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233762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve%20Tables | Twelve Tables | The Laws of the Twelve Tables was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. Formally promulgated in 449 BC, the Tables consolidated earlier traditions into an enduring set of laws.
Displayed in the Forum, "The Twelve Tables" stated the rights and duties of the Roman citizen. Their formulation was the result of considerable agitation by the plebeian class, who had hitherto been excluded from the higher benefits of the Republic. The law had previously been unwritten and exclusively interpreted by upper-class priests, the pontifices. Something of the regard with which later Romans came to view the Twelve Tables is captured in the remark of Cicero (106–43 BC) that the "Twelve Tables...seems to me, assuredly to surpass the libraries of all the philosophers, both in weight of authority, and in plenitude of utility". Cicero scarcely exaggerated; the Twelve Tables formed the basis of Roman law for a thousand years.
The Twelve Tables are sufficiently comprehensive that their substance has been described as a 'code', although modern scholars consider this characterization exaggerated. The Tables were a sequence of definitions of various private rights and procedures. They generally took for granted such things as the institutions of the family and various rituals for formal transactions. The provisions were often highly specific and diverse.
Drafting and development
The Twelve Tables of Roman society were said by the Romans to have come about as a result of the long social struggle between patricians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BC, the Republic was governed by a hierarchy of magistrates. Initially, only patricians were eligible to become magistrates and this, among other plebeian complaints, was a source of discontent for plebeians. In the context of this unequal status, plebeians would take action to secure concessions for themselves using the threat of secession. They would threaten to leave the city with the consequence that it would grind to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome's labor force. Tradition held that one of the most important concessions won in this class struggle was the establishment of the Twelve Tables, establishing basic procedural rights for all Roman citizens in relation to each other. The drafting of the Twelve Tables may have been fomented by a desire for self-regulation by the patricians, or for other reasons.
Around 450 BC, the first decemviri (decemvirate, board of "Ten Men") were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out about the legislation of other Greek cities. Some scholars deny that the Romans imitated the Greeks in this respect or suggest that they visited only the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and did not travel all the way to Greece. In 450 BC, the second decemviri started to work on the last two tables.
The first decemvirate completed the first ten codes in 450 BC. Here is how Livy describes their creation:
"...every citizen should quietly consider each point, then talk it over with his friends, and, finally, bring forward for public discussion any additions or subtractions which seemed desirable." (cf. Liv. III.34)
In 449 BC, the second decemvirate completed the last two codes, and after a secessio plebis (secession of the plebes, a plebeian protest) to force the Senate to consider them, the Law of the Twelve Tables was formally promulgated. According to Livy (AUC 3.57.10) the Twelve Tables were inscribed on bronze (Pomponius (Dig. 1 tit. 2 s2 §4) alone says on ivory), and posted publicly, so all Romans could read and know them.
Laws of the Twelve Tables
The laws the Twelve Tables covered were a way to publicly display rights that each citizen had in the public and private sphere. These Twelve Tables displayed what was previously understood in Roman society as the unwritten laws. The public display of the copper tablets allowed for a more balanced society between the Roman patricians who were educated and understood the laws of legal transactions, and the Roman plebeians who had little education or experience in understanding law. By revealing the unwritten rules of society to the public, the Twelve Tables provided a means of safeguard for Plebeians allowing them the opportunity to avoid financial exploitation and added balance to the Roman economy.
Some of the provisions are procedural to ensure fairness among all Romans in the courts, while other established legal terms dictating the legality of capital crimes, intentional homicide, treason, perjury, judicial corruption, and writing slanderous poems. The Romans valued keeping peace in the city and the Twelve Tables were a mechanism of establishing and continuing peace and equality.
Tables I & II: Procedure for Courts and Judges and Further Enactments on Trials
These two tables are concerned with the Roman court proceedings. Table I covers proceedings between the defendant and the plaintiff, with responses to potential situations such as when age or illness prevents the defendant from making appearance, then transportation has to be arranged to assist them. It also deals with:
The failure of appearance by the defendant.
If there is a failure to appear by either party, then after noon the judge must make judgement in favor of the one who is present.
Provides a time-table for the trial (ends at sunset)
Table II sets the amount of financial stake for each party depending on the source of litigation, what to do in case of impairment of the judge, and rules of who must present evidence.
Table III: Execution of Judgment
Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to execute judgments, in terms of debtors and creditors. These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy.
In the book, The Twelve Tables, written by an anonymous source due to its origins being collaborated through a series of translations of tablets and ancient references, P.R. Coleman-Norton arranged and translated many of the significant features of debt that the Twelve Tables enacted into law during the 5th century. The translation of the legal features surrounding debt and derived from the known sources of the Twelve Tables are stated as such
“1. Of debt acknowledged and for matters judged in court (in iure) thirty days shall be allowed by law [for payment or for satisfaction].
2. After that [elapse of thirty days without payment] hand shall be laid on (Manus infection) [the debtor]. He shall be brought into court (in ius).
3. Unless he (the debtor) discharge the debtor unless someone appear in court (in iure) to guarantee payment for him, he (the creditor) shall take [the debtor] with him. He shall bind [him] either with thong or with fetters, of which the weight shall be not less than fifteen pounds or shall be more if he (the creditor) choose.
4. If he (the debtor) chooses, he shall live on his own [means]. If he lives not on his own [means], [the creditor,] who shall hold him in bonds, shall give [him] a pound of bread daily; if he (the creditor) shall so desire, he shall give [him] more.
5. Unless they (the debtors) make a compromise, they (the debtors) shall be held in bonds for sixty days. During those days they shall be brought to [the magistrate] into the comitia (meeting-place) on three successive markets […]”
The five mandates of the Twelve Tables encompassing debt created a new understanding within social classes in ancient Rome that insured financial exploitation would be limited within legal business transactions.
Table IV: Right of Familial Heads
The fourth table of the Twelve Tables deals with the specific rights of Patriarchs of families. One of the first proclamations of the Table IV is that "dreadfully deformed" children must be quickly euthanized. It also explains that sons are born into inheritance of their family. Babies with physical and mental diseases must be killed by the father himself. If a husband no longer wants to be married to his wife he can remove her from their household and "order her to mind her own affairs" Not all of the codes of table IV are to the benefit of only the patriarch. If a father attempts to sell his son three times then the son earns his freedom from the father.
Women: Tables V, VI & X
The Twelve Tables have three sections that pertain to women as they concern estates and guardianship, ownership and possession, and religion, which give a basic understanding as to the legal rights of females.
Table V (Estates and Guardianship): “Female heirs should remain under guardianship even when they have attained the age of majority, but exception is made for the Vestal Virgins.”
Table VI (Ownership and Possession): “Where a woman, who has not been united to a man in marriage, lives with him for an entire year without interruption of three nights, she shall pass into his power as his legal wife.”
Table X (Religion): “Women shall not during a funeral lacerate their faces, or tear their cheeks with their nails; nor shall they utter loud cries bewailing the dead.”
One of the aspects highlighted in the Twelve Tables is a woman's legal status and standing in society. Women were considered to be a form of guardianship similar to that of minors, and sections on ownership and possession give off the impression that women is a slave were considered to be akin to a piece of real estate or property due to the use of terms such as "ownership" and "possession".
Table VII: Land Rights and Crimes
This table outlines the attitudes towards property. The following are all rules about property
Boundary disputes are settled by third-parties.
Road widths are eight feet wide on straight parts and double that on turns.
People who live near the road are in charge of maintaining it, however if a road is not well maintained then carts and animals can be ridden where the riders want to.
Property owners can request removal of trees that have been blown onto their property
Fruit that falls from a tree onto a neighbor's property still belongs to the original tree owner.
Table VIII: Torts and Delicts (Laws of Injury)
Torts are laws dealing with litigating wrongs that occur between citizens. One such situation is that of physical injury, retaliation for which can range from dealing the perpetrator an injury in kind, to monetary compensation to the injured. This table also establishes the legal ramifications for damage dealt to property by animals and damage dealt to crops by people or animals. The penalty for stealing crops is hanging as sacrifice to Ceres.
The table also describes several laws dealing with theft.
Table IX: Public Law
This section of the tables makes it illegal for anyone to define what a citizen of Rome is with the exception of the greatest assembly, or maximus comitatus. It also outlaws execution of those who are unconvicted, bribery of judges, and extradition of a citizen to enemy powers.
The Supplements: Tables XI & XII
Table XI (Marriage Between Classes): A person of a certain class shall not partake in marriage with a person of a lower class.
Table XII (Binding into Law): If a slave shall have committed theft or done damage with his master's knowledge, the action for damages is in the slave's name.
Influence and significance
The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. The Twelve Tables provided an early understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment. Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people resulting in the need for some form of social order. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.
The Twelve Tables also heavily influenced and are referenced in later Roman Laws texts, especially The Digest of Justinian I. Such laws from The Digest that are derived from the Twelve Tables are the legal recompense for damage caused by an animal, protocol for inheritances, and also laws about structural property damage.
The influence of the Twelve Tables is still evident in the modern day. The Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves. An additional example, the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, which translates as "common law", but is commonly referred to as "civil law" in English-speaking countries. Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of jus commune. In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.
Sources
The Twelve Tables are no longer extant: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they gradually became obsolete, eventually being only of historical interest. The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed that he learned them by heart as a boy in school, but that no one did so any longer. What we have of them today are brief excerpts and quotations from these laws in other authors, often in clearly updated language. They are written in an archaic, laconic Latin (described as Saturnian verse). As such, though it cannot be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin. Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorize the laws, as literacy was not commonplace during early Rome. Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as L. Aelius Stilo, teacher of both Varro and Cicero.
Like most other early codes of law, they were largely procedural, combining strict and rigorous penalties with equally strict and rigorous procedural forms. In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed at where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It cannot be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organized this way, or even if they ever were organized by subject at all.
Footnotes
Works cited
Further reading
Cornell, T.J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 B.C.). London: Routledge, Routledge History of the Ancient World.
Harries, Jill. 2007. “Roman Law Codes and the Roman Legal Tradition.” In Beyond Dogmatics: Law and Society in the Roman World, Edited by Cairns, John W. and Du Plessis, Paul J. Edinburgh studies in law; 3, 85–104. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Pr.
Tellegen-Couperus Olga ed. 2011. Law and Religion in the Roman Republic. Mnemosyne supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 336. Leiden; Boston: Brill.
Watson, Alan. 1992. The State, Law and Religion: Pagan Rome. University of Georgia Press.
Westbrook, Raymond. 1988. "The Nature and Origins of the Twelve Tables." Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Romanistische Abteilung, CV, 74–121.
External links
Entry by George Long in William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
5th-century BC establishments
Constitutions of ancient Rome
Roman law
Latin inscriptions
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233763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wig | Wig | A wig is a head or hair accessory made from human hair, animal hair, or synthetic fiber. The word wig is short for periwig, which makes its earliest known appearance in the English language in William Shakespeare's The Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some people wear wigs to disguise baldness; a wig may be used as a less intrusive and less expensive alternative to medical therapies for restoring hair or for a religious reason.
History
Ancient use
In Roman society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair and often wore wigs. The ancient Egyptians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using beeswax and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptians would wear elaborate wigs and scented head cones of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Jews in ancient Israel, Greeks and Romans, also used wigs as an everyday fashion.
In China, the popularization of the wig started in the Spring and Autumn period.
In Japan, the upper classes started wearing wigs before the Nara period.
In Korea, gache were popular among women during the Goryeo dynasty until they were banned in the late 18th century.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}
16th and 17th centuries
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance. They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted head lice, a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de-loused artificial hairpiece. Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.
Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig. Queen Elizabeth I of England famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a "Roman" style, while among men King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) started to pioneer wig-wearing in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald. This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638–1715), which contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries.
Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist Samuel Pepys recorded the day in 1665 that a barber had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of plague he was uneasy about wearing it:3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague.
Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of nits, so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean.
With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.
18th century
In the 18th century, men's wigs were powdered to give them their distinctive white or
off-white color. Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources. Women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground starch that was scented with orange flower, lavender, or orris root. Wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often off-white.
Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century. The elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving Five Orders of Periwigs. Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday court dress a practical possibility. By the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.
In 1795, the British government levied a tax on hair powder of one guinea per year. This tax effectively caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder. Granville Leveson-Gower, in Paris during the winter of 1796, at the height of the Thermidorian Directory, noted "The word citoyen seemed but very little in use, and hair powder being very common, the appearance of the people was less democratic than in England."
Among women in the French court of Versailles in the mid-to-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical "boat poufs") were in vogue. These combed-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.
During the 18th century, men's wigs became smaller and more formal with several professions adopting them as part of their official costumes. This tradition survives in a few legal systems. They are routinely worn in various countries of the Commonwealth. Until 1823, bishops of the Church of England and Church of Ireland wore ceremonial wigs. The wigs worn by barristers are in the style favoured in the late eighteenth century. Judges' wigs, in everyday use as court dress, are short like barristers' wigs (although in a slightly different style), but for ceremonial occasions judges and also senior barristers (QCs) wear full-bottomed wigs.
19th and 20th centuries
The wearing of wigs as a symbol of social status was largely abandoned in the newly created United States and France by the start of the 19th century. In the United States, only four presidents, from John Adams to James Monroe, wore curly powdered wigs tied in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century, though Thomas Jefferson did not always wear a wig, but only wore a wig when he was Ambassador to France with his long red hair implied to be short until his terms as secretary of state, vice president, and president, in which he powdered his long hair. Unlike them, the first president, George Washington, never wore a wig; instead, he powdered, curled and tied in a queue his own long hair.
Women's wigs developed in a somewhat different way. They were worn from the 18th century onwards, although at first only surreptitiously. Full wigs in the 19th and early 20th century were not fashionable. They were often worn by old ladies who had lost their hair. In the film Mr. Skeffington (1944), Bette Davis's character has to wear a wig after a bout of diphtheria, which is a moment of pathos and a symbol of her frailty.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying postiches, or pre-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle. The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s. In the 1960s a new type of synthetic wig was developed using a modacrylic fiber which made wigs more affordable. Reid-Meredith was a pioneer in the sales of these types of wigs.
21st century
It has been reported from time to time that for global human hair trade, women from the ASEAN region are being exploited. Hair from this region has a significant commercial value in the international market. Particularly in India, the women are forced by their husbands into selling their hair, and slum children were being tricked into "having their heads shaved in exchange for toys".
Military wigs
From the late 17th to early 19th centuries, European armies wore uniforms more or less imitating the civilian fashions of the time, but with militarized additions. As part of that uniform, officers wore wigs more suited to the drawing rooms of Europe than its battlefields. The late 17th century saw officers wearing full-bottomed natural-coloured wigs, but the civilian change to shorter, powdered styles with pigtails in the early 18th century saw officers adopting similar styles. The elaborate, oversized court-styles of the late 18th century were not followed by armies in the field however, as they were impractical to withstand the rigours of military life and simpler wigs were worn.
While officers normally wore their own hair short under a powdered wig, the rank and file of the infantry was not afforded such luxury. Instead of wigs, the men grew their hair long and according to the prevailing fashion in a nation's army, hair was either allowed to grow long with simple modeling, as in the French army of the 1740s, or else was elaborately coiffured as in Prussian and British armies. In the case of British soldiers of the 1740s, contemporary artwork suggests that they cut their hair short, which was not the case. Instead, the men used tallow or other fat to grease the hair, which was then fashioned into pigtails and tied back into the scalp hair to give the impression of short hair. It was then liberally dusted with powdered chalk to give the impression of a powdered wig. Later in the century, hair was likewise tied back, greased and powdered, but false hair pigtails were adopted, kept in a tubular queue and tied back with ribbons to the soldier's own hair. The overall effect was that of a wig with a long tail and bow. The Prussian army took personal hairstyles to an extreme during the time of Frederick the Great, each soldier commonly having a long pigtail hanging down the back nearly to waist level.
By contrast, in the 1780s Russian General Potemkin abhorred the tight uniforms and uncomfortable wigs and powdered coiffures worn by his soldiers and instigated a complete revision of both. Along with comfortable, practical, well-fitting uniforms, his reforms introduced neat, natural hairstyles for all, with no wigs, powder and grease, or hair-tying evident.
Formal military hairstyles lasted until beyond the end of the 18th century and it was the French Revolution which spelled the end of wigs and powdered, greased hairstyles in modern, Western armies. Powdered hair and pigtails made a brief return during Napoleon's reign, being worn by infantry of his Foot Grenadiers and Foot Chasseurs of the Old Guard and the Horse Grenadiers of the Guard.
Merkin
A merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.
Current usage
Official use
In Britain, most Commonwealth nations, and the Republic of Ireland special wigs are also worn by barristers, judges, and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office. Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of court dress as a legacy of the court system from the time of British rule. In July 2007, judges in New South Wales, Australia, voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal. New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for ceremonial occasions, such as when newly-qualified lawyers are called to the bar. In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.
Entertainment
A number of celebrities, including Donna Summer, Dolly Parton, Sia Furler, Nicki Minaj, Katy Perry, Melanie Martinez, Lady Gaga, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Tina Turner and Raquel Welch, popularized wigs. Cher has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years, from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of fancy dress (costume wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from tinsel. They are quite common at Halloween, when "rubber wigs" (solid bald cap-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.
Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre Jidaigeki, wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the Edo period when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.
Theater
In the theater, especially on Broadway, wigs are used to give a performer a fixed character. Nearly all women and many men do so not only for character design, but also to cover their microphone packs. Often the microphone pack goes on the actor's head, mainly to efficiently facilitate quick changes.
An actor not wearing a wig needs to change their look every time they go on stage. The wig helps solidify the character's design; natural hair is different day to day.
Religious
Judaism
Jewish law requires married women to cover their hair for reasons of tzniut (Hebrew: "modesty or privacy"). Some Orthodox Jewish women wear wigs, known as sheitels, for this purpose. Wigs of those who practice Haredi Judaism and Hasidic Judaism often are made from human hair. In Modern Orthodox Judaism, women will usually wear a scarf, kerchief, snood, hat or other covering, sometimes exposing the bottom of their hair.
One rabbi has declared that long wigs are inappropriate. Another said that it is preferable for a married Jewish woman to expose her hair than to don a wig, for the wig actually increases attraction in the public domain and encourages the notion that Halakha is both irrational and intellectually dishonest. Still another rabbi, who also spoke strongly against the wearing of wigs, said specifically, "You must go with a hat or kerchief on your head", but did not permit leaving hair "exposed".
Most Orthodox women cover their hair, whether with wigs, hats or scarves. The rejection by some rabbis of wigs is not recent, but began "in the 1600s, when French women began wearing wigs to cover their hair. Rabbis rejected this practice, both because it resembled the contemporary non-Jewish style and because it was immodest, in their eyes, for a woman to sport a beautiful head of hair, even if it was a wig."
Other options include:
wearing a covered wig, called a shpitzel
a covering, typically cloth, called a tichel
another non-hair (and looser) head covering, called a snood
a short wig mostly covered by a Tichel, but with (wig) "hair" showing on the forehead, sometimes also showing from the back, called a
Other uses
Convenience
Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life. This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss due to medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing chemotherapy, or those who are suffering from alopecia areata).
Some men who crossdress as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.
Image gallery
Manufacture
In the 18th and 19th centuries, wig makers were called perruquiers.
There are two methods of attaching hair to wigs. The first and oldest is to weave the root ends of the hair onto a stretch of three silk threads to form a sort of fringe called a "weft". The wefts are then sewn to a foundation made of net or other material. In modern times, the wefts can also be made (a warp is the vertical thread of a weave, the weft is the horizontal thread) with a specially adapted sewing machine, reducing the amount of hand labour involved. In the 19th century another method came into use. A small hook called a "ventilating needle" or "knotting needle", similar to the tambour hooks used for decorating fabric with chain-stitch embroidery at that period, is used to knot a few strands of hair at a time directly to a suitable foundation material. This newer method produces a lighter and more natural looking wig. High quality custom wigs, and those used for film and theatrical productions are usually done this way. It is also possible to combine the two techniques, using weft for the main part of the wig and ventilating hair at the edges and partings to give a fine finish.
Measurement
Making custom wigs starts with measuring the subject's head. The natural hair is arranged in flat curls against the head as the various measurements are taken. It is often helpful to make a pattern from layers of transparent adhesive tape applied over a piece of plastic wrap, on which the natural hairline can be traced accurately. These measurements are then transferred to the "block", a wooden or cork-stuffed canvas form the same size and shape as the client's head.
Foundation
Depending on the style of the wig, a foundation is made of net or other material, different sizes and textures of mesh being used for different parts of the wig. The edges and other places might be trimmed and reinforced with a narrow ribbon called "galloon". Sometimes flesh colored silk or synthetic material is applied where it will show through the hair at crown and partings, and small bones or elastic are inserted to make the wig fit securely. Theatrical, and some fine custom wigs, have a fine, flesh colored net called "hair lace" at the front which is very inconspicuous in wear and allows the hair to look as if it is coming directly from the skin underneath. These are usually referred to as "lace front wigs".
Hair preparation
Natural hair, either human or from an animal such as a goat or yak, must be carefully sorted so that the direction of growth is maintained, root to root, and point to point. Because of the scale-like structure of the cuticle of a hair shaft, if some hairs get turned the wrong way, they will ride backwards against their neighbors and cause tangles and matting. The highest quality of hair has never been bleached or colored, and has been carefully sorted to ensure the direction is correct. This process is called "turning". For less expensive wigs, this labour-intensive sorting process is substituted by "processing" the hair. It is treated with a strong base solution which partially dissolves the cuticle leaving the strands smooth. It is then bleached and dyed to the required shade and given a synthetic resin finish which partially restores the strength and luster of the now damaged hair. Synthetic fiber, of course, is simply manufactured in the required colors, and has no direction.
The wigmaker will choose the type, length and colors of hair required by the design of the wig and blend them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush-like tool called a "hackle" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands. The hair is placed on one of a pair of short-bristled brushes called "drawing brushes" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed.
Adding the hair
Weft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by hand, while it is on the block or, as is common with mass-produced wigs, sewn to a ready-made base by skilled sewing machine operators. Ventilated (hand knotted) wigs have the hair knotted directly to the foundation, a few strands at a time while the foundation is fastened to the block. With the hair folded over the finger, the wigmaker pulls a loop of hair under the mesh, and then moves the hook forward to catch both sides of the loop. The ends are pulled through the loop and the knot is tightened for a "single knot", or a second loop is pulled through the first before finishing for a "double knot". Typically, the bulkier but more secure double knot is used over the majority of the wig and the less obvious single knot at the edges and parting areas. A skilled wigmaker will consider the number of strands of hair used and the direction of each knot to give the most natural effect possible.
It takes generally six heads of hair to make a full human hair wig.
Styling
At this point, the hair on the wig is all the same length. The wig must be styled into the desired form in much the same manner as a regular stylist.
Fitting
The subject's natural hair is again knotted tightly against the head and the wig is applied. Any remaining superfluous wiglace is trimmed away. Hairpins can be used to secure the lace to the hair and occasionally, skin-safe adhesives are used to adhere the wig against bald skin and to better hide any exposed lace. Finishing touches are done to the hair styling to achieve the desired effect.
Types of human hair wigs
There are two basic kinds of hair wigs: The traditional machine stitched weft wig and the hand tied lace wig. The machine stitched wigs are still the most widely worn wigs today. The hair is sewn on a stretch weft material and come with back straps for adjusting to various head sizes. These wigs are typically pre-styled and lack any kind of realistic expectations.
Lace wigs are quickly becoming one of the most sought-after wigs among wig wearers. The illusion of hair growing from the scalp is the feature that makes this wig the best of the best when it comes to wearing fake hair. These wigs are made with a French or Swiss lace material base. They are made as a full lace or partial lace front with a stretch weft back. Each hair strand is individually stitched into a lace material which creates the natural look of hair at the base. This is where the term "hand tied" originates.
Hair type is the distinguishing factor in human hair wigs. Four main types of hair are used in manufacturing: Chinese or "Malaysian", Indian, Indonesian or "Brazilian", and Caucasian or "European". The majority of human hair wigs are made of Chinese or Indian hair, while European hair is considered the most expensive and rare, as most donors are from Russia or Northern Europe, where there is a smaller portion of hair donors to the market.
Remy human hair is considered to be the best quality of human hair because the cuticles are kept intact and not stripped away; "strands retain their scaled natural outer cuticle." The preserved cuticles are also aligned in a unidirectional manner, which decreases tangling and matting. Also, the hair is carefully separated after collecting from the donor to ensure all the cuticles are of the same length.
Notable wig designers
Willy Clarkson, who created wigs for London's West End theatre productions
Peter King, Bristol, United Kingdom
Nina Lawson, who ran the Metropolitan Opera wig department from 1956 to 1987
Peter Owen, Bristol, United Kingdom
See also
Hair extensions
Hair prosthesis
Toupée
References
Further reading
Egyptian inventions
Fashion accessories
Hairdressing
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Hasidic clothing
Jewish religious clothing
Judicial clothing
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233764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol%2C%20Connecticut | Bristol, Connecticut | Bristol is a suburban city located in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States, southwest-west of Hartford. The city is also 120 miles southwest from Boston, and approximately 100 miles northeast of New York City. As of the 2020 census, the population of the city was 60,833.
Bristol is the location of the general studios of ESPN, and the location of Lake Compounce, the United States's oldest continuously operating theme park. Bristol was known as a clock-making city in the 19th century, and is the location of American Clock & Watch Museum. Bristol is the site of the former American Silver Company and its predecessor companies.
Bristol's nickname is the "Mum City", because it was once a leader in chrysanthemum production and still holds an annual Bristol Mum Festival.
History
The area that includes present-day Bristol was originally inhabited by the Tunxis Native American tribe, one of the Eastern Algonquian-speaking peoples that shared the lower Connecticut River Valley.
Originally, Bristol was within the boundaries of Farmington, Connecticut, which was incorporated in 1645. This deed was confirmed by another deed in 1650. The first actual settler of Bristol was Daniel Brownson, who built a house near West Street, but did not stay in the area very long. The first permanent settler was Ebenezer Barnes, who the next year built a home on King Street. Also in 1728, Nehemiah Manross arrived from Lebanon, and built a house north of Barnes Street, on the west side of King Street. The following year the first settlement arrived in what is now known as East Bristol when Nathaniel Messenger of Hartford and Benjamin Buck of Southington bought land and built houses along King Street.
Other houses were soon built around present-day Bristol wherever land was available for farming. This included the slope of Fall Mountain, now called Wolcott Street, and on Chippens Hill. By 1742, the families inhabiting the area petitioned the Connecticut Colony General Court for permission to create their own Congregational Society, citing the difficulties traveling to Farmington during winter. The Court approved their petition for the winter months only, and in 1744, agreed that area residents could set up through own ecclesiastical society. It was called New Cambridge. With their own congregation, area settlers began forming their own local government. However, since homes were so widely scattered, the General Court formed a committee to locate the geographic center of the settlement. The area now known as Federal Hill was deemed the center, and the first Congregationalist church was built there.
In 1785, New Cambridge was incorporated as the town of Bristol, named after Bristol, England. By 1790, the industry for which the town later became famous was established by the pioneer of clock making Gideon Roberts. Roberts began making wooden moment clocks and peddled them by horseback through Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania. As Roberts' sons grew up and began helping with the business, Gideon increased production and Bristol clocks were soon sold all over the country. By the early 19th century, nearly all of the capital and skill in town was involved in the clock industry in some form or fashion. The clock business gave way to related industries, which included brass, springs, bearings, and hardware. As Bristol began to grow, many ethnic groups arrived to work in the industries.
It was incorporated as a city in 1911. Today, Bristol is mostly residential and best known as the home of ESPN (which arrived in 1979), the American Clock & Watch Museum (since 1952), and Lake Compounce, America’s oldest operating theme park - opened in 1846.
Blight Committee
In the 1990s, the Blight Committee was formed to enforce appearance laws, and even demolish properties which it deems are unsightly and unkempt. This committee is tasked with ensuring that properties are not abandoned and that all properties are reasonably maintained.
In 2008, the Bristol Blight Committee was disbanded in order to make way for a new committee, the Bristol Code Enforcement Committee. This new committee has even greater powers and can now deal with both appearances and structural integrity issues of buildings in Bristol. The purpose of the committee is to streamline the process of enforcing the issues the former Blight Committee was tasked with. The law requires all structures to be free of "abandoned vehicles, nuisances, refuse, pollution and filth ... broken glass, loose shingles, holes, cracked or damaged siding, crumbling brick and other conditions 'reflective of deterioration or inadequate maintenance.'"
Downtown revitalization
Since 2008, Bristol has begun another renovation of the downtown area. The Bristol Downtown Development Corporation was formed to manage the downtown renovation. This has included a complete overhaul of a park in the center of the city. In addition, the outdated and underused Bristol Centre Mall from the mid-1960s was purchased by the city, then demolished in 2008, yielding a 17-acre site suitable for development, christened Depot Square by the city. Also, North Main Street was improved in 2008 by adding islands in the road, elegant street lighting and a brick median when the road was repaved. In 2010, a preferred developer agreement was signed for a comprehensive $225 million redevelopment utilizing new urbanism strategies. A sharp decline in the availability of federal funding and a sluggish economy has stalled the project significantly. There has yet to be any groundbreaking as of the year 2017. Most of the city's redevelopment plans can be found in the city's "West End Study" and its 2015 Plan of Conservation and Development.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, Bristol has a total area of , of which is land and , or 1.51%, is water. Bristol contains several distinct sections, including Cedar Lake in the southwestern quarter, Chippens Hill in the northwestern quarter, Edgewood in the northeastern quarter, Forestville in the southeastern quarter and the city in the approximate middle of Bristol. The majority of Bristol's area is residential in character, though since 2008 there has been a push for commercial development in the city. The city is part of the Naugatuck Valley Regional Planning Organization following the closure of the Central Connecticut Regional Planning Agency, the metropolitan planning organization for Bristol, New Britain, and surrounding towns for decades.
Forestville was the hunting grounds of the Tunxis tribe until the 19th century. The village was established in 1833 and named Forestville for its wooded surroundings. Forestville today has grown into a mini-metropolis of suburban neighborhoods and local businesses. The boundaries of Forestville go from the Plainville town line, south to the Southington town line, west up to the industrial development along Middle street and crosses King Street, including properties on Kingswood Drive and Bernside Drive, north up to Bristol Eastern High School, then north up to the south edge of properties on Louisiana Avenue, then to the west of properties on the west side of Brook Street and from there, goes up to commercial development along Farmington Avenue. Within the Forestville area, there are two subsections known as East Bristol and the Stafford District. Forestville village has a library branch (Manross), post office, meeting hall, community group (Forestville Village Association), fire station, cemetery, funeral home, two urban parks (Quinlan Veterans Park and Clock Tower Park), Pequabuck Duck Race, Memorial Day Parade, Summer Concert Night, Pumpkin Festival, and a railroad station (no longer in use). At one time all of Forestville had its own zip code.
Demographics
As of the 2010 census, there were 60,477 people, 25,189 households, and 16,175 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,265.8 inhabitants per square mile (874.8/km2). There were 26,125 housing units at an average density of 985.6 per square mile (380.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city is 87.74% White, 3.84% African American, 9.64% Hispanic, 0.19% Native American, 1.94% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 3.72% from other races, and 2.54% from two or more races.
In 2000 there were 24,886 households in Bristol, of which 29.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.6% were married couples living together, 11.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.0% were non-families. Of all households 28.9% were made up of individuals, and 10.7% consisted of a sole resident who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38, and the average family size was 2.94.
The age diversity at the 2000 census was 23.2% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 32.5% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city in 2010 was $57,610. The per capita income for the city was $30,573. Of the population 10.5% was living below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 8.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.9% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
Economy
Notable companies
The companies below are some of the most notable in Bristol. These, in addition to Bristol Hospital, are the largest private employers in the area.
Associated Spring
Founded in 1857 and headquartered in Bristol, Barnes Group is a diversified international manufacturer of precision metal components and assemblies and a distributor of industrial supplies, serving a wide range of markets and customers. Barnes Group consists of three businesses with 2005 sales of $1.1 billion.
ESPN
ESPN houses its broadcast studios in Bristol on Middle Street. ESPN is the largest taxpayer to the City of Bristol.
ESPN's former parent, Capital Cities Communications, once owned the local ABC affiliate WTNH, but sold it after acquiring ABC (which owned ESPN), and later merged with The Walt Disney Company.
Otis Elevator company
Though its beginnings were in Yonkers, New York, Otis Elevator Company possesses the tallest elevator test tower in the United States in Bristol. Located near ESPN and Lake Compounce, the -high tower is easily visible from the surrounding roads.
Top employers
According to Bristol's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city were:
Arts and culture
Bristol holds an annual street festival in September with a car show and a family farms weekend at Minors Farm, Shepherd Meadows and Roberts Orchard.
Mum Festival and parade
The first Bristol Mum Festival began on July 7, 1962, and included a parade. The members of the Chamber of Commerce and City of Bristol officials met and completed a list of activities to take place over six days. They wanted to focus on the positive things that were occurring in Bristol. When the festival opened it was originally known as the "Fall Festival". In 1963 the chrysanthemum ("Mum") was also added to the festival's name. Prior to 1986 the nurseries in Bristol would produce over 80,000 mum plants. In 2014, city leaders elected to adopt a new "brand" for the city. "All Heart" became the new logo on letterheads and T-shirts and even the "Mum Festival" leaders were "encouraged" to adopt the new image at the festival and parade.
Other attractions
Located in Bristol are the American Clock & Watch Museum, Imagine Nation, A Museum Early Learning Center, Bristol Military Memorial Museum, Bristol Historical Society Museum, Witch's Dungeon Classic Movie Museum, and the Harry Barnes Memorial Nature Center which is part of the Environmental Learning Centers of Connecticut. There is also a Polish-American Dożynki festival every September, at St Stanislaus Church.
Sports
Bristol has a summer collegiate baseball team called the Bristol Blues who play home games at Muzzy Field.
Muzzy Field is one of the oldest ballparks in the United States. In 2012 and 2013, the City of Bristol approved funding for a significant renovation project of the historic ballpark.
Bristol hosts the Little League New England and Mid-Atlantic Regional playoffs every August at the A. Bartlett Giamatti Little League Center.
Parks and recreation
Parks in Bristol include Peck, Page, Rockwell, Bracket, Barnes Nature Center, Indian Rock, and Forestville Memorial. The city is also home to Lake Compounce (1846), the oldest continuously operated amusement park in North America, and to the New England Carousel Museum.
Government
The city is governed under a Mayor-council form of government. Both the mayor and councilpersons are elected every two years. The city's Treasurer, Board of Assessment Appeals, and Board of Education are also elected every two years. Jeff Caggiano (R) was elected as mayor on November 2, 2021. Ellen Zoppo-Sassu (D), first elected in the 2017 municipal election and was re-elected in 2019. The last municipal election was held on November 2, 2021.
The City Council is made up of six members, elected every two years from three two member districts. As of the 2021 municipal elections, the members of the city council are:
District 1: Republicans Sebastian Panioto and Jolene Lusitani
District 2: Republicans Jacqueline Olsen and Susan Tyler
District 3: Republicans Andrew Howe and Cheryl Thibeault
Bristol is represented in the Connecticut House of Representatives by state representatives Cara Pavalock D’Amato (R-77), Whit Betts (R-78), and Chris Ziogas (D-79). State Senator Henri Martin (R-31) represents Bristol in the Connecticut Senate. At the federal level, Bristol is in Connecticut's 1st congressional district and is currently represented by Democrat John B. Larson.
Education
Education in Bristol is conducted using seven elementary schools (grades kindergarten through five), two middle schools (grades six, seven and eight), and two high schools. In addition to these public schools, there are three private Catholic Schools, and one Lutheran School available. These add an additional three pre-kindergarten through grade 8 schools and one additional high school.
A recent press release shows good scores on the Connecticut Academic Performance Test, a standardized test which students take statewide in tenth grade. The report states that more than 87% of Bristol students scored at or above the proficient level in each of the content areas assessed.
Recently, it has been proposed that the educational system of the city be redesigned. Because some of the schools are in historic buildings, new schools are being sought by the city. In addition, it has been proposed that the entire education system of the city be redesigned, eliminating the middle school category. In other words, all schools would be kindergarten through eighth grade or high school. The Bristol Board of Education's appeals for support for this project have been met with mixed emotions.
Media
The local daily newspaper is The Bristol Press, and town news is also featured in a small weekly called the Bristol Observer.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Bus
Bristol has a bus service that connects urban centers and hospitals with the rest of the city. It is part of the CTtransit system, which serves the Greater Hartford area.
Public safety
EMS
Bristol's emergency medical services program has been provided by Bristol Hospital since 1977. It was designed to assume the responsibility previously carried by the Bristol Police Department. The Bristol Hospital's EMS are carried out using 6 emergency ambulances (including spares), 2 paramedic intercept vehicles and 4 wheelchair vans.
Fire department
The Bristol, Connecticut Fire Department is a full-service fire department with five engine companies (or stations) and one tower ladder company. The Bristol Board of Fire Commissioners consists of five members appointed by the Mayor who establish the primary policies of the fire department.
Police department
The Bristol Police Department is a full-service police department with approximately 125 sworn officers. The Bristol Board of Police Commissioners consists of five members appointed by the Mayor who establish the primary policies of the police department. In addition to a vehicular patrol division, downtown Bristol is also policed by a bicycle division. During any shift, there may be as many as 12 officers on duty, not including detectives and officers from other divisions.
Notable people
Amos Bronson Alcott (1799–1888), father of Louisa May Alcott, taught school in Bristol on two different occasions: in 1823 and, after teaching in Cheshire for a time, again in Bristol from 1827-1828. Alcott later moved to Concord, Massachusetts where she became acquainted with many prominent Transcendentalists and literary figures.
John R. Broderick (1957–), President of Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia, was born in Bristol.
Gary Burghoff (1943–), actor who played the character Corporal Walter "Radar" O'Reilly in both the film and television series M*A*S*H, was born in Bristol.
Bob Crane (1928–1978), actor who played the title role in the television series Hogan's Heroes, worked for WBIS radio station in Bristol early in his career.
Chris Denorfia, former Major League Baseball outfielder, was born in Bristol.
Frank Filipetti, music producer, was born in Bristol.
Michelle Guerette (1980–), Olympic athlete, graduated from Bristol Central High School
Aaron Hernandez, (1989–2017), NFL former tight end for the New England Patriots
Gordon J. Humphrey (1940–), U.S. Senator from New Hampshire (1979–1991) was born in Bristol.
Cliff Johnson, author of The Fool's Errand, was born in Bristol.
Karen Josephson (1964–) and Sarah Josephson (1964–), twin sisters who won the silver medal in synchronized swimming at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea and the gold medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, were born in Bristol.
Fred Lynn debuted in his professional baseball career playing for the Bristol Red Sox at Muzzy Field, an early twentieth-century ballpark in Bristol. Baseball Hall of Famer Jim Rice, who debuted with Williamsport in the New York-Penn League and then played for Winter Haven of the Florida State League, also played part of his minor league career for the Bristol Red Sox.
Scott Perkins (1980–), American composer, was raised in Bristol and graduated from Bristol Central High School.
Steve Pikiell (1967–), head basketball coach at Rutgers University; formerly coach at Stony Brook University.
Mike Reiss (1959–), longtime writer for The Simpsons, is a Bristol native.
Albert Rockwell (1862-1925) inventor, manufacturer, industrialist, and philanthropist who moved to Bristol in the 1880s. He designed and manufactured doorbells and other kinds of bells (hence the name Bell City), bicycle brakes, ball bearings, and automobiles.
Adrian Wojnarowski, New York Times best-selling author and NBA Columnist for Yahoo! Sports, Fox Sports One, and now ESPN was raised in Bristol and attended Bristol Central High School.
Sister cities
Kozani, Greece
Gallery
References
External links
City of Bristol official website
City of Bristol official tourism website
Bristol Historical Society
Cities in Connecticut
Cities in Hartford County, Connecticut
Greater Hartford | [
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233765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camas%20Potholes | Camas Potholes | The Camas Potholes (in Camas, Washington) is a popular place to jump from moderately high cliffs into the waters below. On a hot, weekend day, the potholes attract people of all ages. The Camas Potholes can be accessed via a trail from Lacamas Park.
Lacamas Park is an especially popular destination in the Camas/Washougal area. The Potholes are featured by the Clark County Parks Department in their description of the park.
The potholes have been included in several write-ups on the internet and are a popular focus of photographers.
The unusual water flow, drainage from an outlet dam of Lacamas Lake, has carved many "pot holes" in the rock underneath Lacamas Creek. The potholes range in size from approximately 3–10 feet wide and 3–13 feet deep.
Although a popular summer destination for locals, there have been many injuries involving The Camas Potholes. Head injuries have been sustained from jumping from high points, and there have even been deaths resulting from falls and/or drowning.
References
Geography of Washington (state)
Geography of Clark County, Washington
Protected areas of Clark County, Washington
Camas, Washington | [
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233766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacamas%20Lake | Lacamas Lake | Lacamas Lake is a small lake in Clark County, Washington. It is a popular place to fish and water ski for locals from Vancouver, Camas and Washougal. It connects to Round Lake via a channel that runs under the SR 500 bridge on the southeast side of the lake. In the 1990s many high tech manufacturing plants and expensive housing developments began to appear in the area around the lake. The lake is very warm compared to other lakes in the area and the temperature can drop off quickly with depth. As it is now, the lake cannot support life below about (see Dead Zone). The Georgia-Pacific Mill in Camas used to draw water from the lake to support its operations; however, Georgia-Pacific donated the two dams on Round Lake to the City of Camas in 2018.
History
The Lacamas Lake Dam was constructed at the south end of Round Lake in 1883. This raised the water level of both lakes by approximately .
Water quality
The around Lacamas Lake and Round Lake collect precipitation and form the Lacamas Creek which feeds into both lakes. This area is mostly large open fields and private farm or ranch land. The resulting runoff contains high levels of fertilizers which leads to nutrient abundance in both lakes. This nutrient abundance and lack of circulation in the lower depths has caused severe algae problems. Consequently, only a few fish species are able to live in either lake (brown trout, rainbow trout, largemouth bass, bluegill, crappie, yellow perch, catfish and sturgeon). The government classifies the lake as eutrophic.
There have been considerations of using a special aerator for lakes called a "Speece Cone", some parts of the world that have eutrophic lakes use biological means such as Dyes, Enzymes,
and Barley Hay to remedy algae issues in eutrophic lakes.
"Dead Zone"
One of the reasons the lake cannot support many fish is because of severe pollution from phosphorus, nitrogen, ammonia, as well as lack of circulation to the deeper parts of the lake. This allows a detritus sludge to form that is devoid of oxygen, not allowing the organic compounds to break down efficiently. The phosphorus, nitrogen and ammonia collect in the lake water and the lake bed from polluted streams that run into the lake after passing through farm fields, barnyards and subdivisions.
As it is now, the -long lake is murky. The sun warms the top layer of lake water and makes it suitable for warm-water fish such as bass, bluegill and perch. Algae clogs the surface of the lake to a depth of about , so no oxygen from the air can penetrate to the deep, cold water at the bottom. The visibility of the lake is usually less than . It has very green murky water.
In Fall the Aquatic plants such as the invasive Elodea and Algae die, they sink to the bottom, where they decay, using up still more oxygen, making the colder depths barren and lifeless. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife makes the lake more fishable by planting brown or rainbow trout, but few survive year to year.
Activities
Running, hiking and biking
Lacamas Lake has a well-maintained trail (the Lacamas Heritage Trail) along its entire southern edge. The trail is hard-packed dirt and gravel and is generally suitable for strollers. The trail is popular with hikers, runners, and bicyclists, and is wide enough for single-file two-way foot and bike traffic. The trail is generally flat with frequent but relatively shallow inclines. The trail has quarter-mile posts along its entire length with distances to both ends shown.
The west end of the trail has a small parking lot with restrooms, dog scoop bags, and a water fountain. The parking lot may be found at the intersection of NE Goodwin Rd. and NW Alexandria Dr. in Camas. This lot often fills up on nice days and weekends, and there is no good overflow area for cars; the east end of the trail has more parking.
The east end of the trail begins near the southeast boat ramp. This area features a large parking lot, restrooms, water fountain, a park, boat ramp, and children's play structure. The parking lot may be found on Lake Rd. just west of SR500. An overflow parking lot is also available 100 yards to the west near the trailer park. Dog scoop bags are available on the trail. Dog leash requirements are posted.
Swimming
Swimming is popular in the summer due to the warm water temperatures. The City of Camas posts public notices regarding outbreaks of blue green algae.
Boating
Lacamas Lake has two public boat ramps: one on the north side and one on the southeast side. The southeast boat ramp is located within Camas Heritage Park and is nicer with more amenities.
Because of its small size, personal watercraft such as Jetskis and Waverunners are somewhat less popular here than at some of the other local lakes and rivers. Lacamas Lake has a vessel speed limit of and a number of no-wake restrictions.
References
External links
Information on government monitoring of the lake
Camas, Washington
Lacamas
Lakes of Clark County, Washington
Tourist attractions in Clark County, Washington | [
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233771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A5sunda%20Stadium | Råsunda Stadium | Råsunda Stadium (; also known as Råsunda Fotbollsstadion, Råsundastadion, Råsunda Football Stadium or just Råsunda) was the Swedish national football stadium. It was located in Solna Municipality in Stockholm and named after the district in Solna where it is located. In November 2012 it was closed down and replaced by the newly built Friends Arena about 1 km from Råsunda Stadium. Råsunda Stadium was completely demolished in 2013 and flats and offices was built on the old ground.
History
It was opened in 1937 although there had already existed stadiums at the site; the earliest opened in 1910. The inaugural match took place on 18 April 1937 when AIK played against Malmö FF, AIK won the match 4–0, with Axel Nilsson scoring the historical first goal. Råsunda has a capacity of 35,000–36,608 depending on usage. The 1910 stadium hosted some of the football and some of the shooting events at the 1912 Summer Olympics. The stadium was the home stadium for AIK, and was used for many derbies between Stockholm clubs. It also hosted the headquarters of the Swedish Football Association, and staged 75% of the home matches of the national football team each year, with most other matches being played at Ullevi in Gothenburg. These two stadiums are UEFA 4-star rated football stadiums.
The record attendance was 52,943 and was set on 26 September 1965, when Sweden played West Germany. West Germany won the match 2-1.
The last major concert held at the stadium was on 7 June 1986, when British rock band Queen kicked off their final tour, The Magic Tour, at Råsunda. That night Queen played to about 37,500 fans.
Råsunda was the first of two stadiums to have hosted the World Cup finals for both men and women. It hosted the men's final in the 1958 World Cup and the women's final in the 1995 Women's World Cup. The other stadium with this honor is the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, USA (men in 1994 World Cup, women in 1999 Women's World Cup).
On 1 April 2006, the Swedish Football Association announced a plan to switch to a new stadium to be built in Solna. The new arena was completed and ready for sporting events in 2012, and the Råsunda Stadium will be subsequently demolished. The new stadium has a capacity for 50,000 spectators. The name of the new arena is Friends Arena. Swedbank bought the name for 150 million SEK but decided to name it in support of the non profit organization Friends in 2012.
The last event held at the Råsunda Stadium was the Europa League's match AIK - S.S.C. Napoli, played on 22 November 2012, finished 1-2. Edinson Cavani scored the last goal which closed the glorious history of the stadium.
Fabege AB and Peab AB signed an agreement to acquire Råsunda Football Stadium and existing office buildings from the Swedish Football Association on 11 December 2009. All activities on the arena remained until Friends Arena stood finished.
1958 FIFA World Cup
Råsunda Stadium hosted eight games of the 1958 FIFA World Cup, including the final match.
References
http://www.fastighetssverige.se/artikel/sa-har-blir-nya-rasunda-10654/
External links
AIK presentation
Råsunda Stadium
AIK Fotboll
1995 FIFA Women's World Cup stadiums
1958 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Football venues in Sweden
Sports venues in Stockholm
Solna Municipality
UEFA Euro 1992 stadiums
Sweden
Football venues in Stockholm
Stadiums that have hosted a FIFA World Cup final match
Sports venues completed in 1937
1937 establishments in Sweden
Defunct sports venues in Sweden
Demolished buildings and structures in Sweden
Sports venues demolished in 2013
2013 disestablishments in Sweden | [
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233772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp%20Taliaferro | Camp Taliaferro | Camp Taliaferro was a World War I flight-training center run under the direction of the Air Service, United States Army in the Fort Worth, Texas, area. Camp Taliaferro had an administration center near what is now the Will Rogers Memorial Center complex in Fort Worth's cultural area near University Drive and W Lancaster Avenue.
History
After the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, General John J. "Blackjack" Pershing invited the British Royal Flying Corps (RFC) to establish training fields in the southern United States where the warmer weather would be more conducive for flying year-round. In June, the War Department inspected six sites around Fort Worth which had been offered by the Chamber of Commerce and by July, RFC representatives from Canada inspected five potential sites in Texas and Louisiana for use during the winter.
After looking at sites in Dallas, Fort Worth, Waco, Austin, Wichita Falls, and Midland, in August the War Department signed leases with the RFC on three sites around Fort Worth. Known as the Flying Triangle, these sites were Hicks Field (#1), Barron Field (#2), and Benbrook Field (#3) based on their locations; and construction began in late August and early September.
The Canadians named the training complex Camp Taliaferro after 1st Lieutenant Walter R. Taliaferro, a U.S. Army aviator. Taliaferro was killed in an accident at [San Diego], California, on 11 October 1915. The Camp Taliaferro offices for the Air Service and RFC Canada were initially located in the basement of the Chamber of Commerce building in Fort Worth to handle pay, purchasing, and administrative services for their own personnel assigned at the three fields.
Work on constructing the airfield had to be done quickly. Cattle were moved out, and construction crews worked feverishly at the site. US Air Service squadrons which had been training in Canada began arriving in October 1917, and the RFC squadrons began to arrive in early November.
The first winter of 1917-1918 was difficult. Many men lived in tents in this snowy winter. RFC instructors trained about 6000 men there. In six months, 1,960 pilots were trained, completing 67,000 flying hours on the Curtiss JN4 Canuck, a two-seater biplane weighing 2,100 lb (950 kg) with a maximum speed of 75 mph (120 km/h). About 69 ground officers and 4,150 others received training in ground trades and skills. During the winter, eight deaths were due to influenza and 39 RFC personnel died as the result of aircraft accidents, influenza, or other illnesses.
Canadian cadets were at Benbrook and Everman Fields, while the US cadets and the Canadian aerial gunnery school went to Hicks. The training was a major life experience, sufficiently so for veterans to keep memorabilia long afterwards. For example, the wife of Harry Kuhlmann from San Jose, California, (22d Aero Squadron 1917-9) died in 1974, still holding Camp Taliaferro Post Exchange Tickets. In Cornell's Alumni News, L. H. Germer announced as his permanent address: Squadron 139, Field No. 1, Camp Taliaferro, Hicks, Texas. At Christmas, special postcards were available from the camp for residents.
For those who survived the training, combat life expectancy was short. Only two US Air Service squadrons—the 17th and 148th Aero Squadrons—saw active service with the British, flying with them until November 1918, after which they were absorbed into the US Air Service. The obituary of one veteran may be typical:
ELLIOTT, Edward William. 1st Lieutenant. Son of Samuel A. and Myrtle Elliott; born September 9, 1895, Wapakoneta, OH. Living in Muncie, IN when he entered First Officers Training Camp, Ft. Harrison, IN, May 15, 1917. Commissioned 1st Lieutenant. Assigned to 27th Aero Squadron. Transferred to Toronto, Canada; then to Camp Taliaferro, TX. Overseas in March 1918. Killed in an air battle, Chateau-Thierry, France, July 2, 1918. Survived by widow, Reba Thorpe Elliott, Muncie, IN.
Others survived the war, but to continue in aviation was almost as perilous:
Edmund Pike Graves: born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, on March 13, 1891. Middlesex School, Class of 1907; Harvard, Class of 1913. Enlisted as a cadet, Royal Flying Corps in Canada on July 9, 1917 to avoid a delay in getting into a U.S. flying program. Commissioned 2nd Lieutenant, R.F.C. on October 29, 1917. Assigned as instructor in aerial gunnery at Camp Taliaferro, Hicks Field, Fort Worth, Texas. One of the first pilots to do elaborate stunts in a Curtiss. Transferred to Officers' School of Special Flying at Armour Heights, North Toronto in early spring, 1918. Promoted to 1st Lieutenant in May, 1918. Posted overseas, arrived on November 5, 1918 - armistice signed prior to movement to France. Demobilized in July, 1919. Volunteered for Kosciuszko Squadron flying for the new state of Poland and flew Albatross aircraft in patrols over the front in the Lemberg (Lwow) area. Killed during the celebration of the liberation of Lemberg from the Ukrainians when his aircraft lost its right wing during a double roll at 150 feet. Buried in Lemberg, with honors, by the Government of Poland.
Thirty-nine officers and cadets died in Texas. Eleven British, Canadians, and Americans remain there, reinterred in 1924 at a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery plot in Greenwood Memorial Park, Fort Worth. The plot is in Section 5 of the cemetery, at 32-45-47, 97-21-48. Also interred there are one of their comrades who died in 1975, and the daughter of a Canadian instructor who died as a baby in 1918. A stone monument serves as a focal point on Memorial Day in May of odd-numbered years, when friends of the cemetery support a moving Remembrance Service, at which people from the three nations remember the sacrifice of those buried there.
Following the departure of the Royal Air Force in April 1918, Camp Taliaferro was closed and each of the 3 fields operated as separate sites. When the RFC Canada arrived in Fort Worth in November 1917, they brought 254 Curtiss JN-4 (Can) license-built aircraft with them for training at the 3 fields around Fort Worth. When they returned to Canada in April 1918, they turned over 180 serviceable aircraft to the Army Air Service. By then, American and Canadian license-built JN-4s were keeping up with demand.
Besides molding men into lean, mean fighting machines, Camp Taliaferro also molded some long lasting friendships between the Canadians and Americans. One of the most vivid memories of Hicks Field was the remarkable friendship that existed between the RFC pilots and the American flyers. The townspeople of the surrounding communities opened their homes, their hearts and numerous facilities to the young aviators.
See also
List of Training Section Air Service airfields
References
External links
Records of the Army Air Forces (Record Group 18) 1903-64 (bulk 1917-47) 18.9.1 Records of air fields and air bases
Pictures of Sergeant C. P. Devos at the Deseronto Archives.
World War I
Military in Fort Worth, Texas
History of Fort Worth, Texas
1917 establishments in Texas
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Texas | [
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233773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIK%20Fotboll | AIK Fotboll | AIK Fotboll (), more commonly known simply as AIK (), an abbreviation for Allmänna Idrottsklubben (meaning the public or general sports club), is a Swedish football club competing in Allsvenskan, the top flight of Swedish football. The club was founded 1891 in Stockholm and the football department was formed in 1896. AIK's home ground is Friends Arena, located in Solna, Metropolitan Stockholm.
League champions 2018, AIK has 12 championship titles and is third in the all-time Allsvenskan table. The club holds the record for having played the most seasons in the Swedish top flight. In addition, in this century AIK is the club that has finished top three in Allsvenskan the most times (11), and finished top three six times in a row (2013–2018).
Affiliated with the Stockholm Football Association, AIK is the only side from Stockholm to have qualified for the group stage of a UEFA competition; the club reached the quarter-finals of the 1996–97 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, qualified for the 1999–2000 UEFA Champions League group stage, and competed in the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League group stage.
History
Kit
The first shirt is black and the second shirt is white. Shorts are white or, on rare occasions, black. Socks are striped in black and yellow; second socks are all white. A yellow third jersey was used in 2004, an orange third jersey was used in 2007, a dark-blue third jersey was used in 2010 and a grey commemorative third jersey was used in 2016. A dark-blue first shirt was used for the 2017–2018 UEFA Europa League qualification campaign.
When Adidas was the kit provider, new kits were launched every even year. Nike, however, releases a new AIK kit every year, before the start of the new season.
Apart from the brand of their kit provider Nike, AIK has the logos of the following sponsors visible on their shirt and shorts: Notar, a real-estate agent; Stadium, a sporting-goods retail chain; German automakers Volkswagen; and league sponsors Svenska Spel, a government-owned gambling company (whose logo is on the right sleeve of the shirts of all Allsvenskan teams).
Stadium
Since the 2013 season, AIK play their home games at the Nationalarenan (known for sponsorship reasons as Friends Arena until 2023), which also houses the Swedish national football team. The decision which arena would replace Råsunda, the club's home up until the 2012 season, was made by a vote of the club's members, held in 2011, which resulted in a large majority favoring Nationalarenan over Tele2 Arena.
Support
Rivalries
AIK's main rival is Djurgården, also formed in 1891 in Stockholm, just three weeks after AIK. Widely considered the fiercest rivalry in Swedish – and arguably also Nordic – football, the fixture between the clubs is known as Tvillingderbyt (the Twin derby). AIK also maintains a strong animosity towards the third major Stockholm side Hammarby. The club's biggest rival outside the Stockholm urban area is IFK Göteborg, followed by Malmö FF.
Attendances
In 2006 AIK had an average attendance of over 21,000, the highest in Sweden In 2007 AIK had an average attendance of over 20,000. AIK have had the highest average attendance 39 times, more than any other club in Sweden. AIK finished the 2013 season with an average attendance of 18,900, the highest number in Scandinavia. That was also the first season with the new arena. In 2018, AIK broke the record for most sold tickets in an Allsvenskan game in the derby against Hammarby two weeks before the game was played.
Club culture
The club's entrance music and hymn is "Å vi e AIK" (meaning "Oh we are AIK"), a Swedish-lyric version (written in the 1980s) of a 1971 song, "The Last Farewell", originally performed by its co-writer, the British-Kenyan folk singer Roger Whittaker. The recording that has been used as AIK's entrance music since the mid 00s was released in 2002, an arrangement somewhat closer to Elvis Presley's 1976 cover of the song.
Players
First-team squad
Retired numbers
1 – Fans of the club
Out on loan
Notable past players
Non-playing personnel
Backroom staff
Coaching staff
Medical staff
Other
Coaching history
Fred Spiksley (1911)
Ferdinand Humenberger (1930–32)
Jimmy Elliott (1932–34)
Per Kaufeldt (1934–40)
Václav Simon (1940–44)
Istvan Wampetits (1944–48)
George Raynor (1 July 1948 – 30 June 1952)
Per Kaufeldt (1951–56)
Henry Carlsson (1956–58)
Frank Soo (1958)
Erik "Lillis" Persson (1959)
Lajos Szendrödi (1960–61)
Hilding "Moggli" Gustafsson (1962–64)
Henry Carlsson (1965–66)
Ingemar Ingevik (1967–68)
Torsten Lindberg (1 Jan, 1969 – 31 Dec, 1970)
Jens Lindblom (1971–74)
Keith Spurgeon (1 Jan, 1975 – 31 Dec, 1975)
Kurt Liander (1975)
Lars-Oscar Nilsson (1976)
Gunnar Nordahl (1977–78)
Olavus Olsson (1978 – Dec 78)
Jens Lindblom (1979)
Bo Petersson (1979–80)
Rolf Zetterlund (1 Jan, 1981 – 31 Dec, 1986)
Göran Åberg (1987)
Nisse Andersson (1 July 1987–87)
Sanny Åslund (1988–90)
Tommy Söderberg (1991–93)
Hans Backe (1 Jan, 1994 – 30 June 1995)
Erik Hamrén (1 Jan, 1995 – 31 Dec, 1997)
Stuart Baxter (1 Jan, 1998 – Dec 00)
Olle Nordin (2001–02)
Peter Larsson (2002)
Dušan Uhrin (1 July 2002 – 31 Oct, 2002)
Richard Money (1 Jan, 2003 – 19 April 2004)
Patrick Englund (2004)
Rikard Norling (Jan 2005 – Nov 2008)
Mikael Stahre (1 Jan, 2009 – 24 April 2010)
Björn Wesström (interim) (26 April 2010 – 22 June 2010)
Alex Miller (22 June 2010 – 10 Nov, 2010)
Andreas Alm (1 Jan, 2011 – 13 May 2016)
Rikard Norling (13 May 2016 – 27 July 2020)
Bartosz Grzelak (31 July 2020 – present)
Honours
Swedish Champions
Winners (12): 1900, 1901, 1911, 1914, 1916, 1923, 1931–32, 1936–37, 1992, 1998, 2009, 2018
League
Allsvenskan:
Champions (6): 1931–32, 1936–37, 1983, 1998, 2009, 2018
Runners-up (15): 1930–31, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1938–39, 1946–47, 1972, 1974, 1984, 1999, 2006, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2021
Superettan:
Winners: 2005
Mästerskapsserien:
Winners: 1992
Svenska Serien:
Runners-up (5): 1910, 1914–15, 1915–16, 1922–23, 1923–24
Cups
Svenska Cupen
Winners (8): 1949, 1950, 1975–76, 1984–1985, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 2009
Runners-up (8): 1943, 1947, 1968–69, 1991, 1994–95, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002
Svenska Mästerskapet
Winners (6): 1900, 1901, 1911, 1914, 1916, 1923
Runners-up: 1898, 1917
Allsvenskan play-offs
Runners-up: 1986
Svenska Supercupen
Winners: 2010
Runners-up: 2012
Corinthian Bowl
Runners-up: 1912, 1913
Rosenska Pokalen
Runners-up: 1899, 1900
Wicanderska Välgörenhetsskölden
Winners: 1908, 1909, 1914, 1916
Runners-up: 1905, 1906, 1915
International
Tournoi de Pentecôte de Paris:
Winners (1): 1921
Singapore Community Shield:
Winners (1): 2010
AIK in Europe
European games
UEFA Team rank
The following list ranks the current position of AIK in UEFA ranking:
As of 1 March 2022.
Footnotes
References
External links
Official
AIK Fotboll
Major fan websites
AIKforum – fan community
Gnagarforum – fan community
Allmänna Supporterklubben
Black Army
Sol Invictus
Ultras Nord
Smokinglirarna
AIK-Tifo – terrace choreographers
Allsvenskan clubs
Association football clubs established in 1891
Football clubs in Stockholm
1891 establishments in Sweden | [
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233774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex%2C%20Massachusetts | Essex, Massachusetts | Essex is a coastal town in Essex County, Massachusetts, 26 miles (42 km) north of Boston and 13 miles (21 km) southeast of Newburyport. It is known for its former role as a center of shipbuilding. The population was 3,675 at the 2020 census.
The central village areas of Essex and South Essex make up the census-designated place of Essex.
History
Essex was incorporated as a town in 1819. It was previously a part of the town of Ipswich and was then called Chebacco Parish. The first European settlers arrived in 1634. At that time, the land formed part of an area inhabited by Native Americans of the Agawam tribe. The name Chebacco is Agawam in origin and refers to a large lake whose waters extend into neighboring Hamilton. Conomo Point, the easternmost part of the town, is named for the Sagamore or Chief of the Agawams, Masconomo, the leader of the tribe in the late 17th century. Early on, Chebacco Parish lobbied for status as an independent town, asking for permission to build a meeting house. In colonial times, the existence of a meeting house in a settlement conferred de facto autonomy, so Chebacco Parish was denied permission to build such a structure. Popular history tells that one written dictate was issued stating that "no man shall raise a meeting house", so the residents of the settlement interpreted it as to mean that women would be allowed to do so. It is reported that a local woman, Madam Varney, assembled the town's women and construction of a meeting house was carried out by them while the men looked on. Jeremiah Shepard was a minister at the church in Chebacco Parish from 1678 to 1680. He was succeeded by John Wise, who was pastor of Chebacco Parish from 1680 to his death in 1725.
Geography and transportation
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 12.41%, is water. The town does not have any direct access to Ipswich Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, with Essex Bay providing access through the northeast corner of town (the eastern half of the bay lies within Ipswich and Gloucester, with all of the outlet nominally belonging to Gloucester). The central part of Essex lies on marsh land that surrounds the Essex River. Essex River feeds Essex Bay, along with Castle Neck River (which provides most of the town's border with Ipswich) and several creeks, including Walker Creek, Hardys Creek and Soginese Creek. The land that makes up the limits of the town is close to sea level, with a few low hills dotting the landscape. Chebacco Lake and the surrounding wetlands make up most of the southwestern part of the town. Essex's population has increased at a sustainable rate over the last quarter century, so it still maintains a certain rural quality with abundant forested areas, wetlands and open spaces. There are several protected areas within town, including the Allyn-Cox Reservation, a portion of Crane Wildlife Refuge, the Stavros Reservation and the state Wildlife Management Area. The Crane Wildlife Refuge covers several of the islands in Essex Bay, including Choate Island.
Essex is bordered by Hamilton to the west, Manchester-by-the-Sea to the south, Gloucester to the east, and Ipswich to the north. Essex is located northeast of Salem and northeast of Boston. Though not accessible directly by a major highway, Route 128 clips the corner of town, with exits located in neighboring Manchester-by-the-Sea and Gloucester. Route 133 passes from northwest to southeast through town, and the eastern end of Route 22 is at Route 133 in the center of town. The Ipswich Essex Explorer bus provides weekend service during the summer connecting with the MBTA Commuter Rail at Ipswich along the Newburyport/Rockport Line, as well as providing service to Crane Beach and other nearby attractions. The Rockport portion of the commuter rail line passes through neighboring Manchester-by-the-Sea and Gloucester.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,267 people, 1,313 households, and 887 families residing in the town. The population density was 230.7 people per square mile (89.1/km2). There were 1,446 housing units at an average density of 39.4 persons/km2 (102.1 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the town was 98.50% White, 0.15% African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.43% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.55% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.92% of the population.
There were 1,313 households, out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.1% were married couples living together, 7.8% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 32.4% were non-families. 26.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.2% under the age of 18, 5.3% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $59,554, and the median income for a family was $70,152. Males had a median income of $48,036 versus $32,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $31,613. 6.6% of the population and 4.3% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 6.1% are under the age of 18 and 10.8% are 65 or older.
Government
Essex's municipal offices are housed in the Essex Town Hall and TOHP Burnham Library, an exuberant Shingle Style building erected in 1893–94.
Essex's small size makes New England's traditional direct-democracy style of government practical. The residents of Essex elect a board of three selectmen to carry out the routine business of local government while relying on the town meeting system to decide major issues. In recent years, the most important of these issues has been the leasing of public lands at Conomo Point, a school regionalization plan with Manchester-by-the-Sea, and the construction of infrastructure for dealing with sewerage.
In 2002 the town hired a Town Administrator to work for the board of selectmen and oversee day-to-day operations. Policy and major decisions are still verified by the town meeting.
Education
Primary
Essex has one public school, Essex Elementary School, that offers instruction to children from pre-kindergarten to grade 5. The Essex Middle School had previously functioned to educate students to grade 8. But recent regionalization has brought the Essex Middle School children into the Manchester Essex Regional Middle School, located in the same building as both the Manchester Essex Regional High School and the previous Manchester Middle School.
Secondary
The town of Essex does not include a high school, and in years past has had to send its grade 9 through 12 students to neighboring districts. Arrangements in the past have included sending high school students to Manchester-by-the-Sea, Gloucester and Hamilton-Wenham public schools. In 2000, the town approved a plan to create a regional school district with Manchester-by-the-Sea. Under the plan, the two towns are served by a consolidated school system, the "Manchester-Essex Schools", and a new high school. This marks the first time Essex did not have to send its students to another district to attend high school.
In early 2006, the voters of both Essex and Manchester by the Sea approved a new $49 million regional school project for the purpose of building a new Middle School and High School. Both projects were approved at Town Meeting and then again at the ballot box for a debt-exclusion which will permit the towns to raise funds in excess of the 2.5% property tax cap mandated by Prop. 2.5. A similar $36 million plan three years earlier was defeated in Essex at the polls and approved in Manchester. Construction was completed in the summer of 2009, and students began attending the new middle-high school in the fall of 2009.
Economy
Seafood, tourism and antiques
The main sources of income for the town of Essex are the shellfish industry and tourism. The fried clam recipe was reportedly invented in Essex by Chubby Woodman early in the 20th century. Due to the quality of the clam that lives in the tidal river in Essex, local restaurants thrive by preparing it along with other types of seafood. Tourists are mainly drawn to Essex for its restaurants, but in recent years leisure activities, such as excursions down the Essex River in boats or self-guided kayak trips, have become popular. One disadvantage that Essex has is that its only beach is not easily accessible by land and, as such, is not a major draw for tourists, as are the beaches of neighboring Gloucester, Ipswich and Manchester-by-the-Sea. Essex also competes with nearby Rockport for tourists in search of "New England charm". In the last few decades, there has also emerged an antiques trade in Essex. The town now claims to have the highest density of antique shops in the United States.
Former shipbuilding center
The town of Essex was once home to a prosperous shipbuilding trade. This industry accounted for most of the revenue of the town from the days of its settlement as Chebacco Parish until the early part of the 20th century. Once a leading supplier of schooners for Gloucester and other Atlantic fishing communities, Essex did not adapt to the transition from sail-powered wooden ships to engine-powered metal vessels, and this activity disappeared around World War II. There have been recent attempts to return to shipbuilding on a small scale as a tourist attraction and they have met with some success. The Essex Shipbuilding Museum stands as a living testament to the wooden shipbuilding industry and the neighboring boat yard owned by generations of the Story Family still constructs and launches classic wooden ships built in the Essex tradition.
Culture
There are several active youth sports teams, as well as other youth organizations, such as the Boy Scouts of America and Girl Scouts of the USA.
Since 1994 the Essex Music Festival, offering bluegrass, blues, folk, maritime, and Celtic music, had been held at Centennial Grove at Chebacco Lake in Essex. The festival was called off in 2009 due to Tropical Storm Danny, but it resumed the following year; another hurricane resulted in the cancellation of the 2011 festival, and it was never held again.
Much of the film Grown Ups, filmed in the summer of 2009, used Centennial Grove at Chebacco Lake for filming.
Religion
Essex has several churches of various Protestant Christian denominations (Unitarian Universalist, Congregational, Evangelical, Bible church) as well as a Roman Catholic parish.
Conomo Point
Conomo is a summer community that is over 100 years old. There are 104 seasonal cottages and year-round homes on Conomo Point, a summer colony on town-leased land. In 1819, Essex separated from the town of Ipswich on the condition that Essex would take care of their poor. To fulfill this agreement, the town of Essex found four properties ideal for a Poor Farm or Alms House in 1825. Since these waterfront properties were not good for shipyards, dry fishing, and farming, these properties had very little value.
From the time from 1850 to 1900, attitudes toward waterfront property changed. This was due partly to the shortening of the work week and the expanding middle class. The town voted to allow "leasing of rights to build shanties on Town Farm Road." Then, another group of shanties were established on Robbin's Island. Conomo Point was no longer populated by only by Essex citizens by 1900. Due to the construction of the railroad in Essex in 1892, Conomo Point was far more accessible to people from nearby towns.
Since the beginning, Conomo Point residents had paid real estate taxes on the land they rented, as well as personal taxes on their cottages. The town of Essex expected to profit from its land. The rents were increased by 25% in 1927 by vote in a town meeting. In 1951, rents were increased another 5%. Then in 1961, rents were raised even higher by 25%.
From 1950 to 1970, the town of Essex sought to maximize its rental income, while at the same time avoided increasing rental rates, resulting in rapid growth of the Point. Over these years, the town of Essex approved new lots to be leased for the sake of cottage construction.
By the late 1940s, the water supplied to Conomo Point from Essex began getting rusty and turbid due to aging pipelines. After years of suffering poor water quality, in the mid-1970s Conomo residents began drilling private wells. Because the water lines to the Point had until then been turned off in October for the duration of the winter, year-round living there had not been a consideration, and Conomo Point Commissioners were reluctant to grant permission to drill wells. In response, the Board of Health ruled that no more cottages at the Point could be converted from seasonal to year-round use after May 1982.
Points of interest
Chebacco Lake
Choate House, birthplace of Rufus Choate
Cogswell's Grant, c. 1728
Conomo Point
Cox Reservation — Essex County Greenbelt Association conservation Land
Crane Wildlife Refuge
Essex Shipbuilding Museum
Essex Town Hall and TOHP Burnham Library
First Congregational Church on Main Street; meetinghouse built 1792. A bell cast by Paul Revere in 1797 hangs in the belfry.
Stavros Reservation
Film references
The 1940s film The Shipbuilders of Essex shows the construction of a wooden motor trawler at the Storey boatyard, with extensive coverage of the town and townspeople at that time.
The film can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Di46QJPOKI.
In 1995, the feature film The Crucible, starring Winona Ryder and Daniel Day-Lewis, was filmed in Essex. Winona Ryder stayed in a private home on Western Avenue during the filming of The Crucible.
Grown Ups, starring Adam Sandler, was filmed in Essex during the summer of 2009, primarily at Chebacco Lake. The movie also shot at Woodman's restaurant in Essex; in Southborough, Massachusetts; and at Water Wiz in Wareham, Massachusetts.
Notable people
Rufus Choate, (1799–1859), lawyer, orator, United States congressman, senator. A close friend of Daniel Webster, Choate was chosen to serve out his unfinished term in the United States Senate. Choate is considered today to be one of the fathers of traditional American conservatism. Choate Street, named after the Choate family, connects John Wise Ave to Chebacco Road.
Evan Dando, founder and frontman of the alternative rock band The Lemonheads, is an Essex native.
Benn Ferriero, NHL player born and raised in Essex
Michael Gerald Ford (born 1950), eldest son of U.S. President Gerald Ford lived in Essex at the same time his father occupied the White House. Ford made Essex his home while studying at nearby Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary.
Annie Gosbee (1935–1976), All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player and all-around athlete, born and raised in Essex
Jonathan Knight, member of 1980s-1990s boy band New Kids on the Block
Augustus Gardner Means (1925-1994), member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives and Massachusetts Governor's Council and recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross from the United States Army.
John Wise (1652–1725), pastor of Chebacco Parish (when this parish remained part of the neighboring town of Ipswich), who spoke out against "taxation without representation" more than a half century before the American Revolutionary War. A section of Massachusetts Route 133, John Wise Avenue, is named after him.
References
External links
Town of Essex official website
Anderson, Philader. 1830 Map of Essex.
Beers, D.G. 1872 Atlas of Essex County. Town of Essex Map - Plate 75. Click on map for a very large image.
Old USGS maps of Essex
Historical Resources for Essex at Rootsweb
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233775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%204%20%28Brahms%29 | Symphony No. 4 (Brahms) | The Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98 by Johannes Brahms is the last of his symphonies. Brahms began working on the piece in Mürzzuschlag, then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1884, just a year after completing his Symphony No. 3. It was premiered on October 25, 1885 in Meiningen, Germany.
Instrumentation
The symphony is scored for two flutes (one doubling on piccolo on third movement only), two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, contrabassoon (third and fourth movements), four horns, two trumpets, three trombones (fourth movement only), timpani (two in first and second movements, three in third and fourth movements), triangle (third movement only), and strings.
Movements
The symphony is divided into four movements with the following tempo markings:
This is the only one of Brahms' four symphonies to end in a minor key. A typical performance lasts about 40 minutes.
Analysis
I. Allegro non troppo
This movement is in sonata form, although it features some unique approaches to development. For instance, there is no repeat of the exposition; according to the late Malcolm MacDonald, the music is so "powerfully organic and continuously unfolding" that such a repeat would hinder forward progress.
The opening theme is initially serene in character, although its composition in a chain of descending thirds adds a fateful air. Its left-versus-right fragmented melodic form (duh-DUM, da-DEE, duh-DUM, da-DEE) also introduces a feeling of conflict which Brahms uses as a fundamental motivation throughout the movement.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Primary theme
| E minor
| Starts with pick-up note. This relatively fragmented melody forms a descending sequence in the upper instruments in dialogue with the lower instruments. The notes (taken out of register) outline a row of descending thirds – B, G, E, C, A, F, D, B – a unifying motif for this work.
|-
| 19
| Transition modulation to second theme
| Goes from E minor to the dominant B minor
| Starts by fragmenting the primary theme
|-
| 53
| Transition motif
|
| Transition motif: a rhythmic pattern in the woodwinds
|-
| 57
| Secondary theme period 1
| B minor
| Initially in the cellos, then passed up into the violins with intermittent play with transition motif.
|-
| 95
| Secondary theme period 2
| B major – parallel major of B minor
| In the woodwinds.
|-
| 107
| Closing section
| B major
| Using transition motif to .
|-
| 137
| Transition modulation to development
| Lead from B major into E minor
| Using primary theme material
|-
| 145
| Development
| Various
| Starts with a statement of the primary theme before leading away into a development
|-
| 247
| Recapitulation
| E minor -> E major
| Slow version of primary theme in the upper instruments (initially in C major harmony) with intermittent use of transition motif followed by lengthy recapitulation of secondary theme block now transposed to the tonic key.
|-
| 394
| Coda
| E minor
| Final climactic statement of the primary theme in .
|}
II. Andante moderato
Featuring a theme in E Phrygian, heard at the beginning unaccompanied and at the end with a lush orchestral accompaniment in the dominant scale, this movement has a modified sonata form with no development section.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Introduction
| E Phrygian
| Introduction to the principal theme by horns
|-
| 5
| Principal theme
| E major
| Several statements of the principal theme
|-
| 36
| Transition theme
| B major
| Dominated by the wind sections
|-
| 41
| Secondary theme
| B major
| Initially in the cellos, then passed up into the violins
|-
| 50
| Secondary theme cadence and transition theme
| B major
| Using transition motif to .
|-
| 64
| Recapitulation
| Various keys
| Recapitulation quite similar in structure to the exposition
|-
| 106
| Coda
| E Phrygian dominant
| Free play of themes with frequent use of arpeggios
|}
III. Allegro giocoso
This movement is the only one with the character of a scherzo to be found in Brahms' symphonies. It is not in typical scherzo form, however, being in 2/4 time and in sonata form, without a trio. The sonata form itself is modified further, with a foreshortened recapitulation and with the secondary theme nearly absent in the development and coda.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Primary theme
| C major and E major
| Primary theme consisting of three different periods (ordered 1–2–3–1)
|-
| 46
| Transition to secondary theme
| Transition to G major
| Based on the first period of the primary theme
|-
| 52
| Secondary theme
| G major
| Secondary theme followed by elements of a transition to the development
|-
| 89
| Development
| Various keys
| Based on the primary theme block with a slow trio-like section based on the second period of the first theme.
|-
| 181
| Transition to recapitulation
| Modulation from D major to C major
|
|-
| 199
| Recapitulation
| C and G key areas
| Restatement of primary theme starting with the second period (2–3–1) followed by restatement the secondary theme and then transition theme leading to coda
|-
| 282
| Coda
| C and G key areas
| Final statement of the period 1 and 2 of the primary theme block (in the order 1–2–1)
|}
IV. Allegro energico e passionato
This last movement is notable as a rare example of a symphonic passacaglia, which is similar to a chaconne with the slight difference that the subject can appear in more voices than the bass. For the repeating theme, Brahms adapted the chaconne theme in the closing movement of Johann Sebastian Bach's cantata, Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150.
An analysis of this last movement by Walter Frisch provides yet further interpretation to Brahms' structure of this work, by giving sections sonata form dimensions.
Arnold Schoenberg, in his essay Brahms the Progressive (Brahms is often characterized as a conservative composer), pointed out several thematic relationships in the score, as does Malcolm MacDonald in his biography of the composer. The first half of the chaconne theme is anticipated in the bass during the coda at an important point of the preceding movement; and the first movement's descending thirds, transposed by a fifth, appear in counterpoint during one of the final variations of the chaconne.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Theme
| E minor
| Statement of theme and main chordal structure
|-
| 9
| Variations 1–11
| Mostly in E minor and C major key areas as well as in other keys
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though in some variations transposed to different key). time
|-
| 97
| Variations 12–15
| E major and A major key area
| Variations match the bar count (though with bars lasting twice as long) and chordal structure ((though transposed to different key areas)). time
|-
| 129
| Variations 16–23
| E major and A major key area
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though transposed to different key areas). time
|-
| 193
| Variations 24–26
| Mostly in E minor and C major key area
| Structurally variation 24 is similar to variation 1, variation 25 is similar to variation 2 and variation 26 is similar to variation 3. time
|-
| 217
| Variations 27–30
| Mostly in E minor and C major key area
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though transposed to different key areas). time
|-
| 249
| Transition to coda
| E major and C major key area
| Extension of the last variation (variation 30).
|-
| 253
| Coda
| Many different key areas
| Playing on material from the variations with intermittent quasi-variations
|-
| 297
| Final statement of theme
| E minor
| Compressed statement of theme and final cadence
|}
Notable recordings
There have been multiple recordings of the piece by such renowned conductors as Leonard Bernstein, John Eliot Gardiner, and Carlo Maria Giulini. Of special note has been the recording conducted by Carlos Kleiber with the Vienna Philharmonic. Progressive rock group Yes's keyboardist Rick Wakeman abridged and arranged the third movement for various keyboards in the instrumental "Cans and Brahms" from the 1971 album Fragile.
There are superb recordings available with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra under Nikolaus Harnoncourt, as well as with the Chamber Orchestra of Europe and Nikolaus Harnoncourt.
Reception
The work was given its premiere in Meiningen on October 25, 1885, with Brahms himself conducting. The piece had earlier been given to a small private audience in a version for two pianos, played by Brahms and Ignaz Brüll. Brahms' friend and biographer Max Kalbeck, reported that the critic Eduard Hanslick, acting as one of the page-turners, exclaimed on hearing the first movement at this performance: "For this whole movement I had the feeling that I was being given a beating by two incredibly intelligent people." Hanslick, however, wrote also that "[for] the musician, there is not another modern piece so productive as a subject for study. It is like a dark well; the longer we look into it, the more brightly the stars shine back."
The musicologist Donald Francis Tovey praises the work as “one of the greatest orchestral works since Beethoven,” and singles out the end of the first movement, which “bears comparison with the greatest climaxes in classical music, not excluding Beethoven.”
The symphony is rich in allusions, most notably to various Beethoven compositions. The symphony may well have been inspired by the play Antony and Cleopatra, which Brahms had been researching at the time.
Notes
References
Walter Frisch. Brahms: The Four Symphonies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 115–140
External links
Downloadable score of the piece in .pdf format
Allusive Irony in Brahms's Fourth Symphony. (Analysis of Allusions in the Symphony) by Kenneth Hull
Detailed Listening Guide using the recording by Claudio Abbado
Andrew Clements, "Brahms: Symphony No. 4" (from "Building a Classical Library" series). The Guardian, 17 March 2000.
Online Audio-Video of the first two minutes of the final movement (Berlin Philharmonics under Sir Simon Rattle)
Online audio-video of Vera Hsu and Chiming Shui performing the first movement as scored by Brahms for two pianos.
Symphonies by Johannes Brahms
1884 compositions
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233778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylonitrile%20butadiene%20styrene | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) (chemical formula (C8H8)x·(C4H6)y·(C3H3N)z) is a common thermoplastic polymer. Its glass transition temperature is approximately . ABS is amorphous and therefore has no true melting point.
ABS is a terpolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15% to 35% acrylonitrile, 5% to 30% butadiene and 40% to 60% styrene. The result is a long chain of polybutadiene crisscrossed with shorter chains of poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile). The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar, attract each other and bind the chains together, making ABS stronger than pure polystyrene. The acrylonitrile also contributes chemical resistance, fatigue resistance, hardness, and rigidity, while increasing the heat deflection temperature. The styrene gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface, as well as hardness, rigidity, and improved processing ease. The polybutadiene, a rubbery substance, provides toughness and ductility at low temperatures, at the cost of heat resistance and rigidity. For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between , as its mechanical properties vary with temperature. The properties are created by rubber toughening, where fine particles of elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix.
Properties
ABS provides favorable mechanical properties such as impact resistance, toughness, and rigidity when compared with other common polymers. A variety of modifications can be made to improve impact resistance, toughness, and heat resistance. The impact resistance can be amplified by increasing the proportions of polybutadiene in relation to styrene and also acrylonitrile, although this causes changes in other properties. Impact resistance does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures. Stability under load is excellent with limited loads. Thus, by changing the proportions of its components, ABS can be prepared in different grades. Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for injection molding, then high and medium impact resistance. Generally ABS would have useful characteristics within a temperature range from .
The final properties will be influenced to some extent by the conditions under which the material is processed to the final product. For example, molding at a high temperature improves the gloss and heat resistance of the product whereas the highest impact resistance and strength are obtained by molding at low temperature. Fibers (usually glass fibers) and additives can be mixed in the resin pellets to make the final product strong and raise the maximum operating temperature as high as . Pigments can also be added, as the raw material original color is translucent ivory to white. The aging characteristics of the polymers are largely influenced by the polybutadiene content, and it is normal to include antioxidants in the composition. Other factors include exposure to ultraviolet radiation, which additives are also available to protect against.
ABS polymers are resistant to aqueous acids, alkalis, concentrated hydrochloric and phosphoric acids and animal, vegetable and mineral oils, but they are swollen by glacial acetic acid, carbon tetrachloride and aromatic hydrocarbons and are attacked by concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids. They are soluble in esters, ketones (such as acetone), chloroform, and ethylene dichloride. They also offer poor resistance to chlorinated solvents, alcohols and aldehydes.
Even though ABS plastics are used largely for mechanical purposes, they also have electrical properties that are fairly constant over a wide range of frequencies. These properties are little affected by temperature and atmospheric humidity in the acceptable operating range of temperatures.
ABS is flammable when it is exposed to high temperatures, such as those of a wood fire. It will melt and then boil, at which point the vapors burst into intense, hot flames. Since pure ABS contains no halogens, its combustion does not typically produce any persistent organic pollutants, and the most toxic products of its combustion or pyrolysis are carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. ABS is also damaged by sunlight. This caused one of the most widespread and expensive automobile recalls in US history due to the degradation of the seatbelt release buttons.
ABS can be recycled, although it is not accepted by all recycling facilities.
ABS is one of many types of thermoplastic with biomedical applications, with injection-molded components being easy to manufacture for single-use. It can be sterilized by gamma radiation or ethylene oxide (EtO).
Production
ABS is derived from acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene. Acrylonitrile is a synthetic monomer produced from propylene and ammonia; butadiene is a petroleum hydrocarbon obtained from the C4 fraction of steam cracking; styrene monomer is made by dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene — a hydrocarbon obtained in the reaction of ethylene and benzene.
According to the European plastic trade association PlasticsEurope, industrial production of of ABS resin in Europe uses an average of and is derived from natural gas and petroleum.
Machining
ABS is manufactured in a variety of grades, but for precision machining of ABS structural parts, it is recommended to use Machine Grade ABS. Machine Grade ABS is easily machined via standard machining techniques including; turning, drilling, milling, and sawing. ABS can be chemically affixed to itself and other like plastics.
Applications
ABS was patented in 1948 and introduced to commercial markets by the Borg-Warner Corporation in 1954.
ABS's light weight and ability to be injection molded and extruded make it useful in manufacturing products such as drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe systems.
Musical instruments such as recorders, plastic oboes and clarinets, piano movements, and keyboard keycaps are commonly made out of ABS.
Other uses include golf club heads (because of its good shock absorbance), automotive trim components, automotive bumper bars, binoculars, inhalers, monoculars, nebulizers, non-absorbable sutures, tendon prostheses, drug-delivery systems tracheal tubes, enclosures for electrical and electronic assemblies (such as computer cases), protective headgear, whitewater canoes, buffer edging for furniture and joinery panels, luggage and protective carrying cases, pen housing, and small kitchen appliances. Toys, including LEGO (Lego bricks have been made from ABS since 1958) and Kre-O bricks, are a common application.
Household and consumer goods comprise the major applications of ABS.
ABS plastic ground down to an average diameter of less than 1 micrometer is used as the colorant in some tattoo inks.
3D printing
ABS is widely used as a material for 3D printing, as it is a strong and cheap thermoplastic. For 3D Printing purposes, ABS is extruded into filament so it can be fed through the 3D printer. When being used in a 3D printer, ABS is often melted in a 3D printer at temperatures close to 240°C (463°F), as it very quickly melts it. ABS is only used in FFF/FDM 3D printers, as resin 3D printers can not melt plastic.
When extruded into a filament, ABS plastic is a common material used in 3D printers.
When it is used as a filament for the 3D printing by fused deposition modeling, it is suitable due to the high stability and various post-processing options (sanding, painting, gluing, filling), especially for the production of prototypes. Particular forms of ABS filaments are ABS-ESD (electrostatic discharge) and ABS-FR (fire resistant), which are used in particular for the production of electrostatically sensitive components and refractory prefabricated parts.
Hazard for humans
ABS is stable to decomposition under normal use and polymer processing conditions with exposure to carcinogens well below workplace exposure limits. However, at higher temperatures at or above 400 °C (750 °F) ABS can decompose into its constituents: butadiene (carcinogenic to humans), acrylonitrile (possibly carcinogenic to humans), and styrene (reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen).
Ultrafine particles (UFPs) may be produced at lower temperatures (such as in 3D Printing). Concerns have been raised regarding airborne UFP concentrations generated while 3D printing with ABS, as UFPs have been linked with adverse health effects.
See also
Novodur
Polylactic acid (PLA)—also used for 3D Printing
References
External links
Comparisons of many physical properties with other plastics
Comparison between ABS and PLA for 3D Printing
Copolymers
Plastics
Thermoplastics
Engineering plastic | [
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233780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20Macintosh%20G3 | Power Macintosh G3 | The Power Macintosh G3 (also sold with additional software as the Macintosh Server G3) is a series of personal computers designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from November 1997 to August 1999. It represented Apple's first step towards eliminating redundancy and complexity in the product line by replacing eight Power Macintosh models (and the Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh) with three: Desktop and Mini Tower models for professional and home use, and an All-In-One model for education. The introduction of the Desktop and Mini Tower models coincided with Apple starting to sell build-to-order Macs directly from its web site in an online store, which was unusual for the time as Dell was the only major computer manufacturer doing this. Apple's move to build-to-order sales of the Power Macintosh G3 also coincided with the acquisition of Power Computing Corporation, which had been providing telephone sales of Macintosh clones for more than two years.
The Power Macintosh G3 is named for its third-generation PowerPC chip, and introduced a fast and large Level 2 backside CPU cache, running at half processor speed. As a result, these machines benchmarked significantly faster than Intel PCs of similar CPU clock speed at launch, which prompted Apple to create the "Snail" and "Toasted Bunnies" television commercials. Magazine benchmarks showed the G3/266 CPU outperforming the 350 MHz PowerPC 604ev chip in the Power Macintosh 9600 as well.
Two generations of the Power Macintosh G3 were released. The first generation, known colloquially as "Beige" was introduced at a special event on November 10, 1997. The second generation, known officially as "Blue and White", was introduced at MacWorld San Francisco on January 5, 1999. Its replacement, the Power Mac G4, was introduced in August of the same year.
Models
Beige
Apple sold three beige Power Macintosh G3 models: a horizontally-oriented desktop, a mini tower enclosure, and a version with a built-in screen called All-In-One ("AIO"). The All-In-One model was shaped like a human tooth, and thus earned the moniker Molar Mac. Equipped with a 233, 266, 300, or 333 MHz PowerPC 750 (G3) CPU from Motorola, these machines use a 66.83 MHz system bus and PC66 SDRAM, and standard ATA hard disk drives instead of the SCSI drives used in most previous Apple systems. A Fast SCSI internal bus is still included with 10 MB/s speed, along with the proprietary out-of-spec DB-25 external SCSI bus which had a top speed of 5 MB/s. Each bus could support a maximum of 7 devices.
Apple also developed a prototype G3-based six-slot full tower to be designated the Power Macintosh 9700. Despite demand from high-end users for more PCI slots in a G3-powered computer, Apple decided not to develop the prototype (dubbed "Power Express") into a shipping product, leaving the 9600 as the last six-slot Mac Apple would make for over two decades, until the 2019 Mac Pro which has eight.
Initial units were shipped with Mac OS 8. The G3 officially supports up to Mac OS X 10.2, although some devices will not work under Mac OS X, such as the floppy drive, the video features of the "Wings" personality card, and the 3D graphics acceleration functions of the onboard ATI Rage series video. Support for newer versions is possible with the use of third party software solutions such as XPostFacto. Mac OS X 10.5 can be run only if a G4 processor upgrade is installed.
The Power Macintosh G3 was originally intended to be a midrange series, between the low-end Performa/LC models and the six-PCI slot Power Macintosh 9600. It is the earliest Old World ROM Macintosh model officially able to boot into Mac OS X, and one of only two Old World ROM models officially able to boot into Mac OS X, the other model being the second-generation (Wallstreet I/II) PowerBook G3. As a late addition there is known that exactly this type of a processor (Motorola PPC 750 CPU at 200 MHz) is currently operating in the "Perseverance" rover system which is exploring Mars.
Desktop
The Desktop model inherited its enclosure directly from the Power Macintosh 7300. The 233 and 266 MHz desktop models shipped with 4 GB hard drives, and the 300 MHz with a 6 GB drive, all at 5400 RPM. This model, sometimes referred to as an Outrigger Macintosh due to its ease of access, was the last horizontally-oriented desktop model offered by Apple until the introduction of the Mac mini in 2005.
The Desktop model received an update in August 1998, with the 233 MHz model being discontinued. Unlike the Mini Tower model, the Desktop model was not updated with 333 MHz or 366 MHz CPUs. Regardless, it was replaced by the Power Mac G4 Cube in 2000.
Mini Tower
The 233 MHz Mini Tower model's enclosure is similar to the Power Macintosh 8600. It shipped with a 4 GB drive, the 266 MHz with a 6 GB drive, and the 300 MHz variant shipped with two 4 GB drives in a RAID configuration; all models were 5400 RPM.
As with the Desktop model, the Mini Tower received an update in August 1998, with the CPU updated to 333 MHz and 366 MHz. These models shipped with a 9.1 GB 7200 RPM SCSI drive, attached to a SCSI/PCI card, as well as 100BASE-TX Ethernet (as opposed to the other models' 10BASE-T), though this was in the form of a PCI card, which occupied another PCI slot. The Macintosh Server G3/300 MHz also shipped with a PCI Ultra Wide SCSI card and the 100Base-T Ethernet PCI card. The 333 and the (canceled) 366 MHz model had only 6 MiB VRAM; the 300 MHz model shipped with a 128-bit iXMicro PCI video card with 8 MiB VRAM.
Server
The Macintosh Server G3 is identical to the Mini Tower model, but was sold with additional server software and different specifications. Software included AppleShare IP 5.0, Apple Network Administrator Toolkit, and SoftRAID.
Introduced March 1998:
Good: 233 MHz, 512 KiB L2 cache, 64 MiB SDRAM, 6 GB IDE HDD. $2,919.
Better: 266 MHz, 512 KiB L2 cache, 64 MiB SDRAM, 4 GB Ultra/Wide SCSI. $3,609.
Best: 300 MHz, 1 MiB L2 cache, 128 MiB SDRAM, Two 4 GB Ultra/Wide SCSI. $4,969.
Introduced September 1998:
333 MHz, 1 MiB L2 cache, 128 MiB SDRAM, Two 4 GB Ultra/Wide SCSI. $4,599.
All-In-One
The All-In-One model was introduced in April 1998 as a replacement for the Power Macintosh 5400 and 5500. It was available in two basic configurations: a 233 MHz version with a floppy drive and a 4 GB hard drive and a 266 MHz version with a built-in Zip drive, floppy drive, and either a "Whisper" personality card or an All-In-One version of the "Wings" personality card. Half of the AIO's case was translucent, suggesting what was to come with the iMac. The shape of the G3 AIO resulted in the unit being unofficially named the "Molar" Mac, denoting its resemblance to the human tooth. The machine was also noted for its considerable 60 lb weight.
This machine was sold to the education market exclusively with this model; the front panel of the AIO has two headphone jacks for sharing audio in classrooms. Prices started at US$1,599 for the 233 MHz model.
Mac OS 8.1 is the included operating system.
When the iMac G3 was introduced, they were sold together to the education market until the G3 AIO was discontinued.
Blue and White
The Power Mac G3 (Blue and White) (codenamed Yosemite) was introduced in January 1999, replacing the Beige Mini Tower model, with which it shared the name and processor architecture but little else. It is the first Power Macintosh model to include the New World ROM, and the last with ADB port. , and models were introduced with a price range of US$1,599 – US$2,999.
Though still based on the PowerPC G3 architecture, the Blue and White was a totally new design. It was the first new Power Mac model after the release of the iMac, and shared the iMac's blue-and-white color scheme. Inside the enclosure, the logic board is mounted on a folding "door", which swings down onto the desk for tool-free access to all the internal components.
A new design for the keyboard and mouse were introduced that match the enclosure. The keyboard was criticized in MacWorld's review of the G3 as feeling "cheap compared with the huge Apple keyboard of old" and the removal of several keys. The Apple USB Mouse, previously included with the iMac, was also reviewed poorly, noting that "many users will find it unacceptable: because of the round design, it's impossible to tell the top of the mouse from the bottom by touch."
The Blue and White line was revised in June 1999; the model was dropped and a new model was introduced at a US$2,999 price point.
Early Blue and White units shipped with Mac OS 8.5.1, while later revisions shipped with 8.6. The latest version of Mac OS that can be run on this model is Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.
Hardware
Beige
Logic board
The Beige G3 uses Apple's new "Gossamer" logic board. As a compact and versatile motherboard, the Gossamer board was originally designed to be able to support both the high-end PowerPC 604e and the new PowerPC G3, but when initial tests found that the cheaper G3 outperformed the 604e in many tests, this functionality was removed and Apple's 604e-based systems were discontinued.
Gossamer supports both onboard and external SCSI (from the custom MESH IC), ADB, 10BASE-T Ethernet, two MiniDIN-8 serial ports, and onboard ATI graphics (originally IIc, later updated to Pro and then Rage Pro Turbo) with a slot for VRAM upgrades. An external serial port is included; this is the last Power Macintosh model to include one. Three 32-bit PCI slots and one internal modem slot are present, as well as three SDRAM slots.
ROM
Early G3s with Revision A ROMs do not support slave devices on their IDE controllers, limiting them to one device per bus (normally one optical drive and one hard disk). Additionally, they came with onboard ATI Rage II+ video. G3s with Revision B ROMs support slave devices on their IDE controllers, and had the onboard video upgraded to ATI Rage Pro. G3s with Revision C ROMs also support slave devices on their IDE controllers, but the most significant technical differences are the newer Open Firmware version than the previous two models (2.4 vs 2.0f1) and another onboard video upgrade, this time to ATI Rage Pro Turbo.
The Beige G3 was the last Power Macintosh with a 4 MiB ROM. The trend of increasingly large ROMs ended after the introduction of the New World ROM in the Blue and White G3.
Personality cards
These machines had no audio circuitry on the logic board; instead, a PERCH slot (a dedicated 182-pin microchannel connector; a superset of the PCI spec, but which does not accept PCI cards) was populated with a "personality card" which provided the audio circuitry. Several "personality cards" were available:
Whisper was the personality card of the regular versions, providing the Screamer sound ASIC (with 16-bit, 44.1 kHz audio capabilities with simultaneous I/O) and no video facilities.
Wings or Audio/Video Input/Output Card was an A/V "personality card" which, in addition to the audio I/O, included composite and S-Video capture and output.
Bordeaux or DVD-Video and Audio/Video Card differed from the Wings card in that it did not include a DAV slot, used the Burgundy sound ASIC (which provided improved sound performance), incorporated a higher performance video capture IC, and included additional circuitry (C-Cube MPEG decoder chip) to support the playback of DVD movies.
Upgradability
CPU: The processor module (a PowerPC 750 plus L2 cache) was overclockable, i.e. 333 MHz and even 366 MHz or 375 MHz with an 83.3 MHz bus (uncommon). Upgrade kits were available from a number of companies, including Newer Technology, PowerLogix and XLR8, offering G3 processors in the US$1,500 – US$1,800 price range.
CPU upgrades as high as a 1.0 GHz G4 or 1.1 GHz G3 would eventually become available, although the user would not see much practical difference in performance on chips faster than 733 MHz due to the system bus limitations, which runs at 66.83 MHz unless overclocked. However, G4 chips running over 533 MHz do not allow the system bus to run faster than 66 MHz, so the bus cannot be overclocked if using one of these G4s. (G3s do allow it.)
PCI cards: Gossamer has three full-length (12") PCI slots, making it capable of taking any PCI cards that have Macintosh drivers available for them (for example, some RealTek-based network adapters, a lot of USB, ATA/IDE [or SATA] and FireWire cards). Common PCI card upgrades include FireWire cards, USB cards and FireWire/USB combo cards (especially after the release of the first generation iMac, which caused many vendors to start releasing USB peripherals for the Macintosh), 100BASE-TX or 1000BASE-T (gigabit Ethernet) network adapter, video cards (e.g. ATI Radeon 7000 and 9200), ATA/EIDE, Serial ATA and Ultra SCSI cards. Television tuner and radio cards are also often chosen to supplement the AV features on a Wings personality card, or to provide A/V input for models with the Whisper personality card. The All-In-One can be modified to use a PCI video card with the internal monitor.
Personality cards: Some users have upgraded the Whisper personality card with a "Wings" Personality card (which is plugged into the same PERCH slot), and some have upgraded the ROM to a newer version (Revision A boards to Revision B or Revision C boards).
Hard drives: For storage, the G3 is capable of taking any ATAPI/IDE hard disks, provided that the drive's size is within the 28-bit LBA limit. This means ATA hard disks of up to 137 GB (228 blocks of 512 bytes each) are supported. This limitation can be overcome by using an IDE or SATA PCI-compatible card (e.g. Acard or Sonnet) to enable the use of 2 drives over the 137 GB limit.
Removable storage: The ATAPI/IDE CD-ROM drive can also be replaced with a CD-RW, DVD-ROM or DVD-RW drive, although care must be taken while purchasing the upgrade as the Mac is incompatible with some drives and may refuse to boot at all if an incompatible drive is installed. Also, many third-party optical drives cannot be used as boot devices with the G3, though they work correctly for normal use, and burning on many third party CD-RW and DVD-RW drives requires either commercial drivers or is unsupported even though reading and booting from the drive may still work. It is also capable of taking SCSI storage devices, and with the presence of the right PCI cards, SATA, USB and FireWire storage devices.
SCSI: The presence of an onboard SCSI controller (the SCSI controller is codenamed MESH — Macintosh Enhanced SCSI Hardware) and connectors permits the use of Mac-enabled SCSI scanners and storage devices, though this runs at only 5 MB/s.
Memory: Apple's spec sheets specify a maximum memory limit of , but independent testers have reported being able to use SDRAM chips, for a total of . Incompatibility has been reported with some DIMM modules in certain configurations- for example, newer single-sided PC‑133 RAM modules will not be detected correctly if they will be detected at all and if the machine can boot with them in place, and the desktop and all-in-one units required the use of low-profile RAM due to space constraints. It should be able to take 168-pin SDRAM of any speed, though it will run at PC66 speeds. The onboard video RAM can be upgraded from 2 MiB to 6 MiB with a 4 MiB SGRAM module (which runs at 83 MHz on Rev. A machines, and 100 MHz on Rev. B and C machines).
