínōi olígōi khrô dià tòn stómakhon kaì tàs pyknás sou astheneías.
Stop drinking only water, but take a little wine for your stomach and your frequent illnesses.
From I Timothy 5:23
Molṑn labé!
"Come take [them]!"
King Leonidas of Sparta, in response to King Xerxes of Persia's demand that the Greek army lay down their arms before the Battle of Thermopylae.
Mystḗrion tês písteōs
"Mystery of faith", from I Timothy 3:9.
Latinized as Mysterium Fidei is a Christian theological term.
Νν
n
Naì naí, où oú;
"Yes yes, no no;"
Gospel of Matthew, Chapter 5
“33 Again, you have heard that it was said to the people long ago, ‘Do not break your oath, but keep the oaths you have made to the Lord.’ 34 But I tell you, Do not swear at all: either by heaven, for it is God’s throne; 35 or by the earth, for it is his footstool; or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great King. 36 And do not swear by your head, for you cannot make even one hair white or black. 37 Simply let your ‘Yes’ be ‘Yes,’ and your ‘No,’ ‘No’; anything beyond this comes from the evil one."
Nenikḗkamen.
"We have won."
The traditional story relates that the Athenian herald Pheidippides ran the from the battlefield near the town of Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over Persia in the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) with the word 'We have won' and collapsed and died on the spot because of exhaustion.
Nípson anomḗmata mḕ mónan ópsin
"Wash the sins not only the face"
A palindromic inscription attributed to Gregory of Nazianzus, inscribed in Hagia Sophia and on many church fonts. In the Greek alphabet, the /ps/ sound is rendered by the single letter ψ (psi).
Ξξ
x
Xénos ṑn akoloúthei toîs epikhōríois nómois.
"As a foreigner, follow the laws of that country."
Loosely, "Do in Rome as Rome does." Quotation from the works of Menander.
Xýlinon teîkhos
"Wooden defensive wall"
The "walls" of ships during the Persian Wars.
Οο
(h)o
Oînops póntos
"Wine dark sea"
A common Homeric epithet of the sea, on which many articles have been written. (Further: Sea in culture)
(ΟΕΔ)
Hóper édei deîxai. (abbreviated as OED)
"Quod erat demonstrandum"
"what was required to be proved"
Used by early mathematicians including Euclid (Elements, 1.4), Aristotle (APo.90b34), and Archimedes, written at the end of a mathematical proof or philosophical argument, to signify the proof as complete. Later it was latinized as "QED" or the Halmos tombstone box symbol.
Ho sôizōn heautòn sōthētō.
"he who saves himself may be saved"
Used in cases of destruction or calamity, such as an unorderly evacuation. Each one is responsible for himself and is not to wait for any help.
Ou phrontìs Hippokleídēi.
"Hippocleides doesn't care."
From a story in Herodotus (6.129), in which Hippocleides loses the chance to marry Cleisthenes' daughter after getting drunk and dancing on his head. Herodotus says the phrase was a common expression in his own day.
Ouk àn labois parà toû mē ekhontos.
"You can’t get blood out of a stone." (Literally, "You can't take from one who doesn't have.")
Menippus to Charon when the latter asked Menippus to give him an obol to convey him across the river to the underworld.
Oûtis emoí g' ónoma.
"My name is Nobody".
Odysseus to Polyphemus when asked what his name was. (Homer, Odyssey, ix, 366).
Ππ
p
Panta rhei
"All is flux; everything flows" – This phrase was either not spoken by Heraclitus or did not survive as a quotation of his. This famous aphorism used to characterize Heraclitus' thought comes from Simplicius, a Neoplatonist, and from Plato's Cratylus. The word rhei (cf. rheology) is the Greek word for "to stream"; according to Plato's Cratylus, it is related to the etymology of Rhea.
Pántote zeteῖn tḕn alētheian
"ever seeking the truth" — Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers — a characteristic of Pyrrhonism. An abbreviated form, ("seek the truth"), is a motto of the Geal family.
Papaí, Mardónie, koíous ep' ándras ḗgages makhēsoménous hēméas, hoì ou perì khrēmátōn tòn agôna poieûntai allà perì aretês.
"Good heavens! Mardonius, what kind of men have you brought us to fight against? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour."
Spontaneous response of Tigranes, a Persian general while Xerxes was interrogating some Arcadians after the Battle of Thermopylae. Xerxes asked why there were so few Greek men defending the Thermopylae. The answer was "All the other men are participating in the Olympic Games". And when asked "What is the prize for the winner?", "An olive-wreath" came the answer. — Herodotus, The Histories
páthei máthos
"(There is) learning in suffering/experience", or "Knowledge/knowing, or wisdom, or learning, through suffering".
Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 177
The variant πάθος μάθος means "suffering is learning/learning is suffering."
Pêma kakòs geítôn, hósson t' agathòs még' óneiar
"A bad neighbor is a calamity as much as a good one is a great advantage."
Pístis, elpís, agápē
"Faith, hope, (and) love." (1 Corinthians 13:13.)
Pólemos pántōn mèn patḗr esti
"War is the father of all" — Heraclitus
The complete text of this fragment by Heraclitus is: (War is the father of all and the king of all; and some he has made gods and some men, some bond and some free).
Pýx, láx, dáx
"With fists, kicks, and bites"
"with fists", "with kicks", "with bites"
Epigram describing how laypersons were chased away from the Eleusinian Mysteries.
Ρρ
rh
Rhododáktylos Ēṓs
"Rosy-fingered Dawn."
This phrase occurs frequently in the Homeric poems referring to Eos, the Titanic goddess of the dawn. Eos opened the gates of heaven so that Helios could ride his chariot across the sky every day.
Σσ
s
Speûde bradéōs.
"Hasten slowly" (cf. Latin festina lente), "less haste, more speed".
According to Suetonius the phrase "σπεῦδε βραδέως, ἀσφαλὴς γάρ ἐστ᾽ ἀμείνων ἢ θρασὺς στρατηλάτης" was a favorite of Augustus as he often quoted it.
Sỳn Athēnâi kaì kheîra kinei.
"Along with Athena, move also your hand" — predecessor to the English "God helps those who help themselves."
Appears in Aesop's fable "The Shipwrecked Man" (Ἀνὴρ ναυαγός, Perry 30, Chambry 53).
Ττ
t
Tà mén aplanéa tōn astrōn kai tón halion ménein akinēton, tàn dé gân periphéresthai peri tón hálion.
"The fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun" — Archimedes' description of the heliocentric model in his work The Sand Reckoner, based on the work by Aristarchus of Samos.
Tà pánta rheî kaì oudèn ménei.
"Everything flows, nothing stands still."
Attributed to Heraclitus — Plato, in his dialogue Cratylus, recounts Heraclitus' saying:
Tà ónta iénai te pánta kaì ménein oudèn
"[That] things that exist move and nothing remains still", which he expands:
Pánta khōreî kaì oudèn ménei kaì dìs es tòn autòn potamòn ouk àn embaíēs
"All things move and nothing remains still, and you cannot step twice into the same stream".
Tád' estì Pelopónnēsos, ouk Iōnía.
"Here is Peloponnesus, not Ionia" — Inscription written on a pillar erected by Theseus on the Isthmus of Corinth facing toward the West, i.e. toward the Peloponnese.
Tád' oukhì Pelopónnēsos, all' Iōnía.
"Here is not Peloponnesus, but Ionia" — inscription as per above, but toward East, i.e. toward Attica.
Tí dýskolon? Tò heautòn gnônai.
"What is hard? To know thyself." — attributed (among other sages) to Thales, according to Pausanias
Ti estin ho mian ekhon phōnēn tetrapoun kai dipoun kai tripoun ginetai?
"What is that which has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed and three-footed?." — The famous riddle of the Sphinx. Oedipus solved the riddle correctly by answering: “Man: as an infant, he crawls on fours; as an adult, he walks on two legs and; in old age, he uses a walking stick”.
Tí eúkolon? Tò állōi hypotíthesthai.
"What is easy? To advise another." — Thales
Tí kainòn eiē tetheaménos? Géronta týrannon.
"What is the strangest thing to see? "An aged tyrant." — Thales
Tí koinótaton? Elpís. Kaì gàr hoîs állo mēdén, aútē paréstē.
"What is quite common? Hope. When all is gone, there is still hope. Literally: "Because even to those who have nothing else, it is still nearby." — Thales
Tí tákhiston? Noûs. Dià pantòs gàr trékhei.
"What is the fastest? The mind. It travels through everything." — Thales
Tí próteron gegónoi, nùx ē hēméra? núx, miâi hēmérai próteron.
"Which is older, day or night? "Night is the older, by one day." — Thales
Tò gàr hēdý, eàn polý, ou tí ge hēdý.
"A sweet thing tasted too often is no longer sweet."
Tò dìs examarteîn ouk andròs sophoû.
"To make the same mistake twice [is] not [a sign] of a wise man."
Tò peprōménon phygeîn adýnaton.
"It's impossible to escape from what is destined."
Υυ
hy
Hyiòs monogenḗs
"Only-begotten son" From John 3:16 ουτως γαρ ηγαπησεν ο θεος τον κοσμον ωστε υἱὸν αυτου τὸν μονογενῆ ἔδωκεν "For God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son" and see John 1:14
Unigenitus (named for its Latin opening words Unigenitus dei filius, or "Only-begotten son of God") is an apostolic constitution in the form of a papal bull promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713.
Hýsteron próteron
"The latter one first"
Rhetorical device in which the most important action is placed first, even though it happens after the other action. The standard example comes from the Aeneid of Virgil (2.353):
Moriamur, et in media arma ruamus "Let us die, and charge into the thick of the fight".
Φφ
Phoinikḗïa grámmata
"Phoenician letters"
The Phoenician prince Cadmus was generally accredited by Greeks such as Herodotus with the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet several centuries before the Trojan war, circa 2000 BC.
Phroneîn gàr hoi takheîs ouk asphaleîs
"Those who make quick decisions are not safe."
Χχ
Khalepà tà kalá
"The good/beautiful things [are] difficult [to attain]."
"Naught without labor."
"[What is] good/beautiful [is] troublesome."
Cf. Plato, Republic 4, 435c; Hippias Major, 304e
Ψψ
ps
ψυχῆς ἰατρεῖον
Psykhês iatreîon.
"Hospital of the soul"
The Library of Alexandria, also known as the Great Library in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the world.
The phrase is used in reverse as ἰατρεῖον ψυχῆς as a motto for Carolina Rediviva, a university library in Uppsala, and is echoed in the motto of the American Philological Association, "ψυχῆς ἰατρὸς τὰ γράμματα" ("literature is the soul's physician").
Ωω
(h)ō
Ô xeîn’, angéllein Lakedaimoníois hóti têide / keímetha toîs keínōn rhḗmasi peithómenoi.
"Stranger, tell the Spartans that here we lie, obedient to their laws."
Epitaph, a single elegiac couplet by Simonides on the dead of Thermopylae.
Translated by Cicero in his Tusculan Disputations (1.42.101) as «Dic, hospes, Spartae nos te hic vidisse iacentis / dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur» (often quoted with the form iacentes).
See also
English words of Greek origin
Greek language
List of Latin phrases
Notes
External links
Quotations of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece
Greek Phrases, List of
Greek Phrases, List of | [
-0.0008241223986260593,
0.7426558136940002,
-0.2531416416168213,
-0.2539029121398926,
-0.5550890564918518,
0.40314507484436035,
0.7193133234977722,
0.2886938154697418,
-0.30731454491615295,
-0.2105817198753357,
0.046712178736925125,
0.00785192009061575,
-0.1411399096250534,
0.38513004779815674,
0.20288358628749847,
0.5214555859565735,
-0.037857189774513245,
0.6845837831497192,
0.38433757424354553,
-0.3779219090938568,
-0.05797586590051651,
0.11758972704410553,
0.6928235292434692,
-1.01907217502594,
0.15205582976341248,
0.1817726492881775,
0.12332167476415634,
0.06702550500631332,
-0.14486591517925262,
-0.2966764569282532,
-0.12686787545681,
0.7303962111473083,
0.17865677177906036,
-0.11431647837162018,
0.2463371902704239,
-0.1026526689529419,
0.2517588138580322,
-0.2527972161769867,
0.24109973013401031,
-0.4337235391139984,
-0.6552505493164062,
-0.6008967161178589,
0.30568501353263855,
0.20307040214538574,
-0.39865201711654663,
-0.08896978944540024,
-2.0708508491516113,
-0.17692577838897705,
-1.0885552167892456,
-0.04295062646269798,
0.1394047737121582,
-0.41457459330558777,
0.5562254190444946,
0.010865624062716961,
-0.2016221135854721,
0.837223470211029,
-0.8592871427536011,
0.12833544611930847,
0.6075568795204163,
0.4608759582042694,
0.09091047197580338,
0.43080073595046997,
-0.15252450108528137,
0.035886745899915695,
0.6155658960342407,
0.7187116742134094,
-0.4269118309020996,
0.5786920189857483,
-0.9469958543777466,
0.19502559304237366,
-0.14432699978351593,
-0.4401560127735138,
-0.3603140711784363,
0.054096769541502,
-0.17945259809494019,
-0.09123263508081436,
-0.36530572175979614,
0.11598099768161774,
0.32441872358322144,
-0.3687790334224701,
-0.04009136185050011,
-0.06580805778503418,
0.6501100063323975,
-0.025601204484701157,
0.0006804834119975567,
0.3924071192741394,
-0.4368528723716736,
-0.1434442400932312,
-0.5275613069534302,
0.05313635617494583,
0.09471665322780609,
-0.3818517029285431,
0.5570740103721619,
0.3028612434864044,
-0.2186254858970642,
0.4001462757587433,
-0.42966973781585693,
0.31783556938171387,
0.5729027986526489,
0.35012832283973694,
-0.4196743965148926,
-0.17007575929164886,
0.14482036232948303,
-0.2841911017894745,
-0.4786343276500702,
0.217100590467453,
-0.23977525532245636,
-0.13235945999622345,
0.2878895401954651,
-1.4844491481781006,
-0.510009765625,
0.4027651250362396,
0.011398836970329285,
0.19037431478500366,
-0.21999700367450714,
0.20905889570713043,
0.32043781876564026,
0.555164098739624,
-0.5781592726707458,
-0.5466833114624023,
0.049287937581539154,
0.8205354809761047,
0.3026135265827179,
-0.17339777946472168,
0.3502318859100342,
0.6576787233352661,
0.5740635991096497,
0.039216816425323486,
0.04616972804069519,
0.3699433207511902,
0.01743295043706894,
0.6082335114479065,
-0.30836355686187744,
0.20472094416618347,
-0.05705970525741577,
-0.669417142868042,
0.07669110596179962,
0.2155231237411499,
0.23569099605083466,
0.33382391929626465,
-0.6405429840087891,
-0.06348581612110138,
-2.5951197147369385,
0.28889578580856323,
0.036776669323444366,
-0.2015416920185089,
-0.25989922881126404,
0.3718617260456085,
0.23741424083709717,
0.7753828763961792,
0.2765161395072937,
-0.6705002784729004,
-0.1624850630760193,
0.6986360549926758,
-0.13874536752700806,
-0.017538096755743027,
0.5684662461280823,
0.03216201812028885,
0.192546084523201,
0.4893735647201538,
-0.040113456547260284,
-0.1960601657629013,
-0.21294492483139038,
0.035992302000522614,
0.3676601052284241,
-0.06288862973451614,
0.07863259315490723,
-0.04738037288188934,
-0.06262145936489105,
0.14671768248081207,
-0.21997715532779694,
-0.20232880115509033,
0.12083835154771805,
-0.28973373770713806,
-0.48983022570610046,
0.12717095017433167,
0.578163206577301,
-0.07739564031362534,
0.4673563241958618,
0.008058515377342701,
-0.504665732383728,
-0.03005935251712799,
-0.2916204333305359,
-0.4499192237854004,
0.4537840783596039,
0.152687206864357,
0.42970937490463257,
0.3152324855327606,
0.5185040831565857,
0.15228648483753204,
-0.050930414348840714,
-0.46788352727890015,
0.4196597635746002,
-0.574596643447876,
0.6860324144363403,
0.2592749297618866,
-0.6298015117645264,
0.1934843510389328,
0.1550602912902832,
0.29422786831855774,
-0.00987085048109293,
0.009358163923025131,
-0.18409253656864166,
0.21050822734832764,
-0.059460919350385666,
2.147219657897949,
-0.24745984375476837,
0.23418042063713074,
0.49189379811286926,
0.5998324751853943,
0.39591097831726074,
-0.03271567076444626,
0.209528386592865,
-0.5925625562667847,
0.3403705358505249,
-0.27852174639701843,
-0.0814027413725853,
0.28470978140830994,
-0.4188826084136963,
0.19270522892475128,
0.46593227982521057,
-0.7524811625480652,
0.31634658575057983,
-0.16914963722229004,
-0.14162681996822357,
0.24351264536380768,
-0.30500754714012146,
-0.18180854618549347,
0.19961929321289062,
-0.8885514140129089,
0.3756234049797058,
-0.29818686842918396,
0.19663679599761963,
-0.31995025277137756,
0.15010006725788116,
-0.1807021200656891,
-0.029538331553339958,
-0.20607390999794006,
0.1597529500722885,
-0.10290303826332092,
0.14824457466602325,
0.12374355643987656,
-0.23311538994312286,
-0.05903136730194092,
0.11354026943445206,
-0.20962834358215332,
-0.17243744432926178,
0.10408920049667358,
-0.2459753453731537,
-0.08979953080415726,
0.19582152366638184,
-0.40289831161499023,
-0.10256915539503098,
-0.05464039370417595,
-0.3116418123245239,
0.5533908009529114,
-0.011562344618141651,
-0.1729334592819214,
-0.16449293494224548,
-0.35542604327201843,
-0.6031206846237183,
0.3316216766834259,
0.1697675585746765,
-0.19067694246768951,
0.1455720067024231,
-0.013038156554102898,
-0.20761702954769135,
-1.0790773630142212,
0.7195997834205627,
-0.18165604770183563,
0.19242721796035767,
0.09011198580265045,
-0.3843533992767334,
-2.358396530151367,
-0.19472353160381317,
0.22930507361888885,
0.36097636818885803,
0.24009832739830017,
-0.8103715777397156,
-0.22427578270435333,
-0.004649712238460779,
0.6817893385887146,
-0.1320016235113144,
-0.0896928533911705,
-0.013749598525464535,
-0.7665373682975769,
0.5642983913421631,
-0.4239483177661896,
0.058110952377319336,
-0.28974449634552,
-0.26829805970191956,
0.03759825974702835,
-0.565719485282898,
-0.38898977637290955,
0.42979276180267334,
-0.2729739844799042,
-0.2568983733654022,
0.06678455322980881,
0.23822331428527832,
-0.17101933062076569,
-0.4442048966884613,
0.1908164620399475,
-0.3971174657344818,
-0.0030915802344679832,
-0.24489784240722656,
-0.47121840715408325,
-0.0703074038028717,
0.11662819981575012,
-5.000171184539795,
-0.00563274510204792,
-0.47837594151496887,
0.045649200677871704,
-0.03071528859436512,
-0.07414771616458893,
0.6661126613616943,
-0.1758100688457489,
-0.0451042540371418,
-0.051794786006212234,
0.3096773624420166,
-0.02305023744702339,
0.19004154205322266,
0.5936851501464844,
0.18651935458183289,
0.23695719242095947,
0.24457775056362152,
0.09155891835689545,
0.324950635433197,
0.008537170477211475,
0.7108357548713684,
0.7618029713630676,
0.07528451085090637,
0.41665777564048767,
0.15165534615516663,
-0.04035719111561775,
-0.42002931237220764,
0.7561715245246887,
-0.5711218118667603,
-0.147236168384552,
-0.129783496260643,
-0.0150810107588768,
0.05703817307949066,
-0.5325567126274109,
-0.49454161524772644,
-0.028300343081355095,
0.23386766016483307,
0.07165268808603287,
0.06885675340890884,
-0.45821112394332886,
-0.22077764570713043,
0.3005846440792084,
-0.08412178605794907,
-0.11323477327823639,
0.5792096853256226,
0.030744969844818115,
-0.030818568542599678,
-0.3227512538433075,
-0.14081978797912598,
0.5021412968635559,
-0.20134077966213226,
-0.2830175459384918,
1.1899778842926025,
0.5364554524421692,
0.4400387704372406,
0.10578634589910507,
0.37097060680389404,
-0.009781726635992527,
0.4257693886756897,
0.4004344940185547,
0.4755901098251343,
0.008982433006167412,
0.24738648533821106,
-0.9399497509002686,
0.24826142191886902,
-0.4029177725315094,
-0.08245642483234406,
0.18505224585533142,
-0.24809056520462036,
0.2518492341041565,
-0.8381473422050476,
0.20388491451740265,
-0.08718260377645493,
-0.4640789330005646,
0.4930887520313263,
0.05014643445611,
0.20575301349163055,
0.2651914656162262,
0.2248760461807251,
0.1063019335269928,
-0.4897855818271637,
-0.3715072572231293,
-0.16360802948474884,
0.8201180100440979,
0.04116720333695412,
-0.011790042743086815,
-0.21297971904277802,
-0.12727957963943481,
-0.8210101127624512,
-0.20381322503089905,
0.5973612666130066,
0.05313357338309288,
-0.1809176504611969,
0.5548322200775146,
-0.07770269364118576,
0.24478580057621002,
0.526229739189148,
-0.5779665112495422,
1.0008081197738647,
-0.16884317994117737,
0.13170528411865234,
0.11101365089416504,
0.4546574354171753,
0.05194846913218498,
0.09452784806489944,
-0.6849042177200317,
-0.5290608406066895,
0.08498048037290573,
0.04105924814939499,
-0.49911946058273315,
-0.09107587486505508,
0.4487139880657196,
-0.1951688975095749,
0.3991164565086365,
0.3663095235824585,
-0.32490989565849304,
0.07908253371715546,
0.5424219369888306,
0.5119529366493225,
0.2819288671016693,
-0.17572548985481262,
0.6169303059577942,
0.005963565316051245,
-0.4615185260772705,
-0.26530054211616516,
-0.786329984664917,
-0.38280388712882996,
0.272508829832077,
-0.3459462821483612,
0.1184588372707367,
-0.007696669083088636,
0.05821080505847931,
-0.08841362595558167,
-0.6329383850097656,
0.3446239233016968,
-0.43067148327827454,
0.027075620368123055,
0.06924600899219513,
-0.22332067787647247,
-0.9209431409835815,
0.02073213830590248,
-0.8099241256713867,
-0.40623292326927185,
0.6230627298355103,
0.2585981488227844,
0.172261580824852,
0.4761160612106323,
-0.3349735736846924,
-0.4012022018432617,
0.6636561155319214,
0.24705789983272552,
-0.14751218259334564,
0.9725763201713562,
-0.6686944365501404,
-0.1807582527399063,
0.23049883544445038,
0.18064674735069275,
0.19961433112621307,
-0.3341914117336273,
-0.016153346747159958,
0.35574105381965637,
-0.3380134105682373,
-1.0496426820755005,
-0.010498049668967724,
0.2135637104511261,
-0.7254601716995239,
-0.15959103405475616,
0.10371485352516174,
-0.49577808380126953,
0.493153840303421,
-0.06950587779283524,
0.22267049551010132,
-0.3718051612377167,
0.04421002045273781,
0.03129391372203827,
-0.3882092535495758,
-0.039842065423727036,
0.5277890563011169,
-0.08269257843494415,
-0.16161571443080902,
0.25601908564567566,
0.052529796957969666,
0.20965231955051422,
0.42715638875961304,
0.5026909708976746,
-0.017478909343481064,
-0.09818734228610992,
-0.1598919779062271,
-0.3248254656791687,
-0.08011109381914139,
-0.3692685067653656,
0.05854867771267891,
0.189910426735878,
-0.7174490690231323,
-0.2545461058616638,
-0.34362998604774475,
-0.07763426005840302,
0.6127853989601135,
-0.02904633805155754,
-0.1738051474094391,
0.31118521094322205,
0.46830758452415466,
-0.4674825668334961,
0.06262882053852081,
0.11054473370313644,
-0.4193800985813141,
0.6537988781929016,
-0.08841429650783539,
-0.40276139974594116,
-0.03371073678135872,
-0.022970812395215034,
-0.6826393604278564,
-0.32896119356155396,
0.15846596658229828,
-0.42491796612739563,
-0.1496996283531189,
0.30592837929725647,
0.49852538108825684,
-0.3105178475379944,
-0.6472110152244568,
0.8475884199142456,
-0.2962420582771301,
0.0505574606359005,
-0.0511886291205883,
-0.05797941982746124,
0.4766627848148346,
0.28250303864479065,
-0.4070655107498169,
0.25272902846336365,
0.44681528210639954,
0.3672201931476593,
-0.04586826637387276,
0.15467290580272675,
0.13433441519737244,
-0.2864604890346527,
-0.4282800555229187,
-0.6089345216751099,
-0.1792391538619995,
-0.21065019071102142,
0.18725112080574036,
0.03048812970519066,
0.09179992228746414,
0.22265410423278809,
-0.526574432849884,
-0.47319772839546204,
0.3947484791278839,
0.792336642742157,
-0.09930700808763504,
0.021245311945676804,
0.35267966985702515,
-0.03448076173663139,
0.3329561650753021,
-0.7562332153320312,
-0.6792706251144409,
0.8096121549606323,
0.3117327094078064,
0.036184921860694885,
0.04275425523519516,
0.2908165752887726,
0.13249462842941284,
0.09215455502271652,
0.26034441590309143,
-0.4878801703453064,
1.0470949411392212,
-0.43081843852996826,
0.5040192008018494,
-0.40152135491371155,
0.17683181166648865,
0.6770559549331665,
-0.3085937798023224,
-0.5812815427780151,
-0.15131829679012299,
-0.16562923789024353,
0.9758630394935608,
0.0666450709104538,
-0.08937504142522812,
-0.13820825517177582,
-0.2703365087509155,
0.2563548684120178,
0.37069079279899597,
0.41767364740371704,
0.16300782561302185,
-0.008053002879023552,
0.14002510905265808,
0.29253602027893066,
-0.22111168503761292,
-0.4664299190044403,
0.3901989459991455,
-0.13809318840503693,
-0.06677964329719543,
-0.1746937483549118,
0.3943924307823181,
-0.5606622099876404,
0.0815989226102829,
0.049040693789720535,
0.01169995591044426,
0.04712313041090965,
0.07768147438764572,
0.5988655090332031,
-0.5584999322891235,
-0.37918949127197266,
0.2996108829975128,
0.8783446550369263,
-0.09410910308361053,
-0.1879403293132782,
0.3309960663318634,
0.4656304717063904,
-0.25693148374557495,
0.09740408509969711,
0.17967411875724792,
0.2817537486553192,
-0.0841955691576004,
0.34345942735671997,
0.8384896516799927,
0.27887287735939026,
-0.22884127497673035,
0.21557851135730743,
-0.20624211430549622,
-0.30143627524375916,
0.20058009028434753,
0.1395784616470337,
-0.49757054448127747,
0.5024712085723877,
0.011721569113433361,
-0.44935429096221924,
0.26290833950042725,
0.07632094621658325,
-0.40957891941070557,
-0.027943378314375877,
-0.07736895978450775,
0.30597519874572754,
0.22377297282218933,
-0.6259838342666626,
0.28135576844215393,
-0.5056542158126831,
-0.42961767315864563,
-0.20899242162704468,
-0.6275027394294739,
-0.028277838602662086,
0.6582753658294678,
1.0560061931610107,
0.11731743067502975,
0.06838192045688629,
-0.3387652635574341,
0.09800499677658081,
-0.0350373275578022,
-0.5018582940101624,
-0.029737621545791626,
0.08982101082801819,
-0.02519957534968853,
0.15444862842559814,
0.6404861211776733,
0.30554553866386414,
-0.5193824768066406,
0.021436374634504318,
0.24553878605365753,
0.1384623497724533,
-0.2816430628299713,
0.10553694516420364,
-1.7770001888275146,
-0.05884029343724251,
0.1797940731048584,
-0.27622681856155396,
0.18394090235233307,
-0.14478826522827148,
0.018596993759274483,
-0.012403256259858608,
-0.17964038252830505,
-0.03468713536858559,
0.3484095335006714,
0.3115181028842926,
-0.017612015828490257,
-0.15291430056095123,
0.06956327706575394,
0.06994999945163727,
-0.06260412931442261,
0.4369983971118927,
0.21143417060375214,
0.042991071939468384,
-0.6856909990310669,
-0.3841879665851593,
0.14084914326667786,
-0.6435151696205139,
0.1646042764186859,
-0.05096931755542755,
0.23050075769424438,
-0.21935445070266724,
0.24049991369247437,
0.02382989600300789,
0.10322842001914978,
0.004930007271468639,
0.21629615128040314,
0.24925683438777924,
-0.30022478103637695,
-0.430067241191864,
0.1667100191116333,
-0.5582371354103088,
0.9425831437110901,
-0.24428917467594147,
0.027215613052248955,
-0.03377518057823181,
-0.07100627571344376,
0.25032955408096313,
0.30190110206604004,
0.29086580872535706,
0.014575033448636532,
-0.3376244902610779,
0.49820515513420105,
-0.2238629162311554,
0.24037709832191467,
0.543440580368042,
0.5255978107452393,
0.1474113166332245,
0.24007806181907654,
0.26611384749412537,
-0.33163386583328247,
0.17179925739765167,
-0.5865237712860107,
-0.21969746053218842,
0.013988995924592018,
-0.030759206041693687,
-0.17600326240062714,
0.11857298761606216,
-0.11798709630966187,
-0.7863681316375732,
0.007634381297975779,
-0.04437506943941116,
0.7563208937644958,
-0.3522745966911316,
0.24446448683738708,
-0.10124564915895462,
-0.0359746590256691,
-0.15919575095176697,
-0.11535672098398209,
-0.2821199595928192,
0.2402748465538025,
0.19544820487499237,
0.3449770510196686,
0.13884088397026062,
-0.10760364681482315,
-0.23961566388607025,
0.15068352222442627,
0.12244978547096252,
0.2669607698917389,
-4.2885613441467285,
0.06015217304229736,
-0.3515833914279938,
-0.32542887330055237,
-0.3112831711769104,
-0.39370012283325195,
0.0992872565984726,
-0.2907256484031677,
0.2344760298728943,
0.37506532669067383,
0.3313785791397095,
-0.5723766088485718,
0.36870288848876953,
-0.4695810377597809,
0.5475804805755615,
0.5472798943519592
] |
233683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell%20Kent | Rockwell Kent | Rockwell Kent (June 21, 1882 – March 13, 1971) was an American painter, printmaker, illustrator, writer, sailor, adventurer and voyager.
Biography
Rockwell Kent was born in Tarrytown, New York. Kent was of English descent. He lived much of his early life in and around New York City, where he attended the Horace Mann School. Kent studied with several influential painters and theorists of his day. He studied composition and design with Arthur Wesley Dow at the Art Students League in the fall of 1900, and he studied painting with William Merritt Chase each of the three summers between 1900 and 1902 at the Shinnecock Hills Summer School of Art, after which he entered in the fall of 1902 Robert Henri's class at the New York School of Art, which Chase had founded. During the summer of 1903, in Dublin, New Hampshire, Kent was apprenticed to painter and naturalist Abbott Handerson Thayer. An undergraduate background in architecture at Columbia University prepared Kent for occasional work in the 1900s and 1910s as an architectural renderer and carpenter. At Columbia, Kent befriended future curator Carl Zigrosser, who became his close friend, supporter, and collaborator.
Kent's early paintings of Mount Monadnock and New Hampshire were first shown at the Society of American Artists in New York in 1904, when Dublin Pond was purchased by Smith College. In 1905 Kent ventured to Monhegan Island, Maine, and found its rugged and primordial beauty a source of inspiration for the next five years. His first series of paintings of Monhegan were shown to wide critical acclaim in 1907 at Clausen Galleries in New York. These works form the foundation of his lasting reputation as an early American modernist, and can be seen in museums across the country, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Seattle Art Museum, New Britain Museum of American Art, and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Among those critics lauding Kent was James Huneker of the Sun, who praised Kent's athletic brushwork and daring color dissonances. (It was Huneker who deemed the paintings of The Eight as "decidedly reactionary".) In 1910, Kent helped organize the Exhibition of Independent Artists, and in 1911, together with Arthur B. Davies he organized An Independent Exhibition of the Paintings and Drawings of Twelve Men, referred to as "The Twelve" and "Kent's Tent". Painters Marsden Hartley, John Marin, and Max Weber (but not John Sloan, Robert Henri, or George Bellows) participated in the 1911 exhibition.
A transcendentalist and mystic in the tradition of Thoreau and Emerson, whose works he read, Kent found inspiration in the austerity and stark beauty of wilderness. After Monhegan, he lived for extended periods of time in Winona, Minnesota (1912–1913), Newfoundland (1914–15), Alaska (1918–19), Vermont (1919–1925), Tierra del Fuego (1922–23), Ireland (1926), and Greenland (1929; 1931–32; 1934–35). His series of land and seascapes from these often forbidding locales convey the Symbolist spirit evoking the mysteries and cosmic wonders of the natural world. "I don't want petty self-expression", Kent wrote, "I want the elemental, infinite thing; I want to paint the rhythm of eternity."
In the late summer of 1918, Kent and his nine-year-old son ventured to the American frontier of Alaska. Wilderness (1920), the first of Kent's several adventure memoirs, is an edited and illustrated compilation of his letters home. The New Statesman (London) described Wilderness as "easily the most remarkable book to come out of America since Leaves of Grass was published." Upon the artist's return to New York in March 1919, publishing scion George Palmer Putnam and others, including Juliana Force—assistant to Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney—incorporated the artist as "Rockwell Kent, Inc." to support him in his new Vermont homestead while he completed his paintings from Alaska for exhibition in 1920 at Knoedler Galleries in New York. Kent's small oil-on-wood-panel sketches from Alaska—uniformly horizontal studies of light and color—were exhibited at Knoedler's as "Impressions." Their artistic lineage to the small and spare oil sketches of James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), which are often entitled "Arrangements," underscores Kent's admiration of Whistler's genius.
Approached in 1926 by publisher R. R. Donnelley to produce an illustrated edition of Richard Henry Dana, Jr.'s Two Years Before the Mast, Kent suggested Moby-Dick instead. Published in 1930 by the Lakeside Press of Chicago, the three-volume limited edition (1,000 copies) filled with Kent's haunting black-and-white pen/brush and ink drawings sold out immediately; Random House also produced a trade edition.
Less well known are Kent's talents as a jazz age humorist. As the pen-and-ink draftsman "Hogarth, Jr.," Kent created dozens of whimsical and smartly irreverent drawings published by Vanity Fair, New York Tribune, Harper's Weekly, and the original Life. He also brought his Hogarth, Jr., style to a series of richly colored reverse paintings on glass that he completed in 1918 and exhibited at Wanamaker's Department Store. (Two of these glass paintings are in the collection of the Columbus Museum of Art, part of the bequest of modernist collector Ferdinand Howald.) In Rockwell Kent: The Mythic and the Modern, Jake Milgram Wien devotes an entire chapter to Hogarth, Jr. and reproduces several of the ink drawings and reverse paintings on glass. Kent frequently crossed into the realm of illustration in the 1920s and contributed drawings for reproduction on the covers of many leading magazines. For example, Kent's pen, brush, and ink drawings were reproduced on the covers of the pulp magazine Adventure in 1927, leading Time magazine to say that "if it were distinguished for nothing else, Adventure would stand apart from rival 'pulps'... because it was once entirely illustrated by Rockwell Kent..." Decorative work ensued intermittently: in 1939, Vernon Kilns reproduced three series of designs drawn by Kent (Moby Dick, Salamina, Our America) on its sets of contemporary china dinnerware.
At the Art Students League in the 1920s or 1930s, Kent met and befriended many artists, including Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and Thomas Furlong.
Raymond Moore, founder and impresario of the Cape Playhouse and Cinema in Dennis, Massachusetts, contracted with Rockwell Kent for the design of murals for the cinema--including an extraordinarily expansive mural for the ceiling. The work of transferring and painting the designs on the span was done by Kent's collaborator Jo Mielziner (1901–1976) and a crew of stage set painters from New York City. Ostensibly staying away from the state of Massachusetts to protest the Sacco and Vanzetti executions of 1927, Kent did in fact venture to Dennis in June 1930 to spend three days on the scaffolding, making suggestions and corrections. The signatures of both Kent and Mielziner appear on opposite walls of the cinema.
In 1927, Kent moved to upstate New York where he had acquired an Adirondack farmstead. Asgaard, as he named it, was his residence for the remainder of his life, and from his studio there he worked tirelessly on countless painting and drawing assignments. In the summer of 1929, Kent sailed on a painting expedition to Greenland, and his adventures (and misadventures) are recounted in the best-selling N by E (1930). After meeting Danish Arctic explorers Peter Freuchen and Knud Rasmussen on this trip, Kent determined to return to Greenland to paint and write. He spent two years (1931–32 and 1934–35) above the Arctic Circle in a tiny fishing settlement called Igdlorssuit (or Illorsuit), where he conceived some of the largest and most celebrated paintings of his career. Among his many cross-cultural encounters in Greenland was with Leni Riefenstahl, the famed German filmmaker/actor, who was briefly in Illorsuit with the film crew of S.O.S. Iceberg. Kent's own movie-making aspirations, including a quasi-documentary film featuring the Inuit, are documented in Rockwell Kent and Hollywood (Jake Milgram Wien, 2002), cited below. Many of Kent's historic photographs and hand-tinted lantern slides are reproduced for the first time in North by Nuuk: Greenland after Rockwell Kent (Denis Defibaugh, 2019), also cited below.
As World War II approached, Kent shifted his priorities, becoming increasingly active in progressive politics. In 1937, the Section of Painting and Sculpture of the U.S. Treasury commissioned Kent, along with nine other artists, to paint two murals in the New Post Office building at the Federal Triangle in Washington, DC; the two murals are named "Mail Service in the Arctic" and "Mail Service in the Tropics" to celebrate the reach of domestic airborne postal service. Kent included (in an Alaska Native language and in tiny letters) a polemical statement in the painting, apparently a message from the indigenous people of Alaska to the Puerto Ricans, in support of decolonization. As translated, the communication read "To the peoples of Puerto Rico, our friends: Go ahead, let us change chiefs. That alone can make us equal and free". The incident caused some consternation.
Kent's patriotism never waned in spite of his often critical views of American foreign policy and his impatience with the promises of capitalism. He remained America's premier draftsman of the sea, and during World War II he produced a series of pen/brush and ink maritime drawings for American Export Lines and began another series of pen/brush and ink drawings for Rahr Malting Company which he completed in 1946. The drawings were reproduced in To Thee!, a book Kent also wrote and designed celebrating American freedom and democracy and the important role immigrants play in constructing American national identity. In 1948, Kent was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and in 1966 he became a full Academician. Kent passed away at his home in the Adirondacks in 1971.
Politics
Although he came from a relatively privileged background, Kent formed radical political views early in life, joining the Socialist Party of America in 1904. He cast his first presidential vote for Eugene Debs that year, and for the rest of his life was ready to debate socialist ideas on any occasion. His respect for the dignity of labor, acquired through personal experience and the skills of his craft, also made him a strong supporter of unions. He briefly joined the Industrial Workers of the World in 1912 and belonged at various times to unions in the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
Kent's political activism came to the fore in the latter part of the 1930s, when he took part in several initiatives of the cultural popular front, including support for the Spanish Republic and the subsequent war against fascism. Most notably, he participated in the American Artists' Congress at the time of its formation in 1936 and later served as an officer of the Artists' Union of America and then the Artists' League of America in their efforts to represent artists to boards, museums and dealers. In 1948 he stood for Congress as an American Labor Party candidate supporting Henry Wallace's Progressive Party presidential campaign as the best option for extending the legacy of the New Deal.
In the changing postwar context, Kent advocated nuclear disarmament and continued friendship with America's wartime ally, the Soviet Union. This placed him on the wrong side of American Cold War policies. The Soviet Union extensively promoted Kent's work, who was among hundreds of other prominent intellectuals and creative artists targeted by those in league with Joseph McCarthy, but he and William Gropper share the distinction of being the only graphic artists to be targeted.
Kent was not a Communist and considered his political views to be in the best traditions of American democracy. However, his participation in the Stockholm Appeal and the World Peace Council led to the suspension of his passport in 1950. After he filed suit to regain his foreign-travel rights, in June 1958, the U.S. Supreme Court in Kent v. Dulles affirmed his right to travel by declaring the ban a violation of his civil rights. Meanwhile, Kent also came under attack as an officer of the International Workers Order, a mutual benefit and cultural society supported by leftists and immigrants. In 1951, Kent defended his record in court proceedings and exposed the perjured testimony that claimed he was a Communist.
From 1957 to 1971, Kent was president of the National Council of American-Soviet Friendship. After a well-received exhibition of his work in Moscow at the Pushkin Museum in 1957–58, he donated several hundred of his paintings and drawings to the Soviet peoples in 1960. He subsequently became an honorary member of the Soviet Academy of Fine Arts and in 1967 the recipient of the International Lenin Peace Prize. Kent specified that his prize money be given to the women and children of Vietnam, both North and South. (The nature of Kent's gift is clarified by his wife Sally in the 2005 documentary Rockwell Kent, produced and written by Fred Lewis.)
Meeting with Soviet Ukrainian artists
Rockwell Kent traveled to the Soviet Union and found like-minded people there. In the preface to the second Russian edition of his book "Salamina", Kent wrote:
"Recently… I’ve met two talented young artists from Kyiv Ada Rybachuk and Volodymyr Melnychenko. They lived and worked in the Soviet Arctic, just like me, they love the North and its inhabitants… Shouldn't art reveal the essence of Humanity? .. We who strive to create a better world for people must know the clay from which we form man."
Legacy
When Kent died of a heart attack in 1971, the New York Times published an extensive front-page obituary that commenced: "At various (and frequently simultaneous) periods of his long life the protean Rockwell Kent was an architect, painter, illustrator, lithographer, xylographer, cartoonist, advertising artist, carpenter, dairy farmer, explorer, trade union leader and political controversialist. "He is so multiple a person as to be multifarious," Louis Untermeyer, the poet, once observed." When a 1982 anthology of Kent's work was published in 1982, a reviewer of the book for the New York Times further described Kent as "... a thoughtful, troublesome, profoundly independent, odd and kind man who made an imperishable contribution to the art of bookmaking in the United States." Retrospectives of the artist's paintings and drawings have been mounted, by the Art Gallery of Newfoundland and Labrador in St. John's, Newfoundland, where the exhibition Pointed North: Rockwell Kent in Newfoundland and Labrador was curated by Caroline Stone in the summer of 2014. Other exhibitions include an exhibition in 2013 in Winona, Minnesota marking the centennial of Kent's time there; the Richard F. Brush Art Gallery and Owen D. Young Library at St. Lawrence University (Canton, New York) in the autumn of 2012; the Farnsworth Art Museum (Rockland, Maine) during the spring through autumn of 2012; the Bennington Museum in Vermont during the summer of 2012; the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the spring through summer of 2012; and the Portland Museum of Art, Maine for the major summer show of 2005 commemorating the centenary of Kent's arrival on Monhegan Island.
2018 through 2020 marked the 100th anniversary of Kent's Alaskan painting expedition, his stay on Fox Island, and the publication of Wilderness: A Journal of Quiet Adventure in Alaska. The letters he wrote and received during that time reveal a less than quiet experience beneath his book's narrative. Personal correspondence with his wife, Kathleen, and with Hildegarde Hirsch, his inamorata of that time, provide a fascinating glimpse into the backstory of his life. A more detailed account can be found at the blog Rockwell Kent "Wilderness" Centennial Journal.
One of Kent's exemplary pen-and-ink drawings from Moby Dick appears on a U.S. postage stamp issued as part of the 2001 commemorative panel celebrating American Illustration, with other artistic examples by Maxfield Parrish, Frederic Remington, and Norman Rockwell. The year he spent in Newfoundland in 1914-1915 is fictionally recalled by Canadian writer Michael Winter in The Big Why, his 2004 Winterset Award-winning novel. Kent's work also figures in Steve Martin's 2010 novel An Object of Beauty and is the subject of a chapter in Douglas Brinkley's 2011 history The Quiet World: Saving Alaska's Wilderness Kingdom: 1879–1960.
Columbia University is the repository of Rockwell Kent's personal collection of 3,300 working drawings and sketches, most of which were unpublished. The gift was made in 1972 by Mr. and Mrs. Alfred C. Berol, Corliss Lamont, Mrs. Arthur Hayes Sulzberger, and Dan Burne Jones.
The Archives of American Art is the repository for Kent's voluminous correspondence.
Works
Written and illustrated by Rockwell Kent
Kent was a prolific writer whose adventure memoirs and autobiographies include:
Wilderness: A Journal of Quiet Adventure in Alaska — Memoir of the fall and winter of 1918/19 painting and exploring with his eldest son on Fox Island in Resurrection Bay, Alaska (1920) [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings];
Voyaging Southwards from the Strait of Magellan – Memoir of 1922–23 travels in and around Tierra del Fuego (1924) [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings];
N by E — Memoir of the summer 1929 voyage to (and shipwreck on the rocks of) Greenland (1930) [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings as well as several wood engravings];
Rockwellkentiana – Few words and many pictures by Rockwell Kent and Carl Zigrosser, A bibliography and list of prints, Harcourt, Brace & Co. (1933);
Salamina – Memoir of his first Arctic winter (1931–32) painting and exploring while based in the tiny settlement of Illorsuit, Greenland (1935) [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings as well as several conte crayon portrait drawings];
This is My Own – autobiography, focusing on the years 1928–1939 in Au Sable Forks, Adirondacks (1940) [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings];
It's Me, O Lord – full-scale autobiography (1955);
Of Men and Mountains Ausable Forks: Asgaard Press, 1959, printed by the press of A. Colish, Mount Vernon, NY;
Greenland Journal – the author's original diaries from Igdlorssuit, Greenland, 1962, New York, Ivan Obolensky [filled with the artist's pen/brush and ink drawings];
After Long Years Ausable Forks: Asgaard Press, 1968, printed by the press of A. Colish, Mount Vernon, edn. of 250 copies, signed by the author.
Illustrated by Rockwell Kent
The Seven Ages of Man, portfolio of 4 linecut reproductions after pen/brush and ink drawings, each signed and mounted, contained in paper cartridge wrappers with an illustrated cover label dated 1918, limited to 100 numbered copies;
Rollo in Society, George S. Chappell (1922) Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons. Illustrated by Rockwell Kent with the pseudonym Hogarth Jr. 18 pen, brush, and ink drawings (photomechanically reproduced as linecuts or "cuts");
"The Ballad of the Harp Weaver" -- "A Poem by Edna St. Vincent Millay--With a Decorative Drawing by Hogarth, Jr." From Vanity Fair, June 1922
The Memoirs of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt, 12 volumes, Translated into English by Arthur Machen, preface by Arthur Symons, Aventuros Society, Flying Stag Press, New York (1925) 12 Frontispieces are pen, brush, and ink drawings photomechanically reproduced as engravings;
Candide – Voltaire (1928) pen and ink drawings;
The Bookplates & Marks of Rockwell Kent (1929) Random House, edition of 1250 signed, numbered copies;
Moby Dick or The Whale – Herman Melville (1930) Chicago: Lakeside Press and New York: Random House pen, brush, and ink drawings (often inaccurately described as woodcuts);
The Memoirs of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt, two volume set in slipcase, Albert and Charles Boni, New York (1932) 8 pen, brush, and ink drawings photomechanically reproduced as engravings;
Beowulf lithographs;
Gabriel, A Poem in One Song by Alexander Pushkin, translated by Max Eastman, NY: Covici-Friede, 1929, edn. of 750, numbered copies;
City Child – poetry by Selma Robinson pen and ink drawings;
The Mountains Wait – dust jacket only;
Seed – novel by Charles Norris – dust jacket, binding;
Zest – novel by Charles Norris – dust jacket, binding;
Candy – novel by Lillie McMakin Alexander (1934) pen, brush, and ink drawings;
Leaves of Grass – poetry by Walt Whitman (1936) pen, brush, and ink drawings;
Erewhon – novel by Samuel Butler;
The Bridge of San Luis Rey – novel by Thornton Wilder;
Faust – by Goethe pen, brush, and ink drawings;
Paul Bunyan – novel by Esther Shephard (1941) pen, brush, and ink drawings;
A Treasury of Sea Stories – anthology edited by Gordon C. Aymar pen, brush, and ink drawings;
Gisli's Saga – Mediaeval Icelandic saga;
Autumn Leaves – social commentary by P W Litchfield;
To Thee! - a centennial history of Rahr Malting Company and a paean to American freedom and democracy (1946) - pen, brush, and ink drawings
Canterbury Tales (1930) pen, brush, and ink drawings;
The Decameron – novel by Giovanni Boccaccio translated by Richard Aldington, NY: Garden City Press (1949) pen, brush, and ink drawings;
The Complete Works of Shakespeare.
End papers for The Modern Library books under the editorship of Bennett Cerf.
Murals by or designed by Rockwell Kent
The Cape Cinema Murals, Dennis, MA (1930), designed by Rockwell Kent, executed by Jo Mielziner (1901–1976) and a crew of stage set painters from New York City, finished by Kent;
United States Post Office Department Headquarters, Washington DC (1938);
1939 World's Fair mural for the General Electric pavilion;
America at Peace located in the House Committee on Natural Resources "Walter B. Jones" Hearing Room, 1334 Longworth House Office Building, US Capitol Complex, Washington D.C.
Other works designed by Rockwell Kent
Snow Fields (Winter in the Berkshires) (1909, oil on canvas painting, located in Smithsonian American Art Museum)
1939 Christmas Seal; National Tuberculosis Association
See also
Rockwell Kent Cottage and Studio, Monhegan Island, Maine
Kent Cottage, Brigus, Newfoundland
References
Wien, Jake Milgram, Book Reviews in ARCTIC (Calgary) 73, no. 3 (September 2020). Reviews of North by Nuuk: Greenland After Rockwell Kent by Denis Defibaugh (2019) and When the Colour Ceases To Be Just a Colour: Rockwell Kent’s Greenland Paintings by Erik Torm (2019).
Rockwell Kent Review (formerly known as the Rockwell Kent Collector), Rockwell Kent Gallery, Plattsburgh State Art Museum, 1974–2021
Defibaugh, Denis, North by Nuuk: Greenland After Rockwell Kent. Rochester, NY: RIT Press, 2019. With a foreword by Gretel Ehrlich.
Torm, Erik, When the Colour Ceases To Be Just a Colour: Rockwell Kent's Greenland Paintings. Uummannaq, Greenland: Uummannaq Polar Institute, 2019. Two editions—one with English and Russian translation and the other with Greenlandic and Danish translation.
Gordon, Sarah, "A Call for Liberty: Rockwell Kent's Puerto Rico Mural," Archives of American Art Journal 58, no. 2 (Fall 2019).
Chunikhin, Kirill, "At Home Among Strangers: U.S. Artists, the Soviet Union, and the Myth of Rockwell Kent During the Cold War," Journal of Cold War Studies 21, no. 4 (Fall 2019).
Abrams, Matthew Jeffrey, "Inuit Encounters: The Going-Native of Rockwell Kent and the Shaming of Leni Riefenstahl," Apricota 1 (2018).
Abrams, Matthew Jeffrey, "Illuminated Critique: the Kent Moby-Dick," Word & Image 33, no. 4 (2017).
Rightmire, Robert with Lucy Grokhothov, "Rockwell Kent in Russian, The Exhibition and Publication of an American Artist in the Soviet Union," Rockwell Kent Review, Vol. XLIV, 2018–2019, pp. 11–23.
Jones, Jamie L., "Print Nostalgia: Skeuomorphism and Rockwell Kent's Woodblock Style," American Art 31, no. 3 (Fall 2017).
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Genius Loci: Rockwell Kent's Lobster Cove (Ireland)," in Homann, Joachim, ed., Why Draw? 500 Years of Drawings and Watercolors at Bowdoin College (New York: Prestel, 2017).
Bailey, Julia Tatiana, "The National Council of American-Soviet Friendship and Art in the Shadow of the Cold War," Archives of American Art Journal 56, no. 1 (Spring 2017).
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Mr. Kent Goes to Washington (Again): A Gift to the American People." A history on the gift of Rockwell Kent's painting, 'Citadel," to the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
Brock, Charles, "The Exhibition Game: Rockwell Kent and The Twelve," in The World of William Glackens, Vol. II, The C. Richard Hilker Art Lectures & New Perspectives on William Glackens (New York: ARTBOOK/D.A.P., 2017).
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Frozen Falls (Alaska)/Ice Curtains." Review of the oil painting, Frozen Falls, by Rockwell Kent: its history and sale at Christie's in November, 2016. March, 2017 online posting.
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Gray Day." Review of the oil painting, Gray Day, by Rockwell Kent: its history and sale at Sotheby's in November, 2016. January, 2017 online posting.
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Blue Day." Review of the oil painting, 'Blue Day,' by Rockwell Kent: its history and sale. 2017.
Rockwell Kent: The Mythic and the Modern (illustrated chronology on pp. 162–68), Wien, 2005 (see Further reading, below)
Rightmire, Robert, "Valentines From Rockwell Kent", Valentine Writer, Vol. 40, No. 2, Summer 2016, pp. 2–5.
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Rockwell Kent and Edward Hopper: Looking Out, Looking Within," The Magazine ANTIQUES, January/February 2016.
Rightmire, Robert, Postmarked Art, The Postcards of Rockwell Kent, 1920s-1960s, Blurb.com, 2015
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Rockwell Kent in Newfoundland." A review of the exhibition and catalogue, "Vital Passage: The Newfoundland Epic of Rockwell Kent." The Rooms, St. John's, Newfoundland, 2014.
Wien, Jake Milgram, Vital Passage: The Newfoundland Epic of Rockwell Kent, including a Catalogue Raisonne of Kent's Newfoundland Works. The Rooms, St. John's, Newfoundland, 2014.
Rightmire, Robert, The Greeting Cards of Rockwell Kent. Picturia Press, Portland, ME, 2013.
Ferris, Scott R., Rockwell Kent: The Once Most Popular American Artist. St. Lawrence University, Canton, NY. Autumn 2012.
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: The Other Rockwell Kents: An Introduction." 2018.
Franklin, Jamie, "Rockwell Kent's 'Egypt': Shadow and Light in Vermont." Antiques & Fine Art (cover story), Summer 2012.
Franklin, Jamie and Jake Milgram Wien, Rockwell Kent's 'Egypt': Shadow and Light in Vermont. Bennington Museum, Vermont, 2012.
Komanecky, Michael, Jamie Wyeth, Rockwell Kent and Monhegan. Farnsworth Art Museum, Rockland, ME, 2012.
O'Hara, Virginia, Intrepid and Inventive: Illustrations by Rockwell Kent, Brandywine River Museum, DE, 2009.
Rightmire, Robert, A Descriptive List of the Greeting Card Art of Rockwell Kent, The Kent Collector, Vol. XXXIII, No. 1, Spring 2007 through current issue, a 15-part series.
Wien, Jake Milgram, Rockwell Kent: Visionary Works from Greenland. Lighthouse Center for the Arts, Tequesta, Florida, March 3 – April 30, 2008 (color brochure with essay).
Ferris, Scott R., "The Evolving Legacy of Rockwell Kent," FineArtConnoisseur, January–February 2008.
Rightmire, Robert, " A Newly Discovered Rockwell Kent Porfolio" (The PON portfolio), The Kent Collector, Vol. XXX, No. 2, Summer, 2006, pp. 15–17
Wien, Jake Milgram, "The Archetypal Landscapes of Rockwell Kent." Antiques & Fine Art, Late Summer 2005.
Rightmire, Robert "Every American An Art Patron," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXIX, No. 3, Fall/Winter, 2003, pp. 13–18.
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: Rockwell Kent: The Mythic and the Modern." Review of the exhibition and catalog, Rockwell Kent: The Mythic and the Modern, 2005.
Wien, Jake Milgram, Rockwell Kent: The Mythic and the Modern. Hudson Hills Press in association with the Portland (Maine) Museum of Art, 2005.
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Rockwell Kent's Reverse Paintings on Glass," The Magazine ANTIQUES (cover story), July 2005.
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Rockwell Kent's Canterbury Pilgrims" in Chaucer Illustrated: Five Hundred Years of The Canterbury Tales in Pictures, Oak Knoll Press and British Library, 2003.
Ferris, Scott R., "In Review: The Prints of Rockwell Kent: A Catalogue Raisonné." Review of the 2002 revised edition of The Prints of Rockwell Kent: A Catalogue Raisonne, by Robert Rightmire.
Roberts, Don. Rockwell Kent: The Art of the Bookplate. San Francisco: Fair Oaks Press, 2003
Ferris, Scott R., "In the Presence of Light," included as foreword to new edition of Salamina, Wesleyan University Press, 2003.
Rightmire, Robert, Dan Burne Jones, The Prints of Rockwell Kent, revised edition, Alan Wolfsy Fine Arts, 2002
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Rockwell Kent and Hollywood," Archives of American Art Journal 42:3-4 (2002).
Ferris, Scott R., "The Artistic Heritage of Rockwell Kent," American Art Review, October 2002.
Rightmire, Robert, "Rockwell Kent's Author's Edition," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, Summer 2002, pp. 14–15
Wien, Jake Milgram, "Rockwell Kent's First Print," Print Quarterly (London) 18: 3 (September 2001).
Rightmire, Robert, "Going, Going, Gone, Rockwell Kent Soars at Auction," Portland (magazine), Vol. 15, No. 6, Sept. 2000, pp. 11–13
Ferris, Scott R., "The Stormy Petrel of American Art," Smithsonian, August 2000.
Rightmire, Robert, "Rockwell Kent and the Modern Library," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXVI, No. 2, Summer, 2000, pp. 15–17.
Rightmire, Robert, "The Drawings of Rockwell Kent, the Reproductions Reconsidered," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXIV, No.1, Spring, 2000, pp. 10–12
Ferris, Scott R. and Caroline M. Welsh, The View from Asgaard: Rockwell Kent's Adirondack Legacy, Adirondack Museum, 1999.
Rightmire, Robert, "Godspeed, the Birth of the Kent Collector," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXV, No.3, Fall/Winter, 1999, pp.6–7.
Ferris, Scott R. and Ellen Pearce, Rockwell Kent's Forgotten Landscapes, Down East Books, 1998.
Rightmire, Robert, "Hogarth, Jr. Taken Seriously," The Kent Collector, Vol.XXIV, No.3, Summer 1998, p. 6
Rightmire, Robert, "The Yearbook Art of Rockwell Kent," The Kent Collector, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, Fall, 1997, pp. 10–13.
Wien, Jake Milgram, "His Mind on Fire: Rockwell Kent's Amorous Letters to Hildegarde Hirsch and Ernesta Drinker Bullitt, 1916–1925," Columbia Library Columns, Vol. 46, No. 2, Autumn 1997.
Rightmire, Robert, "I Hated War" (The Seven Ages of Man), The Kent Collector, Vol. XXII, No.3, Spring, 1996, pp. 3–4.
Rightmire, Robert "Rockwell Kent: The 'Best' Printmaker?", The Kent Collector, Vol. XXII, No. 1, Summer, 1995, pp.12–13
West, Richard V., "An Enkindled Eye": The Paintings of Rockwell Kent, Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 1985.
Traxel, David, An American Saga: The Life and Times of Rockwell Kent. New York: Harper & Row, 1980.
Johnson, Fridolf. Rockwell Kent: An Anthology of His Works. New York: Alfred K. Knopf, 1982.
Johnson, Fridolf. The Illustrations of Rockwell Kent: 231 examples from Books, Magazines, and Advertising Art. New York: Dover Publications, 1976.
Jones, Dan Burne. The Prints of Rockwell Kent: A Catalogue Raisonné. University of Chicago Press, 1975.
Priess, David. "Rockwell Kent", American Artist 36, no. 364 (November 1972).
American Book Collector Special Rockwell Kent Number, Vol. XIV, No. 10, Summer 1964.
Arens, Egmont. "Rockwell Kent-Illustrator". The Book Collector's Packet. 1.9 (1932).
Capra, Doug. "Foreword." Wilderness: A Journal of Quiet Adventure in Alaska by Rockwell Kent. Middleton, CT: Wesleyan UP, 1996.
Capra, Doug. "And Now the World Again: Rockwell Kent vs. Seward, Alaska", The Kent Collector. Vol. XII, No. 3, Winter, 1985, pp. 10.
Capra, Doug. "Rockwell Kent's Final Alaskan Trip." The Kent Collector. Vol. XVI, No. 3, Winter, 1989, pp. 3–15.
Capra, Doug. "Roasting the Mails Instead of the Horses." (Kent in Alaska). The Kent Collector. Vol. XII, No. 2, Fall, 1985, pp. 1–7.
Capra, Doug. "Pets and Paradise: Olson of the Deep Experience." (Kent in Alaska). The Kent Collector. Vol. XII, No. 2, Fall, 1985, pp. 8–14.
Capra, Doug. "Rockwell Kent's Northern Christmas." The Kent Collector. Vol. XI, No. 2, Fall, 1994, pp. 3–8.
Capra, Doug. "May the Waters of Resurrection Bay Caress Their Bodies." The Kent Collector. Vol. XXXI, No. 2, Spring 2005, pp. 5–10.
Capra, Doug. "A Frightened But Brave Boy: Young Rockwell in Alaska." The Kent Collector. Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 5–11.
The Biography of Wilhelmina Weber Furlong: The Treasured Collection of Golden Heart Farm by Clint B. Weber,
Goodman, Helen. "Rockwell Kent." Arts Magazine'', March, 1977, p. 4.
External links
Annotated Checklist of Alaska Paintings by Rockwell Kent (1882-1971)
Rockwell Kent papers at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
Rockwell Kent papers at Columbia University. Rare Book and Manuscript Library
Rockwell Kent Gallery and Collection at Plattsburgh State Art Museum at SUNY Plattsburgh
Summer 2014 exhibition at The Rooms, St. John's, Newfoundland
Autumn 2012 exhibition at St. Lawrence University, Canton, NY
Adirondack Vistas in the Artist's Eye and in the Visitor's
Rockwell Kent Artwork Examples on AskART.
Bookplates by Rockwell Kent in the University of Delaware Library's William Augustus Brewer Bookplate Collection
Photos of the Random House edition of Moby Dick Illustrated by Rockwell Kent
Works by Rockwell Kent, The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts
Mountain Lake, PBS, August 31, 2013
Scott R. Ferris, author and specialist on the artwork of Rockwell Kent
Works by Rockwell Kent, The State Hermitage Museum
Appraisal of Land of Peace, PBS, August 13, 2011
1882 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Landscape artists
American landscape painters
American realist painters
American illustrators
American printmakers
American people of English descent
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Students of Robert Henri
Lenin Peace Prize recipients
Art Students League of New York faculty
People from Tarrytown, New York
Section of Painting and Sculpture artists
1939 New York World's Fair artists
American sailors | [
-0.04719070345163345,
0.2682850658893585,
-0.9039329290390015,
0.08027573674917221,
0.6813449263572693,
0.6234105825424194,
0.591803789138794,
0.3046325743198395,
-0.6344260573387146,
-0.36904722452163696,
-0.4966156482696533,
-0.10061831772327423,
0.10465587675571442,
0.42175692319869995,
-0.3487878143787384,
-0.2643098533153534,
-0.3965405821800232,
-0.03254567086696625,
-0.7037739753723145,
0.3225727379322052,
-0.6358288526535034,
-0.4965909421443939,
0.12325527518987656,
-0.6755145192146301,
-0.7829042673110962,
-0.21142716705799103,
-0.1632913500070572,
-0.23268046975135803,
0.2562152147293091,
0.44256025552749634,
-0.22794710099697113,
-0.10095914453268051,
0.20465634763240814,
-0.5466704368591309,
-0.5671955347061157,
-0.20345306396484375,
-0.8284584879875183,
-0.4753684997558594,
-0.10435523092746735,
-0.0031742998398840427,
-0.44428902864456177,
-0.09962107241153717,
0.5580598711967468,
-0.27262434363365173,
-0.2766692042350769,
-0.21513861417770386,
-1.547067403793335,
0.27362024784088135,
-0.5550998449325562,
0.23288805782794952,
-0.6838231086730957,
0.3268822431564331,
-0.08801447600126266,
0.5199898481369019,
-0.10523556917905807,
0.952222466468811,
0.25419968366622925,
0.2325616329908371,
-0.4053691029548645,
-0.3721274137496948,
0.7826111316680908,
-0.40403613448143005,
0.8789514899253845,
-0.13797757029533386,
-0.31077149510383606,
0.6144582033157349,
0.2631780207157135,
0.2802587151527405,
0.33875980973243713,
0.23776528239250183,
0.17098042368888855,
0.5228599309921265,
0.6351779699325562,
0.1719471961259842,
0.06465672701597214,
-0.42520058155059814,
0.3681655526161194,
-0.552840530872345,
-0.1606501042842865,
0.34392625093460083,
-0.31534844636917114,
0.14140240848064423,
1.0401932001113892,
0.597260057926178,
0.24001389741897583,
-0.17450352013111115,
-0.5527322888374329,
0.15013229846954346,
-0.5520957708358765,
0.49975553154945374,
-0.07439397275447845,
-0.2370164543390274,
0.34231269359588623,
0.1166156753897667,
-0.04239263758063316,
-0.6883763074874878,
-0.6612505316734314,
0.38100048899650574,
-0.21138788759708405,
-0.4925282895565033,
-0.11608491092920303,
0.0328836552798748,
0.571901798248291,
0.09826922416687012,
-0.13541068136692047,
-0.02076542377471924,
0.34123432636260986,
-0.19938971102237701,
0.22898803651332855,
0.28969618678092957,
-0.06728781759738922,
-0.19771797955036163,
-0.13896554708480835,
-0.14624200761318207,
-0.19695985317230225,
0.3344825804233551,
0.3049812912940979,
-0.6798949837684631,
-0.7375267744064331,
-0.5601504445075989,
-0.34336715936660767,
0.1681050807237625,
0.36307549476623535,
-0.7310875058174133,
-0.4347364604473114,
-0.06662938743829727,
0.26296672224998474,
0.4726575016975403,
-0.6221127510070801,
-0.07076657563447952,
-0.02629636600613594,
0.7567092776298523,
-0.2989373207092285,
-0.38142797350883484,
0.14598055183887482,
0.13180716335773468,
-0.473992258310318,
0.6138280630111694,
-0.5765862464904785,
-0.07833646982908249,
-0.7090839743614197,
-0.021150721237063408,
-0.3863997757434845,
0.21495531499385834,
0.2311180680990219,
-0.2839314043521881,
0.1710413247346878,
-0.16758742928504944,
-0.5537357330322266,
-0.0465361513197422,
-0.13268010318279266,
-0.4450550973415375,
0.3962574005126953,
-0.5372985601425171,
0.05405966565012932,
0.4788613021373749,
0.7525861859321594,
0.4396297037601471,
0.4341583549976349,
-0.1657499521970749,
0.4575866162776947,
0.05556687340140343,
-0.1472758799791336,
-0.38973358273506165,
0.23846381902694702,
-0.08990650624036789,
-0.010078947059810162,
0.04081828519701958,
-0.38819608092308044,
0.37770724296569824,
0.3003929853439331,
-0.26905158162117004,
0.06920836865901947,
0.2394256889820099,
-0.2474200576543808,
0.3331475555896759,
0.9716216921806335,
0.657537579536438,
0.31489643454551697,
-0.2827414274215698,
-0.5688164830207825,
-0.09867832809686661,
0.5069110989570618,
0.06194806843996048,
0.11442169547080994,
-0.1517026126384735,
0.1948884278535843,
-0.006272300612181425,
0.2420048862695694,
0.269052118062973,
-0.675710141658783,
-0.34079408645629883,
-0.26356542110443115,
-0.2819778025150299,
0.8319222331047058,
0.08133202791213989,
-1.0360075235366821,
1.0072730779647827,
0.23708952963352203,
0.7564763426780701,
-0.12244188785552979,
0.05266410484910011,
-0.45395946502685547,
-0.3337043821811676,
0.30363503098487854,
0.31627652049064636,
0.5397042632102966,
0.573218584060669,
0.14580006897449493,
0.5862217545509338,
0.32657742500305176,
-0.4796755015850067,
0.5438883900642395,
0.9768151640892029,
-0.27343153953552246,
-0.5890974998474121,
-0.3522360622882843,
-0.6457077264785767,
0.3447647988796234,
-0.5982019901275635,
0.5205816626548767,
0.6192108988761902,
-0.38710638880729675,
0.4103422462940216,
0.2888776957988739,
0.9245414733886719,
-0.706063985824585,
-0.5156115293502808,
0.3638565242290497,
0.21555468440055847,
-0.19501832127571106,
0.17275123298168182,
0.06664112955331802,
-0.2866925597190857,
0.05205375328660011,
-0.19195768237113953,
0.8280209898948669,
-0.04614059627056122,
0.9021489024162292,
-0.35690903663635254,
0.16524098813533783,
0.2338705062866211,
-0.38190165162086487,
0.4517805278301239,
0.38118642568588257,
0.22419746220111847,
0.009873592294752598,
-0.5325234532356262,
-0.20057515799999237,
-0.14124128222465515,
0.1154315322637558,
0.6977195739746094,
0.11630337685346603,
0.3497786819934845,
-0.18016649782657623,
-0.016359485685825348,
0.13948644697666168,
-0.09209650009870529,
0.4439905881881714,
0.2272486686706543,
0.2253362536430359,
0.23023976385593414,
0.24218681454658508,
0.5000528693199158,
-0.07505439221858978,
-1.1820274591445923,
-0.21620923280715942,
-0.5218905806541443,
0.3589211106300354,
0.49424609541893005,
0.526358962059021,
0.24793030321598053,
-0.2505156099796295,
0.33849048614501953,
0.5997593402862549,
-0.244647815823555,
-0.13893146812915802,
0.00089139404008165,
-0.37870922684669495,
-0.6025223731994629,
0.1305149644613266,
1.0807172060012817,
-0.3099838197231293,
-0.7001572847366333,
0.39090290665626526,
-0.6421723365783691,
-0.38297733664512634,
-0.10093439370393753,
-0.015707461163401604,
-0.003923922777175903,
0.10223911702632904,
0.5470914244651794,
-0.02124427631497383,
0.44181716442108154,
-0.5305049419403076,
0.7792582511901855,
-0.45314034819602966,
-0.41913843154907227,
-0.5984883904457092,
0.23052529990673065,
-0.6130943894386292,
-0.06549246609210968,
-0.006115701049566269,
-0.2915341258049011,
0.22320754826068878,
0.7482138276100159,
0.05319327861070633,
-0.311186820268631,
-5.513613700866699,
0.22414928674697876,
0.016371600329875946,
-0.23741890490055084,
-0.3859207034111023,
0.2548462748527527,
0.2666773498058319,
0.06027396768331528,
0.5693138837814331,
-0.6740713715553284,
0.4544159471988678,
-0.17287088930606842,
-0.07890547066926956,
0.5264805555343628,
0.12679928541183472,
0.5119509100914001,
0.6594282388687134,
-0.16854625940322876,
-0.18713060021400452,
0.30740731954574585,
-0.2873613238334656,
-0.283795028924942,
0.15080568194389343,
0.21415165066719055,
0.27533358335494995,
-0.16014792025089264,
-0.754426121711731,
0.16998614370822906,
-0.47203025221824646,
0.3538164794445038,
0.03326450660824776,
-0.1984999179840088,
-0.10973933339118958,
0.11421370506286621,
-0.07677853107452393,
-0.06959857046604156,
0.19740690290927887,
0.3770199418067932,
0.03472726419568062,
-0.03864005208015442,
0.06510673463344574,
0.17403753101825714,
-0.9698692560195923,
-0.2490086555480957,
0.29930806159973145,
-0.25658178329467773,
-0.18733637034893036,
-0.295668363571167,
0.5275370478630066,
0.2852576673030853,
0.7881512641906738,
0.32505902647972107,
0.35128211975097656,
-0.10349137336015701,
0.20432579517364502,
-0.15423600375652313,
-0.1334690898656845,
0.31387820839881897,
-0.689123809337616,
-0.10805440694093704,
0.5971202254295349,
0.1059105321764946,
0.10932368040084839,
-0.28463488817214966,
-0.08443329483270645,
-0.305629700422287,
0.05518405884504318,
-0.15752795338630676,
0.13393418490886688,
-0.6979047656059265,
0.060220904648303986,
0.4862782955169678,
-0.08976619690656662,
-1.5058331489562988,
-0.24498988687992096,
-0.5192542672157288,
0.3252798914909363,
-0.7350483536720276,
-0.5672252178192139,
-0.429234117269516,
-0.07094191759824753,
-0.7064273953437805,
-0.5318604707717896,
0.6935380697250366,
0.20133310556411743,
-0.35570645332336426,
-0.3214649558067322,
0.396576851606369,
-0.5445642471313477,
-0.3136533200740814,
0.6082760095596313,
0.2177942842245102,
-0.2594008147716522,
0.10673822462558746,
0.16898095607757568,
-0.05184932053089142,
0.2583591341972351,
0.7035812735557556,
0.826188862323761,
0.26383399963378906,
-0.42323410511016846,
-0.3331449329853058,
-0.3117246925830841,
-0.49624237418174744,
-0.14656999707221985,
0.07763735949993134,
0.10187283158302307,
-0.10035879164934158,
0.8710322976112366,
0.14715789258480072,
-0.17061790823936462,
-0.10376852005720139,
-0.5431965589523315,
-0.1639045923948288,
0.3918450176715851,
-0.045818813145160675,
0.3125418722629547,
0.5402586460113525,
0.48551979660987854,
0.07637527585029602,
0.27710217237472534,
0.6466878056526184,
-0.23772643506526947,
0.19233743846416473,
0.38177597522735596,
-0.06092340499162674,
-0.3027917444705963,
0.04057619348168373,
0.20593172311782837,
0.10525486618280411,
-0.36720070242881775,
0.7682757377624512,
0.3817552924156189,
0.5387502312660217,
0.41604912281036377,
-0.3485426902770996,
-0.7133990526199341,
-0.5667831301689148,
-0.4830935001373291,
-0.2541848421096802,
-0.03756795823574066,
-0.3420141339302063,
-0.16116178035736084,
0.7086531519889832,
0.3707120418548584,
0.10266265273094177,
0.049067173153162,
0.013174858875572681,
-0.5665279626846313,
0.7474431395530701,
-0.41869056224823,
-0.16729852557182312,
-0.01571340300142765,
0.0865430012345314,
-0.5448111295700073,
-0.3834852874279022,
-0.7527294158935547,
-0.40510958433151245,
-0.3531205654144287,
0.2308630496263504,
0.09252011775970459,
-0.187429279088974,
-0.838794469833374,
-0.2920975685119629,
-0.43523550033569336,
-0.5295947790145874,
-0.10590258240699768,
-0.47058913111686707,
-0.587552011013031,
0.03053104691207409,
-0.0027912708465009928,
-0.5215526223182678,
-0.16345056891441345,
-0.29493948817253113,
0.45543497800827026,
0.3472675681114197,
-0.44068261981010437,
-0.016126452013850212,
-0.14882725477218628,
-0.06576009839773178,
-0.37320104241371155,
0.41926610469818115,
-0.5480949282646179,
-0.48066607117652893,
0.11705238372087479,
-0.29089391231536865,
-0.1213826909661293,
-0.11017312109470367,
-0.34017467498779297,
-0.0811581239104271,
0.21774792671203613,
0.3312099575996399,
-0.06865429878234863,
0.9668794274330139,
-0.7266712188720703,
0.39430785179138184,
0.23623153567314148,
0.1359947770833969,
0.4027225375175476,
0.12965606153011322,
-0.39663028717041016,
-0.3780639171600342,
-0.5287660360336304,
-0.13938944041728973,
-0.19884911179542542,
-1.1471819877624512,
0.20843486487865448,
0.25720399618148804,
0.07032931596040726,
0.4455280601978302,
-0.01877526007592678,
-0.1755860298871994,
-0.13021284341812134,
-0.26274001598358154,
-0.04730435833334923,
0.4893743395805359,
-0.0223249364644289,
-0.1515967845916748,
0.004139308352023363,
-0.7546213865280151,
-0.3721534311771393,
0.08845885843038559,
-0.24939529597759247,
0.005419760476797819,
-0.46613913774490356,
0.08429883420467377,
0.020206384360790253,
0.7643536925315857,
0.020436396822333336,
-0.7646098136901855,
0.7716371417045593,
-0.3565864861011505,
-0.43106257915496826,
0.7262352705001831,
0.5045744180679321,
-0.04240826144814491,
0.31761130690574646,
-0.13260532915592194,
0.003812572453171015,
0.17442962527275085,
0.48723354935646057,
0.8356384038925171,
0.5355493426322937,
0.046647049486637115,
-0.2649100124835968,
0.16210463643074036,
0.4804087281227112,
-0.08303942531347275,
-0.06965833157300949,
0.26191407442092896,
0.3880411982536316,
-0.4495053291320801,
-0.5353474617004395,
-0.22977565228939056,
0.7083961963653564,
-0.23636695742607117,
-0.0013222622219473124,
0.23717354238033295,
-0.1883874237537384,
-0.4333689510822296,
0.2854371964931488,
0.7246091365814209,
-0.3898029029369354,
-0.1658632755279541,
-0.3838607966899872,
0.3003615736961365,
-0.2644619941711426,
0.618903636932373,
-0.27284005284309387,
-0.2429260015487671,
-0.07176815718412399,
0.39830654859542847,
-0.3663868308067322,
0.5687901377677917,
-0.8326995968818665,
0.16736575961112976,
0.3848663568496704,
-0.37868013978004456,
0.013910867273807526,
-0.5828142762184143,
-0.9065108895301819,
0.25256937742233276,
-0.537625253200531,
-0.4232586622238159,
-0.38504576683044434,
-0.22614586353302002,
0.26812759041786194,
-0.6379906535148621,
-0.5493972301483154,
0.01030963845551014,
-0.217673197388649,
0.6188498735427856,
-0.05819522961974144,
0.14169839024543762,
-0.29434049129486084,
0.3991847038269043,
-0.3179888427257538,
0.8683462142944336,
-0.2936980426311493,
0.18639205396175385,
-0.26797834038734436,
0.5032594203948975,
0.19248616695404053,
-0.09997927397489548,
0.28069278597831726,
-0.39936956763267517,
-0.1767021119594574,
-0.29765480756759644,
0.10455670207738876,
1.169726014137268,
0.16663596034049988,
-0.33220505714416504,
-0.13791941106319427,
0.3543590307235718,
-0.6483380198478699,
-0.1122441440820694,
1.156136393547058,
-0.27218884229660034,
-0.5099809765815735,
0.0877295508980751,
0.15177568793296814,
0.010579520836472511,
0.07683944702148438,
-0.41518595814704895,
-0.13257285952568054,
0.6391060948371887,
0.01541605219244957,
0.02789732627570629,
0.2142522633075714,
0.8604105114936829,
0.22382675111293793,
-0.5268182754516602,
-0.3467745780944824,
0.27925804257392883,
-0.14371895790100098,
-0.21321646869182587,
-0.1192779392004013,
0.3115692138671875,
-0.11700743436813354,
0.19348262250423431,
-0.19793546199798584,
0.34913235902786255,
-0.08782628923654556,
-0.007196531165391207,
0.025479651987552643,
-0.41158270835876465,
0.05501627177000046,
0.46472397446632385,
0.09140253067016602,
-0.2775411307811737,
0.5417788624763489,
-0.1571764498949051,
0.519347071647644,
-0.08178220689296722,
0.5947820544242859,
-0.2943299412727356,
0.3771543502807617,
0.33790263533592224,
-0.41084906458854675,
0.3766946494579315,
-0.08622707426548004,
-0.292253315448761,
1.217970848083496,
-0.28295180201530457,
-0.23289264738559723,
-0.4377268850803375,
-0.24067606031894684,
0.05384526401758194,
-0.36836034059524536,
0.3533773124217987,
0.22520405054092407,
0.4561733603477478,
-0.130863755941391,
1.1829742193222046,
-0.05971038341522217,
0.6190206408500671,
0.8042517304420471,
0.41079041361808777,
-0.03841232508420944,
0.0765022337436676,
-0.723409116268158,
-0.21456453204154968,
-0.33603325486183167,
-0.21502326428890228,
0.44489672780036926,
-0.12994207441806793,
0.1869569569826126,
0.6834738254547119,
-0.47494375705718994,
-0.20255924761295319,
-0.041772399097681046,
-0.4592982530593872,
-0.2884245216846466,
0.8635791540145874,
-0.3542063236236572,
0.1413375735282898,
-0.04653887823224068,
0.6361418962478638,
-0.18329769372940063,
-0.21382252871990204,
0.09557325392961502,
0.1468481719493866,
0.5043412446975708,
0.12384254485368729,
-0.40691983699798584,
-0.04938703402876854,
-0.26372474431991577,
0.16879048943519592,
-1.0225037336349487,
0.4271375238895416,
-0.3364258110523224,
0.10299432277679443,
-0.4461056888103485,
0.10785190761089325,
-0.49268639087677,
-0.5174834728240967,
0.2940349876880646,
0.12582911550998688,
0.20231442153453827,
-0.41501352190971375,
0.37951797246932983,
-0.13925760984420776,
-0.14524546265602112,
-0.28981611132621765,
-0.5330472588539124,
0.16979311406612396,
0.12381520867347717,
-0.12363383919000626,
-0.07905948907136917,
0.5273036956787109,
0.11748019605875015,
0.2178967446088791,
-0.3593524098396301,
-0.08676490187644958,
-0.1736024171113968,
-0.6050513982772827,
-0.00585329532623291,
0.9004306793212891,
0.49604952335357666,
-0.7936627268791199,
0.7561566233634949,
0.04357847198843956,
-0.35569268465042114,
-0.289531946182251,
0.20650355517864227,
-0.173586905002594,
-0.2922288179397583,
-0.0901123657822609,
-0.028473755344748497,
0.5141757130622864,
0.11817611008882523,
0.34294500946998596,
0.26044633984565735,
-0.5262601375579834,
0.540367603302002,
0.02217453345656395,
0.282902330160141,
0.08195610344409943,
0.7206342816352844,
-0.10827583819627762
] |
233684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware%20and%20Raritan%20Canal | Delaware and Raritan Canal | The Delaware and Raritan Canal (D&R Canal) is a canal in central New Jersey, United States, built in the 1830s, that served to connect the Delaware River to the Raritan River. It was an efficient and reliable means of transportation of freight between Philadelphia and New York City, especially coal from the anthracite fields in eastern Pennsylvania, during much of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The canal allowed shippers to cut many miles off the existing route from the Pennsylvania coal fields, down the Delaware, around Cape May, and up along the (occasionally treacherous) Atlantic Ocean coast to New York City.
History
The idea of a canal between the Raritan and Delaware Rivers had a long history, going back to William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, who suggested it in the 1690s. Such a canal would shorten the journey from Philadelphia to New York by 100 miles, and relieve the need for boats to venture into the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1816, the New Jersey legislature created a commission of three people, including John Rutherfurd, a former United States Senator and a major landowner in New Jersey, which was authorized to survey and map a proposed route for a canal. Rutherfurd engaged John Randel Jr. to do the survey; Rutherfurd knew Randel from his work on the New York City Commissioners' Plan of 1811, for which Rutherfurd was one of the commissioners, and Randel was the chief surveyor. The route was to be "a level line as far as was practicable from Longbridge farm to the Delaware, and to the Raritan, in the shortest direction that the ground would admit, which line should be run with the greatest accuracy, and be esteemed the base line of the work." Randel spent two months surveying this route and, with the aid of a millwright, estimating water flow. They came to the conclusion that the canal would require less than an eighteenth of the water passing through the local streams, which would still leave enough water flow for local mills. Despite Randel's report, and the clear advantage of having such a canal, the opposition to the project managed to keep anything from happening until 1830.
On February 4, 1830, the New Jersey legislature passed legislation that created the charter for the D&R Canal. The charter for the Camden and Amboy Rail Road and Transportation Company was passed the same day. The D&R charter allocated $1.5 million of stock for construction which was required to be completed within eight years. The canal was to be considered a public highway although the corporation would be allowed to collect tolls and transit duties for passengers and cargo transported along the canal.
The canal was almost not dug due to the lack of subscriptions. When that occurred, Robert F. Stockton, the grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, pledged his and his family's personal fortune to continue the work.
The canal system was dug mostly by hand tools, mostly by Irish immigrants. Work began in 1830 and was completed in 1834, at an estimated cost of $2,830,000. When the canal first opened, teams of mules were used to tow canal boats through it (the steam engine was not yet applied to such uses).
The canal's greatest usage occurred during the 1860s and 1870s, when it was used primarily to transport coal from Pennsylvania to New York City, which had entered the Industrial Revolution. On May 18, 1872, the D&R Canal Company was merged with several parallel railroads into the United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company, and leased by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Over time, the importance of the D&R Canal waned as railroads were used to perform, more rapidly, the same function as canals, but it remained in operation until 1932. Years later, the section between Trenton and Bordentown was filled for various road and rail projects, leaving the feeder waters to solely supply the main canal from Trenton northwards to New Brunswick. Two other sections of the canal were piped underground: one in Trenton when the Trenton Freeway (U.S. Route 1) was constructed in 1952, and the other in New Brunswick when the Elmer Boyd Parkway Extension (Route 18) was constructed in 1984.
Route
The main section of the canal runs from Bordentown on the Delaware to New Brunswick on the Raritan. A feeder canal section (which feeds water into the main canal) stretches 22 miles (35 km) northward from Trenton, upstream along the east bank of the Delaware to Bull's Island near Frenchtown. The feeder canal collects water from higher elevations to the north, and feeds it to the highest section of the main canal, which flows generally north and east to the end, and had flowed south into the Crosswicks Creek at Bordentown. The total length of the entire canal system was approximately 66 miles (106 km). The main section was 44 miles (71 km) long, 75 feet (23 m) wide and 8 feet (2.4 m) deep; the feeder was 22 miles (35 km) long, 60 feet (18 m) wide and 6 feet (2 m) deep.
Altered and abandoned sections
A section of the main D&R Canal in Trenton has been covered over (the water still flows below) by the Trenton Freeway (U.S. Route 1) and is inaccessible to public use. The portion of the canal that provided access to the Delaware River in Bordentown is also abandoned. In Trenton it has been covered by Route 129, which opened in 1996. Another section south of Trenton is located in Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey between the southern boundary of Trenton and the Crosswicks Creek.
Locks and spillways
Locks were used to overcome elevation differences along the D&R canal. Many of the locks are still present along the canal route; however, the lock gates have been replaced on the upstream side with small dams and water outfalls. The downstream gates have been removed, so the water in the locks is level with the water on the downstream side. Some of the locks have been buried or removed due to construction projects in the vicinity of the canal.
A number of spillways, which drained excess water from the canal into nearby waterways during periods of heavy flow, are located along the canal route. Spillways are evident as a dip in the tow path along the canal. Some have paving stones spaced closely enough for mules to walk, but are impassable for bicycles. With the flow stopped, species typical of stagnant water live in them.
Associated rivers
Delaware River - Feeds the Delaware and Raritan Canal via a feeder canal that approaches from the north along the east bank of the Delaware River, starting at Bulls Island, to the southern terminus of the D&R Canal near Trenton.
Millstone River - Parallels the Delaware and Raritan Canal from Princeton north to Manville.
Raritan River - Parallels the Delaware and Raritan Canal from Manville north and east to New Brunswick. The northern terminus of the Delaware and Raritan Canal is in New Brunswick.
Landmark
The Delaware and Raritan Canal was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 11, 1973. The many historic canal houses where the bridge tenders have lived (such as the Blackwells Mills Canal House and the Port Mercer Canal House) were listed as contributing properties.
State Park
In 1974, most of the canal system was declared a New Jersey state park. It remains one today, and is used for canoeing, kayaking, and fishing. A graded natural-surface trail along the side of the canal, which was the tow path that mules used to tow barges on the canal before steam powered barges, is now used for hiking, jogging, bicycling, and horseback riding. Some of the main canal, and all 22 miles (35 km) of the feeder canal, still exist. The feeder canal along the Delaware, being a former railroad rather than a towpath, is especially suited to bicycling. The park is operated and maintained by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry.
The canal is accessible from many points along its route, with small parking areas providing access at most road crossings. One of the most scenic and popular sections of the D&R Canal state park is the segment along Lake Carnegie in Princeton, New Jersey, which features the canal on one side of the path and the lake on the other side. Another attractive section borders the Colonial Park Arboretum and Gardens in East Millstone.
When the canal was used for transportation, New Jersey's landscape was mostly rural, and its primary business was agriculture. "Now," in the words of Howard Green, research director of the New Jersey Historical Commission, "It is one of the most beloved parks in the state, a sinewy, snake-like greenway through one of the most heavily populated parts of the world. It has gone from being the machine in the garden, to being garden in the machine."
Gallery
See also
Raritan Landing
Pennsylvania Canal (Delaware Division)
References
Notes
Bibliography
Delaware & Raritan Canal State Park, brochure, New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry, State Park Service, July 2002
External links
Delaware and Raritan Canal Commission
The Delaware & Raritan Canal Transmission Complex - The D&R Canal is still used by the State of New Jersey to transport water resources to population centers.
- Southern terminus of canal
- Northern terminus of canal
- Northern terminus of feeder canal
Canals in New Jersey
Canals opened in 1834
East Coast Greenway
Historic American Buildings Survey in New Jersey
Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
Historic districts in Princeton, New Jersey
Transportation buildings and structures in Hunterdon County, New Jersey
Transportation buildings and structures in Mercer County, New Jersey
Transportation buildings and structures in Middlesex County, New Jersey
Transportation buildings and structures in Somerset County, New Jersey
Predecessors of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Non-railway predecessors of railway companies
National Register of Historic Places in Hunterdon County, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Mercer County, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Somerset County, New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
Canals on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey | [
-0.3705516755580902,
-0.6173475980758667,
-0.30970433354377747,
-0.12053084373474121,
0.8455707430839539,
0.31330204010009766,
0.22944888472557068,
0.6111209988594055,
-0.01959345117211342,
-0.3799757659435272,
-0.03749364987015724,
0.3522108197212219,
-0.5146145224571228,
0.5775358080863953,
-0.9621179103851318,
0.5451505184173584,
0.3740166425704956,
0.016129959374666214,
0.930340588092804,
-0.3379724323749542,
-0.7289372682571411,
0.6171231865882874,
0.5028773546218872,
0.1999378651380539,
-0.12428261339664459,
-0.5794048309326172,
0.06370038539171219,
-0.3155391812324524,
-0.14189772307872772,
-0.05441462993621826,
0.370443731546402,
0.5658032298088074,
0.22574517130851746,
-0.9959079623222351,
-0.08831664174795151,
-0.5890935063362122,
-0.3019073009490967,
-0.27819138765335083,
-0.6037744879722595,
-0.676559329032898,
-0.49077510833740234,
0.16954980790615082,
-0.02651534602046013,
-0.039846718311309814,
0.31860581040382385,
0.43010610342025757,
-0.730583131313324,
-0.0844215452671051,
-0.767477810382843,
-0.5152482390403748,
-0.3789048492908478,
0.5350266098976135,
-0.48777252435684204,
1.0754843950271606,
-0.0803152397274971,
0.0392025001347065,
-0.24370092153549194,
-0.07468570023775101,
0.5860092043876648,
-0.133205384016037,
0.5904416441917419,
0.48410800099372864,
0.14898192882537842,
0.5013665556907654,
-0.2819983959197998,
0.4004945158958435,
0.07266789674758911,
0.6207968592643738,
-0.6535373330116272,
-0.5828751921653748,
0.635718822479248,
0.057315777987241745,
-0.20653174817562103,
0.28234773874282837,
0.15874503552913666,
-0.027946414425969124,
-0.07566909492015839,
-0.2256360650062561,
-0.25608766078948975,
-0.009145697578787804,
0.1660894900560379,
0.42818379402160645,
0.539386510848999,
0.06976287066936493,
0.2949250340461731,
0.4268558621406555,
-0.26328274607658386,
0.19899897277355194,
-0.09938259422779083,
-0.11646365374326706,
-0.6529937386512756,
0.9586302638053894,
0.08409562706947327,
-0.4395623505115509,
-0.5067021250724792,
-0.11630810797214508,
-0.24645502865314484,
-0.014442645944654942,
0.48047539591789246,
0.20444056391716003,
-0.20895440876483917,
0.5513386130332947,
0.853959321975708,
0.07300581783056259,
-0.8726105690002441,
0.6214932799339294,
0.15071119368076324,
-0.0366072878241539,
-0.16612017154693604,
0.17298445105552673,
-0.056637685745954514,
0.3406428396701813,
-0.1374635547399521,
0.12014655023813248,
-0.4778118431568146,
0.0898432657122612,
0.3048990070819855,
-0.8518719673156738,
-0.12201718986034393,
-0.35139501094818115,
0.08567152917385101,
0.8330138921737671,
0.03246236592531204,
0.28902262449264526,
0.5167946219444275,
-0.05154648423194885,
0.5747403502464294,
0.09502239525318146,
0.11600489169359207,
-0.011364012025296688,
1.0206633806228638,
1.141476035118103,
-0.2318798154592514,
-0.4271402359008789,
-0.476691871881485,
-0.3813602328300476,
0.07145716995000839,
0.2671285569667816,
0.5063667297363281,
0.30273759365081787,
-0.9234744310379028,
-0.28164905309677124,
0.3768630027770996,
-0.6036224961280823,
-0.44381242990493774,
0.2298157513141632,
-0.03961016982793808,
-0.3330843150615692,
-0.00539671815931797,
-0.07587084919214249,
0.831676721572876,
-0.27882999181747437,
-0.5279214978218079,
-0.24212084710597992,
0.0027557716239243746,
0.04566003382205963,
0.7367978692054749,
0.08056991547346115,
0.0416618250310421,
0.5006586313247681,
-0.23249052464962006,
0.5340672135353088,
0.27423927187919617,
0.07184804975986481,
0.04285783693194389,
0.41070809960365295,
0.3028746247291565,
-0.4353594183921814,
0.5493785738945007,
-0.30992043018341064,
-0.10625620931386948,
-0.4624757766723633,
0.38783949613571167,
-0.6902745962142944,
-0.08714965730905533,
0.02920604683458805,
0.5640774965286255,
0.31443819403648376,
-0.20328857004642487,
-0.3755214810371399,
-0.43319106101989746,
0.7630865573883057,
0.01071390975266695,
-0.12404325604438782,
-0.34389808773994446,
-0.19571655988693237,
0.14654766023159027,
-0.1686600148677826,
-0.17000560462474823,
0.3708324134349823,
0.05875394865870476,
-0.08445782214403152,
-0.22939592599868774,
-0.05637987330555916,
0.6633197665214539,
0.4292975664138794,
-1.0569322109222412,
1.0840420722961426,
-0.4297831654548645,
0.45939433574676514,
-0.19072455167770386,
-0.6282040476799011,
0.868674635887146,
-0.28654101490974426,
-0.4986570179462433,
-0.26066187024116516,
0.2362554520368576,
0.10829184204339981,
0.2973572015762329,
-0.05523957312107086,
0.06779246777296066,
-0.41683724522590637,
-0.20993149280548096,
-0.35354459285736084,
0.734833836555481,
-0.5809144973754883,
0.10392123460769653,
-0.13537447154521942,
0.1472664773464203,
-0.12142803519964218,
0.7270601987838745,
0.006909966468811035,
0.40788397192955017,
0.5169483423233032,
-0.20681633055210114,
1.0828901529312134,
-0.21231070160865784,
0.31079646944999695,
0.020659491419792175,
0.04878474026918411,
-0.35428449511528015,
0.09318383038043976,
0.1814000904560089,
-0.7157078385353088,
0.28136202692985535,
-0.389408141374588,
-0.5851737260818481,
-0.2760140001773834,
0.5778828263282776,
0.25972816348075867,
0.274577260017395,
-0.037459712475538254,
-1.2993688583374023,
0.3734167814254761,
0.5220317244529724,
0.09196670353412628,
-0.012785771861672401,
-0.04160645604133606,
0.08630523830652237,
-0.8032063841819763,
-0.2980593740940094,
0.6540939807891846,
0.6217736005783081,
0.1884380728006363,
0.7882146239280701,
0.1376333087682724,
-0.16438965499401093,
0.08542517572641373,
0.43594369292259216,
0.10688715428113937,
-0.45199236273765564,
0.20327404141426086,
-0.40661898255348206,
0.14441336691379547,
0.030939584597945213,
0.18161185085773468,
-0.7510603070259094,
-0.25636687874794006,
0.46135032176971436,
0.15410490334033966,
0.7636027336120605,
0.06205445155501366,
-0.07743566483259201,
-0.4188045263290405,
0.3523697555065155,
-0.49400606751441956,
-0.044314030557870865,
0.31102052330970764,
-0.7990036606788635,
-0.598486065864563,
0.1581970751285553,
0.11345870792865753,
-0.12506701052188873,
-0.721821665763855,
0.19716203212738037,
-0.3636349141597748,
0.35986822843551636,
0.5394490361213684,
-0.29284390807151794,
0.07995373010635376,
-0.14858317375183105,
-0.637218713760376,
-0.5443212389945984,
0.755746066570282,
0.3364124596118927,
0.594761312007904,
-0.050398364663124084,
0.23089507222175598,
0.17900271713733673,
-0.17369909584522247,
-1.0412954092025757,
0.20507179200649261,
-0.34433192014694214,
0.038937173783779144,
-0.09537895023822784,
-0.39820435643196106,
-0.026451129466295242,
0.1057468131184578,
-5.422815799713135,
0.3290894329547882,
-0.18620894849300385,
0.5904334783554077,
0.10007230192422867,
-0.11151620000600815,
0.1765788048505783,
-0.056726302951574326,
0.23377349972724915,
-0.12718044221401215,
0.6020311713218689,
0.023416439071297646,
-0.147978737950325,
0.20228120684623718,
0.23164132237434387,
-0.09822957962751389,
0.4471518397331238,
-0.12125411629676819,
0.14417624473571777,
-0.23268763720989227,
0.04067467153072357,
-0.1199800968170166,
-0.09179358929395676,
-0.2573527693748474,
0.08950717747211456,
0.5533301830291748,
-0.29296165704727173,
-0.01551580149680376,
-0.5590174794197083,
-0.3571621775627136,
-0.07010327279567719,
0.14894968271255493,
0.34000515937805176,
-0.10146615654230118,
-0.141974076628685,
-0.8263075351715088,
-0.010229692794382572,
0.3168351352214813,
0.768612265586853,
-0.5464236736297607,
-0.3483886122703552,
0.7391276359558105,
-0.4495718777179718,
-0.17213976383209229,
-0.48118114471435547,
-0.33154812455177307,
-0.27830010652542114,
-0.0007907309336587787,
0.16150149703025818,
1.0993775129318237,
0.16535215079784393,
0.4561028778553009,
0.854360044002533,
0.059578802436590195,
0.09081879258155823,
-0.3719133138656616,
-0.030674774199724197,
-0.42684659361839294,
-0.2963253855705261,
0.5090082287788391,
0.24950426816940308,
-0.4814665913581848,
-0.3651958107948303,
0.1925252228975296,
-0.015275398269295692,
-0.5533443689346313,
-0.5070199966430664,
-0.6023924946784973,
0.9570069313049316,
0.6884605884552002,
0.08457130938768387,
0.06098156422376633,
0.13470178842544556,
-0.6768204569816589,
0.44728782773017883,
-0.5755318403244019,
-0.7994056940078735,
-0.28840675950050354,
0.6524164080619812,
-0.4138128161430359,
0.07250083237886429,
-0.2449725866317749,
-0.011472625657916069,
1.1176176071166992,
0.5787204504013062,
-0.18343864381313324,
-0.10250011831521988,
0.02887417934834957,
-0.8165403604507446,
-0.14463567733764648,
0.1939059942960739,
0.03408645838499069,
0.14964158833026886,
-0.06726851314306259,
-0.2828882038593292,
0.2860124409198761,
-0.4591512978076935,
0.3234742283821106,
0.10350125283002853,
-0.2309921681880951,
0.9451465010643005,
-0.020697111263871193,
-0.13060876727104187,
-0.46338018774986267,
-0.06503301113843918,
-0.25749993324279785,
-0.5012075304985046,
0.015637231990695,
0.33581408858299255,
-0.3738635182380676,
-0.7068256735801697,
-0.735765814781189,
-0.1243710070848465,
-0.6135281920433044,
0.10849056392908096,
-0.3961900472640991,
-0.2996073067188263,
0.6642880439758301,
0.7422374486923218,
-0.4215737283229828,
0.7562319040298462,
0.8931716084480286,
0.09310134500265121,
-0.28255322575569153,
-0.12669524550437927,
-0.08533090353012085,
0.31443002820014954,
0.47577348351478577,
0.18669642508029938,
0.5712283849716187,
-0.12799204885959625,
-0.4783256947994232,
-0.36710408329963684,
-0.20135900378227234,
-0.24148470163345337,
-0.26175323128700256,
-0.7881647348403931,
-0.9211176037788391,
-0.5241180658340454,
0.44904282689094543,
-0.5087830424308777,
-0.19700998067855835,
0.2745610475540161,
-0.2619715631008148,
0.26301348209381104,
0.29197463393211365,
0.1966409683227539,
-0.46096813678741455,
-0.5336109399795532,
0.12545990943908691,
-0.2201911062002182,
-0.4438655972480774,
-0.2581809163093567,
-0.5021058320999146,
0.04080839082598686,
-0.405864953994751,
0.37951064109802246,
-0.17799393832683563,
0.3629287779331207,
0.20172984898090363,
0.584990918636322,
0.25602829456329346,
-0.6475785970687866,
0.14267398416996002,
-0.07636097073554993,
0.2948823869228363,
-0.23514671623706818,
0.033914390951395035,
-0.5112127065658569,
0.3297063112258911,
-0.16276326775550842,
-0.20391614735126495,
-0.1255408674478531,
-0.05906705558300018,
0.009504549205303192,
0.6427766680717468,
-0.6453097462654114,
0.42977043986320496,
-0.19572210311889648,
-0.16441155970096588,
0.0399879515171051,
-0.2773360311985016,
-0.4056554138660431,
0.6831883192062378,
0.6582462191581726,
-1.0601134300231934,
-0.3722932040691376,
0.1582021415233612,
-0.28561633825302124,
0.1773979812860489,
0.3157505393028259,
-0.26285845041275024,
0.4729371666908264,
0.4549776613712311,
-0.49550485610961914,
0.035897307097911835,
-0.12607787549495697,
0.6791812777519226,
-0.1762208640575409,
-0.4226514399051666,
0.004528726451098919,
0.5294128656387329,
-0.36229243874549866,
-0.0382968932390213,
-0.4691111743450165,
-0.3791906237602234,
0.08590786159038544,
0.3145541846752167,
-0.7162755131721497,
1.2153602838516235,
0.5666798949241638,
-0.5478911399841309,
0.5418481826782227,
0.1893785297870636,
-0.46326351165771484,
-0.09289383888244629,
0.0817975327372551,
-0.29575440287590027,
0.14936542510986328,
-0.6251237392425537,
-0.12686316668987274,
-0.38172876834869385,
-0.4179307818412781,
-0.5265132188796997,
-0.24681933224201202,
0.5614264607429504,
0.23575298488140106,
-0.8710626363754272,
0.4421355128288269,
-0.136001855134964,
-0.32461363077163696,
-0.7938728928565979,
0.460357129573822,
-0.32146063446998596,
0.030521005392074585,
-0.0925264060497284,
0.08292946219444275,
-0.2829003632068634,
0.1954958140850067,
0.2576068043708801,
0.6766304969787598,
0.7479549646377563,
-0.4276854693889618,
-0.4362260103225708,
0.2958378195762634,
0.49094298481941223,
0.5236662030220032,
-0.036170147359371185,
-0.37281081080436707,
-0.10400784760713577,
0.4940023422241211,
-0.046559907495975494,
-1.1219377517700195,
-0.17772825062274933,
1.2396196126937866,
0.20645122230052948,
-0.06952066719532013,
-0.026910876855254173,
-0.4239548146724701,
0.07056643068790436,
0.06653903424739838,
0.022624148055911064,
-0.40525108575820923,
-0.05736450478434563,
0.36540740728378296,
-0.6232675313949585,
-0.015494810417294502,
-0.263114333152771,
0.11341755092144012,
-0.623088002204895,
0.18468335270881653,
-0.49954691529273987,
-0.0003486725618131459,
0.46302780508995056,
-0.6823897361755371,
0.10094144940376282,
0.6446478962898254,
-0.32527199387550354,
1.1646009683609009,
-0.08594022691249847,
-0.7189582586288452,
0.06513994187116623,
-0.4081600606441498,
0.266390323638916,
-0.41183653473854065,
0.19736020267009735,
0.10953524708747864,
0.31353527307510376,
0.1915276199579239,
0.1378071904182434,
-0.3653656244277954,
-0.33590787649154663,
-0.3930390179157257,
-0.21658797562122345,
-0.26237568259239197,
0.25305721163749695,
-0.06782292574644089,
0.7265250086784363,
0.022136561572551727,
-0.025252260267734528,
-1.0733132362365723,
0.22756904363632202,
0.45839229226112366,
-0.21129009127616882,
0.1279240846633911,
0.5509280562400818,
0.1742747277021408,
0.2919960021972656,
0.457142174243927,
-0.12558411061763763,
0.23023688793182373,
0.1455753594636917,
-0.059125326573848724,
0.6124231219291687,
-0.16850295662879944,
0.06158474087715149,
0.7629349827766418,
0.2283649444580078,
-0.052006665617227554,
0.05474821478128433,
0.17136111855506897,
0.11975017189979553,
0.2746175229549408,
0.14426212012767792,
-0.1338312029838562,
1.0732029676437378,
-0.2652096152305603,
-0.6107860803604126,
-0.25159236788749695,
0.44416406750679016,
0.5480282306671143,
0.1117827445268631,
-1.0491031408309937,
0.21051621437072754,
0.04371723532676697,
-0.16872404515743256,
0.0099955378100276,
-0.39860641956329346,
-0.4855606257915497,
0.2836875021457672,
0.2023971825838089,
0.438740074634552,
0.38370659947395325,
0.09324105829000473,
-0.20967409014701843,
0.1791098266839981,
0.41920727491378784,
-0.4129316210746765,
-0.19850173592567444,
-0.7982115149497986,
0.3509845733642578,
0.0899556428194046,
0.4748610556125641,
-0.04466094821691513,
0.7584094405174255,
0.33093729615211487,
0.27595046162605286,
0.3479476273059845,
0.3631405234336853,
-0.3526262044906616,
0.04129977524280548,
0.47194069623947144,
0.30042019486427307,
-0.7658984065055847,
-0.6552029848098755,
-0.2820378839969635,
0.002298208186402917,
-0.5091306567192078,
-0.6135667562484741,
0.09498641639947891,
-0.06348281353712082,
0.03087315522134304,
-0.255179762840271,
-0.1359034925699234,
-0.035607047379016876,
0.5649971961975098,
-0.06353846192359924,
0.5455348491668701,
0.19720378518104553,
0.23826369643211365,
-0.34788161516189575,
0.3977985680103302,
0.011678253300487995,
-0.3880322277545929,
-0.7220614552497864,
-0.014789767563343048,
-0.7205415964126587,
-0.6475059986114502,
-0.9162843227386475,
-0.4576014578342438,
-0.4292120933532715,
-0.6301406621932983,
-0.21018002927303314,
0.23971837759017944,
-0.6480727195739746,
0.5750802755355835,
-0.3492795526981354,
0.941681444644928,
0.2140500396490097,
0.2431480884552002,
-0.1399998962879181,
0.6205657720565796,
0.1420268416404724,
0.4355641007423401,
-0.6452186703681946,
0.9404919743537903,
-0.6756245493888855,
0.142524853348732,
-0.2077295333147049,
0.8593562245368958,
0.11358235776424408,
-0.005467311013489962,
-0.2419026643037796,
0.583346962928772,
-0.5882604718208313,
0.16589462757110596,
0.6992666721343994,
-0.11897552013397217,
-0.3676673471927643,
0.11796160787343979,
0.20108182728290558,
-0.2693396508693695,
-0.8341567516326904,
0.1408199518918991,
-0.1528562754392624,
-0.5274937152862549,
-0.12564101815223694,
0.23166033625602722,
-0.6423242688179016,
0.19563105702400208,
0.47900110483169556,
-0.6269912123680115,
-0.08114786446094513,
0.15886318683624268,
-0.22842007875442505,
-0.07770610600709915,
-0.13110879063606262,
0.30652865767478943,
0.5712655186653137,
0.1334935575723648,
0.30217164754867554,
-0.23154857754707336,
0.5079779028892517,
-0.10404618084430695,
0.4486483633518219,
-0.8264772891998291,
-0.20788763463497162,
-0.1202898770570755,
-0.6036631464958191,
0.8905655741691589,
-0.10740475356578827,
0.1565207988023758,
0.2862459719181061,
0.21960635483264923,
0.37733376026153564,
-0.28985169529914856,
0.10045311599969864,
-0.3998229205608368,
-0.1359013170003891,
-0.19998708367347717
] |
233686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20of%20Pod%C4%9Bbrady | George of Poděbrady | George of Kunštát and Poděbrady (23 April 1420 – 22 March 1471), also known as Poděbrad or Podiebrad (; ), was the sixteenth King of Bohemia, who ruled in 1458–1471. He was a leader of the Hussites, however, moderate and tolerant toward the Catholic faith. His rule was marked by great efforts to preserve peace and tolerance between the Hussites and Catholics in the religiously divided Crown of Bohemia – hence his contemporary nicknames: "King of two peoples" and "Friend of peace".
During the 19th century, in period of the so-called Czech National Revival, he began to be praised (even somewhat idealized) as the last Czech national monarch (in terms of ethnic awareness), a great diplomat and a courageous fighter against the domination of the Catholic Church. In modern times he is remembered mainly for his idea and attempt to establish common European Christian institutions, which is now seen as the first historical vision of European unity.
Early life
George was the son of Victor of Kunštát and Poděbrady, a Bohemian nobleman whose ancestors were of Moravian origin, one of the leaders of more moderate faction (called Utraquists) of the Hussites during the Hussite Wars. George's mother is not known by name and it is likely that George was born out of wedlock; during his life he repeatedly heard ridicule from his enemies about his origin.
At the age of fourteen, George himself took part in the Battle of Lipany (1434), which marked the downfall of more radical Hussite factions (Taborites and Orphans) and the end of revolutionary phase of the Hussite movement. In that time was already orphaned, as his father died in 1427.
Early in life, as one of the leaders of the Hussite party, he defeated Austrian troops of King Albert II, who had succeeded King Sigismund as King of Bohemia, Germany and Hungary. George soon became a prominent member of the Hussite party after the death of Hynce Ptáček of Pirkstein, its leader.
King Albert was succeeded by his posthumously born son Ladislaus, during whose reign Bohemia sharply divided into two parties: the party faithful to Rome, led by powerful "viceroy" Oldřich II of Rosenberg, and the Hussite party, led by George.
After various attempts at reconciliation, George sought a military decision. He gradually raised an armed force in north-eastern Bohemia, where the Hussites were strong and where his ancestral Litice Castle was situated. In 1448, he marched this army, about 9000 strong, from Kutná Hora to Prague, and obtained possession of the capital almost without resistance.
Civil war broke out, but George succeeded in defeating the nobles who remained faithful to Rome. In 1451 the Emperor Frederick III, as guardian of the young king Ladislaus, entrusted Poděbrad with the administration of Bohemia. In the same year a diet assembled at Prague also confirmed the regency on George.
Ruler of Bohemia
The struggle of the Hussites against the papal party continued uninterruptedly, and the position of George became a very difficult one when the young king Ladislaus, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his pro-Roman sympathies, though he had recognized the compacts and the ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislaus died suddenly and some voices accused George of having poisoned him. (Research in 1985 proved acute leukemia as the cause of death.)
On 2 March 1458 the estates of Bohemia unanimously chose George as king. Even the adherents of the papal party voted for him, some in honour of his moderate policies, some out of deference to popular feeling, which opposed the election of a foreign ruler.
George attempted to rule in a moderate manner based on the Compacta of Prague. He won the loyalty of some Catholics, but had to contend with the opposition of Pope Pius II, which proved one of the most serious obstacles to his rule. Pius declared the Compacta null and void in 1462 and wished George to consent to this. George rejected this demand but endeavoured to curry favour with the Papal See by punishing the more extreme Hussites (Taborites) or members of then newly founded Unitas Fratrum Church.
Message of peace
George attempted to secure peace with Rome by a radical suggestion, which some consider to have been a proposal before its time of a European Union. He proposed a treaty among all Christian powers, with Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, Bavaria, France, and Italian states and its princes the founding members, but others, especially the Hispanic powers, joining later. The member states would pledge to settle all differences by exclusively peaceful means. There was to be a common parliament and other common institutions. George couched the proposal in Christian terms ("Europe" is not explicitly mentioned) as a way to stop the "abominable Turk", who had conquered Constantinople in 1453.
He sent his brother-in-law Jaroslav Lev of Rožmitál on a tour of European courts with a draft treaty of the message of peace to promote the idea. George hoped that the treaty would come into effect in 1464. It is seen as one of historical visions of European unity foreshadowing the European Union.
That did not happen. All George's endeavours to establish peace with Rome proved ineffectual, but Pius II's plan of a crusade against Bohemia remained unexecuted. After Pius' death in 1464, George attempted to negotiate with the new pope, Paul II, who proved to be an equally determined opponent.
Struggle with internal opposition and antiking
George made enemies among the nobles of the papal party, who assembled at Zelená Hora (Grüneberg) on 28 November 1465 to voice their grievances and conclude an alliance against the king. The alliance was from the outset supported by Paul II, who, on 23 December 1466, excommunicated George and pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, which released all subjects of the Bohemian crown from their oaths of allegiance to George. Emperor Frederick III and Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus, George's former ally, joined the insurgent Bohemian nobles, starting the Bohemian War. Matthias conquered a large part of Moravia, and was crowned by the papal party in the Moravian ecclesiastical metropolis Olomouc as king of Bohemia on 3 May 1469.
George was successful against Matthias but, contrary to the wishes of his followers, came to an agreement with the Hungarian king in 1470.
His followers chose Vladislaus II, the son of the Polish king, as his successor to continue the fight against Matthias.
Legacy
The large Jiřího z Poděbrad Square in Prague 3 with the nearby eponymous metro station are named after him. Other squares named after him are in Ostrava, Hořice, Toužim, Řevnice, Kunštát or Nový Knín.
In 1896, an equestrian statue of King George, sculpted by Bohuslav Schnirch was erected in Poděbrady.
During World War I, early in 1917, the 2nd Czechoslovak Rifle Regiment of the Czechoslovak Legions was formed in Russia and named after King George.
Marriages and children
In 1440 he married Kunigunde of Sternberg; they had the following children:
Boček (15 July 1442 – 28 September 1496)
Victor (29 May 1443 – 30 August 1500), Imperial prince, Duke of Munsterberg and Opava and Count of Kladsko. Married to 1. Margaret Ptáček; 2. Sophie of Silesian Piasts; 3. Helen Margaret Palaiologina, daughter of John IV, Marquess of Montferrat.
Barbara (1446–1469), married firstly to Henry of Lipé, and secondly to John of Ronov
Henry the Elder (1448–1498), married Ursula of Brandenburg, daughter of Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg
Katharina (11 November 1449 – 8 March 1464), twin of Sidonie, married Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, however died young
Sidonie (11 November 1449 – 1 February 1510), twin of Katharina, called Zdeňka, married Albert III, Duke of Saxony
After Kunigunde died in 1449, he married Johana of Rožmitál in 1450, they had the following children:
Henry the Younger (18 May 1452 – 1 July 1492) married Catherine, daughter of William III, Duke of Saxony
Frederick (1453–1458)
Agnes?, believed to have married in Wallachia
Ludmila (16 October 1456 – 20 January 1503), married Frederick I of Liegnitz
See also
Gregory of Heimburg
References
Further reading
Colette Beaune: Chrétienté et Europe : le projet de Georges de Podiebrad au xve siècle, in: Chrétiens et sociétés, vol. 1, 1994, uploaded 8 July 2008 (in French).
Frederick G. Heymann. George of Bohemia. King of Heretics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965.
Otakar Odložilík. The Hussite King. Bohemia in European Affairs 1440–1471. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1965.
Anthony D. Smith. "National Identity and the Idea of European Unity" International Affairs, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Jan. 1992), pp. 55–76
1420 births
1471 deaths
People from Poděbrady
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
Medieval kings of Bohemia
Hussite people
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
Podiebrad family
15th-century monarchs in Europe
Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral | [
-0.440557599067688,
0.3088655173778534,
0.4642084538936615,
0.3597073554992676,
-0.6699101328849792,
0.7969143390655518,
0.5499306917190552,
-0.5264521241188049,
-0.5266775488853455,
-0.4185153543949127,
0.33657848834991455,
-0.5036634206771851,
-0.5862110257148743,
0.4332903027534485,
-0.24234049022197723,
0.6765537261962891,
1.0757735967636108,
-0.31554001569747925,
-0.567566990852356,
-0.3632221221923828,
0.7456883788108826,
-0.4846394658088684,
0.08037128299474716,
0.00502867391332984,
-0.1822148561477661,
0.1318940818309784,
0.6811057329177856,
0.20373573899269104,
-0.15158326923847198,
-0.012393900193274021,
-0.3950936794281006,
0.08332949131727219,
0.17982663214206696,
-0.012528473511338234,
-0.6309014558792114,
0.49553266167640686,
-0.5349026322364807,
-0.7642976641654968,
-0.29905229806900024,
-0.4827825725078583,
-0.3808443248271942,
0.6192596554756165,
0.17029666900634766,
0.4828888177871704,
-0.08232200145721436,
-0.2706156373023987,
-1.0607342720031738,
0.6163308620452881,
-0.26353058218955994,
0.29512494802474976,
-0.09007620811462402,
0.6307234168052673,
0.618132472038269,
0.48890405893325806,
-0.2041010707616806,
-0.181984543800354,
-0.7504634857177734,
-0.16171076893806458,
0.25117841362953186,
-0.0492885485291481,
0.7058865427970886,
0.625255823135376,
0.06223815307021141,
-0.4397495985031128,
0.3350698947906494,
-0.6175892353057861,
-0.12076818943023682,
0.8576517105102539,
-0.19210737943649292,
-0.8110322952270508,
-0.282821387052536,
0.5014351606369019,
0.3672650456428528,
0.17841440439224243,
0.15489959716796875,
-0.6048643589019775,
0.18721561133861542,
0.00877775065600872,
0.3193988800048828,
-0.3663957118988037,
-0.14945165812969208,
-0.4064306318759918,
0.8260877728462219,
0.3835809528827667,
0.4826960265636444,
-0.4464966058731079,
0.16292037069797516,
0.2529333531856537,
-0.7567117810249329,
-0.7502546906471252,
0.03980138897895813,
0.1370301991701126,
0.6101220846176147,
-0.2844015061855316,
-0.38149720430374146,
0.0762941837310791,
-0.7003297805786133,
-0.1901904195547104,
-0.1852542608976364,
-0.008834262378513813,
0.06370223313570023,
0.1925814300775528,
-0.11617418378591537,
-0.011135713197290897,
-0.5984635949134827,
-0.6173208355903625,
0.20781536400318146,
0.25225383043289185,
-0.26170411705970764,
0.41628599166870117,
-0.9270262122154236,
0.09571049362421036,
-0.02244545705616474,
0.1730482578277588,
0.47494542598724365,
0.6514195203781128,
-0.03714306652545929,
-0.5314001441001892,
-0.2641860842704773,
-0.13437192142009735,
-0.2812972962856293,
0.42722567915916443,
-0.3311062455177307,
0.43554559350013733,
-0.2676011621952057,
-0.26388683915138245,
0.3355661928653717,
0.043153584003448486,
-0.013818933628499508,
0.18280768394470215,
0.36674004793167114,
0.8786107301712036,
0.15558376908302307,
-0.7562687397003174,
0.07109846919775009,
0.09182313084602356,
0.028836652636528015,
-0.3385767638683319,
-0.2532702386379242,
0.06350193917751312,
-0.7530140280723572,
0.13099148869514465,
-0.2940672039985657,
0.06935238838195801,
-0.23094749450683594,
-0.18370473384857178,
0.3906884789466858,
-0.39933836460113525,
-0.39428696036338806,
-0.11515095084905624,
-0.2122291922569275,
0.40576794743537903,
-0.13311344385147095,
-0.42195871472358704,
-0.4953356683254242,
0.5002761483192444,
0.23043228685855865,
-0.31399843096733093,
0.2581365406513214,
0.2871439754962921,
0.4461762607097626,
0.13936226069927216,
-0.059471964836120605,
-0.02804308384656906,
0.3969149589538574,
-0.25439006090164185,
0.28022506833076477,
-0.09166999906301498,
-0.27336063981056213,
-0.18007025122642517,
-0.7851459980010986,
0.3699239492416382,
-0.019035419449210167,
0.08179761469364166,
0.19884097576141357,
0.7911369204521179,
0.7210971117019653,
-0.3792714774608612,
0.12007743120193481,
-0.08693641424179077,
-0.5912893414497375,
-0.3039436936378479,
-0.04407138004899025,
-0.35979628562927246,
0.4657318890094757,
0.4020805358886719,
0.5044060349464417,
-0.11739417165517807,
0.9183706045150757,
-0.5374021530151367,
0.34387192130088806,
-0.32563668489456177,
-0.012553747743368149,
-0.2425689697265625,
1.434617280960083,
0.13606533408164978,
-0.7203472256660461,
-0.6320818066596985,
0.17184953391551971,
0.8125168681144714,
-0.19458608329296112,
-0.2785651683807373,
-0.4887140393257141,
0.3412107229232788,
0.3887566924095154,
-0.026272816583514214,
-0.37417590618133545,
-0.31097325682640076,
0.6440118551254272,
0.8873188495635986,
0.35382792353630066,
-0.7623588442802429,
0.4664249122142792,
-0.030184431001544,
-0.23562084138393402,
-0.31968873739242554,
-0.4326770305633545,
0.29434138536453247,
-0.33163025975227356,
0.26889467239379883,
0.40849804878234863,
-0.017353875562548637,
-0.3997076451778412,
0.9543893337249756,
-0.1979914903640747,
0.45380091667175293,
-0.482729971408844,
0.569646954536438,
-0.3187815546989441,
-0.642362654209137,
-0.5971578359603882,
0.5045374631881714,
0.5203091502189636,
-0.24001957476139069,
-0.07035500556230545,
0.35016632080078125,
-0.18714910745620728,
-0.403332382440567,
0.15811513364315033,
-0.5779290199279785,
-0.23897643387317657,
0.5635378956794739,
-0.30470600724220276,
0.09285862743854523,
0.15836995840072632,
1.1025164127349854,
-0.14152103662490845,
-0.24031004309654236,
-0.6744232773780823,
-0.4363239109516144,
-0.22043699026107788,
0.306599885225296,
-0.4154992401599884,
-0.38489285111427307,
0.46269774436950684,
-0.4207973778247833,
0.45716050267219543,
-0.859526515007019,
-0.13785986602306366,
0.42340365052223206,
0.3289797306060791,
-0.2957194745540619,
-0.10871484130620956,
0.20259511470794678,
0.2958965599536896,
-0.02221461571753025,
0.23504102230072021,
0.1420580893754959,
0.3349451422691345,
-0.06902650743722916,
-0.30100440979003906,
-0.7880875468254089,
-0.4961152970790863,
-0.22632373869419098,
0.3713809549808502,
-0.3838959038257599,
-0.2932524085044861,
-0.11445922404527664,
0.026570476591587067,
-0.7653771042823792,
0.26592832803726196,
0.7914766669273376,
0.05655282735824585,
0.1417854279279709,
-0.04344862326979637,
0.17434316873550415,
0.2636048495769501,
-0.340130090713501,
0.0886593759059906,
-0.2430529147386551,
0.07136017084121704,
0.31755271553993225,
-0.4470350742340088,
0.32113969326019287,
-0.28611791133880615,
0.7471292614936829,
-0.9119646549224854,
-0.5984399318695068,
0.22904682159423828,
-0.46999749541282654,
-0.8885619640350342,
-0.34771737456321716,
-0.42549654841423035,
0.23560240864753723,
0.3515603542327881,
-0.39232540130615234,
-0.16925814747810364,
0.13652122020721436,
-5.497169017791748,
0.5534711480140686,
-0.3670690953731537,
0.05316447466611862,
-0.026062998920679092,
0.32651665806770325,
0.31058934330940247,
0.008623031899333,
0.30821844935417175,
-0.0913587138056755,
0.33014416694641113,
-0.3936375081539154,
-0.5417702198028564,
0.35251304507255554,
0.6687998175621033,
0.42606407403945923,
0.6018675565719604,
-0.3198920488357544,
-0.22326317429542542,
-0.3627847731113434,
0.27878904342651367,
0.40855109691619873,
-0.17028020322322845,
0.10425946116447449,
0.8769186735153198,
-0.01851101778447628,
-0.2641530930995941,
0.45701491832733154,
-1.0374271869659424,
-0.7876837253570557,
-0.08104575425386429,
0.046143800020217896,
0.12256895750761032,
0.3801879286766052,
0.40787383913993835,
0.45049843192100525,
0.621590793132782,
1.0271308422088623,
-0.13856735825538635,
0.12752030789852142,
0.294908732175827,
0.12842656672000885,
-0.6443387866020203,
0.36902931332588196,
0.09271855652332306,
-0.4877713620662689,
-0.4650779068470001,
0.4902624785900116,
-0.8656771779060364,
0.7899076342582703,
0.06743491441011429,
0.055014144629240036,
0.21071098744869232,
-0.1569059044122696,
0.07603305578231812,
0.04771007224917412,
-0.11529189348220825,
0.24593229591846466,
-0.6826567649841309,
0.6890740394592285,
0.16935192048549652,
-0.3779161870479584,
0.3965948820114136,
0.038178130984306335,
0.6511242389678955,
-0.20208612084388733,
-0.041379496455192566,
0.2667539715766907,
0.3221484422683716,
0.19276151061058044,
0.2248818725347519,
1.1320494413375854,
-0.41397824883461,
-0.9549297094345093,
0.3538253903388977,
-0.2890869081020355,
-0.36832308769226074,
-0.10342971980571747,
-0.3026222586631775,
0.23192079365253448,
0.07743573933839798,
-0.03198273107409477,
-0.2084396630525589,
0.8157268762588501,
0.5095462799072266,
0.3201284110546112,
-0.22194264829158783,
-0.16566094756126404,
-0.731478750705719,
0.32562002539634705,
0.29333025217056274,
-0.7531814575195312,
-0.29903778433799744,
0.09669691324234009,
-0.46998703479766846,
-0.2600169777870178,
-0.252159059047699,
-0.06565214693546295,
-0.3536430895328522,
0.3013627827167511,
0.001425858587026596,
0.1246703490614891,
-0.05674375221133232,
-0.49112704396247864,
0.6488370895385742,
-0.14480403065681458,
-0.019226308912038803,
0.023212432861328125,
1.1758164167404175,
0.33513906598091125,
0.1181757003068924,
0.5033950209617615,
-0.06577650457620621,
-0.7533748149871826,
0.6623526215553284,
-0.5909730792045593,
-0.28629374504089355,
0.4762832820415497,
0.4379969835281372,
-0.5571372509002686,
0.16611821949481964,
-0.14483991265296936,
-0.32877519726753235,
-0.2123662829399109,
-0.4186265766620636,
0.5018550157546997,
-0.24156710505485535,
0.2620396614074707,
-0.08993356674909592,
0.057104725390672684,
0.06945070624351501,
0.05214616656303406,
-0.2876129746437073,
0.15904445946216583,
-0.006885123439133167,
-0.23585760593414307,
-0.06396729499101639,
-0.4048718512058258,
-0.09251553565263748,
0.00040546446689404547,
-0.514965832233429,
-0.13016492128372192,
-0.2392730712890625,
0.05423951521515846,
-0.02604483813047409,
-0.007624909281730652,
-0.07314762473106384,
0.20317916572093964,
-0.21869441866874695,
0.20457640290260315,
-0.23951373994350433,
0.14092689752578735,
0.5525292754173279,
0.04585236310958862,
-0.2747149169445038,
-0.7456398606300354,
0.06702633947134018,
0.337149441242218,
0.6283290386199951,
-0.1038188561797142,
-0.24600419402122498,
0.2051638662815094,
-1.2259671688079834,
-0.03055175021290779,
0.33208557963371277,
-0.6204178929328918,
-0.7006629705429077,
-0.31383371353149414,
0.4479694068431854,
0.5659481287002563,
0.6225214004516602,
-0.8361567854881287,
-0.7085918188095093,
-0.07909251004457474,
0.2454431802034378,
-0.6476569771766663,
-0.046060796827077866,
0.28142622113227844,
-0.4212554693222046,
0.2067224532365799,
0.4614498019218445,
-0.10041861981153488,
-0.12238405644893646,
0.34029966592788696,
0.606989860534668,
-0.04152942821383476,
-0.35144564509391785,
-0.28360244631767273,
0.8475213646888733,
-0.5840843915939331,
-0.47059160470962524,
-0.2431502640247345,
-0.03062484599649906,
0.18476416170597076,
-0.09711914509534836,
-0.3823734521865845,
0.38472357392311096,
1.031510353088379,
-0.4668390154838562,
-0.3815160393714905,
-0.08079944550991058,
-0.014013290405273438,
-0.27221229672431946,
0.14368987083435059,
0.31163015961647034,
-0.4320733845233917,
0.7539495825767517,
0.19933199882507324,
-0.0686764344573021,
0.22282782196998596,
-0.27623429894447327,
-0.5878762006759644,
-0.3416290283203125,
0.47882556915283203,
0.04214467853307724,
0.33495885133743286,
0.08936110883951187,
-0.2203696221113205,
-0.695154070854187,
-0.8353421688079834,
-0.18367218971252441,
0.216272234916687,
-0.5875694155693054,
0.279523640871048,
-0.523917555809021,
-0.18160869181156158,
0.39362823963165283,
0.07602749019861221,
-0.01246856339275837,
-0.2944648265838623,
0.45726901292800903,
0.1748366802930832,
-0.3033692240715027,
0.29970836639404297,
-0.1855597048997879,
-0.6659212708473206,
0.31769487261772156,
0.06578738987445831,
0.2698904871940613,
0.3929055333137512,
0.5277323722839355,
0.7304148077964783,
0.162959024310112,
-0.09996345639228821,
0.8090686202049255,
-0.2676757872104645,
-0.4895182251930237,
-0.04442102462053299,
0.20754948258399963,
0.24021941423416138,
0.31793397665023804,
-0.02419976145029068,
-0.6380749344825745,
-0.14611218869686127,
0.9330615997314453,
-0.13075949251651764,
0.16552303731441498,
0.3916298747062683,
0.16403822600841522,
0.6507910490036011,
-0.44714829325675964,
0.8513321280479431,
0.5108112692832947,
-0.30743956565856934,
-0.21435502171516418,
-0.09655048698186874,
-0.16227060556411743,
0.15281687676906586,
-0.20970316231250763,
-0.3972902297973633,
-0.39899909496307373,
-0.5342690348625183,
0.19011902809143066,
-0.27644047141075134,
-0.4177119731903076,
-0.5162230134010315,
0.33161404728889465,
-0.4517596662044525,
0.47320714592933655,
-0.10870793461799622,
-1.1226036548614502,
-0.12353263795375824,
0.32599639892578125,
-0.13029593229293823,
-0.3135918080806732,
-0.657677948474884,
-0.25615185499191284,
0.2879978120326996,
-0.20514892041683197,
0.28240928053855896,
-0.28159192204475403,
0.21925285458564758,
-0.22168470919132233,
0.13492126762866974,
0.12238715589046478,
-0.13323462009429932,
0.1467391848564148,
0.12043069303035736,
0.4587981700897217,
0.07182198762893677,
-0.7681214809417725,
0.3700979948043823,
0.5409183502197266,
0.08168905228376389,
0.11577492952346802,
0.34221625328063965,
0.11684638261795044,
-0.2815746068954468,
-0.838738203048706,
-0.22930437326431274,
0.8113943338394165,
-0.4127650260925293,
0.09342402964830399,
-0.05582687631249428,
-0.7920392155647278,
-0.10996919125318527,
0.47675320506095886,
0.3469422459602356,
-0.18684469163417816,
-0.4866633713245392,
-0.15643393993377686,
0.16688238084316254,
-0.04514363780617714,
-0.3839825689792633,
0.40420812368392944,
-0.07751915603876114,
0.18454644083976746,
-0.33675646781921387,
-0.16816572844982147,
0.13682404160499573,
0.23538580536842346,
0.03990636393427849,
-0.18156307935714722,
0.7223296761512756,
0.3669760525226593,
0.26362550258636475,
0.17442135512828827,
-0.4053218364715576,
0.06337743252515793,
0.5491315722465515,
0.1333087682723999,
0.48201820254325867,
-0.896475076675415,
0.2361886352300644,
0.28968545794487,
0.11766767501831055,
0.055046338587999344,
-0.3313567042350769,
0.3543708026409149,
0.3152693510055542,
0.7637830972671509,
0.1928534060716629,
-0.21335476636886597,
-0.15229251980781555,
0.11662624776363373,
0.4097222685813904,
0.8144794702529907,
0.12876784801483154,
-0.15553773939609528,
0.06854625791311264,
0.12480717152357101,
-0.7008196711540222,
0.058519408106803894,
-0.20196916162967682,
-0.3897116780281067,
0.01358299981802702,
0.020032674074172974,
-0.313697874546051,
0.400021493434906,
-0.4709635078907013,
0.43076661229133606,
-0.6928247213363647,
-0.25068414211273193,
0.0806293711066246,
0.04735098406672478,
0.13466133177280426,
0.8353723287582397,
0.14994670450687408,
0.28232431411743164,
-0.19444480538368225,
-0.5474966168403625,
0.1794576197862625,
0.06537944078445435,
-0.2591855823993683,
-0.1452479064464569,
-0.038611698895692825,
0.3164711594581604,
0.04839377850294113,
0.06786501407623291,
-0.6016127467155457,
-0.31037285923957825,
-0.6946039199829102,
0.12684647738933563,
0.25269874930381775,
-1.1712956428527832,
-0.0877370834350586,
-0.4150116741657257,
0.9323994517326355,
0.37191393971443176,
0.4487341344356537,
-0.21108654141426086,
-0.09340792149305344,
-0.18499808013439178,
0.36220788955688477,
-0.39447131752967834,
0.7141121029853821,
-0.43451136350631714,
-0.25125250220298767,
-0.3044300079345703,
0.7412232160568237,
-0.019473591819405556,
0.11076407134532928,
-0.2540736198425293,
0.7859439849853516,
0.04375149682164192,
0.38438132405281067,
0.77289217710495,
0.012554424814879894,
0.149064838886261,
-0.17356033623218536,
0.11824753135442734,
-0.3087553381919861,
0.26945725083351135,
-0.03806865215301514,
0.21310333907604218,
-0.03451325744390488,
0.7719027400016785,
-0.1644894927740097,
-0.06137506291270256,
0.3189425766468048,
-0.1155833974480629,
-0.12151923775672913,
-0.3163352608680725,
0.10787355154752731,
-0.6328852772712708,
-0.1210349053144455,
0.8226280212402344,
0.5671315789222717,
0.0180522371083498,
-0.8265050053596497,
-0.24427957832813263,
-0.2583739161491394,
0.6720874905586243,
0.23724590241909027,
0.02587233856320381,
0.10018806159496307,
-0.11800181865692139,
0.3251984119415283,
-0.5077840685844421,
0.032542403787374496,
-0.1455022394657135,
0.2287757694721222,
0.4425991475582123,
-0.9043240547180176,
0.433082640171051,
-0.2987808585166931,
-0.3214449882507324,
-0.4463749825954437,
0.017649129033088684,
-0.003629888640716672
] |
233695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Guldin | Paul Guldin | Paul Guldin (original name Habakkuk Guldin; 12 June 1577 (Mels) – 3 November 1643 (Graz)) was a Swiss Jesuit mathematician and astronomer. He discovered the Guldinus theorem to determine the surface and the volume of a solid of revolution. (This theorem is also known as the Pappus–Guldinus theorem and Pappus's centroid theorem, attributed to Pappus of Alexandria.) Guldin was noted for his association with the German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler. Guldin composed a critique of Cavalieri's method of Indivisibles.