Blue and White
The faster models (not the 300 MHz model) use the new copper-based PowerPC G3 CPUs made by IBM, which use about 25% of the power of the Motorola versions clock for clock. The line ranged from 300 to 450 MHz. Despite its 100 MHz system bus and PC100 SDRAM, the 300 MHz B&W G3 performed worse than its 300 MHz Beige predecessor, because it has 512 KiB L2 cache, half of the 300 MHz Beige. The logic board has 4 PCI slots: 3 64-bit 33 MHz slots, and one 32-bit 66 MHz slot dedicated for the graphics card, an ATI Rage 128 with 16 MiB SGRAM. Four 100 MHz RAM slots accept PC100 SDRAM modules, allowing the installation of up to 1 GiB of RAM with the use of 256 MiB DIMMs. The onboard ATA was upgraded to Ultra ATA/33 (an extra UDMA-33 controller was also added), but SCSI was no longer present, having been replaced by 2 FireWire ports, a new standard (IEEE1394) running at 400 Mbit/s (50 MB/s) — faster in theory than even the ATA/33 (33 MB/s) hard drive controller. The serial ports were replaced with USB 1.1 ports (12 Mbit/s), and the floppy disk drive was removed altogether. The ADB port remained, as did the option for an internal modem. 100BASE-TX Ethernet became standard, and audio was moved back to the logic board. A Zip Drive remained an option, and some configurations included a DVD-ROM drive and a DVD-Video decoder daughtercard for the graphics card, allowing hardware-assisted DVD video playback.
The Blue and White G3 uses a modified version of the memory/PCI controller, the Motorola MPC106 (codenamed "Grackle"); it used the MPC106 v4. The I/O "Heathrow" had been replaced by "Paddington" (adding 100 Mbit Ethernet and power save features), the audio chip "Screamer" (on the beige G3's "Whisper" and "Wings" personality cards) had been replaced by "Burgundy" (from the "Bordeaux" personality card), and other controllers for Firewire (Texas Instruments PCI-Lynx), for USB etc. were added.
This is also the first Power Macintosh with the "New World" architecture which contained a small (approximately 1 MB) boot ROM. When booting the Mac OS, the Mac OS Toolbox and any other ROM patches installed are loaded into RAM (the former Beige G3 however was the first Mac with this ROM-in-RAM capability). Initially, many buyers chose to buy the older "Platinum" G3s instead, in order to maintain compatibility with existing peripherals.
Early "Revision 1" units have IDE controller problems related to the ATA/33 hard drive controller that made it impossible to connect two hard drives and prevented the use of newer drives. Using newer ATA drives in those units resulted in data transmission errors if the drives were connected to the on-board ATA/33 controller, the severity of the problem varying according to the particular make and model of the drive. Workarounds include replacing motherboards and employing the use of SCSI, Ultra ATA or SATA PCI controller cards. Stable operation can be achieved if the drive can be limited to Multi-Word DMA Mode 2 (disabling UDMA), although this limits throughput to 16 MB/s. Some hard drives support disabling UDMA in firmware through manufacturer-supplied utilities (generally DOS-based). Alternatively, the transfer mode can be limited to Multi-Word DMA Mode 2 through the use of third-party driver software such as FWB Hard Disk Toolkit.
The secondary ATA channel has also been reported to have issues with respect to flash upgrading certain DVD burners. Otherwise, it is generally held to be relatively stable.
Mac OS X attempts to avoid the UDMA issue by disabling UDMA on all affected G3 motherboards, but xlr8yourmac.com reported that reader Tim Seufert still found issues with single drives under Mac OS X. He reported that as of January 23, 2002, the fix would not be activated under Mac OS X when no slave drive was present.
The "Revision 2" units fixed the hard drive controller problem with an improved (UDMA-33) IDE controller that supported the standard IDE master/slave two-drive arrangement. This controller worked flawlessly with any drive within the 28-bit LBA constraint. Most Rev. 2 units shipped with a hard disk bracket designed for two drives (in fact Rev. 1 can hold up to three drives side-by-side, while Rev. 2 can hold up to four drives in two stacks, each with two drives) and also included a slightly updated version of the Rage 128 graphics card. The easiest way to tell if the unit is a Rev.2 is by looking at the CMD chip located on the logic board. The CMD chip on Rev. 1 logic boards is PCI646U2 and on Rev. 2 logic boards is 646U2-402.
Revision 2 350, 400, and 450 MHz units use the same motherboard as the first "Yikes" version of Power Mac G4 systems at 350 and 400 MHz ("Sawtooth" AGP-based G4s used a different board) and processor cards for these models are interchangeable. Note that if a G3's firmware has been upgraded (a required update for installing Mac OS 9), it won't accept G4 CPUs until patched with a third-party replacement firmware. A Blue and White G3 that has been upgraded to a G4 is able to run Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard.
Enclosure
The blue and white G3's enclosure design was widely praised at the time for being easy to open up and work on. The entire right side of the case is a door that hinges down by pulling a recessed latch at the top. No components need to be removed or unplugged, and the computer can remain running while opened. The logic board is positioned in the door, providing access to all components. Hard drives are mounted in a bracket affixed with one screw on the floor of the case. There is room for four internal hard drives and an internal fan is positioned at the side of the case to blow cooling air over them. Removable drives are in a more conventional position at the top of the case.
Technical specifications
References
External links
Apple's developer note, describing internals like chip set etc.
Upgrading the onboard video card is possible while still using integrated monitor of the Apple G3 All-In-One (AIO).
G3
PowerPC Macintosh computers
Macintosh all-in-ones
Macintosh desktops
Macintosh towers
Computer-related introductions in 1997 | [
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233781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlheinz%20Brandenburg | Karlheinz Brandenburg | Karlheinz Brandenburg (born 20 June 1954) is a German electrical engineer and mathematician. Together with Ernst Eberlein, Heinz Gerhäuser (former Institutes Director of Fraunhofer IIS), Bernhard Grill, Jürgen Herre and Harald Popp (all Fraunhofer IIS), he developed the widespread MP3 method for audio data compression. He is also known for his elementary work in the field of audio coding, the perception measurement, the wave field synthesis and psychoacoustics. Brandenburg has received numerous national and international research awards, prizes and honors for his work. Since 2000 he has been a professor of electronic media technology at the Technical University Ilmenau. Brandenburg was significantly involved in the founding of the Fraunhofer Institute for Digital Media Technology (IDMT) and currently serves as its director.
Biography
Brandenburg received a Dipl. Ing. degree from Erlangen University in Electrical Engineering (1980) as well as a Dipl. Math. degree in Mathematics (1982). In 1989, he obtained his Ph.D. from the Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg in Electrical Engineering for his work on digital audio coding and perceptual measurement techniques.
Brandenburg's Ph.D. advisor was Professor Dieter Seitzer, an expert in psychoacoustics. In the early 1980s, Seitzer had a pet project that he called a "digital jukebox." He envisioned a system where people could connect to a central server and hear music on demand over ISDN phone lines. But the bandwidth of ISDN is an order of magnitude too narrow for transmission of CD-quality digital audio. A standard compact disc uses linear pulse code modulation (PCM) with 16 bits per sample per channel, at 44,100 samples per second. This means that it takes about 1.4 million bits to encode a single second of stereo audio. To send music over ISDN at playback speed, Seitzer would need to compress the file down by a factor of almost 12-to-1.
Seitzer had applied for a patent on his pet project, but his application was rejected on the grounds that what he was trying to do was "impossible." Seitzer assigned Brandenburg the task of investigating the feasibility of 12-to-1 audio compression.
At first Brandenburg thought that the patent examiner was right, but as he studied the matter further he began to realize that the needed degree of compression might be possible.
The research results of his dissertation are the basis of MPEG-1 Layer 3 (mp3), MPEG-2 Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) and most other modern audio compression schemes. The international group MPEG, led by the Italian engineer Leonardo Chiariglione from CSELT (that promoted the standard and validated it), took mp3 as an international ISO standard.
From 1989 to 1990 he worked with AT&T Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, U.S. on ASPEC and MPEG-1 Layer 3. In 1990, he returned to the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, and, in 1993, he became head of the Audio/Multimedia department at the Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits in Erlangen. Since 2000, he has been full professor at the Institute for Media Technology at Technical University of Ilmenau. In addition, he is the director of the Fraunhofer Institute for Digital Media Technology IDMT in Ilmenau.
Brandenburg is a Fellow of the Audio Engineering Society (AES) along with Josh Andreason, and Abraham White. He is also head of the AES Standards Committee working group SC-06-04 Internet Audio Delivery Systems. He has been granted 27 US patents as a co-inventor; all patents have multiple inventors.
Awards
2015:
Technology Award of the Eduard Rhein Foundation (together with Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Grill and Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Herre)
2014:
IMTC Leadership Award for his contribution to audio coding and the standardization of the mp3 format (together with Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernd Edler)
Honorary Ph.D. degree of the Polytechnic University of Valencia for the development and dissemination of modern techniques for digital audio coding, perceptual measurement, and psychoacoustics
Election into the Internet Hall of Fame as an innovator because of his important role in developing the mp3 format and the impact on this development to advance the Internet´s reach by the Internet Society (ISOC)
AES Board of Governors Award in recognition of his co-chairing the 53rd AES International Conference
2011
"Distinguished Heyser memorial lecturer" at AES 130th Convention
AES Board of Governors Award in recognition of co-chairing the AES 42nd International Conference
2009
Honorary Ph.D. degree of the Leuphana University of Lüneburg for his important role in the development of the mp3 format and his research work in the field of audio coding
Election into the "German Research Hall of Fame" initiated by the German business journal "manager magazin" for his outstanding contributions to the development of Germany as a research location
Ambassador of the European Year of Creativity and Innovation 2009
2008
Honorary Ph.D. degree of the University Koblenz-Landau for his outstanding research work in the field of audio coding
2007
Election into the "CE Hall of Fame" of the Consumer Electronics Association CEA for the development and dissemination of the mp3 format (together with Prof. Dieter Seitzer and Prof. Heinz Gerhäuser)
2006
Election into the "Hall of Fame" of the 120 most important inventors and masterminds in the field of electrical engineering featuring the leading inventors, scientists and standardizers by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Cross of Merit on Ribbon of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
2004
IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award for major contributions to digital audio source coding
Thuringian Research Prize 2003, category "Applied Research" (together with Dr.-Ing. Sandra Brix and Prof. Dr.-Ing. Thomas Sporer)
Sputnik Innovator Award – Award for visionaries of digital transformation in the entertainment industry
2003
Publications Award of the Audio Engineering Society AES for the best paper of the year 2000/2001; "PEAQ – the ITU Standard for the Objective Measurement of Perceived Audio Quality", (together with John G. Beerends, Roland Bitto, Catherine Colomes, Bernhard Feiten, Michael Keyhl, Christian Schmidmer, Dr.-Ing. Thomas Sporer, Gerhard Stoll, Thilo Thiede, William C. Treurniet)
2002
ISO/IEC 13818-7: 1997-Award / Information Technology – Generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information – Part 7: Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) (together with Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Grill, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Herre, Ralph Sperschneider), ISO/IEC Certificate of Appreciation (Project Editor in the development of International Standard) for works on MPEG-2 AAC
2001
German Internet Award NEO for the decisive development, standardization and successful marketing of the data format MPEG Layer-3 (mp3)
2000
IEEE Engineering Excellence Award – The Region 10th Chapters of the IEEE Consumer Electronics Society
AES Board of Governors Award for co-chairmanship of the AES 17th International Conference
Deutscher Zukunftspreis, Preis des Bundespräsidenten für Technik und Innovation (together with Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Grill and Harald Popp)
1998
Silver Medal Award of the Audio Engineering Society (AES) for continued contributions and leadership to the art and science of perceptual audio coding
1996
Bavarian Innovation Award: Recognition by the Bavarian State Government
1994
AES Fellowship Award for significant work in perceptual audio coders and psychoacoustics
See also
German inventors and discoverers
How Music Got Free
References
External links
Fraunhofer Institute for Digital Media Technology (IDMT)
Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits (IIS)
Information of the IIS about the German Future Award 2000
Institute for Media Technology of the TU Ilmenau
IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award
German Future Award
Association for Computing Machinery Video Interviews with Karlheinz Brandenburg
1954 births
Living people
20th-century German inventors
German audio engineers
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg alumni
People from Erlangen
Technische Universität Ilmenau faculty | [
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233785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, (25 January 164018 August 1707) was an English soldier, nobleman, and Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1661 to 1684 when he inherited his father's peerage as Earl of Devonshire. He was part of the "Immortal Seven" group that invited William III, Prince of Orange to depose James II of England as monarch during the Glorious Revolution, and was rewarded with the elevation to Duke of Devonshire in 1694.
Life
Cavendish was the son of William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire, and his wife Lady Elizabeth Cecil. After completing his education he made the customary tour of Europe, and then in 1661, he was elected Member of Parliament for Derbyshire in the Cavalier Parliament. He was a Whig under Charles II of England and James II of England and was leader of the anti-court and anti-Catholic party in the House of Commons, where he served as Lord Cavendish. In 1678 he was one of the committee appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the Lord Treasurer Lord Danby.
He was re-elected MP for Derbyshire in the two elections of 1679 and in 1681. He was made a privy councillor by Charles II, but he soon withdrew with his friend Lord Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly prevailed. In January 1681 he carried up to the House of Lords the articles of impeachment against Lord Chief Justice William Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench, and later when the king declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of York (afterwards James II), he moved in the House of Commons that a bill might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his trial, and after the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
The famed political philosopher Thomas Hobbes spent the last four or five years of his living at Chatsworth House, owned by the Cavendish family, and died at another Cavendish estate, Hardwick Hall in December 1679. He had been a friend of the family since 1608 when he first tutored an earlier William Cavendish.
In 1684 he succeeded to the peerage as Earl of Devonshire on the death of his father and then sat in the House of Lords. He opposed the arbitrary acts of James II until his enemies found an excuse to neutralize him; after an imagined insult by a Colonel Colepepper, Cavendish struck his opponent and was immediately fined the enormous sum of £30,000. He was unable to pay and was briefly imprisoned until he signed a bond (which was eventually cancelled by King William). The earl went for a time to Chatsworth House, where he occupied himself with the erection of a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Antonio Verrio, James Thornhill, and Grinling Gibbons.
Cavendish was a strong supporter of the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 which brought William III of Orange to the throne, signing as one of the Immortal Seven the invitation to William. On the occasion of the coronation he was awarded the Order of the Garter.
After the revolution, Cavendish was a leading Whig, serving as William's Lord Steward, and was created the Duke of Devonshire (1694) and also Marquess of Hartington in recognition for his services. His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne.
Cavendish was given an honorary M.A. by the University of Cambridge in 1705. The year before he had ended the successful career of the singer and dancer Mary Campion. She is thought to have given her last performance on 14 March 1704 (and she may have been the daughter of one of his servants). Cavendish installed her as his mistress at Bolton Street in Westminster despite already having several mistresses already, a number of children by them and of course Lady Mary Butler, his wife. They had a child named Mary Anne Cavendish before Mary Campion died of a fever on 19 May 1706. Cavendish surprised many by having her buried in the family church in an extravagant tomb. He did not attend her funeral and he died, some say in repentance, the following year.
Family
Cavendish married Lady Mary Butler (1646–1710), daughter of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Preston, on 26 October 1662. They had four children:
Lady Elizabeth Cavendish (1670–1741), married Sir John Wentworth, 1st Baronet and had issue
William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire (4 June 1729)
Lord Henry Cavendish (167310 May 1700)
Lord James Cavendish (died 14 December 1751)
See also
List of deserters from James II to William of Orange
References
|-
1640 births
1707 deaths
Cavendish, William Cavendish, Lord
101
Cavendish, William
William Cavendish, 01st Duke of Devonshire
Knights of the Garter
Lord High Stewards
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Nottinghamshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Somerset
Members of the Privy Council of England
17th-century soldiers
English MPs 1661–1679
English MPs 1679
English MPs 1680–1681
English MPs 1681
People from Derbyshire Dales (district)
Glorious Revolution | [
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233786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%202nd%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire (1672 – 4 June 1729) was a British nobleman and politician. He was the eldest son of William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire and Lady Mary Butler. A prominent Whig, he was sworn of the Privy Council in 1707, and served as Lord President of the Council from 1716 to 1718 and 1725 to 1729.
He married The Hon. Rachel Russell (1674–1725), daughter of William Russell, Lord Russell on 21 June 1688. The Duchess served as a Lady of the Bedchamber at the court of Queen Anne.
They had ten children:
Lady Mary Cavendish (18 August 1696 - 15 June 1719)
William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire (26 September 1698 – 5 December 1755)
Lady Rachel Cavendish (4 October 1699 – 18 June 1780) married Sir William Morgan on 14 May 1723
Lady Elizabeth Cavendish (27 September 1700 – 7 November 1747) married Sir Thomas Lowther, 2nd Baronet
Lord James Cavendish (23 November 1701 – 14 December 1741)
Lord Charles Cavendish (17 March 1704 – 28 April 1783) married Anne Grey on 9 January 1727, father of Henry Cavendish
Lady Anne Cavendish (died 23 August 1780 aged 70)
Lady Katherine Cavendish (died 12 September 1715 aged 9)
Lord John Cavendish (died 11 May 1720 aged 12)
Lady Diana Cavendish (died 12 February 1722)
References
1672 births
1729 deaths
102
William Cavendish, 02nd Duke of Devonshire
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lord Presidents of the Council
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
English MPs 1695–1698
English MPs 1698–1700
English MPs 1701
English MPs 1701–1702
English MPs 1702–1705
English MPs 1705–1707
Members of the Kit-Kat Club
People from Derbyshire | [
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233788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Santisteban | Anna Santisteban | Anna Santisteban (November 3, 1914 – May 18, 2003) was a Puerto Rican businesswoman and beauty entrepreneur who presided the Miss Puerto Rico beauty pageant. This beauty contest was in charge of selecting the Puerto Rican delegate to compete for the title of Miss Universe, though other of its participants represented the Caribbean island in many other beauty competitions as well.
Career
Born in Guayama, Puerto Rico Santisteban thought to create a modeling agency. Santisteban's finishing school and modeling academy, Polianna, quickly became a landmark for all aspiring models in the island during the 1960s. She was famous for referring to her students as "my girls", her personal approach to training making her a mother figure for many runway and TV models at that time.
After the success of her first beauty enterprise, in 1962 Santisteban received an offer to produce the Miss Puerto Rico competition, a duty she took with serious intention. Her commitment paid off in 1970, when Marisol Malaret, a 20-year-old executive secretary, became the very first Puerto Rican to hold the coveted title of Miss Universe.
Malaret's triumph injected Santisteban with enthusiasm, especially when Idalia (Beba) Franco arrived as third runner-up in the 1971 international competition. One year later, in 1972, Puerto Rico became the first territory to host both the Miss USA and the Miss Universe pageants. These events meant the beginning of a new era for both Santisteban and her second husband, graphic designer Edward (Eddie) Ortiz. They founded and established the Miss Puerto Rico Organization, which produced the annual competition that promptly became one of the most commented television events in the island.
Under Santisteban's close supervision, many Miss Puerto Rico titleholders became TV personalities, international models and business leaders. Some of her detractors have said that Santisteban was a very strict trainer and a very ambitious woman. She neither confirmed nor denied this fact, always focused on her duties with superb elegance and great passion to win another international crown. Santisteban's eagerness had to wait until 1985, when Deborah Carthy-Deu won the second Miss Universe title for her country. After that second triumph, Puerto Rico scored remarkable positions in both the semifinal and final rounds of this competition.
In 1993, Dayanara Torres became Santisteban's third and last winner for the Miss Universe Pageant. Two years later, at the age of 81, Santisteban was the oldest national director for the organization but was inexplicably removed from her duties, a bold move that many people interpreted as age-discriminatory.
With first husband Luis Pedreira, Santisteban had three sons, Walter, Luis and Alberto, the youngest, who died in an accident. When Ortiz, her second husband and business partner, died in 2000, she suffered a fall and was removed from her Art-Deco home in the upmarket San Juan area known as Ocean Park, to a long-term care nursing home named Hogar Santa Teresa de Jornet.
Death
On May 18, 2003, Santisteban died at the Pavía Hospital in Santurce, Puerto Rico after battling a long illness.
References
1914 births
2003 deaths
20th-century Puerto Rican businesspeople
People from Guayama, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican women in business
20th-century American women | [
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233790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius%20Caesar%20Aranzi | Julius Caesar Aranzi | Julius Caesar Aranzi (Giulio Cesare Aranzio, Arantius) (1529/1530 – April 7, 1589) was a leading figure in the history of the science of human anatomy.
He was born in Bologna, the son of Ottaviano di Jacopo and Maria Maggi. Owing to the poverty of the family, he studied with his uncle Bartolomeo Maggi (1477–1552), a famous surgeon who was a lecturer at the University of Bologna as well as court physician to Julius III. He held this uncle in such high esteem that he assumed his surname, calling himself Giulio Cesare Aranzio Maggio.
He was admitted to the University of Padua, where he made his first discovery in 1548, at the age of nineteen, when he described the elevator muscle of the upper eyelid. Later, at the University of Bologna, he received a doctorate in medicine in 1556 and was appointed a lecturer in medicine and surgery shortly thereafter at the age of twenty-seven. In 1570, surgery and anatomy were separated into separate professorships at his instigation and he held the newly created chair in anatomy for thirty-three years until his death at Bologna in 1589.
From Aranzio came the first correct account of the anatomical peculiarities of the fetus, and he was the first to show that the muscles of the eye do not, as was previously imagined, arise from the dura mater but from the margin of the optic hole. He also, after considering the anatomical relations of the cavities of the heart, the valves and the great vessels, corroborated the views of Realdo Colombo regarding the course which the blood follows in passing from the right to the left side of the heart.
Aranzio was the first anatomist to describe distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of the cerebrum, who recognizes the objects by which they are distinguished, and who gives them the name by which they are still known (hippocampus) in 1564; and his account is more minute and perspicuous than that of the authors of the subsequent century. He speaks at length of the choroid plexus, and gives a detailed description of the fourth ventricle, under the name of cistern of the cerebellum, as a discovery of his own. He also was the first to discover that the blood of mother and fetus remain separate during pregnancy.
As a professor of anatomy and surgery at the University of Bologna from 1556, he established anatomy as a major branch of medicine for the first time. Aranzi combined anatomy with a description of pathological processes, based largely on his own research, Galen, and the work of his contemporary Italians. Aranzi discovered the 'Nodules of Aranzio' in the semilunar valves of the heart and wrote the first description of the superior levator palpebral and the coracobrachialis muscles. His books (in Latin) covered surgical techniques for many conditions, including hydrocephalus, nasal polyp, goitre and tumours to phimosis, ascites, haemorrhoids, anal abscess and fistulae.
Bibliography
De humano foetu opusculum, Rome, 1564; Venice, 1571; Basel, 1579. 32: De formato foetu. Bononiae, J. Rubrius, 1564.
De tumoribus secundum locus affectum. Bologna, 1571.
In Hippocrates librum de vulneribus capitis. Leiden, 1580.
Observationes anatomicae. Basel, 1579; Venice 1587.
These works were published together in Venice in 1587:
De tumoribus prater naturam secundum locos affectus liber.
De humano foetu liber.
Anatomicarum observationum liber.
Notes and references
External links
Who Named It?
1530 births
1589 deaths
16th-century Italian physicians
16th-century Latin-language writers
Italian anatomists
Italian neuroscientists
History of neuroscience
University of Bologna alumni
University of Padua alumni
Physicians from Bologna | [
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233791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, (26 September 1698 – 5 December 1755) was a British nobleman and Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1721 to 1729 when he inherited the Dukedom.
Life
Cavendish was the son of William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire, and his wife, the Hon. Rachel Russell, and was known as Marquis of Hartington.
Like his father, Lord Hartington was active in public life. He was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel at a by-election in 1721. At the 1722 general election he was returned unopposed as MP for Grampound. He was also unopposed when he was returned as MP for Huntingdonshire at the 1727 general election. He surrendered the seat in 1729 when his father's death sent him to the House of Lords. He was made a Privy Counsellor in 1731. He served as Lord Privy Seal from 1731 to 1733, when he was invested as a Knight of the Garter. He later served for seven years as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
He sold the Old Devonshire House at 48 Boswell Street, Theobald's Road, in Bloomsbury, and in 1734 engaged the architect William Kent to build a new Cavendish House in fashionable Piccadilly. In 1739, he was enlisted as a founding governor of a new children's charity, the Foundling Hospital in Bloomsbury, London, which aimed to alleviate the problem of infants being abandoned by destitute mothers and which later became a centre for art and music.
During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the Duke raised a militia unit in support of the King known as the Derbyshire Blues, which mustered at the George Inn, Derby, on 3 December 1745.
Marriage and issue
On 27 March 1718, he married Catherine Hoskins, or Hoskyn (1700–1777), daughter of John Hoskins of Oxted (1640–1717) and Catherine Hale (1673–1703).
The Duke and Duchess had seven children:
Lady Caroline Cavendish (22 May 1719 – 20 January 1760), who married William Ponsonby, 2nd Earl of Bessborough, and had issue.
William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire (1720 – 2 October 1764)
Lord George Augustus Cavendish (died 2 May 1794), died unmarried.
Lady Elizabeth Cavendish (born before 1727 – died 1796), married John Ponsonby and had issue.
Lady Rachel Cavendish (7 June 1727 – 8 May 1805), who married Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford.
Field Marshal Lord Frederick Cavendish (c. 1729 – 21 October 1803), died unmarried.
Lord John Cavendish (c. 1734–1796)
References
External links
thePeerage.com
1698 births
1755 deaths
People from Derbyshire
Hartington, William Cavendish, Marquess of
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
Whig (British political party) MPs
British MPs 1715–1722
British MPs 1722–1727
British MPs 1727–1734
103
William Cavendish, 03rd Duke of Devonshire
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
Lords Privy Seal
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms
Cavendish, William
Parents of prime ministers of the United Kingdom | [
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233793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20slide | Water slide | A water slide (also referred to as a flume, or water chute) is a type of slide designed for warm-weather or indoor recreational use at water parks. Water slides differ in their riding method and therefore size. Some slides require riders to sit directly on the slide, or on a raft or tube designed to be used with the slide.
A typical water slide uses a pump system to pump water to the top which is then allowed to freely flow down its surface. The water reduces friction so sliders travel down the slide very quickly. Water slides run into a swimming pool (often called a plunge pool) or a long run-out chute. A lifeguard is usually stationed at the top and the bottom of the slide, so that if a rider gets hurt they will be treated immediately.
Traditional water slides
Body slides
As the name suggests, body slides feature no mat or tube, and instead, riders sit or lie directly on the surface of the slide. The simplest resembles a wet playground slide.
There are a variety of types of body slides including flumes, speed slides, bowls and AquaLoops; the latter three are explained below.
Inline tube slides
Some slides are designed to be ridden with a tube which typically seats either 2 or 3 riders inline. Similar to a traditional body slide, these slides include many twists and turns and come in a variety of types including bowls, funnels and half-pipes.
Longest
The world's longest water slide was a temporary installation in Waimauku, New Zealand, in February 2013. Constructed with a length of , of which functioned properly. Its creators claimed the previous record holder had a length of ~. The slide is being moved to Action Park in Vernon, New Jersey.
The "Waterslide" at Buena Vista Lodge in Costa Rica is a long water slide where the rider sits directly on the slide, with an inner-tube around their upper body for safety.
The longest multi-person water-coaster (see below) is the long Mammoth at Holiday World in Santa Claus, Indiana.
"The Longest" is a permanent single-passenger tube waterslide located in Selangor, Malaysia, at the ESCAPE family theme park. Visitors access the attraction via a cable car system and ride down the slide for approximately 4 minutes whilst navigating through of scenic jungle.
21st century water slides
AquaLoop
The first known existence of a looping water slide was at Action Park in Vernon Township, New Jersey in the mid-1980s, named Cannonball Loop. This slide featured a vertical loop but was repeatedly closed due to safety concerns. In the late 2000s, Austrian manufacturer Aquarena developed the world's first safe looping water slide, known as the AquaLoop. The company engineered a slide with an inclined loop rather than a standard vertical one. The slide is currently licensed and distributed by Canadian water slide manufacturer WhiteWater West. There are nearly 20 AquaLoop installations around the world. The first installation was in Slovenia in 2008. The largest collections are located at Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast and Raging Waters Sydney in Australia, which both house 4 AquaLoops that opened in 2010 and 2013, respectively. Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast was also the first to install more than one AquaLoop at a single location. The AquaLoop uses a trap-door to release riders down a near-vertical descent at a speed of up to . Riders experience 2.5 Gs in less than 2 seconds. The whole ride is over within 7 seconds.
Bowl
A bowl is a type of water slide where riders descend a steep drop into a round bowl. Under the effects of centrifugal force, the riders circle the outer area of the bowl before exiting down through the middle, often into a pool underneath but sometimes into an additional slide section. This style of water slide comes in various styles and is manufactured by ProSlide, WhiteWater West and Waterfun Products. The different variations can be ridden on a 4-person cloverleaf tube, 2 person inline tube, single person tube or as a body slide.
Family rafting
Family rafting water slides have the largest capacity of all the different types of tubing water slides averaging between 4 and 6 riders per dispatch. Riders hop in a circular raft and travel down long, twisted channels to the ground. This type of water slide is manufactured by Australian Waterslides and Leisure, ProSlide, Waterfun Products and WhiteWater West. All of these companies manufacture open-air slides while ProSlide also manufactures an enclosed version.
Funnel
A funnel water slide requires riders to sit in a 2 or 4 seater round tube. Riders drop from inside a tunnel out into the ride's main element shaped like a funnel on its side. Riders oscillate from one side to the other until they exit through the back of the funnel and into a splash pool. The most common type of funnel is the ProSlide Tornado which is installed at almost 60 locations around the world dating back to 2003. In 2010, WhiteWater West began developing a competing product known as the Abyss, utilizing a raft that holds up to six riders.
Half-pipe
Similar to a funnel, a half-pipe features a slide in which riders oscillate back and forth. However, this style of ride does not feature any enclosed sections. On a Waterfun Product Sidewinder or Sidewinder Mini, riders oscillate several times before coming to a rest at the base of the slide. Riders then need to walk off the slide returning their tube to the next riders. On a WhiteWater West Boomerango or Family Boomerango, riders are sent down a steep drop and up a steep hill on the other side, before sliding backwards down another path to the end of the slide.
Multi-lane racer
A multi-lane racer is a ride where between 4 and 8 riders dive head-first onto a mat and down a slide with several dips. As an additional component of this ride, both some offer an additional enclosed helix at the top of the ride. ProSlide offer ProRacers, Octopus Racers, Kraken Racers and Rally Racers, while WhiteWater West have designed the Mat Racers and Whizzards. In 2016, WhiteWater West introduced the Mat Blaster, which combines the Whizzard model with elements of their MasterBlaster water coaster. Australian Waterslides and Leisure have also manufactured a standard multi-lane racer.
Speed slide
A speed slide is a type of body slide where riders are sent down steep, free-fall plunges to the ground. Almost all water slide manufacturers offer a variation of this type of slide. ProSlide & WhiteWater West both offer a speed slide with a trap door, the same trap door found on the AquaLoop.
Water coaster
A water coaster is a water slide that mimics a roller coaster by providing not only descents, but also ascents. There are three different ways water coasters operate: water jets, conveyor belts, and linear induction motors. High powered water jets power the first type of water coaster, generically known as Master Blasters. Originally manufactured by New Braunfels General Store (NBGS), the rights were sold in December 2006 to WhiteWater West of Canada. The first installations of this type of ride were Dragon Blaster and Family Blaster installed in 1994 at Schlitterbahn in New Braunfels, Texas. The following month a third Master Blaster opened at Adventure Bay in Houston, Texas. This type of ride features over 70 installations worldwide. The largest collection of Master Blasters is at Wild Wadi Water Park in Dubai where 9 of the park's 16 water slides utilize this technology to power riders to the top of a mountain. The first conveyor belt was installed at Kalahari Resort in Sandusky, Ohio. Known as the Zip Coaster, the ride powers riders up hills using high speed conveyor belts. The third incarnation of the water coaster utilizes linear induction motors and specially designed rafts. The first installation to use this technology was Deluge which opened in 2006 at what was then Splash Kingdom at Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom. The longest water coaster utilizing this magnetic system is Mammoth at Splashin' Safari in Santa Claus, Indiana. This technology has been adapted to other ProSlide products and is collectively known as the ProSlide HydroMAGNETIC. In 2010, ProSlide announced that they would be combining the family rafting and water coaster technologies to create a Hydromagnetic Mammoth. The first installation of this variation is aptly titled Mammoth which premiered in 2012 at Splashin' Safari in Indiana. It replaced the park's own Wildebeest as the longest water coaster in the world.
Drop slide
A drop slide is a type of body slide where at the end of the slide, riders fall through a hole into a pool underneath.
River stream slide
A river slide, also commonly referred to as "crazy river", resembles a brook (small stream), and may feature buffer pools throughout the way down. Its mass sliding ability, meaning multiple people can safely slide simultaneously, clears its queue area at a faster rate.
Inflatable water slides
Inflatable water slides are designed for the home user. They are typically made of a thick strong PVC or vinyl and nylon, and are inflated using an electric or gasoline powered blower. The water slide is attached to a water hose in order to generate the supply of water. There are small-sized inflatable water slides for private house uses or larger inflatable water slides for school, picnic, corporate, or carnival style use.
There are also swimming pool water slides which users can set up to slide straight into a pool. Most parks avoid this due to safety concerns and will have swimming sections in a separate pool.
See also
Log flume (ride)
Slide the City
References
External links
Slide
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233795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%204th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, (8 May 1720 – 2 October 1764), styled Lord Cavendish before 1729, and Marquess of Hartington between 1729 and 1755, was a British Whig statesman and nobleman who was briefly nominal Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was the first son of William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire and his wife, Lady Catherine (née Hoskins).
Early life
The eldest of four sons of William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, he was baptised on 1 June 1720 at St Martin's-in-the-Fields in London. He was possibly educated privately at home before going on a grand tour in France and Italy, accompanied by his tutor, in 1739-40.
Early career: 1741–1756
He was elected MP for Derbyshire in 1741 and 1747. Devonshire was a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole and, after Walpole's fall from power, of the Pelhams. Henry Pelham wrote to Devonshire's father that he was "our mainstay among the young ones, of themselves liable to wander".
Horace Walpole described him as "a favourite by descent of the Old Whigs" and as "errant [a] bigot to the Pelham faction as ever Jacques Clément was to the Jesuits".
He had been offered the post of governor to the Prince of Wales but he declined.
Pelham appointed him Master of the Horse, a post he held until 1755 and which necessitated his leaving the House of Commons for the House of Lords by writ of acceleration as Baron Cavendish and joining the Privy Council. Devonshire supported the Duke of Newcastle after Henry Pelham's death in 1754 and was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 2 April 1755 until 3 January 1757 in Newcastle's administration. In April 1755 Devonshire was one of the Lords Justices of the realm upon the King's absence in Hanover.
Devonshire succeeded his father as Duke of Devonshire in December 1755 after his death.
The Seven Years' War was going badly for Britain under the leadership of the Duke of Newcastle and when he resigned in October 1756, George II eventually asked Devonshire to form an administration. Devonshire accepted on the condition that his tenure would last only until the end of the parliamentary session. Devonshire believed his duty to the King required an administration capable of prosecuting the war successfully.
Prime Minister: 1756–1757
Devonshire was given the Garter and appointed First Lord of the Treasury (most historians consider him Prime Minister during this service) in November 1756, and he served as First Lord until May 1757 in an administration effectively run by William Pitt. Devonshire's administration secured increased money for the war, troops were sent to America and a Militia Act was passed.
The administration was eventually brought down for a variety of reasons including the opposition of George II and the alleged mishandling of the trial and execution of Admiral John Byng. It was replaced by the Pitt–Newcastle ministry headed by the Duke of Newcastle and including Pitt, Henry Fox and the Duke of Bedford. This government steered Britain through most of the Seven Years' War leading the country to ultimate victory.
Lord Chamberlain: 1757–1762
Devonshire was Lord Chamberlain in Newcastle's government (with a seat in the inner Cabinet) and his relations with him were close. George II died in October 1760 and was succeeded by his grandson George III, who was suspicious of Devonshire and Newcastle. When Newcastle resigned in May 1762 Devonshire said that he would rarely attend Lord Bute's Councils. When in October George III requested that he attend a Cabinet meeting on peace terms, Devonshire declined, claiming he had inadequate knowledge of the subject. On 28 October, travelling from Kew to London, the King overtook Devonshire and Newcastle's coach in the belief that the two dukes were plotting and that Devonshire was coming to tender his resignation. He was in fact passing through London to Chatsworth and had come to give his leave to the King. When Devonshire arrived, George III refused to see him, as he later wrote: "I ordered the page to tell him I would not see him, on which he bid him ask me with whom he should leave his wand...I said he would receive my orders...On the Duke of Devonshire's going away he said to the page, God bless you, it will be very long before you see me here again At a meeting of the Privy Council four days later the King personally struck out Devonshire's name from the list of Privy Councillors. In the opinion of one of his biographers, John Brooke, "Few things in King George III's long life show him in so poor a light".
Last years: 1762–1764
Devonshire resigned his Lord Lieutenancy of Derbyshire in solidarity with Newcastle and Rockingham when they were dismissed from their Lord Lieutenancies.
For a long time he had a weak constitution and he gradually grew more ill during these years. He ultimately died in the Austrian Netherlands where he had gone to take the waters at Spa. His death was a large political loss to his allies, the Whig magnates such as the Duke of Newcastle. Dying at the age of 44 years and 147 days, he remains the shortest lived British Prime Minister. Devonshire was buried at Derby Cathedral.
Family
He married Lady Charlotte Elizabeth Boyle, 6th Baroness Clifford (1731–1754), the daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington of the first creation, a famous architect and art collector. The wedding was held at Carlton House, the then residence of the Dowager Lady Burlington, situated between St James' Park and Pall Mall, by special licence on the 28 March, 1748. Through Charlotte, the Devonshires inherited Chiswick House and Burlington House in London; Bolton Abbey and Londesborough Hall in Yorkshire; and Lismore Castle in County Waterford, Ireland. The Duke employed Capability Brown to landscape the garden and park at Chatsworth House, his main residence. He hired James Paine to design the new stable block.
The Duke had four children:
William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire (1748–1811)
Lady Dorothy Cavendish (27 August 1750 – 3 June 1794). Married William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, who also became Prime Minister.
Lord Richard Cavendish (1752–1781)
George Augustus Henry Cavendish, created 1st Earl of Burlington of the second creation (1754–1834). Lord Burlington's grandson, the 2nd Earl of Burlington, would later inherit the Devonshire dukedom as 7th Duke of Devonshire.
Legacy
Horace Walpole described Devonshire as possessing "an impatience to do everything, and a fear to do anything, he was always in a hurry to do nothing". Paul Langford said Devonshire was "eminently sensible and highly respected", and that his death "left a marked gap in the ranks" of the opposition and "effectively destroyed a generation in the 'Old Whig' leadership". Gerald Howat summed up Devonshire's life:
Devonshire had been a moderate among men of great political passion. If scarcely a spectator in the play of events, he had never bestrode the stage. His death, coming just after those of Hardwicke and Legge, deprived the Whigs of three material men. Given health, he might have returned to office in the Crown's restless pursuit of ministers up to 1770. He had been a man with a concern for king and country. He died the acknowledged leader of the Whigs.
Karl Wolfgang Schweizer says of Devonshire:
Devonshire was a man of solid if not outstanding abilities. He was endowed with the qualities—devotion to friends and duty, patriotism, and unswerving integrity—which made him the ideal sounding board and factotum among the prominent politicians of his day. Unlike Pitt or Fox he lacked a brilliant mind, and his diary provides evidence of devotion to king, country, and duty rather than quickness of intellect. A political broker rather than a leader, he exploited his personal popularity and family prestige to mediate between the factious and egotistical individuals who dominated Dublin and Westminster politics in the 1750s and early 1760s.
Notes
References
John Brooke, King George III (Panther, 1974).
Peter D. Brown and Karl W. Schweizer (eds.), The Devonshire Diary. William Cavendish, Fourth Duke of Devonshire. Memoranda on State Affairs. 1759-1762 (London: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1982).
G. M. D. Howat, 'The Duke of Devonshire (1756–1757)’, in Herbert van Thal (ed.), The Prime Ministers. Volume the First. Sir Robert Walpole to Sir Robert Peel (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1974), pp. 93–102.
Paul Langford, The First Rockingham Administration. 1765-1766 (Oxford University Press, 1973).
Horace Walpole, Memoirs of King George II. I: January 1751 – March 1754 (Yale University Press, 1985).
Karl Wolfgang Schweizer, ‘Cavendish, William, fourth duke of Devonshire (bap. 1720, d. 1764)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, January 2008, accessed 1 August 2010.
External links
More about William Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire on the Downing Street website.
1720 births
1764 deaths
People from Derbyshire
William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire
104
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Hartington, William Cavendish, Marquess of
British MPs 1741–1747
British MPs 1747–1754
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
18th-century heads of government
Lord High Treasurers of Ireland
18th-century Irish landowners
Cavendish, William
Leaders of the House of Lords | [
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233797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%205th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, (14 December 1748 – 29 July 1811), was a British nobleman, aristocrat, and politician. He was the eldest son of William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, by his wife, the heiress Lady Charlotte Boyle, suo jure Baroness Clifford, who brought in considerable money and estates to the Cavendish family. He was invited to join the Cabinet on three occasions, but declined each offer. He was Lord High Treasurer of Ireland and Governor of Cork, and Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. The 5th Duke is best known for his first wife Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire. At the age of about twenty, Devonshire toured Italy with William Fitzherbert which is where they commissioned the pair of portraits by Pompeo Batoni.
Family and inheritance
He was married twice: first, to Lady Georgiana Spencer (1757–1806) daughter of John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer; second, to Lady Elizabeth Foster, née Hervey (1759–1824), daughter of the 4th Earl of Bristol; Lady Elizabeth had been his mistress and his first wife's friend and confidante for more than twenty years.
First marriage
By his first wife, he had one son (William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, sometimes called "The Bachelor Duke", who succeeded him and who died unmarried in 1858), and two daughters: Lady Georgiana "Little G" Cavendish, later the Countess of Carlisle (wife of George Howard, 6th Earl of Carlisle), and Lady Harriet "Harryo" Cavendish, later the Countess Granville (wife of Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, who would be created 1st Earl Granville). Both daughters left descendants and the title of Clifford barony fell into abeyance between them. The dukedom and estates would pass to a grandson of a younger brother of the 5th Duke of Devonshire; however, the 7th Duke of Devonshire would marry a daughter of the 6th Earl of Carlisle, who was thus a granddaughter of the 5th Duke and niece of the 6th Duke.
Georgiana Cavendish became a socialite who would gather around her a large circle of literary and political friends. Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds painted her; the Gainsborough painting would be disposed of by the 5th Duke and would be recovered much later, after many vicissitudes.
Second marriage
By his second wife, Lady Elizabeth Foster, he had no legitimate issue, but the couple had two illegitimate children born before their marriage. A son, Augustus, was given the surname Clifford and became Sir Augustus Clifford and rose to be an admiral in the Royal Navy and the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod in the House of Lords; his descendants would die out in the male line in 1895. The Duke's daughter by Lady Elizabeth, Caroline, was given a different surname from her brother, St. Jules. Caroline St. Jules would marry the Hon. George Lamb, a brother of the 2nd Viscount Melbourne (himself married to Lady Caroline Ponsonby, niece of Lady Georgiana Spencer, the 5th Duke's 1st wife). Caroline and George Lamb had no issue.
Mistress
The 5th Duke had a daughter—Charlotte, given the surname Williams—by his mistress, Charlotte Spencer, the daughter of an indigent clergyman. His first child was born shortly after his marriage to Lady Georgiana Spencer (no relation to his mistress). Charlotte would later marry suitably.
Buxton
The fifth Duke would be closely involved with the nearby spa town of Buxton. He would use the profits from his copper mines to transform the town into a replica of Bath, including the Crescent Hotel and an octagonal set of stables, which would later become the Devonshire Dome.
Ancestors
Cavendish in popular culture
In the film The Duchess, about Georgiana, the fifth Duke is played by Ralph Fiennes.
References
External links
|-
1748 births
1811 deaths
William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire
105
07
Children of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lord High Treasurers of Ireland | [
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233798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%206th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire | William George Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, (21 May 1790 – 18 January 1858), styled Marquess of Hartington until 1811, was a British peer, courtier, nobleman, and Whig politician. Known as the "Bachelor Duke", he was Lord Chamberlain of the Household between 1827 and 1828 and again between 1830 and 1834. The Cavendish banana is named after him.
Background
Born in Paris, France, Devonshire was the son of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, and Lady Georgiana, daughter of John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He lost both his parents while still in his youth; his mother died in 1806 and his father in 1811 when, aged 21, he succeeded to the dukedom. Along with the title, he inherited eight stately homes and some 200,000 acres (809 km² or 80,900 ha) of land.
Political career
Politically Devonshire followed in the Whig family tradition. He supported Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery and reduced factory working hours. He held office as Lord Chamberlain of the Household under George Canning and Lord Goderich between 1827 and 1828 and under Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne between 1830 and 1834. In 1827 he was sworn of the Privy Council and made a Knight of the Garter. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to the Russian Empire on the coronation of Tsar Nicholas I in 1826.
Devonshire was also Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire between 1811 and 1858 and carried the Orb at the coronation of George IV in 1821. However, increasing deafness from an early age prevented him from taking an even greater part in public life.
Other interests
Devonshire had a major interest in gardening and horticulture, and devoted himself sedulously to the care and nurture of his vast estates. His major projects including the wholesale rebuilding of the village of Edensor, and significant improvement to his several stately houses and their gardens. He befriended Sir Joseph Paxton, then employed at the Royal Horticultural Society's Chiswick Gardens, located close to Devonshire's London estate Chiswick House, and appointed him his head gardener at Chatsworth House in 1826, despite Paxton being only in his early twenties at the time. Paxton greatly expanded the gardens at Chatsworth, including the construction of a 277 foot long conservatory, which served as a model for The Crystal Palace constructed in London's Hyde Park.
Devonshire, himself a keen horticulturalist, was elected President of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1838, a position in which he served for twenty years until his death. It was this interest which led him to establish the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew as a national botanic garden. The world's most commercially exploited banana, the Cavendish, was named in his honour. He had acquired an early specimen, which he raised in his glasshouse, and this plant is the progenitor of almost all the worldwide varieties of Cavendish banana.
Devonshire was also patron of The Derby Town and County Museum and Natural History Society. In that position, he was instrumental in the creation of the Derby Museum and Art Gallery in 1836.
He also travelled extensively.
In 1845, Cavendish published a book called Handbook to Chatsworth and Hardwick. It was privately printed and provided a history of the Cavendish family's two primary estates: Chatsworth House and Hardwick Hall; the handbook was praised by author Charles Dickens.
Personal life
Devonshire was a close friend of the Prince Regent. Other friends included Antonio Canova and Charles Dickens.
Much of Devonshire's private correspondence, including letters to his mistresses (one of whom he installed nearby), was destroyed by his Victorian relatives. He intended to marry Lady Caroline Ponsonby, his cousin, but she married William Lamb, which he found devastating.
Devonshire died at Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, in January 1858, aged 67, and left an estate valued at £500,000 in his will. As he was unmarried the dukedom passed to his cousin William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Burlington. His junior title of Baron Clifford fell into abeyance between his sisters, Georgiana, Countess of Carlisle, and Harriet, Countess Granville.
References
Further reading
James Lees-Milne: The Bachelor Duke: Life of William Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, 1790-1858 (1991). John Murray.
External links
1790 births
1858 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire
106
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Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People associated with Derby Museum and Art Gallery | [
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233799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%207th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire | William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire, (27 April 1808 – 21 December 1891), styled as Lord Cavendish of Keighley between 1831 and 1834 and known as the Earl of Burlington between 1834 and 1858, was a British landowner, benefactor, nobleman, and politician.
Early life
Cavendish was the son of William Cavendish (1783–1812) and the Honourable Louisa O'Callaghan (d. 1863). His father was the eldest son of Lord George Cavendish (later created, in 1831, The 1st Earl of Burlington, by the second creation), third son of the 4th Duke of Devonshire and Lady Charlotte Boyle, daughter of the 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork. His mother was the daughter of the 1st Baron Lismore.
He was educated at Eton and the University of Cambridge (Trinity College), attaining the position of Second Wrangler and the Smith's Prize for mathematics. He became known by the courtesy title Lord Cavendish of Keighley in 1831 when the earldom of Burlington was revived in favour of his grandfather.
Career
Cavendish was returned to parliament as the MP for Cambridge University in 1829, a seat he held until July 1831, when he was returned for Malton. He only sat for Malton until September of the same year and was out of the House of Commons until 1832, when he was returned for North Derbyshire. He succeeded his grandfather in the earldom of Burlington in 1834 and entered the House of Lords. In 1858, he also succeeded his cousin as Duke of Devonshire. He was Lord-Lieutenant of Lancashire from 1857 to 1891 and Lord-Lieutenant of Derbyshire from 1858 to 1891.
Devonshire was Chancellor of the University of London from 1836 to 1856, Chancellor of the University of Cambridge from 1861 to 1891, and Chancellor of the Victoria University from 1880 to 1891. At Cambridge he endowed the Cavendish Professorship of Physics, and the building of the Cavendish Laboratory. He made vast (and ultimately unsuccessful) investments in heavy industry at Barrow-in-Furness, and had his nearby country house Holker Hall rebuilt in its present form after it was gutted by a fire in 1871. He was one of the original founders of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1839, and was president in 1870. On 26 July 1871, he was nominated a trustee of the British Museum.
The 7th Duke inherited a considerable amount of property in Eastbourne from his grandfather, and from his wife Elizabeth Compton of Compton Place. He saw through the development of Eastbourne in the 19th century with its parks, baths and squares and is commemorated by a statue at the top of Devonshire Place. The Duke also played a part in the foundation of Eastbourne College, the local independent school, by selling some of his land at a modest price to build the school on and commissioning respected architect Henry Currey to design the school chapel and College House (now the School House, a boarding facility).
Personal life
In 1829, Devonshire married Blanche Georgiana Howard (1812–1840), daughter of George Howard, 6th Earl of Carlisle, and the former Lady Georgiana Cavendish, sister of the 6th Duke of Devonshire, known as the "Bachelor Duke". Blanche was the Bachelor Duke's favourite niece, and his fondness for the young couple who were his heirs may have contributed to his decision not to marry himself. He commemorated Blanche with an inscription in the Painted Hall at Chatsworth, which states that he completed his reconstruction of the house in the year of his bereavement, 1840, and by Blanche's Urn at the top of the Long Walk in the garden. Together, Blanche and William were the parents of five children:
William Cavendish, Lord Cavendish of Keighley (1831–1834), who died 6 days after the death of his great-grandfather
Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (1833–1908), who married Countess Louisa von Alten on 16 August 1892.
Lady Louisa Caroline Cavendish (1835–1907), who married Adm. The Hon. Francis Egerton on 26 September 1865.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Frederick Charles Cavendish (1836–1882), who married The Hon. Lucy Lyttelton on 7 June 1864. Lord Frederick, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, was murdered in Phoenix Park, Dublin in 1882.
Lord Edward Cavendish (1838–1891), a Member of Parliament who married The Honorable Emma Lascelles on 3 August 1865 and had three sons.
After a long illness, Devonshire died at his residence, Holker Hall near the village of Cartmel in Cumbria, England, on 21 December 1891.
Descendants
Through his daughter Lady Louisa, he was a grandfather of William Francis Egerton (1868–1949), who married Lady Alice Osborne, a daughter of George Osborne, 9th Duke of Leeds, on 7 August 1894 (they were the parents of one son, Captain Francis Egerton); Commander Frederick Greville Egerton (1869–1899); Blanche Harriet Egerton (1871–1943); Dorothy Charlotte Egerton (1874–1959); and Christian Mary Egerton (d. 1978).
References
External links
1808 births
1891 deaths
People from Derbyshire
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire
107
02
Chancellors of the University of London
Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Lancashire
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Cavendish of Keighley, William Cavendish, Lord
Cavendish, William
Cavendish, William
Cavendish, William
Cavendish of Keighley, William Cavendish, Lord
Cavendish of Keighley, William Cavendish, Lord
Devonshire, D7
History of Barrow-in-Furness
Second Wranglers
British people of English descent
Cavendish, William
British landowners
People from Cartmel
19th-century British businesspeople
Chetham Society | [
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233801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9chet%20space | Fréchet space | In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, Fréchet spaces, named after Maurice Fréchet, are special topological vector spaces.
They are generalizations of Banach spaces (normed vector spaces that are complete with respect to the metric induced by the norm).
All Banach and Hilbert spaces are Fréchet spaces.
Spaces of infinitely differentiable functions are typical examples of Fréchet spaces, many of which are typically Banach spaces.
A Fréchet space is defined to be a locally convex metrizable topological vector space (TVS) that is complete as a TVS, meaning that every Cauchy sequence in converges to some point in (see footnote for more details).
Important note: Not all authors require that a Fréchet space be locally convex (discussed below).
The topology of every Fréchet space is induced by some translation-invariant complete metric.
Conversely, if the topology of a locally convex space is induced by a translation-invariant complete metric then is a Fréchet space.
Fréchet was the first to use the term "Banach space" and Banach in turn then coined the term "Fréchet space" to mean a complete metrizable topological vector space, without the local convexity requirement (such a space is today often called an "F-space").
The condition of locally convex was added later by Nicolas Bourbaki.
It's important to note that a sizable number of authors (e.g. Schaefer) use "F-space" to mean a (locally convex) Fréchet space while others do not require that a "Fréchet space" be locally convex.
Moreover, some authors even use "F-space" and "Fréchet space" interchangeably.
When reading mathematical literature, it is recommended that a reader always check whether the book's or article's definition of "-space" and "Fréchet space" requires local convexity.
Definitions
Fréchet spaces can be defined in two equivalent ways: the first employs a translation-invariant metric, the second a countable family of seminorms.
Invariant metric definition
A topological vector space is a Fréchet space if and only if it satisfies the following three properties:
It is locally convex.
Its topology be induced by a translation-invariant metric, that is, a metric such that for all This means that a subset of is open if and only if for every there exists an such that } is a subset of
Some (or equivalently, every) translation-invariant metric on inducing the topology of is complete.
Assuming that the other two conditions are satisfied, this condition is equivalent to being a complete topological vector space, meaning that is a complete uniform space when it is endowed with its canonical uniformity (this canonical uniformity is independent of any metric on and is defined entirely in terms of vector subtraction and 's neighborhoods of the origin; moreover, the uniformity induced by any (topology-defining) translation invariant metric on is identical to this canonical uniformity).
Note there is no natural notion of distance between two points of a Fréchet space: many different translation-invariant metrics may induce the same topology.
Countable family of seminorms definition
The alternative and somewhat more practical definition is the following: a topological vector space is a Fréchet space if and only if it satisfies the following three properties:
It is a Hausdorff space,
Its topology may be induced by a countable family of seminorms This means that a subset is open if and only if for every there exists and such that is a subset of
it is complete with respect to the family of seminorms.
A family of seminorms on yields a Hausdorff topology if and only if
A sequence in converges to in the Fréchet space defined by a family of seminorms if and only if it converges to with respect to each of the given seminorms.
As webbed Baire spaces
Comparison to Banach spaces
In contrast to Banach spaces, the complete translation-invariant metric need not arise from a norm.
The topology of a Fréchet space does, however, arise from both a total paranorm and an -norm (the stands for Fréchet).
Even though the topological structure of Fréchet spaces is more complicated than that of Banach spaces due to the potential lack of a norm, many important results in functional analysis, like the open mapping theorem, the closed graph theorem, and the Banach–Steinhaus theorem, still hold.
Constructing Fréchet spaces
Recall that a seminorm is a function from a vector space to the real numbers satisfying three properties.
For all and all scalars
If (homogeneity) then is in fact a norm.
However, seminorms are useful in that they enable us to construct Fréchet spaces, as follows:
To construct a Fréchet space, one typically starts with a vector space and defines a countable family of seminorms on with the following two properties:
if and for all then ;
if is a sequence in which is Cauchy with respect to each seminorm then there exists such that converges to with respect to each seminorm
Then the topology induced by these seminorms (as explained above) turns into a Fréchet space; the first property ensures that it is Hausdorff, and the second property ensures that it is complete.
A translation-invariant complete metric inducing the same topology on can then be defined by
The function maps monotonically to and so the above definition ensures that is "small" if and only if there exists "large" such that is "small" for
Examples
From pure functional analysis
Every Banach space is a Fréchet space, as the norm induces a translation-invariant metric and the space is complete with respect to this metric.
The space of all real valued sequences becomes a Fréchet space if we define the -th seminorm of a sequence to be the absolute value of the -th element of the sequence. Convergence in this Fréchet space is equivalent to element-wise convergence.
From smooth manifolds
The vector space of all infinitely differentiable functions becomes a Fréchet space with the seminorms
for every non-negative integer Here, denotes the -th derivative of and In this Fréchet space, a sequence of functions converges towards the element if and only if for every non-negative integer the sequence converges uniformly.
The vector space of all infinitely differentiable functions becomes a Fréchet space with the seminorms
for all integers Then, a sequence of functions converges if and only if for every the sequences converge compactly.
The vector space of all -times continuously differentiable functions becomes a Fréchet space with the seminorms
for all integers and
If is a compact -manifold and is a Banach space, then the set of all infinitely-often differentiable functions can be turned into a Fréchet space by using as seminorms the suprema of the norms of all partial derivatives. If is a (not necessarily compact) -manifold which admits a countable sequence of compact subsets, so that every compact subset of is contained in at least one then the spaces and are also Fréchet space in a natural manner.
As a special case, every smooth finite-dimensional can be made into such a nested union of compact subsets: equip it with a Riemannian metric which induces a metric choose and let
Let be a compact -manifold and a vector bundle over Let denote the space of smooth sections of over Choose Riemannian metrics and connections, which are guaranteed to exist, on the bundles and If is a section, denote its jth covariant derivative by Then
(where is the norm induced by the Riemannian metric) is a family of seminorms making into a Fréchet space.
From holomorphicity
Let be the space of entire (everywhere holomorphic) functions on the complex plane. Then the family of seminorms
makes into a Fréchet space.
Let be the space of entire (everywhere holomorphic) functions of exponential type Then the family of seminorms
makes into a Fréchet space.
Not all vector spaces with complete translation-invariant metrics are Fréchet spaces. An example is the space with
Although this space fails to be locally convex, it is an F-space.
Properties and further notions
If a Fréchet space admits a continuous norm then all of the seminorms used to define it can be replaced with norms by adding this continuous norm to each of them.
A Banach space, with compact, and all admit norms, while and do not.
A closed subspace of a Fréchet space is a Fréchet space.
A quotient of a Fréchet space by a closed subspace is a Fréchet space.
The direct sum of a finite number of Fréchet spaces is a Fréchet space.
A product of countably many Fréchet spaces is always once again a Fréchet space. However, an arbitrary product of Fréchet spaces will be a Fréchet space if and only if all for at most countably many of them are trivial (that is, have dimension 0). Consequently, a product of uncountably many non-trivial Fréchet spaces can not be a Fréchet space (indeed, such a product is not even metrizable because its origin can not have a countable neighborhood basis). So for example, if is any set and is any non-trivial Fréchet space (such as for instance), then the product is a Fréchet space if and only if is a countable set.
Several important tools of functional analysis which are based on the Baire category theorem remain true in Fréchet spaces; examples are the closed graph theorem and the open mapping theorem.
The open mapping theorem implies that if are topologies on that make both and into complete metrizable TVSs (such as Fréchet spaces) and if one topology is finer or coarser than the other then they must be equal (that is, if ).
Every bounded linear operator from a Fréchet space into another topological vector space (TVS) is continuous.
There exists a Fréchet space having a bounded subset and also a dense vector subspace such that is contained in the closure (in ) of any bounded subset of
All Fréchet spaces are stereotype spaces. In the theory of stereotype spaces Fréchet spaces are dual objects to Brauner spaces.
All metrizable Montel spaces are separable. A separable Fréchet space is a Montel space if and only if each weak-* convergent sequence in its continuous dual converges is strongly convergent.
The strong dual space of a Fréchet space (and more generally, of any metrizable locally convex space) is a DF-space.
The strong dual of a DF-space is a Fréchet space.
The strong dual of a reflexive Fréchet space is a bornological space and a Ptak space. Every Fréchet space is a Ptak space.
The strong bidual (that is, the strong dual space of the strong dual space) of a metrizable locally convex space is a Fréchet space.
Norms and normability
If is a locally convex space then the topology of can be a defined by a family of continuous on (a norm is a positive-definite seminorm) if and only if there exists continuous on
Even if a Fréchet space has a topology that is defined by a (countable) family of (all norms are also seminorms), then it may nevertheless still fail to be normable space (meaning that its topology can not be defined by any single norm).
The space of all sequences (with the product topology) is a Fréchet space. There does not exist any Hausdorff locally convex topology on that is strictly coarser than this product topology.
The space is not normable, which means that its topology can not be defined by any norm. Also, there does not exist continuous norm on In fact, as the following theorem shows, whenever is a Fréchet space on which there does not exist any continuous norm, then this is due entirely to the presence of as a subspace.
If is a non-normable Fréchet space on which there exists a continuous norm, then contains a closed vector subspace that has no topological complement.
A metrizable locally convex space is normable if and only if its strong dual space is a Fréchet–Urysohn locally convex space. In particular, if a locally convex metrizable space (such as a Fréchet space) is normable (which can only happen if is infinite dimensional) then its strong dual space is not a Fréchet–Urysohn space and consequently, this complete Hausdorff locally convex space is also neither metrizable nor normable.
The strong dual space of a Fréchet space (and more generally, of bornological spaces such as metrizable TVSs) is always a complete TVS and so like any complete TVS, it is normable if and only if its topology can be induced by a complete norm (that is, if and only if it can be made into a Banach space that has the same topology).
If is a Fréchet space then is normable if (and only if) there exists a complete norm on its continuous dual space such that the norm induced topology on is finer than the weak-* topology.
Consequently, if a Fréchet space is normable (which can only happen if it is infinite dimensional) then neither is its strong dual space.
Anderson–Kadec theorem
Note that the homeomorphism described in the Anderson–Kadec theorem is necessarily linear.
Differentiation of functions
If and are Fréchet spaces, then the space consisting of all continuous linear maps from to is a Fréchet space in any natural manner. This is a major difference between the theory of Banach spaces and that of Fréchet spaces and necessitates a different definition for continuous differentiability of functions defined on Fréchet spaces, the Gateaux derivative:
Suppose is an open subset of a Fréchet space is a function valued in a Fréchet space and The map is differentiable at in the direction if the limit
exists.
The map is said to be continuously differentiable in if the map
is continuous. Since the product of Fréchet spaces is again a Fréchet space, we can then try to differentiate and define the higher derivatives of in this fashion.
The derivative operator defined by is itself infinitely differentiable. The first derivative is given by
for any two elements
This is a major advantage of the Fréchet space over the Banach space for finite
If is a continuously differentiable function, then the differential equation
need not have any solutions, and even if does, the solutions need not be unique. This is in stark contrast to the situation in Banach spaces.
In general, the inverse function theorem is not true in Fréchet spaces, although a partial substitute is the Nash–Moser theorem.
Fréchet manifolds and Lie groups
One may define Fréchet manifolds as spaces that "locally look like" Fréchet spaces (just like ordinary manifolds are defined as spaces that locally look like Euclidean space ), and one can then extend the concept of Lie group to these manifolds.
This is useful because for a given (ordinary) compact manifold the set of all diffeomorphisms forms a generalized Lie group in this sense, and this Lie group captures the symmetries of
Some of the relations between Lie algebras and Lie groups remain valid in this setting.
Another important example of a Fréchet Lie group is the loop group of a compact Lie group the smooth () mappings multiplied pointwise by
Generalizations
If we drop the requirement for the space to be locally convex, we obtain F-spaces: vector spaces with complete translation-invariant metrics.
LF-spaces are countable inductive limits of Fréchet spaces.
See also
Notes
Citations
References
Topological vector spaces
F-spaces | [
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233802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wantage | Wantage | Wantage () is a historic market town and civil parish in the ceremonial county of Oxfordshire, England. Historically, part of Berkshire, it has been administered as part of the Vale of White Horse district of Oxfordshire since 1974. The town is on Letcombe Brook, about south-west of Abingdon, north-west of Reading, south-west of Oxford and north north-west of Newbury.
It was the birthplace of King Alfred the Great in 849.
History
Wantage was a small Roman settlement but the origin of the toponym is somewhat uncertain. It is generally thought to be from an Old English phrase meaning "decreasing river". King Alfred the Great was born at the royal palace there in the 9th century, in what was originally known as Wanating. Wantage appears in the Domesday Book of 1086. Its value was £61 and it was in the king's ownership until Richard I passed it to the Earl of Albemarle in 1190. Weekly trading rights were first granted to the town by Henry III in 1246. Markets are now held twice weekly on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Royalist troops were stationed in Wantage during the English Civil War.
In the 19th century, Lord Wantage became a notable local and national benefactor. He was very involved in founding the British Red Cross Society. In 1877 he paid for a marble statue of King Alfred by Count Gleichen to be erected in Wantage market place, where it still stands today. He also donated the Victoria Cross Gallery to the town. This contained paintings by Louis William Desanges depicting deeds which led to the award of a number of VCs, including his own gained during the Crimean War. It is now a shopping arcade. Wantage is home to the Community of Saint Mary the Virgin, founded by the vicar of Wantage William John Butler in 1848; it was once one of the largest communities of Anglican nuns in the world. Wantage once had two breweries which were taken over by Morlands of Abingdon. In 1988 the town was thrust into the headlines after a Brass Tacks programme entitled "Shire Wars" exposed the drunken violence that plagued the town and surrounding villages at that time.
Governance
Wantage has a town council consisting of 16 councillors, 15 of whom (as of 2022) are Liberal Democrats with the remaining beingLabour councillor. It is also part of the district of the Vale of White Horse.
Until 1974, Wantage had two local government councils: Wantage Rural District, which had its headquarters in Belmont, Wantage and Wantage Urban District, which had its headquarters in Portway. These bodies were both abolished as part of the Local Government Act 1972 and became part of the Vale of White Horse District Council.
The Wantage constituency is currently represented by Conservative MP David Johnston who was first elected in the 2019 general election after former MP Ed Vaizey announced that he would not stand for re-election. The nearby towns of Didcot, Faringdon and Wallingford are also part of the Wantage constituency. At the time of the 2019 general election, the Wantage constituency had a total electorate of 90,876.
Geography
Wantage is at the foot of the Berkshire Downs escarpment in the Vale of the White Horse. There are gallops at Black Bushes and nearby villages with racing stables at East Hendred, Letcombe Bassett, Lockinge and Uffington. Wantage includes the suburbs of Belmont to the west and Charlton to the east. Grove to the north is still just about detached and is a separate parish. Wantage parish stretches from the northern edge of its housing up onto the Downs in the south, covering Chain Hill, Edge Hill, Wantage Down, Furzewick Down and Lattin Down. The Edgehill Springs rise between Manor Road and Spike Lodge Farms and the Letcombe Brook flows through the town. Wantage is home to the Vale and Downland Museum. There is a large market square containing a statue of King Alfred, surrounded by shops some with 18th-century facades. Quieter streets radiate from it, including one towards the large Church of England parish church. Wantage is the "Alfredston" of Thomas Hardy's Jude the Obscure.
Transport
Wantage is at the crossing of the B4507 valley road, the A417 road between Reading and Cirencester and the A338 road between Hungerford (and junction 14 of the M4 motorway) and Oxford.
Bus services link Wantage with Oxford and other nearby towns and villages including Abingdon, Didcot, Faringdon and Grove. Thames Travel provide the main buses every 12–18 minutes between Wantage and Oxford/Didcot via Grove, Harwell Campus, East Hanney, Marcham and Abingdon, and the Faringdon to Wantage service which runs every hour. Most of which are operated under the Connector brand.
Stagecoach West provide a service between Wantage and Oxford via Grove, East Hanney, Cumnor and Botley up to every 20 minutes Monday to Saturday and up to every 30 minutes on Sundays and bank holidays, it is operated under Stagecoach's luxury Stagecoach Gold brand.
Wantage does not have a railway station; Didcot Parkway, 8 miles to the east, is the nearest station, with services towards Reading, Oxford, London, Bristol and Cardiff. The Great Western Mainline is just north of Grove (2 miles North of Wantage) where the former Wantage Road railway station used to be. It was closed during the Beeching cuts in 1964. The Wantage Tramway used to link Wantage with Wantage Road station. The tramway's Wantage terminus was in Mill Street and its building survives, but little trace remains of the route. One of the tramway's locomotives, Shannon, alias Jane, is preserved at Didcot Railway Centre. Oxfordshire County Council have ambitions to re-open the former Wantage Road railway station and has stated that the station is a priority in their Connecting Oxfordshire plans. It is hoped that the station could be served by a direct service between Oxford and Bristol. The Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) published their Connecting Communities: Expanding Access to the Rail Network report and outlined Wantage and Grove as one of the top seven places where a new station would be feasible and provide economical benefits to the area.
The nearest public airport to Wantage is London Heathrow, approximately east of the town.
A section of the Wilts & Berks Canal passes through the parish.
Education
There is one state secondary school in Wantage, King Alfred's Academy, and approximately ten primary schools. The secondary school converted into an academy in 2011 and was rated Outstanding by Ofsted in that year.
Between 1873 and 2006, an Anglican private girls' school, St Mary's School, was located in Wantage. The school closed in 2006 when St. Mary's merged with Heathfield School, Ascot. A former independent preparatory school, St Andrew's, established in 1926, closed permanently in 2010.
Fitzwaryn School, a school catering for pupils with special needs, is situated in Wantage. The school caters for children aged 3–19 and was rated Outstanding by Ofsted in 2014. It is named after the ancient lords of the manor of Wantage, the FitzWarin family, powerful Marcher Lords seated at Whittington Castle in Shropshire.
In October 2013, the Vale Academy Trust was created when King Alfred's Academy, Charlton Primary School and Wantage CE Primary School came together to form a partnership. The trust was founded by local heads, governors and other stakeholders in the hope of creating quality partnerships among the schools to ensure higher quality education for the area. Since the trust was formed in 2013, three other primary schools in the area have joined. The Vale Academy Trust announced plans in September 2016 to build a brand new free school in Grove for children from the ages of two to sixteen. The school is planned to have a capacity of up to 1,000 students and hoped to open in 2019 in preparation for large scale housing developments that are planned for Wantage and Grove but has not yet been built (March 2021).
Architecture
Wantage has been the site of a church since at least the 10th century and the present Church of England parish church of Saints Peter and Paul dates from the 13th century, with many additions since. Saints' Peter and Paul contains seventeen 15th-century misericords.
King Alfred's Grammar School was designed by the architect J. B. Clacy of Reading and built in 1849–50 but incorporates a highly carved Norman doorway from a demolished chantry chapel that formerly stood in the churchyard.
Developments
In recent years four or more significant housing developments have been constructed. At least one development (including the new health centre) has been on a greenfield site adjacent to the A338 road towards Oxford. The other three, however, have been on brownfield sites, converting a scrapyard next to the Letcombe Brook.
In 2006, a commercial development began construction with a Sainsbury's supermarket as a focus. This supermarket is double the size of the previous one and was intended to have a significant impact on the town by drawing more visitors from outlying villages. The impact was projected as being positive, aimed at preventing the town becoming a commuter town and retaining some commercial activity. An action group, Wantage Rejuvenated, is being sponsored by the town's chamber of commerce to try to bring business back into the area and inject new life into the town.
There was activism in the town regarding development in 2011, with a campaign to stop the demolition of a building close to the town centre by Vanderbuilt Homes, who initially gained permission to convert an early Georgian bank of shops into a mixed commercial and residential block. Vanderbilt applied to have the buildings completely demolished, prompting a local petition and campaign for the application to be refused at the discretion of the Town Council, as although the building is old, it is not listed.
Another area of development which has provoked local protest has been on the north of the town, where a 1,500-home estate is proposed, increasing housing in the town by 35%. Residents have raised petitions and the local MP, Ed Vaizey, has raised concerns, especially about the ability of local road infrastructure to cope. The town is served by the A338 and A417, which are single-carriageway roads. The proposed Wantage development is one mile from a similar mass of 2,500 homes proposed for the village of Grove and which will use the same road network.
In 2014 Wantage was nominated for the Government's Great British High Street Award whereby Wantage won the award for Britain's Best Town Centre beating several other towns nominated for the award.
Sport and leisure
Wantage has a non-League football club: Wantage Town F.C., who play at Alfredian Park in the Southern Football League. Grove is also the home to Formula One constructor Williams Grand Prix Engineering.
Wantage & Grove Cricket Club's first recorded match was in 1863. The club has three teams and play in Charlton, Wantage.
On 12 September 2014, cyclists competing in the 2014 Tour of Britain passed through Wantage during Stage 6 of the event. The participants entered Wantage via the B4494 road and left via the A417 towards Harwell and then on towards the end of the stage at Hemel Hempstead.
White Horse Harriers AC is an athletics club based in Wantage and Grove. They organise the annual White Horse Half Marathon, which starts and finishes in Grove.
Corallian Cycling Club was founded in 2016 and organises regular sociable cycle rides from Wantage Market Place.
Notable people
King Alfred the Great was born in Wantage in 849.
Leigh Bedwell, former goalkeeper for Swindon Town (currently playing for Didcot Town), was born in Wantage in 1994.
John Betjeman, Poet Laureate from 1972 to 1984, lived in Wantage and his book Archie and the Strict Baptists is based in the town. Wantage has a memorial park named after him, which includes extracts from his poems in a peaceful wooded area.
Roy Burton, former Oxford United and Witney Town goalkeeper, was born in Wantage in 1951.
Joseph Butler (1692–1752), Bishop of Bristol, Bishop of Durham, and author of The Analogy of Religion, was born and educated in Wantage.
William John Butler, Vicar of Wantage, Dean of Lincoln.
Edward Cawston, former English cricketer, born in Wantage in 1911.
Alice FitzWarin, wife of Dick Whittington, three-time Lord Mayor of the City of London, grew up in Wantage. Her father's brass memorial is in the church.
Hugh Johns, former ITV football commentator, was born in Wantage in September 1922.
Isaac Kimber, born in Wantage, on 1 December 1692, English General Baptist minister, biographer, historian and journalist.
Archie Kirkman Loyd, former MP, lived in Wantage during the 19th century.
Robert Loyd-Lindsay, 1st Baron Wantage
Mother Maribel of Wantage, Anglican nun, artist and sculptor
Frances O'Connor, Anglo-Australian actor, was born in Wantage in 1967 where she lived for two years before moving to Perth, Australia.
Caroline Voaden, British Liberal Democrat former MEP.
Lester Piggott, jockey, was born in Wantage in 1935.
Thomas William Shore, former geologist and antiquarian, was born in Wantage in 1840.
Twinning
Wantage is twinned with:
Mably in France since 1990
Seesen in Germany since 1979
Nearby places
See also
Icknield Way Morris Men, a traditional dance troupe in Wantage.
References
Sources
External links
Wantage Town Council
wantage.com Welcome to Wantage
Love Wantage: Places to Eat, Drink, Shop, Stay, & Things to See & Do
Market towns in Oxfordshire
Vale of White Horse
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233804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer%20Cavendish%2C%208th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire | Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 183324 March 1908), styled Lord Cavendish of Keighley between 1834 and 1858 and Marquess of Hartington between 1858 and 1891, was a British statesman. He has the distinction of having held leading positions in three political parties: leading the Liberal Party, the Liberal Unionist Party and the Conservative Party in either the House of Commons or the House of Lords. After 1886 he increasingly voted with the Conservatives. He declined to become prime minister on three occasions, because the circumstances were never right. Historian Roy Jenkins said he was "too easy-going and too little of a party man." He held some passions, but he rarely displayed them regarding the most controversial issues of the day.
Background and education
Devonshire was the eldest son of William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Burlington, who succeeded his cousin as Duke of Devonshire in 1858, and Lady Blanche Cavendish (née Howard). Lord Frederick Cavendish and Lord Edward Cavendish were his younger brothers. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated as MA in 1854, having taken a Second in the Mathematical Tripos. He later was made honorary LLD in 1862, and as DCL at Oxford University in 1878.
In later life he continued his interests in education as Chancellor of his old university from 1892, and of Manchester University from 1907 until his death. He was Lord Rector of Edinburgh University from 1877 to 1880.
Liberal, 1857–86
After joining the special mission to Russia for Alexander II's accession, Lord Cavendish of Keighley (as he was styled at the time) entered Parliament in the 1857 general election, when he was returned for North Lancashire as a Liberal (his title "Lord Hartington", by which he became known in 1858, was a courtesy title; as he was not a peer in his own right he was eligible to sit in the Commons until he succeeded his father as Duke of Devonshire in 1891). Between 1863 and 1874, Lord Hartington held various Government posts, including Civil Lord of the Admiralty and Under-Secretary of State for War under Palmerston and Earl Russell. In the 1868 general election he lost his seat; having refused the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, he was made Postmaster-General, without a seat in the Cabinet. The next year he re-entered the Commons, having been returned for Radnor. In 1870 Hartington reluctantly accepted the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland in Gladstone's first government.
In 1875 – the year following Liberal defeat at a general election — he succeeded William Ewart Gladstone as Leader of the Liberal opposition in the House of Commons, after the other serious contender, W. E. Forster, had indicated that he was not interested in the post. The following year, however, Gladstone returned to active political life in the campaign against Turkey's Bulgarian Atrocities. The relative political fortunes of Gladstone and Hartington fluctuated – Gladstone was not popular at the time of Benjamin Disraeli's triumph at the Congress of Berlin, but the Midlothian Campaigns of 1879–80 marked him out as the Liberals' foremost public campaigner.
In 1880, after Disraeli's government lost the general election, Hartington was invited by the Queen to form a government, but declined – as did the Earl Granville, Liberal Leader in the House of Lords – after Gladstone made it clear that he would not serve under anybody else. Hartington chose instead to serve in Gladstone's second government as Secretary of State for India (1880–1882) and Secretary of State for War (1882–1885).
In 1884 he was instrumental in persuading Gladstone to send a mission to Khartoum for the relief of General Gordon, which arrived two days too late to save him. A considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon". His lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less responsible than he.
Liberal Unionist, 1886–1908
Hartington became increasingly uneasy with Gladstone's Irish policies, especially after the murder of his younger brother Lord Frederick Cavendish in Phoenix Park. After being elected in December 1885 for the newly created Rossendale Division of Lancashire, he broke with Gladstone altogether. He declined to serve in Gladstone's third government, formed after Gladstone came out in favour of Irish Home Rule (unlike Joseph Chamberlain, who accepted the Local Government Board but then resigned), and after opposing the First Home Rule Bill became the leader of the Liberal Unionists. After the general election of 1886 Hartington declined to become Prime Minister, preferring instead to hold the balance of power in the House of Commons and give support from the back benches to the second Conservative government of Lord Salisbury. Early in 1887, after the resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill, Salisbury offered to step down and serve in a government under Hartington, who now declined the premiership for the third time. Instead the Liberal Unionist George Goschen accepted the Exchequer in Churchill's place.
Having succeeded as Duke of Devonshire in 1891 he entered the House of Lords where, in 1893, he formally moved for the rejection of the Second Home Rule Bill. Devonshire eventually joined Salisbury's third government in 1895 as Lord President of the Council. Devonshire was not asked to become Prime Minister when Lord Salisbury retired in favour of his nephew Arthur Balfour in 1902. He resigned from the government in 1903, and from the Liberal Unionist Association the following spring, in protest at Joseph Chamberlain's Tariff Reform scheme. Devonshire said of Chamberlain's proposals:
I venture to express the opinion that [Chamberlain] will find among the projects and plans which he will be called upon to discuss none containing a more Socialistic principle than that which is embodied in his own scheme, which, whether it can properly be described as a scheme of protection or not, is certainly a scheme under which the State is to undertake to regulate the course of commerce and of industry, and tell us where we are to buy, where we are to sell, what commodities we are to manufacture at home, and what we may continue, if we think right, to import from other countries.
Balfour, trying to juggle different factions, had allowed both Chamberlain and Free Trade supporters to resign from the government, hoping that Devonshire would remain for the sake of balance, but the latter eventually resigned under pressure from Charles Thomson Ritchie and from his wife, who still hoped that he might lead a government including leading Liberals. But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on 24 March 1908.
Military service
He served part-time as captain in the Duke of Lancaster's Own Yeomanry from 1855 to 1873, and was honorary colonel of the 3rd (Militia) Battalion of the Derbyshire Regiment from 1871 and of the 2nd Sussex Artillery Volunteers from 1887.
Personal life
Hartington took great pains to parade his interest in horseracing, so as to cultivate an image of not being entirely obsessed by politics. For many years, the courtesan Catherine Walters ("Skittles") was his mistress. He was married at Christ Church, Mayfair, on 16 August 1892, at the age of 59, to Louisa Frederica Augusta von Alten, widow of the late William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester.
Upon his death, he was succeeded by his nephew Victor Cavendish. He died of pneumonia at the Hotel Metropol in Cannes and was interred on 28 March 1908 at St Peter's Churchyard, Edensor, Derbyshire. A statue of the Duke can be found at the junction of Whitehall and Horse Guards Avenue in London, and also on the Western Lawns at Eastbourne.
Legacy
Upon receiving news of the Duke's death, the House of Lords took the unprecedented step of adjourning in his honour. Margot Asquith said the Duke of Devonshire "was a man whose like we shall never see again; he stood by himself and could have come from no country in the world but England. He had the figure and appearance of an artisan, with the brevity of a peasant, the courtesy of a king and the noisy sense of humour of a Falstaff. He gave a great, wheezy guffaw at all the right things and was possessed of endless wisdom. He was perfectly disengaged from himself, fearlessly truthful and without pettiness of any kind".
Historian Jonathan Parry claimed that "He inherited the whig belief in the duty of political leadership, afforced by the intellectual notions characteristic of well-educated, propertied early to mid-Victorian Liberals: a confidence that the application of free trade, rational public administration, scientific enquiry, and a patriotic defence policy would promote Britain's international greatness—in which he strongly believed—and her economic and social progress...he became a model of the dutiful aristocrat". It has been said that he was "the best excuse that the last half-century has produced for the continuance of the peerages".
With 24 years of government service, Devonshire's is the fourth longest ministerial career in modern British politics.
References
Further reading
Ferris, Wesley. "The Liberal Unionist Party, 1886–1912" (PhD. Dissertation, McMaster University. 2008). Bibliography pp 397–418. online
Holland, Bernard Henry. The life of Spencer Compton: eighth duke of Devonshire. (2 vol 1911). online vol 1 and online vol 2
Rempel, Richard A. Unionists Divided: Arthur Balfour, Joseph Chamberlain and the Unionist Free Traders (Archon Books, 1972).
External links
Marquess of Hartington (Duke of Devonshire) 1833–1908 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group
1833 births
1908 deaths
British people of English descent
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for Education
Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
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Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society | [
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233807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical%20stability | Numerical stability | In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, numerical stability is a generally desirable property of numerical algorithms. The precise definition of stability depends on the context. One is numerical linear algebra and the other is algorithms for solving ordinary and partial differential equations by discrete approximation.
In numerical linear algebra the principal concern is instabilities caused by proximity to singularities of various kinds, such as very small or nearly colliding eigenvalues. On the other hand, in numerical algorithms for differential equations the concern is the growth of round-off errors and/or small fluctuations in initial data which might cause a large deviation of final answer from the exact solution .
Some numerical algorithms may damp out the small fluctuations (errors) in the input data; others might magnify such errors. Calculations that can be proven not to magnify approximation errors are called numerically stable. One of the common tasks of numerical analysis is to try to select algorithms which are robust – that is to say, do not produce a wildly different result for very small change in the input data.
An opposite phenomenon is instability. Typically, an algorithm involves an approximative method, and in some cases one could prove that the algorithm would approach the right solution in some limit (when using actual real numbers, not floating point numbers). Even in this case, there is no guarantee that it would converge to the correct solution, because the floating-point round-off or truncation errors can be magnified, instead of damped, causing the deviation from the exact solution to grow exponentially.
Stability in numerical linear algebra
There are different ways to formalize the concept of stability. The following definitions of forward, backward, and mixed stability are often used in numerical linear algebra.
Consider the problem to be solved by the numerical algorithm as a function mapping the data to the solution . The result of the algorithm, say *, will usually deviate from the "true" solution . The main causes of error are round-off error and truncation error. The forward error of the algorithm is the difference between the result and the solution; in this case, . The backward error is the smallest Δ such that ; in other words, the backward error tells us what problem the algorithm actually solved. The forward and backward error are related by the condition number: the forward error is at most as big in magnitude as the condition number multiplied by the magnitude of the backward error.
In many cases, it is more natural to consider the relative error
instead of the absolute error Δ.
The algorithm is said to be backward stable if the backward error is small for all inputs . Of course, "small" is a relative term and its definition will depend on the context. Often, we want the error to be of the same order as, or perhaps only a few orders of magnitude bigger than, the unit round-off.
The usual definition of numerical stability uses a more general concept, called mixed stability, which combines the forward error and the backward error. An algorithm is stable in this sense if it solves a nearby problem approximately, i.e., if there exists a Δ such that both Δ is small and is small. Hence, a backward stable algorithm is always stable.
An algorithm is forward stable if its forward error divided by the condition number of the problem is small. This means that an algorithm is forward stable if it has a forward error of magnitude similar to some backward stable algorithm.
Stability in numerical differential equations
The above definitions are particularly relevant in situations where truncation errors are not important. In other contexts, for instance when solving differential equations, a different definition of numerical stability is used.
In numerical ordinary differential equations, various concepts of numerical stability exist, for instance A-stability. They are related to some concept of stability in the dynamical systems sense, often Lyapunov stability. It is important to use a stable method when solving a stiff equation.
Yet another definition is used in numerical partial differential equations. An algorithm for solving a linear evolutionary partial differential equation is stable if the total variation of the numerical solution at a fixed time remains bounded as the step size goes to zero. The Lax equivalence theorem states that an algorithm converges if it is consistent and stable (in this sense). Stability is sometimes achieved by including numerical diffusion. Numerical diffusion is a mathematical term which ensures that roundoff and other errors in the calculation get spread out and do not add up to cause the calculation to "blow up". Von Neumann stability analysis is a commonly used procedure for the stability analysis of finite difference schemes as applied to linear partial differential equations. These results do not hold for nonlinear PDEs, where a general, consistent definition of stability is complicated by many properties absent in linear equations.
See also
Algorithms for calculating variance
Stability theory
Chaos theory
Propagation of uncertainty
References
Numerical analysis | [
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233808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Cavendish%2C%209th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire | Victor Christian William Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire (31 May 18686 May 1938), known as Victor Cavendish until 1908, was a British peer and politician who served as Governor General of Canada.
A member of the Cavendish family, he was educated at Eton College and the University of Cambridge. After the death of his father in 1891, he entered politics, winning his father's constituency unopposed. He held that seat until he inherited his uncle's dukedom in 1908. Thereafter, he took his place in the House of Lords, while, for a period at the same time, acting as mayor of Eastbourne and Chesterfield. He held various government posts both prior to and after his rise to the peerage. In 1916 he was appointed governor general of Canada by King George V, on the recommendation of Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, to replace Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, as viceroy. He occupied that post until succeeded by Lord Byng of Vimy in 1921. The appointment was initially controversial but, by the time of his return to England, the Duke had earned praise for the way in which he carried out his official duties.
Following his tenure as governor general, he returned to political and diplomatic life, serving as Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1922 and 1924, before retiring to his estate in Derbyshire, where he died on 6 May 1938.
Early life, education, military career, and family
Cavendish was born in the Marylebone area of London, England, the eldest son of Lord Edward Cavendish, himself the third son of the 7th Duke of Devonshire, and Emma Lascelles, both the daughter of William Lascelles and Lord Edward's cousin. Cavendish's younger brother was Lord Richard Cavendish and his uncles were Spencer Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington (later the eighth Duke of Devonshire) and Lord Frederick Cavendish.
Cavendish was educated at Eton College before being admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, on 30 May 1887, where he served as secretary of the Pitt Club. During his years at Cambridge, Cavendish was initiated into Isaac Newton University Lodge and served part-time with the Derbyshire Yeomanry, into which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1890. He was promoted major in September 1901 and retired from the Yeomanry in 1911.
On 30 July 1892, Cavendish married Lady Evelyn FitzMaurice, the elder daughter of the Marquess of Lansdowne, Viceroy of India and quondam Governor General of Canada. The couple thereafter had seven children: Edward, Marquess of Hartington (born 1895), Lady Maud Louisa Emma (born 1896), Lady Blanche Katharine (born 1898), Lady Dorothy (born 1900), Lady Rachel (born 1902), Lord Charles Arthur Francis (born 1905), and Lady Anne (born 1909). Through his children's eventual marriages, Cavendish became the father-in-law of Henry Philip Hunloke, James Stuart, Harold Macmillan, and Adele Astaire.
Political career
In May 1891, shortly before Cavendish graduated from Cambridge, his father, who sat as the Member of Parliament for West Derbyshire, died and Cavendish entered the race for that parliamentary seat and won it, thus becoming the youngest member of the British House of Commons at the time.
For seventeen years Cavendish held parliamentary positions. Between 1900 and 1903, he served as Treasurer of the Household, from 1903 to 1905 as Financial Secretary to the Treasury, and on 11 December 1905 he was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1907, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Derbyshire and, from 1908, acted as Honorary Colonel of the 5th (Territorial Army) Battalion of the Sherwood Foresters.
When he succeeded to his uncle's dukedom on 24 March 1908, Devonshire, as he was thereafter known, was disqualified from holding his seat in the Commons, as he now held a place in the House of Lords. The same year, Devonshire was appointed as Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire and the year following was made Chancellor of the University of Leeds. He was then elected to two mayoral offices: first to that of Eastbourne, between 1909 and 1910, and then Chesterfield, from 1911 to 1912. In the House of Lords, Devonshire served as Conservative Chief Whip from 1911 and, after the Conservatives joined the government during the First World War, as joint Government Chief Whip in the upper chamber, holding office as Civil Lord of the Admiralty. Following the war, he became Honorary Colonel and Commandant of the Derbyshire Volunteer Regiment of the Volunteer Training Corps in 1918.
Governor General of Canada
It was announced on 8 August 1916 that King George V had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet, approved the recommendation of his British prime minister, H. H. Asquith, to appoint Devonshire as his representative in Canada. The appointment caused political problems, as Canadian prime minister Robert Borden had not been consulted on the matter, contrary to practice well established by that time. Borden thus felt insulted, which led to considerable difficulties at the beginning of Devonshire's tenure, officially beginning after he was sworn in on 11 November 1916 during a ceremony held in Halifax.
In that era, there was social unrest in the country. Not only was the women's suffrage movement gaining momentum in Canada and calls were coming out of the prairies for socialist changes to the governmental system, but war continued to rage around the world. Canada was providing troops and supplies, and shortly after his installation, acting on the advice of Borden, Devonshire introduced conscription, a decision that was particularly divisive between French and English Canadians and sparked the Conscription Crisis of 1917. In the same year, the Governor General also travelled to Nova Scotia to survey the damage caused by the Halifax Explosion on 6 December; there he met with survivors and addressed the women of the Voluntary Aid Detachment.
The Canadian victory in 1917 at Vimy Ridge, however, helped fuel Canadian pride and nationalism at home and the Governor General, while conscious of his role's remaining connection to the British government, used this victory to positively and publicly encourage reconciliation between Canada's two main linguistic groups. At all times, Devonshire was careful to consult with his prime minister and the leaders of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition in Canada on matters related to conscription and the war effort.
Devonshire took an active interest in the lives of Canadians, and conducted various tours of the country to meet with them. As a landowner himself, the Governor General was particularly focused on the development of farming in Canada and during his travels, at agricultural and horticultural fairs, shows, and sugaring-off parties in the Gatineau, he discussed agricultural issues with farmers and other people in the industry. His speeches often referred to Canada's potential to lead the world in agricultural research and development, and one of his major projects while viceroy was to establish experimental farms, including the Crown's central one in Ottawa. At the same time, Devonshire acted as a patron of the arts; when not on tour or residing at La Citadelle the viceregal residence in Quebec City at which the Duke enjoyed spending time he frequently visited the National Gallery and hosted theatrical performances at Rideau Hall. There, on the grounds of the royal residence, during the winters, the Devonshires also hosted tobogganing and skating parties, as well as hockey matches. Officially, in 1918 Devonshire travelled to the United States to meet President Woodrow Wilson informally, and the following year, he was host to Prince Edward, Prince of Wales, during his first tour of Canada.
By the end of his tenure as governor general, Devonshire had overcome all of the initial suspicions that had surrounded his appointment; both men who served as his Canadian prime minister—Borden and Arthur Meighen—came to view him as a personal friend not only of theirs, but also of Canada's. The former said of Devonshire: "No Governor General has come with a more comprehensive grasp of public questions as they touch not only this country and the United Kingdom, but the whole Empire." The Duke left as a mark of his time in Canada the Devonshire Cup, for the annual golf competition of the Canadian Seniors Golf Association, and the Duke of Devonshire Trophy, for the Ottawa Horticultural Society. While in Canada, Devonshire's two aides-de-camp married his daughters.
Later career
On returning to England, Devonshire worked at the League of Nations before serving from 1922 to 1924 as Secretary of State for the Colonies (with a seat in the Cabinet, while headed by Prime Ministers Bonar Law and Stanley Baldwin). There, he opposed the views of Lord Delemere, the leading White settler in Kenya, who had helped found the Happy Valley set and campaigned for self-government by White settlers. Devonshire advocated protecting the interests of the Africans. The Devonshire White Paper of 1923, which he authored, was cited as a reason why Kenya did not develop as a white minority rule, similar to the model of the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.
In 1922, he was appointed by King George V to the committee that was charged with looking into how honours were to be bestowed in the United Kingdom. From 1933 until his death he was Honorary Colonel of the 24 (Derbyshire Yeomanry) Armoured Car Company, Royal Tank Regiment, in the Territorial Army. He simultaneously continued to run his agricultural land holdings, especially around Chatsworth House, where he died in May 1938.
Honours
Appointments
11 December 19056 May 1938: Member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC)
19 August 19126 May 1938: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)
28 July 19166 May 1938: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG)
18 August 191627 November 1917: Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (KGStJ)
27 November 19176 May 1938: Knight of Justice of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (KJStJ)
11 November 19162 August 1921: Chief Scout for Canada
11 November 19166 May 1938: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club
1 January 19166 May 1938: Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)
Medals
1902: King Edward VII Coronation Medal
1911: King George V Coronation Medal
1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
1937: King George VI Coronation Medal
1923: Territorial Decoration
Honorary military appointments
11 November 19162 August 1921: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards
11 November 19162 August 1921: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards
11 November 19162 August 1921: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards
Honorary degrees
1917: University of Alberta, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
Honorific eponyms
Awards
: Devonshire Cup
: Duke of Devonshire Trophy
Geographic locations
Ottawa, Ontario Devonshire Community Public School
: Devonshire Crescent, Imperial
See also
Bell Telephone Memorial
Duke of Devonshire
References
External links
Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Duke of Devonshire
1868 births
1938 deaths
British people of English descent
Secretaries of State for the Colonies
Deputy Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Deputy Lieutenants of Lancashire
109
04
English justices of the peace
Cavendish, Victor
Governors General of Canada
Knights of the Garter
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Lords of the Admiralty
Cavendish, Victor
Liberal Unionist Party peers
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Cavendish, Victor
Cavendish, Victor
Cavendish, Victor
Cavendish, Victor
Cavendish, Victor
Cavendish, Victor
Devonshire, D9
Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire
Treasurers of the Household
Directors of the Furness Railway
Presidents of the Marylebone Cricket Club
Chief Scouts of Canada
Derbyshire Yeomanry officers
British landowners
Mayors of Chesterfield
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
British Freemasons
Members of Isaac Newton University Lodge | [
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233814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Cavendish%2C%2010th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire | Edward William Spencer Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire, (6 May 1895 – 26 November 1950), known as the Marquess of Hartington from 1908 to 1938, was a British politician. He was the head of the Devonshire branch of the House of Cavendish. He had careers with the army and in politics and was a senior freemason. His sudden death, apparently of a heart attack at the age of fifty-five, occurred in the presence of the suspected serial killer John Bodkin Adams.
Early life
He was born in the parish of St George in the East, Stepney, London, the son of Victor Cavendish and his wife, Lady Evelyn Petty-Fitzmaurice. In 1908, his father Victor succeeded as the 9th Duke of Devonshire, thus Edward was styled by the courtesy title Marquess of Hartington. Lord Hartington was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge.
He was, after his father's death, the owner of Chatsworth House, and one of the largest private landowners in both Great Britain and Ireland.
Military career
The then Marquess of Hartington began service with the Territorial Army as a second lieutenant in the Derbyshire Yeomanry in 1913.
Mobilised at the outbreak of the First World War, he was an aide-de-camp (ADC) on the Personal Staff at the British Expeditionary Force's General Headquarters. In 1916, when promoted captain, he rejoined his regiment, in Egypt, and served in the latter stages of the Dardanelles campaign. He then returned to France, became attached to Military Intelligence, then to the War Office and the British Military Mission in Paris, and was twice mentioned in despatches. In 1919 he served on the British peace delegation that attended the signing of the Treaty of Versailles and was appointed MBE. He also became a knight of the French Legion of Honour.
He continued serving after the war with his regiment, which became 24 (Derbyshire Yeomanry) Armoured Car Company of the Royal Tank Regiment in 1923. He was promoted major in 1932, and became lieutenant colonel in command in 1935. He was awarded the Territorial Decoration. He was also Honorary Colonel of the 6th Battalion of the Sherwood Foresters from 1917 to 1937, and of its successor, the 40th (Sherwood Foresters) Anti-Aircraft Battalion of the Royal Engineers.
Political career
He unsuccessfully stood as a Conservative parliamentary candidate twice, in the 1918 general election for North East Derbyshire and in 1922 for West Derbyshire, before gaining the latter seat in 1923 and holding it until he succeeded to his father's peerage and entered the House of Lords in 1938. He was subsequently a minister in Winston Churchill's wartime government as a Parliamentary Under Secretary of State, for India and Burma (1940–1942) and for the Colonies (1942–1945).
He also served in Derbyshire local government. He was appointed a JP for the county in 1917, and a Deputy Lieutenant in 1936, ultimately becoming the county's Lord Lieutenant from 1938 until his death. He also served as Mayor of Buxton in 1920–21.
Other civil posts
He was chairman of the Overseas Settlement Board in 1936 and was High Steward of the University of Cambridge and Chancellor of the University of Leeds from 1938 until 1950. He also had company directorships with The Alliance Insurance Company of Britain and the Bank of Australasia. He served as president of the Zoological Society of London in 1948.
He was a freemason and was Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England from 1947 to 1950.
Family
The Duke's sister Dorothy was married to Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.
The Duke's younger brother Charles was married to dancer Adele Astaire, sister of Fred Astaire.
In 1917, he married Lady Mary Gascoyne-Cecil, granddaughter of Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury. They had five children:
William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington (1917–1944), killed in action in World War II. Married to Kathleen Kennedy, sister of John F. Kennedy.
Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire (1920–2004), later Marquess of Hartington (1944–1950) and the 11th Duke of Devonshire (1950–2004). Married to Deborah Mitford.
Lady Mary Cavendish (6 November 1922 – 17 November 1922).
Lady Elizabeth Georgiana Alice Cavendish (24 April 1926 – 15 September 2018).
Lady Anne Evelyn Beatrice Cavendish (6 November 1927 – 9 August 2010) was a prison visitor who married Michael Lambert Tree.
Death
On 26 November 1950, he suffered a heart attack and died in Eastbourne in the presence of his general practitioner, John Bodkin Adams, the suspected serial killer. Despite the fact that the duke had not seen a doctor in the 14 days before his death, the coroner was not notified as he should have been. Adams signed the death certificate stating that the Duke died of natural causes. Thirteen days earlier, Edith Alice Morrell – another patient of Adams – had also died. Historian Pamela Cullen speculates that as the Duke was the head of British freemasonry, Adams – a member of the fundamentalist Plymouth Brethren – would have been motivated to withhold the necessary vital treatment, since the "Grandmaster of England would have been seen by some of the Plymouth Brethren as Satan incarnate". No proper police investigation was ever conducted into the death, but the duke's son, Andrew, later said "it should perhaps be noted that this doctor was not appointed to look after the health of my two younger sisters, who were then in their teens"; Adams had a reputation for grooming older patients in order to extract bequests.
Adams was tried in 1957 for Morrell's murder but controversially acquitted. The prosecutor was Attorney-General Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller, a distant cousin of the Duke (via their shared ancestor, George Cavendish). Cullen has questioned why Manningham-Buller failed to question Adams regarding the Duke's death, and suggests that he was wary of drawing attention to Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (the Duke's brother-in-law) and specifically to his wife who was having an extramarital affair with Robert Boothby at the time.
Home Office pathologist Francis Camps linked Adams to 163 suspicious deaths in total, which would make him a precursor to Harold Shipman.
The Duke's body was buried in the churchyard at Edensor, Derbyshire, near Chatsworth.
Estate
In 1946 the Duke transferred most of his assets to his only surviving son in an attempt to avoid a repeat of the heavy death duties which the 9th Duke had had to pay in 1908. The Duke's surprise death less than four years later meant that his estate had to pay 80% death duties on the value of the entire estate. Had he lived longer, the value assessed to tax would have been progressively reduced to zero. The tax liability led to the transfer of Hardwick Hall to the National Trust, and the sale of many of the Devonshires' accumulated assets, including tens of thousands of acres of land, and many works of art and rare books. Whilst the majority of the Duke's property transferred to the next Duke, his private funds of £796,473 8s. 9d. were willed to his widow Mary Alice, Dowager Duchess of Devonshire.