Although of Jewish descent, his parents were Protestants and they brought Guldin up in that faith. He was a professor of mathematics in Graz and Vienna.
In Paolo Casati's astronomical work Terra machinis mota (1658), Casati imagines a dialogue among Guldin, Galileo, and Marin Mersenne on various intellectual problems of cosmology, geography, astronomy and geodesy.
See also
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
Notes
1577 births
1643 deaths
17th-century Swiss astronomers
Swiss Jesuits
17th-century Swiss mathematicians
17th-century Jesuits
Swiss people of Jewish descent
Jesuit scientists | [
-0.5507686734199524,
0.8758955001831055,
-0.1496712863445282,
-0.029706554487347603,
-0.47804686427116394,
1.0508036613464355,
0.6615002751350403,
-0.2727188766002655,
-0.62220698595047,
-0.7200736999511719,
-0.22271046042442322,
-0.1769571751356125,
-0.36317065358161926,
0.5899202227592468,
0.11664552241563797,
-0.11047589033842087,
0.3591749966144562,
-0.7129742503166199,
-0.8938323259353638,
0.01606065407395363,
-0.1662725806236267,
0.3578639030456543,
0.13741368055343628,
0.23357567191123962,
-0.20009008049964905,
0.08208805322647095,
0.027366384863853455,
0.015565657988190651,
0.2458515763282776,
0.09372995048761368,
0.06212569400668144,
0.8006487488746643,
0.24061894416809082,
0.021568013355135918,
-0.7835589647293091,
0.446189820766449,
-0.19727028906345367,
-0.2525152862071991,
0.32145407795906067,
0.10622083395719528,
0.037458933889865875,
0.4616718590259552,
-0.06101449206471443,
0.2879919707775116,
-0.15893471240997314,
-0.5109121799468994,
-1.8498507738113403,
0.7436330318450928,
-0.6082556843757629,
-0.024484794586896896,
-0.053628891706466675,
-0.47634750604629517,
0.4913214445114136,
0.5380192399024963,
-0.7377445101737976,
0.21464203298091888,
-0.4511079788208008,
-0.32230567932128906,
0.24424155056476593,
0.1423357129096985,
0.49894532561302185,
-0.1922900676727295,
0.19157694280147552,
-0.042045120149850845,
0.34591129422187805,
-0.10768839716911316,
-0.271504282951355,
0.3614175319671631,
0.07932078093290329,
-0.24869081377983093,
-0.04600096121430397,
0.5382676124572754,
-0.3356355130672455,
-0.003349844366312027,
0.9354838132858276,
-0.7104306221008301,
-0.008768358267843723,
0.461043119430542,
0.15698117017745972,
-0.3488292396068573,
-0.34405770897865295,
-0.07813316583633423,
0.33210745453834534,
-0.26926031708717346,
-0.04924856126308441,
-0.2401353120803833,
-0.5505903363227844,
0.5342515110969543,
-0.6404895782470703,
-0.004148080479353666,
0.3051563799381256,
-0.8848925232887268,
0.5612993836402893,
0.18158355355262756,
0.38193416595458984,
0.5080333948135376,
-0.25196149945259094,
0.2925198972225189,
-0.30080103874206543,
-0.12070892751216888,
0.09117060899734497,
-0.07220569252967834,
0.11053575575351715,
-0.2475300431251526,
0.3917229175567627,
0.13038404285907745,
0.12658460438251495,
-0.2469542920589447,
-0.6080792546272278,
0.05735991895198822,
-0.642492413520813,
0.17988987267017365,
-0.0212628785520792,
0.12425893545150757,
-0.274927020072937,
0.42785337567329407,
0.033087942749261856,
-1.3477630615234375,
-0.5445953011512756,
0.005568939261138439,
-0.4118984341621399,
0.5485280752182007,
-0.007017367519438267,
0.25315406918525696,
-0.37562423944473267,
-0.19619189202785492,
-0.04937968775629997,
0.6010807752609253,
-0.7837908267974854,
0.20511765778064728,
0.06321698427200317,
0.8813982605934143,
0.2481939047574997,
0.13446344435214996,
-0.4591349959373474,
-0.03860968351364136,
-0.011736903339624405,
-0.36132287979125977,
-1.1832470893859863,
0.41962072253227234,
-0.45864588022232056,
-0.28952494263648987,
-0.16704075038433075,
0.06632350385189056,
0.023453781381249428,
0.2503392994403839,
0.45103365182876587,
-0.5261136293411255,
-0.08207619190216064,
-0.07902760058641434,
-0.5418698787689209,
-0.03500596433877945,
-0.1030585989356041,
-0.536384105682373,
-0.24279703199863434,
0.7732917666435242,
-0.3144804835319519,
0.6820493936538696,
0.06671861559152603,
0.08999251574277878,
0.7907412648200989,
-0.16954205930233002,
-0.9976667761802673,
-0.05804817005991936,
0.33333703875541687,
-0.5392674207687378,
0.5198394656181335,
-0.05400560796260834,
0.02163754776120186,
-0.3073233664035797,
-0.15679389238357544,
-0.4676477015018463,
0.1999896615743637,
-0.033701203763484955,
-0.2541148066520691,
0.44275033473968506,
0.3531666100025177,
-0.12116324156522751,
0.05156047269701958,
-0.23057126998901367,
-0.7679086327552795,
-0.4031626284122467,
-0.20952415466308594,
0.35434436798095703,
0.2612974941730499,
0.6130253076553345,
0.3560727834701538,
-0.04495907947421074,
0.6117801070213318,
-0.7330272793769836,
-0.7850512266159058,
-0.7936334013938904,
-0.04815007373690605,
0.35480961203575134,
1.7142330408096313,
0.24257755279541016,
-0.3613765239715576,
0.49890631437301636,
-0.34879112243652344,
0.377703994512558,
-0.6500268578529358,
-0.46803343296051025,
0.05781261622905731,
0.38427263498306274,
0.45145708322525024,
0.6882449388504028,
0.10919664055109024,
-0.5322214961051941,
-0.05927887186408043,
0.47069308161735535,
0.5389374494552612,
-0.43046095967292786,
0.46588483452796936,
0.35859018564224243,
-0.5728045105934143,
0.1516365259885788,
-0.406578928232193,
0.10932604968547821,
-0.129733607172966,
0.09094365686178207,
0.8131866455078125,
0.4566991925239563,
0.09096638113260269,
0.9467695355415344,
0.12243278324604034,
0.9367849230766296,
0.029297372326254845,
0.7833492159843445,
-0.10621624439954758,
-0.6014694571495056,
-0.08959492295980453,
0.015622025355696678,
0.7624201774597168,
-0.41412627696990967,
0.19242900609970093,
-0.14351356029510498,
0.2766340970993042,
-0.5123465657234192,
0.22545047104358673,
-0.5271160006523132,
0.0748010128736496,
0.4421187937259674,
0.05655636265873909,
0.36532583832740784,
-0.028551047667860985,
0.4714418053627014,
-0.1219807118177414,
-0.4093809425830841,
-0.13569536805152893,
0.09067738801240921,
-0.4310927093029022,
0.675798237323761,
-0.32826492190361023,
0.13754408061504364,
-0.3977186977863312,
-0.13839095830917358,
0.5657744407653809,
-0.18932411074638367,
0.3669827878475189,
0.39549365639686584,
0.5857293605804443,
-0.2540983259677887,
0.23060178756713867,
-0.07824254781007767,
-0.3171505630016327,
-0.35105130076408386,
0.2242833375930786,
-0.2491379827260971,
0.19873350858688354,
0.03073536418378353,
-0.12837611138820648,
-0.5603554844856262,
-0.645470142364502,
0.5937289595603943,
-0.19227689504623413,
-1.042904257774353,
-0.12225447595119476,
-0.42411839962005615,
-0.20641514658927917,
-0.15517234802246094,
-0.2844542860984802,
0.2951682209968567,
-0.5295360088348389,
0.33562368154525757,
-0.22487697005271912,
0.4761733114719391,
-0.18238739669322968,
-0.18961861729621887,
0.651586651802063,
0.12502489984035492,
-0.2176511436700821,
1.1915591955184937,
-0.3016701638698578,
0.16466176509857178,
0.06904105097055435,
0.5621656179428101,
-0.23644153773784637,
-1.165698528289795,
0.3942042291164398,
-0.6372842788696289,
-0.9225999116897583,
0.03045438416302204,
0.2632019817829132,
0.26728618144989014,
0.16918551921844482,
-0.05070294439792633,
-0.1117929071187973,
-0.033410731703042984,
-5.284463882446289,
-0.09944311529397964,
-0.4729542136192322,
-0.22452981770038605,
-0.2171819508075714,
0.5720312595367432,
0.2735712230205536,
-0.35880446434020996,
0.41727375984191895,
-0.45897233486175537,
0.29521721601486206,
-0.4117783010005951,
-0.5517039895057678,
0.3611070513725281,
0.6911295056343079,
0.5226597189903259,
0.6978108286857605,
0.5287054181098938,
0.20503905415534973,
0.3840163052082062,
-0.37060338258743286,
-0.10993202775716782,
0.09840942919254303,
0.31350359320640564,
-0.04921676218509674,
0.13690298795700073,
-0.20729298889636993,
0.048791687935590744,
-0.4471779763698578,
-0.40121468901634216,
0.29208290576934814,
-0.07359371334314346,
-0.35011669993400574,
0.2636733651161194,
0.3257502615451813,
0.02713279239833355,
0.6052179336547852,
0.6434230208396912,
0.3752104938030243,
0.8862445950508118,
0.04123900458216667,
0.3179130256175995,
-0.45596033334732056,
0.17658059298992157,
-0.039140813052654266,
-0.12833057343959808,
-0.5978494882583618,
0.6248719096183777,
-0.7086692452430725,
0.5047085285186768,
0.43305861949920654,
0.0011456644861027598,
-0.11789653450250626,
-0.3994176685810089,
-0.15538935363292694,
-0.22123385965824127,
0.3200063407421112,
0.607374370098114,
-0.9397523999214172,
0.45988577604293823,
0.3994499742984772,
-0.27839258313179016,
0.1419920176267624,
-0.5691668391227722,
-0.48458626866340637,
-0.06245353817939758,
0.07920350879430771,
-0.029372671619057655,
0.26942840218544006,
-0.6474004983901978,
-0.1589106023311615,
1.2068394422531128,
0.13514754176139832,
-0.9003044962882996,
-0.11529897898435593,
-0.6343969106674194,
-0.4435860812664032,
-0.1740223914384842,
-0.8610716462135315,
0.15127325057983398,
-0.08516546338796616,
-0.9118235111236572,
-0.07934083789587021,
1.1150014400482178,
1.0319769382476807,
0.23982854187488556,
-0.37722650170326233,
-0.1978919506072998,
-0.4026500880718231,
-0.12812145054340363,
0.2618043124675751,
-0.7687053680419922,
0.40180084109306335,
0.1134711429476738,
-0.19104358553886414,
0.5959508419036865,
-0.15868514776229858,
0.09492981433868408,
0.8740741610527039,
0.6803889870643616,
0.34379634261131287,
0.22938907146453857,
0.23312827944755554,
-0.37979817390441895,
0.2640746533870697,
0.07839673012495041,
-0.38049420714378357,
0.37002187967300415,
0.8910112380981445,
0.5317061543464661,
0.025601163506507874,
0.3068484961986542,
-0.3950961232185364,
-0.10437726229429245,
-0.01308867521584034,
-0.276429146528244,
-0.14895294606685638,
0.2042786180973053,
-0.12167409807443619,
0.08430711925029755,
-0.045025356113910675,
-0.46226081252098083,
-0.1435803920030594,
-0.579203724861145,
-0.22564779222011566,
0.15931807458400726,
-0.615883469581604,
-0.04285236448049545,
-0.031478676944971085,
-0.08731891959905624,
0.11058979481458664,
0.8566376566886902,
-0.037025198340415955,
0.14903298020362854,
0.06840889155864716,
-0.40164440870285034,
-0.46352478861808777,
-0.7012473940849304,
0.3639163374900818,
-0.3665519952774048,
0.44840970635414124,
-0.12869247794151306,
0.15481747686862946,
0.3520725965499878,
0.11953194439411163,
-0.011963915079832077,
-0.01665569096803665,
-0.1003202497959137,
-0.4992581307888031,
0.561456024646759,
0.09008953720331192,
-0.4842514097690582,
0.5097541213035583,
0.035047534853219986,
-0.07667245715856552,
0.009963102638721466,
-0.374428927898407,
-0.030282950028777122,
-0.270255982875824,
0.08968645334243774,
0.05356534570455551,
-0.2800590991973877,
-0.7925584316253662,
-0.11815739423036575,
-0.07819531112909317,
0.5315305590629578,
-0.45383894443511963,
0.2742031514644623,
-0.47656774520874023,
0.60822594165802,
-0.07151540368795395,
-0.4731084108352661,
-0.6791359186172485,
-0.46455758810043335,
0.013120299205183983,
0.15598861873149872,
0.23772032558918,
0.07271241396665573,
0.2604638934135437,
-0.16135801374912262,
-0.023355646058917046,
-0.09412937611341476,
-0.45669692754745483,
0.47832047939300537,
0.6026080250740051,
-0.22437815368175507,
-0.4781776964664459,
-0.7307725548744202,
0.07465263456106186,
-0.17900440096855164,
0.3714963495731354,
-0.6624476313591003,
-0.1558152288198471,
0.23522940278053284,
0.2939389944076538,
-0.6320484280586243,
0.35773882269859314,
-0.28573885560035706,
0.05885875225067139,
-0.36288928985595703,
-0.3877384066581726,
0.02514086477458477,
-0.678221583366394,
-0.10203736275434494,
0.08524808287620544,
-0.9531452655792236,
-0.06641624122858047,
0.325038343667984,
-0.30868059396743774,
0.26778605580329895,
-0.6808452606201172,
-0.790171205997467,
-0.12699942290782928,
0.6416991949081421,
-0.5747212767601013,
0.5210360884666443,
0.14575880765914917,
-0.04922935366630554,
-1.077024221420288,
-0.5935032367706299,
-0.8531999588012695,
0.15354466438293457,
-0.519960343837738,
-0.3950884938240051,
0.023830121383070946,
-0.5316043496131897,
0.27478674054145813,
0.4912475347518921,
0.23958715796470642,
-0.028766226023435593,
0.10663140565156937,
-0.31727826595306396,
0.32394179701805115,
-0.18747040629386902,
-0.16911064088344574,
-0.24146492779254913,
0.44115573167800903,
0.22249309718608856,
-0.2816182076931,
-0.07435603439807892,
0.3870997130870819,
0.589368462562561,
0.13297852873802185,
0.12690314650535583,
0.3493503928184509,
0.05498287081718445,
0.2853240668773651,
-0.01687510870397091,
0.1708827167749405,
-0.1915459781885147,
0.3056509792804718,
-0.16538676619529724,
-0.7406631708145142,
-0.15142354369163513,
0.9268345832824707,
0.25893911719322205,
0.028956696391105652,
0.28106361627578735,
0.16100874543190002,
-0.18766620755195618,
0.2285742461681366,
0.5878680944442749,
0.4415992498397827,
-0.18309342861175537,
-0.12779667973518372,
-0.020504450425505638,
-0.15550896525382996,
-0.6737736463546753,
0.3100168704986572,
0.27464422583580017,
-0.06344302743673325,
-1.2026147842407227,
-0.3078269064426422,
0.08140396326780319,
-0.46940210461616516,
0.6830691695213318,
0.10287705808877945,
0.6735823750495911,
0.33041810989379883,
-0.3846813142299652,
-1.238897681236267,
0.09234225749969482,
-0.3051261603832245,
-0.22043871879577637,
-0.20839938521385193,
-0.438870370388031,
-0.15111035108566284,
0.6168896555900574,
0.008667494170367718,
0.34037187695503235,
-0.892080545425415,
0.3671852648258209,
-0.34586048126220703,
0.6328716278076172,
-0.1401652991771698,
0.24680188298225403,
-0.15552736818790436,
0.8817283511161804,
-0.297159343957901,
-0.19779404997825623,
-0.24739974737167358,
0.17279919981956482,
1.0070828199386597,
-0.23808500170707703,
0.45255085825920105,
0.6205783486366272,
-0.12839029729366302,
0.39371365308761597,
-0.2877176105976105,
-0.13200172781944275,
0.4844829738140106,
0.32382163405418396,
0.22737592458724976,
0.23232445120811462,
-1.0894765853881836,
-0.3789571225643158,
1.0531494617462158,
-0.023629821836948395,
0.002886631991714239,
-0.08924926817417145,
0.27459093928337097,
0.3021174669265747,
0.4026079773902893,
-0.7796778082847595,
-0.3119628429412842,
0.27119505405426025,
0.47756293416023254,
0.12916207313537598,
-0.545105516910553,
0.5295689105987549,
-0.07331977784633636,
-0.32293424010276794,
-0.29906025528907776,
0.8300825953483582,
0.11116990447044373,
-0.09639384597539902,
-0.0034770190250128508,
-0.7815115451812744,
-0.0511627234518528,
-0.053344257175922394,
0.16179461777210236,
1.4333170652389526,
-0.6876055002212524,
0.4324394464492798,
-0.5712653398513794,
0.34376370906829834,
-0.2529155910015106,
0.5390997529029846,
-0.03128951042890549,
0.01623467728495598,
0.4516015350818634,
-0.24804165959358215,
0.06695577502250671,
0.00418857904151082,
-0.18833400309085846,
0.4002072811126709,
0.49921050667762756,
-0.2968337833881378,
-0.4065423905849457,
-0.13753817975521088,
0.10505212843418121,
-0.33573082089424133,
0.5332556962966919,
-0.08405308425426483,
-0.09172049164772034,
-0.05683305114507675,
0.06834425032138824,
-0.6003523468971252,
0.5442020893096924,
-0.2777121663093567,
-0.482584148645401,
-0.3131842017173767,
-0.1045532375574112,
0.5835850834846497,
0.16758573055267334,
-0.17915143072605133,
0.4493054449558258,
0.11686814576387405,
0.06044917181134224,
0.13767483830451965,
-0.6370871067047119,
-0.09569865465164185,
0.23805901408195496,
-0.2969362437725067,
-0.4797547459602356,
-0.11382202059030533,
-0.24774380028247833,
0.4360010623931885,
-0.2178584337234497,
-0.38168975710868835,
0.3529939353466034,
-0.3466643691062927,
-0.08367066830396652,
0.11266980320215225,
-0.7451880574226379,
0.46730461716651917,
0.20919924974441528,
0.6575561761856079,
0.5298407077789307,
-0.18345800042152405,
-0.49260950088500977,
-0.13918259739875793,
0.3484508991241455,
-0.0706353560090065,
-0.779094398021698,
-0.000513007864356041,
0.22525063157081604,
0.6537199020385742,
-0.39135757088661194,
0.7892705798149109,
-0.262785941362381,
-0.04270938038825989,
-0.3439441919326782,
0.2057531327009201,
-0.4917289614677429,
0.21962358057498932,
0.7764222025871277,
0.24408872425556183,
-0.23360587656497955,
0.2817288041114807,
0.26472046971321106,
-0.11350173503160477,
-0.36182883381843567,
-0.20936118066310883,
0.36031967401504517,
0.47831985354423523,
0.04294382035732269,
0.44298040866851807,
0.14344996213912964,
0.24231338500976562,
0.12145456671714783,
-0.22272364795207977,
-0.55390864610672,
-0.2333911508321762,
-0.06293009221553802,
-0.795387864112854,
0.7578746676445007,
0.13260456919670105,
0.42350414395332336,
-0.9842137694358826,
0.5522208213806152,
0.02284608967602253,
-0.4525931179523468,
0.29093265533447266,
0.1904652714729309,
0.5078320503234863,
-0.09656161069869995,
-0.19429224729537964,
-0.12302421033382416,
0.5297641754150391,
0.26227161288261414,
-0.31641125679016113,
0.45707008242607117,
-1.017819881439209,
0.3355095386505127,
0.2574499249458313,
-0.04419923946261406,
-0.3003881275653839,
0.7670637369155884,
0.40902620553970337
] |
233700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Gall%20%28disambiguation%29 | St. Gall (disambiguation) | St. Gall may refer to:
Saint Gall, Irish missionary in the German Alps
Abbey of Saint Gall, Switzerland
Sankt Gallen (disambiguation), various German-language eponyms of the saint
St. Gallen, a city of Switzerland, whose English spelling is St Gall, and whose French name is Saint-Gall
Gal I (Bishop of Clermont) (c.489–c.553)
See also
Saint-Gall Cantatorium, the earliest surviving cantatorium of Gregorian chant.
Gall (disambiguation) | [
-0.3194778263568878,
-0.12450098991394043,
-0.2640795409679413,
-0.6498435735702515,
-0.5028661489486694,
0.5502825975418091,
0.655153214931488,
0.13973668217658997,
-0.744011640548706,
-0.4727838635444641,
-0.08047865331172943,
0.05839613825082779,
0.12630821764469147,
-0.058543380349874496,
0.5684345364570618,
0.29422086477279663,
0.17825287580490112,
0.24610672891139984,
-0.04133641719818115,
-0.7046305537223816,
-0.3029545843601227,
-0.035937704145908356,
0.15118539333343506,
-0.0935189351439476,
0.11187270283699036,
0.15036463737487793,
0.0017613806994631886,
-0.09884681552648544,
0.052454542368650436,
-0.2967126667499542,
0.08230140805244446,
0.2109316736459732,
0.057463303208351135,
-0.4743274748325348,
-0.5108505487442017,
-0.35767456889152527,
0.4668563902378082,
-0.16677528619766235,
-0.5902813673019409,
-0.4673813283443451,
-0.17435796558856964,
-0.17817208170890808,
-0.24258646368980408,
0.7060417532920837,
-0.1735420972108841,
0.05456596240401268,
-1.3346136808395386,
0.20869719982147217,
-1.1731294393539429,
0.5093859434127808,
0.29564133286476135,
-0.5122827291488647,
-0.20845180749893188,
0.3249723017215729,
-0.19487112760543823,
0.6732655167579651,
-1.1186025142669678,
0.45689231157302856,
0.3029608726501465,
-0.5119913220405579,
0.20818884670734406,
0.5683949589729309,
0.37997308373451233,
0.18847033381462097,
-0.5893229246139526,
0.07883675396442413,
0.024341333657503128,
0.4773343801498413,
-0.028049584478139877,
-0.6052439212799072,
0.00863364152610302,
-0.6811288595199585,
-0.2950124740600586,
0.30179405212402344,
0.19115625321865082,
-0.526148796081543,
0.06758493185043335,
-0.5356032848358154,
0.2440212368965149,
-0.4430030286312103,
-0.275635689496994,
-0.021099360659718513,
0.6000555157661438,
0.18654674291610718,
0.6488534808158875,
0.142130509018898,
-0.29959940910339355,
-0.29792147874832153,
-0.21030719578266144,
0.5437971353530884,
-0.3202141523361206,
-0.1671248823404312,
0.22990858554840088,
0.2796778380870819,
0.3856620490550995,
0.3265227675437927,
-0.00813905056566,
0.2662712633609772,
0.3840557634830475,
-0.05912119895219803,
-0.6927687525749207,
0.5163393616676331,
-0.4029310941696167,
-0.18383504450321198,
-0.3154987096786499,
-0.2998271882534027,
0.17001265287399292,
-0.2276458889245987,
-0.4503810703754425,
-1.5195423364639282,
-0.22789506614208221,
-0.12935510277748108,
0.01957661844789982,
-0.047963667660951614,
-0.3199765682220459,
-0.22910147905349731,
0.30370497703552246,
-0.7743852138519287,
-0.18726147711277008,
-0.12877336144447327,
0.06637327373027802,
0.6047601103782654,
0.21072335541248322,
0.06675465404987335,
0.08740774542093277,
0.20393897593021393,
0.5183373093605042,
0.5887855291366577,
-0.09406571090221405,
0.5922267436981201,
-0.19711732864379883,
1.1393059492111206,
-0.22831211984157562,
-0.45085880160331726,
0.5829261541366577,
-0.39000245928764343,
-0.13296860456466675,
0.08405564725399017,
-0.09772470593452454,
-0.0043634227477014065,
-1.1543126106262207,
-0.16304032504558563,
-1.7215389013290405,
0.3564148545265198,
0.34697237610816956,
-0.042436160147190094,
0.33747515082359314,
0.030967973172664642,
0.40687450766563416,
0.14355210959911346,
-0.28742900490760803,
-0.021809831261634827,
-0.028597671538591385,
0.2215074896812439,
-0.4544770419597626,
0.41318807005882263,
0.6714711785316467,
0.033631887286901474,
-0.12287096679210663,
0.5364952087402344,
-0.004819437395781279,
-0.016507063060998917,
-0.31005623936653137,
-0.3919544816017151,
0.3918868899345398,
-0.14728420972824097,
0.27397406101226807,
-0.24712127447128296,
-0.11525238305330276,
-0.15177518129348755,
-0.9786946177482605,
-0.4289728105068207,
-0.05417538434267044,
-0.4009442925453186,
-0.29282310605049133,
0.14032171666622162,
0.3142547607421875,
-0.09458233416080475,
-0.3934008479118347,
-0.5415330529212952,
-0.4229423403739929,
0.20043742656707764,
0.050679534673690796,
0.327723890542984,
-0.2248861938714981,
0.4355584681034088,
-0.11271946877241135,
0.227092444896698,
-0.09939857572317123,
0.45758503675460815,
0.24486297369003296,
-0.07460974901914597,
0.2451762706041336,
-0.16242685914039612,
1.057919979095459,
0.2726755738258362,
-0.4194897413253784,
0.24900422990322113,
-0.20062536001205444,
0.22683890163898468,
-0.18233175575733185,
-0.25538143515586853,
-0.24964772164821625,
-0.03485586494207382,
-0.8166257739067078,
1.6718215942382812,
0.2015220820903778,
0.11613846570253372,
0.2487090677022934,
0.6769678592681885,
0.6492413878440857,
0.01674414426088333,
-0.0836358591914177,
-0.04535830765962601,
-0.17016129195690155,
-0.06449002027511597,
0.012382588349282742,
-0.2876121699810028,
0.17421410977840424,
-0.551689088344574,
0.40346139669418335,
-0.5145761370658875,
0.5259006023406982,
0.3875633776187897,
-0.3063790500164032,
0.8381685614585876,
-0.02739059180021286,
0.4066513180732727,
0.1360224336385727,
-0.5838142037391663,
0.39480048418045044,
0.18814368546009064,
0.03681730479001999,
0.20484860241413116,
-0.43795666098594666,
-0.17409291863441467,
-0.029757417738437653,
-0.1685427874326706,
0.16790463030338287,
0.13090139627456665,
0.48777151107788086,
-0.17578677833080292,
0.22425754368305206,
0.5128662586212158,
-0.4529692828655243,
0.46125707030296326,
0.803737461566925,
0.24490278959274292,
0.1974376142024994,
-0.2218465358018875,
0.9195670485496521,
-0.24282747507095337,
0.09304720908403397,
-0.5846803188323975,
0.32459235191345215,
0.15843501687049866,
0.23434409499168396,
0.12405109405517578,
-0.4221276044845581,
0.16454537212848663,
0.19229227304458618,
-0.2994665205478668,
0.451822429895401,
0.14637792110443115,
0.024353552609682083,
-0.9392080903053284,
-0.394589900970459,
-0.4885101020336151,
0.1519896239042282,
0.02277437038719654,
-0.11651484668254852,
-0.10783129185438156,
-0.9825353622436523,
-1.7674663066864014,
0.0825459212064743,
0.03264593705534935,
-0.5399543642997742,
0.5166055560112,
-0.06272152811288834,
0.2132193148136139,
-0.6690610647201538,
0.069051593542099,
0.44698476791381836,
0.1998807191848755,
-0.31587010622024536,
0.024547621607780457,
0.32160863280296326,
-0.3858153223991394,
0.15790380537509918,
0.02447481080889702,
0.09009052813053131,
-0.1253507435321808,
-0.09190725535154343,
0.1516144573688507,
0.016303952783346176,
-0.292870432138443,
0.08958514779806137,
-0.15099652111530304,
-0.24848301708698273,
-0.5492039322853088,
-0.8338857889175415,
0.533609926700592,
-0.438027560710907,
-0.3588468134403229,
0.30096104741096497,
-0.013472512364387512,
-0.2098582535982132,
0.04369343817234039,
-5.587789058685303,
0.23483853042125702,
0.22726210951805115,
0.3346226215362549,
-0.4233451783657074,
-0.5437700152397156,
0.16243478655815125,
-0.004567739553749561,
-0.13784509897232056,
-0.21951094269752502,
0.43686336278915405,
0.007738613989204168,
-0.009607578627765179,
0.523932695388794,
0.4847967028617859,
0.5323454141616821,
-0.2639600336551666,
-0.307620108127594,
-0.2234916090965271,
-0.4372178614139557,
-0.6629000902175903,
0.21935321390628815,
0.3150373101234436,
0.6022509336471558,
-0.44547614455223083,
0.9374155402183533,
-0.6304396986961365,
0.5082060694694519,
-0.7696174383163452,
0.1377258002758026,
0.10289662331342697,
0.02937975339591503,
0.5570597648620605,
-0.09445793926715851,
-0.6765415072441101,
0.022265620529651642,
0.617955207824707,
0.1812886744737625,
0.6031794548034668,
-0.150962233543396,
0.03327491506934166,
0.606416642665863,
-0.19495512545108795,
0.5418736338615417,
0.10041173547506332,
-0.03461497277021408,
-1.4184353351593018,
0.3414323627948761,
-0.4135590195655823,
0.44952070713043213,
-0.0388663187623024,
-0.7277841567993164,
0.3269104063510895,
0.15112446248531342,
0.4942859709262848,
-0.7560445070266724,
0.19107359647750854,
-0.0995033010840416,
-0.2412484586238861,
-0.24493831396102905,
0.07864200323820114,
0.3825503885746002,
0.1627092808485031,
0.4410018026828766,
-0.2343665063381195,
-0.14162854850292206,
-0.5976209044456482,
-0.021401967853307724,
0.45589303970336914,
-0.33085203170776367,
-0.42407867312431335,
0.544041097164154,
0.36232343316078186,
-0.7132654190063477,
-0.1209377720952034,
-0.20810717344284058,
-0.7598881721496582,
-0.11358228325843811,
0.5230236649513245,
0.6155154705047607,
-0.1425909847021103,
-0.136073499917984,
0.3934745490550995,
0.3789255917072296,
0.2942092716693878,
0.08981350809335709,
0.05659700930118561,
0.1919413059949875,
-0.5309413075447083,
0.00933066476136446,
0.10940389335155487,
0.026622790843248367,
-0.04457284137606621,
0.35386449098587036,
-0.7134503722190857,
0.39320194721221924,
0.1695207953453064,
-0.23967568576335907,
0.4519682228565216,
0.472327321767807,
0.5431375503540039,
0.03671623393893242,
-0.20000864565372467,
-0.04964567348361015,
-0.41720569133758545,
-0.2054283320903778,
-0.25903815031051636,
0.6385782957077026,
0.5494639873504639,
-0.29135510325431824,
0.7179133296012878,
-0.4683747887611389,
-0.3117970824241638,
-0.018779592588543892,
0.6321243643760681,
-0.15478172898292542,
-0.8951055407524109,
-0.1180938109755516,
0.17630410194396973,
-0.15315984189510345,
0.36845603585243225,
-0.21782656013965607,
0.31345105171203613,
-0.1765022724866867,
0.26367393136024475,
0.21301141381263733,
0.09275630116462708,
0.030926447361707687,
-0.18476030230522156,
0.4084895849227905,
-0.5112215280532837,
-0.0858536958694458,
0.5017195343971252,
-0.18431919813156128,
0.07716158032417297,
-0.4737268090248108,
-0.37391841411590576,
-0.38479912281036377,
0.37304607033729553,
-0.19199644029140472,
0.05497703701257706,
-0.18815521895885468,
-0.07416797429323196,
0.7631218433380127,
-0.062225960195064545,
0.4581657350063324,
0.2518806755542755,
0.1650792807340622,
-0.06282839179039001,
0.3065536618232727,
0.17352794110774994,
-0.47252926230430603,
0.7677358388900757,
-0.12285392731428146,
-0.5153095126152039,
-0.04623520001769066,
0.6549529433250427,
0.49532029032707214,
-0.15858660638332367,
0.039970289915800095,
-0.21438021957874298,
-0.2954716384410858,
-0.8549972772598267,
0.3179359436035156,
0.0559508390724659,
-0.049746327102184296,
0.6508554220199585,
-0.7101202607154846,
-0.28524067997932434,
-0.09000751376152039,
-0.29156631231307983,
0.173686221241951,
-0.3037162125110626,
0.22022967040538788,
0.23244792222976685,
-0.15349793434143066,
0.04917585849761963,
0.1845409870147705,
0.26318567991256714,
0.11853068321943283,
0.26281169056892395,
-0.36541393399238586,
-0.008127769455313683,
0.6635152101516724,
0.8483763933181763,
-0.1853066384792328,
-0.02074282430112362,
-0.6934251189231873,
-0.2367176115512848,
0.24955376982688904,
-0.24777178466320038,
0.3575381338596344,
0.3310399353504181,
0.7059110403060913,
-0.03043343871831894,
-0.37019965052604675,
0.00535436999052763,
0.02152533456683159,
0.4604652523994446,
0.07494888454675674,
0.1757369041442871,
-0.10465963184833527,
-0.5441775918006897,
0.20973114669322968,
0.412992924451828,
-0.4005054235458374,
0.46639004349708557,
0.037604328244924545,
-0.052055466920137405,
-0.044409994035959244,
0.13404053449630737,
-0.44268548488616943,
0.12682922184467316,
1.0649601221084595,
-0.2428947538137436,
-0.013932926580309868,
-0.08224816620349884,
-0.07481541484594345,
-0.4264713525772095,
-0.3326767683029175,
0.11407358199357986,
-0.0033494876697659492,
-0.5151475667953491,
0.04520693048834801,
-0.23759357631206512,
1.1516859531402588,
0.05974210426211357,
-0.4368172883987427,
-0.020083775743842125,
0.4129510819911957,
0.6066986918449402,
0.19106025993824005,
0.25602683424949646,
-0.14817936718463898,
0.20447760820388794,
-0.31726187467575073,
0.5499963760375977,
0.09729821979999542,
-0.2558317184448242,
0.20599766075611115,
0.35360804200172424,
1.033085584640503,
-0.19162334501743317,
-0.47336694598197937,
0.29844656586647034,
-0.11071036010980606,
0.013086901046335697,
-0.13608388602733612,
0.19750870764255524,
0.5055570602416992,
-0.31000372767448425,
0.21600784361362457,
-0.07274932414293289,
-0.04032139480113983,
0.3785850405693054,
-0.6767615079879761,
-0.0284523107111454,
0.04475186765193939,
0.0586758516728878,
-0.1913764923810959,
0.29299235343933105,
0.21440769731998444,
-0.02951541356742382,
-0.09861791133880615,
-0.5452709794044495,
0.20445574820041656,
0.11112818121910095,
-0.25248807668685913,
0.06996443122625351,
-0.08409494906663895,
-0.014349198900163174,
-0.26805421710014343,
0.058161284774541855,
-0.00545091275125742,
-0.26163652539253235,
0.3299974799156189,
-0.056599561125040054,
0.09485110640525818,
0.3777022957801819,
-0.1773652732372284,
0.22716829180717468,
0.16795706748962402,
0.17371854186058044,
-0.2907201051712036,
0.2654651999473572,
-0.5750588178634644,
-0.2525697350502014,
0.1848084181547165,
-0.3100656270980835,
0.38936224579811096,
0.03366757929325104,
-0.22621537744998932,
0.45496445894241333,
0.2783421576023102,
0.12000566720962524,
-0.13346487283706665,
-0.257328063249588,
-0.18241794407367706,
-0.39591100811958313,
-0.09788955003023148,
-0.948345422744751,
0.05384408310055733,
0.4955226182937622,
-0.351278692483902,
0.012903638184070587,
0.08608051389455795,
0.18248167634010315,
0.11517247557640076,
-0.4111197292804718,
-0.16069908440113068,
0.4273308515548706,
-0.21574914455413818,
0.07678678631782532,
-0.10751434415578842,
-0.11391039937734604,
0.09271125495433807,
-0.08099222928285599,
-0.2425031214952469,
0.09579379856586456,
0.027337385341525078,
-0.15733183920383453,
0.4445095956325531,
0.2218865305185318,
-0.22899112105369568,
0.2662322223186493,
0.5557414293289185,
-0.5844591856002808,
0.20498745143413544,
0.4231656491756439,
-0.049122799187898636,
0.5913347601890564,
-0.13075529038906097,
-0.6059851050376892,
0.7763433456420898,
-0.2131197154521942,
-0.38694989681243896,
0.548179030418396,
-0.6194323301315308,
-0.33378198742866516,
-0.25470036268234253,
0.26110485196113586,
0.5575259327888489,
-0.5347557067871094,
-0.2586745023727417,
-0.6392534375190735,
0.40832069516181946,
-0.44528189301490784,
-0.26028546690940857,
0.2798738181591034,
0.26346641778945923,
0.17611835896968842,
-0.044874951243400574,
0.1287134885787964,
0.1146039217710495,
0.1139976978302002,
0.027105247601866722,
-0.04741135239601135,
-0.3313697278499603,
-0.3627279996871948,
-1.6129730939865112,
0.032588016241788864,
-0.048177797347307205,
0.13670766353607178,
0.35517606139183044,
-0.01766587421298027,
0.12764762341976166,
0.06552217900753021,
0.15985199809074402,
-0.36182844638824463,
0.3676455020904541,
0.31279119849205017,
0.04469316080212593,
0.48074084520339966,
-0.030521392822265625,
-0.03751865401864052,
0.3611725866794586,
-0.04521304741501808,
0.4452274441719055,
0.1926175206899643,
-0.1880633533000946,
-0.3862333297729492,
-0.014712275005877018,
-0.18065878748893738,
0.1059105396270752,
-0.3775288760662079,
-0.676731526851654,
-0.11145778745412827,
0.2209249585866928,
-0.18802544474601746,
0.026241103187203407,
-0.27710047364234924,
-0.010667698457837105,
0.2708528935909271,
0.499991238117218,
-0.1270032823085785,
0.06722379475831985,
-0.10982812196016312,
0.19020481407642365,
0.2575506567955017,
-0.002044196706265211,
-0.08125171065330505,
-0.0006921864114701748,
-0.16896644234657288,
0.36830228567123413,
0.2173180878162384,
0.09502587467432022,
0.034239012748003006,
-0.09220368415117264,
-0.4458559453487396,
0.32113468647003174,
0.1422843635082245,
0.4766031503677368,
-0.37427276372909546,
0.45962846279144287,
0.06017381325364113,
0.19871897995471954,
0.4674934148788452,
-0.11954034119844437,
-0.5113722085952759,
0.0780569463968277,
0.23992091417312622,
-0.026235124096274376,
0.09641839563846588,
0.47513899207115173,
0.02723700925707817,
-0.1216559037566185,
-0.18183432519435883,
-0.1409480720758438,
-0.4042702317237854,
0.2176043689250946,
0.0367465503513813,
0.600483775138855,
-0.10497595369815826,
0.19396190345287323,
-0.1595105677843094,
-0.0709151029586792,
0.48179858922958374,
-0.005502738989889622,
0.0732487365603447,
-0.044236209243535995,
0.42802801728248596,
0.04842134192585945,
0.4002114534378052,
-0.22388596832752228,
-2.7093183994293213,
0.07195336371660233,
0.3412828743457794,
-0.3271982669830322,
-0.47185149788856506,
0.01667260192334652,
0.20139989256858826,
0.3181423544883728,
0.6779556274414062,
-0.2519477605819702,
0.039630431681871414,
0.29745543003082275,
0.046734098345041275,
-0.2590920627117157,
0.12446259707212448,
0.6844909191131592
] |
233701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20etymologies%20of%20country%20subdivision%20names | List of etymologies of country subdivision names | This article provides a collection of the etymology of the names of country subdivisions. This page generally only deals with regions and provinces; cities and other localities and features may appear listed under the individual country, with a link below.
Australia
States
New South Wales: named with reference to Wales by Captain James Cook. For the etymology of Wales, see below.
Queensland: named in honour of Queen Victoria
South Australia: located in the south-central region of Australia
Tasmania: named after Abel Tasman, who sighted the island in 1642; originally named by Tasman as Van Diemen's Land, after Anthony van Diemen, the colonial governor who commissioned Tasman's voyage
Victoria: named in honour of Queen Victoria
Western Australia: comprises the western third of Australia
Territories
Mainland
Australian Capital Territory
Northern Territory: territory in north-central Australia
Jervis Bay Territory: bay named by Lieutenant Bowen in 1791 for the naval hero Admiral Sir John Jervis, 1st Earl of St. Vincent.
External
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: named for Ashmore Reef islets and Cartier Island
Ashmore Reef: first recorded sighting by a European, Captain Samuel Ashmore of the Hibernia, 11 June 1811
Cartier Island: discovered by a Captain Nash, aboard the Cartier
Christmas Island: bestowed by Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company for its discovery on Christmas Day, 25 December 1643.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands:
Cocos Islands: for the plentiful coconuts (Cocos nucifera) growing there
Keeling Islands, an alternate name: for their discovery by Captain William Keeling of the English East India Company in 1609.
Coral Sea Islands: uninhabited islands in the Coral Sea, named for its coral formations, especially the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef in the world.
Heard Island and McDonald Islands:
Heard Island: discovered (first confirmed sighting) by Captain John Heard of the merchant vessel Oriental, 25 November 1853
McDonald Islands: discovered by Captain William McDonald, 4 January 1854
Norfolk Island (Norfuk: Norfuk Ailen): discovered and named by James Cook (1774) for Duchess Mary Howard, Duchess of Norfolk
Austria
States
Burgenland (German; ; ): originally called Vierburgenland, "Land of four Burgs (castles)", a name suggested in 1919 from the endings of the four former counties forming the state: Preßburg, Wieselburg, Ödenburg and Eisenburg. In 1922 Austria ceded Ödenburg to Hungary and dropped the numeric prefix Vier- ("four"); the remaining three counties became Burgenland.
Carinthia, German Kärnten: etymologically related to the early Slavic medieval principality Carantania (Slovenian Karantanija, German Karantanien); a suggested etymology references a Celtic term for "stone" or "crag", while a popular etymology holds that the name means "land of friends"
Lower Austria, German Nieder-Österreich: the lower part (lower in height) of the original territory of Austria ('the eastern country'), as opposed to Upper Austria; also called Österreich unter der Enns "Austria below the (river) Enns"
Salzburg: after the city of Salzburg (literally "salt castle"), which takes its name from the salt mines that existed there during the Middle Ages
Styria, German Steiermark: after the castle of Steyr; in the high Middle Ages, it formed a march of the Holy Roman Empire, hence -mark
Tirol: after the Tirol Castle near Meran
Upper Austria, German Ober-Österreich: the upper (physically higher) part of the original territory of Austria, as opposed to Lower Austria; also called Österreich ob der Enns "Austria above the (river) Enns"
Vienna, German Wien: from Celtic Vindobona (vindo "white" + bona "foundation, fort")
Vorarlberg, literally "in front of the Arlberg", takes its name from the Arlberg, a mountain (German: Berg) with a high mountain pass, characterised by Arle, a local German term for "mountain pine".
Belgium
Regions
Brussels, Dutch Brussel, French Bruxelles (the capital city, outside any province; also Belgium's third region): medieval Dutch broek 'bog' + zele (in many place names in the Low Countries="habitation using thatching")
Flanders, Dutch Vlaanderen, French Flandre(s): plural of a terrain type; or "flooded land"; or a compound Flemish vlakte "plain" and wanderen "to wander". The name extended from the historical county (about half lost to French and Dutch neighbours; the rest roughly made up two administrative provinces, East Flanders and West Flanders; in French les Flandres, plural) to the whole Dutch-speaking, majority part of Belgium (French la Flandre, singular)
Wallonia, French Wallonie: from the (Romanized (Germano-) Celtic, now Francophone) Walloon people: as in many European countries, so named by Germanic neighbours; meaning: "strangers". Compare "Wales" below.
Provinces
Liège Province: of disputed etymology. The name Liège (also used by the city of Liège) may have the same origin as the ancient name of Paris, i.e. Lutetia; the German form, Lüttich, suggests this. Liège and Lutetia would both derive from Latin lucotætia, "marsh" or "mud". Another suggestion derives the names from Latin Lætica, "colony", or Leudica, "free". Alternatively, the Latin Leudica meaning "public place" may have given rise to the Walloon Lîdje and thence to Liège. Note that the name appeared in written form as Liége (with an acute accent) until the 1950s.
Brazil
Bulgaria
Cambodia
Banteay Meanchey Province: Ford of Victory in Khmer
Battambang Province: Lost Staff in Khmer according to the legend of Preah Bat Dambang Kranhoung.
Kampong Cham Province: Port of The Chams in Khmer
Kampong Chhnang Province: Port of the Pots in Khmer
Kampong Speu Province: Port of Carambola in Khmer
Kampong Thom Province: According to legend two large snakes came to the port and it was named Kampong Pos Thom which means Large Snakes' Port in Khmer but passed through the years it was simplified to Kampong Thom which means Large Port in Khmer
Kampot Province: Tetraodontidae in Khmer
Kandal Province: Central in Khmer
Koh Kong Province: Kong Island in Khmer
Kep Province: Saddle of horse in Khmer
Kratie Province: A kind of cosmetic powder in Khmer
Mondulkiri Province: Mountain of Mandala
Oddar Meanchey Province: Northern Victory in Khmer and Snaskrit
Pailin Province: From the Word Phe Leng meaning Pinniped playing
Phnom Penh: More information at
Sihanoukville Province: Named after the former king, Norodom Sihanouk
Preah Vihear Province: Sacred Temple named after Preah Vihear Temple
Pursat Province: According to legend, a type tree swings and it was grown in then it was called A type of tree swings
Prey Veng Province: Long Forest
Ratanakiri Province: Precious Gems Mountain
Siem Reap Province: Siam Defeated, literally Siam Flat
Stung Treng Province: Lake of Reeds
Svay Rieng Province: Aligned Mangoes
Takeo Province: Grandfather Keo
Canada
Provinces and territories
Historical regions
Acadia (French Acadie): origin disputed:
Credited to Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, who first named a region around Chesapeake Bay Archadia (Arcadia) in 1524 because of "the beauty of its trees", according to his diary. Cartographers began using the name Arcadia to refer to areas progressively farther north until it referred to the French holdings in maritime Canada (particularly Nova Scotia). The -r- also began to disappear from the name on early maps, resulting in the current Acadia.
Possibly derived from the Míkmaq word akatik, pronounced roughly "agadik", meaning "place", which French-speakers spelled as -cadie in place names such as Shubenacadie and Tracadie, possibly coincidentally.
Nunatsiavut: Inuktitut, meaning "our beautiful land".
Chile
Regions
Roman numerals originally identified the regions in order from north to south (except Santiago). With the establishment of Arica-Parinacota and Los Ríos Region in 2007 the numbers no longer reflect the regions' positions.
Maule Region (Spanish VII Región del Maule): named after the Maule River.
Biobío Region (Spanish VIII Región del Biobío): named after the Bío-Bío River.
Los Ríos Region (Spanish XIV Región de los Ríos): refers to the river systems of Valdivia and Bueno and to the nickname of the city of Valdivia. The name may also reflect the name of Los Lagos Region (Spanish for Region of the Lakes) from which Los Ríos split away.
Aisén Region, sometimes also spelled Aysén (Spanish XI Región Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo): The name Aisén may come from the Huilliche word achen, meaning "to crumble". Another theory suggests that the Chonos culture used the word to mean "going more to the interior", in reference to the Fjord of Aisén that stretches east from the Moraleda strait.
Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Region (Spanish XII Región de Magallanes y de la Antártica Chilena): named in honour of Ferdinand Magellan, the Strait of Magellan and the city of Punta Arenas, formerly called Magallanes.
China
Provinces
Anhui () – lit. "Peaceful Badge", actually abbreviates Anqing & Huizhou
Beijing () – "Northern Capital"
Chongqing () – "Doubled Celebration"
Fujian () – lit. "Luck Builds", actually abbreviates Fuzhou & Jian'ou
Gansu () – lit. "Willingly Serious", actually abbreviates Ganzhou & Suzhou ()
Guangdong () – lit. "Eastern Expanses", actually contracts the earlier "Eastern Guangnan" (Guangnandong)
Guangxi () – lit. "Western Expanses", actually contracts the earlier "Western Guangnan" (Guangnanxi)
Guizhou () – lit. "Expensive Province", actually refers to Mount Gui
Hainan () – "South of the Sea", in reference to the Qiongzhou Strait, for the Hainan Island. Similarly, Leizhou Peninsula, which faces Hainan across the strait, is also called Haibei, meaning "North of the Sea".
Hebei () – "North of the [Yellow] River"
Heilongjiang () – "Black Dragon River", the Chinese name for the Amur River, from its Manchu name Sahaliyan Ula () ("Black River")
Henan () – "South of the [Yellow] River"
Hubei () – "North of the Lake", in reference to Lake Dongting
Hunan () – "South of the Lake", in reference to Lake Dongting
Jiangsu () – lit. "The River Revives", actually abbreviates Jiangning & Suzhou ()
Jiangxi () – lit. "West of the [Yangtze] River" (although it is to the Yangtze's south), actually contracts the earlier "Western Jiangnan" (Jiangnanxi, "Western Region South of the River")
Jilin () – lit. "Lucky Forest", actually a Sinification of Manchu girin ula (吉林乌拉) meaning "Riverside"
Liaoning () – lit. "Distant Peace", actually refers to "Peaceful Liao", the region around the Liao River
Inner Mongolia () – from the perspective of Beijing, as distinguished from "Outer Mongolia", which became independent in the 20th century (Mongolia itself from "Land of the Mongols"; Mongol from the Mongolian for "brave")
Ningxia () – lit. "Peaceful Summer", actually refers to the Tibetan state of Western Xia
Qinghai () – "Blue Sea", for Qinghai Lake, from Mongolian (Köke Naghur)/Хөх нуур (Höh nuur)
Shaanxi () – "West of the Pass(es)" or "West of Shanzhou". Shanzhou is named in reference to the three former channels of the Yellow River at Sanmenxia, previously supposed to have been cleft in the rock by Yu the Great and now submerged by the Sanmenxia Dam
Shandong () – "East of the [Taihang] Mountains"
Shanghai () – "On the ocean"
Shanxi () – "West of the [Taihang] Mountains"
Sichuan () – lit. "Four Rivers", refers to the four circuits of the region during the Song Dynasty – Chengdufu, Kuizhou, Lizhou, and Zizhou; also possibly refers to the four rivers in the regionMin, Tuo, Jialing and Wu.
Tianjin () – "Heavenly Ford", in honor of the Yongle Emperor's crossing at that point
Tibet – from (Böd) in the form Mtho-Böd 'High Tibet' or Stod-Böd 'Upper Tibet', or from Old Turkic Töbäd or Töpüt 'the heights'; the modern Chinese name Xizang means 'Western Tsang", from the Sinification of Tibetan Tsang, the central-southern region of Tibet
Xinjiang () – "The New Frontier"
Yunnan () – lit. "South of the Clouds", actually refers to the Yunling Mountains
Zhejiang () – "Crooked River", a former name of the modern Qiantang River
Special administrative regions
Hong Kong – An Anglicized transcription of the Cantonese Chinese place name (Hoeng1gong2, "Fragrant Harbor"), originally the name of the small inlet now known as Aberdeen Harbour. The reference to fragrance may refer to the harbor waters sweetened by the estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense factories lining the coast to the north of Kowloon which was stored around Aberdeen Harbour, prior to the development of Victoria Harbour. The name was applied to the entirety of Hong Kong Island in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The Kowloon peninsula and New Territories were later added by the 1860 Convention of Peking and the 1898 Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.
Macau – for the Cantonese Chinese pronunciation of 媽閣 (Maa5gok3), the name of temple of the sea goddess A-Ma, or A-Ma Gao (, "Bay of A-Ma"). The Chinese name of Macau () means "Inlet Gates". Also the English transcription is Macao.
Czech Republic
Historical regions
Czechia, geographic name of the Czech Republic (Česko in Czech). From old Czech Czech (nationality), later written Čech. Until 19th century referred predominantly to Bohemia only, later the meaning has been extended to all Czech lands (Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia). Traditionally traced to a Forefather Čech, who brought the Czechs into Bohemia.
Bohemia: "Land of the Boii", a Celtic tribe of the region. The ultimate etymology of Boii is uncertain, but has been connected to Proto-Indo-European roots meaning "cow" and "warrior"
Moravia: "Land of the Morava"
Silesia – from the holy Silesian mountain of Ślęża
Sudetenland – from the Sudeten mountains
Denmark
Bornholm: The Old Danish form, Burghændeholm shows derivation with the suffix -und from burgh "fortress": "provided with a fortress", later combined with holm, "island". The similarity with the Germanic Burgundian tribe whose name has the same etymology and which may or may not have originated in Scandinavia, can be purely coincidental since the derivation is quite basic in meaning.
Copenhagen (): The Old Danish form, Køpmannæhafn shows the older genitive plural køpmannæ of køpman, "merchant", coupled with hafn, "harbor", producing the meaning "merchants' harbour". It has entered English via the (Low) German Kopenhagen.
Danish Virgin Islands, a former territory: See British Virgin Islands below.
Faroe Islands (, ): From Old Norse Færeyjar – literally, "Sheep Islands", from their dense population of sheep. Another theory suggests that the lexeme fær instead derives from Celtic and means "distant".
Greenland (): From Old Norse Grœnland, literally, "green land"; so named by Erik the Red to induce settlement there. Greenlandic-speakers use the name Kalaallit Nunaat, meaning "Land of the Greenlanders"
Jutland (; ): From Old Danish Jutland, derived from the tribal name of the Jutes, combined with land "land".
Zealand (): Old Icelandic Selund, Latin rendering Selon, Old Danish Sialand. A somewhat later form, now poetic, is Sjølund. The oldest forms with the single l and the original vowel reveal that the name is derived with the suffix -und (cf. Bornholm above) from Old Danish *sial meaning either "seal" or "furrow": "provided with seals" or "provided with furrows", referring either to populations of seals or inlets from the sea. The suffix has later been reinterpreted as the lexeme land "land.
Dominican Republic
Estonia
Note: Estonian maakond means "county" and maa means "land". Counties given here without the suffix -maa take their names (and etymologies as given here) from their capitals.
Hiiumaa: from Estonian hiis – "holy grove", or hiid – "giant", meaning "land of holy groves" or "land of giants".
Ida-Virumaa: "Eastern Virumaa" – see Virumaa below
Jõgeva: from Estonian jõgi – "river" (Pedja river) and possibly vahe – "between" (since the old estate stood on an island in the river), meaning "between rivers".
Järvamaa: from Estonian järv – "lake", meaning "land of lakes".
Läänemaa: from Estonian lääne – "western", meaning "western land".
Lääne-Virumaa: "Western Virumaa" – see Virumaa below
Petseri: from Russian peshchera – "caves".
Põlva: from Estonian põlv – "knee". According to a legend, a virgin was once bricked in a church wall on her knees. According to another version, the Tartu-Võru and Kanepi-Räpina roads form a curve, shaped like a knee.
Pärnu: named after Pärnu river, that drains into the sea at Pärnu
Saaremaa: from Estonian saar – "island", meaning "island-land".
Valga: from German family names de Walco and de Walko. According to another version, from Old Estonian valketa – "white".
Virumaa: from several Finnic languages virukas – "big" or "strong", or vire "sharp" or "penetrating" (for wind), meaning "land of the strong / big" or "land of the sharp / penetrating winds". (In Finnish, the words for Estonia and Estonians derive from Virumaa – Viro and virolaiset.)
Finland
Helsinki: The Swedish name ( or ) represents the original official name of the city of Helsinki (in the very beginning, in the form 'Hellssingeforss'). The Finnish language form of the city's name probably originates from 'Helsinga' and similar names used for the river currently known as Vantaanjoki, as documented as early as the 14th century. Helsinki (pronounced with the stress on the first syllable: ), refers to the city in all languages except Swedish and Norwegian. Helsingfors comes from the name of the surrounding parish, Helsinge (source for Finnish Helsinki) and the rapids (in Swedish: fors), which flowed through the original village. The name Helsinge possibly originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Another possible derivation looks to the Swedish word hals (neck), referring to the narrowest part of the river, i.e. the rapids.
Ostrobothnia (or in Swedish: Österbotten) – "Eastern Bothnia". Bothnia is a Latinization of Old Norse botn, meaning "bottom". The name botn was applied to the Gulf of Bothnia as Helsingjabotn in Old Norse, after Hälsingland, which at the time referred to the coastland west of the gulf. Later, botten was applied to the regions Västerbotten on the western side and Österbotten the eastern side ("East Bottom" and "West Bottom"). The Finnish name of Österbotten, Pohjanmaa, or "Pohja"-land, gives a hint as to the meaning in both languages: pohja means both "bottom" and "north".
Åland – "Waterland", from the proposed Germanic root *ahw-, cognate with Latin aqua and meaning "water". Ahvenanmaa, its Finnish name means "Land of Perch" and is partially borrowed, partially folk-etymologized from Germanic.
Finland Proper: The first part of Finland to be colonised by Swedes, therefore called Finland, later the name Finland was extended to all the country.
Uusimaa (Swedish: Nyland): means New Land, reflects the colonisation around the 13th-14th century.
Lapland: land of the Lappi (the Sami people), same word as Lapland (Sweden)
France
Historic regions
Most modern French départements take their names from local geographical features: usually rivers, occasionally mountain ranges or coasts. Thus most such names have a self-evident immediate origin: even non-speakers of French can deduce them with a minimum of geographical knowledge. The traditional provinces and regions (of any period) often bear names with richer but more obscure histories.
Alsace – from Latin Alsatia, a Latinised form of the Germanic name that also yields Old High German El-sasz, allegedly meaning "foreign settlement" (according to the OED article on "Alsatia"); or "settlement on the Ill River"
Artois – from Latin Atrebatensis, adjectival form derived the Belgic tribe Atrebates, whose name comes from *ad-treb-ates, meaning 'inhabitants', based on the Celtic root treb- 'building', 'home' (cf. Old Irish treb 'building', 'farm', Welsh tref 'building', Middle Breton treff 'city', toponyms in Tre-, Provençal trevar 'to live in a house or in a village'). According to Alexander MacBain (d. 1907), the name Atrebates parallels the Irish aitreibh, 'building,’ Early Irish aittreb, 'building,’ and Welsh adref, 'homewards'. McBain states that the Celtic root treb corresponds to Latin tribus, 'tribe', and to English thorpe, 'village'. MacBain reconstructs *ad-treb- as the Proto-Celtic form of Early Irish aittreb. The name of the main city of Artois, Arras (Atrecht in Dutch) derives directly from the tribe's name Atrebates, so Artois properly means "territory of Arras".
Basque Country (, ) – derived from the ancient tribe of the Vascones via the medieval Duchy of Vasconia and a County of Vasconia, split from it. The Basque name derives from Euskara (the autochthonous name of the Basque language).
Labourd (Lapurdi): from the Roman city of Lapurdum (modern Bayonne).
Lower Navarre (French: Basse Navarre, Basque: Nafarroa Behera, Benafarroa). From the medieval Kingdom of Navarre, itself of disputed etymology (either Basque nabar: "brownish, multicolor", also "ploughshare"; or Romance nava: "river bank"; or Basque naba (valley, plain) + herri (people, land)). Compare Kingdom of Navarre#Etymology
Soule: deformation of the original Basque name Zuberoa or Xiberue
Brittany (Bretagne) – area occupied by refugee Britons from Roman Britain (Britannia) circa 500 AD
Burgundy (Bourgogne) – part of the land settled by the East Germanic Burgundians, who possibly originated on the island now known as Bornholm. Speakers of Old Norse knew the island as Borgundarholm, and in ancient Danish especially the island's name appears as Borghand or Borghund; these names relate to Old Norse borg "height" and bjarg/berg "mountain, rock", as the island rises high from the sea. Other names known for the island include Burgendaland (9th century), Hulmo / Holmus (Adam of Bremen), Burgundehulm (1145), and Borghandæholm (14th century). Alfred the Great uses the form Burgenda land. Some scholars believe that the Burgundians take their name from the island of Bornholm; they comprised a Germanic tribe which moved west when the western Roman Empire collapsed, and occupied and named Burgundy in France in the 5th century CE.
Champagne – from the Latin campania (plain, open country, battlefield)
Corsica (Corse) – possibly from the Phoenician Korsai, which means something like "forest-covered"
Dauphiné – from the nickname and coat of arms of former ruler Guy VIII of Vienne: "dolphin"
Franche-Comté – in French, literally the "Free County" of Burgundy (as opposed to the Duchy of Burgundy)
Gascony (Gascogne) – from the Duchy of Vasconia (also Wasconia), itself derived from the ancient tribe of the Vascones. In Latin and Romance languages in medieval times, Vascones came to apply to all the Basque-speaking peoples.
Languedoc – the region speaking the langue d'oc (as opposed to the regions whose language (langue d'oïl) developed into modern French)
Limousin – from an adjective referring to the local centre, Limoges
Lorraine – from the Mediaeval Latin coining Lotharingia, meaning the lands granted as a kingdom in 855 AD to Lothair, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Lothair I
Maine (province/county), from the Maine River, considered a variant/continuation of the Mayenne River, whose early French name suggests "middle river"
Normandy (Normandie) – land settled by Viking Northmen in the early 10th century
Occitania, from Occitània in Occitan. From medieval Latin Occitania (approximately since 1290). The first part of the name, Occ-, is from Occitan [lenga d']òc or Italian [lingua d']oc (i.e. "Language of Òc"), a name given to the Occitan language by Dante according to its way of saying "yes" (òc). The ending -itania is probably an imitation of the old Latin name [Aqu]itania.
Provence – from Latin provincia (province), short for Provincia Narbonensis, the Roman province located in present-day southern France.
Savoy – of unknown origin, but dating to the days of the Kingdom of Burgundy
Territories
Clipperton Island, a territory: From the French Île de Clipperton, for the English mutineer and pirate John Clipperton who hid there in 1705.
Europa Island, a territory: For the British ship Europa, which visited the island in 1774. For the etymology of Europe, see List of continent etymologies.
French Guiana, a territory: See France and Guiana at List of country-name etymologies.
French Polynesia, a territory: Polynesia formed from the Greek polynesia ("many islands"), a compound of polý- (πολύ, "many") and nēsos (νῆσος, "island").
French Southern and Antarctic Lands, a territory: Self-descriptive. See France at List of country-name etymologies and List of continent-name etymologies.
Bassas da India, part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands: Cartographic errors misspelling original name Portuguese Baixo da Judia ("Jewess Shoal") from the name of a Portuguese ship that ran aground on the reef.
Glorioso Islands, a territory: Presumably from their glorious appearance.
Guadeloupe, a territory: From Spanish Guadalupe, bestowed by Christopher Columbus in 1493 in honor of Santa María de Guadalupe in Extremadura, Spain.
Juan de Nova, a territory: For João da Nova, a 15th-century Portuguese explorer-navigator.
Martinique, a territory: Bestowed by Christopher Columbus in honor of Saint Martin of Tours in 1502
Mayotte, a territory: A French corruption of the native Maore or Mawuti, sultanates on the island around the year 1500.
New Caledonia, a territory: "New Scotland" from the Latin Caledonia, bestowed by British captain James Cook in 1774 after a supposed resemblance. For further etymology of "Caledonia", see Scotland below.
Réunion, a territory: Selected in 1793 to commemorate the union of revolutionaries from Marseille with the French National Guard in Paris on 10 August 1792. (For earlier names, see History of Réunion.)
Territorial Collectivity of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (), an overseas collectivity:
Saint Pierre: From the French for "Saint Peter", patron of fishermen.
Miquelon: From the Basque for "Michael", possibly for Saint Michael, published by Martin de Hoyarçabal's pilot in 1579 as Micquetõ and Micquelle, after which it evolved over time into Miclon, Micklon, and finally Miquelon.
Tromelin Island: From the French Île Tromelin in honor of the Chevalier de Tromelin, a French Royal Navy officer who commanded the French corvette La Dauphine which visited the island in 1776.
Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (), an overseas collectivity:
Futuna: From an endonym derived from the local futu ("Fish-poison tree")
Wallis: for the British explorer Samuel Wallis, who sailed there in 1797.
Germany
States
Baden-Württemberg: formed by combining the names of the former states of Baden and of Württemberg.
Baden: after the city of Baden-Baden, formerly Baden, the name became reduplicated to distinguish it from the state (as in "Baden in Baden"). The name means "baths", after the springs in the city.
Württemberg: after Württemberg Castle, which stood on the Württemberg, a hill in Stuttgart, formerly Wirtemberg, further origin uncertain (-berg means "mountain")
Bavaria (German Bayern): the state of Bavaria developed out of the tribe of the Baiuvarii, who probably gained their name from the land of Bohemia
Brandenburg: after the city of Brandenburg. The earlier Slavic name of the castle (Burg) of Brandenburg appears as Branibor (Slavic for "Branim's forest", where bor means "a dense forest").
Hamburg: from the 9th-century name Hammaburg, where Hamma has multiple conflicting interpretations, but burg means "castle".
Hesse: after the tribe of the Chatti
Lower Saxony (German Niedersachsen): after the tribe of the Saxons. "Lower Saxony" became differentiated in modern times from the state of Saxony to its southeast. The word "lower" reflects Lower Saxony's location in the lowlands of the North German Plain, as opposed to Saxony, which has a higher elevation. See below for etymology of "Saxony".
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (German) Mecklenburg-Vorpommern): formed geographically by joining Mecklenburg with the western part of Pomerania, also called Hither Pomerania.
Mecklenburg takes its name from Mecklenburg Castle in Dorf Mecklenburg (Burg means "castle" in German, the first part means "big": compare Middle Low German mekel, cognate with English mickle—"big castle").
Pomerania (German Pommern) comes from Slavic roots meaning "near the sea" (in Slavic languages more means "sea"): the standard modern Polish name for the region, Pomorze, demonstrates this well.
North Rhine-Westphalia (German Nordrhein-Westfalen)—geographically formed by joining the northern part of the Rhineland (after the River Rhine) with Westphalia.
The name of the Rhine derives from Gaulish Renos, and ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root *reie- ("to move, flow, run"); words like river and run share the same root. The Reno River in Italy shares the same etymology. The spelling with -h- suggests a borrowing from the Greek form of the name, Rhenos, seen also in rheos, "stream", and rhein, "to flow".
Westphalia formed the westernmost subdivision of the Saxon tribe; the origin of the second part (-falen in German) remains unknown
Rhineland-Palatinate (German Rheinland-Pfalz): formed geographically by joining parts of the Rhineland (see above under North Rhine-Westphalia) with the Rhenish Palatinate, formerly a palatine county located near the Rhine, meaning that its count administered a palace of the Holy Roman Emperor.
The word Palatinate derives from Latin palatinus "imperial", from palatium "palace", after the location of the palace of the Roman Emperor Augustus on the Palatine Hill in Rome
Saarland: after the Saar River
Saxony (German Sachsen): land of the Saxons (possibly the "sword-folk"). The state of Saxony developed out of the Saxon tribe, which principally inhabited present-day Lower Saxony; during the Middle Ages and early modern times, the name migrated to the current location of the state of Saxony
Saxony-Anhalt (German, Sachsen-Anhalt): formed geographically by joining the Prussian Province of Saxony (see above under Saxony) with Anhalt
Anhalt takes its name from Anhalt Castle near Harzgerode; the origin of the name of the castle remains unknown
Schleswig-Holstein: created by joining Schleswig and Holstein.
Schleswig takes its name from the City of Schleswig, which in turn derives its name from the Schlei bay and the Low German word wig for "trading place".
"Holstein" comes from a Saxon subtribe named, in Latin, Holcetae, whose means "dwellers in the wood" (Northern Low Saxon: Hol(t)saten; German: Holzsassen).
Thuringia (German Thüringen) – after the tribe of the Thuringii.
Historic regions
Brunswick (German: Braunschweig): from the town of Brunswick, possibly originating as "Bruno's wik" (Bruno's marketplace) (with reference to the legendary founder Bruno, Duke of Saxony, died 880, or another Bruno) or as "burnt wik"); the High German form Braunschweig is an erroneous translation of the original Low German Brunswick
Franconia (German: Franken): from the traditional designation "Franks", referring especially to the Kingdom of the East Franks. The name refers to those areas east of the Rhine that were first occupied by the Franks, as opposed to areas that were held by the Swabians, Bavarians or Saxons.
Hohenzollern: ultimately from the names of Hohenzollern Castle and its location, Mount Hohenzollern (known locally as Zoller or Zollern). The lexeme hoh/hohen in German means "high/height".
Oldenburg, after the city of Oldenburg, first recorded in 1108 as the town of Aldenburg, subsequently also a county, duchy, grand duchy and republic, meaning "old castle"
Prussia (German: Preußen) – (at times historically connected with Germany or with parts thereof): from the people known as the Prussians, a grouping of western Balt peoples whose collective name (German: Prussen or anciently Pruzzen) may possibly derive from an Indo-European root meaning "swamp": see Old Prussians; for political reasons, the electors of Brandenburg decided to name themselves kings of Prussia in the 18th century; in this way, they transferred the name of the remote eastern region to a major German state
Swabia (German: Schwaben or Schwabenland): after the tribe of the Suebi whose name may come from Proto-Germanic *swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root *swē- meaning "one's own" [people], from an Indo-European root *swe-, the third-person reflexive pronoun.
Greece
Arcadia: from Arcas, the legendary eponymous leader of early Hellenic settlers
Sparta: from Greek Σπάρτη spartē, a cord or rope made from the shrub spartos, a type of broom
Macedonia, from Greek mak- (long, tall)—'highland'.
India (Republic of India)
See List of Indian state and union territory name etymologies.
Indonesia
Aceh: name of the coastal people of the area (the main group inhabiting the inland area are the Gayo people).
Banten: named in the honor of the former Banten Sultanate, which ruled over the region from 16th to the 18th centuries and became one of the main fronts of opposition against the colonial might of the Dutch East India Company (VOC).
Bengkulu: named after the Bengkulu river, which passes through the area of the province. The name of Bengkulu itself comes from the Malay word bangkai meaning "corpse", and hulu meaning "river-source"—it refers to the story that in the past the area near the source of the river Bengkulu had often served as a battlefield—tribes and clans battled each other on the river banks leaving them full of corpses and blood.
Gorontalo: from the Dutch version of the local phrase hulontalo, meaning "lands surrounded by water" due to the many lakes and rivers formerly in the area
Irian Jaya: The name Irian is said to come from the Biak language. An alternative etymology for Irian stems from the acronym Ikut Republik Indonesia, Anti Nederland ("Join/Follow the Republic of Indonesia, rejecting The Netherlands) (see the article on the Province of Papua— the official Indonesian and internationally recognized name for Irian Jaya). The word jaya means "victory" or "glorious" in Indonesian, referring to the Indonesian victory over the colonisers who controlled the area both militarily and diplomatically, a sign of pride as the Indonesians showed themselves capable not only of defending their lands from the Dutch attempt to reestablish colonial rule after World War II, but also of taking over lands not included in the 1945 proclamation or the 1950 reunification, specifically Irian Jaya' or the Province of Papua.
Jakarta: from the Javanese words jaya (meaning "victory") and karta (meaning "glory"), which make up the phrase "victorious & glorious; this refers to the victory of Prince Pati Unus (also known as Fatahillah) of the Demak Sultanate in his campaign to defeat the rival Malakka Sultanate of the Malay peninsula and Samudera Pasai Sultanate of Aceh region in the mid-16th century. The "glorious victory" also refers to the event of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence on 17 August 1945 which took place in the city.
Jambi: the province takes its name from the historical Jambi Sultanate which ruled over the area from the 17th to the 19th centuries
Lampung: From the word "Lambung" in the Old Malay phrase anjak Lambung, which means "descended from the heights". This refers to the ancestral riddle of the Lampung people, who allegedly had ancestors "descended from the heights". The "heights" reference the southernmost part of the Barisan mountain range that runs through all the western part of the Lampung province.
Nusa Tenggara: from Nusa meaning "islands" (referring to the Lesser Sunda Islands that make up the area) and tenggara meaning "south-east" (referring to the position of the area within the country).
Sumatra: from Ibn Battuta's 14th-century pronunciation of the name of the Samudra Kingdom (13th to 15th centuries CE)
Yogyakarta: From 'Jogja' and 'Karta'. Jogja is a Javanised version of a Sanskrit word, 'Ayodhya', the prefix A- meaning 'not' and 'Yodhya' is synonymous to Hindi 'Yuddha', meaning battle, combat, fight, or war. Thus Ayodhya, which later Javanised into Jogja, meant 'The place of no fight' or in simpler interpretation, peaceful. This may refer to the geographic location of Jogjakarta, being fortified naturally by the Java Sea to the South, the Merapi Mountain to the north, the Gunung Sewu Karst Mountains to the east and Progo River to the west where it would be the perfect fortress of peace, and even more supported as a breeding place of peaceful life with its rich and fertile volcanic land and rivers, sourcing up to the majestic Merapi. The word 'Karta' means glory, referring to a hope that this city would bring glory to its people.
Iran (Persia)
Lorestan: land of the Lurs
Mazendran: its combination of 3 words: Mad (female, mother, mater) and Zainthi (wisdom, knowledge, science) Eran (aryans), Both MAD and Eran is either suffix or prefix of many places in greater Iran or Persia Europeans called + upper India
Iraq
Iraqi Kurdistan: The name Kurdistan literally means Land of the Kurds. In the Iraqi Constitution, it is referred to as Kurdistan Region.[5] The full name of the government is "Kurdistan Regional Government" (abbrev: KRG).
Ireland (Éire)
Connacht: Connachta in Irish. "Descendants of Conn". From the Irish Connachta people, who all claimed descent from the High King Conn Cétchathach, Conn of the Hundred Battles.
Leinster: Laighin in Irish. From the Irish Laigin people, named after láigne, the broad blue-grey iron spearheads they carried, and Old Norse staðr, meaning place or territory.
Munster: Mhumhain in Irish. From the Gaelic goddess Muman and the old Norse staðr, meaning place or territory.
Ulster: Ulaidh in Irish. From the Irish Ulaid people, whose name probably comes from Old Irish ul, "beard", and old Norse staðr, meaning place or territory.
Meath: Mide in Irish. "Middle" in Old Irish. No longer a province of Ireland.
Italy
Abruzzo: Aprutium in medieval Latin (6th century), a name by which the "County of Teramo" as known; in turn, Aprutium, perhaps derives from the ancient people of Praetutii, who inhabited the territory in pre-Roman times.
Aosta Valley (Valle d'Aosta): From the valley where Aosta rises, which owes its name to its ancient Latin of Augusta Pretoria. Apulia (Puglia): From Apulia, a toponym used in pre-Roman times to indicate a territory corresponding to the current north-central Apulia. In turn, Apulia derived from the indigenous toponym "Japudia" (parallel to the Greek term Ἰαπυγία, then Latinized to lapygia), with a passing from D to L, typical of italic languages or, more precisely, Osco-Sabellic.
Basilicata: From the Greek basilikos (royal, imperial), appeared during the 7th century and used to designate Bizantine Themi governors. Basilikos means "King official", being adjective of basileus, "king"; Basilicata is a term referred to the period of dependence off the region to the Estearn Roman Empire. In ancient times it was also known as "Lucania", a term that either originated from the pre-Romani people named Lucani, who took their name from the eponymous hero Lucus or by the Latin term "lucus", meaning sacred wood or by the Greek for wolf: lykos. Another supported theory indicates that the term may have originated from the ancient Anatolian people of Lici, which would be established in the area of their original land: Licia.
Calabria: a Roman times toponym at the time referred to the Salentine Peninsula, now part of Apulia, that may be originated from a pre-Indo-European mediterranean root cal-/cala- or calabra/galabra-, meaning "rock", "calcareous concretion".
Campania: From the homonymous Latin name, coming from the Campanians people, the etnonym would come from campus, "open field, countryside", since this people was completely dedicated to agriculture; the first meaning of the Region name was the equivalent of "Land of Work", a name that was given to it for the same reason.
Emilia-Romagna: Emilia derives from the Via Aemilia, a main trading route, that takes its name from its builder, Marco Emilio Lepido, from the Aemilia gens. Romagna derives from Romania (Roman territory).
Friuli Venezia Giulia; Friuli derives from Latin Forum Iulii "Forums of Giulio", name of Cividale del Friuli, in honour of Julius Caesar; Venezia Giulia was instead proposed by Graziadio Isaia Ascoli, to identify all the areas inhabited by Italian people but still in the nads of the Austro-hungarian empire after 1866.
Lazio: From Latin "Latium", given to the Region by the Latins (Italic tribe); in turn the toponym may be deriving from the size of their territory, being it wide, flat or large (latus in Latin). Ovid hints at perhaps a slightly more sophisticated folk etymology, with a legend of the naming of Latium after Saturn latente deo (as a god in hiding) after he allegedly fled to Italy following his expulsion by Jupiter. Modern linguists postulate origins in a Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) root *stela- (to spread, extend), expressing the idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country). But the name may originate from an earlier, non-Indo-European one. See the Online Etymological Dictionary.
Liguria: From the homonymous Latin toponym, the ancient pre-Romani people of Ligures, in greek Λιγυες, Ligues and in Latin Ligures, of uncertain origin, mentioned from the 7th century BC to the 5th century BC.
Lombardy: from the medioeval Latin "Langobardia", Land of the Lombards, a germanic population that invaded the Italian peninsula in 568, making Pavia its own reign capital.
Marche: from the plural of Marca, identifying a frontier territory, developed to designate the territory on a political and administrative level during the early Middle Ages, referring to the period in which the Region was at the border of Charlemagne Empire during the 8th century.
Molise: Derives from a toponym registered for the first time during the early Middle Ages, indicating a Normans' county, like "Castello di Molise" (Molise Castle), which name may be originated from the Latin "Molensis".
Piedmont: From the expression that alludes to the Region morphology, at the foot of the mountains, particularly at the foot of the Western Alps.
Sardinia: From the Latin Sardinia and the name of its ancient inhabitants, Sardi. It is unclear how those populations did define themselves, while it is possible that the etnonym derived from Sherden people.
Sicily: From the Latin Sicilia and the Greek Sikelia, by the name of the people who inhabited the island, Sicels, who may had originated from the centre of Italy but moved then to the eastern side of Trinacria. Yet since the 2nd century BC, the Latin term Siculus has lost every ethnolinguistic connotation, indicating who is born or lives on the island.
Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol: Trentino derived from the Latin Tridentinus, adjective of Tridentum, Trento, identifying the area of its Autonomous province. Alto Adige alludes to the upper course of the river Adige and identifies the area of Bolzano's Autonomous province.
Tuscany: From the medieval Latin "Tuscania", having as an adjective Tuscanus, from the late Latin Tuscia, from the adjective Tuscus, plural Tusci, in turn from a previous Truscus, shortening of Etruscus, plural Etrusci, Etruscan civilization, the inhabitants of the Region during the pre-Roman times.
Umbria: From the Latin Umbria, from the ancient Umbri people; it's unclear the provenance of their etnonym. An hypothesis was proposed by Pliny the Elder in the "Natural History (Pliny)": "The umbrian population is estimated to be the most ancient of Italy; in facts, we believe that Umbri have been called Ombrii by the Greeks, since they may be survived to the rains when their land was flooded by the Flood". "Ombros" in Greek and "Imbris" in Latin means "rain, downpour".
Veneto; From the ancient pre-Roman Adriatic Veneti, also known as Paleoveneti, mentioned by some main historical figures like: Julius Caesar, Tacitus and Pliny the Elder; the Indo-European root detected at the origin of this name is wen, to love, so Veneti may be the "lovely and friendly ones".
Japan
Main Islands
Honshu: "Main Province" in Japanese
Kyushu: "Nine Provinces" in Japanese, in reference to the Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma provinces of 7th-century Saikaidō (See: Gokishichidō)
Shikoku: "Four States" in Japanese, in reference to the Awa, Tosa, Sanuki and Iyo provinces of 7th-century Nankaidō (See: Gokishichidō)
Hokkaido: "Northern Sea Circuit" in Japanese, a compromise archaism selected by bureaucrats during the Meiji Restoration (See: Naming of Hokkaido)
Korea
Chungcheong – from the first characters in the city names Chungju and Cheongju.
Gangwon (South Korea) /Kangwŏn (North Korea) – from the first characters in the city names Gangneung and Wonju.
Gyeonggi – the Chinese characters for the name mean "area around the capital", referring to the location of the province around Seoul, South Korea
Gyeongsang – from the first characters in the city names Gyeongju and Sangju.
Hamgyŏng – from the first characters in the city names Hamju and Kyŏngsŏng (?).
Hwanghae – from the first characters in the city names Hwangju and Haeju.
Jeolla – from the first characters in the city names Jeonju and Naju (The first character of Naju is actually "ra"—"r" changes to "n" in the initial position, and the combination "nr" changes to "ll" due to phonological characteristics of the Korean language).
P'yŏngan – from the first characters in the city names P'yŏngyang and Anju.
Laos
Salavan – one million days
Vientiane – city of sandalwood
Malaysia
Alor Star – alor in Malay means "furrow", while star refers to a kind of tree (Bouea macrophylla) that bears small, sour fruit known as kundang or remia in Malay
Cyberjaya – Malay: "cyber excellence", a reference to the city's designation as the "Silicon Valley of Malaysia"
Ipoh – named after the ipoh tree whose poisonous sap the Orang Asli used to coat their blowpipe darts with
Johor – from Arabic jauhar, or "precious stones"
Kangar – named for the Malay 'kangkok', a kind of hawk (Spizaetus Limnaetu)
Kelantan – said to be a corruption of gelam hutan, the Malay name for the Melaleuca leucadendron tree, also possibly derived from kilatan ("lightning")
Klang – possibly from Mon-Khmer klong or Malay kilang ("warehouse")
Kota Bharu – Malay: "new town/fort"
Kota Kinabalu - The word of "kota" means city in Malay while the word of "kinabalu" derived from the Kadazandusun aki nabalu ("grandfather" for aki, and "mountain" for nabalu)
Kuala Lumpur – Malay: "muddy confluence", a reference to the founding of the city at the confluence of Gombak River and Klang River
Kuching - Malay: "cat", but probably a corruption of the Indian cochin ("port") or a reference to the mata kucing trees that used to proliferate where the city grew subsequently
Labuan – derived from the Malay labuhan ("anchorage")
Langkawi – Malay for "eagle island", but possibly related to Langkasuka, an ancient Hindu kingdom founded in Kedah in the 1st century CE
Malacca – named by the founder of Malacca, Parameswara, after the Melaka tree under which he sheltered
Negeri Sembilan – Malay: "nine states", a reference to the nine original districts (or nagari) settled by the Minangkabau
Penang – named after the Pinang tree
Perak – Malay: "silver", from the silvery colour of tin for which the area became famous; or possibly from the "glimmer of fish in the water"
Putrajaya – Malay: literally: "the son's victory"; but taken to mean "princely excellence". Named after the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra, possibly with reference to the planned city's status as the new administration centre for the Federal Government
Selangor – possibly from the Malay selangau ("fly") due to the abundance of flies along the Selangor River
Sungai Petani – literally "farmer river" in Malay, said to originate from the concentration of paddy-fields and farmers in the state
Taiping – Chinese: "great peace"
Mexico
Mongolia
Arkhangai: from the Mongolian: Ar (north; back side of a mountain) and Khangai Mountains
Bayan-Ölgii: from the Mongolian: Bayan (rich), Ölgii (cradleregion), a province later built in the 1940s especially for some Kazakh tribes migrated to Mongolia in the early 1910s for land.
Bayankhongor:
Bulgan: from the Mongolian: Darkhan (great) and Uul (mountain)
Darkhan-Uul: from the Mongolian: Darkhan (great) and Uul (mountain)
Dornod: from the Mongolian: Dornod (the east)
Dornogovi: from the Mongolian: Dorno (east) and Gobi desert (Govi in Mongolian)
Dundgovi: from the Mongolian: Dund (middle) and Gobi desert (Govi in Mongolian)
Govi-Altai: after the Gobi desert (Govi in Mongolian) and the Altai Mountains
Govisümber:
Khentii: after the Khentii Mountains
Khovd: after Khovd River
Khövsgöl: after Khövsgöl Lake
Ömnögovi: from the Mongolian: Ömnö (South) and Gobi desert (Govi in Mongolian)
Orkhon: after the Orkhon River
Övörkhangai: from the Mongolian: Övör (south;front side of a mountain) and Khangai Mountains
Selenge: after the Selenge River
Sükhbaatar: after Damdin Sükhbaatar, a Mongolian military leader in the revolution of independence.
Töv: from Mongolian: Töv (center)
Uvs: after Uvs Lake
Zavkhan: after Zavkhan River
Ulan Bator: from Mongolian: Ulaan (red), baatar (hero)
Morocco
Western Sahara, claimed territory: After its geographic position. "Sahara" derives from the Arabic aṣ-Ṣaḥrā (الصحراء), meaning "desert". The area is also claimed by the Sahrawis.
Kingdom of the Netherlands
Constituent countries
Aruba: Uncertain. One etymology derives from Spanish Oro Hubo ("there was gold"); another cites the Arawak oibubai ("guide").
Curaçao: Uncertain. One etymology derives from Portuguese curaçao ("healing"); another from Portuguese coração ("heart"); another that it is a local endonym.
Netherlands (): "Lowlands". See List of country name etymologies#Netherlands.
Sint Maarten: Southern part of the island of Saint Martin, which was named for Saint Martin of Tours, as it was first sighted by Christopher Columbus on St. Martin's Day (11 November), 1493.
Provinces
Drenthe (Dutch Low Saxon: Drentie): first mentioned in a Latin document of 820 as pago Treanth. Treanth probably finds its origin in the number three, as the area was then divided in three jurisdictions.
Flevoland: from Latin Lacus Flevo (Lake Flevo), a name used in Roman sources to refer to a body of water at what would later become known as the Zuiderzee. The Netherlands government established the province in 1986 on lands reclaimed from the Zuiderzee in the 1950s and 1960s.
Friesland (): land of the Frisians.
Gelderland (also English: Guelders): Named after the modern city of Geldern, Germany.
Groningen (Gronings: Grönnen or Grunnen). Named after its capital city. The origin of the city name is uncertain; theories include an original meaning of "people of Groni" (a man's name) or "green fields".
Limburg: Derived from the castle-fortified town of Limbourg which in turn was derived from "lint" "dragon" and burg "fortress".
North Brabant (). The name in Carolingian times appeared in Latinised form as pagus Bracbatensis, from bracha "new" and bant "region".
North Holland (): Northern part of the region of Holland. See List of country name etymologies#Netherlands for the etymology of "Holland".
Overijssel: Dutch for "[Lands] across the IJssel river" (also Latin: "Transiselania")
South Holland (): Southern part of the region of Holland. See List of country name etymologies#Netherlands for the etymology of "Holland".
Utrecht: named after the city of Utrecht, the name of which derives from Latin Ultraiectum ad Rhenum, meaning "place to cross the Rhine river".
Zeeland (also English: Zealand): Dutch for "sea land".
Other names
Alkmaar: from Aelcemaer, meaning 'lake of auks', due to the fact that lakes formerly surrounded the core of Alkmaar—all of them now drained and thus turned into dry land
Amsterdam: from Amstelredam, which means "dam over the Amstel" (the river Amstel flows through present-day Amsterdam)
Batavia (Germanic): "arable land" (derived from the regional name "Betuwe", as opposed to the other regional name "Veluwe" meaning "fallow" or "waste" land). Alternatively: the people known as the Batavians (Latin: Batavi) inhabited the island of Betawe between the Waal and the Rhine. The name of the island probably derives from batawjō ("good island", from Germanic bat—"good, excellent" and awjō—"island, land near water"), referring to the region's fertility.
Bonaire: Uncertain, but thought to have been originally derived from the Caquetio word bonay. Later Dutch and Spanish colonists modified it, first to Bojnaj and finally to its current name of Bonaire (French: "good air").
Holland (part of the Netherlands; but the term often refers to the country as a whole): Germanic "holt (i.e. wooded) land" (often incorrectly regarded as meaning "hollow [i.e. marsh] land")
Netherlands Antilles, a territory: From their Dutch owners and from a mythical land or island (Antillia), west of Europe, or a combination of two Portuguese words ante or anti (possibly meaning "opposite" in the sense of "on the opposite side of the world") and ilha ("island"), currently the name for these Caribbean Islands.
Rotterdam: meaning 'dam over the Rotte' (the river Rotte flows through present-day Rotterdam)
Stad en Ommelanden for the province of Groningen, meaning "city and surrounding lands" and referring to the city of Groningen and the medieval Frisian lordships west, north and east of the city.
Twente (region in the east of the province of Overijssel): from Latin tvihanti; or after the Germanic tribe the Tubantii as described by Tacitus; or an early form of the current Twents-language word for a 2-year-old horse: Tweanter.
New Zealand
Provinces
Auckland: in honour of George Eden, Earl of Auckland, a patron of William Hobson, who founded and named the city of Auckland. The Earl took his sobriquet from Auckland in Durham, United Kingdom, possibly deriving from the Celtic Alclet or Aclet, or "Cliffs of the Clyde". Although nowhere near the River Clyde, the locality may have had connections with the Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde; it may have borrowed the name of the Clyde for aesthetic or prestige reasons, as Alclet's river—the Gaunless—means "useless" in Old Norse; or a nearby river may have had the name "Clyde"—history does not record the name of the river Gaunless before the Norse named it
Hawke's Bay: in honour of Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke of Towton
Marlborough: to commemorate John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
Nelson: in honour of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson (the Admiral)
Otago: anglicised from the Māori name Otakou, a kainga east of present-day Otago Harbour, originally meaning "one isolated village" or "place of red earth"
Wellington: in honour of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Other categories
Cook Islands, a territory: In honor of British captain James Cook, who discovered the islands in 1770.
Levin: from a director of the railway company that established the town to help boost its railway
Niue, a territory: Niu probably means "coconut", and é means "behold". According to legend, the Polynesian explorers who first settled the island knew that they had come close to land when they saw a coconut floating in the water.
Plimmerton: from John Plimmer, Wellington pioneer, director of the railway company that created the seaside resort to help boost its railway; central Wellington has Plimmer's Steps.
Tasman: district named from the bay name, in honour of Dutchman Abel Tasman, commander of first European expedition to sight the country; also a mountain and glacier name. Abel Tasman National Park bears a fuller version of his name.
Tokelau, a territory: From the Tokelauan "North" or "Northern", in reference to their position relative to Samoa. The Tokelauan people traditionally suppose themselves to have originated from settlers from Samoa.
Waikato: Named after the Waikato River. The hydronym is a Māori-language word meaning "flowing water".
Norway
Counties
Akershus – Fortress of (the district) Aker (named after the farm Aker, meaning agriculture field)
Aust-Agder – East Agder. Agder has a pre-Viking Age unknown meaning. Maybe meaning coast, related to English edge.
Buskerud – after a farm Buskerud, meaning the Bishops farm (rud more specifically means clearing the wood for farming)
Finnmark – Land of the Sami people.
Hedmark – Hed comes from the name of an old tribe. Mark means border land or wood land.
Hordaland – land of the Charudes, an old tribe.
Innlandet – Inner land, the land away from the coast.
Møre og Romsdal – Møre, and Rom valley. Møre probably means sea (land at the sea) and Roms comes from the river Rauma, unknown meaning.
Nordland – Northern land
Nord-Trøndelag – (Self-ruling) country of the Trønder people, northern part.
Oppland – the Upper lands
Oslo – disputed, maybe "the meadow beneath the ridge", see History of Oslo's name
Rogaland – Land of the Rugii, an old tribe.
Sogn og Fjordane – Sogn refers to Sognefjord, "the fjord with tidal stream". Og Fjordane means "and the (other) fjords".
Sør-Trøndelag – (Self-ruling) country of the Trønder people, southern part.
Telemark – Tele comes from an old tribe. Mark means border land or wood land.
Troms – Unknown
Vest-Agder – West Agder. Agder has a pre-Viking Age unknown meaning. Maybe meaning coast, related to English edge.
Vestfold – West (side of) Fold, where Fold means fjord, here the Oslo Fjord.
Vestland – Western land, traditional name of the west coast of Southern Norway
Viken – the inlet; old name of the area (Viken) around the Oslo Fjord.
Østfold – East (side of) Fold, where Fold means fjord, here the Oslo Fjord.
Territories
Bouvet Island (), a dependent territory: Named after the French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, who discovered it in 1739.
Svalbard, a territory: A compound of Norse roots meaning "cold edge"
Pakistan
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – from the native Pashto language for "valley of the Pashtuns", who are ethnic Afghans
Balochistan – Land of the indigenous Balochi people of the Iranian plateau that straddles south-east Iran and south-west Pakistan
Punjab – from the Persian for "Land of Five Rivers" in Central Pakistan
Sindh, Sindhustan or Sindhistan – from "Sindhu", the Sanskrit name for the Land of the Indus River
Azad Jammu and Kashmir – Azad: Urdu, "Free"; "Kashmir"
Papua New Guinea
New Britain – in honour of Great Britain. Originally named by William Dampier in the Latin form Nova Britannia; called Neu-Pommern (New Pomerania) during the period of German colonization until the conquest of the area by Australia in 1914
New Ireland – named after Ireland (with the Latin phrase Nova Hibernia) by Philip Carteret in 1767 when he established that it differed from nearby New Britain. (Officially known as New Mecklenburg (German: Neumecklenburg or Neu-Mecklenburg) during the period of German New Guinea from 1885 to 1914.)
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Greater Poland – from the tribe of Polans or from the word "pole" (field) meaning "country of fields" – "Greater" distinguishes it from the whole Polish state
Kuyavia – "covered by sand dunes"
Lesser Poland – in contrast with Greater Poland
Lubusz Land – from the town of Lubusz
Masovia – "boggy"
Masuria – from the Masovians, who settled Masuria
Podlaskie, "by Lachs", i.e., "by Poles"
Polesie – "covered by forests"
Pomerania – "along the sea"
Silesia – from the holy Silesian mountain of Ślęża
Subcarpathia – "at the foot of the Carpathians"
Warmia – from the Old Prussian tribe of Varms
Portugal
Alentejo: meaning "beyond the Tejo (the Tagus river)"
Algarve: meaning "the west" (of the Guadiana River), from the Arab "Al-Gharb"
Azores: from Açores (pl.), after the "açor", the Portuguese word for the northern goshawk
Beira: quite literally, the "edge" (during the early phase of Portugal's history, Beira formed a borderland)
Estremadura: from Medieval Latin Extrema Dorii (literally, "extremes of the Douro river"), referring to the territories south of the Douro basin (see also: Spanish Extremadura)
Madeira: "wood"
Minho: after the river Minho, that passes north of the region
Ribatejo: meaning "above the Tejo (the Tagus river)"
Trás-os-Montes: literally, "behind the mountains", its territory is behind the mountains of Serra do Marão
Romania
Bessarabia – from Basarab I, Wallachian prince who led some expeditions in this land
Bukovina – (from Serbian Bukovina in German: "Buchenland") = "beech land"
Dobruja – from Dobrotitsa, ruler of the region in the 14th century
Hațeg – "Terra Herzog"=Duke's land
Muntenia – from muntean=man of the mountains, from Romanian munte=mountain
Oltenia – from the river Olt, called Alutus by the Romans, possibly from Latin lutum, meaning "mud" or "clay".
Transylvania – "beyond the woods"—i.e., from Hungary
Ardeal – possibly a borrowing of the Hungarian name Erdély, like the Romani name Ardyalo—speakers of old Hungarian pronounced Erdély as Erdél. The initial Hungarian "e-" occasionally changes to "a-" in Romanian (compare Hungarian egres "gooseberry" and Egyed, which became agriş and Adjud in Romanian). However, the ending '-eal' in Romanian does not suggest a Romanian borrowing from Hungarian. In parallel examples, Hungarian -ely becomes -ei in Romanian. But when Hungarian adopts a word from Romanian, "a" usually becomes "e": Andreas becomes Endre, the Latin ager becomes eger, etc. Thus the word Ardeal could become Erdély. The linguist Josep Lad Pic determined that the word "Ardeal" has an Indo-European origin, while the words Erdely and Erdo do not. The Proto-Indo-European root *arde ("to grow", "high") manifests itself in the Old Indian árdhuka ("prospering"), and in Latin arduus ("high"). In Celtic Gaul, Arduenna silva parallels the English "Forest of Arden" and the Ardennes Woods in Belgium. In Romanian, deal means "hill" and ardica "to grow, high, prosperous".
Wallachia – "land of the Romance-speaking people"
Russia
Arkhangelsk Oblast: the region of the city of Arkhangelsk, whose name the inhabitants traditionally associated with a monastery in the area dedicated to the Archangel Michael (Russian: Архангел Михаил or Arkhangel Mikhail).
Chechnya: the Russian ethnonym Chechen probably derives from the name of the ancient village of Chechana or Chechen-aul. The village stands on the bank of the Argun River, near Grozny. Another theory derives the name from chechenit' sya, "to talk mincingly". Vasmer suggests a Kabardian origin: šešen. The native term, Noxçi, comes from nexça (sheep cheese), nox (plow) or from the prophet Noah (Nox in Chechen).
Dagestan: the word Daghestan or Daghistan (; Arabic and ) means "country of mountains"; it derives from the Turkic word dağ, meaning "mountain" and the Persian suffix -stan meaning "land of". The spelling Dagestan transliterates the Russian name, which lacks the voiced velar fricative.
Kaliningrad Oblast: from the Russian name Kaliningrad (Kalinin-city) of its largest city, renamed in 1946 to commemnorate Mikhail Kalinin
Kazan (former Imperial Russian governorate): (compare the name of the city of Kazan)
Khabarovsk Krai: the Khabarovsk region. The city of Khabarovsk took its name from the explorer Yerofey Khabarov
Leningrad Oblast: from the city (Saint Petersburg) formerly known as Leningrad (Russian for Lenin-city)
Nizhniy Novgorod: Russian: literally "lower Novgorod": for "lower new city", "new city on the Lower Volga"; in contrast to the older Novgorod
Novaya Zemlya: Russian for "new land"
Sakhalin: derived from misinterpretation of a Manchu name "sahaliyan ula angga hada" (peak of the mouth of the Amur River). "Sahaliyan" means "black" in Manchu and refers to the Amur River ( sahaliyan ula).
Siberia: from a Tatar word meaning "sleeping land"
Smolensk Oblast: from the river Smolnya
Vladikavkaz: Russian for "ruler of the Caucasus" or "rule the Caucasus"
Slovakia
Banská Bystrica: The name includes two distinct roots: the adjective Banská (from Slovak baňa—"mine") and the name of the local river Bystrica (from Slavic bystrica—"a swift stream"). Its name in has the same semantic origin. The name literally means "mining creek".
Bratislava: The first written reference comes from the Annales Iuvavenses, which calls the locality Brezalauspurc (literally: Braslav's castle), in relation to the battles between the Bavaria and Hungary, which took place before the walls of Bratislava Castle in 907. The castle got its name either from Predslav, third son of King Svatopluk I or from the local noble Braslav. This former variant reappears as "Braslav" or "Preslava" on coins minted by King István I of Hungary, dating to about the year 1000 and in which appeared the motto "Preslavva Civitas". At the end of the Middle Ages, the name took its final German form Pressburg: Slovak of Prešporok derived from this. Although Pressburg remained the official name until 1919, the Hungarians use and used the name Pozsony (attested by the 12th century). Bozan could result from a ruling of the Bratislava Castle from the eleventh century. The name Posonium Latin derives from Hungarian. In addition to these names, documents of the Renaissance call the city 'Ιστροπόλις' Istropolis' which means "City of the Danube" in Ancient Greek. The current name, Bratislava, dates from 1837 when the Slavist scholar Pavel Jozef Šafárik reconstructed a variant of the name, Břetislaw a from old names, believing that these derived from the name of the ruler Bretislaus I of Bohemia.
Košice: The first written mention of the city as "villa Cassa" dates from 1230. The Slovak name of the city comes from the Slavic personal name "Koša" with the patronymic slavic suffix "-ice". According to other sources the city name probably stems from an ancient Hungarian first name which begins with "Ko" such as Kokos-Kakas, Kolumbán-Kálmán, or Kopov-Kopó. Historically, the city has been known as Kaschau in German, Kassa in Hungarian, Cassovia or Caschovia in Latin, Cassovie in French, Caşovia in Romanian, Кошицы (Koshitsy) in Russian and Koszyce in Polish (see here for more names).
Nitra: The first mention of Nitra dates back to 880 (other variations: 826 as Nitrawa, 880 as Nitra, and in 1111/1113 as Nitra, Nitria). The name of the city derives from the river Nitra. The name originates in the Germanic word Nitrahwa: in the Indo-European languages nid means "flow" while ahwa means "water".
Prešov: The city name originates in the Hungarian word eper which means "strawberry". The city's historic coat of arms contains strawberries. Historically, the city has been known as Eperjes in Hungarian, Eperies or Preschau in German, Fragopolis in Greco-Latin, Preszów in Polish, Peryeshis in Romany, Пряшев (Pryashev) in Russian and Пряшів (Priashiv) in Rusyn and Ukrainian.
Trenčín: Trenčín first appeared under Greek name Leukaristos (Λευκαριστος), depicted on the Ptolemy world map around 150 CE. In 179 CE, during the Marcomannic Wars between the Roman Empire and Germanic Quadi, the Romans carved an inscription on the rock under the present-day castle, mentioning the place as Laugaricio. (The inscription marks the northernmost known presence of the Romans in Central Europe.) The first written mentions in the Middle Ages date from 1111 (as Treinchen) and from 1113 (adjective: Trenciniensis). The name became Trentschin in later German and Trencsén in Hungarian.
Trnava: The name of the city derives from the Slovak word tŕnie ("thornbush") which characterized the river banks in the region. The Hungarian name Nagyszombat (first mentioned in 1238 in the form of Zumbotel) originates from the Hungarian word szombat ("Saturday"), referring to the weekly market fairs held on Saturdays.
Žilina
South Africa
Before 1994
Transvaal: literally beyond the Vaal River, which acted as its southern border.
Natal: see below at KwaZulu-Natal.
Orange Free State: the Free State operated as an independent country (Free State) during most of the 19th century. The adjective Orange came from the Orange River to the south/south-west of the province, in turn named in 1779 by Robert Jacob Gordon (1743–1795), commander of the Cape Colony garrison (1780–1795), in honour of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau.
Cape of Good Hope: named after the Cape of Good Hope, where Cape Town stands.
After 1994
Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Western Cape: from the Cape of Good Hope, the site of the first European settlement in today's South Africa, which would give its name to Cape Town, Cape Colony, and the former Cape Province, of which each of the three named provinces originally formed a part.
Free State: the popular contraction of this province's historic predecessor, the Orange Free State.
Gauteng: The Sesotho name for the province's and country's largest city of Johannesburg. The literal meaning, "Place of Gold", refers to the area's large gold-mining industry.
KwaZulu-Natal: a combination of the names of the two entities that merged to form the modern province:
KwaZulu: a bantustan formed in the apartheid era, ostensibly as a "homeland" for the Zulu
Natal: Portuguese for "Christmas". The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama named the area: he landed on the coast of the future KwaZulu-Natal on Christmas Day in 1497.
Limpopo: the Limpopo River forms the province's and the country's most northern boundary.
Mpumalanga: "east", or more literally, "the place where the sun rises", in several Nguni languages, among them Swazi, Xhosa, and Zulu. Refers to the province's location in the north-east of South Africa.
North West: From its geographic position, in the north of the country and west of the main population-centre of Gauteng.
Spain
Andalusia: from the Arabic name (Al-Andalus, with several suggested etymologies) formerly applied to the whole Iberian Peninsula
Aragon: from the Aragon River, that gave its name to the county of Aragon, one of the little Christian polities that resisted Islamic rule in Spain during its greatest extent (see Reconquista)
Asturias: the land of the Astures, an early people of north-west Spain
Basque Country (): from the ancient tribe of the Vascones, whose name became an ethnonym in the Middle Ages. The Basque name derives from Euskara (the autochthonous name for the Basque language).
Álava (): of uncertain etymology. Various theories see it deriving from a Roman town called Alba, from several prossible Basque etymologies and even from Arabs (who, however, never occupied the province for long). A chronicle of 905 uses the form Arba, but later the word commonly appears as Alaba or Alava.
Biscay (, ): variant of bizkarra ("shoulder", "back" or, in this case, "mountain range" in Basque)
Gipuzkoa (): of unknown etymology. Old documents sometimes use the variant Ipuscoa.
Cantabria: from the Cantabri, a mountain people defeated by the Romans only after a great military effort (Cantabrian Wars, 29 – 19 BC). Celtologists have suggested a derivation from the Celtic root cant-, meaning "rock" or "stone", and from the suffix -abr, used frequently in Celtic regions. From this we can deduce that the word "cantabrus" means "dwelling in the mountains", referring to the rugged terrain of Cantabria. Another suggestion derives Cantabria from the Celtic Kant ("mountain" or "rock") and Iber (the river Ebro), thus "The Mountains of the Ebro". Spaniards also call this region La Montaña ("The Mountain"), but usually call the Bay of Biscay the Cantabrian Sea.
Castile: the Spanish/Castilian name Castilla reflects the Spanish castillo ("castle") and the Latin castellum ("fort" or "fortress") with reference to numerous forts or castles erected by King Alfonso I for the defence of the area
Catalonia: from the castlà ("castellan") class who governed the nascent feudal Catalonia from their castles in the 11th and 12th centuries. (Compare the etymology of "Castile".) Other parallel theories exist: Lafont (1986) says Catalunya could come from Arabic Qalat-uniyya (Qalat means "castle" and -uniyya operates as a collective suffix) because medieval Catalonia formed a border country with a lot of castles in front of the Muslim and Arabized zone of the Iberic peninsula. Some texts suggest that the name Catalunya derives from "Gauta-landia": land of the Goths, or "Goth-Alania" meaning "Land of the Goths and Alans" through Arabian *Cotelanuyya [cf. Andalusia, land of the Vandals], as the Visigoths and Alans invaded and divided Iberia between themselves, agreeing to rule some parts together, with the region of Catalunya going to the Visigoths. Additionally, the Visigothic kingdom of Catalonia may have taken its name from that of the original homeland of the Visigoths, "Gotland". Coromines suggests an Iberian origin: Laietani (latinization of Iberian laiezken) > *laketani > laketans > metathesized as catelans > catalans, re-inforced by castellani (with an epenthetic s according to Coromines). Another theory suggests *kaste-lan as the Iberian name, later Latinized as castellani (an Iberian tribe in northern Catalonia according to Ptolemy); then the name would have evolved into *catellani > *catelans > *Catalans.
Extremadura: from Medieval Latin Extrema Dorii (literally, "extremes of the Douro river"), referring to the territories south of the Douro basin; or from an Old Castilian word used to designate the further territories controlled by the Christians (see Reconquista)
Galicia: from Latin Gallaecia, the name of the province created in Roman Hispania by Diocletian in 298 CE. It derives from gallicoi or callicoi, (Galli or Celts).
León: the ancient kingdom and subsequent province of León take their name from the city of León, whose name derives from its position as the base of a Roman legion (Latin legio)
Navarre (Spanish: Navarra, Basque: Nafarroa): from the Kingdom of Navarre. Navarra has been argued to have either a Basque or Romance etymology. In the first case it would come from nabar ("brownish, multicolor", also "plowshare"), in the second from nava ("river bank").
Rioja: speculatively interpreted as "red" from the redness of a prominent soil type in the area.
Sweden
Historical Provinces
Sweden formerly consisted of historical provinces (Swedish: landskap), and the province-names still often serve to describe locations in Sweden. Their names often date from before the year 1000. Officially Sweden now subdivides into counties (Swedish: län), introduced in 1634.
Historical provinces:
Blekinge: from the adjective bleke, which corresponds to the nautical term for "dead calm".
Bohuslän: meaning "county of Bohus Fortress".
Dalarna: meaning "the valleys"
Dalsland: originally Dal, meaning "the valley"
Gotland: land of the Gutar
Gästrikland
Halland: the land beyond Hovs Hallar
Hälsingland
Härjedalen: valley of the Härje river
Jämtland
Lappland: land of the Lappi (the Sami people)
Medelpad: Unclear. "Medel" means "in the middle". One theory is "the land between the river valleys" (Ljungan and Indalsälven)
Norrbotten: from Norrbotten County
Närke
Skåne
Småland: "small lands", given for a combination of several smaller provinces.
Södermanland: "south men's land"
Uppland "up land" (north of Stockholm, used after the foundation of Stockholm, was before that three independent provinces)
Värmland
Västmanland: "west men's land"
Västerbotten: West Bothnia (west side of the Gulf of Bothnia). In old Nordic "botten" meant inner part of a bay/gulf, see the etymology of Bothnia. Compare Ostrobothnia (Österbotten / East Bothnia) in Finland, formerly a Swedish province, and Norrbotten above.
Västergötland: means Western Gothia/Götaland.
Ångermanland: from the Old Norse "anger", which means "deep fjord" and refers to the deep mouth of the river Ångermanälven.
Öland
Östergötland: means Eastern Gothia/Götaland
Present counties
Stockholm: from Stockholm, the city. From stock (timber log) and holm (small island). (Somewhat disputed.)
Uppsala: from Uppsala, the city. (Ultimate etymology disputed.)
Jönköping: from Jönköping, the city. Jön comes from the creek Junebäcken; "köping" means "merchant place".
Kronoberg: from Kronoberg Castle. Kronoberg means "the Crown's mountain".
Kalmar: from Kalmar, the city. (Ultimate etymology disputed.)
Västra Götaland: means "Western Gothia/Götaland".
Örebro: from Örebro, the city, the name of which means "bridge over gravel banks".
Gävleborg: from Gävle, the city, and borg (fortress), referring to Gävle Castle.
Västernorrland: means "Western Norrland". At the time Norrland meant North Sweden including North Finland, and Western Norrland excluded Finland. Now Västernorrland is located in Eastern Norrland.
Norrbotten: North Bothnia (originally northern part of Västerbotten County)
Blekinge, Dalarna, Gotland, Halland, Jämtland, Skåne, Södermanland, Värmland, Västerbotten, Västmanland and Östergötland are named directly after the historical province they match. See previous chapter.
Switzerland
Aargau: German name labelling the district (Gau) of the River Aar.
Appenzell: from Latin abbatis cella, meaning "land of the abbot", referring to the fact that Appenzell originally belonged to the Abbey of St. Gall.
Basel: traditionally associated with the Greek basileus ("king") or basileos ("of the king"): the city saw itself as preserving the Imperial Roman heritage of its parent settlement, the Roman town of Augusta Raurica. Note the use of the basilisk as a Basler icon.
Bern: German Bär[e]n (bears): reflected in the capital city's bear-pits, foundation-legend and coat-of-arms
Graubünden: (the German name literally means "grey leagues")—from the Grey League, a grey-clad organisation started in 1395.
Jura: after the Jura Mountains.
Neuchâtel: French for "new castle"; Neuenburg (with the same semantic meaning) in German
Schwyz: named after the town of Schwyz; the origin of the town name is unknown.
St Gallen: from Saint Gall (c. 550 – c. 646), traditionally the Irish founder/namesake of the Abbey of St. Gall which came to dominate the area.
Solothurn: the city of Solothurn, capital of the Canton of the same name, first appears under the Celtic name Salodurum.
Thurgau: an early medieval Gau county named after the River Thur.
Ticino: from the principal river of the canton, the Ticino, a tributary of the Po River.
Uri: (speculatively) from the older German Aurochs, a wild ox (see aurochs); or from the Celtic word ure, a bull. (Note the head of the bull on the cantonal coat of arms.)
Valais (French), Wallis (German): from the Latin word vallis, meaning "valley"; the canton consists mainly of the Rhone valley.
Zurich: after the city of Zurich, called Turicum in 2nd-century Latin; the origin of the Latin name is unknown.
Syria
Latakia: (Laodikeia)
Idlib:
Aleppo: Khalpe, Khalibon
Raqqa:
Al-Hasakah:
Tartus:
Hama:
Deir ez-zor:
Homs: (Emesa)
Damascus: "T-m-ś-q" (15th century BC)
Rif Dimashq:
Quneitra:
Daraa: Atharaa (hieroglyphic tablets)
As-Suwayda:
Taiwan
Changhua (): "Manifest [Imperial] Influence" in Chinese (顯彰皇化) in 1723
Chiayi (): "Commend Righteousness" in 1787
Hsinchu (): Literally "New Bamboo", renamed from "Bamboo Fortress" (Chinese: 竹塹, Mandarin: Zhuqian) in 1878
Hualien (): Literally "Lotus Flower" in Chinese, shortened from , renamed by 1920 from Kiray (奇萊), previously "Whirling Waves" (洄瀾; Huilan)
Kaohsiung (): literally "High Grandeur", from Japanese Takao, renamed in 1920 from Takau (), "Bamboo Forest" in a Formosan language
Keelung (): Literally "Prosperous Base" in Chinese, renamed in 1875 from "Chicken Cage" (Chinese: 雞籠; Mandarin: Jilong; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Ke-lâng), possibly derived from the Ketagalan people
Kinmen (): "Golden Gate", 1387. When a fortress was built to defend the coast of Fujian, Kinmen was described as being "as secure as a metal moat, proudly safeguarding the gate of the sea" (固若金湯, 雄鎮海門)
Miaoli (): Renamed in 1889 from / (Mandarin: Maoli), from the Bari Settlement of the Taokas Tribe, meaning "Plains"
Nantou (): 1695, after the Ramtau settlement of the Arikun Tribe
Penghu (): "Splashing Lake" in Chinese, (formerly )
Pingtung (): East of Banpingshan (literally "Half-Screen Mountain"), from Japanese in 1920
Tainan (): 1887 creation of Tainan Prefecture, "Southern Taiwan [City]" in Chinese
Taipei (): "Northern Taiwan [City]" in Chinese, 1875 creation of Taipeh Prefecture
Taichung (): "Central Taiwan [City]" in Chinese, from Japanese created 1896
Taitung (): "Eastern Taiwan [City]" in Chinese. Creation of Taitung Prefecture in 1888
Taoyuan (): "Peach Orchard" in Chinese, officially , 1909
Yilan (): Literally "Suitable Orchid" in Chinese, 1878 creation of Gilan Hsien, derived from the Kavalan people
Yunlin (): Literally "Clouded Woods" in Chinese, created in 1887
Thailand
Bangkok – Thai: place of olivesBueng Kan – Thai: black lakeChiang Mai – Northern Thai: new cityChonburi – Thai: city of water, as the city is very close to the sea
Kanchanaburi – Thai: golden cityKalasin – Thai: black waterNarathiwat – Malay: Menara (tower)
Nonthaburi – Thai: city of Peltophorum pterocarpum (Nontri), the provincial tree of Nonthaburi
Pattani – Malay: pata ini (this beach)
Pattaya – from thap phraya, which means army of the PhrayaPhitsanulok – Thai: Vishnu's heavenPhuket – Malay: bukit (hill)
Roi Et – Thai: one hundred and one (101)
Udon Thani – Thai: northern cityYasothon – named after YasodharaTurkey
Main article : Toponyms of Turkey
Ukraine
Most of Ukraine's oblasts take their names from their principal city; but Volyn Oblast, Zakarpattia Oblast, and the Crimean Autonomous Republic offer exceptions to this rule. See also subdivisions of Ukraine.
Cherkasy Oblast: from the city Cherkasy, presumably the city's name derived from Circassians according to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Vasiliy Tatishchev, and Aleksandr Rigelman.
Chernihiv Oblast: from the city Chernihiv
Chernivtsi Oblast: from the city Chernivtsi
Crimea: from the Crimean Tatar name: QırımDnipropetrovsk Oblast: from the city Dnipropetrovsk (renamed in 1926 after Dnipro (Dnieper river) and the Soviet Ukraine 's head of state, the Bolshevik Grigory Ivanovich Petrovsky)
Donetsk Oblast: from the city Donetsk, after the Donets river. Donets is a diminutive form of Don and is a tributary of the river Don.
Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast: from the city Ivano-Frankivsk, renamed (from Stanyslaviv) after the famous Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko (1856–1916) in 1962
Kharkiv Oblast: from the city Kharkiv, legendarily named for the mythical Ukrainian folk-hero Kharko (died ca 1737)
Kherson Oblast: from the city Kherson
Khmelnytskyi Oblast: from the city Khmelnytskyi, named in 1954 on the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, after Cossack leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky
City of Kyiv: ancient name (Ukrainian: Kyiv). Myth/legend tells of a founder named KyiKyiv Oblast: from the city Kyiv
Kirovohrad Oblast: from the city Kirovohrad ("Kirov City"), after Sergey Kirov (named Kirovo in 1934, Kirovograd in 1939)
Luhansk Oblast: from the city Luhansk
Lviv Oblast: from the city of Lviv, founded 1256 by King Danylo of Halych, and named after his son Lev Danylovich
Mykolaiv Oblast: from the city Mykolaiv, after the day of Saint Nicholas (Ukrainian Mykolai, Russian Nikolai), 19 December 1788, commemorating the fall of the Turkish fortress of Ochakiv to the Russians
Odessa Oblast: after the city Odessa in 1795; etymology unknown, but see Odessa: "History" for some possibilities
Poltava Oblast: from Ltava, an ancient name of the city Poltava
Rivne Oblast: from the city Rivne
City of Sevastopol: (1783) Greek "highly respectable city, august city"; see Sevastopol: "Etymology"
Sumy Oblast: from the city Sumy
Ternopil Oblast: from the city Ternopil
Vinnytsia Oblast: from the city Vinnytsia
Volyn Oblast: ancient name of the region of Volyn
Zakarpattia Oblast: "beyond the Carpathian Mountains", Transcarpathia
Zaporizhzhia Oblast: from the city Zaporizhzhia, in turn after region "beyond the rapids" (seventeenth century), downstream of the rapids of the River Dnieper
Zhytomyr Oblast: from the city Zhytomyr (988), after Zhytomyr, prince of the Drevlians
United Kingdom
Constituent countries
England: "Land of the Angles", from Old English Englaland, for the Germanic tribe first attested in 897. The Angles themselves were first attested as the Latin Anglii in Tacitus's 1st-century Germania and the name was extended to cover the other Germans in Britain after the ascension of the Kentish Egbert to the Saxon thrones. Their etymology is uncertain: possible derivations include Angul (the Angeln peninsula of eastern Jutland), the "people of the Narrow [Water]" (from the proposed proto-Indo-European root *ang-, "narrow", or *angh-, "tight") in reference to the Angeln's Schlei inlet, "people of the meadows" (cf. Old High German angar), the god *Ingwaza proposed Proto-Germanic form of Freyr's earlier name Yngvi,or the Ingaevones who claimed their descent from him. See Etymology of England.Anglia, a former name: As above, in its Latin form.Angelcynn, a former name: "Folk of the Angles", from Old English, name used by Alfred the Great.
Northern Ireland: Northern part of the island of Ireland; see List of country-name etymologies: Ireland for the etymology of the name "Ireland".
Scotland: "Land of the Scots", attested in the 11th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicles of Abingdon, Worcester and Laud.Garmonsway, G.N. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Everyman. Retrieved 14 October 2007. "Scot" from Old English Scottas, from Late Latin Scoti or Scotti, of ultimately uncertain origin, but used in Latin to reference Gaels raiding Roman Britain from a region (Scotia) in Ireland. and whose colinguists established the realm of Dál Riata in the vicinity of Argyll.Alba, Albania, or Albany, former endonyms: Uncertain etymology, presumed to derive from Albion or its antecedents. See also "Albion" at List of country-name etymologies: United Kingdom.Caledonia, a former name: "Land of the Caledonii" in Latin, from a Latin name for a local tribe, of uncertain etymology. Possibly related to the Welsh caled ("hard", "tough").
Wales: From Proto-Germanic word Walhaz, meaning "Romanised foreigner"; through Old English welisċ, wælisċ, wylisċ, meaning "foreigner", with the more specific "Brytwylisc" referring directly to Brittonic speaking people (literally "British Welsh/Foreigners"); to Modern English Welsh. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (British Library MS. Cotton Tiberius B) glosses Bede's Ecclesiastical History, citing Brytwylsc as one of the fif geþeodu, or "five languages", of the island of Brytene, along with the Ænglisc, Scottysc, Pihttisc, and Boclæden (English, Scottish, Pictish, and Latin). The same etymology applies to Cornwall in Britain and to Wallonia in Belgium. See Etymology of Wales.Brythoniaiad, a former name: "Britons" in Old Welsh. See "Britain" under List of country-name etymologies: United Kingdom. More inclusive than "Cymru", its use predominated until around the 12th century.Cambria: Latinized version of Cymru below. Geoffrey of Monmouth related the traditional pseudoetymology of this name from an eponymous King Camber.Cymru (endonym): "Land of Compatriots" from Old Welsh kymry ("compatriots"), first attested in an encomium to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633, from Brythonic combrogi. Its use during the post-Roman era amounted to a self-perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people, distinguished from the invaders and even from the Cornishmen and Bretons.
British Crown Dependencies
Jersey: The Norse suffix -ey means "island" and is commonly found in the parts of Northern Europe where Norsemen established settlements. (Compare modern Nordic languages: øy in Norwegian, ø/ö in Danish and Swedish.) The meaning of the first part of the island's name is unclear. Among theories are that it derives from Norse jarth ("earth") or jarl ("earl"), or perhaps a personal name, Geirr, to give "Geirr's Island". American writer William Safire suggested that the "Jers" in Jersey could be a corruption of "Caesar".
Isle of Man: The island's name in both English and Manx (Mannin) derives from Manannán mac Lir, the Brythonic and Gaelic, equivalent to the god Poseidon.
British Overseas Territories
Anguilla: "eel", for its elongated shape, from either Spanish anguila, Italian anguilla, or French anguille, as it is uncertain whether the island was first sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1493 or by French explorers in 1564.
Bermuda: "Land of Bermúdez", from the Spanish La Bermuda, from the Spanish captain Juan de Bermúdez who sighted the island in 1505 while returning from Hispaniola.
British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT): See List of country-name etymologies for etymologies of Britain and India
British Virgin Islands: bestowed by Christopher Columbus from Saint Ursula and her 11,000 virgins, on account of the seemingless endless number of islands
Cayman Islands: From the Spanish name Caymanas, from the Carib for "caiman", a kind of marine alligator.
Falkland Islands: From the Falkland Sound between the two main islands, bestowed by English captain John Strong in 1690 in honor of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland, First Lord of the Admiralty. Falkland Palace was the Caries' ancestral home in Scotland.Islas Malvinas, its Spanish name: "Malovian Islands", from the French Malouines describing the Breton sailors from St. Malo in Brittany who frequented the islands in the 1690s.
Sebald Islands, a former name now applied in Spanish to the Jason Islands: From a Dutch name commemorating Sebald de Weert, the captain usually credited with first sighting the archipelago in 1598.
Gibraltar: A corruption of the Arabic words Jebel Tariq (جبل طارق) which means "Tariq's Mountain", named after Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Berber who landed at Gibraltar in 711 to launch the Islamic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula.
Montserrat: From the Spanish name Santa Maria de Monterrate bestowed by Christopher Columbus in 1493 in honor of the Blessed Virgin of the Monastery of Montserrate in Spain. "Montserrat" itself means "jagged mountain".
Pitcairn Islands: A member of the English Captain Philip Carteret's crew in his ship HMS Swallow first sighted the remote islands in July 1767. Carteret named the main island "Pitcairn's Island" after the man who first saw land: the son of Major Pitcairn of the Marines.
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha:
Saint Helena: bestowed by Portuguese explorer João da Nova in honor of Saint Helena, the mother of Roman emperor Constantine the Great, for its discovery on Saint Helena's Day, 21 May 1502.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI):
South Georgia: "Land of George", from the original "Isle of Georgia" bestowed by British captain James Cook in honor of King George III on 17 January 1775. "South" distinguished it from the other colony of Georgia, which became an American state in 1782.
South Sandwich Islands: Bestowed by British captain James Cook in honor of John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, who at the time was First Lord of the Admiralty and helped fund Cook's voyages. "South" distinguished them from the other Sandwich Islands, now known by their native name Hawaii.
Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI):
Turks Islands: for the indigenous Turk's-cap cacti (Melocactus communis)
Caicos Islands: from the indigenous Lucayan caya hico, meaning "string of islands".
United States
States
Counties
Territories
Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge, an unincorporated territory: for American captain Michael Baker of New Bedford, Massachusetts, who claimed to have discovered it in 1832 or 1834, despite being the third to have done so.
Guam, a territory: From the native Chamorro word guahan, meaning "we have".
Howland Island, a territory: Bestowed by Capt. George E. Netcher in honor of the lookout who sighted it from his ship, the Isabella, on 9 September 1842.
Jarvis Island, a territory: Bestowed by the British Captain Brown in honor of Edward, Thomas, and William Jarvis, the owners of his vessel the Eliza Francis.
Johnston Atoll, a territory: For British captain Charles J. Johnston, commander of , who discovered the atoll on 14 December 1807.
Kingman Reef, a territory: For Capt. W.E. Kingman, who discovered the reef aboard the Shooting Star on 29 November 1853.
Midway Islands, a territory: For their geographic location, perhaps from the islands' situation midway between North America and Asia, or their proximity to the International Date Line (halfway around the world from the Greenwich Meridian).
Middlebrook Islands or the Brook Islands, former names: For their discoverer, Captain N.C. Middlebrooks.
Navassa Island, a territory: From the Spanish Navaza (nava- meaning "plain" or "field"), bestowed by members of Christopher Columbus's crew who discovered the island while attempting to return to Hispaniola from Jamaica
Northern Mariana Islands, a commonwealth: From its position and the Spanish name Las Marianas bestowed by the Jesuit missionary San Vitores in 1668 in honour of Mariana of Austria, widow of King Felipe IV and regent of Spain.
Palmyra Atoll, a territory: Named after the boat Palmyra, which belonged to the American Captain Sawle. He sought shelter on the atoll on 7 November 1802, and became the first person known to land on it.
Puerto Rico, a territory with commonwealth status: Christopher Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista in honour of Saint John the Baptist in 1493. The Spanish authorities set up a capital city called Puerto Rico (meaning "rich port"). For now unknown reasons, the island and capital city had exchanged names by the 1520s.
United States Virgin Islands, an insular area: See British Virgin Islands above.
Wake Island, an unincorporated territory: for British Captain William Wake, who sighted the island in 1796, despite the Spanish explorer Mendaña having probably sighted it in 1568.
Venezuela
Amazonas: for the Amazon rainforest.
Anzoátegui: in honor of independence hero José Antonio Anzoátegui.
Apure: for the Apure River.
Aragua: derived from the Cumanagota word for a type of palm, Roystonea oleracea.
Barinas: comes from an indigenous word which identifies a strong wind that occurs during the rainy season, from the valleys of Santo Domingo.
Bolívar: in honor of independence hero Simón Bolívar.
Carabobo: comes from the Arawak karau (savannah; plain) and bo (water). The repeated bo acts as a superlative.
Cojedes (state): for the Cojedes River.
Delta Amacuro: for the Orinoco Delta and the Amacuro River.
Falcón: in honor of president Juan Crisóstomo Falcón.
Guárico: Carib word for "chief".
Lara: in honor of independence hero Jacinto Lara.
Mérida: after the city of Mérida in Extremadura, Spain.
Miranda: in honor of independence hero Francisco de Miranda.
Monagas: in honor of president José Tadeo Monagas and the Monagas family.
Nueva Esparta: after Sparta.
Portuguesa: after Portugal.
Sucre: in honor of independence hero Antonio José de Sucre.
Táchira: from the Timoto–Cuica word tachure which was used to designate the bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypiifolia'').
Trujillo: after the city of Trujillo in Extremadura, Spain.
Vargas: in honor of president José María Vargas.
Yaracuy: in honor of a local cacique.
Zulia: in honor of a mythological Wayuu princess.
See also
Etymology
Toponomy
List of country name etymologies
List of political entities named after people
Lists of etymologies
List of double placenames
Notes
Etymologies
Country Subdivision | [
0.018750755116343498,
0.7418954968452454,
-0.45347797870635986,
-0.14141491055488586,
-0.49102726578712463,
0.507688581943512,
1.0250530242919922,
0.700928270816803,
-0.8608595132827759,
-0.3131507337093353,
-0.3788703382015228,
-0.20621216297149658,
0.13254095613956451,
1.031774640083313,
0.3532448709011078,
0.6429692506790161,
-0.2954474985599518,
0.8553307056427002,
-0.24595756828784943,
-0.16635963320732117,
-0.3788573741912842,
0.041139740496873856,
0.15447601675987244,
-0.4676625728607178,
0.06361129134893417,
0.12097637355327606,
0.24508292973041534,
-0.2220558226108551,
-0.027628779411315918,
-0.24423281848430634,
0.012688655406236649,
0.7290938496589661,
0.12798066437244415,
0.36723610758781433,
0.4257911443710327,
-0.5726770162582397,
-0.018951691687107086,
-0.7376989722251892,
0.020585618913173676,
-1.2054531574249268,
-0.01728242076933384,
-0.24726784229278564,
0.3630530536174774,
0.5707613825798035,
0.2662709653377533,
-0.23731887340545654,
-1.8197026252746582,
-0.14858518540859222,
-0.9409523010253906,
-0.21888411045074463,
0.16346856951713562,
-0.18231168389320374,
0.8274034261703491,
0.06881265342235565,
0.0110855121165514,
1.081979513168335,
-0.5339809060096741,
-0.12450380623340607,
0.29280906915664673,
0.1575353890657425,
0.05420956388115883,
0.5253388285636902,
-0.08150853961706161,
0.12750506401062012,
0.4719860851764679,
0.7251464128494263,
-0.42151087522506714,
0.6882436871528625,
-1.1484529972076416,
-0.19291789829730988,
-0.3002801239490509,
-0.7746005654335022,
0.6310309767723083,
1.0258028507232666,
-0.7656222581863403,
0.04277591407299042,
0.017920684069395065,
0.09781961888074875,
-0.10336960107088089,
-0.4117351472377777,
-0.5315964818000793,
0.27993014454841614,
0.2874850630760193,
-0.24385981261730194,
0.3026459813117981,
0.23708216845989227,
-0.916060745716095,
-0.19901613891124725,
-0.20286449790000916,
0.7368211150169373,
0.19543616473674774,
-0.09359505027532578,
-0.07294967025518417,
0.42254412174224854,
0.2914825975894928,
-0.3351804316043854,
-0.43097373843193054,
-0.0523681677877903,
-0.16749706864356995,
0.6837764978408813,
-0.1207629144191742,
0.48011210560798645,
0.45708099007606506,
-0.08605271577835083,
-0.26633182168006897,
-0.30170488357543945,
-0.20614562928676605,
-0.05373777076601982,
0.24029777944087982,
-1.3445632457733154,
-0.5383817553520203,
0.45223066210746765,
0.08258462697267532,
-0.0748898908495903,
-0.028646649792790413,
0.3424109220504761,
0.24851487576961517,
0.2289295792579651,
-0.32687896490097046,
0.25472187995910645,
-0.10578028112649918,
0.25483959913253784,
-0.0930301621556282,
-0.20109207928180695,
-0.08017688244581223,
0.8041561245918274,
0.46761682629585266,
-0.1762653887271881,
-0.2516467869281769,
0.5868433713912964,
-0.34341326355934143,
1.1979390382766724,
-0.49214574694633484,
-0.330574631690979,
0.2169186770915985,
-0.44282829761505127,
0.23070275783538818,
0.35533323884010315,
0.7792309522628784,
0.41160154342651367,
-0.8094605207443237,
-0.17747841775417328,
-1.9802037477493286,
-0.17301839590072632,
0.2641115188598633,
-0.022590400651097298,
-0.183486208319664,
-0.6550068855285645,
0.11696323752403259,
-0.17584218084812164,
0.4471116364002228,
-0.4760624170303345,
-0.15908311307430267,
0.48818203806877136,
-0.3539773225784302,
0.5474421977996826,
0.058151405304670334,
-0.20836985111236572,
0.8044431805610657,
0.13085059821605682,
-0.196894571185112,
-0.012775897048413754,
0.059433676302433014,
-0.21981732547283173,
-0.15171195566654205,
-0.07071366161108017,
0.38110190629959106,
0.41803058981895447,
-0.05103757977485657,
0.44523730874061584,
-0.842093825340271,
-0.5041666030883789,
0.45161157846450806,
-0.4183869957923889,
-0.01364620216190815,
0.037808503955602646,
0.49368399381637573,
-0.08097730576992035,
0.5897368788719177,
-0.24641266465187073,
-0.48584190011024475,
-0.1947014182806015,
0.11158684641122818,
-0.12622015178203583,
0.33975929021835327,
-0.2239401787519455,
0.5384135842323303,
0.12686297297477722,
0.20175577700138092,
0.38839930295944214,
0.02648521587252617,
-0.3927192687988281,
0.2796180248260498,
-0.39358681440353394,
0.9414774179458618,
0.1321600079536438,
-0.23470407724380493,
-0.2575245201587677,
0.029620684683322906,
0.3589211404323578,
-0.10780476778745651,
-0.2293039858341217,
0.033992696553468704,
0.7578757405281067,
-0.4164256751537323,
1.518580675125122,
-0.13737350702285767,
0.0926159918308258,
0.6811448335647583,
0.15613697469234467,
0.6013229489326477,
-0.3910748362541199,
0.5303778648376465,
-0.6438716053962708,
0.22749604284763336,
0.1726253181695938,
0.06923415511846542,
0.7631657719612122,
-0.36465635895729065,
-0.5758046507835388,
0.6415906548500061,
-0.2700939476490021,
0.03535010665655136,
0.430331826210022,
0.2538314461708069,
-0.13320989906787872,
0.04261810705065727,
0.3976529836654663,
0.3306814432144165,
-1.2006222009658813,
0.6527988910675049,
-0.3270590901374817,
0.28411877155303955,
-0.47463443875312805,
-0.6269877552986145,
-0.5063170194625854,
-0.15284526348114014,
-0.059743016958236694,
-0.61957186460495,
-0.2819839119911194,
0.18055665493011475,
0.22059743106365204,
-0.5900120735168457,
-0.025980161502957344,
0.009075386449694633,
-0.43240803480148315,
-0.26812028884887695,
-0.33062759041786194,
-0.04957913979887962,
0.3195350170135498,
0.6823908090591431,
0.016791455447673798,
0.6350126266479492,
-0.34685900807380676,
-0.3833032548427582,
-0.013731894083321095,
-0.026742447167634964,
-0.1843910962343216,
0.1730901598930359,
0.28896939754486084,
-0.4604475498199463,
0.44718706607818604,
-0.12281841784715652,
0.3031967878341675,
-0.09478136152029037,
-0.42772719264030457,
-0.26506292819976807,
-0.16866452991962433,
0.4808838963508606,
0.07049030810594559,
0.16350533068180084,
0.20807388424873352,
-0.42498666048049927,
-2.27531361579895,
0.28914618492126465,
-0.3138026297092438,
-0.10156683623790741,
0.21427473425865173,
-0.7002332806587219,
-0.10784391313791275,
-0.2645163834095001,
0.3092261254787445,
-0.014868978410959244,
-0.15126487612724304,
-0.6254067420959473,
-0.035168733447790146,
0.643790602684021,
-0.2623957693576813,
-0.03529464825987816,
-0.033965811133384705,
-0.703212320804596,
-0.06151886284351349,
-0.6331791281700134,
0.41546452045440674,
-0.008595519699156284,
-0.3675228953361511,
-0.025403976440429688,
-0.10663555562496185,
-0.1984661966562271,
-0.312105655670166,
-0.9750083684921265,
0.36211881041526794,
-0.16624444723129272,
-0.4946112632751465,
-0.40052691102027893,
0.45025068521499634,
0.07648934423923492,
0.27144917845726013,
-4.498288154602051,
-0.15138638019561768,
-0.579754114151001,
-0.4090956449508667,
0.07291954010725021,
0.2096313238143921,
0.7680538296699524,
-0.3590729236602783,
-0.2955830693244934,
0.33473557233810425,
-0.1985919028520584,
-0.054277192801237106,
0.10023663938045502,
0.6144590377807617,
0.763277530670166,
0.18805140256881714,
0.34615132212638855,
0.7114552855491638,
-0.3013223111629486,
0.11666937172412872,
0.4272449016571045,
0.4280579686164856,
0.3097863793373108,
0.2752741277217865,
-0.046924374997615814,
0.7564957141876221,
-0.31093358993530273,
-0.21458657085895538,
-0.5698603391647339,
-0.06339383125305176,
-0.14319559931755066,
0.009497202932834625,
0.18772128224372864,
-0.5390269160270691,
-0.7018559575080872,
-0.05521809682250023,
0.6224204897880554,
0.3550703823566437,
0.4841003119945526,
-0.39955273270606995,
-0.2947969138622284,
0.2717720568180084,
0.4386317729949951,
0.7846491932868958,
0.700401782989502,
-0.6322104334831238,
-0.5806140899658203,
0.02808550000190735,
-0.14066727459430695,
1.2060880661010742,
-0.7137163281440735,
0.15304824709892273,
1.0287761688232422,
0.35019001364707947,
-0.21721583604812622,
-0.29159706830978394,
0.6869200468063354,
0.1292121559381485,
-0.26509889960289,
0.30115842819213867,
1.1190818548202515,
-0.21766170859336853,
0.03735680505633354,
-0.9014361500740051,
0.5045387744903564,
-0.685929000377655,
-1.040020227432251,
-0.10661657154560089,
0.17801275849342346,
0.40542376041412354,
-0.15195925533771515,
0.37790554761886597,
-0.3322158753871918,
-0.6751943230628967,
0.3029521703720093,
-0.16723795235157013,
-0.12036071717739105,
-0.04021674767136574,
0.3028869032859802,
0.3863241970539093,
-0.20743094384670258,
0.24749936163425446,
-0.515227735042572,
0.5388091206550598,
-0.4398079514503479,
-0.48266181349754333,
-1.05677330493927,
-0.39443790912628174,
-0.6915302276611328,
-0.28685104846954346,
0.08218540996313095,
-0.33752745389938354,
0.5520332455635071,
0.08412269502878189,
0.20283614099025726,
0.519746720790863,
0.663337230682373,
0.02094927616417408,
0.5504193305969238,
-0.9143612384796143,
-0.04961620643734932,
-0.6501873731613159,
0.17807024717330933,
0.3835694193840027,
-0.027741780504584312,
-0.6086496114730835,
-0.32987239956855774,
0.5226001143455505,
0.46967750787734985,
-0.08700698614120483,
0.3304798901081085,
-0.10265469551086426,
-0.32337889075279236,
-0.4900316894054413,
-0.17967723309993744,
0.11705994606018066,
-0.17190787196159363,
0.12366742640733719,
0.7241451144218445,
0.393159419298172,
0.2798289358615875,
0.07727547734975815,
0.041228581219911575,
0.16606320440769196,
0.17410887777805328,
-0.5015972852706909,
0.1676217019557953,
-0.08527465164661407,
-0.19012849032878876,
-0.01956341788172722,
0.072067029774189,
0.2267475724220276,
-0.18308766186237335,
-0.6714956760406494,
-0.20690754055976868,
0.20257160067558289,
0.13263265788555145,
0.33707407116889954,
0.32588961720466614,
-0.7846513390541077,
0.3297595977783203,
-0.1576763242483139,
-0.398786336183548,
0.5055947303771973,
0.02722993493080139,
0.3859144151210785,
0.15701924264431,
-0.3423064649105072,
-0.025889724493026733,
0.35745489597320557,
-0.3130034804344177,
-0.6046625375747681,
0.1124582514166832,
-0.7538539171218872,
-0.6066112518310547,
-0.10141387581825256,
0.44970884919166565,
0.12159779667854309,
-0.9307446479797363,
-0.7209895849227905,
0.0200862567871809,
-0.13048677146434784,
-0.8992357850074768,
0.33526772260665894,
0.49444156885147095,
0.16224512457847595,
-0.20355243980884552,
-0.5234306454658508,
-0.3022446036338806,
1.1868290901184082,
0.08541911840438843,
0.08475420624017715,
-1.141818881034851,
-0.378557413816452,
0.12924551963806152,
0.08495329320430756,
0.4632328748703003,
0.43490123748779297,
0.0638187974691391,
0.22251135110855103,
-0.0802735909819603,
-0.24068590998649597,
0.18688488006591797,
0.8380140662193298,
0.15677978098392487,
0.17101864516735077,
-0.2815469801425934,
0.4172009527683258,
-0.5918425917625427,
-0.22402779757976532,
-0.3890853822231293,
0.6549814939498901,
0.23688916862010956,
-0.4471134841442108,
-1.0137568712234497,
-0.44078806042671204,
-0.5332134962081909,
0.2907539904117584,
-0.01177296880632639,
-0.7103140950202942,
0.48818936944007874,
0.5650854706764221,
0.18045642971992493,
0.1488504707813263,
0.6606807708740234,
-0.7385096549987793,
0.47409167885780334,
0.060991715639829636,
-0.5226543545722961,
0.1429046392440796,
-0.047586455941200256,
-1.0086487531661987,
-0.3322998583316803,
0.17327731847763062,
-0.26131775975227356,
-0.4886611998081207,
0.24568265676498413,
0.04119301214814186,
-0.22323006391525269,
-0.22834694385528564,
0.32985925674438477,
0.20631839334964752,
0.21696136891841888,
-0.0941721498966217,
-0.43218865990638733,
0.5721527338027954,
0.05951712280511856,
-0.6760917901992798,
0.7170972228050232,
0.39616820216178894,
-0.09490206837654114,
0.3301125168800354,
0.2927968204021454,
-0.2195563018321991,
-0.4577338397502899,
-0.3207450211048126,
-0.21626360714435577,
0.35799726843833923,
0.15667428076267242,
0.3016358017921448,
0.3383391499519348,
0.9283604025840759,
0.49191799759864807,
-0.7228125333786011,
-0.3545786142349243,
-0.14199167490005493,
0.43950802087783813,
-0.6146509051322937,
-0.5814512372016907,
0.2986662983894348,
0.09176453948020935,
-0.506645143032074,
-1.0166031122207642,
-0.9202480912208557,
0.722512423992157,
0.20285752415657043,
-0.49158087372779846,
0.34073343873023987,
0.3673032820224762,
0.39024895429611206,
-0.024991460144519806,
0.17751431465148926,
-0.3419401943683624,
0.580986499786377,
0.47220608592033386,
-0.21908609569072723,
-0.28933462500572205,
0.5519641041755676,
0.9485536813735962,
-0.4590502679347992,
-0.20445510745048523,
0.11562816798686981,
0.014435255900025368,
0.8053318858146667,
0.45704755187034607,
-0.2372487485408783,
0.5247070789337158,
-0.8187739849090576,
0.6433980464935303,
-0.7863507866859436,
0.09883485734462738,
0.19632618129253387,
0.5535322427749634,
0.165400430560112,
0.636969804763794,
-0.5864884853363037,
-0.45433565974235535,
-0.12383913993835449,
-0.1840490996837616,
0.09384743124246597,
-0.393282949924469,
0.41547247767448425,
-0.27112942934036255,
0.8239431977272034,
-0.15906831622123718,
0.0035734022967517376,
0.4836452603340149,
-0.15182965993881226,
0.2594103217124939,
-0.3491547703742981,
-0.4728568196296692,
0.9804593324661255,
0.0025696486700326204,
-0.9384055137634277,
0.6204006671905518,
0.3519532382488251,
0.5881001949310303,
0.09073827415704727,
0.24224719405174255,
-0.06544147431850433,
0.12591101229190826,
0.2938019931316376,
0.19388234615325928,
0.7646963000297546,
0.46021631360054016,
0.09663406014442444,
0.08114922046661377,
-0.7487918138504028,
0.34185999631881714,
0.4193233549594879,
0.4174482822418213,
-0.07650529593229294,
0.07305067032575607,
0.06525788456201553,
-0.21692341566085815,
0.6877151727676392,
-0.5561304688453674,
-0.8127095699310303,
0.5093729496002197,
0.02017206698656082,
0.3589800298213959,
0.052335385233163834,
-0.7231048345565796,
0.35486042499542236,
-0.665768027305603,
-0.6845690011978149,
0.18975292146205902,
-0.0516279861330986,
-0.40497004985809326,
0.8980008959770203,
-0.025573765859007835,
0.3549734055995941,
0.02152279019355774,
-0.2782875895500183,
-0.7624505162239075,
-0.058547936379909515,
-0.3527061641216278,
0.1088235005736351,
0.21160788834095,
-0.32625022530555725,
0.11349938809871674,
0.6052435636520386,
0.5040878653526306,
0.24481898546218872,
0.15080715715885162,
-0.07560425251722336,
0.1326487958431244,
-0.1904066950082779,
-0.22318778932094574,
-1.414440393447876,
-0.09751057624816895,
0.27075323462486267,
-0.5743975639343262,
0.37113359570503235,
0.46207767724990845,
0.22117027640342712,
0.3481172025203705,
0.08021579682826996,
-0.05554364249110222,
0.4425540566444397,
0.888142466545105,
0.46274712681770325,
0.0343894436955452,
-0.3325115442276001,
0.007107386365532875,
0.11668751388788223,
-0.15742018818855286,
0.45535680651664734,
-0.32415255904197693,
-0.7512999176979065,
-0.47762158513069153,
0.6410514116287231,
-0.2519036829471588,
-0.5615041851997375,
0.33634305000305176,
-0.08435281366109848,
-0.360019326210022,
0.5565239191055298,
0.19945259392261505,
0.43820664286613464,
0.4884861707687378,
-0.6780867576599121,
0.08698665350675583,
-0.4061461091041565,
-0.9277164936065674,
0.07317531108856201,
-0.5343531370162964,
0.7392762899398804,
0.4247528612613678,
-0.5646089911460876,
-0.1878490000963211,
0.07991201430559158,
-0.14223386347293854,
0.19722330570220947,
-0.24401383101940155,
0.17120112478733063,
0.34933900833129883,
0.5838516354560852,
-0.22479921579360962,
0.42073944211006165,
0.14779908955097198,
-0.5592567920684814,
-0.05687655508518219,
0.5493320822715759,
-0.19921652972698212,
-0.09238623827695847,
0.43650731444358826,
-0.4389462471008301,
-0.053599972277879715,
-0.5921804308891296,
0.32033830881118774,
-0.5797112584114075,
-0.1189267560839653,
0.4545706510543823,
-0.36648327112197876,
-0.7103597521781921,
0.27488815784454346,
0.6181182265281677,
-0.5822962522506714,
0.5564013123512268,
-0.15216049551963806,
0.4445386826992035,
-0.4165492653846741,
-0.41246309876441956,
0.02216329798102379,
0.3277924954891205,
0.7458195686340332,
1.0317258834838867,
0.06973298639059067,
0.1742638349533081,
-0.28403857350349426,
-0.3827051818370819,
0.1384706050157547,
0.06350722908973694,
-3.741671085357666,
0.04486780986189842,
-0.3301313519477844,
-0.1327795386314392,
-0.25521397590637207,
0.5948938131332397,
0.06995877623558044,
0.11215656250715256,
-0.011332246474921703,
-0.3054667115211487,
0.17863357067108154,
-0.5788353681564331,
0.44576969742774963,
-0.7663113474845886,
0.2638094127178192,
0.8987605571746826
] |
233706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrenean%20Mountain%20Dog | Pyrenean Mountain Dog | The Pyrenean Mountain Dog is a breed of livestock guardian dog from France, where it is known as the Chien de Montagne des Pyrénées or more commonly the Patou. It is called the Great Pyrenees in the United States. The breed comes from the French side of the Pyrenees Mountains that separate France and Spain. It is recognised as a separate breed from the closely related Pyrenean Mastiff which is from the Spanish side of the mountains.
The breed is widely used throughout France as a livestock guardian, particularly in the French Alps and Pyrenees, protecting flocks from predation by wolves and bears. The breed is also used in the United States to protect flocks from various predators.
History
The Pyrenean Mountain Dog is a traditional breed of the Pyrenees. In France it is usually called the 'Patou'. It is sometimes claimed that its forebears – and those of the Pyrenean Mastiff – were white livestock guardian dogs brought to the area from Asia in Roman times, and thus that it is related to Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog of Italy and the Kuvasz of Hungary. Genomic data places it within the same genetic clade as the Pharaoh Hound, Cirneco dell'Etna, and the Ibizan Hound.
In the seventeenth century, Madame de Maintenon and Louis, Dauphin of France, brought a dog of this type to the court of King Louis XIV, where they soon became in great demand, the King even naming it the Royal Dog of France. They came to be used by the French nobility to guard their châteaux, particularly in the south of the country. It is sometimes claimed that French settlers brought these dogs with them to Canada and that they are among the forebears of the Newfoundland dog. In the 1830s, Pyrenean Mountain Dogs were used as one of the foundation breeds in the creation of the Leonberger.
With the extirpation of wolves from the Pyrenees, the popularity of the breed declined and by the beginning of the 20th century it was on the verge of extinction. Local shepherds sold pups to eager tourists and it is from these pups the breed found its way to Britain and several were registered with The Kennel Club at the beginning of the century, although British interest in the large breed declined during the First World War. French aristocrat and dog authority Bernard Senac-Lagrange is credited with saving the breed from extinction at the beginning of the 20th century, touring the mountains to collect the finest specimens available to form a breeding base. Senac-Lagrange established the first breed club, the Réunion des Amateurs de Chiens Pyrénées, and drew up the first breed standard for the breed in 1923; he also registered the breed as the Chien de Montagne des Pyrénées with the Société Centrale Canine in the same year. In 1946 the Real Sociedad Canina de España recognised the large white livestock guardians on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees as the Pyrenean Mastiff with a slightly different breed standard.
In the early 1930s, the Pyrenean Mountain Dog was imported into North America where it is known as the Great Pyrenees. The breed became a favourite in the show ring in both Canada and the United States. In 1935, the American Kennel Club adopted a new breed standard that had a number of deviations from the French original that would not be permitted in France. This standard promoted the exaggeration of certain physical features at the expense of functional form and was later adopted by Britain's Kennel Club. To combat the deterioration of the breed's show lines in their country, in 2011 the British Pyrenean Mountain Dog breed club released a brochure with instructions for show judges not to reward glamorous, heavy-bodied, short-muzzled examples of the breed over lean and muscular examples with weatherproof coats capable of performing their original role in high mountainous regions.
Description
Appearance
The Pyrenean Mountain Dog is a very large and heavily built breed of livestock guardian dog that, according to the Société Centrale Canine's breed standard, dogs stand from and bitches from . Healthy adults typically weigh between . The breed's head is not overly large in comparison to the body; it has a long, broad and slightly pointed muzzle with lips that are not pendulous and small triangular ears that hang flat to the head. The breed has a short and strong neck, a broad and moderately deep chest and a long tail that hangs low when the dog is at rest but curls over the dog's back when the dog is roused. A distinctive feature of the breed is that it possesses double dewclaws on the hind legs, the absence of which is considered a disqualifying fault in conformation shows.
The breed has a long and thick double coat that provides it protection from harsh weather; the long and flat outer coat is particularly long around the neck, tail and backs of the legs, and it has a fine and thick under coat. The breed is predominantly white in colour, with patches of black, badger, grey or various shades of tan found mostly on the head; badger is defined as a mixture of brown, black, grey and white hairs and is commonly seen in puppies but usually fades as the dog ages. Whilst purebred examples of the breed with black patches are seen in litters, such colouration is considered a fault by show dog fanciers and is not permitted in conformation shows.
Character
The Pyrenean Mountain Dog is described as independent and protective, dogs typically being more independent than bitches. As a livestock guardian the breed retains strong protective instincts and will revert to its guardian roots whenever the need arises. The breed is more of a one family breed than a one master breed, being protective of all members of a family and particularly affectionate towards children; it remains wary of but not demonstrative towards strangers. The breed is considered intelligent and a quick learner but due to its independence can be quite difficult to train. Furthermore, due to its size if obedience training is not firmly established before six months of age, it can be physically very demanding to establish obedience later.
Use
For millennia these dogs were used by shepherds throughout the Pyrenean region to protect their flocks from predation by wolves and bears; in this rôle they were usually fitted with a heavy iron wolf collar studded with long nails for protection when fighting off wolves. They were often used by shepherds in combination with the much smaller Pyrenean Sheepdog, the former guarding the flocks and the latter herding them. They were also used to smuggle contraband between France and Spain, carrying packs over the Pyrenees on routes impassable to humans to avoid detection by customs officials.
The Pyrenean Mountain Dog is today used in its original role as a livestock guardian for French shepherds in the French Pyrenees and the French Alps, as well as in the United States.
France
In the early 1980s farmers in the Massif Central and Lozère were experiencing problems with stray dogs attacking their flocks, so the French ITOVIC commenced an experiment with around 15 Pyrenean Mountain Dogs given to farmers. By the late 1980s the ITOVIC experiment had been completed and an association, APAP, had been formed with around 15 Pyrenean Mountain Dog breeders, with the objective of providing suitable livestock guardian dogs to potential farmers, and by 1991 around 100 dogs were working on farms.
In the early 1990s Italian wolves began to cross from Italy into France, where they have become established in approximately one third of its continental territories, particularly in the French Alps and Provence, but also throughout the Massif Central. Even before the presence of wolves was publicly reported in France, some farmers around the Mercantour National Park had reported unusual stock predation, which was, at the time, attributed by authorities to uncontrolled domestic dogs. Wolves are protected in France; in order to protect the livelihoods of farmers from wolf predation, since the late 1990s, the French government has subsidized various methods of protecting flocks from depredation, including electrified pasture fencing, secured electrified night pens, hiring of additional farm hands, and the purchase, training and upkeep of livestock guardian dogs. After the extirpation of wolves from France in the 1800s, livestock guardian dogs had been absent from the French Alps for over a century; when wolves resettled the country in the 1990s, the French Pyrenean Mountain Dog was the breed selected for use, as the ITOVIC trials had already been conducted with the breed, and within the country, the APAP was breeding Pyrenean Mountain Dogs specifically for the purpose.
In the mid-1990s the French government began importing European brown bears from Slovenia into the Pyrenees, in order to save the species from extirpation from the region by genetic inbreeding, as the local population had been reduced to an estimated six bears. With the increased numbers of bears in the region, local shepherds reported increases of stock losses to bear predation, particularly in the summer months, when shepherds move their flocks into the mountains to graze the summer alpine pastures. To assist the shepherds, government funding was provided to implement the same protection measures as those employed for wolves, and Pyrenean Mountain Dogs were given to farmers in the Pyrenees to guard flocks from predators. Studies conducted in the mid-2000s found shepherds who employed Pyrenean Mountain Dogs across the Pyrenees reported 90% fewer stock losses to predators than shepherds who did not employ the dogs. The re-employment of Pyrenean Mountain Dogs within the Pyrenees has not been without issues, with reports of hikers traversing the mountains being attacked by the livestock guardians protecting their flocks, leading to a bilingual pamphlet being produced to warn walkers and bikers against risky behaviours in order to decrease incidents.
In 2009 there were over 1000 Pyrenean Mountain Dogs being used to protect flocks against wolves in the Alps, and 500 protecting flocks in the Pyrenees. In 2019, French government funding was being provided for the upkeep of 4258 livestock guardian dogs throughout the country, 92% of which were in the French Alps and Provence, although it is estimated the total number of dogs being employed at the time was around 5000.
United States
From the late 1970s sheep farmers in the United States began employing livestock guardian dogs to protect their flocks from various predators, particularly coyotes and black bears, but also cougars and grizzly bears. Several factors influenced the move to integrate livestock guardian dogs into farming operations, including federal restrictions on the use of poisons to control predator numbers. A 1986 survey of over 400 farmers employing 763 livestock guardian dogs in the United States found 57% of them used Pyrenean Mountain Dogs, with Komondors, Akbashs, Anatolians and Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdogs being employed in fewer numbers.
Notes
References
External links
Réunion des Amateurs de Chiens Pyrénées website
Dog breeds originating in France
FCI breeds
Livestock guardian dogs | [
0.2555805444717407,
0.2160254567861557,
-0.9445751905441284,
0.02723947912454605,
0.10897856950759888,
0.6101681590080261,
0.47693029046058655,
-0.06615538150072098,
-0.36993682384490967,
0.07058827579021454,
-0.5045274496078491,
0.3740042448043823,
-0.2986319661140442,
-0.09589691460132599,
-0.37167343497276306,
0.5280657410621643,
0.3801400065422058,
0.39801979064941406,
-0.10518219321966171,
-0.6962611079216003,
-0.23679092526435852,
-0.7350713014602661,
0.02507689781486988,
-0.10996228456497192,
0.11243365705013275,
0.2209358811378479,
0.2936537563800812,
0.9212841987609863,
1.0532113313674927,
0.2893190383911133,
0.06517957895994186,
0.7597074508666992,
0.06053681671619415,
-0.7635310888290405,
0.31514671444892883,
0.35264432430267334,
0.46704038977622986,
-0.5293555855751038,
0.09422507137060165,
-0.45479604601860046,
0.1586063951253891,
0.1044197604060173,
0.22834636270999908,
0.6352821588516235,
-0.12420763075351715,
0.07051946222782135,
-1.1965548992156982,
0.7038953900337219,
-0.05089450627565384,
-0.01230370718985796,
-0.2412935495376587,
0.37544599175453186,
0.2995428442955017,
0.7092388868331909,
-0.021256616339087486,
0.4051969647407532,
-1.1198089122772217,
-0.2836510241031647,
0.4381259083747864,
0.11130094528198242,
-0.47122251987457275,
0.7300905585289001,
-0.06555167585611343,
-0.313904732465744,
-0.27848076820373535,
0.5033836364746094,
-0.28301140666007996,
0.6750426292419434,
-0.15802064538002014,
-0.016747506335377693,
-0.040010638535022736,
-0.2963622510433197,
0.3192259967327118,
0.3993542492389679,
-0.2925143837928772,
0.1762361079454422,
-0.39360618591308594,
-0.23620738089084625,
0.3180704414844513,
0.5164421200752258,
0.13150173425674438,
0.29783788323402405,
0.5406255722045898,
0.10250191390514374,
0.16665863990783691,
0.885353684425354,
-0.3667372465133667,
-0.16433417797088623,
-0.3039897680282593,
0.12272162735462189,
-0.05575431138277054,
-0.3651977479457855,
0.8049178123474121,
0.11947409063577652,
-0.23852260410785675,
0.09298121184110641,
0.11182796210050583,
0.0003041965246666223,
0.06600279361009598,
0.13009200990200043,
-0.2539988160133362,
0.6507250070571899,
-0.242147758603096,
-0.015353437513113022,
-0.43022775650024414,
-0.15563365817070007,
-0.5606390237808228,
-0.4354093372821808,
-0.7172057032585144,
0.18872025609016418,
-0.8796104192733765,
0.005883245263248682,
-0.14955754578113556,
0.20001472532749176,
0.12822388112545013,
0.2727394700050354,
0.1718369722366333,
-0.3993016481399536,
0.0324096754193306,
0.18403896689414978,
0.2331382781267166,
0.14940956234931946,
-0.47108277678489685,
0.11675727367401123,
-0.1389441043138504,
0.39179620146751404,
1.081446647644043,
0.5012131929397583,
-0.2068202793598175,
0.20172934234142303,
0.2378368228673935,
0.65101557970047,
-0.024144724011421204,
0.055871691554784775,
-0.048493944108486176,
-0.19555799663066864,
0.3669073283672333,
0.36503177881240845,
0.22312946617603302,
0.7918485403060913,
-1.3132473230361938,
-0.06368562579154968,
0.11052422970533371,
-0.657497227191925,
-0.27874764800071716,
0.05596758797764778,
0.06777608394622803,
-0.6227415800094604,
0.2893688976764679,
-0.7235775589942932,
0.15761375427246094,
-0.20192275941371918,
0.47365978360176086,
0.11346598714590073,
-0.8482031226158142,
-0.503553032875061,
0.1982472538948059,
-0.4120217263698578,
0.5409768223762512,
-0.5206351280212402,
-0.030141066759824753,
-0.23727673292160034,
0.04837190732359886,
0.22131063044071198,
0.5608416199684143,
0.05676567554473877,
0.13932155072689056,
0.3065962493419647,
-0.1622435748577118,
0.7561927437782288,
-0.5509569644927979,
0.02403758093714714,
0.20803861320018768,
-0.26221272349357605,
-0.22348742187023163,
0.2582733929157257,
0.4397610127925873,
0.35819441080093384,
0.3190925717353821,
-0.2606283128261566,
-0.79649418592453,
0.432395875453949,
0.12435781955718994,
-0.9412068724632263,
0.7818049788475037,
-0.027909010648727417,
0.7984024286270142,
-0.267882764339447,
-0.07212293148040771,
-0.25121062994003296,
-0.9004934430122375,
-0.4521905779838562,
0.3564218282699585,
-0.2910510301589966,
1.468434453010559,
-0.7143797874450684,
-0.46850985288619995,
0.4805823564529419,
0.20965984463691711,
0.4343706965446472,
-0.567022979259491,
-0.44294971227645874,
1.0617338418960571,
0.29646649956703186,
-1.1724133491516113,
0.2727474570274353,
-0.19607537984848022,
0.16363860666751862,
0.5108316540718079,
0.1518285572528839,
0.06551112234592438,
-0.35002821683883667,
0.2330935001373291,
0.04425583779811859,
-0.24708710610866547,
0.13823343813419342,
-0.16454166173934937,
0.3545338213443756,
0.1388140320777893,
-0.450266033411026,
0.4712233543395996,
-0.3840758502483368,
-0.6129278540611267,
0.5874089598655701,
-0.3739415407180786,
0.717654287815094,
0.5295619964599609,
-0.3308895230293274,
0.5585682392120361,
-0.09294195473194122,
-0.44363921880722046,
-0.12187425792217255,
0.2395099252462387,
-0.3820055425167084,
-0.6819750666618347,
-0.24298426508903503,
-0.04041358083486557,
-0.7571473717689514,
-0.1773395985364914,
-0.18388374149799347,
0.47707027196884155,
0.645076334476471,
-0.674473762512207,
0.18631179630756378,
0.11790289729833603,
0.06278382986783981,
-0.5272535085678101,
0.8861790299415588,
-0.32397428154945374,
-0.28789225220680237,
-0.26621896028518677,
0.47086501121520996,
0.2530243992805481,
-0.22543500363826752,
-0.06289564073085785,
-0.2369319498538971,
0.5542161464691162,
0.19455958902835846,
0.2387135773897171,
-0.25518715381622314,
-0.04709581285715103,
0.2317182570695877,
-0.17907631397247314,
0.23707666993141174,
0.36972105503082275,
-0.5693289041519165,
-0.4510343372821808,
-0.7254043221473694,
0.6555254459381104,
0.3766298294067383,
0.5673034191131592,
-0.15477824211120605,
-0.20986859500408173,
0.041509371250867844,
-0.6946794986724854,
-0.3945154845714569,
-0.32945650815963745,
-0.3870779573917389,
-0.6888461112976074,
-0.46218690276145935,
-0.38872408866882324,
0.46716853976249695,
0.5481218099594116,
0.32711124420166016,
-0.45036792755126953,
0.18814659118652344,
0.6233078837394714,
-0.7202101945877075,
0.21957412362098694,
-0.07977668941020966,
0.2881706953048706,
0.07122049480676651,
-0.27678966522216797,
0.34308692812919617,
-0.36162930727005005,
-0.173895001411438,
0.026676340028643608,
0.4800221025943756,
0.7684018611907959,
-0.5310737490653992,
-0.5844337940216064,
0.2013060301542282,
-0.153232604265213,
0.21180395781993866,
0.3823126554489136,
-0.18206413090229034,
0.10316605120897293,
0.23462368547916412,
-5.268350601196289,
0.08690141886472702,
-0.0654677301645279,
-0.5833720564842224,
0.07276510447263718,
0.4193437397480011,
0.27227991819381714,
-0.5776388645172119,
-0.368442177772522,
0.5526506304740906,
-0.09647921472787857,
0.2198103368282318,
0.23284871876239777,
0.19051998853683472,
0.35983359813690186,
0.2961532771587372,
-0.572997510433197,
-0.1299622505903244,
0.5433918833732605,
-0.24275431036949158,
0.38983801007270813,
0.2582683861255646,
-0.5331323146820068,
0.2932029962539673,
-0.13409066200256348,
0.6228488683700562,
-0.6032154560089111,
-0.43874526023864746,
-0.7602996826171875,
0.08809057623147964,
0.2158404141664505,
-0.056868601590394974,
0.31832155585289,
0.2348925620317459,
-0.12161295115947723,
-0.015075505711138248,
0.562071681022644,
0.21986444294452667,
-0.008337011560797691,
-0.3483501076698303,
-0.3682505488395691,
0.06202922388911247,
0.30047380924224854,
0.07342556118965149,
0.6507921814918518,
-0.3306381106376648,
-0.4139002561569214,
-0.4808911085128784,
-0.11035408079624176,
1.1477354764938354,
-0.05205395445227623,
-0.12966173887252808,
0.19654683768749237,
0.5894681811332703,
0.22630850970745087,
0.25038719177246094,
0.6110208630561829,
-0.3714097738265991,
-0.3284672498703003,
0.2586071491241455,
0.3859865665435791,
-0.4947701394557953,
-0.2341846525669098,
-0.7894395589828491,
0.2568768858909607,
0.08236610889434814,
-0.5203667879104614,
-0.12221921235322952,
-0.08434194326400757,
0.26747941970825195,
-0.09471184015274048,
0.23179958760738373,
-0.29702529311180115,
-0.9797941446304321,
0.38126230239868164,
-0.09996883571147919,
-0.6184923648834229,
-0.150408536195755,
-0.35148078203201294,
0.2440827637910843,
0.05848303809762001,
-0.5229381322860718,
-0.1251971423625946,
0.3893847167491913,
-0.17463290691375732,
-0.7064502835273743,
-0.5477968454360962,
-0.3374570310115814,
-0.03441653400659561,
-0.2267572283744812,
0.8493977785110474,
-1.0997288227081299,
0.25361332297325134,
0.2513750493526459,
0.03058517910540104,
1.2537590265274048,
0.41834941506385803,
0.05953175202012062,
0.5918769240379333,
0.0439697690308094,
0.23115397989749908,
-0.22432690858840942,
0.1757722944021225,
0.054131556302309036,
-0.10219109803438187,
-0.6603276133537292,
0.03255876153707504,
0.6355265378952026,
0.9933761954307556,
-0.022712666541337967,
0.18496443331241608,
-0.2773076891899109,
-0.7005132436752319,
-0.36283940076828003,
-0.0003712541365530342,
-0.2493436634540558,
0.04375080391764641,
-0.088142991065979,
0.5891164541244507,
0.1916324645280838,
-0.25075170397758484,
0.3358287513256073,
-0.004722559358924627,
-0.2806420624256134,
0.1960858255624771,
-0.61881422996521,
0.6499888300895691,
0.14960376918315887,
-0.3133721351623535,
0.12404084950685501,
-0.6525776386260986,
0.05209178850054741,
0.09065210074186325,
0.37971532344818115,
0.028679868206381798,
0.24000288546085358,
-0.2807202637195587,
-0.2711745798587799,
0.5000194907188416,
-0.16313020884990692,
-0.40877071022987366,
-0.2176397442817688,
-0.511293888092041,
0.6032946109771729,
0.8856099843978882,
0.653887152671814,
-0.3155674636363983,
-0.014577943831682205,
-0.32406294345855713,
0.5344659686088562,
0.23873686790466309,
-0.09723232686519623,
0.40715688467025757,
-0.37467896938323975,
-0.27725470066070557,
-0.3660547137260437,
-0.44978809356689453,
1.0072542428970337,
-0.23410747945308685,
-0.4179030656814575,
0.27537021040916443,
-0.41915571689605713,
-1.266161322593689,
-0.04643856734037399,
0.3036731779575348,
-0.5980800986289978,
-0.1543162614107132,
-0.87549889087677,
-0.5344783663749695,
0.3894917368888855,
-0.028851395472884178,
-0.3707471787929535,
-0.3178372383117676,
-0.5056287050247192,
0.05709061026573181,
-0.6194162964820862,
-0.031509846448898315,
0.5994058847427368,
-0.6335653066635132,
-0.010138292796909809,
-0.22272327542304993,
0.4981776475906372,
0.28396672010421753,
0.3492145240306854,
0.6802805066108704,
-0.4165509045124054,
-0.08453863859176636,
0.1393524706363678,
-0.13634413480758667,
0.268536776304245,
0.560619056224823,
0.3411138951778412,
-0.1706646978855133,
0.44512298703193665,
-0.5563606023788452,
-0.05857275053858757,
-0.08039350807666779,
-0.19829723238945007,
0.36129632592201233,
-0.9870683550834656,
-0.2000236064195633,
0.12222885340452194,
0.2737681269645691,
0.6081023216247559,
0.3385370075702667,
-0.5195645093917847,
0.5577273964881897,
-0.49634191393852234,
-1.0590872764587402,
0.37371957302093506,
0.09758078306913376,
-1.0877281427383423,
0.5243142247200012,
0.6561986207962036,
-0.9301997423171997,
0.2859943211078644,
0.30245283246040344,
-0.04211334511637688,
-0.48362448811531067,
0.12486615031957626,
-0.007192796561866999,
-0.3577089309692383,
-0.19947296380996704,
-0.18637298047542572,
-0.48016655445098877,
0.519568145275116,
0.6366989612579346,
-0.2624807059764862,
0.7390665411949158,
-0.7989066243171692,
-0.179275780916214,
0.15549390017986298,
0.0765753835439682,
-0.6304028630256653,
-0.6943684816360474,
-0.1682620495557785,
0.10146617889404297,
0.44468486309051514,
0.4155438542366028,
0.8550105690956116,
0.6020658612251282,
0.9496340751647949,
0.5306787490844727,
-0.5270951986312866,
-0.1357797533273697,
0.5604692697525024,
0.5371835827827454,
-0.8400513529777527,
-0.4305546283721924,
-0.31714868545532227,
0.141181081533432,
0.10589571297168732,
-0.3265633285045624,
-0.5850191116333008,
0.6025583148002625,
0.009647879749536514,
-0.1370871514081955,
-0.013641025871038437,
0.4311847388744354,
0.17480888962745667,
0.1153365820646286,
0.08818639814853668,
-0.5830973982810974,
0.6300827860832214,
0.15456081926822662,
-0.34633246064186096,
-0.25986602902412415,
-0.152001291513443,
0.4113875925540924,
-0.1628371775150299,
-0.40263473987579346,
-0.5705796480178833,
0.6332760453224182,
0.7446514368057251,
-0.2632301151752472,
-0.19123724102973938,
0.1661280244588852,
-0.5904514789581299,
0.13363902270793915,
0.20586353540420532,
-0.6561511754989624,
0.09770990163087845,
0.461244136095047,
0.12707442045211792,
-0.042777083814144135,
-0.5410987734794617,
-0.2972142696380615,
-0.3314403295516968,
-0.22763387858867645,
0.18308612704277039,
-0.13865719735622406,
-0.07344766706228256,
0.07790488749742508,
-0.12673065066337585,
0.31629809737205505,
-0.02856263518333435,
-0.46676772832870483,
0.2411915808916092,
-0.01729823276400566,
0.6402938961982727,
-1.1091614961624146,
0.9078671932220459,
0.2204352766275406,
-0.2655864953994751,
0.4645790457725525,
-0.051877424120903015,
0.5093993544578552,
-0.4003569483757019,
-0.09439351409673691,
0.5443196892738342,
-0.006998692639172077,
0.14193479716777802,
-0.18472987413406372,
0.4834901988506317,
0.5114579200744629,
-0.02803489752113819,
0.3197906017303467,
-0.1514098346233368,
0.32088610529899597,
1.1714966297149658,
0.7932295203208923,
0.46388477087020874,
0.7969043254852295,
0.349511981010437,
-0.23116368055343628,
0.9364840984344482,
-1.2640279531478882,
-0.21620652079582214,
0.6939674019813538,
0.08033386617898941,
0.8736395239830017,
0.09423908591270447,
-0.5504019260406494,
0.6313427686691284,
-0.03293861448764801,
-0.3359967768192291,
-0.19013303518295288,
-0.4999835193157196,
-0.04811772331595421,
0.2966962456703186,
0.3733770549297333,
0.10027723759412766,
-0.13777601718902588,
-0.5426740050315857,
-0.14639008045196533,
0.6895483732223511,
-0.39511245489120483,
-0.19617366790771484,
0.3852183222770691,
-0.33454376459121704,
0.32221922278404236,
0.1388009637594223,
0.2526216208934784,
-0.11647139489650726,
-0.5173029899597168,
0.8265325427055359,
-0.4126788377761841,
0.21775566041469574,
-0.5570569038391113,
0.4830353260040283,
0.2755136787891388,
0.034813880920410156,
-0.19376568496227264,
-0.011783674359321594,
-0.5394919514656067,
0.5226196646690369,
-0.23116908967494965,
-0.9693789482116699,
-0.1700790971517563,
0.023309851065278053,
-0.050620727241039276,
0.0619414821267128,
0.01927245780825615,
0.3645643889904022,
0.17285899817943573,
-0.34407299757003784,
0.2940869629383087,
0.6133835911750793,
-0.4868139326572418,
-0.20922648906707764,
-0.6237754225730896,
-0.1078169047832489,
-0.23228159546852112,
-0.745898962020874,
0.32386016845703125,
-0.33489248156547546,
-0.318622887134552,
-0.11473416537046432,
-0.1780947744846344,
-0.07766635715961456,
-0.12703685462474823,
-0.20329703390598297,
0.16617409884929657,
-0.4948626160621643,
-0.18797487020492554,
-0.5553997159004211,
0.3766101002693176,
0.7066020965576172,
0.1921532303094864,
-0.020771531388163567,
0.11055614799261093,
-0.4022313952445984,
0.24732746183872223,
-0.29494524002075195,
0.036793339997529984,
0.05473465472459793,
-0.05529111996293068,
0.5170256495475769,
-0.8928326368331909,
0.1023428738117218,
0.45490947365760803,
-0.08236321061849594,
0.3901788890361786,
0.46123331785202026,
0.04748276621103287,
0.12952861189842224,
0.15227355062961578,
-0.7069900631904602,
-0.4815705120563507,
-0.9455833435058594,
-0.02924245595932007,
-0.7239125967025757,
0.4765067398548126,
0.6003342270851135,
-0.3595600128173828,
-0.5627468228340149,
0.44607868790626526,
-0.2736002802848816,
-0.4918935000896454,
0.5193960070610046,
0.4074721038341522,
0.509762704372406,
-1.0166728496551514,
-0.14156468212604523,
-0.41062039136886597,
-0.8863593339920044,
0.2259659618139267,
0.08204025030136108,
-0.3403032124042511,
-0.2849407196044922,
0.3421354591846466,
-0.4631870687007904,
0.3066409230232239,
0.15871743857860565,
-0.017233960330486298,
0.34125927090644836,
-0.3574187159538269,
-0.7096120715141296,
-0.5281102657318115,
0.07283426821231842,
0.2868305742740631,
-0.3724064230918884,
0.32403430342674255,
-0.601881742477417,
-0.04314868897199631,
-0.18353666365146637,
0.14935719966888428,
-1.1618397235870361,
0.38439929485321045,
-0.5333002209663391
] |
233710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20Derby | Irish Derby | |}
The Irish Derby (Irish: Dearbaí na hÉireann) is a Group 1 flat horse race in Ireland open to three-year-old thoroughbred colts and fillies. It is run at the Curragh over a distance of 1 mile and 4 furlongs (2,414 metres), and it is scheduled to take place each year in late June or early July.
It is Ireland's equivalent of the Epsom Derby, and it is currently held three weeks after the English race.
History
The earliest version of the Irish Derby was an event called the O'Darby Stakes. This was established in 1817, but it was discontinued after 1824. A subsequent race titled the Curragh Derby was inaugurated in 1848, but this was again short-lived.
The modern Irish Derby was created by the 3rd Earl of Howth, the 3rd Marquess of Drogheda and the 3rd Earl of Charlemont. It was first run in 1866, and it was initially contested over 1 mile, 6 furlongs and 3 yards. It was extended by 9 yards in 1869, and cut to its present distance in 1872. The first Epsom Derby winner to achieve victory in the Irish version was Orby, trained in Ireland by Fred McCabe, in 1907.
The Irish Derby became a major international race in 1962, when its prize money was substantially increased. Joe McGrath, a founder of the Irish Hospitals' Sweepstake, combined the race with the sweepstake, and it became known as the Irish Sweeps Derby. The event began to regularly attract the winners of the Epsom Derby, and Santa Claus became the second horse to win both races in 1964.
The Irish Derby was sponsored by Budweiser from 1986 to 2007, and it has been backed by Dubai Duty Free since 2008. It is currently staged on the second day of the Curragh's three-day Irish Derby Festival meeting.
A total of eighteen horses have now completed the English-Irish Derby double, and the most recent was Harzand in 2016.
Records
Leading jockey (6 wins):
Morny Wing – Ballyheron (1921), Waygood (1923), Rock Star (1930), Rosewell (1938), Windsor Slipper (1942), Bright News (1946)
Leading trainer (14 wins):
Aidan O'Brien – Desert King (1997), Galileo (2001), High Chaparral (2002), Dylan Thomas (2006), Soldier of Fortune (2007), Frozen Fire (2008), Fame and Glory (2009), Cape Blanco (2010), Treasure Beach (2011), Camelot (2012), Australia (2014), Capri (2017), Sovereign (2019), Santiago (2020)
Leading owner (15 wins): (includes part ownership)
Michael Tabor – Desert King (1997), Montjeu (1999), Galileo (2001), High Chaparral (2002), Hurricane Run (2005), Dylan Thomas (2006), Soldier of Fortune (2007), Frozen Fire (2008), Fame and Glory (2009), Cape Blanco (2010), Treasure Beach (2011), Australia (2014), Capri (2017), Sovereign (2019), Santiago (2020)
A Unique Racing Record - Only Owner to complete the Derby and Grand National Double
William Brophy, Herbertstown House, Two-Mile-House, Naas, Co. Kildare. Farmer, Breeder and Owner
In 1880 William Brophy completed a unique double by owning the winner of both the Irish Derby with King of the Bees and the Irish Grand National with Controller. Also uniquely both winners were out of the same Dam Winged Bee.
Winners since 1946
Premonition finished first in 1953 but was disqualified.
Earlier winners
1866: Selim
1867: Golden Plover
1868: Madeira
1869: The Scout
1870: Billy Pitt
1871: Maid of Athens
1872: Trickstress
1873: Kyrle Daly
1874: Ben Battle
1875: Innishowen
1876: Umpire
1877: Redskin
1878: Madame du Barry
1879: Soulouque
1880: King of the Bees
1881: Master Ned
1882: Sortie
1883: Sylph
1884: Theologian
1885: St Kevin
1886: Theodemir
1887: Pet Fox
1888: Theodolite
1889: Tragedy
1890: Kentish Fire
1891: Narraghmore
1892: Roy Neil
1893: Bowline
1894: Blairfinde
1895: Portmarnock
1896: Gulsalberk
1897: Wales
1898: Noble Howard
1899: Oppressor
1900: Gallinaria
1901: Carrigavalla
1902: St Brendan
1903: Lord Rossmore
1904: Royal Arch
1905: Flax Park
1906: Killeagh
1907: Orby
1908: Wild Bouquet
1909: Bachelor's Double
1910: Aviator
1911: Shanballymore
1912: Civility
1913: Bachelor's Wedding
1914: Land of Song
1915: Ballaghtobin
1916: Furore
1917: First Flier
1918: King John
1919: Loch Lomond
1920: He Goes
1921: Ballyheron
1922: Spike Island
1923: Waygood
1924: Haine / Zodiac 1
1925: Zionist
1926: Embargo
1927: Knight of the Grail
1928: Baytown
1929: Kopi
1930: Rock Star
1931: Sea Serpent
1932: Dastur
1933: Harinero
1934: Patriot King / Primero
1935: Museum
1936: Raeburn
1937: Phideas
1938: Rosewell
1939: Mondragon
1940: Turkhan
1941: Sol Oriens
1942: Windsor Slipper
1943: The Phoenix
1944: Slide On
1945: Piccadilly
See also
Horse racing in Ireland
Irish Triple Crown race winners
List of Irish flat horse races
References
Paris-Turf:
, , , , , , , ,
Racing Post:
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , ,
galopp-sieger.de – Irish Derby Stakes.
horseracingintfed.com – International Federation of Horseracing Authorities – Irish Derby (2018).
irishracinggreats.com – Irish Derby (Group 1).
pedigreequery.com – Irish Derby – Curragh.
tbheritage.com – Irish Derby Stakes.
The Sweeney guide to the Irish turf from 1501 to 2001 /by Tony & Annie Sweeney in association with Francis Hyland ; photographs by Caroline Norris ... [et al.].
Annual sporting events in Ireland
Flat races in Ireland
Curragh Racecourse
Flat horse races for three-year-olds
Recurring sporting events established in 1866
1866 establishments in Ireland
Summer events in the Republic of Ireland | [
-0.5219359993934631,
-0.4309229850769043,
0.03776955232024193,
-0.4267288148403168,
0.5117567777633667,
0.35038596391677856,
0.37134718894958496,
0.6186231374740601,
0.06495250016450882,
0.13148567080497742,
-0.08696942031383514,
0.8325079679489136,
-0.3916375935077667,
0.19241484999656677,
0.21010909974575043,
0.4035812020301819,
0.6922715902328491,
0.38335928320884705,
0.022680604830384254,
-0.9530637264251709,
-0.18513359129428864,
-0.32274743914604187,
0.37198713421821594,
-0.3482171595096588,
0.655819296836853,
-0.4991768002510071,
0.11521967500448227,
0.0352974459528923,
-0.39940109848976135,
-0.4492286443710327,
-0.06070065125823021,
0.04172642156481743,
-0.35479164123535156,
0.042824629694223404,
-0.42296740412712097,
-0.16144900023937225,
0.22880016267299652,
-0.5694277286529541,
-0.7806156873703003,
-0.1700141429901123,
-0.7315211892127991,
0.18109698593616486,
0.057434096932411194,
0.3265794515609741,
-0.33019009232521057,
-0.10833262652158737,
-1.554957628250122,
0.1025175228714943,
0.05325627699494362,
0.2382972687482834,
-0.24768854677677155,
0.06038132682442665,
-0.0499243289232254,
0.7987598776817322,
0.29112276434898376,
0.27389222383499146,
0.0026388876140117645,
-0.3382999897003174,
-0.2358180731534958,
-0.23056155443191528,
0.19722585380077362,
0.6308687329292297,
0.12580856680870056,
0.6317846775054932,
-0.05225687101483345,
0.1047138199210167,
0.07650978118181229,
-0.162378191947937,
-0.7746195793151855,
-0.09000410884618759,
0.33896616101264954,
-0.2882660925388336,
0.2097185105085373,
0.716694712638855,
0.3258865773677826,
-0.23677301406860352,
-0.5221706032752991,
0.34610840678215027,
0.38351669907569885,
0.04945044964551926,
0.8311315178871155,
-0.29666727781295776,
0.2772943377494812,
0.6624860167503357,
0.17107132077217102,
0.2450665533542633,
-0.4753301739692688,
0.14534181356430054,
-0.2682635486125946,
0.7395815253257751,
0.34459003806114197,
-0.25208017230033875,
-0.09368566423654556,
-0.2711796462535858,
0.07907658070325851,
0.2695201635360718,
0.3729410767555237,
-0.6263666749000549,
-0.10746704041957855,
-0.08671862632036209,
-0.06247413530945778,
0.015390935353934765,
-0.2588827610015869,
0.02916237711906433,
-0.9341520071029663,
0.41003528237342834,
-0.22381040453910828,
-0.7448073029518127,
0.23107650876045227,
0.1654362827539444,
-0.7406930923461914,
0.21093232929706573,
0.04421208053827286,
0.16635766625404358,
0.11472024768590927,
-0.5665607452392578,
-0.19750235974788666,
0.3635844588279724,
0.0026149284094572067,
0.04293616861104965,
0.723953902721405,
0.23709642887115479,
0.15575750172138214,
0.5972703695297241,
-0.4741531312465668,
0.4424233138561249,
0.018164480105042458,
0.6436179876327515,
0.26502278447151184,
0.22521953284740448,
-0.26688799262046814,
-0.33412060141563416,
-0.4216308295726776,
0.23433451354503632,
-0.14443190395832062,
0.09453491866588593,
0.09246744960546494,
-0.40911543369293213,
0.9313728213310242,
0.5700567364692688,
-0.30585911870002747,
-0.2659623622894287,
-0.14857228100299835,
-0.47805801033973694,
0.35394909977912903,
-0.27668100595474243,
-0.5073290467262268,
-0.32870790362358093,
-0.1890759915113449,
-0.1636871099472046,
0.4163135886192322,
0.12916472554206848,
-0.17542466521263123,
0.15988874435424805,
-0.7575727105140686,
-0.3632439970970154,
-0.10771133005619049,
-0.4852539300918579,
0.21818400919437408,
0.23269200325012207,
-0.06439854949712753,
0.03719606250524521,
0.36094939708709717,
0.2459551841020584,
0.4845709800720215,
0.0112635288387537,
0.36536112427711487,
0.5137025117874146,
-0.701821506023407,
-0.4858691990375519,
-0.02654910273849964,
0.371659517288208,
0.8122156858444214,
-0.14445607364177704,
-0.7670403718948364,
0.21566364169120789,
0.4901551306247711,
-0.03364492952823639,
0.640114963054657,
-0.37260374426841736,
-0.7776497006416321,
0.5178686380386353,
0.2576640844345093,
-0.029137322679162025,
0.3383752107620239,
-0.21209464967250824,
0.18539690971374512,
-0.4760898947715759,
0.4576663076877594,
-0.432279109954834,
-0.0328260138630867,
-0.026195751503109932,
-0.4486926198005676,
-0.7492202520370483,
0.7369967103004456,
-0.7507032155990601,
0.30618375539779663,
0.21231664717197418,
-0.18467044830322266,
0.3436683714389801,
0.7078090310096741,
-0.43209755420684814,
0.3355226218700409,
0.00199140259064734,
-0.5143541693687439,
0.05051437392830849,
-0.2214002162218094,
-0.15485680103302002,
0.33380424976348877,
0.18252705037593842,
-0.17406952381134033,
-0.1427846997976303,
0.52388596534729,
0.1181616559624672,
0.215354785323143,
0.02870025672018528,
-0.09254589676856995,
0.04507406800985336,
0.3169771730899811,
0.13265244662761688,
0.8756158351898193,
0.3797248601913452,
0.05515434220433235,
0.3340442478656769,
-0.5368347764015198,
0.5574496984481812,
0.156296968460083,
-0.2973649501800537,
-0.025776445865631104,
-1.3245859146118164,
0.009574292227625847,
0.03568674996495247,
0.27562448382377625,
-0.38340380787849426,
0.3713073134422302,
-0.3128838539123535,
0.31151074171066284,
-0.10202638059854507,
0.029648013412952423,
0.18287916481494904,
-0.20278771221637726,
0.5015619397163391,
-0.27510109543800354,
0.31477341055870056,
-0.19200648367404938,
0.5141278505325317,
0.4401646554470062,
0.7243144512176514,
-0.31097984313964844,
-0.33808407187461853,
-0.1381951868534088,
-0.3822202980518341,
0.19683419167995453,
0.34987205266952515,
-0.2629055976867676,
-0.16235072910785675,
-0.03874826803803444,
0.3649412989616394,
0.42970186471939087,
0.07532273232936859,
-0.11544737219810486,
0.09262384474277496,
0.34083569049835205,
0.24863800406455994,
0.2709069550037384,
-0.09080945700407028,
-0.5099162459373474,
-0.47782596945762634,
0.2511979341506958,
0.4619797170162201,
0.9315894842147827,
0.3662538230419159,
0.0757085382938385,
-0.270160973072052,
-0.286913126707077,
0.15400469303131104,
-0.3685086667537689,
0.1875859498977661,
-0.7813133597373962,
0.11916480958461761,
-0.4525175392627716,
0.09766823798418045,
0.022066866979002953,
-0.36669591069221497,
-0.777792751789093,
0.2255101054906845,
-0.48527923226356506,
-0.8436576724052429,
-0.31305187940597534,
-0.11466507613658905,
-0.43683597445487976,
-0.15736064314842224,
0.1742175817489624,
0.4306083917617798,
0.1682838797569275,
-0.6635004281997681,
0.3297443389892578,
0.669350266456604,
0.45760443806648254,
-0.24233415722846985,
-0.12979811429977417,
0.1004348024725914,
-0.05922533944249153,
-0.3146630525588989,
0.41078412532806396,
0.37271374464035034,
-0.8018114566802979,
-0.5058192014694214,
-5.862011909484863,
-0.05285751447081566,
-0.18112806975841522,
-0.13126590847969055,
0.460395872592926,
-0.167196124792099,
0.2508534789085388,
-0.19401897490024567,
-0.13513492047786713,
-0.024754485115408897,
0.24796746671199799,
0.08215054869651794,
-0.3155202269554138,
-0.44561511278152466,
0.19124674797058105,
-0.0545017346739769,
0.21815426647663116,
-0.3706427216529846,
-0.47021791338920593,
0.19239360094070435,
-0.5086000561714172,
0.3723471462726593,
0.21377968788146973,
0.4034680426120758,
0.1764518767595291,
1.2150691747665405,
-0.19762350618839264,
-0.8242227435112,
-0.23082508146762848,
0.34390443563461304,
-0.35222846269607544,
-0.41164472699165344,
0.04489568993449211,
0.07876455038785934,
0.16373877227306366,
-0.5327737927436829,
0.19273008406162262,
-0.1447163224220276,
0.07313617318868637,
-0.3126039206981659,
0.015680279582738876,
-0.05820946767926216,
-0.021057264879345894,
-0.5024195909500122,
-0.04962162300944328,
-0.8239142894744873,
-0.17271094024181366,
-0.014626828022301197,
-0.60821133852005,
1.1519445180892944,
-0.2558719515800476,
0.3476616442203522,
-0.3056979179382324,
-0.0038837858010083437,
0.3627244830131531,
0.3783915042877197,
0.11359567940235138,
-0.8218973875045776,
-0.1851172298192978,
0.30524012446403503,
0.26400813460350037,
-0.4268164336681366,
-0.09791836142539978,
0.02203698642551899,
-0.7913439869880676,
-0.2017974555492401,
0.07984192669391632,
0.20630039274692535,
0.2895625829696655,
0.37993231415748596,
0.05523126944899559,
-0.3634651303291321,
0.19551394879817963,
-0.8480467796325684,
-0.310807466506958,
0.20456530153751373,
0.16614507138729095,
0.099819615483284,
0.085626520216465,
-0.15982772409915924,
-0.34847384691238403,
-0.018772436305880547,
0.3405477702617645,
-0.0026072408072650433,
0.03462934494018555,
-0.6256263256072998,
0.25600117444992065,
0.22079378366470337,
0.24745671451091766,
-0.5551250576972961,
0.5691414475440979,
-0.10466501116752625,
0.20082858204841614,
-0.23253339529037476,
0.6911125183105469,
0.5014523863792419,
0.3402220606803894,
-0.5548627376556396,
-0.16351939737796783,
0.3490694463253021,
0.6364241242408752,
-0.09529603272676468,
0.36200475692749023,
-0.22614386677742004,
-0.3034811317920685,
-0.5864843726158142,
0.08985013514757156,
0.30963534116744995,
0.8112605810165405,
-0.8350034952163696,
0.14545193314552307,
-0.6511123776435852,
-0.24782051146030426,
-0.5915551781654358,
-0.0673024132847786,
-0.009940193966031075,
-0.39407482743263245,
0.34083664417266846,
0.4061613380908966,
0.3629112243652344,
0.2729257047176361,
-0.004049770534038544,
-0.6430730223655701,
-0.18587365746498108,
-0.44517791271209717,
0.05282701179385185,
0.3670847415924072,
0.027440037578344345,
0.12998437881469727,
-0.11321261525154114,
-0.022910060361027718,
-0.5087078809738159,
-0.2624119222164154,
0.23456594347953796,
0.3050614893436432,
0.33784711360931396,
0.4505758285522461,
-0.1698223203420639,
-0.22990106046199799,
-0.05715303122997284,
-0.08017494529485703,
-0.6281768679618835,
-0.4343421757221222,
-0.12175052613019943,
0.4829186201095581,
0.2474764585494995,
-0.7551424503326416,
0.051693834364414215,
0.350717157125473,
0.4396744966506958,
-0.266824334859848,
-0.34246939420700073,
0.5706934928894043,
-0.4156982898712158,
-0.4508854150772095,
-0.1848539412021637,
-0.5597113370895386,
-0.45198729634284973,
-0.3888874351978302,
-0.7000914216041565,
0.17992451786994934,
-0.5422289371490479,
-0.6892301440238953,
-0.09140718728303909,
0.49357670545578003,
0.23217861354351044,
0.6542389392852783,
-0.4379977881908417,
-0.42396479845046997,
0.1538330465555191,
-0.010867015458643436,
-0.6041783094406128,
0.40348508954048157,
-0.21179816126823425,
-0.2793993651866913,
0.10025227814912796,
-0.14804524183273315,
-0.018277103081345558,
0.0329560786485672,
-0.20047034323215485,
0.18649756908416748,
0.16277679800987244,
-0.22802065312862396,
0.8298724293708801,
0.4642680287361145,
-0.4055890738964081,
0.19921283423900604,
0.4351922273635864,
-0.30445432662963867,
0.6735727787017822,
0.06454546004533768,
0.483267605304718,
0.3411392569541931,
-0.18046273291110992,
-0.5217837691307068,
0.05571967735886574,
-0.5996049046516418,
-0.2632673382759094,
-0.393256813287735,
-0.09518537670373917,
0.17971189320087433,
-0.00381362228654325,
-0.35228902101516724,
-0.2564276158809662,
0.5717784762382507,
0.24105896055698395,
-0.009064720943570137,
-0.10301908105611801,
0.15106897056102753,
0.25882676243782043,
0.44575899839401245,
-0.8239385485649109,
-0.02012649178504944,
0.3566858172416687,
0.20927594602108002,
0.3873557448387146,
-0.3458135724067688,
-0.07947791367769241,
-0.07093224674463272,
0.15040333569049835,
-0.10949429124593735,
-0.5899577140808105,
-0.23044061660766602,
-0.06478774547576904,
0.056157972663640976,
0.20139694213867188,
0.27542322874069214,
-0.9439223408699036,
0.4891429841518402,
0.2190391719341278,
-0.23078350722789764,
-0.0070010218769311905,
-0.10455254465341568,
0.3219533860683441,
0.37615203857421875,
-0.14593490958213806,
0.18267665803432465,
0.014380759559571743,
-0.0016114589525386691,
-0.3112136721611023,
0.463282972574234,
1.1215989589691162,
0.04810047149658203,
0.0007644422585144639,
-0.21501746773719788,
0.4640275835990906,
-0.3962628245353699,
-0.814463198184967,
0.17163662612438202,
-0.03891461715102196,
0.7334327101707458,
0.3523986041545868,
-0.26869282126426697,
0.05972708761692047,
0.26640674471855164,
-0.9856323599815369,
0.5324119329452515,
0.3313926160335541,
0.05670792609453201,
0.8421023488044739,
0.03343382477760315,
-0.3229951858520508,
0.0507153756916523,
0.09643902629613876,
0.6469302773475647,
-0.10481510311365128,
-0.36493104696273804,
-0.42565539479255676,
-0.2748335599899292,
0.11286137253046036,
0.11391124874353409,
0.18758143484592438,
1.1936501264572144,
-0.31339824199676514,
0.15250542759895325,
0.18722502887248993,
-0.5744471549987793,
-0.45015403628349304,
0.2681402862071991,
0.38408803939819336,
-0.014169038273394108,
-0.41228151321411133,
-0.5775232911109924,
-0.18001370131969452,
-0.28139781951904297,
-0.339701771736145,
-0.085817351937294,
0.22321096062660217,
0.24372322857379913,
-0.002732913475483656,
0.08621051907539368,
-0.1802857667207718,
-0.1140798032283783,
-0.3556033670902252,
-0.21688735485076904,
0.07286437600851059,
0.18621669709682465,
0.6586090326309204,
-0.002469484694302082,
-0.11919476836919785,
-0.8053240776062012,
0.35254937410354614,
0.6694757342338562,
-0.5321464538574219,
-0.6243816614151001,
0.3028741478919983,
0.00042385864071547985,
-0.4486118257045746,
0.11976657807826996,
-0.018920131027698517,
0.19283248484134674,
0.035892169922590256,
-0.04056156054139137,
0.33121001720428467,
0.20114301145076752,
0.10340645909309387,
0.2612729072570801,
-0.5230030417442322,
0.06154980510473251,
0.54909747838974,
0.2468855232000351,
0.44836217164993286,
-0.15223006904125214,
0.4352509677410126,
-0.24114271998405457,
0.210746631026268,
-0.7174410223960876,
0.2878662645816803,
0.5081891417503357,
0.26576459407806396,
0.07554235309362411,
0.12493284791707993,
-0.23894962668418884,
0.7756072878837585,
-0.35063427686691284,
-0.5556034445762634,
-0.3671695590019226,
-0.44712671637535095,
0.08235284686088562,
0.5525621175765991,
1.3218976259231567,
0.3359904885292053,
0.41280901432037354,
-0.235561341047287,
-0.17930766940116882,
0.06641998887062073,
-0.30294638872146606,
-0.1799938678741455,
-0.5607690215110779,
0.3583471477031708,
0.45265331864356995,
0.21049685776233673,
0.14480231702327728,
-0.4485248029232025,
0.05705154314637184,
0.1770026534795761,
-0.279643177986145,
-0.2578757703304291,
0.16862821578979492,
-0.01996571570634842,
-0.26562395691871643,
0.3767761290073395,
0.02078605443239212,
0.013004356063902378,
-0.04046912491321564,
0.059864483773708344,
0.3587070405483246,
0.060489702969789505,
-0.12298183888196945,
0.15546151995658875,
-0.3271307051181793,
-0.12538404762744904,
0.09518257528543472,
-0.5997348427772522,
-0.2338820844888687,
0.6995673775672913,
0.1590203493833542,
-0.04557320475578308,
-0.27644655108451843,
0.9181486964225769,
-0.5133761167526245,
-0.03072235733270645,
-0.25984013080596924,
0.3511594831943512,
-0.26404884457588196,
-0.31512364745140076,
-0.3837481439113617,
-0.15495672821998596,
-0.4466404914855957,
-0.013927916996181011,
-0.09949737042188644,
0.7370109558105469,
0.057382602244615555,
0.1821524202823639,
0.08585137873888016,
-0.5617777109146118,
0.30428531765937805,
0.15037590265274048,
0.35059496760368347,
0.520032525062561,
0.1025107353925705,
-0.4999781847000122,
0.04163256287574768,
0.13318294286727905,
-0.28031110763549805,
0.3716678023338318,
0.11877761781215668,
0.3158668875694275,
-0.4149758517742157,
-0.07669448107481003,
0.3477560579776764,
-0.17821912467479706,
0.4636628031730652,
0.11076173186302185,
-0.4620341360569,
0.037443824112415314,
0.37259960174560547,
0.01762731745839119,
-0.21327833831310272,
-0.766611635684967,
-0.4535929262638092,
0.29705148935317993,
-0.07197251915931702,
0.18280494213104248,
0.335601270198822,
0.2527119815349579,
0.15041640400886536,
0.16032065451145172,
-0.40276122093200684,
0.4940933287143707,
-0.1367758810520172,
-0.838422417640686,
-0.31678035855293274,
0.05825046822428703,
-0.2020845264196396,
-0.2997497320175171,
-0.027066318318247795,
0.047668736428022385,
0.01870027370750904,
-0.2415594756603241,
0.23286210000514984,
0.38397151231765747,
0.38032811880111694,
-0.08097290992736816,
0.9140506982803345,
-0.06713759154081345,
0.03662075474858284,
-0.17785054445266724,
-0.0015839330153539777,
0.10406018048524857,
0.37877196073532104,
-0.1897365003824234,
0.45614734292030334,
0.3824409246444702,
-0.12222965806722641,
-0.6492965221405029,
0.3922046422958374,
-0.632779061794281,
-0.2996530532836914,
0.14011073112487793
] |
233713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf%20Poier | Alf Poier | Alf Poier (born 22 February 1967 in Judenburg, Styria) is an Austrian artist and stand-up comedian.
Biography
Born in Judenburg in Styria, he started doing cabaret in 1995 in Graz, and has won several prizes for his work, including the in 1998, the , , German Comedy Awards (Best Newcomer) in 2000, the Austrian in 2002 and the Austrian in 2009.
In 2003, Poier participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 and secured 6th place with his entry Weil der Mensch zählt (Man is the measure of all things). The song, and his stage act, were a parody of the contest's excesses.
Although his result was considerably better than most of the pre-contest predictions, Poier spent several hours mischievously telling anyone that would listen that his 'low' placing was an outrage, that Europe had demonstrably shown itself to have no musical taste, and that he wasn't sure if the shame would permit him to return to Austria. This included an appearance on Liquid Eurovision, shown on the UK channel BBC Three immediately after the 2003 contest ended, where after saying the above he shouted "I hate this contest! Fuck this contest!", causing much laughter from the presenters.
In 2005, his bid to represent Austria in the contest for a second time put him in the spotlight for more serious reasons, as some people took offence at the lyrics of one of his songs, Good Old Europe is Dying. Having deleted the offending lines, albeit while insisting they had been misinterpreted, Poier took the characteristically 'oddball' song to the brink of securing the Austrian national selection, only to be "narrowly" beaten by folk band Global Kryner. In the end, he arguably only missed out because, in Y asi, Global Kryner had somehow succeeded in crafting a song that is even more colourful than anything Poier has yet attempted, featuring as it does Latin-style music liberally peppered with bouts of yodelling. Nevertheless, Poier was able to - very loudly - claim a moral victory after it emerged that his song had actually garnered the most votes (2nd place with 106.000 for Poier, 1st place with 60.000 for Global Kryner), and had only been thwarted by the regional points system that was used.
Alf Poiers statement after the show:
"Wer auf dieser Welt Gerechtigkeit fordert ist ein Idiot!
Wer auf dieser Welt Verständnis fordert ist geistesgestört!
Ich danke Euch allen im Namen der Wahrheit!
Alf Poier Platz 2 mit 106.000 Stimmen
Global Kryner Platz 1 mit 60.000 Stimmen
Euer geistesgestörter Idiot Alf Poier"
"Who demands justice in this world is an idiot!
Who demands understanding in this world suffers on mental disorder!
I thank you all in the name of truth!
Alf Poier, 2nd place with 106.000 votes
Global Kryner, 1st place with 60.000 votes
Your mental disordered idiot, Alf Poier"
Discography
1996: Himmel, Arsch & Gartenzwerg (Album-CD, Alf Poier und die obersteirische Wolfshilfe)
2001: Zen (Album-CD)
2003: Weil der Mensch zählt (Single-CD)
2003: Alf singt die schönsten Lieder mit Band (Album-CD)
2003: Mitsubischi (DVD, Neuerscheinung 2008)
2005: Good Old Europe Is Dying (Single-CD)
2005: Lustige Lieder der Traurigkeit und Not (Album-CD)
2007: Zen (DVD)
2007: Kill Eulenspiegel (DVD)
2009: Satsang (DVD)
2010: This Isn’t It (Album-CD, live)
2011: Happy Song (Download-Single, Alf Poier & Die Obersteirische Wolfshilfe)
References
External links
1967 births
Living people
People from Judenburg
Austrian male stage actors
Austrian comedians
Austrian male musicians
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Austria
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003 | [
0.03968038037419319,
0.5347739458084106,
0.038407836109399796,
-0.612731397151947,
-0.09413546323776245,
0.8616867065429688,
0.2787570357322693,
-0.0896010473370552,
-0.2987709939479828,
0.09574384242296219,
-0.34999164938926697,
-0.005656552966684103,
-0.41956958174705505,
-0.5621529221534729,
0.22564803063869476,
0.2043752372264862,
0.015928054228425026,
0.07261452078819275,
-0.7884828448295593,
-0.0707346722483635,
-0.0041029686108231544,
-0.09168621897697449,
0.14058227837085724,
-0.0646141916513443,
-0.3152170479297638,
0.5997650623321533,
-0.12012671679258347,
0.34755992889404297,
0.4081287086009979,
-0.3990824222564697,
0.0882897898554802,
0.5601626038551331,
0.46636247634887695,
-0.574720025062561,
-0.21065329015254974,
0.24119892716407776,
0.42483261227607727,
-0.5562560558319092,
0.09672873467206955,
0.13318879902362823,
-0.0795280858874321,
0.19350352883338928,
-0.024518311023712158,
-0.018808258697390556,
-0.06669778376817703,
-0.5163724422454834,
-1.2700507640838623,
0.36263585090637207,
-1.1527767181396484,
-0.00375692849047482,
-0.27257436513900757,
0.04325563460588455,
-0.3697287142276764,
0.6470394730567932,
0.3482567369937897,
-0.33167874813079834,
-0.7543110251426697,
-0.6669625043869019,
0.27312222123146057,
0.032108742743730545,
-0.015430474653840065,
0.31529146432876587,
0.29563814401626587,
-0.5104334950447083,
0.4313408136367798,
0.34486615657806396,
0.14347106218338013,
0.9528871178627014,
0.3360314965248108,
-0.48440197110176086,
-0.06469719111919403,
0.08649435639381409,
0.008956223726272583,
-0.17491017282009125,
0.910489559173584,
-0.8862448334693909,
0.1753680408000946,
-0.029920725151896477,
-0.17846502363681793,
0.5243512392044067,
0.11797850579023361,
-0.18647581338882446,
0.7791057825088501,
0.28709715604782104,
0.8469802737236023,
0.44562414288520813,
-0.4750082492828369,
0.12102942168712616,
-0.8361834287643433,
-0.26654940843582153,
-0.07900886237621307,
-0.8671841621398926,
-0.0537656731903553,
0.1757095456123352,
0.17336702346801758,
0.0065973480232059956,
0.10142378509044647,
0.20629669725894928,
0.41277897357940674,
-0.04785504192113876,
0.22335880994796753,
0.2510398030281067,
0.015595112927258015,
-0.43013036251068115,
-0.18121226131916046,
0.24000301957130432,
0.42427772283554077,
-0.6513950824737549,
-0.26211509108543396,
0.1545143872499466,
-0.6979950070381165,
0.24579520523548126,
0.041047871112823486,
-0.1671879142522812,
-0.08538953214883804,
0.14898483455181122,
0.5991221070289612,
-0.7072826623916626,
-0.4886266887187958,
0.6703629493713379,
0.47297167778015137,
0.8671534061431885,
0.2510796785354614,
0.558577299118042,
-0.5436683297157288,
-0.7875012755393982,
-0.7466288805007935,
0.7957072257995605,
-0.4909960627555847,
0.717858076095581,
0.49096980690956116,
0.6372382640838623,
-0.06998926401138306,
0.1407504826784134,
0.09093828499317169,
0.11840256303548813,
0.20552769303321838,
0.19983519613742828,
0.08275352418422699,
0.07240668684244156,
-1.247707486152649,
0.10703921318054199,
-0.278547078371048,
-0.02307695895433426,
-0.48736122250556946,
-0.08307810127735138,
-0.1431635171175003,
-0.320122629404068,
0.14467684924602509,
-0.3913915455341339,
-0.54194575548172,
-0.001083925599232316,
0.03772455453872681,
-0.5430479049682617,
-0.5829475522041321,
0.9133211970329285,
0.6636003255844116,
-0.17296573519706726,
0.49604305624961853,
-0.3205716013908386,
0.840190589427948,
-0.28290238976478577,
-0.6223458051681519,
0.34445878863334656,
0.8216392397880554,
-0.2512977123260498,
-0.21572893857955933,
0.07882309705018997,
0.15779955685138702,
0.3027265667915344,
-0.7565759420394897,
0.27951326966285706,
0.4936160743236542,
-0.13902273774147034,
-0.37312009930610657,
0.5559424161911011,
0.7543665766716003,
-0.12254156917333603,
-0.02816673554480076,
0.19941948354244232,
-0.5707777738571167,
-0.1766810119152069,
-0.10033188760280609,
-0.1505734920501709,
0.9030213356018066,
-0.18395526707172394,
0.11067531257867813,
-0.330521821975708,
0.5332326889038086,
0.28273943066596985,
-0.31137651205062866,
-0.6350225210189819,
0.28183016180992126,
-0.14507423341274261,
0.9763305187225342,
-0.01752476766705513,
-0.49216675758361816,
0.7041774988174438,
0.4155828356742859,
0.09447997808456421,
-0.938933789730072,
-0.5322659611701965,
0.8941437602043152,
0.16896989941596985,
-0.6660227179527283,
0.6020593643188477,
0.25419527292251587,
0.11203010380268097,
-0.3045453727245331,
0.8813893795013428,
0.34478431940078735,
-0.39516520500183105,
0.19364573061466217,
-0.29424136877059937,
-0.5132022500038147,
-0.24950920045375824,
-0.06515176594257355,
-0.12068386375904083,
-0.2889632284641266,
0.19092141091823578,
0.7197349667549133,
0.315555602312088,
-0.5018479824066162,
0.9675500392913818,
-0.44399720430374146,
0.6688404679298401,
0.3109104037284851,
-0.03255687654018402,
0.5292092561721802,
-0.5458042025566101,
0.3166029155254364,
0.19861409068107605,
-0.009411214850842953,
-0.623778223991394,
-0.3708341717720032,
0.05361347272992134,
0.4353904724121094,
-0.06636704504489899,
0.10682755708694458,
-0.6367369890213013,
0.41190198063850403,
0.7761004567146301,
-0.6642298102378845,
0.22758926451206207,
-0.19455905258655548,
0.2486799657344818,
-0.2587427496910095,
0.7407899498939514,
-0.259782075881958,
0.11690034717321396,
0.1795371174812317,
0.2126350700855255,
0.11675243824720383,
-0.7312765717506409,
-0.002129701431840658,
-0.2205304652452469,
0.06603801250457764,
0.2653001546859741,
0.6803444623947144,
0.36636844277381897,
0.08681323379278183,
-0.19007767736911774,
0.46732833981513977,
0.042350877076387405,
0.0554950013756752,
-0.1281513124704361,
-0.13551336526870728,
-0.6892068982124329,
-0.27800604701042175,
-0.010170785710215569,
1.0037375688552856,
0.1813991367816925,
-0.6968171000480652,
0.12297405302524567,
0.11931470781564713,
0.16771063208580017,
-0.2370036542415619,
-0.4583908021450043,
-0.5431050062179565,
-0.6210929155349731,
-0.12743200361728668,
0.5164626240730286,
0.3056977391242981,
-0.13246221840381622,
0.2176876664161682,
0.4711140990257263,
0.3482299745082855,
0.360267698764801,
-0.227341428399086,
0.5590425729751587,
0.11176706105470657,
1.089890956878662,
-0.4470031261444092,
0.3162425756454468,
0.3892894983291626,
-0.0016141633968800306,
-0.1443779468536377,
-0.05518493428826332,
0.6625412106513977,
-0.3178277015686035,
-0.13051454722881317,
0.6116526126861572,
-0.6257007718086243,
-0.21268713474273682,
0.046726811677217484,
-0.3112475275993347,
-0.1923687905073166,
-0.30963772535324097,
-5.323327541351318,
-0.2596178352832794,
0.06044551357626915,
0.21984025835990906,
-0.01807864010334015,
0.13917742669582367,
-0.15015722811222076,
-0.6302592158317566,
-0.37712278962135315,
0.3098721206188202,
-0.2165190875530243,
-0.2204253375530243,
0.023296702653169632,
1.0898529291152954,
0.8537254929542542,
0.48278701305389404,
-0.1705029010772705,
-0.3441520929336548,
0.3124862015247345,
0.07364754378795624,
-0.33405759930610657,
-0.2597961127758026,
0.001053865416906774,
-0.02122686430811882,
-0.22911310195922852,
0.04584065079689026,
-0.62501060962677,
0.320203572511673,
-0.5369336605072021,
-0.514410674571991,
0.24760490655899048,
-0.4094820022583008,
0.11108168959617615,
-0.33256635069847107,
-0.11646458506584167,
-0.004346619360148907,
0.5160538554191589,
0.07689818739891052,
0.10238620638847351,
0.018590500578284264,
0.2412383258342743,
0.2746899425983429,
-0.3215581476688385,
-0.12090378999710083,
0.5137168169021606,
-0.21134622395038605,
-0.48510435223579407,
-0.5093418955802917,
-0.31058788299560547,
0.5134308338165283,
0.7267683744430542,
-0.1644531786441803,
0.08895052224397659,
0.22681131958961487,
0.5441334843635559,
-0.046848371624946594,
-0.05763000622391701,
0.18898175656795502,
-0.5426774621009827,
0.9021470546722412,
-0.03136347979307175,
-0.3069682717323303,
-0.2150280922651291,
-0.13920097053050995,
-0.3924580514431,
0.5789777636528015,
0.7903730869293213,
0.032176606357097626,
0.6379282474517822,
-1.1073853969573975,
-0.37434864044189453,
0.45945170521736145,
0.1546567678451538,
-1.1775022745132446,
0.015165459364652634,
-0.3647572994232178,
-0.24319635331630707,
0.01907321810722351,
-0.6129394173622131,
-0.3179613947868347,
-0.07039685547351837,
-0.622348427772522,
-0.4488491714000702,
0.2345799058675766,
0.5572676658630371,
0.11949910968542099,
-0.2080860584974289,
-0.2285531461238861,
0.1902286261320114,
-0.01108927745372057,
-0.09610936045646667,
-0.7136536836624146,
-0.0559893436729908,
0.07841721922159195,
-0.21928980946540833,
0.9240210652351379,
-0.06693311035633087,
0.2215212881565094,
0.3031395673751831,
0.33308038115501404,
0.2759433686733246,
-0.3863522410392761,
-0.20192046463489532,
-0.1948101967573166,
0.13232018053531647,
0.43658211827278137,
0.6310070157051086,
-0.08631326258182526,
0.7829968929290771,
-0.08356989920139313,
0.1886550784111023,
0.7472479939460754,
-0.5484971404075623,
-0.3360658288002014,
0.3152658939361572,
0.04566144943237305,
-0.8150618672370911,
0.2300225794315338,
0.18302340805530548,
0.47585469484329224,
-0.14767742156982422,
0.06224992126226425,
0.7221993207931519,
-0.6321426033973694,
-0.061906080693006516,
0.03312503546476364,
0.28377869725227356,
-0.5154018402099609,
0.24859970808029175,
0.23349663615226746,
-0.7245074510574341,
0.811066210269928,
-0.27344486117362976,
-0.5715700387954712,
0.5929100513458252,
-0.3429090678691864,
0.04118821769952774,
0.04929589852690697,
0.35941004753112793,
-0.16367486119270325,
0.10905288904905319,
-0.4846137762069702,
-0.18386070430278778,
0.592072069644928,
0.17590202391147614,
0.1678784340620041,
-0.14811711013317108,
0.17822536826133728,
-0.686083197593689,
0.5457856059074402,
0.1286478191614151,
-0.06270086765289307,
0.3504997193813324,
-0.5776752829551697,
-0.24951773881912231,
0.39306920766830444,
-0.7937981486320496,
-0.18485961854457855,
0.4014141261577606,
-0.14257954061031342,
0.5630282163619995,
-0.33263251185417175,
-1.139401912689209,
-0.036053918302059174,
-0.14151310920715332,
0.038603488355875015,
-0.4840436577796936,
-0.12606869637966156,
-0.5914245843887329,
0.14640021324157715,
-0.22789300978183746,
-0.5551591515541077,
-0.2483750581741333,
0.13822931051254272,
-0.1446981579065323,
-0.33044111728668213,
-0.5762152075767517,
-0.16552135348320007,
-0.0015087558422237635,
0.06923182308673859,
-0.08343600481748581,
0.20579476654529572,
-0.5729790925979614,
0.16113874316215515,
0.7198880910873413,
-0.5165970325469971,
-0.2451348751783371,
-0.3326563239097595,
-0.08883193135261536,
-0.006429429166018963,
-0.40164345502853394,
0.2994462251663208,
0.5339074730873108,
0.8739094138145447,
-0.23169580101966858,
-0.725029706954956,
-0.2284473031759262,
-0.5705685019493103,
-0.47489672899246216,
-0.2524764835834503,
-0.020894832909107208,
-0.29988545179367065,
0.16635876893997192,
-0.048732660710811615,
0.3921070396900177,
-0.6394666433334351,
0.0834566131234169,
0.027173083275556564,
0.07685855776071548,
0.906571090221405,
-0.69538813829422,
-0.41991323232650757,
0.04818962886929512,
0.8856057524681091,
-0.9294325709342957,
0.4305899143218994,
0.3148632049560547,
0.17006616294384003,
-0.8132645487785339,
-0.4250529706478119,
-0.5927443504333496,
-0.6450421810150146,
-0.661866307258606,
0.09197217226028442,
-0.9536867141723633,
-0.23806627094745636,
0.35563287138938904,
-0.9900263547897339,
0.7742767930030823,
-0.48390498757362366,
0.40300142765045166,
-0.11998224258422852,
0.6489142179489136,
0.35466837882995605,
-0.32830291986465454,
0.19415517151355743,
0.007989691570401192,
0.6985923051834106,
-0.7237480282783508,
0.26782485842704773,
0.7143223285675049,
0.4255441725254059,
0.27266037464141846,
-0.5071230530738831,
0.05349643900990486,
0.6590979695320129,
0.5979511737823486,
-0.8074495196342468,
-0.7106314301490784,
-0.2586791217327118,
0.4750957787036896,
0.22767645120620728,
-0.3074088990688324,
0.13736219704151154,
0.6978321671485901,
-0.5210904479026794,
-0.23092833161354065,
0.14428994059562683,
0.24074088037014008,
0.29820290207862854,
0.01126276608556509,
0.1831478327512741,
0.329960435628891,
0.15313251316547394,
-0.12511000037193298,
-0.010014621540904045,
0.1897687017917633,
-0.7221153974533081,
0.014098437502980232,
0.3633669316768646,
-0.30175700783729553,
-0.2900436818599701,
-0.18462727963924408,
0.5229673385620117,
-0.10165799409151077,
0.5846993923187256,
0.2759881913661957,
-1.225504994392395,
0.1937161237001419,
-0.22196321189403534,
-0.6543723344802856,
0.24515026807785034,
0.020801495760679245,
-0.47090935707092285,
-0.04474851116538048,
-0.6251400709152222,
-0.20311737060546875,
0.18276533484458923,
-0.3466944694519043,
1.0006539821624756,
-0.1309666782617569,
0.12672977149486542,
-0.465866357088089,
-0.3524162471294403,
0.4543484151363373,
0.13441556692123413,
-0.23783756792545319,
0.5380290150642395,
-0.5382523536682129,
-0.5112529397010803,
-0.6805355548858643,
-0.11230720579624176,
0.3812398314476013,
-0.39684945344924927,
-0.14133654534816742,
0.05947340652346611,
-0.03471730276942253,
-0.342075377702713,
-0.5523293614387512,
0.5504454374313354,
0.4976861774921417,
0.12398116290569305,
-0.06715753674507141,
0.7100432515144348,
-0.14302188158035278,
-0.10780134797096252,
0.6324827075004578,
-0.6353561282157898,
-0.23342463374137878,
0.45339420437812805,
-0.06361223757266998,
-0.12151194363832474,
0.6903377175331116,
-0.05050709843635559,
-0.5653237104415894,
0.952987015247345,
0.05979910120368004,
0.2434857040643692,
0.1380525380373001,
0.035959161818027496,
0.14880692958831787,
0.4473922848701477,
-0.1544337272644043,
-0.12678608298301697,
0.2745765149593353,
-0.46942099928855896,
0.27198147773742676,
-0.08044756203889847,
0.6753196120262146,
0.11006878316402435,
-0.7050442099571228,
1.4161405563354492,
-0.38370612263679504,
0.4429214298725128,
0.3844158947467804,
0.5659079551696777,
-0.6813837289810181,
0.5012432336807251,
-0.43690183758735657,
0.3254571259021759,
0.3119003474712372,
-0.2323882281780243,
0.3031269609928131,
-1.048595905303955,
-0.26493093371391296,
0.2518262565135956,
-0.21467843651771545,
-0.34546202421188354,
-0.6887062788009644,
0.7876275181770325,
0.6412461400032043,
-0.5721390843391418,
0.1693177968263626,
0.501843273639679,
-0.20227299630641937,
-0.15877677500247955,
-0.2754027247428894,
-0.6675010323524475,
0.2571276128292084,
0.23360712826251984,
0.1675546020269394,
0.04002050682902336,
-0.5627396702766418,
0.5426157116889954,
-0.42869889736175537,
0.22877919673919678,
0.5976828932762146,
-0.18240615725517273,
-0.3928580582141876,
0.44447025656700134,
-0.18247629702091217,
0.046465903520584106,
-0.0842319056391716,
0.24635706841945648,
0.10870683938264847,
-0.6490769982337952,
-0.06289763748645782,
-0.28106188774108887,
0.25960788130760193,
-0.365033358335495,
-0.23583702743053436,
-0.2722351551055908,
0.007165736984461546,
0.3493194878101349,
-0.14920121431350708,
-0.7468003034591675,
-0.17462994158267975,
0.3543393313884735,
0.6009020805358887,
-0.44523531198501587,
0.48572874069213867,
0.7140161395072937,
0.4058733880519867,
-0.22220005095005035,
-0.18699590861797333,
-0.098517045378685,
-0.36795759201049805,
-0.31623417139053345,
-0.34481504559516907,
0.6798758506774902,
0.16981194913387299,
0.007369414437562227,
-0.3962712287902832,
0.1089835911989212,
0.011682459153234959,
0.035911496728658676,
0.10364601761102676,
-0.227209210395813,
0.28774964809417725,
-0.3145413398742676,
0.029486969113349915,
-0.004442488308995962,
0.5598683953285217,
-0.051219768822193146,
0.07520825415849686,
0.36112725734710693,
-0.215008944272995,
-0.252529114484787,
-0.16574370861053467,
0.0701712891459465,
-0.5495743155479431,
0.049751166254282,
-1.1139304637908936,
-0.35887372493743896,
-0.6041476130485535,
-0.4789510667324066,
0.6239649057388306,
0.2928074896335602,
0.7032068967819214,
-0.3296458125114441,
0.5963466763496399,
0.037633657455444336,
0.46367359161376953,
-0.332180380821228,
0.16849207878112793,
0.5812857747077942,
-0.28153711557388306,
-0.22969232499599457,
-0.26237669587135315,
0.08363711833953857,
0.15024210512638092,
-0.6944422125816345,
0.7402304410934448,
-0.6217873692512512,
-0.2414010763168335,
0.6343848705291748,
-0.012953461147844791,
-0.053424570709466934,
0.3495166003704071,
-0.670482337474823
] |
233717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borobudur | Borobudur | Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ) is a 7th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, not far from the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the world's largest Buddhist temple. The temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design follows Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous tradition of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple demonstrates the influences of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The monument is a shrine to the Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The pilgrim journey begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument, ascending to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rūpadhātu (the world of forms) and Arūpadhātu (the world of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has one of the largest and most complete ensembles of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 7th century and subsequently abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, followed by the monument's listing as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and ranks with Bagan in Myanmar and Angkor Wat in Cambodia as one of the great archeological sites of Southeast Asia. Borobudur remains popular for pilgrimage, with Buddhists in Indonesia celebrating Vesak Day at the monument. Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.
Etymology
In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and Budur for Buddha The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in 1365.
Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").
Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill.
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.
Location
The three temples
Approximately northwest of Yogyakarta and west of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese "sacred" place and has been dubbed "the garden of Java" due to its high agricultural fertility.
During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line. A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is unknown.
Ancient lake hypothesis
Speculation about a surrounding lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century. In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a hypothesis that the Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. It has been claimed that Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, above sea level and above the floor of a dried-out paleolake.
Dumarçay together with Professor Thanikaimoni took soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977 from trial trenches that had been dug into the hill, as well as from the plain immediately to the south. These samples were later analysed by Thanikaimoni, who examined their pollen and spore content to identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area around the time of Borobudur's construction. They were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that were characteristic of any vegetation known to grow in an aquatic environment such as a lake, pond or marsh. The area surrounding Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm trees at the time of the monument's construction, as is still the case today. Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J. Nossin in 1985–86 field studies re-examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and confirmed the absence of a lake around Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a sanctuary. These findings A New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur were published in the 2005 UNESCO publication titled "The Restoration of Borobudur".
History
Construction
There are no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur. The duration of construction has been estimated by comparison of carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD. This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty rule over Mataram kingdom in central Java, when their power encompassed not only the Srivijayan Empire but also southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of Philippines, North Malaya (Kedah, also known in Indian texts as the ancient Hindu state of Kadaram). The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years with completion during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto also suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same period as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD. This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. The 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau was much after and was a political battle. There was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Abandonment
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur". Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.
The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took such pity on 'the knight who was captured in a cage’ (i.e. the statue in one of the perforated stupas) that he could not help coming to see his ‘unfortunate friend’". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.
Rediscovery
Following its capture, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site himself, but sent , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had uncovered the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate.
In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the discovery and hard work by Cornelius and his men in only a few sentences, he has been credited with the monument's rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's attention.
Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work, and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main stupa remains empty.
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later. The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.
Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted, some even with colonial-government consent. In 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok.
Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer , Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Jan Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, , a Dutch army engineer officer, and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.
The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not enough original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.
Small restorations had been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection. During World War II and Indonesian National Revolution in 1945 to 1949, Borobudur restoration efforts were halted. The monument suffered further from the weather and drainage problems, which caused the earth core inside the temple to expand, pushing the stone structure and tilting the walls. By 1950s some parts of Borobudur were facing imminent danger of collapsing. In 1965, Indonesia asked the UNESCO for advice on ways to counteract the problem of weathering at Borobudur and other monuments. In 1968 Professor Soekmono, then head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia, launched his "Save Borobudur" campaign, in an effort to organize a massive restoration project.
In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested from the international community a major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created. Through an Agreement concerning the Voluntary Contributions to be Given for the Execution of the Project to Preserve Borobudur (Paris, 29 January 1973), 5 countries agreed to contribute to the restoration: Australia (AUD $200,000), Belgium (BEF fr.250,000), Cyprus (CYP £100,000), France (USD $77,500) and Germany (DEM DM 2,000,000). The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project between 1975 and 1982. In 1975, the actual work began. Over one million stones were dismantled and removed during the restoration, and set aside like pieces of a massive jig-saw puzzle to be individually identified, catalogued, cleaned and treated for preservation. Borobudur became a testing ground for new conservation techniques, including new procedures to battle the microorganisms attacking the stone. The foundation was stabilized, and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and the improvement of drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of US$6,901,243.
After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991. It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance".
In December 2017, the idea to reinstall chattra on top of Borobudur main stupa's yasthi has been revisited. However, expert said a thorough study is needed on restoring the umbrella-shaped pinnacle. By early 2018, the chattra restoration has not yet commenced.
Contemporary events
Religious ceremony
Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO, Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak () day commemorating the birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Lord Buddha. Waisak is an official national holiday in Indonesia, and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.
Tourism
The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists, of whom 36,000 were foreigners, visited the monument. The figure climbed to visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid-1990s, before the country's economic crisis. Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local community, giving rise to occasional conflicts. In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-storey mall complex, dubbed the "Java World".
International tourism awards were given to Borobudur archaeological park, such as PATA Grand Pacific Award 2004, PATA Gold Award Winner 2011, and PATA Gold Award Winner 2012. In June 2012, Borobudur was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's largest Buddhist archaeological site.
Conservation
UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under the present state of conservation: (i) vandalism by visitors; (ii) soil erosion in the south-eastern part of the site; and (iii) analysis and restoration of missing elements. The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy rains lead to the destabilization of the structure. Earthquakes are by far the most important contributing factors, since not only do stones fall down and arches crumble, but the earth itself can move in waves, further destroying the structure. The increasing popularity of the stupa brings in many visitors, most of whom are from Indonesia. Despite warning signs on all levels not to touch anything, the regular transmission of warnings over loudspeakers and the presence of guards, vandalism on reliefs and statues is a common occurrence and problem, leading to further deterioration. As of 2009, there is no system in place to limit the number of visitors allowed per day or to introduce mandatory guided tours only.
In August 2014, the Conservation Authority of Borobudur reported some severe abrasion of the stone stairs caused by the scraping of visitors' footwear. The conservation authority planned to install wooden stairs to cover and protect the original stone stairs, just like those installed in Angkor Wat.
Rehabilitation
Borobudur was heavily affected by the eruption of Mount Merapi in October and November 2010. Volcanic ash from Merapi fell on the temple complex, which is approximately west-southwest of the crater. A layer of ash up to thick fell on the temple statues during the eruption of 3–5 November, also killing nearby vegetation, with experts fearing that the acidic ash might damage the historic site. The temple complex was closed from 5 to 9 November to clean up the ashfall.
UNESCO donated US$3 million as a part of the costs towards the rehabilitation of Borobudur after Mount Merapi's 2010 eruption. More than 55,000 stone blocks comprising the temple's structure were dismantled to restore the drainage system, which had been clogged by slurry after the rain. The restoration was finished in November.
In January 2012, two German stone-conservation experts spent ten days at the site analyzing the temples and making recommendations to ensure their long-term preservation. In June, Germany agreed to contribute $130,000 to UNESCO for the second phase of rehabilitation, in which six experts in stone conservation, microbiology, structural engineering and chemical engineering would spend a week in Borobudur in June, then return for another visit in September or October. These missions would launch the preservation activities recommended in the January report and would include capacity building activities to enhance the preservation capabilities of governmental staff and young conservation experts.
On 14 February 2014, major tourist attractions in Yogyakarta and Central Java, including Borobudur, Prambanan and Ratu Boko, were closed to visitors, after being severely affected by the volcanic ash from the eruption of Kelud volcano in East Java, located around 200 kilometers east from Yogyakarta. Workers covered the iconic stupas and statues of Borobudur temple to protect the structure from volcanic ash. The Kelud volcano erupted on 13 February 2014 with an explosion heard as far away as Yogyakarta.
Security threats
On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs. In 1991, a blind Muslim preacher, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid-1980s, including the temple attack. Two other members of the Islamic extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986, and another man received a 13-year prison term.
On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude struck the south coast of Central Java. The event caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta and Prambanan, but Borobudur remained intact.
In August 2014, Indonesian police and security forces tightened the security in and around Borobudur temple compound, as a precaution to a threat posted on social media by a self-proclaimed Indonesian branch of ISIS, citing that the terrorists planned to destroy Borobudur and other statues in Indonesia. The security improvements included the repair and increased deployment of CCTV monitors and the implementation of a night patrol in and around the temple compound. The jihadist group follows a strict interpretation of Islam that condemns any anthropomorphic representations such as sculptures as idolatry.
Visitor overload problem
The high volume of visitors ascending the Borobudur's narrow stairs, has caused a severe wear out on the stone of the stairs, eroding the stones surface and made them thinner and smoother. Overall, Borobudur has 2,033 surfaces of stone stairs, spread over four cardinal directions; including the west side, the east, south and north. There are around 1,028 surfaces of them, or about 49.15 percent, that are severely worn out.
To avoid further wear of stairs' stones, since November 2014, two main sections of Borobudur stairs – the eastern (ascending route) and northern (descending route) sides – are covered with wooden structures. The similar technique has been applied in Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Egyptian Pyramids. In March 2015, Borobudur Conservation Center proposed further to seal the stairs with rubber cover. Proposals have also been made that visitors be issued special sandals.
Architecture
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents of Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur's hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or Buddhist.
Design
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform contains seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously, the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok and in Cipari near Kuningan. The construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. The punden berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.
The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and names—changes into the world of the formless.
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.
Building structure
Approximately of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.
Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex. His name is recounted from Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top. The base is in size with walls. The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back , leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.
Reliefs
Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.
The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.
During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching. The same vajralepa plaster can also be found in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour pigments.
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is , and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of . The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of Lord Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.
The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the Borobudur temple was disassembled to reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed in Borobudur Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several hundred meters north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot encasement was reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today, only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed and visible for visitors.
The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in Nepal).
The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.
The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary people (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. They are the stories that tell about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala. The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.
Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, his first spiritual friend. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings, knowledge, and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues
Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired as collector's items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are now displayed in numbers of museums, such as the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris, and The British Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded their reattachment and further conservation of the site.
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.
Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:
Legacy
The aesthetic and technical mastery of Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians. Just like Angkor Wat for Cambodia, Borobudur has become a powerful symbol for Indonesia — to testify for its past greatness. Indonesia's first President Sukarno made a point of showing the site to foreign dignitaries. The Suharto regime — realized its important symbolic and economic meanings — diligently embarked on a massive project to restore the monument with the help from UNESCO. Many museums in Indonesia contain a scale model replica of Borobudur. The monument has become almost an icon, grouped with the wayang puppet play and gamelan music into a vague classical Javanese past from which Indonesians are to draw inspiration.
Several archaeological relics taken from Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in some museums in Indonesia and abroad. Other than Karmawibhangga Museum within Borobudur temple ground, some museums boast to host relics of Borobudur, such as Indonesian National Museum in Jakarta, Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, British Museum in London, and Thai National Museum in Bangkok. Louvre museum in Paris, Malaysian National Museum in Kuala Lumpur, and Museum of World Religions in New Taipei also displayed the replica of Borobudur. The monument has drawn global attention to the classical Buddhist civilization of ancient Java.
The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by Indonesian Buddhists as the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In 1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive Buddhism in Indonesia. A Bodhi Tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were ordained as monks. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from Indonesia and neighboring countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate national Waisak celebration.
The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur. It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale. Borobudur has become the name of several establishments, such as Borobudur University, Borobudur Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared on Rupiah banknotes and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of the main tourism attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in the region surrounding the temple. The tourism sector of the city of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of its proximity to Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
In literature
In her poem (1835), Letitia Elizabeth Landon reflects on Borobudur from a Christian perspective.
Gallery
Gallery of reliefs
Gallery of Borobudur
See also
Ancient monuments of Java
Architecture of Indonesia
Candi of Indonesia
Trail of Civilizations
Unfinished Buddha
Notes
References
Further reading
Levin, Cecelia. "Enshrouded in Dharma and Artha: The Narrative Sequence of Borobudur's First Gallery Wall." In Materializing Southeast Asia's Past: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, edited by Klokke Marijke J. and Degroot Véronique, 27-40. SINGAPORE: NUS Press, 2013. Accessed June 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1qv3kf.7.
Jaini, Padmanabh S. "The Story of Sudhana and Manoharā: An Analysis of the Texts and the Borobudur Reliefs." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 29, no. 3 (1966): 533-58. Accessed June 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/611473.
Shastri, Bahadur Chand. “THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE FIRST SIXTEEN RELIEFS ON THE SECOND MAIN-WALL OF BARABUDUR.” Bijdragen Tot De Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde Van Nederlandsch-Indië, vol. 89, no. 1, 1932, pp. 173–181. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20770599. Accessed 24 Apr. 2020.
SUNDBERG, JEFFREY ROGER. "Considerations on the Dating of the Barabuḍur Stūpa." Bijdragen Tot De Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 162, no. 1 (2006): 95-132. Accessed June 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/27868287.
External links
Official site of Borobudur, Prambanan, and Ratu Boko Park
UNESCO Site
PBS page which talks about the hidden part of Borobudur, 160 reliefs buried.
Borobudur Temple Compounds short documentary by UNESCO and NHK
Wonderful Indonesia's Guide on Borobudur
Learning From Borobudur documentary about Borobudur's bas-reliefs stories of Jatakas, Lalitavistara and Gandavyuha in YouTube
Australian National University's research project on Borobudur
Analysis of Borobudur's hidden base
Explore Borobudur on Global Heritage Network
Photographs of Borobudur Stupa
"Yogyakarta. Temple Ruins: Details of Sculpted Figures" is a photograph with commentary by Frank G. Carpenter.
Wacana Nusantara
Borobudur, Hening dalam Keagungan
Lost ancient cities and towns
820s establishments
9th-century establishments in Indonesia
9th-century Buddhist temples
Archaeoastronomy
Archaeological sites in Indonesia
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Indonesia
Buddhist temples in Indonesia
Former Buddhist temples
Pyramids in Indonesia
Shailendra dynasty
World Heritage Sites in Indonesia
Cultural Properties of Indonesia in Central Java
Tourist attractions in Central Java
Religious buildings and structures in Central Java
Buddhist relics | [
-0.21078985929489136,
0.8276069760322571,
0.1769183725118637,
-0.46140509843826294,
0.3518889248371124,
0.053800858557224274,
0.5485503077507019,
0.0784657821059227,
-0.39741918444633484,
0.37224388122558594,
-0.3092167377471924,
0.2062293440103531,
-0.2695411145687103,
-0.09989005327224731,
-0.20733025670051575,
-0.16852639615535736,
1.107469081878662,
0.1814272701740265,
0.009118394926190376,
-0.37122106552124023,
-0.2509423494338989,
-0.20174157619476318,
-0.041856005787849426,
0.4771836996078491,
0.513175368309021,
0.48383915424346924,
0.2618527114391327,
0.4852807819843292,
-0.22499044239521027,
-0.1188473179936409,
0.19645296037197113,
0.38467922806739807,
0.27347704768180847,
-0.4759404957294464,
0.059478454291820526,
0.3801831901073456,
0.022086268290877342,
-0.5761247873306274,
-0.2842983305454254,
-0.05127515643835068,
0.43343600630760193,
0.12405727058649063,
0.13358139991760254,
1.044189453125,
-0.5514046549797058,
-0.2474871575832367,
-1.0053231716156006,
0.8785094022750854,
-0.7600838541984558,
0.30966416001319885,
-0.8691658973693848,
0.4082108438014984,
-0.013745233416557312,
-0.9656280279159546,
0.40373682975769043,
0.9143422842025757,
-0.7673861384391785,
0.6123987436294556,
0.16027137637138367,
-1.0260789394378662,
0.11579199880361557,
0.2622193396091461,
0.3832378685474396,
-0.19235189259052277,
-0.4192711412906647,
-0.02528385818004608,
-0.6011776328086853,
-0.16557876765727997,
0.35013583302497864,
0.07646885514259338,
0.04384515807032585,
0.7926391363143921,
-0.6255666613578796,
0.06485436856746674,
-0.5716837048530579,
-0.37051984667778015,
-0.460376113653183,
-0.1622832864522934,
0.009264830499887466,
-0.49414315819740295,
0.013785055838525295,
-0.2868976891040802,
0.08638893812894821,
-0.5434936881065369,
0.44103723764419556,
-0.14733903110027313,
-0.14907784759998322,
-0.2164289653301239,
-0.32270124554634094,
-0.1699817180633545,
-0.5936316847801208,
-0.3352273106575012,
-0.48166990280151367,
0.7024823427200317,
-0.6470083594322205,
-1.1003278493881226,
-0.35809096693992615,
-0.06120700761675835,
-0.28237536549568176,
0.002146365586668253,
0.12454727292060852,
0.4285050630569458,
0.5615406036376953,
-0.06015702709555626,
-0.4981384873390198,
-0.3587963283061981,
-0.5724589228630066,
-0.2135191410779953,
-0.6097787618637085,
-0.14836719632148743,
-1.2140252590179443,
0.19726675748825073,
-0.21805810928344727,
0.17349426448345184,
0.26709476113319397,
0.08772360533475876,
-0.05788159742951393,
-0.619939923286438,
-0.4600628614425659,
-0.3590855300426483,
0.17114080488681793,
0.956513524055481,
-0.027210431173443794,
0.29853206872940063,
0.5999524593353271,
-0.19550999999046326,
-0.1717960387468338,
0.5529564619064331,
-1.1925114393234253,
0.19096174836158752,
0.11058010905981064,
0.3782322406768799,
0.4245269000530243,
-0.13791045546531677,
-0.3412642478942871,
0.21469172835350037,
0.10850144177675247,
0.13887222111225128,
0.6035217642784119,
0.27072617411613464,
-0.9032096266746521,
-0.2263558954000473,
-0.5103868246078491,
-0.2442501336336136,
0.5999920964241028,
-0.34793534874916077,
-0.21551208198070526,
-0.8654236793518066,
-0.6377620697021484,
-0.35613447427749634,
-0.10506065934896469,
0.5428197383880615,
-0.44800642132759094,
-0.035258594900369644,
-0.31255337595939636,
0.5793725848197937,
0.4233722686767578,
-0.360668420791626,
-0.09974605590105057,
-0.5657985806465149,
-0.2605084180831909,
-0.2889645993709564,
-0.2466106116771698,
-0.09666895866394043,
0.14549846947193146,
-0.08126655220985413,
0.7858830690383911,
0.547433614730835,
0.0803447887301445,
-0.10792828351259232,
-0.8890197277069092,
-0.31968948245048523,
0.41559407114982605,
-0.5975610017776489,
-0.9270521402359009,
-0.539402961730957,
0.37585437297821045,
0.12544076144695282,
-0.10993177443742752,
-0.2542852461338043,
-0.7213605642318726,
0.03611370921134949,
-0.10043512284755707,
0.2001766413450241,
0.20379601418972015,
0.11557962000370026,
-0.0568355992436409,
0.6461990475654602,
0.2835671603679657,
-0.06601078808307648,
-0.2630458176136017,
-0.3647095263004303,
0.30936893820762634,
0.20054937899112701,
0.6043800711631775,
0.4560442864894867,
-0.5670323967933655,
1.1306780576705933,
0.054586656391620636,
0.4043871760368347,
-0.3412981927394867,
0.21430721879005432,
-0.0491412989795208,
-0.07753770053386688,
-0.1390511840581894,
-0.07258613407611847,
0.3464033603668213,
0.6580848097801208,
0.9705162644386292,
0.0027993430849164724,
0.30726712942123413,
-0.22267591953277588,
-0.2633512616157532,
0.43914878368377686,
-0.3014547526836395,
-0.35743337869644165,
-0.5698040723800659,
-0.02533554844558239,
0.10881471633911133,
-0.33986184000968933,
0.4154745042324066,
0.45323997735977173,
-0.3977181315422058,
0.5804058313369751,
-0.33420702815055847,
0.8873447775840759,
-0.28728070855140686,
0.22838513553142548,
0.5271619558334351,
0.287120521068573,
0.6956895589828491,
0.2937289774417877,
0.23979134857654572,
0.29412585496902466,
-0.3605446219444275,
0.1491076648235321,
-0.18348601460456848,
-0.13939112424850464,
0.8892789483070374,
0.0013221867848187685,
-0.2761831283569336,
-0.11412881314754486,
-0.8798770308494568,
0.2030789852142334,
0.4842987358570099,
0.24687409400939941,
-0.45592620968818665,
-0.034748002886772156,
-0.456773579120636,
0.5324394106864929,
-0.00268129026517272,
0.06455975770950317,
0.5430201292037964,
0.15435552597045898,
0.631493330001831,
-0.08591025322675705,
-0.624383270740509,
-0.10778672993183136,
0.30899590253829956,
-0.05544956773519516,
-0.6549049019813538,
-0.13251054286956787,
-0.03697868436574936,
0.18669551610946655,
-0.14963515102863312,
0.047959104180336,
0.8226802349090576,
-0.4678514003753662,
0.5867636203765869,
-0.0339377336204052,
-0.6493049263954163,
-0.46387237310409546,
-0.7285869121551514,
0.4500492513179779,
0.11676693707704544,
-0.5826650857925415,
0.27560606598854065,
-0.2104077935218811,
-0.48088201880455017,
-0.24743938446044922,
0.11975761502981186,
0.9673681855201721,
-0.0782439112663269,
-0.8077539205551147,
-0.15262265503406525,
0.28209203481674194,
-0.4043048620223999,
-0.6439005732536316,
0.16241462528705597,
0.1950744390487671,
-0.48649606108665466,
0.22539542615413666,
0.26080915331840515,
0.3207418620586395,
0.0009957347065210342,
0.3663327693939209,
0.5414996147155762,
-0.5359728336334229,
0.07674311101436615,
-0.40573954582214355,
-0.18727585673332214,
-0.02411886490881443,
-0.33225592970848083,
0.5324676036834717,
-0.1890561431646347,
0.39395058155059814,
-0.22409911453723907,
0.09986940771341324,
-5.437366485595703,
0.31435731053352356,
-0.2689388394355774,
-0.6488502025604248,
0.34754088521003723,
0.3144470453262329,
-0.045858245342969894,
-0.42039918899536133,
0.4573398530483246,
-0.5843011736869812,
0.05515255406498909,
-0.489211767911911,
0.4590347409248352,
0.3490906357765198,
0.14170855283737183,
0.8398030400276184,
0.07236167043447495,
0.41916513442993164,
0.10414522141218185,
0.320158451795578,
-0.007833098992705345,
0.18430355191230774,
-0.486743301153183,
0.03573199361562729,
0.11391721665859222,
0.8674749135971069,
-0.36791878938674927,
-0.133005753159523,
-0.3909066319465637,
-0.28552350401878357,
-0.049597956240177155,
-0.28646230697631836,
-0.08274944871664047,
0.01605428010225296,
-0.18967847526073456,
1.0228453874588013,
0.6917933821678162,
-0.05934027209877968,
0.8811371326446533,
0.14505748450756073,
0.07066675275564194,
-0.22221040725708008,
0.23811420798301697,
-0.02234487794339657,
0.387086421251297,
-0.7298034429550171,
-0.8624514937400818,
-0.26956960558891296,
-0.10135295987129211,
0.70713871717453,
-0.0768030509352684,
-0.38977736234664917,
0.6795907020568848,
-0.20820258557796478,
0.16112549602985382,
-0.20954950153827667,
-0.0041551413014531136,
-0.5489523410797119,
-0.08833350241184235,
0.14931924641132355,
0.33741262555122375,
0.028597155585885048,
0.009945922531187534,
-0.31175705790519714,
0.5658730268478394,
0.06969987601041794,
0.4423556923866272,
-0.04672844707965851,
0.34427160024642944,
0.08196616917848587,
-0.14008769392967224,
0.09395173192024231,
-0.7991323471069336,
-1.0188909769058228,
-0.4661445915699005,
-0.6885699033737183,
-0.7180400490760803,
-0.18981985747814178,
-0.11219845712184906,
-0.12894248962402344,
-0.31076595187187195,
0.15891362726688385,
-0.253775954246521,
0.37197986245155334,
0.3914766311645508,
-0.5694002509117126,
0.06209636479616165,
-0.04921125993132591,
-0.4811479151248932,
-0.06153314560651779,
0.8339008688926697,
-0.2728766202926636,
-0.17957642674446106,
0.19295959174633026,
0.1610170155763626,
0.47511282563209534,
-0.23036544024944305,
0.03703198954463005,
0.7632009983062744,
0.1453835517168045,
0.8897308707237244,
-0.36253708600997925,
0.1132003515958786,
0.4619314968585968,
0.11343851685523987,
-0.07873217761516571,
-0.17558962106704712,
0.5494922399520874,
0.3744015097618103,
0.09200205653905869,
-0.07661967724561691,
-0.1775282770395279,
0.47930845618247986,
0.24300767481327057,
0.6126888394355774,
0.28057706356048584,
0.0007149208104237914,
0.3548395335674286,
-0.07834308594465256,
-0.5878783464431763,
0.40503695607185364,
0.4055239260196686,
0.03255430608987808,
0.36848944425582886,
0.0961192324757576,
-0.27108901739120483,
-0.3906501531600952,
0.4619913399219513,
-0.23930758237838745,
-0.2978760302066803,
0.7032776474952698,
-0.11214902251958847,
0.7245501279830933,
0.17944367229938507,
-0.4466908872127533,
-0.6457021832466125,
-0.23031839728355408,
-1.0569589138031006,
-0.4554838240146637,
-0.3152454197406769,
-0.3059377670288086,
-0.2523294985294342,
-0.06736587733030319,
0.5018260478973389,
0.19729343056678772,
0.06334489583969116,
-0.020559154450893402,
0.3168787360191345,
-0.4179176688194275,
0.28468117117881775,
-0.06801645457744598,
-0.4166775643825531,
0.40580499172210693,
-0.3063640594482422,
-0.456450879573822,
-0.1002306342124939,
-0.3501870334148407,
0.3870883584022522,
0.5129320025444031,
0.4852692484855652,
0.007801731117069721,
-0.23875725269317627,
-0.12385207414627075,
-0.21304349601268768,
-0.6130943298339844,
-0.28551486134529114,
0.4392060339450836,
-0.12392152100801468,
-0.7691930532455444,
0.09473759680986404,
0.7200324535369873,
-0.43634676933288574,
-1.2587766647338867,
-0.049665629863739014,
0.7164092659950256,
0.060301605612039566,
0.2583238184452057,
0.027289608493447304,
0.3314060568809509,
0.30951541662216187,
-0.5819340348243713,
0.22809366881847382,
0.0028308131732046604,
0.5398946404457092,
0.8627862930297852,
0.17321538925170898,
-0.6548557281494141,
-0.9899041056632996,
-0.07367414236068726,
-0.24421793222427368,
0.7764498591423035,
-0.14122718572616577,
0.4187861382961273,
0.31072038412094116,
0.3685729205608368,
-0.9260609149932861,
0.07599280029535294,
0.6358185410499573,
0.22270941734313965,
0.3180095851421356,
-0.3688836097717285,
-0.014441614039242268,
-1.3090814352035522,
0.5646283030509949,
0.2926846444606781,
-0.82923424243927,
0.8935356140136719,
0.10526243597269058,
-0.13196034729480743,
0.3839173913002014,
-0.2324586659669876,
-0.14281870424747467,
-0.13810674846172333,
-0.0051732780411839485,
-0.3414760231971741,
0.08381879329681396,
-0.38284945487976074,
-0.5139886140823364,
-0.34030911326408386,
-0.7340336441993713,
-0.6003933548927307,
-0.3193036615848541,
-0.05263473466038704,
0.2703225612640381,
-0.2894996702671051,
0.16615943610668182,
0.009042746387422085,
-0.05511762574315071,
-0.28508543968200684,
-0.07713000476360321,
0.313384085893631,
0.05333423241972923,
0.540230393409729,
-0.18619203567504883,
0.08208855241537094,
0.04487007483839989,
0.235581174492836,
0.16718631982803345,
0.18821369111537933,
0.5168747901916504,
0.21370889246463776,
0.673416256904602,
-0.21822556853294373,
-0.053626567125320435,
0.02343394048511982,
0.2204556167125702,
-0.7156149744987488,
-0.049358319491147995,
-0.1516309380531311,
0.05924646556377411,
0.7827848792076111,
0.33139365911483765,
0.12873387336730957,
0.02599933370947838,
0.5191879272460938,
-0.1730712205171585,
0.17013323307037354,
-0.12846098840236664,
0.12037164717912674,
0.051848430186510086,
0.5171991586685181,
0.28861334919929504,
0.2810327410697937,
-0.18290139734745026,
-0.25246524810791016,
-0.29368773102760315,
-0.8495163917541504,
-1.0236232280731201,
0.3559090495109558,
-0.6033243536949158,
0.21922768652439117,
-0.14902102947235107,
0.6258465051651001,
-0.06220134720206261,
-0.40089112520217896,
0.10416245460510254,
-0.3344583809375763,
-0.19263862073421478,
0.05034151300787926,
-0.002185203367844224,
-0.5149393081665039,
0.357496052980423,
-0.2817712128162384,
-0.4195127785205841,
-0.025737673044204712,
-0.9276360869407654,
-0.14011092483997345,
0.0360230877995491,
-0.07956314831972122,
-0.041566722095012665,
-1.014642596244812,
-0.15988881886005402,
0.22716271877288818,
0.08875717967748642,
-0.019136732444167137,
0.14885684847831726,
0.2970866560935974,
0.6689510345458984,
-0.5354843139648438,
-0.14716190099716187,
-0.390668123960495,
0.12467087060213089,
0.6644284129142761,
-0.08026229590177536,
0.2825978100299835,
-0.16317856311798096,
0.1737961769104004,
-0.22031913697719574,
-0.45123615860939026,
-0.3332795798778534,
0.1376589834690094,
0.3284150958061218,
0.08296457678079605,
1.0394353866577148,
-0.6907067894935608,
0.06388098746538162,
0.6227235794067383,
0.06042741611599922,
0.04063040018081665,
0.8189471960067749,
0.03565363585948944,
0.08372606337070465,
0.20199985802173615,
0.20273886620998383,
0.5715198516845703,
0.5052481889724731,
-0.4962591826915741,
-0.3775458335876465,
0.06784703582525253,
0.3061622083187103,
-0.025238273665308952,
-0.3654917776584625,
0.043564893305301666,
0.6835864186286926,
-0.22277401387691498,
-0.3065716028213501,
0.5532621145248413,
-0.4254870116710663,
-0.28813570737838745,
0.38502976298332214,
0.036541204899549484,
0.5050634145736694,
-0.5023848414421082,
-0.09690872579813004,
-0.24642713367938995,
0.23152337968349457,
0.41450923681259155,
0.3202005922794342,
-0.019024191424250603,
0.8149036169052124,
0.1593272089958191,
-0.4457239508628845,
0.3938647508621216,
-0.35823407769203186,
0.36801043152809143,
0.0171060748398304,
0.2848978042602539,
0.173823744058609,
-0.055357880890369415,
0.14510396122932434,
-0.1510128378868103,
0.6342887282371521,
0.5026683211326599,
0.0896993950009346,
0.22159093618392944,
0.05085425078868866,
-0.22035697102546692,
-0.21267813444137573,
-0.0859503373503685,
0.5948278307914734,
-0.3041154742240906,
0.5432401895523071,
-0.3420747220516205,
0.15177446603775024,
-0.17979125678539276,
0.2258775532245636,
0.027457846328616142,
0.480842262506485,
-0.05411114916205406,
0.32339170575141907,
-0.05692430958151817,
0.26858630776405334,
0.17393523454666138,
-0.49516499042510986,
0.22243432700634003,
-0.396060585975647,
0.035384226590394974,
0.4178521931171417,
-0.7952905893325806,
0.2486906349658966,
0.004140040371567011,
-0.3319796323776245,
-0.6333961486816406,
0.19594591856002808,
-0.08233778178691864,
-0.04767979308962822,
0.3787855803966522,
0.3372223973274231,
0.08178246766328812,
-0.12370464205741882,
-0.10551295429468155,
0.20962807536125183,
0.6603293418884277,
0.43849116563796997,
-0.14876851439476013,
-0.27925971150398254,
-0.6188274621963501,
0.19653034210205078,
-0.44057679176330566,
-0.052461206912994385,
-0.07597321271896362,
0.33411216735839844,
0.1597752571105957,
0.1784435361623764,
-0.3841405510902405,
0.7402089834213257,
0.21511884033679962,
0.11000344902276993,
0.18402650952339172,
0.07484040409326553,
-0.17904648184776306,
-0.08034726977348328,
-0.5105214715003967,
0.962314784526825,
-0.03725256770849228,
-0.11515465378761292,
0.25636160373687744,
0.34115469455718994,
-1.4162217378616333,
-0.07214122265577316,
0.8057473301887512,
-0.9106327891349792,
-0.3190605640411377,
0.6307061910629272,
-0.36377984285354614,
-0.8332714438438416,
0.9038182497024536,
0.4483427107334137,
0.006031685508787632,
-0.9515264630317688,
-0.26396629214286804,
-0.10541975498199463,
0.957716166973114,
-0.1581704467535019,
0.025460688397288322,
-0.26541775465011597,
0.13523419201374054,
-0.09938953816890717,
-0.8789694309234619,
0.3139958381652832,
0.386819064617157,
-0.7642508745193481,
0.2713084816932678,
-0.4971276521682739,
-0.07941333204507828,
-0.024617571383714676,
-0.4750998020172119,
0.5084585547447205,
0.29930394887924194,
0.17445823550224304
] |
233721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth%20War%20Graves%20Commission | Commonwealth War Graves Commission | The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is an intergovernmental organisation of six independent member states whose principal function is to mark, record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of Commonwealth of Nations military service members who died in the two World Wars. The commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War. The commission was founded by Sir Fabian Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 as the Imperial War Graves Commission. The change to the present name took place in 1960.
The commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally. To this end, the war dead are commemorated by a name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, race or creed.
The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries. Since its inception, the commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries and numerous memorials. The commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide. In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves. The commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states: United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa. The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward, Duke of Kent.
History
First World War
At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Fabian Ware, a director of the Rio Tinto Company, found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army. He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman, Viscount Milner, to become the commander of a mobile unit of the British Red Cross. He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose. In March 1915, with the support of Nevil Macready, Adjutant-General of the British Expeditionary Force, Ware's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves Registration Commission. The new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916.
When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French cemeteries under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government. Ware eventually concluded that it was not prudent to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land, grant it in perpetuity, and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British. The French government agreed under the condition that cemeteries respected certain dimensions, were accessible by public road, were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages. Similar negotiations began with the Belgian government.
As reports of the grave registration work became public, the commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers. By 1917, 17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives. In March 1915, the commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests. The Graves Registration Commission became the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to enquiries from relatives of those killed. The directorate's work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Formal establishment
As the war continued, Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. Following a suggestion by the British Army, the government appointed the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves in January 1916, with Edward, Prince of Wales agreeing to serve as president. The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries after the war. The government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department. By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help of Edward, Prince of Wales, Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted. The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter, with the Prince of Wales serving as president, Secretary of State for War Lord Derby as chairman and Ware as vice-chairman. The commission's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified and a further 559,000 casualties were registered as having no known grave.
The scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead. Previous to the First World War, individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers. However, the war required mobilisation of a significant percentage of the population, either as volunteers or through conscription. An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated, even if they were low-ranking members of the military. A committee under Frederic Kenyon, Director of the British Museum, presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the cemeteries. Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions. Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses, it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of brotherhood that had developed between serving ranks.
An article in The Times on 17 February 1919 by Rudyard Kipling carried the commission's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like. The article entitled War Graves: Work of Imperial Commission: Mr. Kipling's Survey was quickly republished as an illustrated booklet, Graves of the Fallen. The illustrated booklet was intended to soften the impact of Kenyon's report as it included illustrations of cemeteries with mature trees and shrubs; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos. There was an immediate public outcry following the publication of the reports, particularly with regards to the decision to not repatriate the bodies of the dead. The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920. Sir James Remnant started the debate, followed by speeches by William Burdett-Coutts in favour of the commission's principles and Robert Cecil speaking for those desiring repatriation and opposing uniformity of grave markers. Winston Churchill closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote. Remnant withdrew his motion, allowing the commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles. The 1920 United States Public Law 66-175 ensured American citizens who were killed while in service of a Commonwealth nation were eligible for burial in national cemeteries in the United States However, the commission made no repatriation policy exception for American citizens and attempts to retrieve loved ones from Commonwealth cemeteries were not supported by the American Graves Registration Service.
First cemeteries and memorials to the missing
In 1918, three of the most eminent architects of their day, Sir Herbert Baker, Sir Reginald Blomfield, and Sir Edwin Lutyens were appointed as the organization's initial Principal Architects. Rudyard Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions.
In 1920, the Commission built three experimental cemeteries at Le Treport, Forceville and Louvencourt, following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report. Of these, the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension was agreed to be the most successful. Having consulted with garden designer Gertrude Jekyll, the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform headstones in a garden setting, augmented by Blomfield's Cross of Sacrifice and Lutyens' Stone of Remembrance. After some adjustments, Forceville became the template for the commission's building programme. Cost overruns at all three experimental cemeteries necessitated some adjustments. To ensure future cemeteries remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in cemeteries that contained less than 200 graves, to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400 graves, and to limit the height of cemetery walls to .
At the end of 1919, the commission had spent £7,500, and this figure rose to £250,000 in 1920 as construction of cemeteries and memorials increased. By 1921, the commission had established 1,000 cemeteries which were ready for headstone erections, and burials. Between 1920 and 1923, the commission was shipping 4,000 headstones a week to France. In many cases, the Commission closed small cemeteries and concentrated the graves into larger ones. By 1927, when the majority of construction had been completed, over 500 cemeteries had been built, with 400,000 headstones, a thousand Crosses of Sacrifice, and 400 Stones of Remembrance.
The commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave, which amounted to 315,000 in France and Belgium alone. The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front. After resistance from the French committee responsible for the approvals of memorials on French territory, the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials, and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing cemeteries rather than as separate structures.
Reginald Blomfield's Menin Gate was the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed, and was unveiled on 24 July 1927. The Menin Gate (Menenpoort) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34,984 names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker's Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing. Other memorials followed: the Helles Memorial in Gallipoli designed by John James Burnet; the Thiepval Memorial on the Somme and the Arras Memorial designed by Edwin Lutyens; and the Basra Memorial in Iraq designed by Edward Prioleau Warren. The Dominions and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing: the Neuve-Chapelle Memorial for the forces of India, the Vimy Memorial by Canada, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial by Australia, the Delville Wood Memorial by South Africa and the Beaumont-Hamel Memorial by Newfoundland. The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the Thiepval Memorial in 1932, though the Vimy Memorial would not be finished until 1936, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial until 1938 and stonemasons were still conducting work on the Menin Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940. The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the Memorial Ophthalmic Laboratory at Giza, Egypt—complete with library, and bacteriology and pathology departments—as its memorial to men of the Egyptian Labour Corps and Camel Transport Corps. Its erection was agreed with local political pressure.
Second World War
From the start of the Second World War in 1939, the Commission organised grave registration units and, planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War, earmarked land for use as cemeteries. When the war began turning in favour of the Allies, the commission was able to begin restoring its First World War cemeteries and memorials. It also began the task of commemorating the 600,000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War. As with the First World War, casualties were commemorated with uniform memorials and bodies should not be repatriated. Exceptionally, the American Graves Registration were permitted to repatriate the remains of an unknown number of American citizens who were in service of a Commonwealth nation during the Second World War.
In 1949, the Commission completed Dieppe Canadian War Cemetery, the first of 559 new cemeteries and 36 new memorials. Eventually, the Commission erected over 350,000 new headstones, many from Hopton Wood stone. The wider scale of the Second World War, coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries, meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer. In Albania the graves of 52 of the 54 graves of British SOE personnel had been reburied in Tirana before Major McIntosh from the CWGC Florence base was expelled by the new regime. Three-quarters of the original graves had been in "difficult" or remote locations. Following the war, the Commission implemented a five-year horticultural renovation programme which addressed neglect by 1950. Structural repairs, together with the backlog of maintenance tasks from before the war, took a further ten years to complete.
With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the First World War, Winston Churchill agreed to Ware's proposal that the commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths. A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission's charter on 7 February 1941, empowering the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War, which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour. The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67,000 civilians. The Commission and the Dean of Westminster reached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed in Westminster Abbey but not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended. The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956; it added the final volume to the showcase in 1958.
Post–Second World War
Following the Second World War, the Commission recognised that the word 'Imperial' within its name was no longer appropriate. In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organization changed its name to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960.
More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the commission to care for cemeteries in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether. Zehrensdorf Indian Cemetery in Germany was unkempt after the end of the Second World War and until the German reunification because it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005. The Six-Day War and War of Attrition resulted in the destruction of Port Tewfik Memorial and Aden Memorial, and the death of a Commission gardener at Suez War Memorial Cemetery. During the Lebanese Civil War two cemeteries in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt. The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult since Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, with regular maintenance being impractical since after the Gulf War.
The commission also provides support for war graves outside its traditional mandate. In 1982, the British Ministry of Defence requested the commission's assistance to design and construct cemeteries in the Falkland Islands for those killed during the Falklands War. Although these cemeteries are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries, the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities for them. Since 2005, the commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for cemeteries and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during the Second Boer War. In 2003, Veterans Affairs Canada employed the commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility. As of 2011, the commission conducts a twelve-year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans' markers installed at the expense of the Government of Canada.
In 2008, an exploratory excavation discovered mass graves on the edge of Pheasant Wood outside of Fromelles. Two-hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructed Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery. This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years, the last such cemeteries having been built after the Second World War.
Burial sites and memorials
The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries and approximately 67,000 civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War. Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. As a result, the commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide. The vast majority of burial sites are pre-existing communal or municipal cemeteries and parish churchyards located in the United Kingdom, however the commission has itself constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries worldwide. The commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave; the largest of these is the Thiepval Memorial.
Qualifications for inclusion
The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years, while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service. Death in service included not only those killed in combat but other causes such as those that died in training accidents, air raids and due to disease such as the 1918 flu pandemic. The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War. The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war, while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period after VE Day as the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice.
Civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service. They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George's Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In addition to its mandated duties, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves.
Architects and sculptors
As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium (Baker, Blomfield and Lutyens), there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well. Sir Robert Lorimer was Principal Architect for Italy, Macedonia and Egypt, while Sir John James Burnet was Principal Architect for Palestine and Gallipoli, assisted by Thomas Smith Tait. The Principal Architect for Mesopotamia was Edward Prioleau Warren.
As well as these senior architects, there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs. These architects were younger, and many of them had served in the war. The Assistant Architects were: George Esselmont Gordon Leith, Wilfred Clement Von Berg, Charles Henry Holden (who in 1920 became a Principal Architect), William Harrison Cowlishaw, William Bryce Binnie, George Hartley Goldsmith, Frank Higginson, Arthur James Scott Hutton, Noel Ackroyd Rew, and John Reginald Truelove. Other architects that worked for the commission, or won competitions for the Commission memorials, included George Salway Nicol, Harold Chalton Bradshaw, Verner Owen Rees, Gordon H. Holt, and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine.
In January 1944, Edward Maufe was appointed Principal Architect for the UK. Maufe worked extensively for the commission for 25 years until 1969, becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor. Together with Maufe, the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were Hubert Worthington, Louis de Soissons, Philip Hepworth and Colin St Clair Oakes.
Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War included Eric Henri Kennington, Charles Thomas Wheeler, Gilbert Ledward, and Charles Sargeant Jagger. Other sculptors, both in the inter-war period and after the Second World War, included William Reid Dick, Ernest Gillick, Basil Gotto, Alfred Turner, Laurence A. Turner, Walter Gilbert, Henry Poole, Vernon Hill, Robert Anning Bell, Ferdinand Victor Blundstone, Joseph Armitage, and Gilbert Bayes.
Cemetery design
Common architectural design features
Structural design has always played an important part in the commission's cemeteries. Apart from a few exceptions, due to local geological conditions, the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world. This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries.
A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought-iron gate entrance. For cemeteries in France and Belgium, a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments. All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials, a plan of the plots and rows, and a basic history of the cemetery. The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery. More recently, in larger sites, a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign. The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size.
The cemetery grounds are, except in drier climates, grass-covered with a floral border around the headstones. There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace. However, Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths.
Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance
Typically, cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain a Cross of Sacrifice designed by architect Reginald Blomfield. This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in the Celtic cross. The cross is normally a freestanding four-point limestone Latin cross, mounted on an octagonal base, and ranging in height from . A bronze longsword, blade down, is embedded on the face of the cross. This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery, intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self-sacrifice.
Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance, designed by Edwin Lutyens with the inscription "Their name liveth for evermore". The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by Rudyard Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively. In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice, the design for the stone deliberately avoided "shapes associated with particular religions". The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon. Each stone is long and high. The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar. The feature was designed using the principle of entasis. The subtle curves in the design, if extended, would form a sphere in diameter.
Headstones
Every grave is marked with a headstone. Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives. The headstones use a standard upper case lettering designed by MacDonald Gill. Individual graves are arranged, where possible, in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones, the vast majority of which are made of Portland stone. The original headstone dimensions were tall, wide, and thick.
Most headstones are inscribed with a cross, except for those deceased known to be atheist or non-Christian. In the case of burials of Victoria Cross or George Cross recipients, the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem. Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because he was too young to serve or was sought by law enforcement; in such cases his primary name is shown along with the notation "served as". Some American citizens who served with Commonwealth forces during the Second World War have the notation "Of U.S.A.". Those whose's exact burial location within a cemetery is not known will contain the superscript "Buried elsewhere in this Cemetery", "Known to be buried in this cemetery" or "Believed to be buried in this cemetery". Many headstones are for unidentified casualties; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body. The epitaph, developed by Rudyard Kipling, that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is "A Soldier of the Great War known unto God". Some headstones bear the text "believed to be buried in this cemetery" when the grave's exact location within the cemetery is not known. In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave. The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date, and even then only if it is known, and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death.
Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the commission to deviate from its standard design. In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes, such as Thailand and Turkey, stone-faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones. These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground. In Italy, headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply. In Struma Military Cemetery, in Greece, to avoid risk of earthquake damage, small headstones are laid flush to the ground. Due to their smaller size, the markers often lack unit insignia.
Horticulture
Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treating floriculture as an integral part of the cemetery design. Originally, the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting, in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards. Recommendations given by Arthur William Hill, the Assistant Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew enabled the commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life. Combining structural and horticultural elements were not unfamiliar to the commission's architects. Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long-standing working relationship with horticulturist Gertrude Jekyll, whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries. Where possible, indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home.
Variety in texture, height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations. The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture of floribunda roses and herbaceous perennials. Low-growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones, ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain. In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers, dwarf varieties of plants are used instead.
The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs. Lawn paths add to the garden ambience and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain. Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical, dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the commission's horticulturists, as is the case in Iraq. Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns but also to plants and styles of planting. Similarly, there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates. When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area, like along the Western Front or Gallipoli peninsula, mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base. Elsewhere, larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part-time.
Organisation
Commissioners
The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners. The President of the board is HRH Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the Chairman is the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for Defence Ben Wallace MP and the Vice Chairman is Lieutenant General Sir Bill Rollo. Claire Horton was appointed Director-General of the CWGC in 2020
The members are: the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom, Bede Corry; the High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom, George Brandis; the High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom, Nomatemba Tambo; the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom, Gaitri Issar Kumar; the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom, Ralph E. Goodale; Keryn James; Sir Tim Hitchens; Vice Admiral Peter Hudson; Hon Philip Dunne; Dame Diana Johnson; Vasuki Shastry; Dame Judith Mayhew Jonas; Air Marshal David Walker.
Functional structure
The CWGC is headquartered in Maidenhead, England. Offices or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation. They are:
United Kingdom and Northern Area - UKNA: responsible for United Kingdom, Ireland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Gibraltar, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Russia (West) / Ukraine
Central and Southern Europe Area - C&SEA: responsible for Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Poland, Austria, Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Malta, North Macedonia Republic, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Greece
France Area - FA: responsible for France, Switzerland, Monaco, Spain, Portugal, Azores, Madeira
Canada, Americas and Pacific Area - CAPA: responsible for Canada, USA, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Falkland Islands, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Netherland Antilles, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela, Virgin Islands, British China (including Hong Kong), Fiji, Japan, Philippines, Russia Vladivostok, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand
Africa and Asia Area - AAA: responsible for Armenia, Bangladesh, Botswana, British Indian Ocean Territories, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chad, Congo, Congo (Democratic Republic), Cote d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Swasiland (Eswatini), Ethiopia, Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Iran, Iraq, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia (including Somaliland), South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Helena and Ascension, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Israel and Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Bahrain
Financing
The CWGC's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states. In the fiscal year 2020/21, these grants amounted to £66.1 million of the organisation's £74.5 million of income. This equates to an approximate cost of per commemorated war dead. The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country. The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and India .
Ongoing projects and issues
Reburials and identifications
Immediately following the First World War, the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains. The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12-man exhumation units. Between the Armistice and September 1921, the exhumation units reburied 204,695 bodies. After 1921, no further comprehensive search for bodies was undertaken, and in February 1921 responsibility for the cemeteries was transferred to the commission. Nevertheless, despite the rigour of the searches, bodies continued to be discovered in large numbers. In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38,000 bodies were discovered. In the mid 1920s, 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly.
The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence, with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually. For example, in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF were discovered in a backyard in Hallu, France. In April 2013, the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with a metal detector in 2009 were re-interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near Arras, France. In March 2014, the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in Vendin-le-Vieil, France, with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery. When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the commission is notified, and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artefacts that may help identify the individual. The details are then registered and archived at the commission's headquarters. Evidence used for identification purposes may include artifacts found with the remains, anthropological data and DNA.
Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically results in the identification of previously buried casualties. The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research. In December 2013, it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack, who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial, had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in Machelen, East Flanders in Belgium. Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovered a headstone of an unknown sergeant with the Hampshire Regiment killed on 20 July 1918, and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date. The In From The Cold Project has so far identified 6,000 individuals with either unmarked graves or names missing from the Roll of Honour maintained at Westminster Abbey. The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time.
Vandalism
Cemeteries, including those of war dead, are targets for vandalism. The gravestones, cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception. The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the work of young people, noting that the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays. Metal theft is also a problem: determined thieves target the bronze swords from the Cross of Sacrifice, which are now replaced with replicas made of fibreglass.
The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts. In the 1970s, during the Troubles, Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism. Vandals defaced the central memorial of the Étaples Military Cemetery in northern France with anti-British and anti-American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the Iraq War. On 9 May 2004, thirty-three headstones were demolished in the Gaza cemetery, which contains 3,691 graves, allegedly in retaliation for the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal. On 24 February 2012, during the Libyan Civil War, Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in the Benghazi war cemetery, as well as the central memorial.
Inequalities in commemoration
In April 2021, a special committee of the CWGC published a report on historical inequalities in commemoration, concerning "failures to properly commemorate black and Asian troops" after the First World War. A set of public statements by CWGC and the Special Committee on the issue and the next steps to be taken were published on the CWGC website, and the Defence Secretary Ben Wallace made an official apology in the House of Commons.
See also
American Battle Monuments Commission
German War Graves Commission
World War I memorials
Notes
References
External links
CWGC official website
Maple Leaf Legacy Project
South Africa War Graves Project
United Kingdom National Inventory of War Memorials
New Zealand Memorials Register, Ministry of Culture & Heritage
Presentation on the history of the CWGC by Julie Summers
Australian military cemeteries
British military memorials and cemeteries
Canadian military memorials and cemeteries
Indian military memorials and cemeteries
New Zealand military memorials and cemeteries
South African military memorials and cemeteries
Intergovernmental organizations
Organisations based in Berkshire
Commonwealth Family
Government agencies established in 1917
Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II | [
0.9275740385055542,
0.322564035654068,
-0.19199417531490326,
-0.47187480330467224,
-0.28242847323417664,
0.34228837490081787,
0.34203046560287476,
0.39733612537384033,
-0.615825355052948,
0.1825893670320511,
-0.4900176525115967,
-0.4054245054721832,
0.3788202404975891,
1.0883430242538452,
0.08377351611852646,
0.5519499182701111,
-0.06641434878110886,
0.23864276707172394,
0.3859483003616333,
0.1645558923482895,
-0.3986324965953827,
-0.23153568804264069,
-0.2504337728023529,
0.13020223379135132,
0.12485677003860474,
0.16176718473434448,
0.6212196946144104,
-0.16859504580497742,
-0.4483169913291931,
-0.5121997594833374,
0.5524484515190125,
0.4125775098800659,
0.4201936423778534,
-0.6566528081893921,
0.179748997092247,
-0.6008368730545044,
-0.24933479726314545,
-0.5695739984512329,
-0.24554826319217682,
-0.6256963014602661,
0.32163307070732117,
-0.27714985609054565,
-0.1325691193342209,
0.24440735578536987,
-0.17846155166625977,
-0.27320897579193115,
-0.4365275204181671,
0.4699137210845947,
-0.10038021206855774,
0.24481721222400665,
-0.6268906593322754,
0.15954403579235077,
0.045066267251968384,
0.07960918545722961,
0.8624833226203918,
0.5889983177185059,
-0.535201370716095,
-1.0838381052017212,
0.3615323603153229,
-0.31002673506736755,
0.590957522392273,
-0.10715921223163605,
0.39731717109680176,
0.34531253576278687,
0.10980655252933502,
-0.49190738797187805,
0.10523346811532974,
0.8069736957550049,
-0.09728879481554031,
-0.6743015050888062,
-0.046214547008275986,
-0.08618580549955368,
0.20859363675117493,
0.5190435647964478,
-0.5826159119606018,
-0.01726129837334156,
0.5677610039710999,
-0.49248388409614563,
0.2885891795158386,
-0.10364323854446411,
0.3430575430393219,
0.04839051887392998,
0.2457769364118576,
0.36036428809165955,
0.6961890459060669,
0.12260789424180984,
-0.6290355920791626,
-0.19754686951637268,
-0.2039889395236969,
0.9250684976577759,
-0.047522589564323425,
0.13791008293628693,
0.7800525426864624,
-0.46142497658729553,
-0.10293670743703842,
-0.1889040619134903,
0.03323439881205559,
0.07009605318307877,
0.5876185297966003,
0.153279110789299,
-0.4657658040523529,
0.35855746269226074,
-0.547656774520874,
-0.10241023451089859,
-0.6766178607940674,
-0.2549927234649658,
-0.5506013035774231,
-0.5511630177497864,
0.22073787450790405,
-0.008321334607899189,
0.11908017843961716,
-0.5893421173095703,
0.014796524308621883,
0.18838343024253845,
-0.2322046011686325,
-0.3097470998764038,
0.7678447961807251,
-1.0294996500015259,
-0.5068314075469971,
0.45143404603004456,
-0.2728211283683777,
0.425966739654541,
-0.2077985554933548,
-0.2168988138437271,
0.06079038232564926,
0.218161478638649,
1.1011295318603516,
0.16597937047481537,
-0.9174428582191467,
-0.08448487520217896,
0.1515466868877411,
0.7155206799507141,
-0.6811631917953491,
-0.3829067051410675,
0.021544678136706352,
-0.5439276695251465,
-0.5385819673538208,
-0.21315079927444458,
0.3142765164375305,
0.13621903955936432,
-0.6941359043121338,
-0.20689965784549713,
-0.5025850534439087,
-0.005000482778996229,
0.7029497027397156,
0.5070406198501587,
-0.6140105128288269,
-0.38137924671173096,
-0.1870483011007309,
-0.024652553722262383,
0.04757733643054962,
-0.09048188477754593,
0.24363254010677338,
-0.6560639142990112,
-0.8177530169487,
0.7433323264122009,
0.7425578832626343,
-0.19561129808425903,
0.5359369516372681,
0.5019068121910095,
0.1620885133743286,
-0.18215985596179962,
0.048511434346437454,
-0.062357936054468155,
0.056982580572366714,
0.6758363246917725,
0.3199465274810791,
0.33550578355789185,
-0.11149775981903076,
-0.44141584634780884,
-0.5885040163993835,
-0.22255676984786987,
0.6072722673416138,
-0.5851828455924988,
-0.35917866230010986,
-0.26199617981910706,
0.9035969376564026,
0.33760756254196167,
0.37519460916519165,
-0.12077067047357559,
-0.5783221125602722,
0.1117221936583519,
-0.4339786469936371,
0.23835116624832153,
-0.07574007660150528,
0.1678745597600937,
-0.22294069826602936,
-0.703941822052002,
-0.3726578950881958,
0.47546103596687317,
-0.31882959604263306,
-0.7438511848449707,
0.22891366481781006,
-0.26729294657707214,
1.0132180452346802,
-0.18044863641262054,
0.0730656087398529,
0.4515814483165741,
-0.37384894490242004,
0.4224768877029419,
-0.012618915177881718,
0.12743079662322998,
0.4848182499408722,
-0.04934736713767052,
-0.7457290887832642,
0.20520755648612976,
0.27612581849098206,
0.026071755215525627,
0.48726290464401245,
-0.19416587054729462,
0.1105763167142868,
-0.5377963185310364,
0.02367674559354782,
0.42734628915786743,
0.059481389820575714,
-0.13434895873069763,
-0.24383234977722168,
0.20839254558086395,
0.24164389073848724,
-0.749370276927948,
0.3404787480831146,
0.44050559401512146,
0.43952131271362305,
0.470658540725708,
-0.003834664821624756,
0.03480701893568039,
-0.5354230403900146,
0.372270792722702,
0.13645252585411072,
-0.8412875533103943,
0.4026808440685272,
0.0005021208198741078,
-0.15674664080142975,
-0.34145623445510864,
-0.3238748013973236,
-0.248477503657341,
0.020678602159023285,
-0.6010863780975342,
-0.09933049976825714,
0.3734387755393982,
-0.3294000029563904,
-0.10521093010902405,
-0.18557320535182953,
-0.34554675221443176,
-0.25623589754104614,
0.016467127948999405,
-0.06386980414390564,
-0.3043070137500763,
0.008817354217171669,
0.381314218044281,
0.2528417706489563,
0.772214949131012,
0.2979360818862915,
0.05688619986176491,
0.5980246067047119,
-0.05237393453717232,
0.14974015951156616,
-0.8296276926994324,
-0.23226888477802277,
-0.18590626120567322,
0.03257128596305847,
-0.22955793142318726,
-0.08461940288543701,
0.3954048156738281,
0.3173482120037079,
-0.7947931885719299,
-0.24116450548171997,
-0.267270028591156,
0.3939814567565918,
-0.016693031415343285,
0.7116157412528992,
-0.07065262645483017,
0.06260858476161957,
0.2566671073436737,
0.06123892962932587,
0.06273333728313446,
0.4336285889148712,
0.2578865587711334,
-0.02214857190847397,
-0.37951570749282837,
-0.40777698159217834,
-0.14571204781532288,
-0.24299326539039612,
-0.05520867183804512,
-0.4922082722187042,
0.17428350448608398,
-0.08159797638654709,
-0.06883974373340607,
-0.20695437490940094,
0.2778051197528839,
-0.4951850175857544,
0.2398374378681183,
0.3172597587108612,
0.06934472173452377,
0.27140769362449646,
0.02335534058511257,
-0.6358919739723206,
-0.08215110003948212,
0.24396763741970062,
-0.5406869649887085,
-0.9079223871231079,
0.792880117893219,
-0.04626321792602539,
-0.5739527344703674,
-0.09911508858203888,
0.509604811668396,
-0.5990743041038513,
-0.3682102859020233,
-5.374556064605713,
-0.08413344621658325,
-0.6837783455848694,
0.33004099130630493,
0.5603873133659363,
0.7274496555328369,
0.9561213850975037,
-0.350750595331192,
-0.19866637885570526,
-0.36620616912841797,
0.6077244877815247,
0.030794907361268997,
0.33318910002708435,
0.6104061007499695,
0.6815693378448486,
0.246331587433815,
0.19696518778800964,
0.02352355420589447,
0.2860521972179413,
0.12852640450000763,
0.08575013279914856,
-0.492453932762146,
0.3931320309638977,
0.5329393744468689,
-0.1273936927318573,
0.5522506833076477,
-0.6242690086364746,
0.5973997712135315,
-0.07267191261053085,
0.3455427289009094,
0.8003982901573181,
-0.5184366106987,
0.06285824626684189,
-0.1129390150308609,
-0.5813238620758057,
-0.08644592016935349,
0.01619979925453663,
0.994947075843811,
-0.11697065085172653,
-0.68402498960495,
-0.23127350211143494,
0.1720176786184311,
-0.4679110646247864,
-0.009639628231525421,
0.2326538860797882,
-0.5933389067649841,
-0.3691498339176178,
0.09047509729862213,
-0.5420569777488708,
1.0765416622161865,
0.2482798546552658,
0.35575100779533386,
0.22504906356334686,
-0.3271814286708832,
-0.8245607614517212,
-0.571600079536438,
0.12985146045684814,
-0.0011549571063369513,
-0.8032893538475037,
-0.2274860143661499,
-0.1534278243780136,
-0.3045404255390167,
0.23515497148036957,
0.13240928947925568,
-0.3157159686088562,
-0.09863569587469101,
-1.4481490850448608,
-0.5199280381202698,
0.2943562865257263,
-0.17954838275909424,
-0.3899293541908264,
0.22231970727443695,
-0.5878044366836548,
-0.5229635238647461,
-0.0043833074159920216,
-0.8121724724769592,
0.7998246550559998,
-0.0589430034160614,
0.3635994493961334,
0.0498778410255909,
0.0828298032283783,
-0.07653690129518509,
0.026775237172842026,
0.16065575182437897,
-0.10364491492509842,
-0.4141097664833069,
0.27360621094703674,
-0.1601455956697464,
0.40809449553489685,
-0.8860911726951599,
-0.17215248942375183,
-0.39837127923965454,
-0.021745622158050537,
0.6675459742546082,
-0.051652807742357254,
0.19271492958068848,
0.1350283920764923,
0.3327578008174896,
0.31706666946411133,
-0.11452043056488037,
0.43296289443969727,
-0.2923981845378876,
-0.40310928225517273,
-0.8675689101219177,
0.050084590911865234,
-0.5607728958129883,
0.027837704867124557,
-0.044232938438653946,
0.043152302503585815,
-0.041412096470594406,
0.03402676060795784,
-0.3791426122188568,
-0.09653119742870331,
-0.34698644280433655,
-0.26033568382263184,
-0.5425038933753967,
0.1441836804151535,
0.10168931633234024,
0.7426139712333679,
0.23670293390750885,
0.34012582898139954,
0.5816299319267273,
-0.14956341683864594,
0.45006197690963745,
0.607955276966095,
-0.1470521241426468,
0.13522186875343323,
-0.13334940373897552,
-0.02352430298924446,
-0.22712039947509766,
0.5813756585121155,
0.2825626730918884,
-0.4013376235961914,
0.5470600724220276,
0.11020594090223312,
0.006171247456222773,
-0.5222122073173523,
0.2751743197441101,
0.21909809112548828,
0.3276277184486389,
0.7318191528320312,
-0.3186136782169342,
-0.15497605502605438,
0.6853851675987244,
0.8530635833740234,
0.1749868243932724,
-0.4142131507396698,
-0.15329375863075256,
-0.18481478095054626,
0.1917838305234909,
-0.31393492221832275,
-0.016125554218888283,
0.11839238554239273,
0.03877080976963043,
-0.04226769134402275,
-0.33897969126701355,
0.19658823311328888,
0.9516170620918274,
-0.6220558881759644,
-0.6335965991020203,
-0.13975411653518677,
0.1055125966668129,
-0.9151922464370728,
0.00036945470492355525,
-0.033650241792201996,
-0.335768461227417,
-0.592910647392273,
-0.04984588921070099,
0.09363537281751633,
0.64556884765625,
0.018016386777162552,
-0.4082109034061432,
-0.5256613492965698,
-0.17713390290737152,
0.2055344432592392,
0.2369466871023178,
-0.4655657708644867,
0.2510385513305664,
0.005478718318045139,
-0.07516573369503021,
-0.45241662859916687,
0.0737132653594017,
-0.14132121205329895,
-0.21024583280086517,
0.29016202688217163,
0.29859820008277893,
0.14404931664466858,
0.06877028197050095,
0.13075502216815948,
-0.07201211899518967,
-0.16002458333969116,
-0.42703062295913696,
0.622348427772522,
0.30643296241760254,
-0.5826818346977234,
-0.3372837007045746,
0.10256803780794144,
0.13868938386440277,
0.13848091661930084,
-0.599029004573822,
0.702224612236023,
0.6344771981239319,
-0.44070324301719666,
-0.048414938151836395,
0.26894551515579224,
-0.7465736865997314,
-0.041337139904499054,
0.08400562405586243,
-0.2572149336338043,
0.5826694369316101,
-0.47136619687080383,
-0.02618246152997017,
-0.020789649337530136,
0.8949393630027771,
-0.5801514387130737,
-0.37631237506866455,
0.0712936595082283,
0.11520875245332718,
0.43678027391433716,
-0.2343847155570984,
-0.0015455539105460048,
0.554715096950531,
0.05828634649515152,
0.41234952211380005,
-0.8707877397537231,
0.7104918360710144,
0.44776707887649536,
-1.0610768795013428,
0.1870405524969101,
0.524236798286438,
-0.28576651215553284,
-0.4660325348377228,
-0.15821796655654907,
-0.12171871215105057,
0.29117724299430847,
0.055806029587984085,
-0.10129700601100922,
-0.027055716142058372,
0.17146746814250946,
0.39190423488616943,
-0.2508527934551239,
1.1036137342453003,
0.5640466213226318,
-1.3025466203689575,
0.02541603520512581,
0.35746756196022034,
0.19067251682281494,
-0.6664965748786926,
-0.05094599723815918,
0.45796969532966614,
-0.3913899064064026,
-0.07709787040948868,
-0.27737000584602356,
-0.5610455274581909,
0.2582348883152008,
-0.10425285249948502,
-0.3572792410850525,
-0.37497684359550476,
0.22252438962459564,
-0.27882078289985657,
0.5613929629325867,
-0.6813665628433228,
0.08235178142786026,
0.023732131347060204,
0.5590885877609253,
-0.5749282836914062,
-0.10402245819568634,
0.02623036690056324,
-0.1573258936405182,
-0.43198898434638977,
0.16997352242469788,
0.08322024345397949,
0.5668818354606628,
0.6282140612602234,
-0.04154953360557556,
-0.519264280796051,
0.12652269005775452,
-0.3961097300052643,
0.6014542579650879,
-0.4206824004650116,
-0.3784274756908417,
-0.38928642868995667,
0.2195286750793457,
0.14740554988384247,
0.424947589635849,
-1.0862863063812256,
-0.29696378111839294,
0.5428438782691956,
-0.17984797060489655,
-0.5644168257713318,
-0.4655507206916809,
0.000049679696530802175,
-0.021918443962931633,
0.5694584250450134,
-0.26050496101379395,
-0.39896848797798157,
-0.32756921648979187,
0.7025427222251892,
0.20948617160320282,
0.5697125196456909,
-0.5736033320426941,
0.5858986973762512,
-0.05354367569088936,
-0.5659400224685669,
0.20050203800201416,
0.08330709487199783,
-0.35884538292884827,
0.2289690226316452,
-0.43635162711143494,
0.32374128699302673,
0.4872044622898102,
-0.3572472631931305,
0.4670523405075073,
0.1964351087808609,
-0.10880743712186813,
-0.34743359684944153,
0.0058035277761518955,
-0.9426630735397339,
0.6768439412117004,
0.408480167388916,
-0.2778809070587158,
0.9954248666763306,
1.2942519187927246,
0.2374364733695984,
-0.47277775406837463,
0.41547927260398865,
-0.2500719428062439,
-0.29015055298805237,
0.4114722013473511,
0.15184487402439117,
-0.46069467067718506,
-0.39883214235305786,
-0.08528774231672287,
0.6473373770713806,
-0.10676775127649307,
-0.25357839465141296,
-0.20649901032447815,
-0.24160097539424896,
-0.11508467048406601,
1.169661045074463,
0.16545316576957703,
0.23621085286140442,
-0.31547069549560547,
0.19214914739131927,
-0.3673020601272583,
0.7009811401367188,
0.2025640308856964,
0.03635062277317047,
0.6476734280586243,
0.36807981133461,
0.6138829588890076,
0.12952081859111786,
0.6810031533241272,
0.2888769507408142,
0.6212126016616821,
0.2733568549156189,
0.08761676400899887,
-0.1119229719042778,
0.035431791096925735,
-0.043090544641017914,
-0.15411141514778137,
0.1751718372106552,
-0.3840641975402832,
0.3481680154800415,
-0.12772977352142334,
-0.1825753152370453,
0.8126031756401062,
-0.2438751608133316,
0.35587331652641296,
0.5523386597633362,
0.8260276913642883,
0.4983372688293457,
-0.7120829820632935,
0.19313408434391022,
0.17928427457809448,
-0.4371994733810425,
0.33199119567871094,
0.5051429867744446,
0.1187160536646843,
-0.5548281073570251,
-0.395624577999115,
0.13955645263195038,
0.4335545003414154,
-1.0835298299789429,
0.14050650596618652,
-0.7071177959442139,
0.2727958559989929,
0.15155425667762756,
0.3310752213001251,
0.027980687096714973,
0.11493800580501556,
-0.5298840403556824,
-0.2602654993534088,
-0.16378384828567505,
-0.7515332102775574,
-0.5037376284599304,
0.20032359659671783,
0.21701699495315552,
0.4845070242881775,
-0.09350211173295975,
-0.4459335207939148,
0.5127359628677368,
0.11635159701108932,
-0.05149678513407707,
-0.23765115439891815,
0.19221293926239014,
0.3371236324310303,
-0.45015233755111694,
-0.03199267014861107,
0.6969131827354431,
0.38238391280174255,
-0.543269693851471,
-0.48479095101356506,
-0.13417251408100128,
-0.8078892827033997,
-0.1632220596075058,
0.4305233657360077,
-0.4661286175251007,
-0.17080098390579224,
-0.584571123123169,
0.4082780182361603,
-0.26421457529067993,
-0.13749627768993378,
0.14681479334831238,
-0.19494950771331787,
-0.331466406583786,
1.151636004447937,
-0.33211034536361694,
0.2802371680736542,
0.7617878913879395,
-0.9751223921775818,
-0.5664991140365601,
-0.6459619402885437,
-0.31854915618896484,
0.08915615826845169,
-0.20989760756492615,
0.4522598385810852,
0.6378462910652161,
-0.01164092868566513,
-0.5719611048698425,
0.10758469998836517,
-0.28907233476638794,
0.3339586853981018,
-0.8693211078643799,
0.7610163688659668,
0.21377472579479218,
0.24536801874637604,
-0.1531442552804947,
-0.9381949305534363,
0.5979510545730591,
0.7749676704406738,
-0.11007872223854065,
0.09573192894458771,
-0.6909122467041016,
0.3352450728416443,
-0.2604202926158905,
0.11169416457414627,
-0.03101518005132675,
-0.1671406626701355,
0.33433642983436584
] |
233724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatification | Beatification | Beatification (from Latin beatus, "blessed" and facere, "to make”) is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a deceased person's entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in their name. Beati is the plural form, referring to those who have undergone the process of beatification; they possess the title of "Blessed" (abbreviation "Bl.") before their names and are often referred to in English as "a Blessed" or, plurally, "Blesseds".
History
Local bishops had the power of beatifying until 1634, when Pope Urban VIII, in the apostolic constitution Cœlestis Jerusalem of 6 July, reserved the power of beatifying to the Holy See.
Since the reforms of 1983, as a rule, one miracle must be confirmed to have taken place through the intercession of the person to be beatified. Miracles are almost always unexplainable medical healings, and are scientifically investigated by commissions comprising physicians and theologians.
The requirement of a miracle for beatification is waived in the case of someone whose martyrdom is formally declared by the Church.
The feast day for a beatified person is not universal, but is celebrated only by territories, religious institutes, or communities in which the person receives particular veneration. For instance, Saint Kateri Tekakwitha was especially honored in the United States and Canada during her time as Blessed. John Duns Scotus was honored among the Franciscans, in the Archdiocese of Cologne and other places. Similarly, veneration of Blessed Chiara Badano is particular to the Focolare movement.
Practices under the popes
Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) markedly changed previous Catholic practice of beatification. By October 2004, he had beatified 1,340 people, more than the sum of all of his predecessors since Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590), who established a beatification procedure similar to that used today.
John Paul II's successor, Pope Benedict XVI, personally celebrated the Beatification Mass for his predecessor at St. Peter's Basilica, on the Second Sunday of Easter, or Divine Mercy Sunday, on 1 May 2011, an event that drew more than one million people.
See also
Canonization (delineates the process of beatification)
Chronological list of saints and blesseds
List of saints
List of venerated Catholics
List of Servants of God
List of beatified people
List of people beatified by Pope Francis
List of people beatified by Pope Benedict XVI
List of people beatified by Pope John Paul II
References
Citations
Sources
De Meester, A., J.C.D., Juris Canonici et Juris Canonico-Civilis Compendium Nova Editio, Tomus Tertius, Pars Secunda (Brugis: Desclée de Brouwer et Sii, 1928)
Saunders, Rev. William (2003). "The Process of Becoming a Saint". Reprinted from Arlington Catholic Herald. Via Catholic Education Resource Center. catholiceducation.org.
Vatican website, with new procedures
External links
List of all Blesseds in the Catholic Church by GCatholic.org.
Catholic theology and doctrine
Posthumous recognitions
Canonization | [
-0.4639313817024231,
0.18839949369430542,
-0.14251185953617096,
-0.21796996891498566,
-0.10809040069580078,
0.4898826479911804,
1.1991283893585205,
0.34908968210220337,
-0.4832107424736023,
-0.42360496520996094,
-0.2686488628387451,
0.20499540865421295,
0.18649834394454956,
0.24801507592201233,
-0.4304893910884857,
-0.20034033060073853,
0.9500156044960022,
0.8161215782165527,
0.12036723643541336,
-0.9043592214584351,
0.055369310081005096,
-0.19369648396968842,
0.1808127611875534,
0.020032478496432304,
0.16274549067020416,
0.36873212456703186,
-0.4351680874824524,
-0.3331136703491211,
-0.6775621771812439,
-0.005157997366040945,
0.6328208446502686,
0.5995545387268066,
0.19953973591327667,
-0.38366231322288513,
-0.42153599858283997,
0.4104749858379364,
0.30529850721359253,
-0.5542302131652832,
-1.0320783853530884,
-0.2438964694738388,
0.1078786551952362,
-0.4611600935459137,
-0.23462051153182983,
0.20014934241771698,
-0.2810214161872864,
0.03449207544326782,
-1.50318443775177,
0.24228911101818085,
-0.6622070670127869,
-0.2362077236175537,
0.10188836604356766,
-0.39365050196647644,
-0.12797482311725616,
0.5120295882225037,
-0.23931851983070374,
0.6145822405815125,
-0.8824496865272522,
0.5162766575813293,
0.4817539155483246,
-0.799959123134613,
-0.20442573726177216,
0.31854480504989624,
0.7095872163772583,
-0.12303576618432999,
0.16624179482460022,
0.31764286756515503,
0.18435312807559967,
0.29181966185569763,
-0.4516686499118805,
-1.0268720388412476,
-0.27013257145881653,
-0.7417164444923401,
0.10574445128440857,
0.4398215413093567,
-0.5794317126274109,
-0.6649168729782104,
-0.22938163578510284,
-0.5077546238899231,
0.21339315176010132,
-0.32285863161087036,
-0.07173376530408859,
0.048284754157066345,
0.07305671274662018,
0.5130866169929504,
0.1858014315366745,
0.20203594863414764,
-0.08073557913303375,
0.015472487546503544,
-0.041829731315374374,
0.5601814389228821,
0.19453787803649902,
-0.10688305646181107,
0.18430854380130768,
0.38782766461372375,
0.2201777845621109,
0.1526198536157608,
0.5436190962791443,
-0.10048719495534897,
-0.16838675737380981,
-0.19443091750144958,
-0.19261237978935242,
-0.029510244727134705,
0.4183187782764435,
-0.3217393457889557,
0.18891824781894684,
-0.863507866859436,
-0.21615229547023773,
-0.05673287436366081,
0.4160114526748657,
0.1080368310213089,
-0.06371273100376129,
-0.4104342460632324,
-0.32544663548469543,
0.707489013671875,
-0.7606971859931946,
-0.4753870666027069,
-0.028732450678944588,
-0.5010883212089539,
-0.3213132619857788,
-0.05291260778903961,
0.537714958190918,
-0.1479727178812027,
0.2730918824672699,
-0.4103538691997528,
-0.13310928642749786,
0.38394030928611755,
1.109503149986267,
1.208791732788086,
-0.5352901816368103,
0.549429178237915,
-0.012638833373785019,
0.7581358551979065,
0.007356495130807161,
-0.3520624339580536,
0.22855828702449799,
-0.3225497901439667,
-0.29118064045906067,
-0.6044148802757263,
0.08207988739013672,
0.3022865056991577,
-0.9651191234588623,
-0.25263434648513794,
-0.3584096431732178,
-0.27764052152633667,
1.2808785438537598,
-0.5854471325874329,
0.18646174669265747,
0.17268317937850952,
-0.2243853360414505,
0.27995482087135315,
0.34963274002075195,
-0.14092709124088287,
-0.12700548768043518,
-0.13073012232780457,
-0.30964913964271545,
0.3172655403614044,
0.6730880737304688,
-0.5886476635932922,
-0.016758743673563004,
0.4324105679988861,
0.02727329544723034,
-0.2834930121898651,
0.34554463624954224,
-0.44103682041168213,
-0.035927023738622665,
0.23300807178020477,
0.46927309036254883,
0.4678213894367218,
-0.12992951273918152,
-0.22494906187057495,
-0.3787153959274292,
0.061843227595090866,
-0.22731883823871613,
-0.5531483888626099,
-0.5801610350608826,
0.31635844707489014,
0.9635770916938782,
-0.07258576899766922,
0.1283605843782425,
-0.17268390953540802,
-0.7418362498283386,
0.8640987873077393,
-0.38213875889778137,
0.2523108124732971,
0.3134458661079407,
0.03945665434002876,
-0.28392311930656433,
0.3589635491371155,
0.2593884766101837,
0.14860209822654724,
-1.074723243713379,
0.062331534922122955,
-0.22137106955051422,
-0.3053838312625885,
0.7232059240341187,
-0.3240739703178406,
-0.21742025017738342,
0.628003716468811,
-0.09768296033143997,
0.36881834268569946,
-0.015216312371194363,
0.3632332384586334,
0.19314616918563843,
0.1553933173418045,
-0.9669750332832336,
0.6609052419662476,
0.4184347689151764,
0.6118975281715393,
0.4588955342769623,
0.3135800063610077,
0.41750475764274597,
-0.18435883522033691,
0.0862228199839592,
0.0821865051984787,
-0.4562802016735077,
0.34568241238594055,
-0.21151238679885864,
-0.408584326505661,
0.02706688456237316,
-0.6142399311065674,
0.17177356779575348,
-0.36312335729599,
0.25077322125434875,
-0.22071494162082672,
-0.0342976376414299,
0.5932478904724121,
-0.4959132671356201,
0.2509743571281433,
0.2914496958255768,
-0.31407126784324646,
0.8745920062065125,
0.3419661521911621,
0.5367971658706665,
0.23392058908939362,
-1.2565809488296509,
0.1806025356054306,
0.28424152731895447,
-0.6461324691772461,
-0.20223991572856903,
-0.11185672879219055,
-0.18407872319221497,
0.44722890853881836,
0.45402786135673523,
0.018100982531905174,
0.0016473475843667984,
0.13948450982570648,
0.10835906118154526,
0.02580508030951023,
-0.1127048060297966,
0.32299235463142395,
0.3523665964603424,
0.0870354026556015,
0.35595017671585083,
-0.1883753091096878,
0.06548740714788437,
-0.24118952453136444,
-0.26675111055374146,
0.7359998226165771,
-0.3863142430782318,
-0.1733505129814148,
0.33118292689323425,
-0.6606172323226929,
0.7285568118095398,
0.2182781845331192,
-0.1612473428249359,
-0.3876171112060547,
-0.2531949579715729,
0.453093022108078,
0.14855368435382843,
0.4019812047481537,
-0.5034292340278625,
-0.1305442899465561,
-0.2723953127861023,
0.18541665375232697,
-0.2903171181678772,
-0.04737280681729317,
-0.05081281438469887,
0.7424007654190063,
-0.31094977259635925,
-0.5247485637664795,
-0.3395019769668579,
0.3478414714336395,
-0.37471067905426025,
-0.27294400334358215,
-0.7454990744590759,
-0.07532116025686264,
-0.10247492790222168,
-0.9938945174217224,
-0.42798444628715515,
0.3645145893096924,
-0.848111093044281,
0.08080746233463287,
0.4368573725223541,
0.24940533936023712,
0.5070698857307434,
-0.44137001037597656,
0.29856470227241516,
-0.09260690957307816,
0.19148120284080505,
-0.12346234172582626,
-0.23082630336284637,
0.008162321522831917,
0.5069164633750916,
0.19705387949943542,
0.3403140902519226,
0.4714181423187256,
-0.16667106747627258,
0.1913793832063675,
-5.439334869384766,
0.07680687308311462,
-0.014001901261508465,
-0.18494552373886108,
-0.39188188314437866,
0.5391579270362854,
0.6835964322090149,
-0.04544393718242645,
0.068182572722435,
0.20611152052879333,
0.6653379201889038,
0.0717322900891304,
0.798547625541687,
0.8485791087150574,
-0.03853600472211838,
-0.07039743661880493,
-0.21708327531814575,
-0.0760529637336731,
-0.14471648633480072,
-0.18356218934059143,
0.2068326324224472,
-0.15941110253334045,
0.1649283915758133,
0.8636119365692139,
0.08350086957216263,
0.39261502027511597,
-0.5332828760147095,
1.03908109664917,
-0.5022425651550293,
0.04026241973042488,
0.977276086807251,
-0.14600518345832825,
-0.14259956777095795,
-0.30680376291275024,
-0.663029670715332,
0.431236207485199,
0.3911494314670563,
-0.2276208996772766,
0.5093767642974854,
-0.4853816032409668,
-0.39781907200813293,
-0.4407927691936493,
-0.632088303565979,
0.13340067863464355,
-0.11098537594079971,
-0.34827515482902527,
-0.32883167266845703,
0.21239620447158813,
0.1888861060142517,
0.5853649377822876,
-0.3099151849746704,
-0.12649433314800262,
-0.25853678584098816,
-0.07587143778800964,
0.5174311399459839,
0.19651229679584503,
0.07492361217737198,
-0.055480267852544785,
-0.49016281962394714,
-0.11031539738178253,
0.27887406945228577,
0.08684415370225906,
-0.28434354066848755,
0.0687599629163742,
0.11991729587316513,
0.27027589082717896,
-1.3933340311050415,
-0.5137441754341125,
0.2932620644569397,
0.13172368705272675,
-0.2976483106613159,
0.3038347065448761,
0.008752494119107723,
-0.8754256963729858,
0.2370889037847519,
-0.26333266496658325,
-0.0876365602016449,
0.4716278612613678,
-0.16619755327701569,
-0.10094954073429108,
-0.04810800403356552,
-0.18614204227924347,
0.24470961093902588,
-0.01166627649217844,
0.4861114025115967,
0.49083685874938965,
-0.14619264006614685,
0.3584173023700714,
-0.3416411280632019,
-0.11479745805263519,
0.559341549873352,
-0.2843950688838959,
-0.22745397686958313,
-0.02383749559521675,
-0.275241494178772,
0.9352512955665588,
-0.002593573182821274,
0.24705204367637634,
0.694012463092804,
0.1496720314025879,
-0.5321089029312134,
-0.07132193446159363,
0.7720930576324463,
-0.009515614248812199,
-0.07444154471158981,
-0.7658414244651794,
-0.7358489036560059,
0.6348209977149963,
0.2533858120441437,
-0.39577236771583557,
0.22410602867603302,
-0.39736881852149963,
-0.14841017127037048,
-0.16373838484287262,
0.17069900035858154,
0.49096229672431946,
-0.11955484002828598,
-0.09662819653749466,
0.5698237419128418,
0.3737238049507141,
0.7985153794288635,
0.029237858951091766,
-0.3978687524795532,
0.22346003353595734,
-0.0412815622985363,
0.22589287161827087,
-0.28410622477531433,
0.6300972700119019,
0.1552543044090271,
-0.10123284161090851,
0.29790639877319336,
0.4293877184391022,
0.0000060579336604860146,
0.3012184500694275,
0.4150570034980774,
-0.5097844004631042,
-0.15024112164974213,
-0.2638402581214905,
-0.07376410812139511,
-0.22688131034374237,
-0.0360216461122036,
-0.46406492590904236,
-1.1009624004364014,
-0.07058032602071762,
0.7171205878257751,
0.2533150017261505,
-0.39355701208114624,
-0.34996309876441956,
-0.0304272323846817,
0.6637024283409119,
0.10104937851428986,
-0.4241960644721985,
0.15246982872486115,
-0.6449031233787537,
-0.4129563271999359,
0.2062990963459015,
0.1390973925590515,
0.5018227696418762,
-0.2785240709781647,
-0.2621472477912903,
-0.729137659072876,
-0.5028261542320251,
-0.7768175005912781,
-0.5912602543830872,
-0.09583081305027008,
-0.236886128783226,
-0.11371076852083206,
-0.5296443700790405,
-0.7442716360092163,
0.5685142874717712,
0.2207190841436386,
-0.3348767161369324,
-0.7237877249717712,
-0.5653972625732422,
0.3434750437736511,
0.06256459653377533,
0.41320568323135376,
0.17382700741291046,
0.15519677102565765,
0.2669757008552551,
0.32493317127227783,
-0.9001767635345459,
-0.032597701996564865,
-0.16992007195949554,
0.1773611456155777,
-0.10596022754907608,
0.25954610109329224,
-0.49735528230667114,
-0.4201352298259735,
-0.535184919834137,
-0.3211688697338104,
-0.16653117537498474,
-0.11875153332948685,
0.3556169271469116,
-0.3717804551124573,
-0.65040123462677,
-0.37412363290786743,
-0.014160036109387875,
0.20963150262832642,
-0.033675212413072586,
-0.018621008843183517,
-0.07146917283535004,
-0.619334876537323,
-0.0555557943880558,
0.6051856279373169,
-0.73967444896698,
0.37749361991882324,
0.48862671852111816,
-0.35770130157470703,
0.3903714418411255,
0.08374212682247162,
-0.3218638002872467,
0.05411085486412048,
1.7970185279846191,
-0.4700341820716858,
-0.29810407757759094,
0.14379028975963593,
-0.3024562895298004,
-0.753369152545929,
-0.7034904956817627,
-0.042378854006528854,
0.3639467656612396,
0.1874603033065796,
0.2972434163093567,
-0.14604417979717255,
0.1103305071592331,
0.47211161255836487,
-1.1675679683685303,
0.37017348408699036,
0.3864707350730896,
-0.20844115316867828,
0.142033651471138,
-0.6392143368721008,
-0.17768603563308716,
-0.16203078627586365,
-0.30392971634864807,
0.11498315632343292,
0.028315430507063866,
-0.22411173582077026,
-0.20689620077610016,
0.2354859560728073,
0.8071373105049133,
0.2139935940504074,
-0.52366703748703,
-0.1938123255968094,
0.40724578499794006,
-0.7573112845420837,
-0.55658358335495,
0.32347989082336426,
0.5891008377075195,
0.30565547943115234,
0.36184510588645935,
0.25606009364128113,
-0.38043463230133057,
-0.14187519252300262,
-1.0304824113845825,
-0.41096776723861694,
-0.22115278244018555,
0.4058566987514496,
0.5317740440368652,
0.8040845990180969,
-0.06661025434732437,
0.05123807489871979,
-0.03677339851856232,
0.1477883905172348,
0.1435573697090149,
0.059705156832933426,
0.2927844226360321,
0.11262113600969315,
-0.8520088195800781,
-0.04797453433275223,
0.20037733018398285,
0.0726739913225174,
-0.11800028383731842,
-0.5732228755950928,
0.6468731164932251,
-0.02729838155210018,
-0.041064973920583725,
0.124934621155262,
-0.3129223883152008,
0.18199019134044647,
0.07122467458248138,
-0.3596179485321045,
-0.2511105537414551,
0.360097199678421,
-1.2586172819137573,
0.5140842199325562,
-0.015820296481251717,
-0.13716669380664825,
-0.165980264544487,
-0.6330550909042358,
-0.1965242326259613,
0.07891489565372467,
0.9266791939735413,
-0.08241458237171173,
-0.03729364275932312,
-0.01800708658993244,
0.15589727461338043,
-0.1574656069278717,
-0.511820912361145,
-0.18252095580101013,
0.35564124584198,
0.2332369089126587,
-1.2746750116348267,
-0.2942243218421936,
0.21350450813770294,
0.5812543034553528,
0.17319433391094208,
-0.17038944363594055,
0.09878765791654587,
0.36919501423835754,
-0.4494991600513458,
0.16058875620365143,
0.39884963631629944,
0.21080879867076874,
0.12016454339027405,
0.038949478417634964,
-0.21471194922924042,
-0.1473914086818695,
0.29530900716781616,
-0.0708330050110817,
0.15602460503578186,
0.6391083002090454,
-0.19840814173221588,
0.045782726258039474,
0.49825966358184814,
-0.43512263894081116,
0.2928682863712311,
0.035001497715711594,
0.3644745945930481,
0.5374994277954102,
0.2173585146665573,
-0.40371453762054443,
0.2955123484134674,
-0.19992423057556152,
-0.6780214309692383,
0.6109065413475037,
-0.48849132657051086,
-0.2317223846912384,
0.55520099401474,
0.24212275445461273,
0.3512761890888214,
0.2448611706495285,
0.618107795715332,
-0.7954047322273254,
0.5235864520072937,
-0.6052168607711792,
0.28977593779563904,
0.2697560489177704,
-0.017108522355556488,
-0.3710005283355713,
0.48370108008384705,
0.021970517933368683,
0.35279926657676697,
0.847305953502655,
-0.06947612017393112,
0.7583270072937012,
-0.3249410092830658,
-0.6928752660751343,
-0.2701736390590668,
-0.16143567860126495,
-0.004343604668974876,
0.7215877771377563,
0.13589924573898315,
0.37154847383499146,
-0.21204377710819244,
0.027688827365636826,
-0.267108678817749,
-0.5377086997032166,
0.13879439234733582,
0.12771551311016083,
-0.0748700499534607,
-0.2196960747241974,
0.20962898433208466,
0.5442896485328674,
0.17837399244308472,
0.39189618825912476,
0.02311119996011257,
0.30834123492240906,
-0.06679350137710571,
0.006379750557243824,
-0.15761274099349976,
-0.5193825364112854,
-0.6668686270713806,
-0.47943297028541565,
0.23350343108177185,
0.1872529834508896,
0.623192548751831,
0.23947598040103912,
0.2197076678276062,
0.12783053517341614,
0.2388581484556198,
-0.004285698290914297,
0.2189732939004898,
-0.3764929175376892,
0.0015407144092023373,
0.5715454816818237,
0.6556586027145386,
0.05568313971161842,
-0.21797233819961548,
-0.35062146186828613,
-0.018521321937441826,
-0.06691247224807739,
-0.09796649217605591,
-0.8129246234893799,
-0.10856986790895462,
0.28758442401885986,
-0.15434113144874573,
-0.7225678563117981,
0.015269539318978786,
0.28787586092948914,
-0.48585978150367737,
-0.36346712708473206,
0.010177678428590298,
0.12872378528118134,
-0.45785266160964966,
0.09687665849924088,
-0.2898409962654114,
0.6754506230354309,
-0.9348320960998535,
0.5565956830978394,
-0.04959818720817566,
0.31183552742004395,
0.7133572101593018,
0.01204057689756155,
-0.10712480545043945,
0.5704095959663391,
-0.3535271883010864,
-0.3165798783302307,
0.4410533308982849,
-0.6451214551925659,
0.6098806262016296,
-0.4779318869113922,
0.2656594216823578,
-0.07934577763080597,
0.07915543019771576,
0.56827312707901,
-0.1241646260023117,
0.04929424077272415,
-0.8008670210838318,
0.07479862123727798,
0.39948129653930664,
-0.2615202069282532,
0.38545697927474976,
-0.1037723571062088,
0.12233376502990723,
-0.46745768189430237,
-0.1759088784456253,
-0.4277200698852539,
0.020578065887093544,
0.4073929190635681,
0.3406437337398529,
0.6110815405845642,
-0.6457890868186951,
0.17502862215042114,
-0.47644710540771484,
0.06863091140985489,
-0.15067584812641144,
0.2124963253736496,
0.58927983045578
] |
233729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijuana%20Cartel | Tijuana Cartel | The Tijuana Cartel (Spanish: Cártel de Tijuana) or Arellano-Félix-Organization (Spanish: Organización Arellano Félix, AFO) is a Mexican drug cartel based in Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico. Founded by the Arellano-Felix family, the cartel once was described as "one of the biggest and most violent criminal groups in Mexico". However, since the 2006 Sinaloa Cartel incursion in Baja California and the fall of the Arellano-Félix brothers, the Tijuana Cartel has been reduced to a few cells. In 2016, the organization became known as Cartel Tijuana Nueva Generación (New Generation Tijuana Cartel) and began to align itself under the Jalisco New Generation Cartel, along with Beltrán Leyva Organization (BLO) to create an anti-Sinaloa alliance, in which the Jalisco New Generation Cartel heads. This alliance has since dwindled as the Tijuana Cartel, Jalisco New Generation Cartel and Sinaloa Cartel all now battle each other for trafficking influence in the city of Tijuana and the region of Baja California.
History
Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, the founder of the Guadalajara Cartel, was arrested in 1989. While incarcerated, he remained one of Mexico's major traffickers, maintaining his organization via mobile phone until he was transferred to a new maximum security prison in the 1990s. At that point, his old organization broke up into three factions: the Tijuana Cartel led by his nephews, the Arellano Félix brothers, the Juarez Cartel, led by Amado Carrillo Fuentes, and the Sinaloa Cartel, run by former lieutenants Héctor Luis Palma Salazar and Joaquín Guzmán Loera, a.k.a. El Chapo.
Currently, the majority of Mexico's smuggling routes are controlled by three key cartels: Gulf, Sinaloa and Tijuana—though Tijuana is the least powerful. The Tijuana cartel was further weakened in August 2006 when its chief, Javier Arellano Félix, was arrested by the U.S. Coast Guard on a boat off the coast of Baja California. Mexican army troops were sent to Tijuana in January 2007 in an operation to restore order to the border city and root out corrupt police officers, who mostly were cooperating with the Tijuana cartel. As a result of these efforts, the Tijuana cartel is unable to project much power outside of its base in Tijuana. Much of the violence that emerged in 2008 in Tijuana was a result of conflicts within the Tijuana cartel: on one side, the faction led by Teodoro García Simental (a.k.a. El Teo) favored kidnappings. The other faction, led by Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano (a.k.a. El Ingeniero), focused primarily on drug trafficking. The faction led by Sánchez Arellano demanded the reduction of the kidnappings in Tijuana, but his demands were rejected by García Simental, resulting in high levels of violence. Nonetheless, most of the victims in Tijuana were white-collar entrepreneurs, and the kidnappings were bringing "too much heat on organized crime" and disrupting the criminal enterprises and interests of the cartel.
The Mexican federal government responded by implementing "Operation Tijuana", a coordination carried out between the Mexican military and the municipal police forces in the area. To put down the violence, InSight Crime states that a pact was probably created between military officials and members of the Sánchez Arellano faction to eliminate Simental's group. The U.S. authorities speculated through WikiLeaks in 2009 that Tijuana's former police boss, Julián Leyzaola, had made agreements with Sánchez Arellano to bring relative peace in Tijuana. With the arrest of El Teo in January 2010, much of his faction was eliminated from the city of Tijuana; some of its remains went off and joined with the Sinaloa Cartel. But much of the efforts done between 2008 and 2010 in Tijuana would not have been possible without the coordination of local police forces and the Mexican military – and possibly with a cartel truce – to put down the violence.
The relative peace in the city of Tijuana in 2010–2012 has raised speculations of a possible agreement between the Tijuana Cartel and the Sinaloa Cartel to maintain peace in the area. According to Mexican and U.S. authorities, most of Tijuana is under the dominance of the Sinaloa cartel, while Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano of the Tijuana cartel remains the "head of that puppet empire". To be exact, experts told InSight Crime that the peace exists because Joaquín Guzmán Loera wants it that way, and argued that his organization—the Sinaloa Cartel—has become spread too thin with its wars with Los Zetas and the Juárez Cartel and that opening a third war would be inconvenient. The Tijuana cartel, however, has something their rivals do not have: a long-time family with business and political connections throughout the city. InSight Crime believes that this could explain why the Sinaloa cartel has left Sánchez Arellano as the figurehead, since it might be too costly for El Chapo financially and politically to make a final push. Moreover, the Tijuana cartel charges a toll ("piso") on the Sinaloa cartel for trafficking drugs in their territory, which serves as an illustration of the Tijuana cartel's continued hegemony as a local group. Despite the series of high-ranking arrests the cartel suffered throughout 2011–2012, its ability to maintain a highly centralized criminal infrastructure shows how difficult it is to uproot cartels who have long-established their presence in a community.
Despite being a shell of what it once was in the early 2000s along with the capture of several top suspected members of the Tijuana Cartel, the group appears to retain significant control in the state of Baja California.
In June 2020, it was reported that the Sinaloa Cartel controlled much of the Tijuana Cartel's former territory and that an alliance with the Jalisco New Generation Cartel, which also resulted in the cartel being rebranded as Tijuana Cartel New Generation (Cartel de Tijuana Nueva Generación), but this alliance disintegrated very quickly when the Jalisco Cartel showed it intended to take the place of the Sinaloa cartel rather than aid in helping the Tijuana Cartel reestablish dominance and independence. As a result the Tijuana Cartel reversed their branding back to Cartel Arellano Félix and arranged the assassination of Cabo 33 the Jalisco Cartel's head of operations in Baja California, after effectively removing the Jalisco Cartel's influence in Baja California the Tijuana Cartel has further engaged the Sinaloa Cartel for control of Tijuana plaza and its surrounding areas. With the imminent release of El Ingeniero and the current consolidations with in Baja California as well as an alliance with Rafa Caro Quintero and the Sonora plaza its speculated the Tijuana Cartel may again rise and surpass both the Gulf and Juarez Cartel's who along with the Sinaloa Cartel are suffering greatly from internal strife.
In November 2020 it was reported emissaries from the Los Chapitos faction of the Sinaloa Cartel had been seen in Tijuana attempting to form an alliance with the now resurgent Tijuana Cartel. Following the defection of El Mayo's head of operations in Tijuana and the reintegration of its Cabo San Lucas branch it is evident that the Arellano Félix Organization has retaken control of its Tijuana hotbed from outside influences as well as other important hubs in Baja California leaving Mexicali and Rosarito as the last known Sinaloa Cartel outposts in Baja California Norte though how long they will remain under Sinaloan control is debatable with the rapid defection of Sinaloa Cartel operators in traditionally Arellano Félix territories.
Organization
The Arellano Félix family was initially composed of seven brothers and four sisters, who inherited the organization from Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo upon his incarceration in Mexico in 1989 for his complicity in the murder of DEA Special Agent Enrique Camarena. The brothers' death and arrests during the 2000s did impact the Arellano Félix cartel, but they did not dismantle the organization.
The Tijuana Cartel has infiltrated the Mexican law enforcement and judicial systems and is directly involved in street-level trafficking within the United States. This criminal organization is responsible for the transportation, importation, and distribution of multi-ton quantities of cocaine and marijuana, as well as large quantities of heroin and methamphetamine.
The organization has a reputation for extreme violence. Ramón Arellano Félix ordered a hit which resulted in the mass murder of 18 people in Ensenada, Baja California, on September 17, 1998. Ramón was eventually killed in a gun battle with police at Mazatlán in Sinaloa, on February 10, 2002.
The Arellano Félix family has seven brothers:
Rafael Arellano Félix† (born 24 October 1949) – captured (1993), released (2008), murdered on 18 October 2013
Benjamín Arellano Félix (born 3 December 1952) – captured on March 9, 2002, extradited on April 29, 2011
Carlos Arellano Félix (born 20 August 1955) – not currently wanted
Eduardo Arellano Félix (born 11 October 1956) – captured on October 26, 2008, extradited on August 31, 2012
Ramón Arellano Félix† (born 31 August 1964) – deceased, shot by police in February 2002
Luis Fernando Arellano Félix (believed to be born 26 January 1966) – not currently wanted
Javier Arellano Félix (born 11 December 1969) – captured in August 2006
They also have four sisters, of whom Alicia and Enedina are most active in the cartel's affairs.
Eduardo Arellano Félix was captured by the Mexican Army after a shootout in Tijuana on October 26, 2008; he had been the last of the Arellano Félix brothers at large. Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano took over the cartel's operations. His two top lieutenants were Armando Villareal Heredia and Edgardo Leyva Escandon. Fernando Sanchez Arellano was arrested by Mexican police in June 2014. Leyva remains at large and Villareal was captured in July 2011.
On November 5, 2011, Mexican troops arrested cartel lieutenant Francisco Sillas Rocha, who was reported to be the cartel's number two leader, and some of his close associates. Observers argued that Rocha's arrest put the Tijuana Cartel "on the ropes", though some differed on whether or not the arrest put "the final nail in the coffin" for the Tijuana Cartel.
In February 2020, senior cartel operator Octavio Leal Hernandez, also known as “Chapito Leal,” was arrested with seven others by Tijuana police for stealing cars from a used-car dealership at gunpoint and possessing marijuana.
Activities
The Tijuana cartel is present in at least 15 Mexican states, with important areas of operation in Tijuana, Mexicali, Tecate, and Ensenada in Baja California, in parts of Sinaloa, and in Zacatecas. After the death in 1997 of the Juárez Cartel's Amado Carrillo Fuentes, the Tijuana Cartel attempted to gain a foothold in Sonora. The Oaxaca Cartel reportedly joined forces with the Tijuana Cartel in 2003.
Fourteen Mexican drug gang members were killed and eight others were injured in a gun battle in Tijuana near the U.S. border on Saturday, April 26, 2008, that was one of the bloodiest shootouts in the narco-war between the Tijuana Cartel and the Sinaloa Cartel. On December 1, 2011, William R. Sherman, acting special agent in charge of the Drug Enforcement Administration's office in San Diego, announced that the cartel had been annihilated and that the Sinaloa Cartel now controlled a large number of the drug routes the Tijuana Cartel once had. On December 12, 2011, Tijuana Police Chief Alberto Capella Ibarra announced that captured cartel lieutenant Francisco Sillas Rocha had confessed that the Tijuana Cartel and the Sinaloa Cartel had formed a truce and that the Tijuana Cartel was seeking to merge with the Sinaloa Cartel. After Benjamin Arellano-Felix pleaded guilty to racketeering and conspiracy to launder money on January 4, 2012, it was accepted that the Tijuana Cartel had greatly lost influence. It was also reported that the cartel had lost their former Tijuana hotbed to the Sinaloa Cartel. The clan of the Arellano Felix continues, although diminished after the capture of their leaders.
Captures and trial
In October 1997, a retired U.S. Air Force C-130A that was sold to the airline Aeropostal Cargo de México was seized by Mexican federal officials, who alleged that the aircraft had been used to haul drugs for the cartel up from Central and South America, as well as around the Mexican interior. Investigators had linked the airline's owner, Jesús Villegas Covallos, to Ramón Arellano Félix.
On August 14, 2006, Francisco Javier Arellano Félix was apprehended by the United States Coast Guard off the coast of Baja California Sur. On November 5, 2007, Francisco was sentenced to life in prison, at ADX Florence, after pleading guilty in September 2007 to running a criminal enterprise and laundering money. It was later reduced to years in 2015 and he will be released soon.
Benjamin Arellano Felix, who was arrested on March 9, 2002, by the Mexican Army in the state of Puebla, was extradited to the United States on April 29, 2011, to face charges of trafficking cocaine into California. He later pleaded guilty to racketeering and conspiracy to launder money, and was sentenced to 25 years in jail on April 2, 2012. Once that is served, he will be sent back to Mexico to finish another 22 years for a conviction there.
On August 31, 2012, Eduardo Arellano Felix was extradited to the United States to face trial for racketeering, money laundering and narcotics trafficking charges in the Southern District of California. He pleaded guilty to money laundering and is serving 15 years.
Los Palillos
Los Palillos ("The Toothpicks") was a group operating within Tijuana Cartel, who worked as the armed wing of the Tijuana Cartel in the United States, for the control of the criminal activities in California and Nevada.
They were a criminal organization that operated from San Diego to Los Angeles and other California and Nevada cities. To avoid constant confrontations with the police and police interest reducing his wealth, Ramon Arellano Felix began bribing almost any official possible. Felix received money from members of the criminal group and local criminals to "kick up" money from their illegal activities such as kidnapping and contract killing take half of the money and give it to the Tijuana Cartel to launder it. That was way the Arellano Felix brothers operation included other clans in Tijuana, San Diego and Los Angeles.
Presence in Colombia
The Tijuana Cartel is believed to have ties with FARC, a Colombia guerrilla group that also has ties with other Mexican drug cartels. In the 1990s, the Tijuana Cartel decided to expand their market opportunities in Colombia, exchanging drugs for weapons. In the 1990s they formed an alliance with the Cali Cartel and Norte del Valle Cartel for the cocaine business.
Current status and new generation
The Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano new generation organization of the cartel is believed to be one of the newest leaders in it to begin shipping cocaine from Colombia, particularly from Los Rastrojos and other Colombian dealers. The cartel was involved in the cultivation and distribution of marijuana in the Baja California area. Operating out of Tijuana, the cartel is now believed to make other activities such as kidnapping, people smuggling and bribery from a network of cells of local members within the Tijuana border region where the drugs are stored prior to shipment. The Tijuana Cartel has lost power but is growing more alliances in foreign countries.
In popular culture
There are several Mexican-folk (norteño) ballads (narco-corridos) that narrate the Tijuana cartel exploits.
A fictional "Tijuana cartel" headed by a character named Obregon was featured battling a fictional "Juarez cartel" in the 2000 motion picture Traffic.
The cartel was portrayed as the Avendanos brothers in Univision's Netflix series El Chapo.
The cartel and its origins have also been portrayed in the Netflix series Narcos: Mexico.
See also
Illegal drug trade in Colombia
List of gangs in Mexico
List of Mexico's 37 most-wanted drug lords
Mérida Initiative
Mexican Drug War
War on drugs
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Fatal Shooting in Logan Heights May Have Been Gang-Related - San Diego, California News Station - KFMB Channel 8 - cbs8.com
10 Indicted in Tijuana Cartel Case – Los Angeles Times
Organizations established in 1989
1989 establishments in Mexico
Drug cartels in Mexico
Crime families
Mexican drug war
Tijuana
Transnational organized crime
Organized crime groups in the United States
Gangs in California
Gangs in Los Angeles
Gangs in San Diego | [
0.2457312047481537,
-0.11398593336343765,
0.013711044564843178,
0.15640169382095337,
0.19706976413726807,
-0.14711859822273254,
-0.07823997735977173,
0.8190511465072632,
-0.3819962739944458,
0.21546238660812378,
0.4616301655769348,
0.5804890394210815,
-0.26752278208732605,
0.44025731086730957,
-0.5206350684165955,
0.3113342225551605,
0.6782387495040894,
0.6430836319923401,
0.002734102075919509,
-0.26343104243278503,
0.13579294085502625,
-0.21110276877880096,
0.5539102554321289,
0.009439101442694664,
-0.07043521106243134,
-0.3887559473514557,
-0.2834603786468506,
0.1406974196434021,
-0.3164907693862915,
0.30316635966300964,
0.6179358959197998,
0.7248836755752563,
0.09369336068630219,
-0.09355183690786362,
-0.27964428067207336,
0.557042121887207,
-0.2613106667995453,
-0.9083126187324524,
-0.33509552478790283,
-0.33321860432624817,
-0.11556500196456909,
-0.3352440297603607,
-0.8086073398590088,
0.472284197807312,
-0.19403496384620667,
-0.49435552954673767,
-1.1943891048431396,
0.41355496644973755,
-0.8572940826416016,
-0.1718132197856903,
-0.8926685452461243,
0.4989865720272064,
-0.3804667890071869,
0.10487659275531769,
0.1814727485179901,
0.184732586145401,
-1.054071307182312,
-0.5219359993934631,
0.027809498831629753,
-0.19925306737422943,
0.5589290261268616,
0.7328596711158752,
0.7858899235725403,
-0.1551038920879364,
-0.00500078871846199,
-0.2581062614917755,
0.5755595564842224,
0.26147300004959106,
-0.06704253703355789,
-0.36816975474357605,
-0.3470805585384369,
0.8061598539352417,
-0.2727741301059723,
-0.17641226947307587,
-0.2220212072134018,
-0.36280491948127747,
-0.15513688325881958,
-0.04649520292878151,
-0.34931907057762146,
0.7535474896430969,
0.3392679989337921,
0.11244752258062363,
0.6388173699378967,
-0.004500091541558504,
0.6701318025588989,
0.115569569170475,
-0.5976375341415405,
-0.0482904352247715,
-0.36004263162612915,
0.6129998564720154,
-0.7160118818283081,
0.13263197243213654,
0.7314651608467102,
0.3132759928703308,
-0.13011784851551056,
-0.09745004028081894,
0.43993282318115234,
-0.05945692956447601,
-0.40912649035453796,
0.1549156755208969,
0.1795911341905594,
0.1216198280453682,
0.08420774340629578,
0.46063166856765747,
-0.0051874942146241665,
0.18195287883281708,
-0.11234403401613235,
0.09704849869012833,
-0.22767437994480133,
-0.6660902500152588,
-0.2865641117095947,
-0.04753230884671211,
0.0538395494222641,
0.6428042650222778,
0.540645182132721,
0.14757005870342255,
0.03244643658399582,
-0.2126697152853012,
0.41600072383880615,
-0.3961898684501648,
-0.6817788481712341,
0.7557514905929565,
-0.49356508255004883,
0.4846186637878418,
0.047666531056165695,
0.12592197954654694,
0.25063151121139526,
-0.056106287986040115,
-0.34915196895599365,
0.004012576304376125,
0.07404059171676636,
-0.1714114248752594,
0.34148871898651123,
-0.11378491669893265,
0.04848983511328697,
-0.7370123863220215,
-0.1567808836698532,
0.3665885031223297,
0.30930423736572266,
0.2123205065727234,
-0.8156049847602844,
-0.7071969509124756,
-0.08773273229598999,
-0.36420339345932007,
0.4424053430557251,
-0.24823273718357086,
-0.21404233574867249,
-0.450955867767334,
-0.7692974805831909,
-0.20505589246749878,
0.14690881967544556,
-0.06789354234933853,
-0.137036994099617,
-0.21436159312725067,
0.2377322018146515,
-0.34059423208236694,
0.6046553254127502,
-0.5741764903068542,
0.12733349204063416,
-0.05601625144481659,
-0.277236670255661,
-0.23375949263572693,
0.0788796916604042,
0.04050101712346077,
-0.3281559944152832,
0.03962137922644615,
-0.09616269171237946,
0.5955004692077637,
-0.32857033610343933,
-0.1310987025499344,
-0.46073856949806213,
0.12939389050006866,
0.5503683686256409,
-0.6483273506164551,
-0.17372111976146698,
-0.22794245183467865,
-0.05535560101270676,
0.4873822033405304,
-0.2775115668773651,
0.21895374357700348,
-0.6284211277961731,
0.7619688510894775,
0.21565650403499603,
-0.05514451861381531,
-0.6762984395027161,
0.09426331520080566,
0.5065935254096985,
0.33619725704193115,
-0.46708112955093384,
-0.23973122239112854,
0.1501086950302124,
0.09430579841136932,
-0.23655462265014648,
-0.15520229935646057,
0.4195663630962372,
0.22713573276996613,
-0.3547447621822357,
0.6984615921974182,
-0.2879202365875244,
0.23976504802703857,
-0.6066940426826477,
0.25399667024612427,
0.44269126653671265,
-0.32726097106933594,
-0.25745201110839844,
-0.6084121465682983,
0.050413716584444046,
-0.18019255995750427,
0.3260490894317627,
0.8089030981063843,
-0.1668899804353714,
0.04378844425082207,
-0.02500034309923649,
0.39500656723976135,
-0.10133989155292511,
-0.03479050099849701,
-0.5972352623939514,
0.18570703268051147,
0.5046387910842896,
0.11579005420207977,
0.7925601601600647,
-0.2637903094291687,
-0.47337308526039124,
0.19788886606693268,
-0.2875511050224304,
0.5347408652305603,
0.25183314085006714,
0.2703540325164795,
0.3156788945198059,
-0.48080405592918396,
0.5896783471107483,
0.07144241780042648,
0.4375131130218506,
-0.8546289801597595,
-0.13589413464069366,
0.18570582568645477,
-0.15298570692539215,
-0.12848058342933655,
-0.12298372387886047,
-0.5050846934318542,
0.1570940613746643,
0.1857893466949463,
-0.34417298436164856,
0.829716682434082,
0.23004311323165894,
0.22212307155132294,
-0.11215025931596756,
0.0918828696012497,
-0.4728280305862427,
-0.011541059240698814,
-0.5903855562210083,
0.24647560715675354,
-0.28964465856552124,
-0.8594759106636047,
0.6295264959335327,
-0.05597164109349251,
0.1643151193857193,
-0.5101644396781921,
-0.21770495176315308,
0.10520436614751816,
0.22885698080062866,
0.2474004477262497,
-0.4266689717769623,
0.6234032511711121,
-0.24337714910507202,
-0.7829378247261047,
0.14224159717559814,
-0.29450860619544983,
-0.4757637679576874,
-0.0406586118042469,
0.40397679805755615,
0.40929991006851196,
-0.05604976788163185,
-0.02913440205156803,
0.18965837359428406,
-0.14642053842544556,
-0.6570643782615662,
0.47911444306373596,
-0.3382050395011902,
-0.11708798259496689,
0.29353946447372437,
0.2832565903663635,
0.40189215540885925,
-0.5293480753898621,
-0.8748733997344971,
-0.7226660847663879,
0.06939499080181122,
-0.529843270778656,
-0.04764147847890854,
-0.26900094747543335,
-0.34316664934158325,
-0.18036970496177673,
0.07228199392557144,
0.5343831777572632,
-1.0166051387786865,
-0.119393490254879,
0.19279071688652039,
0.49281319975852966,
0.7951245307922363,
-0.8897668719291687,
-0.520017147064209,
0.05040976405143738,
-0.09125266224145889,
-0.02455679513514042,
0.2500154376029968,
-0.2701440751552582,
-0.4851386845111847,
0.2642360329627991,
-5.575723648071289,
0.671295166015625,
-0.8609159588813782,
-0.013731298968195915,
0.2636697590351105,
-0.45130664110183716,
0.11526265740394592,
-0.19323639571666718,
0.33909204602241516,
-0.24313043057918549,
0.4119672477245331,
0.041692446917295456,
-0.1621972620487213,
-0.08653896301984787,
-0.10727935284376144,
0.27566781640052795,
0.12017720192670822,
-0.07580055296421051,
0.4397725760936737,
-0.03061978705227375,
-0.3996429145336151,
-0.2948155105113983,
0.21528969705104828,
0.6175066232681274,
0.5328842401504517,
0.6222320199012756,
-0.3711388409137726,
-0.6407791972160339,
-0.47715723514556885,
0.07752584666013718,
-0.5553656220436096,
0.23780633509159088,
-0.48422595858573914,
0.36050933599472046,
-0.11994441598653793,
0.07384788990020752,
0.4328179657459259,
-0.4715985059738159,
-0.3525920510292053,
-0.5792456865310669,
0.1994754523038864,
0.5762501955032349,
0.03107287734746933,
-0.07671333849430084,
0.8738213181495667,
0.05071236938238144,
-0.3451159596443176,
-0.3791404068470001,
-0.4041377902030945,
0.49873533844947815,
0.3733038306236267,
-0.619482159614563,
0.22690287232398987,
-0.2906797528266907,
-0.13617514073848724,
0.01727972738444805,
0.32985687255859375,
-0.9693379402160645,
-0.08990109711885452,
0.8231463432312012,
0.30748406052589417,
-0.3910309970378876,
0.2726031541824341,
-0.12859977781772614,
-0.4360877573490143,
0.7040799856185913,
0.747674286365509,
-0.7099577784538269,
0.9419446587562561,
-0.13350430130958557,
-0.061881717294454575,
0.818597674369812,
-0.41189342737197876,
-0.620935320854187,
-0.1482638120651245,
0.36022672057151794,
-0.20930036902427673,
0.372962087392807,
-0.19873695075511932,
0.0664292573928833,
-0.30526164174079895,
0.30402684211730957,
0.15448297560214996,
-0.5176596641540527,
0.1723088026046753,
-0.1153542548418045,
0.2562032639980316,
0.267162561416626,
-0.3425130844116211,
0.3551105260848999,
0.08544199168682098,
-0.33789074420928955,
0.7620068192481995,
0.003959581721574068,
-0.4177154302597046,
0.623986005783081,
-0.10872277617454529,
0.5712321996688843,
-0.5505481958389282,
-0.34818926453590393,
0.9286279678344727,
-0.3785797357559204,
0.1047230139374733,
-0.6024057865142822,
0.19821077585220337,
-0.0484418123960495,
0.3500286936759949,
0.12951599061489105,
-0.1397789865732193,
-0.2636338770389557,
0.27422693371772766,
-0.4087173342704773,
-0.20990797877311707,
0.07822778075933456,
-0.031011253595352173,
-0.4713985323905945,
-0.12652797996997833,
0.8887912034988403,
0.642906129360199,
-0.35345759987831116,
0.24591341614723206,
0.4797014892101288,
-0.2499365657567978,
0.2063627392053604,
0.16755914688110352,
-0.6108418703079224,
-0.058573320508003235,
0.7481971979141235,
0.6829864978790283,
0.4360674023628235,
0.1491580456495285,
0.16875368356704712,
0.16691091656684875,
-0.00005087286263005808,
-0.07910995185375214,
0.2821110486984253,
-0.4593140780925751,
-0.6119830012321472,
0.44629985094070435,
0.28559938073158264,
-0.017984384670853615,
-0.21924473345279694,
-0.09388521313667297,
0.14685572683811188,
0.06391611695289612,
-0.08219262957572937,
-0.2964395582675934,
-0.36969152092933655,
-0.8042994141578674,
0.34158220887184143,
-0.0410541296005249,
-0.17216040194034576,
-0.3029307723045349,
-0.3221055567264557,
0.2799130976200104,
-0.5846269130706787,
0.3138667941093445,
0.225461944937706,
-0.026395076885819435,
0.1670062392950058,
0.19820129871368408,
-0.41800248622894287,
-0.3699791133403778,
0.42004579305648804,
0.2503512501716614,
0.07109268754720688,
-0.5717090964317322,
-0.3226453363895416,
-0.47403839230537415,
0.929993748664856,
-0.2584404945373535,
-0.9074145555496216,
0.0005389050347730517,
-0.20619341731071472,
0.4351087212562561,
0.04619179666042328,
0.0036190515384078026,
-0.0260943453758955,
-0.07738044857978821,
0.27313485741615295,
-0.03470049798488617,
0.2036275565624237,
-0.18378578126430511,
0.388772189617157,
0.38470736145973206,
-0.13877011835575104,
-0.3827344477176666,
-0.11634491384029388,
0.3055345416069031,
0.12133938819169998,
0.8819819092750549,
0.308916300535202,
0.23541978001594543,
0.038741614669561386,
-0.18698902428150177,
-0.49419090151786804,
-0.5261455178260803,
0.606023907661438,
0.2095072865486145,
0.020809544250369072,
0.016459167003631592,
0.8600192666053772,
0.05821093171834946,
0.5368647575378418,
-0.29013746976852417,
-0.24291250109672546,
0.5016748905181885,
0.26190218329429626,
-0.7527916431427002,
0.04133037477731705,
-0.16065728664398193,
-0.4640537202358246,
-0.5459480285644531,
0.8848437070846558,
0.0379335954785347,
-0.45763975381851196,
0.5036897659301758,
-0.13396993279457092,
-0.36104294657707214,
0.2656809389591217,
0.019083933904767036,
-0.12715153396129608,
0.10970655828714371,
-0.03360915556550026,
-0.23149454593658447,
1.0641225576400757,
0.3366832733154297,
-0.736863911151886,
0.8503217697143555,
-0.0017398917116224766,
0.5642468929290771,
-0.23492640256881714,
-0.09932898730039597,
0.12001968175172806,
0.05418814718723297,
0.14225532114505768,
0.14739279448986053,
0.17096666991710663,
0.06740979850292206,
0.06369055062532425,
0.28630873560905457,
0.5014327168464661,
-0.4418995976448059,
-0.3321196138858795,
-0.16258637607097626,
0.3872719407081604,
0.2312081903219223,
0.06271491944789886,
-0.24927401542663574,
-0.2872186005115509,
-0.0711875781416893,
-0.3970530033111572,
-0.0671515017747879,
0.6937410235404968,
0.8013667464256287,
-0.6673489809036255,
-0.0839797705411911,
0.023138796910643578,
-0.3711380064487457,
0.004878769163042307,
-0.1796034723520279,
-0.4142139256000519,
-0.5286524295806885,
-0.47816163301467896,
-0.22684837877750397,
0.2296115607023239,
-0.40011242032051086,
-0.4783037006855011,
0.054249357432127,
0.11207959055900574,
0.27141180634498596,
-0.1368507593870163,
0.5060631632804871,
0.8343831896781921,
-0.31422922015190125,
-0.05411969870328903,
-0.12330286204814911,
-0.44739803671836853,
-0.17700496315956116,
0.2272806465625763,
-0.7656276822090149,
0.031918495893478394,
0.16321194171905518,
-0.19956928491592407,
0.19716539978981018,
-0.4007273018360138,
-0.506614089012146,
0.22671835124492645,
-0.2420409768819809,
-0.34014347195625305,
0.015398843213915825,
0.06210098788142204,
0.7688900828361511,
-0.24819199740886688,
-0.4736747741699219,
0.01567174308001995,
0.3363438844680786,
0.46422648429870605,
0.029645150527358055,
0.28181034326553345,
-0.3871808350086212,
0.19410483539104462,
-0.2956862151622772,
0.23264338076114655,
0.24532735347747803,
-0.43452128767967224,
0.4913814961910248,
-0.2340398132801056,
-0.3692857325077057,
-0.6261059641838074,
-0.13222885131835938,
-0.27818623185157776,
0.1291172057390213,
0.39837273955345154,
-1.075072169303894,
0.9049236178398132,
0.817138135433197,
-0.3137303292751312,
-0.48794907331466675,
0.3121095895767212,
0.4591276943683624,
0.2824372351169586,
0.22244103252887726,
0.2032979130744934,
1.1932770013809204,
0.5329565405845642,
-0.11007343977689743,
-0.17410264909267426,
0.07921513170003891,
-0.32698357105255127,
0.17377842962741852,
-0.172941192984581,
-0.7675033211708069,
0.13415324687957764,
-0.2726173400878906,
0.03286711499094963,
-0.4423198997974396,
-0.18590214848518372,
-0.7883962392807007,
0.7092093229293823,
0.38585996627807617,
0.340090811252594,
-1.0454795360565186,
0.21831008791923523,
0.038591526448726654,
0.16338218748569489,
0.2819400727748871,
-0.3114035427570343,
0.10081889480352402,
0.4319433271884918,
0.6096951365470886,
-0.10950493067502975,
-0.1880677193403244,
0.3574489951133728,
0.05266990512609482,
-0.31584298610687256,
0.16344597935676575,
0.3700990080833435,
-0.7437406182289124,
-0.2632216215133667,
0.1677664816379547,
0.3443273901939392,
0.42468705773353577,
-0.40316498279571533,
-0.1164902076125145,
-0.2676602900028229,
-0.1498090773820877,
-0.09968724846839905,
-0.5464649796485901,
0.28528955578804016,
-0.40339332818984985,
-0.5322098731994629,
-0.37727585434913635,
0.5129973292350769,
0.030926639214158058,
0.31160685420036316,
0.6562781929969788,
0.45285236835479736,
-0.398363322019577,
0.18806548416614532,
-0.40660592913627625,
0.5470662713050842,
-0.12693774700164795,
-0.5144320130348206,
0.1315382570028305,
0.17552131414413452,
-0.4860755503177643,
-0.08102837949991226,
-0.4291633367538452,
-0.02672514133155346,
0.19514362514019012,
-0.09120653569698334,
0.1668018400669098,
0.529306948184967,
0.2179812788963318,
-0.13602100312709808,
-0.2515166103839874,
0.7457789778709412,
0.40036657452583313,
-0.5043056607246399,
0.5292205810546875,
-0.2117292433977127,
0.11783140897750854,
0.07716534286737442,
-0.3798682689666748,
0.10435862094163895,
-1.0693676471710205,
0.3447521924972534,
-0.29688796401023865,
0.0683845654129982,
-0.04448173567652702,
-0.21276958286762238,
-0.676350474357605,
0.11040960252285004,
-0.3790628910064697,
0.5130295753479004,
0.9379244446754456,
-0.3957865536212921,
-0.09417767077684402,
-0.3326055407524109,
0.2549607455730438,
-0.5894935727119446,
0.1281922608613968,
0.4879317581653595,
0.15193849802017212,
-0.20709072053432465,
0.5470332503318787,
0.0006027412018738687,
-0.47271302342414856,
1.074267029762268,
0.7147456407546997,
-0.14174596965312958,
-0.3667718172073364,
0.041939277201890945,
-0.1687602549791336,
-1.2781867980957031,
-0.007928193546831608,
0.8840785622596741,
0.8168001174926758,
0.06827296316623688,
0.667832612991333,
-0.2991460859775543,
0.17582471668720245,
-0.7892794609069824,
0.9445446729660034,
-0.532060444355011,
-0.58120197057724,
0.03626510128378868,
-0.4787977337837219,
0.5817595720291138,
-0.08100070059299469,
0.4320683777332306,
0.31892409920692444,
-0.11986257135868073,
-0.05286722630262375,
0.27468860149383545,
0.7226205468177795,
-0.7705439329147339,
0.3103380501270294,
-0.3527226150035858
] |
233730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Manning | Ernest Manning | Ernest Charles Manning, (September 20, 1908 – February 19, 1996), a Canadian politician, was the eighth premier of Alberta between 1943 and 1968 for the Social Credit Party of Alberta. He served longer than any other premier in the province's history and was the second longest serving provincial premier in Canadian history (after George H. Murray of Nova Scotia). Manning's 25 years as Premier was defined by strong social conservatism and fiscal conservatism. He was also the only member of the Social Credit Party of Canada to sit in the Senate and, with the party shut out of the House of Commons in 1980, was its last representative in Parliament when he retired from the Senate in 1983.
Manning's son, Preston Manning, was the founder and leader of the Reform Party of Canada, a right-wing populist party based on Western Canadian conservative values. He served as the leader of the Official Opposition from 1997 to 2000.
Early life and career
Manning was born in Carnduff, Saskatchewan, in 1908 to George Henry Manning (1872–1956) and Elizabeth Mara Dixon (1870–1949). George had immigrated from England in 1900 and was followed by his fiancé in 1903. Their Carnduff homestead being inadequate, they moved to a new one in Rosewood in 1909. In his childhood, Ernest was not especially religious, only occasionally attending a Methodist church in town.
Manning was among the first students of Aberhart's Calgary Prophetic Bible Institute, which opened in 1927, and became its first graduate in April 1930. There he met his future wife, Muriel Preston, Who was the institute’s pianist. later going on to serve as the National Bible Hour’s musical coordinator. In 1930, he began preaching on Aberhart’s weekly "Back to the Bible Hour" radio program, a practice he continued throughout his life, even while in politics. The broadcasts were eventually aired on over 90 radio stations across Canada, from Halifax to Vancouver, and had a large listening audience. There Manning caught the attention of Aberhart. who saw in the young Manning a person who could greatly help him. Soon afterward Manning became Aberhart’s assistant at CPBI. In 1935, Manning went into the realm of provincial politics as Aberhart’s right-hand man. Together, they created the Social Credit party with the aim of bringing financial relief to Albertans who were suffering because of the Great Depression. Fueled by a wave of resentment at the federal liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King who had famously remarked that he "would not give a five-cent piece" to non-Liberal aligned provincial governments for unemployment relief. Consolidating the concept of Western alienation in minds of westerners.
Provincial politics
In the 1935 provincial election, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as a Social Credit MLA from Calgary. The Socreds won an unexpected victory in that election, and Manning became Alberta's Provincial Secretary and Minister of Trade and Industry. In 1940, he switched seats and was elected from Edmonton. In 1943, he became Socred leader and premier of Alberta after Aberhart died.
In the 1935 provincial election, the Socreds won an unexpected victory, sweeping the legislature, with Social Credit winning a landslide victory. Winning 56 of the 63 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The UFA lost all of its seats in the worst defeat for a sitting provincial government in Canadian history. Continuing the UFA government's conservatism (which verged on prohibition) on the matter of drinking, Aberhart's government enacted several socially conservative laws, notably one restricting the sale and serving of alcohol. It was one of the strictest such laws in Canada. Well into the 1960s, airplanes could not serve alcohol while flying over the province.
Premier
Manning twice honoured Aberhart's 1935 promise to issue a Prosperity Certificate to Albertans. In 1957, his government announced a $20 Alberta Oil Royalty Dividend and issued a $17 dividend the next year. The policy was widely criticized and, the next year, Manning agreed to use oil royalties on public works and social programs instead.
Manning was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as a Social Credit MLA from Calgary. In 1935, he famously entered the Alberta Government’s cabinet as Provincial Secretary at only 26 years old. The youngest cabinet minister in all of British parliamentary history since William Pitt the Younger, who served as the minister of Great Britain 152 years earlier. In 1940, he switched seats and was elected from Edmonton. In 1943, he became Socred leader and premier of Alberta after Aberhart died, becoming the province’s eighth and longest-serving premier. When he became premier at the age of only 35, he was the youngest first minister since Pitt, who ironically also served as the second longest-serving British prime minister of all time. Besides serving as Premier of Alberta, he also held numerous other positions including minister of trade and industry, provincial treasurer, attorney general, minister of mines and minerals from 1952 to 1962, and president of the executive council.
For the 1944 election, Manning campaigned on the labour protections that the party had implemented, using support from the Alberta Federation of Labour to fend off left-wing challenges from the radical socialist Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and the communist Labor-Progressive Party. Though other unions, particularly those affiliated with the Canadian Congress of Labour, took issue with the Social Credit Party's workers' protections, divisions within these unions and their leadership prevented any effective endorsement of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. During the campaign, Manning engaged in red-baiting on a number of instances, likening the CCF to "the socialism of Germany". In the election, Manning led the Alberta Social Credit Party to retain a solid majority in the Legislative Assembly. Ernest Manning's government was starkly right-wing, attacking a number of unions with charges of communism, censoring films sympathetic to the New Left, and international cooperation due to allegations, and its connection to communism.
Under Manning, Alberta became a virtual one-party province. He led Social Credit to seven consecutive election victories between 1944 and 1967, usually with more than 50% of the popular vote and only once having to face more than 10 opposition MLAs. The height of his popularity came in 1963, when the Socreds campaigned under the slogan "63 in '63"—i.e., a clean sweep of the then 63-seat legislature. They fell short of that goal, but still reduced the opposition to only three MLAs—two Liberals and one running with the support of both the Liberals and Progressive Conservatives—in total. It is still the biggest majority government, in terms of percentage of seats won, in Alberta's history. Social Credit's electoral success was based in part on what was viewed as its good government of the province. Manning himself always held the view that "both God and the people had some say in how long he would be premier — and he was not about to argue with either."
However, an ominous sign came during Manning's last victory, when the once-moribund Progressive Conservatives led by Peter Lougheed won six seats, mostly in Calgary and Edmonton. More seriously, the PCs did well enough across the rest of the province to hold Social Credit to 45 percent of the vote, its lowest vote share since 1940. Manning retired in 1968, and Social Credit was knocked out of office three years later. It has never come within sight of power again. By the time Manning left the legislature, only he, Alfred Hooke, and William Tomyn were left from the original 1935 caucus. Of that trio, Hooke was the only MLA to see the government right through from its beginning to its very end in 1971 (Tomyn served a break from 1952 to 1959).
Social Credit policy
Under Manning, the party largely abandoned social credit theories. Premier Manning had been a devoutly loyal supporter of Aberhart from the very beginning, so it is not clear why he was so willing to abandon his party's traditional ideology. One likely explanation may have been pragmatic; many of Social Credit's policy goals infringed on responsibilities reserved to the federal government under the British North America Act. Manning however honored Aberhart's 1935 promise to issue a Prosperity Certificate to Albertans twice. In 1957, his government announced a $20 Alberta Oil Royalty Dividend and issued a $17 dividend the next year. The policy was widely criticized and, the next year, Manning agreed to use oil royalties on public works and social programs instead.
Red Scare
the Manning administration now re-elected with a resounding majority of seats as a result of the 1944 ectetion, devoted itself to an anti-socialist crusade. In 1946, Manning's government began a red scare, censoring communist propaganda films in the hopes of "eliminating communist thought from Alberta-shown movies". Alberta's government quickly began banning films, including films produced by the British government which supported the United Nations, as well as Hollywood films such as The Wild One and Blackboard Jungle. The government's attempts at film censorship continued through the 1960s.
Manning's administration also sought to disrupt Labour strikes, denouncing them as communist, totalitarian, and anti-Christian. In January 1948 a coal miners' strike broke out. With thousands of miners, threatening the provincial Electrical grid, as most electricity was generated from coal. With this one strike alone accounting for 30% of all time lost to strikes in Canada in 1948. In Alberta, the time lost was even worse. With it being responsible for well over 99% of all person-lost days due to strikes for the entire year. Manning acted swiftly to avert the crisis. Rewriting the province's labour laws in March to allow the government to shut down the strike. Greatly weakened by charges of communism, and Manning's unwillingness to fold caused the unions to attempt to persuade legislators instead of protesting using strikes, or violence. Manning's steadfast defiance in the face of union threats halted the rise of militant unionism in Alberta. As it did in other areas like Quebec and the rust belt.
In 1951, the province's Minister of Municipal Affairs, C.F. Gerhart, claimed that there were hundreds of communist spies among Albertan workers.
Devolopment of the oil sands
In 1945 the Abasand plant again burned down, this time it was not rebuilt. The huge discoveries of conventional oil at Leduc and Redwater cast even more doubt upon the development of the oil sands. Given the difficulty of accessing and processing the bitumen, and the numerous technical problems. Nevertheless, Manning wasn't dissuaded. Convinced that the oil sands would grant the province incredible wealth. Going so far as to even convince the entire Alberta legislature to visit the Bitumount plant in 1949. Believing they would agree to continue development after witnessing its success in separating the oil sands. Manning also commissioned a petroleum engineer by the name of Sidney Blair to prepare a report on the economic feasibility of the separation process. With Pew's support, in 1962 Sun Oil's majority-owned subsidiary, Great Canadian Oil Sands (GCOS), filed an application for a commercial oil sands project in Canada – the first-ever constructed.
At the opening ceremonies for the Great Canadian Oil Sands plant, Pew repeated Mannings belief of the need for the oil sands. Telling his audience that "No nation can long be secure in this atomic age unless it be amply supplied with petroleum... It is the considered opinion of our group that if the North American continent is to produce the oil to meet its requirements in the years ahead, oil from the Athabasca area must of necessity play an important role."
Adopton of the Albertan flag
Around the time of the upcoming centennial celebration of Canadian Confederation petitions were submitted in November 1966 to Premier Manning by the Social Credit Women's Auxiliaries of the Alberta Social Credit League to give Alberta its own unique flag. The flag was designed and approved as the official provincial flag by the Alberta legislature on June 1, 1968.
Social conservatism and faith
Manning’s deep Christian faith gave him a sense of charity to the poor and needy. Though unlike the Socialist premier of neighboring Saskatchewan, under the regime of Tommy Douglas. Manning did not espouse a socialistic doctrine, or use socialist rhetoric in regard to solving societal issues. On the contrary, he was an outspoken critic of government involvement in society. Constantly publicly denouncing socialism, and communism before, while, and after becoming premier. Being a staunch anti-communist all his life. Instead, he encouraged strong religious, individual, and corporate initiatives in addressing and solving social issues. Manning believed that the "government was there to motivate and give direction, not to intervene and carry the load."
His views on health care and social issues were heavily shaped by his eldest son Keith, which "He and his wife Muriel lovingly raised. Keith had suffered oxygen deprivation at birth", suffering from cerebral palsy as a result.
Mannings's faith also heavily influenced his approach to politics. He was always prudent and careful in practicing politics, "always practicing Christian-based reconciliation and conflict resolution."
Federal politics
Manning also used his strong provincial standing to influence the federal Socreds. He told the 1961 federal leadership convention that Alberta would never accept francophone Catholic Real Caouette of Quebec as the party's leader, even though Caouette led the party's strongest branch east of Manitoba. Robert Thompson of Alberta won the election, although Manning's objections to Caouette led to suspicions that the vote was fixed. Indeed, Caouette later claimed that he had enough support to win, but the Quebec delegates all voted for Thompson after Manning told him, "Tell your people to vote for Thompson because the West will never accept a Roman Catholic French Canadian leader."
By this time, however, all but four members of the Social Credit federal caucus came from Quebec. In 1963, virtually all of the Socred MPs from Quebec followed Caouette into the Ralliement des créditistes, leaving behind a Social Credit rump in English Canada.
Senate and death
After retirement from provincial politics in 1968, Manning established his own consulting firm, Manning Consultants Limited, with his son Preston. In 1970, he was appointed to the Senate as the first (and as it turned out, only) Socred to serve in that body. The same year, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. He retired from the Senate in 1983, having reached the mandatory retirement age of 75. Ernest Manning died in Calgary in 1996.
Personal life
In 1936, Manning married Muriel Aileen Preston, the pianist at the Prophetic Bible Institute. They had two sons.
Their first son, William Keith (commonly called Keith,) was born on May 2, 1939. Keith suffered from cerebral palsy; for stretches of time, he was interred at a hospital in upstate New York, the Red Deer School Hospital, and a nursing home in Edmonton. He married fellow nursing home resident Marilyn Brownell, and died from cardiac arrest on June 29, 1986.
Their second son, Ernest Preston (commonly called Preston) was born on June 10, 1942. Preston went on to found the Reform Party of Canada. Following in his father's footsteps, he fought against the federal government, and the heavily eastern-centered federal politics that controlled the national agenda.
Legacy
Manning was appointed as the first member of Alberta Order of Excellence on September 23, 1981. Manning was also invested as a Companion of the Order of Canada by Governor-General Michener in 1970.
A high school and a business park road in Calgary, a freeway road in Edmonton, and a town in Northern Alberta, are named after Ernest Manning.
In 1980, the Ernest C. Manning Awards Foundation was created, and the Manning Innovation Awards were started in 1982, with the purpose of promoting and honouring Canadian innovation.
In 2013, the federal riding of Edmonton Manning was established in Manning's name.
Works
References
Bibliography
External links
Alberta legislative assembly
Ernest Manning's Order of Canada Citation
Ernest Manning's papers digitized at the University of Calgary Archives
1908 births
1996 deaths
Premiers of Alberta
Alberta Social Credit Party leaders
Canadian Baptists
Canadian evangelicals
Canadian evangelists
Canadian senators from Alberta
Social Credit Party of Canada senators
Companions of the Order of Canada
Alberta Social Credit Party MLAs
Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Calgary
Canadian radio personalities
20th-century Baptists
People from Carnduff | [
-0.49368369579315186,
-0.11881072074174881,
-0.4532233774662018,
0.28784072399139404,
-0.12466852366924286,
0.7411913275718689,
0.6913209557533264,
0.20212608575820923,
-0.47098514437675476,
-0.6426860690116882,
0.29506543278694153,
0.2541189193725586,
-0.28966084122657776,
-0.12325796484947205,
0.24634747207164764,
0.8178004622459412,
-0.33541467785835266,
0.02235892228782177,
-0.46181800961494446,
-0.06645355373620987,
-0.16805970668792725,
-0.5804626941680908,
0.6287005543708801,
0.43323636054992676,
0.013483642600476742,
0.23738321661949158,
0.22746983170509338,
0.17294971644878387,
-0.15278765559196472,
0.40603578090667725,
-0.25352558493614197,
0.4806048572063446,
0.6650774478912354,
0.03422873467206955,
-0.44642189145088196,
-0.09775201976299286,
0.3666447699069977,
-0.3581736385822296,
0.23745115101337433,
0.2696160078048706,
-0.18009069561958313,
-0.0025781444273889065,
0.35200032591819763,
-0.19737085700035095,
0.41142022609710693,
-0.8119242787361145,
-1.5035765171051025,
-0.4400002658367157,
-0.23827433586120605,
-0.32823047041893005,
-0.5457294583320618,
0.6485649943351746,
0.33131179213523865,
-0.373580664396286,
0.4436698257923126,
0.018814649432897568,
-0.3213883638381958,
0.020632341504096985,
-0.3390747010707855,
-0.5424331426620483,
0.0004109559813514352,
0.07698874920606613,
0.4211154878139496,
0.18022337555885315,
0.07938162237405777,
0.06334757804870605,
-0.11810185760259628,
0.06997574120759964,
-0.22136251628398895,
0.29485461115837097,
0.022684480994939804,
0.6232216358184814,
0.14552085101604462,
-0.004420286975800991,
0.29105883836746216,
-0.14408835768699646,
-0.08632413297891617,
0.12747187912464142,
0.23202314972877502,
0.1047990620136261,
-0.3400808870792389,
-0.6474748253822327,
0.22454750537872314,
0.57240891456604,
0.0322919636964798,
0.1313038319349289,
-0.6302748322486877,
0.3948063850402832,
-0.2793729603290558,
-0.21199536323547363,
-1.1545099020004272,
-0.43273624777793884,
0.26816946268081665,
-0.028816163539886475,
-0.7787497639656067,
-0.7020528316497803,
0.13977421820163727,
0.19152987003326416,
0.1333584487438202,
-0.3763759732246399,
0.44830673933029175,
-0.26625725626945496,
0.31005311012268066,
-0.22498616576194763,
-1.0121186971664429,
0.11633060872554779,
-0.4086196720600128,
0.08565638214349747,
-0.193562313914299,
-0.26395654678344727,
-0.5349729657173157,
0.04854939877986908,
0.094297856092453,
-0.1208849549293518,
0.4545283615589142,
0.22978812456130981,
0.05773930996656418,
-0.60438072681427,
-0.28372007608413696,
0.06137732043862343,
0.03017304837703705,
-0.10685893893241882,
-0.16974422335624695,
0.02484455332159996,
-0.8132883310317993,
-0.23558250069618225,
-0.305387943983078,
-0.7072785496711731,
0.21596214175224304,
0.3894513249397278,
0.8138659596443176,
0.8731731176376343,
-0.8100242614746094,
-0.07772474735975266,
-0.43797412514686584,
0.12895245850086212,
-0.08414894342422485,
-0.12395070493221283,
-0.24185378849506378,
0.10152556747198105,
-0.275441437959671,
-0.010486556217074394,
-0.18965360522270203,
-0.6572606563568115,
0.13813689351081848,
0.05656282976269722,
-0.07493972033262253,
-0.050566863268613815,
0.15838684141635895,
-0.0759970024228096,
0.49702024459838867,
-0.11654672771692276,
-0.011936766095459461,
-0.40397965908050537,
-0.11119986325502396,
0.8651358485221863,
0.3198903501033783,
0.19237074255943298,
0.029682587832212448,
0.3901377022266388,
0.3726975917816162,
0.03704352676868439,
0.19206805527210236,
0.08155456930398941,
0.8967441916465759,
0.053171247243881226,
-0.6727603077888489,
-0.9603458046913147,
0.20874711871147156,
0.258026659488678,
0.03716579079627991,
0.011905962601304054,
0.1443834900856018,
-0.4133695363998413,
-0.17860624194145203,
0.4146624207496643,
0.5705535411834717,
0.21759921312332153,
0.11921311914920807,
-0.7403905391693115,
-0.8045752644538879,
-0.17807357013225555,
0.280646413564682,
0.15368203818798065,
0.3978341519832611,
0.2519685924053192,
0.07104869186878204,
0.0604030042886734,
0.9654765725135803,
-0.011985438875854015,
-0.14300046861171722,
-0.8471735715866089,
0.6242275834083557,
-0.5048980712890625,
0.6412212252616882,
0.13684920966625214,
-0.3096420466899872,
0.7211071252822876,
-0.09825103729963303,
0.614655613899231,
0.14941342175006866,
-0.36675402522087097,
0.3074048161506653,
-0.6129875779151917,
-0.047825608402490616,
0.793266236782074,
0.11315687000751495,
0.017231957986950874,
0.1087798997759819,
0.7287886142730713,
0.0013638001400977373,
-0.8011789917945862,
-0.6871625781059265,
0.3995048701763153,
-0.017726203426718712,
-0.695696234703064,
-0.6219738721847534,
-0.47027307748794556,
-0.09243090450763702,
-0.5562850832939148,
0.29392489790916443,
0.2811375558376312,
-0.7131941914558411,
0.4005759060382843,
-0.2700701355934143,
0.585768461227417,
-0.0605272576212883,
-0.2517533004283905,
0.17155778408050537,
-0.5066355466842651,
0.4203771948814392,
0.32623091340065,
0.365293949842453,
-0.5219447612762451,
0.4781107008457184,
0.4062260687351227,
-0.019724959507584572,
0.3770066499710083,
0.47827112674713135,
-0.3817397654056549,
0.15279793739318848,
0.3869757652282715,
-0.8061251044273376,
-0.01258333120495081,
-0.0006546690710820258,
0.3258320689201355,
-0.12460344284772873,
0.19188249111175537,
-0.17277303338050842,
-0.16668358445167542,
0.5193711519241333,
0.06353902071714401,
0.38625824451446533,
0.27034297585487366,
0.09175855666399002,
-0.100396066904068,
0.48563382029533386,
-0.16222186386585236,
0.1019974872469902,
0.2237788438796997,
-0.1471625417470932,
-0.14185012876987457,
-0.08172839134931564,
0.355367511510849,
0.30403071641921997,
0.20910336077213287,
0.060978397727012634,
-0.08167508989572525,
-0.5557225942611694,
-0.20148730278015137,
-0.0017636227421462536,
-0.31470081210136414,
-0.16614896059036255,
0.529935359954834,
0.9261695146560669,
0.029236191883683205,
-0.19848521053791046,
0.7850797772407532,
-0.5648089647293091,
-0.675243079662323,
0.6311243176460266,
1.2882921695709229,
-0.1097320169210434,
-0.08324756473302841,
0.021920369938015938,
0.13812363147735596,
-0.2694888412952423,
0.21874983608722687,
-0.030501890927553177,
-0.6574483513832092,
-0.38538259267807007,
0.35072365403175354,
-0.7631871700286865,
-0.2776634693145752,
-0.5107102990150452,
0.31797677278518677,
-0.056880105286836624,
-0.15056444704532623,
0.7608587145805359,
-0.30378174781799316,
0.10124266892671585,
0.03317926079034805,
0.3636314272880554,
0.23058509826660156,
0.2218308448791504,
0.3698085844516754,
-0.6938180327415466,
-0.4612448811531067,
-5.581456661224365,
0.27701884508132935,
-0.0234163086861372,
-0.7681116461753845,
0.4548548758029938,
-0.37263092398643494,
0.10349413752555847,
0.07698486000299454,
0.262656569480896,
-0.5043228268623352,
0.5736169815063477,
-0.32141202688217163,
0.22476117312908173,
0.7031840085983276,
0.6279533505439758,
0.7316800355911255,
1.0786371231079102,
-0.9852951765060425,
0.6729027628898621,
0.01363728754222393,
0.6708047986030579,
-0.4038286805152893,
-0.2967379093170166,
0.05258738994598389,
0.2845862805843353,
0.5685440301895142,
-0.6118727922439575,
0.46420350670814514,
-0.3662007451057434,
-0.4559120535850525,
0.09692597389221191,
-0.018988069146871567,
-0.06459545344114304,
0.03447159007191658,
-0.22031107544898987,
-0.5829797387123108,
0.0456562265753746,
0.9478814601898193,
0.40370553731918335,
-0.17231778800487518,
0.028309395536780357,
-0.12908421456813812,
-0.7102499008178711,
0.06387306749820709,
-0.3630519509315491,
-0.06871265172958374,
-0.40150466561317444,
0.37948301434516907,
-0.21606409549713135,
0.1770671010017395,
0.36471980810165405,
0.29871129989624023,
0.15054191648960114,
0.20702572166919708,
0.14386186003684998,
0.10032046586275101,
-0.1500663459300995,
0.2593356668949127,
-0.7484862208366394,
0.3939986824989319,
0.2235860526561737,
-0.36980339884757996,
0.12572383880615234,
-0.24993091821670532,
-0.39747992157936096,
-0.11565351486206055,
0.10404078662395477,
0.46694764494895935,
0.8709330558776855,
-0.10414542257785797,
-0.14433203637599945,
0.16524136066436768,
-0.019234387204051018,
-0.9717736840248108,
0.10626044869422913,
-0.15398406982421875,
-0.20620578527450562,
0.41771313548088074,
-0.3025972843170166,
-0.8790566921234131,
-0.03072158433496952,
0.015493510290980339,
0.3566552400588989,
0.4936599135398865,
0.7822985053062439,
0.43876174092292786,
-0.5153405666351318,
0.8255271911621094,
0.035748180001974106,
-0.0934038981795311,
-0.0594843365252018,
-0.6871090531349182,
0.37574303150177,
0.22810760140419006,
0.32931289076805115,
-0.29254281520843506,
0.17563575506210327,
0.2625652849674225,
-0.339158296585083,
-0.5454738140106201,
-0.5262925028800964,
-0.18162359297275543,
0.21310728788375854,
-1.0054529905319214,
-0.3869769871234894,
0.20433995127677917,
0.015910206362605095,
-0.16446058452129364,
0.15560956299304962,
0.18342924118041992,
-0.4800116717815399,
0.35125744342803955,
-0.7440124750137329,
-0.41033464670181274,
0.427079439163208,
-0.18902339041233063,
-0.3802267909049988,
0.13739456236362457,
0.9196237325668335,
0.6782933473587036,
-0.13461296260356903,
0.023046761751174927,
-0.1520921289920807,
0.24254755675792694,
-0.2820875644683838,
0.06388399004936218,
0.21534620225429535,
-0.1344740390777588,
-0.2627153992652893,
-0.13812784850597382,
0.461933434009552,
0.6496580243110657,
-0.08030348271131516,
0.24037352204322815,
-0.19584834575653076,
-0.15850354731082916,
-0.08093531429767609,
-0.2468046098947525,
-0.08483658730983734,
-0.36180147528648376,
-0.08590156584978104,
0.1633589267730713,
0.24106274545192719,
0.06446516513824463,
-0.11067427694797516,
0.4697991609573364,
0.3115028738975525,
0.0851389691233635,
-0.041532158851623535,
0.7733839750289917,
-0.1865088939666748,
0.045755088329315186,
0.21299558877944946,
-0.8141891360282898,
-0.14919987320899963,
0.12155189365148544,
-0.5947121381759644,
-0.3581603765487671,
0.20191672444343567,
-0.3380960524082184,
0.17265361547470093,
0.09262597560882568,
-0.9325383901596069,
-0.0727633610367775,
-0.16378140449523926,
0.26058855652809143,
-0.41957637667655945,
-0.41418248414993286,
-0.13322170078754425,
0.9229335784912109,
0.1792151778936386,
-0.33930984139442444,
-0.17729957401752472,
0.36635881662368774,
0.48571550846099854,
-0.6514018177986145,
-0.018828323110938072,
-0.527828574180603,
0.19354039430618286,
0.4576464593410492,
0.23452745378017426,
0.017516518011689186,
-0.6161302924156189,
0.011238045990467072,
0.5322998762130737,
-0.8758872151374817,
-0.8870184421539307,
-0.37642988562583923,
0.24949780106544495,
0.020139219239354134,
0.5446542501449585,
-0.22313779592514038,
0.12795299291610718,
0.8541257381439209,
-0.09340827912092209,
0.10466338694095612,
0.004347130190581083,
-0.1733258217573166,
-0.38742560148239136,
-0.01031260285526514,
-0.26473090052604675,
0.23963874578475952,
-0.04314012825489044,
-0.04512770473957062,
0.06047012284398079,
-0.4530159831047058,
-0.3716928958892822,
-0.42831528186798096,
0.03849441558122635,
0.42579445242881775,
-0.1529323011636734,
0.00845568161457777,
0.41396841406822205,
0.5289448499679565,
-0.26755136251449585,
-0.01833396591246128,
0.24369223415851593,
0.5467942357063293,
-0.5639700293540955,
-0.5592832565307617,
-0.6359736323356628,
-0.16046935319900513,
-0.16421666741371155,
-0.09090122580528259,
-0.3885226249694824,
0.19722957909107208,
0.7269840240478516,
-0.10801932215690613,
0.575937032699585,
0.24859517812728882,
-0.0036806969437748194,
-0.36259952187538147,
-0.12050212174654007,
0.43888965249061584,
0.0007030837587080896,
0.3194682002067566,
0.2411876767873764,
0.12608282268047333,
-0.12121917307376862,
0.05011778697371483,
0.3181590437889099,
1.1637158393859863,
0.15258416533470154,
-1.0971070528030396,
-0.1594829112291336,
-0.32496148347854614,
0.6753994226455688,
-0.5709046721458435,
-0.21948334574699402,
0.15061290562152863,
0.4149298667907715,
-0.43495696783065796,
-0.5710570812225342,
-0.07552971690893173,
0.9787243604660034,
-0.41375458240509033,
0.0031625486444681883,
0.3817328214645386,
0.3473736643791199,
0.1453891545534134,
-0.18933811783790588,
0.5777093172073364,
0.04325437545776367,
0.5201359391212463,
0.06470677256584167,
0.28963857889175415,
-0.08293409645557404,
0.09341000020503998,
0.33977997303009033,
-0.4835295081138611,
-0.42083147168159485,
-0.3383338451385498,
-0.40977346897125244,
0.47246429324150085,
-0.19991068542003632,
-0.37973928451538086,
0.03906504064798355,
-0.5189509391784668,
0.06995825469493866,
-0.6533936262130737,
-0.9539172649383545,
-0.03571277856826782,
0.442758172750473,
-0.2707856595516205,
-0.09854117780923843,
-1.011762261390686,
-0.14570988714694977,
0.14196732640266418,
-0.4048521816730499,
-0.1585056334733963,
-0.3177489638328552,
-0.10045307129621506,
-0.30927562713623047,
-0.6859228610992432,
-0.4367308020591736,
0.29065918922424316,
-0.12360221892595291,
0.4772019386291504,
-0.11511120200157166,
0.01827785186469555,
-0.6317152976989746,
0.6849754452705383,
0.25394290685653687,
0.20975391566753387,
-0.13123011589050293,
-0.01185492891818285,
-0.23262886703014374,
-0.36999407410621643,
-0.5383400917053223,
-0.056802358478307724,
0.8320474028587341,
-0.26083725690841675,
0.24240626394748688,
0.5132282972335815,
-1.0674798488616943,
-0.2549717128276825,
-0.07735465466976166,
-0.20015187561511993,
-0.2797451615333557,
0.03423711657524109,
0.048400912433862686,
0.543148934841156,
0.3105986416339874,
0.4028368890285492,
0.34963259100914,
0.8447138071060181,
0.5816168785095215,
0.30112406611442566,
-0.13296228647232056,
0.06736709922552109,
-0.11575175821781158,
-0.33026373386383057,
-0.6977991461753845,
0.6138845086097717,
-0.606620192527771,
0.02088985964655876,
0.3943825662136078,
-0.6737100481987,
0.07223113626241684,
0.38752830028533936,
0.2811538279056549,
0.8780456185340881,
-0.1926446110010147,
-0.012606676667928696,
0.23211869597434998,
0.032269224524497986,
0.07525289803743362,
0.472906231880188,
0.295985609292984,
-0.4480322301387787,
0.05671945959329605,
-0.45432284474372864,
0.02396160550415516,
-0.52250075340271,
-0.35651952028274536,
0.6588733792304993,
0.5864806175231934,
-0.5073367357254028,
-0.1402994990348816,
-0.0447690486907959,
-0.2417905032634735,
-0.7565703988075256,
1.206091046333313,
0.03290066868066788,
-0.1277967244386673,
-0.01319799292832613,
0.2934260070323944,
-0.5792845487594604,
0.1907721757888794,
0.23398561775684357,
0.0012646649265661836,
-0.29047876596450806,
-0.19951589405536652,
0.10524015128612518,
0.057409487664699554,
0.0744047537446022,
0.4662927985191345,
-0.16930103302001953,
0.0828140527009964,
0.8545841574668884,
0.10124919563531876,
0.44374823570251465,
-0.2503261864185333,
-0.6948215961456299,
0.37969645857810974,
-0.06046702712774277,
0.10351046919822693,
0.29702576994895935,
0.09652393311262131,
-0.24054507911205292,
0.2712244987487793,
-0.4590771198272705,
-0.6626981496810913,
0.24524042010307312,
0.22785772383213043,
0.05562285706400871,
-0.7200025320053101,
0.7252101898193359,
0.8945711851119995,
0.3765089809894562,
0.014490132220089436,
0.23510079085826874,
-0.11251908540725708,
0.27869686484336853,
-0.1934291273355484,
0.14272260665893555,
0.2331252247095108,
-0.3519984185695648,
-0.6979660987854004,
0.28505921363830566,
0.11614102125167847,
0.8517847061157227,
-0.6343297958374023,
0.20697613060474396,
-0.27803054451942444,
-0.49306827783584595,
0.42534512281417847,
-0.4340685307979584,
-0.601607620716095,
-0.08814055472612381,
0.13075900077819824,
-0.30423834919929504,
0.3968568742275238,
0.48886170983314514,
-0.4807182848453522,
0.23033341765403748,
-0.025137431919574738,
0.21242693066596985,
-0.14465202391147614,
0.570460319519043,
-0.05491896718740463,
-0.8828104734420776,
-0.5287207961082458,
0.1414676308631897,
-0.2891707122325897,
0.10200400650501251,
0.3573093116283417,
0.6078764796257019,
0.28193920850753784,
-0.14084123075008392,
0.6288527250289917,
-0.02999281883239746,
0.3799266219139099,
-0.2208510786294937,
0.12666215002536774,
0.02059302106499672,
0.1273072510957718,
-0.42572999000549316,
-0.05896323546767235,
0.2854132056236267,
-0.3315109610557556,
-0.4494662582874298,
0.13873782753944397,
-0.461891770362854,
0.2759660482406616,
-0.5851389169692993,
0.3612346649169922,
0.23510590195655823,
0.08273462951183319,
-0.15885964035987854
] |
233733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Aberhart | William Aberhart | William Aberhart (December 30, 1878 – May 23, 1943), also known as "Bible Bill" for his outspoken Baptist views, was a Canadian politician and the seventh premier of Alberta from 1935 to his death in 1943. He was the founder and first leader of the Alberta Social Credit Party, which believed the Great Depression was caused by ordinary people not having enough to spend. Therefore, Aberhart argued that the government should give each Albertan $25 per month to spend to stimulate the economy, by providing needed purchasing power to allow needy customers to buy from waiting businesses.