See also
Gertrude Hullett
References
External links
1895 births
1950 deaths
Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire
Conservative Party (UK) hereditary peers
Cavendish, Edward
Derbyshire Yeomanry officers
110
05
English landowners
Foreign Office personnel of World War II
Grand Masters of the United Grand Lodge of England
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Cavendish, Edward
Ministers in the Chamberlain peacetime government, 1937–1939
Ministers in the Chamberlain wartime government, 1939–1940
Ministers in the Churchill caretaker government, 1945
Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945
People educated at Eton College
People from Derbyshire Dales (district)
Presidents of the Zoological Society of London
Cavendish, Edward
Cavendish, Edward
Cavendish, Edward
Cavendish, Edward
Cavendish, Edward
Devonshire, D10
British Army personnel of World War I
20th-century English nobility | [
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233815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Cavendish%2C%2011th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire | Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire | Andrew Robert Buxton Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire, (2 January 1920 – 3 May 2004), styled Lord Andrew Cavendish until 1944 and Marquess of Hartington from 1944 to 1950, was a British Conservative and later Social Democratic Party politician. He was a minister in the government of Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (his uncle by marriage), but is best known for opening Chatsworth House to the public. His sister-in-law was Kathleen Kennedy, sister of U. S. President John F. Kennedy and U. S. Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy.
Early life
Cavendish was the second son of Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire and Mary Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, the former Mary Alice Gascoyne-Cecil, daughter of James Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury. He was educated at Ludgrove School, Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge. Growing up, his elder brother, William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, was the heir apparent to the dukedom.
Career
Military service
Cavendish served in the British Army during World War II. Having attended an Officer Cadet Training Unit, he was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a second lieutenant on 2 November 1940. On 7 December 1944, while holding the rank of acting captain, he was awarded the Military Cross 'in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in Italy'. The action took place on 27 July 1944 when his company was cut off for 36 hours in heavy combat near Strada, Italy. He held the rank of major at the end of the war.
In later life, he took on a number of honorary positions within the military. On 2 December 1953, he was appointed Honorary Colonel of a Territorial Army unit of the Royal Regiment of Artillery. On 2 October 1981, he was appointed Honorary Colonel of the Manchester and Salford Universities Officers' Training Corps. He relinquished this appointment on 2 January 1985.
Political career
Cavendish ran unsuccessfully as a National Liberal candidate for Chesterfield in the 1945 general election and as a Conservative for the same seat in 1950. He was Mayor of Buxton from 1952 to 1954. He served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Commonwealth Relations from 1960 to 1962, Minister of State at the Commonwealth Relations Office from 1962 to 1963, and for Colonial Affairs from 1963 to 1964. He once said that these appointments by his uncle, Harold Macmillan, the then-prime minister, were "the greatest act of nepotism ever".
He joined the Social Democratic Party (SDP) shortly after its foundation in 1981. A supporter of David Owen – whom he later described as "the best of them" – Cavendish chose to remain with the rump 'continuing SDP' after the majority of the party's members voted to merge with the Liberal Party in 1988. He later sat as a crossbencher during his rare appearances in the House of Lords.
Other pursuits
The duke followed the family tradition of owning racehorses, the most famous of which was Park Top, the subject of the duke's first published book, A Romance of The Turf: Park Top, which was published in 1976. His autobiography, Accidents of Fortune, was published just before his death in 2004. The duke had many disputes over the years with the ramblers who used the paths near Chatsworth. Eventually though, in 1991, he signed an agreement with the Peak National Park Authority opening 1,300 acres (5 km2) of his estate to walkers. He said that everyone was "welcome in my back garden". The duke's real estate holdings were vast. In addition to Chatsworth he also owned Lismore Castle in Ireland and Bolton Abbey in North Yorkshire. He also owned the bookshop Heywood Hill and the gentleman's club Pratt's.
He was a major collector of contemporary British art, known especially for his patronage of Lucian Freud. He was one of the founders, and the chief patron of, the Next Century Foundation, in which capacity he hosted the private Chatsworth talks between representatives of the governments of the Arab World and Israel. The duke was listed at number 73 in the Sunday Times Sunday Times Rich List of the richest people in Great Britain in 2004.
Family
Marriage
In 1941 Cavendish married the Hon. Deborah Mitford (31 March 1920 – 24 September 2014), one of the Mitford sisters in The Priory Church of St Bartholomew The Great - West Smithfield, City of London.
Four of the couple's seven children died soon after birth, and the Duke's extramarital affairs became public after he appeared as a witness at a burglary trial and was forced to admit, under oath, that he was on holiday with one of a series of younger women when the crime occurred at his London home.
The Duke, however, claimed that much of his marriage's success was due to the Duchess's tolerance and broadmindedness. The Duchess, as chatelaine, was largely responsible for the success of Chatsworth as a commercial endeavour.
Issue
Cavendish and his wife had seven children, three of whom died in infancy. The three surviving children were a son, Peregrine Cavendish, 12th Duke of Devonshire, and two daughters, Lady Emma Cavendish and Lady Sophia Topley.
Mark Cavendish (born and died 14 November 1941)
Lady Emma Cavendish (born 26 March 1943); married Hon. Tobias Tennant, son of Christopher Grey Tennant, 2nd Baron Glenconner on 3 September 1963. They have three children (including Stella Tennant) and ten grandchildren
Peregrine Cavendish, 12th Duke of Devonshire (born 27 April 1944); married Amanda Heywood-Lonsdale on 28 June 1967. They have three children and eight grandchildren.
Lord Victor Cavendish (born and died 22 May 1947)
Lady Mary Cavendish (born and died 5 April 1953)
Lady Sophia Cavendish (born 18 March 1957); married Anthony Murphy on 20 October 1979 and they were divorced in 1987. She married Alastair Morrison, 3rd Baron Margadale, on 19 July 1988 and they were divorced. They have two children. She married William Topley on 25 November 1999.
In December 1946, the Duchess had a miscarriage; had the child been born, it would have been a twin of Victor Cavendish, born in 1947.
Inheritance
Cavendish's older brother William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, who would have inherited the dukedom, was killed in combat near the end of the war. With William's death, Andrew became heir and received the courtesy title of Marquess of Hartington, which he held from 1944 until 1950.
Cavendish's uncle, Lord Charles Cavendish, died aged 38 as a result of alcoholism. Lord Charles's will bequeathed Lismore Castle to Andrew upon the remarriage of Charles's wife, Adele Astaire, in 1947.
The 10th Duke died of a heart attack while visiting Eastbourne in November 1950 and Andrew, who was in Australia at the time, inherited the title. The Duke died while being attended by suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams, who was his doctor when visiting Eastbourne. No proper police investigation was ever conducted into the death but Cavendish later said "it should perhaps be noted that this doctor was not appointed to look after the health of my two younger sisters, who were then in their teens"; Adams had a reputation for grooming older patients to extract bequests.
Cavendish inherited the estate but also an inheritance tax bill of £7 million (£ million in ), nearly 80 per cent of the value of the estate. To meet this, the Duke had to sell off many art objects and antiques, including several Rembrandts, Van Dycks and Raffaello Santis, as well as thousands of acres of land.
The Duke is buried in the churchyard of St Peter's Church, Edensor - in the grounds of Chatsworth.
Honours
In 1996 he was made a Knight of the Garter. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society later that year.
On 10 December 1955, he was made a Grand Cross of the Order of Christ by the Portuguese government.
Other
He once told an interviewer:"Wonderful things have happened in my life — it's time my son had his turn. When I was young I used to like casinos, fast women and God knows what. Now my idea of Heaven, apart from being at Chatsworth, is to sit in the hall of Brooks's, having tea."
Bibliography
writing as The Duke of Devonshire: A Romance of the Turf: Park Top (2000 edition )
writing as Andrew Devonshire: Accidents of Fortune [Autobiography] (2004)
References
External links
Generations Reaching – on a chance meeting with the late 11th Duke of Devonshire, and with Kathleen Agnes Kennedy and John F. Kennedy beside Lismore Castle, Co Waterford, Ireland in mid-May 2004.
1920 births
2004 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
British Army personnel of World War II
British landowners
British people of English descent
Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire
Coldstream Guards officers
Conservative Party (UK) hereditary peers
Deputy Lieutenants of Derbyshire
111
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Knights of the Garter
Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Ministers in the Macmillan and Douglas-Home governments, 1957–1964
People educated at Eton College
People from Derbyshire Dales (district)
Recipients of the Military Cross
Social Democratic Party (UK) hereditary peers
Vice-Lieutenants of Derbyshire
20th-century British businesspeople
20th-century English nobility
Members of the American Philosophical Society | [
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233819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayra%20Santos-Febres | Mayra Santos-Febres | Mayra Santos-Febres (born 1966 in Carolina) is a Puerto Rican author, poet, novelist, professor of literature, essayist, and literary critic and author of children's books. Her work focuses on themes of diaspora identity, female sexuality, the erotic, gender fluidity, desire, and power. She is a community activist who helps to bring books to young readers and the less fortunate. Her writings have been translated into French, English, German, and Italian.
Early life
Santos-Febres was born in 1966 to parents who were both schoolteachers. She began writing at the age of five because her asthma did not permit her to "climb trees or ride bikes like the kids in the neighborhood." She states that her disability, combined with her educator parents' knack for keeping books in the house, catapulted her into the beginnings of her writing career. At the age of fifteen, after writing for ten years, she was encouraged to take her writing seriously by Ivonna Sanavitis, the only female teacher who was not a nun at her Catholic school Colegio Lourdes, Puerto Rico.
Education and academic work
Santos-Febres completed her undergraduate work at the University of Puerto Rico in 1991 and currently holds an M.A. and Ph.D. from Cornell University. She has been a visiting professor at Harvard university and Cornell University.
Career and literary work
While still an undergraduate at the University of Puerto Rico, Santos-Febres had her work published in magazines and journal reviews such as Casa de las Américas in Cuba, Página doce in Argentina, Revue Noire in France and Review: Latin American Literature and Arts, in New York. Santos-Febres acknowledged in El País the Puerto Rican narrators who influenced her career: “I come from a long tradition of women writers, Rosario Ferré, Giannina Braschi, Ana Lydia Vega. Mayra Santos-Febres got a bachelor's degree in Hispanic Studies, from the University of Puerto Rico which she graduated with high honors in 1987.”
In 1991, Santos-Febres published her first two collections of poetry, Anamu y manigua and El orden escapado, to critical acclaim. In 1994, Santos-Febres won the Letras de Oro literary prize for her collection of short stories Pez de Vidrio. "Oso Blanco," a short story from this collection, also won the Juan Rulfo Prize in 1996. Pez de Vidrio (Urban Oracles) contains 15 short stories about the complicated relationships between sexual desire, race, identity, social status, and political status in modern Caribbean society.
Santos-Febres' first novel was Sirena Selena vestida de pena (Spain: Grijalbo Mondadori, 2000) about a teenaged drag queen who works in the streets and sings boleros. A finalist for the 2001 Rómulo Gallego’s Prize for the Novel, it won the PEN Club of Puerto Rico’s prize for Best Novel. Random House Mondadori published her second novel, Cualquier miércoles soy tuya, in 2002. Cualquier Miercoles Soy Tuya (Any Wednesday I'm yours) was also translated in English and was published by Penguin Books in 2002. Her most recent novel is La amanita de Gardel, which she completed during her Guggenheim Fellowship term.Her third novel, Nuestra Señora de las noche (Rayo/HarperCollins, 2008), was a finalist for the Premio Primavera Literary Award and won Puerto Rico’s 2007 Premio Nacional de Literatura. Her other novels include Nuestra Señora de la Noche (Our Lady of the Night) and La amante de Gardel (2015).
Santos-Febres teaches at the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, where she specializes in African, Caribbean, and feminist literature. She also is the Executive Director of Festival de la Palabra in Puerto Rico. She also reviews books on Univision television and hosts the Radio Universidad show En su tinta (sources?).
Awards and honours
Award for poetry from Revista Tríptico in Puerto Rico 1991
Award Letras de Oro 1994
Award Juan Rulfo de cuentos 1996
Award Rómulo Gallegos 2001
Guggenheim Fellowship 2009
long-listed for the IMPAC Dublin Literary Award
Bibliography
Anamu y manigua (1990)
El orden escapado (1991)
Pez de vidrio (1994) (Winner of the Juan Rulfo Award)
El cuerpo correcto (1996)
Urban Oracles (1997) (English translation of Pez de vidrio)
Sirena Selena vestida de pena (2000) (translated as Sirena Selena, 2000)
Tercer mundo (2000)
Cualquier miércoles soy tuya (2002) (translated as Any Wednesday, I'm Yours, 2005)
Sobre piel y papel (2005)
Boat People (2005)
Ernesto , El domador de los suenos (2008)
Nuestra Señora de la Noche (2006) (translated as Our Lady of the Night, 2009)
Fe en disfraz (2009)
Tratado de Medicina Natural para Hombres Melancólicos (2011)
El baile de la vida (2012)
La amante de Gardel (2015)
See also
List of Puerto Rican writers
List of Puerto Ricans
List of Puerto Ricans of African descent
Puerto Rican literature
References
External links
Interview with the Author
Mayra Santos-Febres's Blog
1966 births
Living people
People from Carolina, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican poets
University of Puerto Rico alumni
Cornell University alumni
University of Puerto Rico faculty
LGBT writers from Puerto Rico
American lesbian writers
Puerto Rican women writers
American LGBT poets
American women poets
21st-century American poets
American women academics
21st-century American women writers | [
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233821 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus%20Fabricius | Hieronymus Fabricius | Girolamo Fabrici d'Acquapendente, also known as Girolamo Fabrizio or Hieronymus Fabricius (20 May 1533 – 21 May 1619), was a pioneering anatomist and surgeon known in medical science as "The Father of Embryology."
Life and accomplishments
Born in Acquapendente, Latium, Fabricius studied at the University of Padua, receiving a Doctor of Medicine degree in 1559 under the guidance of Gabriele Falloppio. He was a private teacher of anatomy in Padua, 1562–1565, and in 1565, became professor of surgery and anatomy at the university, succeeding Falloppio.
In 1594 he revolutionized the teaching of anatomy when he designed the first permanent theater for public anatomical dissections. Julius Casserius (1552–1616) of Piacenza was among Fabricius' students. William Harvey (1578–1657) and Adriaan van den Spiegel (1578–1625) also studied under Fabricius, beginning around 1598. Julius Casserius would later succeed Fabricius as Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua in 1604, and Adriaan van den Spiegel succeeded Casserius in that position in 1615.
By dissecting animals, Fabricius investigated the formation of the fetus, the structure of the esophagus, stomach and intestines, and the peculiarities of the eye, the ear, and the larynx. He was the first to describe the membranous folds that he called "valves" in the interior of veins. These valves are now understood to prevent retrograde flow of blood within the veins, thus facilitating antegrade flow of blood towards the heart, though Fabricius did not understand their role at that time.
In his Tabulae Pictae, now kept in the Marciana Library in Venice, Fabricius described the cerebral fissure separating the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe. However, Fabricius' discovery was not recognized until recently. Instead, Danish anatomist Caspar Bartholin credits Franciscus Sylvius with the discovery, and Bartholin's son Thomas named it the Sylvian fissure in the 1641 edition of the textbook Institutiones anatomicae.
The Bursa Fabricii (the site of hematopoiesis in birds) is named after Fabricius. A manuscript entitled De Formatione Ovi et Pulli, found among his lecture notes after his death, was published in 1621. It contains the first description of the bursa.
Fabricius contributed much to the field of surgery. Though he never actually performed a tracheotomy, his writings include descriptions of the surgical technique. He favored using a vertical incision and was the first to introduce the idea of a tracheostomy tube. This was a straight, short cannula that incorporated wings to prevent the tube from disappearing into the trachea. He recommended the operation only as a last resort, to be used in cases of airway obstruction by foreign bodies or secretions. Fabricius' description of the tracheotomy procedure is similar to that used today.
Julius Casserius published his own writings regarding technique and equipment for tracheotomy. Casserius recommended using a curved silver tube with several holes in it. Marco Aurelio Severino (1580–1656), a skilful surgeon and anatomist, performed at least one tracheotomy during a diphtheria epidemic in Naples in 1610, using the vertical incision technique recommended by Fabricius.
Books
Pentateuchos chirurgicum (1592).
De Visione, Voce, Auditu. Venedig, Belzetta. 1600.
De formato foetu. 1600.
De Venarum Ostiolis. 1603
De brutorum loquela (1603)
De locutione et ejus instrumentis tractatus. 1603.
Tractatus anatomicus triplex quorum primus de oculo, visus organo. Secundus de aure, auditus organo. Tertius de laringe, vociis organo admirandam tradit historiam, actiones, utilitates magno labore ac studio (1613).
De musculi artificio: de ossium articulationibus (1614).
De respiratione et eius instrumentis, libri duo (1615).
De tumoribus (1615)
De gula, ventriculo, intestinis tractatus (1618).
De motu locali animalium secundum totum, nempe de gressu in genere (1618).
De totius animalis integumentis (1618)
De formatione Ovi et Pulli (posthum. publication 1621, but written before De formato foetu)
Opera chirurgica. Quorum pars prior pentatheucum chirurgicum, posterior operationes chirurgicas continet ... Accesserunt Instrumentorum, quae partim autori, partim alii recens invenere, accurata delineatio. Item, De abusu cucurbitularum in febribus putridis dissertatio, e Musaeo ejusdem (posthum 1623).
Tractatus De respiratione & eius instrumentis. Ventriculo intestinis, & gula. Motu locali animalium, secundum totum. Musculi artificio, & ossium dearticulationibus (posthum 1625).
See also
Anatomical Theatre of Padua
Andreas Vesalius
Galen
References
Further reading
External links
1533 births
1619 deaths
Italian anatomists
History of anatomy
Italian Roman Catholics
16th-century Italian physicians
17th-century Italian physicians
University of Padua alumni
University of Padua faculty
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233824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Massey | Vincent Massey | Charles Vincent Massey (February 20, 1887December 30, 1967) was a Canadian lawyer and diplomat who served as Governor General of Canada, the 18th since Confederation. Massey was the first governor general of Canada who was born in Canada after Confederation.
Massey was born into an influential Toronto family and was educated in Ontario and England, obtaining a degree in law and befriending future prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King while studying at the University of Oxford. He was commissioned into the military in 1917 for the remainder of the First World War and, after a brief stint in the Canadian Cabinet, began his diplomatic career, serving in envoys to the United States and United Kingdom. Upon his return to Canada in 1946, Massey headed a royal commission on the arts between 1949 and 1951, which resulted in the Massey Report and subsequently the establishment of the National Library of Canada and the Canada Council of the Arts, among other grant-giving agencies. In 1952 he was appointed Governor General by King George VI on the recommendation of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, to replace the Viscount Alexander of Tunis as viceroy, and he occupied the post until succeeded by Georges Vanier in 1959.
On September 16, 1925, Massey was sworn into the King's Privy Council for Canada, giving him the accordant style of The Honourable. However, Massey was later, as a former Governor General of Canada, entitled to be styled for life with the superior form of The Right Honourable. He subsequently continued his philanthropic work and founded Massey College at the University of Toronto and the Massey Lectures before he died on December 30, 1967.
Early life, education, and career
Massey was born in Toronto, Ontario, to Anna (née Vincent) and Chester Daniel Massey, the owner of the Massey-Harris Co. (predecessor to the Massey-Ferguson Tractor Company) and the patriarch of one of the city's wealthiest families. The Massey family, of American origin, had immigrated from Cheshire, England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. The clan was strongly Methodist and played an important role in supporting local religious, cultural, and educational organizations, including Victoria University, Massey Hall, and the Metropolitan Methodist Church (now the Metropolitan United Church). Massey was thus raised among Toronto's elite, which gave him a number of social and familial connections throughout his life. However, despite their status as one of Toronto's richest families, the Methodist Masseys were not considered to be one of the FOOFs (Fine Old Ontario Families), the slightly disparaging term used to describe the clique of wealthy Anglican families of English and Loyalist descent who dominated the social life of Toronto from the late 18th century well into the 20th century. To compensate for their parvenus status, Massey together with other members of his family were much given to philanthropy.
Massey was raised in the family mansion at 519 Jarvis Street and educated at St. Andrew's College, in Aurora, Ontario, then at University College at the University of Toronto, despite his family's close ties to Victoria College. At the University of Toronto, he enlisted in The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada in 1907 and joined the Kappa Alpha Society, through which he met future prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, who would be his long-time friend. After passing matriculation three years later with his Bachelor of Arts degree in history and English, Massey continued his education at Balliol College at the University of Oxford, where he earned his Master of Arts in history.
In 1911, thinking that the University of Toronto lacked a facility where its 4,000 students could engage in extracurricular activities, Massey donated $16,290 to the students' fund to build a student centre and thereafter led the endowment and construction efforts. In 1913, he returned to Toronto and became the first Dean of Men at Burwash Hall, the residence recently donated to Victoria University by his father. He also served as a lecturer on modern history at the college. When Canada entered World War I in 1914, Massey was commissioned as an officer for Military District No. 2 and was called to work for the Cabinet war committee. On June 4, 1915, Massey married Alice Parkin, the daughter of Sir George Robert Parkin, who was a former principal of Upper Canada College (UCC) and secretary of the Rhodes Trust; through the marriage, Massey later became the uncle of George Grant and the great-uncle of Michael Ignatieff. Within a few years, Vincent and Alice had two sons, Lionel Massey (1916–1965) and Hart Parkin Vincent Massey II (1918–1996; a WWII Spitfire pilot who flew with John Gillespie Magee, author of "High Flight"). Massey was discharged at the cessation of hostilities in 1918.
In 1921, Massey became president of his father's business, Massey-Harris Co. He also pursued philanthropic interests, mostly in arts and education, such as his collection of paintings and sculpture through his Massey Foundation, which he established in 1918. By the next year, University of Toronto's social and athletic facility was completed and dedicated to the memory of Massey's grandfather, Hart Massey, as Hart House; there, Massey participated as an amateur actor and director in the building's theatre. In 1925, finding himself unsuited to corporate life, he resigned from Massey-Harris. Later that year, on September 16, he was appointed to the King's Privy Council by Governor General the Viscount Byng of Vimy, and was also made a minister without portfolio in Mackenzie King's Cabinet. He ran for the House of Commons in the riding of Durham in the 1925 federal election, but was defeated Though he thereafter resigned his cabinet post, Massey was still included in the Canadian delegation to the 1926 Imperial Conference, where was drafted the Balfour Declaration that would ultimately lead to vast constitutional changes in the role of the monarch and his viceroys throughout the former empire.
Diplomatic career
Later in 1926, on November 25, Governor General the Marquess of Willingdon acted on Mackenzie King's advice to appoint Massey as the first Canadian Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States for His Majesty's Government in Canada, making Massey Canada's first ever envoy with full diplomatic credentials to a foreign capital. Massey returned to Canada in 1930, as Mackenzie King had put his name forward for appointment as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. However, five days after Massey relinquished his post in Washington, D.C., Mackenzie King's Liberal Party was defeated in the federal election, and Richard Bennett became prime minister. Bennett objected to Massey as the government's representative to the UK on the grounds that, as a former Liberal Cabinet member, Massey did not enjoy the political confidence of the new Conservative government that was needed by the individual occupying the position.
In 1932, Massey became the first president of the newly formed National Liberal Federation of Canada, before which the Liberal Party was a loose and informal association of national, provincial, and regional entities without a permanent central organization. In the 1935 federal election, the Liberals returned to office with a majority and Mackenzie King was once again prime minister. Massey managed the Liberal campaign in the 1935 election. In his last year in office, Bennett had swung sharply to the left, passing a set of bills known as "Bennett's New Deal" that were modelled after the New Deal in the United States that sought to increase state involvement in the Canadian economy. In the 1935 election, to make up for Mackenzie King's lack of charisma who was additionally a poor speaker and whose views on the issues were inscrutable, Massey sought to portray Mackenzie King as a steady, competent, experienced leader who could best manage the Great Depression. Massy coined the election slogan "It's either King or Chaos!", portraying Bennett as an erratic leader whose judgement could not be trusted, unlike Mackenzie King.
Massey would had preferred to return to politics-not the least because he thought he would make a better prime minister than Mackenzie King, whose muddled politics he privately held in contempt-but he accepted a diplomatic career as a consolation prize. Massey believed that Canada was a British nation located in North America that also had a French infusion, and that the essence of being a Canadian was to adopt primarily British traditions to a North American settlings. Reflecting his Anglophilia, Massey quite consciously sought to model his mannerisms after those of an upper-class "English gentleman", which limited his political appeal as it led to accusations of snobbery. Massey's style of convoying a "tranquil consciousness of effortless superiority" that he picked up during his time at Oxford annoyed many Canadians, most notably his patron Mackenzie King, who decided that being a high commissioner to Britain would be the best place for him.
High Commissioner in London
On November 8, 1935, Massey was appointed the High Commissioner to the United Kingdom for His Majesty's Government in Canada and arrived at Canada House to find as his secretary the man who would be his successor as Governor General of Canada, Georges Vanier. The two men set about regular diplomatic business, but, throughout 1936, Massey had to contend with the death of King George V and the accession and then the abdication of Edward VIII in favour of his younger brother, Prince Albert, Duke of York, who ascended the throne as George VI. Massey was a passionate Anglophile for whom Britain was his ideal, and he had long wanted to be the Canadian high commissioner in London. Through the Massey family were American in origin, having arrived in Upper Canada in 1802, he invariably failed to mention that in his speeches, instead giving the very misleading impression that the Massey family-who had originated in Cheshire and immigrated to New England in the 17th century-had instead gone directly from England to Canada.
During the Abdication crisis of 1936, Massey supported the prime minister Stanley Baldwin against King Edward VIII, sharing the prime minister's viewpoint that it was not acceptable for the king and the supreme governor of the Church of England to marry a twice-divorced American woman, Mrs. Wallis Simpson. Massey told Baldwin that he had his full support in his demand that the king either give up his throne or Mrs. Simpson, through he also advised Baldwin that the king was popular in Canada, and many Canadians would not understand why the king could not marry Mrs. Simpson, saying the matter had to handled very carefully least it alienate the Canadian people from the monarchy. The Abdication crisis cemented Massey's dislike of the man who rapidly become his least favorite British politician, Winston Churchill, who supported the king's right to keep his throne and marry Mrs. Simpson. Massey in his reports to Mackenzie King (who acted as his own External Affairs minister) described Churchill as a reckless adventurer who was "exploiting the crisis for his own political ends". Massey believed that Churchill was using the crisis together with the "press barons" Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere to start a popular movement aimed at deposing Baldwin as Conservative Party leader in order to make himself prime minister. When Churchill gave a speech in the favor of the king in the House of Commons, Massey approvingly reported he was shouted down as Churchill had "shown his irresponsible, free-booting disposition". In May 1937, Massey was greatly honored to have taken part in the coronation of King George VI, where he served as one of the royal standard-bearers. Massey held an intense reverence for the monarchy that bordered on the religious as he wrote: "What follows defies all adjectives. No ceremonial could be finer or more moving-this country has a genius for such things because of the combination of essentially English qualities of which English pageantry is an expression, a romantic sense, a feeling for precision without rigidity, a sense of symbolism kept in close check by a sense of humor, a practical sense which relates the ceremonial to present-day reality. Pageantry in the English tradition has always stood for pageantry with intelligence and feeling". The only element that marred the coronation for him was Mackenzie King's order that Massey not wear knee breeches as anachronistic, an order he unhappily complied with. Massy privately complained: "I wish to goodness that some of my countrymen wouldn't have an almost religious antipathy to knee breeches". Massey was dressed in his best clothes for the coronation and was described as looking "like a medieval strained glass window".
Starting in May 1936, weekly meetings started to be held at Massey's house attended by all of the Dominion high commissioners in London to discuss matters of common concern. Massey together with Stanley Bruce of Australia and Charles te Water of South Africa were considered to be the "big three" of the Dominion high commissioners as Australia, South Africa and Canada were viewed as the three powerful of the Dominions. However, both Bruce and te Water were held in far higher esteem by the British than Massey, who was felt to be an embarrassment as he tried too hard to be accepted by the Establishment. Massey cultivated an aristocratic, sophisticated demeanor which gave him a reputation in London as a snob. By contrast, te Water was respected for his intelligence, through disliked for being arrogant and aloof while Bruce as appropriate for a former Australian prime minister was felt to be the most approachable of the high commissioners who had a populist "down-to-earth" demeanor. Bruce as a former Australian prime minister was held in a special esteem in London, and his influence was increased by his friendship with Geoffrey Dawson, the editor of The Times. Likewise, both Bruce and te Water had more influence on their respective governments as both men were friends of their respective prime ministers, namely Joseph Lyons of Australia and J.B.M. Hertzog of South Africa while Mackenzie King seems to have appointed the Anglophile Massey as high commissioner as a sop to his ego. The mildly Anglophobic Mackenzie King complained that Massey's dispatches to him were "too English" for his liking. Te Water was considered to be the most intelligent and able of all the Dominion high commissioners, and he often acted as their informal leader. The British historian Max Beloff described the Dominion high commissioners as a close-knit group who worked for appeasement of Germany.
All of the Dominion high commissioners held to certain common beliefs that made them into supporters of appeasement. As a group, the high commissioners believed that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh towards Germany and that it was France rather than Germany that was the principle trouble-maker in Europe. In common with the other high commissioners, Massey believed that the efforts of the Reich to challenge the international order created by the Treaty of Versailles was just and moral, and it was France's efforts to upheld the Versailles system made the French rather the Germans the main danger to world peace. Alongside this view of European politics went an intense dread of the Soviet Union, which was the nation that Massey and the other high commissioners feared the most. Massey was opposed to the alliances that France signed with Czechoslovakia in 1925 and with the Soviet Union in 1935, seeing this as irresponsible diplomacy on the part of the French who were attempting to preserve the Versailles system instead of giving in to German demands as he felt that they should. One of the most important influences on Massey was Lord Lothian, a Scottish aristocrat and a liberal intellectual whose perspective was always more in terms of the British empire than in terms of Britain, a viewpoint that endeared him to Massey. Lord Lothian had become convinced by 1923 that the Treaty of Versailles was a monstrously harsh peace treaty whose terms needed to be revised, and for much of the 1920-1930s had been a leading enthusiast for Germany. Lothian visited Germany twice, in 1935 and again in 1937, to meet Adolf Hitler, and in both cases came away impressed. Much of Massey's favorable views about Nazi Germany were due to his talks with Lothian who assured him that if only the Treaty of Versailles were revised, the peace of the world would be saved. Charles Corbin the French ambassador to the court of St. James, who met all of the Dominion high commissioners together with all of the Dominion leaders during the Imperial conference of 1937, described them all as a group who were collectively ignorant of Europe, reporting to Paris on 3 June 1937 that he was astonished at how little they knew about Eastern Europe, a region they viewed via very simplistic clichés.
As high commissioner, Massey used his connections to bring to Canada House a host of personalities from "the highest quarters." Two such persons were the Viscount and Viscountess Astor, who were the nucleus of the Cliveden set, which itself was a group of aristocratic individuals rumoured to be Germanophiles not only in favour of the appeasement of Adolf Hitler, but also supporters of friendly relations with Nazi Germany. Though these allegations were historically challenged as exaggerations, Irving Abella and Harold Troper claimed in their book None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948 that Massey was an enthusiastic supporter of the Munich Agreement and worked in concert with various elected and non-elected people in government, including Mackenzie King and Ernest Lapointe, to put obstacles in the way of Jewish refugees fleeing Europe for Canada, or even using Canada as a stopover en route to some other country. However, Canadian immigration policy at the time favoured trained farmers, which excluded most Jews, who were largely city dwellers, and the Cabinet of Mackenzie King was already resistant to changes in the law. Seven decades later, these accusations against Massey resulted in a campaign in Windsor, Ontario, to rename a high school that had originally been named in his honour.
On 24 April 1938, the Sudetenland crisis began when the Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein in a speech in Karlsbad (modern Karlovy Vary) put forward the so-called Karlsbad programme, whose 8 points would have given the Sudetenland much autonomy within Czechoslovakia. The Karlsbad programe had been written in Berlin, and the German government promptly endorsed the Karlsbad programme, saying it would go to war if Czechoslovakia rejected the Karlsbad programme. In the May crisis of 1938, Massey blamed President Edvard Beneš of Czechoslovakia rather than Adolf Hitler, writing in a cable to Mackenzie King that it was Czechoslovakia that was the aggressor and Germany the victim. On 28 May 1938, the British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in a meeting with all the Dominion high commissioners told them that the British government was convinced that Czechoslovakia with its mixture of Czechs, Slovaks, Germans, Magyars, Poles and Ukrainians could not last as an unitary state, and the best solution would be to turn Czechoslovakia into a federation. Halifax felt the Karlsbad programme, through problematic in certain respects, offered the starting point to turn Czechoslovakia into a federation. After the meeting, Halifax took Massey aside for a talk, saying he was very interested in learning how English-Canadians and French-Canadians got along well in the Canadian federation, saying he envisioned a "Canadian solution" to the problems of Czechoslovakia. Halifax told Massey he wanted to see Czechoslovakia turned into a Canadian-style federation so that the Czechs and the Sudeten Germans would act more like English-Canadians and French-Canadians and less like themselves. The fact that Beneš rejected the British advice to engage in constitutional changes to make Czechoslovakia into a federation until early September 1938 cost him much sympathy in London, and added to the perception that it was Beneš who was the danger to peace.
During the Sudetenland crisis of 1938, Massey very much wanted President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to step in as a mediator, and was disappointed when Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain told him that he did not think much of this plan, saying he much doubted that Roosevelt was willing to play the role of the mediator. Massey saw the Sudetenland crisis as a matter of "saving civilization" as he believed that another world war would be the end of Western civilization. On 12 September 1938, the crisis dramatically escalated when Hitler in his speech at the Nuremberg Party Rally announced that the acceptance of the Karlsbad programme was not enough and instead demanded the Sudetenland "go home to the Reich", saying he now wanted the Sudetenland incorported into Germany, a demand that President Beneš promptly rejected. The fact that Hitler engaged in much personal abuse of Beneš in his speech was not helpful to peace as Massey reported to Mackenzie King, but he still clung to his belief that it was Beneš who was the problem, not Hitler. Massey believed that Hitler's demands for the Sudetenland were moral and just, that Czechoslovakia was not worth fighting for, and it was France that by refusing to renounce its alliance with Czechoslovakia was the principle trouble-maker. Massey believed that Britain should only go to war if Hitler was seeking world domination, and as he did believe that this was the case with the Sudetenland, he was opposed to war with Germany in 1938. On 14 September 1938, Massey met with te Water where both men agreed that "this astonishing episode" as they deemed it with Britain on the brink of the war must not be allowed to come to war, and that Britain should pressure Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland. On 19 September 1938, the Dominion secretary Malcolm MacDonald met with all of the Dominion high commissioners to tell them that Chamberlain had agreed to Hitler's demand that the Sudetenland "go home to the Reich" and that Britain would offer a "guarantee" of the rest of Czechoslovakia as the reward for ceding the Sudetenland. Bruce supported the idea of the "guarantee" and even offered to have Australia join in with "guaranteeing" Czechoslovakia; te Water was categorically opposed, saying there was no possibility of South Africa joining in; and Massey in his report to Mackenzie King offered no comment about his feelings other than to say the other high commissioners had insisted upon it. Massey added that he still felt that Beneš was the main danger to the peace, saying his main fear was that Beneš might reject the British peace plan. Much to Massey's relief, Beneš accepted the British plan.
On 24 September 1938, all of the Dominion high commissioners met with MacDonald . As was usually the case, te Water acted as their spokesman and he sharply criticised Chamberlain for rejecting Hitler's Bad Godesberg ultimatum, saying that Chamberlain should try to modify Hitler's terms, but if matters came to in extremis, it was better to yield to Hitler's terms than go to war. Shortly afterwards, a split emerged with the Dominion high commissioners with Bruce arguing that Chamberlain was correct after all to reject the Bad Godesberg ultimatum, saying it was a matter of British "honor" that the United Kingdom not be allowed to be seen to be bullied, and that a referendum should be held in the Sudetenland to determine what districts wanted to "go home to the Reich" and what districts wanted to remain part of Czechoslovakia. By contrast, Massey, te Water and the Irish high commissioner John Dulanty all supported accepting Hitler's demand that the Reich be allowed to occupy the Sudetenland prior to 1 October 1938. On 28 September 1938, both Bruce and Massey supported te Water's statement that it was "psychologically wrong" to blame Hitler for the crisis and with te Water's demand that Chamberlain find a way to silence the "bellicose" MPs like Winston Churchill who were criticizing his government's policies in the House of Commons. At another meeting with MacDonald on 29 September, both te Water and Massey protested against the British appeal to Beneš to "not tie" Chamberlain's hands, complaining that it implied that Beneš had the power to do so. When Chamberlain left Heston airport to attend the Munich conference on 29 September 1938, both te Water and Massey were there to offer him their best wishes to save the peace at Munich.
In March 1939, Europe was plunged into a new crisis, this time concerning the city-state of the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) as Hitler now announced that he wanted the Free City to "go home to the Reich", a demand that was felt certain to cause a war with Poland, which had certain rights in Danzig and always taken the position that any attempt to return to Danzig to Germany would be a casus belli. Massey was greatly influenced by te Water, and usually followed whatever line te Water was taking with regard to the British. Following the German occupation of the Czech half of Czecho-Slovakia on 15 March 1939, the policy of the Chamberlain government notably altered. In a speech in Birmingham on 17 March 1939, Chamberlain announced that if Hitler was seeking world domination, Britain would go to war. At a meeting with the Dominions Secretary Sir Thomas Inskip, te Water, supported by Massey, assailed the change of policy, saying that Germany still deserved "one more chance of saving face". On 31 March 1939, Chamberlain in a speech in the House of Commons announced the famous British "guarantee" of Poland, stating that Britain would go to war to defend Polish independence, through Chamberlain notably left out Polish territory from the "guarantee", thereby implying that Britain was still open to having the Polish corridor and Upper Silesia returned to Germany. Later that same day in a meeting at 10 Downing Street, te Water and Massey both told Chamberlain that Germany "had a genuine claim to Danzig", which made it an "extremely bad reason" to risk a war over.
For Massey, his main concern in the spring of 1939 was not the Danzig visit, but rather organizing the royal visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Canada, which took place in June-July 1939. Massey had been planning the visit ever since the coronation, and spent much time corresponding with the Governor-General, Lord Tweedsmuir about the preparations for the visit, as the impeding royal visit had less interest for Mackenzie King. Much to Massey's delight, he found himself regularly having dinner with the royal family at Windsor Castle to discuss details for the visit. The royal visit was a great success with the king being cheered whatever he went as he visited all 9 provinces, leading Massey to write: "The Royal visit to Canada was an event so happy in its conception, so gloriously successful in its achievement, and so fragrant in its memory, that any comment seems both inadequate and superfluous".
Over the course of the summer of 1939, Massey came to break away from te Water's influence, helped by the fact that te Water had taken a holiday in Ireland for the much of the summer. Through Massey was not enthusiastic about the possibility of Britain going to war, he came to increasing accept that it might be inevitable unless Hitler could be persuaded to back down in the Danzig crisis. An additional pressure for a change in views came from Lord Lothian, who had a volte-face in his thinking about Nazi Germany, and was by the spring of 1939 was now convinced that Hitler was seeking world domination. Over the course of the summer of 1939, Lothian sought to convince Massey that Hitler's aims went beyond revising the Treaty of Versailles towards the domination of the entire world, an effort that Lothian was successful in.
World War Two
Nevertheless, Massey was a Canadian and British patriot and worked not only to maximize Canada's war effort once World War II broke out, but also served through 1936 as the Canadian delegate to the League of Nations, between 1941 and 1945 as a trustee of the National and Tate Galleries, and as chair of the Tate's board of governors from 1943 to 1945. For this work Massey was inducted by King George VI into the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1946. After Britain declared war on 3 September 1939, the high commissioners set up themselves up as a "junior war cabinet" that represented their interests with the British government. As te Water was fired on 7 September 1939 for opposing South Africa's entry into the war, Bruce and Massey were regarded as the co-leaders of the high commissioners. In a reversal of the expected roles, the New Zealand high commissioner Bill Jordan, a working class British man and a former London policeman who had immigrated to New Zealand in 1904 was the high commissioner best liked by the British, followed up by Bruce. Massey with his aristocratic airs was considered to be a pompous snob who was too overtly proud of the fact that the Masseys were one of Canada's richest families.
In September 1939, Massey and Bruce met with the Dominions Secretary, Anthony Eden, to suggest a plan to train airmen in Canada and Australia, which became the genesis of the Commonwealth Air Training Plan. Massey always regarded his work as in helping to create the Commonwealth Air Training Plan as one of his great achievements. However, Massey was undercut by Mackenzie King who in an extraordinary move told the British as not to regard Massey as speaking for Canada, leaving the British confused about what was the precise purpose of Massey's role in London. Mackenzie King had only very reluctantly declared war on Germany on 10 September 1939 was keen to minimize Canada's role in the war, wanting Canada to do as little as possible, as he feared a repeat of the conscription crisis of 1917. Once the war began, the deeply Anglophile Massey wanted Canada to do as much as possible to help the "mother country", leading Mackenzie King to marginalize him as Massey's views about Canada's role in the war were not his views. Massey welcomed the appointment of Churchill as prime minister on 10 May 1940 by King George VI, through he never lost his doubts about the fitness of Churchill to be prime minister, regarding him as an adventurer with a questionable sense of judgement. In late May 1940, Massey informed the British that Canada was sending all of the Royal Canadian Navy's destroyers to Britain to assist with the defense of Britain if France surrendered.
In 1940, Massey together with Bruce were extremely unhappy when Churchill appointed Inskip as the Dominions secretary to replace Eden, telling the new South African high commissioner Sidney Frank Waterson that Inskip was one of the most incompetent ministers in the Chamberlain cabinet who had once fallen asleep during a crucial cabinet meeting in April 1939. Both Massey and Bruce regarded the appointment of Inskip as Dominions secretary as a personal insult, saying that this showed how little Churchill valued the Dominions. The fact that Inskip was not allowed to attend the meetings of the War Cabinet, and thus would not be able to inform the high commissioners of the decisions of the war cabinet added to Massey's rancor, which he expressed in a letter to Churchill on 3 July 1940. It was only with appointment of Lord Cranborne as Dominions Secretary in 1943 that Massey finally felt there was a competent Dominions Secretary who understood the concerns of the Dominions. In July 1940, Massey supported a declaration of proposed British war aims written by Bruce which stated that "we make it abundantly clear that we stand not only for liberty, but for economic and social justice" because that would "give us every chance of mobilising a revolutionary movement in Europe behind the ideals of the British empire".
Massey was opposed to Britain taking a hardline with Vichy France, as he believed that Marshal Philippe Pétain had only signed the armistice with Germany on 21 June 1940 to save his nation and that Pétain could be persuaded to reenter the war on the Allied side, provided the British were tactful with him. By contrast, Massey had nothing but contempt for the French National Committee in London headed by Charles de Gaulle, a man whom Massey detested and distrusted. Massey's views towards Vichy France were to a certain extent governed by domestic considerations as Pétain's révolution nationale was popular with Catholic conservatives in Quebec, and Massey feared that British actions such as attacking the French fleet at Mers-el-Kébir would increase anti-war feelings in Quebec. During the London blitz, Massey lived in the Dorchester hotel, where he felt he would be safer from German bombs. Massey was strongly opposed to the Destroyers-for-bases deal, under which Britain gave the United States 99-year leases on various British air and naval bases in the British West Indies, British Guinea (modern Guyana), Bermuda and Newfoundland in exchange for 50 elderly American destroyers, some of which were barely seaworthy. Massey was especially opposed to the United States taking over naval and air bases in the British colony of Newfoundland, which he viewed as a future Canadian province. Massey felt that the American bases in Newfoundland were the first step towards the United States annexing Newfoundland, and in March 1941 delivered a formal note of protest, saying that Churchill signed the Destroyers-for-bases deal without consulting Canada.
From 1942 onward, Massey was involved in a semi-military extension of his duties, representing the interests of the Canadian military headquarters in London, in which capacity, he worked very closely with J.L. Ralston, the minister of national defense; General Andrew McNaughton, the commander of the 1st Canadian Army; and his deputy General Harry Crerar. Massey was more closer to Crerar than with McNaughton, with whom he had difficult relations with, and increasingly came to share Crerar's conviction that McNaughton in a classic case of the Peter principle had been promoted to his level of incompetence. McNaughton had earned a sterling reputation in the First World War as one of the outstanding "gunners" (artillerymen) in the entire world, and still famous in Second World War as the great Canadian soldier-scientist, a man who had mastered two very different fields. The fact that McNaughton was highly charismatic and very popular with the Canadian people also added to his appeal. However, Crerar felt and Massey came to feel likewise that whatever McNaughton's gifts as a "gunner" that was not capable of commanding an army in the field. Massey seems to have missed that Crerar was an intriguer who was always plotting to secure himself a promotion, and that at least part of his animosity against McNaughton was his desire to command the 1st Canadian Army. Lester Pearson during a visit to London reported that McNaughton preferred to deal with him rather than with Massey, reporting to Mackenzie King: "Their temperaments [Massey and McNaughton] were at opposite poles and neither felt at that early stage very comfortable and relaxed with one another".
In the spring of 1943, Mackenzie King, who until then, had been almost always opposed to the Canadian Army actually fighting in the war, suddenly did a volte-face on the issue as he became consumed with the fear that the war might end with Canada winning no victories, which he believed would be the ruin of his political career. Mackenzie King now insisted that the 1st Canadian Infantry Division take part in Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily planned for July 1943, despite the fact that the British did not want the 1st Division in Sicily. McNaughton was strongly opposed to losing a division from the 1st Canadian Army, which brought tensions with Massey to the fore as the latter on the behalf of Mackenzie King insisted that the 1st Division take part in Operation Husky. As McNaughton was very popular with both the troops under his command and with the Canadian people, Mackenzie King did not want McNaughton to resign in protest. After much haggling, it was agreed that the 1st Division would be detached from the 1st Canadian Army to serve as part of the British 8th Army in Sicily and would return to Britain to rejoin the 1st Army once the Sicilian campaign was over.
Upon his return to Canada Massey continued in the same cultural fields. He sat as chair of the National Gallery of Canada from 1948 to 1952 and served as Chancellor of the University of Toronto from 1948 to 1953. In 1949, Massey was appointed head of the Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences, which resulted in the Massey Report of 1951 and led to the establishment of the National Library of Canada and the Canada Council of the Arts.
Governor General of Canada
Massey was the first Canadian-born individual to be appointed Governor General; all his predecessors had been born elsewhere in the British Empire or British Commonwealth. As a widower (his wife had died in 1950), he was also the only unmarried person ever to reside at Rideau Hall until the appointment of Julie Payette in 2017. Usually, the governor general's wife is the viceregal consort and acts as the hostess and chatelaine of the household; during Massey's tenure, his daughter-in-law, Lilias Massey, fulfilled the role, though she was not accorded the style of Her Excellency, usually given to the viceregal consort.
As governor general-designate
On February 1, 1952, the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada announced that George VI had approved Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent's choice of Massey to succeed the Viscount Alexander of Tunis as the King's representative. Five days later, however, the King was dead and Massey, upon his swearing-in, became the first Canadian-born representative of George's daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. In the bustle over the king's death, there was little fanfare around Massey's appointment; Lord Alexander quietly departed Canada shortly after the announcement of Massey as his successor, leaving Chief Justice Thibaudeau Rinfret as administrator of the government in his place, as Massey was, at the time, in London. As he was a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, he attended the new queen's Accession Council on February 7.
In Canada, there was some commentary on the new representative of the monarch. The notion of a Canadian-born Governor General, and one not belonging to the peerage, was viewed with suspicion by traditionalists. Massey, thus, was to be a compromise: while it was known he was closely associated with the Liberal Party, having been the group's chairman during the 1930s, the governor general-designate was a Canadian by birth but he also embodied loyalty, dignity, and formality, as expected from a viceroy. Massey stated that, for his role as governor general, he looked for inspiration to one of his predecessors and a man Massey had known for decades: the Baron Tweedsmuir, whom Massey said he "greatly admired" and had "learnt much from" his tenure as governor general.
Life magazine ran a profile piece on Massey in which the Marquess of Salisbury described Massey as an elegant individual—citing Massey's Oxford schooling and tailored clothing as illustrations—and thoroughly Canadian, though noting that "Vincent's a fine chap, but he does make one feel like a bit of a savage." But the elite demeanour he was sometimes criticised for was not evident in Massey's belief that the Crown belonged to Canadians and that it was his task as viceroy to act as a link between the people and the monarch. He similarly believed that the arts were a way to assert Canadian sovereignty and that the various artistic fields should be accessible to all Canadians.
In office
On February 28, 1952, Massey was sworn in as governor general of Canada in a ceremony in the Senate chamber, where he was presented with the Canadian Forces Decoration (subsequently given to all governors general upon taking office). However, Massey's first months as the viceroy were muted, due to the ongoing 16-week period of official mourning. It was not until the coronation of Elizabeth II on June 2, 1953, that Massey was called upon to take charge of any national celebration. For the occasion, he revived the use of the state carriage when he rode in it, with an accompanying guard of Royal Canadian Mounted Police, from the royal and viceroyal residence of Rideau Hall to Parliament Hill, where he introduced to the gathered crowd the Queen's coronation speech, broadcast around the world via radio. He also gave a silver spoon to each child born on that day.
Massey welcomed the Queen and her consort, the Duke of Edinburgh, to Ottawa on three occasions from 1957 on; when the royal couple were engaged in a cross-country tour, Massey invited them to stay at his private estate, Batterwood, near Port Hope, Ontario. He also hosted a number of foreign heads of state, including United States president Dwight D. Eisenhower on November 13, 1953. As a return gesture, Massey was invited by Eisenhower to Washington, D.C., where, on May 4, 1954, he addressed a joint session of the United States Congress.
It was Massey's intent as governor general to work to unite Canada's diverse cultures. He travelled across the country, using any and all available transportation, including canoe and dog sled, and delivered speeches promoting bilingualism, some 20 years before it became an official national policy. Along with the usual ceremonial duties undertaken by a viceroy, such as opening in 1955 the new home of the Royal Saskatchewan Museum and, with his 1958 Dominion Day speech, inaugurating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's first national televised broadcast, the Governor General toured the Canadian arctic extensively, journeying to such places as Frobisher Bay and Hall Beach in the Northwest Territories, meeting with local Inuit residents, participating in their activities, and watching their performances. During his governor generalship, Massey also became actively involved with Upper Canada College, donating funds and his time to the school and seeing a number of spaces there named in his honour in return. As part of his effort to unify Canadians, it was Massey's desire to see established an entirely Canadian honours system. Though such a thing was never realised during his viceregal tenure, he helped lay the groundwork for the system that would be implemented by his successor, and in 1967, just months before his death, Massey was inducted as one of the first companions of the Order of Canada.
Promoting culture
Biographer Claude Bissell believed that Massey's most influential years were between 1949 and 1959, when Massey "made his major contribution. More than any other Canadian, he was responsible for the first major movement of the arts and letters from the periphery of national concern towards the centre. It was a notable achievement." In this vein, Massey created awards for artistic endeavours, such as the Governor General's Medals in Architecture, and promoted the concept of an annual, national arts festival, which eventually led to the founding of the National Arts Centre. Further, Massey initiated in 1954 the Governor General's gold medal for the Institute of Chartered Accountants, as well as in 1959 the Massey Medal, for excellence in geographic endeavours for the Royal Canadian Geographical Society.
Post-viceregal life and death
Upon his final departure from Rideau Hall as governor general, Massey retired to Batterwood House, in the village of Canton, near Port Hope, Ontario. For his service to the Crown, he was awarded from the Queen the Royal Victorian Chain, making him the second commoner or non-head of state, the first Canadian, and one of the only two Canadians to have ever received the honour. Just prior to the end of his time as governor general, the Queen wrote to Massey: "I wish to send you my congratulations and my sincere thanks for the manner in which you have discharged [your] duties. I know that as my personal representative you have always sought to maintain the right relationship between the Crown and the people of Canada. I am grateful to you for this because I regard it as the most important function among the many duties of the appointment which you have held with such distinction." The Queen had wanted to appoint Massey as a Knight of the Order of the Garter, but Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, after consulting the rest of Cabinet, advised the Queen against conferring the honour.
Massey continued his philanthropic work, dedicating his time to the stewardship of the Massey Foundation, and its endowment to the University of Toronto, in particular. His donation of Hart House to the University of Toronto stipulated that the building be restricted to men only, and it was not until after his death that the deed of gift was altered to allow for women becoming full members in 1972. While Hart House continued as one of the recipients of Massey's attention and funds, Massey also expanded the scope of his donations to U of T with the establishment in 1963 of Massey College, to which Massey's protégé, Robertson Davies, was appointed as the college's first master. In 1961, the Massey Lectures were also initiated, conceived as a focus on important contemporary issues by leading thinkers, and they remain considered as the most important public lecture series in Canada.
At the end of 1967, on December 30, Massey died while on holiday in the United Kingdom. His remains were returned to Canada and he was, as is customary for former governors general, given a state funeral, in early January 1968. He was buried alongside his wife at historic St. Mark's Anglican church in Port Hope; his was among the last burials permitted in the small cemetery (Farley Mowat was interred in 2014).
Awards and decorations
Massey's personal awards and decorations include the following:
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Honours
Appointments
1946 – December 30, 1967: Companion of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH)
September 16, 1925 – December 30, 1967: Member of the King's Privy Council for Canada (PC)
February 28, 1952 – 1955: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ)
1952 – September 15, 1959: Bailiff Grand Cross, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (GCStJ)
September 15, 1959 – December 30, 1967: Bailiff Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of Saint John (GCStJ)
February 28, 1952 – September 15, 1959: Chief Scout of Canada
1952 – December 30, 1967: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club
July 9, 1967 – December 30, 1967: Companion of the Order of Canada (CC)
Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (FRSC(hon))
Medals
1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
1937: King George VI Coronation Medal
February 28, 1952: Canadian Forces Decoration (CD)
1953: Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
1967: Canadian Centennial Medal
Awards
July 22, 1960: Royal Victorian Chain
December 11, 1963: Augmentation of honour
Honorary military appointments
February 28, 1952 – September 15, 1959: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards
February 28, 1952 – September 15, 1959: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards
February 28, 1952 – September 15, 1959: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards
Honorary degrees
1951: Queen's University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
May 13, 1955: University of Saskatchewan, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
May 18, 1954: University of British Columbia, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
Honorific eponyms
Events
: Massey Lectures
Geographic locations
: Mount Massey
: Massey Drive
: Vincent Massey Park, Ottawa
: Massey Place, Saskatoon
: Massey Park, Saskatoon
Buildings
: Vincent Massey Theatre (later Massey Theatre), New Westminster
: Massey Building, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston
Massey Library, within the Massey Building
: Massey Quadrangle, Upper Canada College, Toronto
: Vincent Massey Memorial Centre, Bewdley
: Massey House, Trinity College, Toronto
: Place Vincent Massey, Gatineau
: Massey Building, Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
Schools
: Vincent Massey Junior High School, Calgary
: Vincent Massey School, Medicine Hat
: Vincent Massey High School, Brandon
: Vincent Massey Collegiate, Winnipeg
: Vincent Massey Elementary School, St. Andrews
: Vincent Massey Public School, Bowmanville
: Vincent Massey Public School, Cornwall (closed)
: Vincent Massey Collegiate Institute, Etobicoke (closed)
: Vincent Massey Public School, Etobicoke
: Vincent Massey Public School, Etobicoke (closed)
: Vincent Massey School, Hamilton
: Vincent Massey Public School, North Bay
: Vincent Massey Public School, Oshawa
: Vincent Massey Public School, Ottawa
: Vincent Massey School, Ottawa
: Massey College, University of Toronto, Toronto
: Vincent Massey Secondary School, Windsor
: Vincent Massey Collegiate, Montreal
: Vincent Massey Elementary School, Saint-Hubert
: Vincent Massey Community School, Prince Albert
: Ecole Massey School, Regina
: Vincent Massey School, Saskatoon
: Vincent Massey Public School, Saskatoon
Civic structures
: Massey Road, Canton
Arms
List of works
Electoral record
See also
Diplomatic corps
Massey Foundation
Notes
References
Books and articles
External links
Parliament of Canada biography
Arms of Vincent Massey
Archives of Ontario: Birth certificate for Vincent Massey
Archives of Ontario: Marriage certificate for Vincent Massey and Alice Parker
Massey Family archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services
Massey family fonds, Library and Archives Canada
Vincent Massey
Governors General of Canada
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Canadian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Chancellors of the University of Toronto
Ambassadors of Canada to the United States
High Commissioners of Canada to the United Kingdom
Candidates in the 1925 Canadian federal election
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
University of Toronto alumni
Canadian Anglicans
Converts to Anglicanism from Methodism
Canadian Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Companions of the Order of Canada
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
1887 births
1967 deaths
People from Northumberland County, Ontario
People from Old Toronto
Canadian monarchists
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada soldiers
Canadian military personnel of World War I
Canadian Army officers
Chief Scouts of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons | [
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233827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melungeon | Melungeon | Melungeons ( ) are an ethnic group of people from the Southeastern United States who descend from European settlers and Sub-Saharan African slaves. Historically, the Melungeons were associated with settlements in the Cumberland Gap area of central Appalachia, which includes portions of East Tennessee, Southwest Virginia, and eastern Kentucky.
Tri-racial describes populations who claim to be of mixed European, African and Native American ancestry. Although there is no consensus on how many such groups exist, estimates range as high as 200.
Definition
The ancestry and identity of Melungeons has been a highly controversial subject. Secondary sources disagree as to their ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and geographic origins and identity. They might accurately be described as a loose collection of families of diverse ethnic origins who migrated to frontier areas, settled near each other, and intermarried, mostly in Hancock and Hawkins counties in Tennessee, nearby areas of Kentucky, and in Lee County, Virginia. Their ancestors can usually be traced back to colonial Virginia and the Carolinas. They were largely endogamous through the 19th century, marrying primarily within their community until about 1900.
Melungeons have been defined and documented as having multiracial ancestry. They did not exhibit characteristics that could be classified as those of a single racial phenotype. Most modern-day descendants of Appalachian families traditionally regarded as Melungeon are generally European American in appearance, often (though not always) with dark hair and eyes, and a swarthy or olive complexion. Descriptions of Melungeons have varied widely over time; in the 19th and early 20th century, they were sometimes identified as "Portuguese", "Native American", or "light-skinned African American". During the nineteenth century, free people of color sometimes identified as Portuguese or Native American in order to avoid being classified as black in the segregated slave societies.
Other Melungeon individuals and families are accepted and identify as white, particularly since the mid-20th century. They have tended to "marry white" since before the twentieth century.
Scholars and commentators do not agree on who should be included under the term Melungeon. Contemporary authors identify differing lists of surnames to be included as families associated with Melungeons. The English surname Gibson and Irish surname Collins appear frequently; genealogist Pat Elder calls them "core" surnames. Vardy Collins and Shep Gibson had settled in Hancock County, and they and other Melungeons are documented by land deeds, slave sales, and marriage licenses.
The original meaning of the word "Melungeon" is obscure (see Etymology below). From about the mid-19th to the late 20th centuries, it referred exclusively to one tri-racial isolate group, the descendants of the multiracial Collins, Gibson, and several other related families at Newman's Ridge, Vardy Valley, and other settlements in and around Hancock and Hawkins counties, Tennessee.
Origins
According to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, which Virginia incorporated into law in 1662, children born in the colonies were assigned the social status of their mother, regardless of their father's ethnicity or citizenship. This meant the children of enslaved African or African-American women were born into slavery. But it also meant the children of free white or mulatto women, even if fathered by enslaved African men, were born free. The free descendants of such unions formed the majority of ancestors of the free families of color listed in the 1790 and 1810 US censuses. Early colonial Virginia was very much a "melting pot" of peoples, and before slavery hardened as a racial caste, white and black working-class people often lived and worked in close quarters and formed relationships and marriages.
Some of these early multiracial families were ancestors of the later Melungeons, yet each family line must be traced separately. Over the generations, most individuals of the group called Melungeon were persons of mixed European and African descent, sometimes also with Native American ancestry, whose ancestors had been free in colonial Virginia.
Edward Price's dissertation on Mixed-Blood Populations of the Eastern United States as to Origins, Localizations, and Persistence (1950) said that children of European and free black unions had also intermarried with persons of alleged Native American ancestry. In 1894, the U.S. Department of the Interior, in its "Report of Indians Taxed and Not Taxed," noted that the Melungeons in Hawkins County "claim to be Cherokee of mixed blood". The term Melungeon has since sometimes been applied as a catch-all phrase for a number of groups of individuals with mixed-race ancestry.
In 1995, Paul Heinegg published Free African American Families in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, and has since published regular updates. He found through his research and documented that the great majority of free people of color in the 1790 and 1810 censuses had ancestors from colonial Virginia, who were the children of unions between free white women and free, indentured or enslaved African or African-American men.
Similarly, in 2012, the genealogist Roberta Estes and her fellow researchers of the Melungeon DNA Project reported that the Melungeon lines likely originated in the unions of black and white indentured servants living in Virginia in the mid-1600s before slavery became widespread in the United States. They concluded that as laws to prevent the mixing of races were put in place, these family groups intermarried with each other, creating an endogamous group. They migrated together, sometimes along with white neighbors, from western Virginia through the Piedmont frontier of North Carolina, before settling primarily in the mountains of East Tennessee. In addition, the Melungeon DNA Project has documented multiracial ancestry, primarily European and African, for numerous people identified as Melungeon, affirming the evidence from written documentation.
Evidence
Free people of color are documented as migrating with European-American neighbors in the first half of the 18th century to the frontiers of Virginia and North Carolina, where they received land grants like their neighbors. For instance, the Collins, Gibson, and Ridley (Riddle) families owned land adjacent to one another in Orange County, North Carolina, where they and the Bunch family were listed in 1755 as "free Molatas (mulattoes)", subject to taxation on tithes. By settling in frontier areas, free people of color found more amenable living conditions and could escape some of the racial strictures of Virginia and North Carolina Tidewater plantation areas.
Historian Jack D. Forbes has discussed laws in South Carolina related to racial classification:
In 1719, South Carolina decided who should be an "Indian" for tax purposes since American [Indian] slaves were taxed at a lesser rate than African slaves. The act stated: "And for preventing all doubts and scruples that may arise what ought to be rated on mustees, mulattoes, etc. all such slaves as are not entirely Indian shall be accounted as negro.
Forbes said that, at the time, "mustees" and "mulattoes" were terms for persons of part-Native American ancestry. He wrote,
My judgment (to be discussed later) is that a mustee was primarily part-African and American [Indian] and that a mulatto was usually part-European and American [Indian]. The act is also significant because it asserts that part-American [Indians] with or without [emphasis added] African ancestry could be counted as Negroes, thus having an implication for all later slave censuses.This view does not have a consensus.
Beginning about 1767, some of the ancestors of the Melungeons reached the frontier New River area, where they are listed in the 1780s on tax lists of Montgomery County, Virginia. From there they migrated south in the Appalachian Range to Wilkes County, North Carolina, where some are listed as "white" on the 1790 census. They resided in a part that became Ashe County, where they are designated as "other free" in 1800.
The Collins and Gibson families (identified as Melungeon ancestors) were recorded in 1813 as members of the Stony Creek Primitive Baptist Church in Scott County, Virginia. They appear to have been treated as social equals of the white members. The earliest documented use of the term "Melungeon" is found in the minutes of this church (see Etymology below). While there are historical references to the documents, the evidence has come from transcribed copies.
From the Virginia and North Carolina frontiers, the families migrated west into frontier Tennessee and Kentucky. The earliest known Melungeon in what is now northeast Tennessee was Millington Collins, who executed a deed in Hawkins County in 1802. However, there is some evidence that Vardy Collins and Shep Gibson had settled in Hawkins (what is now Hancock County) by 1790. Several Collins and Gibson households were listed in Floyd County, Kentucky in the 1820 census, where they were classified as "free persons of color". On the 1830 censuses of Hawkins and neighboring Grainger County, Tennessee, the Collins and Gibson families are listed as "free-colored". Melungeons were residents of the part of Hawkins that in 1844 was organized as Hancock County.
By 1830, the Melungeon community in Hawkins County numbered 330 people in 55 families; in adjoining Grainger County, there were 130 people in 24 families. According to Edward Price, "Because of them, Hawkins County had more free colored persons in the 1830 census than any other county in Tennessee except Davidson (which includes Nashville) and more free colored families named Collins than any other county in the United States." Melungeon families have also been traced in Ashe County in northwestern North Carolina.
Contemporary accounts documented that Melungeon ancestors were considered by appearance to be mixed race. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, census enumerators classified them as "mulatto", "other free", or as "free persons of color". Sometimes they were listed as "white", sometimes as "black" or "negro", but almost never as "Indian". One family described as "Indian" was the Ridley (Riddle) family, noted as such on a 1767 Pittsylvania County, Virginia, tax list. They had been designated as "mulattoes" in an earlier record of 1755. Estes et al., in their 2012 summary of the Melungeon Core DNA Testing Program, stated that the Riddle family is the only Melungeon participant with historical records identifying them as having Native American origins, but their DNA is European. Among the participants, only the Sizemore family is documented as having Native American DNA.
The court record of Jacob Perkins vs. John White (1858) in Johnson County, Tennessee, provides definitions of the time related to race and free people of color. As in Virginia, if a free person was mostly white (one-eighth or less black), he was considered legally white and a citizen of the state:
"Persons that are known and recognized by the Constitution and laws of Tennessee, as free persons of color are those who by the act of 1794 section 32 are taken and deemed to be capable in law to be certified in any case what is in, except against each other or in the language of the statute "all Negroes, Indians, Mulattoes, and all persons of mixed blood descended from Negro or Indian ancestors to the third generation inclusive though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person, white bond or free."... That if the great grandfather of Plaintiff was an Indian or Negro and he is descended on the mother's side from a white woman, without any further Negro or Indian blood than such as he derived on the father's side, then the Plaintiff is not of mix blood, or within the third generation inclusive; in other words that if the Plaintiff has not in his veins more than 1/8 of Negro or Indian blood, he is a citizen of this state and it would be slanderous to call him a Negro."
During the 19th century, due to their intermarriages with white spouses, Melungeon-surnamed families were increasingly classified as white on census records. In 1935, a Nevada newspaper anecdotally described Melungeons as "mulattoes" with "straight hair."
Assimilation
Ariela Gross has shown by analysis of court cases, the shift from perceptions of an individual as "mulatto" to "white" was often dependent upon appearance and, especially, community perception of a person's activities in life: who one associated with and whether the person fulfilled the common obligations of citizens. Census takers were generally people of a community, so they classified people racially as they were known by the community. Definitions of racial categories were often imprecise and ambiguous, especially for "mulatto" and "free person of color". In the Thirteen Colonies and the United States at times in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, "mulatto" could mean a mixture of African and European, African and Native American, European and Native American, or all three. At the same time, these groups intermarried.
Persons were often identified by the company they kept and which ethnic culture they identified with. There were differences between how people identified themselves and how others identified them. Because of slavery, colonial and state laws were biased toward identifying multiracial people of partial African origin as African or 'black,' although persons of mixed African and Native American descent often identified and lived culturally as Native Americans, particularly if their maternal line was Native American. Many Native American tribes were organized into matrilineal kinship systems, in which children were considered born into the mother's clan and took their social status from her people; inheritance and descent was figured through the maternal lines.
Because of the loose terminology and social attitudes to mixed-race persons, remnant non-reservation American Indians in the Upper South were generally not recorded separately as Indians. They were often gradually reclassified as mulatto or free people of color, especially as generations intermarried with neighbors of African descent. In the early decades of the 20th century, Virginia and some other states passed laws imposing the one-drop rule, requiring all persons to be classified as either white or black: those of any known African ancestry were to be classified as black, regardless of appearance, and how they self-identified or were known in the community.
After Virginia passed its Racial Integrity Act of 1924, officials went so far as to alter existing birth and marriage records to reclassify as "colored" some mixed-race individuals or families who identified as and had been recorded as "Indian". These actions destroyed the documented continuity of identity of several Indian communities. The historical documentation of continuity of self-identified Native American families was lost. If the families happened to be Catholic, their churches continued to record births and marriages as being among "Indian" families. But the process of loss of historical and cultural continuity appeared to have happened also with some of the non-reservation remnant Lenape Indians of Delaware.
According to the Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, in his 1950 dissertation, cultural geographer Edward Price proposed that Melungeons were families descended from free people of color (who were of European and African ancestry) and mixed-race unions between persons of African ancestry and Native Americans in colonial Virginia, whose territory included the modern-day states of Kentucky and West Virginia.
Acceptance
The families known as "Melungeons" in the 19th century were generally well integrated into the communities in which they lived, though they may still have been affected by racism. Records show that on the whole, they enjoyed the same rights as whites. For example, they held property, voted, and served in the Army; some, such as the Gibsons, owned slaves as early as the 18th century.
Under the first Tennessee constitution of 1796, free people of color (males only) were allowed to vote. Following fears raised by the 1831 Nat Turner slave rebellion in Virginia, Tennessee and other southern states passed new restrictions on free people of color. By its new constitution of 1834, Tennessee disfranchised free people of color, reducing them to second-class status and excluding them from the political system.
In this period, several Melungeon men were tried in Hawkins County in 1846 for "illegal voting", under suspicion of being black or free men of color (and thereby ineligible for voting). They were acquitted, presumably by demonstrating to the court's satisfaction that they had no appreciable black ancestry. Standards were not as strict as under the later laws of the "one drop rule" of the 20th century. As in some other cases, racial status was chiefly determined by people testifying as to how the men were perceived by the community and whether they had "acted white" by voting, serving in the militia, or undertaking other common citizens' obligations available to white men.
After the American Civil War and following the Reconstruction Era, southern whites struggled to regain political power and re-assert white supremacy over freedmen and traditionally free families such as the Melungeons. The white Democrat-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws. But issues of race were often brought to court as a result of arguments about money.
For example, in 1872, a widowed woman's Melungeon ancestry was assessed in a trial in Hamilton County, Tennessee. The case was brought by relatives of her late husband, who challenged her inheritance of money from him after his death. They questioned the legitimacy of a marriage between a white man and a woman known to be Melungeon, and argued the marriage was not legitimate because the woman was of black ancestry. Based on the testimony of people in the community, the court decided the woman in the case was not of African ancestry, or had no such ancestors recently enough to matter.
During the period of segregation, a North Carolina statute barred "Portuguese" people—presumably Melungeons, as North Carolina does not have a large Portuguese American community—from whites-only schools. However, under this statute the "Portuguese" were not classified as Black, and they were not required to attend Black schools.
Modern anthropological and sociological studies of Melungeon descendants in Appalachia have demonstrated that they have become culturally indistinguishable from their "non-Melungeon," white neighbors: they share a Baptist religious affiliation and other community features. With changing attitudes and a desire for more work opportunities, numerous descendants of the early Melungeon pioneer families have migrated from Appalachia to make their lives in other parts of the United States.
Legends
In spite of being culturally and linguistically similar to their European neighbors, these multi-racial families were of a sufficiently different physical appearance to provoke speculation as to their identity and origins. In the first half of the 19th century, the pejorative term "Melungeon" began to be applied to these families by local white (European-American) neighbors. Local "knowledge" or myths soon began to arise about them. According to historian Pat Elder, the earliest of these was that they were "Indian" (more specifically, "Cherokee"). Jack Goins, an identified Melungeon descendant and researcher, states that the Melungeons claimed to be both Indian and Portuguese. An example was "Spanish Peggy" Gibson, wife of Vardy Collins.
A few ancestors may have been of mixed Iberian (Spanish and/or Portuguese) and African origin. Historian Ira Berlin has noted that some early slaves and free blacks of the charter generation in the colonies were "Atlantic Creoles", mixed-race descendants of Iberian workers and African women from slave ports in Africa. Their male descendants grew up bilingual and accompanied Europeans as workers or slaves. The majority of Melungeon early ancestors, who had migrated from Virginia over time, are of northern European and African ancestry, given the history of settlement in late 17th–early-18th century eastern Virginia. Later generations in Tennessee intermarried with descendants of Scotch-Irish immigrants who arrived in the mid- to late-18th century and settled in the backcountry before the American Revolution.
Given historical evidence of Native American settlement patterns, Cherokee Nation descent is highly unlikely for the original Melungeon ancestral families. These families were formed during the colonial era in the Virginia Tidewater areas, which were not Cherokee territory. Some of their descendants may have later intermarried with isolated individuals of Cherokee or other Native American ancestry in East Tennessee. Melungeons in Graysville, Tennessee claimed Cherokee ancestors.
Anthropologist E. Raymond Evans wrote (1979) regarding these claims:
In Graysville, the Melungeons strongly deny their Black heritage and explain their genetic differences by claiming to have had Cherokee grandmothers. Many of the local whites also claim Cherokee ancestry and appear to accept the Melungeon claim ...
In 1999 historian C. S. Everett hypothesized that John Collins (recorded as a Sapony Indian who was expelled from Orange County, Virginia about January 1743), might be the same man as the Melungeon ancestor John Collins, classified as a "mulatto" in 1755 North Carolina records. But Everett has revised that theory after having discovered evidence that these were two different men named John Collins. Only descendants of the latter man, identified as mulatto in the 1755 record in North Carolina, has any proven connection to the Melungeon families of eastern Tennessee.
Other peoples frequently suggested as Melungeon ancestors are the Black Dutch and the Powhatan Indian group. The Powhatan were an Algonquian-speaking tribe who inhabited eastern Virginia during the initial period of European colonization.
Speculation about Melungeon origins continued during the 19th and 20th centuries. Writers recounted folk tales of shipwrecked sailors, lost colonists, hoards of silver, and ancient peoples such as the Carthaginians or Phoenicians. With each writer, new elements were added to the mythology surrounding this group, and more surnames were added to the list of possible Melungeon ancestors. Journalist Will Allen Dromgoole wrote several articles on the Melungeons in the 1890s.
In the late 20th century, amateur researchers suggested that the Melungeons' ethnic identity may include ancestors who were Turks and Sephardi (Iberian) Jews. The writers David Beers Quinn and Ivor Noel Hume theorize that the Melungeons were descended from Sephardi Jews who fled the Inquisition and came as sailors to North America. They also say that Francis Drake did not repatriate all the Turks he saved from the sack of Cartagena, but some came to the colonies. But Janet Crain notes that there is no written documentation to support this theory.
The paper on the Melungeon DNA Project, published by Paul Heinegg, Jack Goins, and Roberta Estes in the Journal of Genetic Genealogy, shows that ancestry of the sample is primarily European and African, with only one person having a Native American paternal haplotype. There is no genetic evidence to support the Turkish or Jewish ancestry theories.
Etymology
There are many hypotheses about the etymology of the term Melungeon. Linguists and many researchers believe that it may have been derived from the French mélange, meaning mixture, or perhaps [nous] mélangeons meaning "[we] mix/mingle". This etymology is also found in several dictionaries. There were numerous French Huguenot immigrants in Virginia from 1700, and their language could have contributed a term.
Joanne Pezzullo and Karlton Douglas speculate that a more likely derivation of Melungeon, related to the dominance of the English language in the colonies, may have been from the now obsolete English word malengin (also spelled mal engin) meaning "guile", "deceit", or "ill intent." It was used by Edmund Spenser as the name of a trickster figure in his epic poem, The Faerie Queene (1590–1596), popular in Elizabethan England. The phrase, "harbored them Melungins," would be equivalent to "harbored someone of ill will", or could mean "harbored evil people", without reference to any ethnicity.
A different explanation traces the word to malungu (or malungo), a Luso-African word from Angola, meaning shipmate, derived from the Kimbundu word ma'luno, meaning "companion" or "friend". The word, spelled as Melungo and Mulungo, has been found in numerous Portuguese records. It is said to be a derogatory word that Africans used for people of Portuguese or other white ancestry. If so, the word was likely brought to America through people of African ancestry.
Kennedy (1994) speculates that the word derives from the Turkish melun can (from Arabic mal`un jinn ملعون جنّ), which purportedly means "damned soul." He suggests that, at the time, the (condemned soul) was a term used by Turks for Muslims who had been captured and enslaved aboard Spanish galleons.
Some writers try to connect the term Melungeon to an ethnic origin of people designated by that term, but there is no basis for this assumption. It appears the name arose as an exonym, something which neighboring people, of whatever origin, called the multi-racial people.
On October 7, 1840, the polemical Brownlow's Whig of Jonesborough, Tennessee, published an article entitled "Negro Speaking!" The publisher referred to a rival Democratic politician with a party in Sullivan County as "an impudent Malungeon from Washington City a scoundrel who is half Negro and half Indian," then as a "free negroe". In this and related articles, he does not identify the Democrat by name.
Modern identity
The term Melungeon was historically considered an insult, a label applied to Appalachians who were by appearance or reputation of mixed-race ancestry. In southwest Virginia, the term Ramp was similarly applied to people of mixed race. This term has never shed its pejorative character.
In December 1943, Virginia State Registrar of Vital Statistics, Walter Ashby Plecker, sent county officials a letter warning against "colored" families trying to pass as "white" or "Indian" in violation of the Racial Integrity Act of 1924. He identified specific surnames by county, including: "Lee, Smyth and Wise: Collins, Gibson, (Gipson), Moore, Goins, Ramsey, Delph, Bunch, Freeman, Mise, Barlow, Bolden (Bolin), Mullins, Hawkins (chiefly Tennessee Melungeons)". (Lee County, Virginia borders Hancock County, Tennessee.) He directed the offices to reclassify members of certain families as black, causing the loss for numerous families of documentation in records that showed their continued identification as Native American.
Different researchers have developed their own lists of the surnames of core Melungeon families. Generally, specific lines within families have to be traced to document such identity. For example, DeMarce (1992) listed Hale as a Melungeon surname.
By the mid-to-late 19th century, the term Melungeon appeared to have been used most frequently to refer to the biracial families of Hancock County and neighboring areas. Several other uses of the term in the print media, from mid-19th to early 20th century, have been collected at the Melungeon Heritage Association Website. The spelling of the term varied widely, as was common for words and names at the time. Eventually, the form "Melungeon" became standard.
Since the late 1960s, "Melungeon" has been increasingly adopted by individuals who identify with the ethnic group. This shift in meaning may have resulted from the popularity of Walk Toward the Sunset, a drama written by playwright Kermit Hunter and produced outdoors. The play was first presented in 1969 in Sneedville, the county seat of Hancock County. Making no claim to historical accuracy, Hunter portrayed the Melungeons as indigenous people of uncertain race who were mistakenly perceived as black by neighboring white settlers. As the drama portrayed Melungeons in a positive, romantic light, many individuals began for the first time to self-identify by that term. Hunter intended for his drama "to improve the socio-economic climate" of Hancock County, and to "lift the Melungeon name 'from shame to the hall of fame'." The play helped revive interest in the history of Melungeons. The civil rights movement and social changes of the 1960s further contributed to wider acceptance of members of the group. Research in social history and genealogy has documented new facts about people identified as Melungeons.
Since the mid-1990s, popular interest in the Melungeons has grown tremendously, although many descendants have left the region of historical concentration. Writer Bill Bryson devoted the better part of a chapter to them in his The Lost Continent (1989).
N. Brent Kennedy, a non-specialist, wrote a book on his claimed Melungeon roots, The Melungeons: The Resurrection of a Proud People (1994). With the advent of the internet, many people are researching family history and the number of people self-identifying as having Melungeon ancestry has increased rapidly, according to Kennedy. Some individuals have begun to self-identify as Melungeons after reading about the group on a website and discovering their surname on the expanding list of "Melungeon-associated" surnames. Others believe they have certain "characteristic" physical traits or conditions or assume that a multi-racial heritage means they are Melungeon.
For example, some Melungeons are allegedly identifiable by shovel-shaped incisors, a dental feature more commonly found among, but not restricted to, Native Americans and Northeast Asians. After an unsubstantiated hypothesis, popularized by N. Brent Kennedy, that Melungeons are of Turkish origin, some people have identified as having an enlarged external occipital protuberance, dubbed an "Anatolian bump".
Academic historians have not found any evidence for this thesis, nor is it supported by results from the Melungeon DNA Project. As noted before, this analysis shows that Melungeon descendants overwhelmingly have northern European and African DNA ancestry.
Internet sites promote the anecdotal claim that Melungeons are more prone to certain diseases, such as sarcoidosis or familial Mediterranean fever. Academic medical centers have noted that neither of these diseases is confined to a single population.
Kennedy's claims of ancestral connections to this group have been strongly disputed. The professional genealogist and historian, Virginia E. DeMarce, reviewed his 1994 book and found that Kennedy's documentation of his Melungeon ancestry was seriously flawed. He had a very indistinct definition of Melungeons, although the group had already been extensively studied and documented by other researchers. She criticized Kennedy for trying to include people who might have had other than northern European ancestry, and said that he did not properly take account of existing historical records or recognized genealogical practice in his research. He claimed to have ancestors who were persecuted for racial reasons. However, she found that his named ancestors were all classified as white in records, held various political offices (which showed they could vote and were supported by their community), and were landowners. Kennedy responded to her critique in an article of his own.<ref>[http://underonesky.org/SEKMIE_PDF/SEKMIE3A.pdf "Dr. Brent Kennedy Responds to Virginia DeMarce", Southeastern Kentucky Melungeon Information Exchange]</ref>
The Ridgetop Shawnee Tribe of Indians in Kentucky, which is neither federally recognized or state recognized as an Indian tribe, claims that most families in its area who are commonly identified as Melungeon are of partial Native American descent. The organization says their ancestors migrated to the region in the late 18th and early to mid-19th centuries. Most of these families claimed the Ridgetop Shawnee heritage to explain their dark skin and Indian features and to avoid racial persecution. In 2010 the Kentucky General Assembly passed resolutions that acknowledged the civic contributions of the Ridgetop Shawnee Tribe of Indians to the state.
Similar groups
The following are other multi-racial groups that at one time were classified as tri-racial isolates. Some identify as Native American and have received state recognition, as have six tribes in Virginia.
Delaware
Nanticoke-Moors (and in Maryland) Nanticoke groups in Delaware and New Jersey (where they are intermarried with Lenape) have received state recognition. Most had left the area in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Florida
Dominickers of Holmes County in the Florida Panhandle
Indiana
Ben-Ishmael Tribe, pejoratively called "Grasshopper Gypsies"
Louisiana
Redbones (and in Texas)
Maryland
Piscataway Indian Nation, formerly also known as We-Sorts, one of three Piscataway-related groups recognized as Native American tribes by the state
New Jersey and New York
Ramapough Mountain Indians (aka "Jackson Whites") of the Ramapo Mountains, recognized by both New Jersey and New York as Native Americans
North Carolina
Coree or "Faircloth" Indians of Carteret County
Haliwa-Saponi, recognized by the state as Native American
Lumbee, recognized by the state as Native American
Person County Indians, aka "Cubans and Portuguese"
Ohio
Carmel Indians of Highland County
South Carolina
Red Bones (NB: distinct from the Gulf States Redbones)
Turks
Brass Ankles
Virginia
Monacan Indians (a.k.a. "Issues") of Amherst and Rockbridge counties, recognized by state of Virginia and the federal government (2018) as a Native American tribe, along with five other Virginia tribes
West Virginia
Chestnut Ridge people of Barbour County (also known as Mayles or, pejoratively, "Guineas")
Each of these groupings of multiracial populations has a particular history. There is evidence for connections between some of them, going back to common ancestry in colonial Virginia. For example, the Goins surname group in eastern Tennessee has long been identified as Melungeon. The surname Goins is also found among the Lumbee of southern North Carolina, a multi-racial group that has been recognized by the state as a Native American tribe. In most cases, the multi-racial families have to be traced through specific branches and lines, as not all descendants were considered to be Melungeon or other groups.
See also
Melungeon DNA Project
List of topics related to the African diaspora
Vardy Community School
Mulatto
Pardo
References
Further reading
Ball, Bonnie (1992). The Melungeons: Notes on the Origin of a Race' '. Johnson City, Tennessee: Overmountain Press.
Berry, Brewton (1963). Almost White: A Study of Certain Racial Hybrids in the Eastern United States. New York: Macmillan Press.
Bible, Jean Patterson (1975). Melungeons Yesterday and Today. Signal Mountain, Tennessee: Mountain Press.
Brake, Katherine Vande. How They Shine: How They Shine: Melungeon Characters in Fiction of Appalachia. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Brake, Katherine Vande. Through the Back Door: Melungeon Literacies and Twenty-First Century Technologies. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Cavender, Anthony P. "The Melungeons of Upper East Tennessee: Persisting Social Identity," Tennessee Anthropologist 6 (1981): 27-36
DeMarce, Virginia E. (1993). "Looking at Legends – Lumbee and Melungeon: Applied Genealogy and the Origins of Tri-Racial Isolate Settlements." National Genealogical Society Quarterly 81 (March 1993): 24–45, scanned online, Historical-Melungeons
Forbes, Jack D. (1993). Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples. University of Illinois Press.
Goins, Jack H. (2000). Melungeons: And Other Pioneer Families, Blountville, Tennessee: Continuity Press.
Hashaw, Tim. Children of Perdition: Melungeons and the Struggle of Mixed America. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Heinegg, Paul (2005). FREE AFRICAN AMERICANS OF VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, MARYLAND AND DELAWARE Including the family histories of more than 80% of those counted as "all other free persons" in the 1790 and 1800 census, Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing, 1999–2005. Available in its entirety online.
Hirschman, Elizabeth. Melungeons: The Last Lost Tribe in America. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Johnson, Mattie Ruth (1997). My Melungeon Heritage: A Story of Life on Newman's Ridge. Johnson City, Tennessee: Overmountain Press.
Kennedy, N. Brent (1997) The Melungeons: the resurrection of a proud people. Mercer University Press.
Kessler, John S. and Donald Ball. North From the Mountains: A Folk History of the Carmel Melungeon Settlement, Highland County, Ohio. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Langdon, Barbara Tracy (1998). The Melungeons: An Annotated Bibliography: References in both Fiction and Nonfiction, Hemphill, Texas: Dogwood Press.
McGowan, Kathleen (2003). "Where do we really come from?", DISCOVER 24 (5, May 2003)
Offutt, Chris. (1999) "Melungeons", in Out of the Woods, Simon & Schuster.
Overbay, DruAnna Williams. Windows on the Past: The Cultural Heritage of Vardy, Hancock County, Tennessee. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Podber, Jacob. The Electronic Front Porch: An Oral History of the Arrival of Modern Media in Rural Appalachia and the Melungeon Community. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Price, Henry R. (1966). "Melungeons: The Vanishing Colony of Newman's Ridge." Conference paper. American Studies Association of Kentucky and Tennessee. March 25–26, 1966.
Reed, John Shelton (1997). "Mixing in the Mountains", Southern Cultures 3 (Winter 1997): 25–36.
Scolnick, Joseph M Jr. and N. Brent Kennedy. (2004). From Anatolia to Appalachia: A Turkish American Dialogue. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Vande Brake, Katherine (2001). How They Shine: Melungeon Characters in the Fiction of Appalachia, Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press.
Williamson, Joel (1980). New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States, New York: Free Press.
Winkler, Wayne. 2019. Beyond the sunset: The Melungeon drama, 1969-1976. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
Winkler, Wayne (2004). "Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia", Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press.
Winkler, Wayne (1997). " The Melungeons", All Things Considered. National Public Radio. 21 September 1997.
External links
Paul Brodwin, ""Bioethics in action" and human population genetics researMacon, GA: Mercer University Press.ch", Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, Volume 29, Number 2 (2005), 145-178, DOI: 10.1007/s11013-005-7423-2 PDF, addresses issue of 2002 Melungeon DNA study by Kevin Jones, which is unpublished
Melungeon Heritage Association, Official Website
"The Graysville Melungeons", Tennessee Anthropologist, November 1979, hosted at Rootsweb
Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, 1999–2005
"Melungeons", Digital Library of Appalachia. Contains numerous photographs and documents related to Melungeons, mostly from 1900 to 1950.
A Mystery People – The Melungeons From Louis Gates Jr's "Finding your Roots."
"kindness our heroine shows Melungeon outcast Pearl (Erika Coleman)" from AC-T review of Big-Stone-Gap film. Accessed 6/8/2016
Multiracial ethnic groups in the United States
African-American history
Appalachian society
Ethnic groups in Appalachia
Ethnic groups in the United States
History of North Carolina
History of Tennessee
History of Virginia
Scotch-Irish American history
Multiracial affairs in the United States | [
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233830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambisonics | Ambisonics | Ambisonics is a full-sphere surround sound format: in addition to the horizontal plane, it covers sound sources above and below the listener.
Unlike some other multichannel surround formats, its transmission channels do not carry speaker signals. Instead, they contain a speaker-independent representation of a sound field called B-format, which is then decoded to the listener's speaker setup. This extra step allows the producer to think in terms of source directions rather than loudspeaker positions, and offers the listener a considerable degree of flexibility as to the layout and number of speakers used for playback.
Ambisonics was developed in the UK in the 1970s under the auspices of the British National Research Development Corporation.
Despite its solid technical foundation and many advantages, Ambisonics had not until recently been a commercial success, and survived only in niche applications and among recording enthusiasts.
With the easy availability of powerful digital signal processing (as opposed to the expensive and error-prone analog circuitry that had to be used during its early years) and the successful market introduction of home theatre surround sound systems since the 1990s, interest in Ambisonics among recording engineers, sound designers, composers, media companies, broadcasters and researchers has returned and continues to increase.
In particular, it has proved an effective way to present spatial audio in Virtual Reality applications (e.g. YouTube 360 Video), as the B-Format scene can be rotated to match the user's head orientation, and then be decoded as binaural stereo.
Introduction
Ambisonics can be understood as a three-dimensional extension of M/S (mid/side) stereo, adding additional difference channels for height and depth. The resulting signal set is called B-format. Its component channels are labelled for the sound pressure (the M in M/S), for the front-minus-back sound pressure gradient, for left-minus-right (the S in M/S) and for up-minus-down.
The signal corresponds to an omnidirectional microphone, whereas are the components that would be picked up by figure-of-eight capsules oriented along the three spatial axes.
Panning a source
A simple Ambisonic panner (or encoder) takes a source signal and two parameters, the horizontal angle and the elevation angle . It positions the source at the desired angle by distributing the signal over the Ambisonic components with different gains:
Being omnidirectional, the channel always gets the same constant input signal, regardless of the angles. So that it has more-or-less the same average energy as the other channels, W is attenuated by about 3 dB (precisely, divided by the square root of two). The terms for actually produce the polar patterns of figure-of-eight microphones (see illustration on the right, second row). We take their value at and , and multiply the result with the input signal. The result is that the input ends up in all components exactly as loud as the corresponding microphone would have picked it up.
Virtual microphones
The B-format components can be combined to derive virtual microphones with any first-order polar pattern (omnidirectional, cardioid, hypercardioid, figure-of-eight or anything in between) pointing in any direction. Several such microphones with different parameters can be derived at the same time, to create coincident stereo pairs (such as a Blumlein) or surround arrays.
A horizontal virtual microphone at horizontal angle with pattern is given by
.
This virtual mic is free-field normalised, which means it has a constant gain of one for on-axis sounds. The illustration on the left shows some examples created with this formula.
Virtual microphones can be manipulated in post-production: desired sounds can be picked out, unwanted ones suppressed, and the balance between direct and reverberant sound can be fine-tuned during mixing.
Decoding
A basic Ambisonic decoder is very similar to a set of virtual microphones. For perfectly regular layouts, a simplified decoder can be generated by pointing a virtual cardioid microphone in the direction of each speaker. Here is a square:
The signs of the and components are the important part, the rest are gain factors. The component is discarded, because it is not possible to reproduce height cues with just four loudspeakers in one plane.
In practice, a real Ambisonic decoder requires a number of psycho-acoustic optimisations to work properly.
Frequency-dependent decoding can also be used to produce binaural stereo; this is particularly relevant in Virtual Reality applications.
Higher-order Ambisonics
The spatial resolution of first-order Ambisonics as described above is quite low. In practice, that translates to slightly blurry sources, but also to a comparably small usable listening area or sweet spot. The resolution can be increased and the sweet spot enlarged by adding groups of more selective directional components to the B-format. These no longer correspond to conventional microphone polar patterns, but rather look like clover leaves. The resulting signal set is then called Second-, Third-, or collectively, Higher-order Ambisonics.
For a given order , full-sphere systems require signal components, and components are needed for horizontal-only reproduction.
Historically there have been several different format conventions for higher-order Ambisonics; for details see Ambisonic data exchange formats.
Comparison to other surround formats
Ambisonics differs from other surround formats in a number of aspects:
It is isotropic: sounds from any direction are treated equally, as opposed to assuming that the main sources of sound are frontal and that rear channels are only for ambience or special effects.
It requires only three channels for basic horizontal surround, and four channels for a full-sphere soundfield. Basic full-sphere replay requires a minimum of six loudspeakers (a minimum of four for horizontal).
The Ambisonics signal is decoupled from the playback system: loudspeaker placement is flexible (within reasonable limits), and the same program material can be decoded for varying numbers of loudspeakers. Moreover, a width-height mix can be played back on horizontal-only, stereo or even mono systems without losing content entirely (it will be folded to the horizontal plane and to the frontal quadrant, respectively). This allows producers to embrace with-height production without worrying about loss of information.
Ambisonics can be scaled to any desired spatial resolution at the cost of additional transmission channels and more speakers for playback. Higher-order material remains downwards compatible and can be played back at lower spatial resolution without requiring a special downmix.
The core technology of Ambisonics is free of patents, and a complete tool chain for production and listening is available as free software for all major operating systems.
On the downside, Ambisonics is:
Prone to highly unstable phantom sources and small "sweet spot" in loudspeaker reproduction due to the precedence effect.
Prone to strong coloration from comb filtering artifacts due to temporally displaced coherent wavefronts when produced over loudspeaker arrays.
Not accepted by quality-oriented audio engineers despite countless attempts and possible use cases since its inception in the 1970s.
Often marketed with misleading representations that do not correspond to practical use cases, for example assuming a strictly spherical channel array and a listener sitting exactly in the middle or constraining wavefield plots to a tiny frequency range.
Not supported by any major record label or media company. Although a number of Ambisonic UHJ format (UHJ) encoded tracks (principally classical) can be located, if with some difficulty, on services such as Spotify..
Conceptually difficult for people to grasp, as opposed to the conventional "one channel, one speaker" paradigm.
More complicated for the consumer to set up, because of the decoding stage.
Theoretical foundation
Soundfield analysis (encoding)
The B-format signals comprise a truncated spherical harmonic decomposition of the sound field. They correspond to the sound pressure , and the three components of the pressure gradient (not to be confused with the related particle velocity) at a point in space. Together, these approximate the sound field on a sphere around the microphone; formally the first-order truncation of the multipole expansion. (the mono signal) is the zero-order information, corresponding to a constant function on the sphere, while are the first-order terms (the dipoles or figures-of-eight). This first-order truncation is only an approximation of the overall sound field.
The higher orders correspond to further terms of the multipole expansion of a function on the sphere in terms of spherical harmonics. In practice, higher orders require more speakers for playback, but increase the spatial resolution and enlarge the area where the sound field is reproduced perfectly (up to an upper boundary frequency).
The radius of this area for Ambisonic order and frequency is given by
,
where denotes the speed of sound.
This area becomes smaller than a human head above 600 Hz for first order or 1800 Hz for third-order. Accurate reproduction in a head-sized volume up to 20 kHz would require an order of 32 or more than 1000 loudspeakers.
At those frequencies and listening positions where perfect soundfield reconstruction is no longer possible, Ambisonics reproduction has to focus on delivering correct directional cues to allow for good localisation even in the presence of reconstruction errors.
Psychoacoustics
The human hearing apparatus has very keen localisation on the horizontal plane (as fine as 2° source separation in some experiments). Two predominant cues, for different frequency ranges, can be identified:
Low-frequency localisation
At low frequencies, where the wavelength is large compared to the human head, an incoming sound diffracts around it, so that there is virtually no acoustic shadow and hence no level difference between the ears. In this range, the only available information is the phase relationship between the two ear signals, called interaural time difference, or ITD. Evaluating this time difference allows for precise localisation within a cone of confusion: the angle of incidence is unambiguous, but the ITD is the same for sounds from the front or from the back. As long as the sound is not totally unknown to the subject, the confusion can usually be resolved by perceiving the timbral front-back variations caused by the ear flaps (or pinnae).
High-frequency localisation
As the wavelength approaches twice the size of the head, phase relationships become ambiguous, since it is no longer clear whether the phase difference between the ears corresponds to one, two, or even more periods as the frequency goes up. Fortunately, the head will create a significant acoustic shadow in this range, which causes a slight difference in level between the ears. This is called the interaural level difference, or ILD (the same cone of confusion applies). Combined, these two mechanisms provide localisation over the entire hearing range.
ITD and ILD reproduction in Ambisonics
Gerzon has shown that the quality of localisation cues in the reproduced sound field corresponds to two objective metrics: the length of the particle velocity vector for the ITD, and the length of the energy vector for the ILD. Gerzon and Barton (1992) define a decoder for horizontal surround to be Ambisonic if
the directions of and agree up to at least 4 kHz,
at frequencies below about 400 Hz, for all azimuth angles, and
at frequencies from about 700 Hz to 4 kHz, the magnitude of is "substantially maximised across as large a part of the 360° sound stage as possible".
In practice, satisfactory results are achieved at moderate orders even for very large listening areas.
Soundfield synthesis (decoding)
In principle, the loudspeaker signals are derived by using a linear combination of the Ambisonic component signals, where each signal is dependent on the actual position of the speaker in relation to the center of an imaginary sphere the surface of which passes through all available speakers. In practice, slightly irregular distances of the speakers may be compensated with delay.
True Ambisonics decoding however requires spatial equalisation of the signals to account for the differences in the high- and low-frequency sound localisation mechanisms in human hearing. A further refinement accounts for the distance of the listener from the loudspeakers (near-field compensation).
A variety of more modern decoding methods are also in use.
Compatibility with existing distribution channels
Ambisonics decoders are not currently being marketed to end users in any significant way, and no native Ambisonic recordings are commercially available. Hence, content that has been produced in Ambisonics must be made available to consumers in stereo or discrete multichannel formats.
Stereo
Ambisonics content can be folded down to stereo automatically, without requiring a dedicated downmix. The most straightforward approach is to sample the B-format with a virtual stereo microphone. The result is equivalent to a coincident stereo recording. Imaging will depend on the microphone geometry, but usually rear sources will be reproduced more softly and diffuse. Vertical information (from the channel) is omitted.
Alternatively, the B-format can be matrix-encoded into UHJ format, which is suitable for direct playback on stereo systems. As before, the vertical information will be discarded, but in addition to left-right reproduction, UHJ tries to retain some of the horizontal surround information by translating sources in the back into out-of-phase signals. This gives the listener some sense of rear localisation.
Two-channel UHJ can also be decoded back into horizontal Ambisonics (with some loss of accuracy), if an Ambisonic playback system is available. Lossless UHJ up to four channels (including height information) exists but has never seen wide use. In all UHJ schemes, the first two channels are conventional left and right speaker feeds.
Multichannel formats
Likewise, it is possible to pre-decode Ambisonics material to arbitrary speaker layouts, such as Quad, 5.1, 7.1, Auro 11.1, or even 22.2, again without manual intervention. The LFE channel is either omitted, or a special mix is created manually. Pre-decoding to 5.1 media has been known as G-Format during the early days of DVD audio, although the term is not in common use anymore.
The obvious advantage of pre-decoding is that any surround listener can be able to experience Ambisonics; no special hardware is required beyond that found in a common home theatre system. The main disadvantage is that the flexibility of rendering a single, standard Ambisonics signal to any target speaker array is lost: the signal is assumes a specific "standard" layout and anyone listening with a different array may experience a degradation of localisation accuracy.
Target layouts from 5.1 upwards usually surpass the spatial resolution of first-order Ambisonics, at least in the frontal quadrant. For optimal resolution, to avoid excessive crosstalk, and to steer around irregularities of the target layout, pre-decodings for such targets should be derived from source material in higher-order Ambisonics.
Production workflow
Ambisonic content can be created in two basic ways: by recording a sound with a suitable first- or higher-order microphone, or by taking separate monophonic sources and panning them to the desired positions. Content can also be manipulated while it is in B-format.
Ambisonic microphones
Native B-format arrays
Since the components of first-order Ambisonics correspond to physical microphone pickup patterns, it is entirely practical to record B-format directly, with three coincident microphones: an omnidirectional capsule, one forward-facing figure-8 capsule, and one left-facing figure-8 capsule, yielding the , and components. This is referred to as a native or Nimbus/Halliday microphone array, after its designer Dr Jonathan Halliday at Nimbus Records, where it is used to record their extensive and continuing series of Ambisonic releases. An integrated native B-format microphone, the C700S has been manufactured and sold by Josephson Engineering since 1990.
The primary difficulty inherent in this approach is that high-frequency localisation and clarity relies on the diaphragms approaching true coincidence. By stacking the capsules vertically, perfect coincidence for horizontal sources is obtained. However, sound from above or below will theoretically suffer from subtle comb filtering effects in the highest frequencies. In most instances this is not a limitation as sound sources far from the horizontal plane are typically from room reverberation. In addition, stacked figure-8 microphone elements have a deep null in the direction of their stacking axis such that the primary transducer in those directions is the central omnidirectional microphone. In practice this can produce less localisation error than either of the alternatives (tetrahedral arrays with processing, or a fourth microphone for the Z axis.)
Native arrays are most commonly used for horizontal-only surround, because of increasing positional errors and shading effects when adding a fourth microphone.
The tetrahedral microphone
Since it is impossible to build a perfectly coincident microphone array, the next-best approach is to minimize and distribute the positional error as uniformly as possible. This can be achieved by arranging four cardioid or sub-cardioid capsules in a tetrahedron and equalising for uniform diffuse-field response. The capsule signals are then converted to B-format with a matrix operation.
Outside Ambisonics, tetrahedral microphones have become popular with location recording engineers working in stereo or 5.1 for their flexibility in post-production; here, the B-format is only used as an intermediate to derive virtual microphones.
Higher-order microphones
Above first-order, it is no longer possible to obtain Ambisonic components directly with single microphone capsules. Instead, higher-order difference signals are derived from several spatially distributed (usually omnidirectional) capsules using very sophisticated digital signal processing.
The em32 Eigenmike is a commercially available 32-channel, ambisonic microphone array.
A recent paper by Peter Craven et al. (subsequently patented) describes the use of bi-directional capsules for higher order microphones to reduce the extremity of the equalisation involved. No microphones have yet been made using this idea.
Ambisonic panning
The most straightforward way to produce Ambisonic mixes of arbitrarily high order is to take monophonic sources and position them with an Ambisonic encoder.
A full-sphere encoder usually has two parameters, azimuth (or horizon) and elevation angle. The encoder will distribute the source signal to the Ambisonic components such that, when decoded, the source will appear at the desired location. More sophisticated panners will additionally provide a radius parameter that will take care of distance-dependent attenuation and bass boost due to near-field effect.
Hardware panning units and mixers for first-order Ambisonics have been available since the 1980s and have been used commercially. Today, panning plugins and other related software tools are available for all major digital audio workstations, often as free software. However, due to arbitrary bus width restrictions, few professional digital audio workstations (DAW) support orders higher than second. Notable exceptions are REAPER, Pyramix, ProTools, Nuendo and Ardour.
Ambisonic manipulation
First order B-format can be manipulated in various ways to change the contents of an auditory scene. Well known manipulations include "rotation" and "dominance" (moving sources towards or away from a particular direction).
Additionally, linear time-invariant signal processing such as equalisation can be applied to B-format without disrupting sound directions, as long as it applied to all component channels equally.
More recent developments in higher order Ambisonics enable a wide range of manipulations including rotation, reflection, movement, 3D reverb, upmixing from legacy formats such as 5.1 or first order, visualisation and directionally-dependent masking and equalisation.
Data exchange
Transmitting Ambisonic B-format between devices and to end-users requires a standardized exchange format. While traditional first-order B-format is well-defined and universally understood, there are conflicting conventions for higher-order Ambisonics, differing both in channel order and weighting, which might need to be supported for some time. Traditionally, the most widespread is Furse-Malham higher order format in the .amb container based on Microsoft's WAVE-EX file format. It scales up to third order and has a file size limitation of 4GB.
New implementations and productions might want to consider the AmbiX proposal, which adopts the .caf file format and does away with the 4GB limit. It scales to arbitrarily high orders and is based on SN3D encoding. SN3D encoding has been adopted by Google as the basis for its YouTube 360 format.
Current development
Open Source
Since 2018 a free and open source implementation exists in the sound codec Opus.
Corporate interest
Since its adoption by Google and other manufacturers as the audio format of choice for virtual reality, Ambisonics has seen a surge of interest.
In 2018, Sennheiser released its VR microphone, and Zoom released an Ambisonics Field Recorder. Both are implementations of the tetrahedral microphone design which produces first order Ambisonics.
A number of companies are currently conducting research in Ambisonics:
BBC
Technicolor Research and Innovation/Thomson Licensing
Dolby Laboratories have expressed "interest" in Ambisonics by acquiring (and liquidating) Barcelona-based Ambisonics specialist imm sound prior to launching Dolby Atmos, which, although its precise workings are undisclosed, does implement decoupling between source direction and actual loudspeaker positions. Atmos takes a fundamentally different approach in that it does not attempt to transmit a sound field; it transmits discrete premixes or stems (i.e., raw streams of sound data) along with metadata about what location and direction they should appear to be coming from. The stems are then decoded, mixed, and rendered in real time using whatever loudspeakers are available at the playback location.
Use in gaming
Higher-order Ambisonics has found a niche market in video games developed by Codemasters. Their first game to use an Ambisonic audio engine was Colin McRae: DiRT, however, this only used Ambisonics on the PlayStation 3 platform. Their game Race Driver: GRID extended the use of Ambisonics to the Xbox 360 platform, and Colin McRae: DiRT 2 uses Ambisonics on all platforms including the PC.
The recent games from Codemasters, F1 2010, Dirt 3, F1 2011 and Dirt: Showdown, use fourth-order Ambisonics on faster PCs, rendered by Blue Ripple Sound's Rapture3D OpenAL driver and pre-mixed Ambisonic audio produced using Bruce Wiggins' WigWare Ambisonic Plug-ins.
OpenAL Soft , a free and open source implementation of the OpenAL specification, also uses Ambisonics to render 3D audio. OpenAL Soft can often be used as a drop-in replacement for other OpenAL implementations, enabling several games that use the OpenAL API to benefit from rendering audio with Ambisonics.
For many games that do not make use of the OpenAL API natively, the use of a wrapper or a chain of wrappers can help to make these games indirectly use the OpenAL API. Ultimately, this leads to the sound being rendered in Ambisonics if a capable OpenAL driver such as OpenAL Soft is being used.
Patents and trademarks
Most of the patents covering Ambisonic developments have now expired (including those covering the Soundfield microphone) and, as a result, the basic technology is available for anyone to implement.
The "pool" of patents comprising Ambisonics technology was originally assembled by the UK Government's National Research & Development Corporation (NRDC), which existed until the late 1970s to develop and promote British inventions and license them to commercial manufacturers – ideally to a single licensee. The system was ultimately licensed to Nimbus Records (now owned by Wyastone Estate Ltd).
The "interlocking circles" Ambisonic logo (UK trademarks and ), and the text marks "AMBISONIC" and "A M B I S O N" (UK trademarks and ), formerly owned by Wyastone Estate Ltd., have expired as of 2010.
See also
Ambisonic reproduction systems
Ambisonic decoding
Ambisonic UHJ Format
List of Ambisonic hardware
List of permanent Ambisonic playback systems
Nimbus Records
Soundfield microphone
Notes
References
External links
Ambisonic.net website
Ambisonia, a repository of Ambisonic recordings and compositions
Ambisonic.info, website of Ambisonic field recordist Paul Hodges
Ambisonics resources at the University of Parma
Ambisonic resources at the University of York
Higher Order Ambisonic Technical Notes at Blue Ripple Sound
Surround sound
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] |
233831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%20Journal | Linux Journal | Linux Journal (LJ) is a monthly technology magazine originally published by Specialized System Consultants, Inc. (SSC) from Seattle since 1994. In December 2006 the publisher changed to Belltown Media, Inc. in Houston, Texas. Since 2017, the publisher was Linux Journal, LLC. located in Denver, Colorado. The magazine focused specifically on Linux, allowing the content to be a highly specialized source of information for open source enthusiasts. The magazine was published from March 1994 to August 2019, over 25 years, before being bought by Slashdot Media in 2020.
History
Linux Journal was the first magazine to be published about the Linux kernel and operating systems based on it. It was established in 1994. The first issue was published in March 1994 by Phil Hughes and Bob Young, who later co-founded Red Hat, and it featured an interview with Linux creator Linus Torvalds.
The publication's last print edition was August 2011, issue 208. Beginning with the September 2011 issue, issue 209, the magazine transitioned to publishing monthly in digital-only formats including various desktop, mobile, and e-pub platforms.
In early July 2014 it was revealed that the NSA's XKeyscore program targeted readers of Linux Journal as part of targeting people interested in the Linux distribution Tails.
On December 1, 2017 Linux Journal announced that it would cease publication due to running out of funds, having fallen into debt and being unable to pay employees for months. However, on January 1, 2018, it announced that it was rescued by Private Internet Access/London Trust Media—which shares similar values—and that the magazine plans to grow: According to editor-in-chief Doc Searls: "Linux Journal should be to Linux what National Geographic is to geography and The New Yorker is to New York—meaning about much more than the title alone suggests."
On August 7, 2019, the Journal announced that it would be shutting down and letting all staff go.
On September 22, 2020, Linux Journal resumed activity under the new management of Slashdot Group
Content
Linux Journal published articles on all levels of developing and using Linux and the software that runs on it, including everything from how to write device drivers to how to edit photos with GIMP. In addition to how-tos and tutorials, each issue featured reviews of Linux products, tips, and market analysis.
See also
Linux Magazine
Linux Format
Linux Voice
Linux Gazette
References
External links
Linux Journal issues - archive.org
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Linux magazines
Linux websites
Magazines established in 1994
Magazines disestablished in 2019
Magazines published in Colorado
Magazines published in Texas
Mass media in Houston
Monthly magazines published in the United States | [
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233832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Zebra | HMS Zebra | Six ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Zebra, after the Zebra.
was a 14-gun sloop launched in 1777.
Her Captain died the same year was killed in a duel in New York City with Lt-Col. Pennington over a sonnet written by the latter, reflecting on Lady Bridget's wit. Tollemache was run through the heart.
Old Trinity
by Park Benjamin
Thou fane of many years, farewell!
Thy walls must in the dust be laid,
And we can now no longer pray
Where our forefathers prayed.
The altar at whose holy base
The kneeling crowds received the wine,
Must be no more a guarded spot,
A consecrated shrine!
Never again from thy tall spire,
Up-pointing to the Christian's home,
Shall peal the bell, whose Sabbath voice
Rolled o'er thy vaulted dome;
Nor shall the daily passer hear
Its solemn and familiar chime
Fall, like the ringing, signal strokes
Of that gray watchman, Time!
The monuments of good men gone,
Down from their niches rudely torn,
Inscribed in memory of good deeds,
Away from sight are borne;
And other tablatures will take
The places which they had of old;
But oh, what graven shapes or lines
Can tell the tale they told?
Thou venerable pile, adieu!
Another temple soon may tower
On thy foundations grand and high—
The wonder of the hour!
Let Art her gorgeous skill display,
And put thy humble walls to shame—
There still are hearts, old church, to keep
Thy worship and thy name!
She was abandoned and blown up after going aground on 22 October 1778 at Little Egg Harbor, New Jersey, during the American Revolutionary War.
, launched in 1780, was an 18-gun sloop, converted to a bomb vessel, and sold in 1812.
, launched in 1815, was the last of the 18-gun s. She spent much of her career based at Port Jackson, Australia. She was wrecked on 2 December 1840 near Haifa.
A 16-gun brig-sloop was named Zebra in 1846 but renamed Jumna before being launched in 1848.
, launched on 13 November 1860, was a sloop of the . She was scrapped in 1873.
, launched on 3 December 1895, was the lead ship of her class of destroyers. She was sold for scrap in 1914.
A destroyer of the V and W class was to have been named Zebra, but she was cancelled in 1919.
A destroyer of the W and Z class was to have been named Zebra, but was renamed on the stocks before being launched in 1943.
was a Z-class destroyer, originally named Wakeful, but renamed on the stocks to make way for her sister ship. She was launched on 18 March 1944 at William Denny & Brothers shipyard in Dumbarton, Scotland and commissioned on 13 October 1945.
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233833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex%20%28project%29 | Pontifex (project) | PONTIFEX (Planning Of Non-specific Transportation by an Intelligent Fleet EXpert) was a mid-1980s project that introduced a novel approach to complex aircraft fleet scheduling, partially funded by the European Commission's Strategic Programme for R&D in Information Technology.
Since the mathematical problems stemming from nontrivial fleet scheduling easily become computationally unsolvable, the PONTIFEX idea consisted in a seamless merge of algorithms and heuristic knowledge embedded in rules. The system, based on domain knowledge collected from airliners Alitalia, KLM, Swissair, and TAP Portugal, was first adopted by Swissair and Alitalia in the late 1980s, then also by the Italian railroad national operator, for their cargo division. It is still in use today (2008).
References
Mathematical modeling | [
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233845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Oklahoma | Governor of Oklahoma | The governor of Oklahoma is the head of government of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. Under the Oklahoma Constitution, the governor serves as the head of the Oklahoma executive branch, of the government of Oklahoma. The governor is the ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Oklahoma National Guard when not called into federal use. Despite being an executive branch official, the governor also holds legislative and judicial powers. The governor's responsibilities include making yearly "State of the State" addresses to the Oklahoma Legislature, submitting the annual state budget, ensuring that state laws are enforced, and that the peace is preserved. The governor's term is four years in length.
The office was created in 1907 when Oklahoma was officially admitted to the United States as the 46th state. Prior to statehood in 1907, the office was preceded by a presidential appointed governor of Oklahoma Territory with similar powers. The 28th and current governor of Oklahoma is Kevin Stitt, a member of the Republican Party.
History
Territorial period
Before statehood in 1907, modern day Oklahoma was composed of Oklahoma and Indian territories. While Indian Territory was semi-independent of the federal government as Indian nations land, Oklahoma Territory was an organized territory under the supervision of the United States Congress. Within the Oklahoma Territory, a tripartite government existed, including a territorial legislature, a territorial supreme court, and a territorial governor.
The President of the United States appointed territorial governors to four-year terms. Despite a set term, the governor served at the pleasure of the U.S. president, meaning that the president could replace him before his term was up.
The governor was the head of the territorial government. He had the power to veto legislation proposed by the territorial legislature and the power to appoint members to his cabinet, who in turn had to be ratified by territorial lawmakers. The governor had the power to appoint justices to the territorial high court. The governor was responsible to the U.S. president on addressing issues in the territory and served as the representative as the federal government of the United States. He was also the Commander in Chief of the territorial militia.
George Washington Steele served as the first governor of Oklahoma Territory. He vetoed the territorial legislature's attempts to move the state capital from Guthrie to Oklahoma City or Kingfisher. He was instrumental in the establishment of two universities that would become the University of Oklahoma and Oklahoma State University. After only seventeen months in office, Steele resigned effective October 18, 1891. In his place, President Benjamin Harrison appointed Abraham Jefferson Seay to the governorship. Robert Martin, Secretary of Oklahoma Territory, served as acting governor from October 18, 1891, until February 1892, when Seay took the oath of office.
Frank Frantz served as the final governor of Oklahoma Territory. He was an unsuccessful candidate for governor in the first state gubernatorial election.
Statehood-Present
After the Oklahoma Constitution was written and accepted in 1907, the Oklahoma and Indian territories joined to form the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The office of the governor of Oklahoma replaced the office of territorial governor. The new office was similar, but designed with new restrictions, limits, and legislative and judicial oversight. It was crafted as a "weak governor system" to defend the state against abuses of power that had occurred under the territorial government.
Oklahoma's first governor, Charles N. Haskell, wielded executive power effectively, but in the first 20 years after he left office in 1911, the Oklahoma Legislature further limited the governor's office of its powers and impeached governors John C. Walton and Henry S. Johnston. It was not until William H. Murray took office in 1935 that the governorship expanded its powers.
In 1927, the state legislature appropriated $75,000 for the construction of a governor's mansion and $25,000 for furnishings. In 1928, the governor and his family moved in.
As Oklahoma grew and the state government expanded, the office of the governor became gradually more powerful. As more agencies were introduced, the governor gained greater indirect influence through the power of appointment.
Initially the governor was not eligible to immediately succeed himself. It was not until 1966 that Oklahoma amended the state constitution to allow the governor to serve two consecutive terms.
Election
The governor of Oklahoma is elected directly by the voters of Oklahoma during gubernatorial elections held in November during the final year of each four-year gubernatorial term. The candidate with the highest number of votes becomes governor following the election. The Oklahoma Constitution requires the Oklahoma Legislature to choose the governor in the case of a tie vote.
Section Three of Article VI of the Oklahoma Constitution establishes that gubernatorial candidates must be citizens of the United States, at least 31 years old, and residents of Oklahoma for at least ten years prior to their candidacy.
Under Section Four in Article VI of the Oklahoma Constitution, the governor serves a four-year term in office beginning on the second Monday in January. Section Four also states that no person may hold the office for more than two consecutive terms. On November 2, 2010, voters passed a ballot initiative to limit governors to only eight years in office in a lifetime. The initiative also set the gubernatorial term of a lieutenant governor who becomes governor upon the death of the previous governor; upon the lieutenant governor's succession, he or she is to serve out two years of the governor's term.
Former Governors David Boren (1975-1979) and David Walters (1991-1995) are eligible for second terms having only served a single term.
Oath of office
"I, ........., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support, obey, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the Constitution of the State of Oklahoma, and that I will not, knowingly, receive, directly or indirectly, any money or other valuable thing, for the performance or nonperformance of any act or duty pertaining to my office, other than the compensation allowed by law; I further swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully discharge my duties as Governor of the State of Oklahoma to the best of my ability."
Last election
Powers and duties
Executive powers
The governor, according to the Oklahoma Constitution, must "take care that the laws be faithfully executed." The governor is vested with "supreme executive power" as the state's "Chief Magistrate" and acts as head of the executive branch of Oklahoma. The governor has the power to issue executive orders that have the effect of law. The governor is the "conservator of the peace throughout the State," making him or her the chief peace officer in the state. In the position of chief peace officer, the governor commands state and local law enforcement agencies. If law enforcement entities cannot execute the law, then the governor, acting as Commander-in-Chief of Oklahoma's state militia, may call out the Oklahoma National Guard to "execute the laws, protect the public health, suppress insurrection, and repel invasion." The governor is assisted in managing the military of Oklahoma by the Adjutant General of Oklahoma, who he or she appoints to office.
The governor has the power to commission officers not otherwise commissioned by the law of Oklahoma and has the power of appointment. When any office at the state level becomes vacant for any reason, the governor, unless otherwise provided by law, has the power to appoint a person to fill such vacancy, who shall continue in office until the election or appointment of a successor. If the office of an Oklahoma member of the United States House of Representatives or United States Senate becomes vacant the governor calls a special election to fill the remainder of the term. In the case of United States senators, the governor is empowered by the U.S. Constitution to appoint someone immediately to fill the vacant Senate seat temporarily until a special election can be held.
Within the executive branch of Oklahoma government, the governor is assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma, the Secretary of State of Oklahoma, the Attorney General of Oklahoma, and the State Treasurer of Oklahoma, among others. While the other high level executive offices are elected directly by the people of Oklahoma, the Secretary of State is appointed by the governor with the consent of the Oklahoma Senate for a four-year term. Due to the large number of state agencies, the governor is assisted in running the government through the use of the Oklahoma State Cabinet. Through the Cabinet, the Governor can address the assembled heads of Oklahoma's executive branch departments which oversee Oklahoma's agencies. A secretary appointed by the governor heads each department and carries out his executive orders through that department.
The governor is an ex officio chair of numerous state commissions and committees, including the Oklahoma Commissioners of Land Office and the Oklahoma Ethics Commission. While there are executive and state commissions of which the governor is not a member, he or she has appointment power to those entities with the advice and consent of the Oklahoma Senate, such as with the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma.
The governor is also responsible for preparing the proposed Oklahoma state budget presented to the Oklahoma Legislature in February for the next fiscal year beginning in July. After state legislators negotiate the terms of the budget with the governor, the Oklahoma House of Representatives drafts a general appropriations bill that must be approved by the legislature and signed by the governor.
Legislative and judicial powers
Like the President of the United States, the governor plays a major role in the legislative process. Every bill that is passed by both the Oklahoma Senate and Oklahoma House of Representatives, and every resolution requiring the assent of both chambers of the legislature, must, before it becomes a law, be presented to the governor. The governor may choose to sign it or veto it and send it back to the legislature. The governor's veto can only be overridden by a two-thirds approval vote from each house.
The governor has the power of the line-item veto, which allows them to sign part of appropriation bills into law, while sending appropriations items they disagree with back to the legislature. Items disapproved by the governor in this manner become void, unless the legislation is re-passed in both the Oklahoma House of Representatives and Oklahoma Senate with a two-thirds vote in favor of overriding the veto.
Bills that are part of the governor's agenda are often drafted at the initiative of the governor or governor's staff. In annual and special messages to the Oklahoma Legislature, the governor may propose legislation. The most important annual message to state lawmakers takes place in the annual State of the State address. Before a joint session of the Oklahoma Legislature, the governor outlines the status of the state and legislative proposals for the upcoming year. The governor is in a strong position to influence public opinion and thereby to influence the actions of state legislators.
The governor has the power to convoke the legislature, or the Oklahoma Senate only, on extraordinary occasions. During extraordinary sessions, state legislators can only act on subjects the governor recommends for consideration. When ever a vacancy occurs within the state legislature, the governor shall issue a writ of election to fill such vacancies. In case of a disagreement between the two houses of the legislature, at a regular or special session, the governor may adjourn them to such time as he shall deem proper, not beyond the day of the next stated meeting of the legislature. He or she may convoke the Oklahoma Legislature at or adjourn it to another place, when, in his opinion, the public safety or welfare, or the safety or health of the members require it. Such a change or adjournment must be concurred by two-thirds votes in all branches of the legislature.
The governor plays an active role within the judicial branch of Oklahoma government. Oklahoma has a Judicial Nominating Commission consisting of thirteen members that review all potential justices and judges of Oklahoma's appellate courts, such as the Oklahoma Supreme Court, and review them to determine if they qualify to hold their respective positions. Of these thirteen members, the governor appoints six without the consent of the Oklahoma Legislature. The governor's appointments serve for a term of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-third of the appointments become vacant every two years.
In the event of a vacancy upon the Oklahoma Supreme Court or on the Court of Criminal Appeals, the Judicial Nominating Committee submits three nominees to fill the vacancy to the governor and Oklahoma Supreme Court chief justice. The governor must appoint one to fill the vacancy within 60 days or the appointment is turned over to the chief justice.
The governor also possess the power to grant commutations, pardons and paroles for all offenses, except cases of impeachment, upon such conditions and with such restrictions and limitations as he may deem proper, subject to such regulations as may be prescribed by law. The governor does not have the power to grant paroles if a convict has been sentenced to death or sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. In order to grant a pardon to an individual, he must submit the name of the individual to the Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board composed of five members, three of which are appointed by the governor at the beginning of his term in office to serve a term that coincides with his own. After reviewing the applicant for clemency, and a favorable vote from the majority, the board may empower the governor to make such acts of as he deems necessary.
The governor has the power to grant after conviction, reprieves, or a leave of absence not to exceed sixty days, without the action of the board. The governor is required to communicate to the Oklahoma Legislature, at each regular session, each case of reprieve, commutation, parole or pardon, granted, stating the name of the convict, the crime of which he was convicted, the date and place of conviction, and the date of commutation, pardon, parole and reprieve.
Foreign relations
The governor, as Oklahoma's head of state, serves as the chief representative of Oklahoma to the United States and to the world. Deals between Oklahoma and foreign powers (including other U.S. states and the United States) are negotiated by the governor. This reflects the governor's position as the spokesman for the state and the state's interests to other state and world leaders. However, the governor may not make treaties with other nations or other U.S. states, as this is prevented by the United States Constitution.
In discharging his duty as chief spokesman, the governor may be required to testify before the United States Congress or meet with the President of the United States to address national issues that may affect the state. It is the governor's responsibility to promote Oklahoma's industries to the world economy as the spokesman for industrial development within the state. Along with those responsibilities comes the role of chief promoter of Oklahoma's goods and services to foreign consumers.
The governor plays a significant role in national politics. As the representative of Oklahoma, the governor heads, on a state level, his or her political party. In this position, the governor serves as the state's leader in selecting a party candidate to run for the office of President of the United States. As Oklahoma's head of state, the governor may travel through the country to promote Oklahoma in a general interest or travel abroad to serve as proponent of America's interests.
Emergency powers
Pursuant to the Oklahoma Emergency Management Act of 2003 and the Catastrophic Health Emergency Powers Act, in case a natural or man-made emergency or a catastrophic health emergency occurs or is anticipated in the immediate future, the governor gains emergency powers to better respond to the emergency and combat the threat. Either the governor through executive order or the Oklahoma Legislature through concurrent resolution may declare a state of emergency. Once declared, the governor may exercise his or her additional emergency powers. At any time, the governor (through executive order) or the state legislature (through concurrent resolution) may declare an end to the state of emergency and suspend the governor's emergency powers.
Upon the declaration of an emergency, the governor is allowed a limited-form of rule by decree. He assumes direct regulatory control over essential resources of the state. It will then be the responsibility of the governor to determine the priorities of such resources and allocate them as the governor may deem necessary. These resources include, but are not limited to, food, manpower, health and health manpower, water, transportation, economic stabilization, electric power, petroleum, gas, and solid fuel, industrial production, construction and housing.
The focus of the governor's emergency powers is to ensure the security and stability of the state and he or she receives comprehensive police powers in an emergency. In discharging those power to enforce laws, rules and regulations relating to emergency management, the governor assumes direct operational control of emergency management forces of the state, including the Oklahoma National Guard, state police agencies, state and local health departments, as well as county sheriff's offices and local police departments. These emergency police powers extend to providing for the evacuation of the state's population from any affected or threatened area or areas within the state, regulating the conduct of civilians and the movement of pedestrians and vehicular traffic, and regulating public meetings and gatherings. The governor is responsible for providing for the care of all those regulated by his or her orders.
During a state of emergency, the governor is authorized to utilize the services, equipment, supplies and facilities of all departments, offices and agencies of the state to the maximum extent practicable. State, county, and local officers and personnel must cooperate with the governor in emergency management upon his or her direction. Any state, county, or local official that willful fails to obey any order, rule or regulation issued by the governor may be removed from office by the governor. However, before removal, officers must receives the charges against them and have an opportunity to defend themselves. Pending the presentation of charges, the governor may suspend such officers for a period not to exceed thirty days. Any vacancy resulting from removal or suspension shall be filled by the governor until it is filled as provided by state law. However, according to the Oklahoma Constitution, the governor may not remove from office the elective state executive officers, the justices of the Oklahoma Supreme Court, the judges of the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals, and members of the Oklahoma Legislature.
When carrying out the functions of his or her emergency powers, the governor is immune from civilly liable for any loss or injury resulting from any decision, determination, order or action in the performance of his/her assigned duties and responsibilities during a stated emergency. However, this immunity does not apply when such loss or injury is caused by the gross negligence, or willfully and unnecessarily act by the governor.
Relationship with lieutenant governor
The Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma is elected at the same election as the governor, but not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. Oklahoma currently has a governor and a lieutenant governor of the same party, as both Governor Kevin Stitt and Lieutenant Governor Matt Pinnell are of the Republican Party.
The first instance of an Oklahoma governor serving alongside a lieutenant governor of a different political party began in 1963, when Republican Governor Henry Bellmon served alongside Democratic Lieutenant Governor Leo Winters. Since then, there have been three more instances. In 1967, Republican Governor Dewey F. Bartlett served alongside Democratic Lieutenant Governor George Nigh. In 1987, Bellmon served alongside Democratic Lieutenant Governor Robert S. Kerr III. Finally, in 2002, Democratic Governor Brad Henry served alongside Republican Lieutenant Governor Mary Fallin.
The governor may appoint the lieutenant governor to her cabinet. For example, Governor Mary Fallin appointed Lieutenant Governor Todd Lamb to serve as her small business advocate within her Cabinet – although Lamb later resigned that position due to disagreements with the Governor.
A lieutenant governor can also serve as Acting Governor. When acting as the governor, the Oklahoma Constitution provides all the powers of the governor to the lieutenant governor. This includes the power of signing or vetoing legislation, making political appointments, calling out the Oklahoma National Guard, or granting pardons. The need for the lieutenant governor to act as the governor may be due to the governor's absence from the state, or his inability to discharge the powers and duties of the office. When acting as governor, the lieutenant governor holds the powers of the governor until the governor returns to the state or he or she is found to be able to resume her powers and duties.
Office of the Governor
The Office of the Governor is the state agency that supports the governor in the performance of gubernatorial duties. The agency consists of the governor's staff and is headed by the governor's chief of staff. Staffers are political appointees and serve at the pleasure of the governor. They work in the governor's Oklahoma State Capitol offices in Oklahoma City, the governor's Tulsa office and the Governor's Mansion.
As of 2013, the agency has an annual budget of approximately $1.98 million. The budget provides funding for employee salaries and benefits, operation and upkeep of the governor's offices in the Oklahoma State Capitol and Tulsa, Oklahoma, and the operation and upkeep of the Governor's Mansion.
Residence
Since 1928, Oklahoma governors reside in the Oklahoma Governor's Mansion. Before its construction, governors lived in various locations around Guthrie and Oklahoma City. Governor Charles N. Haskell set up his administration's office and his official residence within a hotel in Oklahoma City. The Oklahoma Legislature provided for the construction of an official residence after years of debate in 1927. The next year, in 1928, the mansion was completed.
Built by an Oklahoma City architectural firm, Layton, Hicks and Forsyth, the mansion is of Dutch-Colonial style. Carthage limestone was used so the exterior of the Mansion would complement the Oklahoma State Capitol, which is located to the west of the mansion. The state legislature allocated $100,000 of state money ($75,000 for construction and $25,000 for furnishing) to the project. Two years later, another $39,000 was set aside to complete outbuildings and landscaping. Though originally having 19 rooms, today the Mansion has 12, including a library, parlor, dining room, grand ballroom, kitchen, sunroom and five bedrooms.
The mansion also serves as an active museum. Throughout the mansion there are antiques and artwork from both museum and private collections. The museum is designed to provide a glimpse into Oklahoma's history and culture. Artists represented in oil and bronze include N.C. Wyeth, Charles Marion Russell, Thomas Moran and Albert Beirstadt.
Succession
As per the Oklahoma Constitution, if the governor is impeached, resigns, dies, leaves the state, fails to qualify or is unable to serve, the lieutenant governor fills the vacancy, either temporarily or for the remainder of the gubernatorial term.
If, during a vacancy of the office of governor, the lieutenant governor is impeached, displaced, resigns, dies, is absent from the state, or becomes incapable of performing the duties of the office, the president pro tempore of the state senate is the next official in the gubernatorial line of succession. The Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives is third in line of gubernatorial succession.
If the governor, lieutenant governor, senate president pro tempore, and speaker are unable to act as governor, then the next official in the line of succession becomes the emergency interim successor. As the emergency interim successor to the governor, the officer may exercise the powers and discharge the duties of the governor until a new governor is elected or until the disability is removed from the governor or higher official. However, the emergency interim successor does not inherit the title of governor, unless there is a man-made or natural emergency or disaster has occurred in the United States. The Oklahoma Legislature, by concurrent resolution, may terminate the authority of any emergency interim successor to exercise the powers and discharge the duties of the governor.
Line of succession
As provided by the Oklahoma Constitution and the Oklahoma Emergency Interim Executive and Judicial Succession Act, the line of succession to the Governorship is as follows:
Gubernatorial trivia
Between the births of Charles N. Haskell in 1860 and Kevin Stitt in 1972, governors have been born in every decade
Governors have been born in eleven states and the federal district
Oklahoma
Kansas
Ohio
Texas
Arkansas
Missouri
Pennsylvania
Alabama
Kentucky
Indiana
Washington, D.C.
Florida
Ten governors have been born in Oklahoma, in ten different counties
Muskogee County, Oklahoma
Oklahoma County, Oklahoma
Marshall County, Oklahoma
Washita County, Oklahoma
Johnston County, Oklahoma
Lincoln County, Oklahoma
Noble County, Oklahoma
Pittsburg County, Oklahoma
Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma
Muskogee, Oklahoma, has produced more governors than any other location:
Charles N. Haskell
Martin E. Trapp
J. Howard Edmondson, who was also born in Muskogee
The first governor born was Charles N. Haskell on March 13, 1860
The most recent governor born is Kevin Stitt on December 28, 1972
The shortest term in office was nine days by George Nigh in 1963 (January 6 – 14, 1963)
Sworn in at age 33, J. Howard Edmondson was the youngest governor
Sworn in at age 61, William H. Murray was the oldest governor
The oldest living former governor is George Nigh at age 91
The youngest living former governor is Brad Henry at age 55
Henry S. Johnston has the longest life span of any governor, 97 years
J. Howard Edmondson has the shortest life span of any governor, 46 years
No governor has died while in office
Three governors have been impeached, two were removed from office
Lee Cruce in 1912, found not guilty of charges
John C. Walton in 1923, removed from office
Henry S. Johnston in 1929, removed from office
Between the deaths of Lee Cruce in 1933 and David Hall in 2016, former governors have died in every decade except in the 1980s
Born in 1896, Robert S. Kerr was the first governor born in what would become Oklahoma
Born in 1908, Raymond D. Gary was the first governor born in Oklahoma after statehood in 1907
E. W. Marland has the shortest post-governorship, 2 years
George Nigh has the longest post-governorship, 16 years between 1963 and 1979, and nearly 31 years between 1987 and today, for a total of nearly 47 years.
Of the 27 people to hold the office of governor through 2019, twenty-one have been Democrats and six have been Republicans.
Mary Fallin is the first, and currently, the only female governor.
Two governors are relatives:
William H. Murray was the father of Johnston Murray
There are currently six living former governors
George Nigh
David L. Boren
David Walters
Frank Keating
Brad Henry
Mary Fallin
Three Lieutenant Governors have been elevated to the governorship
Martin E. Trapp in 1923
William J. Holloway in 1929
George Nigh in 1963 and in 1979
Five governors have served more than one term
George Nigh
Henry Bellmon
Frank Keating
Brad Henry
Mary Fallin
Two governors have served nonconsecutive terms
George Nigh in 1963 and 1979
Henry Bellmon in 1963 and 1987
Four governors have served two consecutive terms
George Nigh from 1979 to 1987
Frank Keating from 1995 to 2003
Brad Henry from 2003 to 2011
Mary Fallin from 2011 to 2019
Two governors have resigned
J. Howard Edmondson in 1963 to become a United States Senator
David L. Boren in 1979 to become a United States Senator
See also
List of governors of Oklahoma
Governors of Oklahoma Territory
References
External links
Official Governor of Oklahoma home page
State law enforcement agencies of Oklahoma
1907 establishments in Oklahoma | [
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233847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor%20of%20Tennessee | Governor of Tennessee | The governor of Tennessee is the head of government of the U.S. state of Tennessee. The governor is the only official in Tennessee state government who is directly elected by the voters of the entire state.
The current governor is Bill Lee, a member of the Republican Party, who took office on January 19, 2019.
Qualifications
The Tennessee Constitution provides that the governor must be at least 30 years old and must have lived in the state for at least seven years before being elected to the office. The governor is elected to a four-year term and may serve no more than two terms consecutively. There are only two other U.S. states, New Jersey and Hawaii, where the governor is the only state official to be elected statewide.
Powers and duties
The Tennessee Constitution provides that “The supreme executive power of this state shall be vested in a governor.” Most state department heads and some members of boards and commissions are appointed by the governor.
The governor is the commander-in-chief of the state's National Guard and the state militia, except when they have been called into federal service. The governor chairs the Tennessee Board of Regents, the University of Tennessee's Board of Trustees, and holds seats on the State Funding Board, State Building Commission, Board of Equalization, Tennessee Local Development Authority, School Bond Authority, and Tennessee Industrial and Agricultural Development Commission.
The Constitution grants the governor the power to veto laws passed by the Tennessee General Assembly, as well as line-item veto authority for individual spending items included in bills passed by the legislature. In either situation, the governor's veto can be overridden by a simple majority of both houses of the legislature. If a governor exercises the veto authority after the legislature has adjourned, the veto stands. It is uncommon for Tennessee governors to use their veto power, likely because it is relatively easy for the General Assembly to override a veto.
Article III Section 9 of the state constitution empowers the governor to call the General Assembly into special session, with the subjects to be considered limited to matters specified in the proclamation.
Nominations of justices
In the state of Tennessee, one of the powers of the governor is to appoint justices to the state, local, and appellate courts through a system known as the Tennessee Plan. The process includes nominees being vetted by a judicial nomination commission before being appointed. After their initial term, judges are required to run in a retention election to determine if they will serve another term in the courts.
Cabinet appointments
The Tennessee Governor's Cabinet is made up of seven key staff members and 23 Executive Departments. Key staff members include Chief Operating Manager, Chief of Staff, Special Assistant, Senior Adviser, Communications Director, Policy Director, and Deputy to the Governor. The Executive Department cabinet includes Commissioners of Agriculture, Commerce, Correction, Developmental Disability, Education, Environment, General Services, Health, Finance, Labor, among others. Most executive department positions are chosen by the governor, but some like secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, and lieutenant governor are chosen by popular statewide elections with limited input from the governor. State comptrollers and department heads are typically chosen by panels or commissions independent of gubernatorial interference, the most common chosen in this way across the United States being the head of Education, Natural Resources, Labor, and high Education boards.
Before being inaugurated as governor, then Governor-elect Bill Lee announced two appointments: Maj. Gen. Jeff Holmes for the Department of Military and Ret. Lt. Col. Courtney Rogers for the Department of Veterans Services. In early January, Governor Bill Lee announced three new cabinet appointments: Dr. Lisa Piercey to the Department of Health, Brad Turner to the Department of Developmental Disability, and Christi Branscom to the Department of General Services. Along with announcing new cabinet members, Bill Lee also announced a new website where Tennesseans can apply to work in the administration and check on policy issues called Bill Lee Transition
State of the State address
Article III Section 11 of the Tennessee Constitution provides that the governor shall, "from time to time, give to the General Assembly information of the state of the government, and recommend for their consideration such measures as he shall judge expedient."
The State of the State address is typically delivered in January at the beginning of the General Assembly's session and is used to outline priorities and a legislative agenda for the coming legislative session, especially for a new administration.
For example, in his first State of the State speech in 2019 Bill Lee announced his plan to add more funds to the state's rainy day fund:"As our state continues to grow, we are committed to remaining among the most fiscally sound and best managed states in America. We live in prosperous days, but it’s precisely during these times when we must build up our storehouses for when times may not be as good. For that reason, I am particularly proud of this: in my budget, we are making the largest single contribution to our Rainy Day Fund in the state’s history. When this budget is implemented, our Rainy Day Fund will be $1.1 billion – the largest it has ever been in both real dollars and as a percentage of our overall revenue."During a governor's final address before leaving office, the speech is used to highlight the outgoing governor's achievements. Haslam in 2018 highlighted Tennessee's job growth rate, greater funding for K-12 education and teachers' salaries, tax and spending cuts, and a record high for high school graduation rates in Tennessee history, all achieved under his administration.
Compensation
, the governor's salary was set at $170,340 per year. This is the ninth highest U.S. gubernatorial salary. Haslam and his predecessor, Phil Bredesen, both were independently wealthy before taking office and refused to accept state salaries for their service as governor.
Line of succession
Tennessee does not elect a lieutenant governor. If a vacancy occurs in the office of governor due to the governor's death, removal, or resignation from office, the Tennessee Constitution provides for the Speaker of the Tennessee Senate to become governor. Because this has the effect of making the speaker the lieutenant governor, the speaker is often referred to by the title "lieutenant governor." and was also granted this title by statute in 1951. Following the lieutenant governor/senate speaker in the line of succession are the speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives, the secretary of state, and the comptroller.
In the event the governor's office becomes vacant during the first 18 months of his term, a special election for the balance of the term must be held at the time of the next federal general election. If the vacancy occurs after the first 18 months, whoever ascends to the governorship serves out the balance of the term. In either case, a partial term counts toward the two-term limit.
Governor William Blount served from 1790 to 1796, when Tennessee was known as the Southwest Territory. He was replaced by John Sevier, the state's first governor. Other notable governors include Willie Blount (William's half-brother), Sam Houston (better known for his role as the President of the Republic of Texas), and future U.S Presidents James K. Polk and Andrew Johnson
Incumbent governor
Bill Lee, Republican, is the 50th governor of Tennessee, succeeding Bill Haslam in 2019. A former president of his company, the Lee Company, his primary focus so far has been job creation and the economy. In his budget proposal, Lee outlined plans for K-12 education, mental health, criminal justice, rural economic development and health care. Like Haslam, Lee also intends to add to the Rainy Day fund.
Lee's early executive orders included an order requiring all state executive departments to report rural impact and recommendations for improvement and three regarding ethics and transparency.
History
Experience
Many recent governors have been businessmen. Phil Bredesen created the HealthCare America Corporation and Bill Haslam has held multiple chair and executive positions and is a co-owner of a minor league baseball team. Current governor Bill Lee was the president of his own company before taking office.
Education varies, but typically recent governors hold at least a bachelor's degree. Bredesen earned a degree in physics from Harvard, Haslam a bachelor's in history from Emory University, and Lee a bachelor's in mechanical engineering from Auburn University.
Though political experience is helpful for running for governor, it has never been a requirement. Bill Lee, for example, prior to his governorship never held office. Bredesen and Haslam were both mayors: Bredesen as mayor of Nashville from 1991 to 1999 and Haslam as mayor of Knoxville from 2003 to 2010. Early governors such as Andrew Jackson sometimes had a history of military service, with Jackson serving in the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.
Famous governors
Ray Blanton
Ray Blanton was governor from 1975 to 1979. He was forced from office days early by a “coup” led by his own party's leaders Speaker Ned McWherter and Lieutenant Governor John S. Wilder to inaugurate Lamar Alexander early and forestall additional potential pardons of a questionable nature.
Phil Bredesen
Phil Bredesen, Democrat, was governor from 2003 to 2011. In 2018, he ran for the US Senate against now senator Marsha Blackburn. He is also a former mayor of Nashville. Bredesen also proposed Cover Tennessee, a health care plan that would cost roughly $50 per person and would follow a person even if they changed employers. Cover Tennessee also includes Cover Kids which provides services to low-income pregnant women and children. These services include vaccinations, preventative care, vision, dental, mental health, physician services, physical and speech therapy, and hospitalization. He increased the Rainy Day fund, passed four balanced budgets, and expanded pre-K programs.
Bill Haslam
Bill Haslam, Republican, was governor from 2011 to 2018, succeeding Phil Bredesen. Because he took office during the Great Recession, he focused on economic recovery. He tightened the state's budgets, called for additional funds for Tennessee's Rainy day fund, and worked on making Tennessee more business-friendly. However, his main legacy is in education. He is most well known for the TN Promise and Reconnect Programs, which allow students to attend a community college for two years with free tuition. This was done to make Tennessee more attractive to businesses and improve the workforce. Additionally, from 2017 to 2018, Haslam served as the chair of the Republican Governors' Association, working to elect Republicans in the 2018 gubernatorial elections.
Sam Houston
Sam Houston had served Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee's 7th district March 4, 1823 – March 3, 1827. He was the 6th Governor of Tennessee, serving October 1, 1827 – April 16, 1829.
Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson was the 17th president of the United States following Abraham Lincoln's assassination. He was also governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857. The Tennessean governor was not entitled to many powers at the time, but used the position to publicize his views.
James K. Polk
James K. Polk was the 11th president of the United States. He was also the governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841. He was a devout follower of Jacksonian democratic values. Dr. Seigenthaler writing about him, "To Polk, all politics was fiscal, deeply rooted in the early struggle between federalism and republicanism; Hamilton and Jefferson; the wealthy elite and the common man."
John Sevier
John Sevier was the first governor of Tennessee. He effectively founded the state and because it was literally new territory, he dealt with many issues that come along with founding a state. Though much of his work regards to his time in the frontier, his effects on Tennessean politics are still felt today, "Most of the evidence appears to lend weight to the fact that political sectionalism in Tennessee began with the break between Jackson and Sevier."
Recent priorities
In recent years there has been a heavy focus on the economy, health care, and education. Governors such as Haslam focused on making the state business friendly as much as possible, using fiscally conservative ideas when making policy. Conservatism has not been limited to Republicans however, as Phil Bredesen, a Democrat, supports the death penalty. There have been successful achievements that are not traditionally seen as conservative, namely TN Promise and Reconnect.
Bredesen's focuses included healthcare. He announced Cover Tennessee in 2006 as "a partnership between the state and small business to help adults buy affordable insurance that follows them, no matter where they work, and that doesn’t require high deductibles on the front end." Cover Tennessee would follow a citizen regardless if they changed employers and Cover Kids provides services to pregnant women and children in low-income families. His handling of TennCare, namely that he cut more than 170,000 people from the rolls for the sake of the budget, was criticized, and it played a role in his Senate race in 2018.
Tennessee governors have a history of going back and forth between democrats and republicans, though the former Democratic stronghold is now solidly Republican.
Achievements
Tennessee governor's’ achievements generally have varied with the priorities of the administration. Since governor Haslam, much emphasis has been placed on education and increasing the number of student enrolling in technical and community colleges. Bill Lee has continued this priority by proposing a budget to increase funding for school safety and resource officers. Democratic and Republican administrations alike have carried the belief that a well balanced budget should always be paramount when shaping policy in Tennessee.
Governor Sundquist served from 1995 to 2003. In 1996 Sundquist focused heavily on ethic and welfare reforms and played a role in the creation of the Tennessee Regulatory Authority and the Families First Act. Replacing the previous Public Service Commission, the Families First Act dropped the number of welfare recipients from 70,000 to 30,000 in an effort to reduce state expenditures. Sundquist also created the Department of Children's Services in 1996. In his second term Sundquist created the ConnectTn program which made Tennessee the first state in the country to provide internet use in public libraries and schools. Sundquist is most known for his push for a state income tax, which received wide backlash from Democrats and Republicans. His effort of tax reform was destroyed by future governor Phil Bredesen.
Phil Bredesen campaigned to reduce waste in state government, reform TennCare, and improve Tennessee schools. In 2004, Bredesen enacted TennCare reform, cutting the budget by more than half and removing nearly 200,000 citizens from being eligible for Medicaid. Bredesen increased funding for education by $366 million focusing on Pre-K incentives and increasing teacher pay. In 2006 Bredesen created Cover Tennessee protecting Tennesseans with preexisting conditions and expanding care to uninsured children. In 2007, Bredesen pushed for another increase to education funding by issuing a cigarette tax, the increase would amount to $343 million for education.
The Haslam administration focused heavily on improving the economy and education in Tennessee. In 2012 Haslam signed a budget to increase construction spending by $560 million and eliminate the inheritance and gift tax. The bill also included a plan called “Fast Track,” which aimed to provide incentives for companies to move to Tennessee. Haslam's most well-known accomplishment is the Tennessee Promise and Reconnect programs. Tennessee Promise gives Tennesseans the opportunity of two free years of community college or technical school. The Reconnect program provides incentives for adults to return for post-secondary degrees. In 2012, Haslam introduced the T.E.A.M. Act in an attempt to improve state employee performance. The bill would change hiring and advancements policy to prioritize job performance over seniority. In 2017, Haslam introduced the IMPROVE Act which aimed to provide funding for $10 billion of needed road construction. The act cut food sales taxes, but raised taxes on gas, diesel, and natural gas. The bill also created an annual $100 fee for electric car owners and increased all vehicle registration fees.
See also
List of governors of Tennessee
References
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233852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie%20Blount | Willie Blount | Willie Blount (April 18, 1768September 10, 1835) was an American politician who served as the third Governor of Tennessee from 1809 to 1815. Blount's efforts to raise funds and soldiers during the War of 1812 earned Tennessee the nickname, "Volunteer State." He was the younger half-brother of Southwest Territory governor, William Blount. He was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party.
Early life
Willie (pronounced "Wiley") was born at Blount Hall in Bertie County in the Province of North Carolina, to Jacob Blount and his second wife, Hannah Salter Blount. He studied at the College of New Jersey (modern Princeton) and King's College (modern Columbia). He read law with Judge John Sitgreaves in New Bern, North Carolina, in the 1780s, and was admitted to the North Carolina bar.
In 1790, Willie's brother, William, was appointed governor of the newly created Southwest Territory, and Willie accompanied him to the new territory to serve as his private secretary. When Tennessee was admitted as a state in 1796, the state legislature appointed Willie Blount to the Superior Court of Law and Equity (the state's highest court at the time), though he either declined the appointment or resigned before issuing any opinions.
Following William Blount's death in 1800, Willie Blount took charge of the family finances, and quickly discovered that his brother's risky land investments had left the family deeply in debt. In 1802, he moved to Montgomery County, Tennessee, where he established a large plantation, and gradually began restoring the family's financial affairs. He represented Montgomery County in the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1807 to 1809.
Governor
In 1809, Blount ran for governor against former U.S. senator and frontiersman, William Cocke (the incumbent, John Sevier, was term-limited). Population shifts had begun to favor Middle and West Tennessee over Cocke's home of East Tennessee, and Blount won the election, 13,686 votes to 8,435. He was reelected without opposition in 1811 and 1813.
Like his predecessors, Sevier and Archibald Roane, much of Blount's governorship was spent dealing with conflicts between Indians and white settlers. He persistently sought to acquire land from the Cherokee and Chickasaw, and attempted to suppress the activities of hostile Choctaws and Creeks. Early in his term, he suggested in a letter to Secretary of War William Eustis that the Cherokee be relocated to lands west of the Mississippi River, an act carried out two decades later by President Andrew Jackson. He also blamed northern tribes for encouraging the Creeks to harass white settlers, and at one point requested Eustis send troops to sever communications between northern and southern tribes.
During Blount's tenure, Tennessee was divided into five judicial districts. He signed anti-counterfeiting measures, and enacted legislation to settle conflicting land claims from Tennessee's pre-statehood period. Blount also sought navigational improvements, overseeing the completion of the Cumberland Turnpike (connecting Nashville and Knoxville), and calling for a navigable waterway from Tennessee to Mobile, Alabama.
During his second and third terms, Blount was occupied with the War of 1812. During the first few months of the war, he struggled with a lack of communication with the War Department as he awaited permission to order the militia (led by an increasingly impatient Andrew Jackson) south to New Orleans. Following the Fort Mims massacre in 1813, a call to arms issued by Blount was met by 3,500 volunteers. These were divided into two divisions led by Jackson and John Cocke, and ordered south to suppress the hostile Creek tribes. Blount managed to raise over $300,000 for the expedition, an astonishing sum of money for the time. The surprising number of volunteers earned Tennessee the nickname, "Volunteer State."
At the end of the War of 1812, Blount was at the height of his popularity. Historian J. G. M. Ramsey wrote, "Willie's popularity with the masses has rarely been equalled." In 1815, constitutional term limits prevented him from seeking a fourth consecutive term.
Later life
In 1827, Blount ran for governor against Congressman Sam Houston and ex-Congressman Newton Cannon (the incumbent, William Carroll, was term-limited), but placed a distant third, winning just 1,784 votes to 44,243 for Houston and 32,929 for Cannon. In 1834, Blount represented Montgomery County at the state constitutional convention, which drafted a new document to replace the one in effect since the state had been admitted in 1796, and which has many similarities to the 1870 constitution which is still in effect. One of the chief differences between the 1834 constitution and its predecessor was considerably greater powers being granted to the executive branch than in the earlier document.
Blount died in Nashville on September 10, 1835, and is interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Clarksville. In 1878, the state placed a large monument on his grave.
Family and legacy
Blount married Lucinda Baker in 1802. They had two daughters, Eliza Ann Blount and Lucinda Blount.
Blount was the younger half-brother of William Blount, a signer of the United States Constitution and governor of the Southwest Territory. Another half-brother, Thomas Blount, was a congressman from North Carolina, and a nephew, William Grainger Blount, represented Tennessee's 2nd district in Congress from 1815 to 1819. Willie Blount was the great-great grandfather of Harry Hill McAlister, who served as Governor of Tennessee in the 1930s.
In 1803, Blount published a school textbook, A Catechetical Exposition of the Constitution of the State of Tennessee, which was printed by early Knoxville newspaper editor George Roulstone. Blount later made plans to write a comprehensive history of the state, but this work was never completed.
Blount County, Alabama, is named in Willie Blount's honor for his assistance during the Creek War.
References
External links
Finding Aid for Governor Willie Blount Papers – Tennessee State Library and Archives
1768 births
1835 deaths
People from Bertie County, North Carolina
People from Montgomery County, Tennessee
Tennessee Democratic-Republicans
Governors of Tennessee
Members of the Tennessee House of Representatives
Princeton University alumni
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Blount County, Alabama
Democratic-Republican Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians | [
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233855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Howard%2C%202nd%20Duke%20of%20Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (144321 May 1524), styled Earl of Surrey from 1483 to 1485 and again from 1489 to 1514, was an English nobleman, soldier and statesman who served four monarchs. He was the eldest son of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, by his first wife, Catharina de Moleyns. The Duke was the grandfather of both Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Catherine Howard and the great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1513 he led the English to victory over the Scots at the decisive Battle of Flodden, for which he was richly rewarded by King Henry VIII, then away in France.
Early life
Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, was born in 1443 at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, the only surviving son of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, by his first wife, Katherine, the daughter of Sir William Moleyns (died 8 June 1425) and his wife Margery. He was educated at Thetford Grammar School.
Service under Edward IV
While a young man, he entered the service of King Edward IV as a henchman. Howard took the King's side when war broke out in 1469 with the Earl of Warwick, and took sanctuary at Colchester when the King fled to Holland in 1470. Howard rejoined the royal forces at Edward's return to England in 1471, and was severely wounded at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471. He was appointed an esquire of the body in 1473. On 14 January 1478 he was knighted by Edward IV at the marriage of the King's second son, the young Duke of York, and Lady Anne Mowbray (died 1481).
Service under Richard III
After the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, Thomas Howard and his father John supported Richard III. Thomas bore the Sword of State at Richard's coronation and served as steward at the coronation banquet. Both Thomas and his father were granted lands by the new King, and Thomas was also granted an annuity of £1000. On 28 June 1483, John Howard was created Duke of Norfolk, while Thomas was created Earl of Surrey. Surrey was also sworn of the Privy Council and invested with the Order of the Garter. In the autumn of that year Norfolk and Surrey suppressed a rebellion against the King by the Duke of Buckingham. Both Howards remained close to King Richard throughout his two-year reign, and fought for him at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, where Surrey was wounded and taken prisoner, and his father killed. Surrey was attainted in the first Parliament of the new King, Henry VII, stripped of his lands, and committed to the Tower of London, where he spent the next three years.
Service under Henry VII
Howard was offered an opportunity to escape during the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln in 1487, but refused, perhaps thereby convincing Henry VII of his loyalty. In May 1489 Henry restored him to the earldom of Surrey, although most of his lands were withheld, and sent him to quell a rebellion in Yorkshire. Surrey remained in the north as the King's lieutenant until 1499. He and his family lived in Sheriff Hutton Castle while in North. In 1499 he was recalled to court, and accompanied the King on a state visit to France in the following year. In 1501 he was again appointed a member of the Privy Council, and on 16 June of that year was made Lord High Treasurer. Surrey, Richard Foxe (Bishop of Winchester and Lord Privy Seal) and William Warham (Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor), became the King's "executive triumvirate". He was entrusted with a number of diplomatic missions. In 1501 he was involved in the negotiations for Catherine of Aragon's marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and in 1503 conducted Margaret Tudor to Scotland for her wedding to King James IV.
Service under Henry VIII
Surrey was an executor of the will of King Henry VII when the King died on 21 April 1509, and played a prominent role in the coronation of King Henry VIII, in which he served as Earl Marshal. He challenged Thomas Wolsey in an effort to become the new King's first minister, but eventually accepted Wolsey's supremacy. Surrey expected to lead the 1513 expedition to France, but was left behind when the King departed for Calais on 30 June 1513. Shortly thereafter King James IV of Scotland launched an invasion into England, and Surrey, with the aid of other noblemen and his sons Thomas and Edmund, crushed James's much larger force at the Battle of Flodden, near Branxton, Northumberland, on 9 September 1513. The Scots may have lost as many as 10,000 men, and King James was killed. The victory at Flodden brought Surrey great popular renown and royal rewards. On 1 February 1514 he was created Duke of Norfolk, and his son Thomas was made Earl of Surrey. Both were granted lands and annuities, and the Howard arms were augmented in honour of Flodden with an inescutcheon bearing the lion of Scotland pierced through the mouth with an arrow, within a double tressure flory-counterflory-gules, an emblem of the Scottish royal arms on rare occasion granted by Scottish kings to a favoured follower as a special mark of favour. The grant by Henry VIII to Howard was thus a blatant heraldic insult to the kings of Scotland.
Final years
In the final decade of his life, Norfolk continued his career as a courtier, diplomat and soldier. In 1514 he joined Wolsey and Foxe in negotiating the marriage of Mary Tudor to King Louis XII of France, and escorted her to France for the wedding. On 1 May 1517 he led a private army of 1,300 retainers into London to suppress the Evil May Day riots. In May 1521 he presided as Lord High Steward over the trial of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham. According to David M. Head, "he pronounced the sentence of death with tears streaming down his face".
By the spring of 1522, Norfolk was almost 80 years of age and in failing health. He withdrew from court, resigned as Lord Treasurer in favour of his son in December of that year, and after attending the opening of Parliament in April 1523, retired to his ducal castle at Framlingham in Suffolk where he died on 21 May 1524. His funeral and burial on 22 June at Thetford Priory were said to have been "spectacular and enormously expensive, costing over £1300 and including a procession of 400 hooded men bearing torches and an elaborate bier surmounted with 100 wax effigies and 700 candles", befitting the richest and most powerful peer in England. After the dissolution of Thetford Priory, the Howard tombs were moved to the Church of St Michael the Archangel, Framlingham. A now-lost monumental brass depicting the 2nd Duke was formerly in the Church of St. Mary at Lambeth.
Marriages and issue
On 30 April 1472, Howard married Elizabeth Tilney, the daughter of Sir Frederick Tilney of Ashwellthorpe, Norfolk, and widow of Sir Humphrey Bourchier, slain at Barnet, son and heir apparent of Sir John Bourchier, 1st Baron Berners. They had issue:
Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk
Sir Edward Howard
Lord Edmund Howard, father of Henry VIII's fifth Queen, Catherine Howard
Sir John Howard
Henry Howard
Charles Howard
Henry Howard (the younger)
Richard Howard
Elizabeth Howard, married Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and was mother of Queen Anne Boleyn, and grandmother of Queen Elizabeth.
Muriel Howard (died 1512), married firstly John Grey, 2nd Viscount Lisle (died 1504), and secondly Sir Thomas Knyvet
Norfolk's first wife died on 4 April 1497, and on 8 November 1497 he married, by dispensation dated 17 August 1497, her cousin, Agnes Tilney, the daughter of Hugh Tilney of Skirbeck and Boston, Lincolnshire and Eleanor, a daughter of Walter Tailboys. They had issue:
William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham
Lord Thomas Howard (1511–1537)
Richard Howard (died 1517)
Dorothy Howard, married Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby
Anne Howard, married John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford
Catherine Howard, married firstly, Rhys ap Gruffydd. Married secondly, Henry Daubeney, 1st Earl of Bridgewater.
Elizabeth Howard (died 1536), married Henry Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Sussex.
Note: Thomas Howard indeed had two living daughters named Elizabeth Howard and two living sons named Thomas Howard. It is unclear if he had two sons named Richard as well or if it was the same person. In the Dukes of Norfolk family tree, there is clearly a mistake. Richard Howard is there linked to Agnes Tilney(2nd wife of Thomas Howard), yet is said to born in 1487, which is impossible to be true, as at the time Thomas Howard was married to Elizabeth Tilney.
Family
Ancestors
Family tree
Footnotes
References
Attribution:
Further reading
Harris, Barbara. "Marriage Sixteenth-Century Style: Elizabeth Stafford and the Third Duke of Norfolk," Journal of Social History, Spring 1982, Vol. 15 Issue 3;
Head, David M. Ebbs & Flows of Fortune: The Life of Thomas Howard, Third Duke of Norfolk (1995), 360pp; the standard scholarly biography of the third duke
Tucker, Melvin J., "The Life of Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey and second Duke of Norfolk (1964), 170pp' out of print but the only serious biography
External links
Dukes of Norfolk (Howard), Medieval Lands website by Charles Cawley
Flodden: Scotland's Greatest Defeat
302
Barons Mowbray
14
Thomas Howard, 02nd Duke of Norfolk
301
People of the Wars of the Roses
Lord High Stewards
Lord High Treasurers of England
Earls Marshal
Knights of the Garter
People educated at Ipswich School
1443 births
1524 deaths
Male Shakespearean characters
Prisoners in the Tower of London
People educated at Thetford Grammar School
16th-century English politicians | [
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233856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dubuque%20%28LPD-8%29 | USS Dubuque (LPD-8) | USS Dubuque (LPD-8), an , is the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the city of Dubuque, Iowa.
USS Dubuque is named after Dubuque, Iowa on the Mississippi River and her founder, Julien Dubuque - a French Canadian explorer. The second ship to bear the name, USS Dubuque was commissioned on 1 September 1967 at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia.
History
Dubuques keel was laid down on 25 January 1965 by Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi. She was launched on 6 August 1966 and commissioned on 1 September 1967 at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia. In November 1967, the ship arrived at her first homeport of San Diego, California after transiting the Panama Canal.
From 1968 until 1975, Dubuque made five Western Pacific deployments that saw extensive duty in Vietnam. In a highly publicized event in October 1968, the ship returned 14 repatriated prisoners of war to North Vietnam. From 1969 until 1971 the ship conducted ten Operation Keystone Cardinal troop lifts to Okinawa as part of the withdrawal of US forces. Dubuque relieved as the launch platform for HMA-369's Marine Hunter-Killer (MARHUK) Operations near Hon La (Tiger Island) off the coast of North Vietnam. From February to June 1973 the ship operated helicopters that conducted naval mine clearance operations in Haiphong Harbor as part of Operation End Sweep. In April 1975 the ship participated in Operation Frequent Wind, the evacuation of Saigon and the rescue of refugees fleeing South Vietnam.
On 15 August 1985 Dubuque departed San Diego for her new homeport of Sasebo, Japan, where she arrived 4 September 1985. There, she joined the Seventh Fleet Overseas Family Residency Program, her primary mission to support the Marine Corps in the Western Pacific.
In May 1988 Dubuque deployed to the Persian Gulf and served as the control ship for mine sweeping operations to protect US-flagged tankers during the Iran–Iraq War. For her participation in this operation, the ship was awarded pm. Meritorious Unit Commendation. In 1989 the ship participated in the contingency operation to evacuate American personnel from the Philippines during a failed coup attempt.
Immediately following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, Dubuque was deployed to the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Desert Shield. The ship functioned as the leading element of Amphibious Ready Group Bravo, which transported Marine Regimental Landing Team Four to Al Jubayl, Saudi Arabia during the critical early stages of the multi-national buildup.
In November 1998 Dubuque again deployed to the Persian Gulf as part of the Amphibious Ready Group (ARG) on support of Operation Desert Fox.
On 30 July 1999, Dubuque was relieved by as part of the forward-deployed naval forces. Since then, she has been once again home-ported in San Diego, California.
From June to September 1999, Dubuque participated in the first SHIP-SWAP with her sister-ship Juneau, where each ship's crew remained in their original home ports, allowing Dubuque to return to the homeport of San Diego.
From September 2006 to May 2007 Dubuque was deployed with and , transporting the 15th MEU to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom where among other missions the ship served as a holding facility for Iraqi POWs. Dubuque also assisted in the protection and maintenance of oil platforms in the northern part of the Persian Gulf.
Dubuque deployed again in 2008 with the Expeditionary Strike Group. Her crew participated in the pursuit of identifying pirates and collecting intelligence on piracy off the Gulf of Oman and the Horn of Africa. She also participated in rescuing six mariners from a sinking vessel off the Philippine coastline on the way to the Persian Gulf. . The event was an exemplary incident, which proved the flexibility of U.S. maritime strategy in times of crisis or emergency.
In early May 2009 Dubuque had to abort a humanitarian aid mission to the South Pacific after a sailor on board developed swine flu. It was later found out that approximately 50 cases were likely also H1N1 (swine flu).
On 9 September 2010, Marines attached to the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit's Maritime Raid Force launched from Dubuque and boarded and seized control of the German-flagged off the coast of Somalia. The pirates had taken control of the ship the previous day. The Marines captured nine pirates and rescued eleven crew members who had taken refuge in a "safe room" on the ship. No shots were fired and no injuries were reported.
USS Dubuque was officially decommissioned on 30 June 2011.
Swine flu outbreak
In May 2009 the Navy announced that a sailor on the ship had been confirmed as infected with Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 during the worldwide 2009 swine flu pandemic. Fifty more of the ship's sailors were suspected to have also been infected. As a result, the ship's June 2009 deployment to Oceania in support of the Pacific Partnership program was canceled.
Awards
According to the Navy Awards website , Dubuque has received one Navy Unit Commendation, four Meritorious Unit Commendations, three Battle Efficiency Awards, three Armed Forces Expeditionary Medals, three Humanitarian Service Medals and participated in countless amphibious exercises and operations throughout the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Notes
External links
USS Dubuque official website
navsource.org: USS Dubuque
navysite.de: USS Dubuque
on Bolinao 52
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Dubuque, Iowa
United States Navy Iowa-related ships
Vietnam War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
1966 ships | [
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233857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Howard%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk (147325 August 1554), was a prominent English politician and nobleman of the Tudor era. He was an uncle of two of the wives of King Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, both of whom were beheaded, and played a major role in the machinations affecting these royal marriages. After falling from favour in 1546, he was stripped of his Dukedom and imprisoned in the Tower of London, avoiding execution when Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547.
He was released on the accession of the Roman Catholic queen, Mary I, whom he aided in securing her throne, thus setting the stage for tensions between his Catholic family and the Protestant royal line that would be continued by Mary I's half-sister, Elizabeth I.
Early life
Thomas was the son of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (1443–1524), by his first wife, Elizabeth Tilney (died 1497), the daughter of Sir Frederick Tilney and widow of Sir Humphrey Bourchier. He was descended in the female line from Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk, the sixth son of King Edward I of England. In 1485, both his father and his grandfather, John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, had fought for the Yorkist king, Richard III, at the Battle of Bosworth, in which his grandfather was killed, thus bringing the Tudor king, Henry VII, to the throne. Due to their allegiance to the losing side, the Howard family's titles became forfeit.
Howard was an able soldier, and was often employed in military operations. In 1497, he served in a campaign against the Scots under the command of his father, who knighted him on 30 September 1497. He was made a Knight of the Garter after the accession of King Henry VIII, and became the King's close companion, with lodgings at court. On 4 May 1513, he was appointed Lord Admiral, and on 9 September, he helped to defeat the Scots at the Battle of Flodden.
His first wife, Anne of York, died in 1511, and early in 1513, Howard married Lady Elizabeth Stafford, the daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Lady Eleanor Percy, the daughter of Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland.
On 1 February 1514, Howard's father, then Earl of Surrey, was created Duke of Norfolk, and by letters patent issued on the same day, Thomas Howard was created Earl of Surrey for life. Over the next few years, he served King Henry VIII in a variety of ways. In September 1514, he escorted the King's sister Mary to France for her forthcoming marriage to King Louis XII of France. In 1517, he quelled a May day riot in London with the use of soldiers.
On 10 March 1520, Howard was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland. By July 1520, he entered upon the thankless task of endeavoring to keep Ireland in order. His letters contain accounts of attempts to pacify the rival factions of the Earl of Kildare and the Earl of Ormonde, and are full of demands for more money and troops.
At the end of 1521, Howard was recalled from Ireland to take command of the English fleet in naval operations against France. His ships were ill-provisioned, and his warfare consisted of a series of raids upon the French coast for the purpose of inflicting all the damage possible. When he abandoned the siege of Brest, he left Vice-Admiral William FitzWilliam on station to blockade the port. The English navy patrolled the coast of Brittany for the next three months, but was unable to score a decisive victory with their Spanish allies. In July 1522, Howard had burned Morlaix, in September, he had laid waste the country around Boulogne, spreading devastation on every side until the winter brought back the fleet to England. The sea patrol was abandoned with little achieved.
Rise to power
On 4 December 1522, Thomas Howard was made Lord Treasurer upon his father's resignation of the office, and on 21 May 1524, he succeeded his father as Duke of Norfolk. His liking for war brought him into conflict with Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, who preferred diplomacy in the conduct of foreign affairs. In 1523, Wolsey had secured to the Duke of Suffolk the reversion of the office of Earl Marshal by Howard's father, and in 1525, he was replaced as Lord Admiral by the Duke of Richmond. Finding himself pushed aside, the Duke of Norfolk spent considerable time away from court in 1525–1527 and 1528.
In the mid 1520s, Howard's niece, Anne Boleyn, had caught the eye of King Henry VIII, thereby reviving his political fortunes with his involvement in the King's attempt to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. By 1529, matters of state were being increasingly handled by the Duke of Norfolk, the Duke of Suffolk, and the Boleyns, who pressed King Henry VIII to remove Cardinal Wolsey. In October, the King sent him and the Duke of Suffolk to obtain the great seal from the Cardinal. In November, Wolsey was arrested on a charge of treason, but died before trial. Howard benefited from Wolsey's fall, becoming the King's leading councillor and applying himself energetically in the King's efforts to find a way out of his marriage to Queen Catherine. His loyalty and service to King Henry VIII brought him ample rewards in the form of monastic lands in Norfolk and Suffolk, employment on diplomatic missions, and being named a knight of the French Order of St Michael in 1532 and Earl Marshal of England on 28 May 1533. In May 1536, when Henry VIII arrested his second wife, Anne Boleyn, Howard presided at the trial of his niece as Lord High Steward.
Thomas Howard's marriage to his second wife, Lady Elizabeth Stafford, which had apparently been mutually affectionate at first, deteriorated in 1527 when he took a mistress, Elizabeth Holland (died 1547/8), whom he installed in the Howard household. Lady Elizabeth formally separated from her husband in the 1530s. She claimed that in March 1534, the Duke of Norfolk 'locked me up in a chamber, [and] took away my jewels and apparel'. Howard then moved her to Redbourn, Hertfordshire, where she lived an actual prisoner with a meagre annual allowance of only £200. She also claimed to have been physically maltreated by Howard and his household servants.
When the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out in Lincolnshire and the northern counties late in 1536, Howard shared command of the King's forces with the Earl of Shrewsbury, persuading the rebels to disperse by promising them a pardon and that Parliament would consider their grievances. However, when further rebellions erupted in January 1537, he carried out a policy of brutal retribution.
By 1539, the Duke of Norfolk was seriously challenging the religious reforms of the King's chief minister, Thomas Cromwell. In that year, King Henry VIII sought to have Parliament put an end to diversity in religious opinion. On 5 May, the House of Lords appointed a committee to consider questions of doctrine. Although he was not a member of the committee, on 16 May, Howard presented six conservative articles of religion to Parliament for consideration. On 30 May, the Six Articles and the penalties for failure to conform to them were enacted into law, and on 28 June, received royal assent.
On 29 June 1539, Thomas Howard, the Duke of Suffolk, and Thomas Cromwell dined with King Henry VIII as guests of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. During a heated discussion about Cardinal Wolsey, Cromwell charged Thomas Howard with disloyalty who in turn called Cromwell a liar. Their mutual hostility was now out in the open. Cromwell inadvertently played into Howard's hands by taking the initiative in the King's marriage to Anne of Cleves. The King's disillusionment with Anne's physical appearance when he met her in January 1540, and his desire to have the marriage annulled after the wedding had taken place, gave Howard an opportunity to bring down his enemy, Cromwell. On 10 June 1540, Cromwell was arrested at a Privy Council meeting on charges of high treason, and the Duke of Norfolk personally 'tore the St George from his neck'. On 9 July 1540, King Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves was annulled. On 28 July 1540, Cromwell was executed, and on the same day, the King wed the Duke's other niece, Catherine Howard, as his fifth wife. As a result of this marriage, for a time, Howard enjoyed political prominence, royal favour, and material rewards.
However, when Queen Catherine's premarital sexual indiscretions and her alleged adultery with Thomas Culpeper were revealed to King Henry VIII by Archbishop Cranmer, the King's wrath turned upon the Howard family, who were accused of concealing her misconduct. Queen Catherine was condemned by a bill of attainder and was later executed on 13 February 1542. Several other members of the Howard family were sent to the Tower, including the Duke of Norfolk's stepmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. However, the French ambassador Marillac wrote on 17 January 1542, that the Duke had not only escaped punishment, but had apparently been restored to his "full former credit and authority".
Thomas Howard was appointed Lieutenant-General north of the River Trent on 29 January 1541, and Captain-General in a campaign against the Scots in August 1542. In June 1543, he declared war on France in the King's name and was appointed Lieutenant-General of the army. During the campaign of May–October 1544, he besieged Montreuil, while King Henry VIII captured Boulogne, before returning home. Complaining of lack of provisions and munitions, Howard eventually raised the siege of Montreuil, and realizing that Boulogne could not realistically be held by the English for long, he left it garrisoned and withdrew to Calais, for which he was severely rebuked by the King.
Imprisonment and release
During the King's final years Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, and Henry VIII's last queen, Catherine Parr, both of whom favoured Protestantism, gained influence with the King while the conservative Duke of Norfolk became isolated politically. He attempted to form an alliance with the Seymours through a marriage between his widowed daughter, Mary Howard and Hertford's brother Thomas Seymour, but the effort was forestalled by the provocative conduct of his eldest son and heir, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who had assumed the royal arms of Edward the Confessor as part of his personal heraldry. On 12 December 1546 both Thomas Howard and his son were arrested and sent to the Tower. On 24 December 1546, the elder Howard acknowledged that he had "concealed high treason, in keeping secret the false acts of my son, Henry Earl of Surrey, in using the arms of St. Edward the Confessor, which pertain only to kings", and offered his lands to the King. The Duke of Norfolk's family, including his estranged wife, his daughter Mary, and his mistress, Elizabeth Holland, all gave evidence against him. His son was beheaded on 19 January 1547, and on 27 January 1547 he was attainted by statute without trial. The dying King gave his assent to Howard's death by royal commissioners, and it was rumoured that he would be executed on the following day. He was saved by the King's death on 28 January and the council's decision not to inaugurate the new reign with bloodshed. His estates fell prey to the ruling clique in the reign of King Edward VI, for which he was later partly compensated by lands worth £1626 a year from Queen Mary I.
Howard remained in the Tower throughout the reign of Edward VI. He was released and pardoned by Queen Mary in 1553, and in Mary's first parliament (October–December 1553), his statutory attainder was declared void, thereby restoring him to the dukedom. He was appointed to the Privy Council, and presided as Lord High Steward at the trial of the Duke of Northumberland on 18 August. He was also restored to the office of Earl Marshal and officiated in that capacity at Mary's coronation on 1 October 1553. His last major service to the Crown was his command of the forces sent in early 1554 to put down Wyatt's rebellion, a group of disaffected gentlemen who opposed the Queen's projected marriage to Philip II of Spain, but his men fled before the enemy.
Marriage and progeny
Thomas Howard married twice:
First, a politically advantageous match, on 4 February 1495, he married Princess Anne of York (1475–1511), the fifth daughter of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville, and the sister-in-law of King Henry VII. By Anne of York, he had four children, none of whom survived to adulthood.
Secondly, early in 1513, he married Lady Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, by his wife Lady Eleanor Percy, daughter of Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. By Elizabeth, he had three, possibly four, children including:
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (executed 19 January 1547), eldest son and heir apparent, who predeceased his father. His son Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, became heir to his grandfather, the 3rd Duke, and a ward of the crown.
Thomas Howard, 1st Viscount Howard of Bindon, created a Viscount by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1559.
Lady Mary Howard, who married Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset.
Lady Katherine Howard (died 15 March 1530), possible second daughter, briefly married to Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, her father's ward.
Death and burial
The Duke died at Kenninghall on 25 August 1554 and was buried at St. Michael's Church at Framlingham in Suffolk.
Fictional portrayals
Norfolk has been portrayed several times in film. In The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933) he was played by Frederick Culley. In The Prince and the Pauper (1937) he was played by Henry Stephenson. In A Man for All Seasons (1966), he was played by Nigel Davenport. In Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), Peter Jeffrey took the role. He went on to reprise the role in a 1996 BBC adaptation of Mark Twain's 1881 novel The Prince and the Pauper.In the 1970 BBC miniseries The Six Wives of Henry VIII, the role was played by Patrick Troughton. In the 1973 film, based on the miniseries, he was played by Michael Gough. Sir Rex Harrison portrayed him in the 1977 adaptation of the same novel called The Prince and the Pauper. Mark Strong portrayed Norfolk in the 2003 ITV feature Henry VIII. In the Showtime series The Tudors (2007),
he was played by Henry Czerny. David Morrissey played the Duke in the film The Other Boleyn Girl. Bernard Hill played the Duke in the acclaimed 2015 BBC adaptation of Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall.
D. L. Bogdan's novels Rivals in the Tudor Court and Secrets of the Tudor Court (published in the UK under the name of Darcey Bonnette) feature Norfolk as one of the central characters. Norfolk is also one of the characters in the Philippa Gregory novels The Other Boleyn Girl and The Boleyn Inheritance. He is an important character in The Man on a Donkey by H.F.M. Prescott and The Fifth Queen by Ford Madox Ford, and a prominent antagonist in Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall, Bring Up the Bodies, and The Mirror & the Light.
Family tree
Footnotes
References
Head, David M. Ebbs & Flows of Fortune: The Life of Thomas Howard, Third Duke of Norfolk (1995) 360pp.
Attribution
Further reading
the standard scholarly biography
External links
1473 births
1554 deaths
Lord High Stewards
Lord High Treasurers of England
Earls Marshal
Lord High Admirals of England
303
Thomas Howard, 03rd Duke of Norfolk
302
Barons Mowbray
15
Knights of the Garter
Male Shakespearean characters
Surrey, Thomas Howard, Earl of
Prisoners in the Tower of London
15th-century English nobility
16th-century English nobility
16th-century English politicians
16th-century Royal Navy personnel
Burials in Suffolk
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland | [
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233858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanter | Chanter | The chanter is the part of the bagpipe upon which the player creates the melody. It consists of a number of finger-holes, and in its simpler forms looks similar to a recorder. On more elaborate bagpipes, such as the Northumbrian bagpipes or the Uilleann pipes, it also may have a number of keys, to increase the instrument's range and/or the number of keys (in the modal sense) it can play in. Like the rest of the bagpipe, they are often decorated with a variety of substances, including metal (silver/nickel/gold/brass), bone, ivory, or plastic mountings.
Cylindrical vs. conical bore
Chanters come in two main types, parallel and non-parallel bored (although there is no clear dividing line between the two).
This refers to the shape of the internal bore of the chanter.
On the Great Highland Bagpipe, the internal bore is conical: it is this that gives the chanter its exceptional volume.
The Northumbrian pipes, on the other hand, have a parallel bore, giving them a much sweeter and quieter tone.
Keyed chanter
Although the majority of chanters are unkeyed, some make extensive use of keys to extend the range and/or the number of accidentals the chanter can play. The most common pipe featuring this arrangement is the Northumbrian smallpipe.
Double chanter
Another variant of the chanter is the two-piped chanter (often called a double chanter). The chanter pipes may be designed to be played separately, one with each hand, or the two chanters may be played in unison (as in most Arabic bagpipes). One chanter may provide a drone accompaniment to the other, or the two chanters may play in a harmony of thirds and sixths (as in the northern Italian Müsa and central-southern Italian zampogna). In pipes of the Carpathian basin up to five separate chanter bores may be placed in parallel within a single chanter assembly, providing both melodic and rhythmic possibilities: in the simplest case, one pipe is used to play the melody while the second provides a variable drone, while more complex pipes may separate certain individual notes into separate, stopped pipes.
Intonation
Because of the accompanying drone or drones, the lack of modulation in bagpipe melody, and stable timbre of the reed sound, in many bagpipe traditions the tones of the chanter are tuned using just intonation, although bagpipe tuning is highly variable across traditions. On the Great Highland bagpipe, tuning of the individual notes of the chanter is done using tape to slightly cover the finger holes as needed. Historically, it was done with wax, as was done with other woodwind instruments.
Practice chanter
The practice chanter is used as a practice instrument for the Great Highland Bagpipe. It is somewhat similar in appearance, though slightly smaller than the bagpipe chanter, and has a top piece so it can be blown directly from the mouth. It is also used as a first instrument so that learners can initially learn the finger technique before learning the mechanics of controlling the bag. It is almost exclusively made of hardwood or plastic.
The practice chanter of today may also be a descendant of the hornpipe or "stock-and-horn", a historical reed pipe of Scotland with a capped double reed and bell made of horn, played by shepherds, among others.
References
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233859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Howard%2C%204th%20Duke%20of%20Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk | Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, (10 March 15362 June 1572) was an English nobleman and politician. Although from a family with strong Catholic leanings, he was raised a Protestant. He was a second cousin of Queen Elizabeth I through her maternal grandmother, and held many high offices during her reign.
Norfolk was the son of the poet, soldier and politician Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. He commissioned Thomas Tallis, probably in 1567, to compose his renowned motet in forty voice-parts, Spem in alium.
He was executed for his role in the Ridolfi plot.
Early life, family, and religion
Norfolk was taught as a child by John Foxe, the Protestant martyrologist, who remained a lifelong recipient of Norfolk's patronage. His father predeceased his grandfather, so Norfolk inherited the Dukedom of Norfolk upon the death of his grandfather, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, in 1554.
He was a second cousin of Queen Elizabeth I through her maternal grandmother, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and he was trusted with public office despite his family's history and leanings towards Catholicism.
Career
While still young, Norfolk was Earl Marshal of England and Queen's Lieutenant in the North. From February to July 1560, Norfolk was commander of the English army in Scotland in support of the Lords of the Congregation opposing Mary of Guise. He negotiated the February 1560 Treaty of Berwick by which the Congregation invited English assistance, and after the Treaty of Edinburgh was signed in July of that year he was able to return to Court.
Norfolk was the Principal of the commission at York in 1568 to hear evidence against Mary, Queen of Scots, presented by Regent Moray, including the casket letters.
Legal troubles and execution
Having married and lost three wives by 1567, and despite having presided at the York commission, Norfolk schemed to marry Mary, Queen of Scots. William Maitland of Lethington favoured the proposed union, and Mary herself consented to it, but Norfolk was unwilling to take up arms. He was briefly involved in the Northern Rebellion in an attempt to free and marry Mary, and Elizabeth ordered his arrest for this in October 1569. He was imprisoned for nine months.
Following his release in August 1570, and after some hesitation, he participated in the Ridolfi plot with King Philip II of Spain to put Mary on the English throne and restore Catholicism in England. The plot was revealed to the queen's minister Lord Burghley, and after a trial in January 1572, in which he was found guilty unanimously, Norfolk was executed for treason in Tower Hill, London, in June. He is buried at the Church of St Peter ad Vincula within the walls of the Tower of London.
Norfolk's lands and titles were forfeit, although much of the estate was later restored to his sons. The title of Duke of Norfolk was restored, four generations later, to his great-great-grandson Thomas Howard.
Marriages and issue
First wife
Thomas Howard's first wife was Mary FitzAlan, daughter of Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel. She died after a year of marriage, having given birth to a son, who, on the death of his grandfather, inherited the Arundel title and estates:
Philip Howard (28 June 155719 October 1595), who became the 20th Earl of Arundel.
It is from this marriage that modern Dukes of Norfolk derive their surname of 'FitzAlan-Howard' and their seat in Arundel. Though her funeral effigy is found at Framlingham church, Mary FitzAlan was not buried there but first at the church of St. Clement Danes, Temple Bar and then, under the direction of her grandson's will, at Arundel.
Second wife
Norfolk next married another heiress, Margaret Audley, widow of Sir Henry Dudley and daughter of Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden. Their marriage was ratified by the House of Lords in March 1559.
Margaret's children by her marriage to Norfolk were:
Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk;
Lord William Howard, ancestor of the Earls of Carlisle;
Lady Elizabeth Howard (died in childhood);
Lady Margaret Howard
Margaret Audley Howard's tomb effigy is found at St Michael the Archangel, Framlingham.
Third wife
After Margaret's death in 1563, Norfolk married Elizabeth Leyburne (15364 September 1567), widow of Thomas Dacre, 4th Baron Dacre of Gillesland and daughter of Sir James Leyburn.
Norfolk's three sons by his first two wives, Philip, Thomas, and William, married, respectively, Anne, Margaret, and Elizabeth Dacre. The Dacre sisters were the daughters of Elizabeth Leyburne by her marriage to Thomas Dacre and were, thereby, stepsisters to Norfolk's sons.
Attempted fourth marriage
After Norfolk's third wife's death in 1567, Mary, Queen of Scots fled to England in 1568 and was imprisoned by Queen Elizabeth. Thomas Howard was suggested as a husband for her as he was a cousin to Queen Elizabeth and the wealthiest landowner in the country. Together they would have a strong claim on England's throne as Mary was also Elizabeth's cousin. This suited Norfolk as he was ambitious and felt Elizabeth consistently undervalued him. Therefore, Norfolk supported the Northern Rebellion in 1569 in an effort to free and marry Mary, Queen of Scots. It is still debated whether this plot actually planned to overthrow Elizabeth or even if Mary knew about it. Howard soon lost his nerve and the plan failed, but he made another effort to marry Mary in 1571 as part of the Ridolfi Plot. This plot planned to murder Elizabeth and free Mary. She would then marry Howard so that they could take the throne. Elizabeth's government discovered the plot and Howard's servants betrayed him under torture. Norfolk was imprisoned by Queen Elizabeth and put on trial in January 1572. He was found guilty unanimously, and beheaded on Tower Hill, London, in June.
Depictions
Thomas Howard appears as a character in the Philippa Gregory novels The Virgin's Lover and The Other Queen, and in the novel I, Elizabeth by Rosalind Miles.
A highly fictionalized version of the 4th Duke of Norfolk appears as a villain, played by Christopher Eccleston, in the 1998 film Elizabeth.
Another version of the Duke is in the BBC mini-series The Virgin Queen, played by Kevin McKidd.
In the Channel 4 documentary Elizabeth (2000) presented by David Starkey, the Duke is portrayed by actor John Gully.
Family
Ancestry
Family tree
See also
John George Howard, a Toronto architect who claims to be related to the Duke.
References
Further reading
papers from Norfolk's treason trial 1568–1572.
|-
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1536 births
1572 deaths
304
303
Earls Marshal
Barons Mowbray
16
Thomas Howard, 04th Duke of Norfolk
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Buckinghamshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Norfolk
People executed under the Tudors for treason against England
Howard, Thomas
16th-century English politicians
People convicted under a bill of attainder
Executions at the Tower of London
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Executed English people
People executed by Tudor England by decapitation
People executed under Elizabeth I
Burials at the Church of St Peter ad Vincula
English politicians convicted of crimes
Court of Mary I of England | [
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233862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Arizona | List of governors of Arizona | The governor of Arizona is the head of government of the U.S. state of Arizona. As the top elected official, the governor is the head of the executive branch of the Arizona state government and is charged with faithfully executing state laws. The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Arizona State Legislature; to convene the legislature; and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.
Twenty-three people have served as governor over 27 distinct terms. All of the repeat governors were in the state's earliest years, when George W. P. Hunt and Thomas Edward Campbell alternated as governor for 17 years and, after a two-year gap, Hunt served another term. One governor, Evan Mecham, was successfully impeached, and one, Fife Symington, resigned upon being convicted of a felony. The longest-serving governor was Hunt, who was elected seven times and served just under fourteen years. The longest single stint was that of Bruce Babbitt, who was elected to two four-year terms after succeeding to the office following the death of his predecessor, Wesley Bolin, serving nearly nine years total. Bolin had the shortest tenure, dying less than five months after succeeding as governor. Four governors were actually born in Arizona: Campbell, Sidney Preston Osborn, Rose Mofford, and Babbitt. Arizona has had four female governors, the most in the United States, and was the first—and until 2019 (when Michelle Lujan Grisham succeeded Susana Martinez in neighboring New Mexico) the only—state where female governors served consecutively. Because of a string of deaths in office, resignations, and an impeachment, Arizona has not had a governor whose complete term of service both began and ended because of "normal" election circumstances since Jack Williams was in office, from 1967 to 1975.
The current Governor is Republican Doug Ducey, who took office on January 5, 2015.
Governors
Confederate Arizona
In Tucson between April 2 and April 5, 1860, a convention of settlers from the southern half of New Mexico Territory drafted a provisional constitution for "Arizona Territory," three years before the United States would create such a territory. This proposed territory consisted of the part of New Mexico Territory south of 33° 40' north. On April 2, they elected a governor, Dr. Lewis S. Owings. The provisional territory was to exist until such time as an official territory was created, but that proposal was rejected by the U.S. Congress at the time.
On March 16, 1861, soon before the American Civil War broke out, a convention in Mesilla voted that the provisional territory should secede from the Union and join the Confederacy. Dr. Lewis S. Owings remained on as the provisional governor of the territory.
The Confederacy took ownership of the territory on August 1, 1861, when forces led by Lieutenant Colonel John R. Baylor won decisive control of the territory, and Baylor proclaimed himself governor. The Arizona Territory (Confederate) was formally organized on January 18, 1862. On March 20, 1862, Baylor issued an order to kill all the adult Apache and take their children into slavery. When Confederate President Jefferson Davis learned of this order, he strongly disapproved and demanded an explanation. Baylor wrote a letter December 29, 1862, to justify his decision, and after this was received, Davis relieved Baylor of his post and commission, calling his letter an "avowal of an infamous crime." By that time, the Confederate government of Arizona Territory was in exile in San Antonio, Texas, as the territory had been effectively lost to Union forces in July 1862; no new governor was appointed.
Governors of the Territory of Arizona
Arizona Territory was formed on February 24, 1863 from New Mexico Territory, remaining a territory for 49 years.
Governors of the State of Arizona
The state of Arizona was admitted to the Union on February 14, 1912, the last of the contiguous states to be admitted.
The state constitution of 1912 called for the election of a governor every two years. The term was increased to four years by a 1968 amendment. The constitution originally included no term limit, but an amendment passed in 1992 allows governors to succeed themselves only once; before this, four governors were elected more than twice in a row. Gubernatorial terms begin on the first Monday in the January following the election. Governors who have served the two term limit can run again after four years out of office.
Arizona is one of seven states which does not have a lieutenant governor; instead, in the event of a vacancy in the office of governor, the Secretary of State, if elected, succeeds to the office. If the secretary of state was appointed, rather than elected, or is otherwise ineligible to hold the office of governor, the first elected and eligible person in the line of succession assumes the office. The state constitution specifies the line of succession to be the Secretary of State, Attorney General, State Treasurer and Superintendent of Public Instruction, in that order. If the governor is out of the state or impeached, the next elected officer in the line of succession becomes acting governor until the governor returns or is cleared. In either case, any partial term counts toward the limit of two consecutive terms.
To date, the line of succession has gone beyond the secretary of state only once, when Bruce Babbitt, as attorney general, became governor upon the death of Wesley Bolin; Rose Mofford, then serving as secretary of state, had been appointed to replace Bolin after Bolin succeeded to the governorship. Bolin had become governor when Raúl Héctor Castro resigned to accept appointment as U.S. Ambassador to Argentina. Mofford later became acting governor after Evan Mecham was impeached by the House of Representatives, and succeeded to the governorship when Mecham was removed from office after his conviction by the Senate.
Succession
See also
Timeline of Arizona
Notes
References
General
Constitution
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Arizona
Lists of state governors of the United States
Arizona Territory
Governors
Political history of Arizona | [
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233866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Arkansas | List of governors of Arkansas | The governor of Arkansas is the head of government of the U.S. state of Arkansas. The governor is the head of the executive branch of the Arkansas government and is charged with enforcing state laws. They have the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Arkansas General Assembly, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment.
The state has had 46 elected governors, as well as 11 acting governors who assumed powers and duties following the resignation or death of the governor. Before becoming a state, Arkansas Territory had four governors appointed to it by the president of the United States. Orval Faubus (1955-1967) served the longest term as governor, being elected six times to serve 12 years. Bill Clinton (1979-1981; 1983-1992), elected five times over two distinct terms, fell only one month short of 12 years, and Mike Huckabee (1996-2007) served 10 years for two full four-year terms. The shortest term for an elected governor was the 38 days served by John Sebastian Little before his nervous breakdown; one of the acting successors to his term, Jesse M. Martin, took office only three days before the end of the term, the shortest term overall.
The current governor of Arkansas is Republican Asa Hutchinson, who was sworn in on January 13, 2015.
Territorial (1819–1836)
Arkansaw Territory (renamed Arkansas Territory, circa 1822) was split from the Missouri Territory on July 4, 1819. As territorial secretary from 1819 to 1829, Robert Crittenden served as acting governor whenever the appointed governor was not in the state. This meant that Crittenden was the first person to perform the duties of governor, since James Miller did not arrive in the territory until nine months after his appointment.
State (from 1836)
Arkansas was admitted to the Union on June 15, 1836. The state seceded on May 6, 1861, and was admitted to the Confederacy on May 18, 1861. When Little Rock, the state capital, was captured on September 10, 1863, the state government relocated to Washington, Arkansas, and a Union government was installed in its place, causing an overlap in the terms of Confederate governor Harris Flanagin and Union governor Isaac Murphy. During the post-war Reconstruction period, it was part of the Fourth Military District. Arkansas was readmitted to the Union on June 22, 1868.
The Arkansas Constitution of 1836 established four-year terms for governors, which was lowered to two years in the 1874, and current, constitution. An amendment in 1984 increased the terms of both governor and lieutenant governor to four years. Governors were originally limited only to serving no more than eight out of every twelve years, but the 1874 constitution removed any term limit. A referendum in 1992 limited governors to two terms.
Until 1864, the constitutions provided that, should the office of governor be rendered vacant, the president of the senate would serve as acting governor until such time as a new governor were elected or the disability removed, or the acting governor's senate term expired. This led to some situations where the governorship changed hands in quick succession, due to senate terms ending or new senate presidents being elected. For example, after John Sebastian Little resigned in 1907, 3 senate presidents acted as governor before the next elected governor took office. Should the president of the senate be similarly incapacitated, the next in line for the governorship was the speaker of the state house of representatives.
The 1864 constitution created the office of lieutenant governor who would also act as president of the senate, and who would serve as acting governor in case of vacancy. The 1868 constitution maintained the position, but the 1874 constitution removed it and returned to the original line of succession. An amendment to the constitution, passed in 1914 but not recognized until 1925, recreated the office of lieutenant governor, who becomes governor in case of vacancy of the governor's office. The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket.
Arkansas was a strongly Democratic state before the Civil War, electing only candidates from the Democratic party. It elected three Republican governors following Reconstruction, but after the Democratic Party re-established control, 92 years passed before voters chose another Republican. Arkansas has 7 Republican governors, 39 Democratic and 3 independent.
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Specific
External links
Official
General information
Governors of Arkansas at The Political Graveyard
Governor
Governors
Arkansas | [
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233867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Gottschalk | Thomas Gottschalk | Thomas Johannes Gottschalk (born 18 May 1950) is a German radio and television host and entertainer. He is best known for hosting Wetten, dass..?, for many years Europe's biggest television show, which he steered to huge success in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and South Tyrol between 1987 and 2011. Until 2015, he was also the brand ambassador in television advertisements for Haribo confectionery.
Early life
Gottschalk was born in Bamberg, Bavaria, the son of a lawyer. After attending the Humanistisches Gymnasium (humanities-oriented high school) in Kulmbach, he studied history and German philology, eventually taking his exams as a teacher for primary and secondary schools; however, it was during this time that he discovered his true vocation: entertainment.
Career
From 1971 on, Gottschalk worked as a freelancer for the youth program of the Bayerischer Rundfunk (Bavarian Broadcasting); in 1973, he became anchor for a news program. In 1976, after a brief detour to the newspaper Münchner Merkur, he became a regular contributor at the Bayerischer Rundfunk, and subsequently gained popularity as the host of the show Pop nach acht. He was awarded the Kurt-Magnus-Preis for his "outstanding talents" as a radio host in 1978.
Starting in 1977, Gottschalk hosted the TV show Telespiele. Initially broadcast on the Bayerischer Rundfunk's television channel, it switched to the national public ARD channel in 1980. In the same year, Gottschalk founded GLS United, the first German hip hop group and performed the first German rap song, "Rapper's Deutsch".
From 1982 to 1987, Gottschalk hosted the show Na sowas on ZDF and was awarded the Goldene Kamera (golden camera) for his performance on that show in 1985. During that period he also starred in several German comedies with actor Mike Krüger. Gottschalk occasionally works as an actor until today, taking roles in the Hollywood movies Trabbi goes to Hollywood (1991) and Zookeeper (2011). In 1993, Gottschalk starred in Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit (1993) as a consequence of leading actress Whoopi Goldberg losing a bet in Gottschalk's gameshow Wetten, dass..?. He plays the sausage-obsessed German cook, Father Wolfgang.
In 1987, Gottschalk replaced Frank Elstner as host of Wetten, dass..?, which he continued until December 2011, with only a brief interruption from 1992 to 1994 when the show was taken over by Wolfgang Lippert. Reportedly, his withdrawal from the show was related to an accident that happened live on Wetten, dass..? on 4 December 2010. A contestant in the show, a young gymnast named Samuel Koch, was paralyzed from the shoulders down after being hit by a car during a stunt where he was to jump over it with spring-loaded boots. Gottschalk was upset this happened and called off the show early for the first time ever when it became apparent that Koch was severely injured. Gottschalk announced his retirement from the show in the next episode.
From 1992 to 1995, Gottschalk also hosted a late night show on television, Gottschalk Late Night, and while it was not very successful, it is considered a predecessor to such shows such as Die Harald Schmidt Show, TV total and the Johannes B. Kerner Show. Gottschalk Late Night also featured the Model '92 Competition during 1992, in which Heidi Klum was the winner and received a modeling contract and winning prize, paving the way for her modeling career.
Gottschalk has been awarded a number of prizes for his work; apart from those mentioned above. These include the Telestar in 1987, the Goldenes Schlitzohr (golden rascal) and the Goldenes Kabel (golden cable) in 1991, as well as the Goldene Feder ("golden feather") in 2001. He also received a total of three Bambi awards, which he returned in 1988 after a dispute with the publisher Burda. However, in 2001, he was awarded a "Bambi of honor" which he accepted. In 2012 Gottschalk co-hosted the show Das Supertalent.
Gottschalk also co-hosts the German TV show Die 2 – Gottschalk und Jauch gegen alle together with Günther Jauch.
Personal life
Gottschalk married his wife Thea in 1976. He has two sons, Roman and Tristan and one grandson (born 2010). In 2019, he announced that he and Thea would be getting divorced after 43 years of marriage.
On 16 November 2004, Gottschalk bought Castle Marienfels in Remagen, Germany. He lived there from 2006 to 2013. It was announced at the end of January 2013 that he had sold the castle to Frank Asbeck. He has had a second home in Malibu, California, since the beginning of the 1990s. The residence burned down in the 2018 California wildfires.
In 2005, Gottschalk received an entry in the Guinness World Records, having been featured in longest running ad featuring one person; between 1991 and 2015 he regularly appeared in ads for the sweets company Haribo.
On 20 November 2008, he won €1 million for charity in a celebrity version of Wer wird Millionär?, the German version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?.
Filmography
Film
Audiobooks
Herbstblond: Die Autobiographie (Audiobook, Autobiography, read by Thomas Gottschalk), Random House Audio 2015,
Herbstbunt: Wer nur alt wird, aber nicht klüger, ist schön blöd (Audiobook, Autobiography, read by Thomas Gottschalk), Random House Audio 2019,
Awards
Goldener Gong (1983)
Telestar (1987)
Deutscher Fernsehpreis Beste Show für Wetten, dass..? (gemeinsam mit Viktor Worms und Alexander Arnz) (1999)
Bayerischer Fernsehpreis Ehrenpreis des Bayerischen Ministerpräsidenten (1999)
Rose d'Or Goldene Rose für Game-Show-Moderation für Wetten, dass..? (2005)
References
External links
Thomas Gottschalk at the German Dubbing Card Index
1950 births
German game show hosts
German television personalities
German television presenters
German radio presenters
German television talk show hosts
Living people
People from Bamberg
German expatriates in the United States
ZDF people
RTL Group people
Bayerischer Rundfunk people
Südwestrundfunk people | [
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233878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubia | Rubia | Rubia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It contains around 80 species of perennial scrambling or climbing herbs and subshrubs native to the Old World. The genus and its best-known species are commonly known as madder, e.g. Rubia tinctorum (common madder), Rubia peregrina (wild madder), and Rubia cordifolia (Indian madder).
Uses
Rubia was an economically important source of a red pigment in many regions of Asia, Europe and Africa. The genus name Rubia derives from the Latin meaning "red".
The plant's roots contain an anthracene compound called alizarin that gives its red colour to a textile dye known as Rose madder. It was also used as a colourant, especially for paint, that is referred to as Madder lake. The synthesis of alizarin greatly reduced demand for the natural compound.
In Georgia, Rubia is used for dying Easter eggs in red.
History
Several species, such as Rubia tinctorum in Europe, Rubia cordifolia in India, and Rubia argyi in East Asia, were extensively cultivated from antiquity until the mid nineteenth century for red dye, commonly called madder. Cloth dyed with it has been found on Egyptian mummies. It was the ereuthedanon () used for dyeing the cloaks of the Libyan women in the days of Herodotus. It is the erythrodanon () of Pedanius Dioscorides, who wrote of its cultivation in Caria, and of Hippocrates, and the Rubia of Pliny. R. tinctorum was extensively cultivated in south Europe, France, where it is called garance, and the Netherlands, and to a small extent in the United States. Large quantities were imported into England from Smyrna, Trieste, Livorno, etc. The cultivation, however, decreased after alizarin was made artificially.
Madder was employed medicinally in ancient civilizations and in the Middle Ages. John Gerard, in 1597, wrote of it as having been cultivated in many gardens in his day, and describes its many supposed virtues, but any pharmacological or therapeutic action which madder may possess is unrecognizable. Its most remarkable physiological effect was found to be that of colouring red the bones of animals fed upon it, as also the claws and beaks of birds. This appears to be due to the chemical affinity of calcium phosphate for the colouring matter. This property was used to enable physiologists to ascertain the manner in which bones develop, and the functions of the various types of cell found in growing bone.
Species
Rubia agostinhoi Dans. & P.Silva
Rubia aitchisonii Deb & Malick
Rubia alaica Pachom.
Rubia alata Wall.
Rubia albicaulis Boiss.
Rubia angustisissima Wall. ex G.Don
Rubia argyi (H.Lév. & Vaniot) Hara ex Lauener
Rubia atropurpurea Decne.
Rubia balearica (Willk.) Porta
Rubia caramanica Bornm.
Rubia charifolia Wall. ex G.Don
Rubia chinensis Regel & Maack
Rubia chitralensis Ehrend.
Rubia clematidifolia Blume ex Decne.
Rubia cordifolia L.
Rubia crassipes Collett & Hemsl.
Rubia cretacea Pojark.
Rubia danaensis Danin
Rubia davisiana Ehrend.
Rubia deserticola Pojark.
Rubia discolor Turcz.
Rubia dolichophylla Schrenk
Rubia edgeworthii Hook.f.
Rubia falciformis H.S.Lo
Rubia filiformis F.C.How ex H.S.Lo
Rubia florida Boiss.
Rubia fruticosa Aiton
Rubia garrettii Craib
Rubia gedrosiaca Bornm.
Rubia haematantha Ary Shaw
Rubia hexaphylla (Makino) Makino
Rubia himalayensis Klotzsch
Rubia hispidicaulis D.G.Long
Rubia horrida (Thunb.) Puff
Rubia infundibularis Hemsl. & Lace
Rubia jesoensis (Miq.) Miyabe & Kudo
Rubia komarovii Pojark.
Rubia krascheninnikovii Pojark.
Rubia laevissima Tschern.
Rubia latipetala H.S.Lo
Rubia laurae (Holmboe) Airy Shaw
Rubia laxiflora Gontsch.
Rubia linii J.M.Chao
Rubia magna P.G.Xiao
Rubia mandersii Collett & Hemsl.
Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming
Rubia maymanensis Ehrend. & Schönb.-Tem.
Rubia membranacea Diels
Rubia oncotricha Hand.-Mazz.
Rubia oppositifolia Griff.
Rubia ovatifolia Z.Ying Zhang ex Q.Lin
Rubia pallida Diels
Rubia pauciflora Boiss.
Rubia pavlovii Bajtenov & Myrz.
Rubia peregrina L.
Rubia petiolaris DC.
Rubia philippinensis Elmer
Rubia podantha Diels
Rubia polyphlebia H.S.Lo
Rubia pterygocaulis H.S.Lo
Rubia rechingeri Ehrend.
Rubia regelii Pojark.
Rubia rezniczenkoana Litv.
Rubia rigidifolia Pojark.
Rubia rotundifolia Banks & Sol.
Rubia salicifolia H.S.Lo
Rubia schugnanica B.Fedtsch. ex Pojark.