During his premiership, Aberhart campaigned for and instituted several anti-poverty and debt relief programs, and other governmental reforms, such as consolidation of Alberta's numerous small school districts into centralized school divisions, and natural resources conservation. His attempts at banking reform met with less success, facing strong opposition from the federal government, the courts, privately-owned newspapers and a coalition of the Liberal and Conservative parties. Aberhart's government did successfully establish the Alberta Treasury Branches (now ATB Financial), a government-owned financial institution to provide an alternative to existing banks, which continues to operate as a Crown corporation of the Alberta government.
Early life
Childhood, education, and family
William Aberhart was born December 30, 1878, in Kippen, Ontario (now part of Bluewater, Ontario) to William (c. 1844 – 1910) and Louisa (c. 1850–1944) (née Pepper) Aberhart. William Aberhart Sr. had immigrated to Canada from Germany with his family at the age of seven, while Louisa Pepper was born in Perth County, Ontario. Historian Harold Schultz describes the Aberharts as "prosperous", while biographers David Elliott and Iris Miller says they "lived better than the average family". The fourth of eight children, William Aberhart Jr. delivered milk to his father's customers before school each day. At school, he was a hard-working but average student. Mathematics was one of his strengths, though his approach involved more rote learning than reasoning. Elliott and Miller suggest that this tendency stayed with him his entire life, and that he "never really acquired an appreciation for inductive intellectual analysis". Aberhart was not a social child. Though he excelled at soccer, he generally preferred solitary pursuits such as reading or teaching himself to play musical instruments.
In 1896, Aberhart attended three months of model school in Mitchell. Although this training qualified him to work as a schoolteacher, he instead enrolled in business college in Chatham, from which he withdrew after four months of successful study. In 1897–98, Aberhart attended Seaforth Collegiate Institute, where he was nicknamed "Whitey" (for his blond hair) and broadened his athletic prowess to include the long jump, shot put, 100-yard dash, high jump, cycling, and football.
On July 29, 1902, Aberhart married Jessie Flatt, whom he had met in 1901 at a football game. A daughter, Khona Louise Aberhart, was born in the winter of 1903, and a second, Ola Janet Aberhart, followed in August 1905.
On July 20, 1910, William Aberhart Sr. died in an accident at a pharmacy owned by his son (William Jr.'s brother) Charles. Prohibition was in effect, but pharmacists were permitted to provide alcohol for "medicinal purposes". Charles kept a bottle of whiskey for William Sr. to drink whenever he was in the store. One day a clerk rearranged the bottles, and the illiterate William Sr. took a swallow of carbolic acid; he died within minutes. William Jr., by now in Calgary, did not make the trip east to his father's funeral. Louisa Aberhart died February 20, 1944, outliving her son, William Aberhart Jr., by less than a year.
Teaching career
In the fall of 1901 Aberhart was hired as a teacher at the Central Public School in Brantford, for which he was paid $60 per month. He fast won a reputation as a strict disciplinarian: he addressed his students by number rather than name and was liberal in his use of the strap. By his own account in a 1903 essay, he viewed the classroom as a battlefield, and admired Oliver Cromwell's military organization. While his tactics divided his students—some loved him, while others recounted that "he did everything he could to break the spirit of a child"—his supervisors gave him uniformly positive reviews.
His school's principal died in 1905, and Aberhart was selected to replace him; his salary increased to $1,000 per year. This figure had reached $1,200 by 1910 when, in response to glowing reviews from his colleagues, the Calgary Board of Education offered him a principalship at $1,400 per year. In response to a petition from his staff and students that this offer be matched by Brantford, Aberhart was offered a raise to $1,300; he declined it, and moved to Calgary that spring. His family followed later, after he purchased a two-storey wooden house and Khona finished her academic year in Brantford. 1910 Calgary was a frontier town that smelled of horse manure and in which public drunkenness was common; though Aberhart's sensibilities were less shocked by this than his wife's were, he also had to make some adjustments: in Brantford he had always attended church in a silk top hat and frock coat, but he quickly abandoned this custom after discovering that he was the only one in Calgary to do so.
Aberhart was to become principal of Mount Royal School, but it was not yet complete at the time of his arrival, so he became the principal of Alexandra Public School immediately on his arrival. Mount Royal was still not completed by the fall, so he took over the principalship of Victoria School, which he held until becoming principal of the new Crescent Heights High School in 1915.
Elliott and Miller write that Aberhart took a less rigid approach to discipline at Crescent Heights than he had in Ontario, though Schultz says that as principal he was "authoritarian in manner and a strict disciplinarian". His love of organization persisted, and his penchant for it enhanced his reputation as "an able administrator". Crescent Height's students scored very well on departmental examinations, though some members of the school board believed that he achieved this at least partly by culling weaker students with a preliminary qualifying examination.
One way Aberhart applied his organizational prowess was in creating one of Calgary's first and largest parent–teacher associations, which had an average of two hundred parents attend each meeting; Aberhart had a generally good relationship with parents. His standing with his staff was more mixed: he had a habit of "talking down" to them, dominated the school to the point that teachers were left with little initiative, and, as Elliott and Miller put it, "never entered the staff room except to issue an order". Many of his teachers, while respecting his abilities an administrator, thought very little of him as a man, and some believed that his domineering approach stemmed from a fear of people smarter than him. In 1919, eight Crescent Heights teachers wrote the school board requesting an investigation into Aberhart's work; the resulting inspection led to the transfer of three male teachers—with whom Aberhart had a particularly poor rapport—to other schools, and stated that persisting problems would lead to a request for Aberhart's resignation. A follow-up investigation two years later found a substantial improvement in conditions and reported favourably on Aberhart's abilities. Despite this uneven relationship, Aberhart was not all together closed-minded, and would entertain—and sometimes even be convinced by—arguments from his staff.
Besides his administrative duties, Aberhart taught English and math. True to form, in doing so he emphasized rote memorization at the expense of independent reasoning, to the point that one of his teachers once likened him to a dog trainer. He cared for his students and provided extensive extra tutoring, especially for students in whom he saw a genuine interest in learning the material. Outside of the classroom, he applied his talents to organizing picnics and games, and in 1922 organized an elected student council years before the concept became widespread in Calgary. When some students wanted the school to purchase a movie projector not provided for in the school's budget, Aberhart organized a company into which students could buy for ten cents per share; the company put on movies for which it charged admission, and at the end of its first year of operation it declared a dividend of 25 cents per share. He urged his students to adopt four axioms he followed in his own life: "be enthusiastic, be ambitious, develop a distinctive personality, [and] have a hobby and ride it hard."
In the assessment of John Barr, a Social Credit staffer years after Aberhart's death who later wrote one of the first histories of the party's years in power, "Aberhart generally had the respect and admiration of a broad following of parents, teachers, and students." Schultz states that the only area in which all 61 people he interviewed in researching Aberhart's career agreed was that he was an excellent high school teacher.
Religion
Early religious views and adoption of Dispensationalism
Though his parents were not churchgoers, as a child Aberhart attended Sunday school at a Presbyterian church. Under circumstances that are not clear to history, in high school he became a devout Christian. He initially adopted Biblical literalism, though while at normal school he was exposed to more liberal versions of Christianity that taught the existence of internal inconsistencies in the Bible; for several years he adopted the approach of a Bible teacher who counselled him to "treat [the] Bible as ... a nice plate of fish" and "eat the meat and leave the bones for the dogs". Though at first he subscribed to the notion of unconditional election, and worried about whether he was destined for salvation, he later adopted the Arminian doctrine of conditional election, and became confident that, through his faith, he would be saved.
While in Brantford, Aberhart studied at Zion Presbyterian church, where he became interested in Biblical prophecy, which in turn led him to Dispensationalism. Dispensationalism held that history was divided into seven dispensations, during each of which God made a covenant with man, and during each of which man broke the covenant. That the terms of the covenant were different in each dispensation resolved Aberhart's earlier concerns about the Bible's internal inconsistencies. His views were heavily influenced by a correspondence course he took offered by American Dispensationalist Cyrus Scofield; Elliott and Miller speculate that such a course would have appealed to Aberhart by reducing "difficult theological problems to a matter of memorizing questions and answers".
In 1911, he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario.
Aberhart had aspired to take ministerial training at the Presbyterian Knox College Divinity School, but the church in Brantford was reluctant to take on the support of both him and his family in the four-year training period. He became fascinated with prophetical teaching in the Bible and studied a correspondence course by Cyrus Scofield. He had been introduced to this system while attending a men's Bible Class at Zion Presbyterian, taught by William Nichol, an elderly physician.
In 1910, Aberhart accepted a position as principal of Alexandra School in Calgary, Alberta. His initial Bible Study Teaching in Calgary commenced at the Grace Presbyterian Church at the Young Men's Bible Class. Within a few weeks attendance was over 100 and he attracted the attendance of the senior minister Dr. Esler, but his views on prophecy did not jibe with senior minister's reformed beliefs and his teaching privileges were cancelled. He then moved on to teach successively at the Wesley and Trinity Methodist Churches. Although seeds of his interest in the Baptist faith had been planted while in Ontario, it was not until his involvement with Westbourne Baptist Church in Calgary as a lay preacher, that he and his wife were baptised in the Baptist faith. He eventually lead Westbourne Baptist Church out of the Baptist Union of Western Canada in 1922. In 1918, Aberhart began a Bible study group in Calgary, Alberta which grew steadily year-by-year; by 1923, the Palace Theatre had to be rented to accommodate those interested in Aberhart's message. In 1925, radio station CFCN broadcast his Sunday sermons for the first time, taking his prophetic message beyond the confines of a theatre to listeners across the Prairies. In 1927, Aberhart was appointed Dean of the newly founded Calgary Prophetic Bible Institute. The institute's building served as a centre of worship, radio broadcast, and biblical studies. Aberhart's Sunday broadcasts proved as popular as his Bible studies as they drew regular listeners across western Canada, and some listeners in the northern United States. Towards the end of his life British Israelism became increasingly central to his theology. British Israelism had been an element of his theology from an early stage, but assumed further importance following the 1939 royal tour of Canada where he spoke with King George VI on the topic.
Political career
Aberhart became interested in politics during the Great Depression in Canada, a time which was especially harsh on Albertan and Saskatchewan farmers. Particularly, he was drawn to the Social Credit theories of Major C. H. Douglas, a British engineer. From 1932 to 1935, Aberhart lobbied for the governing political party, the United Farmers of Alberta, to adopt these theories, but it never did.
It is doubtful that Aberhart fully understood the theories himself. The basis of Douglas's A+B theorem is that prices rise faster than incomes when regarded as a flow, and individuals' purchasing power should be supplemented through issuance of new credits that have not derived from the productive system. After Aberhart's lobbying of the United Farmers to adopt Social Credit principles was unsuccessful., he helped found the Social Credit Party of Alberta.
This party won the 1935 provincial election by a landslide with over 54% of the popular vote and all but seven of the 63 seats in the legislature.
Not even the Socreds had expected to win the election. Indeed, its expectations were so low that it had not named a formal leader during the campaign. The party was now tasked with selecting a leader who would become the province's new premier. Aberhart was the obvious choice, as he had been the party's founder and guiding force. He initially said he didn't want the job, but was finally prevailed to accept it.
He was formally sworn in as premier on September 3 (11 days after his August 22 victory). However, he was not yet a member of the legislature. The Social Credit MLA for Okotoks-High River, William Morrison, resigned to give Aberhart a chance to get a seat, per standard practice in the Westminster system when a leader or cabinet minister doesn't have a seat.
Aberhart won the November 4 by-election, held prior to the first sitting of the new legislature after the general election. Aberhart was elected by acclamation.
Aberhart served as premier and as his own Minister of Education and, starting in 1937, Attorney General.
His government did not implement much of the Social Credit policies promised in the party's election platform, because of the province's very poor financial position in the depths of the Depression. The federal government's opposition to Social Credit was a significant block to Aberhart's policy goals. The federal government has jurisdiction over Canadian currency and banks, under the British North America Act. However, there was no constitutional barrier to Alberta producing its own currency, which Aberhart's government did to a limited degree with its prosperity certificates. Aberhart did threaten the power of private banks with his government's extension of the UFA government's foreclosure moratorium and mandatory debt adjustment. But a law to tax banks was overturned on constitutional grounds. Later, the government started its own banks, which carry on as the Alberta Treasury Branch (ATB Financial).
Lieutenant Governor John C. Bowen refused to give Royal Assent to three government bills in 1937. Two of the bills would have put the province's banks under the control of the provincial government, while a third, the Accurate News and Information Act, would have forced newspapers to print government rebuttals to stories the provincial cabinet deemed "inaccurate". All three bills were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. For its leadership in the fight against the latter act, the Pulitzer Prize committee awarded the Edmonton Journal, the Calgary Herald, the Red Deer News, Lethbridge Herald and the province's weekly newspapers a Special Citation, the first time it was awarded outside the United States.
Aberhart instituted a variety of relief programs to help people out of poverty, as well as public works programs and a debt relief program that froze some debt collections and mortgage foreclosures. This, like Tommy Douglas' similar program in Saskatchewan, was later overturned in the mid-1940s by the Supreme Court, although it aided people for a number of years during and (for a short time) after the Great Depression.
Alberta's Social Credit government brought in legislation under which an MLA could be recalled by a portion of their constituents. Aberhart's own constituents, including out-of-power UFA farmers and many oilworkers working for U.S. oil companies threatened by Aberhart's Natural Resources Conservation legislation, gathered signatures for Aberhart's own recall. He thus became the first Canadian politician to be threatened with recall from office. Aberhart's government retroactively repealed the recall legislation rather than have Aberhart forced to give up his seat.
In keeping with his evangelical views, Aberhart added a heavy dose of social conservatism to Major Douglas's ideas. Most notably, he enacted very tight restrictions on the sale of alcohol. Indeed, the only stricter law in Canada at the time was in Prince Edward Island, where the sale of alcohol remained completely banned until 1948. Well into the 1960s, commercial airlines could not serve alcohol while flying over Alberta.
By late 1937, relations with the lieutenant governor became so strained that Bowen even threatened to dismiss Aberhart's government, which would have been an extraordinary use of his reserve powers. An analogous situation occurred in 1932 in Australia between Jack Lang and Sir Philip Game, the premier and governor, respectively, of New South Wales. However, Bowen did not follow through on his threat due in part to Social Credit's immense popularity with the people. Had he dismissed Aberhart, it would have triggered a fresh election that Social Credit would have almost certainly won.
Aberhart's government was re-elected in the 1940 election with a somewhat reduced mandate, with Aberhart being elected to a Calgary seat.
Although Aberhart was unable to gain control of Alberta's banks, his government gained a foothold in the province's financial industry by creating the Alberta Treasury Branches in 1938. Its operations included special credit given for those who bought made-in-Alberta goods. ATB has become Aberhart's legacy, operating as an orthodox financial institution and crown corporation.
Death and legacy
Aberhart died unexpectedly on May 23, 1943, during a visit to his adult daughters in Vancouver, British Columbia, and was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Burnaby as his widow intended to move to Vancouver to be close to her children. He was succeeded as the Premier of Alberta by his lifelong disciple, Ernest C. Manning, who gradually moved away from Douglas' monetary theories. Social Credit would remain in office until its defeat in the 1971 election—one of the longest-serving provincial governments in Canadian history, and one of the longest-serving in the Commonwealth.
The Aberhart Centre, a long-term medical care centre at the University of Alberta Hospital in Edmonton, is named in his honour, as is William Aberhart High School in Calgary.
In 1974, he was named a Person of National Historic Significance by the Government of Canada. A plaque commemorating this sits inside Crescent Heights High School at 1019 1st NW, Calgary, Alberta.
Ideology
Elliott (1978) argues that the Aberhart's Social Credit ideology was clearly antithetical to his previous theology, which was highly sectarian, separatist, apolitical, other-worldly, and eschatologically oriented. Elliott challenges the arguments of Mann (1955) and Irving (1959) that there was a definite connection between Aberhart's theology and political program. Elliott reports that Aberhart's political support did not come from the sectarian groups as Mann and Irving suggest, but rather it came from the members of established churches and those with marginal religious commitment.
Publications and articles about Aberhart
Historian Harold J. Schultz's 1964 "Portrait of a Premier: William Aberhart" was published in the Canadian Historical Review. A 1977 book edited by Lewis Herbert Thomas, traced Aberhart's role in the development of Alberta's Social Credit movement.
In his 1978 article published in the Canadian Historical Review, David R. Elliot examined Aberhart's theological and political beliefs.
Elliot and Iris Miller published Bible Bill: A Biography of William Aberhart in 1987. A 2004 edited book —Alberta Premiers of the Twentieth Century, devoted a chapter to Aberhart.
A June 2020 in-depth article in Alberta Views magazine, compared Alberta Premier Jason Kenney to Aberhart.
Electoral record
November 4, 1935, provincial by-election Okotoks—High River
The first count vote totals were altered through STV vote transfers, to produce the five successful candidates, one of which was not in a leading position in the first count.
See also
History of Alberta
1937 Social Credit backbenchers' revolt
Notes
References
Further reading/other sources
Primary sources
External links
Encyclopedia of Alberta Online
Alberta Source
Alberta legislative assembly
AllRefer.com Biography
William Aberhart Historical Foundation
CBC 1943 archival video clip on Aberhart's legacy
William Aberhart's papers digitized at the University of Calgary Archives
1878 births
1943 deaths
Alberta Social Credit Party leaders
Alberta Social Credit Party MLAs
Antisemitism in Canada
Canadian evangelicals
Canadian Baptists
Canadian evangelists
Canadian people of German descent
Canadian anti-communists
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
People from Huron County, Ontario
Premiers of Alberta
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
British Israelism
Anti-Masonry | [
0.309349000453949,
0.5357358455657959,
-0.5214377045631409,
-0.04438173025846481,
-0.44902822375297546,
0.49473440647125244,
1.161637783050537,
-0.10918056219816208,
0.17050805687904358,
-0.4540415108203888,
0.17678411304950714,
0.26984068751335144,
-0.5084676146507263,
0.3045121729373932,
-0.19284212589263916,
0.44180816411972046,
-0.05885302275419235,
0.02257607690989971,
-0.865164041519165,
-0.20953015983104706,
0.014846649952232838,
-0.5030291676521301,
0.5303764343261719,
0.5426576733589172,
0.1038142740726471,
0.2831043601036072,
0.6300882697105408,
-0.20073582231998444,
-0.13669541478157043,
0.43548712134361267,
0.2928294539451599,
0.04454844444990158,
0.8372209668159485,
-0.1650138646364212,
-0.2550332546234131,
0.061044055968523026,
-0.012791186571121216,
-0.24877776205539703,
0.25132423639297485,
0.055101778358221054,
-0.28027042746543884,
-0.3091120719909668,
0.40673381090164185,
-0.16612112522125244,
0.0650126188993454,
-0.5649693012237549,
-1.5821402072906494,
0.19524560868740082,
-0.30066466331481934,
-0.19362466037273407,
-0.09961871057748795,
0.23986312747001648,
0.01648031175136566,
0.01992310956120491,
0.2713761627674103,
0.07297327369451523,
-0.5462737679481506,
-0.30922916531562805,
-0.1688099354505539,
-0.4571352005004883,
0.2667263448238373,
-0.03007289581000805,
0.4532615542411804,
0.12689252197742462,
0.0024520084261894226,
0.1153905913233757,
-0.5465023517608643,
0.4626385271549225,
-0.03479060158133507,
-0.16451607644557953,
-0.0250144861638546,
0.5298143029212952,
0.16143502295017242,
0.049735162407159805,
0.6542190313339233,
-0.16620485484600067,
0.02675907500088215,
0.26174381375312805,
0.15438607335090637,
-0.02289833128452301,
-0.42525535821914673,
-0.15060381591320038,
0.2297339290380478,
0.5187879204750061,
-0.12538015842437744,
-0.02641938626766205,
-0.24877499043941498,
0.32604309916496277,
-0.4019559323787689,
0.013792837969958782,
-0.5604380965232849,
-0.30857306718826294,
-0.4664444327354431,
0.012213591486215591,
-0.9465932250022888,
-0.7143259048461914,
0.45596185326576233,
-0.03915129974484444,
-0.39903023838996887,
-0.43339696526527405,
0.33574190735816956,
-0.0664147138595581,
0.7364911437034607,
-0.013284224085509777,
-0.40857404470443726,
0.5370752811431885,
-0.40469667315483093,
-0.2988414764404297,
-0.2288750559091568,
-0.07539163529872894,
-0.4764726459980011,
0.11105400323867798,
0.3980874717235565,
-0.26600831747055054,
0.5563799142837524,
0.034221310168504715,
0.277437686920166,
-0.864747166633606,
-0.07478336989879608,
-0.11339066922664642,
-0.26208657026290894,
-0.09221436828374863,
-0.05545226112008095,
-0.25325340032577515,
-0.8715134263038635,
-0.4549195170402527,
-0.23571445047855377,
-0.2848201096057892,
-0.5910444259643555,
0.2402382493019104,
0.8353684544563293,
0.6477077007293701,
-0.1335182636976242,
-0.3138536214828491,
-0.4746231436729431,
0.2614300549030304,
-0.10697711259126663,
-0.3277953565120697,
-0.40034404397010803,
-0.03623880818486214,
-0.3073578178882599,
0.014585128985345364,
-0.43241098523139954,
-0.2435280829668045,
0.2134234607219696,
0.1763526350259781,
0.041462238878011703,
-0.12403787672519684,
-0.5510038733482361,
0.3586401045322418,
0.09524013847112656,
0.14577904343605042,
0.29306647181510925,
-0.5812716484069824,
-0.1929875761270523,
0.675055205821991,
0.07115418463945389,
0.06241508573293686,
-0.07799353450536728,
0.3486253321170807,
0.24112628400325775,
-0.08084826916456223,
0.07126356661319733,
-0.44279932975769043,
0.26770853996276855,
0.21498370170593262,
-0.3465364873409271,
-0.41168251633644104,
-0.273468017578125,
-0.05662325769662857,
0.11458621174097061,
0.10917554050683975,
0.3346882164478302,
-0.25440678000450134,
0.03268398717045784,
0.4815189242362976,
0.7404505014419556,
0.17278563976287842,
0.10395399481058121,
-0.44698604941368103,
-0.6774751543998718,
-0.30798637866973877,
0.38499969244003296,
0.5388701558113098,
0.4474375247955322,
-0.09147956967353821,
0.17665037512779236,
-0.11527679860591888,
0.6454660296440125,
-0.027500959113240242,
-0.6533913016319275,
-1.2095826864242554,
0.3240407705307007,
-0.2785406708717346,
0.7357730269432068,
-0.14957119524478912,
-0.08128150552511215,
0.8284066319465637,
0.025074781849980354,
0.33833783864974976,
-0.25205475091934204,
-0.1710912436246872,
-0.015914255753159523,
-0.4402046203613281,
0.07681607455015182,
0.8375549912452698,
0.2561030685901642,
0.29410696029663086,
0.005114293657243252,
0.7192506790161133,
0.24050667881965637,
-0.9455386400222778,
-0.536850094795227,
0.6596155166625977,
-0.15185336768627167,
-0.4264923334121704,
-0.22218027710914612,
-0.33492588996887207,
0.07744555175304413,
0.0072889612056314945,
0.04543869569897652,
0.09890484064817429,
-1.0975315570831299,
0.5541107654571533,
-0.19017986953258514,
0.19682107865810394,
-0.058290138840675354,
0.18737053871154785,
-0.08831529319286346,
-0.6812210083007812,
0.21139295399188995,
0.397256076335907,
0.3189488649368286,
-0.451618492603302,
0.5851123929023743,
0.15096646547317505,
-0.38175204396247864,
0.17793965339660645,
0.17146530747413635,
-0.31987789273262024,
0.31381142139434814,
0.1591813564300537,
-0.33115509152412415,
-0.2260907143354416,
-0.06530357897281647,
0.27657684683799744,
-0.38359639048576355,
0.02731625735759735,
0.11797451227903366,
0.011386223137378693,
0.6531984210014343,
0.2321358323097229,
0.31548967957496643,
0.19369050860404968,
0.5041549801826477,
-0.09088063985109329,
0.3944215774536133,
-0.2497785985469818,
0.17589972913265228,
0.35906678438186646,
-0.20102466642856598,
-0.05296219512820244,
-0.06009933724999428,
0.3200678825378418,
0.1500449776649475,
-0.05397700518369675,
0.11438911408185959,
-0.021040644496679306,
-0.9219554662704468,
-0.1500890702009201,
-0.15311075747013092,
-0.14461971819400787,
-0.45470666885375977,
0.7354186177253723,
0.3592720329761505,
0.10023075342178345,
0.4141777753829956,
0.43622174859046936,
-0.6481660008430481,
-0.7194308638572693,
0.22817452251911163,
1.188157558441162,
-0.13152627646923065,
-0.06947246938943863,
-0.0808134600520134,
0.3265104293823242,
-0.09570380300283432,
-0.20584361255168915,
0.009590690024197102,
0.02503284439444542,
-0.057179611176252365,
0.8992273807525635,
-0.03475061431527138,
-0.2845478951931,
-0.620635449886322,
0.620701253414154,
0.1860334724187851,
-0.4201032221317291,
0.7040409445762634,
-0.06688716262578964,
-0.0769948810338974,
-0.19802676141262054,
-0.014542684890329838,
0.5806363224983215,
0.7099878787994385,
0.0741487592458725,
-0.6071814298629761,
0.09326213598251343,
-5.539208889007568,
0.351371705532074,
-0.0163502786308527,
-0.8554682731628418,
0.9736911654472351,
0.38109058141708374,
0.26341310143470764,
-0.4606972634792328,
0.3368862271308899,
-0.4951933026313782,
0.48442524671554565,
-0.18795007467269897,
0.202644944190979,
0.444551020860672,
0.6369755268096924,
0.20230725407600403,
0.7229808568954468,
-0.9153994917869568,
0.24457409977912903,
0.35908055305480957,
1.048875093460083,
-0.40660661458969116,
0.031845323741436005,
0.5625752806663513,
0.33644312620162964,
0.16284754872322083,
-0.28212258219718933,
0.7065402269363403,
0.2853139042854309,
-0.26867911219596863,
0.35745540261268616,
-0.09118808805942535,
-0.10181371867656708,
0.3188668191432953,
-0.38260963559150696,
-0.23881934583187103,
0.4617559313774109,
0.5113500952720642,
-0.27562415599823,
-0.054407376796007156,
0.2957433760166168,
-0.34086525440216064,
-0.6756454706192017,
0.22689463198184967,
-0.25866958498954773,
-0.4829919636249542,
-0.6149176359176636,
0.410209596157074,
-0.19160912930965424,
-0.008297888562083244,
0.07177983224391937,
0.22681419551372528,
0.13209719955921173,
0.06481530517339706,
0.4035302400588989,
0.09479479491710663,
-0.5285425782203674,
0.1726369857788086,
-0.430204302072525,
0.13232669234275818,
0.16833361983299255,
-0.5572856068611145,
-0.04109096899628639,
-0.08686850219964981,
-0.28820502758026123,
-0.5194662809371948,
0.19030950963497162,
0.4840795397758484,
0.7327961921691895,
-0.04602053388953209,
-0.10367719829082489,
0.695530116558075,
0.0444905087351799,
-1.467298150062561,
0.1634807586669922,
-0.3121018707752228,
-0.22843356430530548,
-0.024597348645329475,
-0.7673351168632507,
-0.44527095556259155,
0.15624062716960907,
0.23697137832641602,
0.3026435375213623,
0.2853769063949585,
0.993624210357666,
0.2757173776626587,
-0.4301578402519226,
0.7157548069953918,
-0.16691896319389343,
-0.3015817105770111,
-0.21761323511600494,
-0.7388246059417725,
0.1413382887840271,
0.25381654500961304,
0.3524458110332489,
-0.13186025619506836,
-0.3976993262767792,
0.656370997428894,
-0.00863940641283989,
0.3658280670642853,
-0.24583671987056732,
0.30252131819725037,
0.06855150312185287,
-0.6971363425254822,
-0.22593232989311218,
0.22941367328166962,
-0.45563897490501404,
0.019240478053689003,
0.018795136362314224,
0.4525740444660187,
-0.5696450471878052,
0.601707398891449,
-0.06634863466024399,
-0.2690405249595642,
0.024383148178458214,
-0.3986513018608093,
-0.12142150849103928,
-0.010126831941306591,
1.0212751626968384,
0.7334975600242615,
-0.2345525175333023,
0.16206976771354675,
-0.33496326208114624,
0.0920971930027008,
0.15445493161678314,
0.060315895825624466,
0.4421224594116211,
-0.04541082680225372,
-0.23157286643981934,
-0.07630904018878937,
0.1311292052268982,
0.3278806507587433,
0.4812527596950531,
0.2523532509803772,
-0.11251812428236008,
-0.5168678760528564,
-0.1378278136253357,
-0.15987609326839447,
-0.6051414608955383,
-0.0942305326461792,
-0.3579634726047516,
-0.06630368530750275,
0.09037894755601883,
0.20694990456104279,
-0.012869114987552166,
0.030155528336763382,
0.2574508786201477,
0.11485079675912857,
-0.39533090591430664,
0.47005927562713623,
-0.06194131076335907,
0.15233348309993744,
0.5942050814628601,
-0.7543259263038635,
-0.13863950967788696,
0.00981091894209385,
-0.23024387657642365,
-0.24861189723014832,
0.017064422369003296,
-0.536411464214325,
-0.3732363283634186,
0.23831790685653687,
-1.3224314451217651,
-0.11696526408195496,
-0.014646559953689575,
0.22522026300430298,
-0.5746194124221802,
0.01996316760778427,
0.030484668910503387,
0.5641618967056274,
0.048424772918224335,
-0.5950831174850464,
-0.3014768958091736,
0.4861675500869751,
0.7060600519180298,
0.03765914961695671,
-0.25619956851005554,
-0.48658761382102966,
0.20642566680908203,
-0.07250417768955231,
0.04799995571374893,
0.33163946866989136,
-0.2844208776950836,
-0.0009019659482873976,
0.9262961149215698,
-0.4496474862098694,
-0.6548551917076111,
-0.31483784317970276,
0.027283605188131332,
0.0528312586247921,
0.6027458310127258,
-0.14306999742984772,
0.3178561329841614,
0.960060179233551,
-0.3754185736179352,
0.09035477042198181,
0.17775584757328033,
-0.5669325590133667,
0.05042780190706253,
-0.23014450073242188,
-0.08017189055681229,
0.05508352443575859,
-0.09354209154844284,
-0.293162077665329,
0.20461754500865936,
-0.7637958526611328,
-0.01961202546954155,
-0.7550627589225769,
-0.08588211983442307,
0.742658793926239,
0.05856788530945778,
-0.12411165982484818,
0.24993033707141876,
0.5102868676185608,
-0.04475544020533562,
-0.15657128393650055,
0.07723260670900345,
0.17114324867725372,
-0.40538546442985535,
-0.6198145747184753,
-0.6142423748970032,
-0.500537633895874,
-0.1233971044421196,
0.34886133670806885,
-0.5511181950569153,
-0.1702735424041748,
0.13880246877670288,
-0.2656102478504181,
0.40695294737815857,
0.09379394352436066,
-0.4732711613178253,
-0.17892588675022125,
0.036823172122240067,
0.8309019804000854,
-0.5035125017166138,
-0.21165820956230164,
0.4837438464164734,
0.44092389941215515,
-0.5150284767150879,
0.11770442873239517,
0.5153256058692932,
1.0564467906951904,
0.4392792582511902,
-0.5413981080055237,
-0.26033633947372437,
0.2256370633840561,
0.25242334604263306,
-0.3365016579627991,
0.02375107817351818,
0.3797987699508667,
0.2150697410106659,
-0.08393983542919159,
-0.5612127780914307,
0.13911649584770203,
0.5845605731010437,
-0.47438153624534607,
0.03765183314681053,
-0.07053058594465256,
0.15825459361076355,
0.06519601494073868,
-0.0667358934879303,
0.17117738723754883,
-0.05644099786877632,
0.34469279646873474,
-0.2630738615989685,
0.061758704483509064,
0.21632805466651917,
-0.2087484896183014,
0.3180294334888458,
-0.27556994557380676,
-0.6632351875305176,
-0.48825132846832275,
-0.31714245676994324,
0.316708505153656,
-0.20759305357933044,
-0.3491295874118805,
-0.2411678582429886,
-0.9201372861862183,
-0.23543836176395416,
-0.28311431407928467,
-1.1794250011444092,
-0.09643347561359406,
-0.05981411784887314,
-0.3740330934524536,
-0.23580200970172882,
-0.9197285771369934,
-0.05113581568002701,
-0.12296180427074432,
-0.4573122560977936,
-0.6154764890670776,
-0.6270046830177307,
0.3271547853946686,
-0.040809303522109985,
-0.43448057770729065,
-0.6348415017127991,
0.3294581174850464,
-0.16253146529197693,
0.453670471906662,
-0.13943348824977875,
-0.36152973771095276,
-0.33218804001808167,
0.6402696371078491,
0.53184574842453,
0.22365547716617584,
-0.1405685693025589,
-0.602941632270813,
-0.4241105616092682,
-0.2447892427444458,
-0.29513293504714966,
-0.043974485248327255,
0.8386633992195129,
0.11196036636829376,
0.4212300777435303,
0.600983738899231,
-0.9004408121109009,
-0.38552671670913696,
-0.20387707650661469,
-0.14080969989299774,
-0.4737820029258728,
0.05541936680674553,
0.10664492845535278,
0.7188113927841187,
0.3225530982017517,
-0.026836290955543518,
0.22614803910255432,
1.0803492069244385,
0.6940764784812927,
0.09165331721305847,
-0.37844762206077576,
0.045369815081357956,
-0.1807495653629303,
-0.7165160775184631,
-0.19754235446453094,
0.6859228610992432,
-0.4220479428768158,
0.18112128973007202,
0.4006991386413574,
-0.2972290813922882,
0.46625420451164246,
0.09037663042545319,
-0.31298375129699707,
0.5821481943130493,
-0.6781901121139526,
0.13426315784454346,
0.1612357646226883,
0.19563092291355133,
-0.11412963271141052,
0.07527697831392288,
0.5394443869590759,
0.23578709363937378,
0.3981461226940155,
-0.4075498878955841,
0.28120458126068115,
-0.7680842876434326,
-0.0967288464307785,
0.5371326208114624,
0.6650124192237854,
-0.20634858310222626,
-0.4838702976703644,
0.10063838213682175,
-0.11509178578853607,
-0.5903730392456055,
1.172088384628296,
-0.2506807744503021,
0.15002897381782532,
0.2361786961555481,
-0.0889480784535408,
-0.7917687296867371,
-0.09432883560657501,
0.22234703600406647,
-0.001735884346999228,
-0.33246925473213196,
-0.41344523429870605,
-0.01046203076839447,
0.2134849578142166,
0.558027446269989,
0.9344655871391296,
-0.2181897610425949,
0.23425376415252686,
0.6530419588088989,
0.19667187333106995,
-0.4112786650657654,
-0.3235155940055847,
-0.8925999402999878,
0.35335642099380493,
0.11914409697055817,
0.10865694284439087,
0.30976200103759766,
-0.4213799834251404,
-0.9254334568977356,
0.3747110664844513,
-0.38660767674446106,
-0.17468957602977753,
0.2521476447582245,
0.2571127712726593,
-0.2930328845977783,
-0.31033623218536377,
0.7459406852722168,
0.6884552240371704,
0.3275311589241028,
0.01622140407562256,
-0.11009684950113297,
0.2720891237258911,
-0.12316637486219406,
-0.21950168907642365,
-0.15486259758472443,
0.4201008975505829,
0.15553784370422363,
-0.902646005153656,
0.8437961339950562,
-0.02105698548257351,
0.4514557421207428,
-0.38531792163848877,
-0.005679507274180651,
-0.2750346064567566,
-0.5904695987701416,
0.7928749918937683,
-0.3684001863002777,
-0.20123831927776337,
0.21457184851169586,
0.2415202111005783,
-0.27864617109298706,
0.1355845183134079,
0.7437751293182373,
-0.1947760283946991,
0.01993432268500328,
0.5369958877563477,
0.10069271177053452,
-0.2959412634372711,
0.503060519695282,
0.3865140974521637,
-0.8339921236038208,
-0.4056131839752197,
0.2975556552410126,
-0.10663658380508423,
0.11535606533288956,
0.3516892194747925,
0.6149367094039917,
-0.07479473948478699,
-0.37459245324134827,
0.4754347503185272,
-0.10241269320249557,
0.06281273812055588,
-0.2569488286972046,
-0.1435554027557373,
0.38784629106521606,
0.20889289677143097,
-0.4448699653148651,
0.22883126139640808,
0.5271520614624023,
-0.2456197887659073,
-0.7983750104904175,
0.36670738458633423,
-0.6487676501274109,
0.7015565633773804,
-0.44725459814071655,
0.3138255476951599,
0.14909489452838898,
0.3520328998565674,
-0.21288426220417023
] |
233734 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Gavin%20Reid | Richard Gavin Reid | Richard Gavin "Dick" Reid (17 January 1879 – 17 October 1980) was a Canadian politician who served as the sixth premier of Alberta from 1934 to 1935. He was the last member of the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) to hold the office, and that party's defeat at the hands of the upstart Social Credit League in the 1935 election made him the shortest serving premier to that point in Alberta's history.
Born near Glasgow, Scotland, Reid worked a number of jobs as a young adult—including wholesaler, army medic (during the Second Boer War), farmhand, lumberjack and dentist—and immigrated to Canada in 1903. He involved himself in local politics and joined the recently formed UFA, which nominated him to run in the 1921 provincial election as its candidate in Vermilion. The UFA won the election, and Reid served in several capacities in the cabinets of premiers Herbert Greenfield and John Edward Brownlee, where he established a reputation for competence and fiscal conservatism. When a sex scandal forced Brownlee from office in 1934, Reid was the caucus' unanimous choice to succeed him as premier.
When Reid took office, Alberta was experiencing the Great Depression. Reid took measures to ease Albertans' suffering, but believed that inducing a full economic recovery was beyond the capacity of the provincial government. In this climate, Alberta voters were attracted to the economic theories of evangelical preacher William Aberhart, who advocated a version of social credit. Despite Reid's claims that Aberhart's proposals were economically and constitutionally unfeasible, Social Credit routed the UFA in the 1935 election; Reid's party did not retain a single seat. Reid lived forty-five years after his defeat, but these years were spent in obscurity; he never returned to political life.
Early life
Reid was born 17 January 1879 near Glasgow, Scotland, to George (1843–1913) and Margaret (Ogston) Reid (1850–1928). He attended school in Glasgow and worked for several years in the wholesale provisions business before enlisting in the Royal Army Medical Corps. He served in South Africa as a Lance-Sergeant from 1900 to 1902 during the Second Boer War, doing hospital duty, before returning to Scotland. There he began to plan his future, considering returning to South Africa to live before deciding on Canada.
He arrived in Killarney, Manitoba, in 1903, where he worked as a farmhand during the harvest. When winter came, he found work as a lumberjack in Fort William, Ontario. A voyage west followed, and he set up a homestead in east-central Alberta. Once there, he began to practice dentistry, drawing on his army experience. On 9 September 1919, he married Marion Stuart. They had three sons and two daughters.
Early political career
Entry into politics
Reid's political career began with four years on the municipal council of Buffalo Coulee, around present-day Vermilion. He spent two of these as Reeve. He was instrumental in founding the Vermilion municipal hospital district, on whose board he served for many years. Federally, he was active with the United Farmers of Alberta Battle River Political Association, of which he became president.
Reid was nominated as the UFA candidate in Vermilion during the 1921 provincial election, the first in which the UFA ran candidates. The Legislative Assembly of Alberta was dominated by the Liberals, who had governed Alberta since its creation in 1905. To Reid's great surprise, he defeated his Liberal opponent and was elected to the legislature, along with 37 of his fellow UFA candidates—enough to form a majority government. He chaired the first meeting of the new UFA caucus, at which it selected Herbert Greenfield as Premier. Reid was re-elected in the 1926 and 1930 elections.
Cabinet career
Reid occupied high-ranking cabinet positions in Greenfield's government and that of his successor, John Edward Brownlee. Greenfield appointed him Minister of Health and Minister of Municipal Affairs in 1921. In the former capacity, he drew on his past experience with the Vermilion board in establishing new municipal health boards. He also proposed a program of eugenics through the sterilisation of the mentally handicapped, which in 1928 led to the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta. As an advocate of government-wide economy, he laid off all school inspection nurses and many public health nurses. This inclination towards thrift was also evident in his performance as Minister of Municipal Affairs, in which he resisted a 1926 call from several municipalities to transfer a greater proportion of the responsibility for caring for indigents to the province. In 1929, he disagreed with them again when he insisted that they be responsible for 10% of the old-age pensions paid to their residents.
In 1923 Greenfield moved Reid out of both of his portfolios and made him Provincial Treasurer, where he perpetuated his fiscal conservatism across the government. Early in his tenure, he presented a brief to cabinet recommending that ministers reduce their budgets and that the government create a purchasing department tasked with coordinating spending on supplies. In these proposals he found a close ally in Brownlee, Greenfield's Attorney-General, and when Brownlee succeeded Greenfield as Premier in 1925 he kept Reid as Provincial Treasurer and re-appointed him as Minister of Municipal Affairs. Brownlee and Reid had a history of working closely not only on fiscal issues, but also on agricultural ones: in July 1923, they had travelled together to investigate the creation of a wheat pool in Alberta. This trip included a meeting with cooperative pioneer Aaron Sapiro in San Francisco and a visit to Chicago's commodity market. Both Reid and Brownlee concluded that a pool ought to be proceeded with cautiously, if at all, though this view was overruled when a later visit by Sapiro to Alberta generated sufficient enthusiasm that the government had little choice but to go along with the creation of the Alberta Wheat Pool.
With Brownlee as premier and Reid as Provincial Treasurer, government deficits ceased: the budget showed a surplus in every year from 1925 until 1930, except for 1927. In 1929, Reid predicted that Alberta was on the cusp of a period of economic expansion; instead, he was soon confronted with the Great Depression. He drastically cut provincial spending and raised taxes, in part by creating a new income tax. He reluctantly accepted that these measures could not prevent a return to deficit spending. His willingness to outspend revenues was due less to any Keynesian desire to stimulate the economy than to a belief that there was no further spending to be cut or further taxes that could reasonably be raised. Conversely, he rejected calls from the opposition Liberals to cut taxes as a stimulus measure.
Though Brownlee was no more enthusiastic than Reid about deficits, his continued confidence in his Provincial Treasurer was evidenced by his decision to give him yet another ministerial portfolio. In 1930 Brownlee secured Alberta's long-sought control over its natural resources from the federal government, and he appointed Reid Alberta's first Minister of Lands and Mines on 10 October 1930. In this capacity, Reid favoured private over public ownership. He opposed calls from his own party to promote government-developed hydroelectricity projects, and viewed the provincially owned railways as a burden to the government, though they finally turned a profit in 1927. He was a leading advocate of selling them to private interests, a course that was eventually followed in 1929.
Premier
In 1934, Brownlee was implicated in a sex scandal, as a young family friend and her father sued him for seduction. By Reid's account, he had to convince his premier not to quit "hundreds of times". When the jury found in favour of the plaintiffs, however, Brownlee had no choice, and resigned effective 10 July 1934. Reid was the most prominent minister in the cabinet and among the most popular, and was the UFA caucus' unanimous choice to take over. He also replaced Brownlee as Provincial Secretary and installed himself in the newly created position of Treasury Board President.
The UFA was in an uncertain position when Reid became Premier; besides Brownlee's resignation, longtime Minister of Public Works Oran McPherson was in the midst of a scandalous divorce and had also left cabinet, and UFA MLAs Peter Miskew and Omer St. Germain had crossed the floor to the Liberals. Additionally, the province's economic condition remained poor. Liberal leader William R. Howson tried to take advantage of this to undermine the government and position himself as the province's next Premier; he attacked Reid relentlessly for what he alleged were spendthrift habits, and suggested the province's tax rates were causing the confiscation of family homes. Reid asserted in response that Alberta's taxes had decreased since 1921, and criticised Howson for simultaneously attacking government spending and demanding new infrastructure projects.
In the meantime, Reid's government took a number of policy initiatives. It passed legislation authorizing the government purchase of cattle from farmers who could no longer afford feed, and worked out a cost-sharing agreement with the federal government and the railways to relocate farmers fleeing the province's dust belt. Reid also called for the creation of a federal wheat marketing board, and proposed legislation—the Agricultural Industry Stabilisation Act—that protected from creditors any portion of a farmer's revenue that was used on operating costs for his farm or living expenses for his family. Despite these measures, Reid found himself at odds with his party's membership, which was reacting to the Great Depression by following an increasingly socialist path. He found UFA President Robert Gardiner to be of the "far left", and considered the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, in whose founding many UFA members had participated, to be an "unholy amalgamation". Even so, his government experimented with a form of universal health insurance, to be jointly funded by government, employers, and employees, that would provide Albertans with free medical, dental, and hospital care; the project was to be launched as a pilot project in Camrose, but was never begun because of the intervention of the 1935 election. More controversially, Reid's government reacted to McPherson's divorce and its attendant coverage by proposing to ban newspapers from covering divorce proceedings, a proposal that prompted Liberal MLA Joseph Miville Dechene to compare Reid to Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin.
Social credit
A more dangerous opponent than Howson was William Aberhart, the Calgary preacher who was proposing a form of social credit to cure the province's ills. Social credit, the brainchild of British engineer C. H. Douglas, purported to bridge the gap between a society's production and its purchasing power; Aberhart maintained that this gap was the source of Alberta's economic hardships. Reid was leery of Aberhart though he, like most politicians of the era, pronounced himself in favour of Douglas's philosophy. T. C. Byrne suggests that this expressed support was dishonest, that Reid considered social credit in all of its forms to be "complete nonsense", and paid it lip service only because of its popularity among voters.
Though he was gaining adherents, Aberhart insisted that his aim was not to enter politics, but to persuade existing parties to adopt social credit in their platforms. To this end, he appeared at the UFA convention of 15 January 1935. The night before, he organised a reception for delegates. Besides Aberhart, it featured actors portraying two characters of whom Aberhart had been making considerable use in presentations around the province: the Man from Mars, who expressed bewilderment that poverty could exist in the midst of plenty and that governments were doing nothing about it, and Kant B. Dunn, who brought up straw man arguments against social credit for Aberhart to dismantle. Another of Aberhart's characters, the bumbling socialist C. C. Heifer, did not make an appearance; Aberhart biographers David Elliott and Iris Miller suggest that this was to avoid alienating the many UFA members who supported socialism.
The next day, the UFA began debate on a resolution that read
Resolved that a system of social credit as outlined by William Aberhart, Calgary, be put in as a plank in the UFA provincial platform to be brought before the electorate at the next provincial election.
Debate was vigorous. One delegate said that UFA members wanted social credit, and if they could not get it through the UFA they would find other means. After three hours, UFA Vice President Norman Priestly noted in frustration that delegates were debating the merits of "a system of social credit as outlined by" Aberhart without ever having heard Aberhart outline his proposed system. It was agreed to invite Aberhart to appear. Using the analogy of blood flowing through the human body, he argued that the of blood contained in the human body were sufficient for the heart to pump much more than that per day; so it was, he argued, with currency, whose circulation needed to be accelerated to enhance Albertans' purchasing power. He closed by expressing pessimism that the delegates would choose to support social credit, and this pessimism proved well-founded: though sources are inconsistent on the precise outcome—journalist John Barr reports that the exact vote was not recorded, while historian Bradford Rennie states there were 30 affirmative votes out of 400 delegates present—there is agreement that the resolution was handily defeated. While the vote appeared to be a decisive victory for Reid and his fellow traditionalists, Byrne suggests that many members abstained.
The threat from within apparently defeated, Reid and his government turned their attention to the threat from without: the convention's repudiation had convinced Aberhart that his Social Credit League must run candidates in the next election. Reid's defence took two forms. The first was an overt attack on Aberhart and his policies. He insisted that Aberhart's proposed "monthly credit dividends" of C$25 could not be issued unless taxes increased tenfold. He argued that Aberhart's proposed means of raising revenue—"unearned increments" and "production levies"—were actually disguised taxes, which would be paid primarily by farmers, and that his claims that the necessary credit could be created "at the stroke of a fountain pen" on an accounting ledger were absurd. He further pointed out that elements of Aberhart's plan, including the provincial government's entry into banking and the creation of a provincial tariff, were ultra vires the province under the Canadian constitution. These themes were expounded on by Priestly and Brownlee, both of whom undertook speaking tours and radio addresses, and by legal and economic experts commissioned by the government.
The second element of Reid's approach was to call into question Aberhart's understanding of social credit by exposing inconsistencies between his statements and the theories advanced by Douglas. Douglas and Aberhart did not like each other, and Douglas did not believe that Aberhart fully understood his theories; though he declined to comment publicly, one of his deputies once called one of Aberhart's pamphlets "fallacious from start to finish". Hoping to capitalize on this rift, Reid invited Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as "Economic Reconstruction Advisor" at an annual fee of $2,500 plus a $2,000 expense allowance for each of his annual three-week trips to the province. Douglas accepted. Angered that the government had incurred this sizable expense without consulting the legislature, Conservative leader David Duggan introduced a motion calling on Aberhart to be hired in a similar capacity. This suited Reid, who hoped that by inducing both men to submit detailed plans he would at last have something concrete from Aberhart to attack, and something equally concrete from Douglas with which to contrast it. Aberhart confounded Reid's plan by declining his offer. Douglas, for his part, provided mixed results: on his way to Edmonton he publicly repudiated Aberhart's impugned pamphlet and also pronounced himself against the creation of a provincial social credit political vehicle. On the other hand, shortly after his arrival he sent Aberhart a letter, gleefully released by Aberhart, asserting that there was no conflict between the "Douglas" and "Aberhart" versions of social credit. Moreover, his interim report to the government concerned itself primarily with political and legal, rather than economic, realities: he recommended setting up a provincially controlled media outlet to counter the anti-social credit propaganda he anticipated from the privately owned press, organizing a provincial government credit institution, and accumulating a stockpile of currency, stocks, and bonds. He also suggested that the UFA might need to form a coalition government to implement social credit. The report was of little use to Reid's government, so he had his Attorney-General, John Lymburn, ask Douglas to critique one of Aberhart's radio broadcasts. Douglas demurred, and made only vague comments about minor technical errors in the transcript.
Reid's approach to combating Aberhart's influence had failed. The first element, attacking the validity of Aberhart's ideas directly, had failed because much of the Alberta public, in abject poverty, was not interested in hearing economic and legal arguments against social credit. This state of mind was illustrated by a voter's comments to Brownlee on Aberhart's proposals:
Mr. Brownlee, we have listened to you with a great deal of attention and the answers you have given seem pretty hard to meet. But I have one more question ... I'm selling my wheat at 25 cents a bushel. If I tried to sell a steer tomorrow I'd probably hardly get enough to pay the freight. I get three cents a dozen for eggs. I'm lucky to get a dollar for a can of cream. Will you tell me what I've got to lose?
The second part of the strategy, contrasting Aberhart's proposals with Douglas's, failed largely because both men were too evasive in their statements to make any kind of direct comparison of their views. Lakeland College historian Franklin Foster offers an additional explanation: when Albertans were exposed to the charismatic evangelist Aberhart and the dry technocrat Douglas, they preferred the former, irrespective of credentials or economic expertise.
Electoral defeat
When the election came in August 1935, Aberhart offered economic recovery while Reid offered criticisms of Aberhart. Highlighting the UFA's record of clean government, low taxes, and fiscal responsibility, Reid committed himself and his government to bringing a sense of security. More tangibly, he promised to build a government oil refinery (predicting that "the near future will witness the greatest explorations for oil which this province has ever known"). Most of the campaign was conducted around Social Credit's promise to pull the province out of depression with its monetary theories. Reid alleged that Aberhart's policies would destroy the province's credit and leave it unable to borrow the money it needed to carry on, but voters—even those sceptical of Social Credit's promises—saw no alternative hopes offered by the UFA. On 11 August, election day, every UFA MLA was defeated; Reid himself finished third in his riding, barely ahead of the Communist candidate, and resigned as Premier effective 22 August.
Time would prove Reid correct in most of his criticisms of Aberhart: he did lack a specific economic agenda, much of his legislation was struck down by the courts, and the depression did continue for several more years in Alberta. This was of cold comfort to Reid, whose defeat was total: at 408 days, his time as Premier was the shortest in the province's history to that point.
Life after politics
After the election, Reid orchestrated a quick transfer of power. The Social Credit victory had provoked a bank run, and he wanted to re-establish stability as quickly as possible. Moreover, the province needed to borrow a large sum of money to meet even its short-term obligations, and the UFA, as a lame duck government, was unable to make promises to would-be creditors. Once in office, confronted with a dire financial situation, Aberhart accused the UFA government of mismanagement. Reid responded in January 1936 that there had been no such mismanagement, that the province's financial problems were due to Social Credit's policies, both real and promised, and that had the UFA won re-election in 1935 it could have continued governing without serious difficulty. He also resisted insinuations that it had been too restrained in helping impoverished farmers: as late as 1969 he was offering the view that shrinking sources of provincial revenue made further assistance impossible.
Apart from these occasional forays defending his record, Reid withdrew from politics. He became a commission agent, and later the librarian for Canadian Utilities Limited. For this latter role, he was made an honorary member of the Edmonton Library Association. During World War II, he served on the Canadian government's mobilisation board. Richard Reid died in Edmonton 17 October 1980 at the age of 101. He was cremated, and his ashes buried in Edmonton.
Historians generally view Reid as a victim of circumstance: like many governments across Canada, his was defeated by the Great Depression. Rennie argues that Reid's approach to government, frugal and non-interventionist, was well-suited to the prosperous 1920s but less so to the 1930s, and highlights his lack of charisma. But he also writes that virtually nobody could have won the 1935 election for the UFA. Foster agrees, assessing Reid as "a quietly competent, gentle man" who "merited the confidence of his colleagues", but who was in 1935 "distinctly out of his element". As Rennie closes, "In 1935 Albertans wanted a saviour. Richard Gavin Reid was a mere mortal."
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
Notes
References
1879 births
1980 deaths
Premiers of Alberta
Canadian centenarians
Men centenarians
Canadian Presbyterians
Politicians from Glasgow
United Farmers of Alberta MLAs
People from Aberdeenshire
Scottish emigrants to Canada
Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
People from the County of Vermilion River | [
-0.4437776803970337,
0.5077180862426758,
-0.573922336101532,
-0.04518520087003708,
-0.1814454346895218,
0.5947235822677612,
1.1307724714279175,
-0.28960639238357544,
-0.17593975365161896,
-0.16775108873844147,
0.41784048080444336,
0.2657764256000519,
-0.34325921535491943,
0.7393525242805481,
0.01641078107059002,
1.0064274072647095,
0.022248348221182823,
-0.24139690399169922,
-0.25060784816741943,
-0.046143028885126114,
-0.18699610233306885,
-0.5250028371810913,
0.5057238340377808,
0.5611321926116943,
-0.16107787191867828,
0.628720760345459,
0.4780426323413849,
0.19413766264915466,
-0.13454923033714294,
0.10483990609645844,
-0.40858349204063416,
0.22645162045955658,
0.6373581886291504,
0.20968973636627197,
-0.49996551871299744,
-0.24258951842784882,
-0.1569010615348816,
-0.760418176651001,
-0.293306827545166,
0.23052385449409485,
-0.427935391664505,
0.038402047008275986,
0.12074250727891922,
-0.1473608911037445,
0.04884864762425423,
-0.6698501706123352,
-1.9301034212112427,
-0.07000934332609177,
-0.3530837893486023,
-0.3121225833892822,
-0.0753830224275589,
0.5530611276626587,
0.5946763157844543,
-0.5270269513130188,
0.11947460472583771,
-0.12215203046798706,
-0.11460810154676437,
-0.17788825929164886,
-0.7369310855865479,
-0.4558587074279785,
0.16392290592193604,
-0.04670840501785278,
0.4042423963546753,
0.1415155827999115,
0.6175906658172607,
0.40450823307037354,
-0.2517472207546234,
0.40904727578163147,
-0.34337711334228516,
0.17033708095550537,
-0.1948069930076599,
1.0611464977264404,
0.46940332651138306,
0.22753173112869263,
0.11759164929389954,
0.16723087430000305,
0.3074863851070404,
0.08580256253480911,
0.4011495113372803,
0.1578822135925293,
-0.42894381284713745,
-0.3261412978172302,
0.3067752718925476,
0.553617537021637,
-0.035801857709884644,
-0.031083283945918083,
-0.6988447904586792,
0.759842574596405,
0.08717293292284012,
-0.5929420590400696,
-1.2058215141296387,
-0.5111920237541199,
0.0022675401996821165,
-0.22856399416923523,
-0.6128817200660706,
-0.9184132814407349,
-0.5203174352645874,
0.17106907069683075,
-0.004542684182524681,
-0.3275550305843353,
0.15010447800159454,
-0.6360955834388733,
0.3626784086227417,
-0.0682816207408905,
-0.8628807067871094,
0.09206587076187134,
-0.7348058819770813,
0.03119630552828312,
-0.49722859263420105,
0.024034710600972176,
-0.6400254368782043,
-0.019769834354519844,
0.13047894835472107,
-0.20282520353794098,
0.6006311774253845,
0.37231865525245667,
0.26264867186546326,
-0.5142430663108826,
-0.3928619623184204,
-0.4281964898109436,
0.03567829355597496,
-0.21435034275054932,
-0.6614557504653931,
0.07447696477174759,
-0.668194055557251,
-0.029731081798672676,
-0.15532773733139038,
-0.29178813099861145,
-0.4391709566116333,
0.6690455079078674,
0.7884424328804016,
1.1720950603485107,
-0.48918265104293823,
-0.04484443739056587,
-0.8967954516410828,
0.4554385840892792,
-0.3491993546485901,
-0.1519893854856491,
-0.4746180772781372,
-0.279906690120697,
-0.45833414793014526,
0.3555516004562378,
-0.7375103235244751,
-0.35186976194381714,
0.2249421775341034,
0.3271070420742035,
0.014706121757626534,
-0.23005029559135437,
-0.4264252781867981,
-0.331037312746048,
0.2449943721294403,
0.10979241132736206,
0.1943170428276062,
-0.19378967583179474,
0.056942664086818695,
1.0388774871826172,
0.4177532494068146,
0.10062377899885178,
0.06148306652903557,
-0.04110260680317879,
0.12592355906963348,
-0.09417349845170975,
-0.1972358524799347,
0.130369633436203,
0.9927572011947632,
0.06477615237236023,
-0.4168478548526764,
-0.9023786187171936,
0.4072587788105011,
0.349263072013855,
0.07589948922395706,
-0.04914184659719467,
0.372954785823822,
0.0664510726928711,
0.35508623719215393,
0.21678626537322998,
0.5116901993751526,
0.21358053386211395,
0.008053013123571873,
-0.42749112844467163,
-1.114927887916565,
-0.4755352735519409,
0.10154472291469574,
0.10083232074975967,
0.5593864321708679,
0.37323394417762756,
0.27595630288124084,
-0.3742578327655792,
1.1101170778274536,
-0.13114666938781738,
-0.3777018189430237,
-0.7326192259788513,
0.32069140672683716,
-0.377615362405777,
0.5110030174255371,
0.1446908563375473,
0.051896702498197556,
0.4262772500514984,
0.1017521321773529,
0.6669891476631165,
-0.1459418535232544,
-0.1285390555858612,
0.056051142513751984,
-0.6562252640724182,
0.007741569075733423,
0.7959132194519043,
0.3743385374546051,
0.035987917333841324,
0.27116239070892334,
1.1498486995697021,
-0.22057342529296875,
-0.5802369713783264,
-0.4795312285423279,
0.5064886808395386,
-0.2788635790348053,
-0.5693197846412659,
-0.33780983090400696,
-0.6157779693603516,
-0.009778001345694065,
-0.24919451773166656,
-0.15904590487480164,
0.4039054214954376,
-0.6296120285987854,
0.8320512175559998,
-0.2570057511329651,
0.9744258522987366,
-0.15178458392620087,
-0.49942201375961304,
-0.2012079805135727,
-0.8214983940124512,
-0.28402188420295715,
0.6633756756782532,
0.6259004473686218,
-0.781960666179657,
0.3571653366088867,
-0.015398750081658363,
-0.10972850024700165,
0.02839055098593235,
0.3400825560092926,
-0.7169903516769409,
0.134840190410614,
0.4349279999732971,
-0.8655465245246887,
0.05117277055978775,
0.4957585334777832,
0.5410380959510803,
-0.17089828848838806,
0.26209211349487305,
0.08755549043416977,
0.24758553504943848,
0.8423379063606262,
0.07443088293075562,
0.5379698276519775,
-0.10421427339315414,
0.062127161771059036,
-0.6794983744621277,
0.13598644733428955,
-0.6144090890884399,
0.18814225494861603,
0.4165347218513489,
-0.1649637222290039,
0.20141948759555817,
-0.23061589896678925,
0.15897426009178162,
0.24154135584831238,
0.5487474203109741,
-0.2689479887485504,
0.15601521730422974,
-0.5197579264640808,
-0.2884919047355652,
-0.02142353355884552,
-0.3584645092487335,
-0.35813018679618835,
0.4857126474380493,
0.5587814450263977,
0.14796654880046844,
-0.4272349774837494,
0.10764210671186447,
-0.4772520363330841,
-0.7452602982521057,
0.7236833572387695,
1.1523687839508057,
-0.049820635467767715,
-0.24693338572978973,
-0.3364814221858978,
0.34274235367774963,
-0.5023508667945862,
0.09546458721160889,
-0.0024172025732696056,
-0.8270165920257568,
-0.06719547510147095,
0.0668708011507988,
-0.489309161901474,
0.25950825214385986,
-0.7285513281822205,
-0.033281221985816956,
-0.1945013403892517,
-0.4215843379497528,
0.7283919453620911,
-0.37339091300964355,
0.11834368109703064,
0.049455251544713974,
0.3386262059211731,
0.20104628801345825,
0.6413968205451965,
0.4381137192249298,
-0.32452985644340515,
-0.5089147090911865,
-4.98047399520874,
0.08878649026155472,
0.37972816824913025,
-0.8510528206825256,
0.85132896900177,
0.1642378717660904,
0.14081916213035583,
-0.2099955528974533,
0.20957718789577484,
-0.20194755494594574,
0.11434019356966019,
-0.2225513756275177,
0.300839900970459,
0.28658437728881836,
0.9477829337120056,
0.35290202498435974,
1.195203185081482,
-0.4653864800930023,
0.7140375375747681,
0.48999983072280884,
0.9990008473396301,
0.23311831057071686,
-0.36472663283348083,
-0.06539503484964371,
0.16060589253902435,
0.4819490611553192,
-0.07108192145824432,
0.2829975187778473,
-0.29291245341300964,
-0.2803512215614319,
0.013054322451353073,
0.24598470330238342,
-0.4664802551269531,
0.5339748859405518,
-0.2431594431400299,
-0.1781364232301712,
0.5397721529006958,
0.5564078688621521,
0.25712907314300537,
0.041849490255117416,
0.01047090906649828,
-0.17237554490566254,
-0.2900664210319519,
0.2054501175880432,
-0.4165191352367401,
-0.5349047780036926,
-0.4803638160228729,
-0.10436277091503143,
-0.2661605775356293,
0.4498572051525116,
0.08608422428369522,
0.4972344934940338,
0.6268426775932312,
0.22075146436691284,
-0.1338358223438263,
0.38482987880706787,
0.0962914526462555,
0.1820324808359146,
-1.021906852722168,
0.7169369459152222,
0.019728435203433037,
-0.8352370858192444,
0.026927905157208443,
-0.07742692530155182,
-0.2620512843132019,
-0.35141000151634216,
0.12967704236507416,
0.6025342345237732,
0.6789107918739319,
-0.5493636131286621,
-0.3521995544433594,
0.6315147876739502,
-0.18389742076396942,
-1.0118924379348755,
0.33038443326950073,
-0.5641671419143677,
-0.336642861366272,
0.5060409903526306,
-0.47233641147613525,
-0.6762975454330444,
0.27439212799072266,
0.16350436210632324,
-0.004529894795268774,
0.5535807609558105,
0.3862435519695282,
0.3424072861671448,
-0.2500353753566742,
0.7330883741378784,
0.06082235649228096,
-0.3548091650009155,
0.06650712341070175,
-0.316480427980423,
0.41664600372314453,
0.5497830510139465,
0.6006994247436523,
-0.34551456570625305,
0.40029576420783997,
-0.12503206729888916,
0.025508005172014236,
0.07115796208381653,
-0.9902967810630798,
0.08671654760837555,
0.016038332134485245,
-0.6823506951332092,
-0.3407593071460724,
-0.24058863520622253,
-0.012803823687136173,
0.16762858629226685,
0.25279954075813293,
0.6011317372322083,
-0.2668774724006653,
0.7876976132392883,
-0.49654683470726013,
0.12102697044610977,
0.3828544318675995,
-0.0057624755427241325,
-0.4264039695262909,
0.05721544846892357,
1.308236837387085,
0.5741211771965027,
0.281448096036911,
0.20905569195747375,
-0.4089541733264923,
0.17527545988559723,
0.04636821895837784,
-0.14252223074436188,
0.5286215543746948,
-0.6561831831932068,
-0.4408380091190338,
0.2032933384180069,
0.3215700387954712,
0.5820891261100769,
-0.07743494212627411,
0.1022779643535614,
-0.28842583298683167,
-0.2775495946407318,
-0.03363681212067604,
-0.5515598058700562,
-0.5530721545219421,
-0.5171933770179749,
-0.2699543237686157,
-0.004263308830559254,
0.23153133690357208,
-0.08518817275762558,
-0.08992234617471695,
0.2680414021015167,
0.3166466951370239,
0.024460744112730026,
-0.08665046095848083,
0.7495418787002563,
-0.47993481159210205,
-0.6437010765075684,
0.5216196775436401,
-1.1616991758346558,
-0.07021258026361465,
0.05445166304707527,
-0.7796117067337036,
-0.23789221048355103,
0.4707801938056946,
-0.5629240870475769,
-0.05930376797914505,
0.15589147806167603,
-1.0157676935195923,
-0.03086356446146965,
0.09579022228717804,
0.24568746984004974,
-0.5851137042045593,
-0.5230308175086975,
-0.09875898063182831,
1.2063379287719727,
0.26797014474868774,
-0.15518790483474731,
-0.32918739318847656,
-0.1014382466673851,
0.430765300989151,
-0.15804126858711243,
0.03176948428153992,
-0.2800292670726776,
-0.18098117411136627,
0.12947428226470947,
0.17278319597244263,
0.34418272972106934,
-0.1483447104692459,
0.3274346888065338,
0.8158096671104431,
-0.6040509939193726,
-1.067434549331665,
-0.5525433421134949,
0.1782938539981842,
0.08364316076040268,
0.06717969477176666,
-0.36700910329818726,
0.3886397182941437,
1.108094573020935,
-0.09294573217630386,
-0.06591305881738663,
-0.0011469940654933453,
-0.5557018518447876,
-0.3108366131782532,
-0.22487899661064148,
0.09856660664081573,
0.00944847334176302,
0.2012665569782257,
-0.33479106426239014,
-0.12179233133792877,
-0.6600341200828552,
-0.33381497859954834,
-0.950395941734314,
-0.31543901562690735,
0.5304494500160217,
0.444190114736557,
0.0526827909052372,
-0.21787379682064056,
0.3465491831302643,
-0.3704867660999298,
-0.03105006366968155,
0.2359098345041275,
0.4605575203895569,
-0.8150047659873962,
-0.7555574178695679,
-0.8191092610359192,
-0.3317621052265167,
-0.138494610786438,
0.10233757644891739,
-0.43118080496788025,
-0.6372674107551575,
0.3985581398010254,
0.005250951740890741,
0.7503917813301086,
0.3239615857601166,
-0.2180815041065216,
-0.44043195247650146,
0.06830237805843353,
-0.04945860058069229,
-0.09075495600700378,
0.2978849411010742,
0.3425949513912201,
0.7199936509132385,
-0.0702945813536644,
-0.06506968289613724,
0.5351611375808716,
1.7888705730438232,
0.5534654259681702,
-0.7475838661193848,
-0.10060083121061325,
-0.6353889107704163,
0.31731778383255005,
-0.7382597923278809,
-0.12499421089887619,
0.5938256978988647,
0.5976139903068542,
-0.45344361662864685,
-0.6110774874687195,
-0.009839694947004318,
0.825153648853302,
-0.3406882882118225,
-0.10395076125860214,
0.08544250577688217,
0.42489075660705566,
0.49818962812423706,
-0.10674792528152466,
0.317605584859848,
0.1915079951286316,
0.15428204834461212,
0.06482628732919693,
0.4390489161014557,
-0.20597350597381592,
0.031054766848683357,
0.3427536189556122,
-0.41050243377685547,
-1.0678359270095825,
-0.3569771647453308,
-0.2564433515071869,
0.20383918285369873,
-0.15497301518917084,
-0.4176730215549469,
-0.0376412533223629,
-0.7624824047088623,
0.1569010317325592,
-0.3299601376056671,
-0.5693838596343994,
0.17284777760505676,
0.6543892621994019,
-0.4459001123905182,
-0.6719005107879639,
-0.7170002460479736,
-0.03295674920082092,
0.12808620929718018,
-0.8231883645057678,
-0.31004956364631653,
-0.488418847322464,
0.08387240022420883,
-0.5331180691719055,
-0.43691179156303406,
-0.05015026405453682,
0.14408278465270996,
-0.3353569209575653,
0.9765514135360718,
-0.08274275809526443,
0.3064888119697571,
-0.4699482023715973,
0.9707327485084534,
0.6091902256011963,
0.3954157829284668,
-0.18793193995952606,
-0.09700003266334534,
-0.24987758696079254,
-0.36520999670028687,
-0.21182973682880402,
-0.43698838353157043,
0.5920206904411316,
0.0594986155629158,
0.5165146589279175,
0.3103986084461212,
-1.3208240270614624,
-0.23599426448345184,
0.5133491158485413,
-0.35687437653541565,
-0.3010384142398834,
-0.06797239929437637,
0.1745646595954895,
-0.0401877835392952,
0.49559181928634644,
0.01613449491560459,
0.19960619509220123,
0.6034777760505676,
0.18236590921878815,
0.1452813595533371,
0.14235176146030426,
0.010044166818261147,
-0.05119922757148743,
-0.42069920897483826,
-0.05393722280859947,
0.8706197738647461,
-0.9309303760528564,
0.21735014021396637,
0.28486764430999756,
-0.5814208388328552,
0.04747749865055084,
0.473987877368927,
0.02077762968838215,
1.2025448083877563,
-0.21149562299251556,
0.08144364506006241,
0.13803410530090332,
0.3675675690174103,
0.30089113116264343,
-0.16743744909763336,
0.24574312567710876,
0.1842610090970993,
0.13505154848098755,
-0.25438693165779114,
-0.3493945896625519,
-0.5796133875846863,
-0.5001992583274841,
0.38780051469802856,
1.16411554813385,
-0.15718461573123932,
-0.1980130821466446,
0.17970700562000275,
-0.2725868225097656,
-0.38873982429504395,
0.8811498284339905,
0.3615100383758545,
-0.3750324547290802,
-0.04395090788602829,
0.31638482213020325,
-0.596403956413269,
0.1553610861301422,
0.5581666827201843,
0.15318898856639862,
-0.22588491439819336,
-0.2847869098186493,
-0.09034847468137741,
0.6383461356163025,
0.06434398889541626,
0.6988728642463684,
-0.03837676718831062,
-0.35659030079841614,
0.6644571423530579,
-0.09800364077091217,
0.6603162884712219,
-0.35462018847465515,
-0.559809684753418,
0.37095752358436584,
-0.11453226953744888,
-0.00948479026556015,
0.37840598821640015,
-0.13865803182125092,
-0.569811999797821,
0.5286237597465515,
-0.4475107491016388,
-0.7589930891990662,
0.5878053903579712,
-0.4359237253665924,
-0.16669099032878876,
-0.40942779183387756,
0.8858193159103394,
0.7450090050697327,
0.24761949479579926,
-0.16471712291240692,
-0.025459229946136475,
-0.37422990798950195,
0.24809102714061737,
0.051768168807029724,
0.3978804051876068,
0.02724458836019039,
0.19285057485103607,
-0.983964741230011,
0.42302870750427246,
0.26946163177490234,
0.6691049337387085,
-0.6546524167060852,
0.30183643102645874,
-0.8305129408836365,
-0.5067690014839172,
0.8199730515480042,
-0.29947829246520996,
-0.27086302638053894,
-0.30874717235565186,
-0.07050812989473343,
-0.5480103492736816,
0.3987484276294708,
0.7219364047050476,
-0.26835232973098755,
0.04322395101189613,
0.13197124004364014,
-0.2692469358444214,
-0.33336779475212097,
0.4918456971645355,
0.2774524390697479,
-0.9740229249000549,
-0.4054432213306427,
0.2560001611709595,
0.00650949077680707,
-0.29689833521842957,
0.5395457744598389,
0.2822583019733429,
0.46322235465049744,
-0.026240793988108635,
0.7734960317611694,
0.07590483874082565,
0.06201332435011864,
-0.10728169977664948,
-0.5945271253585815,
0.18986643850803375,
0.26964184641838074,
-0.3710639476776123,
0.1559559851884842,
-0.31540998816490173,
-0.07704459875822067,
-0.4496467709541321,
0.46990081667900085,
-1.1010807752609253,
0.36118534207344055,
-0.3936123549938202,
-0.0816851332783699,
-0.12856005132198334,
0.2965767979621887,
-0.15490248799324036
] |
233735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditary%20spastic%20paraplegia | Hereditary spastic paraplegia | Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a group of inherited diseases whose main feature is a progressive gait disorder. The disease presents with progressive stiffness (spasticity) and contraction in the lower limbs. HSP is also known as hereditary spastic paraparesis, familial spastic paraplegia, French settlement disease, Strumpell disease, or Strumpell-Lorrain disease. The symptoms are a result of dysfunction of long axons in the spinal cord. The affected cells are the primary motor neurons; therefore, the disease is an upper motor neuron disease. HSP is not a form of cerebral palsy even though it physically may appear and behave much the same as spastic diplegia. The origin of HSP is different from cerebral palsy. Despite this, some of the same anti-spasticity medications used in spastic cerebral palsy are sometimes used to treat HSP symptoms.
HSP is caused by defects in transport of proteins, structural proteins, cell-maintaining proteins, lipids, and other substances through the cell. Long nerve fibers (axons) are affected because long distances make nerve cells particularly sensitive to defects in these mentioned mechanisms.
The disease was first described in 1880 by the German neurologist Adolph Strümpell. It was described more extensively in 1888 by Maurice Lorrain, a French physician. Due to their contribution in describing the disease, it is still called Strümpell-Lorrain disease in French-speaking countries. The term hereditary spastic paraplegia was coined by Anita Harding in 1983.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms depend on the type of HSP inherited. The main feature of the disease is progressive spasticity in the lower limbs due to pyramidal tract dysfunction. This also results in brisk reflexes, extensor plantar reflexes, muscle weakness, and variable bladder disturbances. Furthermore, among the core symptoms of HSP are also included abnormal gait and difficulty in walking, decreased vibratory sense at the ankles, and paresthesia.
Individuals with HSP can experience extreme fatigue associated with central nervous system and neuromuscular disorders, which can be disabling. Initial symptoms are typically difficulty with balance, stubbing the toe or stumbling. Symptoms of HSP may begin at any age, from infancy to older than 60 years. If symptoms begin during the teenage years or later, then spastic gait disturbance usually progresses over many years. Canes, walkers, and wheelchairs may eventually be required, although some people never require assistance devices. Disability has been described as progressing more rapidly in adult onset forms.
More specifically, patients with the autosomal dominant pure form of HSP reveal normal facial and extraocular movement. Although jaw jerk may be brisk in older subjects, there is no speech disturbance or difficulty of swallowing. Upper extremity muscle tone and strength are normal. In the lower extremities, muscle tone is increased at the hamstrings, quadriceps and ankles. Weakness is most notable at the iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, and to a lesser extent, hamstring muscles.
In the complex form of the disorder, additional symptoms are present. These include: peripheral neuropathy, amyotrophy, ataxia, intellectual disability, ichthyosis, epilepsy, optic neuropathy, dementia, deafness, or problems with speech, swallowing or breathing.
Anita Harding classified the HSP in a pure and complicated form. Pure HSP presents with spasticity in the lower limbs, associated with neurogenic bladder disturbance as well as lack of vibration sensitivity (pallhypesthesia). On the other hand, HSP is classified as complex when lower limb spasticity is combined with any additional neurological symptom.
This classification is subjective and patients with complex HSPs are sometimes diagnosed as having cerebellar ataxia with spasticity, intellectual disability (with spasticity), or leukodystrophy. Some of the genes listed below have been described in other diseases than HSP before. Therefore, some key genes overlap with other disease groups.
Age of onset
In the past, HSP has been classified as early onset beginning in early childhood or later onset in adulthood. The age of onsets has two points of maximum at age 2 and around age 40. New findings propose that an earlier onset leads to a longer disease duration without loss of ambulation or the need for the use of a wheelchair. This was also described earlier, that later onset forms evolve more rapidly.
Cause
HSP is a group of genetic disorders. It follows general inheritance rules and can be inherited in an autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive or X-linked recessive manner. The mode of inheritance involved has a direct impact on the chances of inheriting the disorder. Over 70 genotypes had been described, and over 50 genetic loci have been linked to this condition. Ten genes have been identified with autosomal dominant inheritance. One of these, SPG4, accounts for ~50% of all genetically solved cases, or approximately 25% of all HSP cases. Twelve genes are known to be inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion. Collectively this latter group account for ~1/3 cases.
Most altered genes have known function, but for some the function haven't been identified yet. All of them are listed in the gene list below, including their mode of inheritance. Some examples are spastin (SPG4) and paraplegin (SPG7) are both AAA ATPases.
Genotypes
The genes are designated SPG (Spastic gait gene). The gene locations are in the format: chromosome - arm (short or p: long or q) - band number. These designations are for the human genes only. The locations may (and probably will) vary in other organisms.
Despite the number of genes known to be involved in this condition ~40% of cases have yet to have their cause identified. In the table below SPG? is used to indicate a gene that has been associated with HSP but has not yet received an official HSP gene designation.
Pathophysiology
The major feature of HSP is a length-dependent axonal degeneration. These include the crossed and uncrossed corticospinal tracts to the legs and fasciculus gracilis. The spinocerebellar tract is involved to a lesser extent. Neuronal cell bodies of degenerating axons are preserved and there is no evidence of primary demyelination. Loss of anterior horn cells of the spinal cord are observed in some cases. Dorsal root ganglia, posterior roots and peripheral nerves are not directly affected.
HSP affects several pathways in motor neurons. Many genes were identified and linked to HSP. It remains a challenge to accurately define the key players in each of the affected pathways, mainly because many genes have multiple functions and are involved in more than one pathway .
Axon pathfinding
Pathfinding is important for axon growth to the right destination (e.g. another nerve cell or a muscle). Significant for this mechanism is the L1CAM gene, a cell surface glycoprotein of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Mutations leading to a loss-of-function in L1CAM are also found in other X-linked syndromes. All of these disorders display corticospinal tract impairment (a hallmark feature of HSP). L1CAM participates in a set of interactions, binding other L1CAM molecules as well as extracellular cell adhesion molecules, integrins, and proteoglycans or intracellular proteins like ankyrins.
The pathfinding defect occurs via the association of L1CAM with neuropilin-1. Neuropilin-1 interacts with Plexin-A proteins to form the Semaphorin-3A receptor complex. Semaphorin-a3A is then released in the ventral spinal cord to steer corticospinal neurons away from the midline spinal cord / medullary junction. If L1CAM does not work correctly due to a mutation, the cortiocospinal neurons are not directed to the correct position and the impairment occurs.
Lipid metabolism
Axons in the central and peripheral nervous system are coated with an insulation, the myelin layer, to increase the speed of action potential propagation. Abnormal myelination in the CNS is detected in some forms of hsp HSP. Several genes were linked to myelin malformation, namely PLP1, GFC2 and FA2H. The mutations alter myelin composition, thickness and integrity.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the main organelle for lipid synthesis. Mutations in genes encoding proteins that have a role in shaping ER morphology and lipid metabolism were linked to HSP. Mutations in ATL1, BSCL2 and ERLIN2 alter ER structure, specifically the tubular network and the formation of three-way junctions in ER tubules. Many mutated genes are linked to abnormal lipid metabolism. The most prevalent effect is on arachidonic acid (CYP2U1) and cholesterol (CYP7B1) metabolism, phospholipase activity (DDHD1 and DDHD2), ganglioside formation (B4GALNT-1) and the balance between carbohydrate and fat metabolism (SLV33A1).
Endosomal trafficking
Neurons take in substances from their surrounding by endocytosis. Endocytic vesicles fuse to endosomes in order to release their content. There are three main compartments that have endosome trafficking: Golgi to/from endosomes; plasma membrane to/from early endosomes (via recycling endosomes) and late endosomes to lysosomes. Dysfunction of endosomal trafficking can have severe consequences in motor neurons with long axons, as reported in HSP. Mutations in AP4B1 and KIAA0415 are linked to disturbance in vesicle formation and membrane trafficking including selective uptake of proteins into vesicles. Both genes encode proteins that interact with several other proteins and disrupt the secretory and endocytic pathways.
Mitochondrial function
Mitochondrial dysfunctions have been connected with developmental and degenerative neurological disorders. Only a few HSP genes encode mitochondrial proteins. Two mitochondrial resident proteins are mutated in HSP: paraplegin and chaperonin 60. Paraplegin is a m-AAA metalloprotease of the inner mitochondrial membrane. It functions in ribosomal assembly and protein quality control. The impaired chaperonin 60 activity leads to impaired mitochondrial quality control. Two genes DDHD1 and CYP2U1 have shown alteration of mitochondrial architecture in patient fibroblasts. These genes encode enzymes involved in fatty-acid metabolism.
Diagnosis
Initial diagnosis of HSPs relies upon family history, the presence or absence of additional signs and the exclusion of other nongenetic causes of spasticity, the latter being particular important in sporadic cases.
Cerebral and spinal MRI is an important procedure performed in order to rule out other frequent neurological conditions, such as multiple sclerosis, but also to detect associated abnormalities such as cerebellar or corpus callosum atrophy as well as white matter abnormalities. Differential diagnosis of HSP should also exclude spastic diplegia which presents with nearly identical day-to-day effects and even is treatable with similar medicines such as baclofen and orthopedic surgery; at times, these two conditions may look and feel so similar that the only perceived difference may be HSP's hereditary nature versus the explicitly non-hereditary nature of spastic diplegia (however, unlike spastic diplegia and other forms of spastic cerebral palsy, HSP cannot be reliably treated with selective dorsal rhizotomy).
Ultimate confirmation of HSP diagnosis can only be provided by carrying out genetic tests targeted towards known genetic mutations.
Classification
Hereditary spastic paraplegias can be classified based on the symptoms; mode of inheritance; the patient's age at onset; the affected genes; and biochemical pathways involved.
Treatment
No specific treatment is known that would prevent, slow, or reverse HSP. Available therapies mainly consist of symptomatic medical management and promoting physical and emotional well-being. Therapeutics offered to HSP patients include:
Baclofen – a voluntary muscle relaxant to relax muscles and reduce tone. This can be administered orally or intrathecally. (Studies in HSP )
Tizanidine – to treat nocturnal or intermittent spasms (studies available )
Diazepam and clonazepam – to decrease intensity of spasms
Oxybutynin chloride – an involuntary muscle relaxant and spasmolytic agent, used to reduce spasticity of the bladder in patients with bladder control problems
Tolterodine tartrate – an involuntary muscle relaxant and spasmolytic agent, used to reduce spasticity of the bladder in patients with bladder control problems
Cro System – to reduce muscle overactivity (existing studies for spasticity )
Botulinum toxin – to reduce muscle overactivity (existing studies for HSP patients)
Antidepressants (such as selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors) – for patients experiencing clinical depression
Physical therapy – to restore and maintain the ability to move; to reduce muscle tone; to maintain or improve range of motion and mobility; to increase strength and coordination; to prevent complications, such as frozen joints, contractures, or bedsores.
Prognosis
Although HSP is a progressive condition, the prognosis for individuals with HSP varies greatly. It primarily affects the legs although there can be some upperbody involvement in some individuals. Some cases are seriously disabling while others are less disabling and are compatible with a productive and full life. The majority of individuals with HSP have a normal life expectancy.
Epidemiology
Worldwide, the prevalence of all hereditary spastic paraplegias combined is estimated to be 2 to 6 in 100,000 people. A Norwegian study of more than 2.5 million people published in March 2009 has found an HSP prevalence rate of 7.4/100,000 of population – a higher rate, but in the same range as previous studies. No differences in rate relating to gender were found, and average age at onset was 24 years. In the United States, Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health which means that the disorder affects less than 200,000 people in the US population.
References
Further reading
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Spastic Paraplegia 3A
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia Overview
External links
Systemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous system
Genetic disorders with no OMIM
Cytoskeletal defects
Rare diseases | [
0.02336864359676838,
0.3237304985523224,
-0.33753064274787903,
0.015134438872337341,
-0.4966858923435211,
0.2015814483165741,
1.0158499479293823,
0.31578829884529114,
-0.648171067237854,
-0.6507599353790283,
-0.5131084322929382,
-0.053211744874715805,
-0.5767541527748108,
0.22011739015579224,
0.0740186795592308,
0.7225098013877869,
0.2782352566719055,
0.5173314213752747,
-0.7608380913734436,
0.13806259632110596,
-0.04080328345298767,
-0.5696683526039124,
0.595557451248169,
-0.5372981429100037,
-0.4174061715602875,
-0.2781012952327728,
0.2917940318584442,
0.5945760607719421,
0.3543664216995239,
-0.5053495168685913,
0.1179465651512146,
0.7626555562019348,
0.44657155871391296,
-0.2887190282344818,
0.005483068060129881,
0.15851269662380219,
-0.18283656239509583,
-0.6531499624252319,
-0.21357135474681854,
-0.5998497009277344,
0.08594072610139847,
-0.19180314242839813,
-0.18186026811599731,
0.19963526725769043,
-0.04212457686662674,
-0.13827629387378693,
-1.2556442022323608,
-0.0021967566572129726,
-0.2180791050195694,
-0.20984411239624023,
-0.5331350564956665,
0.2876935601234436,
0.8593612313270569,
0.5944550037384033,
0.10007277131080627,
0.18253131210803986,
-1.172316312789917,
-0.3831804692745209,
0.39755433797836304,
-0.07038827240467072,
0.5063855051994324,
-0.26724469661712646,
-0.4068378806114197,
-0.09630671888589859,
-0.10907012969255447,
0.30898338556289673,
-0.22121597826480865,
0.679145872592926,
-0.38761410117149353,
-0.021871352568268776,
-0.018905144184827805,
-0.465254008769989,
0.6112045049667358,
0.5864466428756714,
-0.4441084563732147,
0.3013359010219574,
0.34762659668922424,
-0.7851805686950684,
0.3743897080421448,
-0.5105022192001343,
-0.025759097188711166,
0.7399836778640747,
0.6450620293617249,
0.9190884232521057,
-0.1311596930027008,
0.06579869985580444,
-0.5459784269332886,
0.627548098564148,
-0.3056778907775879,
0.9180905222892761,
0.07287707179784775,
0.4333342909812927,
0.6237197518348694,
-0.02474445290863514,
0.04566989839076996,
0.39319944381713867,
0.3599679172039032,
-0.12064876407384872,
0.030497804284095764,
-0.19810163974761963,
0.3852570950984955,
0.37201961874961853,
0.17130224406719208,
-0.4306979477405548,
0.45238903164863586,
-0.3994903266429901,
0.01572122424840927,
-0.21597124636173248,
0.2546265721321106,
-0.808222234249115,
-1.488197922706604,
0.1819339543581009,
-0.23397628962993622,
-0.46488630771636963,
-0.8005657196044922,
0.3696904480457306,
0.293322890996933,
-0.028764352202415466,
-0.18634888529777527,
-0.6732519865036011,
-0.25124478340148926,
-0.09806723892688751,
-0.2728514075279236,
0.1802750676870346,
-0.48031291365623474,
0.9932726621627808,
-0.0004761681775562465,
0.33627861738204956,
0.07261697947978973,
0.35568341612815857,
0.1703244298696518,
0.5789600014686584,
-0.13958075642585754,
-0.33683186769485474,
0.03210972622036934,
-0.09351719915866852,
0.5144522786140442,
0.31353598833084106,
0.4645344316959381,
0.2772540748119354,
-0.3766290247440338,
-0.6744504570960999,
-1.1522910594940186,
-0.000783194846007973,
0.010337533429265022,
-0.07006712257862091,
0.05105147510766983,
0.35456809401512146,
0.04924248903989792,
-0.04958490654826164,
-0.6224315762519836,
-0.41974490880966187,
-0.2243429720401764,
0.03694929927587509,
-0.5216283798217773,
0.06495458632707596,
0.5308824777603149,
-0.5825655460357666,
0.8925792574882507,
0.43677881360054016,
0.386131227016449,
-0.11350446939468384,
-0.8399441838264465,
0.3492088317871094,
0.18388548493385315,
-0.31097620725631714,
0.27089184522628784,
0.20586645603179932,
-0.28344619274139404,
0.3589186370372772,
-0.5588499307632446,
-0.05309395492076874,
0.10633467137813568,
-0.9926941990852356,
0.5083937644958496,
0.1995888352394104,
-0.2337750345468521,
0.3390321135520935,
0.56519615650177,
-0.4273434281349182,
-0.5703020691871643,
0.29801851511001587,
0.48183926939964294,
0.09410923719406128,
0.6785900592803955,
-0.13546349108219147,
0.7342155575752258,
-0.22159342467784882,
-0.29171445965766907,
-0.7246028780937195,
-0.7299177050590515,
-0.6287620663642883,
0.6305111646652222,
-0.14612244069576263,
1.3765116930007935,
-0.23623508214950562,
-0.36582809686660767,
0.41551896929740906,
0.7517730593681335,
0.8000760674476624,
-0.02496117539703846,
-0.36761581897735596,
0.34285786747932434,
0.4702472984790802,
-0.738873302936554,
0.8736152052879333,
-0.057928748428821564,
0.14764191210269928,
-0.07418019324541092,
0.32180964946746826,
0.7597174048423767,
-1.2330811023712158,
-0.3396505117416382,
0.10977360606193542,
-0.03096180409193039,
-0.595163881778717,
-0.41238340735435486,
0.1405596286058426,
-0.6617976427078247,
-0.21466025710105896,
0.5913679599761963,
-0.4736762046813965,
-0.37002670764923096,
0.6750447154045105,
-0.0023540465626865625,
1.2428489923477173,
0.4052220284938812,
0.22456708550453186,
0.9881685972213745,
-0.5698824524879456,
0.42500773072242737,
0.2661655843257904,
-0.13475584983825684,
-0.5281716585159302,
-0.13962258398532867,
-0.2817232608795166,
0.05807968229055405,
-0.8232780694961548,
-0.022998452186584473,
-0.35719653964042664,
-0.17986349761486053,
0.6000189185142517,
-0.3705935478210449,
-0.026937279850244522,
0.006569866091012955,
-0.5292755365371704,
-0.5635172128677368,
0.49535128474235535,
-0.7266270518302917,
-0.15625953674316406,
0.32097843289375305,
1.3599103689193726,
0.4788837432861328,
-0.814961850643158,
-0.2334689497947693,
0.3753580152988434,
0.26385143399238586,
-0.5231233835220337,
-0.4084993600845337,
-0.7965386509895325,
-0.11367632448673248,
0.5249951481819153,
0.41101187467575073,
0.2580057382583618,
-0.5813998579978943,
-1.0639383792877197,
-0.4513860046863556,
-0.40258610248565674,
0.21811343729496002,
-0.12340103089809418,
1.2551335096359253,
-0.5202159285545349,
-0.6194350719451904,
-0.7609937787055969,
-0.6747596859931946,
-0.7890768647193909,
0.28192970156669617,
0.06493198126554489,
-0.9837515354156494,
-0.012437569908797741,
0.20644058287143707,
1.1870222091674805,
0.3216300904750824,
-0.013853353448212147,
-0.883283793926239,
0.2128506600856781,
0.14302997291088104,
0.15205118060112,
-0.22512823343276978,
-0.13546091318130493,
0.060786034911870956,
0.4503859877586365,
-0.02423820085823536,
0.5726808905601501,
0.18878021836280823,
0.30455976724624634,
0.27421635389328003,
0.22366870939731598,
-0.07298040390014648,
-0.4409361779689789,
-0.6007681488990784,
0.4743889570236206,
-0.3020873963832855,
-0.45839691162109375,
-0.39382579922676086,
0.22969745099544525,
-0.5143868923187256,
-0.15371763706207275,
-4.6253581047058105,
-0.2662581503391266,
-0.38523751497268677,
-0.6323721408843994,
0.03355962038040161,
0.2094290405511856,
1.1162917613983154,
-0.10543312877416611,
-0.8611639142036438,
0.28981879353523254,
0.3019367456436157,
0.13851594924926758,
0.20531177520751953,
0.270745187997818,
0.2848161458969116,
0.09424698352813721,
-0.27751025557518005,
-0.6099907755851746,
0.5498136878013611,
-0.07752149552106857,
-0.029762478545308113,
0.6169100403785706,
-0.27963191270828247,
0.5131610631942749,
-0.16011694073677063,
0.5000551342964172,
-0.05701468139886856,
0.3245333731174469,
-0.7942633032798767,
0.24947215616703033,
0.2770994305610657,
-0.24570788443088531,
-0.6768183708190918,
0.08991771936416626,
-0.34900200366973877,
0.06548842787742615,
0.7816110849380493,
0.4140640199184418,
-0.06837497651576996,
-0.4763311445713043,
-0.35314059257507324,
-0.4471254050731659,
0.08417755365371704,
0.3678435981273651,
0.4449344873428345,
0.25855714082717896,
-0.10917405784130096,
-0.22948777675628662,
-0.21256506443023682,
1.1375271081924438,
0.07427095621824265,
0.009664042852818966,
0.4465225040912628,
0.6442942023277283,
0.19875136017799377,
-0.1522689014673233,
0.5280268788337708,
-0.4071178436279297,
-0.3406509757041931,
0.2313549518585205,
0.2629183530807495,
0.020227530971169472,
-0.18631833791732788,
-1.4539728164672852,
0.3654639720916748,
-0.12488175183534622,
-0.5161591172218323,
-0.6383733749389648,
0.6897811889648438,
-0.2128911316394806,
-0.343196839094162,
0.45652395486831665,
0.02092977799475193,
-0.8863121271133423,
0.7789233922958374,
-0.6329452395439148,
0.10189447551965714,
0.06019597128033638,
0.3240128457546234,
-0.3539857566356659,
-0.011484295129776001,
-0.5932551026344299,
-0.4078732430934906,
0.4193769693374634,
0.6524587273597717,
-0.5704728364944458,
-0.545842707157135,
0.17004115879535675,
0.06538928300142288,
0.13418272137641907,
0.8772926330566406,
0.06477667391300201,
0.49565359950065613,
0.47929736971855164,
-0.334529310464859,
1.1725082397460938,
0.2551068961620331,
0.7920227646827698,
0.5832453370094299,
-0.30097463726997375,
0.3103944659233093,
-0.5495938658714294,
-0.2788601815700531,
-0.49217677116394043,
-0.3830324709415436,
-0.24690641462802887,
-0.5231124758720398,
0.32708078622817993,
0.7922738790512085,
-0.5242264270782471,
0.2377331554889679,
-0.5959873795509338,
-0.40327218174934387,
-0.5043975710868835,
0.264212429523468,
-0.24013854563236237,
-0.6759336590766907,
0.6248502135276794,
0.16570822894573212,
-0.038989607244729996,
0.15458492934703827,
0.6369320750236511,
-0.3910190463066101,
0.000009022144695336465,
-0.028938835486769676,
0.019069749861955643,
0.33048325777053833,
0.4424079358577728,
-0.322208046913147,
0.022377600893378258,
-0.044178497046232224,
0.37293919920921326,
0.4077388644218445,
0.25967779755592346,
-0.40741148591041565,
-0.7997512817382812,
-0.09072428196668625,
0.7420632243156433,
0.3380407691001892,
-0.7426849007606506,
0.07734758406877518,
-0.039291802793741226,
-0.8023316264152527,
0.6758350133895874,
0.7679318785667419,
0.04045764356851578,
0.13963936269283295,
-0.012516877613961697,
-0.8519728183746338,
0.3865821063518524,
0.21722470223903656,
-1.161184310913086,
0.005921031814068556,
0.08757954090833664,
0.0987715870141983,
0.6698019504547119,
0.13191953301429749,
0.6981443166732788,
0.03795813024044037,
-0.7133457064628601,
-0.169487863779068,
-0.3169592618942261,
-1.2414195537567139,
-0.15912370383739471,
-0.005278899800032377,
-0.6240231394767761,
-0.6463989615440369,
-0.7043353915214539,
-0.519185483455658,
0.5449264049530029,
-0.27315977215766907,
-0.19446951150894165,
-0.4007520079612732,
-0.5235730409622192,
0.645383894443512,
-0.3240915536880493,
-0.334126353263855,
0.11115121841430664,
0.04646565020084381,
-0.2525818943977356,
-0.409777969121933,
0.08078830689191818,
-0.20082566142082214,
0.3327442407608032,
0.19742454588413239,
0.3829817771911621,
0.25123217701911926,
-0.035110797733068466,
-0.3904799520969391,
-0.06506627798080444,
0.4647263288497925,
0.42220446467399597,
0.17887349426746368,
-0.04029155895113945,
-0.06912875920534134,
-0.0036156652495265007,
-0.1916881799697876,
0.25973233580589294,
-0.07734367996454239,
-0.8681874871253967,
0.5211562514305115,
0.961738646030426,
-0.13186277449131012,
0.39450332522392273,
0.945151150226593,
-0.5073497891426086,
0.5493348240852356,
0.003556518815457821,
-1.1200774908065796,
0.42917028069496155,
-0.1581074595451355,
-0.6034156084060669,
0.41551023721694946,
0.43425315618515015,
-0.6501240730285645,
0.04430845007300377,
0.4058570861816406,
-0.48643919825553894,
-0.14211322367191315,
0.17092861235141754,
0.3188047707080841,
-0.1411251276731491,
-0.3053053021430969,
-0.471368670463562,
-1.2144578695297241,
0.054001398384571075,
0.5078087449073792,
-0.42628002166748047,
1.1776939630508423,
-0.4469621777534485,
-0.3711458742618561,
-0.1712203025817871,
-0.11893895268440247,
-0.5125327706336975,
-0.3577970564365387,
-0.15552763640880585,
-0.5696879029273987,
0.4726506173610687,
0.20860932767391205,
-0.029117127880454063,
0.5499207973480225,
1.151923418045044,
0.32499948143959045,
-0.5112270712852478,
-0.05432245135307312,
0.16942432522773743,
0.6170248985290527,
-0.9973368048667908,
-0.4595631957054138,
0.784496009349823,
0.8232563138008118,
0.012849995866417885,
-0.8086467385292053,
0.02838166244328022,
0.9545052647590637,
0.2659081518650055,
-0.5599282383918762,
-0.7999615669250488,
0.2461332231760025,
-0.008897746913135052,
0.06762681901454926,
0.18528492748737335,
0.228030264377594,
0.06689869612455368,
-0.1800200641155243,
-0.06651034951210022,
0.0811636820435524,
-0.10572689026594162,
0.62921541929245,
-0.2971970736980438,
-0.11980341374874115,
-0.7976430058479309,
0.5722082853317261,
0.2139662802219391,
0.04860120639204979,
0.298263818025589,
0.4196094572544098,
-0.9410852193832397,
0.1883482038974762,
0.4109175503253937,
0.383545458316803,
-0.3246787488460541,
0.1899152249097824,
-0.2508227825164795,
0.42088884115219116,
-0.9094324111938477,
0.17459702491760254,
-0.5171050429344177,
-0.5049760341644287,
0.03336357697844505,
-0.9903215765953064,
0.034118425101041794,
-0.6192149519920349,
0.3173413574695587,
-0.0803462341427803,
0.1814521849155426,
-0.0347314327955246,
0.40913161635398865,
-0.5878441333770752,
-0.1770249605178833,
-0.5870615243911743,
0.6893952488899231,
0.042354993522167206,
-0.6868060231208801,
0.2559223473072052,
0.10417167842388153,
-0.3568650782108307,
-1.0627175569534302,
0.7015345096588135,
0.08077444136142731,
-0.18492648005485535,
-0.11263391375541687,
0.3353184163570404,
1.1834653615951538,
-0.19396884739398956,
0.2332765907049179,
0.17226000130176544,
-0.005682832561433315,
0.440072238445282,
0.6808333396911621,
0.255770742893219,
0.3068942725658417,
0.9987073540687561,
-0.33294713497161865,
-0.4909058213233948,
0.7085283398628235,
0.1071774959564209,
0.24665482342243195,
1.0694851875305176,
1.0022283792495728,
0.8474842309951782,
-0.2906097173690796,
-0.2088688462972641,
1.2084474563598633,
0.6676627993583679,
0.058530379086732864,
0.2597399950027466,
-0.49789294600486755,
-0.7467418313026428,
0.32223865389823914,
0.6185758113861084,
-0.036970410495996475,
0.2571435868740082,
0.28185585141181946,
-0.5051770210266113,
0.04527133330702782,
-0.1977979987859726,
0.9228852987289429,
0.3486190736293793,
-1.0910158157348633,
0.6394616961479187,
-0.29473114013671875,
0.5540457367897034,
-0.27514728903770447,
0.16696570813655853,
0.28513282537460327,
0.2804076373577118,
-0.002676013158634305,
-0.086839459836483,
-0.17678286135196686,
-0.12037867307662964,
-0.7010166645050049,
-0.20841793715953827,
0.3107805848121643,
0.2743154466152191,
-0.6692231893539429,
0.7511909604072571,
-0.2690522372722626,
0.690910279750824,
0.481846421957016,
0.1191028580069542,
0.41327282786369324,
0.020559124648571014,
1.0941317081451416,
0.42596763372421265,
-0.36104291677474976,
0.005883010104298592,
0.2469152957201004,
0.09328824281692505,
-0.36778387427330017,
-0.259010374546051,
0.17595095932483673,
-0.6762670874595642,
-0.5637073516845703,
0.6221950650215149,
-0.36701783537864685,
0.10793277621269226,
0.4218498468399048,
0.5368626713752747,
0.25815775990486145,
-0.2481835037469864,
0.049399398267269135,
0.1773575097322464,
-0.3161124885082245,
0.10433237254619598,
-0.1500609666109085,
-0.5153090953826904,
0.22285449504852295,
0.08881057798862457,
-0.4327307641506195,
-0.0983058512210846,
0.2756865918636322,
0.22770081460475922,
0.07923620939254761,
-0.6889721155166626,
0.46256962418556213,
0.056645214557647705,
0.32940229773521423,
-1.0136414766311646,
0.24689237773418427,
-0.09728208184242249,
0.4326240122318268,
0.10848808288574219,
0.9311734437942505,
0.3632231056690216,
0.1457607001066208,
0.5095473527908325,
-0.9708194732666016,
-0.9247725009918213,
-0.9384979009628296,
0.4605875313282013,
-0.7136113047599792,
0.7754245400428772,
-0.12368958443403244,
-0.3960471451282501,
-0.5467103123664856,
0.3936691880226135,
0.0057156700640916824,
-0.42670437693595886,
0.3606417775154114,
-0.6012412309646606,
0.7826576232910156,
-0.37167975306510925,
0.04004886746406555,
-0.2570765018463135,
-0.24716883897781372,
0.14477241039276123,
0.503257155418396,
0.3439956605434418,
-0.12176268547773361,
0.3073790669441223,
-1.1728806495666504,
-0.09924594312906265,
0.41731107234954834,
-0.9278274774551392,
-0.09750783443450928,
-0.6022418141365051,
-0.3446066975593567,
-0.7044925689697266,
-0.17533299326896667,
0.4770258069038391,
-0.29876139760017395,
-0.36546745896339417,
-0.3991864025592804,
-0.04258885607123375,
0.47806161642074585,
-0.037290941923856735,
-0.8861722946166992,
-0.6450749635696411,
0.21403732895851135
] |
233736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Edward%20Brownlee | John Edward Brownlee | John Edward Brownlee, (August 27, 1883 – July 15, 1961) was the fifth premier of Alberta, serving from 1925 until 1934. Born in Port Ryerse, Ontario, he studied history and political science at the University of Toronto's Victoria College before moving west to Calgary to become a lawyer. His clients included the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA); through his connection with that lobby group, he was involved in founding the United Grain Growers (UGG).
After the UFA entered electoral politics and won the 1921 election, new premier Herbert Greenfield asked Brownlee to serve as his attorney-general. Brownlee agreed and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in a by-election in the riding of Ponoka. As attorney-general, he was an important member of Greenfield's government. He was closely involved in its most important activities, including efforts to better the lot of farmers living in Alberta's drought-ridden south, divest itself of money-losing railways, and win jurisdiction over natural resources from the federal government. When a group of UFA backbenchers grew frustrated with Greenfield's weak leadership, they asked Brownlee to replace him. Brownlee eventually agreed, and became premier in 1925.
Brownlee enjoyed early success as premier: he handily won the 1926 election, signed an agreement with the federal government transferring control over Alberta's natural resources to its provincial government, sold the struggling government railways to the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railway companies, and ran a series of balanced budgets. Things became more difficult with the advent of the Great Depression. Brownlee was unable to restore the province to prosperity in the face of a global economic crisis, and reluctantly ran budget deficits. Political radicalism increased, and Brownlee found his orthodox approach to political economy under attack.
In 1934, Vivian MacMillan, a family friend, sued Brownlee for seduction. Brownlee denied any sexual relationship, but the jury found in MacMillan's favour. Though the judge disregarded the jury's verdict, the trial's lurid testimony and the stigma resulting from the jury's finding forced Brownlee's resignation as premier.
He ran for re-election in Ponoka in the 1935 provincial election but was defeated, as William Aberhart's Social Credit League swept the province. Once out of politics, Brownlee resumed the practice of law and joined the management of the UGG, serving as its president and general manager from 1948 until shortly before his death in 1961.
Early life
Childhood
John Edward Brownlee was born August 27, 1883, in Port Ryerse, Ontario, to William "Bill" James Brownlee (1856–1934) and Christina Brownlee (née Shaw; c. 1860–1941). He was named for his maternal grandfather, miller John Shaw, and paternal grandfather, carpenter Edward James Brownlee. Christina Brownlee was a former school mistress and William James Brownlee was the operator of the Port Ryerse general store. John Brownlee had one sister, Maude, born September 12, 1888. The Brownlees lived in the general store building, and it was here that John spent the happiest times of his childhood: he much preferred his parents' books, their political discussions with neighbours, and the details of their business to life outside the store. One anecdote has the village children, displeased with his serious temperament, throwing him into Lake Erie. By the age of seven, John was assisting at the store with such tasks as mixing butter from the different dairies with which his father dealt to produce a standardized blend.
By the end of the 1880s, Port Ryerse was dying out. The advent of railways was making tiny lake ports obsolete, and in Port Ryerse's case this obsolescence was hastened by the town mill burning down in August 1890. Against this backdrop, the family moved to Bradshaw, in Lambton County. There, John began school and attended Sunday school at the village's Methodist church. He was the only pupil at his tiny school not from a farm; he later claimed that this exposure to farmers gave him an early understanding of their concerns. He also became involved with his church's young people's club, which put on speaking programs. He was by nature shy, serious, and introverted, which made these programs a challenge at first; however, he found that he was able to succeed at them through focus and discipline.
In September 1897, Brownlee began high school. The closest high school was in Sarnia, too distant for a daily commute, so at the age of fourteen Brownlee boarded away from his family, seeing them only during holidays and occasional weekends. He was a good student—described by his instructors as "diligent", if not brilliant—but was not a social success, being too studious for many of his peers. He wrote his departmental examinations in July 1900 and graduated shortly thereafter.
Early professional career
After graduating high school, Brownlee travelled with his father on a sales trip through northern Ontario, and otherwise assisted with the operation of the family business. His family expected him to become a teacher and, in September 1901, just after his eighteenth birthday, he enrolled at Sarnia Model School. There, Brownlee completed a fifteen-week program that included such subjects as school management, pedagogy, school law, reading instruction, and hygiene. He graduated December 12, 1901, second in his twenty-person class, and within a month was one of two teachers at Bradshaw's school.
He fast gained a reputation as a competent instructor: his old work ethic served him well, and his seriousness, cool blue-grey eyes, and six foot four frame combined to give him an impressive presence. His $400 per year salary did not satisfy his ambition, and in the spring of 1904, after two and a half years on the job, he decided that he wanted a university education. His teaching salary was not sufficient to finance this, so he spent the summer of 1904 selling a one volume encyclopaedia in the newly settled areas around Rapid City, Manitoba. Besides providing him with the income he required—he was a patient, effective salesman and later boasted that he was never thrown off of a farm—the job gave the now 21-year-old Brownlee his first glimpse of Western Canada. Returning to Ontario at the summer's end, he enrolled at Victoria College at the University of Toronto.
University
In Toronto, Brownlee pursued an honours program with specializations in history and political science. Besides these chosen subjects, he was required to study mathematics, biology, English literature, composition, Latin, and two additional languages—despite having some knowledge of French, he chose German and Hebrew. He continued his trend of diligent scholarship, and earned As in all subjects his first year except for Latin, German, and mathematics, in which he received Bs. The trend continued, and in his third year he was among the top five in his class in all subjects except economics, in which he was eighth. As he became more involved in extracurricular pursuits, these grades fell; after his fourth and final year, he graduated with III Class Honours, leaving him out of the top tier of students. His professors included historian George Wrong, whom Brownlee held in high esteem.
Brownlee was involved in a wide array of extracurricular pursuits. Chief among these were the Union Literary Society (dubbed "the Lit"), Acta Victoriana (the college's literary journal), and "the Bob" (a satirical revue). The first of these allowed him to hone his skills at formal debate; he earned a reputation as "one of the more effective although not the most dramatic of speakers". In his involvement with the journal, he developed his business skills: in his second year he was named assistant business manager, and he was promoted to business manager in his fourth year. His financial management of Acta Victoriana, along with that of the college glee club (for which he also served as business manager during his fourth year, organizing a ten-day tour of the Niagara region), earned him accolades. For the Bob, Brownlee temporarily abandoned his seriousness to write skits poking fun at the college and his classmates; these won good reviews, with the Acta Victoriana declaring the 1908 edition, which Brownlee headed, "one of the best ever". The summer following his third year, he attended the Conference of College Young Men's Associations at Niagara-on-the-Lake, where he attended Bible study classes and heard guest speakers encourage him to pursue a career in the clergy.
Brownlee's summers in university were spent selling stereoscopic viewers in England and magazine subscriptions in Toronto. He also derived a salary in his fourth year as business manager of the Acta Victoriana. These sources of income allowed him to rent a small room in a private home, and to subscribe to a meal plan at a local eatery for C$2.50 per week.
Family
During Brownlee's convocation in 1908, he sneaked off to go canoeing in the Humber River with a female classmate, Isabella Govenlock. Upon their return, they announced that they were engaged. The news stunned friends of both, none of whom was aware of any romance between the two; moreover, the apparent spontaneity of the engagement seemed at odds with Brownlee's reputation for seriousness and caution. The engagement did not last, and the following winter Brownlee met and began to court Florence Edy, an arts student at McMaster College. In the summer of 1909, Edy moved with her family to Calgary; Brownlee, for a combination of personal and professional reasons, soon followed. The pair was married December 23, 1912, at the Toronto home of Edy's sister Blanche. A honeymoon trip back to Calgary via Chicago followed.
Brownlee and his wife had two sons: John Edy Brownlee was born December 1915, and Alan Marshall Brownlee was born September 1917. Florence's pregnancy with Alan, combined with a bout of poor health before it, made her a virtual invalid in subsequent years. This was exacerbated by the 1919 birth and death in infancy of a daughter. Also in 1919, Brownlee visited his family in Ontario; he returned to Alberta with his sister, Maude, who assisted Florence with the care of her children. Soon after, a full-time maid was hired.
While John Brownlee relished life in Alberta, Florence missed her friends and family in Ontario. Her own health was only made worse by worry about her sons: John was perpetually nervous, and Alan was high-strung and sickly. It did not help that, beginning in 1921, her husband spent the work week in Edmonton, commuting home to Calgary only for the weekends. This situation continued until 1923, when the family moved to Edmonton's Garneau region. In 1926, on the way home from a visit east, Florence Brownlee and her sons were examined at the Mayo Clinic, where all three were given clean bills of health; Florence in particular was advised to "resume a more active life".
Although Brownlee's public image was of a severe and humourless technocrat, in private he allowed himself some levity. Christmas morning 1923, the Brownlee boys awoke to find footprints of coal dust leading from the fireplace to the stairs and a handwritten note from Santa Claus apologizing for the mess and explaining that he had been searching for one of his reindeer. It transpired that he had mistaken one of Florence's feet, emerging from the covers at the foot of her bed, for an antler. On another occasion, Brownlee reacted to his sons' displeasure at leaving his parents' cat in Ontario by acquiring a large bloodhound, which he himself came to enjoy.
Legal career
Early career
At the time of Brownlee's graduation from Victoria College, the path of entry to his chosen profession, law, was through three years of articling instead of law school. Brownlee and Victoria classmate Fred Albright resolved to go west; after narrowing the choice to either Calgary or Vancouver, the former was selected on the basis that its legal community was less established, and it offered better prospects to young lawyers without significant capital. There, Brownlee was articled to Lougheed, Bennett, Allison & McLaws, whose partners included Sir James Lougheed and R. B. Bennett. Brownlee became quite close to Bennett; the future Prime Minister often visited him after hours while Brownlee was studying, and used his honed memory and impressive oratorical skills to give the younger man detailed lectures on whatever area of law he was reading about, illustrated by precise and invariably accurate references to cases. Despite his relationship with Bennett, Brownlee was dissatisfied with the work he was being given, and he moved to Muir, Jephson and Adams, where he hoped to practice more commercial law. There he benefited from the tutelage of James Muir, who spent hours finding precise citations relevant to Brownlee's studies, and then left the casebooks open to the appropriate page for Brownlee to find the next morning.
On December 16, 1912, Brownlee was called to the Alberta Bar. He began work as an associate with Muir, Jephson and Adams; in 1914 he was made partner. He took advantage of his membership in Victoria College's newly founded Calgary alumni branch to build professional connections. On the outbreak of World War I, Brownlee did not enlist; his biographer, Lakeland College historian Franklin Foster, speculates that this may have been because of his eyesight, but notes that he did not involve himself in patriotic fundraising or volunteer work and questions whether he "completely shared the values and ideals of his generation".
Farmers' lawyer
One of Muir, Jephson and Adams' major clients was a new agricultural lobby organization called the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), and it was with this group that Brownlee began to work most closely. Among his first tasks for the UFA was to assist with the creation of a province-wide farmer-owned company to own and operate the province's grain elevators. Early in 1913, he was part of a delegation to lobby the provincial government of Arthur Sifton to grant a charter to such a company; Sifton was cognizant of the political power of the UFA, and quickly incorporated the Alberta Farmers' Cooperative Elevator Company (AFCEC) Limited, but refused the farmers' request to guarantee bank loans to the new company. These guarantees were instead received from the Grain Growers' Grain Company (GGG), a Manitoba-based equivalent of the AFCEC.
Brownlee became the AFCEC's lawyer, and in that capacity dealt with lawsuits against the company alleging incompetence on the part of its general manager and fraud on the part of a former auditor. His most important work for the AFCEC, however, was in merging it with the GGG to form the United Grain Growers (UGG). In 1916, new AFCEC president Cecil Rice-Jones began to advocate the amalgamation of western Canada's farmer-controlled grain elevator companies. The Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevator Company was uninterested, leaving the AFCEC and the GGG as the two potential partners. After accompanying Rice-Jones to a meeting with Alberta Public Works Minister Charles Stewart, Brownlee initially found himself in agreement with Stewart's belief that the companies' shareholders would not accept amalgamation, and that a holding company should instead be created to run both companies' affairs. After further study, however, he changed his mind and pursued the amalgamation with his typical focus. He reviewed the two companies' corporate charters, and found that the GGG's prevented it from either selling out to another company or acquiring sufficient capitalization to buy out the AFCEC. The charter could only be amended by the Parliament of Canada, and the GGG was concerned that any request for amendment would lead eastern Canadian financial interests to successfully lobby for a weakening of farmers' rights. A meeting of both companies' boards at the GGG's Winnipeg offices nevertheless reached the reluctant conclusion that such a request was necessary for amalgamation. Though Brownlee continued to fear resistance from shareholders, both companies' annual general meetings approved the proposal. Brownlee was heavily involved at both meetings, fielding questions from shareholders about legal ramifications and serving on ad hoc subcommittees to study aspects of the proposal. Once the proposal was approved, he drew up the necessary agreements, bylaws, stock certificates, and other instruments. The UGG came into existence September 1, 1917.
As lawyer for the UGG, Brownlee began to sympathize with the prevailing farmers' view that the eastern Canadian business establishment was hostile to their interests (for example, when the UGG wanted to sell twine, no manufacturer would supply it). He recommended that the UGG reduce farmers' reliance on the eastern establishment by expanding its operations into insurance, investment, and real estate. The result was the United Grain Growers Securities Ltd. He also helped the UGG quietly sell the stock it held in the Home Bank of Canada when UGG directors began to doubt the bank's soundness; this subtlety was considered essential, as the directors were concerned that airing their doubts publicly would make the bank's failure a self-fulfilling prophecy. When UGG Assistant General Manager J. R. Murray found an interested buyer, Brownlee advised Murray against insisting on an intricate written sales contract for fear that the buyer would sense the directors' concerns. His advice was heeded, and the sale was concluded December 29, 1919. The bank failed less than four years later.
In July 1919 Brownlee left Muir, Jephson and Adams to accept a full-time position with the UGG at $6,000 per year. Several months later this was increased to $7,500 in view of his increased responsibilities as General Manager of UGG Securities. In 1922, he was made King's Counsel. Brownlee was doing well in both law and business, and expected to continue doing so for the foreseeable future.
UFA and politicization
Though most of his legal work was for the AFCEC and then the UGG, Brownlee also made contact with leaders of the UFA proper, including William Irvine, Irene Parlby, Herbert Greenfield, and, most importantly, Henry Wise Wood. The charismatic Wood was the UFA's president, and Brownlee often accompanied him to speaking engagements at UFA locals across Alberta in 1919 and 1920. Wood held audiences enraptured with his sermons on cooperation and social justice—Brownlee at one point likened the UFA to a religion—while Brownlee explained the services offered by the UFA's central office and answered members' legal questions. His trips with Wood aroused Brownlee's interest in the political side of the farmers' movement, which he began to study in greater detail.
Another of Brownlee's contacts was T. A. Crerar, who had recently become leader of the Progressive Party of Canada, and it was to him that Brownlee turned for his political education. Crerar introduced Brownlee to Ernest Charles Drury, the newly elected United Farmers of Ontario Premier of Ontario, and arranged for a meeting between Brownlee and Charles Stewart, by now Alberta Premier. During the latter meeting, Brownlee told Stewart that he felt that the UFA's desires could be accommodated within Stewart's Liberal government, but warned against a quick election. Foster suggests that this strategic advice from a political neophyte offended Stewart; whether this is true or not, Stewart did call a quick election, for July 1921. The UFA had decided in January 1919, against Woods' wishes, that it would run candidates in the next election.
Before the provincial election, there was a federal by-election scheduled for June 1921 in Medicine Hat. Crerar's Progressives were running Robert Gardiner, a local farmer, and Crerar asked Wood and Greenfield (the Vice President of the UFA) to broker an alliance between farmers and labour in the mixed rural-urban riding. Before these efforts could come to fruition, the federal government of Conservative Arthur Meighen disclosed allegations of irregularities in the management of some of the UGG's elevators. At a hearing on June 4, former employees testified of storage bins with false bottoms and bribed railway employees. These allegations involved events from 1912 until 1914, and their sudden prominence in 1921 made some in the UFA suspect that the hearings were politically motivated. Brownlee, as the UGG's attorney, was successful in obtaining an injunction against further hearings until the UGG had time to conduct its own investigation and, as importantly, until the Medicine Hat by-election was over. Gardiner won by a wide margin.
While most of the UFA was preparing for the 1921 provincial election, Brownlee went on vacation in Victoria for a month; despite his recent interest in politics, he still viewed himself as a lawyer and businessman with little role to play in the UFA's electoral activities. Before leaving Calgary, he was assured by Wood that the UFA would not win more than 20 of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta's 61 seats; in fact, it won 38. Brownlee watched the results come in at the offices of the Victoria Colonist.
The UFA, not a political party in the conventional sense, had contested the election without a leader. While its control of the majority of seats in the legislature entitled it, under the conventions of the Westminster parliamentary system, to form the government, it was not clear who would become Premier. Wood was the natural choice, but he declined the job for several reasons. To Brownlee's surprise, Wood proposed that he should become premier instead. Brownlee declined, surmising that many of the newly elected farmer-politicians would have seen an urban lawyer in the premier's office as a repudiation of much of what they stood for. Ultimately, Greenfield was selected.
Attorney-General
Greenfield appointed Brownlee his attorney-general, and soon after Brownlee was acclaimed in a by-election in Ponoka. His training in business and law, unique in the UFA caucus, gave him a central role in most of the government's initiatives; he also led the defense against attacks from the Liberal opposition, and eventually became responsible for setting the agenda for cabinet meetings.
Brownlee quickly entrenched himself in the conservative wing of the UFA caucus. He resisted measures that would take decision-making out of government departments and transfer them to the caucus or UFA locals, and opposed the efforts of some UFA backbenchers to transform the application of the Westminster system in Alberta. When the UFA's more radical elements called for the creation of a government-owned bank, Brownlee dismissed the idea as neither financially nor constitutionally feasible. His concern for the government's finances extended to its budget deficit; when he found Greenfield's spending cuts wanting, he cut staff from his own department to set an example. In a further attempt to better the government's financial position, he unsuccessfully advocated the sale of its four money-losing railways to Canadian National (CPR) or Canadian Pacific (CPR).
A longstanding objective of the Alberta government had been winning control of Alberta's lands and natural resources from the federal government. The older provinces already had this control, but when Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba were admitted to Confederation, the federal government retained resource rights and paid the provincial governments an annual grant as compensation. As attorney-general, Brownlee was Alberta's chief negotiator in these efforts, and met frequently with representatives of Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. While negotiations occasionally seemed promising, King was unwilling to fully commit to the transfer, possibly because Charles Stewart, now King's Alberta lieutenant, and John R. Boyle, leader of the provincial Liberals, were sworn enemies of the UFA.
As a farmers' government, the UFA was committed to helping farmers in the province's drought-stricken south. Brownlee authored the Drought Relief Act, which created a Drought Relief Commissioner to provide farmers with financial counselling and help them reach settlements with banks when they were unable to pay their debts. He also played a leading role in the creation of the Alberta Wheat Pool.
Brownlee's department was responsible for administration of prohibition. Though the policy initially enjoyed the support of most Albertans, disregard for it was sufficiently widespread that effective enforcement proved impossible. The 1922 murder of Alberta Provincial Police constable Steve Lawson by bootleggers Emil Picariello and Florence Lassandro, for which they were hanged, helped turn public opinion against it. A referendum held on the issue found most voters willing to replace prohibition with government-owned liquor stores and rigidly-regulated beer parlours. And the Act was repealed. The Lord's Day Act, which prohibited most commerce on Sundays, was also Brownlee's responsibility, though he had little enthusiasm for it and prosecuted only the most flagrant violations.
Many UFA MLAs came to see the government's reliance on Brownlee as embarrassing, and Greenfield's abilities as too limited to continue to lead. In 1924, they pressured Greenfield to resign so Brownlee could replace him; Brownlee scuppered the plot by warning that Greenfield's resignation would be accompanied by his own. A second attempt in 1925 was successful when Wood intervened to convince Brownlee to accept the premiership and Greenfield assured him that he would be pleased to be rid of it. Brownlee became Premier of Alberta November 23, 1925.
Premier
First term (1926–1930)
Brownlee's first challenges as premier were similar to those he had faced as attorney-general: winning control of Alberta's natural resources, selling the money-losing railways, and balancing the provincial budget. Before he could do any of these, however, he needed to win the impending provincial election. He accomplished this by winning 43 seats in the 1926 election, an increase from the 38 that the UFA had won in 1921 and enough for a majority in the 60-seat legislature.
Once returned to office, Brownlee turned his attention to his other priorities. Many of them required the cooperation of King's Liberal federal government: provincial control of resources would require the acquiescence of the federal government, and Brownlee felt that the deficit was in part the result of the federal government's failure to cover its rightful share of expenses. King was himself reliant on the UFA: his minority government was survived thank to the support of Progressives and allied factions, including the 11 UFA MPs. Though some UFA legislators preferred Arthur Meighen's Conservatives, Brownlee personally supported the King government, and even appeared to consider an offer from the Prime Minister to take Brownlee into his cabinet.