Rubia schumanniana E.Pritz.
Rubia siamensis Craib
Rubia sikkimensis Kurz
Rubia sylvatica (Maxim.) Nakai
Rubia tatarica (Trevir.) F.Schmidt
Rubia tenuifolia d'Urv.
Rubia tenuissima ined.
Rubia thunbergii DC.
Rubia tibetica Hook.f.
Rubia tinctorum L.
Rubia transcaucasica Grossh.
Rubia trichocarpa H.S.Lo
Rubia truppeliana Loes.
Rubia wallichiana Decne.
Rubia yunnanensis Diels
References
External links
Rubia in the World Checklist of Rubiaceae
Medicinal plants
Non-timber forest products
Plant dyes
Rubiaceae genera
Rugs and carpets | [
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233879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alizarin | Alizarin | Alizarin (also known as 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone, Mordant Red 11, C.I. 58000, and Turkey Red) is an organic compound with formula that has been used throughout history as a prominent red dye, principally for dyeing textile fabrics. Historically it was derived from the roots of plants of the madder genus. In 1869, it became the first natural dye to be produced synthetically.
Alizarin is the main ingredient for the manufacture of the madder lake pigments known to painters as Rose madder and Alizarin crimson. Alizarin in the most common usage of the term has a deep red color, but the term is also part of the name for several related non-red dyes, such as Alizarine Cyanine Green and Alizarine Brilliant Blue. A notable use of alizarin in modern times is as a staining agent in biological research because it stains free calcium and certain calcium compounds a red or light purple color. Alizarin continues to be used commercially as a red textile dye, but to a lesser extent than in the past.
History
Madder has been cultivated as a dyestuff since antiquity in central Asia and Egypt, where it was grown as early as 1500 BC. Cloth dyed with madder root pigment was found in the tomb of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun, in the ruins of Pompeii, and ancient Athens and Corinth. In the Middle Ages, Charlemagne encouraged madder cultivation. Madder was widely used as a dye in Western Europe in the Late Medieval centuries. In 17th century England, alizarin was used as a red dye for the clothing of the parliamentary New Model Army. The distinctive red color would continue to be worn for centuries (though also produced by other dyes such as cochineal), giving English and later British soldiers the nickname of "redcoats".
The madder dyestuff is combined with a dye mordant. According to which mordant used, the resulting color may be anywhere from pink through purple to dark brown. In the 18th century the most valued color was a bright red known as "Turkey Red". The combination of mordants and overall technique used to obtain the Turkey Red originated in the Middle East or Turkey (hence the name). It was a complex and multi-step technique in its Middle Eastern formulation, some parts of which were unnecessary. The process was simplified in late 18th-century Europe. By 1804, a dye maker George Field in Britain had refined a technique to make lake madder by treating it with alum, and an alkali, that converts the water-soluble madder extract into a solid, insoluble pigment. This resulting madder lake has a longer-lasting color, and can be used more efficaciously, for example by blending it into a paint. Over the following years, it was found that other metal salts, including those containing iron, tin, and chromium, could be used in place of alum to give madder-based pigments of various other colors. This general method of preparing lakes has been known for centuries but was simplified in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
In 1826, the French chemist Pierre-Jean Robiquet found that madder root contained two colorants, the red alizarin and the more rapidly fading purpurin. The alizarin component became the first natural dye to be synthetically duplicated in 1868 when the German chemists Carl Graebe and Carl Liebermann, working for BASF, found a way to produce it from anthracene. The Bayer AG company draws its roots from alizarin as well. About the same time, the English dye chemist William Henry Perkin independently discovered the same synthesis, although the BASF group filed their patent before Perkin by one day. The subsequent discovery (made by Broenner and Gutzhow in 1871) that anthracene could be abstracted from coal tar further advanced the importance and affordability of alizarin's artificial synthesis.
The synthetic alizarin could be produced for a fraction of the cost of the natural product, and the market for madder collapsed virtually overnight. The principal synthesis entailed oxidation of anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid with sodium nitrate in concentrated sodium hydroxide. Alizarin itself has been in turn largely replaced today by the more light-resistant quinacridone pigments developed at DuPont in 1958.
Structure and properties
Alizarin is one of ten dihydroxyanthraquinone isomers. It is soluble in hexane and chloroform, and can be obtained from the latter as red-purple crystals, melting point 277–278 °C.
Alizarin changes color depending on the pH of the solution it is in, thereby making it a pH indicator.
Applications
Alizarin Red is used in a biochemical assay to determine, quantitatively by colorimetry, the presence of calcific deposition by cells of an osteogenic lineage. As such it is an early stage marker (days 10–16 of in vitro culture) of matrix mineralization, a crucial step towards the formation of calcified extracellular matrix associated with true bone.
Alizarin's abilities as a biological stain were first noted in 1567, when it was observed that when fed to animals, it stained their teeth and bones red. The chemical is now commonly used in medical studies involving calcium. Free (ionic) calcium forms precipitates with alizarin, and tissue block containing calcium stain red immediately when immersed in alizarin. Thus, both pure calcium and calcium in bones and other tissues can be stained. These alizarin-stained elements can be better visualized under fluorescent lights, excited by 440–460 nm. The process of staining calcium with alizarin works best when conducted in acidic solution (in many labs, it works better in pH 4.1 to 4.3).
In clinical practice, it is used to stain synovial fluid to assess for basic calcium phosphate crystals. Alizarin has also been used in studies involving bone growth, osteoporosis, bone marrow, calcium deposits in the vascular system, cellular signaling, gene expression, tissue engineering, and mesenchymal stem cells.
In geology, it is used as a stain to differentiate the calcium carbonate minerals, especially calcite and aragonite in thin section or polished surfaces.
Madder lake had been in use as a red pigment in paintings since antiquity.
See also
1,2,4-Trihydroxyanthraquinone or purpurin, another red dye that occurs in madder root
Alizarine ink
Aniline
Dihydroxyanthraquinone
Hydroxyanthraquinone
List of colors (compact)
List of dyes
Diaphonization
References
Further reading
Schweppe, H., and Winter, J. "Madder and Alizarin", in Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 3: E.W. Fitzhugh (Ed.) Oxford University Press 1997, pp. 109–142
External links
Molecule of the day: Alizarin
Madder lake, Colourlex
Anthraquinone dyes
Catechols
Chelating agents
Dihydroxyanthraquinones
Organic pigments
3-Hydroxypropenals within hydroxyquinones | [
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233884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-high-temperature%20processing | Ultra-high-temperature processing | Ultra-high temperature processing (UHT), ultra-heat treatment, or ultra-pasteurization is a food processing technology that sterilizes liquid food by heating it above – the temperature required to kill bacterial endospores – for 2 to 5 seconds. UHT is most commonly used in milk production, but the process is also used for fruit juices, cream, soy milk, yogurt, wine, soups, honey, and stews. UHT milk was first developed in the 1960s and became generally available for consumption in the 1970s.
The heat used during the UHT process can cause Maillard browning and change the taste and smell of dairy products. An alternative process is flash pasteurization, in which the milk is heated to for at least 15 seconds.
UHT milk packaged in a sterile container has a typical unrefrigerated shelf life of six to nine months. In contrast, flash pasteurized milk has a shelf life of about two weeks from processing, or about one week from being put on sale.
History
The most commonly applied technique to provide a safe and shelf-stable milk is heat treatment. The first system involving indirect heating with continuous flow ( for 6 min) was manufactured in 1893. In 1912, a continuous-flow, direct-heating method of mixing steam with milk at temperatures of was patented. However, without commercially available aseptic packaging systems to pack and store the product, such technology was not very useful in itself, and further development was stalled until the 1950s. In 1953, APV pioneered a steam injection technology, involving direct injection of steam through a specially designed nozzle which raises the product temperature instantly, under brand name Uperiser; milk was packaged in sterile cans. In the 1960s APV launched the first commercial steam infusion system under the Palarisator brand name.
In Sweden, Tetra Pak launched tetrahedral paperboard cartons in 1952. They made a commercial breakthrough in the 1960s, after technological advances, combining carton assembling and aseptic packaging technologies, followed by international expansion. In aseptic processing, the product and the package are sterilized separately and then combined and sealed in a sterile atmosphere, in contrast to canning, where product and package are first combined and then sterilized.
The Importation of Milk Act 1983 was passed by the Parliament of the UK following a successful appeal to the European Court of Justice that prevented government from banning the importation of UHT milk.
In June 1993, Parmalat introduced its UHT milk to the United States.
In the American market, consumers are uneasy about consuming milk that is not delivered under refrigeration, and reluctant to buy it. To combat this, Parmalat is selling its UHT milk in old-fashioned containers, unnecessarily sold from the refrigerator aisle. UHT milk is also used for many dairy products.
In 2008 the UK government proposed to produce 9 pints out of every 10 as UHT by 2020 which they believed would significantly cut the need for refrigeration, and thus benefit the environment by reducing greenhouse emissions. However the milk industry opposed this, and the proposition was abandoned.
Technology
Ultra-high-temperature processing is performed in complex production plants, which perform several stages of food processing and packaging automatically and in succession:
Flash heating
Flash cooling
Homogenization
Aseptic packaging
In the heating stage, the treated liquid is first pre-heated to a noncritical temperature ( for milk), and then quickly heated to the temperature required by the process. There are two types of heating technologies: direct, where the product is put in a direct contact with the hot steam, and indirect, where the product and the heating medium remain separated by the equipment's contact surfaces. The main goals of the design, both from product quality and from efficiency standpoints, are to maintain the high product temperature for the shortest period possible, and to ensure that the temperature is evenly distributed throughout.
Direct heating systems
Direct systems have the advantage that the product is held at a high temperature for a shorter period of time, thereby reducing the thermal damage for the sensitive products such as milk. There are two groups of direct systems:
Injection-based, where the high-pressure steam is injected into the liquid. It allows fast heating and cooling, but is only suitable for some products. As the product comes in contact with the hot nozzle, there is a possibility of local overheating.
Infusion-based, where the liquid is pumped through a nozzle into a chamber with high-pressure steam at a relatively low concentration, providing a large surface contact area. This method achieves near-instantaneous heating and cooling and even distribution of temperature, avoiding local overheating. It is suitable for liquids of both low and high viscosity.
Indirect heating systems
In indirect systems, the product is heated by a solid heat exchanger similar to those used for pasteurization. However, as higher temperatures are applied, it is necessary to employ higher pressures in order to prevent boiling. There are three types of exchangers in use:
Plate exchangers,
Tubular exchangers
Scraped-surface exchangers.
For higher efficiency, pressurized water or steam is used as the medium for heating the exchangers themselves, accompanied with a regeneration unit which allows reuse of the medium and energy saving.
Flash cooling
After heating, the hot product is passed to a holding tube and then to a vacuum chamber, where it suddenly loses the temperature and vaporizes. The process, referred to as flash cooling, reduces the risk of thermal damage, inactivates thermophilic microbes due to falling temperature abruptly, removes some or all of the excess water obtained through the contact with steam, and removes some of the volatile compounds which negatively affect the product quality. Cooling rate and the quantity of water removed is determined by the level of vacuum, which must be carefully calibrated.
Homogenization
Homogenization is part of the process specifically for milk. Homogenization is a mechanical treatment which results in a reduction of the size, and an increase in the number and total surface area, of fat globules in the milk. This reduces milk's tendency to form cream at the surface, and on contact with containers enhances its stability and makes it more palatable for consumers.
Worldwide use
UHT milk has seen large success in much of Europe, where across the continent 7 out of 10 people drink it regularly. In countries with a warmer climate such as Spain, UHT milk is preferred due to the high cost of refrigerated transportation and "inefficient cool cabinets". UHT is less popular in Northern Europe and Scandinavia, particularly in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and Ireland. It is also less popular in Greece, where fresh pasteurized milk is the most popular.
While most regular milk sold in the United States is pasteurized, a significant share of organic milk sold in the US is UHT treated (organic milk is produced at fewer locations and consequently spends more time in the supply chain and could therefore spoil before or shortly after being sold if pasteurized).
Nutritive effects
UHT milk contains the same number of calories and calcium as pasteurized milk. Some loss of vitamin B12, vitamin C and thiamin can occur in UHT milk. UHT milk contains 1 μg of folate per 100 g, while pasteurized milk contains 9 μg.
UHT milk's protein structure is different from that of pasteurized milk, which prevents it from separating in cheese making.
Two studies published in the late 20th century showed that UHT treatment causes proteins contained in the milk to unfold and flatten, and the formerly "buried" sulfhydryl (SH) groups, which are normally masked in the natural protein, cause extremely-cooked or burnt flavours to appear to the human palate. One study reduced the thiol content by immobilizing sulfhydryl oxidase in UHT-heated skim milk and reported, after enzymatic oxidation, an improved flavor. Two US authors prior to heating added the flavonoid compound epicatechin to the milk, and reported a partial reduction of thermally generated aromas.
See also
Aseptic processing
Food preservation
Food storage
Food packaging
Food engineering
Pasteurization
Flash pasteurization
References
External links
Milk in a Box. From: Interesting Thing of the Day
Food preservation
Milk
Pasteurized foods
History of agriculture in the United Kingdom
Agricultural health and safety
Food law | [
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233885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20academic%20ranks | List of academic ranks | Academic rank (also scientific rank) is the rank of a scientist or teacher in a college, high school, university or research establishment. The academic ranks indicate relative importance and power of individuals in academia.
The academic ranks are specific for each country, there is no worldwide-unified ranking system. Among the common ranks are professor, associate professor (docent), assistant professor and instructor.
In most cases, the academic rank is automatically attached to a person as soon as he/she is employed in a position with the same name, and deprived when a working relation is expired. Therefore the term "academic rank" usually means the same as "position in academia".
However in some countries the terms "position" and "academic rank" are not synonyms. So in modern Russia there exist the docent and professor ranks, whereas the set of positions in academia is broader. The academic rank is conferred only after the person has been successfully working in the docent or professor position for a certain period (and later underwent a centralized control procedure), i.e. not at enrollment, and is kept for life.
The list of academic ranks below identifies the hierarchical ranking structure found amongst scholars and personnel in academia. The lists below refer specifically to colleges and universities throughout the world, although other institutions of higher learning may follow a similar schema.
Afghanistan
Ranks in universities of Afghanistan are listed below according to the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) of Afghanistan. These ranks are issued stepwise by the MoHE after some procedures, a period of service and conditions.
Lecturer or Assistant Professor (in Pashto پوهنیار)
Senior Assistant Professor (in Pashto پوهنمل)
Associate Professor (in Pashto پوهندوی)
Senior Associate professor (in Pashto پوهنوال)
Professor (in Pashto پوهاند)
Honorary degree:
Distinguished Professor (in Pashto لوی پوهاند)
Term of address in general: ostād or استاد
Argentina
Tenured positions:
Profesor Titular Ordinario, or Profesor Titular Regular. A tenured, full professor position.
Profesor Asociado Ordinario, or Profesor Asociado Regular. A tenured, associate professor position.
Profesor Adjunto Ordinario, or Profesor Adjunto Regular. A tenured, adjunct professor position.
Australia
Distinguished Professor, Emeritus Professor, and other professorships with highest honour and contributions to knowledge and society.
Level E – Professor, or Professorial or Senior Principal Research Fellow; equivalent to Distinguished/Endowed Professor (USA) or Professor (UK).
Level D – Associate Professor, or Principal Research Fellow if research intensive; equivalent to Reader/Associate Professor at a UK university.
Level C – Senior Lecturer, or Senior Research Fellow if research intensive; equivalent to Senior/Principal Lecturer at a UK university.
Level B – Lecturer, or Research Fellow if research intensive; Level B is the first tenured academic rank, normally requires at minimum, completion of a PhD.
Level A - Associate Lecturer, or Associate Fellow if research intensive.
There are often multiple bands or steps for each Level (e.g. Level B - 6 steps, Level C - 6 steps, Level D - 4 steps). For example, an academic who earns the title of Level D has progressed through 12 bands/steps of previous academic service or the equivalent in accumulated academic achievements. There is only one step for Level E. An academic cannot automatically progress from Level B, Step 6, to Level C, Step 1, without a formal application for promotion, which is typically a peer reviewed process.
Bangladesh
Teachers are categorized in four main classes in Bangladesh at the university level. The ascending ranks of teachers are Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor. University lecturers are normally required to hold a Master's degree. After obtaining a PhD, the appointment starts with assistant professor, then gradually associate professor and professor depending on research/teaching experience. Beside these, the title of emeritus is given to extraordinary professors after their retirement.
Professor emeritus
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Lecturer
Demonstrator
Belarus
Academic ranks
Prafiesar / Прафесар (Full professor)
Dacent / Дацэнт (Associate professor)
Starejšy vykladčyk / Старэйшы выкладчык (Senior lecturer)
Asistent / Vykladčyk / Асістэнт / Выкладчык (Assistant professor / Lecturer)
Researchers by seniority levels
Haloŭny navukovy supracoŭnik / Галоўны навуковы супрацоўнік (Chief Researcher)
Viadučy navukovy supracoŭnik / Вядучы навуковы супрацоўнік (Leading Researcher)
Starejšy navukovy supracoŭnik / Старэйшы навуковы супрацоўнік (Senior Researcher)
Navukovy supracoŭnik / Навуковы супрацоўнік (Researcher)
Malodšy navukovy supracoŭnik / Малодшы навуковы супрацоўнік (Junior Researcher)
Administrative ranks
Rektar / Рэктар, rector
Prarektar / Прарэктар, vice-rector
Dekan fakultetа / Дэкан факультэта, dean of the faculty
Namiesnik dekana / Намеснік дэкана, vice-dean
Zahadčyk kafiedry / Загадчык кафедры, head of department
Belgium
Dutch speaking community
(distinguished professor, full-time) (professor ordinarius)
- (part-time distinguished professor) (previously: professor extraordinarius)
(professor with personal chair, reader)
II (associate professor, principal lecturer)
I (associate professor, senior lecturer)
(assistant professor, lecturer)
(researcher, must have a PhD)
(research assistant, can be enrolled in a PhD or be in the postdoc phase)
(research fellow, enrolled in a PhD degree, appointed by the Fund for Scientific Research FWO)
Administrative ranks:
Rector
Vice-Rector
Decaan (dean, i.e. head of a faculty)
French speaking community
(full professor)
(visiting professor in Switzerland, part-time professor in Belgium)
(professor)
(associate professor, tenured)
(associate professor, tenure-track)
(visiting assistant professor, non-tenured)
(research director / senior research associate, appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS)
(senior researcher, with Ph.D. and previously with teaching aggregation)
(senior researcher / senior research associate, with Ph.D., appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS, tenured)
(senior researcher, with Ph.D.)
(senior researcher / research associate, with Ph.D., appointed by federal research council FNRS, tenured)
(senior research assistant / junior lecturer, with Ph.D.)
(volunteer lecturer, unpaid, non-tenured)
(volunteer lecturer, unpaid, non-tenured)
(appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS)
(research assistant)
(research fellow, enrolled in a Ph.D. degree, appointed by National Fund for Scientific Research F.R.S.-FNRS)
Administrative ranks:
Recteur (president of university)
Vice-Recteur
Doyen (dean, i.e. head of a faculty, elected)
Président d'institut (director of research institute, elected)
Vice-Doyen (vice-dean, i.e. head of studies in a faculty)
Président de département (department head, elected)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
– teaching assistant (Must hold Undergraduate Degree with excellent grades. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
– senior teaching assistant (Must hold at least Masters Degree with excellent grades. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
– assistant professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate Degree. Relevant working experience could be required as well)
– associate professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of five years as a Docent)
– full professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of seven years as a Vanredni profesor)
Administrative ranks
– rector / chancellor / president / head of university
– prorector / vice-chancellor / vice president / assistant head of university
– dean / head of faculty or school at the university
– vice-dean / assistant head of faculty or school at the university
– head of department
Honorary ranks
– professor emeritus
Brazil
There is no official academic ranking in Brazilian private universities. However, most of the public Federal Universities apply the following (from the highest position to the lowest one):
Professor Emérito (professor emeritus)
Professor Titular (full professor) – PhD required
Professor Associado (associate professor) – PhD required
Professor Adjunto (assistant professor) – PhD required
Professor Assistente (lecturer) – only a master's degree is required
Professor Auxiliar (assistant lecturer) – no post-graduation degree is required
Professor Substituto ou Temporário (temporary lecturer)
Bulgaria
Assistant Professor – Асистент
Chief/Senior Assistant Professor – Главен Асистент
Docent/Associate Professor – Доцент
Professor/Full Professor – Професор
University
Assistant Professor – Асистент
Chief/Senior Assistant Professor – Главен Асистент
Docent/Associate Professor – Доцент
Professor/Full Professor – Професор
Academy of Sciences
Scientist III: after Master thesis or Diploma, equal to Assistant
Scientist II: after Doctoral thesis/PhD/Dissertation, after Dr. Grade (3–5 or 7 years work after Master), equal Chef Assistant, *Associate or Post Doc
Scientist I: After second Post Doc (1 or 2 years work after PhD/Dr), equal Senior Assistant or Senior Associate.
Senior Scientist I: after PhD (USA, UK....) or Doctoral dissertation/thesis (France, Germany, Russia...) and some years of *Post-Doc, equal of Assoc. Prof.
Senior Scientist II: after Habilitation, equal to Professor
Full Professor
Higher administration of the academy of sciences
Member of correspondence for the Academy of Science (after professor/habilitation), very rare
Academic: after member of correspondence (for the entire of Bulgaria).
Administrative ranks
Rector
Vice-rectors
Assistant rector
Secretary general
Academic ombudsman
Canada
Faculty (teaching staff)
Professor emeritus or university professor emeritus, a retired professor still active in research; Fr professeur émérite
Endowed chair professor (e.g. Canada Research Chair professor - Tier 1), a distinguished full professor with endowment
Professor or full professor (research professor, professor of practice, visiting professor, adjunct professor, professor emeritus; Fr professeur titulaire)
Associate professor (research associate professor, visiting associate professor, adjunct associate professor; Fr professeur agrégé)
Senior Lecturer (teaching professor)
Assistant professor (research assistant professor, adjunct assistant professor; Fr professeur adjoint)
Lecturer or instructor (sessional lecturer or sessional instructor; Fr chargé de cours)
Assistant professor is the entry-level rank for non-tenured members of faculty.
Non-faculty teaching and research personnel
Senior fellow, senior research fellow or senior scientist / Fr chercheur sénior
Fellow, research fellow or scientist / Fr chercheur
Research supervisor or principal investigator / Fr directeur de recherche
Research associate or postdoctoral associate / Fr associé de recherche
Research assistant or teaching assistant / Fr auxiliaire de recherche
Administrative ranks
Dean (often also full professors)
Associate dean (often also full professors)
Directors of administrative departments
Associate/assistant directors of administrative departments
Chairmen of academic departments (usually full professors)
Graduate Coordinators
Undergraduate Coordinators
China
Senior ranks
Academic track: Professor（教授）
Research track: Researcher（研究员）
Vice-Senior ranks
Academic track: Associate Professor（副教授）
Research track: Associate Researcher（副研究员）
Medium ranks
Academic track: Assistant Professor（助理教授）or Lecturer（讲师）
Research track: Assistant Researcher（助理研究员）
Junior ranks
Academic track: Assistant Lecturer（助教）
Research track: Intern-Researcher（实习研究员）
Colombia
Costa Rica
Emeritus or Distinguished professor (Profesor Emérito)
Professor (Profesor Catedrático)
Associate professor (Profesor Asociado)
Adjunct professor (Profesor Adjunto)
Instructor professor (Profesor Instructor)
Visiting professor (Profesor Visitante)
The list above presents the ranks used by University of Costa Rica for their academic regime. However, there are no formal or legal academic ranks in Costa Rica.
Each university decides their own names. For example in University of Costa Rica the highest rank is 'Profesor Catedrático' and it requires no more than a 5 year "licencitatura" degree and 15 years of teaching/researching and 16 publications (https://www.ucr.ac.cr/docencia/personal-docente.html). Most other universities have no similar framework and the title Professor is used unregulated by anyone.
Croatia
Redoviti profesor u trajnom zvanju equivalent to distinguished professor (prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Redoviti profesor equivalent to full professor (prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Izvanredni profesor equivalent to associate professor (izv. prof. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Docent equivalent to assistant professor (doc. dr. sc. Name Surname)
Viši asistent equivalent to teaching/research assistant, PhD (dr. sc. Name Surname)
Asistent equivalent to teaching/research assistant, usually a PhD student
Viši predavač equivalent to senior lecturer
Predavač equivalent to lecturer
Honorary academic rank
Professor emeritus – awarded to some full professors in retirement
Administrative ranks
Rektor equivalent to rector, head of university (in USA equivalent to president of university)
Prorektor equivalent to prorector, assistant to head of university (in USA equivalent to vice-president of university)
Dekan equivalent to dean, head of faculty or school in university
Prodekan equivalent to vice-dean, assistant to dean
Pročelnik odsjeka equivalent to department chairman
Predstojnik zavoda equivalent to head of department
Predstojnik katedre equivalent to head of chairman
Cuba
Tenured:
Professor ()(full/part-time, PhD required)
Associate Professor ()(full/part-time, PhD mostly required)
Assistant Professor ()(full/part-time)
Lecturer (Instructor)(full/part-time)
Cyprus
Tenure-track faculty positions
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Lecturer
Non-tenure track positions
Special teaching personnel
Special scientists
Czech Republic
Denmark
Egypt
Teachers are categorized in five main classes in Egypt at university level. The ascending rank of teacher is Demonstrator, Assistant Lecturer, Lecturer, Associate Professor and Professor. The initial position Demonstrator is generally enrolled as the top student of the class. Master's degree is required for university level Assistant Lecturer. After PhD, the appointment starts with Lecturer, then gradually Associate Professor and Professor depending on research/teaching experience. Beside these, professor of Emeritus is given to extraordinary professor after their retirement.
OSTADH MOTAFAREGH (أستاذ متفرغ), equivalent to professor emeritus.
OSTADH (أستاذ) (the "DH" pronounced like the "TH" in the word "THE"), equivalent to professor (usually after minimum of five years serving as OSTATH MOSAED as well as publishing certain number of research papers)
OSTADH (the "DH" pronounced like the "TH" in the word "THE") MOSAED (أستاذ مساعد), equivalent to associate professor.
MODARRES (مدرس), Lecturer (must have a PhD degree), equivalent to assistant professor.
MODARRES MOSA'ED (مدرس مساعد), Assistant Lecturer (must have a master's degree)
MOA'ED (معيد), or Teaching Assistant- also called demonstrator- (must have a bachelor's degree; usually graduated top of the class).
Estonia
Emeriitprofessor (Professor emeritus)
Professor
Kaasprofessor (Associate professor)
Lektor (Lecturer)
Õpetaja (Teacher)
Finland
In Finland, there is less distinction between graduates and undergraduates: university students may be employed as research assistants (tutkimusapulainen) before they graduate with a master's degree. A person pursuing a doctoral degree must already hold a Master's degree, and is typically employed by the university, or enjoys a similar grant, and will be called väitöskirjatutkija (doctoral researcher), nuorempi tutkija (early career researcher), or tohtorikoulutettava (doctoral student). Besides post-doctoral researchers (tutkijatohtori) and senior teaching assistants (yliassistentti), there are several mid-level non-professorial positions, such as teaching researcher (opettava tutkija). Senior teachers and researchers may be employed as, e.g., erikoistutkija (special researcher) or yliopistotutkija (senior research fellow). Docent (dosentti) is a non-professorial rank and title (for life) awarded to academics qualified as a principal investigator and for supervision of doctoral students; however, they do not belong to the professor corps and may be employed elsewhere. Professors (professori) are understood as research group leaders and managers, and traditionally there is no direct equivalent of an assistant/associate/full professor career path, although Aalto University is introducing these. Qualifications for a professor's position are earned as a docent or in other mid-career positions. In management, professors serve as department heads (laitosjohtaja or osastonjohtaja) and deans (head of the faculty, dekaani). The leader of a university is called a rector (rehtori), assisted by multiple vice-rectors (vararehtori). Vice-rectors may retain their professor positions or work full-time as a vice-rector. Some universities have an even more senior officer called Chancellor (kansleri), who is more concerned with outreach and public relations than daily management.
France
In French business schools, ranks are the same as in the United States: Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, and finally (Full) Professor.
Germany
A simplified overview of academic ranks in Germany:
Appointment grades
(Pay grade: W3 or W2)
(W3)
(W2)
(W2, only in Baden-Württemberg) – although paid like a professor appointed at level W2, lecturers in this position do not have a professor title; the term was formerly used in all states for senior lecturer positions with research and teaching responsibilities (C2, being phased out since 2002)
(not tenured, only rarely with tenure track) (W1)
(not tenured) (W1, only in Baden-Württemberg)
or (A13, A14, A15)
(TVöD 13/14/15, TvL 13/14/15)
(TVöD, TvL A13 a. Z.)
(TVöD, only in Baden-Württemberg)
(TdL)
(TdL)
Non-appointment grades
– conferred, in some German states, to a Privatdozent who has been in service for several years, without formally being appointed as professor.
Greece
Professor Emeritus [ (male) / (female)]. Αn honorary title for people at the rank of Professor who have reached the legal age for retirement; If they wish, they have the right, for a limited time after retirement, to continue their research projects.
Professor [ (male) / (female)].
Associate Professor [ (male) / (female)].
Assistant Professor [ (male) / (female)].
Laboratory Teaching Staff member []. Holders of a doctoral degree (Ph.D). that are members of this rank can independently teach courses, same as the Teaching Research Staff [] (i.e., professors ranks) members do. All members can be instructors in laboratories.
Administrative ranks (Universities and Technical Universities)
Rector ().
Vice-rector ().
Secretary General [ (male) / (female)].
Dean ()
Deputy Dean [ (male) / (female)].
Chairman of the Department ().
Deputy Chairman of the Department ().
Director of the Section [ (male) / (female)].
The holders of administrative ranks must be Professors or Associate Professors. The only exception is Secretary General, who is not a faculty member.
Administrative ranks (former Technological Educational Institutes; defunct)
The Technological Educational Institutes (TEI) (1983 ‒ 2019) were reformed between 2013 and 2019 and their departments incorporated into existing universities.
President ().
Vice-president ().
Secretary General [ (male) / (female)].
Director of the School ( (male) / (female)).
Supervisor of the Department [ (male) / (female)].
Director of the Section [ (male) / (female)].
The holders of administrative ranks must be Professors or Associate Professors.
Defunct Academic Staff Ranks
Adjunct Assistant Professor [ (male) / ]. A temporary employee with a short-term contract, usually for one term (semester), usually holder of a doctoral degree (Ph.D). as described in the Greek Presidential Decree 407/1980 published in the Government Gazette 112/A/9-5-1980. Adjunct Assistant Professors are sometimes called simply as "407" or "P.D. 407", after the number of the Decree.
Lecturer (1982‒2011) [defunct; in universities and technical universities: (both male and female) / in technological educational institutes: (male) / (female)] it had founded by the law 1268/1982 Government Gazette 87/A/16-7-1982 and it was abolished, defunct, by the law 4009/2011 Government Gazette 195/A/6-9-2011.
Teaching Assistant was abolished in 1982, but people holding it remain teaching assistants until retirement.
Adjunct Lecturer [ (male) / (female)] was abolished.
Guyana
Professor Emeritus (on retirement)
Professor
Reader
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer II
Lecturer I
Assistant Lecturer
Tutor
Laboratory Demonstrator
Administrative ranks
Chancellor
Vice-chancellor/president
Deputy vice-chancellor
Registrar
Deputy Registrar
Deans of Faculties
Heads of Departments/Schools
Hong Kong
In the past, Hong Kong followed the British system (4 levels). In recent years it is moving towards the North American counterpart, with the titles renamed to their corresponding equivalence (professor (professor), associate professor (professor/reader), and assistant professor (senior-)lecturer)). Hong Kong's universities usually differ between professorial grades (end- or mid-career research and teaching positions) and lecturers (entry or mid-career positions - in the UK called either teaching fellows or lecturers, and "Mittelbau" in German-speaking countries). Depending on institutions, the title of "professor" is assumed by chair professors and professors, or assistant professors and above.
Academic ranks
Chair professor
Emeritus professor
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Research assistant professor
Post-doctoral fellow
Adjunct (associate/assistant) professor
Honorary (associate/assistant) professor
Professional consultant or teaching consultant/fellow
Research associate
Research assistant and teaching assistant (or tutor, instructor, demonstrator)
Postgraduate or graduate
Undergraduate
Administrative ranks
Chancellor (titular, normally the Chief Executive (formerly the Governor) of Hong Kong) or president in the Hong Kong Shue Yan University
Pro-chancellor (titular, only for the University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology)
Vice-chancellor or president (or vice president principal in the Hong Kong Shue Yan University): being the chief executive of the institution
Deputy vice-chancellor (as the first among pro-vice-chancellors in the University of Hong Kong)
Pro-vice-chancellors or vice-presidents or deputy presidents
Associate pro-vice-chancellors (as in the Chinese University of Hong Kong) or Associate vice-president (as in the Hong Kong Baptist University, the Lingnan University, the Hong Kong Shue Yan University, and the Hong Kong Institute of Education)
Registrar
Provost (for some universities)
Deans of faculties / schools
Heads (or directors) of departments / schools
Hungary
Professzor/egyetemi tanár (university professor/full professor)
főiskolai tanár (college professor)
Docens (associate professor)
Adjunktus (assistant professor)
Tanársegéd (assistant lecturer)
Iceland
In Icelandic universities, particularly at the University of Iceland, prófessor is the most senior ranking teaching position. Below prófessor is dósent, then lektor. This three step hierarchy is akin to the US-scale, of full-, associate- and assistant-professors. Until the early 1990s no upward mobility was available in the Icelandic system. Most university teachers were hired as "prófessor." A "dósent" or a "lektor" wishing to ascend to a higher rank had to apply for a new position when it became available. Currently (since the 1990s) much more university teachers are hired as junior rank "lektor" and are promoted to "dósent" and "prófessor" if their work proves worthy of it.
Research and teaching career pathway
Prófessor (Professor), from Latin professor
Dósent (Associate Professor), from Latin doceō
Lektor (Assistant Professor), from Latin lēctor
Research career pathway
Vísindamaður (Scientist)
Fræðimaður (Scholar)
Sérfræðingur (Specialist)
India
Regular Academic ranks (Hierarchy from top): Academic institutions in India have the mandate of teaching, training and research. This also includes research universities.
Professor
Associate Professor
Assistant Professor
In addition to these, there are government sponsored fellowships such as Ramanujan & Ramalingaswami. The fellowship is awarded to able candidates for a 5-year contract period during which they are hosted by an academic or research organisation. Their primary function is to carry out high quality original research. They may become a regular faculty as an assistant professor or associate professor during this period subject to their performance.
Assistant Professor (on contract) / Ad hoc faculty – They are primarily involved in teaching for a limited contract period typically 6 months – 1 year.
Research ranks (Hierarchy from top): Research institutions such as national labs have a different kind of hierarchy and are primarily concerned with basic and applied research. They guide Ph.D. students in their research thesis but do not grant degrees. In most cases the Ph.D. candidates are registered with another university which grants the degree. Awarding of degree is subjected to meeting the same criteria as Ph.D. guided by university professors.
Scientist H
Scientist G
Scientist F
Scientist E (in some cases EII)
Scientist D (in some cases EI)
Scientist C
Scientist B
Non-faculty ranks
Research associate (postdoctoral fellows/inspire faculty)
Senior research fellow (Ph.D. students after completing two years of course work and research)
Junior research fellow (Newly joined Ph.D. candidates)
Administrative ranks in universities
Chancellor
Vice chancellor
Pro vice chancellor
Deans / directors
Chairmen / HODs / wardens
Administrative ranks in research institutions
Director general
Director
Chairman of departments / divisions
Indonesia
Academic ranks
According to the Joint Regulations of the Ministry of Education And Culture And Head of National Civil Service Agency No 4/VIII/PB/2014; No 24 Year 2014 and the Regulation of Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform No. 46 Year 2013 and No. 17 Year 2013 Article 6; and the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education decree No. 164/ M/ KPT/ 2019, the academic ranks (Jabatan Fungsional) for lecturer (university-based) and researcher (non-university) are
Academic ranks for lecturers
Dosen (Lecturer)
Asisten Ahli (Assistant Professor - Lower)
Lektor (Assistant Professor - Upper)
Lektor Kepala (Associate Professor)
Guru Besar, Profesor (Professor)
Academic ranks for researchers
Peneliti Pertama (Junior Researcher)
Peneliti Ahli Muda (Associate Researcher)
Peneliti Ahli Madya (Senior Researcher)
Peneliti Ahli Utama (Research Professor)
Administrative ranks (university)
Rektor (Rector)
Wakil Rektor (Vice Rector)
Dekan (Dean)
Wakil Dekan (Vice Dean)
Kepala Program Studi (Head of Department)
Iran
Holders of bachelor's degree when granted to teach in a college:
Assistant instructor (; transliteration: "morabbi-e āmuzešyār")
Holders of master's degrees when granted to teach in a college:
Instructor (in Persian: , transliteration: morabbi)
Lecturer (in Persian: , transliteration: modarres)
Holders of Ph.D. degrees:
Assistant professor (in Persian: , transliteration: ostādyār)
Associate professor (in Persian: , transliteration: dānešyār)
(Full) Professor (in Persian: , transliteration: ostād (tamām))
Distinguished Professor (in Persian: , transliteration: ostād-e momtāz')
Terms of address in general: ostādEmeritus ranks Emeritus professor
FellowAdministrative ranks President
Chancellor
Dean
Head of department.
Iraq
Holders of master's degrees can be (in ascending order):
Assistant lecturer (in )
Lecturer ()
Assistant professor ()
Professor ()
Holders of PhD degrees can be (in ascending order):
Lecturer ()
Assistant professor ()
Professor ()
Note: Holders of PhD degrees are automatically promoted to lecturer if they were assistant lecturers before they received their PhD.
equivalent to professor.
equivalent to associate professor.
equivalent to assistant professor in American Universities (with PhD) or with researches.
Assistant lecturer (without PhD).
Israel
Academic:
Professor Emeritus
Professor Min Haminyan (Full Professor)
Professor Chaver (Associate Professor)
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Administrative Ranks:
President
Rector
Dean
Department Chairman
Italy
Tenured positions (confermato):
Professore Ordinario, or Professore di I fascia. A tenured, full professor position.
Professore Associato, or Professore di II fascia. A tenured, associate professor position.
Professore Aggregato. A 'ricercatore confermato' who is in charge of teaching university classes.
Ricercatore confermato. A tenured position as researcher or assistant professor.
Non-tenured positions (non confermato):
Professore Straordinario, also Professore di I fascia. A three-year full professor appointment leading to tenure.
Professore Associato non confermato, also Professore di II fascia. A three-year associate professor appointment leading to tenure at associate level.
Ricercatore non confermato. A three-year position at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level.
Ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo B. A three-year position at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level, leading to the Professore Associato position.
Ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo A. A three-year position (one possible two-year renewal) at assistant professor/researcher/lecturer level.
Assegnista di Ricerca. A research fellow with a fixed-term appointment.
Honorary titles as Professore Emerito and Professore Onorario also exist and are typically appointed to illustrious academics after retirement.
Jamaica
Professor Emeritus
Professor
Senior Lecturer (Tenured)
Lecturer (Tenured/Tenure track)
Assistant Lecturer
Instructor
Tutor
Graduate/Research Assistant
Japan
Tenured or non-tenured faculty
The ranking is as follows:
Professor emeritus,
Professor,
Associate professor, (previously, )
Lecturer / Junior associate professor / Instructor / Assistant professor,
Assistant professor / Research Associate, (previously, )
The Japanese system includes non-tenure, term-limited, positions at all ranks, including professor. These are referred to as positions and officially include tokunin in the title. Limited tenure track positions (similar to the United States) have recently been introduced (). In this system corresponds to assistant professor. A major difference between the United States system and Japan is that granting of tenure and promotion to associate professor are not linked; one may be tenured yet remain an assistant professor. Advancing upward typically requires a higher-level post to be vacated, even in the new tenure-track system.
Jordan
Assistant Prof
Associate Prof
Prof
Myanmar
Rector
Pro-Rector I
Pro-Rector II
Pro-Rector III
Professor (Head of Department)
Professor I
Professor
Associate Professor
Lecture
Assistant Lecture
Tutor/ Demonstrator
Latvia
Administrative positions:
Rektors (male), Rektore (female) (rector)
Dekāns (male), Dekāne (female) (dean), head of a faculty (human sciences, natural sciences etc.)
Nodaļas vadītājs (male) Nodaļas vadītāja (female) (department manager), head of a department (computer science, mathematics etc.)
Academic positions:
Profesors (male) Profesore (female) Professor
Asociētais profesors (male) Asociētā profesore (female) associate professor
Docents (male), Docente (female) (assistant professor), usually almost the same teaching/research/administration division as professor, Doctoral Degree required
Lektors (male), Lektore (female) Lecturer. Requires MA degree
Asistents (male), Asistente (female) research or teaching assistant
Lebanon
Academic positions at the Lebanese American University:
Instructor
Senior Instructor
Lecturer
Assistant Professor
Associate Professor
Professor
Distinguished Professor
Libya
Professor (أستاذ)
Associate professor (أستاذ مشارك)
Assistant professor (أستاذ مساعد)
Lecturer (محاضر)
Assistant Lecturer (محاضر مساعد)
Lithuania
Professor, (male) / (female)
Associate professor, (male) / (female)
Lecturer, (male) / (female)
Assistant lecturer, (male) / (female)
Macau
At the University of Macau there are nine levels of faculty rank, namely
Chairman professor,
Distinguished professor,
Professor,
Associate professor,
Assistant professor
Senior lecturer
Lecturer
Senior instructor
Instructor
At the Macau Polytechnic Institute there are three levels
professor (professor coordenador)
associate professor (professor adjuncto)
lecturer (assistente)
North Macedonia
Demonstrator, Демонстратор-(Graduate employee in a university)
Younger assistant, Помлад Асистент-(B.Sc.)
Assistant, Асистент-(M.Sc.)
Docent, Доцент-(Assistant professor)
Vonreden Professor, Вонреден Професор-(associate professor)
Professor, Професор-(full-time professor)
Professor emeritus, Пензиониран Професор-(retired professor)
Academic, Академик-(academician)
Administrative positions:
Pomlad referent, Помлад референт- (Younger Civil Servant) -High School Diploma
Referent, Референт- (Civil Servant) -High School Diploma
Postar Referent, Постар Референт- (Senior Civil Servant) -High School Diploma
Pomlad Sorabotnik, Помлад Соработник- (Younger Associate) -Associate Degree
Sorabotnik, Соработник- (Аssociate) -Associate Degree
Postar Sorabotnik, Постар Соработник- (Senior Associate) -Associate Degree
Rakovoditel na studentski prasanja, Раководител на студентски прашања- (Head of Students Affairs) -Bachelor's degree
Rakovoditel na katedra/institut, Раководител на катедра/институт- (Head of Department/Institute) -Ph.D.
Prodekan, Продекан- (Vice Dean) -Ph.D.
Dekan, Декан- (Dean) -Ph.D.
Prorektor, Проректор- (Vice Rector) -Ph.D.
Rektor, Ректор- (Rector) -Ph.D.
Malaysia
In general for most public universities in Malaysia:
Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Malta
Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Mexico
The ranking system in most Mexican public universities is as follows
A (early assistant professor)
B (assistant professor)
C (early associate professor)
A (associate professor)
B (full professor)
C (senior full professor)
(equivalent to distinguished professor, not to be confused with emeritus professor)
Usually Mexican academics are also fellows of the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI) that has four levels (candidate, I, II and III) that more or less correlate (but are not equivalent) to the Asociado and Titular A, B, and C professorships. The rank as professor is determined by the individual's institution while the SNI level is determined by an independent committee that evaluates the researchers nationwide.
Many universities and research institutions make a distinction between "Profesores" -Professors- and "Investigadores" -Researchers- (Asociado A, B, C, Titular A, B, C), the main difference is that "Profesores" have a higher load of teaching, while "Investigadores" have a higher load of research, but normally all of them take part in both activities and are considered equivalent.
Research rankings are awarded by the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores which depends on the national research council (Conacyt):
SNI emeritus researcher (not necessarily higher rank but lifetime, requires 15 continuous years as SNI III)
SNI III researcher (about 7% of the researchers in SNI)
SNI II researcher (about 16% of the researchers in SNI)
SNI I researcher (about 59% of researchers in SNI)
SNI candidate researcher (C) (about 18% of researchers in SNI)
All titles, both professors and researchers, can be given in a:
Full-time, or
Part-time basis
Administrative academic positions:
Rector
Director of Faculty or College
Coordinator
MoroccoAcademic Positions1. Professeur d'Enseignement Supérieur
2. Professeur Habilité à Diriger les Recherches (supervise les recherches)
3. Professeur Assistant (co-encadre les recherches)Before Academic Position1. Docteur
2. Doctorant
NepalAcademic Positions1. Professor Emeritus
2. Professor
3. Associate professor/Reader
4. Assistant Professor
5. Lecturer
6. Teaching Assistant
7. Instructor
8. Technical support staffAdministrative Positions Chancellor
Pro-chancellor
Vice-chancellor
Rector
Registrar
Deans of School
Heads of department
Program Coordinator
Netherlands
New Zealand
NigeriaAcademic Positions Emeritus Professor (retired)
Professor
Associate Professor / Reader
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer I
Lecturer II
Assistant Lecturer
Graduate AssistantAdministrative Positions Chancellor
Pro-chancellor
Vice-chancellor
Deputy vice-chancellor
Pro-vice-chancellor
Deans of faculties (some are referred to as provost)
Sub-deans of faculties
Heads of departments/schools
Department/school directors of studies
Norway
Pakistan
The hiring of academic positions in public universities throughout Pakistan is managed by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, the requirement for all positions vary with respect to the field of studies e.g. Engineering, IT, Medical, Law, and Arts and Design.
There are four faculty ranks lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor.
In engineering public universities, a lecturer requires an M.Sc. or B.Sc. degree and high academic standing in the field (e.g. gold medalist, among top 15 students of graduating class).
An assistant professor position requires a Ph.D. in relevant field with no experience.
An associate professorship can be conducted in the fourth year of employment, although, it is becoming more common for promotion and tenure to be awarded in the sixth year of employment. The review requires a certain number 5/8/10 research publications (with at least 1/2/4 publications in the last 5 years) by the calendar years 2007/2008/2012 respectively, in HEC/PEC recognized journals.
A professor requires ten years post-PhD teaching/research experience in an HEC recognized university or a post-graduate institution or professional experience in the relevant field in a national or international organization. It requires a minimum of 8/12/15 research publications (with at least 2/3/5 publications in the last 5 years) by the calendar years 2007/2008/2012 respectively, in HEC/PEC recognized journals
Professor Emeritus
Meritorious Professor/ Distinguished National Professor
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Lecturer
Lab Engineer
Research Associate
Peru
After some recent reforms in the University Law (Minedu, 2014), the Peruvian universities (publics and privates) consider these ranks:Extraordinary Professors: Principally, this is a category of recognition for his contribution as professor or researcher when he retires or as a professional when he has built a great contribution to society throughout his career. To have 10% as maximum of these professors in any university (public or private) is mandatory.
- For this recognition, the candidate should be faculty member (former ordinary professor in retiring process).
Honorary professor - For this recognition, the candidate is not related to a faculty member. For instance, in this category is the Doctor Honoris Causa.Research Professors: Principally, full-time research position with few teaching responsibilities. Research professorships are almost always funded by grants or fellowships apart from the regular university budget. He is designated because of its academic excellence. He has a special bonus of fifty percent (50%) of its total payments. The competent authority of each university evaluates every two years, the production of the ordinary professors, for their permanence as a researcher.Ordinary Professors: Often full-time (with exclusivity) professors with research competences. Principal faculty. To have 25% as minimum of these professors in any university (public or private) is mandatory.
Full professor - PhD and MSc required, and former Associate professor or 15 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.
Associate professor - PhD (postgraduate level) and MSc required, and former Assistant professor or 10 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.
Assistant professor - PhD (postgraduate level) and MSc required, and 5 years of experience (minimum) as researcher in the field to apply.Lecturer (Hired Professors): Often part-time (with non-exclusivity) professors. Complementary faculty. Generally, the primary employer is not the university with which they have the status. Principally, this kind of professor come from practitioner market and not develop research activities. MSc required.
In addition, the universities developed prior ranks, as junior temporary rank, to get experience and training (with strong motivation to be ordinary professor):
Instructor (Instructor, Jefe de Práctica) - MSc required in Postgraduate level and BSc required in Undergraduate level.
Teaching/Research Assistant - MSc required in Postgraduate level and BSc required in Undergraduate level.
The lectures are usually hired by private universities as they can offer this type of part-time contract. The instructors are usually hired by public universities as their type of contract has to be full-time. Even if the duties of these two ranks are similar and the terminology for both is the same in Spanish: "Jefe de prácticas", we should consider the differences in their type of contract.
Philippines
Professor Emeritus
Professor
Associate Professor (doctorate is typically required)
Assistant Professor (master's degree required; typically this is also the entry-level rank for PhD holders)
Instructor (master's degree required)
Assistant Instructor
Lecturer (other Universities/Colleges)
Guest Lecturer (other Universities/Colleges)Administrative ranks (UP System;National) Chancellor/University President
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Planning and Development
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Research and Extension
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Academic Affairs
Vice Chancellor/Vice President for Finance and Management
University Registrar
Dean
Assistant Dean/Associate Dean
Department Chairman/Program Chairman
Faculty Members and StaffOther professors Professor-researcher
Researcher
Professor Emeritus
Ad honorem professorTenureDue to Philippine labor laws regarding permanency, a faculty member who has not received tenure within three years of initial hire cannot continue as a full-time hire at the same university.
PolandResearch-and-teaching staff (higher rank) (pl '') – research-and-teaching assistant / research-and-teaching fellow (hold master's degree)
(pl '') – assistant professor (requires PhD)
(pl '') – senior lecturer (requires PhD or habilitation), (a new position, since 2007 optional and only in some universities, does not involve any research duties and is meant mainly for teaching). Until 1987 a position between assistant professor and associate professor.
(pl '') – associate professor (requires at least PhD and significant teaching or professional or scientific or artistic achievements), according to German nomenclature sometimes called "professor extraordinarius"
(pl '') – full professor (requires the professor title conferred by the President of the Republic of Poland, which is an academic title, not an academic position), sometimes called "professor ordinarius"
and also for a special purpose:
(pl '')- visiting professor
(pl '')- professor emeritusTeaching staff: (lower rank) (pl '') – instructor (sport)
(pl '') – instructor, foreign language teacher
(pl '') – lecturer
(pl '') – senior lecturer (please note the same term is used for both "docent" and "starszy wykładowca"Elected or nominated posts Rector () – the principal head of the university (one per university); usually assisted by several deputy rectors (pl prorektor)
Dean (); the principal head of the faculty (one per faculty), usually assisted by several deputy deans (pl prodziekan);
Head () – the head of the institute/department/chairman (one per organizational unit)
Portugal
Professor Catedrático (full professor) – PhD and Agregação required
Professor Associado com Agregação (associate professor with Agregação) – PhD required
Professor Associado (associate professor) – PhD required
Professor Auxiliar com Agregação (assistant professor) – PhD required
Professor Auxiliar (assistant professor) – PhD required.
Extinct ranks:
Assistente (teaching assistant) - without a PhD
Assistente estagiário (junior teaching assistant) - without a PhD or a master's degree
RomaniaAdministrative ranks Rector (Rector): one per university
Prorector (Vice-rector): one or more per university
Decan (Dean): one per college
Prodecan (Vice-dean): one or more per college
Director de departament (Head of department): one per department
Șef de disciplină (Head of a subject): one for each subjectResearch-and-teaching staff (higher rank) Profesor universitar (Professor): holding a doctorate degree international-impact research activity
Conferențiar universitar (Associate professor): holding a doctorate degree and national-impact research activity
Lector universitar or Șef de lucrări (Assistant professor/Lecturer): holding a doctorate degree and local-impact research activity
Asistent universitar (Teaching assistant): holding a doctorate degree (or in case of a limited time contract they can be in the process of getting a doctorate degree)Special Profesor vizitator (Visiting professor)
Profesor emerit or Profesor consultant (Emeritus professor)
Russia
In Russia, otherwise than in the most other countries, synonimization of the terms “academic/scientific rank” and “position in academia” is not admissible, except in informal conversations. Officially, the “scientific rank” in Russia is a title which is conferred by the Higher attestation commission to the scientist after several years of a successful work in the professor (or deemed equivalent) or docent (or deemed equivalent) position. Similar traditions existed in the USSR.
RwandaAcademic ranks Full Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer (PhD)
Assistant Lecturer (Msc)
Tutorial assistant (Cum Laude undergraduate assisting in teaching and research)
Saudi Arabia
Professor أستاذ/أستاذ دكتور
Associate Professor أستاذ مشارك
Assistant Professor أستاذ مساعد
Lecturer محاضر
Demonstrator معيد
Serbia
Singapore
Singapore universities adopt a hybrid of US and British academic ranks. Faculty members on the tenure-track are appointed for sustained excellence in both teaching and research. Assistant Professors are appointed on term contracts, while Associate Professors and Professors may be appointed either with tenure or on term contract. Faculty members on the Educator Track engage in high quality educational activities. They are oriented towards teaching excellence, student learning, and pedagogical research and innovation. Appointments in this Track include Teaching Assistants, Instructors, Lecturers, Senior Lecturers and Associate Professors (Educator Track). They are on term contracts which are usually of 1 – 3 years in the first instance. Research track faculty members focus on conducting fundamental research of high international quality. Appointments on this Track include Research Assistants, Research Fellows, Senior Research Fellows, Associate Professor (Research) and Professor (Research). They are on term contracts of 1 – 3 years in the first instance. Practice Track faculty members are scholar-practitioners with professional skills and expertise in industry to complement the teaching and research enterprise of the university. They also contribute significantly to the outreach activities of the School. Appointments are to Associate Professor (Practice) and Professor (Practice). They are on term contracts of 1 – 3 years in the first instance.
Tenure Track: Assistant Professor; Associate Professor; Professor
Educator Track: Teaching Assistant; Instructor; Lecturer; Senior Lecturer; Associate Professor (Educator Track)
Research Track: Research Assistant; Research Fellow; Senior Research Fellow; Associate Professor (Research); Professor (Research)
Practice Track: Associate Professor (Practice); Professor (Practice)
Slovakia
(professor), both degree (written before name) and position. Professors are appointed by the president after a successful accomplishment of the process of awarding a professorship. One of the requirements is an already accomplished docent degree.
(associate professor), both degree (written before name) and position. The degree is awarded by the rector after a certain number of years of teaching and after a successful accomplishment of habilitácia (a process concluded by a defense of a reviewed research manuscript and a public lecture).
(lecturer / researcher), this title covers positions from lecturers to researchers. Requirements for lecturers / researchers vary, usually a Ph.D. / Th.D. is required
(assistant lecturer), at least Master degree is requiredSpecial (hosting professor), significant expert with whom a dean with the approval of the scientific council of a faculty concluded employment at the position of professor
(hosting associate professor), significant expert with whom a dean with the approval of the scientific council of a faculty concluded employment at the position of associate professor
(adjunct professor; sometimes also translated as associate professor, but it is not same position as ), associate professor temporarily appointed to the position of professor at a faculty while being an expectant to professor degree (written mimoriadny profesor after name)Administrative (rector), head of the university
(vice-rector), typically three to five people are vice-rectors; the position is further specified by indicating domain a vice-rector is responsible for (e. g. study-related issues, research, public relationships, international relationships, development, information technology)
(registrar, bursar), senior professional financial administrator of the university
(dean), head of a faculty
(vice-dean); the position is further specified by indicating domain a vice-den is responsible for (e. g. admissions, study-related issues, research, public relationships, international relationships, information technology)
(director), head of a sub-unit at the university or a faculty (institute, research center), e. g. Institute of Life-Long Learning of the Slovak University of Technology, Institute of Physical Education and Sport at the Pavol Jozef Šafárik University
(departmental chairman), head of a katedra (department) – sub-unit at a faculty
(deputy departmental chairman), deputizes department chairman if necessaryHonorary ranks (professor emeritus), may be awarded by the rector on the proposal of the scientific council of the university for significant contributions in the field of science, art or education to professor older than 65 years who is no longer employment at the university, but is still active in research and teaching
(honorary doctor for the sake of the honor), honorary doctorate of the university or a faculty awarded for special merit (written before name)
Slovenia
Asistent – assistant (Must hold at least Master (after Bologna process) or Honours degree (university diploma awarded before the Bologna process) with excellent grades, pursuing a postgraduate studies (either Doctorate / PhD studies or pre-Bologna process Magister studies). Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well)
Asistent-raziskovalec – research assistant (Must hold at least Master (after Bologna process) or Honours degree (university diploma awarded before the Bologna process) with excellent grades, pursuing a postgraduate studies (either Doctorate / PhD studies or pre-Bologna process Magister studies). Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well)
Lektor (usually a native speaker of a taught language)
Docent – assistant professor (Must hold Doctorate / PhD. Relevant working experience or publications could be required as well.)
Izredni profesor – associate professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of four years as a Docent)
Redni profesor – full professor (Must hold PhD or Doctorate and have experience of minimum of four years as a docent/associate professor?)Administrative ranks Rektor – rector / chancellor / head of university
Prorektor – prorector / vice-chancellor / head of university assistant
Dekan – dean / head of faculty, academy or school at the university
Prodekan – vice-dean / head of faculty, academy or school at the university
Predstojnik oddelka – head of department; several per faculty, academy or school at the university
Predstojnik katedre – head of cathedra/chair; several per faculty or per departmentHonorary ranks Zaslužni profesor – distinguished professor, a title bestowed to professors for their extraordinary achievements
South Africa
Full professor
Associate professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Junior Lecturer
South Korea
Protected job titles (a.k.a. tenure positions):
(Full) professor (정교수/교수)
Associate professor (부교수)
Assistant professor (조교수)
Other positions:
Lecturer (강사)
Research professor (연구 교수)
Clinical professor (임상 교수)
Adjunct professor (겸임 교수)
Teaching assistant professor ( 강의전문 조교수)
Collegiate professor
Visiting professor (객원 교수/초빙 교수)
Chaired professor (석좌 교수)
Emeritus professor (명예 교수)
Spain
Full Professor / Catedrático de Universidad
Associate Professor /
Assistant Professor /
Instructor (Often Part Time) /
Sri Lanka
The appointment of professors follows the British system and is governed by the University Grants Commission regulations. A points-based system considers contributions to the research field, national development and institutional development. Several types of professorships exist:
Professor emeritus (on retirement at the age of 65)
Senior professor
Professor
Associate professor
Professor positions are clearly separated from other junior faculty positions such as, in seniority order: senior lecturer (grade I) (usually PhD and 6+ years service), senior lecturer (grade II) (usually a PhD and 2+ years service), lecturer (usually with PhD), lecturer (probationary), assistant lecturer.
Professor emeritus (on retirement)
Senior professor
Professor
Associate professor
Senior lecturer
Lecturer
Temporary Assistant lecturer
Instructor/ demonstrator
Student instructor (undergrad)Administrative ranks Chancellor (titular)
Vice-chancellor/president
Registrar
Deans of faculties
Heads of departments/schools
Directors of Postgraduate Institutes
Sudan
Professor أستاذ
Associate Professor أستاذ مشارك
Assistant Professor أستاذ مساعد
Lecturer محاضر
Teaching Assistant مساعد تدريس
SwedenResearcher level Licentiate (Licentiat)
Doctor (Doktor)Higher titles Docent/Associate Professor (Docent)
Adjunct Professor (Adjungerad professor)
Lecturer (Adjunkt)
Director musices (Director Musices)
Assisting the Professor (Forskarassistent)
Assistant Professor (Lektor)
Postdoc (Postdok)
Head of Department (Prefekt)
Deputy Head of Department (Proprefekt)
Vice Dean of Department (Prodekanus)
Dean (Dekan)
Professor (Professor)
Professor Emeritus (Professor Emeritus)
Deputy President (Prorektor)
President (Rektor)Honorary titles Honorary doctor (Hedersdoktor)
Honorary Fellow (Honorary Fellow)
Switzerland
German-language universities
Ordentlicher Professor/Ordentliche Professorin, Ordinarius/Ordinaria: full professor
Ausserordentlicher Professor/Ausserordentliche Professorin, Extraordinarius/Extraordinaria: associate professor
Assistenzprofessor/Assistenzprofessorin: assistant professor (requires PhD)
Assoziierter Professor/Assoziierte Professorin: adjunct professor
Titularprofessor/Titularprofessorin: affiliated professor
Honorarprofessor/Honorarprofessorin: honorary professor
Privatdozent/Privatdozentin (PD): senior lecturer (has the habilitation but not professorship)
Gastdozent/Gastdozentin: visiting lecturer
Lehrbeauftragter/Lehrbeauftragte: lecturer
Oberassistent/Oberassistentin: senior researcher/lecturer (typically after 3-4 years as a postdoc)
Postdoc: Postdoc (i.e., after PhD)
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter/Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin: Scientific Staff (Note: typically synonymous with "Assistent/Assistentin")
Assistent/Assistentin: research assistant (typically a PhD student)
Hilfassistent/Hilfassistentin: Undergraduate research assistant / Undergraduate teaching assistant
French-language universities
Professeur ordinaire (full professor, chairman)
Professeur extraordinaire
Professeur invité
Professeur associé (associate professor literally, yet functions as full professor or reader, non-chairman, tenured)
Professeur assistant (assistant professor literally, yet functions as associate professor, tenure-track)
Chargé de cours (senior lecturer, yet functions as associate professor, tenure-track)
Privat docent (has the habilitation but not professorship, required for tenure-track)
Chargé d'enseignement (lecturer, not tenure-track)
Maître-Assistant (assistant professor or lecturer, non-tenured)
Assistant (lecturer, usually a graduate student)
Moniteur (undergraduate student)
Syria
The academic rankings in the Syrian Arab Republic are very similar to the Egyptian ones; see Academic ranks in Egypt for details.
Taiwan
Professor emeritus (名譽教授)
Professor (教授）
Associate professor (副教授)
Assistant professor（助理教授) (assistant professor and above are mainly for people who hold a PhD degree. Some are promoted to this rank by distinctive industrial performance.)
Lecturer
Adjunct professor
Adjunct associate professor
Adjunct assistant professor (According to the contract work, and less welfare. Usually 1 to 2 years.)
Adjunct researcher
Thailand
Professor (ศาสตราจารย์)
Associate professor (รองศาสตราจารย์)
Assistant professor (ผู้ช่วยศาสตราจารย์)
Lecturer (อาจารย์)
Trinidad and Tobago
Professor Emeritus
Professor
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Instructor
Graduate/Research Assistant
Tunisia
(full professor)
(full professor)
(professor)
(associate professor, tenured)
(assistant professor, tenure-track)
(visiting assistant professor, non-tenured)
(associate professor, tenured)
(research director, appointed by federal research council FNRS)
(senior researcher with teaching aggregation, with Ph.D.)
(senior researcher, with Ph.D., appointed by federal research council FNRS)
(senior researcher, with Ph.D.)
(senior researcher., appointed by federal research council FNRS)
(senior research assistant, with Ph.D.)
(researcher, appointed by federal research council FNRS)
(research assistant)Administrative ranks Recteur (president of university)
Vice-Recteur
Doyen (dean, i.e. head of a faculty, elected)
Président d'institut (director of research institute, elected)
Vice-Doyen (vice-dean, i.e. head of studies in a faculty)
Président de département (department head, elected)
TurkeyAcademic ranks Emeritus Profesör, (Honorary Retired professor)
Ordinaryus Profesör, (At least 5 years professor with a chair, representing a given area. Since 1960, this title is not given.)
Profesör, (Full professor)
Doçent, (Associate professor)
Dr.Öğretim Üyesi, (Assistant Professor)
Öğretim Görevlisi, (Lecturer)
Okutman, (Instructor)
Araştırma Görevlisi, (Research/teaching assistant)Administrative ranks Rektör, rector or president (professors)
Rektör Yardımcısı, vice-rector or vice-president (professors)
Fakülte Dekanı, dean of the faculty (professors)
Enstitü müdürü, Director of the institute (doctorate or above for research institutes, professors for graduate education institutes)
Dekan Yardımcısı, vice-dean or associate dean (associate professor or above)
Enstitü müdür yardımcısı, Deputy director of the institute (associate professor or above)
Bölüm Başkanı, head of department (doctorate or above)
Yüksekokul Müdürü, head of school (doctorate or above)
Ana Bilim/Sanat Dalı Başkanı, chairman of academic programs (doctorate or above)
UkraineAcademic ranks Profesor / Професор (Full professor)
Dotsent / Доцент (Associate professor)
Starshyj doslidnyk (starshyj naukovyj spivrobitnyk) / Старший дослідник (старший науковий співробітник) (Senior researcher, Senior research fellow)
Starshyj vykladach / Старший викладач (Senior lecturer)
Vykladach / Викладач (Lecturer)
Asystent / Асистент (Assistant professor)Administrative ranks Rektor / Ректор, rector or president (professors)
Prorektor / Проректор, vice-rector or vice-president (professors)
Dyrektor instytutu / centru / Директор інституту / центру, Director of the institute / centre (assistant professor or above)
Dekan Fakultetu / Декан факультету, dean of the faculty (associate professor or above)
Zastupnyk dekana/dyrektora / Заступник декана/директора, vice-dean or associate dean (associate professor or above) / deputy director of the institute (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach kafedry / Завідувач кафедри, head of department (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach laboratoriji / Завідувач лабораторії, head of laboratory (assistant professor or above)
Zaviduvach sekciji kafedry / Завідувач секції кафедри, chairman of academic programs (assistant professor or above)
United KingdomResearch and teaching career pathway Professor/Chair
Reader (or Principal Lecturer in some post-1992 institutions)
Senior lecturer
Lecturer, clinical lecturer
Assistant lecturer, demonstrator, seminar leader, associate lecturer, graduate teaching assistant, departmental lecturerResearch career pathway Professor/professorial research fellow/research professor
Reader
Senior research fellow/Senior researcher
Research fellow, Research associate
Research assistantTechnical career pathway Principal technologist, Departmental manager/coordinator
Senior chief technologist, Lab manager/coordinator
Chief technician
Senior technician
Advanced technician
Technician
Junior technician, apprentice technician
Trainee technicianTeaching career pathway'
Senior Tutor
Professorial teaching fellow
Senior teaching fellow
Teaching fellow
Teaching associate
United States
Venezuela
Board Of Trustees
President
Vice President, Student and Community Services
Vice President, Instruction
Vice President, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Dean, Student and Community Services
Dean, Instruction
Dean, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Executive Director, Student and Community Services
Executive Director, Instruction
Executive Director, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Director, Student and Community Services
Director, Instruction
Director, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Support
Applications
Records Managements
Academic Testing
Placement a online testing
Safety
Student
Zimbabwe
Board Of Trustees
President
Vice President, Student and Community Services
Vice President, Instruction
Vice President, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Dean, Student and Community Services
Dean, Instruction
Dean, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Executive Director, Student and Community Services
Executive Director, Instruction
Executive Director, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Director, Student and Community Services
Director, Instruction
Director, Strategy, Relations and Communications
Support
Applications
Records Managements
Academic Testing
Placement and online testing
Safety
Student
Notes
References
External links
Academic careers by country
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233887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Green%20Bay%20%28LPD-20%29 | USS Green Bay (LPD-20) | USS Green Bay (LPD-20) is a . She is the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the city and bay of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
The contract to build her was awarded to Northrop Grumman Ship Systems of New Orleans, Louisiana, on 30 May 2000 and her keel was laid down on 11 August 2003. Green Bay was christened on 15 July 2006 and commissioned on 24 January 2009. Rose Magnus, the wife of Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps General Robert Magnus, served as the ship's sponsor. Green Bay is assigned to the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and her home port was Naval Base San Diego, until 2015 when she was forward deployed to United States Fleet Activities Sasebo in Sasebo, Nagasaki, Japan.
The ship's name has resulted in a close connection to the people of Green Bay, Wisconsin, and their professional football team, the Green Bay Packers. The ship's flight deck is named "Lambeau Field" after the name of the Packers' stadium. Green Bay businesses and residents presented the ship with a truckload of Packerland memorabilia for her 2009 commissioning.
AV-8B Harrier testing
In 2009, Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 31 (VX-31) and Green Bay tested the feasibility of using the San Antonio-class LPDs for AV-8B Harrier IIs V/STOL attack aircraft in emergency situations. The AV-8Bs were used in numerous tests for the San Antonio-class's aviation certification, as well testing the effect of exhaust heat on the flight deck.
Service history
The ship went on her first deployment in February 2011 with the three-ship Amphibious Ready Group. The group, comprising 4,000 sailors and Marines from the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit, deployed for seven months to the United States Fifth and Seventh Fleet areas in the Asian region.
In March 2011, Green Bay was scheduled to assisted in Operation Tomodachi, the relief efforts after the massive 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami struck Japan. She was instead rerouted into Operation Enduring Freedom areas and never made it to Japan.
In May 2013, Green Bay returned from an eight-month deployment to the Middle East and Asia as part of the Amphibious Ready Group, along with the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit.
In January 2015, Green Bay was forward deployed to the 7th Fleet replacing in the Amphibious Ready Group homeported at United States Fleet Activities Sasebo.
References
This article contains information from the Naval Vessel Registry and various other U.S. Navy Web sites.
External links
USS Green Bay official website
Navy Press Release
San Antonio-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy Wisconsin-related ships
Ships built in Bridge City, Louisiana
2006 ships | [
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233888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20San%20Antonio | USS San Antonio | USS San Antonio (LPD-17), the lead ship of her class of amphibious transport dock or landing platform dock, is the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the city of San Antonio, Texas.
Construction
Design improvements
San Antonio is the first U.S. Navy vessel to incorporate new crew comfort features, including bunks with increased headroom, in-rack fans, and pull-out laptop computer shelves.
She is also the largest U.S. Navy vessel to incorporate stealth features, with close attention paid to exterior shaping. Shaping features include:
Major antennas are mounted on platforms inside two Advanced Enclosed Mast/Sensor systems rather than on traditional mast yardarms that expose antennas to the environment.
Deck edges are bounded by shaped bulwarks rather than lifeline stanchions. These bulwarks are hollow and double as storage lockers, eliminating locker clutter on decks.
Exterior equipment is recessed or flush-mounted where possible, giving the ship a clean exterior appearance. Any equipment that cannot be flush-mounted (such as ladders) incorporate shaping features of their own.
The boat-handling crane at the center of the ship folds into a clean shape when not in use.
The anchor and anchor pocket are shaped to minimize radar backscatter.
Contract award and build
On 17 December 1996, the U.S. Navy awarded a contract to an industrial alliance led by Northrop Grumman Ship Systems (formerly Litton Avondale), with General Dynamics Bath Iron Works, Raytheon Electronic Systems and Intergraph Corporation, to design and construct the first of an anticipated 12 ships under the Navy's LPD-17 program.
The keel was laid down on 9 December 2000. The ship was launched on 12 July 2003 and christened on 19 July by Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison of Texas. She was originally scheduled to be commissioned 17 July 2002, but was delayed by problems at the Avondale shipyard, which resulted in her being towed from New Orleans to the Northrop Grumman shipyard at Pascagoula, Mississippi, in December 2004 for completion.
The Navy took delivery three days before Hurricane Katrina hit in August 2005. Work was delayed further when the ship became a base for regional relief efforts, including accommodations for some shipyard workers, the National Guard, Navy diving and salvage personnel and government officials. The ship's final cost was $840 million over budget.
Commissioning
She was finally commissioned 14 January 2006, at NS Ingleside, Texas. Guest speakers included former U.S. President George H. W. Bush. Senator Hutchison, the ship's sponsor, gave the crew the customary first command, "Man our ship, and bring her to life!" After commissioning she was sent to her home port of Norfolk, Virginia.
Ship history
2003
USS San Antonio was built by Northrop Grumman Ship Systems in New Orleans, the 684-foot, 25,000-ton vessel was launched on 12 July 2003, and christened one week later. It had been scheduled to be commissioned on 17 July 2002, but was delayed by poor performance at the Avondale shipyard, which resulted in it being towed from New Orleans to the Northrop Grumman shipyard at Pascagoula, Miss., in December 2004 for completion. The ship was unable to move under its own power at that time, despite having been christened more than a year earlier.
2009
In 2009, San Antonio served as a flagship for Combined Task Force 151, the multi-national anti-piracy naval force off Somalia. During the ship's time off Africa, the crew boarded 20 foreign vessels. The crew discovered hidden explosives on one of the vessels. The ship returned to Norfolk on 27 March 2009.
2013
In August 2013, the Navy confirmed that San Antonio had entered into the eastern Mediterranean Sea. They stressed it was a long-planned action and not related to the arrival of destroyers which had been stationed there due to the conflict in Syria. Officials thought it prudent to keep the ship near the destroyers, given the situation. In October 2013, Al Qaeda operative Abu Anas al-Libi was seized in Libya and then transferred to San Antonio to await transport to the United States for a trial and questioning.
2016
On 12 October 2016, San Antonio and destroyer were transiting through the southern end of the Red Sea when missiles were fired at them from Houthi-controlled territory in Yemen. Neither ship was harmed. In response to the attack on Mason and San Antonio, the destroyer launched five cruise missiles against three radar sites in Yemen that U.S. officials believe targeted the U.S. ships.
On 21 October 2016, San Antonio deployed to the Mediterranean Sea as part of Operation Odyssey Lightning to replace amphibious assault ship , which was carrying out operations against ISIS. San Antonio carried UH-1 Y Hueys and AH-1 W Cobras from the 22nd MEU's Aviation Combat Unit, VMM-264; Marine Harrier fighters were part of the operation aboard Wasp.
Criticism
Nearly three years after commissioning, problems persisted with this first-in-class vessel. On 27 January 2006, a contract worth over $6 million was awarded to Northrop Grumman, for the Post-Shakedown Availability of San Antonio. Work was expected to be completed by April 2007. On 22 June 2007, Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter sent a letter to Northrop Grumman outlining problems with the ship, from leaks to steerage issues, stating, "Twenty-three months after commissioning of LPD-17, the Navy still does not have a mission-capable ship."
One week prior to deployment refrigerated storage went down. Refrigerated units were craned onto the flight deck to store deployment provisions while repairs were conducted. On the day of deployment the stern gate failed to function causing a delay of two days.
In November 2008, two months into her maiden deployment, San Antonio had been forced to undergo an unplanned maintenance stop in Bahrain due to leaks in its lube oil piping system.
During a February 2009 transit of the Suez Canal, with both shafts at full power, one shaft suddenly went into reverse, sending the vessel careening out of control and narrowly missing other ships and running aground.
During an anti-piracy mission in February 2009, one of the ship's crew, Petty Officer 1st Class Theophilus K. Ansong, 34, of Bristol, Virginia, was killed in a small boat accident in the Gulf of Aden. The ship's captain, Commander Eric C. Cash, was reprimanded over the incident at an admiral's mast by Admiral J.C. Harvey Jr., the commander of Fleet Forces Command. Another officer, Lieutenant Commander Sean Kearns, the ship's executive officer refused a mast over the same incident and was court-martialed in October and November 2010. During the trial, his defense team presented evidence of the ship's numerous deficiencies and lack of written procedures as contributing to the accident. Kearns was acquitted of the charges on 5 November 2010. Kearns stated that the ship's officers had been pressured by the Navy to declare the ship ready to deploy even though they knew that it still had significant, unresolved problems.
In response to these problems the Navy finally obtained approval to hire a sufficient number Supervisor of Shipbuilding officers in 2009.
In October 2010, the Department of Defense released a report outlining numerous engineering flaws in San Antonio. A top aide in the Department of Defense was quoted as saying that Northrop Grumman's ships are "not effective, suitable and not survivable in combat". The report also blamed Raytheon, a subcontractor providing fiber optics, electrical and anti-missile systems for San Antonio, for "persistent engineering deficiencies."
In April 2011 after nearly two years of constant repair work at various shipyards in Norfolk, Virginia, the Navy started an investigation into the constant mechanical and engineering issues with San Antonio. The executive director of the Regional Maintenance Activity (RMC), Thomas J. Murphy, managing the work was relieved and transferred, as were the senior Waterfront Operations personnel. The Navy said that two contractors, Earl Industries, the prime contractor, and Fairbanks Morse, the engine manufacturer, were unwilling or unable to provide complete documentation into what was fixed on the ship and how. As a result, the Navy suspended Norfolk Ship Support Activity's oversight authority.
On 6 May 2011, the Navy canceled its maintenance contract with Earl Industries, citing, "improper work performed and concern regarding Earl Industries' quality assurance program and the company's ability to control the quality and documentation of work it performs."
On 26 May 2011, after 10 days of sea trials, the ship's power plants were declared fit for duty. The ship completed the trials on 15 June 2011 and was scheduled for a short training deployment from July to August 2011. In July 2011 San Antonios diesel engine's intercoolers were found to be mechanically deficient after the ship failed to gain full power causing the ship to return to be repaired. The repairs also found deficiencies in work performed by Earl Industries. The repairs were completed on 3 August 2011.
As of August 2011, the Navy now says that all problems with the ship's engines have been corrected including "foreign material exclusion plugs left in the drain piping system, use of incorrect material and improper installation and sealing of gaskets".
Awards
2012 Battle Effectiveness award.
Ship's coat of arms
The colors of the shield and star are adapted from the Texan state flag. The star also commemorates the "Lone Star" and first ship to bear the name San Antonio. Red is the color for valor and sacrifice, blue is for loyalty and white, purity of purpose. The Alamo honors the men who were killed fighting for the independence of Texas from Mexico. The bluebonnets refer to the beauty and majesty of Texas and the olive branch highlights the ship's peacekeeping mission. The trident and cannon represent the old and new weaponry. The cannonballs and nineteenth century cannon were similar weapons used by the brave men that defended the Alamo. The trident, symbol of sea prowess, also represents the "mobility triad" that USS San Antonio is built for. The crossed Navy and Marine Corps swords represent cooperation and teamwork of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps.
Gallery
References
This article contains information from the Naval Vessel Registry and various other U.S. Navy Web sites.
External links
navsource.org: USS San Antonio
National Defense Magazine article
USN Commissioning press release
Navy Times article on Post-commissioning Defects
San Antonio-class amphibious transport docks
Amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
United States Navy Texas-related ships
Ships built in Bridge City, Louisiana
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233889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20New%20Orleans%20%28LPD-18%29 | USS New Orleans (LPD-18) | USS New Orleans (LPD-18), a , is the fourth commissioned ship of the United States Navy to be named after the city of New Orleans, Louisiana.
History
Construction
The contract to build her was awarded on 18 December 1998 to Northrop Grumman Ship Systems of New Orleans, Louisiana, and her keel was laid down on 14 October 2002. The ship was christened on 20 November 2004, sponsored by Carolyn Shelton, the wife of General Henry H. Shelton, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The ship was launched three weeks later, on 11 December. The ship completed her builder's trials on 26 October 2006.
Commissioning
New Orleans was commissioned on 10 March 2007 in New Orleans, Louisiana. After commissioning, she steamed to San Diego, California via the Panama Canal to join the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The ship arrived at her new homeport of Naval Base San Diego on 3 May 2007 and was assigned to Amphibious Squadron Five.
Fielding and issues
After arriving in San Diego, New Orleans required 400,000 more man-hours of construction to bring her to fully operational status. In August 2008, the ship failed her INSURV inspection. The INSURV inspectors documented 2,600 deficiencies, including problems with the steering system, broken ventilation fans, inoperable elevators, corrosion on the flight deck, and an unreliable propulsion system. "USS New Orleans was degraded in her ability to conduct sustained combat operations," the INSURV report said. US Navy officials reported that 85% of the deficiencies were minor issues and that most of the deficiencies had already been corrected.
On 9 January 2009, New Orleans departed San Diego on her initial deployment, as part of a five-ship expeditionary strike group (ESG) that also included and . The Boxer ESG and the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit included more than 4,000 sailors and marines.
Collision with USS Hartford
On 20 March 2009 New Orleans was involved in a collision with the attack submarine in the Strait of Hormuz. Fifteen sailors on Hartford suffered minor injuries and the fuel tank on New Orleans was ruptured causing an oil spill of 25,000 gallons of diesel marine fuel. After the incident both vessels were able to continue under their own power.
Southern Partnership Station 2010 Deployment
After proving herself mission ready and fully recovered from 2009's collision with USS Hartford, New Orleans took part in Exercise Dawn Blitz. The joint exercise between 3rd Fleet and 1st Marine Expeditionary Force provided a training opportunity for 8,000 Sailors and Marines aboard 8 participating ships to practice amphibious assault and Blue/Green coordination in preparation for deployment.
From June through September, New Orleans deployed for the Southern Partnership Station 2010 to conduct combined maritime operations with Partner Nation navies in conjunction with multinational amphibious exercises. Embarked partner navies from across the world experienced some of the newest navy technology and the finest tactical and nautical expertise.
During her 2010 deployment, New Orleans conducted counter narcotics operations and made port visits to Manzillo, Mexico; Callao, Peru; and Balboa, Panama. In each port, New Orleans volunteered in community relations (COMREL) projects at orphanages and small villages. New Orleans crew dutifully represented the U.S. by upholding high standards of conduct and community service, and embarked members of the Mexican, Peruvian, Argentinean, Brazilian, Colombian, and Uruguay Navies were impressed by the professionalism and capability of the U.S. military.
First LPD-17 Class to Undergo Deperming
On 11 July 2011, New Orleans pulled into Point Loma's deperming slip, becoming the first of her class to undergo deperming. The evolution required 6 days and 96 cables wrapped around the ship by hand. By running electrical current through the cables, she reduced her magnetic signature to minimize vulnerability to mines. Upon completion, she passed through a degaussing range 14 times, displaying a magnetic signature less than that of most destroyers.
2011 Fifth Fleet Deployment
New Orleans departed on 14 November 2011, for her third deployment. En route to 5th Fleet, she visited Cambodia to train with their navy. Both nations participated in joint man overboard drills as well as visit, board, search, and seizure (VBSS) exercises. She also pulled into Changi, Singapore, before chopping into 5th Fleet.
Upon arrival in 5th Fleet, New Orleans was selected as the U.A.E. Ambassador's venue for his reception, hosting 300 international delegates in Abu Dhabi. She received accolades from ESG-5 for the successful execution of the event.
2015 Exercises
In September, New Orleans joined other BOXARG units in support of Dawn Blitz 2015. This multi-national amphibious exercise showcased the tremendous capabilities of amphibious power projection.
She commenced her Composite Training Unit Exercise (COMPTUEX) in October. BOXARG COMPTUEX was designed to be the most challenging live scenario training event for an ARG/MEU to date, exercising all warfare areas to include amphibious warfare, surface warfare, air warfare, and command and control.
New Orleans got underway again in December to earn her certification for deployment. During the final days of the Certification Exercise (CERTEX), an MV-22 assigned to USS Boxer suffered a mishap on short approach to New Orleans during a routine passenger movement. New Orleans’ crew stabilized the aircraft, safely disembarked the passengers and flight crew, and then made preparations for an unplanned pier-side movement to Naval Station North Island in order to safely crane the stricken aircraft off the flight deck. Upon removing the aircraft, New Orleans got back underway for a successful completion of CERTEX.
2016 WESTPAC Deployment
On 12 February 2016, New Orleans departed San Diego for a seven-month deployment and embarked Marines from 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), sailors from Assault Craft Unit (ACU) 1, Assault Craft Unit (ACU) 5 and Beach Master Unit (BMU) 1 as part of the Boxer Amphibious Ready Group (ARG), comprising USS New Orleans (LPD-18), USS Boxer (LHD-4) and USS Harpers Ferry (LSD-49). The first stop on deployment was in Hawaii where New Orleans conducted four days of amphibious operations bringing thousands of Marines to the beach via MV-22 Ospreys and landing craft air cushions (LCAC) for extensive sustainment training.
On 8 March 2016, USS New Orleans participated in the Ssang Yong exercise. Ssang Yong was a multinational exercise with Republic of Korea Navy and Marine Corps, Australian Army, US Navy, and New Zealand Army forces that performed a variety of military operations from disaster relief to expeditionary operations.
The next mission for New Orleans was supporting coalition operations in Fifth Fleet and conducting maritime security operations in the Gulf of Aden. On 29 June 2016, New Orleans hit a major milestone in the deployment as she anchored off the coast of Camp Buehring, Kuwait to offload nearly 1,000 tons of vehicles and machinery for an agricultural wash down, before returning to Manama, Bahrain for a mid-deployment maintenance availability.
A week later, New Orleans sailed back into 7th Fleet and entered port on 25 July to visit Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this port, New Orleans had the opportunity to enhance US Navy bilateral ties with the Sri Lankan Navy, and exchange best practices on Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR). The visit included several receptions, daily ship tours, sports events with Sri Lankan and US Navy/Marine Corps personnel, and HADR training held by embarked Marines.
The captain and Sri Lankan dignitaries cut cake during a reception on New Orleans flight deck
In August, New Orleans made a port visit in Bali, Indonesia for a few days, then shortly after stopped in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. New Orleans completed her WESTPAC deployment, returning to San Diego on 16 September 2016.
Maintenance Phase
On 9 January 2017, USS New Orleans moved into the Dry-dock Ships Selected Availability (DSRA) at BAE Systems shipyard. The crew and hundreds of contractors went through an extensive list of repairs and upgrades to the ship's hull, tanks, ventilation, auxiliary, propulsion, and combat systems. After 10 months being dry docked, on 28 November New Orleans was undocked and begun preparation for work ups.
Over the next six months, USS New Orleans accomplished moving the crew back onboard from the barge, Engineering Light-Off Assessment (LOA), and Combat Systems Light-Off. By mid-October, New Orleans went underway for the first time in 23 months for Contractor Sea Trials. The DSRA and the maintenance phase officially ended with the completion of Type Commander (TYCOM) Sea Trials in mid-November.
PACBLITZ 2019
In March 2019, New Orleans participated in Exercise Pacific Blitz 19 (PACBLITZ), an exercise that combines logistics and amphibious concepts from exercises Pacific Horizon and Dawn Blitz. PACBLITZ involved 5,000 Marines and Sailors from Marine Expeditionary Force and 5,000 Sailors spread across several installations, including Naval Base San Diego, Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, Naval Surface Warfare Center Port Hueneme and Naval Air Station Point Mugu. The amphibious transport dock USS Somerset (LPD-25), guided-missile destroyer USS Michael Murphy (DDG-112), maritime prepositioning ship USNS William R. Button (T-AK-3012) and aviation logistics ship SS Curtiss (T-AVB-4) also participated. The exercise was three weeks long of fast-paced amphibious operations where New Orleans launched and recovered multiple LCACs, AAVs, and LCUs off of San Clemente and Camp Pendleton beaches as well as MV-22 Ospreys.
First LPD/LSV Stern Gate Marriage
New Orleans became the first San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock ship to successfully complete a "stern gate marriage" with an Army logistics support vessel (LSV) while moored in Pearl Harbor on 24 October 2019. A "stern gate marriage" is a maneuver in which a craft's bow ramp is lowered onto a ship's stern gate for vehicle and cargo transfer. The Army's USAV CW3 Harold C. Clinger (LSV-2) was able to safely lower its stern gate into New Orleans’ well deck, then Marine Corps vehicles were quickly driven onto New Orleans. The successful marriage demonstrates just one more method by which the San Antonio-class can support a myriad of potential missions from humanitarian aid and disaster relief to amphibious assault.
2019 Homeport Shift to Forward Deployed Naval Force-Japan
New Orleans joined the U.S. 7th Fleet amphibious force in Sasebo, 1 November 2019, transiting the Pacific Ocean from her former homeport of San Diego. Her addition increased the total strength of amphibious ships in Japan to five, joining USS America (LHA 6), USS Green Bay (LPD 20), USS Ashland (LSD 48) and USS Germantown (LSD 42).
20.1 FDNF-J Patrol
In spring of 2020, New Orleans embarked on her maiden voyage as Forward-Deployed Naval Forces-Japan (FDNF-J) for patrol shortly after the homeport shift. She made her presence felt in the East China Sea conducting operations in support of United Nations sanctions against vessels suspected of conducting illegal transfers of oil and other goods to and from North Korea. She maintained mission readiness throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, executing a COVID-free 7th Fleet patrol.
References
History
External links
New Orleans official command website
San Antonio-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy Louisiana-related ships
Ships built in New Orleans
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233890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Mesa%20Verde | USS Mesa Verde | USS Mesa Verde (LPD-19) is the third of the United States Navy. She is the first U.S. Navy warship to be named after the Mesa Verde National Park in the U.S. state of Colorado.
History
The contract to build Mesa Verde was awarded on 29 February 2000 to Northrop Grumman Ship Systems of Pascagoula, Mississippi, and her keel was laid down on 25 February 2003. She was launched on 19 November 2004, and christened on 15 January 2005 with Linda Price Campbell, wife of former Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell of Colorado, serving as the ship's sponsor. The ship was commissioned on 15 December 2007 in Panama City, Florida.
References
This article contains information from the Naval Vessel Registry and various other United States Navy Web sites.
External links
NavSource.org: USS Mesa Verde
2004 ships
San Antonio-class amphibious transport docks
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
United States Navy Colorado-related ships | [
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233897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodless%20surgery | Bloodless surgery | Bloodless surgery is a non-invasive surgical method developed by orthopedic surgeon, Adolf Lorenz, who was known as "the bloodless surgeon of Vienna". His medical practice was a consequence of his severe allergy to carbolic acid routinely used in operating rooms of the era. His condition forced him to become a "dry surgeon". Contemporary usage of the term refers to both invasive and noninvasive medical techniques and protocols. The expression does not mean surgery that makes no use of blood or blood transfusion. Rather, it refers to surgery performed without transfusion of allogeneic blood. Champions of bloodless surgery do, however, transfuse products made from allogeneic blood (blood from other people) and they also make use of pre-donated blood for autologous transfusion (blood pre-donated by the patient). Interest in bloodless surgery has arisen for several reasons. Jehovah's Witnesses reject blood transfusions on religious grounds; others may be concerned about bloodborne diseases, such as hepatitis and AIDS.
History
During the early 1960s, American heart surgeon Denton Cooley successfully performed numerous bloodless open-heart surgeries on Jehovah's Witness patients. Fifteen years later, he and his associate published a report of more than 500 cardiac surgeries in this population, documenting that cardiac surgery could be safely performed without blood transfusion.
Ron Lapin (1941–1995) was an American surgeon, who became interested in bloodless surgery in the mid-1970s. He was known as a "bloodless surgeon" due to his willingness to perform surgeries on severely anemic Jehovah's Witness patients without the use of blood transfusions.
Patricia A. Ford (born 1955) was the first surgeon to perform a bloodless bone marrow transplant.
In 1998, Professor James Isbister, a haematologist from Australia, first proposed a paradigm shift back to a patient focus. In 2005, he penned an article in the journal, 'Updates in Blood Conservation and Transfusion alternatives'. In this article Prof. Isbister coined the term 'patient blood management', noting that the focus should be changed from the product to the patient.
Principles
Several principles of bloodless surgery have been published.
Preoperative techniques such as erythropoietin (EPO) or iron administration are designed to stimulate the patient's own erythropoiesis.
In surgery, control of bleeding is achieved with the use of laser or sonic scalpels, minimally invasive surgical techniques, electrosurgery and electrocautery, low central venous pressure anesthesia (for select cases), or suture ligation of vessels. Other methods include the use of blood substitutes, which at present do not carry oxygen but expand the volume of the blood to prevent shock. Blood substitutes which do carry oxygen, such as PolyHeme, are also under development. Many doctors view acute normovolemic hemodilution, a form of storage of a patient's own blood, as a pillar of "bloodless surgery" but the technique is not an option for patients who refuse autologous blood transfusions.
Intraoperative blood salvage is a technique which recycles and cleans blood from a patient during an operation and redirects it into the patient's body.
Postoperatively, surgeons seek to minimize further blood loss by continuing administration of medications to augment blood cell mass and minimizing the number of blood draws and the quantity of blood drawn for testing, for example, by using pediatric blood tubes for adult patients.
HBOC's such as Polyheme and Hemepure have been discontinued due to severe adverse reactions including death. South Africa was the only country where they were legally authorized as standard treatment but they are no longer available.
Benefits
Bloodless medicine appeals to many doctors because it carries low risk of post-operative infection when compared with procedures requiring blood transfusion. Additionally, it may be economically beneficial in some countries. For example, the cost of blood in the US hovers around $500 a unit, including testing. These costs are further increased as, according to Jan Hoffman (an administrator for the blood conservation program at Geisinger Medical Center in Danville, Pennsylvania), hospitals must pick up the tab for the first three units of blood infused per patient per calendar year. By contrast, hospitals may be reimbursed for drugs that boost a patient's red blood cell count, a treatment approach often used before and after surgery to reduce the need for a blood transfusion. However, such payments are highly contingent upon negotiations with insurance companies. Geisinger Medical Center began a blood conservation program in 2005 and reported a recorded savings of $273,000 in its first six months of operation. The Cleveland Clinic lowered their direct costs from US$35.5 million in 2009 to $26.4 million in 2012—a savings of nearly $10 million over 3 years.
Health risks appear to be another contributing factor in their appeal, especially in light of recent studies that suggest that blood transfusions can increase the risk of complications and reduce survival rates. Thus the recovery rate is faster with bloodless surgery, allowing the patient to leave earlier.
See also
Knocking, a documentary on Jehovah's Witnesses that features a bloodless liver transplant
References
Sources
No man's blood by Gene Church (1983)
First Do No Harm Documentary http://www.asiageographic.com/productions_pnn.html
Cleveland Clinic - Wall Street Journal https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323494504578340962879110432
Surgery | [
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233899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20Global%20Surveyor | Mars Global Surveyor | Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) is an American robotic space probe developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and launched November 1996. MGS was a global mapping mission that examined the entire planet, from the ionosphere down through the atmosphere to the surface. As part of the larger Mars Exploration Program, Mars Global Surveyor performed atmospheric monitoring for sister orbiters during aerobraking, and helped Mars rovers and lander missions by identifying potential landing sites and relaying surface telemetry.
It completed its primary mission in January 2001 and was in its third extended mission phase when, on 2 November 2006, the spacecraft failed to respond to messages and commands. A faint signal was detected three days later which indicated that it had gone into safe mode. Attempts to recontact the spacecraft and resolve the problem failed, and NASA officially ended the mission in January 2007. MGS remains in a stable near-polar circular orbit at about 450 km altitude and, as of 1996, was expected to crash onto the surface of the planet at some point after 2047.
Objectives
Mars Global Surveyor achieved the following science objectives during its primary mission:
Characterize the surface features and geological processes on Mars.
Determine the composition, distribution and physical properties of surface minerals, rocks and ice.
Determine the global topography, planet shape, and gravitational field.
Establish the nature of the magnetic field and map the crustal remnant field.
Monitor global weather and the thermal structure of the atmosphere.
Study interactions between Mars' surface and the atmosphere by monitoring surface features, polar caps that expand and recede, the polar energy balance, and dust and clouds as they migrate over a seasonal cycle.
Mars Global Surveyor also achieved the following goals of its extended mission:
Continued weather monitoring to form a continuous set of observations with NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which reached Mars in March 2006.
Imaging of possible landing sites for the 2007 Phoenix spacecraft, and the 2011 Curiosity rover.
Observation and analysis of key sites of scientific interest, such as sedimentary-rock outcrop sites.
Continued monitoring of changes on the surface due to wind and ice.
Mission timeline
7 November 1996: Launch from Cape Canaveral.
11 September 1997: Arrival at Mars, began orbit insertion.
1 April 1999: Primary mapping phase began.
1 February 2001: First extended mission phase began.
1 February 2002: Second extended mission phase began.
1 January 2003: Relay mission began.
30 March 2004: MGS photographed the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit along with its wheel tracks showing its first 85 sols of travel.
1 December 2004: Science and Support mission began.
April 2005: MGS became the first spacecraft to photograph another spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth when it captured two images of the Mars Odyssey spacecraft and one image of the Mars Express spacecraft.
1 October 2006: Extended mission phase began for another two years.
2 November 2006: Spacecraft suffers an error while attempting to reorient a solar panel and communication was lost.
5 November 2006: Weak signals were detected, indicating the spacecraft was awaiting instructions. The signal cut out later that day.
21 November 2006: NASA announces the spacecraft has likely finished its operating career.
6 December 2006: NASA releases imagery taken by MGS of a newly found gully deposit, suggesting that water still flows on Mars.
13 April 2007: NASA releases its Preliminary Report on the cause(s) of MGS loss of contact.
Loss of contact
On 2 November 2006, NASA lost contact with the spacecraft after commanding it to adjust its solar panels. Several days passed before a faint signal was received indicating that the spacecraft had entered safe mode and was awaiting further instructions.
On 21 and 22 November 2006, MGS failed to relay communications to the Opportunity rover on the surface of Mars. In response to this complication, Mars Exploration Program manager Fuk Li stated, "Realistically, we have run through the most likely possibilities for re-establishing communication, and we are facing the likelihood that the amazing flow of scientific observations from Mars Global Surveyor is over."
On 13 April 2007, NASA announced the loss of the spacecraft was caused by a flaw in a parameter update to the spacecraft's system software. The spacecraft was designed to hold two identical copies of the system software for redundancy and error checking. Subsequent updates to the software encountered a human error when two independent operators updated separate copies with differing parameters. This was followed by a corrective update that unknowingly included a memory fault which resulted in the loss of the spacecraft.
Originally, the spacecraft was intended to observe Mars for 1 Martian year (approximately 2 Earth years). However, based on the vast amount of valuable science data returned, NASA extended the mission three times. MGS remains in a stable near-polar circular orbit at about 450 km altitude, and was expected to crash onto the surface of the planet at some point after about 2047 at the time of its original launch, having by then spent fifty years orbiting the red planet. This is to prevent contamination of the Martian surface with any germs that may be stuck to the spacecraft.
Spacecraft overview
The spacecraft, fabricated at the Lockheed Martin Astronautics plant in Denver, is a rectangular-shaped box with wing-like projections (solar panels) extending from opposite sides. When fully loaded with propellant at the time of launch, the spacecraft weighed . Most of its mass lies in the box-shaped module occupying the center portion of the spacecraft. This center module is made of two smaller rectangular modules stacked on top of each other, one of which is called the equipment module and holds the spacecraft's electronics, science instruments, and the 1750A mission computer. The other module, called the propulsion module, houses its rocket engines and propellant tanks. The Mars Global Surveyor mission cost about $154 million to develop and build and $65 million to launch. Mission operations and data analysis cost approximately $20 million/year.
Scientific instruments
Five scientific instruments flew aboard MGS:
The Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) operated by Malin Space Science Systems- The Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), originally known as Mars Observer Camera, used 3 instruments: a narrow angle camera that took (black-and-white) high resolution images (usually 1.5 to 12 m per pixel) and red and blue wide angle pictures for context (240 m per pixel) and daily global imaging (7.5 km per pixel). MOC returned more than 240,000 images spanning portions of 4.8 Martian years, from September 1997 and November 2006.
The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) - MOLA was designed to determine Mars' global topography. It operated as an altimeter until a portion of the laser reached end-of-life in June 2001. The instrument then functioned as a radiometer until October 2006.
The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) - This instrument mapped the mineral composition of the surface by scanning thermal emissions.
A magnetometer and electron reflectometer (MAG/ER) - This instrument was used to interrogate the planet's magnetic fields and determine that Mars does not have a global magnetic field but rather many smaller localized fields.
The Ultrastable Oscillator (USO/RS) - Precise clock measurements from this device were used to map variations in the gravitational field.
The Mars Relay (MR) - The Mars Relay antenna supported the Mars Exploration Rovers for data relay back to Earth in conjunction with the Mars Orbiter Camera's 12 MB memory buffer.
First complete test of aerobraking
The spacecraft was launched from a smaller Delta II rocket, necessitating restrictions in spacecraft weight. In order to achieve the near-circular orbit required for the mission while conserving propellant, the team designed a series of aerobraking maneuvers. Aerobraking had been successfully attempted by the Magellan mission at Venus, but the first complete test of the new procedure was to be carried out by MGS.
Initially, MGS entered a highly elliptical orbit that took 45 hours to complete. The orbit had a periapsis of above the northern hemisphere, and an apoapsis of above the southern hemisphere, a far cry from the nearly circular orbit required.
After orbital insertion, MGS performed a series of orbit changes to lower the periapsis of its orbit into the upper fringes of the Martian atmosphere at an altitude of about . During every atmospheric pass, the spacecraft slowed down because of atmospheric resistance. This slowing caused the spacecraft to lose altitude on its next pass through the orbit's apoapsis. MGS had planned to use this aerobraking technique over a period of four months to lower the high point of its orbit from to altitudes near .
About one month into the mission, it was discovered that air pressure from the planet's atmosphere caused one of the spacecraft's two solar panels to bend backwards. The panel in question had incurred a small amount of damage shortly after launch, the extent of which did not become apparent until subjected to atmospheric forces. MGS had to be raised out of the atmosphere to prevent further damage to the solar panel and a new mission plan had to be developed.
From May to November 1998, aerobraking was temporarily suspended to allow the orbit to drift into the proper position with respect to the Sun and enable optimal use of the solar panels. Although data collection during aerobraking was not in the original mission plan, all science instruments remained functional and acquired vast amounts of data during this "unexpected bonus period of observation". The team was able to evaluate more information about the atmosphere over a range of times rather than the anticipated fixed times of 0200 and 1400, as well as collect data during three close encounters with Phobos.
Finally, from November 1998 to March 1999, aerobraking resumed and shrank the high point of the orbit down to . At this altitude, MGS circled Mars once every two hours. Aerobraking was scheduled to terminate at the same time the orbit drifted into its proper position with respect to the Sun. In the desired orientation for mapping operations, the spacecraft always crossed the day-side equator at 14:00 (local Mars time) moving from south to north. This geometry was selected to enhance the total quality of the science return.
Mission results
Mapping
The spacecraft circled Mars once every 117.65 minutes at an average altitude of . The nearly polar orbit (inclination = 93°) which is almost perfectly circular, moved from the south pole to the north pole in just under an hour. The altitude was chosen to make the orbit Sun-synchronous, so that all images that were taken by the spacecraft of the same surface features on different dates were taken under identical lighting conditions. After each orbit, the spacecraft viewed the planet 28.62° to the west because Mars had rotated underneath it. In effect, it was always 14:00 for MGS as it moved from one time zone to the next exactly as fast as the Sun. After seven sols and 88 orbits, the spacecraft would approximately retrace its previous path, with an offset of 59 km to the east. This ensured eventual full coverage of the entire surface.
In its extended mission, MGS did much more than study the planet directly beneath it. It commonly performed rolls and pitches to acquire images off its nadir track. The roll maneuvers, called ROTOs (Roll Only Targeting Opportunities), rolled the spacecraft left or right from its ground track to shoot images as much as 30° from nadir. It was possible for a pitch maneuver to be added to compensate for the relative motion between the spacecraft and the planet. This was called a CPROTO (Compensation Pitch Roll Targeting Opportunity), and allowed for some very high resolution imaging by the onboard MOC (Mars Orbiting Camera).
In addition to this, MGS could shoot pictures of other orbiting bodies, such as other spacecraft and the moons of Mars. In 1998 it imaged what was later called the Phobos monolith, found in MOC Image 55103.
After analyzing hundreds of high-resolution pictures of the Martian surface taken by the spacecraft, a team of researchers found that weathering and winds on the planet create landforms, especially sand dunes, remarkably similar to those in some deserts on Earth.
Other discoveries from this mission are:
The planet was found to have a layered crust to depths of 10 km or more. To produce the layers, large amounts of material had to be weathered, transported and deposited.
The northern hemisphere is probably just as cratered as the southern hemisphere, but the craters are mostly buried.
Many features, like impact craters, were buried, then recently exhumed.
Large areas of Mars are covered by a mantle that coats all but the very steepest slopes. The mantle is sometimes smooth, sometimes pitted. Some believe the pits are due to the escape of water through sublimation (ice changing directly to a vapor) of buried ice.
Some areas are covered by hematite-rich material. The hematite could have been put in place by liquid water in the past.
Dark streaks were found to be caused by giant dust devils. Dust devil tracks were observed to frequently change; some changed in just one month.
The south pole's residual cap was observed to look like Swiss cheese, with holes generally a few meters deep. The holes get bigger each year, so this region or hemisphere may be warming. Claims that this represents a global trend, however, are cherry-picking regional data versus the planetary dataset, and MOC results versus TES and radio science (see below).
The Thermal Emission Spectrometer observes in infrared for atmospheric studies and mineralogy. TES found that Mars' planetary climate has cooled since Viking, and just about all of the surface of Mars is covered with volcanic rock.
Hundreds of house-sized boulders were found in some areas. This indicates that some materials are strong enough to hold together, even when moving downslope. Most of the boulders appeared in volcanic regions so they were probably formed from weathered lava flows.
Thousands of dark slope streaks were observed. Most scientists believe they result from the avalanching of dust. However, some researchers think that water may be involved.
The Lense–Thirring test
Data from MGS have been used to perform a test of the general relativistic Lense–Thirring precession which consists of a small precession of the orbital plane of a test particle moving around a central, rotating mass such as a planet. The interpretation of these results has been debated.
Further evidence for water on Mars
Hundreds of gullies were discovered that were formed from liquid water, possibly in recent times.
A few channels on Mars displayed inner channels that suggest sustained fluid flows. The most well-known is the one in Nanedi Valles. Another was found in Nirgal Vallis.
On 6 December 2006 NASA released photos of two craters in Terra Sirenum and Centauri Montes which appear to show the presence of flowing water on Mars at some point between 1999 and 2001. The pictures were produced by Mars Global Surveyor and are quite possibly the spacecraft's final contribution to our knowledge of Mars and the question of whether water exists on the planet.
Other pictures
See also
2001 Mars Odyssey, NASA orbiter studying the geology and hydrology of Mars
List of Mars orbiters
List of missions to Mars
Mars Express, European Mars orbiter
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, NASA Mars orbiter launched in 2005, still operational
List of software bugs
References
External links
NASA JPL Mars Link
NASA mission overview
Mars Global Surveyor Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Global Surveyor Mission plan
Malin Space Science Systems (complete image gallery)
04/13/07: Mars Global Surveyor: Report Reveals Reasons for Loss.
New Scientist article on the general relativistic test
MGS Photographs
Mars Exploration Program
Global Surveyor
Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor
Mars Global Surveyor
Geography of Mars | [
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233900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabot%20Trail | Cabot Trail | The Cabot Trail is a scenic highway on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada. It is a loop around the northern tip of the island, passing along and through the Cape Breton Highlands and the Cape Breton Highlands National Park.
It is named after the explorer John Cabot who landed in Atlantic Canada in 1497, although modern historians agree his landfall likely took place in Newfoundland and not Cape Breton Island. (Premier Angus L. MacDonald wanted to re-brand Nova Scotia for tourism purposes as primarily Scottish and, as part of this effort, created both the names Cape Breton Highlands and Cabot Trail). Construction of the initial route was completed in 1932.
The western and eastern sections follow the rugged coastline, with views of the ocean. The southwestern section passes through the Margaree River valley before passing along Bras d'Or Lake. The route is within the county municipalities of Victoria and Inverness.
The Cabot Trail includes all of Trunk 30, as well as the portion of Nova Scotia Highway 105 between exits 7 and 11. Following are some stops along the route, travelling clockwise from the south:
Baddeck, the location of the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.
Chéticamp, an Acadian fishing village.
Pleasant Bay, site of a bay with whale watching possibilities.
Cape North, a headland at the northernmost point of the Cabot Trail.
Dingwall, a small fishing village.
Ingonish, site of the Keltic Lodge resort and Cape Smokey Provincial Park.
St. Anns, home of the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts.
See also
List of Nova Scotia provincial highways
Gallery
References
External links
Cabot Trail official website
Hike the Highlands Festival
Cape Breton Highlands National Park
Nova Scotia provincial highways
Roads in Inverness County, Nova Scotia
Roads in Victoria County, Nova Scotia
Scenic travelways in Nova Scotia
Tourist attractions in Inverness County, Nova Scotia
Tourist attractions in Victoria County, Nova Scotia
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233903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20French%20royal%20mistresses | List of French royal mistresses | This article contains a listing of notable French royal mistresses.
Clovis I
Evochilde
Chlothar I
Waldrada, Princess of the Lombards
Valtrude of the Lombards
Arnegundis
Charibert I
Merofleda
Clothilde
Marcovefa
Theogilda
Chilperic I
Fredgunde d'Ardennes (d. 597), mistress, then wife
Dagobert I
Regintrude of Austrasia
Berthilde
Charlemagne
Gersuinda of the Saxons
Amaltrud of Vienne
Ethelind
Sigrade
Madelgard
Regina
Landrade des Herbages
Adelindus
Louis the Pious
Theodelinde of Sens
Louis the Stammerer
Luitgrade of Saxony
Adelheid of Paris
Charles the Simple
Edgiva of Kent
Frederuna von Ringleheim
Philip I
Bertrade de Montfort ( 1070 – c. 1116): marriage not recognised by the Church
Louis VI
Marie de Breuillet
Louis X
Unknown woman, with whom he had a daughter, Eudeline.
Philip VI
Béatrice de la Berruère (1294–1348)
Charles V
Biette de Cassinel (c. 1340 – c. 1380){{efn|"..concerning the relations which may have existed between Charles V and the mother[Biette Cassinel] of Jean de Montaigu, are not justified by any proof by any reference.."}}
Unknown, mother of Oudard d'Attainville (1360 – ?).
Charles VI
Odette de Champdivers (c. 1384 – 1424)
Charles VII
Agnès Sorel (c. 1422 – 1450)
Antoinette de Maignelais (c. 1430 – c. 1461)
Louis XI
Félize Régnard (c. 1425 – 1475)
Marguerite de Sassenage (c. 1424 – 1471)
Francis I
Official mistresses (maîtresse-en-titre)
Françoise de Foix (1495–1537), countess of Châteaubriant
Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly (1508–1580), duchess of Étampes
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Marie Gaudin (1490 or 1495 - 1580), dame de La Bourdaisière, she was the ancestor of Gabrielle d'Estrées
Mary Boleyn (1499–1543) (disputed)'', eldest sister of Anne Boleyn and of George Boleyn, later mistress of Henry VIII of England
La Belle Ferronnière
Claude de Rohan-Gyé (1519-1579), countess of Tonnerre and of Thoury
La Châtelaine de Montfrault
Henry II
Official mistresses (maîtresse-en-titre)
Diane de Poitiers (1499–1566)
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Jane Fleming (or Jane Stewart) (c. 1508 – c. 1553)
Filippa Duci (c. 1520 –?)
Nicole de Savigny (1535–1590), baroness of Fontette
Charles IX
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Marie Touchet (c. 1553 – 1638)
Henry III
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Louise de La Béraudière du Rouhet
Renée de Rieux de Châteauneuf
Veronica Franco (1546–1591)
Marie of Cleves, Princess of Condé
Jeanne de Laval, dame de Senneterre (1549–1586)
Françoise Babou de La Bourdaisière, mother of Gabrielle d'Estrées
Henry IV
This list includes historically recognised and popularly attributed mistresses:
Official mistresses (maîtresse-en-titre)
Gabrielle d'Estrées (c. 1571–1599), mistress 1591–1599
Catherine Henriette de Balzac d'Entragues (1579–1633), marquise of Verneuil, mistress 1599–1609
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Fleurette de Nérac, vers 1571–1572, fille d’un jardinier de Nérac
Charlotte de Sauve (c. 1551–1617), mistress in 1572.
Bretine de Duras, mistress 1573–1574
Louise de la Béraudière, called « La belle Rouet », mistress in 1575, maid of honour of Queen Margaret
Louise Borré, mistress 1575–1576, daughter of a royal notary. She gave him a son, Hervé (1576–1643)
Jeanne de Tignonville, mistress 1577–1578
Victoire de Ayala, mistress in 1578, maid of honour of Catherine de' Medici
Mlle Rebours, mistress in 1579, maid of honour of Queen Margaret
Mlle de Montagu, mistress in 1579
Mme d’Allous, mistress in 1579
Aimée Le Grand, mistress in 1579
Arnaudine, mistress in 1579
La garce de Goliath », mistress in 1579
Catherine de Luc, mistress in 1579. She died of hunger when Henry abandoned her, leaving behind their child.
Anne de Cambefort, mistress in 1579. She committed suicide by jumping out of a window after Henry left her
Françoise de Montmorency (1566–6 December 1641), mistress 1579–1581, maid of honour of Queen Margaret. She had one stillborn daughter with the king in 1581.
Diane d'Andouins, called « la belle Corisande » (c. 1554 – c. 1584)
Esther Imbert (or Ysambert), mistress 1587–1588. She had two sons with Henry.
Martine, rochelaise, en 1587. She had one child with Henry.
Antoinette de Pons (1570–1632), marquess of Guercheville
Catherine de Verdun
Mme Quelin, mistress in 1598
Isabelle Potier, mistress 1598–1599
Mlle Clein, mistress in 1599
La Glandée, mistress in 1599
Marie-Françoise de La Bourdaisière, sister of Gabrielle d’Estrées, mistress in 1599
Jacqueline de Bueil (c. 1580–1651)
Charlotte des Essarts (c. 1580–1651), mistress 1607–1609
Marie-Charlotte de Balzac d’Entragues, mistress 1605–1609
Angélique Paulet, mistress in 1610
Louis XIV
Official mistresses (maîtresse-en-titre)
1661–1667: Louise de La Vallière (1644–1710), duchess of Vaujours
1667–1681: Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart de Mortemart (1640–1707), marquise of Montespan
1678–1681: Marie Angélique de Scoraille de Roussille (1661–1681), duchess of Fontanges
1683–1715: Françoise d'Aubigné (1635–1719), marquise of Maintenon. Not really a mistress but a secret morganatic wife
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
Catherine Bellier (1614–1689) baroness of Beauvais, between 1652–1654
Olympe Mancini (1638–1708) in 1654–1657 and 1660-1661
Anne-Madeleine de Conty d'Argencourt in 1658
Marie Mancini (1639–1715) in 1658–1659; not a mistress but a platonic love
Name unknown: a gardener's daughter who gave birth to a daughter in 1660
Henrietta Anne of England (1644–1670) his sister-in-law, probably platonic, in 1660–1661
Bonne de Pons d'Heudicourt (1641–1709) in 1665
Catherine-Charlotte de Gramont (1639–1678) princess of Monaco in 1665
Gabrielle de Rochechouart de Mortemart (1633–1693), marquise of Thianges; sister of the above;
Anne de Rohan-Chabot (1648–1709), princess of Soubise, on-and-off in 1669–1675
Claude de Vin des Œillets (c. 1637 – 1687) in 1670–1676
Lydie de Rochefort-Théobon (1638-1708) in 1673–1677
Isabelle de Ludres (1647–1722) in 1675–1678
Marie-Charlotte de Castelnau, comtesse de Louvigny et duchesse de Gramont (c. 1648 – 1694) in 1676–1677
Marie Madeleine Agnès de Gontaut Biron, marquise de Nogaret (1653–1724) in 1680–1683
Louise-Elisabeth Rouxel dite Mme de Grancey (1653–1711) in 1681
Jeanne de Rouvroy, marquise de Chevrières (1650–1689) in 1681
Françoise Thérèse de Voyer de Dorée, Mlle d’Oré, in 1681
Marie-Antoinette de Rouvroy, comtesse d’Oisy (1660–1721) in 1681
Marie-Rosalie de Piennes, future marquise de Châtillon (1665–1735) in 1681
Mme de Saint-Martin in 1682
Marie-Louise de Montmorency-Laval, duchesse de Roquelaure (1657–1735) in 1683
Julie de Guenami, dite Mlle de Châteaubriant (1668–1710) in 1683 (possibly only a rumour)
Louis XV
Official mistresses (maîtresse-en-titre)
1732–1742: Louise Julie de Mailly (1710–1751), countess of Mailly
1739–1741: Pauline-Félicité de Mailly (1712–1741), marquise of Vintimille
1742–1745: Diane-Adélaïde de Mailly (1713–1760), duchess of Lauraguais
1742–1744: Marie-Anne de Mailly (1717–1744), marquise of La Tournelle, duchess of Châteauroux
1745–1764: Jeanne Antoinette Poisson (1721–1764), marquise of Pompadour
1769–1774: Jeanne Bécu (1743–1793), countess du Barry
Unofficial mistresses (petite maîtresse)
After 1755, unofficial lovers of the king which did not belong to the nobility were often kept at the Parc-aux-Cerfs.
1738: NN, A butcher's daughter in Versailles
1738: Thérèse-Eulalie de Beaupoil de Saint-Aulaire (1705–1739), marquise de Beuvron
1738: Marie-Anne de Vougny (1716–1783) Madame Amelot
1748: Anne-Marie de Montmorency-Luxembourg (1729–1760), princesse de Robecq.
1748: Marie-Anne-Françoise de Noailles, comtesse de La Marck (1719–1793).
1749: Elisabeth-Charlotte Huguet de Sémonville (1715–1784), comtesse d'Estrades.
1749: Marie-Françoise de Carbonnel de Canisy (1725–1796), marquise d’Antin puis comtesse de Forcalquier.
1750: Alexandrine Sublet d'Heudicourt, (1721–1800) marquise de Belsunce.
1750: Françoise de Chalus, duchesse de Narbonne-Lara, première femme de chambre de la duchesse de Parme (1734–1821).
1750–1750: Irène du Buisson de Longpré (d. 1767)
1750–1751: Marie Geneviève Radix de Sainte-Foy (1729–1809)
1752: Mlle Trusson, femme de chambre de la dauphine Marie-Josèphe de Saxe.
1752: Jeanne-Marguerite de Niquet (fl. 1732–1795) dite Mlle de Niquet.
1752: Mlle de Saint-André
1752–1755: Thérèse Guerbois
1752–1752: Charlotte Rosalie de Choiseul-Beaupré (1733–1753)
1752–1754: Marie-Louise O'Murphy (1737–1815)
1755–1755: Françoise de Chalus (1734–1821), duchess of Narbonne-Lara
1755–1757: Brigitte O'Murphy (1729–1793)
1755: Mlle Fouquet, daughter of a hairdresser
1755: Mlle Robert
1755–1759: Mlle David
1755–1759: Mlle Armory, « Mimi», daughter of a ballet dancer
1756: Gabrielle-Charlotte Françoise d‘Hénin-Liétard (1729–1809), vicomtesse de Cambis, née princesse de Chimay
1756: Dorothée, daughter of a water carrier in Strasbourg.
1756: Mlle Selin
1757–1757: Marie Anne de Coislin (1732–1817)
1758: Marie-Louise de Marny (fl. 1737 – fl. 1793), Madame de Giambone
1759: Marie-Madeleine Couppier de Romans, Madame Varnier
1759–1762: Marguerite-Catherine Haynault (1736–1823), marquise of Montmelas
1760–1763: Lucie Madeleine d'Estaing (1743–1826)
1760–1765: Anne Couppier de Romans (1737–1808), baroness of Meilly-Coulonge
1762–1765: Louise-Jeanne Tiercelin de La Colleterie (1746–1779), called Madame de Bonneval
1763–1765: Anne Thoinard de Jouy (1739–1825)
1763: Marie-Françoise-Marguerite de Talleyrand-Périgord (1727–1775), comtesse de Périgord
1764: Béatrix de Choiseul-Stainville, duchesse de Gramont (1730–1794)
1764: Louise Jeanne Marie de Courtarvel de Pezé (1733–1789), marquise de Dreux-Brézé
1763–1765: Anne Thoynard de Jouy, comtesse d’Esparbès de Lussan (1739–1825)
1765: Marie-Adélaïde de Bullioud (1743–1793), comtesse de Séran
1768–1768: Catherine Éléonore Bénard (1740–1769)
1768–1768: Marie Thérèse Françoise Boisselet (1731–1800)
1768: Jeanne-Marguerite Salvetat (1748–1838), actress
1771: "demoiselle de Smith"
1771: Madame Bèche, wife of a musician of the royal chapel
1771: Françoise-Marie-Antoinette de Saucerotte (1756–1815), Mademoiselle Raucourt, actress
1772: Madame d’Amerval
1773: Rose-Marie-Hélène de Tournon (1757–1582), vicomtesse du Barry
1774–1774: Albertine-Elisabeth Pater (1742–1817)
Date unknown: Marthe-Antoinette Aubry de Vatan (1720 – after 1777)
Date unknown: Mme de Grandis, Mme de Martinville, Mlle de Ville, courtesan
Date unknown: Mme de Beaunier, Mlle de Malignan, Mme de Salis
Napoleon I
Marie Walewska (1786–1817), Polish countess
Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne (1787–1868)
Louis XVIII
Anne Nompar de Caumont, countess of Balbi, baronness of Montfaucon (when Louis XVIII was still count of Provence)
Zoé Talon, comtesse du Cayla (1785–1852)
Charles X
Rosalie Duthé, equally mistress of Philippe Égalité
Louise d'Esparbès de Lussan, countess of Polastron
Aglaé de Polignac, duchess of Guiche, daughter of the duchess of Polignac
Louis Philippe I
Rosalie Duthé (1748–1830)
Napoleon III
1856–1857: Virginia Oldoini, Countess of Castiglione
1857–1861: Marie-Anne Walewska
1863–1870: Marguerite Bellanger
See also
Maîtresse-en-titre
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Liste des maîtresses du Roi-Soleil (French)
French royal mistresses
Royal Mistresses | [
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233908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20Orthodox%20Patriarch%20of%20Jerusalem | Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem | The Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem or Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, officially Patriarch of Jerusalem (; ; ), is the head bishop of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, ranking fourth of nine Patriarchs in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Since 2005, the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem has been Theophilos III. The Patriarch is styled "Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land, Syria, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Holy Zion." The Patriarch is the head of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre, and the religious leader of about 130,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Holy Land, most of them Palestinians.
The Patriarchate traces its line of succession to the first Christian bishops of Jerusalem, the first being James the Just in the 1st century AD. Jerusalem was granted autocephaly in 451 by the Council of Chalcedon and in 531 became one of the initial five patriarchates.
On the importance of Jerusalem in Christianity, the Catholic Encyclopedia reads:
History
In the Apostolic Age the Christian Church was organized as an indefinite number of local Churches that in the initial years looked to that at Jerusalem as its main centre and point of reference. James the Just, who was martyred around 62, is described as the first Bishop of Jerusalem. Roman persecutions following the Jewish revolts against Rome in the later 1st and 2nd centuries also affected the city's Christian community, and led to Jerusalem gradually being eclipsed in prominence by other sees, particularly those of Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. However, increased pilgrimage during and after the reign of Constantine the Great increased the fortunes of the see of Jerusalem, and in 325 the First Council of Nicaea attributed special honor, but not metropolitan status (then the highest rank in the Church), to the bishop of Jerusalem. Jerusalem continued to be a bishopric until 451, when the Council of Chalcedon granted Jerusalem independence from the metropolitan of Antioch and from any other higher-ranking bishop, granted what is now known as autocephaly, in the council's seventh session whose "Decree on the Jurisdiction of Jerusalem and Antioch" contains: "the bishop of Jerusalem, or rather the most holy Church which is under him, shall have under his own power the three Palestines". This led to Jerusalem becoming a patriarchate, one of the five patriarchates known as the pentarchy, when the title of "patriarch" was created in 531 by Justinian.
After the Saracen conquest in the 7th century, Muslims recognized Jerusalem as the seat of Christianity and the Patriarch as its leader. When the Great Schism took place in 1054 the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the other three Eastern Patriarchs formed the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Patriarch of Rome (i.e. the Pope) formed the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1099 the Crusaders appointed a Latin Patriarch. As a result, the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchs lived in exile in Constantinople until 1187.
Current position
Today, the headquarters of the patriarchate is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
The number of Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Holy Land is estimated to be about 200,000. A majority of Church members are Palestinian Arabs, and there are also a small number of Assyrians, Greeks and Georgians.
The patriarchate was recently involved in a significant controversy. Patriarch Irenaios, elected in 2001, was deposed, on decisions of the Holy Synod of Jerusalem, in the aftermath of a scandal involving the sale of church land in East Jerusalem to Israeli investors. The move enraged many Eastern Orthodox Palestinian members, since the land was in an area that most Palestinians hoped would someday become part of a Palestinian state. On May 24, 2005 a special Pan-Orthodox Synod was convened in Constantinople (İstanbul) to review the decisions of the Holy Synod of Jerusalem. The Pan-Orthodox Synod under the presidency of the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I, voted overwhelmingly to confirm the decision of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre and to strike Irenaios' name from the diptychs, and on May 30, Jerusalem's Holy Synod chose Metropolitan Cornelius of Petra to serve as locum tenens pending the election of a replacement for Irenaios. On August 22, 2005, the Holy Synod of the Church of Jerusalem unanimously elected Theophilos, the former Archbishop of Tabor, as the 141st Patriarch of Jerusalem.
List of patriarchs
Resident in Jerusalem (451–1099)
The Council of Chalcedon in 451 raised the bishop of Jerusalem to the rank of patriarch. (See Pentarchy) However, Byzantine politics meant that Jerusalem passed from the jurisdiction of Patriarch of Antioch to the Greek authorities in Constantinople. For centuries, Eastern Orthodox clergy, such as the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulcher, dominated the Jerusalem church.
Juvenal (451–458)
Anastasius I (458–478)
Martyrius (478–486)
Sallustius (486–494)
Elias I (494–516)
John III (516–524)
Peter (524–552)
Macarius II (552, 564–575)
Eustochius (552–564)
John IV (575–594)
Amos (594–601)
Isaac (601–609)
Zacharias (609–632)
Modestus (632–634)
Sophronius I (634–638)
vacant (638–681?/692)
Patriarchal Vicar Stephen of Dora assisted by John of Philadelphia (after 649–?)
Anastasius II (681?/692–706)
John V (706–735)
Theodore (745–770)
Elias II (770–797)
George (797–807)
Thomas I (807–820)
Basileus (820–838)
John VI (838–842)
Sergius I (842–844)
vacant (844–855)
Solomon (855–860)
vacant (860–862)
Theodosius (862–878)
Elias III (878–907)
Sergius II (908–911)
Leontius I (912–929)
Athanasius I (929–937)
Christodolus (937–950)
Agathon (950–964)
John VII (964–966)
Christodolus II (966–969)
Thomas II (969–978)
vacant (978–980)
Joseph II (980–983)
Orestes (983–1005)
vacant (1005–1012)
Theophilus I (1012–1020)
Nicephorus I (1020–???)
Joannichius (???–???)
Sophronius II (???–1084)
Euthemius I (1084)
Simeon II (1084–1106)
In exile (1099–1187)
As a result of the First Crusade in 1099, a Latin Patriarchate was created, with residence in Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187. Eastern Orthodox Patriarchs continued to be appointed, but resided in Constantinople.
Savvas (1106–11??)
John VIII (11??–11??)
Nicolas (11??–11??)
John IX (1156–1166)
Nicephorus II (1166–1170)
Leontius II (1170–1190)
Resident in Jerusalem (from 1187)
In 1187, the Latin Patriarch was forced to flee the city of Jerusalem. The office of Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem remained and appointments continued to be made by the Catholic Church, with the Latin Patriarch residing in the Frankish-controlled Levant until 1374, and subsequently in Rome until modern times. The Eastern Orthodox Patriarch returned to Jerusalem.
Dositheos I (1187–1189)
Marcus II (1191–???)
vacant (???–1223)
Euthemius II (1223)
Athanasius II (ca. 1231–1244)
Sophronius III (1236–???)
Gregory I (???–1298)
Thaddaeus (1298)
vacant (1298–1313)
Athanasius III (1313–1314)
vacant (1314–1322)
Gregory II (1322)
vacant (1322–1334)
Lazarus (1334–1368)
vacant (1368–1376)
Dorotheus I (1376–1417)
Theophilus II (1417–1424)
Theophanes I (1424–1431)
Joachim (1431–???)
vacant (???–1450)
Theophanes II (1450)
vacant (1450–1452)
Athanasius IV (1452–???)
vacant (???–1460)
Jacob II (1460)
vacant (1460–1468)
Abraham I (1468)
Gregory III (1468–1493)
vacant (1493–1503)
Marcus III (1503)
vacant (1503–1505)
Dorotheus II (1505–1537)
Germanus (1537–1579)
Sophronius IV (1579–1608)
Theophanes III (1608–1644)
Paiseus (1645–1660)
Nectarius I (1660–1669)
Dositheos II (1669–1707)
Chrysanthus (1707–1731)
Meletius (1731–1737)
Parthenius (1737–1766)
Ephram II (1766–1771)
Sophronius V (1771–1775)
Abraham II (1775–1787)
Procopius I (1787–1788)
Anthemus (1788–1808)
Polycarpus (1808–1827)
Athanasius V (1827–1845)
Cyril II (1845–1872)
Procopius II (1872–1875)
Hierotheus (1875–1882)
Nicodemus I (1883–1890)
Gerasimus I (1891–1897)
Damian I (1897–1931)
Timotheus I (1935–1955)
vacant (1955–1957)
Benedict I (1957–1980)
Diodoros I (1980–2000)
Irenaios I (2000–2005)
Theophilos III (2005–present)
Hierarchy of the throne
Metropolitan of Caesarea : Vasilios (Christos Blatsos)
Metropolitan of Scythopolis : Iakovos (George Kapenekas)
Metropolitan of Petra : Cornelios (Emmanuel Rodousakis)
Metropolitan of Ptolemais : Palladios (Vasilios Antoniou)
Metropolitan of Nazareth : Kyriakos (Andreas Georgopetris)
Metropolitan of Neapolis : Amvrosios (Nikolaos Antonopoulos)
Metropolitan of Capitolias : Isyhios (Elias Condogiannis)
Metropolitan of Botsra : Timotheos (Theodoros Margaritis)
Metropolitan of Eleutheropolis : Christodoulos (Christos Saridakis)
Metropolitan of Philadelphia : Benediktos (George Tsekouras)
Archbishop of Gerasa : Theophanis (Theodosios Hasapakis)
Archbishop of Tiberias : Alexios (Alexios Moschonas)
Archbishop of Abila : Dorotheos (Demetrios Leovaris)
Archbishop of Joppa : Damaskinos (Anastasios Gaganiaras)
Archbishop of Constantina : Aristarchos (Antonios Peristeris)
Archbishop of Mount Thabor : Methodios (Nikolaos Liveris)
Archbishop of Jordan : Theophylactos (Theodosios Georgiadis)
Archbishop of Sebastia : Theodosios (Nizar Hanna)
Archbishop of Askalon : Nicephoros (Nikolaos Baltadgis)
Archbishop of Diocaesarea : Vacant
See also
Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
Palestinian Christians
Christianity in Israel
Pro-Jerusalem Society (1918–1926) – the Patriarch was a member of its leading Council
Timeline of Jerusalem
References
Sources
External links
Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem
Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 71–1099)
The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate in the Greek-Israeli-Palestinian Triangle
Lists of patriarchs
Jer
Apostolic sees
Greek Orthodox Patriarchs
Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem
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233910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite%20%28disambiguation%29 | Satellite (disambiguation) | A satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit, such as:
Atmospheric satellite, a non-orbital unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that operates in the atmosphere at high altitudes for extended periods of time
Communications satellite
Satellite or satellites may also refer to:
Astronomy
Natural satellite, an orbiting object not man-made and not in direct orbit around the Sun or another star; a moon
Satellite planet, a planetary-mass moon
Satellite galaxy, a galaxy that orbits another
Communication
Satellite television, television service provided over Earth-orbiting satellites
Satellite phone
Satellite radio, radio service provided over Earth-orbiting satellites
Satellite Internet access, Internet service provided over Earth-orbiting satellites
Geography
Satellite state, a dependent country
Commuter town, a town within commuter range of a larger city
Satellite campus, which is physically detached from the main campus
Satellite Island (Tasmania), Australia
Satellite Island (Washington), USA
The Satellite (Antarctica), a small rock peak in Antarctica
Music
Les Satellites, a French alternative rock band
Satellite (Polish band), a progressive rock band
Satellite (US band), an alternative rock band
Satellite Records (1957–1960), now Stax Records
Satellites, a musical project of John Garrison
Albums
Satellite (P.O.D. album) or the title song (see below), 2001
Satellite (Panic Room album) or the title song, 2010
Satellite (The Player Piano album), 2007
Satellite EP or the title song (see below), by Guster, 2007
Satellite, by Sam Paganini, 2014
Satellite, by Stephen Ashbrook, 1995
Satellites (The Big Dish album), 1991
Songs
"Satellite" (The Beloved song), 1996
"Satellite" (Dave Matthews Band song), 1994
"Satellite" (Guster song), 2006
"Satellite" (The Hooters song), 1987
"Satellite" (Lena Meyer-Landrut song), 2010; also recorded by Jennifer Braun, 2010
"Satellite" (P.O.D. song), 2001
"Satellite" (Rise Against song), 2011
"Satellite" (Starset song), 2017
"Satellit" by Ted Gärdestad, 1979
"Satellites" (song), by September, 2005
"Satellite", by Aimee Mann from Bachelor No. 2 or, the Last Remains of the Dodo, 2000
"Satellite", by All Time Low from Future Hearts, 2015
"Satellite", by Anna Nalick from Wreck of the Day, 2005
"Satellite", by Axle Whitehead from Losing Sleep, 2008
"Satellite", by BT from Movement in Still Life, 1999
"Satellite", by Catherine Wheel from Adam and Eve, 1997
"Satellite", by Collective Soul from Youth, 2004
"Satellite", by Def Leppard from On Through the Night, 1980
"Satellite", by Depeche Mode from A Broken Frame, 1982
"Satellite", by Elliott Smith from Elliott Smith, 1995
"Satellite", by Elton John from Ice on Fire, 1985
"Satellite", by Elvis Costello from Spike, 1989
"Satellite", by Gabbie Hanna, 2017
"Satellite", by Icehouse from Big Wheel, 1993
"Satellite", by Joe Jackson from Fast Forward, 2015
"Satellite", by John Coltrane from Coltrane's Sound, 1964
"Satellite", by the Kills from Blood Pressures, 2011
"Satellite", by Little Boots from Nocturnes, 2013
"Satellite", by Loona from [+ +], 2019
"Satellite", by Mayday Parades from Sunnyland, 2018
"Satellite", by Natalie Imbruglia from White Lilies Island, 2001
"Satellite," by Nickelback from No Fixed Address, 2014
"Satellite", by Nine Inch Nails from Hesitation Marks, 2013
"Satellite", by OceanLab, 2004
"Satellite", by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, a B-side of the single "Dreaming", 1988
"Satellite", by Rebecca Black, 2018
"Satellite", by Richard Wright from Broken China, 1996
"Satellite", by the Sex Pistols, B-side of the single "Holidays in the Sun", 1977
"Satellite", by Smash Mouth from Astro Lounge, 1999
"Satellite", by TV on the Radio from Young Liars, 2003
"Satellite", by the Wanted from The Wanted, 2012
"Satellite", by Yo La Tengo from May I Sing with Me, 1992
"Satellites", by Beyoncé from I Am... Sasha Fierce, 2008
"Satellites", by Cherry Monroe, 2005
"Satellites", by the Cinema from My Blood Is Full of Airplanes, 2011
"Satellites", by Don Diablo from Future, 2018
"Satellites", by James Blunt from Moon Landing, 2013
"Satellites", by Mew from + -, 2015
"Satellites", by Rickie Lee Jones from Flying Cowboys, 1989
"Satellites", by Sleeping with Sirens from Feel, 2013
"Satelllliiiiiiiteee", by Flying Lotus from Cosmogramma, 2010
Biology
Satellite (biology), a sub-viral agent
Satellite (moth), a species of moth
Satellite DNA
Minisatellite
Microsatellite
Satellite chromosome, a chromosome structure
Other uses
Satellite tornado, a smaller tornado that orbits around a larger "parent" tornado
Satellite (software), an open source system management system developed by Red Hat
NES Satellite, a Nintendo Entertainment System accessory
Plymouth Satellite, any of several car models built by Plymouth in the 1960s and early 1970s
Toshiba Satellite, a product line of notebook computers
Satellite, the name for the old Domino City in the anime Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's
Satellite portfolio, an investment strategy, see Core & Satellite
Satellite tournament, a minor tournament or event on a competitive sporting tour
See also
Ciudad Satélite, in Naucalpan, Mexico
Sattalites, a Canadian reggae group
Satelight, an animation studio in Japan
Satelit, a neighborhood of the city of Novi Sad | [
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233911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custom | Custom | Custom may refer to:
Customary
Convention (norm), a set of agreed, stipulated or generally accepted rules, norms, standards or criteria, often taking the form of a custom
Custom (law) or customary law, laws and regulations established by common practice
Norm (social), a rule that is socially enforced
Mores
Tradition
Minhag (pl. minhagim), Jewish customs
ʿUrf (Arabic: العرف), the customs of a given society or culture
Custom (Catholic canon law)
Import-export
Customs, a tariff on imported or exported goods
Custom house
Modification
Modding
Bespoke, anything commissioned to a particular specification
Custom car
Custom motorcycle
Brands, titles and proper names
Custom (guitar), a model of guitar made by Fender
Custom (musician), stage name for New York-based musician Duane Lavold
Customs (TV series), an Irish television series that focuses on the daily lives of customs officers
Kimber Custom, a type of pistol
Customs (album), a 1989 album by Savage Republic
See also
Kustom (disambiguation) | [
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233912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20Radio%205%20Live | BBC Radio 5 Live | BBC Radio 5 Live is the BBC's national radio service that broadcasts mainly news, sport, discussion, interviews and phone-ins. It is the principal BBC radio station covering sport in the United Kingdom, broadcasting virtually all major sports events staged in the UK or involving British competitors.
Radio 5 Live was launched in March 1994 as a repositioning of the original Radio 5, which was launched on 27 August 1990. It is transmitted via analogue radio in AM on medium wave 693 and 909 kHz and digitally via digital radio, television and on the BBC Sounds service. Due to rights restrictions, coverage of some events, particularly live sport, is not available online or is restricted to UK addresses.
The station broadcasts from MediaCityUK in Salford in Greater Manchester and is a department of the BBC North division.
History
The success of Radio 4 News FM during the first Gulf War (1991) led the BBC to propose the launch of a rolling-news service. Initially the plan was to broadcast a rolling news service on BBC Radio 4's long wave frequency; but this met with considerable opposition, both internally and externally, so the BBC decided to close BBC Radio 5 and replace the old service's educational and children's programmes with a new news service, whilst retaining the sports programmes. BBC Radio 5 Live began its 24-hour service at 5am on Monday 28 March 1994. The first voice on air, Jane Garvey, later went on to co-present the breakfast and drive-time shows with Peter Allen. The Times described the launch as "slipp[ing] smoothly and confidently into a routine of informative banter" and The Scotsman as "professionalism at its slickest".
The news of the first day was dominated by the fatal stabbing at Hall Garth School near Middlesbrough, the first of many major incidents which the network covered live as they unfolded.
The tone of the channel, engaging and more relaxed than contemporary BBC output, was the key to the channel's success and set the model for other BBC News services later in the decade. The first audiences were some 4 million, with a record audience of 6.25 million. Among the key editorial staff involved in the design of programme formats and recruitment of staff for the new station were Sara Nathan, later editor of Channel 4 News, and Tim Luckhurst, later editor of The Scotsman newspaper and professor of Journalism at the University of Kent.
In 2000, the station was rebranded with a new logo which would remain with the station for another seven years. In addition, on 2 February 2002 a companion station, BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra, was launched as a digital-only service to complement the range of sport and to avoid clashes; previously BBC Local Radio stations and the long-wave frequency of BBC Radio 4 were used. Throughout this period, Five Live gained several awards including five Sony Awards in 2005; the single gold award was for its coverage of the 2004 Asian tsunami in the News Story Award category alongside another four silver awards and six nominations. The station also began to further its boundaries with the publication of the Radio Five Live Sporting Yearbook. In August 2007, BBC Radio 5 Live was given a new logo in line with the rest of the BBC Radio network, and a new background design featuring diagonal parallel lines.
In 2008, the BBC announced that the station would move to MediaCityUK in Salford.
In 2017/18, it was noted the station not only remained as having the fourth highest cost-per-user of all the BBC radio output, but whose costs also increased – rising from 2.3p per hour the previous year to 2.5p per hour, therefore equal to 1Xtra. The audience Appreciation Index figure did not increase, remaining at 79.9; and the average length of time spent on the channel fell from 06:41 to 06:34 – the fourth lowest fall of all of the BBC's radio stations.
Broadcast
BBC Radio 5 Live broadcasts in AM on the medium wave frequencies 693 and 909 kHz nationally, with the frequency 990 kHz used in Cardigan Bay in west Wales; these frequencies had been utilised by the old BBC Radio 5, which in turn had taken over the frequencies from BBC Radio 2. Uniquely to the BBC Radio network, it is the only station that is neither purely digital (such as 1Xtra, Radio 4 Extra and 6 Music) nor broadcast in analogue FM. It is however broadcast in stereo on FM and DAB on BBC Local Radio frequencies overnight, usually from 1am until BBC Local Radio commences morning broadcasts, usually from 5am. BBC Radio 5 Live is also broadcast on BBC Radio Cymru in stereo from midnight until 5:30am, on BBC Radio Scotland from 1am until 6am and on BBC Radio Ulster from midnight until 6:30am. In addition to the AM output, the station also broadcasts digitally in mono on DAB Digital Radio, and on television through satellite services such as Sky, cable services such as Virgin Media, DTT services such as Freeview, Freesat and through IPTV. The station also broadcasts programmes live through BBC Sounds, which allows replaying programmes up to a month after the original broadcast. The service is also available on the Radioplayer internet site partially run by the BBC.
For many years, the station operated from four floors within the News Centre at BBC Television Centre, because of the close connections between the station and BBC News, and the co-location of BBC Sport. However, as part of the corporation's plan to sell off Television Centre, the decision was made in 2008 to move BBC Radio 5 Live to the new broadcast hub at MediaCityUK. The move itself began in September 2011 and took two months. The new studios occupy a single floor in Quay House, with two studios large enough for several guests and a separate studio for large groups. The station continues to have a studio presence in London, with Studio 51A at BBC Broadcasting House in London used for programmes and interviews made in London for the station such as "Kermode and Mayo's Film Review".
List of programmes broadcast on 5 Live
Dotun Adebayo (Monday – Friday)
Wake Up to Money with Sean Farrington, Mickey Clarke and Louise Cooper
5 Live Breakfast with Rick Edwards and Rachel Burden
Nicky Campbell (Monday – Friday)
Naga Munchetty (Monday – Wednesday) & Adrian Chiles (Thursday – Friday)
Nihal Arthanayake (Monday – Thursday)
Robbie Savage’s Premier League Breakfast with Robbie Savage (Friday)
Kermode and Mayo's Film Review with Mark Kermode and Simon Mayo (Friday)
Elis James and John Robins (Friday)
5 Live Drive with Tony Livesey and Clare McDonnell
5 Live Sport with Mark Chapman (Monday, Wednesday and Saturday), Kelly Cates (Tuesday), Steve Crossman (Thursday and Sunday) and Darren Fletcher (Friday)
Colin Murray (Monday – Wednesday), Question Time Extra Time with Adrian Chiles (Thursday) & Stephan Nolan (Friday – Sunday)
5 live Boxing with Mike Costello and Steve Bunce (Saturday)
Weekend Breakfast with Chris Warburton and Eleanor Oldroyd
Scott Mills and Chris Stark (Saturday)
Tailenders with Greg James, Jimmy Anderson and Felix White (Saturday)
Fighting Talk with Colin Murray (Saturday)
Sports Report with Mark Chapman (Saturday)
606 with Robbie Savage and Chris Sutton (Saturday – Sunday)
5 live in Short with Chris Warburton (Sunday mornings)
5 live Science with Chris Smith and the Naked Scientists team (Sunday)
Laura Whitmore (Sunday)
The Squad with Nick Bright (Sunday)
Peter Allen (Sunday)
Programming
News
BBC Radio 5 Live's remit includes broadcasting rolling news and transmitting news as it breaks. It offers news bulletins every half an hour, apart from during live sports commentaries. The BBC's policy for major breaking news events revolves around a priority list. With UK news, the correspondent first records a "generic minute" summary (for use by all stations and channels); the subsequent priority is to report on Radio 5 Live, then the BBC News Channel, and then any other programmes that are on air. For foreign news, first a "generic minute" is recorded, then reports are to World Service radio, then the reporter talks to any other programmes that are on air.
Due to COVID-19, the hourly news bulletins were shared with BBC Radio 2 from April 2020. Three minute bulletins are broadcast on the hour, with extended five minute bulletins at 06:00, 07:00, 08:00, 13:00 and 17:00 on weekdays, at 07:00 and 08:00 on Saturdays and at 06:00, 07:00, 08:00 and 09:00 on Sundays.
Half-hour news headlines are mostly read by presenters and sports journalists, although newsreaders are used during weekday daytime programming between 10:30 and 15:30 and during 5 Live Sport evening and weekend programming.
Sport
BBC Radio 5 Live broadcasts an extremely wide range of sports and covers all the major sporting events, mostly under its flagship sports banner 5 Live Sport. Whilst football commentaries form the majority of live commentaries during the football season, the range of events covered by the station include:
Live Premier League (simulcasted with BBC World Service for international coverage)
19:30 Saturday night matches
15:00 Saturday matches
14:00 and 16:30 Sunday matches
15:00 Boxing Day matches
20:00 Friday and Monday night matches
Mid-week matches
Live FA Cup (simulcasted with BBC World Service for international coverage)
Select third to fifth round ties
Select quarter-final ties
FA Cup semi-finals (Sundays only)
FA Cup final (simulcast with Talksport)
Live EFL Cup (simulcasted with BBC World Service for international coverage)
Select second to fourth round ties
Select quarter-final ties
EFL Cup semi-finals
EFL Cup final
Live Scottish Premiership
The Old Firm
FIFA World Cup (if Home countries are involved)
Olympic Games
All Home Nations international football matches
Friendly matches
UEFA European Qualifiers
UEFA Nations League
UEFA European Championship
FIFA Women's World Cup
UEFA Women's Euro
UEFA Champions League
Select group stage matches
Select knockout stage matches
UEFA Champions League final (if British side is involved)
UEFA Europa League
Select group stage matches
Select knockout stage matches
UEFA Europa League final (if British side is involved)
FIFA Club World Cup (if British side is involved)
Men's Golf Majors, including full coverage of The Open Championship and The Masters
Ryder Cup
England rugby union test matches
The Autumn Internationals and Six Nations Championship (English, Scottish and Welsh sides only)
Rugby World Cup
Formula One
Full coverage of The Grand National and The Cheltenham Festival
Commentary of the Epsom Derby and Royal Ascot
Boxing
World Athletics Championships and Commonwealth Games
Full coverage of the Wimbledon Tennis Championships
London Marathon
The Boat Race (audio simulcast of BBC One TV in 2015)
Controllers
5 Live Sports Extra
As 5 Live cannot accommodate all of the sports which they have rights to broadcast, some are covered on sister station Sports Extra, including:
Test Match Special commentary of all home England cricket tests, One Day Internationals and T20 Internationals
Cricket World Cup, ICC Champions Trophy, and Twenty20 World Cup
Selected County Championship, Royal London One-Day Cup and Vitality Blast games from BBC Local Radio
Selected Super League and Challenge Cup Rugby League games
All 'Grand Slam' Tennis tournaments
Selected Premiership Rugby and European Rugby Champions Cup games from BBC Local Radio
Formula One
IIHF World Championships
Action from any other competition broadcast on 5 Live
Sports Extra typically emphasises full broadcasts of Premier League and Home Nations football, if games overlap each other. 5 Live carries the first-choice match in such cases.
Awards
In January 2013, BBC Radio Five Live was nominated for the Responsible Media of the Year award at the British Muslim Awards.
See also
List of BBC radio stations
References
External links
5
News and talk radio stations in the United Kingdom
Sports radio stations in the United Kingdom
Radio stations established in 1994
1994 establishments in the United Kingdom
Radio stations in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Salford
Organisations based in Salford | [
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233913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Iran | President of Iran | The president of Iran () is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The president is the second highest-ranking official of Iran after the Supreme Leader. The president is required to gain the Supreme Leader's official approval before being sworn in the Parliament and the Supreme Leader has the power to dismiss the elected president if he has either been impeached by Parliament or found guilty of a constitutional violation by the Supreme Court. The president carries out the decrees, and answers to the Supreme Leader, who functions as the country's head of state. Unlike the executive in other countries, the president of Iran does not have full control over the government, which is ultimately under the direct control of the Supreme Leader. Before elections the volunteers must be approved by the guardian council to become a president candidate. Those members of the guardian council are chosen by the supreme leader. The president of Iran is elected for a four-year term by direct vote and is not permitted to run for more than two consecutive terms.
Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader. The president functions as the executive of the decrees and wishes of the Supreme Leader, including: signing treaties with foreign countries and international organizations; and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs. The president also appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of Parliament, as well as to that of the Supreme Leader, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers and vice presidents at any time, regardless of the president or parliament's decision. The Supreme Leader also directly chooses the ministers of Defense, Intelligence, Foreign Affairs, Interior as well as certain other ministries, such as the Science Ministry. Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme Leader.
The current long-time Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, ruling Iran for more than three decades, has issued decrees and made final decisions on economy, education, environment, foreign policy, national planning, and almost everything else in the country. Khamenei has also made final decisions on the degree of transparency in elections in Iran, and has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments.
The current president of Iran is Ebrahim Raisi, who assumed office on 3 August 2021, after the 2021 presidential election. He succeeded Hassan Rouhani, who served 8 years in office from 2013 to 2021.
Background
After the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and referendum to create the Islamic Republic on March 29 and 30, the new government needed to craft a new constitution. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, ordered an election for the Assembly of Experts, the body tasked with writing the constitution. The assembly presented the constitution on October 24, 1979, and Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini and Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan approved it.
The 1979 Constitution designated the Supreme Leader of Iran as the head of state and the President and Prime Minister as the heads of government. The post of Prime Minister was abolished in 1989.
The first Iranian presidential election was held on January 25, 1980 and resulted in the election of Abulhassan Banisadr with 76% of the votes. Banisadr was impeached on June 22, 1981 by Parliament. Until the early election on July 24, 1981, the duties of the President were undertaken by the Provisional Presidential Council. Mohammad-Ali Rajai was elected president on July 24, 1981 and took office on August 2. Rajai was in office for less than one month because he and his prime minister were both assassinated. Once again a Provisional Presidential Council filled the office until October 13, 1981 when Ali Khamenei was elected president.
The election on August 3, 2005 resulted in a victory for Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The election on June 12, 2009 was reported by government authorities as a victory for Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the incumbent candidate, although this is greatly disputed by supporters of rival candidates, who noted the statistical anomalies in voting reports and large-scale overvoting in the officially announced tallies.
Ali Khamenei, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mohammad Khatami, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Hassan Rouhani were each elected president for two terms.
Qualifications and election
The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader. The President of Iran is elected for a four-year term in a national election by universal adult suffrage for everyone of at least 18 years of age. Presidents can only be reelected once if in a consecutive manner. Candidates for the presidency must be approved by the Council of Guardians, a twelve-member body consisting of six clerics (selected by Iran's Supreme Leader) and six lawyers (proposed by the Supreme Leader-appointed head of Iran's judicial system, and voted in by the Parliament). According to the Constitution of Iran candidates for the presidency must possess the following qualifications:
Iranian origin;
Iranian nationality;
administrative capacity and resourcefulness;
a good past record;
trustworthiness and piety; and
convinced belief in the fundamental principles of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the official madhhab of the country.
Within these guidelines the Council vetoes candidates who are deemed unacceptable. The approval process is considered to be a check on the president's power, and usually amounts to a small number of candidates being approved. In the 1997 election, for example, only four out of 238 presidential candidates were approved by the council. Western observers have routinely criticized the approvals process as a way for the Council and Supreme Leader to ensure that only conservative and like-minded Islamic fundamentalists can win office. However, the council rejects the criticism, citing approval of so-called reformists in previous elections. The council rejects most of the candidates stating that they are not "a well-known political figure", a requirement by the current law.
The President must be elected with a simple majority of the popular vote. If no candidate receives a majority in the first round, a runoff election is held between the top two candidates.
Presidential council
According to the Iranian constitution, when the President dies or is impeached, a special provisional Presidential Council temporarily rules in his place until an election can be held.
The President automatically becomes the Head of the Supreme National Security Council and the Head of the Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution.
Powers and responsibilities
The President's duties include the following, subject to supervision and approval by the Supreme Leader:
Second in command (after Supreme Leader) of the executive branch of government and chairman of the cabinet
The deputy commander-in-chief of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army
Declare a state of emergency after the passage of the parliament (The proclamation of martial law is forbidden.)
Head (Presided) of the Supreme National Security Council
Head (Presided) of the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution
Appointment of first Vice President of Iran and other Vice Presidents
Nomination of Cabinet members to the Parliament
Sends and receives all foreign ambassadors
Issue executive orders
Issue medals in honor of service for the nation
Signature of treaties, protocols, contracts, after the approval of the Islamic Parliament of Iran
The President is obliged to sign the legislation approved by the Parliament, or the result of a referendum, after it is forwarded to him and the legal stages are covered, and to forward to the relevant authorities for implementation. (He has no right to veto)
some of these duties require the approval of the Supreme Leader.
Oath of office
I, as the President, upon the Holy Qur'an and in the presence of the Iranian nation, do hereby swear in the name of Almighty God to safeguard the official Faith, the system of the Islamic republic and the Constitution of the country; to use all my talents and abilities in the discharge of responsibilities undertaken by me; to devote myself to the service of the people, glory of the country, promotion of religion and morality, support of right and propagation of justice; to refrain from being autocratic; to protect the freedom and dignity of individuals and the rights of the Nation recognized by the Constitution; to spare no efforts in safeguarding the frontiers and the political, economic and cultural freedoms of the country; to guard the power entrusted to me by the Nation as a sacred trust like an honest and faithful trustee, by seeking help from God and following the example of the Prophet of Islam and the sacred Imams, peace be upon them, and to entrust it to the one elected by the Nation after me.
Commentary on the presidency in constitution
TIME Magazine noted that presidential elections in Iran change nothing as Supreme Leader Khamenei — and not the President — wields the ultimate power. Tallha Abdulrazaq, an Iraqi researcher at the University of Exeter's Strategy and Security Institute, stated that Khamenei, the longtime Supreme Leader of Iran, always uses the president as a kind of a buffer zone between him and the people. “Anything that goes right, Khamenei then can say 'I am the wise leader who put this guy in charge and he made the right policy decisions.' Anything that goes wrong, he can say ‘we should get rid of this guy. He is not good for the country, he is not good for you.’"
Latest election
See also
Advisor to the President of Iran
Aide to the President of Iran
Chief of Staff of the President of Iran
First Lady of Iran
List of presidents of Iran
References
External links
The President's Office
Iran Electoral Archive - President
Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
1980 establishments in Iran | [
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233914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relax | Relax | Relax may refer to:
Aviation
Roland Z-120 Relax, a German ultralight aircraft design for the 120 kg class
Music
Albums
Relax (Blank & Jones album), 2003
Relax (Das Racist album), 2011
Cool Relax, a 1997 album by Jon B.
Songs
"Relax" (song), a 1983 song by Frankie Goes to Hollywood, covered, sampled and remixed by many artists
"Relax", a song by Das Racist, title track from Relax
"Relax", a song by Deetah from Deadly Cha Cha
"Relax", a song by Labi Siffre from The Singer and the Song
"Relax", a song by Peaches from I Feel Cream
"Relax", a song by Superorganism from Superorganism
"Relax", a song by The Who from The Who Sell Out
"Relax, Take It Easy", a 2006 song by Mika
Film
Relax (film), a Tamil film
Relax...It's Just Sex, a 1998 film
Computing
Regular Language description for XML, a specification for describing XML-based languages
See also
Leisure
Relaxation (disambiguation) | [
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233917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20Radio%205%20Live%20Sports%20Extra | BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra | BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra is a national digital radio station in the United Kingdom, operated by the BBC, and specialising in extended sports coverage. It is a sister station to BBC Radio 5 Live and shares facilities, presenters and management, and is a department of the BBC North Group division.
If a news story breaks during the live sport broadcasts on 5 Live, the sports coverage will be redirected and continued on 5 Live Sports Extra, whilst 5 Live switches to live news.
The station is only available on digital radio, television platforms and BBC Sounds. Since 25 July 2016, international streaming of the station has not been available.
History
BBC Radio Five Live Sports Extra launched as part of the BBC's expansion into digital radio by launching several digital only stations that would complement existing coverage. At the time of launch, all radio sports coverage was included as part of BBC Radio 5 Live's mix of news and sport, the longwave frequencies of BBC Radio 4 or on individual BBC Local Radio stations. As these platforms could not accommodate any additional sports, a new service was launched: BBC Radio Five Live Sports Extra. The station began broadcasts at 2:30pm on 2 February 2002. Juliette Ferrington introduced the first programme – commentary of Manchester United against Sunderland.
In 2007, the station was rebranded in line with the rest of the network. The new BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra logo was turned into a circular based logo in the colour green; according to research, the green colour was chosen as people associated it with sport. In addition, a new background of blue and red diagonal lines on the same green colour was adopted for promotions for the service. Along with the rebrand, Sports Extra became more closely aligned with 5 Live. As a result, the online presence of the station was toned down with only an upcoming schedule remaining; all other details were merged into the 5 Live website or the new BBC Radio online homepage.
In 2011 the station, along with 5 Live, moved to MediaCityUK in Salford.
Broadcast
BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra is broadcast only on digital platforms. It is transmitted on DAB Digital Radio and on digital television through satellite services, such as Sky and Freesat, cable operators, such as Virgin Media, DTT services via Freeview, and on IPTV. The service is also available online through the BBC website, the BBC Sounds service and the Radioplayer service part owned by the BBC. The BBC Sounds platform also re-broadcasts programmes for catch-up after original broadcast. Due to rights restrictions, some programmes are only available to UK audiences or are unavailable on the BBC's online services.
The station is a part-time service, only airing during ongoing sports broadcasts. The broadcasts themselves are live and uninterrupted, unlike sports coverage on Radio 5 Live (which breaks for regular news bulletins) and Radio 4 Longwave (which adds regular scheduled opt-outs such as The Daily Service and the Shipping Forecast into coverage). During Sports Extra's downtime, the station does not simulcast any other broadcast. A label for Sports Extra is continuously radiated on the DAB Digital Radio multiplex to allow those tuning their radio to store the station to their device even if it is not on air. On digital TV platforms, where Sports Extra has its own dedicated full-time stream, not sharing feed capacity with any other services, a looping promotional barker is no live programming is scheduled; the EPG information during this reel will often give details of the next live event to be covered by the station, should this information be available. The Sports Extra internet stream, which used to go off air when live content was not running, now also broadcasts the promo loop.
The station's controller is Jonathan Wall, who is also responsible for 5 Live and is answerable to the BBC North and BBC Audio & Music departments. The station operates from Quay House in MediaCityUK on a single floor alongside 5 Live. Although 5 Live Sports Extra uses no studio space, the teams required to organise the match coverage are shared with 5 Live. The move to Salford took two months, and occurred alongside 5 Live, in a bid to create a northern media hub and to outsource major production from London. Previously, 5 Live Sports Extra had been located alongside 5 Live in BBC Television Centre and spread over several floors.
Programming
5 Live Sports Extra broadcast a variety of sports including:
Test Match Special
Cricket World Cup, ICC Champions Trophy, and Twenty20 World Cup
England cricket tests and One Day Internationals
Friends Provident Trophy semi-finals and final and Twenty20 Cup
Cricket's County Championship
Full broadcasts of Premier League and Home Nation football if games overlap, with 5 Live carrying first-choice in these cases
Major League Baseball's World Series, since 2004
Wimbledon Tennis championships, with the station providing extra court commentary for the first week of the tournament
National Hockey League's Stanley Cup Finals
Tennis Grand Slam tournament coverage of non-final rounds and some other major tennis tournaments
Formula One motor racing
Action from any other competition broadcast on 5 Live
Through the 2012 season, 5 Live and 5 Live Sports Extra carried NFL late games broadcast on Sunday evening, with coverage taken from Westwood One, except the NFL International Series and Super Bowl, which used BBC-produced commentaries. Absolute Radio 90s acquired the broadcast rights to the NFL beginning in 2013. BBC Radio 5 Live and 5 Live Sports Extra reacquired the rights to NFL games for the 2014–15 playoffs.
See also
BBC Radio 5 Live
BBC Radio 4
BBC Local Radio
Talksport
References
External links
5
Sports radio stations in the United Kingdom
Radio stations established in 2002
2002 establishments in the United Kingdom
Radio stations in the United Kingdom
Digital-only radio stations | [
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] |
233918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilidh%20Trail | Ceilidh Trail | The Ceilidh Trail is a scenic roadway in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia.
This coastal route along the Gulf of St. Lawrence is located on the west coast of Cape Breton Island in Inverness County and runs from the Canso Causeway in Port Hastings to Margaree Harbor where it intersects with the Cabot Trail.
The region's Scottish heritage dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. Cèilidh () means "party".
Routes
Trunk 19
Route 219
Communities
Inverness, home of the Ceilidh Trail School of Celtic Music
the Mabou Highlands
Lake Ainslie, the largest natural fresh water lake on Cape Breton Island
Judique
Port Hood
References
External links
Marconi Trail - Accommodations & Restaurants
Scenic travelways in Nova Scotia
Roads in Inverness County, Nova Scotia | [
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233921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiperLAN | HiperLAN | HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN) is a wireless LAN standard. It is a European alternative for the IEEE 802.11 standards (the IEEE is an international organization). It is defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In ETSI the standards are defined by the BRAN project (Broadband Radio Access Networks). The HiperLAN standard family has four different versions.
HiperLAN/1
Planning for the first version of the standard, called HiperLAN/1, started 1992, when planning of 802.11 was already going on. The goal of the HiperLAN was the high data rate, higher than 802.11. The standard was approved in 1997. The functional specification is EN300652, the rest is in ETS300836.
The standard covers the Physical layer and the Media Access Control part of the Data link layer like 802.11. There is a new sublayer called Channel Access and Control sublayer (CAC). This sublayer deals with the access requests to the channels. The accomplishing of the request is dependent on the usage of the channel and the priority of the request.
CAC layer provides hierarchical independence with Elimination-Yield Non-Preemptive Multiple Access mechanism (EY-NPMA). EY-NPMA codes priority choices and other functions into one variable length radio pulse preceding the packet data. EY-NPMA enables the network to function with few collisions even though there would be a large number of users. Multimedia applications work in HiperLAN because of EY-NPMA priority mechanism. MAC layer defines protocols for routing, security and power saving and provides naturally data transfer to the upper layers.
On the physical layer FSK and GMSK modulations are used in HiperLAN/1.
HiperLAN features:
range 100 m
slow mobility (1.4 m/s)
supports asynchronous and synchronous traffic
Bit rate - 23.59 Mbit/s
Description- Wireless Ethernet
Frequency range- 5 GHz
HiperLAN does not conflict with microwave and other kitchen appliances, which are on 2.4 GHz.
An innovative feature of HIPERLAN 1, which other wireless networks do not offer, is its ability to forward data packets using several relays. Relays can extend the communication on the MAC layer beyond the radio range. For power conservation, a node may set up a specific wake up pattern. This pattern determines at what time the node is ready to receive, so that at other times, the node can turn off its receiver and save energy. These nodes are called p-savers and need so called p-supporters that contain information about wake up patterns of all the p-savers they are responsible for. A p-supporter only forwards data to a p-saver at the moment p-saver is awake. This action also requires buffering mechanisms for packets on p-supporting forwarders.
HiperLAN/2
HiperLAN/2 functional specification was accomplished February 2000. Version 2 is designed as a fast wireless connection for many kinds of networks. Those are UMTS back bone network, ATM and IP networks. Also it works as a network at home like HiperLAN/1. HiperLAN/2 uses the 5 GHz band and up to 54 Mbit/s data rate.
The physical layer of HiperLAN/2 is very similar to IEEE 802.11a wireless local area networks. However, the media access control (the multiple access protocol) is Dynamic TDMA in HiperLAN/2, while CSMA/CA is used in 802.11a/n.
Basic services in HiperLAN/2 are data, sound, and video transmission. The emphasis is in the quality of these services (QoS).
The standard covers Physical, Data Link Control and Convergence layers. Convergence layer takes care of service dependent functionality between DLC and Network layer (OSI 3). Convergence sublayers can be used also on the physical layer to connect IP, ATM or UMTS networks. This feature makes HiperLAN/2 suitable for the wireless connection of various networks.
On the physical layer BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM modulations are used through OFDM.
HiperLAN/2 offers security measures. The data are secured with DES or Triple DES algorithms. The wireless access point and the wireless terminal can authenticate each other.
Most important worldwide manufacturers of HiperLAN/2 are Alvarion (Israel), Freescale (USA), Panasonic (Japan).
Failure in the Market
Due to competition from IEEE 802.11, which was simpler to implement and made it faster to the market, HiperLAN never received much commercial implementation. Much of the work on HiperLAN/2 has survived in the PHY specification for IEEE 802.11a, which is nearly identical to the PHY of HiperLAN/2. HIPERACCESS was intended as a last-mile technology. HIPERLINK was intended as a short-range point-to-point technology at 155 Mbit/s.
See also
HiperMAN
References
Wireless networking standards | [
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233922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly%20Johnson | Holly Johnson | William Holly Johnson (born 9 February 1960) is an English artist, musician, and writer, best known as the lead vocalist of Frankie Goes to Hollywood, who achieved huge commercial success in the mid-1980s. Prior to that, in the late 1970s he was a bassist for the band Big in Japan. In 1989, Johnson's debut solo album, Blast, reached number one in the UK albums chart. Two singles from the album – "Love Train" and "Americanos" – reached the top 5 of the UK Singles Chart. In the 1990s, he also embarked on writing, painting, and printmaking careers.
Biography
Johnson was born on 9 February 1960 in Liverpool, England, to Eric and Pat (née McGlouchlin) Johnson. His paternal grandfather Patrick was Irish and his maternal grandfather Patrick McGlouchlin was of 3/4 Indian descent. Johnson was the third of four children and was nicknamed Billy as a child. He started his education in Liverpool at St Mary's Church of England primary school and at age eleven went to the Liverpool Collegiate School in Everton. At fourteen, Johnson took on the name Holly, inspired by actress Holly Woodlawn, a friend of Andy Warhol.
During his second year at the Liverpool Collegiate, Johnson and his friend were teased and nicknamed "Jolly Johnson" and "Honey Heath". The two shared an interest in Marc Bolan and David Bowie. While he attended Liverpool Collegiate, Johnson was actively involved in that city's punk rock/new wave scene of the late 1970s. Johnson played bass with the local band Big in Japan and also released two solo singles on the Eric's label. Both "Yankee Rose" and "Hobo Joe" failed to chart, however. Johnson met his partner, Wolfgang Kuhle, in the early 1980s.
Kuhle, Johnson's personal manager, became a successful art dealer and collected paintings by Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell. In 1982, Johnson joined Frankie Goes to Hollywood, and he later found fame as the lead singer and lyricist of the band. In 1987, tension grew between Johnson and the rest of his group. He also had an argument with his record company and won a case in court against them on restraint of trade. He left Frankie Goes to Hollywood and the other members of the band were eventually let go by the label after the court case ZTT and Perfect Songs v Holly Johnson.
In 1991, Johnson was diagnosed with HIV and wrote an autobiography, A Bone In My Flute; he did not expect to live much longer. Johnson remained creative working as a painter and printmaker and writing songs until 1994 when he returned to performing music occasionally. One of Johnson's paintings appears as the cover to the Kirsty MacColl single "Angel".
Frankie Goes to Hollywood
After gaining some measure of local celebrity from being a member of Big In Japan, Johnson became involved with a group of younger musicians who together would become the nucleus of Frankie Goes to Hollywood. Johnson himself named the new band after seeing the headline of an article about Frank Sinatra. This new band quickly gained a reputation for their stage show which had strong sadomasochistic overtones. It was during this period that guitarist Brian Nash and backing vocalist Paul Rutherford completed the band's established line up.
Commercial success and fame
After the band's reputation grew large enough to attract record company interest, they were eventually signed to a new record company, ZTT. Johnson became exposed to the general public via the phenomenal success of their debut single Relax, which was a huge, and controversial, hit in 1984. After such success during 1984, when the band spent nearly four months at the top of the singles chart, Johnson was firmly established as a household name. By autumn 1986, his star had faded considerably. Frankie Goes to Hollywood had not released any material since early 1985 and were absent from that year's Live Aid event.
In addition, he did not perform on the successful charity single "Do They Know It's Christmas" by Band Aid in December 1984. By 1987 his relationship with the rest of the band had broken down irretrievably, not helped by his decision to gain legal rights to exclusive use of the band's name, without consultation with other members. The UK Intellectual Property Office ruled against Johnson, however, and during a reunion on the TV show Bands Reunited many years later, refused to perform with them but did not rule out a future possibility. In his own words; "If it happens, we do it properly. We have a reputation. I'm not a wedding singer!"
Solo career and later projects
Johnson left Frankie Goes to Hollywood in 1987 because of disagreements regarding their musical direction. He became the subject of an injunction from the group's record company, ZTT Records, and its sister publishing company, Perfect Songs, which cited a breach of his prior recording and publishing contracts, thus barring him from pursuing a solo career with any other new label. He embarked on a two-year legal battle with ZTT, the case being settled in Johnson's favour on 10 February 1988, the judge ruling that the original contracts had constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade, remarking that "Mr. Johnson could be 70 years old and still be bound to this contract".
ZTT unsuccessfully appealed against the judge's decision, the Appeal Court concluding on 26 July 1989 that the original recording and publishing contracts were "not a fair bargain". The result represented a landmark legal outcome, contemporary press reports stating that the result "set a legal precedent which rocked the music business", adding that ZTT had by this time released most of its artists from their original contracts.
Johnson's relationship with ZTT owners Trevor Horn and Jill Sinclair broke down irretrievably due to the court case: "They, [Horn and Sinclair] have never really forgiven me for winning my freedom in the law courts", the singer said in 2001, adding that the worst part of being in FGTH was "the contract we signed with ZTT."
In 1989, Johnson finally made his first solo debut with the album Blast, for MCA Records, which was a major success and reached UK #1. Singles "Love Train", "Americanos" and "Atomic City" met with warm reception, the former two both charting in the UK's top 5. Johnson took part in a charity project for the Hillsborough disaster fund and recorded a popular single "Ferry Cross the Mersey" with Paul McCartney, the Christians and others. The single reached number 1 in the UK and Ireland.
After the 1990 remix album Hollelujah, Johnson released his second solo album in 1991. Dreams That Money Can't Buy was a commercial failure and did not chart in the UK, while the singles "Where Has Love Gone?" and "Across the Universe" performed very poorly on UK singles chart. In November 1991, Johnson learned that he was HIV positive. This triggered a temporary withdrawal from the music business and public life in general, with one of his last TV performances around the time being at the Diamond Record Awards, Antwerp, where he performed "Americanos" and "Where Has Love Gone?". His HIV status was made public during an interview with The Times in April 1993.
In March 1994, Johnson's critically acclaimed autobiography A Bone in My Flute was published, in which he discusses his struggle with, and acceptance of, his homosexuality. The same year, he recorded a new single, "Legendary Children (All of Them Queer)", whose lyrics referred to famous LGBT people throughout history. During 1994, he performed live at London's Gay Pride show, where he performed "Relax", "Legendary Children" and "The Power of Love". The same month Johnson featured on and co-wrote the single "Love and Hate" by Ryuichi Sakamoto for his album Sweet Revenge.
In April 1998, he performed "The Power of Love" live at the Easter Gay Happening in Krefeld, Germany at Club Königsburg.
Since the mid-1990s, Johnson has worked primarily as a painter. His works have been exhibited at the Tate Liverpool and the Royal Academy. He has contributed to Modern Painters and the Paul Smith-sponsored Carlos magazine. He made a musical comeback in 1999, with a self-released album called Soulstream, preceded by the 1998 promo only single "Hallelujah!". The video for the first available single "Disco Heaven" featured a cameo performance from Boy George. However, the album passed fairly unnoticed and didn't chart. The only charting single from Soulstream was a new version of "The Power of Love". For the release of Soulstream, Johnson appeared on the Jools Holland Show performing "The Power of Love" and performed the song again in 2004 for ZDF Love Songs.
In August 2009, Johnson presented an hour-long show "In the Beginning" on BBC Radio 2 about the Beatles, whilst he also appeared in the new video for Frankie Goes to Hollywood's "Relax" as the DJ. Since then, he has performed The Power of Love twice in Germany, also performing the song at the opening of Life Ball 2011 in Vienna. In an interview at the Q Awards, Johnson announced plans for an album of new material. In 2010, Johnson performed "Americanos" on German TV, and "Relax" on French TV. During February 2011, Johnson joined Jools Holland and his band for a version of the Animals' "The House of the Rising Sun" song, a track that Johnson covered on his Soulstream album. In August 2011, he performed a full set live at the Rewind Festival, using a mix of Frankie Goes to Hollywood songs together with some of his solo hits "Americanos", "Heaven's Here" and "Love Train".
In May 2014, Johnson announced his first UK solo tour, named "Dancing with No Fear". The seven-date tour was preceded by a new solo album, released on 15 September. The album, titled Europa, was preceded by a lead single, "Follow Your Heart".
The second single from Europa, "In And Out Of Love", was released on 4 September 2014 with a special pop promo directed by Chris Shepherd. In October 2014 Europa entered the UK Album Chart at # 63, becoming Johnson's first album to chart in the UK since his debut Blast. In December 2014, Johnson released a live album, only available as merchandise during the tour and his website titled Unleashed From the Pleasuredome.
In late 2015, Johnson co-wrote a song with Gary Barlow for the film Eddie The Eagle. The song "Ascension" was released in March 2016 as the focus track for the album Fly (songs inspired by the film Eddie The Eagle) and appears on the end credits for the film.
In 2018, Johnson guest starred throughout the final episode of the British TV series Benidorm.
In 2021, he appeared in the British TV series Never Mind the Buzzcocks and performed “The Power of Love”.
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Singles
Guest appearances
References
External links
Official website
Holly Johnson on Discogs
1960 births
English people of Indian descent
English people of Irish descent
English male singers
English new wave musicians
20th-century English painters
21st-century English painters
English rock bass guitarists
English rock singers
Frankie Goes to Hollywood members
LGBT singers from the United Kingdom
Living people
Male new wave singers
MCA Records artists
Musicians from Liverpool
People educated at Liverpool Collegiate Institution
People with HIV/AIDS
Scouse culture of the early 1980s
Uni Records artists
English gay musicians
Big in Japan (band) members
Male bass guitarists
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people | [
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233923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canso%20Causeway | Canso Causeway | The Canso Causeway (Cabhsair Chanso in Gaelic) is a rock-fill causeway in Nova Scotia, Canada.
The causeway crosses the Strait of Canso, connecting Cape Breton Island by road to the Nova Scotia peninsula. Its crest thickness is , carrying the two vehicle traffic lanes of the Trans-Canada Highway, Nova Scotia Highway 104 on the mainland side, and Nova Scotia Highway 105 on the Cape Breton side, as well as the single track mainline of the Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway.
Constructed in an "S" shape, the causeway has a base width of in waters having a maximum depth of .
Cape Breton Island remains circumnavigable as a result of the wide and long Canso Canal, which is located at the eastern end of the causeway to allow ship traffic to transit the Strait of Canso. The Canso Canal Bridge is a swing bridge which carries the road and railway line across the canal.
The word "Canso" is believed to be derived from the Mi'kmaq word kamsok, which means "opposite the lofty cliffs."
On July 2, 2014, it was announced that the Government of Canada would transfer ownership of the causeway to the Nova Scotia provincial government. The federal government will still maintain the Canso Canal and the navigational locks.
Ferries
Prior to the construction of the causeway, Cape Breton Island was connected to the mainland by separate railway car and motor vehicle ferries.
In 1880, the Intercolonial Railway (ICR) was opened between Mulgrave on the Nova Scotia side, west to New Glasgow. In 1890, the ICR built a line from Point Tupper on the Cape Breton side, east to Sydney. As a result, a rail ferry service was necessary so that rail cars from Cape Breton Island could be interchanged with the mainland North America rail network. Initially a small 2-railcar barge was used, however the growth of traffic from Industrial Cape Breton soon mandated that a dedicated rail ferry service be established. This service was operated by the ICR until 1918 when the ICR was merged into Canadian National Railways (CNR). CNR operated the ferries from 1918 until the causeway opened in 1955. Vessels used included: Mulgrave (1893–1901), Scotia (1903–1955), and Scotia II (1915–1955).
Various private passenger and horse-drawn carriage ferry services operated between Point Tupper or Port Hawkesbury or Port Hastings to the Nova Scotia side. By the 1930s, the Nova Scotia Department of Transportation took responsibility for providing the automobile ferry service. By the 1940s, as a result of war-time travel growth, as well as the growing popularity of automobiles, the service was expanded to 24 hours/day. Toward the end of the service in the 1950s, vessels included the George H. Murray, John Cabot, Ponte de Canseau, and Sir Charles Tupper.
Proposed bridge
In the late 1890s and early 1900s, the Industrial Cape Breton region was experiencing unprecedented economic growth as a result of multiple coal mines and two large integrated steel mills having opened. The Scotia rail car ferry that entered service in 1901 was struggling to keep up with the demands despite operating 24-hours per day year-round. In 1903, an ambitious proposal was presented to the provincial and federal governments, a proposal known as the "Strait of Canso Bridge", detailing a plan to build a steel cantilever bridge at the narrowest portion of the strait to carry the Intercolonial Railway's main line between Sydney and Truro. The span, measuring , would have been longer than the Firth of Forth Bridge and roughly similar in size to the Quebec Bridge.
Construction
From 1947 up to 1951, articles and cartoons in provincial newspapers indicated that the strait's crossing was to be a bridge. Finally project engineers agreed that because of the size, the amount of ice and strength of the currents that filled the Strait of Canso every winter, as well as the depth of the water, it would be difficult to construct a bridge, and instead a causeway option was chosen.
The Canso Causeway was built at a narrow location on the Strait of Canso, about northwest of Port Hawkesbury and Mulgrave, crossing from Cape Porcupine near Auld's Cove on the Nova Scotia side to Port Hastings on the Cape Breton side. About of rock for building the causeway was quarried from a mountain on Cape Porcupine.
Contracts were awarded, beginning in May 1952 to build approach roads and rail lines for the causeway construction and the project was officially started at a ceremony on September 16, 1952 attended by federal Minister of Transport Lionel Chevrier and Premier of Nova Scotia Angus L. MacDonald.
The Strait of Canso was permanently blocked on Friday, December 10, 1954; construction continued through the winter on building the roadway and railway line, as well as finishing the Canso Canal and its swing bridge. Construction was finally completed on April 13, 1955 when the railway line and roadway were finished at a cost of $22 million (CAD).
The first train across the causeway was a Canadian National Railways work train, led by steam locomotive #2639 on April 18, 1955. The railway line across the causeway entered active service on Saturday, May 14, 1955 when the first revenue train was a 10 car passenger train led by steam locomotive #6014, after which the rail ferry service from Mulgrave to Point Tupper was discontinued. The roadway across the causeway opened to vehicle traffic on May 20, 1955 after which the vehicle ferry service was discontinued.
Official opening
The official opening of the Canso Causeway took place on August 13, 1955 when several thousand people attended ceremonies which included a gala parade of what was meant to be 100 bagpipers heralding Cape Breton's road connection to the North American mainland, however, the 100th bagpiper refused to pipe.
Legacy
When the causeway was completed, the eastern end of the Strait of Canso became ice free during the winter. Several industries were attracted to the Point Tupper area, including the Stora pulp and paper mill, a Gulf Oil refinery and a heavy water plant.
Aside from blocking sea ice, the blocking of the Strait of Canso caused significant environmental damage from the enormous changes in the tidal regime of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence all the way to the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. The causeway also had the effect of damming the waterway for migrating ground fish stocks for decades until some of these species were able to determine how to get around Cape Breton Island into the gulf. In addition, the causeway allowed several non-native species of land animals access onto Cape Breton Island. One particularly troublesome interloper has been the bobcat, which has slowly forced the more gentle lynx out of its traditional hunting grounds and up into the Cape Breton Highlands.
From 1955 to the early 1990s, the Canso Causeway charged a toll to motorists. The toll was discontinued after the construction costs (approximately $23 million) were paid off.
In 1993, CN Rail sold its Truro-Sydney railway line which crossed the Canso Causeway to the Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway. Today, CB&CNS employees operate the swing bridge across the Canso Canal.
References
Transport in Guysborough County, Nova Scotia
Transport in Inverness County, Nova Scotia
Buildings and structures in Guysborough County, Nova Scotia
Buildings and structures in Inverness County, Nova Scotia
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233924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius%20II | Alexius II | Alexius II may refer to:
Alexios II Komnenos (1167–1183), Byzantine Emperor
Alexios II of Trebizond (1297–1330), Emperor of Trebizond
Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (1990–2008), Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia | [
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233926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius%20I%20%28disambiguation%29 | Alexius I (disambiguation) | Alexius I or Alexios I Komnenos (1048–1118), was Byzantine Emperor.
Alexius I may also refer to:
Alexius of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch in 1025–1043
Alexios I of Trebizond (c.1182 – 1222), Emperor of Trapezunt
Alexis of Russia (1629–1676), second Russian tsar of the Romanov dynasty
Patriarch Alexy I of Moscow (1877–1970), 13th Patriarch of Moscow | [
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233929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team%20racing | Team racing | Team racing, also known as team sailing, is a popular form of dinghy racing and yacht racing. Just 2 teams compete in a race, each team sailing 2, 3, or 4 boats of the same class. The winning team is decided by combining the results of each team's boats. This differs from an inter-club fleet race where boats from 3 or more clubs compete. Then the results of each club's boats are combined to give their club's overall position.
Team racing employs the low points scoring system. The boat finishing 1st scores 1 point, 2nd scores 2 points, and so on. The points scored by the boats in each team are added together. The team scoring fewest points wins, with additional rules applied to decide ties in the 2 and 4-boat formats.
Short 6 to 10 minute courses are used for team races. One course form is a digital 'S' on its side, sometimes called a digital 'N'. This gives a beat from start and mark to starboard; a short reach and mark to starboard; a run and mark to port; a short reach and mark to port; and a beat to finish. The other form is a starboard (right) hand 'box'. This gives a beat from start/finish; a short reach, a run; a short reach; and a beat to start/finish. These course formats put a premium on racing tactics so that the outcome is not decided by boat speed alone.
On-the-water umpiring is now the norm, since its first introduction in 1987. Boats have the option to do one penalty turn after an infringement. Otherwise they do two penalty turns if they sail on and are penalised by an umpire. The 'Team Racing Companion'. gives an excellent brief exposition of team racing and its required skills. The further reading section at the end of this page lists it and other relevant publications.
History of Team Racing in the US, UK, and Ireland - First Events
Inter-club fleet racing and team racing of a kind has existed as long as yacht racing itself. The earliest recorded regular 'modern' team racing event, with just two teams of two, three, or four boats battling it out over several races, is the Oxford-Cambridge Varsity Match. between the Cambridge University Cruising Club (CUCrC) and the Oxford University Yacht Club (OUYC). The match was first sailed as a two-a-side team race in 1913 and again in 1914 (1913 at Oxford - they won, 1914 at Ely - Cambridge won). The first sailing contest between the two Universities actually took place in 1912 - as three match races at Ely (Cambridge won 2-1). After World War I team racing recommenced (two boats a side) in 1920 on the neutral waters of Oulton Broad in Norfolk, when Oxford won. It has continued annually at locations around the UK, usually on the coast and three boats a side since the mid 1930s.
In addition, an annual team racing contest (two boats a side) between the colleges of Cambridge has been held since 1924, and a similar competition has been held at Oxford since 1926. The first recorded international team racing event was the British-American Cup series in Six-Metres (4 boats a side). It was first sailed in 1921 at Cowes, as a result of a UK challenge, and the UK won 4-3. The series was hotly contested every two years, particularly pre-World War II. It ceased in 1955, when the US won 4-0 yet again, because costs escalated and interest declined due to the class losing Olympic status in 1952.
American Universities
In the US what is now the US Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association (ICSA) was established in 1930 as the ICYRA. Collegiate dinghy sailing in the US blossomed in 1934–36 with initiatives taken by Princeton with its 'Tiger' dinghies (1934), MIT (the famous Pavilion was founded and built in 1935 at the instigation of Walter C. 'Jack' Wood), and Brown (1936). The initial emphasis of the ICSA was very much on fleet racing (see Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association for historical details), but during the 1930s, team racing between individual colleges started to emerge - with 2 to 4 colleges meeting up, each fielding 2 to 5 boats.
After World War II collegiate sailing spread across the US and parts of Canada, with ICSA membership rapidly growing to modern numbers. George O’Day (Harvard), Harry Anderson (Yale) and Bill Cox Sr. (Princeton) all helped develop the ICYRA team race rules in the 1940s, and these were the forerunners of the NAYRU (now US Sailing) and International Yacht Racing Union (later International Sailing Federation or ISAF, now World Sailing) team race rules. (International harmonisation of the Racing Rules of Sailing did not take place until 1960.)
A regional team racing championship, four-a-side format, first took place in 1950 in the New England District (now 'Conference') for the Leonard M. Fowle Trophy - a separate trophy from the new Fowle Trophy that is awarded to the best college across all 6 national ICSA championships. National team racing for the Walter C. Wood Trophy, four-a-side format, commenced in 1960 between teams formed from colleges within a particular ICSA district or 'conference', and results from 1970 are available online From 1977 competing teams have been limited to sailors from one college, and Rhode Island University was the first (1977) winner of the current 'individual college' team racing championship for the Wood Trophy. The Wood Trophy now runs on a three-a-side format because of the greater ease of accommodating 6 sailors in the one car! Across the border in Canada, intercollegiate sailing has also grown strong since the late 1990s. Courses evolved to current formats in the 2000s.
British Universities
The first recorded UK team race between universities, other that Oxford vs Cambridge, was a match between Cambridge and United Hospitals in 1935, which United Hospitals (UH) won. Cambridge medics had to do their clinical training in London until 1976, so there were several ex-Cambridge sailors on the UH team. The first recorded team races against other colleges were in 1947 (University College, London), 1948 (Imperial College, London), 1949 (Trinity College, Dublin), and 1950 (London University) - all won by Cambridge. In 1956 the Association of Northern Universities Sailing Clubs (ANUSC) had been in existence for a few years and was already running its own (Northern) team racing championship. London was invited to the 1956 event, providing further impetus to the founding of BUSA (see next paragraph), in which London played a major role.
The UK equivalent of the ICSA, the British Universities Sailing Association (BUSA), was founded in 1957, partly at the suggestion (in a 'Longshoreman' article) by Michael Ford of the Oxford University YC team that had toured the US in 1954, initiating what is now the biennial ICSA - BUSA team racing tour, which alternates between the two countries. BUSA focused solely on team racing in its early years, fostering international student team racing, and later widened its interest to dinghy fleet racing, 'big boat' yachting (currently in Sunsail F40s), and keel boat match racing.
The first UK universities team racing championships was held in 1957 and has taken place annually since then, three-a-side format. The 1957 knock-out event for what is now the Thompson Trophy took place on the Welsh Harp (Brent Reservoir in London) and was won by London University from an entry of 14 teams. Partly because of the influence of Oxford and Cambridge team racing, universities in the UK had sailed individual team racing matches up until that time, or had participated in local contests of three or four teams. There was no fleet racing comparable to North American practice.
Dinghy racing at Oxford started in the 1880s, at Cambridge in the 1890s, and has continued at both universities without interruption to the present day. Cambridge also held a one-week coastal 'Marine Meeting' event for dinghies, and for larger craft in pre-WWII years. It ran from 1903 to 1966, interrupted only by the two World Wars. Oxford held a similar event for dinghies between 1946 and the 1970s. London University colleges were active in sailing from the late 1920s onwards, along with United Hospitals. Furthermore, London was a major force in UK university team racing in the 1950s and 60s - winning 5 of the first 8 championships.
In part, Oxford-Cambridge team racing rivalry resulted in the formation of the Oxford & Cambridge Sailing Society (O&CSS) by Stewart Morris in 1934 to promote team racing in the UK. Other influences were concern at the 'thrashing' (4-0) of the British Six-Metre team in the 1932 British-American Cup series, and the interest in team racing being generated by the International 14 Dinghy Class (and its Canadian variants) from 1926 onwards. The O&CSS was successful in its aims, later helping West Kirby SC (near Liverpool) to arrange a single-class open team racing championship in 1949, under the title 'North West Firefly Championship'. The event, for what was then a very large entry of 17 teams (three-a-side format), used Firefly dinghies conveniently available after the 1948 London and Torquay Olympics. Itchenor SC from Chichester Harbour won this first knock-out event by beating the O&CSS in the final.
Wilson Trophy / North West of England Firefly Championship / Irish Team Racing
So began, as mentioned in the last paragraph of the preceding section, what became the famous Wilson Trophy, which remains a leading international team racing event.
The West Kirby initiative was triggered by the results of a joint Irish Dinghy Racing Association (IDRA) and Royal St George YC team racing event held in Dun Laoghaire, Ireland in 1948 (three-a-side format). This was the first team racing event in Britain and Ireland to have national rather than very local entry, but it still made use of several dinghy classes, including the Firefly, because of the shortage of dinghies of one particular class. Royal St. George YC won the event in September 1948, but was almost defeated by the relatively unknown West Kirby team in the final. One of the West Kirby team, (Sir) Cyril Clarke, was a member of the Oxford & Cambridge Sailing Society, and he and the other two helmsmen (Harry Dennis and Glyn Evans) resolved to run a similar event at West Kirby the following year.
After the 1948 Irish event, Dun Laoghaire and its three yacht clubs (Royal St George YC, Royal Irish YC, National YC) became hosts to an Irish equivalent of the Wilson Trophy, known as the Sean Hooper Trophy, which facilitated considerable British-Irish university and club team racing. Since the 1980s the event has been hosted by the Royal St. George YC alone.
International 14 Class Team Racing
As mentioned earlier, the International 14 Class has always had a great interest in team racing. The first recorded team race took place in 1926 when Trent SC challenged the Royal Norfolk & Suffolk YC to a three-a-side match in National 14s (international status was not granted until 1928), so initiating the Trent Inland Waters Challenge Cup. The first international team racing event (three-a-side format), between Canada, the US (two teams from Long Island and Rochester), and the UK took place in 1933 at Seawanhaka Corinthian YC, Oyster Bay, New York and was won (narrowly) by the UK. This, which seems to have been the first recorded international dinghy team racing event, was followed up in 1934 by a second event (four-a-side format from now on) at the Royal Canadian YC, Toronto, when the UK lost just one race - to Canada. After 1934, an international team racing event was held every two years, interrupted by World War II from 1940 to 1958.
In the 1934 event, three of the four UK helmsmen were members of the O&CSS (Stewart Morris - founder of the O&CSS, Peter Scott, John Winter), and the very close relationship between the 14's, the O&CSS, and team racing continues. Four-times World Champion, Archie Massey, is a member of the O&CSS, and the Class still holds an international team racing event before its biennial World Championships.
Other International Class Team Racing
In 1983 the International Optimist Class (for juniors under 16) introduced team racing at its World Championships, and four-a-side team racing takes place at its national, regional and world championships. In 2015, after two early events in 2005 and 2006, the International 420 Class initiated a youth (under 21) international team racing championship, separate from its other championships, in three-a-side format.
National UK Team Racing
The Wilson Trophy at West Kirby SC has remained the annual pinnacle of team racing in the UK and, to some extent, the world - with teams coming from the United States, Germany, and other countries as team racing interest spread internationally. Team racing interest grew in the UK in the 1970s and early 1980s when the Royal Yachting Association (RYA) organised an inter-club team racing championship. This first National Team Racing competition in Britain and Ireland in 1969 had 260 teams entered, with West Kirby winning the Prince Philip Trophy at Farmoor Reservoir (hosted by Oxford SC). By the next year, 1970, the number of entries increased to 352 clubs. The event divided the country into various zones, with 2 teams from each zone qualifying for a National Final. The competition was sponsored at different times by Little Ship (later British) Paints and Dunhill/Rothmans, and was encouraged by HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who attended some of the National Finals.
After the event lost its sponsorship in 1982 it ceased for a time, and there was some decline in club interest in team racing in the UK, though not in universities, where it continued to be strong - nor at West Kirby, where the Wilson Trophy continued with unabated enthusiasm. On-the-water umpiring for team racing was pioneered by West Kirby at the 1987 Wilson Trophy, with the first 'On The Water Adjudicators' being Tony Cross, Ian Berry and Peter Price (West Kirby), Mike Bailey and John Anstey (Wembley), and Brian Heron (Hollingworth Lake). Peter Price went on to write and present the first codified instructions for "On The Water Adjudication for Team Racing" to the RYA in late 1987, and after many years as an Umpire and Chief Umpire was awarded the status of RYA Umpire Emeritus in 2013.
HRH Prince Philip said of the UK Team Racing Championship in 1969: "I very much hope that this new Team Racing Competition will give a lot of enthusiastic clubs and club members many happy hours of sailing. Team racing demands rather a different approach and different techniques, so this event may well discover new talent. It has the further advantage that teams will be able to travel to other clubs and so experience different conditions and new scenery, if only the clubhouse bar. The races are the important thing of course, but I dare say there will be much to discuss afterwards, and I am sure everyone will enjoy the social side of these encounters."
National US Team Racing
In the US, team racing at a national level, outside inter-collegiate competition, was a little slower to develop. The first national team racing championship for the George R. Hinman Trophy was held in 1981 at Fort Worth, Texas and organised by US Sailing. The winning team was from the Great Lakes region (US Sailing Area E): Terry McLaughlin and Carolyn Brodsky, Jeff Boyd and Peter Jones, Tam Matthews and Jay Cross. The event grew out of a regatta initiated by Sailing World magazine that became so popular it was adopted by US Sailing, and the winner of the event is encouraged to enter the Wilson Trophy in the UK.
The early winners tended to be collegiate teams but, through the influence of Gary Brodie who became Chairman of the Team Racing Championship Committee in 1992, and Brad Dellenbaugh who followed him in 1996, the event now attracts a wide entry, though the presence of post-collegiate sailors remains strong - as it does in UK competitions. The first umpired US Team Racing Championship took place in 1990 at Alameda, California.
International Championships
In 1995, as a result of widespread international interest, the IYRU - later the ISAF and now World Sailing - introduced the Team Racing World Championships. This made team racing (three-a-side format) a firmly established form of dinghy and yacht racing, though dinghy team racing remains strongest in the English-speaking world. Both Australia and New Zealand have active team racing associations, with local and national competitions. The first (1995) ISAF World Championship was held at West Kirby and won by the UK. Since 2005 the biennial ISAF championship has included a youth (under 19) event, first won by the UK.
UK Team Racing Championships
The initiation of the ISAF World Team Racing Championships in 1995 generated greatly increased interest in team racing at the general club level in the UK. The old Prince Philip Trophy from the 1980s was awarded to Spinnaker SC, who won the trials held to select the UK team and went on to win the first World Championship. The trials, the Wilson, and the Worlds were all held at West Kirby that year, with 'world' teams barred from entering the Wilson. The following year the UK Team Racing Association (UKTRA) was formed. Then, in 1997 the RYA and the UKTRA restarted the UK National Team Racing Championship for the Prince Philip Trophy that had ceased in the early 1980s. The RYA also organises the very popular UK annual Eric Twiname junior (under 16) and youth (under 19) team racing championships. In addition, during almost every week-end of the UK university autumn and winter terms, there are university-organised team racing events, involving between 8 and 16 or more teams.
UK Schools Team Racing
UK schools are also active through the British Schools Dinghy Racing Association. The association caters especially for UK private independent schools, organising annual regional and national team racing championships since 1989. The BSDRA was founded by Nick Prosser of Tonbridge, Crispin Reed Wilson of Bradfield, and Bruce Hebbert of Sevenoaks School - who was also a member of the Oxford & Cambridge Sailing Society. Its competitions are open to state schools and internationally. In 1989 Winchester College won the first BSDRA event for the Whitstable Trophy, and Tabor Academy was the first international winner in 1990. This Tabor success was followed by several USA victors, plus Schull Community College from Ireland. The UK National Schools Sailing Association, which caters especially for the state school sector, runs a national single-handed team racing event in Toppers, and a national double-handed team racing event.
The RYA also runs its own Youth team racing nationals known as the Eric Twiname (ETs). The double handed event has two categories. Junior 'two boat' team racing, which takes place in the RS Feva, and Youth '3 boat' team racing which happens in Fireflys. The event normally takes place at Farmoor reservoir, in Oxford. The event has become increasingly popular, with well over 200 participants and 48 team applicants for the two boat team slots. The 2021 nationals, won by RHS (two boat) and Rutland (three boat), had a limit of 24 teams in each of its categories.
US Team Racing
There are a good many keel boat and other team racing events in the US, such as the Kirby Cup organised by the Sonar Class Association, and the extensive programme of team racing organised by the New York YC. The CJ Buckley Memorial Regatta is a very popular US annual junior (under 19) Club 420 team racing event, held at East Greenwich. The Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association (ICSA) is active in team racing at the district or 'conference' level as well as nationally. The Interscholastic Sailing Association (ISSA) has organised an annual national team racing event, for the Baker Trophy since 1989, when Tabor Academy was the winner. The Baker Trophy also involves regional qualifiers.
The US Sailing Team Racing Committee helps promote team racing in the United States. US Sailing also maintains a master schedule of team racing events in the United States.
European Keel Boat Team Racing
In 2011 Bruce Hebbert, a member of the Oxford & Cambridge Sailing Society, conceived and launched (with help from a number of sailors in the Netherlands, Germany, Monaco, Italy and Spain) a European series of team racing in keel boats (two-a-side format) called '2K'. The series is hotly contested and now takes place in over eight locations across Europe in varying keel boat classes.
Team Racing Boats
Because team racing must be conducted in equal boats the most popular boats for team racing are one-design dinghies or keel boats. The 420, Vanguard 15, Firefly, and Flying Junior are the dinghies most frequently used for team racing. The Sonar, J/24, Maxfun 24, and J/80 are popular team racing keel boats.
In the UK the Firefly, a 12-foot dinghy designed by Uffa Fox, is the most commonly used boat. The Firefly is ideal for team racing because it lacks high-performance features such as spinnaker and trapeze that hinder team racing tactics. It also has good acceleration, is highly manoeuvrable, and is easily handled by women and juniors.
Team Racing Event Formats and Courses
Early team racing events were generally run on a knock-out basis, with a 'first round losers' knock-out competition being introduced later. Most current competitions involve either a 'round robin' or a 'Swiss league' system to arrive at quarter finalists or semi finalists. The Wilson Trophy preliminary rounds run on a Swiss league basis.
When first introduced, team racing followed the then-current patterns of fleet racing courses, often a large triangle with the same start and finish line. Over time the triangle became smaller to encourage more inter boat action. Later, more inter-boat action was achieved by setting starboard hand courses.
Then the so-called 'S' (or 'N') and the 'box' course formats evolved. They are explained in the Introduction at the start of this page. The 'S' format is currently most actively used in Europe.
There is a rumour that the 'S' course exists due to team racing at Spinnaker sailing club, where race officials had to use their course setting abilities creatively in order to avoid the two islands in the middle of the lake small lake.
Team Racing Tactics
Team racing is a very tactical branch of dinghy racing and yacht racing, combining the need for adequate boat speed with superior handling, good teamwork, and sound understanding of strategies for converting a losing position into a winning one.
Consider the following situation in a 3-boat team race - the most common format. If one boat is in 1st place and its team-mates are in 4th and 6th then the team's points are 1 + 4 + 6 = 11 points, whereas the opposition has 2 + 3 + 5 = 10 points and so is ahead. For its team to win the race, the boat in 4th place will have to slow the 5th boat so that its 6th place team-mate moves up to 5th - it would be dangerous for the boat in 1st place to do anything because of the two opposition boats behind. The 4th boat can make its move, called a 'pass back' conversion, by using the Racing Rules of Sailing (RRS), including the special team racing rules of Appendix D, to position itself in such a way that the opposition has to sail extra distance to keep clear or sail in reduced wind and so lose ground.
There are two main 'moves' in team racing; the 'pass back' and the 'mark trap.' The goal of the pass back, involving three boats sailing upwind, is for the leading boat to slow the next (opposing team's) boat in order for the third boat (of the leading boat's team) to either tack away from the intermediate covering boat, or sail ahead faster than the covering boat. The mark trap is more complicated. It involves one boat stopping at a mark in a position where it can use the RRS to hinder opposing boats rounding the mark, so allowing team-mates to catch up and then sail ahead. Another tactic is for one boat to gybe onto (right of way) starboard tack when close to a downwind mark, forcing boats just behind to do the same and sail considerable extra distance, and so allow team-mates to catch up.
If one boat feels that another has breached the Racing Rules of Sailing in any situation, she may hail "protest". If the protested boat does not exonerate herself with a one-turn penalty the protesting boat may hail "umpire" or, more commonly in the UK, show a red flag. An on-the-water umpire will then make a decision, almost instantly, and impose a two-turn penalty on any boat judged to have broken a rule in the incident.
Winning and Losing Combinations
An experienced team racer will know whether his team is winning or losing at any point in the race. The most common combinations of results are given below. A good crew will be able to tell the helmsman whether the team is winning or losing and advise which position to attack in order to win.
2-boat team racing
Team with the last boat loses.
3-boat team racing
The rule for winning is 10 points or less, which translates to the following detailed rules
1-2-anything
1-3-anything
2-3-4
2-3-5
1-4-5
4-boat team racing
The rule for definitely winning is 17 points or less.
In the case of a tie with each team scoring 18 points (e.g., 1,2,7,8 vs 3,4,5,6), the team with first place loses. This reflects the fact that the first (and second) place skippers showed poor strategy by finishing when their team was not winning. 'Last-ditch' attempts to achieve a winning conversion are to be encouraged!
References
External links
Team Racing Training - UK
Three Winning Team Race Moves - Sailing World, US
Team Racing Tactics - Boating, NZ
What Makes a Successful Team Racing Event - US
Further reading
"Team Racing Companion" by Chris Atkins, Fernhurst Books 2014
"Contemporary Team Racing, An Updated Manual of Team Race Tactics & Strategy" by Gavin O'Hare - Book http://www.sailingeducation.com/team-race-manualcd/
"Contemporary Team Racing 1000" - Animated CD http://www.sailingeducation.com/team-race-manualcd/
"Team Racing for Sailboats" by Steve Tylecote (Now out of print but available second-hand)
"Dinghy Team Racing" by Eric Twiname (Now out of print but available second-hand)
Sailing (sport)
Sailing rules and handicapping | [
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233930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon%20racing | Pigeon racing | Pigeon racing is the sport of releasing specially trained homing pigeons, which then return to their homes over a carefully measured distance. The time it takes the animal to cover the specified distance is measured and the bird's rate of travel is calculated and compared with all of the other pigeons in the race to determine which animal returned at the highest speed.
Pigeon racing requires a specific breed of pigeon bred for the sport, the Racing Homer. Competing pigeons are specially trained and conditioned for races that vary in distance from approximately to . Despite these lengths, races can be won and lost by seconds, so many different timing and measuring devices have been developed. The traditional timing method involves rubber rings being placed into a specially designed clock, whereas a newer development uses RFID tags to record arrival time.
While there is no definite proof, there are compelling reasons to think the sport of racing pigeons may go back at least as far as 220 AD. Furthermore, it is recorded in the Mishnah that pigeon racers are forbidden from bearing witness. The sport achieved a great deal of popularity in Belgium in the mid-19th century. The pigeon fanciers of Belgium were so taken with the hobby that they began to develop pigeons specially cultivated for fast flight and long endurance called Voyageurs. From Belgium the modern version of the sport and the Voyageurs which the Flemish fanciers developed spread to most parts of the world. Once quite popular, the sport has experienced a downturn in participants in some parts of the world in recent years, possibly due to the rising cost of living, ageing fanciers, and a severe lack of public interest. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by pigeons is also a reason why some people are leaving the sport.
One recent development in the sport of pigeon racing is "one loft racing", where birds are raced against each other under the same training regimen, from the same location. The principle being to find the best individual race bird irrespective of the race trainer. This will determine which bird is then the most successful.
History
Pigeons are the oldest domesticated bird. The predecessors of modern-day racing pigeons were pigeons bred for their homing ability, primarily to carry messages. "Pigeon posts" have been established all over the world and while mainly used in the military, some are still in service today. Modern pigeon racing originated in Belgium in the mid 19th century. Racing pigeons were first developed in Belgium and England at the same time. They are the result of crossing of a number of other breeds, primarily the Smerle, French Cumulet, English Carrier, Dragoon, and the Horseman (now lost). From the high-flying Cumulet, the Homer received its endurance and its ability to fly for hours on end without tiring. From the Carrier, it inherited the ability to find its way home from great distances.
The sport was aided by several new technologies of the era. The advent of the railroad permitted pigeons to be sent to distant release points quickly and at modest cost. In addition, the creation of mass-produced, sophisticated timing clocks brought accurate and secure timing to the sport. These clocks were designed with special compartments where an entry band, removed from the returning race bird was placed. When struck, the clock recorded the time and also placed the band in a compartment that could only be opened by race officials.