Brownlee attempted to leverage his relationship with King to win provincial control of natural resources. He won such an agreement in 1926, but it was soon scuttled by the federal addition of a clause requiring Alberta to continue supporting separate Roman Catholic schools. Wrangling over this clause persisted until 1929, when a compromise was reached. All that remained was the question of compensation to Alberta for land given away by the federal government, and by the end of 1929 agreement on this too was reached. Brownlee returned from Ottawa to Alberta, where he was greeted by 3,000 cheering supporters.
Brownlee was similarly successful in divesting the government of its railways. When his initial attempts to sell them to the CNR or CPR failed, the provincial government took over direct operation of the lines in 1927. In 1928, they began to show a profit, and one of the lines was soon sold to the CPR. A joint offer from the CPR and CNR for the remaining lines was judged too low, and they were sold to the CPR near the end of 1928 for $25 million.
Control of natural resources and the divestment of the railways were two factors that permitted balanced provincial budgets, the first of which was registered in 1925. Despite this success, Brownlee continued to advocate austerity, and tried unsuccessfully to persuade the federal government to assume a greater share of the costs of new social programs, such as the old age pension. His resulting reputation as a penny-pincher came at a cost to his personal popularity.
Brownlee's government also attempted to advance a progressive agenda. One way this manifested itself was an attempt to consolidate Alberta's thousands of school districts into a far smaller number of school divisions. The plan was supported by educational reformers who believed that the decentralized status quo made province-wide reform impossible, but was scrapped when rural residents expressed fears that it would mean the closure of local schools. Another progressive initiative was the Sexual Sterilization Act, which allowed for the sterilization of "mental defectives". While the Act, repealed in 1972, is now viewed as barbaric, at the time it enjoyed the support of moral reformers like Nellie McClung, who believed it was for the subjects' own protection.
Second term (1930–1934)
Brownlee campaigned vigorously during the 1930 election, and was re-elected with a slightly diminished majority. However, the Great Depression was making itself felt in Alberta. The price of wheat, Alberta's major export, declined from a high of $1.78 per bushel in the summer of 1929, to $1.00 in the following March, to $0.45 by the end of 1930. The Alberta Wheat Pool (AWP) guaranteed its members a minimum price of $1.00 per bushel (itself not enough for many farmers to earn a living), and it found itself facing ruination. Banks denied credit to it and to individual farmers, which in turn made it difficult for the latter to afford seed for the 1931 crop. The provincial government faced calls to provide loan guarantees. Brownlee was concerned that such guarantees would encourage lenders to make loans at higher interest rates, with the knowledge that the provincial government would pay them if the farmers defaulted. He sought a federally guaranteed minimum price of $0.70 per bushel, but was rebuffed by Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, who saw the source of the problem as a global oversupply.
As farms failed, many young people migrated from farms to Alberta's cities, where the situation was scarcely better. As the unemployment rate rose, so did labour militancy. December 1932 saw a "hunger march", in which more than a thousand unemployed men and women attempted to hold a protest march to the Alberta legislature. Brownlee requested the Edmonton city government to prohibit such a display. While he pronounced himself sympathetic to the workers' ordeal, he said he felt such an event would create a volatile atmosphere that would breed radicalism and communism. It was through this lens that he had viewed the 1932 founding of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). Though many UFA members supported this new party, which saw itself as a partnership between farmers and labourers, Brownlee considered it dangerously socialist. When the Hunger March-ers attempted to go ahead without government sanction and were brutally dispersed by Mounties and Edmonton city police, Brownlee took much of the blame.
Further weakening Brownlee's control of the situation, the UFA, around this time, took a sharp left-ward turn, as Robert Gardiner replaced retiring Henry Wise Wood as president of the provincial body.
The weakened economy presented significant challenges to provincial government finances. 1931 saw the first deficit of Brownlee's premiership, of approximately $2.5 million, and 1932's was still larger. During the latter year, the province came within hours of defaulting on a $3 million bond, which was avoided only by a loan from the federal government. Brownlee cut spending aggressively: he closed most of the province's agricultural colleges, reduced the civil service by more than a third, cut provincial employees' salaries, and disbanded the Alberta Provincial Police, replacing it with the RCMP. His government also increased corporate taxes and implemented a new provincial income tax. These measures proved insufficient, and Brownlee joined his colleagues in the other western provinces in entreating Bennett to help. Bennett said he was privately sympathetic to Brownlee but refused to provide assistance.
In 1933, Brownlee was appointed to the Royal Commission on Banking and Currency as a representative of unorthodox economic views (despite his conservative approach to Alberta's finances - outside of the province he was viewed as a spokesperson of the progressive movement). Brownlee argued that banks were treating Eastern and Western debtors unequally, and that they were charging predatory interest rates to farmers. He joined the majority on the Commission in calling for the creation of a central bank in Canada but was alone in proposing that it be entirely publicly controlled.
During the Great Depression's early years, Calgary schoolteacher and evangelist William Aberhart began to preach a version of C. H. Douglas's social credit economic theory. Brownlee believed that Aberhart's proposals would be both unconstitutional (if implemented by a provincial government, which did not have control over monetary policy) and ineffective (since they would not create markets for Alberta's agricultural products). As Aberhart gained popularity, Brownlee attacked his solutions as illusory but had little of his own to offer but critiques and orthodoxy.
Sex scandal
In 1934, Brownlee was sued for the seduction of Vivian MacMillan, a Brownlee family friend and clerk in the provincial Attorney-General's office. MacMillan alleged that Brownlee had seduced her in 1930 and that the subsequent affair had lasted until 1933; Brownlee denied her story completely and said that the lawsuit was the result of a conspiracy between MacMillan, her fiancé, and Brownlee's opponents in the Liberal Party. After a sensational and well-publicized trial, the jury found in MacMillan's favour. However, Justice William Carlos Ives, who presided over the trial, disregarded its finding, ruling that MacMillan had failed to show that she had suffered any damage. Appeals eventually led to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council, at the time Canada's highest court of appeal, where MacMillan emerged victorious.
Once the jury issued its finding, Brownlee realized that his time as Premier was finished. He announced that he would resign as soon as a successor could be found, and on July 10, 1934, was replaced by Richard Gavin Reid.
Later political career
In the months after his resignation, Brownlee kept a low profile, though he was still MLA for Ponoka. He returned to the public eye with a speech to the January 1935 UFA convention attacking Aberhart's plans to implement social credit in Alberta alone: "I would impress you that nothing but disillusionment, loss of hope and additional despair can follow any attempt to inaugurate a system of that kind, because the Province has no jurisdiction in these matters." Despite hearing directly from Aberhart, the convention defeated by a wide margin a motion to endorse his version of social credit.
Reid's government made Brownlee its chief strategist against Aberhart and social credit. One tactic he adopted was C. H. Douglas to serve as a consultant to the Alberta government on economic reconstruction. In doing this, Brownlee hoped both to co-opt the promise of social credit for the benefit of the UFA and to discredit Aberhart by demonstrating how widely his interpretation of social credit differed from Douglas's. This effort failed because Albertans, confronted by the contrast between the fiery, charismatic Aberhart and the aloof, technocratic Douglas, preferred the former. Brownlee also invited Aberhart to come to Edmonton and prepare proposals on which the government could act; this was an attempt to force him to take specific positions that could be attacked rather than relying on vague assurances of economic salvation, but was foiled by Aberhart's continued evasiveness.
Brownlee himself toured southern Alberta attacking Aberhart's policies as vague and unconstitutional. In April 1935, he gave a series of radio speeches designed to counter Aberhart's popular radio program, Back to the Bible Hour. When his customary appeals to logic did not work, Brownlee resorted to attacking Aberhart personally, comparing him to the Pied Piper of Hamelin. Aberhart did not resist the comparison, retorting that the pied piper had "rid the capitol of all the rats"; Brownlee responded that, after doing that, he had led its children to their destruction. In May 1935, after Aberhart announced that his social credit movement would contest the next provincial election, Brownlee ridiculed its candidate-selection process—in which Aberhart personally interviewed and selected more candidates for each riding than could ultimately run—as one in which the candidates would be "wrapped in cellophane and carefully hidden away so they will not dry out on [Aberhart], until the day he calls out the fittest and discards the rest".
The 1935 election took place August 22. Brownlee spent most of the campaign trying to retain his own riding of Ponoka. Despite the respect he commanded, his constituents were in desperate economic straits and tired of the UFA's orthodoxy, which had failed to raise their condition. As Brownlee later recalled:
One man got up and said, "Mr. Brownlee, we have listened to you with a great deal of attention and the answers you have given seem pretty hard to meet. But I have one more question…I'm selling my wheat at 25 cents a bushel. If I tried to sell a steer tomorrow I'd probably hardly get enough to pay the freight. I get 3 cents a dozen for eggs. I'm lucky to get a dollar for a can of cream. Will you tell me what I've got to lose?" and a cheer went over the audience. I knew then what the result of the election was going to be.
On election day, every UFA candidate in the province was defeated, as Aberhart's won 56 of 63 seats. In Ponoka, Social Credit's Edith Rogers defeated Brownlee 2,295 votes to 879. After this election, Brownlee never sought political office again.
Life after politics
Shortly after his electoral defeat, Brownlee started a new law firm based in Edmonton. The United Grain Growers soon re-appointed him as their general counsel. By 1940, Brownlee had restored his career to it position before he entered politics: his firm counted a number of major agricultural companies among its clients, and the UGG too brought him considerable work. He was also hired to write a legal column for the Western Review newspaper.
In his capacity as UGG general counsel, Brownlee was responsible for its restructuring. Its bylaws provided that only farmers could buy shares directly from the company, but placed no limitation on who could buy them from other shareholders. This had the effect of limiting capital inflow, since few farmers could afford to buy shares during the depression, and transferring control of the company to non-farmers, who were purchasing shares from impoverished farmers. Brownlee's solution was to create two classes of share: an investment share with a par value of $20, and a voting share with a par value of $5. The former could be held by any person, to a maximum of 250 shares per person, while the latter could be held only by farmers, to a maximum of 25 shares per person.
UGG director and vice president
When he restructured the UGG's capital, Brownlee included a rider that non-farmers who held shares at the time the new structure came into effect could hold voting shares. This clause allowed him to do so, and in consequence to be elected to the company's board of directors at the 1942 annual shareholders' meeting; he was also appointed the UGG's vice president.
At the time of Brownlee's appointment, the UGG was embroiled in an income tax dispute. Though the farmers' movement had generally supported the 1917 introduction of income tax, as rates climbed the UGG began to resent it, especially given that the pools were exempt. While the rationale for this exemption—that the pools were agents of their members, and that any income should therefore be taxed as personal income once disbursed, and not as corporate income pre-disbursal—was initially accepted, the UGG argued that the pools' 1931 reorganization eliminated the differences between them and the UGG, and that the exemption thus put the UGG at a competitive disadvantage. In 1941, Brownlee travelled to Ottawa to express the UGG's case; there he collaborated with O. M. Biggar, representing the private grain companies in the form of the North-West Line Elevators Association (NLEA), who also objected to the pools' exemption, on a joint brief to the Minister of National Revenue. The government ruled that the pools were taxable; the pools appealed to the Exchequer Court, which found in the government's favour in 1943. By this time, the government had agreed not to tax the pools for pre-1941 revenue and to grant generous exemptions on taxation thereafter.
After World War II, the federal government appointed the Royal Commission on Taxation of Cooperatives to examine the question in greater detail. Brownlee prepared the UGG's submission, and was pleased with the Commission's eventual findings: it recognized the UGG as a cooperative, and recommended that it be granted the same exemptions as the pools enjoyed. However, the government still intended to collect taxes from 1940 and 1941 from the UGG, but not from the pools. In February 1947, Brownlee returned to Ottawa to present the UGG's case to Finance Minister Douglas Abbott, who eventually sided with the UGG and extended the pools' exemption to it.
The acrimony this dispute engendered between the pools and the UGG led the former to suggest that the latter was not a true cooperative, but rather an old-style grain company. Brownlee played a major role in disputing these allegations, and was a major contributor to The Grain Growers' Record 1906–1943, the UGG's written response. When he, as the UGG's delegate to the Canadian Federation of Agriculture, opposed a resolution calling for the continued tax-exempt status of pools, the resolution's proponents suggested stating that it was "endorsed by the cooperatives"; Brownlee objected that the UGG was a cooperative, and the wording was withdrawn. The Alberta Wheat Pool later published a pamphlet entitled A History of Events Leading to Taxation of Cooperatives, which placed much of the blame on the UGG and Brownlee, accusing the latter of working with the hated private grain companies to "enforce taxation of the Wheat Pools". Seizing on an incorrect date in the pamphlet, Brownlee dismissed the charges—which were substantially true, in light of his 1941 joint brief with Biggar—as factually incorrect. Though UGG shareholders subjected him to vigorous questioning, he held firm and the controversy died down after he gave a series of radio addresses in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.
UGG President
In the mid-1940s, UGG President and General Manager R. S. Law fell ill, and in February 1947, Brownlee was named the UGG's Acting General Manager. On January 1, 1948, he became full General Manager. In spring 1948 Law stepped down completely, and on May 1 Brownlee succeeded him as President and General Manager.
In this capacity, he had offices in Calgary and Winnipeg. He worked constantly, often arriving at work on a Monday with a briefcase full of dictation machine recordings for secretaries to transcribe. Foster says that Brownlee was known by his staff as "a man whose life was his work, who lived in his briefcase, and whose only recreation seemed to be changing from one job to another".
He turned this work ethic to expanding the company, building new grain elevators and purchasing existing ones. At the same time, he undertook a study of the operating costs and volume of each of the UGG's delivery points. He found that roughly a dozen elevators were losing money, with climbing costs threatening to increase this number. Brownlee tried to reach accommodations with the UGG's competitors to divide among them centres too small to support more than one elevator, and achieved some success, especially with the Alberta Wheat Pool. At the same time, Brownlee increased the UGG's presence in larger centres, especially Regina, Brandon, and Winnipeg.
Brownlee remained intimately involved in the grain industry even outside the UGG, in part through his position on the Canadian Federation of Agriculture executive. In this capacity, he found himself in the middle of a controversy over the British Wheat Agreement (BWA). The BWA was an agreement to sell wheat to British clients at a fixed price over a four-year period. The price was to be adjusted during the following two years, "having regard to" world wheat prices. During the first four years, world wheat prices were continually above the price stipulated in the agreement, breeding resentment towards the British, especially since they sold much of this fixed price wheat for a large profit in European markets. This was exacerbated when the British refused to adjust the price upwards for the last two years, on the grounds that there was nothing in the agreement to compel them to do so. The result was considerable ill will and a loss by grain farmers of an estimated $350 million. The federal government, which had negotiated the agreement, offered to supplement the British payments by $65 million, a sum large enough to raise the ire of eastern Canadians but too small to placate western farmers. Brownlee, who had opposed the agreement, authorized a purchase of advertising across the country pointing out that the government fixed the domestic price of wheat at $0.77 per bushel while the world price reached as high as $2.18. In Brownlee's view, the $65 million payment by the government paled in comparison to the benefit to consumers of the federal policy. Subsequent international agreements, for which Brownlee acted as an advisor to the Canadian delegation, resulted in more favourable terms for farmers. Brownlee's continued status as one of the grain industry's leading figures was also exhibited by his involvement in government relations. He appeared before the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Agriculture to oppose a system of allocating box cars to each grain elevator by formula, favouring instead a system whereby the Canadian Wheat Board retained the flexibility to assign them as it saw fit. In his September 1960 submission to the Royal Commission on Transportation, In Defense of the Crow's Nest Pass Rates, he rejected the railways' calls to deregulate the rates they charged for the shipment of grain.
Brownlee's presidency coincided with the fiftieth anniversary of the Grain Growers Grain Company, one of the UGG's founding organizations. In celebration of the event, Brownlee travelled around the country speaking to UGG outlets. He also oversaw the publication, and wrote much, of The First Fifty Years, a history of the UGG to that point. In this capacity, he came into conflict with UGG Vice President R. C. Brown, in charge of the UGG department that published the book, and Assistant General Manager P. C. Watt. Brownlee had an interventionist style as President, which Foster acknowledged sometimes "verged on outright interference". As the years wore on, his decision-making became more autocratic, with the board of directors expected to serve as a rubber stamp.
On June 21, 1961, ill health forced Brownlee's resignation from the UGG.
Later political activities
Brownlee never sought political office after his 1935 defeat, and commented publicly on political issues only rarely. His distaste for Aberhart's social credit government—and in particular its contention, which Brownlee viewed as unfair, that the UFA had left the government bankrupt—did not prevent him from advising it behind the scenes on a number of issues, most notably Alberta's submission to the Rowell-Sirois Commission, The Case for Alberta.
In the early 1940s, he met M. J. Coldwell, the new federal leader of the CCF, on a train. According to Coldwell, in the ensuing conversation Brownlee indicated that he would be prepared to consider running federally as a CCF candidate. Coldwell excitedly reported this to some of the CCF's Alberta leaders; one of them telephoned Brownlee to question whether Coldwell's report was true. Brownlee adhered to a conservative view of how politics should be conducted, and was perhaps put off by the audacious telephone call; despite an apology from Coldwell, Brownlee did not indicate any further interest in running for the CCF.
Brownlee's occasional public comments on political issues still attracted considerable attention. He spoke to the 1944 UFA convention on post-war reconstruction, and expressed pessimism about Canada's economic prospects. He advocated a policy of full employment, and emphasized that jobs had to be meaningful rather than "put[ting] men to work building roads like coolies in China when machines can do it better". He criticized the government-imposed wartime ceiling on wheat prices, of $1.25 per bushel, as forcing farmers to shoulder an unfair burden of a national crisis, as they had during the depression.
Personal life
Brownlee's father had died in January 1934, while the MacMillan suit was still pending. In April 1941, his mother died intestate and left an estate of $1,507. Brownlee relinquished any claim on the estate in favour of his sister, who had cared for their mother in her last years.
Brownlee's sons became successful at their careers: Alan graduated from law at the University of Alberta and joined his father's firm, which was renamed Brownlee, Baldwin and Brownlee, while John studied photography in Los Angeles and returned to Canada to work as a photographer. Both married and had children. In time, Brownlee relinquished the law firm—now Brownlee and Brownlee—to Alan, and returned to Calgary, where he and his wife led a quiet, reserved life. When Calgary planners announced their intention to widen Memorial Drive, where the Brownlees lived, several residents expressed concern that the plan would destroy the street's trees; they consulted Brownlee, who telephoned the mayor and saved the trees.
In his last years, Brownlee received a number of honours. Premier of Manitoba Duff Roblin inducted him into the province's Order of the Buffalo Hunt in November 1960, in recognition of his contributions to the prairie provinces. The UFA awarded him an honorary life membership, and Prime Minister John Diefenbaker appointed him to the National Productivity Council, though ill health prevented him from participating after its inaugural March 1961 meeting.
Beginning in June 1957, Brownlee underwent a series of major surgeries. By this time his memory was failing, and he often had to ask his wife for details that escaped him. He died July 15, 1961, two weeks after resigning from the UGG board and barely three after resigning as President.
Legacy
As Premier, Brownlee is most remembered for the sex scandal that ended his career; his accomplishments are largely forgotten. Still, he is highly regarded by historians: Foster calls him "Alberta's greatest premier" and cites, in particular, his successful negotiations for the transfer of resource rights to the provincial government as the cause of Alberta's subsequent prosperity. Journalist Ted Byfield concurs, noting that his willingness to confront the federal government sets him apart from Ernest Manning, another contender for the title. In 1980, the Edmonton Journal wrote, "The lasting political estate left by former Premier John Brownlee has made Alberta what it is today, one of Canada's wealthiest provinces fuelled by billions of dollars in oil and gas royalties."
A University of Calgary undergraduate seminar in 2005 ranked Brownlee as the province's third greatest premier, behind Manning and Peter Lougheed.
Brownlee's impact is also felt through the organizations he participated in founding: the Alberta Wheat Pool remained an important player in Canadian agriculture until 1998, when it merged with Manitoba Pool Elevators to form Agricore Cooperative Ltd. In 2001, this new company merged with the UGG to form Agricore United. In 2007, the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool took it over, forming Viterra. Brownlee's vision, unique among the members of the Macmillan Commission, of a publicly controlled central bank became a reality in 1938, when the Bank of Canada shifted from private to government control.
Brownlee was buried at Evergreen Memorial Gardens near Edmonton. The provincial government's John E. Brownlee Building in Edmonton is named in his honour, as is the University of Alberta Faculty of Law's John E. Brownlee Memorial Prize in Local Government Law.
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
Notes
References
Bibliography
1883 births
1961 deaths
University of Toronto alumni
Premiers of Alberta
Canadian Methodists
People from Norfolk County, Ontario
United Farmers of Alberta MLAs
Canadian Queen's Counsel | [
-0.006492357235401869,
0.320036917924881,
-0.2089184671640396,
0.2718885838985443,
-0.040740158408880234,
0.4443337023258209,
1.0976144075393677,
0.22976131737232208,
-0.4118153750896454,
-0.5860297679901123,
0.46694615483283997,
0.4151604473590851,
-0.3048839271068573,
0.33813896775245667,
-0.1597326695919037,
0.6009568572044373,
-0.4029521346092224,
0.1926332265138626,
-0.19903607666492462,
-0.03391265124082565,
-0.16364836692810059,
-0.3393997550010681,
0.4942188262939453,
0.15817977488040924,
-0.12680846452713013,
0.41143280267715454,
0.31043705344200134,
0.3289012014865875,
-0.2236817628145218,
0.4268611967563629,
-0.11984549462795258,
0.2516595721244812,
0.9765353202819824,
0.01502029225230217,
-0.34938710927963257,
-0.08854357153177261,
0.2812412977218628,
-0.5536074042320251,
-0.033195093274116516,
0.12094180285930634,
-0.3159637153148651,
0.05329747498035431,
0.1708994209766388,
-0.2800014019012451,
0.14521270990371704,
-0.706484854221344,
-1.5874589681625366,
-0.021193968132138252,
0.007004071492701769,
0.02989458665251732,
-0.4401911497116089,
0.501172661781311,
0.07473430037498474,
-0.39915910363197327,
0.1325228214263916,
0.30532893538475037,
-0.2703022062778473,
0.07866795361042023,
-0.3693421483039856,
-0.17448629438877106,
0.11902473866939545,
-0.3289003372192383,
0.28399401903152466,
0.3684912323951721,
0.18002741038799286,
0.39494338631629944,
-0.2688072919845581,
0.08566424995660782,
-0.01580687426030636,
0.461425244808197,
0.4135473370552063,
0.65657639503479,
0.2979828417301178,
0.3141537010669708,
0.3270384669303894,
0.09342038631439209,
-0.025897130370140076,
-0.13731853663921356,
0.44312381744384766,
0.4173491895198822,
-0.1440252661705017,
-0.7195405960083008,
0.2724488377571106,
0.7375249266624451,
-0.18091420829296112,
0.25491809844970703,
-0.8066798448562622,
0.4650079905986786,
-0.20698337256908417,
-0.144192174077034,
-1.3850892782211304,
-0.25291934609413147,
0.11186707764863968,
-0.03561347350478172,
-0.6686174273490906,
-0.7013395428657532,
0.3642423450946808,
-0.28058236837387085,
-0.05752754211425781,
-0.5264149308204651,
0.287693589925766,
-0.10380522161722183,
0.3371266722679138,
0.025268815457820892,
-0.8263317346572876,
0.3107011616230011,
-0.8125312328338623,
0.02560039609670639,
-0.42057597637176514,
-0.08466091006994247,
-0.38713371753692627,
-0.06106194853782654,
-0.13186950981616974,
0.0411221981048584,
0.19327090680599213,
0.4657953977584839,
0.07274556159973145,
-0.5969113111495972,
-0.2752704322338104,
0.21571163833141327,
-0.03237173706293106,
-0.29271844029426575,
-0.2154279202222824,
-0.014696229249238968,
-1.0628794431686401,
-0.02640221081674099,
-0.625285267829895,
-0.9228028655052185,
0.4972335696220398,
0.47431814670562744,
0.7394424676895142,
0.8149967789649963,
-0.6324594616889954,
-0.29214605689048767,
-0.687529444694519,
-0.06997888535261154,
-0.037680733948946,
-0.31389543414115906,
-0.3506549596786499,
0.011596563272178173,
-0.36381620168685913,
-0.32216930389404297,
-0.3042670488357544,
-0.560207188129425,
0.2550230324268341,
0.18444742262363434,
-0.29383349418640137,
0.07666286826133728,
-0.4577517807483673,
-0.1533033847808838,
0.2509419322013855,
-0.02416456677019596,
0.3850368857383728,
-0.569669783115387,
-0.10525918006896973,
1.4250491857528687,
0.24985261261463165,
0.4322892427444458,
0.006785901729017496,
0.2769814133644104,
0.16830416023731232,
0.13480140268802643,
0.4279475808143616,
-0.21601121127605438,
0.8146471977233887,
0.07578084617853165,
-0.4747835099697113,
-0.7943940162658691,
0.212297722697258,
0.24428316950798035,
0.3895232379436493,
0.11083310097455978,
0.41345563530921936,
-0.661421000957489,
0.11829330027103424,
0.3482796251773834,
0.32605108618736267,
0.05051851272583008,
0.06852474808692932,
-0.810468316078186,
-0.9613269567489624,
-0.23541170358657837,
0.10467328131198883,
0.21683624386787415,
-0.09520933777093887,
0.10513031482696533,
0.16759125888347626,
-0.225794717669487,
0.8080878257751465,
-0.18903286755084991,
-0.35231515765190125,
-1.0340681076049805,
0.42242178320884705,
-0.7199562788009644,
0.641503095626831,
0.00689944950863719,
-0.06406012177467346,
0.6553893685340881,
-0.41518083214759827,
0.7370952367782593,
-0.2505706548690796,
0.00016784151375759393,
0.20449966192245483,
-0.523736298084259,
-0.27936649322509766,
0.6704517602920532,
0.08358051627874374,
-0.21587860584259033,
0.3684658110141754,
1.1149345636367798,
0.096796415746212,
-0.8277391195297241,
-0.7214844822883606,
0.7132562398910522,
-0.18411117792129517,
-0.5201970934867859,
-0.8812136054039001,
-0.3228549659252167,
-0.04616828262805939,
-0.5010483860969543,
0.11818548291921616,
0.4302147924900055,
-0.8340634107589722,
0.7240480184555054,
-0.11614184826612473,
0.6166069507598877,
0.13630394637584686,
-0.22831504046916962,
-0.10096868127584457,
-0.4088863134384155,
0.5467553734779358,
0.4598786532878876,
0.4739042818546295,
-0.9035423994064331,
0.2348901629447937,
0.17481987178325653,
0.01815885864198208,
0.1548832803964615,
0.6406841278076172,
-0.35958561301231384,
0.07243204116821289,
0.14381195604801178,
-0.4855307340621948,
-0.12112490087747574,
0.1614883989095688,
0.2351026087999344,
-0.18008224666118622,
-0.09368882328271866,
-0.15266261994838715,
-0.24201828241348267,
0.44878530502319336,
0.25473201274871826,
0.3408810496330261,
0.16306225955486298,
0.34275516867637634,
-0.05270067974925041,
0.527254581451416,
-0.4418339431285858,
-0.016384204849600792,
0.40586453676223755,
-0.07807932794094086,
0.20750291645526886,
-0.058674391359090805,
0.17272096872329712,
0.43827369809150696,
0.4512602984905243,
0.025982147082686424,
0.15935388207435608,
-0.8573378920555115,
0.15677690505981445,
-0.3878258168697357,
-0.468036949634552,
0.01909555122256279,
0.48796525597572327,
1.0289888381958008,
0.06984078139066696,
-0.2121076136827469,
0.33712705969810486,
-0.585089921951294,
-0.8871172666549683,
0.5710957050323486,
1.189482569694519,
-0.3488980531692505,
-0.05633651837706566,
-0.1323956400156021,
0.23240967094898224,
-0.35277554392814636,
0.29029810428619385,
-0.1715986281633377,
-0.43740254640579224,
-0.2371809333562851,
0.08017362654209137,
-0.6981962323188782,
0.020631706342101097,
-0.49258023500442505,
-0.024487510323524475,
-0.10970631241798401,
-0.48784488439559937,
0.9247260689735413,
-0.23609746992588043,
-0.11346244066953659,
0.04060433432459831,
0.16338412463665009,
0.12844882905483246,
0.23469369113445282,
0.21146200597286224,
-0.31676599383354187,
-0.42929577827453613,
-5.366154193878174,
-0.031419139355421066,
-0.40100568532943726,
-0.8597323298454285,
0.6214691996574402,
-0.24528853595256805,
0.10942184925079346,
-0.1027163416147232,
0.4020951986312866,
-0.3869396150112152,
0.7146111726760864,
-0.3071066439151764,
0.2662290930747986,
0.7596064805984497,
0.6734553575515747,
0.4011816084384918,
0.8368677496910095,
-0.6810080409049988,
0.4792889654636383,
0.3226911425590515,
0.3895367383956909,
-0.16797906160354614,
-0.16075536608695984,
-0.020619362592697144,
0.4330425560474396,
0.4912068247795105,
-0.1377248615026474,
0.43734097480773926,
-0.38691312074661255,
-0.4317687451839447,
0.06506495922803879,
0.19799108803272247,
-0.0044833277352154255,
-0.2810828983783722,
-0.06347011774778366,
-0.37853333353996277,
0.14085723459720612,
0.6763564348220825,
0.12158013135194778,
0.24206094443798065,
0.06995268166065216,
-0.06247252970933914,
-0.8873496651649475,
0.26025938987731934,
-0.08833441138267517,
-0.6205416321754456,
-0.6652886867523193,
0.4620571434497833,
-0.32754629850387573,
0.2580115497112274,
0.5899268388748169,
0.3715267777442932,
0.27560585737228394,
0.47841498255729675,
-0.046490270644426346,
0.030947592109441757,
-0.008135693147778511,
0.22607959806919098,
-0.8452898859977722,
0.20144128799438477,
0.4685555696487427,
-0.7435058951377869,
0.11590759456157684,
-0.33476895093917847,
-0.17547336220741272,
-0.4225216507911682,
0.37272021174430847,
0.10471831262111664,
0.837649405002594,
-0.3694772720336914,
-0.011875058524310589,
0.43886831402778625,
-0.29535260796546936,
-0.8631754517555237,
0.11879489570856094,
-0.1760348677635193,
-0.23563696444034576,
0.7243689894676208,
-0.3267490565776825,
-0.49744051694869995,
0.25779038667678833,
0.1766076236963272,
0.3313313126564026,
0.8478977084159851,
0.7060128450393677,
0.26806509494781494,
-0.1523633897304535,
0.49916088581085205,
0.0862714871764183,
-0.2509130835533142,
0.14988653361797333,
-0.6132165789604187,
0.0783219262957573,
0.2324574738740921,
0.20962975919246674,
-0.46595442295074463,
0.2652898132801056,
-0.06717224419116974,
-0.3304740786552429,
-0.38133901357650757,
-0.4495565891265869,
-0.013041204772889614,
0.22374698519706726,
-0.8552147746086121,
-0.43782511353492737,
-0.340969443321228,
-0.43016713857650757,
-0.04807905852794647,
-0.1364900916814804,
0.32659998536109924,
-0.3681067228317261,
0.25145024061203003,
-0.5382339954376221,
-0.02538488060235977,
0.734749436378479,
-0.23820564150810242,
-0.24564749002456665,
0.19521020352840424,
1.0835702419281006,
0.48750776052474976,
-0.20454353094100952,
0.22512026131153107,
-0.031741913408041,
0.7842236161231995,
-0.21417705714702606,
-0.08178150653839111,
0.5475763082504272,
-0.1667579561471939,
-0.5234725475311279,
-0.012805944308638573,
0.34732872247695923,
0.32991865277290344,
-0.21041390299797058,
0.24468645453453064,
-0.19285902380943298,
-0.07143503427505493,
-0.2960749864578247,
-0.4345673620700836,
-0.12230277061462402,
-0.48507899045944214,
0.01168388593941927,
-0.01681458204984665,
0.21903766691684723,
0.537992537021637,
-0.13488121330738068,
0.31031304597854614,
0.26987412571907043,
0.10872013866901398,
-0.23615406453609467,
0.4550269544124603,
-0.35127952694892883,
-0.31406170129776,
0.4354328215122223,
-0.6589708924293518,
-0.027182897552847862,
-0.29080936312675476,
-0.4221723973751068,
-0.48842576146125793,
0.2536952793598175,
-0.02534887194633484,
0.08722074329853058,
0.4981544315814972,
-1.0205918550491333,
-0.04869622364640236,
-0.16486352682113647,
0.2588285505771637,
-0.6665932536125183,
-0.3325258195400238,
-0.28285014629364014,
1.0539284944534302,
0.271314799785614,
-0.5480098128318787,
-0.25608569383621216,
0.11275994777679443,
0.7039003968238831,
-0.26652461290359497,
0.004111618734896183,
-0.29863157868385315,
0.31033727526664734,
0.5015553832054138,
0.19529405236244202,
-0.14232878386974335,
-0.4872477054595947,
0.12757053971290588,
0.8227519989013672,
-0.6143026351928711,
-1.0106468200683594,
-0.5883918404579163,
0.6957636475563049,
0.29060065746307373,
0.8466085195541382,
-0.26930510997772217,
0.17986734211444855,
0.911649763584137,
-0.16202276945114136,
-0.40458452701568604,
0.16191260516643524,
-0.22398309409618378,
-0.276548832654953,
-0.43984928727149963,
0.010906673036515713,
0.33345097303390503,
0.0016652403865009546,
-0.2432907372713089,
0.04102882742881775,
-1.0366287231445312,
0.08232876658439636,
-0.08448843657970428,
-0.42492246627807617,
0.5444493293762207,
0.05761631950736046,
-0.3070642650127411,
0.5044547915458679,
0.31652194261550903,
-0.27301403880119324,
-0.02344001643359661,
0.44096872210502625,
0.5591573715209961,
-0.549483060836792,
-0.6986969113349915,
-0.5937066674232483,
-0.18920819461345673,
-0.21724112331867218,
-0.29195138812065125,
-0.4236796498298645,
-0.09671132266521454,
0.5380526781082153,
0.3326854407787323,
0.6199465990066528,
0.3990010619163513,
-0.018680643290281296,
-0.2850671410560608,
-0.017440546303987503,
0.22320736944675446,
0.06616571545600891,
0.1420629620552063,
0.03390609472990036,
0.491534560918808,
-0.043792810291051865,
-0.045407697558403015,
0.3213365077972412,
1.4709933996200562,
0.819287896156311,
-0.8564480543136597,
-0.18540848791599274,
-0.25184735655784607,
0.38995662331581116,
-0.5509701371192932,
-0.14149479568004608,
0.3935989439487457,
0.5529775023460388,
-0.25582414865493774,
-0.7121257185935974,
-0.09111098200082779,
0.8610308170318604,
-0.12200666964054108,
0.1487104892730713,
0.7300955653190613,
0.19537213444709778,
0.4068982005119324,
-0.1301986277103424,
0.5779660940170288,
-0.03013083152472973,
0.2519800364971161,
0.051901675760746,
0.02197442203760147,
-0.062270909547805786,
-0.0840044617652893,
0.3412322402000427,
-0.6345138549804688,
-0.7819847464561462,
-0.7203249931335449,
-0.19832611083984375,
0.22654135525226593,
-0.3192654848098755,
-0.16066959500312805,
0.0702926516532898,
-0.4577498733997345,
-0.4305187463760376,
-0.8537960648536682,
-0.8493345975875854,
0.02942032739520073,
0.04803700000047684,
-0.00631397170946002,
-0.12987086176872253,
-0.8288350105285645,
-0.3743046224117279,
0.055361222475767136,
-0.2109249085187912,
-0.35634368658065796,
-0.5898723602294922,
0.23161551356315613,
-0.10960166901350021,
-0.27482157945632935,
-0.4146474599838257,
0.21498875319957733,
0.0684613585472107,
1.021106243133545,
-0.101762555539608,
0.17280341684818268,
-0.3480190336704254,
0.7809172868728638,
0.28522989153862,
0.10917622596025467,
-0.012693209573626518,
0.05200926586985588,
-0.22297373414039612,
-0.43345293402671814,
-0.3605230450630188,
0.13502942025661469,
0.8637872338294983,
-0.0737055242061615,
0.3268572688102722,
0.22824029624462128,
-1.1113554239273071,
-0.4185849130153656,
0.2256058007478714,
-0.4624269902706146,
-0.35947293043136597,
-0.15654075145721436,
-0.16959485411643982,
0.41282087564468384,
0.34933120012283325,
0.44249409437179565,
0.34020259976387024,
0.5938617587089539,
0.3001956641674042,
0.4071078598499298,
-0.009213856421411037,
0.11442077159881592,
0.014755982905626297,
-0.15868164598941803,
-0.6628302335739136,
0.31042802333831787,
-0.822871208190918,
0.16553384065628052,
0.4004543125629425,
-0.40188926458358765,
-0.1330534964799881,
0.30980202555656433,
0.30008310079574585,
0.9008450508117676,
-0.16981618106365204,
-0.1306191384792328,
0.25499096512794495,
0.2800564169883728,
0.17808586359024048,
0.3062760531902313,
0.5219480991363525,
-0.3434809148311615,
0.44472536444664,
-0.465421587228775,
0.22024962306022644,
-0.48086047172546387,
-0.3560556471347809,
0.4183112382888794,
0.43945547938346863,
-0.40710529685020447,
-0.10326854884624481,
-0.03272005543112755,
-0.33792418241500854,
-0.8976497054100037,
1.048817753791809,
0.1103907898068428,
-0.2991638779640198,
-0.27635473012924194,
0.43419331312179565,
-0.8199821710586548,
0.2356572449207306,
0.3399813175201416,
-0.23210251331329346,
-0.3753839433193207,
-0.003338269656524062,
0.0531393438577652,
0.27510759234428406,
-0.268530011177063,
0.6191263794898987,
-0.08308564871549606,
0.04238763451576233,
0.5435401797294617,
-0.09547562897205353,
0.47064435482025146,
-0.48882609605789185,
-0.4825654625892639,
0.2671326994895935,
0.25459426641464233,
-0.2697060704231262,
0.37250417470932007,
-0.04836960881948471,
-0.6468762159347534,
0.28208351135253906,
-0.4004868268966675,
-0.34738972783088684,
0.5251174569129944,
-0.20529283583164215,
0.18412111699581146,
-0.6949009895324707,
0.31931644678115845,
0.8351730704307556,
0.5075996518135071,
-0.04863357171416283,
0.0570964477956295,
0.08804391324520111,
0.16495589911937714,
-0.39229264855384827,
0.25242239236831665,
-0.11065154522657394,
0.04716556519269943,
-0.8034319877624512,
0.40351244807243347,
-0.4586085379123688,
0.65321946144104,
-0.8042852878570557,
0.32912588119506836,
-0.45314541459083557,
-0.27747079730033875,
0.5368769764900208,
-0.37715309858322144,
-0.5479594469070435,
-0.3154694437980652,
0.10169564932584763,
-0.6853682994842529,
0.5817592144012451,
0.5550106167793274,
-0.23897090554237366,
-0.1752982884645462,
-0.19132690131664276,
0.21613654494285583,
0.05227755382657051,
0.5289912819862366,
-0.18095526099205017,
-0.7883367538452148,
-0.4762468636035919,
0.12201637774705887,
-0.01981233060359955,
-0.268097460269928,
-0.13163647055625916,
0.8788235187530518,
0.37155869603157043,
-0.28274500370025635,
0.6604111790657043,
0.005289101041853428,
0.6824950575828552,
-0.19291797280311584,
0.29887154698371887,
0.12251944839954376,
0.05245271325111389,
-0.2834421396255493,
-0.28608402609825134,
0.07512001693248749,
-0.10989265888929367,
-0.5097818970680237,
-0.030832236632704735,
-0.15981154143810272,
0.3645123541355133,
-0.8925759792327881,
0.2137952446937561,
0.13407613337039948,
0.20915508270263672,
-0.16631411015987396
] |
233737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert%20Greenfield | Herbert Greenfield | Herbert W. Greenfield (November 25, 1869 – August 23, 1949) was a Canadian politician who served as the fourth premier of Alberta from 1921 until 1925. Born in Winchester, Hampshire, in England, he immigrated to Canada in his late twenties, settling first in Ontario and then in Alberta, where he farmed. He soon became involved in the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), a farmers' lobby organization that was in the process of becoming a political party, and was elected as the organization's vice president. Greenfield did not run in the 1921 provincial election, the first provincial general election in which the UFA fielded candidates, but when the UFA won a majority in the Legislature in that election he was chosen by the UFA caucus to serve as Premier.
Like most of the UFA caucus, Greenfield had no experience in government and he struggled in the position. He relied extensively on his Attorney General, John E. Brownlee, for counsel on policy and strategy. He was unable to control his caucus, which did not generally believe in party discipline, and his government almost lost several votes in the Legislature despite its majority. He was unable to effectively address the problems facing farmers (including drought and low grain prices), bitter labour disputes in the coal industry, or the pronounced divisions in public opinion that had sprung up around prohibition (which his government ended). Despite this, his time as Premier saw the elimination of the provincial deficit, substantial progress in negotiating the transfer of natural resource rights from the federal government, and the creation of the Alberta Wheat Pool. He also named Irene Parlby as the province's first female cabinet minister.
By 1924, many UFA Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) wanted to see Greenfield leave office, both because they were frustrated with his failings and because they thought it likely that a Greenfield-led government would be defeated in the next election. Their first attempt to replace him failed when Brownlee, their intended replacement, refused to have anything to do with the plan, but a second attempt, in 1925, was successful when Brownlee agreed to take office if Greenfield personally requested that he do so. Greenfield had not wanted the job in the first place, and agreed to resign in Brownlee's favour.
After his retirement from politics, Greenfield represented Alberta in London, England, for several years before returning to Canada to work in the oil and gas industry. He died in 1949 at the age of 79.
Early life
Herbert W. Greenfield was born November 25, 1869, in Winchester, Hampshire, England, the son of John Greenfield (c. 1830–1909) and Mary Leake (c. 1835–1904). He attended Wesleyan School in Dalston, but dropped out as a result of his father's bankruptcy. He worked aboard a cattle boat in 1892 before emigrating to Canada in 1896.
In Canada, he worked in the oil fields near Sarnia, Ontario, and as a farmer in Weston, Ontario. He married Elizabeth Harris on February 28, 1900. The couple had two sons, Franklin Harris Greenfield and Arnold Leake Greenfield. In 1904, the family went west for economic reasons and homesteaded near Edmonton. He found work in a lumber mill and later turned to farming. During his first year in Alberta, a fire destroyed his home, and he and his wife spent the winter in an abandoned sod hut. In 1906, they resettled to a large home four kilometers south of Westlock.
In 1922, while Greenfield was Premier, Elizabeth died suddenly as a result of routine surgery. He remarried in 1926, to Marjorie Greenwood Cormack, who brought two children of her own into the marriage.
Early political career
Greenfield entered public life on a local level soon after moving to his new farm. He was elected to the local school board, where he spent twelve years, including stints as chair, secretary, and treasurer. He also served as Vice President of the Alberta Educational Association, as President of the Westlock Agricultural Society, and as co-founder and President of the Alberta Association of Municipal Districts. Greenfield also was an officer of the province-wide Association of Local Improvement Districts, which advocated for reforms such as a change from a ten-hour to an eight-hour work day, on the grounds that many Local Improvement Districts (LIDs) were having trouble competing with railways for labour. John E. Brownlee later said of Greenfield's involvement in the ALID that it was there "that he was first initiated into the discussion of public subjects, and it became the training ground for his subsequent success."
Provincially, Greenfield was originally a Liberal, but along with many other farmers, began to grow dissatisfied with the Liberal government's treatment of farmers. He became involved with the United Farmers of Alberta, which prior to 1919 was a non-partisan lobby group that eschewed direct involvement in the political process. He was elected to the organization's executive in 1919 and chaired its mass conventions in 1920 and 1921. He headed an extremely successful membership drive, Despite this involvement, he did not seek election to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1921 election. When the UFA, which as part of its resistance to old-style politics had contested the election without designating a leader, won 38 of 61 seats, it found itself needing to form a government without having decided who would head it. Greenfield meanwhile had been named interim Vice President of the organization after the death of Percival Baker.
The logical choice was UFA President Henry Wise Wood. However, Wood had little taste for the minutiae of government, preferring to remain at the head of what he saw as a broader political movement (saying he would "sooner be President of the UFA than the USA"), and saw party lawyer Brownlee as the best choice. Brownlee, who, like Wood, had not contested the election, said he felt that the Premier must be a farmer for the aspirations of the UFA's base to be fulfilled. George Hoadley, one of the two UFA members with previous legislative experience (Hoadley had been a sitting Conservative MLA prior to the election; UFA MLA Alex Moore had been elected in a by-election a few months before the general election), was considered, but since his previous experience had been as a Conservative—one of the old line parties so disdained by the UFA — he was deemed unacceptable. There was even some speculation that incumbent Liberal Premier Charles Stewart, who had become a member of the UFA before it entered politics directly, would stay on as Premier, but he immediately announced that he would serve only until the UFA selected a leader. A meeting of the UFA caucus in Calgary selected Greenfield, and he took office as Premier on August 13, 1921.
Premier
Greenfield took office as Premier amid great expectations: the Lethbridge Herald called him "the only new Moses that can bridge the Red Sea", while the Calgary Herald noted that "No government ever went into office in this country carrying better wishes for its success". He also took office without a seat in the legislature. This latter circumstance was addressed through the voluntary resignation of Donald MacBeth Kennedy, who had won the riding of Peace River for the UFA. Greenfield won the seat by acclamation December 9, 1921.
Legislature and cabinet
Once in the legislature, however, Greenfield faltered in his leadership of his caucus. The UFA MLAs came from a determinedly independent and non-partisan background and proved nearly impossible to whip. When Greenfield selected his cabinet and was about to announce it to his caucus for their vetting, he was interrupted by Lorne Proudfoot who asked whether, in addition to the rumoured inclusion of Labour members, the cabinet would include any of the fourteen Liberal MLAs. Proudfoot argued that to exclude them would be to "start out much after the matter of the old parties". Greenfield had not intended this, and suggested that no Liberals would likely be amenable to it. Irene Parlby, the caucus's only woman (who Greenfield would shortly name as Alberta's first female cabinet minister) agreed, and suggested that the UFA's ideal of securing representation for all economic groups in society did not apply to the Liberals, who were not an economic group and were not democratically organized in any event. Proudfoot's proposal was defeated sixteen votes to fourteen. Greenfield went on to name the seven member cabinet he had intended, including Labour MLA Alex Ross as Minister of Public Works, Parlby as Minister Without Portfolio, and Greenfield himself as Provincial Treasurer.
Once the legislature convened in 1922, the inexperience of the Premier and his caucus was further laid bare. Greenfield, devastated by the sudden death of his wife, turned in a poor performance. Faced with an aggressive attack by new Liberal leader John R. Boyle, Greenfield relied heavily on Attorney General John Brownlee, who sat next to him in the Legislature, to provide the defense. The session got off to an inauspicious start: Greenfield nominated the government's preferred candidate for speaker, Oran McPherson, only to have one of his backbenchers, Alex Moore, nominate Independent Conservative John Smith Stewart; Stewart spared the government embarrassment by declining the nomination.
Moore, along with fellow UFA backbencher John Russell Love, caused the government further trouble with a resolution aiming to limit the circumstances under which the government would have to resign. By convention of the Westminster system, a government was required to resign on the defeat of any piece of its legislation that was critical to its program. Moore and Love objected to the manner in which this provision could be expected to pressure UFA MLAs to back government legislation that they might otherwise be inclined to oppose, and introduced a resolution in the Legislature that called for a policy by which the government would resign only upon passage of an explicit motion of no confidence. The resolution caught the attention of politicians across Canada, including future Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, who warned that it was unconstitutional. Brownlee moved an amendment that reduced the resolution to a vague statement of principle, which passed and was not heard of again.
UFA members also objected to the concept of a caucus, in which MLAs from one party debate policy behind closed doors. They believed that the role of an MLA was to represent the views of his or her constituents directly on the floor of the Legislature. This belief too proved problematic to the government. The Dairyman's Act had been adopted by the Liberal government to provide low-interest loans to dairy farmers. It was unpopular among farmers, and Greenfield's government aimed to amend it. Many UFA backbenchers, however, wanted to see it repealed all together, but because of their objection to caucus discussions Greenfield was not aware of this by the time his amendments came to the floor of the legislature. They passed through the house with little debate, until just after third reading, when one of the backbenchers rose to ask if the time had come to speak against the bill. Brownlee suggested that, in view of the legislators' inexperience with parliamentary procedure, the legislature consider the motion to adopt the bill on third reading as not yet having passed, that debate might ensue. This suggestion adopted, several UFA members attacked the Act. They were joined in this by the Liberals, despite the fact that it was a Liberal act that had been co-authored by Boyle. In the end, the bill passed only by virtue of the support of the four Labour members.
More trouble with the legislature struck Greenfield in August 1922, during a special session called for the purpose of passing enabling legislation for a provincial wheat board. The session lasted only a week, and on August 31 the only item of business that remained was the members' pay for the session. The government was proposing $100 per member, but some MLAs complained that this was insufficient in light of the long travel times between Edmonton and their constituencies. Greenfield, lacking the counsel of the vacationing Brownlee and wanting to avoid trouble, proposed upping the amount to $200. Independent MLA Robert Pearson proposed increasing it once again, to $250, to match what their counterparts in Saskatchewan had received. This suggestion was carried. While Greenfield had hardly been the driving force behind the increases, he had facilitated them and had been blind to the appearance of paying MLAs more for six afternoons of work than some farmers were able to earn in a year. The grassroots of his own party condemned the move, all the more so when the wheat board that had been the purpose of the special session failed to come to fruition.
Agriculture
Greenfield became Premier at a time of agricultural depression, especially in the province's south. The region, which was responsible for approximately 75% of Alberta's wheat production, was in the midst of its fifth consecutive year of drought, and the farmers who had been responsible for putting the UFA into office were now demanding action. Initially, the government offered direct financial assistance, with $5 million provided in seed and grain relief by the end of 1922. However, this effort was driving the province close to bankruptcy, and in 1923 Greenfield announced an end to the handouts (the bill authorizing the last of these was a source of chagrin for MLAs from all parties, both because it marked the end of direct assistance for farmers and because the last of the assistance was itself so expensive). Farmers and political representatives from the affected areas criticized the government bitterly, referencing Greenfield's earlier pledge that "if the south country should fall, then we are prepared to fall with it".
The government did not give up on addressing the problem when it ended subsidies. It had previously commissioned a number of studies on the agricultural situation and related factors, and converted some of the results of these studies into legislation. The Debt Adjustment Act of 1923 was designed to adjust farmers' debts to a level that they could actually pay, thus allowing them to carry on while still ensuring that creditors received as much as was feasible. In the words of University of Calgary professor David C. Jones, the bill offered "solace, but no real satisfaction". According to Jones, Greenfield's attempts to rescue southern Alberta from agricultural calamity were probably doomed to failure. Even so, Greenfield had called the situation his top priority, and his failure to bring it to a successful resolution cost him politically.
Another preoccupation of the UFA and the Greenfield government was the marketing of wheat. From 1919 to 1920 there had been a federally established wheat pool to stabilize wheat prices. When it was disbanded, wheat prices tumbled by two-thirds, prompting many farmers to call for its re-introduction. At the call of the UFA and farmers' organizations in other provinces, the federal government (whose razor-thin majority in the House of Commons was often widened by the support of farmer-friendly Progressive members) created a new, mandatory agency, pending the appointment by the provincial governments of Alberta and Saskatchewan of a board of directors for the agency. This they proved unable to do. Greenfield's government ultimately admitted defeat and gave up on re-establishing the pool, opting instead to guarantee loans to farmer-run cooperative pools. With government assistance, the Alberta Wheat Pool came into existence in time for the 1923 harvest.
Labour unrest
During Greenfield's premiership, Alberta's major non-agricultural industry was coal mining, and the industry was not prospering. Production was more than 50% greater than demand, and fewer than half of the province's mines were profitable. The industry as a whole was earning a profit of less than one cent per ton of coal. Miners' wages had more than doubled (in nominal terms) between 1909 and 1920 but had barely held their own against the wartime inflation. In the 1920s mine owners began to roll them back. Besides the low wages, miners were unsatisfied with working conditions in an industry that saw more than 3,300 workplace accidents per year. The results had been labour militancy and violence. A general strike in the industry in 1920 had seen strikers assault strikebreakers, throw them off their bicycles, and throw rocks through the windows of buses. Police were used to aid the strikebreakers and had been sometimes attacked as well. One constable was partially paralyzed from the beating he received. Provincial police commissioner W.C. Bryan was warned against inspecting one strike site in a note reading "You spoilt the strike, and if you go...you will be killed." He went anyway, and was greeted by an ambush in which three bullets were fired into his car, missing him.
The situation was still unsettled after Greenfield became premier in autumn 1921. Greenfield was at a loss as to how to respond to this crisis, complaining that both employees and employers were the most difficult people in the province to deal with and that they showed "very little spirit of compromise". He tried to be balanced in his approach to this labour-employer friction but was not aided by his own Minister of Public Works, Labour MLA Alex Ross, who took the side of the miners and objected to the government's provision of police escorts for strikebreakers. Though the problems originated before Greenfield took office, many Albertans felt that a stronger leader might have been more successful than Greenfield in achieving industrial peace.
Prohibition
Prohibition had been introduced in Alberta following a 1916 referendum, during which the UFA had advocated for the prohibitionist side. The Liberal version of prohibition was weak, and Greenfield came into office intending to strengthen the legislation. Even by 1920, however, it was becoming apparent that the policy was not working (or, as the Medicine Hat News noted, "Prohibition is now working smoothly. The only thing left is to stop the sale of liquor!"). Greenfield's own MLAs began to grumble about the policy—Archibald Matheson expressed in 1923 the view that "This government has acted as philosopher, guide, and God to the people long enough." Public opinion, too, began to shift against the policy, more rapidly after 1922 when three police officers were killed in the line of duty by bootleggers. The last and most dramatic of these was the murder of Steve Lawson in front of the barracks where he and his family lived, by Emil "Pic" Picariello and Florence Lassandra. Public opinion ran high both for and against the pair, and their 1923 hangings only served to unite both factions against prohibition.
An autumn 1923 referendum saw Albertans vote decisively for the repeal of prohibition, despite the UFA's continuing support for the policy. In response, the government resolved to repeal the Prohibition Act and replaced it with government-controlled liquor sales. Greenfield attempted to make the move more palatable to prohibitionists by proposing that liquor profits be shared with impoverished municipalities. However, the scheme proved unworkable, and the re-legalization went ahead without any such profit-sharing. In 1924, the government introduced legislation to replace prohibition with the regulation of liquor sales by the government, and subjected it to a free vote. While the legislation passed, the new measures were divisive, pitting community leaders who wanted their towns to remain "dry" against those who wanted to apply for liquor licences, and different would-be saloon-keepers against one another in competing for the government-issued licences.
Provincial finances
At the outset of his premiership, Greenfield served as Provincial Treasurer as well as Premier. In both of these capacities, he was faced with a provincial deficit, which reached an accumulated total of $4 million between his taking office and the end of the 1922 fiscal year. One reason for this was the government's involvement in railways: it had found itself the owner of four uncompleted money-losing railway lines after the private syndicates set up to run them collapsed due to construction cost overruns. By 1922, the government had lost a total of $6.7 million on the endeavor, with an additional $5 million expected to follow that year—37% of the estimated 1922 provincial budget. Greenfield wanted to sell the lines to the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), a course of action that was endorsed by Brownlee, but many farmers despised the CPR and most UFA MLAs preferred to keep the lines government-operated. Moreover, Greenfield's own Minister of Railways, Vernor Smith, was among this faction. This problem plagued Greenfield for his entire term as Premier, and it was not until Brownlee succeeded him that a resolution came in the form of a $25 million sale to the major lines.
Absent a solution to the railway problem, the government continued its deficits. Brownlee advocated deep cuts in spending to bring them under control, and, when Greenfield demurred, began to cut staff in his own department. He found an ally in Richard Gavin Reid in 1923 when Greenfield, exhausted by his responsibilities, appointed the latter to replace him as Provincial Treasurer. Reid impressed on the cabinet the need for drastic economy in all departments and, by 1925 (the last year of Greenfield's Premiership), the government at last showed a surplus, a state that would persist until the beginning of the Great Depression, with the exception of a small deficit in 1927.
Natural resources
At the time that Alberta was made a province in 1905, the federal government retained control of its natural resources (though it provided financial compensation to the new provincial government for this), a fact that set it apart from the older provinces. By 1925, negotiations to alter this state of affairs had been ongoing for more than a decade, and the two levels of government had an agreement in principle. Despite this, Alberta Liberal leader John R. Boyle sent a letter to his fellow Liberal, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, pleading with him to delay any agreement until after the expected 1925 election so that the UFA could not claim success. Greenfield and Brownlee attended a series of meetings with federal representatives beginning May 19 in Ottawa; these continued until June 7, whereupon Brownlee returned home. Greenfield offered to stay, but on June 11 King told him that the cabinet would need the summer to consider the question and that no agreement would be immediately forthcoming. This decision did not help the Alberta Liberals, who went on to lose the next election soundly, and did not prevent the transfer of resource rights, which took place in 1929, but was enough to rob Greenfield of his glory; he left office the next year.
Provincial banking
It was the longstanding view of a segment of the UFA that the Alberta government should enter the banking business directly by obtaining a bank charter from the federal government (which has responsibility for banking under the Canadian constitution). In fact, UFA President William John Tregillus had included the idea in a speech he gave on his goals for the organization in 1913. At the UFA convention in 1923, a proponent of a provincial banking, George Bevington, made a passionate speech in favour of this idea, bringing most of the membership around to his side. The convention passed a resolution in favour of the idea (along with one calling on the provincial treasury to establish a loan department, an idea that came to fruition fifteen years later with the creation of Alberta Treasury Branches), against the stiff opposition of Attorney-General Brownlee. Brownlee's opposition stemmed in part from investigations that Greenfield's government had already undertaken into the subject: information was gathered from similar experiments in New Zealand and New South Wales, leading to the conclusion that, while there would be some benefit to a provincially owned bank, Alberta "had neither the economic nor constitutional base to consider such a scheme". This conclusion was affirmed by University of Alberta professor D. A. MacGibbon in a government-commissioned study.
At the 1924 UFA convention, Bevington and his followers moved a resolution calling for immediate action on the previous year's banking resolution. Against them stood Greenfield's government, UFA president Henry Wise Wood (whom Bevington was challenging for re-election), and radical Labour Member of Parliament William Irvine. Thanks to Irvine's surprising intervention on the side of the conservatives, the resolution was soundly defeated.
Departure from politics
Greenfield's political stock fell during the course of his time as Premier. His arrival was heralded with great expectations of economic and political reform. After the 1921 federal election, Progressive Party of Canada leader Thomas Crerar was considering a merger of his party with the Liberal Party of Canada and asked Greenfield to join him as Alberta's representative in the federal cabinet upon completion of this merger. This initially lofty stature was reduced by incident after incident: his reliance on Brownlee in the legislature and elsewhere, his failure to deliver on the promised economic relief, and his alienation of the radical wing of his own party.
By 1924, many of Greenfield's own backbenchers had had enough and hatched a plan to force Greenfield's resignation and replace him with Brownlee, who was perceived as more likely to lead the UFA to victory in the impending election. This group—which included George Johnston, George MacLachlan, William Shield, Donald Cameron, Oran McPherson, and Austin Claypool—contacted Brownlee to alert him to their intentions and were taken aback when the Attorney-General told them that if Greenfield resigned, so would he.
The following year, the group approached Greenfield directly to ask for his resignation. He initially agreed, but then vacillated long enough for Brownlee to once again pledge his loyalty to the Premier. This time, Henry Wise Wood intervened to ask Brownlee to reconsider, which he agreed to do only if Greenfield himself made the request. The Premier immediately did so, saying that he had never wanted the job in the first place. On November 23, Greenfield resigned as Premier of Alberta, tearfully telling the media that he was "through with politics". He never again ran for elected office.
The media judged the rebellion harshly. The Calgary Herald mocked the rebels as a "group of farmer politicians who have always claimed to be purer than those of other parties" and yet "[threw] their leader to the wolves in the hope that they may save their own skins". It concluded: "Greenfield was not a good political captain, but he had a poor set of officers and a mutinous crew."
Later life
In 1927, Greenfield was appointed Alberta's Agent General in London, England. The appointment was controversial and was perceived as a patronage reward even by some UFA backbenchers. Liberals also accused the government of benefiting the Hudson's Bay Company, which owned the London office that the government leased, more than Alberta. Even so, Greenfield's performance in the position was well regarded: his personality was better-suited for his duties there, which included the promotion of Alberta's burgeoning oil and gas industry, attracting English immigration to Alberta, and acting as a guide for Albertans visiting London. It was in this last capacity that he welcomed Brownlee to London, where the two met together with British immigration and financial officials.
In 1931, the Agent General's office closed, and Greenfield returned to Alberta, settling in Calgary. There he entered the oil and gas business, serving as a director (and later vice president) of Calmont Oils, president of the Oil and Gas Association, president of the Alberta Petroleum Association, and director of Home Oil. He also served as managing director of the British Dominion Land Settlement Corporation and as president of the Calgary Board of Trade. He spent the rest of his life in the city, maintaining an office in the General Trusts Building.
Greenfield died at 8:25 in the morning of August 23, 1949. His funeral took place at Grace Presbyterian Church and he is buried in Union Cemetery, both of which are in Calgary. In 1968, Greenfield School, an elementary school in Edmonton, was named in his honour.
See also
John Brownlee as Attorney-General of Alberta
Notes
References
Premiers of Alberta
People from Winchester
English emigrants to Canada
People from Westlock County
United Farmers of Alberta MLAs
Businesspeople from Calgary
Politicians from Calgary
Canadian farmers
Alberta political party leaders
1869 births
1949 deaths | [
-0.10621436685323715,
0.5554284453392029,
-0.3781851530075073,
-0.04397536814212799,
-0.20514234900474548,
0.8651699423789978,
0.6115392446517944,
0.3491537570953369,
-0.24738769233226776,
-0.6279588341712952,
-0.049099285155534744,
0.15432685613632202,
0.13891297578811646,
0.3467971682548523,
-0.05758235976099968,
0.27512940764427185,
-0.9261132478713989,
0.4612731337547302,
-0.2320273071527481,
-0.08587316423654556,
0.00006964221392991021,
-0.19862426817417145,
-0.0075690592639148235,
-0.03543703630566597,
-0.08210789412260056,
0.18885277211666107,
0.5748952627182007,
-0.09099939465522766,
0.1484663039445877,
0.2265900820493698,
-0.18400190770626068,
0.11817722767591476,
0.40827175974845886,
-0.011334388516843319,
-0.19089092314243317,
-0.54118812084198,
0.5293903350830078,
-0.2475011795759201,
0.31212031841278076,
-0.11956805735826492,
0.24956896901130676,
0.4266466200351715,
0.37736478447914124,
-0.2746158242225647,
0.061889179050922394,
-0.41923701763153076,
-2.5554392337799072,
-0.1759861260652542,
-0.5673200488090515,
-0.608659029006958,
-0.04074455797672272,
0.6412517428398132,
0.6389210224151611,
0.3354535698890686,
0.49789097905158997,
0.8987236022949219,
0.08341076970100403,
0.15364301204681396,
0.30675244331359863,
0.05516628175973892,
0.24005870521068573,
-0.4994908571243286,
0.045300327241420746,
0.6949626207351685,
-0.10619667917490005,
0.0698581337928772,
-0.30401545763015747,
0.16182193160057068,
-0.030612386763095856,
0.1276644766330719,
-0.2239985316991806,
-0.3466322422027588,
0.27063819766044617,
0.5284661054611206,
-0.23955020308494568,
-0.20828761160373688,
0.19200348854064941,
-0.18116575479507446,
-0.016089102253317833,
-0.06659239530563354,
0.20334766805171967,
-0.3048839867115021,
0.4507943391799927,
0.13184349238872528,
-0.19137035310268402,
0.31461167335510254,
-0.5203675031661987,
0.40898871421813965,
-0.02007780224084854,
0.2996971607208252,
-0.32828453183174133,
-0.03070158138871193,
-0.23756946623325348,
-0.19668281078338623,
0.3916694223880768,
0.006902588997036219,
-0.0014310837723314762,
0.1817525327205658,
0.013183556497097015,
-0.16488109529018402,
0.30899930000305176,
0.1656990498304367,
-0.09737154841423035,
-0.15993331372737885,
-0.6591096520423889,
0.35456040501594543,
-0.32640761137008667,
-0.30926623940467834,
0.24954776465892792,
-2.0761332511901855,
-0.17251694202423096,
0.36800286173820496,
-0.12384101003408432,
-0.560167133808136,
-0.22913846373558044,
0.3051525354385376,
0.14619502425193787,
-0.2896811366081238,
-0.34477072954177856,
0.11147143691778183,
-0.25151246786117554,
0.7218195796012878,
-0.3005029261112213,
0.10725884884595871,
-0.47661203145980835,
0.38969093561172485,
0.2005646675825119,
-0.15663887560367584,
0.0714939683675766,
-0.061403967440128326,
0.22333087027072906,
0.8400864601135254,
-0.3086153268814087,
-0.06266221404075623,
-0.34523576498031616,
-0.3168126046657562,
0.3198511600494385,
0.21560955047607422,
-0.004273353144526482,
-0.17822791635990143,
-0.008592252619564533,
-0.0017496957443654537,
-3.055370330810547,
0.05063750967383385,
0.22729842364788055,
-0.09746038168668747,
-0.3530147075653076,
-0.05208861082792282,
-0.07882049679756165,
0.09732754528522491,
0.39319220185279846,
0.006638820748776197,
-0.10208121687173843,
0.1669953465461731,
-0.03905873000621796,
0.3301793932914734,
0.5332888960838318,
-0.07365351915359497,
0.4249650239944458,
0.5749231576919556,
-0.21451538801193237,
0.07426481693983078,
-0.3011653423309326,
0.14069253206253052,
0.3256799578666687,
0.4932505786418915,
-0.06511139869689941,
-1.0301319360733032,
0.1312532275915146,
-0.10084643214941025,
-0.3617337942123413,
-0.3047693967819214,
0.31451448798179626,
-0.6989226937294006,
0.3589414358139038,
0.030371421948075294,
0.37319058179855347,
0.5682267546653748,
-0.057378336787223816,
-0.30026036500930786,
-0.17813178896903992,
-0.04026130586862564,
-0.3694225251674652,
-0.17658129334449768,
0.33175840973854065,
0.11338939517736435,
0.26746851205825806,
0.08522646129131317,
0.02434445545077324,
0.31985774636268616,
0.0828981101512909,
-0.24481123685836792,
-0.07484886050224304,
-0.541419506072998,
0.5808695554733276,
0.15328426659107208,
-0.15903615951538086,
0.17971237003803253,
0.018886785954236984,
0.31836679577827454,
-0.07048913091421127,
-0.2130403071641922,
0.06799700856208801,
-0.6263504028320312,
-0.20199322700500488,
3.014481544494629,
0.010604260489344597,
0.15362556278705597,
0.013661607168614864,
0.7758449912071228,
0.5528996586799622,
-0.36256319284439087,
-0.41366875171661377,
-0.1004098653793335,
-0.07774844020605087,
-0.6718211770057678,
-0.264188677072525,
-0.09807579219341278,
0.040830984711647034,
-0.17998968064785004,
0.3861936926841736,
0.09464225172996521,
0.12857553362846375,
0.6032514572143555,
-0.010853861458599567,
0.799640953540802,
0.39114975929260254,
0.05533415451645851,
-0.2967883348464966,
-1.0519458055496216,
0.137428879737854,
0.25605684518814087,
-0.12088298797607422,
-0.3072873055934906,
0.33286944031715393,
0.3030381202697754,
-0.0887586772441864,
-0.3160175383090973,
0.19973665475845337,
0.41423648595809937,
0.17833293974399567,
-0.1923810988664627,
0.02266431413590908,
-0.19874078035354614,
-0.3993580639362335,
0.870113730430603,
0.09030164033174515,
0.03933069482445717,
-0.3306971788406372,
0.1509830355644226,
0.16606761515140533,
0.17082414031028748,
0.6495288014411926,
-0.24576762318611145,
-0.2030792534351349,
0.14552481472492218,
0.13315871357917786,
-0.17894870042800903,
0.0061930264346301556,
-0.020872365683317184,
-0.14107120037078857,
0.11439050734043121,
0.14722584187984467,
-0.0004283276794012636,
-0.2800586521625519,
0.22923244535923004,
-0.18386971950531006,
-0.6915876269340515,
-0.0928281843662262,
0.08969826996326447,
0.23602941632270813,
-0.28515464067459106,
-0.05083465576171875,
-3.333932399749756,
0.29848402738571167,
0.48527851700782776,
-0.10610157996416092,
0.6473419070243835,
-0.5078809857368469,
-0.008358722552657127,
0.2469235062599182,
0.2873714566230774,
0.0630640909075737,
0.3565213084220886,
-0.05303606390953064,
0.30982083082199097,
-0.08377324789762497,
-0.2805742919445038,
0.21680383384227753,
-0.1499730497598648,
-0.2932852804660797,
0.39845070242881775,
-0.6987453699111938,
0.5556705594062805,
-0.08778365701436996,
0.39307618141174316,
-0.3925454318523407,
-1.012787103652954,
0.16299590468406677,
-0.22406914830207825,
-0.22211378812789917,
0.8528574705123901,
-0.4384809732437134,
0.3399296700954437,
0.39683666825294495,
0.2804933786392212,
-0.44083765149116516,
-0.10869285464286804,
-3.8310325145721436,
-0.20584651827812195,
-0.2571345865726471,
-0.5724992752075195,
0.3276143968105316,
-0.19999797642230988,
0.10100395977497101,
-0.285861611366272,
-0.27706408500671387,
-0.384278267621994,
0.5380958914756775,
-0.22191950678825378,
0.1728152483701706,
0.15702952444553375,
0.6927405595779419,
0.5063897967338562,
0.636968195438385,
-0.18252785503864288,
0.7649827599525452,
-0.25388258695602417,
0.21060197055339813,
-0.5541941523551941,
-0.18085388839244843,
-0.04392029717564583,
0.45964911580085754,
0.27935990691185,
0.2499404400587082,
-0.3273230791091919,
-0.46867096424102783,
-0.061342258006334305,
-0.16099736094474792,
-0.0902339443564415,
0.06457231938838959,
-0.3707122504711151,
-0.2632196843624115,
-0.23218251764774323,
0.06912509351968765,
0.27729883790016174,
0.8950833678245544,
0.1159532219171524,
-0.25895026326179504,
0.49954304099082947,
-0.4466143250465393,
0.33066123723983765,
-0.3363504409790039,
-0.014475085772573948,
-0.4104784429073334,
0.4357967674732208,
-0.3981136083602905,
0.2449248880147934,
0.25963011384010315,
0.06127764284610748,
1.3586539030075073,
0.3175526261329651,
-0.18778860569000244,
-0.34252482652664185,
0.7120542526245117,
-0.4044012725353241,
-0.8788543343544006,
-0.08292564749717712,
0.46299082040786743,
0.05628284439444542,
0.7192199230194092,
-0.006321064196527004,
-0.3386985957622528,
-0.3599732220172882,
0.2104531228542328,
-0.27813804149627686,
-0.036953993141651154,
-0.2969436049461365,
-0.5524149537086487,
0.20072421431541443,
0.7936046123504639,
-0.7746918797492981,
0.024498630315065384,
0.24083812534809113,
-0.3184058368206024,
0.06478169560432434,
-0.03589257970452309,
-0.19631020724773407,
0.4293406307697296,
-0.5224432945251465,
0.19437378644943237,
0.7414992451667786,
0.5404382944107056,
-0.0558801144361496,
-0.00768863782286644,
-0.12979087233543396,
-0.3983418941497803,
-0.43487057089805603,
-0.44326817989349365,
-0.3155498802661896,
0.1205400675535202,
-0.13894924521446228,
0.3295239806175232,
-0.25288110971450806,
0.857574999332428,
-0.7716771364212036,
0.007275104522705078,
-0.4064244031906128,
-0.6815001964569092,
-0.2309572547674179,
-0.6823143362998962,
-0.4733664095401764,
-0.29269248247146606,
-0.2106422781944275,
-0.739281415939331,
0.10905467718839645,
0.01737431064248085,
-0.22578686475753784,
0.0716090053319931,
0.3097659647464752,
-0.3996715843677521,
0.25207972526550293,
0.9798574447631836,
-0.64397132396698,
-0.09782758355140686,
0.2667047381401062,
0.4489046037197113,
0.6037595272064209,
-0.09528596699237823,
0.6360322833061218,
0.2336340695619583,
-0.055337123572826385,
0.44745808839797974,
0.1418997049331665,
0.13069750368595123,
-0.22114339470863342,
-0.5197210907936096,
0.1207500472664833,
0.09309209883213043,
0.538020670413971,
-0.310310423374176,
-0.4889153838157654,
-0.6327514052391052,
-0.20674580335617065,
-0.7136082053184509,
0.6662672162055969,
-0.13113833963871002,
0.13225829601287842,
0.2090911716222763,
0.0032844606321305037,
0.07326367497444153,
0.11443702131509781,
0.6203528642654419,
0.6436357498168945,
0.2277372032403946,
-0.19673539698123932,
-0.03768453747034073,
-0.2080838978290558,
-0.4395424425601959,
-0.5118218064308167,
0.11363106220960617,
-0.5288809537887573,
-0.18347473442554474,
-0.016314806416630745,
-0.660490095615387,
0.0030373435001820326,
-0.672019362449646,
0.012393215671181679,
-0.4383224546909332,
-0.14136721193790436,
-1.3198825120925903,
0.20284077525138855,
0.3188835382461548,
-0.1661567986011505,
0.29544252157211304,
0.09005778282880783,
0.09943811595439911,
1.0264811515808105,
0.13865463435649872,
0.19292297959327698,
-0.16846822202205658,
-0.05235324427485466,
-0.019736625254154205,
0.45669838786125183,
0.16452842950820923,
-0.2345045953989029,
0.31784799695014954,
0.12244124710559845,
0.05828268826007843,
0.4755907952785492,
-0.309663325548172,
0.3580625653266907,
0.4723639190196991,
-0.7315129637718201,
-0.5138968229293823,
-0.5520790219306946,
0.021754436194896698,
-0.029045667499303818,
-0.1939021795988083,
-0.19726744294166565,
0.9970006942749023,
0.5039135217666626,
-0.23179025948047638,
-0.005424194969236851,
0.33950117230415344,
-0.1471683830022812,
-0.46271368861198425,
-0.3435262143611908,
-0.3621166944503784,
-0.0469539500772953,
-0.3973020017147064,
0.08657754957675934,
-0.3310241103172302,
-0.6972414255142212,
-0.05208846926689148,
0.18712131679058075,
-0.25411680340766907,
0.2507554590702057,
0.10488967597484589,
-0.06800155341625214,
-0.08242075145244598,
0.45357275009155273,
-0.06630387902259827,
-0.15963755548000336,
0.699247419834137,
0.6042984127998352,
-0.30734196305274963,
-0.49176403880119324,
0.3392193019390106,
-0.28079068660736084,
-0.4054032564163208,
-0.284980446100235,
-0.5248834490776062,
0.40936872363090515,
-0.29032373428344727,
-0.9018375873565674,
0.9254963994026184,
0.1665288656949997,
-0.24735236167907715,
-0.2019103467464447,
0.12123388051986694,
-0.04803396016359329,
0.6002964377403259,
0.09089808166027069,
-0.37701645493507385,
0.3718573749065399,
-0.3280071020126343,
0.01801450178027153,
0.29787740111351013,
0.6750084757804871,
0.27652236819267273,
-0.3844679594039917,
-0.3901095390319824,
0.2131495624780655,
0.07791084051132202,
-0.40227988362312317,
0.027522394433617592,
0.5245481133460999,
0.10786048322916031,
-0.34790104627609253,
-0.612608015537262,
-0.2675226032733917,
0.5486268997192383,
0.18933865427970886,
-0.43688857555389404,
0.6037225723266602,
0.09342708438634872,
0.12760475277900696,
-0.010576789267361164,
0.5868722200393677,
0.17869119346141815,
0.2873382866382599,
0.16840651631355286,
0.7175711393356323,
0.24429284036159515,
0.08277586102485657,
0.3764093518257141,
-0.363136351108551,
-0.6424105763435364,
0.21085847914218903,
-0.287928968667984,
0.29717016220092773,
0.06400159001350403,
-0.16638484597206116,
-0.045141853392124176,
-0.43731722235679626,
0.08123666793107986,
-0.23389554023742676,
1.2944625616073608,
0.11768370121717453,
0.4221149682998657,
-0.03613638877868652,
0.12090369313955307,
-0.348469614982605,
-0.5204620361328125,
-0.3420961797237396,
0.017927182838320732,
-0.15958775579929352,
-0.08969847112894058,
-0.2661140263080597,
0.05825377255678177,
0.25886011123657227,
-0.23320306837558746,
0.6184700131416321,
-0.46461981534957886,
-0.2630808651447296,
-0.5909165740013123,
-0.1351437270641327,
-0.5755931735038757,
0.5821097493171692,
0.5100123286247253,
-0.26736077666282654,
0.4839588403701782,
0.16175182163715363,
0.12567417323589325,
-0.3239205479621887,
0.17379432916641235,
-0.47878965735435486,
0.7108893394470215,
-0.4788101315498352,
0.1428815871477127,
0.33496567606925964,
-0.4435567557811737,
-0.025371579453349113,
0.24038183689117432,
-0.5930890440940857,
0.039210863411426544,
-0.01684245653450489,
-0.2939150035381317,
-0.17295792698860168,
0.6797310709953308,
0.10621197521686554,
-0.3512475788593292,
0.3114912211894989,
-0.14589986205101013,
-0.28928470611572266,
0.09698408842086792,
-0.1681956648826599,
0.06393962353467941,
-0.35112860798835754,
-0.6266705393791199,
0.42901599407196045,
-0.10396620631217957,
0.16913928091526031,
0.39718949794769287,
-0.6591627597808838,
-0.33046895265579224,
0.22915180027484894,
0.3163872957229614,
0.6568282246589661,
0.04815714433789253,
0.39186978340148926,
0.8147309422492981,
0.1372675597667694,
0.05414607748389244,
0.7378292679786682,
0.21232978999614716,
-0.0519077405333519,
0.7667434215545654,
0.31982141733169556,
0.011726731434464455,
-0.007460989989340305,
-0.037317655980587006,
-0.020297031849622726,
0.7678579092025757,
-0.47856661677360535,
0.17098869383335114,
-2.6422159671783447,
-0.175908163189888,
-0.2814273238182068,
0.5058144927024841,
-0.28484275937080383,
0.3301545977592468,
0.05291606858372688,
-0.007468738593161106,
-0.5061587691307068,
0.1626361459493637,
0.6428662538528442,
0.36728164553642273,
0.0596124492585659,
0.5455699563026428,
0.13489821553230286,
0.15521495044231415,
0.03869877755641937,
0.0927320271730423,
-0.178266704082489,
0.04659879952669144,
0.20850734412670135,
0.11127885431051254,
0.11706636846065521,
-0.32106879353523254,
0.15607595443725586,
0.19293825328350067,
-0.24383445084095,
0.14931431412696838,
0.021573234349489212,
-0.04726031795144081,
-0.572774350643158,
0.3926292061805725,
-0.5074206590652466,
-0.019755205139517784,
0.20821689069271088,
-0.8478750586509705,
0.3667107820510864,
-0.7303867340087891,
0.27502766251564026,
0.21616461873054504,
-0.06274796277284622,
-0.0775780975818634,
0.2921282947063446,
-0.08323682844638824,
0.406688392162323,
-0.16121380031108856,
0.12813927233219147,
-0.18762649595737457,
0.059584032744169235,
-0.5934056043624878,
0.6087241172790527,
0.3921753466129303,
0.6949660181999207,
-0.25336289405822754,
0.5923140048980713,
0.04446803405880928,
-0.06014774367213249,
0.17680339515209198,
-0.5480079054832458,
-0.18860168755054474,
-0.13138850033283234,
0.3064011037349701,
0.10115797072649002,
-0.11686813086271286,
-0.3344188630580902,
0.04898495972156525,
-0.17965811491012573,
0.08886294066905975,
0.10718631744384766,
0.4548679292201996,
0.30705639719963074,
-0.37750542163848877,
-0.06543099880218506,
-0.19548197090625763,
0.14712245762348175,
0.12604576349258423,
0.22794193029403687,
0.422141969203949,
0.7738090753555298,
0.3575606644153595,
-0.05253977328538895,
-0.19161176681518555,
-0.11650332063436508,
0.1191139817237854,
-0.10068412870168686,
-6.020587921142578,
-0.46914544701576233,
-0.021544810384511948,
-0.3552827537059784,
0.2407088279724121,
0.5167679190635681,
0.13263507187366486,
-0.03936110809445381,
0.07731788605451584,
0.15437395870685577,
0.6082897782325745,
-0.0219295434653759,
-0.2285773903131485,
-0.14118929207324982,
0.19586819410324097,
0.3354780673980713
] |
233738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton%20%28ship%29 | Triton (ship) | Many vessels have been named Triton or Tryton, after Triton, the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, and the personification of the roaring waters:
, a Danish Navy frigate
, several Royal Navy vessels
British T-class submarine, also known as the Triton class, diesel-electric submarines
, several U.S. Coast Guard vessels
, several U.S. Navy vessels
, a trimaran vessel used by the Australians Custom Service, and formerly by the Royal Navy
, a cruise ship named Triton from 1991 to 2004
, a vessel that operated on Lake Washington in the first part of the 20th century
, a sloop manufactured in Sydney, Australia, throughout the 1980s
, an American 1958 sailboat design
; four vessels bearing the name Triton have sailed for the British East India Company.
was launched at Calcutta and sold shortly thereafter to Spanish owners. She was sailing from Bengal to Cadiz when an American-built and outfitted privateer with a letter of marque from the patriotic forces in Buenos Aires captured her in January 1817. | [
0.25074538588523865,
-0.4407159984111786,
-0.45201966166496277,
0.3647448718547821,
-0.24374240636825562,
0.7286089658737183,
0.31887152791023254,
-0.037847284227609634,
-0.7051243185997009,
0.08298052847385406,
0.09638092666864395,
0.05089890584349632,
-0.10060097277164459,
0.7104732394218445,
0.0545700266957283,
0.42434534430503845,
0.21373812854290009,
0.8196910619735718,
-0.40418896079063416,
-0.17835146188735962,
-0.43829548358917236,
-0.18332870304584503,
0.6715325117111206,
-0.4391261339187622,
0.49409791827201843,
-0.047838322818279266,
0.03282633051276207,
0.36005252599716187,
0.3216443657875061,
0.16353487968444824,
0.3858974277973175,
0.46351367235183716,
-0.5209309458732605,
0.006117211654782295,
0.23358149826526642,
0.012770989909768105,
-0.36756494641304016,
-0.4601594805717468,
-0.47805309295654297,
-0.7044596672058105,
0.06707420945167542,
-0.31620654463768005,
-0.03070865198969841,
0.1974031925201416,
-0.5282874703407288,
0.14977270364761353,
-1.0027045011520386,
0.1379847228527069,
0.12197529524564743,
0.29400455951690674,
-0.40782925486564636,
-0.032210323959589005,
0.036893196403980255,
0.4959568977355957,
-0.08959107846021652,
0.6508073210716248,
-0.6436266303062439,
0.39476609230041504,
0.07461964339017868,
-0.8265283703804016,
0.3809143006801605,
0.7560278177261353,
0.11150678247213364,
0.4884125590324402,
0.48983922600746155,
0.3127010762691498,
-0.10993064194917679,
0.41754448413848877,
-0.37286531925201416,
-0.5722543597221375,
-0.25584256649017334,
-0.07744637131690979,
-0.30179595947265625,
0.36632028222084045,
-0.3800491690635681,
-0.059300560504198074,
-0.21559850871562958,
-0.4957716763019562,
0.46136897802352905,
0.3383771479129791,
0.37795382738113403,
0.08217670023441315,
0.8503275513648987,
0.23239633440971375,
-0.07155009359121323,
0.025463685393333435,
-0.059729140251874924,
0.07059802114963531,
-0.3826988637447357,
-0.0031976825557649136,
-0.1321917325258255,
-0.8213884830474854,
0.7761848568916321,
0.4153345823287964,
-0.2999202609062195,
0.26030057668685913,
-0.4377821981906891,
0.11608326435089111,
0.27277448773384094,
0.22334261238574982,
0.04962828755378723,
-0.03882284089922905,
-0.020229652523994446,
0.009086236357688904,
-0.09665510803461075,
-0.4276975393295288,
0.08959420770406723,
-0.6124032139778137,
-0.12395575642585754,
0.14457745850086212,
-0.1960921734571457,
-0.012775858864188194,
0.24198223650455475,
0.039115287363529205,
-0.42027172446250916,
-0.35132670402526855,
0.2673991620540619,
-0.18524019420146942,
-0.36553025245666504,
-0.4208087623119354,
0.46048033237457275,
0.16526803374290466,
0.24723273515701294,
-0.10566575825214386,
0.36050498485565186,
0.44866225123405457,
0.5527124404907227,
0.7093341946601868,
-0.6831005811691284,
-0.5696195960044861,
0.1839643120765686,
0.7774863243103027,
-0.4866327941417694,
-0.114588163793087,
-0.5368987917900085,
-0.12726382911205292,
-0.3953397274017334,
0.26419299840927124,
0.4521214962005615,
0.8049637079238892,
-0.7999022603034973,
-0.20169009268283844,
-0.1501496583223343,
-0.6145217418670654,
0.38654187321662903,
-0.5914633870124817,
-0.07911361753940582,
0.14387205243110657,
0.07376151531934738,
0.19290286302566528,
0.002107732929289341,
0.2560012936592102,
0.23547175526618958,
0.14421609044075012,
-0.5658037066459656,
-0.1603148877620697,
-0.19372151792049408,
-0.3432396352291107,
0.4177149534225464,
0.17944638431072235,
-0.5548866391181946,
0.13084298372268677,
-0.5476295351982117,
0.2690368890762329,
0.02121618390083313,
-0.20046435296535492,
0.30191388726234436,
0.057668182998895645,
-0.02538573555648327,
-0.6242305636405945,
-0.17362816631793976,
0.09571907669305801,
0.6174520254135132,
0.6176382899284363,
-0.23785442113876343,
-0.01813623309135437,
0.4911082088947296,
-0.00819898396730423,
0.27997738122940063,
-0.9947031736373901,
-0.38078567385673523,
0.17757605016231537,
0.19856129586696625,
-0.47805580496788025,
0.3177441656589508,
0.030376501381397247,
0.28254055976867676,
0.21237026154994965,
0.13757041096687317,
0.04165387526154518,
0.0028940639458596706,
-0.33769020438194275,
0.12826627492904663,
-0.04217801243066788,
1.6321837902069092,
-0.32706815004348755,
-0.8212965130805969,
0.3297189176082611,
-0.29916349053382874,
0.2096460461616516,
-0.1856687366962433,
-0.030387474223971367,
0.058940328657627106,
-0.2651912271976471,
-0.7512487173080444,
-0.07129717618227005,
0.2087184637784958,
-0.1484593152999878,
0.3226054608821869,
0.013967705890536308,
-0.16087253391742706,
-0.6181685328483582,
0.41744592785835266,
-0.49208709597587585,
-0.1271643042564392,
-0.32230329513549805,
-0.18168076872825623,
0.11454613506793976,
0.18275928497314453,
-0.010349861346185207,
0.6919183135032654,
-0.13562770187854767,
-0.43320634961128235,
0.020621201023459435,
0.07400000840425491,
0.0874897688627243,
-0.05393262580037117,
0.10113880783319473,
-0.12463954091072083,
-0.25216376781463623,
0.020643383264541626,
0.19179044663906097,
-0.04605262354016304,
-0.14707772433757782,
-0.006428612861782312,
-0.10917291045188904,
0.21006128191947937,
-0.09524774551391602,
0.6103735566139221,
-0.14035305380821228,
0.15691903233528137,
0.7066831588745117,
-0.7048928141593933,
0.6219878792762756,
1.0365395545959473,
0.11968035995960236,
-0.1649550348520279,
-0.13760973513126373,
-0.10598541796207428,
-0.9033297896385193,
-0.16539813578128815,
0.016580460593104362,
0.06957899034023285,
-0.7706289291381836,
-0.055480629205703735,
-0.37740007042884827,
0.3927517831325531,
0.14700253307819366,
0.1500273197889328,
0.2863665223121643,
-0.6774349808692932,
-0.21531806886196136,
-0.3733862042427063,
-0.28984999656677246,
0.03269196301698685,
-0.299551397562027,
-0.3168891668319702,
-0.7919257283210754,
0.9509370923042297,
0.057678867131471634,
0.055622782558202744,
0.47350865602493286,
0.06689921021461487,
-0.13996629416942596,
-0.18792681396007538,
-0.398104727268219,
-0.020256316289305687,
-0.007921782322227955,
-0.14512282609939575,
-0.37135422229766846,
0.17494355142116547,
0.5780735611915588,
0.1274438053369522,
-0.4579472839832306,
-0.09872563928365707,
0.03186388313770294,
0.09773480147123337,
-0.3443465232849121,
0.2530231177806854,
-0.21240930259227753,
-0.04121547192335129,
-0.6176815629005432,
-0.27564796805381775,
0.0049783759750425816,
-0.12569594383239746,
-0.0008020602399483323,
0.10594463348388672,
-0.24907375872135162,
0.1703009456396103,
0.09986066073179245,
-0.8876124620437622,
0.10414489358663559,
-0.6367091536521912,
0.4913508892059326,
0.4117058217525482,
-0.3832130432128906,
-0.039184752851724625,
0.6197152137756348,
-5.710826396942139,
-0.5916606783866882,
-0.49704086780548096,
0.2672046422958374,
0.08737082779407501,
0.260540246963501,
0.34373411536216736,
0.03394170477986336,
0.4657168388366699,
0.3389335870742798,
0.3256331980228424,
0.7288603186607361,
-0.023097215220332146,
0.58930504322052,
0.5002447366714478,
0.3462516963481903,
0.6213468313217163,
0.44480910897254944,
0.23663221299648285,
-0.4459722638130188,
0.3778294622898102,
0.3189440071582794,
-0.2512800693511963,
0.827824056148529,
0.3792974054813385,
-0.2075052261352539,
-0.13598641753196716,
0.034567274153232574,
-0.7308527827262878,
-0.43408820033073425,
-0.24115733802318573,
-0.25298818945884705,
-0.18230777978897095,
-0.2238505780696869,
0.03273556008934975,
-0.24833117425441742,
0.28948917984962463,
0.0923265665769577,
0.20372699201107025,
-0.7418324947357178,
-0.6334676742553711,
0.0898381844162941,
0.21983325481414795,
-0.667833685874939,
0.15238265693187714,
-0.20580987632274628,
-0.08165685832500458,
-0.09981774538755417,
-0.0397476963698864,
1.1180258989334106,
-0.017510157078504562,
-0.09212078154087067,
0.6180217266082764,
0.2108507603406906,
0.5256988406181335,
-0.3948668837547302,
-0.033545419573783875,
0.14390933513641357,
-0.17969004809856415,
0.18999236822128296,
0.6618337035179138,
0.14974462985992432,
-0.35512587428092957,
-0.5577791929244995,
-0.2857913672924042,
-0.1687481701374054,
-0.1810828000307083,
-0.4376700818538666,
-0.03410561382770538,
0.11642899364233017,
-0.6105192303657532,
0.7922378182411194,
-0.14535556733608246,
-0.49312400817871094,
0.17636902630329132,
-0.26669076085090637,
-0.22721251845359802,
0.3670792579650879,
-0.36973848938941956,
0.25335007905960083,
-0.8389963507652283,
-0.2960224151611328,
-0.727531373500824,
0.7711732983589172,
0.2201755940914154,
-0.5655222535133362,
-0.25738412141799927,
-0.3865388333797455,
0.027768004685640335,
-0.0003901949676219374,
0.8397502899169922,
-0.38292860984802246,
0.206187441945076,
0.2598876357078552,
0.023135604336857796,
0.5816382765769958,
-0.8403778672218323,
0.23041832447052002,
0.8831179141998291,
-0.4289388358592987,
0.438085675239563,
0.05043872445821762,
0.676744282245636,
0.09159724414348602,
0.11526979506015778,
-0.39911702275276184,
0.0019070730777457356,
-0.3619399070739746,
0.6593804955482483,
-0.03317287191748619,
0.10627733916044235,
-0.3482430577278137,
-0.3048052489757538,
-0.17877979576587677,
-0.280789852142334,
0.45663556456565857,
0.19463670253753662,
1.0927751064300537,
0.9081591963768005,
0.3378135859966278,
-0.38813653588294983,
0.8488950729370117,
-0.2978275418281555,
-0.6804285049438477,
-0.10439307987689972,
-0.5146121978759766,
0.060933854430913925,
-0.1219458132982254,
-0.07873278856277466,
0.3941599130630493,
0.17276853322982788,
0.04293219745159149,
0.5343099236488342,
-0.3556826412677765,
0.39647796750068665,
-0.3239823877811432,
0.0843057706952095,
-0.5604435205459595,
0.008020523004233837,
0.1696299910545349,
-0.4625605046749115,
-0.16237550973892212,
-0.296137273311615,
0.3192369043827057,
0.767494261264801,
0.4625776410102844,
0.1140977144241333,
0.05060499906539917,
-0.07888824492692947,
0.6034423112869263,
-0.32912391424179077,
-0.2231336086988449,
0.5877200365066528,
-0.6304688453674316,
0.18563546240329742,
-0.1799839287996292,
0.5133437514305115,
0.4820922017097473,
-0.5506923794746399,
0.4183732271194458,
-0.13056600093841553,
-0.552104115486145,
-0.6022419929504395,
-0.33788740634918213,
0.6548998951911926,
0.13349035382270813,
-0.9501781463623047,
-0.601061999797821,
0.42459210753440857,
0.46782612800598145,
-0.22797609865665436,
-0.215627521276474,
-0.9104218482971191,
0.29593425989151,
0.16311439871788025,
0.15675809979438782,
-0.37457120418548584,
0.2897297143936157,
-0.16618551313877106,
0.11149460822343826,
-0.08378419280052185,
0.3013664782047272,
0.04590711370110512,
0.22922857105731964,
0.5004177689552307,
0.16911299526691437,
-0.5666661262512207,
0.029157835990190506,
-0.34087827801704407,
0.19393840432167053,
0.05232693627476692,
0.2597023546695709,
-0.028837036341428757,
0.3295614719390869,
-0.4771198332309723,
0.44648540019989014,
-0.022921234369277954,
0.7618969082832336,
0.6609106063842773,
-0.2834026515483856,
0.24622246623039246,
0.19371852278709412,
-1.0773156881332397,
-0.091215118765831,
-0.10190759599208832,
-0.6355058550834656,
0.47252464294433594,
0.2757900357246399,
0.3096869885921478,
0.42453813552856445,
-0.4406069815158844,
-0.8201251029968262,
0.44469109177589417,
0.6928779482841492,
-0.5248415470123291,
-0.08437340706586838,
0.20621681213378906,
-0.7353807091712952,
-0.3664867877960205,
-0.9254130125045776,
-0.5723570585250854,
-0.22091935575008392,
0.0621565543115139,
-0.2668430805206299,
-0.3659279942512512,
0.08740997314453125,
0.4260970950126648,
-0.2923355996608734,
-0.07167509198188782,
-0.5088138580322266,
0.5556913018226624,
-0.18344563245773315,
-0.719292402267456,
0.09871009737253189,
0.5149483680725098,
-0.11102496832609177,
0.03940289467573166,
-0.053374677896499634,
0.2302938997745514,
0.2630904018878937,
0.3501838445663452,
0.47287118434906006,
0.30830565094947815,
-0.32897767424583435,
-0.22260276973247528,
0.06435714662075043,
0.7549956440925598,
-0.334739625453949,
-0.7694902420043945,
-0.04806898534297943,
0.11042170226573944,
-0.6356955766677856,
-0.8057364225387573,
-0.9862074851989746,
1.042188048362732,
-0.5399326682090759,
0.19471633434295654,
-0.15026095509529114,
0.2806940972805023,
0.2886869013309479,
-0.05620725080370903,
0.12589587271213531,
-1.0559231042861938,
-0.11836650222539902,
0.251182496547699,
0.42312195897102356,
-0.8453877568244934,
-0.06976231187582016,
0.13599099218845367,
-0.23766715824604034,
-0.3819504678249359,
0.47223031520843506,
0.6797881722450256,
0.4393375515937805,
-0.18634378910064697,
0.20142261683940887,
-0.23755387961864471,
-0.06278412789106369,
0.7218149900436401,
0.21254916489124298,
-0.4336308538913727,
0.7988342642784119,
-0.07730300724506378,
-0.10771045088768005,
0.05445846915245056,
-0.25157514214515686,
-0.2819308042526245,
-0.2782711982727051,
0.2850729823112488,
0.12131427228450775,
0.19563739001750946,
-0.14192913472652435,
0.0018972798716276884,
0.1751609891653061,
-0.11472324281930923,
0.4089393615722656,
0.2352367490530014,
-0.0394313670694828,
-0.3087970018386841,
0.5675674676895142,
-0.8013654351234436,
0.4730560779571533,
-0.0945311188697815,
-0.48613086342811584,
-0.24205653369426727,
0.4454312324523926,
0.3420841097831726,
0.08226553350687027,
0.11010225117206573,
0.430727481842041,
0.4444679319858551,
-0.19535097479820251,
-0.0578860342502594,
0.6285826563835144,
0.01103551872074604,
-0.127069354057312,
0.9998638033866882,
-0.39143887162208557,
-0.22244873642921448,
0.28580722212791443,
0.2299872487783432,
0.11100578308105469,
-0.17302529513835907,
0.030277037993073463,
-0.20164582133293152,
0.5382991433143616,
-0.5545185208320618,
-0.340505450963974,
0.0649653747677803,
1.030619740486145,
0.2238692194223404,
-0.3357551097869873,
-0.6364434957504272,
0.19452068209648132,
-0.08814894407987595,
-0.20374168455600739,
0.5495685338973999,
-0.021181641146540642,
-0.4398522973060608,
0.768368661403656,
0.6641918420791626,
-0.22964882850646973,
-0.5876002311706543,
-0.19067534804344177,
0.21209782361984253,
1.0712846517562866,
-0.21537922322750092,
-0.2083231508731842,
0.09993935376405716,
0.21103541553020477,
0.2716166079044342,
0.14609937369823456,
0.05067861080169678,
-0.8065900206565857,
-0.05429220199584961,
-0.03810380771756172,
-0.13057591021060944,
-0.2644248902797699,
0.4988270699977875,
-0.29753610491752625,
0.2274399697780609,
-0.09361424297094345,
0.0016951566794887185,
-0.22656391561031342,
-0.5521957874298096,
0.08915580064058304,
0.29528456926345825,
-0.0694785937666893,
0.08596985787153244,
-0.24570544064044952,
0.27802273631095886,
0.3861149549484253,
-0.5906883478164673,
0.019640708342194557,
-0.1564667671918869,
-0.3285004794597626,
0.7302669882774353,
0.24844950437545776,
0.06793760508298874,
-0.0026029993314296007,
-0.5963916182518005,
0.013549176044762135,
-0.4226810038089752,
-0.42292866110801697,
-0.028190020471811295,
0.04044884070754051,
0.39139458537101746,
-0.07931412756443024,
-0.40718141198158264,
0.3903062343597412,
0.607452929019928,
-0.0031434716656804085,
-0.27989357709884644,
0.16171397268772125,
-0.7186739444732666,
-0.5515691041946411,
-0.19103968143463135,
0.694504976272583,
-0.4067324697971344,
-0.15136079490184784,
0.18363304436206818,
0.4102342128753662,
0.1315869688987732,
0.5770474076271057,
-0.13354992866516113,
-0.7061339616775513,
-0.647995114326477,
0.17454634606838226,
-0.28486835956573486,
-0.5454481244087219,
0.8474241495132446,
-0.13025887310504913,
-0.08664601296186447,
-0.01991661638021469,
-0.07046777009963989,
-0.09874027222394943,
0.48930802941322327,
-0.5412848591804504,
-0.06124984100461006,
-0.012348436750471592,
0.04323101043701172,
-0.0848836824297905,
-0.1282147914171219,
0.2904268205165863,
-0.6420215368270874,
-0.37895262241363525,
0.32206910848617554,
-0.5835480093955994,
-0.6613327860832214,
0.38661080598831177,
-0.1479516178369522,
-0.10011127591133118,
-0.7755138278007507,
0.4049196243286133,
-0.06169331073760986,
-0.38153213262557983,
0.05755724385380745,
0.21777866780757904,
0.35667550563812256,
-0.021157121285796165,
-0.05914527177810669,
0.22170135378837585,
0.6164480447769165,
0.2815084755420685,
0.1306985467672348,
0.5885171294212341,
-0.31975388526916504,
0.13024744391441345,
-0.4259570837020874,
0.21884675323963165,
0.5680546164512634,
-0.17086656391620636,
0.029550524428486824,
0.2125570923089981,
0.5138344764709473,
-0.6308863759040833,
0.36140307784080505,
-0.6023233532905579,
0.15598814189434052,
-0.17524585127830505
] |
233740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20shield | Heat shield | A heat shield is designed to protect an object from overheating by dissipating, reflecting, absorbing heat, or simply gradually burn and fall away from the aircraft, pulling the excess heat with it. The term is most often used in reference to exhaust heat management and to systems for dissipation of heat due to friction.
Principles of operation
Heat shields protect structures from extreme temperatures and thermal gradients by two primary mechanisms. Thermal insulation and radiative cooling, which respectively isolate the underlying structure from high external surface temperatures, while emitting heat outwards through thermal radiation. To achieve good functionality the three attributes required of a heat shield are low thermal conductivity (high thermal resistance), high emissivity and good thermal stability (refractoriness). Porous ceramics with high emissivity coatings (HECs) are often employed to address these three characteristics, owing to the good thermal stability of ceramics, the thermal insulation of porous materials and the good radiative cooling effects offered by HECs.
Uses
Automotive
Due to the large amounts of heat given off by internal combustion engines, heat shields are used on most engines to protect components and bodywork from heat damage. As well as protection, effective heat shields can give a performance benefit by reducing the under-bonnet temperatures, therefore reducing the intake temperature. Heat shields vary widely in price, but most are easy to fit, usually by stainless steel clips or high temperature tape. There are two main types of automotive heat shield:
The rigid heat shield has, until recently, been made from solid steel, but is now often made from aluminum. Some high-end rigid heat shields are made out of aluminum sheet or other composites, with a ceramic thermal barrier coating to improve the heat insulation.
The flexible heat shield is normally made from thin aluminum sheeting, sold either flat or in a roll, and is bent by hand, by the fitter. High performance flexible heat shields sometimes include extras, such as ceramic insulation applied via plasma spraying. These latest products are commonplace in top-end motorsports such as Formula 1.
Textile heat shields used for various components such as the exhaust, turbo, DPF, or other exhaust component.
As a result, a heat shield is often fitted by both amateur and professional personnel during a phase of engine tuning.
Heat shields are also used to cool engine mount vents. When a vehicle is at higher speed there is enough ram air to cool the under hood engine compartment, but when the vehicle is moving at lower speeds or climbing a gradient there is a need of insulating the engine heat to get transferred to other parts around it, e.g. Engine Mounts. With the help of proper thermal analysis and use of heat shields, the engine mount vents can be optimised for the best performances.
Aircraft
Some aircraft at high speed, such as the Concorde and SR-71 Blackbird, must be designed considering similar, but lower, overheating to what occurs in spacecraft. In the case of the Concorde the aluminum nose can reach a maximum operating temperature of 127 °C (which is 180 °C higher than the ambient air outside which is below zero); the metallurgical consequences associated with the peak temperature were a significant factor in determining the maximum aircraft speed.
Recently new materials have been developed that could be superior to RCC. The prototype SHARP (Slender Hypervelocity Aerothermodynamic Research Probe) is based on ultra-high-temperature ceramics such as zirconium diboride (ZrB2) and hafnium diboride (HfB2). The thermal protection system based on these materials would allow to reach a speed of Mach number 7 at sea level, Mach 11 at 35000 meters and significant improvements for vehicles designed for hypersonic speed. The materials used have thermal protection characteristics in a temperature range from 0 °C to + 2000 °C, with melting point at over 3500 °C. They are also structurally more resistant than RCC, so they do not require additional reinforcements, and are very efficient in re-irradiating the absorbed heat. NASA funded (and subsequently discontinued) a research and development program in 2001 for testing this protection system through the University of Montana.
The European Commission funded a research project, C3HARME, under the NMP-19-2015 call of Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development in 2016 (still ongoing) for the design, development, production and testing of a new class of ultra-refractory ceramic matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide fibers and carbon fibers suitable for applications in severe aerospace environments.
Spacecraft
Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:
An ablative heat shield consists of a layer of plastic resin, the outer surface of which is heated to a gas, which then carries the heat away by convection. Such shields were used on the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft, and are currently used by the SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft, and will be used on the Orion spacecraft.
A thermal soak heat shield uses an insulating material to absorb and radiate the heat away from the spacecraft structure. This type was used on the Space Shuttle, consisting of ceramic or composite tiles over most of the vehicle surface, with reinforced carbon-carbon material on the highest heat load points (the nose and wing leading edges). Damage to this material on a wing caused the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
With possible inflatable heat shields, as developed by the US (Low Earth Orbit Flight Test Inflatable Decelerator - LOFTID) and China, single-use rockets like the Space Launch System are considered to be retrofitted with such heat shields to salvage the expensive engines, possibly reducing the costs of launches significantly.
Passive cooling
Passive cooled protectors are used to protect spaceships during atmospheric entry to absorb heat peaks and subsequently irradiate stored heat to the atmosphere. Early versions included a substantial amount of metals such as titanium, beryllium and copper. This greatly increased the mass of the vehicle. Heat absorption and ablative systems became preferable.
In modern vehicles, however, they can be found, but instead of metal, reinforced carbon–carbon material is used. This material constitutes the thermal protection system of the nose and the front edges of the Space Shuttle and was proposed for the vehicle X-33. Carbon is the most refractory material known with a sublimation temperature (for graphite) of 3825 °C. These characteristics make it a material particularly suitable for passive cooling, but with the disadvantage of being very expensive and fragile.
Some spacecraft also use a heat shield (in the conventional automotive sense) to protect fuel tanks and equipment from the heat produced by a large rocket engine. Such shields were used on the Apollo Service Module and Lunar Module descent stage.
Industry
Heat shields are often affixed to semi-automatic or automatic rifles and shotguns as barrel shrouds in order to protect the user's hands from the heat caused by firing shots in rapid succession. They have also often been affixed to pump-action combat shotguns, allowing the soldier to grasp the barrel while using a bayonet.
See also
Aeroshell
Atmospheric reentry
AVCOAT
Intumescent
Starlite
Sunshield (JWST)
References
Spacecraft components
Atmospheric entry
Auto parts | [
0.47519707679748535,
0.41736310720443726,
0.2564001679420471,
0.25477248430252075,
-0.08262582123279572,
-0.646499752998352,
0.06338372081518173,
-0.44100096821784973,
-0.002344889333471656,
-0.7888757586479187,
-0.5940922498703003,
0.4474322497844696,
0.016110030934214592,
0.05643497779965401,
-0.5776346325874329,
0.2537183463573456,
0.5144214630126953,
0.6303601861000061,
-0.26624733209609985,
0.07065357267856598,
-0.44618985056877136,
-0.14313368499279022,
0.3267034590244293,
-0.11726647615432739,
0.3479768633842468,
-0.2762261927127838,
0.019141653552651405,
0.1029815748333931,
0.2535390555858612,
0.46374160051345825,
0.4439874291419983,
0.5103676915168762,
-0.43962764739990234,
-0.14957574009895325,
0.4552029073238373,
0.13753333687782288,
0.06469377130270004,
0.0732552707195282,
-0.5009679794311523,
-0.6135892271995544,
-0.33174657821655273,
0.09568356722593307,
0.18346604704856873,
0.45527902245521545,
-0.5087094306945801,
-0.4212118685245514,
-0.9002419114112854,
0.38131847977638245,
-0.20967881381511688,
-0.09596309065818787,
-0.006875036749988794,
-0.11196683347225189,
0.11322002112865448,
0.4713747501373291,
0.14828741550445557,
0.4949309229850769,
-0.5278719067573547,
0.02672877162694931,
0.13484728336334229,
-0.6469669342041016,
0.5349153280258179,
-0.15373244881629944,
-0.5567196607589722,
0.1399209201335907,
0.31023499369621277,
-0.05611710622906685,
0.06020386889576912,
0.23218803107738495,
0.1215430274605751,
-0.4312317371368408,
-0.46453657746315,
-0.2716594934463501,
0.046479351818561554,
0.14963220059871674,
-0.043329209089279175,
0.29879337549209595,
0.24117541313171387,
-1.0698788166046143,
-0.499702513217926,
0.05862877890467644,
0.08871746808290482,
0.45473799109458923,
-0.2735058069229126,
0.18452830612659454,
0.33935028314590454,
-0.161763995885849,
-0.6016289591789246,
0.8767743110656738,
-0.4617486000061035,
0.34976136684417725,
0.6015552282333374,
-0.17076097428798676,
0.4979850947856903,
0.23194023966789246,
0.06284963339567184,
-0.2065843790769577,
0.11020327359437943,
0.017010504379868507,
0.5610602498054504,
0.01826310157775879,
-0.11603109538555145,
-0.3812605142593384,
-0.13677537441253662,
-0.33301857113838196,
-0.45807433128356934,
-0.2208990752696991,
-0.3637753129005432,
-0.009691838175058365,
-0.33030152320861816,
0.08616296201944351,
-0.236564040184021,
-0.008580156601965427,
-0.3713245391845703,
0.21242015063762665,
-0.40175050497055054,
0.17908965051174164,
0.21058784425258636,
0.2997729182243347,
0.2204807996749878,
0.3182736337184906,
0.6431038975715637,
1.155129075050354,
-0.19749416410923004,
-0.17959992587566376,
-0.11989402770996094,
0.2756100296974182,
0.7402496337890625,
1.029633641242981,
-0.5563536882400513,
-0.23569047451019287,
0.17522865533828735,
0.5714057087898254,
-0.7541068196296692,
0.2583511471748352,
-0.1308462917804718,
-0.09173677116632462,
0.2508227229118347,
0.052291277796030045,
0.8829978704452515,
0.5367352366447449,
-0.6366528868675232,
-0.6142541766166687,
-0.43376559019088745,
0.07679335027933121,
-0.008139804005622864,
-0.37591424584388733,
-0.020372234284877777,
-0.4746163785457611,
-0.5964941382408142,
0.19753257930278778,
0.11439944058656693,
0.22558827698230743,
-0.3795148730278015,
0.8001706004142761,
-0.6526705026626587,
-0.14893116056919098,
0.48242565989494324,
-0.2520444691181183,
-0.14505578577518463,
-0.17604665458202362,
0.4355803430080414,
-0.17475487291812897,
-0.6287417411804199,
0.3088403344154358,
0.5131440758705139,
0.15914887189865112,
-0.12211697548627853,
0.5018142461776733,
0.5028936266899109,
-0.18289026618003845,
-0.3611184358596802,
0.16552041471004486,
-0.10223764926195145,
0.19238245487213135,
0.5010436773300171,
0.4141921401023865,
0.5935999751091003,
0.2014065980911255,
0.7253894805908203,
0.2164957970380783,
-0.8786739706993103,
-0.21848903596401215,
0.1923561990261078,
0.2154036909341812,
0.15814124047756195,
0.2321205586194992,
0.33312174677848816,
-0.3831956386566162,
-0.20907242596149445,
-0.2920117676258087,
-0.6849765777587891,
-0.35702458024024963,
0.1567355990409851,
-0.7781658172607422,
1.0390422344207764,
-0.2970585823059082,
0.2193906158208847,
0.8115266561508179,
-0.1916320025920868,
0.6002799868583679,
0.11282260715961456,
0.19518765807151794,
0.30270978808403015,
-0.2915376126766205,
-0.5198723077774048,
0.2195904403924942,
0.30254021286964417,
0.3585975170135498,
0.007412739098072052,
-0.3982093930244446,
0.893109142780304,
-0.07114402949810028,
0.6289501786231995,
-0.11756952852010727,
-0.18107977509498596,
0.17638063430786133,
-0.9177786111831665,
0.6207934021949768,
0.08154581487178802,
-0.48045122623443604,
0.4045606553554535,
0.08825697004795074,
-0.2293478399515152,
0.27465662360191345,
-0.287598580121994,
0.5178923606872559,
0.12653419375419617,
-0.3342956304550171,
0.5467260479927063,
-0.6823707818984985,
-0.07636095583438873,
-0.6347215175628662,
-0.30834102630615234,
-0.298883318901062,
-0.5130932927131653,
0.13846246898174286,
0.49568799138069153,
-0.08540220558643341,
0.4263879954814911,
-0.19328434765338898,
-0.4822944700717926,
0.2929040193557739,
-0.3795837461948395,
0.47067058086395264,
0.0896449089050293,
-0.1331327110528946,
0.43947941064834595,
0.1696721315383911,
0.01704726554453373,
-0.12715746462345123,
0.15308277308940887,
0.3934958279132843,
0.12890763580799103,
-0.7344937920570374,
0.011441781185567379,
0.06939314305782318,
-0.6187507510185242,
-0.009052854031324387,
0.0009018616401590407,
-0.23822645843029022,
-0.2919640839099884,
-0.2165992558002472,
-0.019085733219981194,
0.1468815952539444,
-0.4601360857486725,
-0.6089568734169006,
-0.17943121492862701,
-0.35739344358444214,
-0.16156315803527832,
0.2742174565792084,
0.4881412386894226,
-0.19868917763233185,
-0.5609678626060486,
-0.25865763425827026,
-0.39356768131256104,
-0.3910662829875946,
0.2997567653656006,
0.7260327339172363,
-0.42101794481277466,
-0.21178753674030304,
0.29639047384262085,
0.935847282409668,
0.6870139837265015,
-0.5261743068695068,
-0.2095438838005066,
-0.21304264664649963,
0.6114782094955444,
-0.6195432543754578,
-1.0237218141555786,
-0.15200963616371155,
-0.049519509077072144,
0.13696487247943878,
0.005014446564018726,
0.4290213882923126,
-0.264489084482193,
0.8696600198745728,
0.09404004365205765,
0.0758129358291626,
0.7382741570472717,
-0.3500416874885559,
-0.28833264112472534,
-0.4365216791629791,
-0.43028154969215393,
-0.1908711940050125,
-0.35626599192619324,
-0.4027862846851349,
-0.38775280117988586,
-0.3043905794620514,
-5.717776775360107,
0.07427982240915298,
0.3821256458759308,
-0.34510502219200134,
-0.06385580450296402,
0.34783872961997986,
0.5257994532585144,
-0.106562040746212,
-0.1778188943862915,
0.1642884910106659,
0.2838157117366791,
0.3726522922515869,
0.703613817691803,
0.5457261800765991,
0.7958065271377563,
0.32449010014533997,
0.761035144329071,
-0.4267370104789734,
0.12622001767158508,
-0.13063248991966248,
0.24487462639808655,
0.16471490263938904,
0.021093936637043953,
0.5286442041397095,
0.4007767140865326,
-0.10882961750030518,
-0.18606364727020264,
0.30216503143310547,
-0.30678287148475647,
0.4135797321796417,
0.5947182178497314,
-0.1494394987821579,
0.09211960434913635,
0.2824392020702362,
-0.18189896643161774,
0.006357320584356785,
0.44115450978279114,
0.4064534902572632,
-0.5688678622245789,
0.059652600437402725,
0.0758364275097847,
0.7884855270385742,
-0.053920552134513855,
0.29121023416519165,
0.28752434253692627,
-0.9878613948822021,
-0.037400566041469574,
-0.3578941524028778,
0.11669789999723434,
0.6600861549377441,
-0.05223570391535759,
0.2763974070549011,
0.6702569723129272,
-0.22260640561580658,
-0.12278924882411957,
0.37659451365470886,
0.32869401574134827,
0.24027661979198456,
-0.32890966534614563,
-0.19695094227790833,
-0.5944925546646118,
-0.1323748230934143,
-0.4258277118206024,
-0.2734416127204895,
0.589204728603363,
-0.009640817530453205,
-0.44412776827812195,
-1.0226887464523315,
0.524993896484375,
0.04002925753593445,
-0.5817811489105225,
0.272098183631897,
0.194183811545372,
-1.058996558189392,
0.26712068915367126,
-0.7214800715446472,
0.4415464997291565,
-0.7216030955314636,
-0.13465915620326996,
-0.11036272346973419,
-0.42643246054649353,
0.04916969686746597,
-0.6619110107421875,
-0.4769637882709503,
-0.06467238813638687,
-0.21931560337543488,
0.4564834535121918,
-0.006277095526456833,
0.29073333740234375,
-0.045487575232982635,
1.4823048114776611,
0.4414174556732178,
0.16417889297008514,
-0.2871592044830322,
0.27470967173576355,
0.9930081963539124,
-0.12160065770149231,
-0.1281222552061081,
0.4096734821796417,
-0.2636276185512543,
0.2725121080875397,
-0.06689722836017609,
0.15298204123973846,
-0.4805656373500824,
-0.10457952320575714,
-0.24120232462882996,
0.011597078293561935,
-0.08146975934505463,
1.1285172700881958,
-0.09002194553613663,
0.1344837099313736,
0.08086428791284561,
-0.2400875985622406,
-0.5329451560974121,
-0.04705340415239334,
-0.08914048224687576,
-0.2869708836078644,
0.20633564889431,
0.33998650312423706,
-0.6580672264099121,
0.5778325796127319,
0.004874434322118759,
-0.6738830208778381,
-0.48626822233200073,
-0.5104761719703674,
-0.2718779444694519,
0.1396336406469345,
0.29668012261390686,
0.43879738450050354,
-0.4170703887939453,
0.44482773542404175,
0.3719803988933563,
-0.038926731795072556,
0.28050497174263,
0.11481790989637375,
-0.5493571162223816,
0.2978195548057556,
-0.005801474209874868,
0.05680396407842636,
-0.5213025808334351,
-0.06484649330377579,
-0.4072277247905731,
-0.0688592717051506,
-0.20185768604278564,
0.7312719821929932,
0.6712478995323181,
-0.7088232040405273,
0.11373589187860489,
0.416662335395813,
0.38407444953918457,
-0.1892395317554474,
0.2015884965658188,
-0.4311613440513611,
-0.7817595601081848,
-0.04235398396849632,
0.04357917234301567,
0.8383108973503113,
-0.00046798487892374396,
0.2598249018192291,
-0.3807249367237091,
0.4277817904949188,
0.5633432865142822,
-1.3076982498168945,
-0.12712125480175018,
-0.08381981402635574,
-0.15430492162704468,
-0.5249459147453308,
-0.510002076625824,
0.020604638382792473,
0.5086402297019958,
-0.4080890417098999,
-0.7133848667144775,
-0.8873242139816284,
0.03074922226369381,
0.6073572635650635,
0.16224876046180725,
0.3201308846473694,
-0.18004150688648224,
-0.25600701570510864,
-0.5928688645362854,
-0.11647111922502518,
0.04594104737043381,
-0.25113070011138916,
0.5511795878410339,
0.12539401650428772,
-0.7851592302322388,
-0.4088709354400635,
0.2959040105342865,
-0.13346713781356812,
-0.3011011779308319,
0.44182395935058594,
-0.05869998410344124,
0.1009410172700882,
-0.1861494928598404,
0.25580939650535583,
-0.3018439710140228,
-0.565118670463562,
0.46611425280570984,
-0.5752153992652893,
-0.6591152548789978,
-0.16759923100471497,
0.3391171991825104,
-0.939323365688324,
0.6700774431228638,
-0.6465888619422913,
-0.22943221032619476,
0.22224432229995728,
0.16128009557724,
0.2821480631828308,
0.07073058187961578,
-0.1731397956609726,
-0.5042984485626221,
-0.1656784564256668,
0.5662364363670349,
-0.08054371178150177,
0.4472528100013733,
-0.4226398766040802,
0.15998467803001404,
0.3470887839794159,
-0.390654057264328,
0.12368817627429962,
-0.23875802755355835,
0.03257225453853607,
0.3778161406517029,
-0.2615576386451721,
0.23758667707443237,
0.17890594899654388,
-0.623717188835144,
0.2927643656730652,
-0.5347133278846741,
-0.1995835304260254,
0.07659108191728592,
-0.12561127543449402,
-0.2621271312236786,
0.003941809292882681,
-0.38645297288894653,
-0.1060265451669693,
-0.17705556750297546,
0.27471938729286194,
0.1618487536907196,
0.26049432158470154,
0.5195186734199524,
-0.6104853749275208,
0.14224852621555328,
-0.14216987788677216,
0.3376043140888214,
0.34753960371017456,
-0.7924207448959351,
-0.7491360902786255,
-0.04203798249363899,
-0.08472513407468796,
-0.2943485379219055,
-0.4442614018917084,
-0.33918145298957825,
0.43341130018234253,
-0.21382035315036774,
-0.10318673402070999,
-0.09231257438659668,
0.3410503566265106,
0.43138387799263,
-0.2243700921535492,
-0.08038152009248734,
-0.6382713913917542,
-0.1763111650943756,
-0.032323967665433884,
0.07879555225372314,
-0.11567520350217819,
-0.45013684034347534,
-0.05705738440155983,
-0.2943075895309448,
0.41569992899894714,
0.43931081891059875,
0.9644630551338196,
-0.11879190057516098,
0.698417067527771,
0.05996999144554138,
-0.27014797925949097,
0.13013559579849243,
-0.02414597198367119,
0.6625593304634094,
-0.2576371729373932,
-0.7143213152885437,
0.1390169858932495,
-0.3645802140235901,
-0.15164971351623535,
-0.05091026425361633,
0.41884833574295044,
0.21150659024715424,
-0.9320073127746582,
-0.499332994222641,
-0.2649884819984436,
-0.023923782631754875,
-0.11613776534795761,
-0.49765029549598694,
0.23152492940425873,
0.30855947732925415,
-0.1671333611011505,
-0.0633368268609047,
-0.45316770672798157,
0.14181552827358246,
-1.0281695127487183,
0.208295077085495,
0.06049126759171486,
-0.5124039053916931,
0.6199450492858887,
-0.13415944576263428,
0.3564817011356354,
-0.4073256552219391,
-0.10690303146839142,
-0.3685516119003296,
0.14996565878391266,
-0.12422269582748413,
-0.029911261051893234,
0.7706971764564514,
-0.2425358146429062,
0.31869950890541077,
0.27974244952201843,
-0.764672040939331,
0.3484897315502167,
0.026378700509667397,
-0.1698043942451477,
-0.35055676102638245,
0.2660188674926758,
-0.11451467871665955,
-0.6316244602203369,
0.3217664957046509,
-0.6048194766044617,
-0.42820823192596436,
-0.1570914387702942,
0.3084341883659363,
0.8795230984687805,
0.3895573616027832,
0.27033233642578125,
0.5774708390235901,
-0.07471368461847305,
-0.012550500221550465,
0.361380398273468,
-0.6430869102478027,
-0.9030226469039917,
0.39738908410072327,
0.047576624900102615,
0.3315366506576538,
0.45370569825172424,
0.014133760705590248,
-0.42379075288772583,
0.5579410195350647,
0.20700089633464813,
0.7372090220451355,
-0.2900245487689972,
0.107107974588871,
-0.11703890562057495,
-0.10708555579185486,
0.016271306201815605,
-0.3305131793022156,
0.05287802591919899,
-0.052027784287929535,
0.7482255697250366,
-0.07300004363059998,
0.035428572446107864,
0.10153678804636002,
0.16753140091896057,
0.44744694232940674,
0.10809338092803955,
0.3129314184188843,
-0.29801326990127563,
-0.2895706593990326,
-0.03307214751839638,
-0.3270648121833801,
0.33822712302207947,
0.4987298250198364,
-0.01536283828318119,
0.41367536783218384,
-0.5262413024902344,
0.2360285520553589,
-0.04974629357457161,
-0.16481749713420868,
0.2152087241411209,
0.578739583492279,
0.3836606740951538,
0.16888141632080078,
0.06663820892572403,
0.38799336552619934,
-0.6883656978607178,
-0.7080190777778625,
0.18316906690597534,
0.08349794894456863,
-0.06387681514024734,
0.1465955227613449,
0.18534137308597565,
-0.2533838748931885,
0.30649805068969727,
-0.07339821010828018,
-0.24333296716213226,
0.36623650789260864,
0.22969621419906616,
-0.25479552149772644,
0.40516406297683716,
0.34343427419662476,
0.17565390467643738,
0.13147781789302826,
0.10053667426109314,
0.40224364399909973,
-0.23875223100185394,
0.04004082456231117,
-0.49009034037590027,
0.23528459668159485,
0.040091436356306076,
0.6981551051139832,
-0.4544617235660553,
0.19823281466960907,
0.23114576935768127,
-0.31479623913764954,
0.16350947320461273,
-0.06452885270118713,
0.06994017958641052,
-0.2981675863265991,
0.4722919464111328,
-0.24847233295440674,
0.07208351790904999,
-0.5260351300239563,
0.018109770491719246,
-0.2995913028717041,
0.4959111213684082,
-0.04071663320064545,
0.4328245222568512,
-0.13161176443099976,
0.40394535660743713,
-0.04134013131260872,
-0.000006015384769852972,
0.5092790126800537,
-0.46623238921165466,
-0.12226833403110504,
-0.977709949016571,
0.9134945869445801,
-0.23450037837028503,
-0.017707813531160355,
-0.007997979409992695,
-0.08699911087751389,
0.48605334758758545,
-0.23569999635219574,
0.655019223690033,
-0.3114263713359833,
0.18637323379516602,
-0.2278287708759308,
-0.12448645383119583,
-0.14149141311645508,
-0.34058767557144165,
-0.021318592131137848,
-0.24469861388206482,
0.6072056293487549,
0.24485521018505096,
-0.4792734980583191,
0.26977014541625977,
-0.3096042573451996,
-0.4324752390384674,
0.3362294137477875,
-0.13322754204273224,
0.023225050419569016,
-0.7574695348739624,
0.5321678519248962
] |
233741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Stewart%20%28premier%29 | Charles Stewart (premier) | Charles Stewart, (August 26, 1868 – December 6, 1946) was a Canadian politician who served as the third premier of Alberta from 1917 until 1921. Born in Strabane, Ontario, in then Wentworth County (now part of Hamilton), Stewart was a farmer who moved west to Alberta after his farm was destroyed by a storm. There he became active in politics and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1909 election. He served as Minister of Public Works and Minister of Municipal Affairs—the first person to hold the latter position in Alberta—in the government of Arthur Sifton. When Sifton left provincial politics in 1917 to join the federal cabinet, Stewart was named his replacement.
As premier, Stewart tried to hold together his Liberal Party, which was divided by the Conscription Crisis of 1917. He endeavoured to enforce prohibition of alcoholic beverages, which had been enshrined in law by a referendum during Sifton's premiership, but found that the law was not widely enough supported to be effectively policed. His government took over several of the province's financially troubled railroads, and guaranteed bonds sold to fund irrigation projects. Several of these policies were the result of lobbying by the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), with which Stewart enjoyed good relations; even so, the UFA was politicized during Stewart's premiership and ran candidates in the 1921 election. Unable to match the UFA's appeal to rural voters, Stewart's government was defeated at the polls and he was succeeded as premier by Herbert Greenfield.
After leaving provincial politics, Stewart was invited to join the federal cabinet of William Lyon Mackenzie King, in which he served as Minister of the Interior and Mines. In this capacity he signed, on behalf of the federal government, an agreement that transferred control of Alberta's natural resources from Ottawa to the provincial government—a concession he had been criticized for being unable to negotiate as Premier. He served in King's cabinet until 1930, when the King government was defeated, but remained a member of Parliament until he lost his seat in 1935. He died in December 1946 in Ottawa.
Early life
Charles Stewart was born on August 26, 1868, in Strabane, Ontario, on Wentworth County, to Charles and Catherine Stewart. Charles Sr. was a stonemason and farmer. As a child, Charles Jr. accompanied his father to Carlisle to hear Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald. According to family lore, Macdonald noticed the young future Premier and told him that he was a fine boy who would make a good politician someday. When Charles Jr. was 16, he moved with his family to a farm near Barrie. Seven years later, on December 17, 1891, he married Jane Russell Sneath; the pair had eight children. After marrying Sneath, he converted to her Church of England faith.