The importance of homing pigeons in the centuries before electronic communications, such as the telegraph and telephone, is seldom recognised. However, the Reuters News Agency, the world's largest information provider, began as a pigeon service carrying closing stock prices between Belgium and Germany, basically between the western and eastern terminus of the telegraph in Europe.
The most expensive pigeon ever sold was "New Kim" which was purchased for $1.9 Million by a wealthy bidder from China in November 2020.
Racing
Pigeon racing has been described as the "sport with a single starting gate and a thousand finish lines." In short, competing birds are taken from their lofts and must race home. The time taken and distance are recorded and the fastest bird is declared the winner. Races are generally between and in distance. In the United States flights of up to have been recorded.
Provided it survives the many hazards associated with racing, a single pigeon could compete from about six months of age and still be in competition at over ten years of age. Such feats are uncommon, however, and the average racing career rarely exceeds three years. Hazards can also come from weather conditions on the day of the race. Pigeons can become grounded and disoriented, and therefore not finish the race. In one instance in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1941, a family found a pigeon on their property. Since the bird was sporting an identifying leg band, the Wisconsin Conservation Commission was called, who identified the owner as a man from Green Bay.
In the early days of racing, paint was used to identify birds for owners. Belgium then developed a ⅛-inch brass leg band, that was sent to racers in America to use. Since then, to compete in a race, it must wear a permanent, unique numbered ring or band that is placed on its leg at about five days old. For a race to be conducted, the competing pigeons must be entered into the race, usually at the organisation's clubhouse, and taken away from their home to be released at a predetermined time and location. The distance between the bird's home loft and the race point is carefully measured by GPS and the time taken by the bird to return is measured using one of the two acceptable timing methods. Sometimes in some leagues, there are two divisions: one for the young birds (usually yearlings in their first year of competition) and another for older birds.
Traditional timing method
The traditional method of timing racing pigeons involves rubber rings with unique identification numbers and a specially designed pigeon racing clock. The ring is attached around the bird's leg before being sent to race. The serial number is recorded, the clock is set and sealed, and the bird carries the ring home.
When the first bird returns, its trainer removes the ring and places it in a slot in the clock. The time that the ring was placed in the clock is recorded as the official time that the competing bird arrived home. From this time stamp an average speed is measured and a winner of the race can be found.
Although serving its purpose, this method has proved somewhat problematic for a few reasons:
The pigeon's "official time" is not the actual time it arrived, it is the time the ring was removed, placed in the clock and recorded, which could be many vital seconds later.
Exceptional pigeons may arrive home first on multiple occasions; knowing it is going to have the ring removed speedily, which may be uncomfortable, the pigeon could be reluctant to enter the loft for the trainer.
Electronic timing method
The latest development and preferred method for timing racing pigeons is the Electronic Timing System. The bird's arrival is recorded automatically. When using an electronic system, the pigeon fancier does not even have to be at the loft to clock the birds as they return. Birds are fitted with a band that has a tiny RFID chip in it which can be read when the bird comes home. At the home loft the electronic scanning records the pigeons' arrival. The pad or antenna is placed at the entry point to the loft entrance and as the pigeon crosses it the electronic band is scanned. The clock is attached to the antennas. The serial number of the transponder ring is recorded along with the time of arrival. This is very similar to transponder timing systems used in human races.
In February 2008 the members of the Penygraog Homing Society Racing Pigeon Club in Wales won an award to fund a new electronic timing device. The club was able to obtain the device thanks to funding from the All Wales award initiative. Club secretary John Williams said: "The electronic timer certainly makes it a lot easier for us".
With the advent of electronic timing system recording birds’ arrival has never been easier. The ETS technology is developing year on year and it is taking over the pigeon world, changing it and making it fit for today's conditions. As a result of this new way of registering a bird's arrival, several loft management software have been created in the last 10 years to help fanciers with record keeping, pigeon pedigree, publishing race results or keep track of treatment and vaccination records.
One-loft racing
One-loft racing originated from local futurity races. Futurity races are when the birds race home from the racing station to their homes. The difference between regular racing and futurity races is futurity races has prize money involved. Usually, the prize is used for a bragging right more so than to win the money. The process of racing could be a bit complicated as handlers of their racing pigeons compete with one another. Some handlers could be better than some when it comes down to racing. Therefore, one-loft racing was created. One-loft racing is the process of training birds bred by many different breeders in the same loft, under the same trainer and in the same conditions (as opposed to trainer against trainer in their own lofts and usually with their own birds). It is thought to be the fairest method of proving which bloodline or breeder is best and usually provides the highest amount of prize money. Pigeons are recorded by electronic timing systems scanning the birds as they enter the home loft with winners decided by as little as 100th of a second. The birds are all taken to the same release point and they return to the same home loft, so therefore it is the fastest bird to complete the journey from A to B. One-loft racing is now becoming very popular all around the world with fanciers able to compare their bloodlines on an equal basis against the best breeders.
Training
Racing pigeons are housed together in a specially designed dovecote or loft. From about four weeks of age until the end of its racing career, the racing loft is the pigeon's home and is where it returns to on race day.
After 22 to 28 days in the nest (depending on the owner's preference) the young birds are removed and placed in a section of a large loft or in a smaller loft built for the purpose. After a few days of learning how to locate the water and eating by themselves they are allowed to wander out of the loft and peck around in the garden, while doing this they are constantly observing their surroundings and becoming familiar with them. At about age six to seven weeks the birds will begin taking off, flying in very small circles around their loft and owner's house. As their confidence grows they gradually wander farther and farther from home until they are out of sight and can remain so for as much as two hours before returning. When a few trainers fly their pigeons in the same area, these flying "batches" (as flocks of pigeons are called) can number in the thousands. It does not, however, help them much in relation to finding their home from long distances away, a fundamental of pigeon racing. As confident flyers, the young pigeons are taken on progressively longer 'training tosses', driven a distance away from their home and released. This method of training is a way to condition the birds mentally and physically to prepare them for the races. This practice of loft flying and tossing continues throughout a pigeon's career to keep their homing instincts sharp.
There are many ways to train racing pigeons. Like every sport out there, racing pigeons is an evolving sport. One of the most popular systems is widowhood. This system uses the birds' desire to reproduce as motivation to try to give the bird a sense of urgency on race day. The use of widowhood is usually begun by first allowing the racer to raise a baby in their nest box. After the baby is weaned the hen is removed and often the nestbox is closed off, from then on the only time these birds are allowed to see their mate or enter the nest box is upon returning from training or a race. This conditioning is one of the key elements in a lot of racing programs.
Due to advancements in technology researchers have been able to use small Global Positioning Systems to track the flight paths that their birds follow. Small GPS systems have recently begun to hit the consumer market. Companies like PigeonTrack and GEM Supplements currently sell GPS units for novice to advanced race trainers to use to gather data.
Hazards
As pigeon racing takes place over great distances in the sky, instead of on a racetrack, there are many hazards that could befall a pigeon during racing as well as training. The main hazard encountered by racing pigeons is predation by birds of prey. The killing of valuable pigeons by wild predators has led to some pigeon fanciers being suspected and prosecuted of killing birds of prey such as falcons.
Another hazard that racing pigeons encounter is flying into objects they sometimes cannot see, mostly when flying at high speeds or in darker weather conditions. The most common obstructions are electricity pylons or TV aerials. Pigeon fanciers will often have one of their pigeons return home with wounds or missing feathers from the belly or flanks region.
It is thought that racing pigeons rely on the Earth's magnetic field to find their way home. Some speculation has surfaced indicating that mobile phone towers may be interrupting the birds' navigation, although no published research has investigated this theory.
Breeding
Pigeons are sexually mature at about six months of age. However, fanciers will often wait until the pigeon is at least a few months older before breeding. A hen bird will usually only lay two eggs in a clutch, laid every other day, after which incubation begins. The incubation period is 17 days. Pigeon breeders are careful in selecting birds to pair together so as to continue improving the breed and gain a competitive edge. It is this selective breeding that has given rise to the racing pigeons of today, capable of finding their way home from over away and flying at speeds in excess of with a tail wind but average on a calm day. Hens are often capable of laying upwards of 12 eggs per year, and squabs usually leave the nest at approximately three to four weeks of age.
Doping
Doping in pigeon racing is the practice of giving performance-enhancing drugs to avian racers. The drugs are used to produce similar effects to those found in human athletes, building up muscle tissue and opening the respiratory tracts. In addition, corticosteroids can be used to delay moulting, allowing a bird to race late into a season.
In October 2013, blood samples from twenty Belgian pigeons were sent by the Pigeon Fanciers Association to South Africa for testing. This was the result of an exchange visit by the association to the National Horseracing Authority of Southern Africa. While tests in Belgium had not found traces of any drugs the South African laboratory discovered that six samples contained unusual substances. Five samples were found to include traces of acetaminophen (paracetamol), a widely used over-the-counter analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer). The sixth sample was erroneously reported in the press as having shown indications of cocaine use, but the lab reported that it was indications of caffeine usage. As the samples were sent anonymously no action could be taken against the owners of any of the birds.
In 2001 a series of raids across 80 homes led to the confiscation of large quantities of illegal performance-enhancers. Currently, all race winners are tested and over 100 samples were collected and tested in 2013.
In 1995 the Belgian Ministry of Health mandated drug testing in order to protect the welfare of the birds. The sport's governing body was looking at the possibility of implementing new anti-doping rules for the sport prior to the commencement of the 2014 season.
By region
The Americas
United States
The sport was introduced into the United States about 1875, although regular racing did not begin until 1878. The sport of pigeon racing is well established in the US, and growing. According to the American Racing Pigeon Union, one of two large accrediting groups, there are 15,000 registered lofts in the U.S.
The sport was banned beginning January 1, 2004 in Chicago, but there have been a number of attempts to amend the ban since then (by making exemptions to the ban for members of a national professional organization). Alderman Gilbert Villegas of the 36th ward introduced the newest legislation June 2018, on behalf of the Polish constituents in his ward, saying the sport is deeply loved in Poland and a number of residents want to bring the sport back to Chicago.
Pigeon racing was particularly popular throughout the twentieth century in the New York City area, particularly in Brooklyn/Coney Island and in Hoboken New Jersey, where it still has devotees. Shady Hills, Florida is home to a pigeon racing club and hosts an annual racing event.
Canada
The sport of pigeon racing has increased in Canada with Pigeon Clubs and Ladies Auxiliary popping up in cities and towns. The CRPU, the Canadian Racing Pigeon Union, is an organisation that is dedicated to the growth, preservation and support of pigeon racing in Canada.
The Canadian Pigeon International magazine is a monthly publication dedicated to the sport of pigeon racing
Brazil
The "Brazilian Pigeon Racing Grandprix" is the biggest pigeon race in South America. The Sergipe's Pigeon Racing Association and the government from Aracaju organise this event.
Asia
Pigeon racing is becoming increasingly popular in parts of Asia, especially Indonesia, India, China, Pakistan, Iran, Philippines, Japan, Taiwan and Bangladesh. In Bangladesh there are three pigeon racing associations which look after the sport and organize many races. There are thousands of registered pigeon fanciers in Bangladesh.
Pakistan also has many pigeon clubs. Karachi, Peshawar, Lahore and Sargodha are leading in good quality racing pigeons.
The heart of the sport in India is Chennai, the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu.
Taiwan has more racing pigeon events than any other country in the world, and can point to between two and three million birds. Nearly 500,000 people race pigeons on the island, and each year, prize money for races reaches the billions of NT dollars.
Oceania
Australia
The largest racing organisation in Australia is the Central Cumberland Federation. The state of Queensland also has a number of clubs and organisations. The biggest of these is the Qld Racing Pigeon Federation Inc (QRPF). Located in Brisbane, the QRPF has a long history dating back to the Second World War. Each year the QRPF organises pigeon races for its some 80 members. These races start at approximately in distance and continue on a gradual basis out to distances of over . A specialised transporter is used to transport the birds to the release points. This transporter enables the birds to be fed and watered en route before mass release at a predetermined time for their flight back to various home lofts. Many thousands of pigeons compete in races each weekend during the winter months.
In Western Australia racing is conducted by the Pigeon Racing Federation of Western Australia (Inc) and the West Coast Racing Pigeon Federation (Inc.).
An innovative new one-loft race is the Australian Pigeon Punt Race held in Victoria, Australia.
The sport of pigeon racing has been declining around Sydney with pigeon club members gradually dying off as fewer younger people take up the sport. The high cost of feeds and fuel have also contributed to the decline.
Europe
Poland
Pigeon racing in Poland is overseen by Polski Związek Hodowców Gołębi Pocztowych (the Polish Pigeon Breeders Association), which has over 40,000 members. The first local association of pigeon breeders in the Polish lands under occupation was established in 1905 in Zabrze. After Poland regained independence in 1918, several such organisations were established and in 1926 the first nationwide breeders' association was established - Zjednoczenie Polskich Stowarzyszeń Hodowców Gołębi Pocztowych na Rzeczpospolita Polska (Unification of Polish Pigeon Breeders' Associations for the Republic of Poland). The breeding of racing pigeons was banned during the Nazi occupation, but at the end of World War II the Polish Pigeon Breeders Union was recreated on April 1, 1946 in Kraków.
Belgium
The Janssen brothers (Louis, Charel, Arjaan and Sjef) were a famous and very successful pigeon racing family from Arendonk, Belgium. Louis Janssen, born 1912, was the last-surviving of the famous brothers. He died on 16 April 2013, at the age of 100. Descendants of the brothers' pigeons can be found racing all around the world.
Another famous and successful pigeon fancier is Karel Meulemans. Karel, born in Retie, also lives in Arendonk.
As often occurs in smaller communities there is much competition between the families Meulemans and Janssen.
UK and Ireland
The first regular race in Great Britain was in 1881. The British Royal Family first became involved with pigeon racing in 1886 when King Leopold II of Belgium gave them breeding stock. The tradition continues to this day, with a bird of Queen Elizabeth II even winning a race in 1990. The sport is declining in the UK with membership of recognised clubs and federations falling by about five per cent annually.
The National Flying Club is a British pigeon racing club, and open to anyone in England and Wales.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland pigeon racing is regulated by six independent organisations.
Irish Homing Union (IHU)
North of England Homing Union (NEHU)
North West Homing Union (NWHU)
Royal Pigeon Racing Association (RPRA)
Scottish Homing Union (SHU)
Welsh Homing Union (WPHU)
In 2007 the British Parliament banned pigeons racing from the mainland of continental Europe to Britain because of the risk of bird flu. A British MEP supported fanciers to have the ban lifted. Labour's MEP Brian Simpson, from Golborne, believed that it was unfair to allow concerns about avian flu to throttle the fanciers' sport. Simpson said, "But what is clearly apparent now is that pigeon are low-risk in regards to avian flu and the decision to ban continental pigeon racing was wrong."
Apart from the sport of racing against each other, fanciers also exhibit racing pigeons at organised shows and have a judge decide who has the better bird. British Homing World holds a show each year where all profits from the event are donated to both national and local charities, including Help the Aged and the Association for Spina Bifida and Hydrocephalus.
Romania
Pigeon racing in Romania is one of Europe's hot spots in the sport. Many pigeon breeders join the National Federations every year, triggering more and more competitive challenges. Another aspect is the image that has changed in the last decade in regards of pigeon racing, since nowadays it stands for a fine art within the country, with symbolic prizes and bets. A high collaboration with pigeon fanciers from Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany is also observed.
In Romania, the competition organized by Best Pigeons, more exact, the Madona National Maraton, in 2019 had the highest number of pigeons ever registered on a Romanian competition. Over 19.000 birds and over 1.000 breeders.
Turkey
The sport is popular in Turkey. In May 2008 a nine part, pigeon race from the town of Manisa to Erzurum was organised with participants from many pigeon associations across the country.
Africa
South Africa
South Africa is the home of the richest one-loft race in the world, the Million Dollar Pigeon Race. The Million Dollar Pigeon Race pits 4,300 birds from 25 countries against each other for a share of $1.3m in prize money. The runners-up win cars and smaller monetary prizes, while the overall winner can expect to pocket US$200,000. Sun City's one-loft race, sees birds from across the world air-freighted to South Africa as squabs, months before the race, and trained to orient to a single loft. Then on race day, after being released out on the South African veldt, the birds all race back to the same destination. The first race was in 1996 and attracted 893 pigeons. The race broke even after five years.
In February 2008 a pigeon fancier paid a South African record R800,000 for a racing pigeon at auction. The auction, where he bought several other birds, was held after the Sun City Million Dollar Pigeon Race.
See also
Cher Ami
Homing pigeon
Pigeon intelligence
Pigeon sport
Release dove
Up North Combine
War pigeon
Pigeon racing at the 1900 Summer Olympics
References
External links
Royal Pigeon Racing Association
American Racing Pigeon Union
International Federation of American Homing Pigeon Fanciers | [
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233933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Nash | Brian Nash | Brian Philip Nash (born 20 May 1963) is an English singer, songwriter, musician, author and actor. He is best known as the lead guitarist and backing vocalist of the synth-pop band Frankie Goes to Hollywood.
Early life
He attended secondary school at St Francis Xavier's College, Liverpool
Career
Nash worked as an electrician when he formed the band Sons and Egypt with Peter Gill and Holly Johnson. In 1980, Gill and Johnson left the band to form Frankie Goes to Hollywood, and Nash joined them later.
Seven singles and two albums released by Frankie Goes To Hollywood reached the top 30 on the UK charts.
From 1987 to 1997, Nash worked as a guitarist and songwriter for various bands. In 1997, he began a solo career, releasing music as Nasher. In July 2009, he recorded a version of "You'll Never Walk Alone" at his father's funeral service.
In 2012, Nash published the biographical book: Nasher Says Relax, about his life in the band Frankie Goes to Hollywood.
In 2015, he worked as an actor (Docker) in the film Saturday by Mike Forshaw.
Nash declined to take part in a 2004 Frankie reunion, but later agreed to a reunion when VH1's show Bands Reunited approached him. The band reunited but did not perform together because Holly Johnson declined.
Discography
Ripe (1999)
Le Grande Fromage (2003)
A Lo Minimo (2010)
432-1: Open The Vein (2017)
Filmography
Film
Bibliography
References
External links
1963 births
20th-century British guitarists
20th-century British male musicians
21st-century British guitarists
21st-century British male musicians
English male guitarists
English male singer-songwriters
English pop guitarists
Living people
Musicians from Liverpool
Frankie Goes to Hollywood members | [
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233934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Adams | Henry Adams | Henry Brooks Adams (February 16, 1838 – March 27, 1918) was an American historian and a member of the Adams political family, descended from two U.S. Presidents.
As a young Harvard graduate, he served as secretary to his father, Charles Francis Adams, Abraham Lincoln's ambassador to the United Kingdom. The posting influenced the younger man through the experience of wartime diplomacy, and absorption in English culture, especially the works of John Stuart Mill. After the American Civil War, he became a political journalist who entertained America's foremost intellectuals at his homes in Washington and Boston.
During his lifetime, he was best known for The History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, a nine-volume work, praised for its literary style, command of the documentary evidence, and deep (family) knowledge of the period and its major figures.
His posthumously published memoir, The Education of Henry Adams, won the Pulitzer Prize and went on to be named by the Modern Library as the best English-language nonfiction book of the 20th century.
Early life
He was born in Boston on February 16, 1838, into one of the country's most prominent families. His parents were Charles Francis Adams, Sr. (1807–1886) and Abigail Brooks (1808–1889). Both his paternal grandfather, John Quincy Adams, and great-grandfather, John Adams, one of the most prominent among the Founding Fathers, had been U.S. Presidents. His maternal grandfather, Peter Chardon Brooks, was one of Massachusetts' most successful and wealthiest merchants. Another great-grandfather, Nathaniel Gorham, signed the Constitution.
After his graduation from Harvard University in 1858, he embarked on a grand tour of Europe, during which he also attended lectures in civil law at the University of Berlin. He was initiated into the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity as an honorary member at the 1893 Columbian Exposition by Harris J. Ryan, a judge for the exhibit on electrical engineering. Through that organization, he was a member of the Irving Literary Society.
During the Civil War
Adams returned home from Europe in the midst of the heated presidential election of 1860. He tried his hand again at law, taking employment with Judge Horace Gray's Boston firm, but this was short-lived.
His father, Charles Francis Adams, Sr., was also seeking re-election to the US House of Representatives. After his successful re-election, Charles Francis asked Henry to be his private secretary, continuing a father-son pattern set by John and John Quincy and suggesting that Charles Francis had chosen Henry as the political scion of that generation of the family. Henry shouldered the responsibility reluctantly and with much self-doubt. "[I] had little to do", he reflected later, "and knew not how to do it rightly."
During this time, Adams was the anonymous Washington correspondent for Charles Hale's Boston Daily Advertiser.
London (1861–68)
On March 19, 1861, Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Sr. United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom. Henry accompanied his father to London as his private secretary. He also became the anonymous London correspondent for the New York Times. The two Adamses were kept very busy, monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and trying to obstruct the construction of Confederate commerce raiders by British shipyards (see Alabama Claims). Henry's writings for the Times argued that Americans should be patient with the British. While in Britain, Adams was befriended by many noted men, including Charles Lyell, Francis T. Palgrave, Richard Monckton Milnes, James Milnes Gaskell, and Charles Milnes Gaskell. He worked to introduce the young Henry James to English society, with the help of his closest and lifelong friend Charles Milnes Gaskell and his wife Lady Catherine (nee Wallop).
While in Britain, Henry read and was taken with the works of John Stuart Mill. For Adams, Mill's Considerations on Representative Government showed the necessity of an enlightened, moral, and intelligent elite to provide leadership to a government elected by the masses and subject to demagoguery, ignorance, and corruption. Henry wrote to his brother Charles that Mill demonstrated to him that "democracy is still capable of rewarding a conscientious servant." His years in London led Adams to conclude that he could best provide that knowledgeable and conscientious leadership by working as a correspondent and journalist.
Return to America
In 1868, Adams returned to the United States and settled in Washington, DC, where he began working as a journalist. Adams saw himself as a traditionalist longing for the democratic ideal of the 17th and 18th centuries. Accordingly, he was keen on exposing political corruption in his journalism.
Harvard professor
In 1870, Adams was appointed professor of medieval history at Harvard, a position he held until his early retirement in 1877 at 39. As an academic historian, Adams is considered to have been the first (in 1874–1876) to conduct historical seminar work in the United States. Among his students was Henry Cabot Lodge, who worked closely with Adams as a graduate student.
Adams was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1875.
Author
Adams's The History of the United States of America (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889–1891) is a highly detailed history of the Jefferson and Madison administrations with a focus on diplomacy. Wide praise was given for its literary merit, especially the opening five chapters of volume 1, describing the nation in 1800. These chapters have also been criticized; Noble Cunningham states flatly, "Adams misjudged the state of the nation in 1800." In striving for literary effect, Cunningham argues, Adams ignored the dynamism and sophistication of the new nation. Such arguments aside, historians have long recognized it as a major and permanent monument of American historiography. It has been called "a neglected masterpiece" by Garry Wills, and "a history yet to be replaced" by the great historian C. Vann Woodward.
In the 1880s, Adams wrote two novels, starting with Democracy, which was published anonymously in 1880 and immediately became popular in literary circles in England and Europe as well as in America. (Only after Adams's death did his publisher reveal his authorship.) His other novel, published under the nom de plume of Frances Snow Compton, was Esther, whose heroine was believed to be modeled after his wife.
During the late 1860s and early 1870s, Adams edited, with the assistance of his brother Charles Francis Adams, the major American intellectual-literary journal, The North American Review. During his tenure it published a number of articles exposing corrupt malpractices in finance, corporations and government, anticipating the work of the "muckrakers" by a generation. The brothers collected several of their most important essays in Chapters Of Erie (1871). This experience marked the public commencement of Henry Adams' critical observation of, and radical disenchantment with, the operations and ascendancy of corporations and centralized finance in the economic, social and political life of America. Summarizing the observations of a lifetime, he wrote to his brother Brooks on September 20, 1910 (vol. 6 p. 369-370, Letters, ed. Levenson et al.): "Our system of protection [of industry and commerce]... is fatal to our principles.... Railways, trusts, banking-system, manufactures, capital and labor, all rest on the principle of monopoly ... The suggestion that these great corporate organisms, which now perform all the vital functions of our social life, should behave themselves decently, gives away our contention that they have no right to exist. Nor am I prepared to admit that more decency can be attained through a legislature made up of similar people exercising similar illegal powers.... From top to bottom the whole system is a fraud.... The conviction of having reached this point where we have no choice but to go on in our own rot, drove me out of all share in public affairs twenty years ago.. Every one who has assumed such a share since then has only muddled and made the matter worse."
In 1884, Adams was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In 1892, he received the degree LL.D., from Western Reserve University. In 1894, Adams was elected president of the American Historical Association. His address, entitled "The Tendency of History", was delivered in absentia. The essay predicted the development of a scientific approach to history, but was somewhat ambiguous as to what this achievement might mean.
During the 1890s, Adams exercised a profound and fruitful influence over the thought and writings of his younger brother Brooks. His own essay, The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, an offshoot of their decades long conversations and correspondence, was published years later.
Adams was an accomplished poet and in later life a friend of young poets—notably George Cabot Lodge and Trumbull Stickney—but published nothing in his lifetime. His important poems "Buddha and Brahma" and "Prayers to the Virgin and the Dynamo" are included (respectively) in the Library of America's Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Anthologies and a half dozen sonnets, a Troubadour translation and one lyric are scattered through the letters. It is an open and intriguing question whether the Massachusetts Historical Society or other archives preserve more.
In 1904, Adams privately published a copy of his "Mont Saint Michel and Chartres", a pastiche of history, travel, and poetry that celebrated the unity of medieval society, especially as represented in the great cathedrals of France. Originally meant as a diversion for his nieces and "nieces-in-wish", it was publicly released in 1913 at the request of Ralph Adams Cram, an important American architect, and published with support of the American Institute of Architects.
He published The Education of Henry Adams in 1907, in a small private edition for selected friends. Only following Adams's death was The Education made available to the general public, in an edition issued by the Massachusetts Historical Society. It ranked first on the Modern Library's 1998 list of 100 Best Nonfiction Books and was named the best book of the 20th century by the Intercollegiate Studies Institute, a conservative organization that promotes classical education. It was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1919.
Some center-right intellectuals view the book critically. Conservative journalist Fred Siegel considered the worldview expressed therein to be rooted in resentment of America's middle class. "Henry Adams," wrote Siegel, "grounded the intellectual's alienation from American life in the resentment that superior men feel when they are insufficiently appreciated in America's common-man culture." Others view Adams's critique of the commercialism, corruption and pecuniolatry of American mercantile culture as central.
Personal life
Relations
Siblings
John Quincy Adams II (1833–1894) was a graduate of Harvard (1853), practiced law, and was a Democratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general court. In 1872, he was nominated for vice president by the Democratic faction that refused to support the nomination of Horace Greeley.
Charles Francis Adams Jr. (1835–1915) fought with the Union in the Civil War, receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier general in the regular army. He became an authority on railway management as the author of Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878), and as president of the Union Pacific Railroad from 1884 to 1890. He collaborated with Henry on the editing of The North Atlantic Review and other projects.
Brooks Adams (1848–1927) practiced law and became a writer. His books include The Gold Standard (1894), The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895), America's Economic Supremacy (1900), The New Empire (1902), The Theory of Social Revolutions (1914), and The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1919). Henry's influence on and involvement with his youngest brother's thought and writing was profound and enduring.
Louisa Catherine Adams Kuhn Her brother describes her death in 1870 from tetanus following a carriage accident in Bagni di Lucca in his Chaos Chapter of The Education of Henry Adams. She is buried in Florence's 'English' Cemetery.
Social life and friendships
Adams was a member of an exclusive circle, a group of friends called the "Five of Hearts" that consisted of Henry, his wife Clover, geologist and mountaineer Clarence King, John Hay (assistant to Lincoln and later Secretary of State), and Hay's wife Clara.
One of Adams's frequent travel companions was the artist John La Farge, with whom he journeyed to Japan and the South Seas.
From 1885 until 1888, Theodore Frelinghuysen Dwight (1846–1917), the State Department's chief librarian, lived with Adams at his home at 1603 H Street in Washington, D.C., where he served as Adams's literary assistant, personal secretary, and household manager. Dwight would go on to serve as archivist of the Adams family archives in Quincy, Massachusetts; director of the Boston Public Library; and U.S. Consul at Vevey, Switzerland.
Marriage to Marian "Clover" Hooper
On June 27, 1872, Adams married Clover Hooper in Beverly, Massachusetts. They spent their honeymoon in Europe, much of it with Charles Milnes Gaskell at Wenlock Abbey, Shropshire. While there, exemplifying the New England civic conscience she and Henry shared, Clover wrote "England is charming for a few families but hopeless for most ... Thank the Lord that the American eagle flaps and screams over us." Upon their return, Adams went back to his position at Harvard, and their home at 91 Marlborough Street, Boston, became a gathering place for a lively circle of intellectuals. In 1877, his wife and he moved to Washington, DC, where their home on Lafayette Square, across from the White House, again became a dazzling and witty center of social life. He worked as a journalist and continued working as a historian.
Her suicide
On Sunday morning, December 6, 1885, after a late breakfast at their home, 1607 H Street on Lafayette Square, Clover Hooper Adams went to her room. Henry, troubled by a toothache, had planned to see his dentist. While departing his home, he was met by a woman calling to see his wife. Adams went upstairs to her room to ask if she would receive the visitor and found his wife lying on a rug before the fire; an opened vial of potassium cyanide, which Clover had frequently used in processing photographs, lay nearby. Adams carried his wife to a sofa, then ran for a doctor. Shortly thereafter, Dr. Charles E. Hagner pronounced Clover dead.
Much speculation and numerous theories have been given concerning the causes of Clover Adams's suicide. Her death has been attributed to depression over her father's death. Her suicide was also related to a family history of mental depression and suicide, a sense of frustration and lack of fulfillment as a cultured person and as a woman, and a feeling of intellectual inferiority over her husband's interest in and attention to another woman. The possibility of determining the validity of any or all of these causes was made more difficult by Henry Adams's destruction of most of Clover's letters and photos following her death. His autobiography maintains a profound silence about his wife after her suicide. Adams's grief was profound and enduring. The event was life-shattering for Adams and profoundly altered the course of his life.
Henry, his brother, Charles Francis Adams, Clover's brother Edward, and her sister Ellen, with her husband Ephraim Gurney, were the attendees at a brief funeral service held on December 9, 1885, at the house on Lafayette Square. Interment services followed at Rock Creek Cemetery, but the actual burial was postponed until December 11, 1885, because of the inclement weather. A few weeks later, Adams ordered a modest headstone as a temporary marker. Later he commissioned a monument for her tomb from his friend, the sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who created a masterpiece for her memorial.
Relationship with Elizabeth Sherman Cameron
Henry Adams first met Elizabeth Cameron in January 1881 at a reception in the drawing room of the house of John and Clara Hay. Elizabeth was considered to be one of the most beautiful and intelligent women in the Washington area. Elizabeth had grown up as Lizzie Sherman, the daughter of Judge Charles Sherman of Ohio, the niece of Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman in Hayes's cabinet, and the niece of General William Tecumseh Sherman. Her family had pressured Lizzie into a loveless marriage with Senator J. Donald Cameron, brokering a prenuptial agreement that provided her with the income from $160,000 worth of securities, a very large amount in 1878, equivalent to about $ million in . The arranged marriage on May 9, 1878, united the reluctant 20-year-old beauty with a 44-year-old widower with six children. Eliza, his eldest, who had served as her father's hostess, was now displaced by a stepmother the same age. The children never accepted her. The marriage was further strained by the Senator's coarseness and indifference and his fondness for bourbon and the world of political corruption he inhabited, which is reflected in Adams's novel Democracy.
Henry Adams initiated a correspondence with Lizzie on May 19, 1883, when she and her husband departed for Europe. That letter reflected his unhappiness with her departure and his longing for her return. It was the first of hundreds to follow for the next 35 years, recording a passionate yet unconsummated relationship. On December 7, 1884, one year before Clover's suicide, Henry Adams wrote to Lizzie, "I shall dedicate my next poem to you. I shall have you carved over the arch of my stone doorway. I shall publish your volume of extracts with your portrait on the title page. None of these methods can fully express the extent to which I am yours."
Adams's wife, Clover, who had written a weekly letter to her father throughout her marriage except for the brief hiatus during her breakdown along the Nile, never mentioned concerns or suspicions about Henry's relationship with Lizzie. Nothing in the letters of her family or circle of friends indicates her distrust or unhappiness with her husband in this matter. Indeed, after her death, Henry found a letter from Clover to her sister Ellen which had not been posted. The survival of this letter was assured by its contents which read, "If I had one single point of character or goodness, I would stand on that and grow back to life. Henry is more patient and loving than words can express—God might envy him—he bears and hopes and despairs hour after hour—Henry is beyond all words tenderer and better than all of you even."
On Christmas Day 1885, Adams sent one of Clover's favorite pieces of jewelry to Cameron, requesting that she "sometimes wear it, to remind you of her."
Later life and travels
Just before the end of 1885, Adams moved into his newly completed mansion next door at 1603 H Street designed by his old friend, Henry Hobson Richardson, one of the most prominent architects of his day.
Following his wife's death, Adams took up a restless life as a globetrotter, traveling extensively, spending summers in Paris and winters in Washington, where he commissioned the Adams Memorial, designed by sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens and architect Stanford White for her grave site in Rock Creek Cemetery.
Death and burial
In 1912, Adams suffered a stroke, perhaps brought on by news of the sinking of the , for which he had return tickets to Europe. After the stroke, his scholarly output diminished, but he continued to travel, write letters, and host dignitaries and friends at his Washington, DC, home.
In the first volume of her autobiography Eleanor Roosevelt offers this vignette of Adams in old age: "Occasionally we received one of the much-coveted invitations to lunch or dine at his house... My first picture of this supposedly stern, rather biting Mr. Adams is of an old gentleman in a victoria outside of our house on N Street. [His secretary] Aileen Tone and I were having tea inside, but Mr. Adams never paid calls. He did, however, request that the children of the house come out and join him in the victoria; ... and they brought their Scottie dog and sat and chatted and played all over the vehicle. No one was ever able thereafter to persuade me that Mr. Adams was quite the cynic he was supposed to be. One day after lunch with him, my husband [the future President] mentioned something which at the time was causing him deep concern in the Government, and Mr. Adams looked at him rather fiercely and said: 'Young man, I have lived in this house many years and seen the occupants of that White House across the square come and go, and nothing that you minor officials or the occupant of that house can do will affect the history of the world for long!' ... Henry Adams loved to shock his hearers, and I think he knew that those who were worth their salt would understand him and pick out of the knowledge which flowed from his lips the things which might be useful, and discard the cynicism as an old man's defense against his own urge to be [still] an active factor in the work of the world."
Henry Adams died at age 80 in Washington, DC. on March 27, 1918. He is interred beside his wife in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, DC.
Views
Anglo-Saxonism
Considered a prominent Anglo-Saxonist of particularly the nineteenth-century, Adams has been portrayed by modern historians as anxious about the immigration of the era into the United States, particularly from Eastern Europe. More starkly put, Adams also wrote of his belief that "the dark races are gaining on us". He considered the U.S. Constitution itself as belonging to the Anglo-Saxon "race", and as an expression of "Germanic freedom". He went so far as to criticize fellow scholars for not being absolute enough in their Anglo-Saxonism, such as William Stubbs, whom he criticized for downplaying the significance, as he saw it, of "Germanic law" or hundred law in its contribution to English common law.
Adams was nevertheless highly critical of the English. He referred to them as a "besotted race" from whom nothing good could come and "wanted nothing so much as to wipe England off the earth."
Antisemitism
Adams's attitude towards Jews has been described as one of loathing. John Hay said that when Adams "saw Vesuvius reddening ... [he] searched for a Jew stoking the fire."
Adams wrote: "I detest [the Jews], and everything connected with them, and I live only and solely with the hope of seeing their demise, with all their accursed Judaism. I want to see all the lenders at interest taken out and executed." To one friend, he wrote: "Bombard New York. I know no place that would be more improved by it. The chief population is Jew, and the rest is German Jew."
His letters were "peppered with a variety of antisemitic remarks", according to historian Robert Michael, as in the following citations from historian Edward Saveth:
"We are in the hands of the Jews", Adams lamented. "They can do what they please with our values." He advised against investment except in the form of gold locked in a safe deposit box. "There you have no risk but the burglar. In any other form you have the burglar, the Jew, the Czar, the socialist, and, above all, the total irremediable, radical rottenness of our whole social, industrial, financial and political system."
Edward Chalfant's definitive three-volume biography of Adams includes an exhaustive, well-documented examination of Adams's "antisemitism" in its second volume, Improvement of the World. He shows that most of the time when Adams says "Jews" he means "financiers." This accords with the historical English usage referenced by the second definition under the Oxford English Dictionary entry, a usage that was common in Adams's time and social milieu. It also accords with Adams's frequent laments that "the eighteenth-century fabric of a priori, or moral, principles" had been replaced with "a bankers' world" and that the "banking mind was obnoxious".
Adams esteemed individual Jewish personages. In the "Dilettantism" chapter of The Education of Henry Adams he wrote of historian Francis Palgrave that "the reason of his superiority lay in his name, which was Cohen, and his mind which was Cohen also". (Palgrave, the son of a Jewish stockbroker, had changed his name from Cohen upon marriage.) In the "Political Morality" chapter of the same volume he praises the Jewish statesman Benjamin Disraeli over the Gentiles Palmerston, Russell and Gladstone, writing: "Complex these gentlemen were not. Disraeli alone might, by contrast, be called complex."
Historical entropy
In 1910, Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a "theory of history" based on the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of entropy. This, essentially, states that all energy dissipates, order becomes disorder, and the earth will eventually become uninhabitable. In short, he applied the physics of dynamical systems of Rudolf Clausius, Hermann von Helmholtz, and William Thomson to the modeling of human history.
In his 1909 manuscript The Rule of Phase Applied to History, Adams attempted to use Maxwell's demon as a historical metaphor, though he seems to have misunderstood and misapplied the principle. Adams interpreted history as a process moving towards "equilibrium", but he saw militaristic nations (he felt Germany pre-eminent in this class) as tending to reverse this process, a "Maxwell's Demon of history."
Adams made many attempts to respond to the criticism of his formulation from his scientific colleagues, but the work remained incomplete at Adams's death in 1918. It was published posthumously.
Robert E. Lee
Adams said, "I think that Lee should have been hanged. It was all the worse that he was a good man and a fine character and acted conscientiously. It's always the good men who do the most harm in the world."
The Virgin Mary
In Mont Saint-Michel and Chartres, Adams argues that the previous nineteen hundred years of civilization dating from the birth of Christ had been dominated by the feminine, fertile image of the Blessed Virgin, and that the industrial "dynamo" was a masculine, destructive force which would upend history.
Writings by Adams
1876. Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (with Henry Cabot Lodge, Ernest Young and J.L. Laughlin).
1879. Life of Albert Gallatin.
1879. The Writings of Albert Gallatin (as editor, three volumes).
1880. Democracy: An American Novel.
1882. John Randolph.
1884. Esther: A Novel (facsimile ed., 1938, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ).
1889–1891. History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (9 volumes).
1891. Historical Essays.
1893. Tahiti: Memoirs of Arii Taimai e Marama of Eimee ... Last Queen of Tahiti (facsimile of the 1901 Paris ed., 1947 Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ).
1904. Mont Saint Michel and Chartres.
1911. The Life of George Cabot Lodge (facsimile ed. 1978, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ).
1918. The Education of Henry Adams.
1919. The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma.
1930–1938. Letters (Edited by W.C. Ford, two volumes).
1982. The Letters of Henry Adams, Volumes 1–3: 1858–1892 (Edited by J.C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels and Charles Vandersee).
1988. The Letters of Henry Adams, Volumes 4–6: 1892–1918 (Edited by J.C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels and Charles Vandersee).
Reprinted
Democracy: An American Novel, Esther, Mont Saint Michel and Chartres, The Education of Henry Adams (Ernest Samuels, ed.) (Library of America, 1983)
History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison (Earl N. Harbert, ed.) (Library of America, 1986) Vol I (Jefferson) . Vol II (Madison) .
See also
Maxwell's demon
The Education of Henry Adams
References
Further reading
Adams, James Truslow (1933). Henry Adams. New York: Albert & Charles Boni, Inc.
Adams, Marian Hooper (1936). The Letters of Mrs. Henry Adams, 1865–1883. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. (Edited by W. Thoron).
Baym, Max Isaac (1951). The French Education of Henry Adams. Columbia University Press.
Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (Rutledge, 1999) 1:2–4
Brookhiser, Richard (2002). America's First Dynasty: The Adamses, 1735–1918. New York: Free Press.
Brown, David S. (2020). The Last American Aristocrat: The Brilliant Life and Improbable Education of Henry Adams. Scribner.
Cater, H.D., ed., (1947). Henry Adams and His Friends: A Collection of His Unpublished Letters. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chalfant, Edward (1982). Both Sides of the Ocean: A biography of Henry Adams, His First Life, 1838–1862. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books
Chalfant, Edward (1994). Better in Darkness: A Biography of Henry Adams, His Second Life, 1862–1891. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books
Chalfant, Edward (2001). Improvement of the World: A Biography of Henry Adams, His Third Life, 1891–1918. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books .
Decker, William Merrill (1990). The Literary Vocation of Henry Adams. University of North Carolina Press.
Donovan, Timothy Paul (1961). Henry Adams and Brooks Adams: The Education of Two American Historians. University of Oklahoma Press.
Dusinberre, William (1980). Henry Adams: The Myth of Failure. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
Egerton, Douglas R. (2019). Heirs of an Honored Name: The Decline of the Adams Family and the Rise of Modern America. New York: Basic Books.
Harbert, Earl N. (1977). The Force So Much Closer Home: Henry Adams and the Adams Family. New York University Press.
Harbert, Earl N., ed. (1981). Critical Essays on Henry Adams. Boston: G.K. Hall. Contributors include Henry Steele Commager, Ernest Samuels, Howard M. Munford, and Margaret J. Brown.
Hochfield, George (1962). Henry Adams: An Introduction and Interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Hume, Robert A. (1951). Runaway Star: An Appreciation of Henry Adams. Cornell University Press.
Jacobson, Joanne (1992). Authority and Alliance in the Letters of Henry Adams. University of Wisconsin Press.
Jordy, William H. (1952). Henry Adams: Scientific Historian. New Haven: Yale University Press. OCLC 427157
Kaplan, Harold (1981). Power and Order: Henry Adams and the Naturalist Tradition in American Fiction. University of Chicago Press.
Le Clair, Robert Charles (1978). Three American Travellers in England: James Russell Lowell, Henry Adams, Henry James. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Levenson, J.C. (1957). The Mind and Art of Henry Adams. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Lyon, Melvin (1970). Symbol and Idea in Henry Adams. University of Nebraska Press.
O'Toole, Patricia (1990). The Five of Hearts: An Intimate Portrait of Henry Adams and His Friends, 1880–1918. New York: Clarkson. N. Potter.
Rowe, John Carlos, ed., (1996). New Essays on the Education of Henry Adams. Cambridge University Press.
Samuels, Ernest (1948). The Young Henry Adams. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Samuels, Ernest (1958). Henry Adams: The Middle Years. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Samuels, Ernest (1964). Henry Adams: The Major Phase. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Samuels, Ernest (1989). Henry Adams. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. (Abridgement of the three above volumes.)
Sayre, Robert F. (1964). Examined Self: Benjamin Franklin, Henry Adams, Henry James. Princeton University Press.
Scheyer, Ernst (1970). The Circle of Henry Adams: Art & Artists. Wayne State University Press.
Simpson, Brooks D. (1996). The Political Education of Henry Adams. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
Stegmaier, Mark J. (2012). Henry Adams in the Secession Crisis. Louisiana State University Press.
Wagner, Vern (1969). The Suspension of Henry Adams: A Study of Manner and Matter. Wayne State University Press.
Wasserstrom, William (1984). The Ironies of Progress: Henry Adams and the American Dream. Southern Illinois University Press.
Wills, Garry (2005). Henry Adams and the Making of America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Young, James P. (2001). Henry Adams: The Historian as Political Theorist. University Press of Kansas.
Zencey, Eric (1995). Panama. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
External links
Works by Henry Adams, at Hathi Trust
Works by Henry Adams, at The University of Virginia American Studies Hypertext Project
The Letters of Henry Adams
Henry Adams, Globe Trotter in Space and Time
Index entry for Henry Brooks Adams at Poets' Corner
The Broken Arch, an unpublished work by Lorrie Tussman exploring the theme of unity in Western civilization based on the writings of Henry Adams
"Writings of Henry Adams" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
1838 births
1918 deaths
19th-century American historians
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American novelists
Adams political family
American expatriates in France
American male novelists
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Harvard University faculty
Harvard University alumni
Historians of the United States
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Novelists from Massachusetts
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography winners
Writers from Boston
American male biographers
American male non-fiction writers | [
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233935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe%20bomb | Pipe bomb | A pipe bomb is an improvised explosive device which uses a tightly sealed section of pipe filled with an explosive material. The containment provided by the pipe means that simple low explosives can be used to produce a relatively huge explosion due to the containment causing increased pressure, and the fragmentation of the pipe itself creates potentially lethal shrapnel.
Premature detonation is a hazard of attempting to construct any homemade bomb, and the materials and methods used with pipe bombs make unintentional detonation incidents common, usually resulting in serious injury or death to the assembler.
In many countries, the manufacture or possession of a pipe bomb is a serious crime, regardless of its intended use.
Design
The bomb is usually a short section of steel water pipe containing the explosive mixture and closed at both ends with steel or brass caps. A fuse is inserted into the pipe with a lead running out through a hole in the side or capped end of the pipe. The fuse can be electric, with wires leading to a timer and battery, or can be a common fuse. All of the components are easily obtainable.
Generally, high explosives such as TNT are not used, because these and the detonators that they require are difficult for non-state users to obtain. Such explosives also do not require the containment of a pipe bomb.
Instead, any sort of explosive mixture the builder can find or make is used. Some of the explosive mixtures used, such as gunpowder, match heads, or chlorate mixtures, are very prone to ignition by the friction and static electricity and sparks generated when packing the material inside the tube or attaching the end caps, causing many injuries or deaths amongst builders. Sharp objects such as nails or broken glass are sometimes added to the outer shell, or inside, of the bomb to increase potential injury, damage, and death.
Operation
Pipe bombs concentrate pressure and release it suddenly, through the failure of the outer casing. Plastic materials can be used, but metals typically have a much higher bursting strength and so will produce more concussive force. For example, common schedule 40 wrought steel pipe has a typical working pressure of , and bursting pressure of , though the pipe sealing method can significantly reduce the burst pressure.
The pipe can rupture in different ways, depending on the rate of pressure rise and the ductility of the casing material.
If the pressure rise is slow, the metal can deform until the walls become thin and a hole is formed, causing a loud report from the gas release, but no shrapnel.
A rapid rate of pressure rise will cause the metal to shatter into fragments, which are pushed outward in all directions by the expanding gases.
Modes of failure
Pipe bombs can fail to explode if the gas pressure buildup is too slow, resulting in bleed-out through the detonator ignition hole. Insufficiently tight threading can also bleed gas pressure through the threads faster than the chemical reaction pressure can rise.
They can also fail if the pipe is fully sealed and the chemical reaction triggered, but the total pressure buildup from the chemicals is insufficient to exceed the casing strength; such a bomb is a dud, but still potentially dangerous if handled, since an external shock could trigger rupture of the statically pressurized casing.
Minimum evacuation distances
If any type of bomb is suspected, typical recommendations are to keep all people at a minimum evacuation distance until authorized bomb disposal personnel arrive. For a pipe bomb, the US Department of Homeland Security recommends a minimum of , and preferred distance of .
Uses
Pipe bombs are by nature improvised weapons and typically used by those without access to military devices such as grenades. They were successfully used in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). During World War II, members of the British Home Guard were trained to make and use them.
In Northern Ireland, there have been hundreds of pipe bomb attacks since the mid-1990s (towards the end of the "Troubles"). Most of the attacks have been launched by loyalist paramilitaries, especially the Red Hand Defenders, Orange Volunteers and Ulster Defence Association. However, they have also been used by Irish republican paramilitaries and by anti-drugs vigilante group Republican Action Against Drugs. They are also used extensively in the south of Ireland by feuding criminals, including drug dealers, mainly in the capital city of Dublin.
As well as users such as criminals, paramilitaries, and militias, they also have a long tradition of recreational use for amusement or mischief with no intention to cause injury to anyone, but due to the dangers of premature ignition and of shrapnel, pipe bombs are much more dangerous than alternatives such as dry ice bombs or potato cannons.
Notable incidents
On 4 May 1886, a pipe bomb was thrown during a rally at Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It reached a police line and exploded, killing policeman Mathias J. Degan. The bomb was made from gas-pipe filled with dynamite and capped at both ends with wooden blocks.
From August 1977 to November 1977 Allan Steen Kristensen planted several bombs across Copenhagen, Denmark injuring 5 but killing no one.
In 1985, Palestinian American anti-discrimination activist Alex Odeh was killed in California by a pipe-bomb. Activists from the Jewish Defense League are suspected of being the bombers.
On December 16, 1989, Federal Judge Robert Vance was assassinated in his home in Mountain Brook, Alabama when he opened a package that contained a pipe bomb mailed by Walter Leroy Moody in Mountain Brook, Alabama.
On 27 July 1996, Eric Rudolph used a pipe bomb in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing during the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It killed two people and injured 111.
During the preparation of the Columbine High School Massacre, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold had experimented with pipe bombs. During their testing and experimentation, Eric Harris had posted their results on his website. During the massacre, Harris and Klebold had used their pipe bombs as makeshift hand grenades, alongside various other bombs they had crudely manufactured.
On 11 December 2010 a suicide bomber detonated one out of six pipe bombs close to a major shopping district in Stockholm, Sweden, killing himself with no other casualties in what is known as the 2010 Stockholm bombings.
In October 2018, pipe bombs without triggering devices were sent to various liberal and political figures in the United States. Recipients included political activist and investor George Soros, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, former President Barack Obama, former CIA Director John Brennan, and former Attorney General Eric Holder.
On 6 January 2021, a pipe bomb was found at the headquarters of the Republican National Committee, during the certification of President-elect Joe Biden. An unidentified object was also found at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, resulting in an evacuation.
See also
Improvised explosive device
TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook
References
–Apparatus and method for disarming pipe bombs
Improvised explosive devices
Insurgency weapons | [
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233936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Stewart | Charles Stewart | Chuck, Charlie or Charles Stewart may refer to:
Academics
Charles Stewart (orientalist) (1764–1837), British author, translator and scholar
Charles Stewart (zoologist) (1840–1907), English comparative anatomist and lecturer
Charles Hunter Stewart (1854–1924), Scottish physician, public health expert and professor
Charles Stewart III, American author and professor of political science at MIT since 1985
Military officers
Charles Stewart (British Army officer) (1775–1812), battalion commander who died in Napoleonic wars
Charles Stewart (American Navy officer) (1778–1869), ship captain in War of 1812
Charles Seaforth Stewart (1823–1904), American Civil War colonel in Army Corps of Engineers
Performers
Charles Henry Hylton Stewart, English clergyman and organist
Charles Hylton Stewart (1884–1932), his son, English cathedral organist
Charles Stewart (actor) (1923–2016), American performer and tennis player
Charles Stewart (rapper) (born 1971), American performer; stage name Chali 2na
Politicians
Charles Stewart, 3rd Duke of Richmond (1639–1672), English peer; sat in Convention Parliament
Charles Stewart (Royal Navy officer) (1681–1741), English military and political figure
Charles Stewart, Irish MP for Cavan County during 1783–87 and 1790–93
Charles Stewart (New Jersey politician) (1729–1800), American Continental Congress delegate, 1784–85
Charles Stewart (bishop) (1775–1837), Church of England clergyman, bishop and Lower Canada politician
Charles William Stewart (1778–1854), Irish soldier in British Army; later Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry
Charles Bellinger Stewart (1806–1885), American political leader in Texas Republic
Charles Stewart (Harris County politician) (1836–1895), American state senator from Texas, 1879–1883
Charles Stewart (Australian politician) (1844–1919), member of Tasmanian Parliament
Charles H. Stewart (1867–1936), American mayor of Melbourne, Florida (1890–1891, 1902–1905)
Charles Stewart (premier) (1868–1946), Canadian premier of Alberta, 1917–1921
Charles Wallace Stewart (1885–1948), Canadian Member of Parliament for Humboldt, Saskatchewan
Charles Stewart (Wainwright MLA) (1917–1991), Canadian Member of Alberta Legislative Assembly, 1975–1982
Charles Stewart (Northern Ireland politician), Northern Ireland House of Commons independent member, 1958–1966
Sportsmen
Footballers
Charlie Stewart (footballer, born 1880) (1880–1957), Australian full-forward and World War I veteran
Charlie Stewart (footballer, born c. 1910) (c. 1910–after 1964), Australian rules player and coach
Charlie Stewart (soccer, born 1928), Australian association player
Charlie Stewart (footballer, born 1939), Australian wingman and coach
Charlie Stewart (Scottish footballer), outside left during late 1950s early 1960s
Other sportsmen
Charles Stewart (sport shooter) (1881–1965), English Olympic sport shooter
Charles Stewart (ice hockey) (1895–1973), Canadian goaltender for Boston Bruins, 1924–27
Charles Stewart (rugby union) (1860–1890), Scottish rugby union player
Charlie Stewart (rugby union) (1936–1998), Scottish rugby union player
Others
Charles Stewart (customs official), Scottish-born American merchant in 1772 Somersett Case
Charles Stewart, 7th Earl of Traquair (1746–1827), Scottish landowner
Charles Stewart (diplomat) (1907–1979), British ambassador to Iceland and Libya
Charles E. Stewart Jr. (1916–1994), American federal judge
Chuck Stewart (1927–2017), American photographer of jazz singers and musicians
Charles Stewart (minister) (born 1946), Church of Scotland priest
Charles Henry Stewart (1824–1894), Ceylon judge
Charles J. Stewart (business), chairman of Manufacturers Hanover Trust Company
Places
Mount Charles Stewart, in Canada's Banff National Park
See also
Charles Stuart (disambiguation)
Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart (disambiguation) | [
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233942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective%20computing | Affective computing | Affective computing is the study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer science, psychology, and cognitive science. While some core ideas in the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical inquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing and her book Affective Computing published by MIT Press. One of the motivations for the research is the ability to give machines emotional intelligence, including to simulate empathy. The machine should interpret the emotional state of humans and adapt its behavior to them, giving an appropriate response to those emotions.
Areas
Detecting and recognizing emotional information
Detecting emotional information usually begins with passive sensors that capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. For example, a video camera might capture facial expressions, body posture, and gestures, while a microphone might capture speech. Other sensors detect emotional cues by directly measuring physiological data, such as skin temperature and galvanic resistance.
Recognizing emotional information requires the extraction of meaningful patterns from the gathered data. This is done using machine learning techniques that process different modalities, such as speech recognition, natural language processing, or facial expression detection. The goal of most of these techniques is to produce labels that would match the labels a human perceiver would give in the same situation: For example, if a person makes a facial expression furrowing their brow, then the computer vision system might be taught to label their face as appearing "confused" or as "concentrating" or "slightly negative" (as opposed to positive, which it might say if they were smiling in a happy-appearing way). These labels may or may not correspond to what the person is actually feeling.
Emotion in machines
Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. A more practical approach, based on current technological capabilities, is the simulation of emotions in conversational agents in order to enrich and facilitate interactivity between human and machine.
Marvin Minsky, one of the pioneering computer scientists in artificial intelligence, relates emotions to the broader issues of machine intelligence stating in The Emotion Machine that emotion is "not especially different from the processes that we call 'thinking.'"
Technologies
In psychology, cognitive science, and in neuroscience, there have been two main approaches for describing how humans perceive and classify emotion: continuous or categorical. The continuous approach tends to use dimensions such as negative vs. positive, calm vs. aroused.
The categorical approach tends to use discrete classes such as happy, sad, angry, fearful, surprise, disgust. Different kinds of machine learning regression and classification models can be used for having machines produce continuous or discrete labels. Sometimes models are also built that allow combinations across the categories, e.g. a happy-surprised face or a fearful-surprised face.
The following sections consider many of the kinds of input data used for the task of emotion recognition.
Emotional speech
Various changes in the autonomic nervous system can indirectly alter a person's speech, and affective technologies can leverage this information to recognize emotion. For example, speech produced in a state of fear, anger, or joy becomes fast, loud, and precisely enunciated, with a higher and wider range in pitch, whereas emotions such as tiredness, boredom, or sadness tend to generate slow, low-pitched, and slurred speech. Some emotions have been found to be more easily computationally identified, such as anger or approval.
Emotional speech processing technologies recognize the user's emotional state using computational analysis of speech features. Vocal parameters and prosodic features such as pitch variables and speech rate can be analyzed through pattern recognition techniques.
Speech analysis is an effective method of identifying affective state, having an average reported accuracy of 70 to 80% in research from 2003 and 2006. These systems tend to outperform average human accuracy (approximately 60%) but are less accurate than systems which employ other modalities for emotion detection, such as physiological states or facial expressions. However, since many speech characteristics are independent of semantics or culture, this technique is considered to be a promising route for further research.
Algorithms
The process of speech/text affect detection requires the creation of a reliable database, knowledge base, or vector space model, broad enough to fit every need for its application, as well as the selection of a successful classifier which will allow for quick and accurate emotion identification.
Currently, the most frequently used classifiers are linear discriminant classifiers (LDC), k-nearest neighbor (k-NN), Gaussian mixture model (GMM), support vector machines (SVM), artificial neural networks (ANN), decision tree algorithms and hidden Markov models (HMMs). Various studies showed that choosing the appropriate classifier can significantly enhance the overall performance of the system. The list below gives a brief description of each algorithm:
LDC – Classification happens based on the value obtained from the linear combination of the feature values, which are usually provided in the form of vector features.
k-NN – Classification happens by locating the object in the feature space, and comparing it with the k nearest neighbors (training examples). The majority vote decides on the classification.
GMM – is a probabilistic model used for representing the existence of subpopulations within the overall population. Each sub-population is described using the mixture distribution, which allows for classification of observations into the sub-populations.
SVM – is a type of (usually binary) linear classifier which decides in which of the two (or more) possible classes, each input may fall into.
ANN – is a mathematical model, inspired by biological neural networks, that can better grasp possible non-linearities of the feature space.
Decision tree algorithms – work based on following a decision tree in which leaves represent the classification outcome, and branches represent the conjunction of subsequent features that lead to the classification.
HMMs – a statistical Markov model in which the states and state transitions are not directly available to observation. Instead, the series of outputs dependent on the states are visible. In the case of affect recognition, the outputs represent the sequence of speech feature vectors, which allow the deduction of states' sequences through which the model progressed. The states can consist of various intermediate steps in the expression of an emotion, and each of them has a probability distribution over the possible output vectors. The states' sequences allow us to predict the affective state which we are trying to classify, and this is one of the most commonly used techniques within the area of speech affect detection.
It is proved that having enough acoustic evidence available the emotional state of a person can be classified by a set of majority voting classifiers. The proposed set of classifiers is based on three main classifiers: kNN, C4.5 and SVM-RBF Kernel. This set achieves better performance than each basic classifier taken separately. It is compared with two other sets of classifiers: one-against-all (OAA) multiclass SVM with Hybrid kernels and the set of classifiers which consists of the following two basic classifiers: C5.0 and Neural Network. The proposed variant achieves better performance than the other two sets of classifiers.
Databases
The vast majority of present systems are data-dependent. This creates one of the biggest challenges in detecting emotions based on speech, as it implicates choosing an appropriate database used to train the classifier. Most of the currently possessed data was obtained from actors and is thus a representation of archetypal emotions. Those so-called acted databases are usually based on the Basic Emotions theory (by Paul Ekman), which assumes the existence of six basic emotions (anger, fear, disgust, surprise, joy, sadness), the others simply being a mix of the former ones. Nevertheless, these still offer high audio quality and balanced classes (although often too few), which contribute to high success rates in recognizing emotions.
However, for real life application, naturalistic data is preferred. A naturalistic database can be produced by observation and analysis of subjects in their natural context. Ultimately, such database should allow the system to recognize emotions based on their context as well as work out the goals and outcomes of the interaction. The nature of this type of data allows for authentic real life implementation, due to the fact it describes states naturally occurring during the human–computer interaction (HCI).
Despite the numerous advantages which naturalistic data has over acted data, it is difficult to obtain and usually has low emotional intensity. Moreover, data obtained in a natural context has lower signal quality, due to surroundings noise and distance of the subjects from the microphone. The first attempt to produce such database was the FAU Aibo Emotion Corpus for CEICES (Combining Efforts for Improving Automatic Classification of Emotional User States), which was developed based on a realistic context of children (age 10–13) playing with Sony's Aibo robot pet. Likewise, producing one standard database for all emotional research would provide a method of evaluating and comparing different affect recognition systems.
Speech descriptors
The complexity of the affect recognition process increases with the number of classes (affects) and speech descriptors used within the classifier. It is, therefore, crucial to select only the most relevant features in order to assure the ability of the model to successfully identify emotions, as well as increasing the performance, which is particularly significant to real-time detection. The range of possible choices is vast, with some studies mentioning the use of over 200 distinct features. It is crucial to identify those that are redundant and undesirable in order to optimize the system and increase the success rate of correct emotion detection. The most common speech characteristics are categorized into the following groups.
Frequency characteristics
Accent shape – affected by the rate of change of the fundamental frequency.
Average pitch – description of how high/low the speaker speaks relative to the normal speech.
Contour slope – describes the tendency of the frequency change over time, it can be rising, falling or level.
Final lowering – the amount by which the frequency falls at the end of an utterance.
Pitch range – measures the spread between the maximum and minimum frequency of an utterance.
Time-related features:
Speech rate – describes the rate of words or syllables uttered over a unit of time
Stress frequency – measures the rate of occurrences of pitch accented utterances
Voice quality parameters and energy descriptors:
Breathiness – measures the aspiration noise in speech
Brilliance – describes the dominance of high Or low frequencies In the speech
Loudness – measures the amplitude of the speech waveform, translates to the energy of an utterance
Pause Discontinuity – describes the transitions between sound and silence
Pitch Discontinuity – describes the transitions of the fundamental frequency.
Facial affect detection
The detection and processing of facial expression are achieved through various methods such as optical flow, hidden Markov models, neural network processing or active appearance models. More than one modalities can be combined or fused (multimodal recognition, e.g. facial expressions and speech prosody, facial expressions and hand gestures, or facial expressions with speech and text for multimodal data and metadata analysis) to provide a more robust estimation of the subject's emotional state. Affectiva is a company (co-founded by Rosalind Picard and Rana El Kaliouby) directly related to affective computing and aims at investigating solutions and software for facial affect detection.
Facial expression databases
Creation of an emotion database is a difficult and time-consuming task. However, database creation is an essential step in the creation of a system that will recognize human emotions. Most of the publicly available emotion databases include posed facial expressions only. In posed expression databases, the participants are asked to display different basic emotional expressions, while in spontaneous expression database, the expressions are natural. Spontaneous emotion elicitation requires significant effort in the selection of proper stimuli which can lead to a rich display of intended emotions. Secondly, the process involves tagging of emotions by trained individuals manually which makes the databases highly reliable. Since perception of expressions and their intensity is subjective in nature, the annotation by experts is essential for the purpose of validation.
Researchers work with three types of databases, such as a database of peak expression images only, a database of image sequences portraying an emotion from neutral to its peak, and video clips with emotional annotations. Many facial expression databases have been created and made public for expression recognition purpose. Two of the widely used databases are CK+ and JAFFE.
Emotion classification
By doing cross-cultural research in Papua New Guinea, on the Fore Tribesmen, at the end of the 1960s, Paul Ekman proposed the idea that facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal. Thus, he suggested that they are biological in origin and can, therefore, be safely and correctly categorized.
He therefore officially put forth six basic emotions, in 1972:
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Happiness
Sadness
Surprise
However, in the 1990s Ekman expanded his list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions not all of which are encoded in facial muscles. The newly included emotions are:
Amusement
Contempt
Contentment
Embarrassment
Excitement
Guilt
Pride in achievement
Relief
Satisfaction
Sensory pleasure
Shame
Facial Action Coding System
A system has been conceived by psychologists in order to formally categorize the physical expression of emotions on faces. The central concept of the Facial Action Coding System, or FACS, as created by Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen in 1978 based on earlier work by Carl-Herman Hjortsjö are action units (AU).
They are, basically, a contraction or a relaxation of one or more muscles. Psychologists have proposed the following classification of six basic emotions, according to their action units ("+" here mean "and"):
Challenges in facial detection
As with every computational practice, in affect detection by facial processing, some obstacles need to be surpassed, in order to fully unlock the hidden potential of the overall algorithm or method employed. In the early days of almost every kind of AI-based detection (speech recognition, face recognition, affect recognition), the accuracy of modeling and tracking has been an issue. As hardware evolves, as more data are collected and as new discoveries are made and new practices introduced, this lack of accuracy fades, leaving behind noise issues. However, methods for noise removal exist including neighborhood averaging, linear Gaussian smoothing, median filtering, or newer methods such as the Bacterial Foraging Optimization Algorithm.
Other challenges include
The fact that posed expressions, as used by most subjects of the various studies, are not natural, and therefore algorithms trained on these may not apply to natural expressions.
The lack of rotational movement freedom. Affect detection works very well with frontal use, but upon rotating the head more than 20 degrees, "there've been problems".
Facial expressions do not always correspond to an underlying emotion that matches them (e.g. they can be posed or faked, or a person can feel emotions but maintain a "poker face").
FACS did not include dynamics, while dynamics can help disambiguate (e.g. smiles of genuine happiness tend to have different dynamics than "try to look happy" smiles.)
The FACS combinations do not correspond in a 1:1 way with the emotions that the psychologists originally proposed (note that this lack of a 1:1 mapping also occurs in speech recognition with homophones and homonyms and many other sources of ambiguity, and may be mitigated by bringing in other channels of information).
Accuracy of recognition is improved by adding context; however, adding context and other modalities increases computational cost and complexity
Body gesture
Gestures could be efficiently used as a means of detecting a particular emotional state of the user, especially when used in conjunction with speech and face recognition. Depending on the specific action, gestures could be simple reflexive responses, like lifting your shoulders when you don't know the answer to a question, or they could be complex and meaningful as when communicating with sign language. Without making use of any object or surrounding environment, we can wave our hands, clap or beckon. On the other hand, when using objects, we can point at them, move, touch or handle these. A computer should be able to recognize these, analyze the context and respond in a meaningful way, in order to be efficiently used for Human–Computer Interaction.
There are many proposed methods to detect the body gesture. Some literature differentiates 2 different approaches in gesture recognition: a 3D model based and an appearance-based. The foremost method makes use of 3D information of key elements of the body parts in order to obtain several important parameters, like palm position or joint angles. On the other hand, appearance-based systems use images or videos to for direct interpretation. Hand gestures have been a common focus of body gesture detection methods.
Physiological monitoring
This could be used to detect a user's affective state by monitoring and analyzing their physiological signs. These signs range from changes in heart rate and skin conductance to minute contractions of the facial muscles and changes in facial blood flow. This area is gaining momentum and we are now seeing real products that implement the techniques. The four main physiological signs that are usually analyzed are blood volume pulse, galvanic skin response, facial electromyography, and facial color patterns.
Blood volume pulse
Overview
A subject's blood volume pulse (BVP) can be measured by a process called photoplethysmography, which produces a graph indicating blood flow through the extremities. The peaks of the waves indicate a cardiac cycle where the heart has pumped blood to the extremities. If the subject experiences fear or is startled, their heart usually 'jumps' and beats quickly for some time, causing the amplitude of the cardiac cycle to increase. This can clearly be seen on a photoplethysmograph when the distance between the trough and the peak of the wave has decreased. As the subject calms down, and as the body's inner core expands, allowing more blood to flow back to the extremities, the cycle will return to normal.
Methodology
Infra-red light is shone on the skin by special sensor hardware, and the amount of light reflected is measured. The amount of reflected and transmitted light correlates to the BVP as light is absorbed by hemoglobin which is found richly in the bloodstream.
Disadvantages
It can be cumbersome to ensure that the sensor shining an infra-red light and monitoring the reflected light is always pointing at the same extremity, especially seeing as subjects often stretch and readjust their position while using a computer.
There are other factors that can affect one's blood volume pulse. As it is a measure of blood flow through the extremities, if the subject feels hot, or particularly cold, then their body may allow more, or less, blood to flow to the extremities, all of this regardless of the subject's emotional state.
Facial electromyography
Facial electromyography is a technique used to measure the electrical activity of the facial muscles by amplifying the tiny electrical impulses that are generated by muscle fibers when they contract.
The face expresses a great deal of emotion, however, there are two main facial muscle groups that are usually studied to detect emotion:
The corrugator supercilii muscle, also known as the 'frowning' muscle, draws the brow down into a frown, and therefore is the best test for negative, unpleasant emotional response.↵The zygomaticus major muscle is responsible for pulling the corners of the mouth back when you smile, and therefore is the muscle used to test for a positive emotional response.
Galvanic skin response
Galvanic skin response (GSR) is an outdated term for a more general phenomenon known as [Electrodermal Activity] or EDA. EDA is a general phenomena whereby the skin's electrical properties change. The skin is innervated by the [sympathetic nervous system], so measuring its resistance or conductance provides a way to quantify small changes in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. As the sweat glands are activated, even before the skin feels sweaty, the level of the EDA can be captured (usually using conductance) and used to discern small changes in autonomic arousal. The more aroused a subject is, the greater the skin conductance tends to be.
Skin conductance is often measured using two small silver-silver chloride electrodes placed somewhere on the skin and applying a small voltage between them. To maximize comfort and reduce irritation the electrodes can be placed on the wrist, legs, or feet, which leaves the hands fully free for daily activity.
Facial color
Overview
The surface of the human face is innervated with a large network of blood vessels. Blood flow variations in these vessels yield visible color changes on the face. Whether or not facial emotions activate facial muscles, variations in blood flow, blood pressure, glucose levels, and other changes occur. Also, the facial color signal is independent from that provided by facial muscle movements.
Methodology
Approaches are based on facial color changes. Delaunay triangulation is used to create the triangular local areas. Some of these triangles which define the interior of the mouth and eyes (sclera and iris) are removed. Use the left triangular areas’ pixels to create feature vectors. It shows that converting the pixel color of the standard RGB color space to a color space such as oRGB color space or LMS channels perform better when dealing with faces. So, map the above vector onto the better color space and decompose into red-green and yellow-blue channels. Then use deep learning methods to find equivalent emotions.
Visual aesthetics
Aesthetics, in the world of art and photography, refers to the principles of the nature and appreciation of beauty. Judging beauty and other aesthetic qualities is a highly subjective task. Computer scientists at Penn State treat the challenge of automatically inferring the aesthetic quality of pictures using their visual content as a machine learning problem, with a peer-rated on-line photo sharing website as a data source. They extract certain visual features based on the intuition that they can discriminate between aesthetically pleasing and displeasing images.
Potential applications
Education
Affection influences learners' learning state. Using affective computing technology, computers can judge the learners' affection and learning state by recognizing their facial expressions. In education, the teacher can use the analysis result to understand the student's learning and accepting ability, and then formulate reasonable teaching plans. At the same time, they can pay attention to students' inner feelings, which is helpful to students' psychological health. Especially in distance education, due to the separation of time and space, there is no emotional incentive between teachers and students for two-way communication. Without the atmosphere brought by traditional classroom learning, students are easily bored, and affect the learning effect. Applying affective computing in distance education system can effectively improve this situation.
Healthcare
Social robots, as well as a growing number of robots used in health care benefit from emotional awareness because they can better judge users' and patient's emotional states and alter their actions/programming appropriately. This is especially important in those countries with growing aging populations and/or a lack of younger workers to address their needs.
Affective computing is also being applied to the development of communicative technologies for use by people with autism. The affective component of a text is also increasingly gaining attention, particularly its role in the so-called emotional or emotive Internet.
Video games
Affective video games can access their players' emotional states through biofeedback devices. A particularly simple form of biofeedback is available through gamepads that measure the pressure with which a button is pressed: this has been shown to correlate strongly with the players' level of arousal; at the other end of the scale are brain–computer interfaces. Affective games have been used in medical research to support the emotional development of autistic children.
Other applications
Other potential applications are centered around social monitoring. For example, a car can monitor the emotion of all occupants and engage in additional safety measures, such as alerting other vehicles if it detects the driver to be angry. Affective computing has potential applications in human–computer interaction, such as affective mirrors allowing the user to see how he or she performs; emotion monitoring agents sending a warning before one sends an angry email; or even music players selecting tracks based on mood.
One idea put forth by the Romanian researcher Dr. Nicu Sebe in an interview is the analysis of a person's face while they are using a certain product (he mentioned ice cream as an example). Companies would then be able to use such analysis to infer whether their product will or will not be well received by the respective market.
One could also use affective state recognition in order to judge the impact of a TV advertisement through a real-time video recording of that person and through the subsequent study of his or her facial expression. Averaging the results obtained on a large group of subjects, one can tell whether that commercial (or movie) has the desired effect and what the elements which interest the watcher most are.
Cognitivist vs. interactional approaches
Within the field of human–computer interaction, Rosalind Picard's cognitivist or "information model" concept of emotion has been criticized by and contrasted with the "post-cognitivist" or "interactional" pragmatist approach taken by Kirsten Boehner and others which views emotion as inherently social.
Picard's focus is human–computer interaction, and her goal for affective computing is to "give computers the ability to recognize, express, and in some cases, 'have' emotions". In contrast, the interactional approach seeks to help "people to understand and experience their own emotions" and to improve computer-mediated interpersonal communication. It does not necessarily seek to map emotion into an objective mathematical model for machine interpretation, but rather let humans make sense of each other's emotional expressions in open-ended ways that might be ambiguous, subjective, and sensitive to context.
Picard's critics describe her concept of emotion as "objective, internal, private, and mechanistic". They say it reduces emotion to a discrete psychological signal occurring inside the body that can be measured and which is an input to cognition, undercutting the complexity of emotional experience.
The interactional approach asserts that though emotion has biophysical aspects, it is "culturally grounded, dynamically experienced, and to some degree constructed in action and interaction". Put another way, it considers "emotion as a social and cultural product experienced through our interactions".
See also
Citations
General sources
External links
Affective Computing Research Group at the MIT Media Laboratory
Computational Emotion Group at USC
Emotion Processing Unit – EPU
Emotive Computing Group at the University of Memphis
2011 International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction
Brain, Body and Bytes: Psychophysiological User Interaction CHI 2010 Workshop (10–15, April 2010)
IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing (TAC)
openSMILE: popular state-of-the-art open-source toolkit for large-scale feature extraction for affect recognition and computational paralinguistics | [
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233944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External%20combustion%20engine | External combustion engine | An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a reciprocating heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine, produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then dumped (open cycle), or cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle).
In these types of engines, the combustion is primarily used as a heat source, and the engine can work equally well with other types of heat sources.
Combustion
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; they are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.
Working fluid
The working fluid can be of any composition and the system may be single-phase (liquid only or gas only) or dual-phase (liquid/gas).
Single phase
Gas is used in a Stirling engine. Single-phase liquid may sometimes be used.
Dual phase
Dual-phase external combustion engines use a phase transition to convert temperature to usable work, for example from liquid to (generally much larger) gas. This type of engine follows variants of the Rankine cycle. Steam engines are a common example of dual-phase engines. Another example is engines that use the Organic Rankine cycle.
See also
Organic Rankine cycle
Steam engines
Stirling engines
Trochilic engine
Internal combustion engine (ICE)
Nuclear power
Solar thermal rocket (an externally heated rocket)
Naptha engine, a variant of the steam engine, using a petroleum liquid as both fuel and working fluid.
References
Engines | [
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233946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect | Affect | Affect may refer to:
Affect (education)
Affect (linguistics), attitude or emotion that a speaker brings to an utterance
Affect (philosophy)
Affect (psychology), the experience of feeling or emotion
Affect display, signs of emotion, such as facial expression, vocalization, and posture
Affect theory
Affective science, the scientific study of emotion
Affective computing, an area of research in computer science aiming to understand the emotional state of users
Reduced affect display, a.k.a. emotional blunting or affective flattening, a reduction in emotional reactivity
Pseudobulbar affect, a.k.a. labile affect, the unstable display of emotion
Affect (rhetoric), the responsive, emotional feeling that precedes cognition
Affected accent; see Accent (sociolinguistics)
Affect (company), a defunct Japanese video game developer
See also
Affection (disambiguation)
Affekt, a German term used in the doctrine of the affections, a theory in the aesthetics of music
... (sorted)
... (unsorted)
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233953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database%20transaction | Database transaction | A database transaction symbolizes a unit of work performed within a database management system (or similar system) against a database, and treated in a coherent and reliable way independent of other transactions. A transaction generally represents any change in a database. Transactions in a database environment have two main purposes:
To provide reliable units of work that allow correct recovery from failures and keep a database consistent even in cases of system failure. For example: when execution prematurely and unexpectedly stops (completely or partially) in which case many operations upon a database remain uncompleted, with unclear status.
To provide isolation between programs accessing a database concurrently. If this isolation is not provided, the programs' outcomes are possibly erroneous.
In a database management system, a transaction is a single unit of logic or work, sometimes made up of multiple operations. Any logical calculation done in a consistent mode in a database is known as a transaction. One example is a transfer from one bank account to another: the complete transaction requires subtracting the amount to be transferred from one account and adding that same amount to the other.
A database transaction, by definition, must be atomic (it must either be complete in its entirety or have no effect whatsoever), consistent (it must conform to existing constraints in the database), isolated (it must not affect other transactions) and durable (it must get written to persistent storage). Database practitioners often refer to these properties of database transactions using the acronym ACID.
Purpose
Databases and other data stores which treat the integrity of data as paramount often include the ability to handle transactions to maintain the integrity of data. A single transaction consists of one or more independent units of work, each reading and/or writing information to a database or other data store. When this happens it is often important to ensure that all such processing leaves the database or data store in a consistent state.
Examples from double-entry accounting systems often illustrate the concept of transactions. In double-entry accounting every debit requires the recording of an associated credit. If one writes a check for $100 to buy groceries, a transactional double-entry accounting system must record the following two entries to cover the single transaction:
Debit $100 to Groceries Expense Account
Credit $100 to Checking Account
A transactional system would make both entries pass or both entries would fail. By treating the recording of multiple entries as an atomic transactional unit of work the system maintains the integrity of the data recorded. In other words, nobody ends up with a situation in which a debit is recorded but no associated credit is recorded, or vice versa.
Transactional databases
A transactional database is a DBMS that provides the ACID properties for a bracketed set of database operations (begin-commit). All the write operations within a transaction have an all-or-nothing effect, that is, either the transaction succeeds and all writes take effect, or otherwise, the database is brought to a state that does not include any of the writes of the transaction. Transactions also ensure that the effect of concurrent transactions satisfies certain guarantees, known as isolation level. The highest isolation level is serializability, which guarantees that the effect of concurrent transactions is equivalent to their serial (i.e. sequential) execution.
Most relational database management systems fall into the category of databases that support transactions. NoSQL data stores prioritize scalability along with supporting transactions in order to guarantee data consistency in the event of concurrent updates and accesses.
In a database system, a transaction might consist of one or more data-manipulation statements and queries, each reading and/or writing information in the database. Users of database systems consider consistency and integrity of data as highly important. A simple transaction is usually issued to the database system in a language like SQL wrapped in a transaction, using a pattern similar to the following:
Begin the transaction.
Execute a set of data manipulations and/or queries.
If no error occurs, then commit the transaction.
If an error occurs, then roll back the transaction.
A transaction commit operation persists all the results of data manipulations within the scope of the transaction to the database. A transaction rollback operation does not persist the partial results of data manipulations within the scope of the transaction to the database. In no case can a partial transaction be committed to the database since that would leave the database in an inconsistent state.
Internally, multi-user databases store and process transactions, often by using a transaction ID or XID.
There are multiple varying ways for transactions to be implemented other than the simple way documented above. Nested transactions, for example, are transactions which contain statements within them that start new transactions (i.e. sub-transactions). Multi-level transactions are a variant of nested transactions where the sub-transactions take place at different levels of a layered system architecture (e.g., with one operation at the database-engine level, one operation at the operating-system level). Another type of transaction is the compensating transaction.
In SQL
Transactions are available in most SQL database implementations, though with varying levels of robustness. For example, MySQL began supporting transactions from early version 3.23, but the InnoDB storage engine was not default before version 5.5. The earlier available storage engine, MyISAM does not support transactions.
A transaction is typically started using the command BEGIN (although the SQL standard specifies START TRANSACTION). When the system processes a COMMIT statement, the transaction ends with successful completion. A ROLLBACK statement can also end the transaction, undoing any work performed since BEGIN. If autocommit was disabled with the start of a transaction, autocommit will also be re-enabled with the end of the transaction.
One can set the isolation level for individual transactional operations as well as globally. At the highest level (READ COMMITTED), the result of any operation performed after a transaction has started will remain invisible to other database users until the transaction has ended. At the lowest level (READ UNCOMMITTED), which may occasionally be used to ensure high concurrency, such changes will be immediately visible.
Object databases
Relational databases are traditionally composed of tables with fixed-size fields and records. Object databases comprise variable-sized blobs, possibly serializable or incorporating a mime-type. The fundamental similarities between Relational and Object databases are the start and the commit or rollback.
After starting a transaction, database records or objects are locked, either read-only or read-write. Reads and writes can then occur. Once the transaction is fully defined, changes are committed or rolled back atomically, such that at the end of the transaction there is no inconsistency.
Distributed transactions
Database systems implement distributed transactions as transactions accessing data over multiple nodes. A distributed transaction enforces the ACID properties over multiple nodes, and might include systems such as databases, storage managers, file systems, messaging systems, and other data managers. In a distributed transaction there is typically an entity coordinating all the process to ensure that all parts of the transaction are applied to all relevant systems.
Transactional filesystems
The Namesys Reiser4 filesystem for Linux supports transactions, and as of Microsoft Windows Vista, the Microsoft NTFS filesystem supports distributed transactions across networks. There is occurring research into more data coherent filesystems, such as the Warp Transactional Filesystem (WTF).
See also
Concurrency control
Post void
References
Further reading
Philip A. Bernstein, Eric Newcomer (2009): Principles of Transaction Processing, 2nd Edition, Morgan Kaufmann (Elsevier),
Gerhard Weikum, Gottfried Vossen (2001), Transactional information systems: theory, algorithms, and the practice of concurrency control and recovery, Morgan Kaufmann,
External links
c2:TransactionProcessing
https://docs.oracle.com/database/121/CNCPT/transact.htm#CNCPT016
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B28359_01/server.111/b28318/transact.htm
Data management
Transaction processing | [
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233954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%20lifetime | Object lifetime | In object-oriented programming (OOP), the object lifetime (or life cycle) of an object is the time between an object's creation and its destruction. Rules for object lifetime vary significantly between languages, in some cases between implementations of a given language, and lifetime of a particular object may vary from one run of the program to another.
In some cases object lifetime coincides with variable lifetime of a variable with that object as value (both for static variables and automatic variables), but in general object lifetime is not tied to the lifetime of any one variable. In many cases – and by default in many object-oriented languages, particularly those that use garbage collection (GC) – objects are allocated on the heap, and object lifetime is not determined by the lifetime of a given variable: the value of a variable holding an object actually corresponds to a reference to the object, not the object itself, and destruction of the variable just destroys the reference, not the underlying object.
Overview
While the basic idea of object lifetime is simple – an object is created, used, then destroyed – details vary substantially between languages, and within implementations of a given language, and is intimately tied to how memory management is implemented. Further, many fine distinctions are drawn between the steps, and between language-level concepts and implementation-level concepts. Terminology is relatively standard, but which steps correspond to a given term varies significantly between languages.
Terms generally come in antonym pairs, one for a creation concept, one for the corresponding destruction concept, like initialize/finalize or constructor/destructor. The creation/destruction pair is also known as initiation/termination, among other terms. The terms allocation and deallocation or freeing are also used, by analogy with memory management, though object creation and destruction can involve significantly more than simply memory allocation and deallocation, and allocation/deallocation are more properly considered steps in creation and destruction, respectively.
Determinism
A major distinction is whether an object's lifetime is deterministic or non-deterministic. This varies by language, and within language varies with the memory allocation of an object; object lifetime may be distinct from variable lifetime.
Objects with static memory allocation, notably objects stored in static variables, and classes modules (if classes or modules are themselves objects, and statically allocated), have a subtle non-determinism in many languages: while their lifetime appears to coincide with the run time of the program, the order of creation and destruction – which static object is created first, which second, etc. – is generally nondeterministic.
For objects with automatic memory allocation or dynamic memory allocation, object creation generally happens deterministically, either explicitly when an object is explicitly created (such as via new in C++ or Java), or implicitly at the start of variable lifetime, particularly when the scope of an automatic variable is entered, such as at declaration. Object destruction varies, however – in some languages, notably C++, automatic and dynamic objects are destroyed at deterministic times, such as scope exit, explicit destruction (via manual memory management), or reference count reaching zero; while in other languages, such as C#, Java, and Python, these objects are destroyed at non-deterministic times, depending on the garbage collector, and object resurrection may occur during destruction, extending the lifetime.
In garbage-collected languages, objects are generally dynamically allocated (on the heap) even if they are initially bound to an automatic variable, unlike automatic variables with primitive values, which are typically automatically allocated (on the stack or in a register). This allows the object to be returned from a function ("escape") without being destroyed. However, in some cases a compiler optimization is possible, namely performing escape analysis and proving that escape is not possible, and thus the object can be allocated on the stack; this is significant in Java. In this case object destruction will occur promptly – possibly even during the variable's lifetime (before the end of its scope), if it is unreachable.
A complex case is the use of an object pool, where objects may be created ahead of time or reused, and thus apparent creation and destruction may not correspond to actual creation and destruction of an object, only (re)initialization for creation and finalization for destruction. In this case both creation and destruction may be nondeterministic.
Steps
Object creation can be broken down into two operations: memory allocation and initialization, where initialization both includes assigning values to object fields and possibly running arbitrary other code. These are implementation-level concepts, roughly analogous to the distinction between declaration and definition of a variable, though these later are language-level distinctions. For an object that is tied to a variable, declaration may be compiled to memory allocation (reserving space for the object), and definition to initialization (assigning values), but declarations may also be for compiler use only (such as name resolution), not directly corresponding to compiled code.
Analogously, object destruction can be broken down into two operations, in the opposite order: finalization and memory deallocation. These do not have analogous language-level concepts for variables: variable lifetime ends implicitly (for automatic variables, on stack unwind; for static variables, on program termination), and at this time (or later, depending on implementation) memory is deallocated, but no finalization is done in general. However, when an object's lifetime is tied to a variable's lifetime, the end of the variable's lifetime causes finalization of the object; this is a standard paradigm in C++.
Together these yield four implementation-level steps:
allocation, initialization, finalization, deallocation
These steps may be done automatically by the language runtime, interpreter, or virtual machine, or may be manually specified by the programmer in a subroutine, concretely via methods – the frequency of this varies significantly between steps and languages. Initialization is very commonly programmer-specified in class-based languages, while in strict prototype-based languages initialization is automatically done by copying. Finalization is also very common in languages with deterministic destruction, notably C++, but much less common in garbage-collected languages. Allocation is more rarely specified, and deallocation generally cannot be specified.
Status during creation and destruction
An important subtlety is the status of an object during creation or destruction, and handling cases where errors occur or exceptions are raised, such as if creation or destruction fail. Strictly speaking, an object's lifetime begins when allocation completes and ends when deallocation starts. Thus during initialization and finalization an object is alive, but may not be in a consistent state – ensuring class invariants is a key part of initialization – and the period from when initialization completes to when finalization starts is when the object is both alive and expected to be in a consistent state.
If creation or destruction fail, error reporting (often by raising an exception) can be complicated: the object or related objects may be in an inconsistent state, and in the case of destruction – which generally happens implicitly, and thus in an unspecified environment – it may be difficult to handle errors. The opposite issue – incoming exceptions, not outgoing exceptions – is whether creation or destruction should behave differently if they occur during exception handling, when different behavior may be desired.
Another subtlety is when creation and destruction happen for static variables, whose lifespan coincides with the run time of the program – do creation and destruction happen during regular program execution, or in special phases before and after regular execution – and how objects are destroyed at program termination, when the program may not be in a usual or consistent state. This is particularly an issue for garbage-collected languages, as they may have a lot of garbage at program termination.
Class-based programming
In class-based programming, object creation is also known as instantiation (creating an instance of a class), and creation and destruction can be controlled via methods known as a constructor and destructor, or an initializer and finalizer. Creation and destruction are thus also known as construction and destruction, and when these methods are called an object is said to be constructed or destructed (not "destroyed") – respectively, initialized or finalized when those methods are called.
The relationship between these methods can be complicated, and a language may have both constructors and initializers (like Python), or both destructors and finalizers (like C++/CLI), or the terms "destructor" and "finalizer" may refer to language-level construct versus implementation (as in C# versus CLI).
A key distinction is that constructors are class methods, as there is no object (class instance) available until the object is created, but the other methods (destructors, initializers, and finalizers) are instance methods, as an object has been created. Further, constructors and initializers may take arguments, while destructors and finalizers generally do not, as they are usually called implicitly.
In common usage, a constructor is a method directly called explicitly by user code to create an object, while "destructor" is the subroutine called (usually implicitly, but sometimes explicitly) on object destruction in languages with deterministic object lifetimes – the archetype is C++ – and "finalizer" is the subroutine called implicitly by the garbage collector on object destruction in languages with non-deterministic object lifetime – the archetype is Java.
The steps during finalization vary significantly depending on memory management: in manual memory management (as in C++, or manual reference counting), references need to be explicitly destroyed by the programmer (references cleared, reference counts decremented); in automatic reference counting, this also happens during finalization, but is automated (as in Python, when it occurs after programmer-specified finalizers have been called); and in tracing garbage collection this is not necessary. Thus in automatic reference counting, programmer-specified finalizers are often short or absent, but significant work may still be done, while in tracing garbage collectors finalization is often unnecessary.
Resource management
In languages where objects have deterministic lifetimes, object lifetime may be used for piggybacking resource management: this is called the Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII) idiom: resources are acquired during initialization, and released during finalization. In languages where objects have non-deterministic lifetimes, notably due to garbage collection, the management of memory is generally kept separate from management of other resources.
Object creation
In typical case, the process is as follows:
calculate the size of an object – the size is mostly the same as that of the class but can vary. When the object in question is not derived from a class, but from a prototype instead, the size of an object is usually that of the internal data structure (a hash for instance) that holds its slots.
allocation – allocating memory space with the size of an object plus the growth later, if possible to know in advance
binding methods – this is usually either left to the class of the object, or is resolved at dispatch time, but nevertheless it is possible that some object models bind methods at creation time.
calling an initializing code (namely, constructor) of superclass
calling an initializing code of class being created
Those tasks can be completed at once but are sometimes left unfinished and the order of the tasks can vary and can cause several strange behaviors. For example, in multi-inheritance, which initializing code should be called first is a difficult question to answer. However, superclass constructors should be called before subclass constructors.
It is a complex problem to create each object as an element of an array. Some languages (e.g. C++) leave this to programmers.
Handling exceptions in the midst of creation of an object is particularly problematic because usually the implementation of throwing exceptions relies on valid object states. For instance, there is no way to allocate a new space for an exception object when the allocation of an object failed before that due to a lack of free space on the memory. Due to this, implementations of OO languages should provide mechanisms to allow raising exceptions even when there is short supply of resources, and programmers or the type system should ensure that their code is exception-safe. Propagating an exception is more likely to free resources than to allocate them. But in object oriented programming, object construction may fail, because constructing an object should establish the class invariants, which are often not valid for every combination of constructor arguments. Thus, constructors can raise exceptions.
The abstract factory pattern is a way to decouple a particular implementation of an object from code for the creation of such an object.
Creation methods
The way to create objects varies across languages. In some class-based languages, a special method known as a constructor, is responsible for validating the state of an object. Just like ordinary methods, constructors can be overloaded in order to make it so that an object can be created with different attributes specified. Also, the constructor is the only place to set the state of immutable objects. A copy constructor is a constructor which takes a (single) parameter of an existing object of the same type as the constructor's class, and returns a copy of the object sent as a parameter.
Other programming languages, such as Objective-C, have class methods, which can include constructor-type methods, but are not restricted to merely instantiating objects.
C++ and Java have been criticized for not providing named constructors—a constructor must always have the same name as the class. This can be problematic if the programmer wants to provide two constructors with the same argument types, e.g., to create a point object either from the cartesian coordinates or from the polar coordinates, both of which would be represented by two floating point numbers. Objective-C can circumvent this problem, in that the programmer can create a Point class, with initialization methods, for example, +newPointWithX:andY:, and +newPointWithR:andTheta:. In C++, something similar can be done using static member functions.
A constructor can also refer to a function which is used to create a value of a tagged union, particularly in functional languages.
Object destruction
It is generally the case that after an object is used, it is removed from memory to make room for other programs or objects to take that object's place. However, if there is sufficient memory or a program has a short run time, object destruction may not occur, memory simply being deallocated at process termination. In some cases object destruction simply consists of deallocating the memory, particularly in garbage-collected languages, or if the "object" is actually a plain old data structure. In other cases some work is performed prior to deallocation, particularly destroying member objects (in manual memory management), or deleting references from the object to other objects to decrement reference counts (in reference counting). This may be automatic, or a special destruction method may be called on the object.
In class-based languages with deterministic object lifetime, notably C++, a destructor is a method called when an instance of a class is deleted, before the memory is deallocated. In C++, destructors differs from constructors in various ways: they cannot be overloaded, must have no arguments, need not maintain class invariants, and can cause program termination if they throw exceptions.
In garbage collecting languages, objects may be destroyed when they can no longer be reached by the running code. In class-based GCed languages, the analog of destructors are finalizers, which are called before an object is garbage-collected. These differ in running at an unpredictable time and in an unpredictable order, since garbage collection is unpredictable, and are significantly less-used and less complex than C++ destructors. Example of such languages include Java, Python, and Ruby.
Destroying an object will cause any references to the object to become invalid, and in manual memory management any existing references become dangling references. In garbage collection (both tracing garbage collection and reference counting), objects are only destroyed when there are no references to them, but finalization may create new references to the object, and to prevent dangling references, object resurrection occurs so the references remain valid.
Examples
C++
class Foo {
public:
// These are the prototype declarations of the constructors.
Foo(int x);
Foo(int x, int y); // Overloaded Constructor.
Foo(const Foo &old); // Copy Constructor.
~Foo(); // Destructor.
};
Foo::Foo(int x) {
// This is the implementation of
// the one-argument constructor.
}
Foo::Foo(int x, int y) {
// This is the implementation of
// the two-argument constructor.
}
Foo::Foo(const Foo &old) {
// This is the implementation of
// the copy constructor.
}
Foo::~Foo() {
// This is the implementation of the destructor.
}
int main() {
Foo foo(14); // Call first constructor.
Foo foo2(12, 16); // Call overloaded constructor.
Foo foo3(foo); // Call the copy constructor.
// Destructors called in backwards-order
// here, automatically.
}
Java
class Foo
{
public Foo(int x)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the one-argument constructor
}
public Foo(int x, int y)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the two-argument constructor
}
public Foo(Foo old)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the copy constructor
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Foo foo = new Foo(14); // call first constructor
Foo foo2 = new Foo(12, 16); // call overloaded constructor
Foo foo3 = new Foo(foo); // call the copy constructor
// garbage collection happens under the covers, and objects are destroyed
}
}
C#
namespace ObjectLifeTime;
class Foo
{
public Foo()
{
// This is the implementation of
// default constructor.
}
public Foo(int x)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the one-argument constructor.
}
~Foo()
{
// This is the implementation of
// the destructor.
}
public Foo(int x, int y)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the two-argument constructor.
}
public Foo(Foo old)
{
// This is the implementation of
// the copy constructor.
}
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
var defaultfoo = new Foo(); // Call default constructor
var foo = new Foo(14); // Call first constructor
var foo2 = new Foo(12, 16); // Call overloaded constructor
var foo3 = new Foo(foo); // Call the copy constructor
}
}
Objective-C
#import <objc/Object.h>
@interface Point : Object
{
double x;
double y;
}
//These are the class methods; we have declared two constructors
+ (Point *) newWithX: (double) andY: (double);
+ (Point *) newWithR: (double) andTheta: (double);
//Instance methods
- (Point *) setFirstCoord: (double);
- (Point *) setSecondCoord: (double);
/* Since Point is a subclass of the generic Object
* class, we already gain generic allocation and initialization
* methods, +alloc and -init. For our specific constructors
* we can make these from these methods we have
* inherited.
*/
@end
@implementation Point
- (Point *) setFirstCoord: (double) new_val
{
x = new_val;
}
- (Point *) setSecondCoord: (double) new_val
{
y = new_val;
}
+ (Point *) newWithX: (double) x_val andY: (double) y_val
{
//Concisely written class method to automatically allocate and
//perform specific initialization.
return [[[Point alloc] setFirstCoord:x_val] setSecondCoord:y_val];
}
+ (Point *) newWithR: (double) r_val andTheta: (double) theta_val
{
//Instead of performing the same as the above, we can underhandedly
//use the same result of the previous method
return [Point newWithX:r_val andY:theta_val];
}
@end
int
main(void)
{
//Constructs two points, p and q.
Point *p = [Point newWithX:4.0 andY:5.0];
Point *q = [Point newWithR:1.0 andTheta:2.28];
//...program text....
//We're finished with p, say, so, free it.
//If p allocates more memory for itself, may need to
//override Object's free method in order to recursively
//free p's memory. But this is not the case, so we can just
[p free];
//...more text...
[q free];
return 0;
}
Object Pascal
Related Languages: "Delphi", "Free Pascal", "Mac Pascal".
program Example;
type
DimensionEnum =
(
deUnassigned,
de2D,
de3D,
de4D
);
PointClass = class
private
Dimension: DimensionEnum;
public
X: Integer;
Y: Integer;
Z: Integer;
T: Integer;
public
(* prototype of constructors *)
constructor Create();
constructor Create(AX, AY: Integer);
constructor Create(AX, AY, AZ: Integer);
constructor Create(AX, AY, AZ, ATime: Integer);
constructor CreateCopy(APoint: PointClass);
(* prototype of destructors *)
destructor Destroy;
end;
constructor PointClass.Create();
begin
// implementation of a generic, non argument constructor
Self.Dimension := deUnassigned;
end;
constructor PointClass.Create(AX, AY: Integer);
begin
// implementation of a, 2 argument constructor
Self.X := AX;
Y := AY;
Self.Dimension := de2D;
end;
constructor PointClass.Create(AX, AY, AZ: Integer);
begin
// implementation of a, 3 argument constructor
Self.X := AX;
Y := AY;
Self.X := AZ;
Self.Dimension := de3D;
end;
constructor PointClass.Create(AX, AY, AZ, ATime: Integer);
begin
// implementation of a, 4 argument constructor
Self.X := AX;
Y := AY;
Self.X := AZ;
T := ATime;
Self.Dimension := de4D;
end;
constructor PointClass.CreateCopy(APoint: PointClass);
begin
// implementation of a, "copy" constructor
APoint.X := AX;
APoint.Y := AY;
APoint.X := AZ;
APoint.T := ATime;
Self.Dimension := de4D;
end;
destructor PointClass.PointClass.Destroy;
begin
// implementation of a generic, non argument destructor
Self.Dimension := deUnAssigned;
end;
var
(* variable for static allocation *)
S: PointClass;
(* variable for dynamic allocation *)
D: ^PointClass;
begin (* of program *)
(* object lifeline with static allocation *)
S.Create(5, 7);
(* do something with "S" *)
S.Destroy;
(* object lifeline with dynamic allocation *)
D = new PointClass, Create(5, 7);
(* do something with "D" *)
dispose D, Destroy;
end. (* of program *)
Python
class Socket:
def __init__(self, remote_host: str) -> None:
# connect to remote host
def send(self):
# Send data
def recv(self):
# Receive data
def close(self):
# close the socket
def __del__(self):
# __del__ magic function called when the object's reference count equals zero
self.close()
def f():
socket = Socket("example.com")
socket.send("test")
return socket.recv()
Socket will be closed at the next garbage collection round after "f" function runs and returns, as all references to it have been lost.
See also
Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII), an approach to managing resources by tying them to object lifetime
Notes
References
Object (computer science)
he:Copy constructor
pl:Konstruktor (programowanie obiektowe)
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] |
233955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20Canada | List of newspapers in Canada | This list of newspapers in Canada is a list of newspapers printed and distributed in Canada.