In 1892, Charles Sr. died, leaving his son in charge of the family farm. In 1905, on July 8, this farm was destroyed by a tornado, and Stewart decided to move west, settling near Killam, Alberta in 1906. His family endured a cold winter—the warmest place in their shack was on the kitchen table, so they kept the baby there—and in the spring their crops were destroyed by hail. As he was unsuccessful at farming, he supplemented his income using the stonemason's skills he had learned from his father: he laid foundations for the Canadian Pacific Railway, worked on the High Level Bridge in Edmonton, and dug Killam's town well. He later worked in real estate and as a farm implement dealer, earning enough to buy a new and larger homestead in 1912.
Stewart was active in his local community: he was the first chair of the Killam School District, attended the first meeting of Killam ratepayers on January 19, 1907, and was involved in the incorporation of Killam in January 1908. In 1909, the Alberta Liberal Party, which had dominated provincial politics throughout Alberta's short history, came seeking a candidate to run in the new riding of Sedgewick. Stewart agreed to run and was elected by acclamation in the 1909 election.
Early political career
At the time of Stewart's acclamation, Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford seemed unassailable: he controlled 36 of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta's 41 seats (Stewart's being one), and his Liberals had just won nearly sixty percent of the vote in their re-election bid. Months later, however, Rutherford and his government were embroiled in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal, and the Liberal Party was split. Initially, Stewart remained loyal to Rutherford, and went so far as to allege in the legislature that insurgent Liberal John R. Boyle had offered two members of the legislative assembly (MLAs), who were also hotel keepers, immunity from prosecution for liquor violations if they would support a new government in which Boyle was Attorney-General. As additional details of the scandal emerged, however, Stewart himself became an insurgent, and was pleased when Arthur Sifton replaced Rutherford as Premier.
In May 1912, Sifton expanded his cabinet, and Stewart was made the province's first Minister of Municipal Affairs. As was required by the custom of the day when an MLA was appointed to cabinet, he resigned his seat to run in a by-election, in which he easily defeated Conservative William John Blair. In cabinet, he became known as an advocate of public ownership of utilities, which placed him more in sympathy with the Conservative opposition than with Sifton. Despite this position, he backed Sifton's 1913 resolution to the Alberta and Great Waterways problem, which involved partnering with the private sector; this vote marked the first time that the Liberal caucus was united on the railways question since before the scandal broke in 1910.
In December 1913, Sifton moved Stewart from Municipal Affairs into the Public Works portfolio; in this capacity, Stewart played a major role in the incorporation of the Alberta Farmers' Co-operative Elevator Company, which was a farmer-run co-operative with a charter to own and operate grain elevators.
Premier
Shortly after the 1917 provincial election (in which Stewart and the Liberals were both soundly re-elected), Canada found itself embroiled in a conscription crisis. The federal Conservative government, led by Robert Borden, supported implementing conscription. The opposition Liberals, led by Wilfrid Laurier, nominally opposed conscription, but many English-speaking Liberals in fact supported it. The crisis was resolved when Borden formed a Union government composed of Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals. Sifton, falling into the latter group, was chosen as Alberta's representative in that government, and resigned as Premier in October 1917. Lieutenant-Governor Robert Brett, accepting Sifton's choice of successor, asked Stewart to form a government. His only serious rival for the position of premier was Charles Wilson Cross, who opposed conscription and was therefore not a palatable choice for much of the Liberal establishment.
Party division
The Alberta and Great Waterways scandal had opened up a rift in the provincial Liberal Party, between those who remained loyal to Cross and Rutherford and those who did not, with the latter group being led by William Henry Cushing and Frank Oliver. Sifton had papered over, if not in fact healed, this rift, and it did not burst open again until the conscription crisis. This time, however, the fault lines were different: Cross and Oliver had put aside their longtime enmity to join in opposing conscription, and Sifton, who had been selected Premier in part because he was not identified with either faction in the old feud, was Alberta's most prominent pro-conscription Liberal.
Stewart was a supporter of conscription and of the Union government, but did not take any active part in the acrimonious 1917 federal election, which was fought on the issue. Several of his ministers were not so circumspect: Attorney-General Cross, Education Minister Boyle, and Municipal Affairs Minister Wilfrid Gariépy campaigned for the Laurier Liberals; Public Works Minister Archibald J. McLean and Treasurer Charles R. Mitchell stayed out of the fray while leaving no doubt of their support for Union. During the first legislative session after this election, Stewart came under attack from members of his own party. Alexander Grant MacKay criticized his failure to take advantage of the recent conference of premiers to press for the transfer of rights over Alberta's natural resources from the federal to the provincial government (Sifton had made this a priority during the pre-war years, but had largely ceased his advocacy on the breakout of hostilities), and James Gray Turgeon attacked the government's policy of levying taxes for the support of soldiers' dependants on the grounds that he considered it a federal responsibility.
Divisions within the provincial Liberals came to a head in August 1918, when Stewart dismissed Cross as Attorney-General. It later emerged that Cross had refused to fire two detectives in his department after Stewart had concluded that their work would be better done by the provincial police, and that Stewart had found Cross's work to be generally poor. He had asked for Cross's resignation, received no response, and rescinded the Order in Council appointing him. In an effort to secure Cross's departure from politics, Stewart offered him the position of Alberta's provincial agent in London, England; Cross refused it, and Stewart was criticized for using appointments for political advantage.
Prohibition and democratic reform
Alberta had implemented prohibition in 1916 as the result of a referendum supported by the powerful United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) lobby group. By the time Stewart took office, it was becoming apparent that the policy was not being universally complied with: Conservative MLA George Douglas Stanley alleged that judges were often hungover when they sat in judgment of those accused of violating liquor laws, and Cross's replacement as Attorney-General, John Boyle, admitted that in his estimation 65% of the province's male population broke the Prohibition Act. In 1921 the government realized profits of $800,000 on alcohol legally sold for "medicinal" purposes, and Boyle estimated bootleggers' profits at nine times that figure. Stewart blamed the problems on insufficient public support for the law, but even as he did so it was clear that there was not enough support to repeal it.
Prohibition was not the only UFA-endorsed policy to have been passed by Sifton's government: indeed, the legislation that allowed for citizen-initiated referenda of the sort that had led to prohibition was itself the result of UFA advocacy. Once Stewart became Premier, he committed to the introduction of another UFA-favoured democratic reform—proportional representation. However, a committee formed to examine the possibility disintegrated over what historian Carrol Jaques calls "battles within the group and a general dislike of the concept".
Public works
Railway development had dominated the premierships of Stewart's predecessors and, while losing political potency as an issue, it was still a matter that demanded his attention. Though Sifton had established a railway policy in 1913 that was satisfactory to all wings of the Liberal Party, the outbreak of the First World War the following year had all but put an end to railway construction across Canada. Once peace came, Albertans living near promised but as yet unbuilt lines began to clamour for their completion. The private companies with whom the government had partnered, however, were in no position to undertake the construction. The Edmonton, Dunvegan and British Columbia Railway was taken over by the Canadian Pacific Railway, with a clause in the agreement requiring the provincial government to spend $1 million to improve the route, and the Alberta and Great Waterways was taken over by Stewart's government directly (J. D. McArthur, the line's previous owner, retained an option to repurchase it, but it was never exercised).
Irrigation projects also occupied much of Stewart's attention as Premier. As with railways, the First World War had disrupted planned irrigation projects, and Albertan farmers, especially those from the arid south, were eager to see them resumed. Specifically popular was a project to irrigate in Lethbridge County, but when bonds were issued to finance the project, they did not sell. Stewart sought federal backing of the bonds, but Prime Minister Arthur Meighen declined. Stewart reluctantly agreed to offer a provincial guarantee, but to avoid negative reaction from northern Alberta he linked the enabling legislation to one allowing for drainage in northern areas.
Stewart and the United Farmers of Alberta
The United Farmers of Alberta had its beginnings as a farmers' advocacy organization; Stewart, a farmer, had joined it. The UFA had achieved several successes in dealing with the Sifton government, and Stewart also endeavoured to cooperate with it. The irrigation project was strongly supported by the UFA, as was Stewart's action on proportional representation. When Peace River MLA William Archibald Rae introduced legislation to allow Imperial Oil to build a pipeline in the province, UFA President Henry Wise Wood sent Stewart a telegram of protest, as he believed that pipelines should be common carriers; Stewart read it in the legislature, and Rae's bill was withdrawn. Even given the victories, the UFA was not satisfied with the government's record: in 1918, the government took action on only three of the many resolutions the UFA had sent to it.
Some in the UFA had long favoured contesting elections directly as a political party instead of remaining on the sidelines as a pressure group, but Wood and other UFA leaders were implacably opposed to the idea. During the war, however, the political wing began to gain momentum, and at the 1919 UFA convention, it was decided that UFA candidates would contest the next provincial election. In fact, it ended up doing so somewhat sooner: in 1919, Charles W. Fisher, Liberal MLA for Cochrane, died as a result of that year's influenza epidemic, and a by-election was necessitated to replace him. The UFA's Alex Moore defeated his only opponent, Liberal Edward V. Thomson, by 835 votes to 708.
Stewart felt betrayed: "It has been my fight ever since I became a minister to see that the farmers of the province were having a square deal," he remarked, "and I think I have done this with some success." Despite his general sympathy with the aims of the UFA, he could not support their transition into a political party. For one, he disagreed with the UFA's belief that politics should be conducted along class, rather than ideological, lines. Stewart believed that "the more strongly armed the classes become the harder will it be to get the things we really need in our government" and asserted that "I never did and never will have any desire to form a coalition with anybody except with men who think the same as I do."
Given the UFA's formal adoption of the goal of replacing Stewart's Liberal government with a Farmer government, it remained surprisingly friendly towards the Premier. While campaigning for Moore during the Cochrane by-election, Wood called Stewart "an honourable, upright citizen, doing the best he could under difficult circumstances" and boasted that "if I have got to tear down the character of an honourable man to build up something that I want, I am not going to build it up." When at last the general election came, in 1921, the UFA declined to run a candidate in Stewart's Sedgewick riding as a sign of respect to the Premier. After the UFA swept to victory, there was even speculation that Stewart, still a UFA member, would stay on as Premier of a new Farmer's government (as part of its opposition to "old style politics," the UFA had contested the election without designating a leader), but he announced otherwise.
Defeat and legacy
The last provincial election had been held in June 1917, and four years was the normal life of a legislature in Canada. Stewart called an election for July 19. Though the Liberals' fortunes had been sagging in the post-war years, there remained no doubt that they could again defeat the Conservatives; their real challenge was evidently from the newly politicized UFA. Bolstering this challenge by increasing farmers' discontent was a collapse of agricultural prices. The UFA had no leader, no fixed platform, and no inclination to attack Stewart or his government. What it did have was superior organization, and on election day this organization made itself felt in the form of thirty-nine UFA members elected to fourteen Liberals. Stewart, who has been acclaimed in his own riding of Sedgewick, announced that he would resign as Premier as soon as the UFA had selected somebody to replace him. Once it selected Herbert Greenfield, Stewart made good on his pledge, and Greenfield replaced him August 13.
In Jaques' view, Stewart was defined by what he was not: he was not involved in any of the railway scandals, current or past; he was not conspicuously involved in any of the personal battles that had consumed Alexander Rutherford, Frank Oliver, the brothers Arthur and Clifford Sifton, Charles Cross, or any of their followers; he was not a high-powered flamboyant Liberal partisan; he did not let himself get involved in federal Liberal Party machinations over issues such as the conscription crisis; nor did he seem to be high-handed or dictatorial—a criticism levelled at his predecessor, Arthur Sifton.
She argues that he was a "decent family man" whose career was a product of the circumstances in which he found himself.
Historian L. G. Thomas recognized Stewart's admirable qualities, but criticized him for lacking Sifton's "ruthless and forceful leadership" and claimed that "few provincial premiers have been more universally praised by their opponents and more unanimously deplored by their supporters." Even so, he acknowledged that the decisive factor in Stewart's downfall was not anything that he did, but the decision by the UFA to run candidates in 1921; in Thomas's view, Sifton would have been defeated in 1917 if he had had to contend with a politicized UFA.
Mount Charles Stewart is located in the Bow Valley just north of Canmore. The peak was named for him in 1928.
Federal politics
Following the 1921 federal election, William Lyon Mackenzie King's Liberals came to power in Ottawa. They had not won any seats in Alberta, and Stewart was invited to join King's cabinet as Minister of the Interior and Mines (which included responsibility as Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs). He won a 1922 by-election in the Quebec seat of Argenteuil, before shifting to the more familiar territory of Edmonton West in the 1925 election; he was re-elected there in 1926 and 1930. In the 1935 election, he ran in the new riding of Jasper—Edson, where he was defeated by Social Crediter Walter Frederick Kuhl.
As a cabinet minister, Stewart aggressively marketed Canada's coal both domestically and internationally, for which he was honoured by Alberta's coal producers at a banquet and later awarded the Randolph Bruce Gold Medal in Science by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. He took a great interest in water power, and advised the government on jurisdictional issues surrounding the Niagara, St. Mary, and Milk Rivers. In 1927, he served as Canada's representative at the League of Nations. As Minister of the Interior, he oversaw the 1927 creation of Prince Albert National Park. Ironically, given the attacks he had sustained as Premier from Alexander Grant MacKay, he was part of the federal delegation that finally negotiated the transfer of resource control from the federal to the Alberta provincial government in December 1929. The same agreement transferred resource rights to Saskatchewan and Manitoba. After it was signed but before it took effect, Manitoba Premier John Bracken concluded an agreement with the Winnipeg Electric Company, a private concern, to develop a hydroelectric dam at Seven Sisters' Reach. Because resource rights were still controlled by the federal government, the deal required federal approval. Stewart advocated withholding this approval in deference to Manitoba public opinion, which favoured public ownership of such projects, but King honoured a provision of the resource transfer agreement that required the wishes of provincial governments to be respected until the transfer was complete and granted approval. Stewart's preference for public over private ownership extended to King's planned creation of the Bank of Canada; Stewart wanted the new institution entirely under the control of the government, but King preferred an arrangement whereby half of its directors would be appointed by the government and half by private shareholders and suggested that advocates of public ownership might find themselves more at home in the socialist Cooperative Commonwealth Federation than in his Liberal caucus.
Despite Stewart's involvement in transferring resource rights to Alberta, his relationship with the UFA government that had defeated him in 1921 was frosty: Lakeland College historian Franklin Foster, in his biography of UFA Premier John Edward Brownlee, alleges that this antipathy influenced Stewart's preference for private corporations over the Alberta government in granting hydroelectric power permits. He also feuded with then-Premier Brownlee over development in Alberta's national parks (Stewart favouring large-scale private development and Brownlee opposing it), causing King to record in his diary "Brownlee strikes me as...being superior to Mr. Stewart, who is handicapped in his dislike of [Brownlee]." When King sought to absorb Progressives into his Liberal Party to form a stronger coalition against the Conservatives, Stewart opposed cooperation with the UFA leaders who made up a large part of the Progressives' Albertan base. While King was inclined to view UFA politicians, like Progressives elsewhere, as "Liberals in a hurry" who were fundamentally comfortable with his government and preferred it to the Conservatives, Stewart understood that the UFA was a distinct group whose members were in many respect more conservative than liberal. King dismissed his minister's views as being the result of Stewart's acrimonious history with the UFA.
In fact, Stewart did not enjoy King's confidence. Though he brought him into his cabinet in 1921 in part at the urging of Progressive leader Thomas Crerar, King found Stewart to be an inadequate protector of western interests—especially in his advocacy of tariff reduction, which King found lacklustre—and did not trust his political advice on the west. By 1925 he was considering appointing Stewart to the Senate, to remove him from active political involvement, but was handicapped by the absence of any other Alberta representation in his cabinet. In 1926 Stewart served as an emissary from King to recruit Saskatchewan Premier Charles Avery Dunning to the federal cabinet; the mission fulfilled, King kept Stewart in cabinet but wrote in his diary that all matters pertaining to Alberta were to be "left to Dunning to do as he thinks best". By 1927, King complained that Stewart had "no grip" on the province of which he had once been Premier, and in 1930 he wrote "Organization in Alberta is terrible. Stewart is worse than useless, is like an old woman, with no real control of situation." In the 1930 federal election Dunning and Crerar were both defeated; King complained that it was "perfectly terrible to have Stewart alone representing the West." When Stewart too went down to defeat in 1935, King was pleased "not to have to consider him" in assembling his new cabinet, and opted instead to leave Alberta unrepresented to punish it for failing to elect any Liberals.
Post-political life
After Stewart's defeat in 1935, he was appointed by George V to chair the Canadian section of the International Joint Commission, in recognition of his expertise on international water boundary issues. In 1938, he was appointed chair of the Canadian section of the British Columbia – Yukon – Alaska Highway Commission. In these capacities, he travelled across Canada, visiting his son George at the family homestead near Killam at every opportunity. He died December 6, 1946, leaving an estate of $21,961.
Born in one of Canada's original provinces, Stewart moved west as part of a vast migration to the prairies, and settled in Alberta the year it became a province. As Alberta grew, Stewart played an increasingly important political role in it, until he joined the federal government to become Alberta's voice there, ultimately helping it achieve constitutional equality with the older provinces by transferring to its government control of its resources. As Mackenzie King eulogized him, "in more respects than one, Mr. Stewart's career mirrored the development of Canada itself."
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
As MP
References
Citations
Works cited
1868 births
1946 deaths
Alberta Liberal Party MLAs
Canadian Anglicans
Leaders of the Alberta Liberal Party
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Farmers from Ontario
People from Flagstaff County
Premiers of Alberta
Interior ministers of Canada
Burials at Beechwood Cemetery (Ottawa) | [
-0.33489346504211426,
0.0638701543211937,
-0.3159257471561432,
0.08457910269498825,
-0.2830623388290405,
0.2868981957435608,
1.1633027791976929,
0.24431879818439484,
-0.41676637530326843,
-0.5631394982337952,
0.3875373303890228,
0.15157094597816467,
-0.6785079836845398,
0.4888138473033905,
0.09730563312768936,
1.0245354175567627,
-0.5574420690536499,
0.07659557461738586,
-0.5865998864173889,
-0.2533608078956604,
0.0007261987193487585,
-0.4519830644130707,
0.8290694952011108,
0.1602904498577118,
-0.11288070678710938,
0.4932401776313782,
0.3321346044540405,
0.5025286674499512,
-0.3725165128707886,
-0.0024438980035483837,
-0.36143729090690613,
0.3807346224784851,
0.5768888592720032,
0.07974696904420853,
-0.5948550701141357,
-0.41229477524757385,
0.284723699092865,
-0.6530577540397644,
-0.0010046025272458792,
0.008342753164470196,
-0.4375436305999756,
-0.14363737404346466,
0.08450362831354141,
-0.09288091212511063,
0.5036075711250305,
-1.0501189231872559,
-1.8952866792678833,
-0.23431600630283356,
-0.2759644687175751,
-0.17910528182983398,
-0.12198632955551147,
0.530829668045044,
0.3448367416858673,
-0.5898759961128235,
0.07459718734025955,
0.025882240384817123,
-0.46603038907051086,
-0.10215740650892258,
-0.548667848110199,
-0.32730042934417725,
-0.09056971222162247,
0.19530251622200012,
0.4261864125728607,
0.16784702241420746,
0.2688446044921875,
0.20132635533809662,
-0.2642108201980591,
0.40839239954948425,
0.017881708219647408,
0.2845837473869324,
0.02753780037164688,
0.7710923552513123,
0.4268900454044342,
0.4267365038394928,
0.49652963876724243,
0.18890094757080078,
0.31858381628990173,
-0.18897868692874908,
0.49089646339416504,
0.24951492249965668,
-0.3289506733417511,
-0.6759179830551147,
0.47024500370025635,
0.628818690776825,
-0.16171611845493317,
0.33529889583587646,
-0.8637914061546326,
0.4798840582370758,
0.00740776676684618,
-0.07368630170822144,
-1.207009196281433,
-0.2942827343940735,
0.2446935623884201,
0.08880320936441422,
-0.5314830541610718,
-0.6059951782226562,
0.39363041520118713,
0.07759099453687668,
-0.021141482517123222,
-0.3953045606613159,
0.19184407591819763,
-0.11877596378326416,
0.4725932776927948,
-0.1684093177318573,
-0.9047872424125671,
0.45663362741470337,
-0.5649790167808533,
-0.1474250853061676,
-0.501311182975769,
-0.2531633973121643,
-0.3697734773159027,
0.20803849399089813,
-0.15922412276268005,
-0.21943333745002747,
0.34780019521713257,
0.5318664312362671,
0.2717664837837219,
-0.2511111795902252,
-0.39479860663414,
0.028109930455684662,
-0.016698414459824562,
-0.0725962445139885,
-0.5844359993934631,
0.06207788363099098,
-0.9189680218696594,
-0.0552145391702652,
-0.43674659729003906,
-1.024491310119629,
0.43618273735046387,
0.23112253844738007,
0.6849375367164612,
0.7504935264587402,
-0.7971251606941223,
-0.19918765127658844,
-0.683241605758667,
-0.139877051115036,
-0.02256893180310726,
-0.29676681756973267,
-0.26081541180610657,
-0.15255044400691986,
-0.5405654907226562,
-0.18731950223445892,
-0.5843198895454407,
-0.3898025155067444,
0.33040356636047363,
0.37387481331825256,
-0.4440430700778961,
0.23154056072235107,
-0.3630259931087494,
-0.10890291631221771,
0.26902273297309875,
0.0878114402294159,
0.19599781930446625,
-0.15541274845600128,
-0.1724919229745865,
1.1295173168182373,
0.36802998185157776,
0.3426300287246704,
-0.057755958288908005,
0.42935603857040405,
0.3286750614643097,
0.3658962845802307,
0.3208254873752594,
-0.016678346320986748,
0.8450660705566406,
0.14011915028095245,
-0.5314087867736816,
-0.8741470575332642,
0.3560923635959625,
-0.03270599618554115,
0.3295952081680298,
0.35916194319725037,
0.3942665457725525,
-0.5633938908576965,
-0.03155829757452011,
0.3904759883880615,
0.48635339736938477,
0.07491482049226761,
0.1662692278623581,
-0.4999207556247711,
-1.1401818990707397,
-0.3132937550544739,
0.33777204155921936,
-0.09632422775030136,
0.296596884727478,
0.10361424833536148,
0.1255037784576416,
-0.22846710681915283,
0.6752932667732239,
-0.11733677983283997,
-0.18434995412826538,
-0.6178135871887207,
0.05057074502110481,
-0.7688249945640564,
0.5231907963752747,
-0.041714638471603394,
-0.18794894218444824,
0.5659831762313843,
-0.010094475001096725,
0.7764770984649658,
-0.38947662711143494,
-0.12455331534147263,
0.20821362733840942,
-0.41303709149360657,
0.10916780680418015,
0.8229531049728394,
0.14733679592609406,
-0.29706791043281555,
0.3041829764842987,
1.0027530193328857,
0.04240677133202553,
-0.27749189734458923,
-0.602348804473877,
0.43699851632118225,
-0.46438005566596985,
-0.6886008977890015,
-0.7880488038063049,
-0.29960253834724426,
-0.19970759749412537,
-0.23605701327323914,
0.21246570348739624,
0.25883081555366516,
-0.8217161297798157,
0.9122477173805237,
-0.4392261505126953,
0.5087661147117615,
0.10398128628730774,
-0.1535249650478363,
-0.4290924668312073,
-0.5019126534461975,
0.2659807503223419,
0.4601970911026001,
0.29702097177505493,
-1.0123854875564575,
0.023673631250858307,
0.5154470801353455,
-0.18300800025463104,
0.3554832935333252,
0.34753671288490295,
-0.2759333550930023,
0.1189039871096611,
0.5090302228927612,
-0.5944772958755493,
0.03020424209535122,
0.16949541866779327,
0.5602424144744873,
-0.35438302159309387,
-0.07473612576723099,
-0.12725979089736938,
-0.37326669692993164,
0.5073650479316711,
-0.0909346491098404,
0.3878357708454132,
-0.07574930042028427,
0.5797727704048157,
-0.2689657509326935,
0.4565482437610626,
-0.739916980266571,
-0.01791476644575596,
0.7519007325172424,
0.1161532998085022,
0.3529999554157257,
-0.2931324541568756,
0.27568283677101135,
0.29547715187072754,
0.5027961730957031,
-0.17703619599342346,
0.02478702738881111,
-0.7489543557167053,
-0.0070517584681510925,
-0.3086402416229248,
-0.4752101004123688,
-0.07120867818593979,
-0.043619558215141296,
0.8342338800430298,
0.21344734728336334,
-0.5381619930267334,
0.4660216271877289,
-0.5787549614906311,
-0.7341362237930298,
0.5523107051849365,
1.2540289163589478,
-0.34096646308898926,
0.10326797515153885,
-0.301580011844635,
0.13725200295448303,
-0.12906312942504883,
0.457354336977005,
-0.18971870839595795,
-0.5756585597991943,
-0.3096817433834076,
0.02285298891365528,
-0.6266218423843384,
0.22911351919174194,
-0.6548214554786682,
-0.002565426751971245,
-0.1277509331703186,
-0.25295886397361755,
0.7102653980255127,
-0.45724281668663025,
-0.26924118399620056,
0.28012141585350037,
0.2001207321882248,
0.22613154351711273,
0.23498988151550293,
-0.10480501502752304,
-0.37715813517570496,
-0.37933579087257385,
-5.172365188598633,
-0.16269131004810333,
-0.5477508902549744,
-0.707982063293457,
0.5257239937782288,
-0.2682795524597168,
0.06280884146690369,
-0.32996463775634766,
0.2588914930820465,
-0.038830727338790894,
0.6314776539802551,
-0.19104230403900146,
0.33148670196533203,
0.5826481580734253,
0.7192488312721252,
0.5226408243179321,
0.9069231748580933,
-0.40875381231307983,
0.5568059086799622,
0.2328001856803894,
0.8839929103851318,
-0.21041740477085114,
-0.3513449430465698,
-0.2595274746417999,
0.7365204691886902,
0.3733362555503845,
-0.08476435393095016,
0.32866808772087097,
-0.39815524220466614,
-0.311705619096756,
0.1863807588815689,
0.3764787018299103,
0.21496912837028503,
-0.27173346281051636,
-0.33906129002571106,
-0.37232300639152527,
0.2209487408399582,
0.7676535844802856,
0.31530043482780457,
0.09242260456085205,
0.28155389428138733,
0.008417484350502491,
-0.7682925462722778,
0.1275700330734253,
-0.03496966511011124,
-0.7249353528022766,
-0.7767118215560913,
0.527241051197052,
-0.4062540531158447,
0.4509344696998596,
0.5067430138587952,
0.32272469997406006,
0.3967222273349762,
0.27881380915641785,
-0.15416882932186127,
-0.06429349631071091,
-0.10813702642917633,
0.3624219000339508,
-0.765385627746582,
0.3755638897418976,
0.3456917405128479,
-0.5136629343032837,
0.024264536798000336,
0.06947924196720123,
-0.45414358377456665,
-0.32667824625968933,
0.1572733074426651,
0.46321165561676025,
0.7921554446220398,
0.04207934811711311,
-0.12193220853805542,
0.6556215882301331,
-0.05880296975374222,
-0.7251461148262024,
0.4234791100025177,
-0.16576769948005676,
-0.31897836923599243,
0.68104088306427,
-0.4488835036754608,
-0.47426652908325195,
0.26124364137649536,
0.13534867763519287,
0.2871895432472229,
0.9696956872940063,
0.5726655721664429,
0.35672295093536377,
0.08374585211277008,
0.57939213514328,
-0.25187721848487854,
-0.12482854723930359,
0.21949587762355804,
-0.48901602625846863,
0.21096006035804749,
0.3270915746688843,
0.3804473280906677,
-0.3816571831703186,
0.5916485786437988,
-0.5904174447059631,
-0.09983189404010773,
-0.6594120264053345,
-0.6639865040779114,
0.2872150242328644,
0.26480135321617126,
-0.851138174533844,
-0.34432411193847656,
-0.2920829951763153,
-0.5375534892082214,
0.1612505316734314,
-0.11461110413074493,
0.4448699355125427,
-0.06255462020635605,
0.587725818157196,
-0.6640084385871887,
-0.09445242583751678,
0.5230672359466553,
-0.3651338219642639,
-0.39958569407463074,
0.12989541888237,
1.3686981201171875,
0.319500595331192,
-0.039095621556043625,
0.2615834176540375,
-0.22834864258766174,
0.6881855130195618,
-0.41804447770118713,
0.06418139487504959,
0.534682035446167,
-0.17282697558403015,
-0.3404269516468048,
-0.03857395797967911,
0.40605834126472473,
0.40411025285720825,
-0.40169551968574524,
0.2022162228822708,
-0.13754163682460785,
-0.5140883922576904,
-0.03717242553830147,
-0.22168876230716705,
-0.09635674208402634,
-0.5525025725364685,
-0.26036536693573,
-0.030268913134932518,
0.10614199191331863,
0.3803722560405731,
-0.6856449246406555,
0.312215119600296,
0.4533747434616089,
0.25524553656578064,
-0.13216014206409454,
0.17155927419662476,
-0.6179362535476685,
-0.36555397510528564,
0.4632492661476135,
-0.6791775226593018,
0.3249903619289398,
-0.22674380242824554,
-0.43862155079841614,
-0.36369749903678894,
0.3172769248485565,
-0.39170151948928833,
0.21332114934921265,
0.4058750569820404,
-0.9167665839195251,
0.12137329578399658,
-0.13552427291870117,
0.3990787863731384,
-0.6871703863143921,
-0.48709726333618164,
-0.26197975873947144,
1.0294097661972046,
0.07875915616750717,
-0.2790168225765228,
-0.2540920376777649,
-0.21440067887306213,
0.6881245374679565,
-0.5137124061584473,
0.014368967153131962,
-0.45148953795433044,
0.3037497103214264,
0.1771586686372757,
0.40133166313171387,
0.0895385593175888,
-0.0982527807354927,
0.1581011563539505,
0.8990843892097473,
-0.8281170725822449,
-0.894824206829071,
-0.40189164876937866,
0.7398092150688171,
0.08078872412443161,
0.776782751083374,
-0.25299790501594543,
0.015699142590165138,
0.8235694766044617,
0.023711517453193665,
-0.4063374400138855,
0.16297419369220734,
-0.08090890198945999,
-0.29005035758018494,
-0.5954845547676086,
-0.36162957549095154,
0.170208141207695,
0.19869065284729004,
-0.08663703501224518,
-0.2437775880098343,
-0.5323420166969299,
0.022840533405542374,
-0.3968302309513092,
-0.07272693514823914,
0.7029449343681335,
0.05647150054574013,
-0.41547349095344543,
0.4374568462371826,
0.07125046849250793,
-0.5035073161125183,
0.3196665942668915,
0.3027418851852417,
0.45279762148857117,
-0.7270912528038025,
-0.6435264945030212,
-0.6868144869804382,
-0.2739120125770569,
-0.32405170798301697,
-0.044620729982852936,
-0.2840574085712433,
0.2825147807598114,
0.7049021124839783,
0.1669992059469223,
0.6235066652297974,
0.09068342298269272,
-0.06583717465400696,
-0.03133412078022957,
0.11497211456298828,
0.004428692162036896,
0.19996853172779083,
0.3239530026912689,
0.15231798589229584,
0.37609875202178955,
-0.31610098481178284,
0.02552465721964836,
0.4590533375740051,
1.6645469665527344,
0.648860514163971,
-0.7846093773841858,
-0.09190290421247482,
-0.4655732214450836,
0.2000228315591812,
-0.47449228167533875,
-0.17208096385002136,
0.3497478663921356,
0.35981690883636475,
-0.07303762435913086,
-0.7969455718994141,
-0.019877031445503235,
1.0104721784591675,
-0.3108055591583252,
-0.10272887349128723,
0.9589546918869019,
0.3195430636405945,
0.16746385395526886,
-0.10963620245456696,
0.7994518876075745,
0.1976434886455536,
0.5192694664001465,
0.44270867109298706,
0.32107675075531006,
0.06943867355585098,
0.07450897246599197,
0.4555588960647583,
-0.3588849902153015,
-0.9399207830429077,
-0.7440491914749146,
0.14736594259738922,
0.511258602142334,
-0.475125789642334,
-0.29689449071884155,
-0.013224935159087181,
-0.47060778737068176,
-0.10475002974271774,
-0.5632054209709167,
-0.3652261793613434,
-0.002267339965328574,
0.34662768244743347,
-0.18640005588531494,
-0.4032576382160187,
-0.990226686000824,
-0.4628649950027466,
0.22007796168327332,
-0.31264030933380127,
-0.1574915647506714,
-0.40549999475479126,
0.23146675527095795,
-0.056061651557683945,
-0.8950973749160767,
-0.3942936658859253,
0.25241321325302124,
-0.2521775960922241,
0.7960363626480103,
-0.3631601333618164,
-0.05227755755186081,
-0.6742168664932251,
0.8290104866027832,
0.21373297274112701,
-0.03452794998884201,
-0.10273520648479462,
-0.16162081062793732,
-0.09215044230222702,
-0.416700154542923,
-0.47105133533477783,
-0.11668811738491058,
0.7957836389541626,
-0.33628562092781067,
0.5683659315109253,
0.21893197298049927,
-1.3027738332748413,
-0.39052829146385193,
0.3448835015296936,
-0.4873068630695343,
-0.4314436912536621,
-0.14448782801628113,
-0.33241957426071167,
0.5402872562408447,
0.19398543238639832,
0.286572128534317,
0.4515830874443054,
0.4930407404899597,
0.22175773978233337,
0.30215999484062195,
-0.041007108986377716,
-0.11169411242008209,
0.026331046596169472,
-0.14829358458518982,
-0.8869670629501343,
0.8493780493736267,
-1.0298703908920288,
-0.0863482803106308,
0.4777507483959198,
-0.5718557834625244,
-0.03895644471049309,
0.28331881761550903,
0.056349437683820724,
0.9748473763465881,
0.009652342647314072,
-0.0036074365489184856,
0.41492873430252075,
0.16335538029670715,
0.018831195309758186,
0.1674148589372635,
0.513548731803894,
-0.16303661465644836,
0.6098991632461548,
-0.24345873296260834,
-0.05086725950241089,
-0.5256281495094299,
-0.55951327085495,
0.4991302192211151,
0.5039705634117126,
-0.19502654671669006,
0.05877658724784851,
-0.4292166531085968,
-0.21988359093666077,
-0.8017705678939819,
1.055798053741455,
0.2484809011220932,
-0.11807607114315033,
-0.09637219458818436,
0.7043077349662781,
-0.46699604392051697,
0.1516076624393463,
0.5266834497451782,
-0.05283547565340996,
-0.3562876582145691,
0.0641830787062645,
0.11949864774942398,
0.5765654444694519,
-0.23398086428642273,
0.4318042993545532,
0.15381307899951935,
-0.20709069073200226,
0.5592150092124939,
0.022610269486904144,
1.085876703262329,
-0.41081318259239197,
-0.7517122030258179,
-0.0435575395822525,
-0.1378372311592102,
-0.16611941158771515,
0.3135606348514557,
0.1770097017288208,
-0.6253399848937988,
0.09058531373739243,
-0.3185059130191803,
-0.43444401025772095,
0.2249736487865448,
-0.1171194389462471,
0.03729315474629402,
-0.43730032444000244,
0.4106528162956238,
0.9094642996788025,
0.7409089207649231,
0.12436254322528839,
-0.007369704078882933,
-0.06317581236362457,
0.15984685719013214,
0.18340446054935455,
0.43220049142837524,
-0.15691326558589935,
-0.1104452982544899,
-0.8241817355155945,
0.48744910955429077,
-0.21253947913646698,
0.7585672736167908,
-0.8580461144447327,
0.574286162853241,
-0.1370440423488617,
-0.502575159072876,
0.7211892604827881,
-0.517534077167511,
-0.759073793888092,
-0.32186275720596313,
-0.06946299970149994,
-0.45493456721305847,
0.6554455161094666,
0.5642334818840027,
-0.45425790548324585,
-0.31453847885131836,
-0.0578853003680706,
-0.1444331258535385,
0.12857194244861603,
0.6359826326370239,
-0.0024875786621123552,
-0.8277530670166016,
-0.31264546513557434,
-0.026342036202549934,
-0.23567964136600494,
-0.13634750247001648,
-0.04527828469872475,
0.7073502540588379,
0.2240859717130661,
-0.1830938160419464,
0.46938619017601013,
0.08599235117435455,
0.46928220987319946,
-0.1582530289888382,
-0.4739704132080078,
0.26665839552879333,
0.23095501959323883,
-0.5538999438285828,
-0.06955204904079437,
-0.04283051937818527,
-0.12371879816055298,
-0.41485396027565,
0.08791098743677139,
-0.26902836561203003,
0.31457558274269104,
-0.4609130024909973,
0.18046234548091888,
-0.0777447447180748,
0.16396942734718323,
-0.4557698965072632
] |
233742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Sifton | Arthur Sifton | Arthur Lewis Watkins Sifton, (October 26, 1858 – January 21, 1921), was a Canadian politician who served as the second premier of Alberta from 1910 until 1917. He became a minister in the federal cabinet of Canada thereafter. Born in Canada West (now Ontario), he grew up there and in Winnipeg, where he became a lawyer. He subsequently practised law with his brother Clifford Sifton in Brandon, where he was also active in municipal politics. He moved west to Prince Albert in 1885 and to Calgary in 1889. There, he was elected to the 4th and 5th North-West Legislative Assemblies; he served as a minister in the government of premier Frederick Haultain. In 1903, the federal government, at the instigation of his brother (who was then one of its ministers), made Sifton the Chief Justice of the Northwest Territories. After Alberta was created out of a portion of the Northwest Territories in 1905, Sifton became the first Chief Justice of Alberta in 1907 and served until 1910.
In 1910, the Liberal government of Alberta premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford was embroiled in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal. The Lieutenant Governor of Alberta, George Bulyea, was a Liberal and determined that for the sake of the Alberta Liberal Party, Rutherford had to be pushed aside in favour of a new premier. When other prominent Liberals declined it, the position was offered to Sifton, who accepted it. As premier, Sifton smoothed over the divisions in the party that had caused and been exacerbated by the railway scandal. He made attempts to break with the Rutherford railway policy; when these were rebuffed by the courts, he adopted a course similar to Rutherford's. He unsuccessfully pursued the transfer of rights over Alberta's natural resources from the federal government, which had retained them by the terms of Alberta's provincehood.
While Sifton was premier, the United Farmers of Alberta rose as a political force. Sifton tried to accommodate many of their demands: his government constructed agricultural colleges, incorporated a farmer-run grain elevator cooperative, and implemented a municipal system of hail insurance. Outside of agriculture, the UFA was instrumental in the Sifton government's implementation of some direct democracy measures (which resulted in prohibition) and the extension of the vote to women.
During the conscription crisis of 1917, Sifton supported the Conservative prime minister, Robert Borden, in his attempt to impose conscription to help win the First World War. He backed the creation of a federal Union government composed of Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals. In 1917, he left provincial politics and became a cabinet minister in the Union government. Over the next three and a half years, he served briefly in four different ministries and was a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. He died in Ottawa in January 1921 after a brief illness.
Early life
Arthur Sifton was born on October 26, 1858, in Arva, Canada West (now Ontario), to John Wright Sifton (1833–1912) and Catherine "Kate" Watkins (1832–1909). He was the older brother of politician Clifford Sifton. He attended public schools across southern Ontario, culminating with a boys' school in Dundas and high school in London. His father was a devout Methodist and a staunch Reformer and, later, Liberal. These allegiances permeated his home life; the Sifton household was often visited by clergy, laity, businessmen, lawyers, and politicians. In 1874 or 1875, John Sifton won contracts for preliminary construction work on the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) and moved the family to Winnipeg, where Arthur completed high school at Wesley College. Following his graduation, he and Clifford attended Victoria College, then located in Cobourg, Ontario. In 1880, he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts. While in Cobourg, he was not a devoted student: he skipped many classes, and was judged by his classmates to be "intellectually, morally, physically and erratically preeminent in virtue and otherwise, especially otherwise".
Upon graduation, Arthur Sifton returned to Winnipeg to article with Albert Monkman until 1881, when he followed his father to Brandon. John hoped to take advantage of a local real estate boom; nominally, Arthur was running a Brandon branch of Monkman's law firm, though he had not yet finished his articling and was accordingly unqualified to practise law. On September 20, 1882, he married Mary Deering of Cobourg; the pair had two children, Nellie Louise Sifton (born August 1883) and Lewis Raymond St Clair Sifton (born February 1898). In 1883, he wrote and passed his bar exam and joined Clifford's Brandon law firm, now styled Sifton and Sifton.
University of Alberta historian David Hall describes the next phase of Sifton's life as "shrouded in mystery". For reasons that are not clear, in 1885 Sifton dissolved his partnership with his brother and moved his family to Prince Albert. (Hall speculates that the brothers had a falling out, but notes that their later working relationship appears to have been amicable.) In 1885, Prince Albert's prospects did not appear bright, as it had been bypassed by the CPR line. Regardless, Sifton practised law and was in 1885 made a notary public. Three years later, he earned a Master of Arts from Victoria College and a Bachelor of Laws from the University of Toronto. In 1889, he relocated again, to Calgary; there is some suggestion that this move was for the sake of his wife's health. There he opened a law office, worked in the office of the city solicitor, and became a partner in the firm of Sifton, Short, and Stuart. At one point he was a crown prosecutor. In 1892, he was appointed Queen's Counsel.
Early political career
Sifton's first foray into politics was in 1878, when he campaigned for the introduction of prohibition under the auspices of the Canada Temperance Act in the Manitoba electoral districts of Lisgar and Marquette. His first bid for elected office took place in 1882, when he was elected to Brandon's first city council. He was re-elected in 1883, and did not seek re-election at the conclusion of this second term, though he did briefly consider running for mayor before concluding that he had insufficient support to be elected. He also served on the local school board. When his brother Clifford became Wilfrid Laurier's Minister of the Interior in November 1896, Sifton advised him on Liberal Party affairs in western Canada. This advice included suggested patronage appointments, one of which was an unimplemented proposal that Arthur himself be appointed chief justice of the Northwest Territories (a position that did not at the time exist). In 1898, Sifton re-entered politics—Hall speculates to increase his chances at a judgeship—by challenging Robert Brett, the long-time Member of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories for Banff, in the 1898 territorial election. Election day returns showed Sifton with a plurality of thirty-six votes, but by the time contested ballots were dealt with this had turned into a majority of two votes for Brett. Sifton successfully challenged this result in court, and in the ensuing by-election he defeated Brett by a comfortable margin. One oft-repeated anecdote from the campaign involved a campaign forum for which Brett was late. After giving his own speech, Sifton offered to give the still-absent Brett's speech as well, since he had heard it so many times. He did so, and when Brett eventually arrived to give a speech nearly identical to the one Sifton had given on his behalf he was puzzled by the audience's amusement.
Having defeated Brett, Sifton was immediately one of the area's most prominent Liberals, and he was named president of the District of Alberta Liberals shortly thereafter. In 1901, Clifford Sifton appointed James Hamilton Ross, Northwest Territories Treasurer and Minister of Public Works, as Commissioner of Yukon. It fell to Northwest Territories Premier Frederick William Gordon Haultain to fill the ensuing vacancy and, to preserve the delicate non-partisan balance of his administration, he had to pick a successor who was, like Ross, a Liberal. The role fell to Sifton. Soon after his appointment, Clifford offered him his sought-after position of Northwest Territories Chief Justice. Arthur declined on the basis of his recently assumed ministerial duties, but he made it clear that he was still interested in receiving the judicial post eventually.
As minister, Sifton had to cope with increasing expenses and with grants from the federal government that did not keep pace. He dealt with this through support for territorial autonomy—the creation of one or more new provinces from the Northwest Territories. Campaigning on this position, he was re-elected in the 1902 territorial election. Months later, however, T. H. Maguire retired as territorial chief justice, and this time Sifton accepted his brother's offer of the position. He resigned his political offices in January 1903.
Career as a jurist
Despite the accusations of nepotism that greeted his appointment on January 3, 1903, Sifton fast became a well-respected judge. He served as chief justice of the Northwest Territories until September 16, 1907, when the Supreme Court of Alberta was established, whereupon he headed this new court, sitting in Calgary as the first Chief Justice of Alberta. He was notoriously difficult for barristers to read: he generally heard arguments expressionlessly smoking a cigar, and it was as a judge that he first acquired his long-time nickname of the Sphinx for his inscrutability. In one trial, he sat apparently vigorously taking notes during both sides' lengthy closing arguments and, once they concluded, immediately delivered his judgment. The bewildered lawyers wondered what he had been writing down, since he had obviously made up his mind before closing arguments; once Sifton had left the courtroom, they found their answer in the form of page after page covered with the judge's signature. He rarely recorded his ratio decidendi but, despite this, few of his decisions were overturned on appeal. It has also been argued that his fellow judges had difficulty ruling on appeals from his decisions specifically because he rarely provided reasons. Much of his work was in criminal law, dealing especially with theft of livestock (in which cases he generally delivered a sentence of three years hard labour, severe by the standards of the day). By the end of his judicial career, he had convicted as many Americans as Canadians. His rulings were generally concerned with practicalities rather than legal theory, based more on social morality than legal precedent, and he did not establish any important precedents.
In 1907, Sifton was one member of a three-member commission assigned to investigate labour unrest between coal miners and mine operators. His colleagues were mining executive Lewis Stockett and miners' union executive William Haysom. Miners' demands included increased wages, a reduction in working hours to eight per day (from ten), the posting of mine inspection reports, the isolated storage of explosives, the use of non-freezing explosives, and semi-monthly rather than monthly pay. The mine operators objected to this last point on the basis that many miners did not report to work the day after payday, and it was thus desirable to keep paydays to a minimum. The commission recommended that children under sixteen should not be allowed to work in mines, that inspectors should post their reports, that mine sites should have bath houses, and that ventilation inspection should be improved. It also recommended that Albertans keep a supply of coal on hand during the summer for winter use. The commission was silent on wages (except to say that these should not be fixed by legislation), the operation of company stores (a sore point among the miners), and the incorporation of mine unions (which was recommended by mines but opposed by the unions). It made no recommendation about working hours, but Premier Alexander Rutherford's government legislated an eight-hour day anyway.
He resigned from the bench on May 25, 1910, to become Premier.
Premier
Ascension and cabinet-building
In 1910, the Liberal government of Alexander Cameron Rutherford was embroiled in the Alberta and Great Waterways (A&GW) Railway scandal. Accusations of favouritism by the government towards the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway had split the Liberal Party, and Rutherford's ability to remain at its head was in doubt. Lieutenant-Governor George Bulyea, a Liberal who had reluctantly asked Rutherford to form a government in 1905, saw his doubts about the Premier's leadership skills validated and quietly began looking for candidates to replace him and save the Liberal Party. Several possibilities—including William Henry Cushing, Peter Talbot, and Frank Oliver—were considered and either rejected or found to be uninterested in the job. As early as March 14, Bulyea had concluded that Sifton might be "the only permanent solution", though it was not until May that the Lieutenant-Governor was able to secure Rutherford's agreement to resign and the agreement of both major factions in the Liberal caucus to accept Sifton as Premier. Even up until the last minute, Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) loyal to Charles Wilson Cross—the province's Attorney-General and a staunch Rutherford ally—threatened to scuttle the arrangement unless Cross was kept on as attorney-general, to which Sifton refused to agree. On May 26, Rutherford resigned and Arthur Sifton became the second Premier of Alberta.
One of his first challenges was to craft a cabinet satisfactory to all factions; this he did by excluding the leaders of all sides. He himself took the portfolios of Public Works and Provincial Treasurer. Charles R. Mitchell, who like Sifton had been a judge during the scandal and had accordingly played no part in it, became Minister of Education and Attorney-General. Archibald J. McLean was named Provincial Secretary. His support for the insurgents (though not as one of their leaders) was offset by the continuation of Rutherford's Agriculture Minister Duncan Marshall, who had played no particular role during the scandal but had remained loyal to Rutherford. To the consternation of the opposition Conservatives, Bulyea prorogued the legislation before this new government's strength could be tested by a vote of confidence. Still, its acceptance by the Liberal caucus can be measured by the fact that only one member, Ezra Riley, resigned in protest. Riley objected to the exclusion from cabinet of insurgency leader W. H. Cushing; after his resignation he ran as an independent Liberal in the ensuing by-election, but was defeated by Sifton supporter Archibald J. McArthur. As time began to heal old wounds, Sifton expanded his cabinet to include several of the old adversaries: in February 1912 Cross was re-instated as Attorney-General and rebel leader John R. Boyle was made Minister of Education (Mitchell, who had previously held both of these posts, was transferred to the Public Works portfolio). The other new additions to cabinet—Malcolm McKenzie as Provincial Treasurer and Charles Stewart in the new position of Minister of Municipal Affairs—had voted with the Rutherford government during the scandal.
Another early challenge for the new Premier was to win a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. Although he lived and worked in Calgary, his first cabinet was composed mostly of southern members (McLean represented Lethbridge District, Marshall represented Olds, and Mitchell was soon elected in Medicine Hat), so Sifton had Archibald Campbell resign his Vermilion seat and sought election there. Sifton made few promises during the campaign, though he did identify as his priorities "the development of [Alberta's] agricultural and mining resources and the transportation facilities". Despite accusations by the Conservatives that the Liberals bought "the foreign vote" with beer, whiskey, and tobacco, he won a comfortable majority.
Railway policy
Before resigning, Rutherford's government had called a Royal Commission into the Alberta and Great Waterways affair, and this commission had not reported by the time that Sifton took office. Between that and the proroguing of the legislature, the new Premier enjoyed a calm that lasted until November 10, when the legislature reconvened. Conservative leader Edward Michener attacked the government's speech from the throne for failing to commit itself on railway policy and attacked Sifton for failing to call a general election or seek the confidence of the legislature during his first half year in office. In the meantime, Sifton was facing a breach in his own party on the railway question. Many Liberals from the south of the province, including Sifton himself, felt inclined to abandon the construction of "pioneer" railways (such as the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway) designed to hasten the settlement of the province's emptier areas, and concentrate only on those connecting major population centres. Members from the north of the province, who comprised most of the Liberal caucus, disagreed, and were vehement in their insistence that the A&GW be built. Even among this latter group there were divisions: some Liberals agreed with the Conservatives that the railway should be directly built by the government, while others, including Cross, favoured a partnership with a "responsible company". These divisions were not calmed by the release of the commission's report, whose majority condemned Rutherford and Cross for poor judgment even as it concluded that there was insufficient evidence to find that they had engaged in improper behaviour.
It was against this backdrop that Sifton announced his government's policy with respect to the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company. Because it had failed to meet its construction obligations, Sifton introduced legislation to confiscate the proceeds of the sale of government-guaranteed bonds sold to finance the railway's construction. He gave no indication of how the money, which was being held in trust by several banks, would be used. Cross's faction of (primarily northern) Liberals opposed the bill on the grounds that it did not commit the government to using the money to construct the railway, while the Conservatives opposed it as an unjustified confiscation of private property. As Conservative R. B. Bennett said,
[The bill is] an act of confiscation, an act such as never before has been carried out in the British Empire, an act such as has few equals in the pages of history. Similar acts have been carried out, once in Nicaragua and Virginia, and in South Carolina and only in times of war or revolution ... In my opinion the bargain was an improvident one, but that does not justify confiscation ... I did not think the new road would pay. But it is a new doctrine that because a bargain did not pay it should be repudiated and one should become a repudiator of bargains and a confiscator of private rights.
In speaking of A&GW President William Clarke (an American), Bennett went on to say "Clarke I despise but Clarke I am bound to respect, because this province gave him a right by charter and if I know the United States I do not think it will allow this province to take his property without due process of the law." The Conservatives, however, had not been expected to support the legislation; the real question was whether Sifton could command enough support among Liberals to pass it. After all, during the Alberta and Great Waterways crisis only nine months earlier, a legislature of very similar makeup had endorsed the Rutherford government's handling of railway policy by a vote of twenty-three votes to fifteen; would Sifton's bill, effectively a repudiation of the Rutherford policy, convince enough Liberals to change sides? The answer came in December, when the bill passed third reading by a vote of twenty-five votes to fourteen. Nine Liberals had reversed themselves and saved Sifton's government, though both Cross and Rutherford were among those to vote against it.
Despite calls from Clarke for the federal government to use its power of reservation to stop the legislation, Bulyea granted royal assent December 16. Sifton, in his capacity as provincial treasurer, immediately tried to access the money; the Royal, Dominion, and Union banks, where the funds were deposited, refused payment. Attorney-General Mitchell sued the banks; on November 4, 1911, Justice Charles Allan Stuart of the Supreme Court of Alberta found in the government's favour. The Royal Bank appealed this ruling and unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government to use its powers of disallowance to strike down the provincial act. In the meantime, Sifton announced a new railway policy that would see eight new lines constructed by private companies with the assistance of provincial loan guarantees, including several pioneer lines; this policy, in its resemblance to the Rutherford policy, met with the approval of the Cross faction, and the Liberals were once more united.
In 1912, Justice Stuart's ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court of Alberta en banc. Again the Royal Bank appealed, and on January 31, 1913, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which was at the time Canada's highest judicial authority, found for the Royal Bank, ruling that the provincial government did not have the right to confiscate money raised outside of the province. On September 22 Sifton announced new management of the AG&W agreeable to the bondholders, the government, and the banks. The Conservatives protested that other companies were prepared to construct the railroad for less than the sum agreed on with the A&GW, to which Sifton replied that the Privy Council's ruling meant that the government could not use the money raised to deal with any other company. The Conservatives filibustered the legislation and moved a series of amendments (including one calling for the scheme to be put to referendum), but the Liberals voted unanimously in its favour. The Alberta and Great Waterways saga had reached its end, and Sifton's caucus was never more united.
Natural resources
When Alberta and Saskatchewan were made provinces in 1905, the federal government retained control over their lands and natural resources, which made the new provinces unique in Canada. The Rutherford government acquiesced to this state of affairs; because the terms of confederation had been drawn up by the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, it was natural for the provincial Liberal Party to cast itself as their defender. In this capacity, Rutherford pointed to the $375,000 per year that the provincial government received from the federal government as compensation. In 1910, however, Liberal MLA Alwyn Bramley-Moore (who was a staunch provincial rights advocate and who many years later was called "Alberta's first separatist" by the Edmonton Journal) moved a resolution calling on the Sifton government to "take such steps as may be deemed necessary to acquire the control of all such natural resources as are of purely local concern". Sifton responded that it was already the intention of his government to begin negotiations with the federal government to this end. He asserted "I have always believed ... that we should administer our mines and timber. The question is not now whether we would like to control our natural resources, but what is the best way to get them."
Soon after, Sifton made a trip east and spoke on the subject of provincial resource control to the Canadian Club of Toronto, where his points were well received. In May 1910, Sifton and Saskatchewan Premier Walter Scott met with Laurier in Ottawa, where he was able to secure the Prime Minister's agreement that if the Liberals were re-elected in the 1911 federal election they would transfer to Alberta control over its resources. This election was fought primarily on the issue of reciprocity, which was popular in Alberta, and Sifton campaigned actively for Laurier (distinguishing himself from his brother, who broke with Laurier on reciprocity). Despite winning six of Alberta's seven seats, the Liberals were defeated nationally by Robert Borden's Conservatives.
Initially, this did not appear to be a problem; Borden had long called for the transfer of resource control to the prairie provinces, but when Sifton and Scott raised the issue with the new Prime Minister, little action resulted. Borden stalled for some time, and it emerged that he did not wish to buoy the fortunes of the provincial Liberal parties by giving them the political victory that would result from the transfer of resource control. Upon the outbreak of the First World War, the issue fell out of public prominence, and it was not until 1930 that Alberta achieved this long-time objective.
Agricultural policy
Sifton's time as Premier corresponded with the rise of the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) as a political force. Formed in 1909 by the merger of the Society of Equity and the Alberta Farmers' Association, the UFA later became a political party and governed Alberta from 1921 until 1935. During Sifton's tenure, however, its entry into direct politics was still several years away, and it confined itself to advocating for farmers' interests. In a province in which 50,004 people voted in the 1909 provincial election, the UFA claimed an initial membership of 2,100, which climbed to 9,400 in 1913. Moreover, these figures did not include the many farmers who were active in the organization without paying dues; the UFA was a force to be reckoned with, and Sifton took notice.
The UFA's first provincial victory took place in 1910, and involved the construction of agricultural colleges. Premier Alexander Rutherford, always a stalwart ally of the University of Alberta, approved a plan to locate Alberta's first agricultural college on the university's campus, in Rutherford's home town of Strathcona. At the 1910 UFA convention, a resolution proposed putting the college in southern Alberta, though it was supplanted by an Edward Michener motion calling for the UFA's leadership to consult with the province on a mutually amenable location. After consultation with the UFA, Sifton agreed that, in addition to the college, agricultural schools would be built around the province, and that farmers would be guaranteed representation on the college's board. In fact, Sifton held off on the establishment of the college all together in favour of the creation of seven demonstration farms in different regions of the province. In 1912, the government announced the creation of agricultural colleges in connection with three of these farms (all of them in the ridings of provincial cabinet ministers: Duncan Marshall's Olds, Claresholm in Archibald McLean's Lethbridge District, and Sifton's Vermilion).
Another of the UFA's policies called for a single tax on land to replace most other forms of taxation. The farmers hoped that this tax would help replace tariffs, which made it harder for them to export their produce, and shift the tax burden towards cities, where land values were higher. They also called for a surtax on undeveloped land to curb land speculation and encourage the sale of land to farmers. On this demand too, Sifton acted: in 1911–1912 he allowed municipalities to levy property taxes and required that rural municipalities tax only land, and in 1914 he imposed a provincial tax on undeveloped land to discourage land speculation. Other UFA-motivated acts by Sifton's government included abandonment of a 1912 plan to privatize hail insurance (it instead enacted a municipal insurance scheme) and the prohibition of contract clauses that allowed farm machinery companies to avoid responsibility for their products. Perhaps the most important piece of farm legislation passed by Sifton's government was the incorporation of the Alberta Farmers' Co-operative Elevator Company (AFCEC). Though the UFA's first preference was for government ownership and operation of grain elevators, which Sifton refused, it gladly accepted the AFCEC, in which only farmers could hold shares and which was supported by provincial startup loans.
Hall writes that "the Sifton government in effect responded wholly or in part to practically every resolution from the 1913 UFA convention related to provincial powers." This rate could not sustain itself, however, especially once the First World War began to occupy an increasing share of the province's attention and resources. During the 1916 legislative session, the government acted on only two of the UFA's twenty-three demands of that year — one to allow the sale of gopher poison by UFA locals, and one dealing with brand inspection.
Democratic and moral reform
It was not only in agricultural policy that the UFA spread its influence. The organization had a strong progressive bent, and advocated direct democracy, women's suffrage, and prohibition. In response to the first of these, Sifton in 1913 introduced the Direct Democracy Act. Though it went somewhat less far than the UFA would have liked—for example, it made no provision for recall of elected officials—it did allow for Albertans to call a referendum directly by submitting a petition including the names of eligible voters totalling ten percent of the votes cast in the previous provincial election, including at least eight percent in each of eighty-five percent of the province's ridings. The Conservatives were on record as supporting direct democracy, and could therefore criticize the bill only in detail.
The large number of signatures required (beginning with the 1913 election, 9,399 signatures were required) meant that only an issue capable of galvanizing much of the province could lead to a referendum. Prohibition was such an issue. The Conservatives were advocates of such a referendum (during the 1st Alberta Legislative Assembly, Conservative Cornelius Hiebert had advocated prohibition or, failing that, a government monopoly on alcohol sales), but Sifton and his Liberals were less enthusiastic. They knew the boon to government coffers that liquor sales represented, and were not eager to alienate either the UFA's moral reformers or the province's hoteliers and saloonkeepers. Once the referendum legislation was in place, however, its advocates wasted no time: in 1914 the legislature accepted a petition bearing 23,656 names, and duly called a referendum on the subject. The Alberta prohibition referendum passed resoundingly, and the legislature passed the Prohibition Act in the spring of 1916. Initially the new Act appeared successful: in 1917 there were 5,151 convictions for all crimes across Alberta, as compared to an annual average of 12,706 over the preceding four years. By the time the province's enforcement of the act was exposed as being either deliberately lax or merely futile, depending on the observer, Sifton had left office.
Alberta's women, especially those of the UFA-affiliated United Farm Women of Alberta, were active in the province's moral reform movement. They were also active in seeking the vote: in 1913 a delegation of them arrived at the legislature demanding the vote; Sifton asked them "did you ladies wash up your luncheon dishes before you came down here to ask me for the vote? If you haven't you'd better go home because you're not going to get any votes from me." In October 1914 another delegation arrived, bearing the signatures of 40,000 people. At that time, the Premier agreed that most traditional objections to extension of the franchise were "played out", but expressed concern at the increases that would result to the cost of elections and uncertainty at whether most of the province's women actually wanted suffrage. In February 1915 a larger delegation arrived at the legislature and occupied the MLAs' seats, demanding that the franchise be extended quickly enough to allow women to vote in the upcoming prohibition referendum; an angry Sifton refused and suggested to the women that if they wanted the vote, they should contact their MLAs and promise that they would use their votes to re-elect them, "which is after all one of the strongest way in which you can appeal to male human nature, as represented in the legislature." Even so, he committed to raising the issue in the legislature after the referendum. On September 17, 1915, he told UFA President James Speakman that he had given instructions for the preparation of a statute "placing men and women in Alberta on the basis of absolute equality so far as Provincial matters are concerned." True to his word, he introduced legislation in the spring of 1916 giving women the vote in all provincial and municipal elections. The Conservatives supported it enthusiastically, and only St. Albert MLA Lucien Boudreau voted against it (though Ribstone Liberal James Gray Turgeon admitted that he was supporting his leader's legislation against his own convictions).
Style and political success
Arthur Sifton's political style was to remain aloof and detached, and to say no more than necessary; this cemented his reputation as "the Sphinx". He was authoritarian and, while he inspired respect, he was not loved; historian L. G. Thomas credits him with holding the Liberal Party together through his strength, but blames him for failing to heal its underlying divisions. Sifton was originally selected as Premier in the hopes that he would lead the Liberal Party to continued dominance of provincial politics in Alberta. His success in this regard was mixed: although he led the party to victory in the 1913 and 1917 elections, its majorities declined each time. Moreover, his victories were marred by accusations of unethical electoral tactics.
In advance of the 1913 election, government-sponsored redistribution legislation increased the number of ridings from 41 to 56 and left them of unequal size; only 103 votes were cast in Clearwater in its first election. The Liberals argued that a model of straight representation by population was inappropriate in a province in which some districts were growing far more quickly than others. David Hall has called the bill a "flagrant gerrymander" and the ensuing election the "crookedest election in Alberta history". There being few policy differences separating the Liberals from the Conservatives, the electoral battle was instead an organizational one, with the two sides accusing one another of bribing ethnic minorities with alcohol and importing elections workers from outside of the province to bribe, intimidate, and mislead rural voters. The Conservatives also accused the Liberals of using government-paid civil servants to campaign for their re-election. Sifton, not confident of victory in his own riding, sought election both there and in Macleod. In the event, he was defeated there but retained his Vermilion riding.
Since the 1917 election was held in the throes of the First World War, it was unlikely to be an election as usual—indeed, the Conservatives favoured prolonging the legislature until the end of the war. Sifton was not willing to go that far, but did introduce legislation to re-elect, by act of the legislature, the twelve MLAs who had enlisted in the armed forces—of these, seven were Liberals and five Conservatives; one of the Liberals, Joseph Stauffer of Disbury, was killed in action before the legislation took effect. The Conservatives supported this legislation, though they later cast aspersions on it by suggesting that of the Liberals re-elected, two had never left Canada. A second piece of election legislation provided for two special MLAs to be elected by the 38,000 Albertans serving overseas; the Conservatives protested that two MLAs was not sufficient for such a large number of voters, especially since Clearwater by this time had only 116 eligible voters.
After a sedate election that the Liberals won by a slightly reduced majority, Sifton announced his resignation as Premier to enter federal politics. Sifton's 1917 victory was the Liberals' last: his successor, Charles Stewart, lost the 1921 election to the newly-political UFA. In Thomas's estimation, Sifton would have faced a similar fate in 1917 if the UFA had run candidates then.
Federal politics
The Conscription Crisis of 1917 divided the Liberal Party of Canada, and this division extended into the provincial camp. Federal Liberal leader Laurier opposed Prime Minister Borden's proposal to implement wartime conscription, a stand which many Liberals, especially those outside Quebec, denounced as unpatriotic. Borden reached out to these Liberals to propose a coalition government, to be led by him and to include Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals. Clifford Sifton was a major broker of the resulting deal and, when the question of a suitable Alberta representative in the cabinet came up, Arthur Sifton was a natural choice. In 1914, he had announced Alberta's willingness to sacrifice "its last dollar and its last man", and was a staunch supporter of conscription. He had agreed by August 1917 to join the Unionist government, and resigned as Premier in October.
Although he was only 58 at the time of joining government, his health was suffering. He was short of energy and required a car to transport him even the several hundred metres from his Ottawa residence to the House of Commons of Canada. Because of this, he was given relatively undemanding portfolios: Minister of Customs and Inland Revenue, Minister of Public Works, and Secretary of State. Hall has called him among the least visible of Borden's ministers. Because of his health and his short tenure in each position, he made very little impact. Despite this, Sifton was highly regarded by his colleagues. Borden himself later stated "there was no one in whose judgment I placed firmer reliance". Sifton was appointed to the Imperial Privy Council in the 1920 New Year Honours, entitling him to the style "The Right Honourable".
Sifton was one of four Canadian delegates to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, along with Borden, Charles Doherty, and George Eulas Foster. There, he acted as vice chair of the Commission on Ports, Waterways, and Railways, and served on the Commission on Aerial Navigation. In these capacities he argued for Canada to be treated as an independent state at a time when its foreign policy was still managed by the United Kingdom. On June 28, 1919, Arthur Sifton was one of two Canadians to sign the Treaty of Versailles.
Death and legacy
In January 1921, Sifton became ill and took leave from his duties for a few days. Although his recovery seemed imminent, his condition suddenly worsened. He died at his home on January 21 at the age of 62. Borden mourned the loss of "a public servant of the highest ability and of the most conspicuous patriotism". He was buried in Ottawa's Beechwood Cemetery.
His public papers are in the Canadian archives, with some legal papers in a legal collection in Alberta, and others mixed in with those of his brother Clifford.
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
As MP
Archives
There are Arthur Sifton fonds at Library and Archives Canada and the Provincial Archives of Alberta.
References
Citations
Works cited
External links
1858 births
1921 deaths
Judges in Alberta
Lawyers in Alberta
Alberta Liberal Party MLAs
Canadian Methodists
Canadian people of Anglo-Irish descent
Leaders of the Alberta Liberal Party
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Alberta
Canadian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
People from Middlesex County, Ontario
Politicians from Calgary
University of Toronto alumni
Premiers of Alberta
Unionist Party (Canada) MPs
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Burials at Beechwood Cemetery (Ottawa) | [
-0.08682271093130112,
0.08637762069702148,
-0.26267603039741516,
0.08374004811048508,
0.057203441858291626,
0.6673904657363892,
0.48709818720817566,
0.24318024516105652,
-0.603253960609436,
-0.6144976019859314,
0.297370046377182,
0.11819211393594742,
-0.19596423208713531,
0.3502086400985718,
-0.240631103515625,
0.4682457745075226,
-0.7644492387771606,
0.15862037241458893,
-0.2099902480840683,
-0.3086109161376953,
0.045197706669569016,
-0.7156447768211365,
0.6060439348220825,
0.2148333042860031,
-0.23096254467964172,
0.025332102552056313,
0.07371418178081512,
-0.20396588742733002,
-0.1251259595155716,
0.25056275725364685,
-0.1888657957315445,
0.4282713532447815,
0.8041942119598389,
0.005513294599950314,
-0.6873044371604919,
-0.41958826780319214,
-0.3781172037124634,
-0.35008522868156433,
0.029009977355599403,
0.17481274902820587,
-0.45871666073799133,
0.040652234107255936,
0.09552668035030365,
-0.28667938709259033,
0.17516708374023438,
-1.0745805501937866,
-2.0925168991088867,
0.07551208138465881,
-0.5011448264122009,
-0.22293493151664734,
-0.3313860595226288,
0.452353298664093,
0.3332633674144745,
-0.293874591588974,
0.4456274211406708,
0.47614601254463196,
0.12895731627941132,
-0.05060860514640808,
-0.19220487773418427,
-0.43197745084762573,
0.07420304417610168,
-0.2838011682033539,
0.8169795274734497,
-0.08731655776500702,
0.36551517248153687,
0.06275378167629242,
0.013518571853637695,
0.1797679215669632,
-0.09406187385320663,
0.1532507985830307,
0.2335626482963562,
0.6588996052742004,
0.5356962084770203,
0.5899083018302917,
0.3867201507091522,
0.18711304664611816,
0.01727832853794098,
-0.08752252906560898,
0.3048687279224396,
0.5745534896850586,
-0.06556486338376999,
-0.5802739858627319,
0.5968156456947327,
0.6339821815490723,
-0.17709526419639587,
0.11936627328395844,
-1.272083044052124,
0.44044506549835205,
-0.4081500172615051,
-0.35754549503326416,
-0.7352185249328613,
-0.24089039862155914,
0.11542510241270065,
-0.06556926667690277,
-0.5233948826789856,
-0.37529292702674866,
0.025239484384655952,
0.03214070200920105,
-0.3359495997428894,
-0.22855748236179352,
0.18397939205169678,
-0.16263669729232788,
0.06713715940713882,
-0.044923968613147736,
-0.618056058883667,
0.5358524918556213,
-0.42453134059906006,
0.07014346867799759,
0.327314555644989,
-0.12502619624137878,
-0.5399851202964783,
-0.021329492330551147,
0.1617756485939026,
-0.09786035865545273,
0.4436240494251251,
0.18802456557750702,
0.3521730303764343,
-0.513602077960968,
-0.14993779361248016,
0.025244923308491707,
-0.05346298962831497,
0.14172862470149994,
-0.17813578248023987,
0.15223655104637146,
-0.6034446954727173,
-0.24513262510299683,
-0.4235988259315491,
-0.6441981792449951,
0.20779480040073395,
0.5775167346000671,
1.0212947130203247,
0.7676113843917847,
-0.2956788241863251,
-0.13979844748973846,
-0.6673756837844849,
0.11340385675430298,
-0.1674952208995819,
0.13995562493801117,
-0.29669734835624695,
0.05618343502283096,
-0.2815171480178833,
-0.1978186070919037,
-0.5445385575294495,
-0.16061708331108093,
-0.1553569883108139,
-0.1956394761800766,
-0.22055822610855103,
-0.13319844007492065,
-0.3506401479244232,
-0.10683637857437134,
0.3723722994327545,
0.15696822106838226,
0.4604475498199463,
-0.24577903747558594,
-0.10151609778404236,
0.9096126556396484,
0.4015359878540039,
0.2673001289367676,
0.17171414196491241,
0.3253406882286072,
-0.06698253750801086,
0.13303367793560028,
0.043888069689273834,
-0.1202164739370346,
0.3952496349811554,
0.1403796523809433,
-0.08593276143074036,
-0.6469947695732117,
0.26833751797676086,
-0.07360031455755234,
0.09829746931791306,
0.05360007286071777,
0.6633255481719971,
-0.11068454384803772,
0.037402037531137466,
0.412353515625,
0.35759711265563965,
0.062052156776189804,
0.15181787312030792,
-0.5086514353752136,
-0.924379825592041,
-0.21884775161743164,
0.2895718216896057,
0.16387437283992767,
0.23957647383213043,
0.2502332031726837,
0.48607560992240906,
-0.41531750559806824,
0.6758260130882263,
-0.2806622385978699,
-0.2771577537059784,
-0.6687365770339966,
0.09487146884202957,
-0.5425384640693665,
0.8280298709869385,
-0.05791674554347992,
-0.3045468032360077,
0.4337310791015625,
-0.36136749386787415,
0.48316967487335205,
-0.0815734937787056,
-0.4934437870979309,
0.4836883842945099,
-0.4749011993408203,
0.13503432273864746,
0.7086861729621887,
0.22134698927402496,
0.10601452738046646,
-0.053450725972652435,
0.8930241465568542,
0.4982280731201172,
-0.5597853660583496,
-0.559840738773346,
0.48096606135368347,
-0.48711538314819336,
-0.5001856088638306,
-0.28946051001548767,
-0.5848288536071777,
0.15484635531902313,
-0.21295179426670074,
0.38910192251205444,
0.3343433737754822,
-0.3807511627674103,
0.5307325124740601,
0.014101115055382252,
0.6537387371063232,
0.0778004452586174,
-0.03470100462436676,
-0.035178184509277344,
-0.877766489982605,
-0.017650673165917397,
0.13737019896507263,
0.40926092863082886,
-0.7937249541282654,
0.19717398285865784,
0.333536297082901,
-0.1966475546360016,
0.2593994140625,
0.4163833260536194,
-0.37803003191947937,
-0.23765549063682556,
0.4834303855895996,
-0.4873191714286804,
-0.1566256433725357,
0.10606314241886139,
0.6295490264892578,
-0.30691033601760864,
-0.05815400928258896,
0.08054719865322113,
-0.3727361857891083,
0.7297091484069824,
0.41046127676963806,
0.40877866744995117,
0.11639686673879623,
0.5074869394302368,
-0.252659410238266,
0.3108590245246887,
-0.2967161536216736,
0.444832444190979,
0.30388835072517395,
0.1508408933877945,
-0.1421089470386505,
0.1075904443860054,
0.06792226433753967,
0.26124709844589233,
0.08954057097434998,
-0.4353256821632385,
-0.1428183615207672,
-0.7003999948501587,
-0.06613840907812119,
0.3865291476249695,
-0.1868416666984558,
-0.15178950130939484,
0.5800285339355469,
0.9051885604858398,
0.40489035844802856,
-0.22771583497524261,
0.047800902277231216,
-0.660423994064331,
-0.8667725920677185,
0.3980559706687927,
1.2248446941375732,
0.031855929642915726,
0.07762202620506287,
0.07085781544446945,
-0.1651986688375473,
-0.5072357058525085,
0.06109726056456566,
0.030113596469163895,
-0.8454821109771729,
-0.20607665181159973,
0.7581143379211426,
-0.7916004657745361,
0.3323829472064972,
-0.4069961905479431,
0.2617315948009491,
-0.1266554743051529,
-0.6200937032699585,
0.3803962171077728,
-0.3308504521846771,
-0.41472119092941284,
0.2985290288925171,
0.13627855479717255,
0.1720879077911377,
0.24116069078445435,
0.33086445927619934,
-0.592380702495575,
-0.29947713017463684,
-5.512394905090332,
0.292540580034256,
-0.07966714352369308,
-0.6744860410690308,
0.34544670581817627,
-0.10389865189790726,
0.16363801062107086,
0.028820980340242386,
-0.21896104514598846,
-0.13537859916687012,
0.7890521287918091,
-0.24986632168293,
0.18194516003131866,
0.4424368441104889,
0.7767991423606873,
0.7255952954292297,
0.8150242567062378,
-0.3150584399700165,
0.34971776604652405,
0.45141369104385376,
0.2612166106700897,
-0.549726128578186,
-0.33516696095466614,
0.04873407632112503,
0.8820058703422546,
-0.10137610882520676,
-0.41838446259498596,
0.2507684528827667,
-0.635197103023529,
-0.22161777317523956,
0.3670766353607178,
0.28344181180000305,
-0.18916241824626923,
-0.25716155767440796,
-0.051853206008672714,
-0.5686219930648804,
0.6559020280838013,
0.4111366868019104,
0.16236212849617004,
-0.16289466619491577,
0.31504377722740173,
0.03657969832420349,
-1.089255928993225,
-0.004401417449116707,
-0.027709119021892548,
-0.3329487442970276,
-0.6189779043197632,
0.6574479341506958,
-0.3418285548686981,
0.24265457689762115,
0.617482602596283,
0.4549695551395416,
-0.017054131254553795,
0.2621709108352661,
-0.029915740713477135,
0.2572709918022156,
-0.31416618824005127,
0.23136737942695618,
-1.1461883783340454,
0.13338996469974518,
0.2255135178565979,
-0.6783581376075745,
0.0029004160314798355,
0.1564425677061081,
-0.5091297030448914,
-0.3804727792739868,
-0.15928532183170319,
0.09228989481925964,
0.8115745186805725,
-0.5488008856773376,
0.01141436118632555,
0.6141977310180664,
0.36957839131355286,
-0.9334084391593933,
0.2514697015285492,
-0.23912835121154785,
-0.2874811887741089,
0.27059659361839294,
-0.4373735189437866,
-0.549424409866333,
0.015467156656086445,
-0.09929267317056656,
0.6290380358695984,
1.1495226621627808,
0.8051238656044006,
0.16432377696037292,
-0.10841156542301178,
0.4827536642551422,
-0.012004522606730461,
-0.06399594992399216,
0.2587449848651886,
-0.29978257417678833,
0.11184070259332657,
0.38125500082969666,
0.2790263891220093,
-0.3190998136997223,
0.38666027784347534,
0.05289800465106964,
-0.07056305557489395,
-0.18323051929473877,
-0.5814866423606873,
0.3449602723121643,
-0.18490540981292725,
-0.928437352180481,
-0.25605469942092896,
0.21413177251815796,
-0.3532862067222595,
0.019571786746382713,
0.3011396527290344,
0.027908911928534508,
-0.31758570671081543,
0.5834420919418335,
-0.7249629497528076,
0.03346036747097969,
0.09370075166225433,
-0.28777799010276794,
-0.15459640324115753,
-0.08120124042034149,
1.0062379837036133,
0.11607911437749863,
0.030037619173526764,
0.20387700200080872,
-0.2857499122619629,
0.01868489570915699,
-0.1458480954170227,
-0.18773631751537323,
0.4044448435306549,
-0.26313892006874084,
-0.418712854385376,
-0.005238367710262537,
-0.2406507432460785,
0.9216700196266174,
-0.3136093318462372,
0.3957327902317047,
-0.665623664855957,
-0.1832675337791443,
-0.5597625374794006,
-0.03682694584131241,
-0.15390031039714813,
-0.21621643006801605,
0.17906242609024048,
-0.27115923166275024,
0.16836726665496826,
0.0669829249382019,
0.08781513571739197,
0.23879525065422058,
0.6343142986297607,
0.23062866926193237,
-0.8280524015426636,
0.14548635482788086,
-0.3317561447620392,
-0.16771595180034637,
0.29722580313682556,
-0.6698451042175293,
-0.29576244950294495,
-0.1397070586681366,
-0.3431498110294342,
-0.06448448449373245,
0.20462541282176971,
-0.3642991781234741,
-0.04057121276855469,
0.46139034628868103,
-0.9958944320678711,
-0.22211454808712006,
0.04431648924946785,
0.05993955582380295,
-0.6409830451011658,
0.027252722531557083,
-0.3199355900287628,
0.8932728171348572,
0.1835279017686844,
-0.5140088200569153,
-0.6356140375137329,
0.18527305126190186,
0.2892051041126251,
-0.17580531537532806,
-0.2548693120479584,
-0.5693091154098511,
0.08525782823562622,
0.4389541447162628,
0.024489006027579308,
0.22010156512260437,
-0.6285114884376526,
-0.12384200096130371,
0.777110755443573,
-0.1736147254705429,
-0.6909976601600647,
-0.4508209526538849,
0.2658538520336151,
-0.18703697621822357,
0.19980378448963165,
-0.7614215612411499,
0.2668311893939972,
1.048850178718567,
0.19035182893276215,
0.22654476761817932,
0.17180296778678894,
-0.18793359398841858,
-0.35098782181739807,
-0.4302867650985718,
-0.22704176604747772,
-0.06443703174591064,
-0.08133776485919952,
-0.5182233452796936,
-0.403825581073761,
-0.6451833844184875,
-0.28615880012512207,
-0.436616450548172,
0.012642774730920792,
0.5674476027488708,
-0.1627291589975357,
-0.1765202134847641,
0.42307034134864807,
0.19912558794021606,
-0.266420841217041,
0.4506836235523224,
0.44201141595840454,
0.7696046233177185,
-0.7220332622528076,
-0.8040915131568909,
-0.5297314524650574,
-0.2827039957046509,
0.036133456975221634,
-0.3153635561466217,
-0.2416974902153015,
-0.048272281885147095,
0.5782005190849304,
0.329140305519104,
1.043266773223877,
0.07504024356603622,
-0.20562145113945007,
-0.0010497818002477288,
-0.030801922082901,
0.36223387718200684,
0.2801155745983124,
0.28020888566970825,
0.17581044137477875,
0.4352569580078125,
0.055789683014154434,
-0.34758132696151733,
0.621968686580658,
1.2125840187072754,
0.07341255992650986,
-0.4647746980190277,
-0.29843175411224365,
-0.22504928708076477,
-0.02821514941751957,
-0.69013911485672,
-0.2783753573894501,
0.17827755212783813,
0.5358858704566956,
-0.4284621477127075,
-0.5946420431137085,
0.24881801009178162,
0.8725274205207825,
-0.3127750754356384,
0.03357301652431488,
0.7840530276298523,
0.10641829669475555,
0.3178863525390625,
-0.128551185131073,
0.4986536204814911,
0.31395742297172546,
0.47513553500175476,
0.27590399980545044,
0.2430204451084137,
0.05458829551935196,
-0.06372398883104324,
0.3983503580093384,
-0.41254574060440063,
-0.7702585458755493,
-0.44253724813461304,
-0.1506516933441162,
0.2874031960964203,
-0.2241286039352417,
-0.2508489489555359,
0.031665705144405365,
-0.5711551308631897,
0.039261143654584885,
-0.2438553422689438,
-0.912242591381073,
-0.06909149885177612,
0.2920999526977539,
-0.19552406668663025,
-0.4540674686431885,
-0.6860395073890686,
-0.09143809974193573,
-0.031228911131620407,
-0.5644232034683228,
-0.26040127873420715,
-0.5195068120956421,
0.18236657977104187,
-0.41429078578948975,
-0.6282771825790405,
-0.13872402906417847,
0.0660487487912178,
-0.3977593183517456,
0.3881542384624481,
-0.0828218087553978,
-0.023020047694444656,
-0.688275158405304,
0.8186410069465637,
0.34181857109069824,
-0.2665300667285919,
-0.16987387835979462,
-0.2081577330827713,
-0.02920396625995636,
-0.3491103947162628,
-0.4209167957305908,
-0.26731738448143005,
0.5067039132118225,
-0.2653779685497284,
0.17317749559879303,
0.2830694019794464,
-0.9176056981086731,
-0.41739392280578613,
0.07621756196022034,
-0.4693031311035156,
-0.5011379718780518,
-0.02439647912979126,
-0.35811319947242737,
0.48721322417259216,
0.5491855144500732,
-0.1159333735704422,
0.08062361925840378,
0.7358216047286987,
0.6161649227142334,
0.4607653319835663,
-0.31012794375419617,
0.45409271121025085,
-0.2458912581205368,
-0.4963672161102295,
-0.37159255146980286,
0.9116017818450928,
-0.1399696320295334,
0.021147623658180237,
0.25763562321662903,
-0.22596561908721924,
0.1832299530506134,
0.25383204221725464,
-0.05778638646006584,
1.1129623651504517,
0.17536741495132446,
0.5124324560165405,
0.13267463445663452,
-0.0851132720708847,
-0.07857941091060638,
0.2508751153945923,
0.571341872215271,
-0.09353989362716675,
0.4650542140007019,
-0.23217171430587769,
-0.1333417296409607,
-0.4512418806552887,
-0.5955075621604919,
0.5636619329452515,
0.7025275230407715,
-0.17712420225143433,
-0.41929420828819275,
0.015072026289999485,
-0.052487049251794815,
-0.5732113718986511,
1.0929605960845947,
-0.13109749555587769,
-0.15881891548633575,
0.0025252404157072306,
0.26426002383232117,
-0.5594765543937683,
-0.25756964087486267,
0.7254078388214111,
0.07190785557031631,
-0.2303498089313507,
-0.016067935153841972,
0.06589009612798691,
0.20413853228092194,
0.5056282877922058,
0.7274556756019592,
0.12385692447423935,
-0.1959250420331955,
0.12091981619596481,
0.20272119343280792,
0.4453723132610321,
-0.1352470964193344,
-0.5743963122367859,
0.3486555218696594,
-0.42330363392829895,
0.06730382889509201,
0.324878066778183,
0.2118699997663498,
-0.6521899104118347,
-0.028097275644540787,
-0.515810489654541,
-0.20310717821121216,
0.15168988704681396,
-0.1812063455581665,
0.07951518148183823,
-0.4365328848361969,
0.38216787576675415,
0.8280320763587952,
0.16295014321804047,
-0.03717150166630745,
-0.32370418310165405,
-0.057366084307432175,
0.040781691670417786,
-0.1798562854528427,
0.5581183433532715,
0.0353068932890892,
0.1873229444026947,
-0.46953919529914856,
0.6218616962432861,
0.00815960206091404,
0.7690218687057495,
-0.6949282288551331,
0.2233438789844513,
-0.25772589445114136,
-0.4649489223957062,
0.6953923106193542,
-0.29467248916625977,
-0.18666237592697144,
-0.2814631164073944,
-0.019719870761036873,
-0.16152448952198029,
0.21301770210266113,
-0.12331721931695938,
-0.047544755041599274,
-0.0005839642835780978,
0.09629829972982407,
0.017133574932813644,
0.09845989942550659,
0.8720444440841675,
-0.3280811309814453,
-0.6314496397972107,
-0.6000120043754578,
0.27086150646209717,
-0.45461463928222656,
0.0627477690577507,
-0.02439006045460701,
0.4425107538700104,
0.08710351586341858,
-0.1451101303100586,
0.853669285774231,
0.041523952037096024,
0.28699079155921936,
-0.46358028054237366,
0.5276622176170349,
0.3480346202850342,
-0.03611450269818306,
-0.22910648584365845,
0.10325191169977188,
0.2661775052547455,
0.16402485966682434,
-0.5744709968566895,
0.3648272454738617,
-0.5056610703468323,
0.4876219928264618,
-0.26431557536125183,
0.16534070670604706,
0.27848121523857117,
0.2134191244840622,
-0.2523422837257385
] |
233749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20fatigue | Battle fatigue | Battle fatigue is may refer to:
Combat stress reaction, a military term for an acute reaction to the stress of battle commonly involving fatigue, slowed reaction time, indecision, and other symptoms
Posttraumatic stress disorder, a medical term for a chronic disorder associated with psychological trauma
Shell shock, a term used in World War I for an uncontrolled strong nervous reaction to the battle's horrible and extreme inhuman conditions | [
0.11429883539676666,
0.3825412094593048,
-0.8715591430664062,
-0.058028146624565125,
-0.17142455279827118,
0.44344234466552734,
0.9725127220153809,
0.0644930973649025,
-0.0895502045750618,
-0.6878576278686523,
-0.721466064453125,
0.7872450351715088,
-0.08588390797376633,
0.25317269563674927,
-0.3854280710220337,
0.8933096528053284,
0.206009641289711,
0.23137545585632324,
-0.11840324103832245,
-0.03591728210449219,
-0.4218170642852783,
-0.1548490822315216,
0.44991225004196167,
0.026288682594895363,
0.021578283980488777,
-0.09381349384784698,
0.1266782581806183,
0.10295118391513824,
0.03624285012483597,
0.2898651361465454,
-0.2714415192604065,
0.2535555362701416,
-0.3143152892589569,
-0.2606799900531769,
-0.41795170307159424,
0.15348345041275024,
-0.16517625749111176,
-0.205208420753479,
0.07898743450641632,
-0.5721819400787354,
0.2627658545970917,
-0.23449325561523438,
0.20708799362182617,
0.2758561372756958,
-0.41066882014274597,
0.00576751260086894,
-1.8030089139938354,
-0.0156128304079175,
-0.5684322714805603,
-0.3491481840610504,
0.14040769636631012,
0.3641575276851654,
0.3374722898006439,
0.2553206980228424,
-0.019264155998826027,
0.6440930366516113,
-0.6421220302581787,
-0.04037344455718994,
0.35615965723991394,
-0.8424854874610901,
0.6692683696746826,
-0.04181063175201416,
-0.24122288823127747,
0.05194491520524025,
-0.3213540017604828,
-0.07580201327800751,
-0.08523548394441605,
0.1406719833612442,
-0.2604161202907562,
-0.31549718976020813,
-0.19260026514530182,
-0.20028938353061676,
0.2874056100845337,
0.09461646527051926,
-0.31401827931404114,
-0.08820166438817978,
0.0771615207195282,
-0.4770403802394867,
-0.4885367751121521,
0.10545614361763,
0.21789075434207916,
0.63262939453125,
0.6040412187576294,
0.059629008173942566,
0.06115715205669403,
0.0018525379709899426,
-0.1182214692234993,
0.5475134253501892,
-0.20270472764968872,
0.6001155376434326,
0.448400616645813,
-0.018383419141173363,
0.7345702648162842,
-0.0017192562809213996,
0.08934493362903595,
0.4344084560871124,
0.2568638026714325,
0.44724223017692566,
0.062709741294384,
0.13119901716709137,
-0.007577238604426384,
-0.4101901650428772,
0.29609233140945435,
0.17946769297122955,
-0.23489698767662048,
-0.2349940687417984,
0.07495855540037155,
-0.19963109493255615,
-0.0014589722268283367,
-0.4592558741569519,
-0.7052459120750427,
-0.06950752437114716,
-0.08746108412742615,
-0.26969796419143677,
-0.6833544969558716,
-0.5987318158149719,
-0.11411111056804657,
0.006422311998903751,
-0.11951734125614166,
-0.2853308320045471,
-0.16191153228282928,
0.1520136445760727,
-0.33988988399505615,
0.11658251285552979,
-0.16267013549804688,
0.5394565463066101,
0.4272921681404114,
0.30442437529563904,
-0.6082063317298889,
0.07482849061489105,
0.09226737171411514,
1.1329975128173828,
-0.5855212211608887,
0.558091402053833,
-0.06803332269191742,
-0.15368826687335968,
0.21720784902572632,
0.1274997442960739,
-0.031488269567489624,
0.42506369948387146,
-0.9989086389541626,
-0.6996881365776062,
-0.4291993975639343,
-0.04134140536189079,
0.23445306718349457,
-0.6293737292289734,
0.06952759623527527,
0.11862362176179886,
0.07223997265100479,
-0.13214290142059326,
0.13139300048351288,
-0.41891202330589294,
-0.6032208800315857,
0.18426428735256195,
0.1308714747428894,
0.16550537943840027,
0.021472174674272537,
-0.5848991870880127,
0.22822436690330505,
0.07014094293117523,
0.11874476820230484,
0.40475791692733765,
-0.7905128598213196,
0.22088171541690826,
0.40322446823120117,
-0.11202875524759293,
-0.33041438460350037,
-0.18346621096134186,
-0.15304319560527802,
0.29461896419525146,
-0.28600725531578064,
0.0922139510512352,
-0.07679110765457153,
-0.11678951233625412,
-0.12764762341976166,
0.5680463910102844,
0.3395693600177765,
0.5012152791023254,
0.769971489906311,
-0.4004896879196167,
-0.5063620209693909,
0.14969906210899353,
0.5336787104606628,
-0.3004716634750366,
0.42892590165138245,
-0.15033911168575287,
0.07334773987531662,
-0.42377418279647827,
-0.3281421363353729,
-0.14036639034748077,
-0.9882259368896484,
-0.4010236859321594,
0.408866822719574,
-0.6378479599952698,
1.568744421005249,
-0.28193801641464233,
-0.605835497379303,
0.781629741191864,
-0.1371694654226303,
0.507614016532898,
0.8341357111930847,
-0.0948217362165451,
0.40916308760643005,
-0.1785445511341095,
-0.22254407405853271,
0.5227940082550049,
0.5087067484855652,
0.18407243490219116,
-0.32213929295539856,
0.1153033971786499,
0.8844226002693176,
-0.32601478695869446,
-0.32789719104766846,
-0.35546329617500305,
0.601073145866394,
0.2620561718940735,
-0.3146616518497467,
0.1940094232559204,
0.03560446575284004,
-0.7416101098060608,
0.26134493947029114,
-0.4688592255115509,
0.05501852557063103,
0.054495081305503845,
-0.33008015155792236,
0.013518211431801319,
-0.5154491662979126,
-0.08608737587928772,
0.7629246711730957,
-1.1421871185302734,
0.40070411562919617,
-0.14147530496120453,
-0.32972800731658936,
0.22861449420452118,
-0.15606814622879028,
-0.3353545665740967,
0.15900686383247375,
-0.22433358430862427,
-0.6352017521858215,
-0.21524164080619812,
-0.01606431044638157,
0.29292991757392883,
0.16168832778930664,
0.44565311074256897,
0.06285706907510757,
-0.4302065372467041,
-0.07601207494735718,
0.28895288705825806,
-0.414090633392334,
-0.23041023313999176,
0.12273070216178894,
0.5304083228111267,
0.30025458335876465,
0.025776727125048637,
-0.2967550456523895,
-0.3465578854084015,
0.09279550611972809,
0.01632670871913433,
-0.3174152672290802,
-0.5133992433547974,
-0.0853622779250145,
0.21625514328479767,
-0.11037993431091309,
0.1093747541308403,
0.1684562712907791,
-0.4565610885620117,
-0.501404345035553,
-0.13738982379436493,
-0.12182494252920151,
0.4538028836250305,
0.820652425289154,
0.19870926439762115,
-0.30216941237449646,
-0.11083326488733292,
-0.3347788155078888,
-0.6215361952781677,
0.31468862295150757,
0.11096279323101044,
-0.7154318690299988,
0.07493556290864944,
0.32572805881500244,
0.7723419070243835,
0.8702408671379089,
-0.43731456995010376,
-0.23105551302433014,
-0.28357672691345215,
0.022833677008748055,
0.3279532790184021,
-0.07126394659280777,
0.034451864659786224,
-0.48899370431900024,
0.5258014798164368,
0.021159237250685692,
0.009398525580763817,
0.4835157096385956,
0.04439028352499008,
0.1888459324836731,
0.24550537765026093,
0.44765278697013855,
-0.08294712752103806,
-0.5381414294242859,
0.13347913324832916,
-0.03304963931441307,
-0.13150285184383392,
-0.0037808080669492483,
-0.41950884461402893,
-0.12126573920249939,
0.22763557732105255,
-5.789529800415039,
-0.33586499094963074,
-0.028746137395501137,
-0.6680882573127747,
-0.10522647202014923,
0.27858853340148926,
0.6194899082183838,
0.12193801254034042,
-0.3697384297847748,
-0.044952861964702606,
0.3244243562221527,
0.705883264541626,
0.46465811133384705,
-0.11333450675010681,
-0.05937538295984268,
-0.35966038703918457,
0.3748866617679596,
0.18396160006523132,
0.30141934752464294,
0.12234941869974136,
0.5854091644287109,
0.4477294385433197,
-0.1519988477230072,
1.1408289670944214,
0.0015167990932241082,
0.413180410861969,
-0.3908175826072693,
0.6852017641067505,
-0.02434501238167286,
0.08368610590696335,
0.4572933316230774,
-0.3352064788341522,
0.4411288797855377,
0.1714213788509369,
0.16155193746089935,
-0.07851582020521164,
0.09084171801805496,
0.31987568736076355,
0.06880266219377518,
-0.2257225662469864,
-0.48621901869773865,
0.08407215029001236,
0.06638429313898087,
-0.0816483274102211,
0.39146578311920166,
-0.05320147052407265,
0.12600107491016388,
0.18053984642028809,
0.4675871431827545,
0.5024146437644958,
-0.2797173857688904,
0.187018021941185,
0.6075631380081177,
0.23560425639152527,
0.3279532194137573,
0.16827355325222015,
0.18334420025348663,
0.24849286675453186,
-0.070840023458004,
0.20069269835948944,
-0.3866367042064667,
-0.3298841416835785,
-0.37514621019363403,
-0.6032246351242065,
-0.16380682587623596,
-0.29058316349983215,
-0.3296689987182617,
-0.43143680691719055,
0.4523525834083557,
0.33462145924568176,
-0.4143316447734833,
0.6674303412437439,
0.513472318649292,
-0.7488319277763367,
0.3300867974758148,
-0.7397518157958984,
-0.2790362238883972,
-0.005122489295899868,
0.2398643046617508,
0.023232504725456238,
-0.45470526814460754,
-0.48590558767318726,
-0.03006443753838539,
-0.4493468701839447,
0.42319533228874207,
0.08909430354833603,
0.056848034262657166,
0.2836700975894928,
0.28306445479393005,
0.06478198617696762,
0.5823303461074829,
-0.066670723259449,
0.12769503891468048,
-0.07062774896621704,
0.09457534551620483,
0.7400224208831787,
0.10114025324583054,
0.5124132037162781,
0.7410431504249573,
-0.3697578012943268,
0.4055814743041992,
-0.608845591545105,
0.6372478604316711,
-0.5561175346374512,
-0.1736510843038559,
-0.46408945322036743,
-0.2853703796863556,
0.07326135784387589,
1.070807695388794,
-0.12001357227563858,
0.3621906042098999,
0.13968199491500854,
-0.43699729442596436,
-0.22333469986915588,
0.01624276116490364,
0.024428747594356537,
-0.10288738459348679,
0.42321738600730896,
0.3010575473308563,
0.02179824188351631,
0.06486053019762039,
-0.05237865820527077,
-0.5572640299797058,
-0.6788293719291687,
0.7093953490257263,
-0.00665297033265233,
0.14825333654880524,
0.03939647600054741,
-0.250863254070282,
-0.14025643467903137,
0.26533612608909607,
0.6212994456291199,
0.3140270709991455,
0.657512903213501,
0.05446751043200493,
-0.639975905418396,
-0.05693361535668373,
0.4097866714000702,
-0.025332793593406677,
-0.525611937046051,
0.337767630815506,
-0.5394410490989685,
-0.6226236820220947,
0.16809505224227905,
0.363403856754303,
0.46940281987190247,
-0.2966228127479553,
-0.5141582489013672,
-0.039827629923820496,
0.6792927980422974,
-0.24814185500144958,
-0.2523222267627716,
-0.18977090716362,
-0.18710526823997498,
-0.48465389013290405,
0.19866108894348145,
-0.234768807888031,
0.39730405807495117,
-0.25450724363327026,
-0.9053916931152344,
0.3257441520690918,
-0.13486827909946442,
-1.0046162605285645,
-0.500808596611023,
-0.09133969247341156,
-0.21608471870422363,
-0.1921457201242447,
-0.9810289144515991,
0.06395342946052551,
0.8194566369056702,
-0.2856481373310089,
-0.12144649028778076,
-0.3726874887943268,
-0.2552874684333801,
0.17495188117027283,
-0.25116536021232605,
-0.1486395001411438,
-0.2611011266708374,
0.2851807773113251,
0.17845891416072845,
0.25447508692741394,
0.11024820059537888,
-0.05803387612104416,
0.15683907270431519,
-0.04353844374418259,
-0.09056580066680908,
0.16118574142456055,
0.519834578037262,
-0.3980852961540222,
-0.3884679675102234,
-0.018892737105488777,
-0.3285537660121918,
0.2876799702644348,
0.06404666602611542,
-0.020137393847107887,
0.5024292469024658,
-0.25687605142593384,
0.21045653522014618,
0.2559836208820343,
-0.2692343592643738,
0.666096568107605,
0.29221877455711365,
-0.6792401075363159,
-0.10850377380847931,
0.3126159608364105,
-0.43329429626464844,
0.0633082166314125,
-0.11880158632993698,
-0.4690793752670288,
0.0380924716591835,
-0.7905842065811157,
-0.39894601702690125,
0.007508427836000919,
0.5711274743080139,
-0.41866248846054077,
-0.29579511284828186,
0.09627518802881241,
-0.19141028821468353,
-0.34214940667152405,
0.0653691366314888,
0.0757695734500885,
0.05963905155658722,
-0.40847277641296387,
0.01858995296061039,
-0.7110083103179932,
-0.37124693393707275,
0.4731272757053375,
-0.8417513370513916,
0.9135860204696655,
0.16011875867843628,
-0.3353781998157501,
-0.007648227270692587,
-0.018423954024910927,
-0.15384438633918762,
0.4591107666492462,
-0.3450194299221039,
0.3288436532020569,
-0.10518323630094528,
0.1983690857887268,
-0.2884565591812134,
0.16936784982681274,
0.893370509147644,
0.16669538617134094,
-0.3642536997795105,
-0.26035481691360474,
0.12620100378990173,
0.58711177110672,
-0.7231062054634094,
-0.3844199776649475,
0.6267064809799194,
0.6357203125953674,
-0.31976810097694397,
-0.7840145230293274,
0.048884980380535126,
0.2913590967655182,
-0.5218845009803772,
-0.12976428866386414,
-0.2847478985786438,
0.13181151449680328,
0.33469158411026,
0.2076287716627121,
-0.09175204485654831,
-0.3260382413864136,
-0.23306502401828766,
0.3689298629760742,
0.21301724016666412,
-0.06734418869018555,
-0.06987416744232178,
0.15693426132202148,
-0.48277485370635986,
0.505896806716919,
0.2597677409648895,
0.44641628861427307,
0.5588024258613586,
0.4774973392486572,
0.14494754374027252,
-0.543004035949707,
-0.35486093163490295,
0.2800554633140564,
0.2299310714006424,
0.05547593906521797,
-0.5267741084098816,
0.028210576623678207,
-0.4642994701862335,
0.25845634937286377,
-0.9103761315345764,
0.7492387294769287,
-0.5530703067779541,
-0.8465607762336731,
-0.0699823871254921,
-0.47887706756591797,
0.2401587963104248,
-0.04170137643814087,
0.04777969792485237,
-0.14313653111457825,
0.2225034236907959,
-0.16065238416194916,
0.2187711000442505,
-0.24239550530910492,
0.46660083532333374,
-0.7682467699050903,
1.061531662940979,
-0.03351077064871788,
-0.5205581784248352,
0.11911827325820923,
-0.04522266238927841,
-0.09859190136194229,
-0.1532856673002243,
0.2716068625450134,
-0.05586976185441017,
0.3988553583621979,
-0.30004915595054626,
0.22170136868953705,
0.7903778553009033,
0.08531691133975983,
-0.11922483146190643,
0.11343272775411606,
-0.4275548756122589,
0.13774555921554565,
0.32433080673217773,
0.06041686609387398,
0.08857116848230362,
1.0217266082763672,
0.04998573288321495,
-0.1859508752822876,
0.8548668026924133,
-0.24114461243152618,
-0.4830423891544342,
0.401872843503952,
0.3759913742542267,
0.5255725979804993,
0.10648247599601746,
-0.0785934254527092,
0.7105931639671326,
-0.41640928387641907,
-0.251442551612854,
0.39074188470840454,
-0.8845135569572449,
-0.4177245497703552,
0.3454931378364563,
0.6791619658470154,
-0.11558113992214203,
0.23974639177322388,
0.21543847024440765,
-0.08947230130434036,
0.5849897861480713,
-0.06306817382574081,
0.21904271841049194,
0.16688133776187897,
-0.5115327835083008,
0.23869138956069946,
-0.32046523690223694,
0.2099951207637787,
-0.10224943608045578,
0.2787668704986572,
-0.4631420969963074,
0.3111017346382141,
-0.008017371408641338,
-0.23360051214694977,
-0.09091715514659882,
-0.038774047046899796,
-0.12600643932819366,
0.5334072709083557,
-0.3655657470226288,
0.45028290152549744,
-0.11691251397132874,
0.006390922237187624,
-0.3947164714336395,
-0.02499883435666561,
0.04190833866596222,
-0.052437931299209595,
0.3758203089237213,
-0.5772615075111389,
-0.02275148592889309,
0.48570048809051514,
-0.26655760407447815,
0.4365111291408539,
0.45844513177871704,
0.3500508666038513,
0.19665995240211487,
-0.033676259219646454,
0.3083900809288025,
-0.31521075963974,
-0.6136595010757446,
0.5768405199050903,
-0.48178771138191223,
-0.21460308134555817,
0.23436099290847778,
0.0667116716504097,
-0.17884734272956848,
0.5266199111938477,
-0.33886781334877014,
-0.670285701751709,
-0.11247123777866364,
0.5095152258872986,
-0.4134875535964966,
0.364303320646286,
0.5502603650093079,
0.12197933346033096,
-0.15184712409973145,
-0.20440469682216644,
0.06143580749630928,
-0.0700550451874733,
0.09093594551086426,
-0.9015706181526184,
-0.024673715233802795,
-0.2880702018737793,
0.668449342250824,
-0.6607888340950012,
0.5327287316322327,
0.4662042558193207,
-0.050993312150239944,
-0.05295192077755928,
0.42994561791419983,
-0.3613830506801605,
-0.6240056157112122,
0.5056571960449219,
-0.6924465894699097,
-0.11681585758924484,
-0.7512973546981812,
0.13945592939853668,
-0.3253501057624817,
0.7271878123283386,
0.1363309919834137,
-0.447005957365036,
-0.15847216546535492,
0.3360004723072052,
0.11098500341176987,
0.04166148230433464,
0.3491787910461426,
-0.5358096361160278,
-0.04543931409716606,
-0.74875408411026,
0.19080780446529388,
-0.15864139795303345,
-0.4027996361255646,
0.6535364985466003,
-0.304185152053833,
0.058429211378097534,
0.03238536790013313,
0.35929661989212036,
-0.7223749160766602,
0.03677738830447197,
-0.04456675425171852,
-0.5447223782539368,
0.26655372977256775,
-0.37593263387680054,
-0.3151676058769226,
-0.21087267994880676,
0.5931500792503357,
0.23528927564620972,
-0.3939673602581024,
0.5240157246589661,
-0.2658735513687134,
0.15078452229499817,
0.24462834000587463,
-0.17619888484477997,
-0.2568996548652649,
-0.5806071758270264,
0.0809529647231102
] |
233750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Getty | Don Getty | Donald Ross Getty, (August 30, 1933 – February 26, 2016) was a Canadian politician who served as the 11th premier of Alberta between 1985 and 1992. A member of the Progressive Conservatives, he served as Energy Minister and Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs Minister in the government of Peter Lougheed before leaving politics for the private sector in 1979. He returned to politics six years later to contest the leadership contest resulting from Lougheed's retirement. He defeated two other candidates, and became Premier November 1, 1985.
As Premier, Getty was faced with an economic slowdown and falling energy prices, which hit Alberta's petroleum-dominated economy hard. Faced with mounting government deficits and increasing unemployment, he cut social spending and intervened with government money to prevent businesses from failing. Several of these interventions backfired in high-profile fashion, failing at their intended objective and costing scarce public funds as well. While some analysts argue that Getty's fiscal program laid the groundwork for Ralph Klein's later balancing of the provincial budget, on Getty's departure from office the government's debt had reached $11 billion, setting the stage for his successor to characterize the Getty years as an era of wasteful and excessive spending.
His efforts at strengthening Alberta's presence in Canada initially appeared more successful, as he won the agreement of Canada's other first ministers in including elements of Senate reform in the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords, but these efforts came to naught when both accords were rejected—the second by the Canadian public, including a majority of Albertans. Getty was also facing political problems within Alberta, including a defeat in his home riding of Edmonton-Whitemud in the 1989 election (leading to a successful by-election in Stettler, vacated by a P.C. MLA) and leadership machinations from some of his own ministers. In light of this, he resigned the Premiership in 1992.
Before entering politics, Getty had been a quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League. He passed for more than eight thousand yards over his ten-year career, and was put on the team's Wall of Fame in 1992.
Early life
Don Getty was born on August 30, 1933 in Westmount, Quebec, the son of Beatrice Lillian (Hampton) Getty (1910–1973) and Charles Ross Getty (1909–1974). His father had dropped out of McGill University's medical school due to the Great Depression and worked a variety of jobs—sometimes more than one at a time—to support his wife, three sons, and two daughters. Getty's childhood was spent in Verdun, Toronto, Ottawa, London, and Agincourt, sharing a three-room apartment with his seven-member family in the last. Returning for London in time for high school, he became an accomplished athlete (drinking eggnog to gain enough weight to play football) and was elected students' council president. Sports were his passion, and he was an especially great fan of the Montreal Canadiens and of Toronto Argonauts running back Royal Copeland.
Football
After graduating, Getty enrolled to study business administration at the University of Western Ontario, where he became a football star and a member of The Kappa Alpha Society. He quarterbacked the Western Ontario Mustangs to Eastern Collegiate Union Championships in 1954 and 1955, and was awarded the Claude Brown Memorial Trophy as the outstanding athlete at UWO in 1955. He also played basketball, and was part of championship teams in that sport in 1952, 1953, and 1954. A week after his 1955 graduation, he married Margaret Mitchell, his high school sweetheart. The Edmonton Eskimos had offered Getty a professional contract, so the newlyweds drove out west in an old blue Buick.
While still playing football, Getty was hired by Imperial Oil in 1955. He worked for Midwestern Industrial Gas Limited, beginning in 1961 as Lands and Contracts Manager with a promotion to Assistant General Manager following in 1963. In 1964 he founded his own company, Baldonnel Oil and Gas Company, before entering the world of finance as a partner with Doherty, Roadhouse, and McCuaig investments in 1967.
MLA and cabinet minister
In 1965, Getty was approached by fellow Eskimos veteran and Progressive Conservative leader Peter Lougheed to run in the 1967 provincial election. Getty agreed to run in Strathcona West, and defeated incumbent Social Crediter Randolph McKinnon by more than one thousand votes. He entered the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as one of six newly elected P.C.s. Four years later, in the 1971 election, Getty was re-elected by more than 3,500 votes in the new riding of Edmonton-Whitemud and was appointed Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs in the new Lougheed majority government. With Getty and the government both re-elected by increasing margins in the 1975 election, Lougheed appointed him Minister of Energy. In this capacity Getty partially continued his responsibility for relations with the federal government, as energy policy was a major sticking point between the two governments (at one point, federal Energy Minister Donald Macdonald called Getty "dripping with venom"). Getty did not seek re-election in the 1979 election.
Hiatus from politics and leadership fight
While out of politics, Getty became the head of an investment firm and sat on the boards of a number of corporations, including the Royal Bank of Canada, Sparrow Energy, Nortek Energy and Celanese Canada. However, when Lougheed stepped down from the Progressive Conservative leadership in 1985, Getty entered the contest to replace him and immediately became the favourite. At an October convention, Getty won a second ballot victory against Minister of Municipal Affairs Julian Koziak and former legislator Ron Ghitter.
Premier
Getty was appointed Premier November 1, 1985. He returned to the legislature just over a month later, winning a by-election in his old riding of Edmonton-Whitemud. As Premier for nearly seven years, Getty presided over some of Alberta's toughest economic times. His time in office was characterized by attempts to reduce the government's budget deficit and interventions calculated to stabilize the economy during the recession of the 1980s. When Getty became Premier he left his predecessor's cabinet completely intact.
Budget deficit
After Getty won the party leadership, Lougheed told him to expect a budget deficit of $2.5 billion in his first year in office, though the figure turned out to be $2.1 billion. Things got worse the next year as a drop in energy prices led to the oil-rich province running a deficit of $3.4 billion, as energy revenues fell by $3 billion. Getty's Treasurer, Dick Johnston, reacted by raising taxes by $1 billion and cutting program spending by 6.3%, including decreases of 3% in grants to schools, universities, municipalities, and hospitals. In 1990, due to these measures, Johnston predicted that the government would be in surplus by the 1995 fiscal year. By 1992, program spending was growing at a rate of 2.3% annually, among the lowest rates in Canada. In fact, when adjusted for population growth and inflation, government spending fell over Getty's term in office, with non-health care program spending 40% lower in 1993 than it had been in 1986 (health spending had remained approximately constant over the same period). Even so, Getty entered the premiership with no public debt and left with the public debt at $11 billion.
Economic intervention
Getty's government was faced with a combination of a general economic malaise and falling oil prices. The slowdown in the energy sector contributed to a decrease in capital spending, which reduced demand for labour in the construction industry by 50% between 1980 and 1985. Many workers left the province, which suppressed real estate prices and hurt financial institutions; two Albertan banks, the Canadian Commercial Bank and the Northlands Bank, failed in September 1985. Credit unions were facing similar troubles, and the Lougheed government had, in its last days, injected $100 million into the industry.
Getty's response to these issues was interventionist. During his first budget, he targeted spending at the province's struggling agricultural sector, including a $2 billion loan program meant to address high interest rates. His government tried to stimulate the energy sector by making loan guarantees to Husky Oil ($380 million) and Syncrude ($200 million) for new and expanded capital projects. The government also provided a $55 million guarantee—in addition to a $20 million loan—to Peter Pocklington's Gainers meat-packing plant; when Pocklington defaulted on the loan, the government seized, and eventually closed, the plant. This incident and others contributed to a perception that Getty's administration was willing to spend public money to support large businesses, but that it was indifferent to the struggles of labour (the Gainers loan had initially been made after the government brokered a labour settlement favourable to the plant's management). In 1986 the price of oil bottomed at $US10 a barrel. Getty responded by providing the oil industry with $250 million in incentives and royalty cuts. By the end of 1986 Alberta had granted another nine-month cut from 12% to 1% in royalties at the Suncor oilsands.
Most damaging to the government's reputation was the failure of the Principal Group, an Edmonton-based trust company. Its investment subsidiaries were ordered shut down June 30, 1987, by court orders obtained at the instigation of Provincial Treasurer Dick Johnston. The parent company went bankrupt August 10 amid accusations of fraud. A court-ordered investigation led by Bill Code found that the company was in trouble as early as 1980 and, though subsequent economic downturns hurt it, "it would not have been profitable in any event". It also found that Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Connie Osterman had disregarded 1984 warnings from a regulator in her department that the company was likely insolvent. Though Osterman was fired shortly after the report's release, Getty's immediate offer of an $85 million settlement to investors further hurt the government's reputation in areas of business.
A similar incident stemmed from the 1992 privatization of Alberta Government Telephones (AGT). NovaTel, a cellular subsidiary of AGT, had made a number of financing deals with local companies in the late 1980s, and many of these deals were collapsing just as the government was prepared to sell AGT. At the last moment, the government removed NovaTel from the AGT share offering. NovaTel's liabilities eventually cost the government more than $600 million.
Intergovernmental and constitutional affairs
As a former Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs, Getty had strong views about constitutional matters, and about Senate reform in particular. He made the cause the centrepiece of Alberta's constitutional policy going into the Meech Lake Accord discussions. The Accord's final version included a provision whereby the Prime Minister would continue to recommend senatorial appointments to the Governor-General, but would have to make their recommendations from lists provided by the provincial governments. Once it became apparent that the Meech Lake Accord would fail, Getty's government introduced the Senatorial Selection Act, which provided for an election process whenever there was a vacant Senate seat for Alberta. However, Getty's favoured candidate, Progressive Conservative Bert Brown, was soundly defeated by Stan Waters of the upstart Reform Party of Canada, which opposed Meech Lake and favoured aggressive senate reform. Though Prime Minister Brian Mulroney opposed the legislation, he eventually recommended Waters for appointment to the Senate. Getty was still more successful at pursuing senate reform during the negotiations for the Charlottetown Accord, when he won the addition of a Triple-E Senate to the package, against Mulroney's opposition. However, the Charlottetown Accord failed after a national referendum in which a majority of Canadians, including 60.2% of Albertans, rejected it.
In 1991, Getty's Progressive Conservatives formally severed ties with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, which was becoming increasingly unpopular under Mulroney. Getty also broke with Mulroney on a number of issues other than Senate reform, including the new federal Goods and Services Tax, which he fought unsuccessfully against implementing. His government also implemented legislation, against Mulroney's express wishes, that made English the only official language of Alberta. Despite these steps, Getty remained a supporter of the federal Conservatives (and not the Reform Party, to which many provincial P.C.s were defecting), whose unpopularity rubbed off on him.
Getty's government also made progress on aboriginal land claims in the northern part of the province. In addition to creating Canada's first Métis land base in 1989, Getty took the lead in an ultimately unsuccessful effort to negotiate a settlement between the federal government and the Lubicon Cree.
Political style
In contrast to his predecessor, who was actively involved in most elements of his government, Getty preferred to set the government's broad direction and leave lower-level details to his ministers. Ralph Klein, while serving as Environment Minister under Getty, commented that "If you are a minister, you run that portfolio yourself" and expressed an appreciation for the freedom that the Premier gave his cabinet. Al Adair, who served in two different portfolios under Getty, described this approach in his memoirs as "you make the decisions, you run your department, but make mistakes and you're gone". Lisac credits him for knowing when to intervene and when not to, but Adair felt that his approach led to ministers working too much in isolation.
Getty was a private, reserved person, which, combined with his tendency to delegate to ministers, sometimes gave the impression of an uncaring aloofness. During the Principal Group affair, which he left primarily in the hands of Treasurer Dick Johnston and Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Elaine McCoy, a photographer captured a shot of Getty playing golf while his press secretary had said that he was "working out of the office". This was typical of his strained relationship with the media, which Adair attributed to the Premier's awkwardness and the media's unfairness.
Although Getty governed with fairly large majorities during his tenure, they were nowhere near as large as the ones Lougheed enjoyed. His first election as premier saw the return of the provincial Liberals to the legislature after being shut out for 15 years. That same election saw the Alberta NDP pick up 16 seats in the legislature. In contrast, during his last two terms, Lougheed never faced more than six opposition MLAs in total.
Decline and retirement
Getty called the 1989 election less than three years into his 1986 mandate to take advantage of the economic optimism prevalent in the province, partly as a result of the Canada-U.S. free trade agreement. While the P.C.s made spending promises including paving all of the province's secondary highways, the Liberals under new leader Laurence Decore stressed dealing with the deficit. The overall end result was respectable for the government, as it won a sixth term in government with a net loss of only two seats. However, Getty was defeated in his own riding by Liberal Percy Wickman. Brian C. Downey resigned his seat in the rural central Alberta riding of Stettler to allow Getty to run in a by-election, which he won handily. He built a home in the riding on Buffalo Lake, and was later accused of arranging for the lake to be risen so it would be better-suited for fishing (though Adair claimed that the arrangements had been in place since 1979, when he had been Minister of Recreation, Parks and Wildlife).
Getty's relationship with his own party was often stormy. Shortly after he lost his riding in 1989, a group of Calgary Conservatives, including party budget director Jack Major and Getty's old leadership rival Ron Ghitter, began making plans to force party renewal, with or without Getty. They felt that the party was perceived as being tired, directionless, arrogant, and deaf to urban concerns, and that it was in political trouble in the crucial battleground of Calgary. At the 1989 party convention, recently retired cabinet minister Marvin Moore, who had organized Ghitter's 1985 leadership campaign, advocated for a leadership review; after a speech by Getty, the convention voted to refer the recommendation to a committee for months of study. Cabinet ministers, including Treasurer Dick Johnston and Education Minister Jim Dinning, began to consider leadership bids in the event that Getty retired or was pushed out.
In 1992, as the national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord and the release of a report on the NovaTel incident loomed, Getty decided to leave politics. In his last months, he deliberately refrained from taking measures that he knew would be popular, such as shrinking cabinet, in order to leave them for his successor. After a party leadership election chose Ralph Klein to succeed him, Getty resigned as party leader December 5 and as Premier several days later.
Political legacy
As Premier, Klein positioned himself in contrast to Getty, asserting that the government had "a spending problem", and stating that he had become Premier at a time of "uncontrolled spending". Given Klein's aggressive spending cuts, which shaped the political climate of Alberta for much of the 1990s, Getty's legacy with respect to public finances has been criticized. However, Kevin Taft, writing four years before entering politics, challenged this view, asserting that Getty was running "the tightest government in Canada". Besides its management of the deficit, Getty's government is remembered for the creation of Family Day. For the most part, however, Getty dropped quickly from the public view and public memory. Lisac suggests that this is because, unlike his predecessor and successor, he lacked a central message:
Professional football career
Getty played 10 seasons with the Edmonton Eskimos as a quarterback. For the first part of his career, he backed up Jackie Parker and filled in for him when he was moved to running back. Eskimos coach Pop Ivy surprised many observers when he started Getty at quarterback in the third game of the 1956 western final (which was a three-game series at the time) during the 44th Grey Cup, with Parker at running back. However, it bore results as Parker tied the record for most touchdowns scored in a Grey Cup game, at three. Getty also handed the ball to Johnny Bright for two touchdowns and scored two himself on quarterback keeps from the one-yard line, as the Eskimos won their third consecutive championship over the Montreal Alouettes by a score of 50–27. He continued with Eskimos until 1963, and also made three appearances in the 1965 season.
Getty was one of the most successful Canadian-born quarterbacks in the history of the Canadian Football League and sits at third on the all-time passing yardage list of Canadian quarterbacks, behind Russ Jackson and Gerry Dattilio, with nearly nine thousand yards. He was declared the outstanding Canadian player in the Western Interprovincial Football Union in 1959, and was the runner up (to Jackson) for the Schenley Award as the league's most outstanding Canadian player the same year. He was placed on the Eskimos' Wall of Honor in 1992.
Career statistics
1Until and including the 1958 season, a tackle for a loss on a passing play was registered as a rushing attempt.
Retirement and death
Getty kept a low profile after leaving politics. He assumed several corporate directorships and spent time with his grandchildren. Unlike Lougheed, he rarely commented on political matters. He was appointed as an Officer to the Order of Canada in 1998.
In July 2008, after Ed Stelmach announced $2 billion in funding to industry to develop carbon capture technology, Getty's company sought some of the funding to bury carbon dioxide in salt caverns near Two Hills.
On February 26, 2016, Getty died of heart failure at the age of 82 in Edmonton, following years of declining health.
Honours
He was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Canada on 21 October 1998. He was appointed as a Member of the Alberta Order of Excellence in 1999. He received the Canadian version of the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal in 1977, the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal in 1992, the Canadian version of the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in 2002 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012.
In 2012 he was inducted into the London Sports Hall of Fame in London, Ontario, in recognition of his achievements in Canadian football.
On 19 November 2013 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Alberta.
Electoral record
As party leader
* Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election.
As MLA
Party leadership contest
References
Bibliography
External links
1933 births
2016 deaths
People from Westmount, Quebec
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian men's basketball players
Western Mustangs basketball players
Players of Canadian football from Quebec
Canadian football quarterbacks
Western Mustangs football players
Edmonton Elks players
Canadian sportsperson-politicians
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence
Members of the Executive Council of Alberta
Members of the United Church of Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Premiers of Alberta
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta
20th-century Canadian politicians | [
-0.42894381284713745,
-0.22539383172988892,
-0.12319761514663696,
0.07352316379547119,
-0.12596960365772247,
0.3322528600692749,
0.22808820009231567,
0.264619380235672,
-0.18234989047050476,
0.16909225285053253,
0.015013403259217739,
0.5367957949638367,
-0.4431754946708679,
-0.09647960215806961,
-0.19252009689807892,
0.2531370222568512,
-0.3316307067871094,
0.15160883963108063,
-0.5050806403160095,
0.05566117540001869,
-0.3017393946647644,
-0.6740604043006897,
0.3038310110569,
0.7142430543899536,
0.1313626766204834,
0.3064080476760864,
-0.12304499000310898,
-0.3457791805267334,
-0.18139372766017914,
0.44888314604759216,
-0.27437666058540344,
0.08209335058927536,
0.4738900661468506,
-0.30761954188346863,
-0.8206925392150879,
0.09011444449424744,
-0.19439122080802917,
-0.5289683938026428,
-0.20645754039287567,
0.014378080144524574,
-0.008874309249222279,
0.13112515211105347,
-0.022366421297192574,
-0.05080202966928482,
-0.013860742561519146,
-0.7425418496131897,
-1.9066377878189087,
0.41950228810310364,
-0.39402228593826294,
-0.2879904508590698,
-0.5459433794021606,
0.41314688324928284,
0.38567957282066345,
-0.2700348198413849,
0.21185122430324554,
0.10087413340806961,
-0.22005261480808258,
-0.06741556525230408,
-0.6268523931503296,
-0.9602499008178711,
-0.14853087067604065,
-0.047507792711257935,
0.6686347126960754,
-0.05078594386577606,
0.17035967111587524,
-0.2462623119354248,
0.059095513075590134,
0.30365532636642456,
-0.1764732003211975,
-0.06754683703184128,
0.4350649118423462,
0.48839253187179565,
0.3430120348930359,
0.2320995330810547,
0.10354633629322052,
-0.3754011392593384,
0.3054717183113098,
-0.030367311090230942,
-0.09830145537853241,
-0.004327432252466679,
-0.39560815691947937,
-0.8367186784744263,
0.19980596005916595,
0.5462772250175476,
0.08183883130550385,
-0.3559335768222809,
-0.6287217736244202,
0.28591108322143555,
-0.4310801923274994,
-0.18390391767024994,
-1.3238062858581543,
-0.09953071922063828,
0.18316657841205597,
0.23051106929779053,
-0.15810619294643402,
-0.6560103893280029,
0.2956533432006836,
0.008327911607921124,
0.04041985422372818,
-0.6207554340362549,
-0.21815338730812073,
-0.1643335372209549,
0.14316721260547638,
-0.7222536206245422,
-0.8408069014549255,
0.2951599955558777,
0.12495910376310349,
0.010628079995512962,
-0.3134876489639282,
-0.11350968480110168,
-0.610276997089386,
0.2992030680179596,
0.33205410838127136,
-0.0030426776502281427,
0.5666921734809875,
0.5326598882675171,
0.1459745615720749,
-0.5031885504722595,
-0.20950649678707123,
0.13380877673625946,
-0.016241200268268585,
-0.025646032765507698,
-0.3372287452220917,
-0.20178955793380737,
-0.3552507162094116,
-0.06634734570980072,
-0.3952711820602417,
-0.34288227558135986,
0.07627038657665253,
-0.05947105959057808,
1.039452075958252,
0.7595183253288269,
-0.8069728016853333,
-0.13730910420417786,
-0.17151446640491486,
-0.1702151596546173,
0.30866187810897827,
-0.3120006024837494,
-0.11069735139608383,
-0.1980459839105606,
0.03750837221741676,
0.10678490996360779,
-0.5285594463348389,
-0.3787066638469696,
0.24358844757080078,
-0.11465051025152206,
0.3167254626750946,
0.08651109039783478,
0.18823425471782684,
-0.06626380980014801,
0.2865217924118042,
0.15841397643089294,
-0.20072515308856964,
-0.6654931306838989,
-0.13823242485523224,
1.2543351650238037,
0.18217459321022034,
0.10766427963972092,
0.10871440172195435,
0.07854343205690384,
0.6086999177932739,
0.0007781989988870919,
0.2330610454082489,
-0.19674964249134064,
0.4337565004825592,
-0.3656301498413086,
-0.3753070831298828,
-0.39803990721702576,
-0.2249687910079956,
0.19318601489067078,
-0.21955886483192444,
0.4952123761177063,
0.6489637494087219,
-0.6017214059829712,
0.3244616687297821,
0.8002001047134399,
0.07780524343252182,
-0.05524331331253052,
0.3823739290237427,
-0.2885980010032654,
-0.7152243256568909,
0.05562453716993332,
0.4119323194026947,
0.09923183917999268,
0.20038922131061554,
-0.16512015461921692,
0.3027340769767761,
0.06891974806785583,
1.4418424367904663,
0.2076614797115326,
-0.18445025384426117,
-0.789948046207428,
-0.30491793155670166,
-0.49125632643699646,
0.47687551379203796,
0.30206307768821716,
-0.4758038818836212,
0.772261917591095,
-0.04323989897966385,
0.6668992042541504,
-0.38015618920326233,
-0.061111848801374435,
0.6176760792732239,
-0.5786455869674683,
0.35022446513175964,
0.5208954811096191,
-0.02686091884970665,
0.1703491359949112,
0.48337942361831665,
0.84624844789505,
0.19106276333332062,
-0.40476366877555847,
-0.5668568015098572,
0.4317205548286438,
-0.6913493275642395,
-0.5644752383232117,
-0.2841540575027466,
-0.341734915971756,
-0.1182522401213646,
-0.2259942591190338,
0.4274319112300873,
0.6931808590888977,
-0.8495870232582092,
0.3999846279621124,
-0.3288828730583191,
1.077865481376648,
-0.3039146661758423,
0.07128261029720306,
0.34749653935432434,
-0.2571427524089813,
0.2811151146888733,
0.3197537660598755,
-0.16706284880638123,
-0.700840175151825,
0.16731715202331543,
0.42918404936790466,
0.17433808743953705,
0.12119710445404053,
0.4121554493904114,
-0.1253087818622589,
0.2622712254524231,
0.12149274349212646,
-0.4433174133300781,
0.2288656234741211,
-0.3155266046524048,
0.18082478642463684,
-0.3330787718296051,
0.2592809498310089,
-0.10575200617313385,
0.01820402219891548,
0.23076362907886505,
0.23551279306411743,
0.4218491017818451,
-0.01285382267087698,
0.18242968618869781,
0.0067091695964336395,
0.13738003373146057,
-0.008605842478573322,
0.16097770631313324,
0.4152711033821106,
-0.08234275132417679,
-0.03961263224482536,
-0.3794696033000946,
0.5035189986228943,
0.1724155843257904,
-0.0510820709168911,
-0.25591734051704407,
0.08228634297847748,
-0.5502969026565552,
-0.29552915692329407,
0.010023141279816628,
-0.19237716495990753,
0.19235678017139435,
0.2473546266555786,
0.6788440346717834,
-0.1913636475801468,
-0.22143429517745972,
0.2975345253944397,
-0.5846347212791443,
-0.959126353263855,
0.811880350112915,
1.075102686882019,
-0.24341057240962982,
0.1762644201517105,
-0.3007868230342865,
0.005707911681383848,
-0.6951087713241577,
0.05482117831707001,
-0.3877818286418915,
-0.18696348369121552,
-0.17946839332580566,
0.012828294187784195,
-0.1622759848833084,
0.030997388064861298,
-0.7679182291030884,
0.2848667502403259,
0.17339186370372772,
-0.5224251747131348,
0.07237210124731064,
-0.18354570865631104,
-0.2215883731842041,
0.2818222939968109,
0.22891195118427277,
-0.0200456865131855,
0.7914411425590515,
0.3675293028354645,
-0.3503308892250061,
-0.711785614490509,
-5.605036735534668,
0.3825685977935791,
-0.4970346987247467,
-0.4894043207168579,
0.585501492023468,
-0.44030138850212097,
0.32072851061820984,
-0.03729517012834549,
0.21520310640335083,
-0.41963228583335876,
0.41250234842300415,
-0.270731121301651,
-0.12244521081447601,
0.9956478476524353,
0.8052681088447571,
0.18338149785995483,
0.7146966457366943,
-0.7669810652732849,
0.22464601695537567,
0.35919874906539917,
0.20292888581752777,
-0.14351171255111694,
-0.3057715892791748,
0.18980072438716888,
0.26668116450309753,
0.3813432455062866,
-0.2845517694950104,
0.06999726593494415,
-0.9062362909317017,
-0.43569329380989075,
0.1789976954460144,
0.21334771811962128,
-0.2003437876701355,
0.5466486811637878,
-0.05536733195185661,
-0.14166000485420227,
0.7643027901649475,
0.12207384407520294,
0.47809672355651855,
-0.10006357729434967,
0.07014880329370499,
-0.09559593349695206,
-0.45106199383735657,
-0.14047272503376007,
-0.17629395425319672,
-0.16154152154922485,
-0.499135285615921,
0.19711805880069733,
-0.43181756138801575,
0.431428998708725,
0.582517147064209,
0.5107277035713196,
0.6648613810539246,
-0.0894257128238678,
0.34778574109077454,
-0.3728618621826172,
0.11595987528562546,
0.2689583897590637,
-0.5525052547454834,
0.2619173526763916,
0.47911038994789124,
-0.10514167696237564,
0.0927337110042572,
-0.4858609735965729,
-0.25554370880126953,
-0.16287948191165924,
0.05841134488582611,
0.3426572382450104,
0.9183403849601746,
0.076905257999897,
0.10707344114780426,
0.5603664517402649,
-0.4295923113822937,
-1.0294268131256104,
-0.1238207072019577,
-0.34763869643211365,
-0.08002166450023651,
0.657480776309967,
-0.3193678855895996,
-0.7200937271118164,
-0.1353745013475418,
0.01414914708584547,
0.12720926105976105,
0.40446504950523376,
0.38908401131629944,
0.534822940826416,
-0.025003012269735336,
0.609346866607666,
0.3423800468444824,
0.10991791635751724,
0.41299501061439514,
-0.6191516518592834,
0.24765866994857788,
0.19513949751853943,
-0.15948529541492462,
-0.3804982602596283,
-0.061487674713134766,
0.24271352589130402,
-0.2580679655075073,
-0.4405929148197174,
-0.31270480155944824,
-0.11477629840373993,
0.2866174578666687,
-0.9068215489387512,
-0.18043437600135803,
-0.20423312485218048,
0.1467544585466385,
0.11545935273170471,
0.1888435035943985,
0.18956543505191803,
0.06729353964328766,
0.4263399839401245,
-0.3116537630558014,
-0.5689789652824402,
0.22008226811885834,
0.1646016538143158,
-0.0862320065498352,
-0.3850092589855194,
0.5649126768112183,
0.4216744899749756,
0.1724241077899933,
-0.1113804504275322,
-0.16680985689163208,
0.28078198432922363,
-0.05522559583187103,
-0.0360247902572155,
0.20262257754802704,
-0.10058876872062683,
-0.3094280958175659,
0.08253728598356247,
0.2530054748058319,
0.8963238596916199,
0.6210062503814697,
0.5681434869766235,
-0.09192411601543427,
0.0856998860836029,
-0.0163203626871109,
-0.6248369216918945,
-0.2459336668252945,
-0.28426048159599304,
-0.3251122236251831,
0.3326648771762848,
-0.16415207087993622,
0.5866587162017822,
-0.3200477957725525,
0.03549880534410477,
-0.07200615108013153,
0.15456292033195496,
-0.2947100102901459,
0.5331252217292786,
0.2907712459564209,
-0.14859458804130554,
0.22132381796836853,
-0.4080040752887726,
-0.11446605622768402,
-0.045658353716135025,
-0.23052823543548584,
-0.5972232222557068,
0.18290263414382935,
-0.46904975175857544,
0.0916934385895729,
0.1672424077987671,
-1.2494871616363525,
-0.12007115036249161,
-0.1663079708814621,
0.03600452095270157,
-0.49094659090042114,
-0.7487695217132568,
-0.3306085467338562,
0.912976086139679,
0.365040123462677,
-0.18501172959804535,
-0.26752567291259766,
-0.1768515706062317,
0.38686877489089966,
-0.3208215832710266,
0.18264523148536682,
-0.46852171421051025,
0.1295991986989975,
0.5368362665176392,
0.5193354487419128,
-0.22400449216365814,
-0.8031587600708008,
0.18461130559444427,
0.4045828878879547,
-0.5989720821380615,
-0.7687451243400574,
-0.0638112723827362,
0.09932374954223633,
0.31900322437286377,
0.7405365109443665,
-0.2212570160627365,
-0.06016342341899872,
0.9002552628517151,
-0.07521356642246246,
0.1988353729248047,
0.25528305768966675,
-0.3196788430213928,
-0.48015156388282776,
0.0258849635720253,
-0.27319803833961487,
0.2664946913719177,
-0.6709621548652649,
-0.2917023301124573,
-0.20510779321193695,
-0.6731322407722473,
-0.2876262068748474,
0.09407177567481995,
0.17131640017032623,
0.3828762173652649,
-0.08712819218635559,
-0.0856342613697052,
0.29386255145072937,
-0.16586068272590637,
-0.13439296185970306,
0.5155525207519531,
0.07952763885259628,
-0.11128203570842743,
-0.7741097807884216,
-0.6564655900001526,
-0.460053950548172,
-0.37908023595809937,
0.16302011907100677,
0.07498965412378311,
-0.24100139737129211,
-0.29180362820625305,
0.36061128973960876,
-0.13314585387706757,
0.5280484557151794,
0.05160263553261757,
-0.039558764547109604,
-0.2675037384033203,
0.004875159822404385,
0.4907873570919037,
-0.034456606954336166,
0.1073370948433876,
0.22083811461925507,
0.725280225276947,
-0.29405996203422546,
-0.2559548616409302,
0.6363211274147034,
1.223659873008728,
0.35894352197647095,
-0.15776757895946503,
-0.04968012124300003,
-0.2911042273044586,
0.2298949956893921,
-0.3260813057422638,
-0.06831347942352295,
0.5454720854759216,
0.7040442824363708,
-0.15179505944252014,
-0.5734761357307434,
0.016358880326151848,
0.45876601338386536,
-0.6531108617782593,
-0.2948422133922577,
0.054890405386686325,
0.2508326768875122,
0.22029845416545868,
-0.19764888286590576,
0.41808152198791504,
-0.14039307832717896,
0.26418203115463257,
-0.22759509086608887,
0.21285109221935272,
0.021286332979798317,
0.15988458693027496,
0.20139016211032867,
-0.7804530262947083,
-0.5712594985961914,
-0.32010242342948914,
-0.11701454967260361,
0.6318691968917847,
-0.22875766456127167,
-0.02898501046001911,
0.17734457552433014,
-0.24985283613204956,
-0.045215439051389694,
-0.9097903370857239,
-0.7302464842796326,
0.3984440863132477,
-0.10796411335468292,
-0.18750008940696716,
-0.9132506847381592,
-0.8624951839447021,
-0.00342564913444221,
0.21877819299697876,
-0.3727830946445465,
0.13315074145793915,
-0.6759922504425049,
0.46414995193481445,
0.03340953215956688,
-0.6539210677146912,
-0.4436855614185333,
-0.19842229783535004,
0.3391580879688263,
1.0100157260894775,
-0.3930356502532959,
-0.20537826418876648,
-0.45622795820236206,
0.1553695648908615,
0.665410578250885,
0.19259817898273468,
-0.19733776152133942,
-0.18891949951648712,
-0.17978093028068542,
-0.2929220199584961,
-0.07447969913482666,
-0.17483817040920258,
0.38509294390678406,
-0.33164775371551514,
0.13156753778457642,
0.41191622614860535,
-1.1583892107009888,
-0.1936943382024765,
0.34112393856048584,
-0.10001540929079056,
-0.12618166208267212,
-0.2586841285228729,
-0.004518863745033741,
0.4756355583667755,
0.14267776906490326,
-0.0232919380068779,
1.0921212434768677,
0.6872745752334595,
0.09137012809515,
0.23825038969516754,
-0.13496732711791992,
-0.17968538403511047,
-0.1318812519311905,
0.1964326947927475,
-0.26971322298049927,
0.7679678201675415,
-0.21416126191616058,
-0.20646882057189941,
0.35078445076942444,
-0.40211573243141174,
0.37483328580856323,
0.03106665052473545,
0.08036390691995621,
0.9577243328094482,
-0.11989869177341461,
-0.009306573309004307,
0.3218291699886322,
0.19419129192829132,
0.23021793365478516,
0.45494574308395386,
0.4812796413898468,
-0.23888511955738068,
0.6403554081916809,
-0.15002071857452393,
-0.11105751246213913,
-0.8757839202880859,
0.11834657937288284,
-0.026335489004850388,
0.6200448870658875,
0.04670199379324913,
0.023076767101883888,
-0.1381300538778305,
0.10260586440563202,
-0.4306448996067047,
0.7335490584373474,
0.18558573722839355,
0.13029618561267853,
-0.06699789315462112,
0.35153278708457947,
-0.6479762196540833,
-0.022409867495298386,
0.8519272208213806,
-0.3188888132572174,
-0.07241685688495636,
-0.5007925629615784,
0.4145921766757965,
0.42862406373023987,
-0.44776564836502075,
0.7303718328475952,
0.1454365998506546,
-0.0788639634847641,
0.6540997624397278,
-0.044286057353019714,
0.5168084502220154,
-0.33946651220321655,
-0.4704883098602295,
0.03516235947608948,
0.23111487925052643,
-0.20098119974136353,
0.36345764994621277,
0.09952443093061447,
-0.18447761237621307,
0.35549649596214294,
-0.4714653789997101,
-0.5813919305801392,
0.6498344540596008,
0.06973319500684738,
0.04822321608662605,
-0.9106345772743225,
0.41351962089538574,
0.8953667283058167,
0.11899810284376144,
-0.07410811632871628,
0.33202090859413147,
0.044186465442180634,
0.28279533982276917,
-0.31754687428474426,
-0.037072423845529556,
-0.006901513319462538,
-0.6652308106422424,
-0.34636998176574707,
0.43354418873786926,
-0.051324695348739624,
0.3595375120639801,
-0.6511232256889343,
0.3591858446598053,
-0.2491372972726822,
-0.060927800834178925,
0.8950345516204834,
-0.2607521116733551,
-0.09377135336399078,
-0.08381475508213043,
-0.06000976264476776,
-0.4421693682670593,
0.22278758883476257,
0.3818250596523285,
-0.07348628342151642,
0.26654884219169617,
0.4189818799495697,
0.307412713766098,
-0.46262067556381226,
0.8103327751159668,
0.13607776165008545,
-0.4048919379711151,
-0.2862456142902374,
0.4312308132648468,
0.0462334007024765,
-0.5204694867134094,
0.6000710725784302,
0.4486697018146515,
0.23859883844852448,
-0.30411940813064575,
-0.01871606707572937,
0.07216189801692963,
0.31275612115859985,
-0.6322619915008545,
0.08282971382141113,
0.24837815761566162,
0.5558177828788757,
-0.22450947761535645,
-0.4877881407737732,
-0.3783876299858093,
-0.8824883699417114,
-0.5318881273269653,
0.3073810338973999,
-0.3933165371417999,
0.2955073118209839,
-0.4990603029727936,
0.28752514719963074,
-0.010672539472579956,
-0.007035721093416214,
-0.1737014353275299
] |
233760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Cameron%20Rutherford | Alexander Cameron Rutherford | Alexander Cameron Rutherford (February 2, 1857 – June 11, 1941) was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the first premier of Alberta from 1905 to 1910. Born in Ormond, Canada West, he studied and practised law in Ottawa before he moved with his family to the North-West Territories in 1895. There, he began his political career, winning in his third attempt a seat in the North-West Legislative Assembly. In keeping with the territorial custom, Rutherford ran as an independent but generally supported the territorial administration of Premier Frederick W. A. G. Haultain. At the federal level, however, Rutherford was a Liberal.
In 1905, Alberta Lieutenant Governor George Bulyea asked Rutherford to form the new province's first government. As premier, Rutherford's first task was to win a workable majority in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, which he did in the 1905 provincial election. His second was to provide the apparatus of provincial government, and his government established everything from speed limits to a provincial court system. The legislature also controversially, and with Rutherford's support, selected Edmonton over rival Calgary as the provincial capital. Calgarians' bruised feelings were not salved when the government located the University of Alberta, a project dear to the Premier's heart, in his hometown of Strathcona, just across the North Saskatchewan River from Edmonton.
The government was faced with labour unrest in the coal mining industry, which it resolved by establishing a commission to examine the problem. It also set up a provincial government telephone network (Alberta Government Telephones) at great expense, and tried to encourage the development of new railways. It was in pursuit of the last objective that the Rutherford government found itself embroiled in scandal. Early in 1910, William Henry Cushing's resignation as Minister of Public Works precipitated the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal, which turned many of Rutherford's Liberals against his government. Eventually, pressure from many party figures forced Rutherford to resign. He kept his seat in the legislature after resigning as premier, but he was defeated in the 1913 election by Conservative Herbert Crawford.
After leaving politics, Rutherford continued his law practice and his involvement with a wide range of community groups. Most importantly, he became chancellor of the University of Alberta, whose earlier founding had been a personal project, and stayed in that position until he died of a heart attack. A University of Alberta library, an Edmonton elementary school, and Jasper National Park's Mount Rutherford are named in his honour. Additionally, his home, Rutherford House, was opened as a museum in 1973.
Early life
Alexander Rutherford was born February 2, 1857, near Ormond, Canada West, on his family's dairy farm. His parents, James (1817–1891) and Elspet "Elizabeth" (1818–1901) Cameron Rutherford, had immigrated from Scotland two years previous. They joined the Baptist Church, and his father joined the Liberal Party of Canada and served for a time on the Osgoode village council. Rutherford attended public school locally and, after rejecting dairy farming as a vocation, enrolled in a Metcalfe high school. After graduating in 1874, he attended the Canadian Literary Institute, a Baptist college in Woodstock. He graduated from there in 1876 and taught for a year in Osgoode.
He moved to Montreal to study arts and law at McGill University. He was awarded degrees in both in 1881, and joined the Ottawa law firm of Scott, McTavish and McCracken, where he was articled for four years under the tutelage of Richard William Scott. Called to the Ontario bar in 1885, he became a junior partner in the firm of Hodkins, Kidd and Rutherford, with responsibility for its Kemptville office for ten years. He also established a moneylending business there.
Meanwhile, his social circle grew to include William Cameron Edwards. Through Edwards, Rutherford was introduced to the Birkett family, which included former Member of Parliament Thomas Birkett. Rutherford married Birkett's niece, Mattie Birkett, in December 1888. The couple had three children: Cecil (born in 1890), Hazel (born in 1893), and Marjorie (born in 1903 but died sixteen months later). Rutherford had a traditional view of gender roles and was happy to leave most childrearing responsibilities to his wife.
Move west
In November 1886 Rutherford visited the Canadian West for the first time, when he travelled to British Columbia to investigate the disappearance of his cousin. The Rocky Mountains left a great impression on him, as did the coastal climate, which he found "very agreeable". He visited again in the summer of 1894, when he took the Canadian Pacific Railway across the prairies. Upon arriving in South Edmonton, he was excited by its growth potential and pleased to find that the dry air relieved his bronchitis. He resolved to settle there and did so one year later, bringing his reluctant wife and his children, who arrived by train June 10, 1895. Within ten days of their arrival, Rutherford had opened a law office, purchased four lots of land, and contracted local builder Hugh McCurdy to build him a house. In July, the family moved into their new four-room house, built on a single storey. In 1896 Rutherford became the town's only lawyer, as his competition, Mervyn Mackenzie, had moved to Toronto.
Rutherford quickly became deeply involved in the community. Among the roles he acquired during his first three years in the District of Alberta were president of the newly formed South Edmonton Football Club, secretary-treasurer of the South Edmonton School Board, president of the South Edmonton Athletic Association, vice president of the South Edmonton Literary Institute, auditor of the South Edmonton Agricultural Society, and worthy master of the Acacia Lodge, Ancient Free and Accepted Masons. He also became secretary of the Edmonton District Butter and Cheese Manufacturing Association. He was an early advocate for the incorporation of South Edmonton, hitherto an unincorporated community. When incorporation came in 1899, as the Town of Strathcona, Rutherford became the new town's secretary-treasurer after he had acted as returning officer in its first election.
Throughout that period, he practised law, from 1899 with Frederick C. Jamieson, who later was elected as a Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta. He employed single women as secretaries in an era that.erical workers were predominantly male, and he defended a First Nations person accused of murder when most lawyers refused such cases. As their practice grew, he and Jamieson also engaged in moneylending. Besides his law practice, Rutherford was a successful real estate investor, and he also owned an interest in gold mining equipment situated on the North Saskatchewan River.
Early political career
In 1896, Frank Oliver, who had represented Edmonton in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories since 1888, resigned to pursue a career in federal politics. Several Strathcona residents urged Rutherford to run for Oliver's old seat in the ensuing by-election. Though he was originally reluctant, he agreed to stand after a 300-signature petition urging his candidacy was presented to him. His only opponent was a former mayor of Edmonton, Matthew McCauley, who, like Rutherford, ran as an independent. Rutherford campaigned on a platform of improved roads, resource development, simplification of territorial ordinances, and (in what would become a theme of his political career) increased educational funding. McCauley won the election, but Rutherford received more than forty percent of the vote.
During the 1898 territorial election, Rutherford again challenged the now-incumbent McCauley. His defeat of two years previous still fresh in his mind, his platform this time included a call for a redrawing of the territory's electoral boundaries. He believed that the current Edmonton riding was gerrymandered in McCauley's favour. He also repeated his past calls for improved roads and advocated increased taxation on the railroads. He pledged "independent support" for the nonpartisan administration of Premier Frederick Haultain, and he supported that administration's call for the creation of a single province from the territories following the 1901 census. Rutherford criticized McCauley's past record, accusing him of silence on issues that were of concern to his constituents. Despite this, McCauley won again but by a reduced margin.
Rutherford was at last successful in the 1902 election, when he ran in the newly created riding of Strathcona. His 1902 platform was similar to his 1898 platform and supported Haultain, but he now supported a two-province integration of the Northwest Territories into Confederation, rather than Haultain's preferred one-province approach, on the grounds that a single province would be so large as to be ungovernable. It at first looked as though he would run unopposed; however, at the last minute, local lawyer Nelson D. Mills publicly accused Rutherford of being not a true independent, but a dyed-in-the-wool Haultain supporter, and announced that he would run against him. Rutherford was supported by most of Strathcona's most prominent residents, including his law partner Jamieson and his future rival John R. Boyle, and won an easy victory.
Rutherford served in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories until Alberta became a province in 1905. During his tenure, he was elected deputy speaker and sat on standing committees for libraries, municipal law, and education. His legislative efforts included successful attempts to extend the boundaries of the Town of Strathcona and to empower it to borrow for construction of public works. He was considered a possible member of Haultain's executive council, likely in the post of Commissioner of Public Works, but the post instead went to George Bulyea. He joined many of his fellow MLAs in continuing to advocate for provincial status, finding that the limitations on a territory's means to raise revenue prevented the Northwest Territories from meeting its obligations.
Though Rutherford supported Haultain's vision of nonpartisan territorial administration, federally he was an avowed Liberal. In 1900, he was elected president of the Strathcona Liberal association, and was a delegate to the convention that nominated Oliver as the party's candidate in Alberta for the 1900 federal election. He subsequently campaigned for Oliver in his successful re-election attempt. When the new federal constituency of Strathcona was formed in advance of the 1904 election, Rutherford was urged to accept the Liberal nomination but demurred. Peter Talbot was selected instead and, supported by Rutherford, was elected.
Selection as premier
In February 1905, the federal government of Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier introduced legislation to create two new provinces (Alberta and Saskatchewan) from the Northwest Territories. Though Haultain wanted the new provinces to be governed on the same nonpartisan basis as the Territories had been, the Liberal Laurier was expected to recommend a Liberal to serve as Lieutenant-Governor, and the Lieutenant-Governor was expected to call on a Liberal to form the new province's first government. Oliver was the province's most prominent Liberal, but he had just been named federal Minister of the Interior and was not interested in leaving Ottawa. Talbot was Laurier's preferred candidate, but he expected to be appointed to the Senate and found the latter prospect more congenial than serving as Premier of Alberta. Both men supported Rutherford, but neither was enthusiastic about doing so. In August, Bulyea was appointed Alberta's first Lieutenant-Governor and later that month the Alberta Liberals selected Rutherford as their first leader.
A final barrier was removed a few days later, when Haultain, who was a Conservative federally but who was thought to be a potential leader of a coalition government, announced that he would stay in Regina to lead the Saskatchewan Conservatives. On September 2, Bulyea asked Rutherford to form the first government of Alberta.
After accepting the position of premier, Rutherford selected a geographically-diverse cabinet on September 6: Edmonton's Charles Wilson Cross as Attorney-General, Calgary's William Henry Cushing as Minister of Public Works, Medicine Hat's William Finlay as Minister of Agriculture and Provincial Secretary, and Lethbridge's George DeVeber as Minister without Portfolio. Rutherford kept for himself the positions of Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Education.
Premier
1905 election
Rutherford was now premier but had not yet faced the people in an election and did not yet have a legislature to which he could propose legislation. Elections for the first Legislative Assembly of Alberta were accordingly fixed for November 9. The Conservatives, the young province's only other political party, had already selected R. B. Bennett as their leader. Bennett attacked the terms under which Alberta had been made a province, especially the clauses that left control of its lands and natural resources in the hands of the federal government and required the continued provincial funding of separate schools. He pointed out that Canada's older provinces had control of their own natural resources and that education was a provincial responsibility under the British North America Act. The Liberals responded to such criticisms by highlighting the financial compensation the province received from the federal government in exchange for control of its natural resources, which amounted to $375,000 per year. They further suggested that the Conservatives' concern for control of lands to be caused by desire to make favourable land concessions to the unpopular Canadian Pacific Railway, which had long been friendly with the Conservatives and for which Bennett had acted as solicitor.
Besides the Conservatives' ties to the CPR, Rutherford's Liberals enjoyed the incumbent's advantage of controlling the levers of patronage, and the election's result was never really in doubt. Before the election, Talbot predicted that the government would win 18 of the province's 25 seats. Immediately after the election, it appeared that the Liberals had won 21. When all the votes had been counted, the Liberals won 23 seats to the Conservatives' two. Bennett himself was defeated in his Calgary riding. When the outcome was clear, the people of Strathcona feted Rutherford with a torchlight procession and bonfire.
First legislature and regional tensions
One of the most contentious issues facing the newly:elected government was the decision of the province's capital city. The federal legislation creating the province had fixed Edmonton as the provisional capital, much to the chagrin of Calgary. Neither party had taken a position on the divisive question during the campaign, but selecting a permanent capital was high on the list of the new legislature's orders of business. Calgary's case was made most enthusiastically by Minister of Public Works Cushing, Edmonton's by Attorney-General Cross. Banff and Red Deer were also possibilities, but motions to select each failed to find seconders. In the end, Edmonton was designated by a vote of sixteen members, including Rutherford, to eight.
A personal priority of Rutherford had been the establishment of a university. Though the Edmonton Bulletin opined that it would be unfair "that the people of the Province should be taxed for the special benefit of four per cent that they may be able to attach the cognomen of B.A. or M.A. to their names and flaunt the vanity of such over the taxpayer, who has to pay for it," Rutherford proceeded quickly. He was concerned that delay might result in the creation of denominational colleges, striking a blow to his dream of a high-quality nonsectarian system of postsecondary education. A bill establishing the university was passed by the legislature but left the government to decide the location. Calgary felt that having lost the fight to be provincial capital, it could expect the university to be established there, and it was not pleased when, a year late the government announced the founding of the University of Alberta in Rutherford's hometown, Strathcona.
While the regionally-charged issues attracted much attention, they were far from the government's only initiatives during the legislature's first session. In 1906, it passed a series of acts dealing with the organization and administration of the new provincial government and incorporated the cities of Lethbridge, Medicine Hat, and Wetaskiwin. It also established a speed limit of for motorized vehicles and set up a regime for mine inspection. Perhaps most significantly, it set up a court system, with Arthur Lewis Sifton as the province's first Chief Justice.
Though the founding of the University of Alberta was the centrepiece of Rutherford's educational policy, his activity as Minister of Education extended well beyond it. In the first year of Alberta's existence, 140 new schools were established, and a normal school was set up in Calgary to train teachers. Rutherford put great emphasis on the creation of English-language schools in the large portions of the province that were occupied primarily by Central and Eastern European immigrants. The immigrants themselves were often unable to speak English, and the provision of these schools for their children was a major factor in their rapid assimilation into Albertan society. They were also in lieu of separate religious schools for groups such as Mennonites. While the continued existence of Roman Catholic separate schools was mandated by the terms of Alberta's admission into Confederation, the government's policy was otherwise to encourage a unified and secular public school system. Rutherford also introduced free school texts in the province but was criticized for commissioning the texts from a Toronto publisher, which printed them in New York, rather than locally.
Labour unrest
The winter of 1906–07 was the coldest in Alberta history and was exacerbated by a shortage of coal. One cause of this shortage was the strained relationship between coal miners and mine operators in the province. At the beginning of April 1907, the Canada West Coal and Coke Company locked out the miners from its mine near Taber. The same company was also facing a work stoppage at its mine in the Crow's Nest Pass, where miners were refusing to sign a new contract. The problem spread until by April 22, all 3,400 miners working for member-companies of the Western Coal Operators' Association were off work. Miners' demands included increased wages, a reduction in working hours to eight per day (from ten), the posting of mine inspection reports, the isolated storage of explosives, the use of non-freezing explosives, and semi-monthly rather than monthly pay. The mine operators objected to this last point on the basis that since many miners did not report to work the day after payday, it desirable to keep paydays to a minimum.
Rutherford's government appointed a commission in February, but it was not until May that it met. It consisted of Chief Justice Arthur Sifton, mining executive Lewis Stockett, and miners' union executive William Haysom. It began taking evidence in July. In the meantime, a May agreement saw most miners return to work at increased rates of pay. Coal supply promptly increased, as did its price. In August, the commission released its recommendations, which included a prohibition on children under 16 working in mines, the posting of inspectors' reports, mandatory bath houses at mine sites, and improved ventilation inspection. It also recommended for Albertans to keep a supply of coal on hand during the summer for winter use. The commission was silent on wages (other than to say that these should not be fixed by legislation), the operation of company stores (a sore point among the miners), and the incorporation of miners' unions, which was recommended by mine management but opposed by the unions.
The committee also made no recommendation about working hours, but Rutherford's government legislated an eight-hour day anyway. As well, Rutherford's government also passed workers' compensation legislation designed to make such compensation automatic, rather than requiring the injured worker to sue his employer. Labour representatives criticized the bill for failing to impose fines on negligent employers, for limiting construction workers' eligibility under the program to injuries sustained while they were working on buildings more than high, and for exempting casual labourers. It also viewed the maximum payout of $1,500 as inadequate. In response to these concerns, the maximum was increased to $1,800 and the minimum building height reduced to . In response to farmers' concerns, farm labourers were made exempt from the bill entirely.
Rutherford's relationship with organized labour was never easy. Historian L.G. Thomas argued that there was little indication that Rutherford had any interest in courting the labour vote. In 1908, Labour candidate Donald McNabb was elected in a Lethbridge by-election; the riding had previously been held by a Liberal. McNabb was the first Labour MLA elected in Alberta (he was defeated in his 1909 re-election bid).
Public works
Rutherford's Liberals self-identified as the party of free enterprise, in contrast to the Conservatives, who supported public ownership Still the Liberals made a limited number of large-scale forays into government operation of utilities, the most notable of which being the creation of Alberta Government Telephones. In 1906, Alberta's municipalities legislation was passed and included a provision authorizing municipalities to operate telephone companies. Several, including Edmonton, did so, alongside private companies. The largest private company was the Bell Telephone Company, which held a monopoly over service in Calgary. Such monopolies and the private firms' refusal to extend their services into sparsely-populated and unprofitable rural areas aroused demand for provincial entry into the market, which was effected in 1907. The government constructed a number of lines, beginning with one between Calgary and Banff, and it also purchased Bell's lines for $675,000.
Alberta's public telephone system was financed by debt, which was unusual for a government like Rutherford's, which.was generally committed to the principle of "pay as you go". Rutherford's stated rationale was that the cost of such a large capital project should not.be borne by a single generation and that incurring debt to finance a corresponding asset was, in contrast to operating deficits, acceptable. Though the move was popular at the time, it would prove not to be financially astute. By focusing on areas neglected by existing companies, the government was entering into the most expensive and least profitable fields of telecommunication. Such.problems would not come to fruition until Rutherford had left office, however. In the short term, the government's involvement in the telephone business helped it to a sweeping victory in the 1909 election. The Liberals won 37 of 41 seats in the newly expanded legislature.
Of equal profile was Rutherford's government's management of the province's railways. Alberta's early years were optimistic and manifested itself in a pronounced enthusiasm for the construction of new railway lines. Every town wanted to be a railway centre, and the government had great confidence in the ability of the free market to provide low freight rates to the province's farmers if sufficient charters were issued to competing companies. The legislature passed government-sponsored legislation setting out a framework for new railways in 1907, but interest from private firms in actually building the lines was limited.
In the face of public demand and support by legislators of all parties for as rapid as possible an expansion of the province's lines, the government offered loan guarantees to several companies in exchange for commitments to build lines. Rutherford justified this in part by his conviction that railways needed to expand along with population, rather than have railway expansion follow population growth, which would be the case without government intervention. The Conservatives argued that the strategy did not go far enough, and they called for direct government ownership.
While most public works issues were handled by Public Works Minister Cushing, but after the 1909 election, Rutherford named himself as the province's first Minister of Railways.
Railway scandal
When the legislature met for the first time after the 1909 election, things seemed to be going well for Rutherford and his government. He controlled a huge majority, albeit slightly reduced from the 1905 election, and enjoyed widespread popularity. His government had achieved significant success in setting up a new province, and success looked poised to continue. Early in this new legislative session, however, two signs of trouble appeared: Liberal backbencher John R. Boyle began to ask questions about the agreement between the government and the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company, and Cushing resigned from cabinet over his views of this same agreement.
The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway was one of several companies that had been granted charters and assistance by the legislature to build new railways in the province. The government support that it received was more generous than that received by the more established railways, such as the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway. Boyle, Cushing, and Bennett alleged favouritism or ineptitude by Rutherford and his government, and they pointed to the sale of government-guaranteed bonds in support of the company as further evidence. Because of the high interest rate they paid, the bonds were sold at above par value, but the government received only par for them and left the company to pocket the difference.
Boyle sponsored a motion of non-confidence against the government. Despite enjoying the support of twelve Liberals, including Cushing, the motion was defeated and the government upheld. Rutherford attempted to quell the controversy by calling a royal commission, but pressure from many Liberals, including Bulyea, led him to resign May 26, 1910. He was replaced by Arthur Sifton, hitherto the province's chief judge.
In November, the royal commission issued its report that found that the evidence did not show a conflict of interest on Rutherford's part, but the majority report was nevertheless highly critical of the former premier. A minority report was much kinder by avowing perfect satisfaction with Rutherford's version of events.
Later life
Later political career
Before the 1911 federal election, several local Liberals opposed to Frank Oliver asked Rutherford to run against him in Strathcona. Relations between Oliver and Rutherford had always been chilly. Oliver was implacably opposed to Cross and viewed him as a rival for dominance of the Liberal Party in Alberta, and his Edmonton Bulletin had taken the side of the dissidents during the railway scandal. A nominating meeting unanimously nominated Rutherford as Liberal candidate, but Oliver refused to accept its legitimacy and awaited a later meeting. Before the meeting came to pass, however, Rutherford abruptly withdrew. Historian Douglas Babcock suggested that to be caused by the Conservatives' nomination of William Antrobus Griesbach, dashing Rutherford's hopes that his popularity among Conservatives would preclude them from opposing him. Rumours at the time alleged that Rutherford had been asked to make a personal contribution of $15,000 to his campaign fund and had balked. Rutherford himself cited a desire to avoid splitting the vote on reciprocity, which he and Oliver both favoured but Griesbach opposed. Whatever the reason for Rutherford's standing aloof from the election, Oliver was nominated as Liberal candidate and was re-elected.
After resigning as premier, Rutherford continued to sit as a Liberal MLA. He commanded the loyalty of many Liberals who had supported his government through the Alberta and Great Waterways issue, but the faction began increasingly to see Cross as its real leader. Rutherford opposed the Sifton government's decision to confiscate the Alberta and Great Waterways bond money and revoke its charter, and in 1913, he was one of only two Liberals to support a non-confidence motion against the government (Cross had by now joined the Sifton cabinet, which placated most members of the Cross-Rutherford faction.
In the 1913 election, Rutherford was again nominated as the Liberal candidate in Edmonton South (Strathcona had been amalgamated into Edmonton in 1912), despite pledging opposition to the Sifton government and offering to campaign around the province for the Conservatives if they agreed not to run a candidate against him. At the nomination meeting, he stated that he was "not running as a Sifton candidate" and was "a good independent candidate ... and a good Liberal too". Despite his opposition to the government, Conservatives declined his offer of support and nominated Herbert Crawford to run against him. After a vigorous campaign, Crawford defeated Rutherford by fewer than 250 votes. Cross lobbied Prime Minister Laurier for Rutherford to be appointed to the Senate. He was unsuccessful, but Rutherford was made King's Counsel shortly after his electoral defeat.
Rutherford took a strong line against the Sifton government and was nominated as Conservative candidate for the 1917 provincial election but stood down after being named as Alberta director of the National Service (conscription). (EB, Nov. 6, 1916)
In the 1921 Alberta general election, he campaigned actively for the Conservatives, including for Crawford, who had defeated him eight years earlier. Rutherford continued to call himself a Liberal but criticized the incumbent administration for the growth of the provincial debt and for letting the party fall into disarray. Calling the Charles Stewart government "rotten" and holding a grudge against cabinet minister John R. Boyle in particular, he offered voters the slogan "get rid of the barnacles and the Boyles", a homonymic reference to the parasitic growth on the side of a ship. He may have been thrilled to see the Liberal government fall in the election but probably less so when he saw that the triumphant United Farmers of Alberta had also whittled the Conservatives down to only one seat.
Professional career
Once out of politics, Rutherford returned to his law practice. His partnership with Jamieson saw partners come and go. Rutherford divided his time between the original Strathcona office and the Edmonton office that he opened in 1910. His practice focussed on contracts, real estate, wills and estates, and incorporations. In 1923, Rutherford's son Cecil joined the firm, along with Stanley Harwood McCuaig, who, in 1919, would marry Rutherford's daughter Hazel. In 1925, Jamieson left the partnership to establish his own firm. In 1939, McCuaig did the same. Cecil's partnership with his father continued until the latter's death.
Besides his work as a lawyer, Alexander Rutherford was involved in a number of business enterprises. He was President of the Edmonton Mortgage Corporation and Vice President and solicitor of the Great Western Garment Company. The latter enterprise, which Rutherford co-founded, was a great success: established in 1911 with eight seamstresses, it had quadrupled in size within a year. During the Second World War, it made military uniforms and was reputed to be the largest garment operation in the British Empire. It was acquired by Levi Strauss & Co. in 1961 but continued to manufacture garments in Edmonton until 2004.
Rutherford also acted as director of the Canada National Fire Insurance Company, the Imperial Canadian Trust Company, the Great West Permanent Loan Company, and the Monarch Life Assurance Company.
University of Alberta
Education was a personal priority of Rutherford, as evidenced by his retention of the office of Education Minister for his entire time as Premier and by his enthusiastic work in founding the University of Alberta. In 1911, he was elected by Alberta's university graduates to the University of Alberta Senate, responsible for the institution's academic affairs. In 1912, he established the Rutherford Gold Medal in English for the senior year honours English student with the highest standing; the prize still exists today as the Rutherford Memorial Medal in English. In 1912, with the University's first graduating class, Rutherford instituted a tradition of inviting convocating students to his house for tea; this tradition would last for 26 years.
Convocation was not the only reason that students visited Rutherford's home. He had a wealth of both knowledge and books on Canadian subjects and welcomed students to consult his private library. The library eventually expanded beyond the room in his mansion devoted to it, to encompass the house's den, maid's sitting room, and garage as well. After his death, the collection was donated and sold to the university's library system; it was described in 1967 as "still the most important rare collection in the library".
Rutherford remained on the university's senate until 1927, when he was elected Chancellor. The position was the titular head of the university, and its primary duty was presiding over convocations. According to Rutherford biographer Douglas Babcock, it was the honour that Rutherford prized most. He was acclaimed to the position every four years until his death. It has been estimated that he awarded degrees to more than five thousand students. His final convocation, however, was marred by controversy. It 1941, a committee of the university senate recommended awarding an honorary degree to Premier William Aberhart. Aberhart was pleased.and happily accepted University President William Alexander Robb Kerr's invitation to deliver the commencement address at convocation. However, a week prior to convocation the full senate, responsible for all university academic affairs, met, and voted against awarding Aberhart a degree. Aberhart rescinded his acceptance of Kerr's invitation and later removed the senate's authority except, ironically, the authority to award honorary degrees and Kerr resigned in protest. Rutherford was mortified but presided over convocation nonetheless.
Community involvement and family life
Rutherford remained active in a wide range of community organizations well after his departure from politics. He was a deacon in his church until well into his dotage, was a member of the Young Women's Christian Association advisory board from 1913 until his death, was Edmonton's first exalted ruler of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, and was for three years the grand exalted ruler of the Elk Order of Canada.
During World War I, he was Alberta director of the National Service Commission, which oversaw conscription from 1916 until 1918, and in 1916, he was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 194th Highland Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Rutherford served on the Loan Advisory Committee of the Soldier Settlement Board after the war, was President of the Alberta Historical Society (which had been created by his government) from 1919 to his death, was elected President of the McGill University Alumni Association of Alberta in 1922, and spent the last years of his life as honorary president of the Canadian Authors Association. He was also a member of the Northern Alberta Pioneers and Old-Timers Association, the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Colonial Institute of London, and the Masons.
He continued to play curling and tennis into his late fifties, and he took up golf at the age of sixty-four, becoming a charter member of the Mayfair Golf and Country Club.
He received honorary doctorates of laws from four universities: McGill, the University of Alberta, McMaster University, and the University of Toronto.
In 1911, the Rutherfords built a new house adjacent to the University of Alberta campus. Rutherford named it "Archnacarry", after his ancestral homeland in Scotland. Now known as Rutherford House, it serves as a museum. He made several trips to the United Kingdom and was invited to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, but he had to return to Canada before the event. On December 19, 1938, the Rutherfords celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary; tributes and well wishes arrived from across Canada.
Death and legacy
Besides his bronchitis, Rutherford developed diabetes in later years. His wife monitored his sugar intake, but when they were apart, Rutherford sometimes took less care than she would have liked him to. In 1938, possibly as a result of diabetes, he suffered a stroke that left him paralyzed and mute. He learned to walk again and, with the help of a grade 1 reader, got his speech back.
On September 13, 1940, Mattie Rutherford died of cancer. Less than a year later, June 11, 1941, Rutherford suffered a fatal heart attack while he was in hospital for insulin treatment. He was 84 years old.
He was buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Edmonton, alongside his family.
His name was attached to many institutions both during his life and later. Rutherford Elementary School in Edmonton was established in 1911 and the University of Alberta's Rutherford Library in 1951.
In 1954, a mountain in Jasper National Park was named Mount Rutherford.
In 1980, the government of Alberta created the Alexander Rutherford Scholarship, which awards more than $20 million annually to high school students selected on the basis of a minimum of a 75% average. The top ten students receiving Alexander Rutherford scholarships are recognized as Rutherford Scholars and are presented with an additional scholarship and plaque.
Rutherford's policy legacy is mixed. L. G. Thomas concludes that he was a weak leader, unable to dominate the ambitions of his lieutenants and with very little skill at debate. Still, Thomas recognizes the Rutherford government's legacy of province building.
Douglas Babcock suggests that Rutherford, while himself honourable, left himself at the mercy of unscrupulous men who ultimately ruined his political career. Bennett, Rutherford's rival and later Prime Minister, concurred with this assessment, calling Rutherford "a gentleman of the old school ... not equipped by experience or temperament for the rough and tumble of western politics".
There is general agreement that Rutherford's greatest legacy and the one in which he took the most pride lies in his contributions to Alberta's education. As Mount Royal College historian Patricia Roome concludes her chapter on Rutherford in a book about Alberta's first twelve premiers, "Rutherford's educational contribution remains his ultimate legacy to Albertans."
Electoral record
As party leader
As MLA
See also
History of Alberta
Notes
References
External links
The Honourable Alexander C. Rutherford, 1905–10 – Legislative Assembly of Alberta
1857 births
1941 deaths
Alberta Liberal Party MLAs
Lawyers in Alberta
Canadian Baptists
Chancellors of the University of Alberta
Leaders of the Alberta Liberal Party
McGill University alumni
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
Lawyers in Ontario
Politicians from Ottawa
People from the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry
Premiers of Alberta
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian Queen's Counsel | [
-0.017682300880551338,
0.22900915145874023,
-0.29109710454940796,
0.0985875129699707,
-0.03394605219364166,
0.26872602105140686,
0.9032835960388184,
-0.12286705523729324,
0.049256179481744766,
-0.6408466100692749,
0.25035449862480164,
0.3389126658439636,
-0.3999496400356293,
0.442074716091156,
-0.3856310248374939,
0.6178157925605774,
-0.5769534707069397,
0.09184736758470535,
-0.18676136434078217,
-0.16051043570041656,
-0.19796931743621826,
-0.3971307873725891,
0.6123956441879272,
0.42745375633239746,
0.06146969273686409,
0.21906527876853943,
0.3482438623905182,
0.09905742853879929,
-0.33627280592918396,
0.3821406066417694,
-0.13368108868598938,
0.4309753477573395,
0.5184452533721924,
0.11651571094989777,
-0.8069232106208801,
-0.2277187705039978,
-0.040467601269483566,
-0.4281030595302582,
-0.008229185827076435,
0.03322957083582878,
-0.3167954981327057,
-0.14479835331439972,
0.08615865558385849,
-0.1956978440284729,
0.42797717452049255,
-0.9896453022956848,
-1.4524259567260742,
0.15023167431354523,
-0.08977972716093063,
-0.13650520145893097,
-0.31707867980003357,
0.3552170395851135,
0.15400883555412292,
-0.38100236654281616,
-0.05004126951098442,
0.17104624211788177,
-0.2173864245414734,
-0.11626570671796799,
-0.5030202865600586,
-0.3530580699443817,
0.20140224695205688,
0.11049622297286987,
0.6055514216423035,
0.28440386056900024,
0.5870695114135742,
0.10956357419490814,
-0.23933559656143188,
0.12099502235651016,
-0.0010424931533634663,
0.2916518449783325,
0.29585736989974976,
0.9899949431419373,
0.44183042645454407,
0.10885030776262283,
0.4905763566493988,
0.09321680665016174,
-0.09574433416128159,
0.31040653586387634,
0.5778841376304626,
0.4270852506160736,
-0.1762382537126541,
-0.7912412285804749,
0.24479447305202484,
0.8993143439292908,
-0.3635918200016022,
0.14542783796787262,
-0.7360736131668091,
0.4954957365989685,
-0.23809708654880524,
-0.36410585045814514,
-0.7951472997665405,
-0.18875494599342346,
0.14152640104293823,
-0.08753658086061478,
-0.32397061586380005,
-0.5012160539627075,
0.046145666390657425,
0.015046542510390282,
-0.3185925781726837,
-0.7345765829086304,
0.36917272210121155,
-0.24746370315551758,
0.10658373683691025,
-0.3712906539440155,
-0.6041930913925171,
0.40784433484077454,
-0.623046875,
0.12314468622207642,
0.09218578785657883,
-0.030613737180829048,
-0.2841780185699463,
-0.0073999096639454365,
0.14108283817768097,
-0.0036470515187829733,
0.49959951639175415,
0.38675162196159363,
0.18980053067207336,
-0.6917601227760315,
-0.34503287076950073,
-0.03357215225696564,
-0.22674232721328735,
0.00417006341740489,
-0.40599218010902405,
0.13616736233234406,
-0.5827032923698425,
-0.10837037116289139,
-0.4211377203464508,
-0.5345423221588135,
0.1409982293844223,
0.46499523520469666,
0.715682327747345,
0.7574848532676697,
-0.4550628662109375,
-0.1476537585258484,
-0.8024476766586304,
0.2821621000766754,
-0.13673236966133118,
-0.6146447658538818,
-0.4495823085308075,
-0.027698727324604988,
-0.38667330145835876,
-0.09333590418100357,
-0.17752304673194885,
-0.23185184597969055,
0.2977341413497925,
0.18984006345272064,
-0.2698467969894409,
-0.061042848974466324,
-0.6949154138565063,
-0.23492470383644104,
-0.09107150882482529,
0.04914679378271103,
0.19202476739883423,
-0.1460019201040268,
0.052780214697122574,
1.2374069690704346,
0.5906983017921448,
0.4121517837047577,
-0.050362035632133484,
0.27060747146606445,
-0.07611840218305588,
0.1471956968307495,
0.26682138442993164,
-0.03202775865793228,
0.9405242204666138,
0.02468026615679264,
-0.4084276258945465,
-0.7792023420333862,
0.05162616819143295,
-0.09683380275964737,
0.23712888360023499,
0.15746049582958221,
0.6197023987770081,
-0.35341235995292664,
0.2019340544939041,
0.3024196922779083,
0.28451254963874817,
-0.043417125940322876,
0.1935843825340271,
-0.5954103469848633,
-0.9814629554748535,
-0.0015957572031766176,
0.3147701621055603,
0.16026002168655396,
0.5634649395942688,
0.26989251375198364,
0.27718186378479004,
-0.055131811648607254,
0.46452751755714417,
-0.24577969312667847,
-0.1897425651550293,
-1.045068621635437,
-0.024142282083630562,
-0.8000391125679016,
0.582611620426178,
-0.03875754028558731,
0.04859979450702667,
0.6804524660110474,
-0.09748922288417816,
0.9844226241111755,
-0.2935020625591278,
0.07886341214179993,
0.07802272588014603,
-0.5613333582878113,
0.0906832292675972,
0.5845668315887451,
0.43524792790412903,
-0.07372229546308517,
0.4738343358039856,
0.7196263074874878,
-0.0705355852842331,
-0.3698132038116455,
-0.5590502619743347,
0.42029520869255066,
-0.48687493801116943,
-0.4307534098625183,
-0.42209765315055847,
-0.469449907541275,
0.03377298638224602,
0.049648698419332504,
0.4552583694458008,
0.26539671421051025,
-0.511292040348053,
0.7242994904518127,
0.09267280995845795,
0.5399184823036194,
0.1940196454524994,
-0.17765183746814728,
-0.44185611605644226,
-0.311447411775589,
0.005505249369889498,
0.1589677482843399,
0.5621817111968994,
-0.7752595543861389,
0.2497532218694687,
-0.0839964747428894,
-0.42738309502601624,
0.3096558153629303,
0.48211023211479187,
-0.24577195942401886,
0.12051801383495331,
0.8632243871688843,
-0.5989502668380737,
-0.08837012946605682,
0.17809413373470306,
0.48948436975479126,
-0.5623342990875244,
-0.2694234549999237,
0.07397998124361038,
-0.24371576309204102,
0.19305871427059174,
-0.04798480495810509,
0.35057932138442993,
0.38860902190208435,
0.35593053698539734,
-0.13229629397392273,
0.4398299753665924,
-0.3898916244506836,
-0.023057080805301666,
0.28972288966178894,
0.10049574822187424,
0.44695764780044556,
-0.21463502943515778,
0.11851013451814651,
0.36220166087150574,
0.5008724927902222,
-0.16251343488693237,
0.11656053364276886,
-0.6195321679115295,
-0.1609858274459839,
0.07477457821369171,
-0.4750517010688782,
-0.02544097788631916,
0.5820775628089905,
0.7993620038032532,
0.09127539396286011,
-0.3346308767795563,
0.588801920413971,
-0.40628480911254883,
-0.8236023783683777,
0.4098106324672699,
1.3727061748504639,
-0.18373756110668182,
-0.1049700528383255,
-0.1983640342950821,
-0.06974036246538162,
-0.5135332345962524,
0.13805125653743744,
-0.002693809336051345,
-0.7459411025047302,
-0.21757268905639648,
0.23021923005580902,
-0.5110511779785156,
-0.1393735557794571,
-0.3566385805606842,
0.22732681035995483,
0.1315423995256424,
-0.299518883228302,
0.8033571839332581,
0.0012949546799063683,
-0.6601550579071045,
-0.014233959838747978,
0.2975459694862366,
0.1494320183992386,
0.6537954211235046,
0.40250301361083984,
-0.26450952887535095,
0.07194148749113083,
-5.393736362457275,
-0.03205960616469383,
-0.3396874964237213,
-0.6865130662918091,
0.7384164333343506,
-0.17617301642894745,
0.3933666944503784,
-0.28370073437690735,
0.29429832100868225,
-0.16754651069641113,
0.7802238464355469,
-0.21585741639137268,
0.5565935373306274,
0.3441278338432312,
0.6531563997268677,
0.24061068892478943,
0.7903934121131897,
-0.12502507865428925,
0.5859769582748413,
0.00923730619251728,
0.7653700113296509,
-0.561479389667511,
-0.403377503156662,
0.18272848427295685,
0.46014103293418884,
0.39192625880241394,
0.04983965680003166,
0.34459301829338074,
-0.34802454710006714,
-0.48162642121315,
0.3312740921974182,
0.15908321738243103,
-0.18039681017398834,
-0.3301510512828827,
-0.032129351049661636,
-0.331373929977417,
0.2065109759569168,
0.7799922227859497,
0.2506915330886841,
0.4519307017326355,
0.11777966469526291,
-0.4116271436214447,
-0.5608718991279602,
0.21430955827236176,
-0.3267713487148285,
-0.7147771716117859,
-0.5119775533676147,
0.9024070501327515,
-0.36971285939216614,
0.4331459701061249,
0.6163361072540283,
0.4568447172641754,
0.07383178919553757,
-0.14822426438331604,
-0.07867913693189621,
0.36364802718162537,
-0.02614375576376915,
0.0287941861897707,
-1.0058412551879883,
0.11114519834518433,
0.38380101323127747,
-0.6714172959327698,
0.11343982070684433,
-0.05856579169631004,
-0.32593634724617004,
-0.29142874479293823,
0.15369658172130585,
0.28697505593299866,
0.5788695216178894,
-0.2858440577983856,
-0.20273537933826447,
0.7137788534164429,
-0.1290285438299179,
-1.0225433111190796,
0.12714970111846924,
-0.24760165810585022,
-0.3843204081058502,
0.6406781673431396,
-0.6389541029930115,
-0.7278538942337036,
0.18842686712741852,
0.1373824179172516,
0.06974965333938599,
1.0211420059204102,
0.6451069116592407,
0.2185429185628891,
-0.24019551277160645,
0.5324855446815491,
0.039400286972522736,
-0.17010723054409027,
0.054746802896261215,
-0.6185033321380615,
-0.06005420535802841,
0.4411682188510895,
0.25742602348327637,
-0.5702574253082275,
0.0749429240822792,
-0.14027363061904907,
-0.3371615707874298,
-0.2357703149318695,
-0.8924185633659363,
0.29411596059799194,
0.22657987475395203,
-0.9167470335960388,
-0.39334672689437866,
0.015133596025407314,
-0.4186764657497406,
0.14644932746887207,
0.08110620081424713,
0.3473062217235565,
-0.13383515179157257,
0.3251105844974518,
-0.5558393597602844,
0.1045544221997261,
0.4075765311717987,
-0.3864891529083252,
-0.28086960315704346,
0.14948062598705292,
1.3695343732833862,
0.494625061750412,
-0.2135154902935028,
0.2789011001586914,
-0.46033811569213867,
0.3599289059638977,
-0.18610182404518127,
-0.16169603168964386,
0.5617591738700867,
-0.5809208154678345,
-0.5489354133605957,
-0.15622425079345703,
0.4729102551937103,
0.30111733078956604,
-0.3101542890071869,
0.4865926206111908,
-0.29434046149253845,
-0.14837175607681274,
-0.2245721071958542,
-0.37046781182289124,
-0.3432519733905792,
-0.4899996817111969,
-0.24177978932857513,
-0.0843702107667923,
0.1044057309627533,
0.04715332016348839,
0.18447688221931458,
0.374987930059433,
0.3311389684677124,
0.0800941213965416,
-0.3508234918117523,
0.5601962208747864,
-0.5171010494232178,
0.003930345177650452,
0.28603437542915344,
-0.7572965621948242,
0.06736898422241211,
0.054410167038440704,
-0.5391471982002258,
-0.28278836607933044,
0.46382299065589905,
-0.22930461168289185,
-0.25078147649765015,
0.48782557249069214,
-1.1178321838378906,
-0.31026360392570496,
0.2258601039648056,
0.1996173858642578,
-0.9725112915039062,
-0.029977183789014816,
-0.32766392827033997,
1.0687305927276611,
0.07666094601154327,
-0.7046411037445068,
-0.15400362014770508,
-0.28724679350852966,
0.5109269618988037,
-0.20799066126346588,
0.22019127011299133,
-0.14606554806232452,
-0.09802541881799698,
0.20277813076972961,
0.18864504992961884,
0.29640287160873413,
-0.25902900099754333,
0.036417827010154724,
0.9116455316543579,
-0.6768558621406555,
-0.8034513592720032,
-0.4125770926475525,
0.479360967874527,
0.10614929348230362,
0.45690855383872986,
-0.2223365306854248,
0.3062897026538849,
0.8243829607963562,
-0.017083516344428062,
-0.12137863039970398,
0.10403672605752945,
-0.31381455063819885,
-0.2734735608100891,
-0.5958831310272217,
-0.07957471907138824,
0.13330310583114624,
0.1160159707069397,
-0.3286318778991699,
-0.46074557304382324,
-0.7438656091690063,
-0.22230377793312073,
-0.33144041895866394,
-0.28886038064956665,
0.6997263431549072,
-0.026560498401522636,
-0.3990854024887085,
0.30938783288002014,
0.4838719666004181,
-0.2094201147556305,
0.06016652658581734,
0.7085203528404236,
0.42908158898353577,
-0.5304780602455139,
-0.5721417665481567,
-0.4433016777038574,
-0.2504838705062866,
-0.31947970390319824,
-0.15240539610385895,
-0.21323423087596893,
-0.15375705063343048,
0.5334032773971558,
0.3546398878097534,
0.7440903186798096,
0.0638798251748085,
-0.00033611664548516273,
-0.40494924783706665,
-0.26292234659194946,
0.1813182681798935,
0.005939990747720003,
0.14751523733139038,
0.09619709104299545,
0.42783141136169434,
-0.5009933114051819,
-0.3541029095649719,
0.4035114645957947,
1.3301284313201904,
0.5346323847770691,
-0.7140964269638062,
-0.35862281918525696,
-0.45043709874153137,
0.4044891893863678,
-0.2902597188949585,
-0.018745722249150276,
0.3395719528198242,
0.4490276575088501,
-0.4984552264213562,
-0.6702953577041626,
-0.09061206132173538,
0.959351122379303,
-0.048498231917619705,
0.18313275277614594,
0.5299323797225952,
0.2574853301048279,
0.17607355117797852,
0.03635923191905022,
0.39975884556770325,
-0.02698344737291336,
0.2787831127643585,
0.25612398982048035,
0.11975441873073578,
0.015279781073331833,
-0.0961994081735611,
0.6098544001579285,
-0.3768085837364197,
-0.8307123780250549,
-0.7649689316749573,
-0.12375751882791519,
0.2898484766483307,
-0.38438108563423157,
-0.22527173161506653,
-0.07921150326728821,
-0.4961499571800232,
-0.12134438753128052,
-0.3413946330547333,
-0.8497313261032104,
-0.20501308143138885,
0.21994651854038239,
-0.2442970722913742,
-0.4234762489795685,
-0.9294376373291016,
-0.32343626022338867,
0.08643926680088043,
-0.27386674284935,
-0.3668358325958252,
-0.9502058029174805,
0.2394421249628067,
-0.34100306034088135,
-0.6899903416633606,
-0.2581249177455902,
0.2578699290752411,
-0.05106080695986748,
0.8773167729377747,
-0.309265673160553,
-0.018860315904021263,
-0.3552034795284271,
0.9868686199188232,
0.5532563328742981,
-0.0458894707262516,
0.037286389619112015,
0.19106203317642212,
-0.08935324102640152,
-0.09999070316553116,
-0.10108964890241623,
-0.08594529330730438,
0.639224112033844,
0.10749779641628265,
0.5007683038711548,
0.3695797920227051,
-1.23092520236969,
-0.1758773922920227,
0.1308506429195404,
-0.25631096959114075,
-0.3529023230075836,
-0.09580738842487335,
-0.12155309319496155,
0.2242719829082489,
0.37128594517707825,
0.028831280767917633,
0.5672712326049805,
0.5630985498428345,
0.6188766956329346,
0.3768875300884247,
-0.17428000271320343,
0.24184997379779816,
0.17211221158504486,
-0.0454259067773819,
-0.5650473833084106,
0.3664288818836212,
-0.8628683090209961,
0.6425518989562988,
0.18449777364730835,
-0.5031058192253113,
-0.12537644803524017,
0.45194172859191895,
0.2319023460149765,
0.7930529713630676,
-0.13169434666633606,
-0.0590975396335125,
0.15583191812038422,
0.11141476780176163,
0.15921296179294586,
0.005827682558447123,
0.6131783127784729,
-0.08897071331739426,
0.5674954652786255,
-0.15221533179283142,
-0.0161986593157053,
-0.7346022725105286,
-0.4720365107059479,
0.39716166257858276,
0.4736456871032715,
-0.24533043801784515,
-0.345062255859375,
-0.09658656269311905,
-0.1913556307554245,
-0.7482991814613342,
1.4111534357070923,
-0.057502854615449905,
-0.10867335647344589,
-0.00012239156058058143,
0.5868789553642273,
-0.6983490586280823,
0.20594574511051178,
0.2574702203273773,
-0.02564418874680996,
-0.6412245035171509,
-0.10151682049036026,
0.2651014029979706,
0.5050457715988159,
0.10308097302913666,
0.6565929651260376,
0.024942276999354362,
-0.17704597115516663,
0.670867383480072,
-0.036337412893772125,
0.45416146516799927,
-0.555554986000061,
-0.6437099575996399,
0.2778496742248535,
-0.19224882125854492,
-0.057062193751335144,
0.24177268147468567,
-0.2568187415599823,
-1.0786957740783691,
0.468048095703125,
-0.34288012981414795,
0.060936279594898224,
0.4630529582500458,
-0.18040256202220917,
-0.04097528010606766,
-0.5366950035095215,
0.3449612855911255,
0.7949022650718689,
0.3198288083076477,
-0.10854534804821014,
-0.16696231067180634,
0.09551257640123367,
-0.03621944412589073,
-0.1413005143404007,
0.6608434915542603,
0.2099144607782364,
0.09882429987192154,
-1.0061931610107422,
0.36179211735725403,
-0.08916432410478592,
0.6294875741004944,
-0.6950936317443848,
0.05128404498100281,
-0.6019789576530457,
-0.3176819980144501,
0.7092759013175964,
-0.12604860961437225,
-0.484776109457016,
-0.2721845805644989,
-0.03797393664717674,
-0.781548261642456,
0.564313530921936,
0.16769789159297943,
-0.4553498923778534,
-0.3703055679798126,
-0.12877625226974487,
0.1512681394815445,
-0.4295790195465088,
0.7473376989364624,
-0.2590874135494232,
-0.6408924460411072,
-0.5718762874603271,
0.0799013301730156,
-0.27270105481147766,
-0.17072105407714844,
-0.13971291482448578,
0.6643736362457275,
0.10493693500757217,
-0.33770430088043213,
0.5358678698539734,
0.11762677878141403,
0.4435277581214905,
-0.04664185270667076,
0.07849667221307755,
0.4032459259033203,
-0.1087493970990181,
-0.31206947565078735,
-0.28060203790664673,
0.11774349957704544,
0.013811050914227962,
-0.3957989811897278,
0.2958647310733795,
-0.4587780833244324,
0.5192275047302246,
-0.6777911186218262,
0.24269400537014008,
-0.1920785903930664,
0.24954234063625336,
-0.19882860779762268
] |
233761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20Trenchard%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Trenchard | Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard | Marshal of the Royal Air Force Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard, (3 February 1873 – 10 February 1956) was a British officer who was instrumental in establishing the Royal Air Force. He has been described as the "Father of the Royal Air Force."
During his formative years, Trenchard struggled academically, failing many examinations and only just succeeding in meeting the minimum standard for commissioned service in the British Army. As a young infantry officer, Trenchard served in India and with the outbreak of the Boer War, he volunteered for service in South Africa. While fighting the Boers, Trenchard was critically wounded and as a result of his injury, he lost a lung, was partially paralysed and returned to Great Britain. On medical advice, Trenchard travelled to Switzerland to recuperate and boredom saw him taking up bobsleighing. After a heavy crash, Trenchard found that his paralysis was gone and that he could walk unaided. Following further recuperation, Trenchard returned to active service in South Africa.
After the end of the Boer War, Trenchard saw service in Nigeria where he was involved in efforts to bring the interior under settled British rule and quell intertribal violence. During his time in West Africa, Trenchard commanded the Southern Nigeria Regiment for several years.
In Summer 1912, Trenchard learned to fly and gained his aviator's certificate (No. 270) on 31 July flying a Henry Farman biplane of the Sopwith School of Flying at Brooklands. He was subsequently appointed as second in command of the Central Flying School. He held several senior positions in the Royal Flying Corps during First World War, serving as the commander of the Royal Flying Corps in France from 1915 to 1917. In 1918, he briefly served as the first Chief of the Air Staff before taking up command of the Independent Air Force in France. Returning as Chief of the Air Staff under Winston Churchill in 1919, Trenchard spent the following decade securing the future of the Royal Air Force. He was Metropolitan Police Commissioner in the 1930s and a defender of the RAF in his later years. Trenchard is recognised today as one of the early advocates of strategic bombing.
Early life
Hugh Montague Trenchard was born at 6 Haines Hill in Taunton, England on 3 February 1873. He was the third child and second son of Henry Montague Trenchard and his wife Georgiana Louisa Catherine Tower Skene. Trenchard's father was a former captain in the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry who was working as an articled clerk in a legal practice and his mother was the daughter of the Royal Navy captain John McDowall Skene. Although in the 1870s the Trenchards were living in an unremarkable fashion, their forebears had played notable roles in English history. Notable ancestors were Sir Thomas Trenchard, a High Sheriff of Dorset in the 16th century and Sir John Trenchard, the Secretary of State under William III.
When Hugh Trenchard was two, the family moved to Courtlands, a manor house in Norton Fitzwarren, less than three miles (4 km) from the centre of Taunton. The country setting meant that he could enjoy an outdoor life, including spending time hunting rabbits and other small animals with the rifle he was given on his eighth birthday. It was during his junior years that he and his siblings were educated at home by a resident tutor, whom Trenchard did not respect. Unfortunately for his education, the tutor was neither strict enough nor skillful enough to overcome the children's mischievous attempts to avoid receiving instruction. As a consequence, Trenchard did not excel academically; however, his enthusiasm for games and riding was evident.
At the age of 10 he was sent to board at Allens Preparatory School near Botley in Hampshire. Although he did well at arithmetic, he struggled with the rest of the curriculum. However, his parents were not greatly concerned by his educational difficulties, believing that it would be no impediment to him following a military career. Georgina Trenchard wanted her son to follow her father's profession and enter the Royal Navy. In 1884 he was moved to Dover where he attended Hammond's, a cramming school for prospective entrants to HMS Britannia. He failed the Navy's entrance papers, and at the age of 13 he was sent to the Reverend Albert Pritchard's crammer, Hill Lands in Wargrave, Berkshire. Hill Lands prepared its pupils for Army commissions and, as before, Trenchard did not apply himself to his studies, preferring sports (rugby in particular) and practical joking.
In 1889, when he was 16 years old, his father, who had become a solicitor, was declared bankrupt. After initially being removed from Hill Lands, the young Trenchard was only able to return thanks to the charity of his relatives. He subsequently failed the Woolwich examinations twice and was then relegated to applying for the Militia which had lower entry standards. Even the Militia's examinations proved difficult for Trenchard and he failed in 1891 and 1892. During this period he underwent a period of training as a probationary subaltern with the Forfar and Kincardine Artillery. Following his return to Pritchard's, he achieved a bare pass in March 1893. At the age of 20, he was gazetted as a second-lieutenant in the Second Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers and posted to India.
Early military career
India
Trenchard arrived in India in late 1893, joining his regiment at Sialkot in the Punjab. Not long after his arrival, he was called upon to make a speech at a mess dinner night. It was common practice for the youngest subaltern to make such a speech and he was expected to cover several highlights of the Royal Scots Fusiliers' history. Instead, he simply said "I am deeply proud to belong to this great regiment", followed by "I hope one day I shall live to command it." His 'speech' was received with hoots of incredulous laughter, although some appreciated his nerve.
Young officers stationed in India in the 1890s enjoyed many social and sporting diversions and Trenchard did little militarily. While every regiment was required to undertake a period of duty beyond the Khyber Pass, for the most part conditions of peace and prosperity were evident and he was able to engage in various sporting activities. In early 1894 he won the All-India Rifle Championship. After his success at shooting, he set about establishing a battalion polo team. Being of the infantry, his regiment had no history of playing polo and there were many obstacles to overcome. However, within six months the battalion polo team was competing and holding its own. It was during a polo match in 1896 that he first met Winston Churchill, with whom he clashed on the field of play. Trenchard's sporting prowess saved his reputation among his fellow officers. In other respects he did not fit in, lacking social graces and choosing to converse little, he was nicknamed "the camel", as like the beast he neither drank nor spoke.
It was during this period of his life in India that he took up reading. His first choice was for biographies, particularly of British heroes, and he kept the long hours he spent reading unobtrusive, but in so doing succeeded in providing himself with an education where the service crammers had failed. However, in military terms Trenchard was dissatisfied. He failed to see any action during his time in India, missing out on his regiment's turn at the frontier, as he was sent to England on sick leave for a hernia operation.
With the outbreak of the Second Boer War in October 1899, he applied several times to rejoin his old battalion which had been sent to the Cape as part of the expeditionary corps. His requests were rejected by his Colonel, and when the Viceroy Lord Curzon, who was concerned about the drain of leaders to South Africa, banned the dispatch of any further officers, Trenchard's prospects for seeing action looked bleak. However, a year or two previously, it had so happened that he had been promised help or advice from Sir Edmond Elles, as a gesture of thanks after rescuing a poorly planned rifle-shooting contest from disaster. By 1900, Elles was Military Secretary to Lord Curzon and Trenchard (recently promoted to captain) sent a priority signal to Elles requesting that he be permitted to rejoin his unit overseas. This bold move worked, and he received his orders for South Africa several weeks later.
South Africa
On his arrival in South Africa, he rejoined the Royal Scots Fusiliers, and in July 1900 he was ordered to raise and train a mounted company within the 2nd Battalion. The Boers were accomplished horsemen and the tactics of the day placed a heavy strain upon the British cavalry. Accordingly, the British sought to raise mounted infantry units and Trenchard's polo-playing experiences led to him being selected to raise a mounted unit for service west of Johannesburg. Part of the newly formed company consisted of a group of volunteer Australian horsemen who, thus far being under-employed, had largely been noticed for excessive drinking, gambling and debauchery.
Trenchard's company came under the command of the 6th (Fusilier) Brigade which was headquartered at Krugersdorp. During September and early October 1900, it was involved in several skirmishes in the surrounding countryside. On 5 Brigade, including Trenchard, departed Krugersdorp with the intention of drawing the Boers into battle on the plain where they might be defeated. However, before the Brigade could reach the plain it had to pass through undulating terrain which favoured the Boer guerrilla tactics. The Brigade travelled by night, and at dawn on 9 October the Ayrshire Yeomanry, who were in the vanguard, disturbed a Boer encampment. The Boers fled on horseback and Trenchard's company pursued them for . The Boers, finding themselves unable to shake off Trenchard's pursuit, led them into an ambush. The Boers rode up a steep slope and disappeared into the valley beyond. When Trenchard made the ridge he saw the Dwarsvlei farmhouse with smoke coming from the chimney. It appeared to him that the Boers thought they had got away and were eating breakfast unawares. He placed his troops on the heights around the building and after half an hour's observation led a patrol of four men down towards the farmhouse. The remainder of the company were to close in on his signal. However, when Trenchard and his patrol reached the valley floor and broke cover the Boers opened fire from about a dozen points and bullets whistled past it. He pressed forward reaching the sheltering wall of the farmhouse. As he headed for the door, Trenchard was hit by a Boer bullet to the chest. The rest of the company, seeing their leader fall, descended from the heights to engage the Boers at close quarters in and around the farmhouse. Many of the Boers were killed or wounded, a few fled and several were taken prisoner. Trenchard being critically wounded was medically evacuated to Krugersdorp.
Medical treatment and convalescence
After he was brought to the hospital in Krugersdorp, he slipped from semi-consciousness into unconsciousness. The surgeons believed that he would die as the bullet had punctured his left lung and they had removed six-and-a-half pints of blood from his pleural cavity through a tube. On the third day, he regained consciousness but spent most of that day sleeping. After three weeks, he had shown some improvement and was moved to Johannesburg, where he made further progress. However, when he tried to rise from his bed, he discovered that he was unable to put weight on his feet, leading him to suspect that he was partially paralysed. He was next moved to Maraisburg for convalescing and there he confirmed that he was suffering from partial paralysis below the waist. The doctors surmised that after passing through his lung, the bullet had damaged his spine.
In December 1900, he returned to England, arriving by hospital ship at Southampton. He hobbled with the aid of sticks down the gangplank where his concerned parents met him. As a disabled soldier without independent financial means, he was now at his lowest point. He spent the next fortnight at a Mayfair nursing home for disabled officers which was run by the Red Cross. His case came to the attention of Lady Dudley, by whose philanthropic efforts the Mayfair nursing home operated. Through her generosity, she arranged for him to see a specialist who said that he needed to spend several months in Switzerland where the air was likely to be of benefit to his lung. Neither he or his family could afford this expense, and he was too embarrassed to explain the situation. However, without asking any questions, Lady Dudley presented him with a cheque to cover the expense.
On Sunday 30 December, he arrived in St Moritz to begin a Swiss convalescence. Boredom saw him take up bobsleighing as it did not require much use of his legs. Initially he was prone to leave the run and end up in the snow, but after some days of practice he usually managed to stay on track. It was during a heavy crash from the Cresta Run that his spine was somehow readjusted, enabling him to walk freely immediately after regaining consciousness. Around a week later, he won the St. Moritz Tobogganing Club's Freshman and Novices' Cups for 1901, a remarkable triumph for a man who had been unable to walk unaided only a few days before.
On arrival back in England, he visited Lady Dudley to thank her, and then set about engineering his return to South Africa. His lung was not fully healed, causing him pain and leaving him breathless. Furthermore, the War Office was sceptical about his claim to be fully fit and was disinclined to allow him to forgo his remaining nine months of sick leave. He then took several months of tennis coaching in order to strengthen his remaining lung. Early in the summer of 1901, he entered two tennis competitions, reaching the semi-finals both times and gaining favourable press coverage. He then sent the newspaper clippings to the doctors at the War Office, arguing that this tennis ability proved he was fit for active service. After attending a medical board, he had his sick leave reduced and was able to return to South Africa in July 1901.
Return to Africa
Back in South Africa
Upon his return, he made his way to Pretoria, arriving there in late July 1901. He was assigned to a company of the 12th Mounted Infantry where patrolling duties required long days in the saddle. His wound still caused considerable pain, and the entry and exit scars frequently bled.
Later in the year, he was summoned to see Kitchener, who was now the Commander-in-Chief in the South African theatre. He was tasked with re-organising a demoralised mounted infantry company, which was completed in under a month. Kitchener then sent him to D'Aar in the Cape Colony to expedite the training of a new corps of mounted infantry. Kitchener summoned Trenchard for the third time in October 1901, this time sending him on a mission to capture the Boer Government, who were in hiding. Kitchener had received intelligence on their location and he hoped to damage the morale of Boer commandos at large by sending a small group of men to capture their political leadership. Trenchard was accompanied by a column of so-called loyalist Boers whose motives he distrusted. Also with him were several British NCOs and nine mixed-race guides. After riding through the night, Trenchard's party were ambushed the next morning. He and his men took cover and gave fight. After Trenchard's column had suffered casualties, the ambush party withdrew. Although this last mission failed, he was praised for his efforts with a mention in despatches.
Trenchard spent the remainder of 1901 on patrolling duties, and in early 1902 he was appointed acting commander of the 23rd Mounted Infantry Regiment. During the last few months of the war, he only once got the opportunity to lead his Regiment into action. In response to Boer cattle rustling, Zulu raiders crossed the border into the Transvaal and the 23rd Mounted Infantry Regiment took action. After peace terms were agreed in May 1902, he was involved in supervising the disarming of the Boers, and later took leave. In , Mounted Infantry was recalled to Middleburg 400 miles to the south, and after the trek, Trenchard occupied himself with polo and race meetings. He was promoted to brevet major in August 1902.
Nigeria
Following the end of the Boer War, Trenchard was seconded to stay in South Africa, but he applied for service in the West African Frontier Force and was granted the position of Deputy Commandant of the Southern Nigeria Regiment, with the promise that he was entitled to lead all regimental expeditions. On arrival in Nigeria in December 1903, he initially had some difficulty in getting his commanding officer to allow him to lead the upcoming expedition, and only replaced his superior by going over his head.
Once established, Trenchard spent the next six years on various expeditions to the interior patrolling, surveying and mapping an area of 10,000 square miles which later came to be known as Biafra. In the occasional clashes with the Ibo tribesmen, Trenchard gained decisive victories. The many tribesmen who surrendered were given jobs as road builders and thereby began to develop the country as part of the British Empire. From summer 1904 to the late summer 1905, Trenchard was acting Commandant of the Southern Nigeria Regiment. He was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order in 1906 and was Commandant with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel from 1908 onwards.
United Kingdom and Ireland
In early 1910, Trenchard became seriously ill and after several months he returned home, this time with a liver abscess. Back in England, he did not recover quickly and probably prolonged his convalescence by over-exertion. However, by the late summer, he was well enough to take his parents on holiday to the West Country.
October 1910 saw him posted to Derry, where the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers were garrisoned. He was reduced from a temporary lieutenant-colonel to major and made a company commander. He occupied himself during the routine of garrison life with playing polo and he took up hunting. Finding peace-time regimental life dull, he sought to expand his area of responsibility by attempting to reorganise his fellow officers' administrative procedures, which they resented. He also clashed with Colonel Stuart, his commanding officer, who told him that the town was too small for both of them, and by February 1912 had resorted to applying for employment with various colonial defence forces, without success.
Flying school
During his time in Ireland, he received a letter from Captain Eustace Loraine, urging him to take up flying. Trenchard and Loraine had been friends in Nigeria, and on his return to England, Loraine had learned to fly. After some effort, Trenchard persuaded his commanding officer to grant him three months of paid leave so that he might train as a pilot. He arrived in London on 6 July 1912, only to discover that Captain Loraine had been killed in a flying accident on the previous day. At the age of 39, Trenchard was just short the maximum age of 40 for military student pilots at the Central Flying School, and so he did not postpone his plan to become an aviator.
When he arrived at Thomas Sopwith's flying school at Brooklands, he told Sopwith than he only had 10 days to gain his aviator's certificate. He succeeded in going solo on 31 July, gaining his Royal Aero Club aviator's certificate (No. 270) on a Henry Farman biplane. The course had cost £75, involved a meagre two-and-a-half weeks tuition and a grand total of 64 minutes in the air. Although Copland Perry, Trenchard's instructor, noted that teaching him to fly had been "no easy performance", Trenchard himself had been "a model pupil." His difficulties were in some measure due to his partial blindness in one eye, a fact he kept secret.
He arrived at Upavon airfield, where the Central Flying School was based, and was assigned to Arthur Longmore's flight. Bad weather delayed Longmore from assessing his new pupil, and before the weather improved, the School's Commandant, Captain Godfrey Paine RN had co-opted Trenchard to the permanent staff. Part of Trenchard's new duties included those of school examiner, and so he set himself a paper, sat it, marked it and awarded himself his 'wings'. His flying ability still left much to be desired, and Longmore soon discovered his pupil's deficiencies. Over the following weeks, Trenchard spent many hours improving his flying technique. After he had finished his flying course, he was officially appointed as an instructor. However, he was a poor pilot and he did no instructing, instead becoming involved in administrative duties. As a member of the staff, he organised the training and establishment of procedures for the new arm. He paid particular attention to ensuring that skills were acquired in practical topics such as map reading, signalling, and engine mechanics. It was during his time at the Central Flying School that he earned the nickname "Boom", either for his stentorian utterances, or for his low rumbling tones.
In September 1912, he acted as an air observer during the Army Manoeuvres. His experiences here developed his understanding of the military utility of flyers working in cooperation with the British Army's ground forces. In September 1913, he was appointed Assistant Commandant and promoted to temporary lieutenant-colonel. Trenchard's paths crossed once more with Winston Churchill, who was by then First Lord of the Admiralty, and himself learning to fly at Eastchurch and Upavon. Trenchard formed a distinctly unfavourable opinion of Churchill's ability as a pilot.
First World War
Officer Commanding the Military Wing
With the outbreak of First World War, Trenchard was appointed Officer Commanding the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps, replacing Lieutenant-Colonel Sykes. This appointment put him in charge of the Royal Flying Corps's home garrison, which retained one-third of the Corps' total strength. Its headquarters were at Farnborough, and being disappointed about remaining in England he applied to rejoin his old regiment in France. However, the head of the RFC, General Sir David Henderson, refused to release him. Trenchard's new duties included providing replacements and raising new squadrons for service on the continent. He initially set himself a target of 12 squadrons; however, Sefton Brancker, the Assistant Director of Military Aeronautics, suggested that this should be raised to 30, and Lord Kitchener later increased the target to 60. In order to begin the task of creating these squadrons, Trenchard commandeered his old civilian training school at Brooklands, and then used its aircraft and equipment as a starting point for the establishment of new training schools elsewhere.
In early October 1914, Kitchener sent for Trenchard and tasked him with providing a battle-worthy squadron forthwith. The squadron was to be used to support land and naval forces seeking to prevent the German flanking manoeuvres during the Race to the Sea. On 7 October, only 36 hours later, No. 6 Squadron flew to Belgium, the first of many additional squadrons to be provided.
Later in October, detailed planning for a major reorganisation of the Flying Corps' command structure took place. Henderson offered Trenchard command of the soon-to-be created First Wing. He accepted the offer on the basis that he would not be subordinated to Sykes, whom he distrusted. The next month, the Military Wing was abolished and its units based in the United Kingdom were re-grouped as the Administrative Wing. Command of the Administrative Wing was given to Lieutenant Colonel E B Ashmore.
Commander of the First Wing
Trenchard took up command of the First Wing in November 1914, establishing its headquarters at Merville. On arrival he discovered that Sykes was to replace Henderson as Commander of the Royal Flying Corps in the Field, making Sykes Trenchard's immediate superior. Trenchard bore Sykes some animosity and their working relationship was troubled. Trenchard appealed to Kitchener, by then the Secretary of State for War, threatening to resign. Trenchard's discomfort was relieved when in December 1914 Kitchener ordered that Henderson resume command of the Royal Flying Corps in the Field. The R.F.C.'s First Wing consisted of Nos Two and Three Squadrons flying in support of the British Army's IV Corps and Indian Corps. After the First Army under General Haig came into being in December 1914, the First Wing provided support to its operations.
In early January 1915 Haig summoned Trenchard to explain what might be achieved in the air war. During the meeting, Haig brought him into his confidence regarding plans by the First Army for a March attack in the Merville/Neuve Chapelle region. After aerial photographic reconnaissance had been gathered, the British plans for the attack were reworked in February in consequence. During the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March the R.F.C., and especially the First Wing, supported the operation. This was the first time that aircraft were used as bombers with missiles strapped to the wings and fuselage as opposed to being released by hand which had happened earlier in the war. However, the bombing from the air had little effect due to limited weight payload capacity, and the Royal Artillery disregarded the information provided by the R.F.C.'s airmen. Prior to the British First Army's offensives at Ypres and Aubers Ridge in April and May, the First Wing's crews flew reconnaissance sorties using aerial cameras over the German lines. Despite the detailed information this provided and the improved air-artillery cooperation during the battles, the offensives were inconclusive. At the end of this engagement Henderson offered Trenchard the position as his chief of staff. He declined the offer, citing his unsuitability for the role, although his ambition for command may have been the real reason. In any case, this did not stop his promotion to full colonel in June 1915.
Commander of the Royal Flying Corps
On Henderson's return to the War Office in the summer of 1915, Trenchard was promoted to brigadier-general and appointed Officer Commanding the R.F.C.'s units in France. He was to serve as the head of the R.F.C. in the field until the early days of 1918. In December 1915 when Douglas Haig was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force, Haig and Trenchard re-established their partnership, this time at a higher level. In March 1916, with the RFC expanding, Trenchard was promoted to major-general.
Trenchard's time in command of the R.F.C. on the Western Front was characterised by three priorities. First was an emphasis on support to and co-ordination with ground forces. This started with reconnaissance and artillery co-ordination, and later encompassed tactical low-level bombing of enemy ground targets. While he did not oppose the strategic bombing of Germany in principle, he rejected moves to divert his forces on to long-range bombing missions as he believed the strategic role to be less important and his resource to be too limited. Secondly, he stressed the importance of morale, not only of his own airmen, but more generally the detrimental effect that the presence of an aircraft had upon the morale of enemy ground troops. Finally, he had an unswerving belief in the importance of offensive action. Although this belief was widely held by senior British commanders in the war, the R.F.C.'s routinely offensive strategy resulted in the loss of many of its air crews and machines, and some doubted its military validity.
Following the Gotha raids on London in the summer of 1917, the Government considered creating an air force by merging the R.F.C. and the Royal Naval Air Service. Trenchard opposed this, believing that it would dilute the air support required by the ground forces in France. By October he realised that the creation of an "Air Force" was inevitable and, seeing that he was the obvious candidate to become the new Chief of the Air Staff, he attempted to bring about a scheme whereby he would retain control of the flying units on the Western Front. In this regard he was unsuccessful, and he was succeeded in France by Major-General John Salmond.
Chief of the Air Staff (1st appointment)
After the Air Force Bill received the Royal Assent on 29 November 1917, there followed a period of political manoeuvring and speculation over who would take up the new posts of Air Minister, Chief of the Air Staff and other senior positions within soon-to-be-created Air Ministry. Trenchard was summoned back from France, crossing the Channel on a destroyer on the morning of 16 December. At around 3 pm he met newspaper proprietor Lord Rothermere, who had recently been appointed as Air Minister by David Lloyd George for political reasons. Rothermere offered Trenchard the post of Chief of the Air Staff and before Trenchard could respond explained that Trenchard's support would be useful to him as he was about to launch a press campaign against Sir Douglas Haig and Sir William Robertson, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. On hearing this Trenchard flatly refused the position, being personally loyal to Haig and antipathetic to political intrigue. Rothermere and his brother Lord Northcliffe, who was also present, then spent over 12 hours acrimoniously debating with Trenchard. The brothers pointed out that if Trenchard refused, they would use the fact to attack Haig on the false premise that Haig had refused to release Trenchard. Trenchard defended in the debate Haig's policy of constant attacks on the Western Front, arguing that it had been preferable to standing on the defensive, and he himself also had maintained an offensive posture throughout the war which, like the infantry, had resulted in the Flying Corps taking extremely heavy casualties. In the end, the brothers wore Trenchard down, and he accepted the post on the condition that he first be permitted to consult with Haig. After meeting with Haig, Trenchard wrote to Rothermere, accepting the post.
Disputes and resignation
The New Year saw Trenchard made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, and he was appointed Chief of the Air Staff on the newly formed Air Council. He began work on 18 January. During his first month at the Air Ministry he clashed with Rothermere over several issues. First, Rothermere's tendency to disregard his professional advisors in favour of outside experts irritated Trenchard. Secondly, Rothermere insisted that Trenchard claim as many men for the newly formed Royal Air Force as possible, even if they might be better employed in the other services. Thirdly, Rothermere and Trenchard disagreed on nominees for senior appointments in the R.A.F. Finally and most significantly, they disagreed over proper future use of air power which Trenchard judged as being vital in preventing a repeat of the strategic stalemate which had occurred along the Western Front. Also during this period Trenchard resisted pressure from several press barons to support an "air warfare scheme", which would have seen the British armies withdrawn from France and an attempt to defeat Germany entrusted to the R.A.F. Despite the differences with Rothermere, Trenchard was able to put in place planning for the merger of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. However, as the weeks went on they became increasingly estranged personally, and a low point was reached in mid-March when Trenchard discovered that Rothermere had promised the Navy 4000 aircraft for anti-submarine duties. He accorded the highest priority to air operations on the Western Front's land campaign: there were fewer than 400 spare aircraft in the United Kingdom. On 18 March they exchanged letters, Trenchard expressing his dissatisfaction and Rothermere curtly replying. The following day Trenchard sent Rothermere a letter of resignation. and although Rothermere asked him to remain, Trenchard only agreed to defer the date until after 1 April 1918, when the Royal Air Force would officially come into being.
After the Germans overran the British Fifth Army on 21 March 1918, Trenchard ordered all available reserves of aircrew, engines and aircraft to be speedily transported to France. Reports reached him on 26 March that concentrations of Flying Corps' machines were assisting in stopping German advances. On 5 April, Trenchard travelled to France, inspecting squadrons and updating his understanding of the air situation. On his return, he briefed the Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, and several other ministers on air activity and the general situation in France.
On 10 April, Rothermere informed Trenchard that the War Cabinet had accepted his resignation, and Trenchard was offered his old job in France. He refused the offer, saying that replacing Salmond at the height of battle would be "damnable". Three days later Major-General Frederick Sykes replaced him as Chief of the Air Staff. On the following Monday, Trenchard was summoned to Buckingham Palace where King George listened to his account of the events which caused him to resign. Trenchard then wrote to the Prime Minister stating the facts of his case and pointing out that in the course of the affair, Rothermere had stated his intention to resign also. Trenchard's letter was circulated among the Cabinet, with a vindictive response written by Rothermere. Around the same time, the question of Rothermere's general competence as Air Minister was brought to the attention of Lloyd George. Rothermere, realising his situation, offered his resignation, which was made public on 25 April 1918.
In-between duties
In the weeks that followed his resignation, Trenchard was without a role and he kept a low profile, avoiding the Press and making no public comments. The new Air Minister, Sir William Weir, under pressure to find a position for Trenchard, offered him command of the yet to be formed Independent Force, which was to conduct long-range bombing operations against Germany. Instead, Trenchard, seeking equal status with Sykes, argued for a re-organisation of the R.A.F. which would have seen him appointed as the RAF's commander of fighting operations, while Sykes would have been left to deal with administrative matters. Weir did not accept his proposal and instead gave Trenchard several options. Trenchard rejected the offer of a proposed new post which would have meant a London-based command of the bombing operations conducted from Ochey, arguing that the responsibility was Newall's under the direction of Salmond. He also turned down the post of Grand Co-ordinator of British and American air policy, and that of Inspector General of the R.A.F. overseas. Weir then offered him command of all air force units in the Middle East, or the post of Inspector-General of the RAF at home, but strongly encouraged him to take command of the independent long-range bombing forces in France.
Trenchard had many reasons for not accepting any of these posts, which he saw as titular, with little value and lacking practical authority. On 8 May 1918 Trenchard was sitting on a bench in Green Park when he overheard a naval officer saying to another: "I don't know why the Government should pander to a man who threw in his hand at the height of a battle, if I'd my way with Trenchard I'd have him shot." Afterwards Trenchard walked home and wrote to Weir accepting command of the as yet unformed Independent Force.
Commander of the Independent Air Force
After a period of what was officially termed "special duty" in France, Trenchard was appointed General Officer Commanding of the Independent Air Force on 15 June 1918, with his headquarters in Nancy, France. The Independent Air Force continued the task of the VIII Brigade from which it was formed, carrying out strategic bombing attacks on German railways, airfields and industrial centres. Initially, the French general Ferdinand Foch, as the newly appointed Supreme Allied Commander, refused to recognize the Independent Air Force, which caused some logistical difficulties. The problems were resolved after a meeting of Trenchard and General de Castelnau, who disregarded the concerns about the status of the Independent Air Force and did not block the much-needed supplies. Trenchard also improved the links between the R.A.F. and the American Air Service, providing advanced tuition in bombing techniques to the newly arriving American aviators.
In September 1918, Trenchard's Force indirectly supported the American Air Service during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, attacking German airfields in that sector of the front, along with supply depots and rail lines. Trenchard's close co-operation with the Americans and the French was formalized when his command was redesignated the Inter-Allied Independent Air Force in late October 1918, and placed directly under the orders of Foch. When the November 1918 armistice came, Trenchard sought permission from Foch to return his squadrons to British command, which was granted. Trenchard was succeeded as commander of the Independent Air Force by his deputy Brigadier-General Courtney. Trenchard departed France in mid-November 1918 and returned to England to take a holiday.
Between the wars
Army mutiny in Southampton
After two months on the R.A.F.'s inactive list, Trenchard returned to military duties in mid-January 1919, when Sir William Robertson, the Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces, asked him to get control of around 5000 mutinying soldiers at Southampton Docks, who were protesting about being sent to France with the war being over. Putting on his Army general's uniform Trenchard arrived at the docks with a staff of two, his clerk and Maurice Baring, his Aide-de-Camp. He initially attempted to speak with the disorderly mob of soldiers, but was heckled and jostled in the process. He then summoned a detachment of two hundred and fifty reliable troops in fighting order to be sent into Southampton to confront the situation. On their arrival he issued them with extra ammunition for their rifles, and ordered them to fix bayonets, and leading them to the dock's sheds where the protesting troops were gathered, summarily threatened the recalcitrant troops with fire being opened upon them if they failed immediately to come back into order, at which they complied.
Chief of the Air Staff (2nd appointment)
Re-appointment and sickness
In early 1919 Churchill was appointed Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air. While Churchill was preoccupied with implementing post-war defence cuts and the demobilization of the Army, the Chief of the Air Staff, Major-General Frederick Sykes, submitted a paper with what were at the time unrealistic proposals for a large air force of the future. Being dissatisfied with Sykes, Churchill began to consider reinstating Trenchard, whose recent performance at Southampton had once more brought him into favour with Churchill.
During the first week in February, Trenchard was summoned to London by official telegram. At the War Office Churchill asked him to come back as Chief of the Air Staff. Trenchard replied that he could not take up the appointment as Sykes was currently in post. After Churchill indicated that Sykes might be appointed Controller of Civil Aviation and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire, Trenchard agreed to consider the offer. Churchill, not wanting to leave matters hanging, asked Trenchard to provide him with a paper outlining his ideas on the re-organisation of the Air Ministry. Trenchard's briefly written statement of the essentials required met with Churchill's approval, and he insisted that Trenchard take the appointment, Trenchard returning to the Air Ministry in mid-February and formally taking up post as Chief of the Air Staff on 31 March 1919.
For most of March he was unable to do much work as he had contracted Spanish flu. During this period he wrote to Katherine Boyle (née Salvin), the widow of his friend and fellow officer James Boyle, whom he knew from his time in Ireland. At his request, Mrs Boyle took on the task of nursing him back to health. Once he had recovered, he proposed marriage to Katherine Boyle, who refused. Trenchard remained in contact with her, and when he proposed marriage again, she accepted. On 17 July 1920, they were married at St. Margaret's Church in Westminster.
Establishing the RAF and the struggle for survival
During the summer of 1919 he worked on completing the demobilization of the R.A.F. and establishing it on a peacetime basis. This was a sizable task as the force was budgeted to shrink from 280 squadrons to around 28. It was also during this time that the new RAF officer ranks were decided upon, despite some opposition from members of the Army Council. Trenchard himself was regraded from Major-General to Air Vice-Marshal, and then promoted to Air Marshal a few days later.
By the autumn of 1919 the budgetary effects of Lloyd George's Ten Year Rule were causing Trenchard some difficulty as he sought to develop the institutions of the R.A.F. He had to argue against the view that the Army and Navy should provide all the support services and education, leaving the R.A.F. only to provide flying training. He viewed this idea as a precursor to the break-up of the R.A.F., and in spite of the costs, he wanted its own institutions which would develop airmanship and engender the air spirit. Having convinced Churchill of his case, he oversaw the founding of the RAF (Cadet) College at Cranwell as the world's first military air academy. In 1920 he inaugurated the Aircraft Apprentice system, which provided the R.A.F. with highly technically trained specialist ground-crews for the next 70 years. In 1922 the RAF Staff College at Andover was established to provide air force specific training to the R.A.F.'s middle-ranking officers.
Late 1919 saw Trenchard created a baronet and granted £10,000 for his war services. Although he had attained a measure of financial security, the future of the R.A.F, was far from assured. He judged that the chief threat to the new service came from the new First Sea Lord, Admiral Beatty. Looking to take the initiative, Trenchard arranged to see Beatty, meeting with him in early December, Trenchard, arguing that the "air is one and indivisible", put forward a case for an air force with its own strategic role which also controlled army and navy co-operation squadrons. Beatty did not accept Trenchard's argument and Trenchard resorted to asking for a 12 months amnesty to put his plans into action. The request appealed to Beatty's sense of fair play, and he agreed to let Trenchard be until the end of 1920. Around this time Trenchard indicated to Beatty that control over some supporting elements of naval aviation (but not aircrew or aircraft) might be returned to the Admiralty. Trenchard also offered Beatty the option of locating the Air Ministry staff who worked in connection with naval aviation at the Admiralty. Beatty declined the offer and later, when no transfer of any naval aviation assets occurred, came to the view that Trenchard had acted in bad faith.
During the early 1920s, the continued independent existence of the R.A.F. and its control of naval aviation were subject to a series of Government reviews. The Balfour Report of 1921, the Geddes Axe of 1922, and the Salisbury Committee of 1923 all found in favour of the R.A.F. continued existence, despite lobbying from the Admiralty and opposition in Parliament. On each occasion Trenchard and his staff officers, supported by Christopher Bullock, worked to show that the R.A.F. provided good value for money, and was required for the long-term strategic security of the United Kingdom.
Trenchard also sought to secure the R.A.F.'s future by finding a war-fighting role for the new Service. In 1920 he successfully argued that it should take the lead during the 1920 conflict between British forces and Somaliland dervishes. The success of this small air action then allowed him to put the case for the R.A.F.'s air policing of the vast distances of the British Empire. Trenchard particularly argued for it to take the lead in Iraq at the Cairo Conference of 1921, and in 1922 the RAF was given control of all British Forces in Iraq. The R.A.F. also carried out imperial air policing over India's North-West Frontier Province. In early 1920 he suggested that it could even be used to violently suppress if necessary "industrial disturbances, or risings" in the United Kingdom itself, following on from his experience in such matters in successfully quelling the troop mutiny at Southampton Docks in the previous year. Churchill was unsettled at Trenchard's apparent willingness to use lethal military force domestically upon British subjects, and told him by reply not to refer to this proposal again.
Later years as Chief of the Air Staff
By late 1924 the creation of the reserve air force, known as the Auxiliary Air Force, meant that Trenchard was able to modestly expand the R.A.F.'s strength, and over the next two years, 25 auxiliary squadrons were created. It was during this period that he oversaw the introduction of the short-service commission scheme. which proved to be useful in providing some of the regular manning on the new squadrons. He also instigated the University Air Squadron scheme, and in 1925 the first three U.A.S. squadrons were formed at Cambridge, London and Oxford.
Since the early 1920s Trenchard had supported the development of a flying bomb, and by 1927 a prototype, code-named "Larynx", was successfully tested. However, development costs were not insignificant and in 1928, when he applied for further funding, the Committee of Imperial Defence and the Cabinet discontinued the project. Following the British failure to win the Schneider Trophy in 1925, Trenchard ensured that finances were available for an R.A.F. team, with which the High Speed Flight was formed in preparation for the 1927 race. After the British won in 1927, he continued to use Air Ministry funds to support the race, including purchasing two Supermarine S.6 aircraft which won the race in 1929. He was criticised for this by figures in HM Treasury for wasting money.
On 1 January 1927, Trenchard was promoted from air chief marshal to marshal of the Royal Air Force, becoming the first person to hold the R.A.F.'s highest rank. The following year he began to feel that he had achieved all he could as Chief of the Air Staff and that he should give way to a younger man, and he offered his resignation to the Cabinet in late 1928, although it was not initially accepted. Around the same time as Trenchard was considering his future the British Legation and some European diplomatic staff based in Kabul were cut off from the outside world as a result of the civil war in Afghanistan. After word of the crisis had reached London, the Foreign Secretary Austen Chamberlain sent for Trenchard, who assured him that the R.A.F. would be able to rescue the stranded civilians. The Kabul Airlift began on Christmas Eve and took nine weeks to rescue around 600 people.
Trenchard continued as Chief of the Air Staff until 1 January 1930. Immediately after he had relinquished his appointment, he was created Baron Trenchard, of Wolfeton in the County of Dorset, entering the House of Lords, becoming the RAF's first peer. Looking back over Trenchard's time as Chief of the Air Staff, while he had successfully preserved the fledgling R.A.F., his emphasis on the Air Force providing defence at a comparatively low cost had led to a stagnation and even deterioration in the quality of the service's fighting equipment.
Metropolitan Police Commissioner
After he retired from the military, he worked as a director of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, largely disappearing from public life. However, in March 1931, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald asked him to take the post of Metropolitan Police Commissioner, which after initially declining, he accepted in October 1931. He served as head of the Metropolitan Police until 1935. During his tenure he instigated several reforms, including limiting membership of the Police Federation, introducing limited terms of employment, and the creation of separate career paths for the lower and higher ranks akin to the military system of officer and non-commissioned career streams. The recruitment base was broadened, and persons with university degrees were encouraged to apply. Perhaps Trenchard's most well-known achievement during his time as Commissioner was the establishment of the Hendon Police College, which originally was the institution from which Trenchard's junior inspectors graduated before following a career in the higher ranks. He retired in November 1935, in his final few months as Police Commissioner having been awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order.
Later inter-war years
During his time as Metropolitan Police Commissioner, he maintained a keen interest in military affairs. In 1932, he aroused the Government's displeasure by submitting an unsolicited private paper outlining his idea for the air defence of Singapore. His ideas were rejected and the Cabinet Secretary, Maurice Hankey, who chaired the Committee of Imperial Defence, was angered by Trenchard's intervention. Later that year, when the Government was considering entering into an international treaty that would have banned all bomber aircraft, Trenchard wrote to the Cabinet outlining his opposition to the idea. Ultimately the idea was dropped.
Trenchard developed a negative view of Hankey, whom he saw as being more interested in maintaining unanimity among the service heads than dealing with weaknesses in British defence arrangements. He began to speak privately against Hankey who, for his part, had no liking for Trenchard in return. By 1935, Trenchard privately lobbied for Hankey's removal on the grounds that the nation's security was at stake. Following his departure from the Metropolitan Police, he was free to speak publicly. In December 1935 he wrote in The Times that the Committee of Imperial Defence should be placed under the chairmanship of a politician. Hankey responded by accusing Trenchard of "trying to stab him in the back." By 1936 the idea of bolstering the Committee of Imperial Defence had become a popular point of debate and Trenchard presented his arguments in the House of Lords. In the end the Government conceded and Sir Thomas Inskip was appointed as the Minister for Coordination of Defence.
With Hankey and his ban on inter-service disputes gone, the Navy again campaigned for their own air service. The idea of transferring the Fleet Air Arm from Air Ministry to Admiralty control was raised and although Trenchard opposed the move in the Lords, in the Press and in private conversations, he now lacked the influence to prevent the transfer, which took place in 1937. Beyond politics, he took on the Chairmanship of the United Africa Company, with its attendant financial income, which had sought out Trenchard because of his West African knowledge and experience. In 1936 he was upgraded from Baron to Viscount Trenchard.
From late 1936 to 1939 he spent much of his time travelling overseas on behalf of the companies who employed him as a director. During one visit to Germany in the summer of 1937 he was hosted at a dinner by Hermann Göring, the Commander-in-Chief of Nazi Germany's newly created Luftwaffe. Although the evening started in a cordial fashion, it ended in a confrontation, with Göring announcing that "one day German might will make the whole world tremble". Trenchard replying that Göring "must be off his head". In 1937 Newall was appointed Chief of the Air Staff and Trenchard did not hesitate in criticising him. As an ardent supporter of the bomber, Trenchard found much to disagree with in the air expansion programme, its emphasis on defensive fighter aircraft, and he wrote about it directly to the Cabinet. Trenchard offered his services to the Government on at least two occasions but they were not accepted.
Second World War
Just after the outbreak of the Second World War the Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, summoned Trenchard and offered him the job of organising advanced training for RAF pilots in Canada, possibly as a pretext to remove Trenchard from England. He turned the post down, saying that the role required a younger man who had up-to-date knowledge of training matters. He then spent the remainder of 1939 arguing that the RAF should be used to strike against Germany from its bases in France. In 1940 he was offered the job of co-ordinating the camouflaging of England, which he flatly refused. Without an official role he took it upon himself to spend the spring of 1940 visiting RAF units, including those of the Advanced Air Striking Force in France. In April, Sir Samuel Hoare, who was again Secretary of State for Air, unsuccessfully attempted to get him to come back as Chief of the Air Staff.
In May 1940, after the failure of the Norwegian Campaign, Trenchard used his position in the Lords to attack what he saw as the Government's half-hearted prosecution of the war. When Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister, Trenchard was asked to organise the defence of aircraft factories. He declined on the grounds that he was not interested in helping the general who already had the responsibility. Towards the end of the month Churchill offered him a job that would have seen him acting as a general officer commanding all British land, air and sea forces at home should an invasion occur. Trenchard responded by bluntly stating that in order to be effective, the officer with such responsibility would need the military powers of a generalissimo, and political power that would come from being Deputy Minister of Defence. Churchill was amazed at the reply, and refusing to grant Trenchard the enormous powers he sought withdrew the offer of the post.
Notwithstanding their disagreement, Trenchard and Churchill remained on good terms, and on Churchill's 66th birthday (30 November 1940) they took lunch at Chequers. The Battle of Britain had recently concluded and Churchill was full of praise for Trenchard's pre-war efforts in establishing the RAF. Churchill made Trenchard his last job offer, this time as the reorganizer of Military Intelligence. Trenchard seriously considered the offer, but declined it by letter two days later, chiefly because he felt that the job required a degree of tact which he lacked.
From mid-1940 onwards, Trenchard realised that by his rash demands in May he had excluded himself from a pivotal role in the British war effort. He then took it upon himself to act as an unofficial Inspector-General for the RAF, visiting deployed squadrons across Europe and North Africa on morale-raising visits. As a peer, a friend of Churchill's and with direct connections to the Air Staff, he championed the cause of the Air Force in the House of Lords, in the press and with the government, submitting several secret essays concerning the importance he attached to air power.
He continued to exert considerable influence over the Royal Air Force. Acting with Sir John Salmond he quietly but successfully lobbied for the removal of Newall as Chief of the Air Staff and Dowding as the Command-in-Chief of Fighter Command. In the autumn, Newall was replaced by Portal and Dowding was succeeded by Douglas. Both the new commanders being Trenchard protégés.
During the war, the Trenchard elder stepson, John, was killed in action in Italy, and his younger stepson Edward was killed in a flying accident. His own first-born son, also called Hugh, was killed in North Africa. However, Trenchard's younger son Thomas survived the war.
Later years
In the aftermath of the war, several American generals, including Henry H. Arnold and Carl Andrew Spaatz, asked Trenchard to brief them in connection with the debate which surrounded the proposed establishment of the independent United States Air Force. The American air leaders held him in high esteem and dubbed him the "patron saint of air power". The United States Air Force was formed as an independent branch of the American Armed Forces in 1947.
After the Second World War, Trenchard continued to set out his ideas about air power. He also supported the creation of two memorials. For the first, the Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey, he headed a committee with Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding to raise funds for the furnishing of the chapel and for the provision of a stained glass window. The second, the Anglo-American Memorial to the airmen of both nations, was erected in St Paul's Cathedral, after Trenchard's death. In the late 1940s and early 1950s he continued his involvement with the United Africa Company, holding the chairmanship until 1953 when he resigned. He wrote the Introduction to the book Haig, Master of the Field (1953), an apologia for Douglas Haig's conduct of military operations during the First World War, who had come under increasing societal condemnation post-war for the scale of the British Army's casualties, written by General Sir John Davidson, Haig's former Operations Chief. From 1954, during the last two years of his life, Trenchard was partially blind and physically frail.
Death
Trenchard died one week after his 83rd birthday at his London home in Sloane Avenue on 10 February 1956. Following his funeral at Westminster Abbey on 21 February, his body was cremated, and his ashes were entombed at the Battle of Britain Chapel. Trenchard's viscountcy passed to his son Thomas.
Legacy
Several institutions and buildings are named after him, including the University of Ibadan's Trenchard Hall, and RAF Cranwell's Trenchard Hall. Also named after him are: Trenchard Lines – one of the two sites of British Army Headquarters Land Forces, (formerly RAF Upavon) the small museum at RAF Halton, one of the five houses at Welbeck College which are named after prominent military figures, and Trenchard House, which is currently used by Farnborough Air Sciences Trust to store part of their collection. In 1977 Trenchard was invested in the International Aerospace Hall of Fame at the San Diego Aerospace Museum.
Trenchard's work in establishing the R.A.F. and preserving its independence has led to him being called the "Father of the Royal Air Force". For his own part, he disliked the description, believing that General Sir David Henderson deserved the accolade. His obituary in The Times considered that his greatest gift to the R.A.F. was the belief that mastery of the air must be gained and retained through offensive action. During his life, Trenchard strongly argued that the bomber was the key weapon of an air force, and he is recognized today as one of the early advocates of strategic bombing, and one of the architects of the British policy on imperial policing through air control.
In 2018 a permanent memorial to him was commissioned as part of the celebrations for 100 years of the R.A.F. It was unveiled in Taunton on 14 June by the 3rd Viscount Trenchard next to the town's Northern Inner Distributor Road, which was renamed Trenchard Way at the same time.
Arms
See also
List of titles and honours of Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard
Footnotes
References
Specific
Orange, Vincent [September 2004]. Trenchard, Hugh Montague, first Viscount Trenchard (1873–1956). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.
General
External links
Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation – Marshal of the RAF The Viscount Trenchard of Wolfeton
USAF Association Magazine – Trenchard at the Creation
First World War.com – Who's Who: Hugh Trenchard
History Learning Site – Hugh Trenchard
British Ministry of Defence – Trenchard: Father of the RAF
Portraits of Trenchard in the National Portrait Gallery
Selected Correspondence of Marshal of the RAF 1st Lord Trenchard
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1873 births
1956 deaths
Aerial warfare pioneers
British Army generals of World War I
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Chiefs of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
English male bobsledders
English polo players
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company people
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Marshals of the Royal Air Force
Members of the Order of Merit
People from Taunton
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 1st class
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 3rd class
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class
Royal Air Force generals of World War I
Royal Flying Corps officers
Royal Scots Fusiliers officers
Royal West African Frontier Force officers
Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
British expatriates in Nigeria
People of colonial Nigeria
British expatriates in India
British expatriates in South Africa
United Africa Company
Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)
Peers created by George V
Peers created by Edward VIII
Military personnel from Somerset | [
-0.12390435487031937,
0.36481624841690063,
-0.34418967366218567,
-0.34619027376174927,
-0.389021635055542,
0.3950248062610626,
0.41446566581726074,
-0.4896090030670166,
-0.19905665516853333,
-0.2189473807811737,
-0.607267439365387,
0.014884143136441708,
-0.5532041788101196,
0.2053862363100052,
0.266890287399292,
0.21318590641021729,
-0.08172711730003357,
-0.016535000875592232,
0.06884285062551498,
-0.5278225541114807,
-0.12582960724830627,
0.2033495008945465,
-0.33653974533081055,
0.12991121411323547,
0.34831148386001587,
0.14996443688869476,
0.2749176025390625,
0.05654121935367584,
0.1345544308423996,
-0.08635897934436798,
0.15032100677490234,
0.06910452246665955,
-0.1805449277162552,
-0.3561397194862366,
-0.7689632177352905,
-0.1982467770576477,
-0.43843552470207214,
-0.3638758957386017,
0.2192337065935135,
-0.3238815367221832,
-0.28627127408981323,
0.3661016821861267,
0.2546233832836151,
0.058393120765686035,
-0.5159568786621094,
-0.11758560687303543,
-1.7348860502243042,
0.3398176431655884,
-0.006601268425583839,
-0.26997411251068115,
0.3752920627593994,
0.20455539226531982,
0.45554739236831665,
-0.2652047276496887,
0.19710125029087067,
0.3934168517589569,
-1.1266956329345703,
-0.1762486845254898,
0.03692496940493584,
-0.19492536783218384,
0.5017611384391785,
0.29952993988990784,
0.3157384991645813,
-0.06986935436725616,
0.3241143822669983,
-0.5268381834030151,
0.1966688632965088,
0.23919962346553802,
-0.010723740793764591,
0.2822636067867279,
0.19299323856830597,
-0.28440001606941223,
0.506485641002655,
0.6114225387573242,
-0.15425828099250793,
-0.3991630971431732,
0.5057181715965271,
0.4271981418132782,
-0.016394376754760742,
-0.07434350997209549,
0.49370911717414856,
-0.6613456606864929,
0.4902939796447754,
0.11317063868045807,
0.13735641539096832,
0.24028253555297852,
-0.7115641236305237,
0.18351620435714722,
-0.8623924255371094,
0.13940809667110443,
0.22863508760929108,
-0.4551412761211395,
0.38240885734558105,
-0.42094549536705017,
-0.17998291552066803,
-0.23426693677902222,
0.5380867719650269,
0.3007251024246216,
-0.2759079337120056,
-0.6328641772270203,
-0.0028682344127446413,
0.3620784282684326,
0.1052250862121582,
-0.02658175863325596,
-0.9203376770019531,
0.44670766592025757,
-0.51020348072052,
-0.4400237500667572,
-0.473800390958786,
0.001324951066635549,
-0.4817782938480377,
-0.2197108268737793,
-0.03874243423342705,
-0.1439153105020523,
0.23210367560386658,
-0.30415359139442444,
0.3243919312953949,
-0.5610764622688293,
-0.22691288590431213,
-0.21939519047737122,
-0.29074200987815857,
0.92036372423172,
-0.2429790198802948,
0.19584733247756958,
-0.820100724697113,
0.01650768332183361,
0.7791141271591187,
-0.0954088568687439,
-0.26855888962745667,
0.14184093475341797,
0.6116812229156494,
1.356574535369873,
-0.8026061654090881,
0.08862680196762085,
-0.197088360786438,
-0.36714687943458557,
-0.027958184480667114,
0.21842648088932037,
-0.17899030447006226,
0.15455926954746246,
-0.6705808639526367,
-0.2599121034145355,
-0.4208623468875885,
0.3880591094493866,
0.3839932084083557,
0.12398084998130798,
0.18448905646800995,
0.11085406690835953,
-0.6146140098571777,
-0.2044290453195572,
-0.33417049050331116,
0.0402664914727211,
-0.5957352519035339,
-0.17210838198661804,
0.0740821436047554,
0.3186092674732208,
0.6794072389602661,
-0.22989635169506073,
0.41206517815589905,
0.2910632789134979,
0.26906901597976685,
-0.5644007921218872,
-0.004341929219663143,
0.5098710060119629,
0.49107587337493896,
-0.11607047915458679,
-0.11046995222568512,
-0.03341389074921608,
-0.5404753088951111,
0.08478418737649918,
-0.2809140682220459,
-0.06726503372192383,
0.3824693560600281,
0.027227001264691353,
-0.538227379322052,
0.8544867634773254,
0.9381698369979858,
-0.2710030972957611,
0.5780301094055176,
-0.297610878944397,
-0.6909722685813904,
-0.05251671001315117,
0.1391289085149765,
-0.227802574634552,
0.6805592179298401,
0.4294344484806061,
0.37871384620666504,
-0.16696706414222717,
0.19806252419948578,
-0.4534735679626465,
-0.1681395173072815,
-0.8291658759117126,
-0.07221776992082596,
-0.7981261014938354,
0.8492668867111206,
0.1734006106853485,
-0.2610270380973816,
0.2086283266544342,
0.4807594418525696,
0.67278653383255,
0.4965212941169739,
0.0509345717728138,
0.4036473035812378,
-0.3579217195510864,
0.5596317648887634,
0.24573682248592377,
0.3163524270057678,
0.07468155026435852,
-0.049791667610406876,
0.5896517634391785,
0.6705703139305115,
0.007496909238398075,
-0.016092564910650253,
0.26883482933044434,
-0.09976740181446075,
-0.5613861083984375,
-0.2831656336784363,
0.04343767464160919,
0.11940731853246689,
-0.6506154537200928,
0.30770131945610046,
0.35154280066490173,
-0.3401525616645813,
0.6591120958328247,
0.07498954236507416,
0.6698270440101624,
-0.01975817047059536,
-0.14455914497375488,
-0.31603163480758667,
-0.7484513521194458,
0.26903465390205383,
-0.04541029408574104,
0.16841059923171997,
0.015157429501414299,
0.4346540868282318,
0.039087917655706406,
0.1920250505208969,
0.12622563540935516,
-0.25094515085220337,
0.18990197777748108,
-0.017040178179740906,
-0.16457608342170715,
-0.40584996342658997,
0.6895407438278198,
-0.3386818766593933,
0.28806760907173157,
-0.2295304387807846,
0.25042659044265747,
-0.039178017526865005,
-0.3474511504173279,
0.03989051282405853,
0.07482379674911499,
0.2889918088912964,
-0.13554836809635162,
0.19760286808013916,
-0.11256197094917297,
-0.005694990511983633,
-0.029862377792596817,
-0.08661904186010361,
0.3978317975997925,
-0.025880225002765656,
0.4653567969799042,
0.3909284174442291,
0.48563313484191895,
0.342376172542572,
-0.2666766345500946,
-0.1019466444849968,
-0.3164168894290924,
0.8525166511535645,
0.153664693236351,
0.47853514552116394,
-0.7556266188621521,
0.2289217710494995,
0.11284083873033524,
0.1409117430448532,
-0.5513931512832642,
-0.2617151141166687,
0.7173516154289246,
-0.6342430114746094,
-0.600754976272583,
0.3729937970638275,
0.6568605899810791,
-0.4572342038154602,
0.20669983327388763,
-0.06171173229813576,
-0.25512537360191345,
0.23399873077869415,
-0.3777223825454712,
0.02922080084681511,
-0.1712138056755066,
-0.20595845580101013,
0.5934615135192871,
-0.2908290922641754,
0.11548049747943878,
-0.28581351041793823,
0.08332640677690506,
-0.2226843386888504,
-0.6490942239761353,
-0.19717295467853546,
-0.48524343967437744,
-0.6130008101463318,
0.5631063580513,
0.23961667716503143,
0.14641274511814117,
0.41876843571662903,
0.29464149475097656,
-0.2818768620491028,
-0.01703360490500927,
-5.661741733551025,
0.06146940961480141,
0.26631513237953186,
-0.2381805181503296,
0.09162534773349762,
0.08517785370349884,
-0.08782050013542175,
-0.4398938715457916,
-0.12090414017438889,
-0.3665696382522583,
0.49656790494918823,
-0.49134203791618347,
0.17115925252437592,
0.32879194617271423,
0.9521999955177307,
0.6115248799324036,
0.5814273357391357,
-0.08276456594467163,
0.6684476733207703,
0.39971256256103516,
-0.1018122211098671,
0.2157658487558365,
0.40124574303627014,
0.2140706479549408,
0.09005368500947952,
0.47723740339279175,
-0.5540223121643066,
0.21094965934753418,
-0.9291040897369385,
-0.3342187702655792,
0.4848126471042633,
0.1260940283536911,
0.35880792140960693,
-0.3170991539955139,
-0.7059476375579834,
-0.4057166576385498,
0.2911090552806854,
0.6013280749320984,
-0.18612991273403168,
0.17022572457790375,
0.1762847751379013,
-0.2762238383293152,
-0.577836811542511,
0.236492320895195,
0.26004818081855774,
-0.3655173182487488,
-0.6498584151268005,
0.6334972977638245,
0.4136388897895813,
-0.10886712372303009,
0.11746633797883987,
0.7934965491294861,
-0.2192223221063614,
-0.5017115473747253,
-0.3733915090560913,
0.29509976506233215,
0.13694272935390472,
0.10858675092458725,
-0.3318443298339844,
0.1429571956396103,
0.034704942256212234,
-0.5618413090705872,
0.27008581161499023,
0.5566266775131226,
-0.02881457470357418,
0.3593444228172302,
0.0013096175389364362,
-0.19227518141269684,
0.17076706886291504,
0.13455556333065033,
0.25429028272628784,
0.7787059545516968,
0.2554684281349182,
-0.7298712730407715,
-0.07364830374717712,
-0.8442915678024292,
0.2264554798603058,
0.3173341453075409,
-0.09903564304113388,
0.18446794152259827,
-0.21698927879333496,
-0.132745623588562,
-0.3025237023830414,
0.08098550885915756,
-0.03835728392004967,
-0.482706218957901,
-0.3610401451587677,
0.3822058141231537,
-0.0864478275179863,
-0.23061209917068481,
-0.08769093453884125,
-0.7340431809425354,
-0.1592913120985031,
0.8491734862327576,
0.21284468472003937,
-0.5726579427719116,
-0.23041094839572906,
0.5902403593063354,
0.28669849038124084,
0.1915767788887024,
-0.41263440251350403,
-0.0990665927529335,
0.2085862159729004,
-0.6241335868835449,
0.20775273442268372,
-0.3728781044483185,
0.1771211177110672,
0.42283645272254944,
0.5301633477210999,
-0.05148014426231384,
0.25016000866889954,
0.3882977366447449,
-0.08588927984237671,
-0.35106080770492554,
-0.260271817445755,
-0.5937355160713196,
0.12495850026607513,
0.13270382583141327,
0.3635164499282837,
0.09130203723907471,
-0.40353190898895264,
0.44406986236572266,
-0.2524550259113312,
-0.04906454309821129,
-0.29565122723579407,
0.5108222961425781,
0.5081352591514587,
-0.5384523272514343,
-0.22276490926742554,
-0.1405668407678604,
0.26593706011772156,
0.8389486074447632,
0.05422801896929741,
0.38350149989128113,
0.19870297610759735,
-0.8052250742912292,
-0.7370491623878479,
0.09304735064506531,
0.6441278457641602,
-0.17615674436092377,
-0.24287088215351105,
-0.12272856384515762,
-0.06912931799888611,
-0.15712974965572357,
0.27898749709129333,
0.14183619618415833,
-0.021258283406496048,
-0.5271029472351074,
0.524802029132843,
0.32164961099624634,
0.14699389040470123,
-0.15445475280284882,
0.5878761410713196,
-0.4992543160915375,
-0.7749860882759094,
-0.27149277925491333,
-0.16889715194702148,
0.2240009307861328,
-0.5033388137817383,
-0.7826089262962341,
-0.07486627250909805,
-0.20215696096420288,
-0.6017262935638428,
-0.4592801332473755,
0.3944326639175415,
0.07170173525810242,
-0.3097606301307678,
-0.2528444230556488,
-0.3887939751148224,
0.4159022569656372,
0.37075579166412354,
-0.8898931741714478,
-0.4049762785434723,
-0.21545955538749695,
0.142047718167305,
0.2942037582397461,
0.03314495086669922,
-0.19492660462856293,
-0.15939022600650787,
0.11519759148359299,
-0.3024062514305115,
0.4496932625770569,
-0.5918987393379211,
0.023609766736626625,
-0.015328793786466122,
-0.1997789889574051,
-0.4018631875514984,
-0.2817419171333313,
0.06314725428819656,
-0.22839340567588806,
-0.513108491897583,
-0.44898316264152527,
0.5044555068016052,
0.5480751395225525,
-0.3048865497112274,
-0.04022819176316261,
-0.17002004384994507,
0.3235927224159241,
-0.12436825782060623,
-0.5528459548950195,
0.02604227513074875,
0.2713901996612549,
0.1333015263080597,
-0.27605244517326355,
0.3466340899467468,
-0.5752524733543396,
-0.41808661818504333,
-0.18578468263149261,
0.44284018874168396,
0.8176915049552917,
-0.18371397256851196,
-0.6869240403175354,
0.28283870220184326,
0.1683942973613739,
-0.3667411804199219,
0.18309582769870758,
0.08485858142375946,
0.9001457691192627,
0.0015270676231011748,
-0.4050978422164917,
-0.21530911326408386,
-0.03594978526234627,
-0.4824889004230499,
-0.06176238879561424,
-0.8868676424026489,
0.6968046426773071,
0.46675851941108704,
-0.3175292909145355,
0.6510813236236572,
-0.41921740770339966,
-0.31723713874816895,
0.18209892511367798,
-0.09785814583301544,
0.9650692939758301,
0.034030936658382416,
0.12605202198028564,
0.6842073202133179,
0.08345156162977219,
-0.06041113659739494,
0.05711088329553604,
0.9125915765762329,
1.0632930994033813,
0.48096150159835815,
-0.41985031962394714,
0.10887019336223602,
0.16891713440418243,
0.3765828311443329,
-0.7570829391479492,
-0.004235601983964443,
0.13441966474056244,
0.05912947654724121,
-0.25856006145477295,
-1.0114995241165161,
0.2762659192085266,
0.577960729598999,
-0.22611026465892792,
-0.32762959599494934,
0.2703949511051178,
-0.14300619065761566,
0.1980663388967514,
0.3540979027748108,
0.7055887579917908,
0.2928222119808197,
0.25710925459861755,
0.14020676910877228,
0.41670137643814087,
-0.456194132566452,
0.07482261955738068,
0.05936713144183159,
-0.41114819049835205,
0.36478856205940247,
-0.12618540227413177,
-0.45091596245765686,
0.09769738465547562,
0.2287474274635315,
0.3389430344104767,
0.09774072468280792,
-0.48378726840019226,
0.887595534324646,
-0.1083105206489563,
-0.5999644994735718,
-0.4867229163646698,
1.054905891418457,
-0.9432540535926819,
-0.4833972156047821,
-1.017649531364441,
-0.47797757387161255,
0.07683705538511276,
-0.002276606857776642,
-0.043013159185647964,
-0.06105572730302811,
0.05011122673749924,
-0.1746959686279297,
-0.16976462304592133,
-0.05615829676389694,
-0.10071984678506851,
-0.7560603618621826,
0.5114185810089111,
0.3227222263813019,
-0.05572878196835518,
-0.6812706589698792,
0.7170537114143372,
0.23583689332008362,
-0.6453875303268433,
0.1947007030248642,
0.13300971686840057,
0.16838330030441284,
-0.5343935489654541,
-0.25191083550453186,
-0.29047712683677673,
0.4980190098285675,
-0.8868885636329651,
-0.33991846442222595,
0.10555367916822433,
-0.506052553653717,
-0.23999497294425964,
0.31757768988609314,
-0.554676353931427,
0.033799149096012115,
-0.052281703799963,
-0.2766708731651306,
0.08425506949424744,
0.2102353572845459,
-0.22042681276798248,
-0.19217701256275177,
0.18960843980312347,
-0.29333508014678955,
-0.11962530016899109,
-0.06951327621936798,
-0.08722735196352005,
0.4361386001110077,
-0.07931755483150482,
-0.7529449462890625,
1.1121546030044556,
-0.2658989131450653,
0.13875311613082886,
0.4336468577384949,
-0.7281451225280762,
0.5385848879814148,
0.14256630837917328,
0.00792174506932497,
0.6650797128677368,
-0.48298928141593933,
-0.518039345741272,
-0.1239815503358841,
0.759196400642395,
-0.2874829173088074,
0.4054443836212158,
0.20142513513565063,
0.7277381420135498,
0.33694398403167725,
0.443233847618103,
0.35043877363204956,
-0.2338872104883194,
0.13656936585903168,
0.4270419180393219,
0.7950863242149353,
-0.21053582429885864,
-0.45375514030456543,
0.21711990237236023,
-0.19162341952323914,
-0.23157991468906403,
0.3362961411476135,
0.33120253682136536,
0.2725166380405426,
0.32400089502334595,
0.3969915807247162,
-0.3708902597427368,
0.7061535716056824,
0.5623977184295654,
-0.23737242817878723,
0.035083189606666565,
-0.29934731125831604,
-0.048858776688575745,
-0.285474568605423,
0.1426277458667755,
0.4653795063495636,
0.15169845521450043,
0.028931688517332077,
-0.35238853096961975,
0.010673862881958485,
-0.07169041037559509,
-0.15164506435394287,
-0.7865089178085327,
-0.03847749903798103,
-0.46814143657684326,
-0.43486931920051575,
0.22200962901115417,
0.2369508594274521,
-0.2643566429615021,
0.3208506405353546,
-0.6606806516647339,
-0.6578174829483032,
0.11325941234827042,
-0.39478182792663574,
-0.4358605742454529,
0.10019271820783615,
0.6388608813285828,
0.8317409753799438,
-0.7094453573226929,
-0.3352741301059723,
0.4151652753353119,
-0.16910479962825775,
-0.294383704662323,
0.09069691598415375,
0.43945077061653137,
0.13601993024349213,
-0.5981923937797546,
-0.6143589019775391,
0.2933447062969208,
-0.1944998800754547,
0.3087603747844696,
-0.4253282845020294,
0.2742692530155182,
0.3078802824020386,
-0.08556251972913742,
0.6727036833763123,
-0.5198589563369751,
-0.0034769647754728794,
-0.32083603739738464,
-0.11125528067350388,
0.28739359974861145,
-0.2251087874174118,
-0.45895060896873474,
0.12550845742225647,
-0.11221686005592346,
0.4076405465602875,
-0.09462219476699829,
-0.12660111486911774,
0.7229390740394592,
-0.00044704455649480224,
-0.06826627999544144,
-0.8174487352371216,
-0.43574264645576477,
-0.07161536067724228,
-0.40119823813438416,
0.7757959961891174,
0.5256204009056091,
-0.23438921570777893,
-0.3555983901023865,
0.16991858184337616,
0.057217229157686234,
-0.24361327290534973,
0.04251117631793022,
0.6576220989227295,
-0.12668654322624207,
0.056017812341451645,
-0.7400866746902466,
0.04122396931052208,
0.914726972579956,
0.20338304340839386,
0.594366192817688,
0.39212650060653687,
-0.8633197546005249,
-0.04858032241463661,
0.12753784656524658,
-0.18839707970619202,
0.07221722602844238,
0.05636979639530182,
0.12685425579547882
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.