Daily newspapers
Local weeklies
Alberta
Airdrie – Airdrie Echo
Bashaw – Bashaw Star
Bassano – Bassano Times
Beaumont – Beaumont News
Beaverlodge – Beaverlodge Advertiser
Bow Island – Bow Island Commentator
Bow Valley – Bow Valley Crag & Canyon, Rocky Mountain Outlook
Bowden – The Voice of Bowden
Brooks – Brooks & County Chronicle, Brooks Bulletin
Calmar – Calmar Community Voice
Camrose – Camrose Booster
Canmore – Rocky Mountain Outlook
Cardston – The Star
Carstairs – Carstairs Courier
Castor – Castor Advance
Chestermere – Chestermere Anchor
Claresholm – Claresholm Local Press
Coaldale – Coaldale Sunny South News
Cochrane – Cochrane Times, Cochrane Eagle
Cold Lake – Cold Lake Sun, Cold Lake Courier
Consort – Consort Enterprise
Coronation – Coronation Review
Crossfield/Irricana – Five Village Weekly
Crowsnest Pass – Crowsnest Pass Herald
Devon – Devon Dispatch News
Didsbury – Didsbury Review
Drayton Valley – Drayton Valley Western Review
Drumheller – Drumheller Mail, inSide Drumheller
Eckville – Eckville Echo
Edson – Weekly Anchor
Fairview – Fairview Post
Fort McMurray – Fort McMurray Today
Falher – Smoky River Express
Fort Macleod – Fort Macleod Gazette
Fort Saskatchewan – Fort Saskatchewan Record, Sturgeon Creek Post, Fort Saskatchewan This Week
Fox Creek – Fox Creek Times
Grande Cache – Grande Cache Mountaineer
Grimshaw – Mile Zero News
Hanna – Hanna Herald
High Level – Echo Pioneer
High Prairie – South Peace News
High River – High River Times
Hythe – Hythe Headliner
Innisfail – Innisfail Booster
Jasper – The Fitzhugh
Lamont – Lifestyle Regional News
Leduc – Leduc Representative, Leduc & County This Week, Leduc-Wetaskiwin Pipestone Flyer
Leslieville – The Western Star
Lethbridge – Lethbridge Sun Times, Cover Story, Lethbridge Journal
Lloydminster – Lloydminster Meridian Booster, Lloydminster Source
Magrath – Westwinds Community News
Manning – Manning Banner Post
Mayerthorpe – Mayerthorpe Freelancer
Millet – Leduc-Wetaskiwin Pipestone Flyer
Morinville – Morinville Free Press, The Morinville News
Nanton – Nanton News
Okotoks – Okotoks Western Wheel
Olds – Olds Albertan, Olds Gazette, Mountain View County News
Onoway – Lac Ste. Anne Bulletin, Onoway Community Voice
Oyen – Oyen Echo
Parkland County – Tri Area News
Peace River – Peace River Record-Gazette
Pincher Creek – Pincher Creek Echo
Ponoka – Ponoka News, Ponoka Herald
Provost – Provost News
Red Deer – Central Alberta Advisor, Red Deer Advocate
Redcliff – 40-Mile County Commentator
Redwater – Redwater Review, Redwater Tribune
Rimbey – Rimbey Review
Rocky Mountain House – Rocky Mountain House Mountaineer
Rocky View County – Rocky View Weekly
Rycroft – Rycroft Central Peace Signal
St. Albert – Saint Albert Gazette, Saint City News
St. Michael – Elk Island Triangle
Sedgewick – Sedgewick Community Press
Sherwood Park – Bugle Publications, Sherwood Park News, Sherwood Park This Week, Strathcona County This Week
Slave Lake – Lakeside Leader, Slave Lake Scope
Smoky Lake – Smoky Lake Signal
Spruce Grove – Spruce Grove Examiner, Tri Area News
Standoff – Blood Tribe News
Stettler – Stettler Independent
Stony Plain – Stony Plain Reporter, Spruce Grove/Stony Plain This Week, Tri Area Newsv
Swan Hills – The Grizzly Gazette
Sylvan Lake – Sylvan Lake News
Taber – Taber Times
Three Hills – Three Hills Capital
Tofield – Tofield Mercury
Two Hills – Two Hills and County Chronicle, Two Hills Town & Country
Valleyview – The Valleyview Town & Country
Vauxhall – Vauxhall Advance
Vegreville – Vegreville News and Advertiser
Vermilion – Vermilion Standard, Vermilion Voice
Veteran – Veteran Eagle
Viking – Viking Weekly Review
Vulcan – Vulcan Advocate
Wabamun – Wabamun Community Voice
Wainwright – Wainwright Review, Wainwright Star Chronicle, Wainwright Edge
Wetaskiwin – Wetaskiwin Times Advertiser, Leduc-Wetaskiwin Pipestone Flyer
Whitecourt – Whitecourt Press, Whitecourt Star
British Columbia
Abbotsford – Abbotsford News, Abbotsford Times
Agassiz – Agassiz Harrison Observer
Aldergrove – Aldergrove Star
Armstrong, British Columbia – Okanagan Advertiser
Ashcroft/Cache Creek – Ashcroft-Cache Creek Journal
Barriere – North Thompson Star/Journal
Bowen Island – Undercurrent
Burnaby – Burnaby Now
Burns Lake – Lake District News
Campbell River – Campbell River Mirror
Chase/Salmon Arm – Shuswap Market News
Chilliwack – Chilliwack Progress
Clearwater – North Thompson Times
Coquitlam – Coquitlam Now
Courtenay/Comox – Comox Valley Echo, Comox Valley Record
Cranbrook – East Kootenay Weekly, Kootenay News Advertiser
Creston – Creston Valley Advance
Dawson Creek – Alaska Highway News, The Mirror
Delta – Delta Optimist, North Delta Sentinel
Denman Island/Hornby Island – Hornby-Denman Island Grapevine
Duncan/Cowichan Valley – Cowichan Valley Citizen
Esquimalt – Esquimalt News
Fernie – Fernie Free Press
Fort Nelson – Fort Nelson News
Fort St. James/Valemount – Caledonia Courier
Fort. St. John – North Peace Express, The Northerner
Gabriola Island – Gabriola Sounder
Gibsons – Coast Independent
Gold River – The Record
Golden – Golden Star
Grand Forks – Grand Forks Gazette
Greenwood – Boundary Creek Times
Gulf Islands – Island Tides, Gulf Islands Driftwood
Hagensborg – Coast Mountain News
Haida Gwaii – Queen Charlotte Islands Observer
Hope – Hope Standard
Houston – Houston Today
Invermere – The Valley Echo
Kamloops – Kamloops This Week
Kelowna – Kelowna Capital News
Keremeos – Gazette of the Similkameen, Keremeos Review
Kitimat – Northern Sentinel
Ladysmith – Ladysmith Chronicle
Lake Country – Lake Country News, The View in Lake Country
Lake Cowichan – Lake Cowichan Gazette
Langley – Langley Advance, Langley Times
Lumby – Lumby Valley Times
Mackenzie – The Times
Maple Ridge/Pitt Meadows – Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows News, Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows Times
Merritt – Merrit Herald, Merritt News
Mission – Mission City Record
Nakusp – Arrow Lakes News
Nelson – Kootenay Weekly Express
New Westminster – New Westminster Record
North Vancouver – North Shore News
Oak Bay – Oak Bay News
Okanagan Falls – Okanagan Falls Review
100 Mile House – 100 Mile House Free Press
Osoyoos – Times Chronicle, Desert Connections
Parksville/Qualicum Beach – The Morning Sun, The Parksville Qualicum News
Peachland – Peachland View
Penticton – Penticton Herald
Port Hardy – Mid Coast Beacon, North Island Gazette
Powell River – Powell River Peak
Prince George – Prince George This Week, The Prince George Citizen
Prince Rupert – Northwest Weekly/Prince Rupert This Week
Princeton – Similkameen Spotlight
Quesnel – Quesnel Cariboo Observer
Revelstoke – Revelstoke Times-Review
Richmond – Richmond News
Rossland – Rossland Telegraph
Saanich – Saanich News
Salmon Arm – Lakeshore News, Salmon Arm Observer
Sechelt – Coast Reporter, Kahtou
Sidney – Peninsula News Review
Smithers – Interior News
Sooke – Sooke News Mirror
Sparwood – Elk Valley Miner, Mountainview Weekly
Squamish – Squamish Chief
Sumas/Matsqui (Abbotsford) – Sumas & Matsqui Times
Summerland – Summerland Review, Summerland/Peachland Bulletin
Surrey – The Surrey Now News Leader, Indo-Canadian Voice, Cloverdale Reporter
Terrace – Terrace Standard, Terrace Times
Tumbler Ridge – Tumbler Ridge Observer
Ucluelet – The Westerly News
Valemount – The Rocky Mountain Goat, The Valley Sentinel
Vancouver – The Georgia Straight
Vanderhoof – Vanderhoof Omineca Express
Vernon – The Morning Star
Victoria – Goldstream News Gazette, Victoria News
Westbank – Westside Weekly
Whistler – Whistler Question, Whistler Pique
Williams Lake – Cariboo Advisor, Williams Lake Tribune
Zeballos – Zeballos Privateer
Manitoba
Baldur – The Gazette
Beausejour – The Clipper Weekly
Boissevain – The Recorder
Brandon – Community News
Brandon – Westman Journal
Carberry – Carberry News Express
Dauphin – Dauphin Herald
Flin Flon – The Reminder
Gimli – The Express Weekly News
Minnedosa – The Minnedosa Tribune
Neepawa – Neepawa Banner, Neepawa Press
Portage la Prairie – Central Plains Herald-Leader
Powerview-Pine Falls – Winnipeg River Echo
Richer – Dawson Trail Dispatch
Rivers – Rivers Banner
Russell – The Russell Banner
St. Boniface – La Liberté
Selkirk – The Selkirk Record
Shoal Lake – Crossroads This Week
Steinbach – Carillon News
Stonewall – The Stonewall Teulon Tribune
Swan River – The Star and Times
The Pas – The Opasquia Times
Thompson – Nickel Belt News, Thompson Citizen
Virden – Virden Empire-Advance
Winnipeg – The Grassroots News, The Winkler Morden Voice
Winnipeg – Worldwide News, http://www.worldwidenews.ca, Current Affairs & History of National Events of All Countrie
New Brunswick
Bathurst – L'Étoile Chaleur, Northern Light
Bouctouche – L'Étoile Kent
Campbellton – La Voix du Restigouche, The Tribune
Dieppe – L'Étoile Dieppe
Grand Bay-Westfield – The River Valley News
Grand Falls – The Victoria Star
Miramichi – Miramichi Leader
Oromocto – Post Gazette
St. Stephen – Saint Croix Courier
Shediac – L'Étoile Shediac
Sussex – Kings County Record
Woodstock – The Bugle-Observer
Newfoundland and Labrador
St. John's – The Express, Le Gaboteur
Northwest Territories
Hay River – The Hub
Inuvik – Inuvik Drum
Yellowknife – Yellowknifer, Northwest Territories News/North
Nova Scotia
Annapolis Royal – The Spectator
Baddeck – The Victoria Standard
Bass River – The Shoreline Journal
Bedford – Bedford-Sackville Observer
Bridgewater – The Bulletin
Chester – The Chester Times
Dartmouth – Dartmouth Tribune
Digby – The Digby Courier
Greenwood – The Aurora
Guysborough – Guysborough Journal
Halifax – Halifax Citizen
Inverness – The Inverness Oran
Liverpool – The Advance
Lunenburg – The Progress Enterprise
Middleton – The Annapolis County Spectator
Parrsboro – The Citizen-Record
Pictou – The Advocate
Port Hawkesbury – The Reporter
Shelburne – The Coast Guard
Springhill – The Record
Tatamagouche – The Light
Windsor – The Hants Journal
Yarmouth – The Sou'Wester, Nova News Now
Nunavut
Iqaluit – Nunavut News North, Nunatsiaq News
Rankin Inlet – Kivalliq News
Ontario
Ajax – Ajax News Advertiser
Alexandria – Glengarry News
Alliston – Alliston Herald
Almonte – Almonte Gazette
Alvinston – Transcript and Free Press
Amherstburg – River Town Times
Arnprior – Arnprior Chronicle-Guide, Arnprior Weekender News
Arthur – Arthur Enterprise News
Atikokan – Atikokan Progress
Aurora – Aurora Banner, Auroran
Aylmer – Aylmer Express
Ayr – Ayr News
Bancroft – Bancroft This Week, Bancroft Times and North Hastings Advertiser
Barrie – Barrie Advance
Barry's Bay – The Valley Gazette
Beamsville – Lincoln Post Express
Beaverton – Brock Citizen
Beeton – Beeton Record Sentinel
Belle River – North Essex News
Bracebridge – Bracebridge Examiner, The Muskokan, Muskoka Sun, Weekender
Brampton – Brampton Guardian, South Asian Focus
Brighton – Brighton Gazette, Brighton Independent
Burk's Falls – Almaguin News
Burlington – Burlington Post
Caledon – Caledon Citizen, Caledon Enterprise, The Caledon Underground
Caledonia – Grand River Sachem
Cambridge – Cambridge Times
CFB Trenton – Contact
Carleton Place – Carleton Place Almonte Canadian Gazette
Chatham – Chatham This Week, Today's Farmer
Clarington – Clarington This Week, The Orono Weekly Times
Clinton – The Clinton News-Record
Cobourg – Northumberland News
Cochrane – Cochrane Times-Post
Colborne – Colborne Chronicle
Collingwood – Collingwood Connection
Cornwall – Seaway News, The Seeker
Deep River – North Renfrew Times
Dresden – Leader-Spirit
Durham – Durham Chronicle
Elliot Lake – Elliot Lake Standard
Elmira – Woolwich Observer
Erin – Erin Advocate
Espanola – Mid-North Monitor
Essex – Essex Voice
Etobicoke – Etobicoke Guardian
Exeter – Exeter Times-Advocate
Fergus – Fergus Elora News Express, Wellington Advertiser
Fort Frances – Fort Frances Daily Bulletin, Fort Frances Times
Gananoque – Gananoque Reporter
Georgina – Georgina Advocate
Glencoe – Transcript and Free Press
Goderich – Goderich Signal Star
Grand Bend – Lakeshore Advance
Gravenhurst – Gravenhurst Banner
Grimsby – Grimsby Lincoln Independent
Guelph – Guelph Mercury Tribune
Haliburton – Haliburton Echo, The Highlander
Halton Hills – Independent and Free Press
Hamilton – Ancaster News, Dundas Star News, Flamborough Review, Glanbrook Gazette, Hamilton Mountain News, Stoney Creek News
Hanover – Hanover Post
Huntsville – Huntsville Forester
Ignace – Driftwood
Innisfil – Innisfil Scope, Innisfil Journal
Kawartha Lakes – Kawartha Lakes This Week
Kemptville – Kemptville Advance
Kenora – Kenora Miner and News
Kincardine – Kincardine News
King – King Sentinel, King Connection
Kingston – Kingston This Week, Frontenac This Week, Kingstonist, YGK News
Kitchener – Kitchener Post
London – The Londoner, London Community News
Lucknow – Lucknow Sentinel
Manitoulin – Expositor
Markdale – Markdale Standard
Markham – Markham Economist and Sun
Midland – Midland Penetanguishene Mirror
Milton – Milton Canadian Champion
Minden – Minden Times
Minto – Minto Express
Mississauga – Mississauga News, Mississauga This Week, The Booster
Mitchell – Mitchell Advocate
Mount Forest – Mount Forest Confederate
New Hamburg – New Hamburg Independent
Newmarket – Newmarket Era
North Huron – North Huron Citizen
Oakville – Oakville Beaver
Orangeville – Orangeville Banner
Orillia – Orillia Today
Oshawa – Oshawa This Week, Oshawa Express
Oshweken – Turtle Island News
Ottawa – Nepean This Week, La Nouvelle Étudiant / L'Express Étudiant, Manotick News, UpFront Ottawa
Parry Sound – Lifestyles This Week, Parry Sound Beacon Star, Parry Sound North Star
Pembroke – Pembroke News
Perth – Perth Courier
Petawawa – Petawawa News
Peterborough – Peterborough This Week
Pickering – Pickering News Advertiser
Port Perry – Scugog Standard, Port Perry Star
Prince Edward County – Picton Gazette, Picton County Weekly News, Prince Edward Free Press
Renfrew – Renfrew Mercury
Richmond Hill – Richmond Hill Liberal
Sarnia – Sarnia This Week
Saugeen Shores – Shoreline Beacon
Sault Ste. Marie – Sault This Week
Seaforth – Seaforth Huron Expositor
Smiths Falls – Smiths Falls Record News
Springwater – Springwater News
Stayner – Stayner Sun
Stirling – Stirling Community Press
Stouffville – Stouffville Sun-Tribune
Strathroy – Strathroy Age Dispatch
Sudbury – Northern Life, Le Voyageur
Tavistock, Ontario – Tavistock Gazette
Temiskaming Shores – Temiskaming Speaker
Thornbury – Thornbury Courier-Herald
Thornhill – Thornhill Liberal
Thunder Bay – Thunder Bay Source
Tillsonburg – Norfolk & Tillsonburg News
Timmins – Timmins Times, L'Express de Timmins
Toronto – L'Express (Toronto), Beach and South Riverdale Mirror, Bloor West Villager, City Centre Mirror, East York Mirror, Etobicoke Guardian, The Orono Weekly Times, NOW Magazine, North York Mirror, Parkdale Liberty Villager, Scarborough Mirror, "GTA Weekly", York Commonwealth, York Guardian.
Tottenham – Tottenham Times
Trent Hills – Trent Hills Independent
Trenton – Trenton Trentonian
Uxbridge – Uxbridge Times Journal, Uxbridge Cosmos, Uxbridge Standard
Vankleek Hill, Ontario – The Review
Vaughan – Vaughan Citizen
Walkerton – Walkerton Herald-Times
Wallaceburg – Wallaceburg Courier Press, Wallaceburg News
Wasaga Beach – Wasaga Sun
Waterloo – Waterloo Chronicle
West Lorne – West Lorne Chronicle
Whitby – Whitby This Week
Wiarton – Wiarton Echo
Wingham – Wingham Advance Times
Woodbridge – Woodbridge Advertiser
Woodstock, Ontario – Woodstock Sentinel-Review
Prince Edward Island
Alberton – The West Prince Graphic
Montague – The Eastern Graphic
Quebec
Alma – Journal le Lac St-Jean
Amos – Le Citoyen de l'Harricana, Abitibi Express
Amqui – L'Avant-Poste
Aylmer – Bulletin d'Aylmer, West Quebec Post
Baie-Comeau – Plein Jour de Baie-Comeau
Beauport – Journal Beauport Express
Beaupré – Journal L'Autre Voix
Boucherville – Réseau Montérégie, La Relève
Charlesbourg – Journal Charlesbourg Express
Châteauguay – Vision
Chibougamau – La Sentinelle de Chibougamau, Le Jamésien
Coaticook – Le Progrès de Coaticook
Cowansville – Le Guide
Dolbeau-Mistassini – Journal Nouvelles Hebdo
Drummondville – L'Express
Eeyou Istchee Territory – The Nation
Farnham – L'Avenir et des Rivières
Fort-Coulonge – Pontiac Journal du Pontiac
Gaspé – Gaspésie Nouvelles, L'Aviron, The Gaspé Spec
Gatineau – Info07, La Revue, Le Bulletin, L'Étudiant Outaouais
Granby – Granby Express
Hudson – Gazette Vaudreuil-Soulanges
Huntingdon – The Gleaner/La Source
Joliette – L'Action
Kahnawake – The Eastern Door
Knowlton – The Brome County News
La Sarre – Le Citoyen de l'Abitibi-Ouest
La Tuque – L'Écho de La Tuque
Lac-Etchemin – La Voix du Sud
Lac-Mégantic – L'Écho de Frontenac
Lachute – Main Street
Laurier-Station – Le Peuple Lotbinière
Laval – Courrier Laval The Laval News, The North Shore News
Lennoxville – The Townships Sun
Lévis – Le Peuple de Lévis
Longueuil – Le Courrier Du Sud
Louiseville – L'Écho de Maskinongé
Magog – Le Reflet du Lac
Mirabel – Le Mirabel
Mont-Joli – L'information Mont-Joli
Mont-Tremblant – L'Information du Nord Mont-Tremblant, Laurentides Express
Montmagny – Le Peuple de la Côte-Sud
Montreal – Parc-Extension News, Nouvelles Saint-Laurent News, Courrier Ahuntsic & Bordeaux-Cartierville, Avenir de l'est, Le Flambeau de l'Est, L'Informateur de Rivière-des-Prairies, Nouvelles Hochelaga-Maisonneuve, Cités Nouvelles, Le Messager Verdun, Progrès Villeray – Parc-Extension, Progrès Saint-Léonard, Guide Montréal-Nord, Journal de Rosemont – La Petite-Patrie, Le Plateau, La Voix Pop, Le Messager LaSalle, Le Messager Lachine & Dorval, Montréal Express, Journal de St-Michel, Le Messager Week-End, Le Magazine Île-des Soeurs, The Chronicle, The Suburban, Les Affaires, Montreal Times, Nuns' Island Magazine, Westmount Independent
Napierville – Coup d'Oeil
Nicolet – Le Courrier Sud
Piedmont – Accès Laurentides
Port-Cartier – Le Port Cartois
Quebec City – Quebec Chronicle-Telegraph, Journal de l'habitation, Journal Le Jacques-Cartier, Québec Hebdo, Journal L'Actuel, Journal L'Appel, Journal Le Québec Express
Repentigny – Hebdo Rive Nord
Rimouski – Journal L'Avantage
Rivière-Rouge – L'Information du Nord Vallée de la Rouge
Roberval – L'Étoile du Lac
Rouyn-Noranda – La Frontière, Le Citoyen Rouyn-Noranda
Saguenay – Courrier du Saguenay
Saint-André-Avellin – La Petite-Nation
Saint-Bruno-de-Montarville – Journal les Versants
Saint-Eustache – L'Écho de Saint-Eustache, L'Éveil et La Concorde
Saint-Georges – L'Éclaireur Progrès, Édition Beauce
Saint-Hubert – Rive-Sud Express
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu – Le Canada Français
Saint-Jérôme – L'Écho du Nord, Journal Le Nord
Saint-Lin-Laurentides – L'Express Montcalm
Saint-Sauveur – Le Journal des Pays-d'en-Haut La Vallée
Saint-Tite – L'Hebdo Mékinac Des Chenaux
Sainte-Agathe-des-Monts – L'Information du Nord Sainte-Agathe
Sainte-Anne-des-Monts – Le Riverain, Point de vue Sainte-Agathe
Sainte-Thérèse – Nord Info et Voix des Mille-Iles, Journal le Courrier
Salaberry-de-Valleyfield – Southwest News/Le Suroit
Sept-Îles – Le Nord-Est
Shawinigan – L'Hebdo du St-Maurice
Shawville – The Equity
Sherbrooke – Le Journal de Sherbrooke, The Townships Outlet
Terrebonne – Le Trait d'Union
Thetford Mines – Courrier Frontenac
Trois-Rivières – L'Hebdo Journal
Val-d'Or – Le Citoyen de la Vallée de l'Or, L'Écho Abitibien
Val-des-Sources – Les Actualités
Vaudreuil-Dorion – L'Étoile, Your Local Journal
Victoriaville – La Nouvelle Union
Wakefield – The Low Down to Hull and Back News
Saskatchewan
Assiniboia – Assiniboia Times
Battleford/North Battleford – The Battlefords News Optimist
Biggar – Biggar Independent
Bredenbury/Churchbridge/Langenburg/Saltcoats – The Four-Town Journal
Broadview – Broadview Express
Canora – Canora Courier
Carlyle – Carlyle Observer
Carnduff – Carnduff Gazette Post News
Craik – Craik Weekly News
Creighton – The Northern Visions Gazette
Davidson – Davidson Leader
Esterhazy – Esterhazy Miner-Journal
Estevan – Estevan Mercury, Southeast Trader Express
Eston/Elrose – Eston-Elrose Press Review
Foam Lake – Foam Lake Review
Fort Qu'Appelle – Fort Qu'Appelle Times
Gravelbourg – Gravelbourg Tribune
Grenfell – Grenfell Sun
Gull Lake – Gull Lake Advance
Herbert – Herbert Herald
Humboldt – Humboldt Journal
Indian Head/Wolseley – Indian Head-Wolseley News
Ituna – Ituna News
Kamsack – Kamsack Times
Kelvington – Kelvington Radio, Northeast Chronicle
Kerrobert – Kerrobert Citizen
Kindersley – Kindersley Clarion
Kinistino/Birch Hills – Kinistino-Birch Hills Post-Gazette
Lanigan – Lanigan Advisor
Leader – Leader News
Lloydminster – Lloydminster Meridian Booster, Lloydminster Source
Macklin – Macklin Mirror
Maidstone – Maidstone Mirror
Maple Creek – Maple Creek and Southwest Advance Times, Maple Creek News
Meadow Lake – Meadow Lake Northern Pride
Melfort – Melfort Journal
Melville – Melville Advance
Moosomin – Moosomin World-Spectator
Naicam – Naicam News
Nipawin – Nipawin Journal
Norquay – Norquay North Star
Outlook – The Outlook
Oxbow – Oxbow Herald
Preeceville – The Preeceville Progress
Prince Albert – Rural Roots
Radville – Radville Star, Deep South Star
Regina – Regina Sun
Rosetown – Rosetown Eagle
Rosthern – Saskatchewan Valley News
St. Walburg – St. Walburg & Area Gazette
Saskatoon – Saskatoon Bridges
Shaunavon – Shaunavon Standard
Shellbrook – Shellbrook Chronicle
Strasbourg – Last Mountain Times
Swift Current – The Prairie Post, The Southwest Booster
Tisdale – The Parkland Review, Tisdale Recorder
Turtleford – Northwest Neighbors
Unity – Northwest Herald
Wadena – Wadena News
Wakaw/Cudworth – Wakaw Recorder & Cudworth Progress
Warman – The Country Press
Watrous – Watrous Manitou
Watson – East Central Connection
Weyburn – Weyburn Review, Weyburn This Week
Whitewood – Whitewood Herald
Wilkie – Wilkie Press
Wolseley – Wolseley Bulletin
Wynyard – Advance Gazette
Yorkton – Yorkton This Week
Alternative weeklies
British Columbia
Vancouver – Georgia Straight
Victoria – Monday Magazine
Manitoba
Winnipeg – Uptown
Newfoundland and Labrador
St. John's – The Scope
Nova Scotia
Halifax – The Coast
Annapolis Valley – The Grapevine
Ontario
Hamilton – View Magazine
Prince Edward Island
Charlottetown – The Buzz
Quebec
Montreal – Voir
Saskatchewan
Regina – Prairie Dog
Ethnic and multicultural newspapers
Afghani
Toronto – Afghan Post
Arabic
London, Ontario – Al Bilad, Al Falqa
Mississauga, Ontario – Al-Wattan
Montreal – Al Akhbar (), Al-Ayam Al Arabia (الايام العربية) (Arabic), Al Awsat (), Al Hadath (), Al Mustakbal (), Al Machreq et Al-Maghreb () (Arabic, French), Atlas.Mtl (French), El Mahrousa (), El Masri (), Founoun (), Phoenicia () (Arabic, French, English, Armenian), Sada al Mashrek () (Arabic, French, English), Shlomeel - Salam Allah (Arabic, French, English)
Toronto – , Hashtag Arabia (hashtag, Arabic, English)
Mississauga, Ontario – Al-Mersal, Al Muhajer (The Migrant, Arabic, English, French)
Ottawa – Arab Canada Newspaper (Arabic)
Vancouver – Muslim Community Journal
Willowdale, Ontario – Al-Ahram Elgdeed
Armenian
Montreal – Abaka () (Armenian, French, English), Horizon Weekly () (Armenian, French, English)
Bengali
Montreal – International Dhaka Post (Bengali, English)
Toronto – The Bangla Kagoj, Bengali Time, The Deshe Bideshe (Bengali, English), Notundesh Canada
Bulgarian
Montreal – Forum Bulgare ()
Caribbean
Toronto – The GTA Times, The GTA Times Inc., Toronto Caribbean Newspaper, Vision Newspaper Canada
Montreal – Montreal Community Contact
Chinese
Calgary – Canadian Chinese Times (Chinese: 加华报), Sing Tao Daily
Edmonton – Edmonton Chinese News (Chinese: 愛華報), Sing Tao Daily
Hamilton, Ontario – Hamilton Chinese News ()
London, Ontario – London Chinese Post ()
Mississauga, Ontario – Mississauga Chinese News ()
Montreal – The Chinese News (Chinese: 华侨新报), Luby Chinese Weekly (Chinese: 路比華訊), Sept Days (Chinese: 七天), Sino Quebec (), Today Commercial News ()
Ottawa, Ontario – Capital Chinese News, Canada Chinese News, The Ottawa Weekend
Toronto – Canada China News; Chinese: 中华导报), Ming Pao Daily News (), Sing Tao Daily (), Today Daily News ()
Vancouver – Asian Pacific Post, Dawa Business Press (Chinese: 大华商报), Global Chinese Press (Chinese: 环球华报), Health Times (Chinese: 健康时报), Sing Tao Daily, Ming Pao Daily News, Voice Richmond Weekly
Winnipeg – Manitoba China Times (), Winnipeg Chinese Post (Chinese: 温尼伯华商报)
Dutch
Oakville, Ontario – Maandblad de Krant
Farsi
Montreal – Hafteh (Persian هفته)
Montreal – MEDAD (Persian مداد)
Toronto – Atash (Persian آتش)
Vancouver – Paivand (Persian پیوند)
Vancouver – Shahrvand (Persian پیوند)
Filipino
Montreal – Filipino Star
Toronto – Daily South Asian Free Press, Diaryo Alberta, Filipiniana, Philippine Reporter, South Asian Star
Vancouver – The Filipino Post, Philippine Asian Chronicles, Philippine Canadian Inquirer
Winnipeg – Ang Peryodiko, The Filipino Journal, The Philippine Times
Finnish
Thunder Bay, Ontario – Canadan Sanomat
Toronto – Canadan Uutiset, Kanadan Sanomat
Vancouver – Länsirannikon Uutiset
German
Calgary – Mill Woods Mosaic
Edmonton – The Albertaner
Montreal – Das Echo
Ottawa – The Hofbräuhaus News
Steinbach, Manitoba – Das Blatt, Die Mennonitische Post
Toronto – Das Journal, Deutsche Presse, Deutsche Rundschau, Echo Germanica, Neue Welt
Greek
Montreal – Ta Ellinikacanadika Nea (), The Montreal Greek Times, Vima () (Greek, English, French), The Greek Press ()
Toronto – Balita, he Greek Press (Greek: Ελληνικός Τύπος)
Vancouver – Gnome ()
Gujarati
Toronto – Gujarat Abroad, Gujarat Newsline, Gujarat Weekly, Swadesh
Hebrew/Jewish
Montreal – The Moment
Ottawa – Ottawa Jewish Bulletin (Hebrew, English)
Toronto – Shalom Toronto
Hindi
Montreal – Bharat Times
Toronto – Asian Connections, Asian Tribune, Ask Me Biz, Can-India News, Canadian Asian News, Delhi News Record, Diversity Reporter, Hindi Abroad, India Calling, Indian Express Canada, Journal India, The South Asian News, South Asian Weekender, Weekly Voice
Vancouver – Apna Roots, Asian Journal, Asian Pacific Post, The Asian Star, Hindi Journal, The Indo-Canadian Voice, The Link, The South Asian Post
Icelandic
Winnipeg – Lögberg-Heimskringla
Italian
Montreal – Corriere Italiano, Il Cittadino Canadese
Ottawa – Il Postino, L'Ora di Ottawa
Toronto – Corriere Canadese
Japanese
Vancouver – Vancouver Shinpo () (discontinued since April 30, 2020.)
Toronto – Nikka Times, Nikkei Voice
Korean
Toronto – The Korea Times Daily ()
Vancouver – Canada Express Korean, Vanchosun.
Nepali
Toronto – Canada Nepal
Polish
Vancouver – Takie Życie
Portuguese
Montreal – A Voz de Portugal, Lusopresse
Toronto – ABC Portuguese Canadian, Além-Fronteiras, Milénio Stadium, North News, Nove Ilhas, Portuguese Post, Sol Português, Voice Portuguese-Canadian Newspaper
Winnipeg – O Mundial
Punjabi
Edmonton – Nawi Dunia
Calgary – Des Punjab Times (Punjabi and English)
Toronto – Ajit Weekly, Canadian Punjabi Post (Punjabi), Khabarnama Punjabi Weekly, Punjab Star, Punjabi Awaaz
Montreal – Desi Times () (Punjabi and English)
Vancouver – Akai Guardian, Canadian Punjab Times (Punjabi), Charhdi Kala, Indo-Canadian Times, The Patrika, Punjab Di Awaaz, Punjabi Journal
Romanian
Hamilton, Ontario – Agenda Romaneasca
Montreal – Accent Montreal, Pagini Romanesti (), Zig-Zag Roman-Canadian
Toronto – Acasa, Faptu' Divers
Russian
Toronto – Nasha Canada - Наша Канада
Montreal – Monrealskaya Gazeta Zapad-Vostok (), Nasha Gazeta Montreal (, The Voice of Community, (Russian: ГОЛОС ОБЩИНЫ)
Serbian
Torotno - Glas Kanadskih Srba (Voice of Canadian Serbs)
Sinhala
Toronto – Sri Lankan Anchorman, The Sri Lanka Reporter
Spanish
Calgary – Canadian Latino Newspaper
Hamilton, Ontario – Presencia Latina
Montreal – L'Alternativa Latina, El Chasqui Latino, Journal Comercio Latino, Noticias Montreal
Ottawa – Eco Latino
Toronto – Correo Canadiense, El Popular, La Jornada, La Portada Canadá, La Voz Latina, El Centro News, Toronto Dominicano
Vancouver – La Re – Vista
Swedish
Vancouver – Nya Svenska Presse
Tamil
Toronto – Amalai Express, Canada Uthayan, Dasatha, Free Voice Media Creations, Thangatheepam News, The Times of Sri Lanka
Turkish
Montreal – Bizim Anadolu (Turkish, English, French)
Toronto – Canadatürk (Turkish, English)
Ukrainian
Toronto – New Pathway: Ukrainian Weekly Newspaper (Ukrainian: Новий Шлях: Український Тижневик)
Winnipeg – The Ukrainian Voice (Ukrainian: Український Голос)
Urdu
Calgary – The Canadian Times, Weekly Canada Express
Montreal – Nawai Pakistan
Toronto – Eastern News, Sunday Times, Urdu Post Canada
Vancouver – Urdu Journal
Vietnamese
Calgary –Việt Nam Thời Báo
Montreal – Tuần Tin Montréal, Việt Báo
Toronto –Thời Báo
Vancouver – Thoi Su, Tự Do
Religious newspapers
Edmonton, Alberta – Living Light News (Christian)
Monthly newspapers
L'Action nationale
L'aut'journal
L'initiative
Cult MTL
Druthers - Canada wide, 250,000 - 500,000 newspapers a month from Toronto, Ontario
Electric City Magazine – Peterborough, Ontario
The Dawson Trail Dispatch – SE Manitoba
The Hudson Bay Post – Churchill, Manitoba
People's Voice
Le Québécois
Scene
Windsor Independent
Student newspapers
Alberta
Athabasca University – The Voice Magazine
Lethbridge College – The Endeavour
MacEwan University – The Griff
Mount Royal University – The Reflector
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology – The Nugget
Southern Alberta Institute of Technology – The Weal, Polytechnic Press
University of Alberta – The Gatewa, The Dagligtale
University of Calgary – The Gauntlet
University of Lethbridge – The Meliorist
British Columbia
British Columbia Institute of Technology – The Link
Camosun College – The Nexus
Capilano University – The Capilano Courier
Douglas College – The Other Press
Emily Carr University of Art and Design – Woo Magazine
Kwantlen Polytechnic University – The Runner
Langara College – The Voice
Quest University – The Spit
Selkirk College – The Sentinel
Simon Fraser University – The Peak
Thompson Rivers University – The Omega
Trinity Western University – Mars' Hill
University of British Columbia – The Ubyssey
University of British Columbia Okanagan – The Phoenix
University of the Fraser Valley – The Cascade
University of Northern British Columbia – Over the Edge
University of Victoria – The Martlet
Vancouver Island University – The Navigator
Manitoba
Brandon University – The Quill
Canadian Mennonite University – The Doxa
Red River College – The Projector
St. Paul's College – The Paulinian
Université de Saint-Boniface – Le Réveil
University of Manitoba – The Manitoban
University of Winnipeg – The Uniter
New Brunswick
Mount Allison University – The Argosy
St. Thomas University – The Aquinian
Université de Moncton – Le Front
University of New Brunswick – The Brunswickan (Fredericton campus), The Baron (Saint John campus)
Newfoundland and Labrador
Memorial University of Newfoundland – The Muse
Nova Scotia
Acadia University – The Athenaeum
Cape Breton University – The Caper Times
Dalhousie University – The Dalhousie Gazette
Mount Saint Vincent University – The Sentinel
Nova Scotia Agricultural College – Golden Ram
Saint Francis Xavier University – The Xaverian Weekly
Saint Mary's University – The Journal
University of King's College – The Watch
Ontario
Algoma University – The Sentient
Algonquin College – Algonquin Times
Brock University – The Brock Press
Carleton University – The Charlatan
Centennial College – The Centennial College Courier
Conestoga College – The Spoke
Durham College – The Chronicle
Fanshawe College – The Interrobang
George Brown College – The Dialog
Humber College – Humber Etcetera
Lakehead University – The Argus
Laurentian University – Lambda (English), L'Orignal déchaîné (French)
Loyalist College – The Pioneer
McMaster University – The Silhouette
Mohawk College – Ignite News
Niagara College – Niagara News
Nipissing University – Student Spotlight, Campus Free Press
OCAD University – Cadmium
Queen's University at Kingston – The Queen's Journal, Golden Words
Redeemer University College – The Crown
Royal Military College of Canada – The Precision
Ryerson University – The Eyeopener, The Ryersonian
St. Clair College – The Saint
Seneca College – The Buzz
Sheridan College – Sheridan Sun
Trent University – Arthur, The Absynthe
University of Guelph – The Ontarion
University of Ontario Institute of Technology – Chronicle
University of Ottawa – Fulcrum (English), La Rotonde (French)
University of Toronto – The Newspaper, The Varsity
Innis College – Innis Herald
St. Michael's College – The Mike
Trinity College – Salterrae
University College – The Gargoyle
Victoria University – The Strand
University of Toronto Mississauga – The Medium
University of Toronto Scarborough – The Underground
University of Waterloo – Imprint
University of Western Ontario – The Gazette
University of Windsor – The Lance
Wilfrid Laurier University – The Cord, The Sputnik
York University – Excalibur
Glendon College – Pro Tem
McLaughlin College – MacMedia
Osgoode Hall – Obiter Dicta
Prince Edward Island
Holland College – The Surveyor
University of Prince Edward Island – The Cadre
Quebec
Bishop's University – The Campus
Cégep de Jonquière – La Pige
Cégep du Vieux Montréal – Le Bagou, L'ultimatum, Le p'tit vieux
Cégep régional de Lanaudière (Joliette campus) – Le Détour
Concordia University – The Link (English), The Concordian (English), L'Organe (French)
Dawson College – The Plant
École Polytechnique de Montréal – Le Polyscope
HEC Montréal – L’intérêt
John Abbott College – Bandersnatch
McGill University – The McGill Daily, McGill Tribune, The Bull & Bear, Le Délit français (French)
MRC des Laurentides – Mainstreet
Téluq – Sans Papier
Université de Montréal – , Forum
Université de Sherbrooke – Le Collectif
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi – Le Griffonnier
Université du Québec à Montréal – Montréal Campus
Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières – Entête
Université Laval – Impact Campus, La Marmite sociale, Le Fil des évènements
Saskatchewan
University of Regina – The Carillon
University of Saskatchewan – The Sheaf
See also
History of Canadian newspapers
List of editors-in-chief of the largest newspapers in Canada
List of Indigenous periodicals in Canada
List of newspapers in Canada by circulation
List of student newspapers in Canada
List of defunct newspapers of Canada
Media in Toronto
References
External links
Canadian Newspaper List
Canada Newspapers
Canadian Newspaper Association
Newspapers | [
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233956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-pattern | Anti-pattern | An anti-pattern is a common response to a recurring problem that is usually ineffective and risks being highly counterproductive. The term, coined in 1995 by computer programmer Andrew Koenig, was inspired by the book Design Patterns, which highlights a number of design patterns in software development that its authors considered to be highly reliable and effective.
The term was popularized three years later by the book AntiPatterns, which extended its use beyond the field of software design to refer informally to any commonly reinvented but bad solution to a problem. Examples include analysis paralysis, cargo cult programming, death march, groupthink and vendor lock-in.
Definition
According to the authors of Design Patterns, there are two key elements to an anti-pattern that distinguish it from a bad habit, bad practice, or bad idea:
The anti-pattern is a commonly-used process, structure or pattern of action that, despite initially appearing to be an appropriate and effective response to a problem, has more bad consequences than good ones
Another solution to the problem the anti-pattern is attempting to address exists, which is documented, repeatable and proven to be effective where the anti-pattern is not
Documenting anti-patterns can be an effective way to analyze a problem space and to capture expert knowledge.
Examples
Social and business operations
Organizational
Analysis paralysis: A project that has stalled in the analysis phase of development, and is unable to achieve support for any of the potential plans of its implementation
Bicycle shed: Giving disproportionate weight to trivial issues
Bleeding edge: Operating with cutting-edge technologies that are still untested or unstable, leading to cost overruns, under-performance or delayed delivery of the product
Bystander apathy: The phenomenon in which people are less likely to or do not offer help to a person in need when others are present
Cash cow: A profitable legacy product that often leads to complacency about new products
Design by committee: The result of having many contributors to a design, but no unifying vision
Escalation of commitment: Failing to revoke a decision when it proves wrong
Groupthink: A collective state where group members begin, often unknowingly, to think alike and reject differing viewpoints
Management by objectives (SAFe): Management operating with the exclusive focus on quantitative management criteria, such as number of sales, when these are non-essential or cost too much to acquire
Micromanagement: Ineffective results stemming from excessive observation, supervision, or other hands-on involvement from management
Moral hazard: Insulating a decision-maker from the consequences of their decision
Mushroom management: Keeping employees "in the dark and fed manure" (also "left to stew and finally canned") about decisions being taken by management
Peter principle: Continually promoting otherwise well-performing employees up to a position they are unsuited for, with responsibilities they are incompetent at completing, where they remain indefinitely
Seagull management: Management in which managers only interact with employees when a problem arises, when they "fly in, make a lot of noise, dump on everyone, do not solve the problem, then fly out"
Stovepipe or Silos: An organizational structure of isolated or semi-isolated teams, in which too many communications take place up and down the hierarchy, rather than directly with other teams across the organization
Typecasting: Locking successful employees into overly-safe, narrowly defined, predictable roles based on their past successes rather than their potential
Vendor lock-in: Making a system excessively dependent on an externally supplied component
Project management
Cart before the horse: Focusing too many resources on a stage of a project out of its sequence
Death march: A project whose staff, while expecting it to fail, are compelled to continue, often with much overwork, by management in denial of the project's possible failure
Ninety-ninety rule: Tendency to underestimate the amount of time to complete a project when it is "nearly done"
Overengineering: Spending resources making a project more robust and complex than is needed
Scope creep: Uncontrolled changes or continuous growth in a project's scope, or adding new features to the project after the original requirements have been drafted and accepted (also known as requirement creep and feature creep)
Smoke and mirrors: Demonstrating unimplemented functions as if they were already implemented
Brooks's law: Adding more resources to a project to increase velocity, when the project is already slowed by coordination overhead
Gold plating: Continuing to work on a task or project well past the point at which extra effort is not adding value
Software engineering
Software design
Abstraction inversion: Not exposing implemented functionality required by callers of a function/method/constructor, so that the calling code awkwardly re-implements the same functionality in terms of those calls
Ambiguous viewpoint: Presenting a model (usually Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD)) without specifying its viewpoint
Big ball of mud: A system with no recognizable structure
Database-as-IPC: Using a database as the message queue for routine interprocess communication where a much more lightweight mechanism would be suitable
Inner-platform effect: A system so customizable as to become a poor replica of the software development platform
Input kludge: Failing to specify and implement the handling of possibly invalid input
Interface bloat: Making an interface so powerful that it is extremely difficult to implement
Magic pushbutton: A form with no dynamic validation or input assistance, such as dropdowns
Race hazard (or race condition): Failing to see the consequences of events that can sometimes interfere with each other.
Stovepipe system: A barely maintainable assemblage of ill-related components
Object-oriented programming
Anemic domain model: The use of the domain model without any business logic. The domain model's objects cannot guarantee their correctness at any moment, because their validation and mutation logic is placed somewhere outside (most likely in multiple places). Martin Fowler considers this to be an anti-pattern, but some disagree that it is always an anti-pattern.
Call super: Requiring subclasses to call a superclass's overridden method
Circle–ellipse problem: Subtyping variable-types on the basis of value-subtypes
Circular dependency: Introducing unnecessary direct or indirect mutual dependencies between objects or software modules
Constant interface: Using interfaces to define constants
God object: Concentrating too many functions in a single part of the design (class)
Object cesspool: Reusing objects whose state does not conform to the (possibly implicit) contract for re-use
Object orgy: Failing to properly encapsulate objects permitting unrestricted access to their internals
Poltergeists: Objects whose sole purpose is to pass information to another object
Sequential coupling: A class that requires its methods to be called in a particular order
Singleton Pattern: This design pattern brings coupling and is considered a bad solution
Yo-yo problem: A structure (e.g., of inheritance) that is hard to understand due to excessive fragmentation
Programming
Accidental complexity: Programming tasks that could be eliminated with better tools (as opposed to essential complexity inherent in the problem being solved)
Action at a distance: Unexpected interaction between widely separated parts of a system
Boat anchor: Retaining a part of a system that no longer has any use
Busy waiting: Consuming CPU while waiting for something to happen, usually by repeated checking instead of messaging
Caching failure: Forgetting to clear a cache that holds a negative result (error) after the error condition has been corrected
Cargo cult programming: Using patterns and methods without understanding why
Coding by exception: Adding new code to handle each special case as it is recognized
Error hiding: Catching an error message before it can be shown to the user and either showing nothing or showing a meaningless message. This anti-pattern is also named Diaper Pattern. Also can refer to erasing the Stack trace during exception handling, which can hamper debugging.
Hard code: Embedding assumptions about the environment of a system in its implementation
Lasagna code: Programs whose structure consists of too many layers of inheritance
Lava flow: Retaining undesirable (redundant or low-quality) code because removing it is too expensive or has unpredictable consequences
Loop-switch sequence: Encoding a set of sequential steps using a switch within a loop statement
Magic numbers: Including unexplained numbers in algorithms
Magic strings: Implementing presumably unlikely input scenarios, such as comparisons with very specific strings, to mask functionality.
Repeating yourself: Writing code that contains repetitive patterns and substrings over again; avoid with once and only once (abstraction principle)
Shooting the messenger: Throwing exceptions from the scope of a plugin or subscriber in response to legitimate input, especially when this causes the outer scope to fail.
Shotgun surgery: Developer adds features to an application codebase that span a multiplicity of implementors or implementations in a single change
Soft code: Storing business logic in configuration files rather than source code
Spaghetti code: Programs whose structure is barely comprehensible, especially because of misuse of code structures
Methodological
Copy and paste programming: Copying (and modifying) existing code rather than creating generic solutions
Golden hammer: Assuming that a favorite solution is universally applicable (See: Silver bullet)
Invented here: The tendency towards dismissing any innovation or less than trivial solution originating from inside the organization, usually because of lack of confidence in the staff
Not invented here (NIH) syndrome: The tendency towards reinventing the wheel (failing to adopt an existing, adequate solution)
Premature optimization: Coding early-on for perceived efficiency, sacrificing good design, maintainability, and sometimes even real-world efficiency
Programming by permutation (or "programming by accident", or "programming by coincidence"): Trying to approach a solution by successively modifying the code to see if it works
Reinventing the square wheel: Failing to adopt an existing solution and instead adopting a custom solution that performs much worse than the existing one
Silver bullet: Assuming that a favorite technical solution can solve a larger process or problem
Tester-driven development: Software projects in which new requirements are specified in bug reports
Configuration management
Dependency hell: Problems with versions of required products
DLL hell: Inadequate management of dynamic-link libraries (DLLs), specifically on Microsoft Windows
Extension conflict: Problems with different extensions to classic Mac OS attempting to patch the same parts of the operating system
JAR hell: Overutilization of multiple JAR files, usually causing versioning and location problems because of misunderstanding of the Java class loading model
See also
Code smell – symptom of unsound programming
Design smell
Dark pattern
List of software development philosophies – approaches, styles, maxims and philosophies for software development
List of tools for static code analysis
Software rot
Software Peter principle
Capability Immaturity Model
ISO/IEC 29110: Software Life Cycle Profiles and Guidelines for Very Small Entities (VSEs)
The Innovator's Dilemma
References
Further reading
External links
Anti-pattern at WikiWikiWeb
Anti-patterns catalog
AntiPatterns.com Web site for the AntiPatterns book
Patterns of Toxic Behavior
C Pointer Antipattern
Email Anti-Patterns book
Patterns of Social Domination
Anti-patterns
Software architecture
Design
Industrial and organizational psychology
Organizational behavior
Anti-social behaviour
Workplace | [
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] |
233958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20Mongolia-related%20articles | Index of Mongolia-related articles | Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to Mongolia include:
Individual administrative districts are listed in Sums of Mongolia.
0–9
1932 armed uprising (Mongolia)
1990 Mongolian democratic revolution
A
Achit Nuur
Adasaurus
Aero Mongolia
Ahmad Fanakati
Aimag
Aimags of Mongolia
Airag
Ald (unit)
Alioramus
Altai (city)
Altai Airport
Altaic languages
Damdinsüren Altangerel
Altan Khan
Altan Khan of the Khalkha
Altan Tobchi
Altay Mountains
Amarbayasgalant Khiid
Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal
Ama Kōhei
Altan Tobchi
Amir Qazaghan
Anandyn Amar
Ankle bone shooting
Antoine Mostaert
Architecture of Mongolia
Arkhangai Province
Artificial Lake Castle
Arvaikheer
Arvaikheer Airport
Asasekiryū Tarō
Asashoryu Akinori
Asud
B
Natsagiin Bagabandi
Bagakhangai
Baganuur
Baiju Noyan
Balingiin Tserendorj
Barlas
Rinchen Barsbold
Baruun-Urt
Baruun-Urt Airport
Baruunturuun, Uvs
Tsogt Batbayar
Jambyn Batmönkh
Ulan Bator
Batu Khan
Bayan of the Baarin
Charles Bawden
Bayan-Ölgii Province
Bayangol, Övörkhangai
Bayangol, Selenge
Bayangol, Ulan Bator
Bayankhongor
Bayankhongor Province
Bayankhongor Airport
Bayanzürkh
Sanjaagiin Bayar
Sorghaghtani Beki
Best Student of Mongolia award
Biligtü Khan
Blue Horde
Bogd Khan
Bogd Khan Uul
Bogdo Zanabazar
Borjigin
Bulgan (city)
Bulgan Airport
Bulgan Province
Bulganbaatar
Gonchigiin Bumtsend
Burkhan Khaldun
Buryats
Buryat language
Buuz
Büri
Byambasuren Davaa
Börte
First Mongol invasion of Burma
Second Mongol invasion of Burma
C
C1 Television
Catopsbaatar
Central Asia
Chadraabalyn Lodoidamba
Chagatai Khan
Chagatai Khanate
Chahar Mongols
Camerton (boy band)
Channel 25 (Mongolia)
The Cave of the Yellow Dog
Chingeltei
Buyant-Ukhaa International Airport
Choghtu Khong Tayiji
Choibalsan (city)
Choibalsan Airport
Ryenchinii Choinom
Chormaqan
Chukchi people
Chulsanbaatar
Chuluut River
Cinema of Mongolia
Civic Will Republican Party
Clear script
Coat of arms of Mongolia
Constitution of Mongolia
Communications in Mongolia
Cretaceous Mongolia
Cuisine of Mongolia
Culture of Mongolia
Cyrillic script
Han Chinese in Mongolia
Khorloogiin Choibalsan
Roman Catholicism in Mongolia
The Cave of the Yellow Dog
D
Dalanzadgad
Dalanzadgad Airport
Damdin Sükhbaatar
Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar
Damdinsüren Altangerel
Darkhan-Uul Province
Darkhan (city)
Darvi, Govi-Altai
Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj
Daur people
Dayan Khan
Byambasuren Davaa
Davst, Uvs
Delger, Govi-Altai
Delgerkhet
Delüün
Demchugdongrub
Democratic Party (Mongolia)
Demographics of Mongolia
Descent from Genghis Khan
Division of the Mongol Empire
Dolgorsüren Serjbudee
Dolgorsüren Sumiyabazar
Dongxiang language
Dongxiang people
Donoi Airport
Munkhbayar Dorjsuren
Dornod Province
Dornogovi Province
Drogön Chögyal Phagpa
Dukha
Dundgovi Province
Duolun County
Dzungars
Düüreg
E
Economy of Mongolia
Economy of the Mongolian People's Republic
Eight Banners
Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
Elections in Mongolia
Eljigidei
Epic of King Gesar
Erdeni Tobchi
Nambaryn Enkhbayar
Miyeegombyn Enkhbold
Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan
Luvsangiin Erdenechuluun
Erdenet
Erdene Zuu monastery
Erdeni Tobchi
Ethnic Mongols in China
Eznis Airways
F
Family tree of Genghis Khan
Flag of Mongolia
Flaming Cliffs
Foreign footballers in Mongolia
Foreign relations of Mongolia
Franco-Mongol alliance
Friends of Mongolia
Friendship Peak
G
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
Galsan Tschinag
Ganbaataryn Tögsbayar
Gandantegchinlen Monastery
Maidarzhavyn Ganzorig
Gelenkhüü
Peljidiin Genden
Genghis Khan
Geography of Mongolia
Epic of King Gesar
Oghul Ghaimish
Gobi Desert
Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park
Golden Horde
Gonchigiin Bumtsend
Öndör Gongor
Government Palace (Mongolia)
Govi-Altai Province
Govisümber Province
Goyol Fashion Festival
Greater Mongolia
Gurvan Saikhan Uul
Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa
Güyük Khan
H
Harumafuji Kōhei
Blue Horde
Golden Horde
Hakuho Sho
Han Chinese in Mongolia
Haner language
Hans-Peter Vietze
Harhiraa
Hasagt Hairhan
Hasar
History of Mongolia
History of modern Mongolia
Hoelun
Hohhot
Hong Bok-won
Hong Dagu
Hulagu Khan
Hu'iten Peak
Mongolian horse
Przewalski's Horse
The Secret History of the Mongols
White Horde
I
Ikh Khorig
Ilkhanate
Inner Mongolia
Institute of finance and economics of Mongolia
Mongol invasions of India
Islam in Mongolia
J
Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar
Jambyn Batmönkh
Jamsrangiin Tseveen
Jamtsyn Davaajav
Jamuqa
Janlavyn Narantsatsralt
Jasagh
Jebe
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu
Jigjidiin Mönkhbat
Jinong
Jochi
Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa
Mongol invasion of Java
K
Battle of the Kalka River
Battle of Khalkhin Gol
Kalmyk language
Karakorum
Khaan Buuz
Khalkha
Khalkha Mongolian
Khalkhyn Gol
Khan
Khangai Mountains
Khan Ho'hii
Khanui River
Khar Nuur, Khovd
Khar Nuur, Zavkhan
Kharkhorin
Kharkhorin Sum Airport
Khatanbaatar Magsarjav
Mandukhai Khatun
Khentii Mountains
Khentii Province
Kherlen River
Khong Tayiji
Ikh Khorig
Khorloogiin Choibalsan
Khoroo
Khovd Province
Khovd (city)
Lake Khövsgöl
Khövsgöl Province
State Great Khural
Khüiten Peak
Kublai Khan
Kulan
Kurultai
Kyokushuzan
Kyokutenhou Masaru
Köke Temür
Pyotr Kozlov
Khaidu the borjigon mongol
Kaidu
Kharchin
L
Chadraabalyn Lodoidamba
Owen Lattimore
Leagues of China
LGBT rights in Mongolia
Liao dynasty
Ligdan Khan
List of Mongol rulers
List of Mongol states
List of airports in Mongolia
List of cities in Mongolia
List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans
List of museums in Mongolia
List of national parks of Mongolia
List of newspapers in Mongolia
List of political parties in Mongolia
List of universities in Mongolia
Luvsangiin Erdenechuluun
M
MIAT Mongolian Airlines
Maidarzhavyn Ganzorig
Manchukuo
Mandalgovi
Mandukhai Khatun
Marco Polo
Mausoleum of Genghis Khan
Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan
Mengjiang
Migjid Janraisig
Military of Mongolia
Mishig Sonompil
Miyeegombyn Enkhbold
Mongol Castle
Mongol Empire
Mongol Nation
Mongol bow
Mongol conquest of Tibet
Mongol invasion of Central Asia
Mongol invasion of China
Mongol invasions and conquests
Mongol invasions of Japan
Mongol invasion of Java
Mongol invasions of Korea
Mongol invasion of Rus
Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
Mongol military tactics and organization
Mongol Post
Mongolia
Mongolia under Qing rule
Mongolia under Yuan rule
Mongolian Death Worm
Mongolian Democratic Union
Mongolian Human Resources Institute
Mongolian manuscript maps
Mongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Status
Mongolian People's Army
Mongolian People's Party
Mongolian People's Republic
Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010)
Mongolian armour
Mongolian cuisine
Mongolian horse
Mongolian language
Mongolian name
Mongolian script
Mongolian writing systems
Mongolian tögrög
Mongolic languages
Mongols
Mongolyn Skautyn Kholboo
Mongolian tögrög
Morin khuur
Antoine Mostaert
Music of Mongolia
Möngke Khan
Mörön (city)
Mörön Airport
N
Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj
Janlavyn Narantsatsralt
Mongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Status
Naadam
Nalaikh
Nambaryn Enkhbayar
National Anthem of Mongolia
National University of Mongolia
Natsagiin Bagabandi
Negdel
Nemegtbaatar
Nessovbaatar
Nogai Khan
Nomads
Nyam-Osoryn Tuyaa
Tsendiin Nyamdorj
O
Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat
Oghul Qaimish
Oirat language
Oirats
Onon River
Onon, Khentii
Ulaanbaatar Opera House
Ordos Desert
Orkhon Province
Orkhon Valley
Orkhon River
Orkhon script
Nyam-Osoryn Tuyaa
Outer Mongolia
Overtone singing
Ovoo
Ö
Ögedei Khan
Ömnögovi Province
Öndör Gongor
Övörkhangai Province
Örüg Temür Khan
P
Drogön Chögyal Phagpa
Pax Mongolica
Peljidiin Genden
'Phags-pa script
Politics of Mongolia
Nicholas Poppe
President of Mongolia
Prime Minister of Mongolia
Proto-Mongols
Przewalski's Horse
Public holidays in Mongolia
Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat
Puxian Wannu
Q
Qara Khitai
Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur
Oghul Qaimish
Amir Qazaghan
Qing dynasty
Qinghai
Queen Anu
Qutlugh Khwaja
R
Rabban Bar Sauma
Emperor Renzong of Yuan China
Rehe
Republican Party (Mongolia)
Renchinlkhümbe, Khövsgöl
Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal
Roman Catholicism in Mongolia
Roman Ungern von Sternberg
Ryenchinii Choinom
S
Sagsai
Sainshand
Sangiin Dalai nuur
Sartuul
Sayan Mountains
Isaac Jacob Schmidt
Sculpture of Mongolia
The Secret History of the Mongols
Selenga
Selenge Province
Selenge River
Dolgorsüren Serjbudee
Shagai
Shankh Monastery
Sharga, Govi-Altai
Silk Road
Mongolyn Skautyn Kholboo
Sloanbaataridae
Songino Khairkhan
Mishig Sonompil
Sorghaghtani Beki
Soyombo script
Soyombo symbol
State Great Khural
State of Dogs
Storm Over Asia
The Story of the Weeping Camel
Suiyuan
Damdin Sükhbaatar
Sükhbaatar Province
Sükhbaatar (district)
Sükhbaatar's mausoleum
Sükhbaataryn Yanjmaa
Sum (country subdivision)
Sums of Mongolia
Dolgorsüren Sumiyabazar
T
Tavan Bogd Uul
Tabun-Khara-Obo crater
Tamir River
Tannu-Ola Mountains
Tartary
Tatars
Köke Temür
Tengri
Tengriism
Terkhiin Tsagaan Nuur
The Travels of Marco Polo
Tibetan Buddhism
Timeline of Mongolian history
Timur
Tolui
Ganbaatar Tögsbayar
Traditional Mongolian medicine
Trans-Mongolian Railway
Transportation in Mongolia
Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet
Tsagaan Sar
Jamsrangiin Tseveen
Tuul River
Tuvans
Nyam-Osoryn Tuyaa
Töregene Khatun
Töv Province
Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal
TV5 Mongolia
U
UB Post
Ugsarmal bair
Ulaanbaatar Opera House
Ulaangom
Ulan Bator
Uliastai
National University of Mongolia
Roman Ungern von Sternberg
Uskhal Khan
Uvs Nuur
Uvs Province
Uyghur people
Uyghur language
Ü
Ünee tugaluulakh
V
Vanchinbalyn Gularans
Vanchinbalyn Injinash
Vowel harmony
W
Wang Toghtua Bukha
Western Xia
White Horde
Wind Horse
List of World Heritage Sites in Mongolia
X
Y
Yam (route)
Sükhbaataryn Yanjmaa
Yassa
Yesugei
Yi Ja-chun
Yolyn Am
Yuan dynasty
Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal
Yümjiriin Mönkh-Amgalan
Yurt
Z
Zanabazar
Zaisan Memorial
Zavkhan Province
Zaya Pandit
Zevegiin Oidov
Zorigtbaataryn Enkhzorig
Zud
Zuunmod
Züüngovi, Uvs
Züünkhangai, Uvs
See also
Lists of country-related topics – similar lists for other countries
Mongolia | [
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233963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaism | Archaism | In language, an archaism (from the , archaïkós, 'old-fashioned, antiquated', ultimately , archaîos, 'from the beginning, ancient') is a word, a sense of a word, or a style of speech or writing that belongs to a historical epoch long beyond living memory, but that has survived in a few practical settings or affairs. Lexical archaisms are single archaic words or expressions used regularly in an affair (e.g. religion or law) or freely; literary archaism is the survival of archaic language in a traditional literary text such as a nursery rhyme or the deliberate use of a style characteristic of an earlier age—for example, in his 1960 novel The Sot-Weed Factor, John Barth writes in an 18th-century style. Archaic words or expressions may have distinctive emotional connotations—some can be humorous (forsooth), some highly formal (What say you?), and some solemn (With thee do I plight my troth).
A distinction between archaic and obsolete words and word senses is widely used by dictionaries. An archaic word or sense is one that still has some current use but whose use has dwindled to a few specialized contexts, outside which it connotes old-fashioned language. In contrast, an obsolete word or sense is one that is no longer used at all. A reader encounters them when reading texts that are centuries old. For example, the works of Shakespeare are old enough that some obsolete words or senses are encountered therein, for which glosses (annotations) are often provided in the margins.
Archaisms can either be used deliberately (to achieve a specific effect) or as part of a specific jargon (for example in law) or formula (for example in religious contexts). Many nursery rhymes contain archaisms. Some archaisms called fossil words remain in use within certain fixed expressions despite having faded away in all other contexts (for example, vim is not used in normal English outside the set phrase vim and vigor).
An outdated form of language is called archaic. In contrast, a language or dialect that contains many archaic traits (archaisms) relative to closely related languages or dialects spoken at the same time is called conservative.
Usage
Archaisms are most frequently encountered in history, poetry, fantasy literature, law, philosophy, science, technology, geography and ritual writing and speech. Archaisms are kept alive by these ritual and literary uses and by the study of older literature. Should they remain recognised, they can potentially be revived.
Because they are things of continual discovery and re-invention, science and technology have historically generated forms of speech and writing which have dated and fallen into disuse relatively quickly. However, the emotional associations of certain words have kept them alive, for example: 'Wireless' rather than 'Radio' for a generation of British citizens who lived through the Second World War, even though the older word 'wireless' is an archaism, and in recent years the term has gained renewed popularity.
A similar desire to evoke a former age means that archaic place names are frequently used in circumstances where doing so conveys a political or emotional subtext, or when the official new name is not recognised by all (for example: 'Madras' rather than 'Chennai'). So, a restaurant seeking to conjure up historic associations might prefer to call itself Old Bombay or refer to Persian cuisine in preference to using the newer place name. A notable contemporary example is the name of the airline Cathay Pacific, which uses the archaic Cathay ("China").
Archaisms are frequently misunderstood, leading to changes in usage. One example is found in the phrase "the odd man out", which originally came from the phrase "to find the odd man out", where the verb "to find out" has been split by its object "the odd man", meaning the item which does not fit. The object + split verb has been reinterpreted as a noun + adjective, such that "out" describes the man rather than any verb.
The pronominal adverbs found in the writing of lawyers (e.g. heretofore, hereunto, thereof) are examples of archaisms as a form of jargon. Some phraseologies, especially in religious contexts, retain archaic elements that are not used in ordinary speech in any other context: "With this ring I thee wed." Archaisms are also used in the dialogue of historical novels in order to evoke the flavour of the period. Some may count as inherently funny words and are used for humorous effect.
Examples
A type of archaism is the use of thou, the second-person singular pronoun that fell out of general use in the 17th century, while you or ye, formerly only used to address groups, and then also to respectfully address individuals, is now used to address both individuals and groups. Thou is the nominative form; the oblique/objective form is thee (functioning as both accusative and dative), and the possessive is thy or thine.
Though thou hast ever so many counsellors, yet do not forsake the counsel of thy own soul.
— English proverb
Today me, tomorrow thee.
— English proverb
The meaning of this proverb is that something that happens to a person, is likely to eventually happen to another who observes it, especially if the two people are similar.
To thine own self be true.
—William Shakespeare
The meaning of this saying is simply that it is unwise to lie to yourself. In its contemporary context it meant to be true (loyal, faithful, supportive) to one's own interests (the 'self' of person, property, and goals). In other words, put yourself before others.
Archaisms in proverbs are often retained, far longer than in other parts of the language. This is because they make the proverbs "fall easier on the tongue",
and also because of the rhetorical effect they evoke by the use of two of the four fundamental operations in rhetoric. Namely, permutation (immutatio) and addition (adiectio).
See also
Anachronism
Fossil word
Historical linguistics
Legal English
Linguistic conservatism
List of alternative country names
List of archaic technological nomenclature
Neologism
Thou
Ye Olde
References
External links
Archaism entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology
Lexicology | [
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233964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Grinder | John Grinder | John Thomas Grinder Jr. ( ; born January 10, 1940) is an American linguist, author, management consultant, trainer and speaker. Grinder is credited with co-creating neuro-linguistic programming, with Richard Bandler. He is co-director of Quantum Leap Inc., a management consulting firm founded by his partner Carmen Bostic St. Clair in 1987 (Grinder joined in 1989). Grinder and Bostic St. Clair also run workshops and seminars on NLP internationally.
Life and career
Grinder graduated from the University of San Francisco with a B.A. degree in psychology in the early 1960s. Grinder then entered the United States Army and served as a captain in the US Special Forces in Europe during the Cold War; following this he went on to work for a US intelligence agency. In the late 1960s, he returned to college to study linguistics and received his Ph.D. degree from the University of California, San Diego in 1971. His dissertation, titled On Deletion Phenomena in English, was published by Mouton in 1976.
In the early 1970s, Grinder worked in George A. Miller's laboratory at Rockefeller University. After receiving his doctorate, Grinder took a full-time position as an assistant professor in the linguistics faculty at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC). He engaged in undergraduate teaching, graduate teaching, and research. His research focused on Noam Chomsky's theories of transformational grammar specializing in syntax and deletion phenomena. He published several research papers with Paul Postal on the syntactical structures relating to "missing antecedents" or missing parasitic gaps for the pronoun. They argued that the syntactic structure of a deleted verb phrase (VP) is complete.
Edward Klima, doctoral adviser to both Postal and Grinder at UCSC, became involved in the early development of generative semantics.
Grinder co-authored, with Suzette Elgin, a linguistics text book titled A Guide to Transformational Grammar: History, Theory, Practice. In 2005, Grinder published Steps to an Ecology of Emergence with Tom Malloy and Carmen Bostic St Clair in the journal Cybernetics and Human Knowing.
Development of neuro-linguistic programming
In 1972 (during Grinder's stint at UCSC) Richard Bandler, an undergraduate student of psychology, approached him for assistance in specific aspects of modeling Gestalt therapy. Bandler, along with good friend Frank Pucelik, had spent much time recording and editing recordings of Fritz Perls (founder of Gestalt therapy) and had learned Gestalt therapy implicitly during intense group sessions. After some time, Grinder was invited to participate in group discussions. Although at first Grinder sat quietly, he eventually approached Bandler and Pucelik with some observations and questions. Grinder left a lasting impression on Pucelik and was later dubbed 'the real genius'. Bandler and Pucelik invited Grinder to team up, eventually creating a very close group. Although Bandler, Grinder and Pucelik were the main driving force, there were several other students at the university who contributed ‘a hell of a lot’ according to Pucelik. In the end, hours of unpaid research significantly aided the formation of Meta - modern day NLP.
From there Grinder and Bandler modelled the various cognitive behavioral patterns of therapists such as Perls, a leading figure in family therapy Virginia Satir and later the leading figure in hypnosis in psychiatry Milton Erickson. As a result, The Structure of Magic Volumes I & II (1975, 1976), Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, Volumes I & II (1975, 1977) and Changing With Families (1976) were published. This work formed the basis of the methodology that became the foundation of neuro-linguistic programming.
The trio began hosting seminars and practice groups. These served as a place to practice and test their newly discovered patterns while allowing them to transfer the skills to the participants. Several books were published based on transcripts of their seminars, including Frogs into Princes (1979). During this period, a creative group of students and psychotherapists were asked to join including Robert Dilts, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Stephen Gilligan and David Gordon (All of whom are considered the second generation of co-developers; recruited by Bandler, Grinder and Pucelik after the original team graduated from university).
In the 1977, Bandler requested that Pucelik be removed from the group for personal reasons - which was agreed to by immediate mutual consent. It wasn't long after that that Bandler, Grinder and their group of associates split acrimoniously, and stopped working together. Following this, many members of their group went out on their own and took NLP in their own directions. Some of Bandler and Grinder's books went out of print for a while due to legal problems between the co-authors. Structure I & II, and Patterns I & II – considered the foundation of the field – were later republished. Bandler attempted to claim legal ownership of the term neuro-linguistic programming; however, it was eventually deemed to be a generic term, and could therefore not be trademarked. Grinder and Bandler settled their claims around 2001, clearing a platform for the future development of NLP as a legitimate field of endeavor.
New code of neuro-linguistic programming
Between 1982 and 1987, strongly influenced by anthropologist and systems theorist Gregory Bateson, who had a strong focus on ecology as a psychological construct, Grinder and Judith DeLozier collaborated to develop the "New Code of NLP". (Grinder and Bateson had met during their affiliation with Kresge College at the University of California, Santa Cruz during the 1970s.) Grinder and Delozier presented an aesthetic framework for the "classic code" of NLP that explicates the involvement of ecology and the unconscious mind in change-work. "Ecology" in NLP involves respecting the integrity of a system as a whole when assessing a change to that system; the "system" in this case comprises a person's model of the world and the consequences of that model in the person's environment. Practically speaking, this consideration entails asking questions like "What are the intended effects of this change? What other effects might this change have, and are those effects desirable? Is this change still a good idea?"
The seminars were transcribed and published in 1987 as Turtles All the Way Down; Prerequisites to Personal Genius.
John Grinder and Carmen Bostic St Clair have further developed The New Code of NLP. (Bostic St Clair founded Quantum Leap Inc., a cultural-change consultancy firm.) Grinder and Bostic St Clair continue to present public seminars on NLP internationally. In 2001, Grinder (with Bostic St Clair) published Whispering in the Wind with a "set of recommendations as to how specifically NLP can improve its practice and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on modeling of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it". Grinder has since begun to strongly encourage the field to make a recommitment to what he considers the core activity of NLP: modeling.
Bibliography
Linguistics
Reviews and discussion by others
Neuro-linguistic programming
New code of neuro-linguistic programming
See also
Transformational grammar
Neuro-linguistic programming
Modeling (NLP)
Richard Bandler
Notes and references
External links
Official Website of John Grinder; co-creator of NLP
UK homepage for John Grinder
2002 Interview with John Grinder and Carmen Bostic St Clair
Grinder's Biography on Robert Dilts web site
1940 births
Living people
Linguists from the United States
American psychology writers
American male non-fiction writers
American self-help writers
American social sciences writers
Neuro-linguistic programming writers
Syntacticians
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
United States Army officers | [
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233965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Bandler | Richard Bandler | Richard Wayne Bandler (born 1950) is an American author and consultant in the field of self-help. With John Grinder, he founded the neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) pseudoscientific approach to psychotherapy in the 1970s.
Education and background
Bandler was born in Teaneck, New Jersey and attended high school in Sunnyvale, California. He has stated that he was beaten as a child so badly that every bone in his body was broken. After his parents separated, he moved with his mother and stayed mostly in and around San Francisco. Bandler obtained a BA degree in philosophy and psychology from the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) in 1973, and an MA degree in psychology from Lone Mountain College in San Francisco in 1975.
Neuro-linguistic programming
Bandler helped publisher Robert S. Spitzer (of Science and Behavior Books, Inc.) edit The Gestalt Approach (1973) based on a manuscript by gestalt therapist Fritz Perls (who had died in 1970). He also assisted with checking transcripts for Eye Witness to Therapy (1973). According to Spitzer, "[Bandler] came out of it talking and acting like Fritz Perls."
While a student at UCSC, Bandler also led a Gestalt therapy group. John Grinder, a professor at the University, said to Bandler that he could explain almost all of the questions and comments Bandler made using transformational grammar. Grinder's specialty was in linguistics. Together, they created what they called a therapist training group. This was the basis for their first book, The Structure of Magic (1975). Bandler and Grinder claim to have later codified some of the foundational models for Neuro-linguistic programming in part by studying and methods of Milton Erickson and Virginia Satir.
Murder trial and acquittal
In 1986, Corine Ann Christensen (December 8, 1954 – November 3, 1986), a former girlfriend of Bandler's friend and cocaine dealer, James Marino, was shot dead in her Santa Cruz townhouse with a .357 magnum owned by Bandler. Authorities charged Bandler with her murder. Bandler testified that he had been at Christensen's house but that Marino had shot Christensen. After a short deliberation, a jury found Bandler not guilty.
Publications
Using Your Brain for a Change, 1985 ()
An Insider's Guide To Sub-Modalities, 1988 () Richard Bandler, Will MacDonald
Magic in Action, 1992 ()
Time for a Change, 1993 ()
Richard Bandler and Kate Benson (2016) Teaching Excellence. Bandler Benson publications. 391pp. .
Richard Bandler, Dr. Glenda Bradstock and Owen Fitzpatrick (2019) Thinking on Purpose, a 15 Day Plan to a Smarter Life. New Thinking Publications. 272pp. .
References
External links
Guardian feature by Jon Ronson
Richard Bandler NLP
German Discussion-Board about Richard Bandler
NLP Events London
NHR Events
NLPLife Youtube channel
1950 births
Jewish American writers
American hypnotists
Living people
Neuro-linguistic programming writers
People acquitted of murder
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
People from Teaneck, New Jersey
American self-help writers
21st-century American Jews | [
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] |
233975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threading | Threading | Threading may refer to:
Thread (computing), a programming technique
Threading (epilation), a hair removal method
Threading (manufacturing), the process of making a screw thread
Threading (protein sequence), a method for computational protein structure prediction
Threaded code, another programming technique
Threaded discussion, a style of email and Usenet news handling | [
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233977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendezvous | Rendezvous | Rendezvous or rendez-vous may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Film and television
The Rendezvous (1923 film), a silent film adventure melodrama
Rendezvous (1930 film), a German musical directed by Carl Boese
Rendezvous (1935 film), a spy film set in World War I
Rendezvous (1952 TV series)
Rendezvous (TV series), a 1957 drama
The Rendezvous (1972 film), a Japanese film
C'était un rendez-vous, a 1976 French short film by Claude Lelouch
Rendez-vous (1985 film), a French drama
"Rendezvous" (Alias), a 2002 television episode
"Rendezvous" (Prison Break), a 2006 television episode
The Rendez-Vous, a 2015 Dutch film starring Loes Haverkort and Pierre Boulanger
The Rendezvous (2016 film), an American action-adventure film
Rendezvous (2019 film), an American short suspense-thriller
Music
Albums
Rendez-Vous (Nikos Aliagas & Friends album), 2007
Rendez-Vous (Chet Baker album), 1980
Rendez-Vous (In-Grid album), 2003
Rendez-Vous (Jean Michel Jarre album), 1986
Rendez-Vous 98 Electronic Night, a VHS recording of Jarre's 1998 "Nuit Électronique" concert
Rendezvous (CANO album), 1979
Rendezvous (Luna album), 2004
Rendezvous (Michel Camilo album), 1993
Rendezvous (Sandy Denny album), 1977
Rendezvous (M.I Abaga playlist), 2018
Rendezvous, a 1992 Christopher Cross album
Rendezvous (Jacky Terrasson and Cassandra Wilson album), 1997
Rendezvous (George Duke Album), 1984
Rendezvous with Peggy Lee, 1948
Songs
"Rendezvous", by Years & Years on the album Palo Santo, 2018
"Rendezvous", by Scandroid, 2017
"Rendez Vous" (Inna song), 2016
"Rendezvous" (Craig David song)
"Rendez-vous" (song), by Pas de Deux
"Rendezvous" (Buck-Tick song), 2007
"Rendez-Vu", by Basement Jaxx
"Rendezvous", by Bruce Springsteen on the album Tracks
"Rendezvous", by Tina Charles on the album Heart 'n' Soul, 1977
"Rendez-vous", by Culture Beat
"Rendez-Vous", by DJ Smash
"Rendezvous", by the Hudson Brothers
"Rendezvous", by Little Mix on the album Confetti, 2020
"Rendezvous", by Tilt
Other uses in music
Rendezvous (band), an Israeli band
Rendez-Vous (band), a post-punk French band
Rendezvous Records, a 1950s record label
Rendezvous Entertainment, an American record label founded by Dave Koz, Frank Cody and Hyman Katz
Science and technology
Rendezvous problem, a mathematical formulation for the optimal way to meet
Rendezvous protocol, a type of network resource discovery protocol
Bonjour (software), formerly Rendezvous, a computer network technology
Rendezvous (Plan 9), a system call in the Plan 9 operating system
Synchronous rendezvous, a concept in parallel computing
TIBCO Rendezvous, enterprise application integration software
Space rendezvous, a maneuver between two spacecraft
Places
Rendezvous, Arkansas, US
Rendezvous Bay Pond, Anguilla
Other uses
Rendezvous (festival), an annual festival organized by the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Rendezvous (fur trade), a large meeting once typically held annually in the American wilderness
Rendezvous of 1832, one of the largest fur trade rendezvous held in the Rocky Mountains
Fur Rendezvous Festival, an annual winter festival in Anchorage, Alaska
Rendezvous (political cartoon)
Rendez-vous '87, an ice hockey exhibition series
Buick Rendezvous, an automobile
The Rendezvous Society, a charitable organization
Rendezvous Sports World, a former Indian cricket franchise
Rocky Mountain Rendezvous, an annual fur trade gathering held at various locations, 1825–1840
See also
Rendez-vous in Montreal, a 1987 animated film | [
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233978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver%20Sun | Vancouver Sun | The Vancouver Sun, also known as The Sun,''' is a daily newspaper first published in British Columbia on 12 February 1912. The paper is currently published by the Pacific Newspaper Group, a division of Postmedia Network. It is published six days a week, Monday to Saturday.
Now combined with The Province newspaper, the Sun still has the largest newsroom of any newspaper in western Canada. The Sun is a broadsheet newspaper and was not originally related to the Sun Media chain and its tabloid Sun papers in Toronto, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Calgary, and Edmonton. However, Sun Media was acquired by Postmedia in 2015, making the Vancouver Sun and the tabloid Sun papers part of the same company.
History
When the Sun began operation, it was published at 125 West Pender Street, just around the corner from The Province, its rival at the time. From 1917 until his death in 1936, its publisher was Robert James Cromie.
In 1924, the Sun bought the Vancouver World newspaper, which had been in financial difficulty for some time.
In March 1937, a fire destroyed the Suns business and editorial offices. The only casualty was the janitor, who suffered minor burns and smoke inhalation. The Sun promptly moved across the street into the World Building, where the World had been published. The building was accordingly renamed the Sun Tower.
In 1958, the Vancouver Sun and The Province joined to create the Pacific Press in response to the rising costs of producing newspapers. First the papers merged their mechanical and financial departments, then they both moved into the Pacific Press Building on December 27, 1965.
The newspaper's photography department became the first in the world to fully switch over to digital photography following the 1994 release of the Kodak DCS 400 series, which used a Nikon F90 body; the camera was developed by Kodak in collaboration with The Associated Press and each unit cost $16,950.
In 1997, Kennedy Heights, the printing press for the Vancouver Sun and The Province, was opened in Surrey. Later in 1997 the paper moved to Granville Square.
In May 2009, the newspaper laid off long-time editorial cartoonist Roy Peterson who had been drawing for the paper since 1962.
In December 2011, after much research on the demographics of the greater Vancouver area, the newspaper launched a Chinese-language version Taiyangbao with original Chinese language content. According to an article broadcast on China Now on China Radio International (December 2011), the key to success was not necessarily to "translate" its English-language version into Chinese.
In January 2015, the Kennedy Heights printing press operation was shut down, resulting in 220 workers losing their jobs. Printing of the Vancouver Sun and The Province were outsourced, each to different printing press operations.
In 2017, the Vancouver Sun and The Province moved to East Vancouver, to the Broadway Tech Centre.
Circulation
The Vancouver Sun'' has seen, like most Canadian daily newspapers, a decline in circulation. Its total circulation dropped by percent to 136,787 copies daily from 2009 to 2015.
Daily average
Notable staff
Kim Bolan, crime
Hal Sigurdson (1966 to 1976), assistant sports editor
See also
Vancouver Sun Run
The Vancouver Sun Classic Children's Book Collection
List of newspapers in Canada
References
External links
Official mobile site
Vancouver Sun RSS feed
History of Metropolitan Vancouver
Newspapers published in Vancouver
Postmedia Network publications
Publications established in 1912
Daily newspapers published in British Columbia
1912 establishments in British Columbia
Vancouver Sun people | [
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233980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Gottfried | Paul Gottfried | Paul Edward Gottfried (born November 21, 1941) is an American paleoconservative philosopher, historian, and columnist. He is a former Horace Raffensperger Professor of Humanities at Elizabethtown College in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, as well as a Guggenheim Fellowship recipient. He is currently editor-in-chief of Chronicles magazine.
Early life and education
His father was a successful furrier from Budapest, who had fled Hungary after the July Putsch of 1934. The Jewish family relocated to Bridgeport soon after his birth. Gottfried attended Yeshiva University in New York as an undergraduate and returned to Connecticut to attend Yale for graduate school.
Career
Gottfried is opposed to nation-building and is an avid critic of American interventionist foreign policy.
Gottfried coined terms such as "paleoconservative" (which he identifies with) and "alternative right" (which he rejects).
In 2018, he joined the Institut des sciences sociales, économiques et politiques (Institute of Social, Economic and Political Sciences), founded by Marion Maréchal and Thibaut Monnier, in Lyon, France.
Gottfried is the US correspondent of Nouvelle École, a Nouvelle Droite journal founded by GRECE in 1968.
Coining the phrase Alt-Right
Gottfried wrote in a 2018 article for the National Post, "I do know Richard Spencer and worked with him in 2010 when he edited the Taki’s Magazine website. We did develop the term "Alternative Right" together — it was a headline he put on one of my articles. But my subsequent strategic differences with him are a matter of public record, which should have been noted."
Proximity to the Alt-Right
In 2018, Robert Fulford for the Canadian National Post, suggested that Paul Gottfried was the "godfather" of the alt-right, suggesting his Paleoconservative ideas were the origin of the alt-right "phenomenon". Three weeks later, Gottfried published a response article requesting he not be referred to in that manner. The question of whether Gottfried is the "godfather or the alt-right" however appears to have originated in the 2016 Tablet Magazine article titled, "The Alt-Right’s Jewish Godfather", in which Gottfried states "I just do not want to be in the same camp with white nationalists," going on to say "As somebody whose family barely escaped from the Nazis in the ’30s, I do not want to be associated with people who are pro-Nazi." whilst also conceding that "Whenever I look at Richard [Spencer], I see my ideas coming back in a garbled form." Author of the article Jacob Siegel describes Gottfried as having "tried to build a postfascist, postconservative politics of the far-right" for the past 20 years.
Selected publications
Books
Conservative Millenarians: The Romantic Experience in Bavaria, Fordham University Press, 1979
The Search for Historical Meaning: Hegel and the Postwar American Right, Northern Illinois Univ Press, 1986
The Conservative Movement, Twayne Pub 1988, with Thomas Fleming (second edition 1992)
Carl Schmitt: Politics and Theory, Greenwood Press 1990,
After Liberalism: Mass Democracy in the Managerial State, Princeton University Press, 2001
Multiculturalism and the Politics of Guilt: Towards a Secular Theocracy, University of Missouri Press, 2002
The Strange Death of Marxism: The European Left in the New Millennium, University of Missouri Press, 2005
Conservatism in America: Making Sense of the American Right, Palgrave-Macmillan, 2007
Leo Strauss and the American Conservative Movement, Cambridge University Press, 2012
War and Democracy, Arktos, 2012,
Fascism: The Career of a Concept, Northern Illinois University Press, 2015
Revisions and Dissents, Northern Illinois University Press, 2017
Antifascism: The Course of a Crusade, Northern Illinois University Press, 2021
Articles
"Why must Christians routinely grovel and apologize for crimes against Jews which they never committed?" Rothbard-Rockwell Report, vol. 6, no. 5 (July 1996): 1–4.
"Anti-War Anti-Americanism?". Telos, vol. 114 (Winter 1999)
"The Multicultural International". Orbis (Winter 2002)
"The Invincible Wilsonian Matrix". Orbis (Spring 2007)
"The WASP Roots of Liberal Internationalism". Historically Speaking (Fall 2010)
Reviews
"Protestant Peculiarities in Contemporary America and Germany." Reviews of That Old-Time Religion in Modern America: Evangelical Protestantism in the Twentieth Century by D.G. Hart; Deconstructing Evangelicalism: Conservative Protestantism in the Age of Billy Graham by D.G. Hart; Evangeliche Kirche im geteilten Deutschland, 1945-1989/90, edited by Claudia Lepp and Kurt Nowak. Orbis, vol. 52, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 181–194. .
References
1941 births
Living people
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Alt-right writers
American columnists
American foreign policy writers
American male non-fiction writers
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
American political philosophers
American political writers
Critics of Marxism
Critics of neoconservatism
Intellectual historians
Jewish American historians
Jewish philosophers
Mises Institute people
Non-interventionism
Paleoconservatism
Writers from the Bronx
Yale University alumni
Yeshiva University alumni
Carl Schmitt scholars
Historians from New York (state) | [
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233983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20robot | Military robot | Military robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled mobile robots designed for military applications, from transport to search & rescue and attack.
Some such systems are currently in use, and many are under development.
History
Broadly defined, military robots date back to World War II and the Cold War in the form of the German Goliath tracked mines and the Soviet teletanks. The MQB-1 Predator drone was when "CIA officers began to see the first practical returns on their decade-old fantasy of using aerial robots to collect intelligence".
The use of robots in warfare, although traditionally a topic for science fiction, is being researched as a possible future means of fighting wars. Already several military robots have been developed by various armies. Some believe the future of modern warfare will be fought by automated weapons systems. The U.S. military is investing heavily in the RQ-1 Predator, which can be armed with air-to-ground missiles and remotely operated from a command center in reconnaissance roles. DARPA has hosted competitions in 2004 & 2005 to involve private companies and universities to develop unmanned ground vehicles to navigate through rough terrain in the Mojave Desert for a final prize of 2 million.
Artillery has seen promising research with an experimental weapons system named "Dragon Fire II" which automates loading and ballistics calculations required for accurate predicted fire, providing a 12-second response time to fire support requests. However, military weapons are prevented from being fully autonomous; they require human input at certain intervention points to ensure that targets are not within restricted fire areas as defined by Geneva Conventions for the laws of war.
There have been some developments towards developing autonomous fighter jets and bombers. The use of autonomous fighters and bombers to destroy enemy targets is especially promising because of the lack of training required for robotic pilots, autonomous planes are capable of performing maneuvers which could not otherwise be done with human pilots (due to high amount of G-force), plane designs do not require a life support system, and a loss of a plane does not mean a loss of a pilot. However, the largest drawback to robotics is their inability to accommodate for non-standard conditions. Advances in artificial intelligence in the near future may help to rectify this.
In 2020 a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a report from the UN Security Council’s Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an autonomous killer robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.
Examples
In current use
D9T Panda, Israel
Elbit Hermes 450, Israel
Goalkeeper CIWS
Guardium
IAIO Fotros, Iran
PackBot
MQ-9 Reaper
MQ-1 Predator
TALON
Samsung SGR-A1
Shahed 129, Iran
Shomer Gvouloth ("Border Keeper"), Israel
THeMIS, Estonia
PLA robot soldiers, deployed on the China-India border
In development
US Mechatronics has produced a working automated sentry gun and is currently developing it further for commercial and military use.
, a four-wheeled robot outfitted with several cameras, radar, and possibly a firearm, that automatically performs random or preprogrammed patrols around a military base or other government installation. It alerts a human overseer when it detects movement in unauthorized areas, or other programmed conditions. The operator can then instruct the robot to ignore the event, or take over remote control to deal with an intruder, or to get better camera views of an emergency. The robot would also regularly scan radio frequency identification tags (RFID) placed on stored inventory as it passed and report any missing items.
Tactical Autonomous Combatant (TAC) units, described in Project Alpha study Unmanned Effects: Taking the Human out of the Loop.
Autonomous Rotorcraft Sniper System is an experimental robotic weapons system being developed by the U.S. Army since 2005. It consists of a remotely operated sniper rifle attached to an unmanned autonomous helicopter. It is intended for use in urban combat or for several other missions requiring snipers. Flight tests are scheduled to begin in summer 2009.
The "Mobile Autonomous Robot Software" research program was started in December 2003 by the Pentagon who purchased 15 Segways in an attempt to develop more advanced military robots. The program was part of a $26 million Pentagon program to develop software for autonomous systems.
ACER
Atlas (robot)
Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot
Dassault nEUROn (French UCAV)
Dragon Runner
MATILDA
MULE (US UGV)
R-Gator
Ripsaw MS1
SUGV
Syrano
iRobot Warrior
PETMAN
Excalibur unmanned aerial vehicle
Effects and impact
Advantages
Autonomous robotics would save and preserve soldiers' lives by removing serving soldiers, who might otherwise be killed, from the battlefield. Lt. Gen. Richard Lynch of the United States Army Installation Management Command and assistant Army chief of staff for installation stated at a 2011 conference:
Major Kenneth Rose of the US Army's Training and Doctrine Command outlined some of the advantages of robotic technology in warfare:
Increasing attention is also paid to how to make the robots more autonomous, with a view of eventually allowing them to operate on their own for extended periods of time, possibly behind enemy lines. For such functions, systems like the Energetically Autonomous Tactical Robot are being tried, which is intended to gain its own energy by foraging for plant matter. The majority of military robots are tele-operated and not equipped with weapons; they are used for reconnaissance, surveillance, sniper detection, neutralizing explosive devices, etc. Current robots that are equipped with weapons are tele-operated so they are not capable of taking lives autonomously. Advantages regarding the lack of emotion and passion in robotic combat is also taken into consideration as a beneficial factor in significantly reducing instances of unethical behavior in wartime. Autonomous machines are created not to be "truly 'ethical' robots", yet ones that comply with the laws of war (LOW) and rules of engagement (ROE). Hence the fatigue, stress, emotion, adrenaline, etc. that affect a human soldier's rash decisions are removed; there will be no effect on the battlefield caused by the decisions made by the individual.
Risks
Human rights groups and NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and the Campaign to Stop Killer Robots have started urging governments and the United Nations to issue policy to outlaw the development of so-called "lethal autonomous weapons systems" (LAWS). The United Kingdom opposed such campaigns, with the Foreign Office declaring that "international humanitarian law already provides sufficient regulation for this area".
In July 2015, over 1,000 experts in artificial intelligence signed a letter calling for a ban on autonomous weapons. The letter was presented in Buenos Aires at the 24th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-15) and was co-signed by Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Steve Wozniak, Noam Chomsky, Skype co-founder Jaan Tallinn and Google DeepMind co-founder Demis Hassabis, among others.
Psychology
American soldiers have been known to name the robots that serve alongside them. These names are often in honor of human friends, family, celebrities, pets, or are eponymic. The 'gender' assigned to the robot may be related to the marital status of its operator.
Some affixed fictitious medals to battle-hardened robots, and even held funerals for destroyed robots. An interview of 23 explosive ordnance detection members shows that while they feel it is better to lose a robot than a human, they also felt anger and a sense of loss if they were destroyed. A survey of 746 people in the military showed that 80% either 'liked' or 'loved' their military robots, with more affection being shown towards ground rather than aerial robots. Surviving dangerous combat situations together increased the level of bonding between soldier and robot, and current and future advances in artificial intelligence may further intensify the bond with the military robots.
In fictional media
Pictures
See also
Lethal autonomous weapon
Robot combat
Unmanned combat air vehicle
US battlefield UAVs
Powered exoskeleton
Network-centric warfare
Missile guidance
DARPA Grand Challenge
Multi Autonomous Ground-robotic International Challenge
Roboethics
Telerobotics
Three Laws of Robotics
Supersoldier
Robot Wars (disambiguation)
References
External links
"Biomass military robot in development"
EATR: Energetically Autonomous Tactical Robot - Phase II Project
Ethical and legal concerns
Gerhard Dabringer (Hg.), Ethica Themen: Ethical and Legal Aspects of Unmanned Systems. Interviews, Wien 2010
Public Say It's Illegal to Target Americans Abroad as Some Question CIA Drone Attacks, according to Fairleigh Dickinson University PublicMind poll - February 7, 2013
The future of warfare: Why we should all be very afraid (2014-07-21), Rory Tolan, Salon
Archive on air wars, Geographical Imaginations
Logical Limitations to Machine Ethics, with Consequences to Lethal Autonomous Weapons. Also discussed in: Does the Halting Problem Mean No Moral Robots?
Robots in War: Issues of Risk and Ethics - 2009
Organizations
United States Joint Forces Command website: "Leading the transformation of the U.S. military"
irobot.com, builder of the PackBot and the R-Gator systems
Boston Dynamics, builder of BigDog
News articles/press releases
USJFC: 'Robotics to play major role in future warfighting'
"From bomb disposal to waste disposal" Robots help deal with hazards, emergencies and disasters (International Electrotechnical Commission, July 2011)
"War robots still in Iraq", DailyTech, April 17, 2008
New Model Army Soldier Rolls Closer to Battle (SWORDS)
TALON Small Mobile Robot
TWG Military Robots
Carnegie Mellon University's snooping robot going to Iraq
PackBot Battlefield robotic Platform
Miniature Unmanned Aerial Systems - UAV
Guardium Autonomous Security Vehicle
Unmanned Ground Systems from Israel
High-Tech Military in Due Course
Launching a new kind of warfare
As Wars End, Robot Field Faces Reboot April 11, 2012
Russian inventions
Soviet inventions
Weapons | [
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233986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%2C%20Prince%20of%20Wales | George, Prince of Wales | George, Prince of Wales may refer to:
George II of Great Britain, from his creation as Prince of Wales in 1714 to his accession to the throne in 1727
George III of the United Kingdom, from his creation as Prince of Wales in 1751 until his accession to the throne in 1760
George IV of the United Kingdom, from his creation as Prince of Wales in 1762 until his accession to the throne in 1820
George V of the United Kingdom, from his creation as Prince of Wales in 1901 until his accession to the throne in 1910 | [
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] |
233990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl%20Design%20Patterns%20Book | Perl Design Patterns Book | Perl Design Patterns Book is an online textbook about Perl style and design and analysis. The contents are licensed under GNU Free Documentation License.
External links
Perl Design Patterns (wiki)
Perl Design Patterns Book in Savannah
Books about Perl | [
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233996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostel | Hostel | A hostel is a form of low-cost, short-term shared sociable lodging where guests can rent a bed, usually a bunk bed in a dormitory, with shared use of a lounge and sometimes a kitchen. Rooms can be mixed or single-sex and have private or shared bathrooms. Private rooms may also be available, but the property must offer dormitories to be considered a hostel. Hostels are popular forms of lodging for backpackers, cycle tourists, and gap year travelers. They are part of the sharing economy. Benefits of hostels include lower costs and opportunities to meet people from all over the world, find travel partners, and share travel ideas. Some hostels, such as Zostel in India or Hostelling International, cater to a niche market of travelers. For example, one hostel might feature in-house social gatherings such as movie nights or communal dinners, another might feature local tours, one might be known for its parties, and another might have a quieter place to relax in serenity, or be located on the beach. Newer hostels focus on a more trendy design interior, some of which are on par with boutique hotels. Some may cater to older digital nomads, global nomads, and perpetual travelers that prefer slightly more upmarket private rooms or a quieter atmosphere.
Many hostels are locally owned and operated, and are often cheaper for both the operator and occupants than hotels. Hostels may offer long-term lodging to guests for free or at a discount in exchange for work as a receptionists or in housekeeping.
There are approximately 10,000 hostels in Europe and approximately 300 hostels in the United States. The typical guest is between 16 and 34 years old.
In addition to shared kitchen facilities, some hostels have a restaurant and/or bar. Washing machines and clothes dryers are often provided for an additional fee. Hostels sometimes have entryways for storing gear. Most hostels offer lockers for safely storing valuables. Some offer yoga studios, cinemas, rooftop clubs, and surf camps. Some bare-bones hostels do not provide linens. Some hostels may have a curfew and daytime lockouts, and some, albeit few, require occupants to do chores apart from washing and drying after food preparation.
A mobile hostel is a temporary hostel that can take the form of a campsite, bus, van, or a short-term arrangement in a permanent building. They have been used at large festivals where there is a shortage of lodging.
In some cities, hostels reported a higher average income per room than hotels. For example, in Honolulu, Hawaii, upscale hotels reported average daily room rates of $173 in 2006, while hostel rooms brought in as much as $200 per night, for rooms of eight guests paying $25 each. Even during the financial crisis of 2007–2008, many hostels reported increased occupancy numbers in a time when hotel bookings were down.
A 2013 study in Australia showed that youth travel was the fastest growing travel demographic and that the hostel industry was growing at a faster rate than the hotel industry. It showed that youth travel can lead to higher overall spending due to longer trips than traditional vacations. In New Zealand, backpackers hostels had a 13.5% share of lodging guest/nights in 2007.
Issues related to communal lodging
Guests are advised to use etiquette due to issues with communal lodging including:
There is less privacy in a hostel than in a hotel. Sharing sleeping areas in a dormitory and bathrooms might not be comfortable for those requiring more privacy. However, the shared lodging makes it easier to meet new people. Some hostels encourage more social interaction between guests due to the shared sleeping areas and communal areas. Lounges typically have sofas and chairs, coffee tables, board games, books or a book exchange, computers, and Internet access.
Nearly all hostels have a shared communal kitchen area for the preparation of food and a storage area with refrigerators. Most hostels have a label system to identify the owner of the food. Some hostels will have a labeled "free shelf" where guests can leave unwanted food. Theft of food can happen.
Noise can make sleeping difficult, whether from snoring, talking and social activities in the lounge, people staying up to read with the light on, someone either returning late from bars or leaving early. To mitigate the effects, many guests use earplugs and blindfolds.
History
In August 1909, Richard Schirrmann, a teacher in Germany, first published his idea of inexpensive accommodation for youth travel after leading a school camping trip that was derailed by a thunderstorm. Schirrmann received considerable support and opened a makeshift hostel for hikers in the school in which he taught.
On June 1, 1912, in Altena Castle, Schirrmann opened the first hostel. The original hostel rooms are now a museum.
Schirrmann served in World War I and after observing a Christmas Truce on the Western Front in December 1915, he wondered whether "thoughtful young people of all countries could be provided with suitable meeting places where they could get to know each other". In 1919, he founded the German Youth Hostel Association.
By 1932, Germany had more than 2,000 hostels recording more than 4.5 million overnights annually. The International Youth Hostel Federation (now Hostelling International) was founded in October 1932. It is now an organization composed of more than 90 hostel associations representing over 4,500 hostels in over 80 countries. These hostels cater more to school-aged children, sometimes through school trips, and families with school-aged children.
In 1936, Franklin D. Roosevelt was honorary president of AYH (now Hostelling International USA). John D. Rockefeller III was a proponent of hostels and was president for several years.
During World War II, many hostels in Europe were temporarily shut down or placed under the control of the Hitler Youth.
In the 1960s and 1970s, hostelling prospered.
The industry declined during the 1970s energy crisis.
Hostels continued to grow during the financial crisis of 2007-2008 in part due to their cost appeal.
After the Great Recession, the industry grew rapidly in New York City, Rome, Buenos Aires, and Miami. However, a 2010 law curbed the growth of hostels in New York City.
See also
Bed and breakfast
Hotel
Inn
Motel
References
Adventure travel
Backpacking
Hotel types | [
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233998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Arthur%2C%20Duke%20of%20Connaught%20and%20Strathearn | Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn | Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (Arthur William Patrick Albert; 1 May 185016 January 1942), was the seventh child and third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. He served as the Governor General of Canada, the tenth since Canadian Confederation and the only British prince to do so. In 1910 he was appointed Grand Prior of the Order of St John and held this position until 1939.
Arthur was educated by private tutors before entering the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich at 16 years old. Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the British Army, where he served for some 40 years, seeing service in various parts of the British Empire. During this time he was also created a royal duke, becoming the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, as well as the Earl of Sussex. In 1900 he was appointed as Commander in Chief of the British Army in Ireland, which he regretted; his preference being to join the campaign against the Boers in South Africa. In 1911, he was appointed as Governor General of Canada, replacing the Earl Grey as viceroy. He occupied this post until he was succeeded by the Duke of Devonshire in 1916. He acted as the King's, and thus the Canadian Commander-in-Chief's, representative through the first years of the First World War.
After the end of his viceregal tenure, Arthur returned to the United Kingdom and there, as well as in India, performed various royal duties, while also again taking up military duties. Though he retired from public life in 1928, he continued to make his presence known in the army well into the Second World War, before his death in 1942. He was Queen Victoria's last surviving son.
Early life
Arthur was born at Buckingham Palace on 1 May 1850, the seventh child and third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The prince was baptised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Bird Sumner, on 22 June in the palace's private chapel. His godparents were Prince William of Prussia (the later King of Prussia and German Emperor Wilhelm I); his great-uncle's sister-in-law, Princess Bernard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (for whom his maternal grandmother the Duchess of Kent stood proxy); and the Duke of Wellington, with whom he shared his birthday and after whom he was named. As with his older brothers, Arthur received his early education from private tutors. It was reported that he became the Queen's favourite child.
Military career
It was at an early age that Arthur developed an interest in the army, and in 1866 he followed through on his military ambitions by enrolling at the Royal Military College at Woolwich, from where he graduated two years later and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Corps of Royal Engineers on 18 June 1868. The Prince transferred to the Royal Regiment of Artillery on 2 November 1868 and, on 2 August 1869, to the Rifle Brigade, his father's own regiment, after which he pursued a long and distinguished career as an army officer, including service in South Africa, Canada in 1869, Ireland, Egypt in 1882, and in India from 1886 to 1890.
In Canada, Arthur, as an officer with the Montreal detachment of the Rifle Brigade, undertook a year's training and engaged in defending the Dominion from the Fenian Raids; there was initially concern that his personal involvement in Canada's defence might put the Prince in danger from Fenians and their supporters in the United States, but it was decided his military duty came first. Following his arrival at Halifax, Arthur toured the country for eight weeks and made a visit in January 1870 to Washington, D.C., where he met with President Ulysses S. Grant. During his service in Canada he was also entertained by Canadian society; among other activities, he attended an investiture ceremony in Montreal, was a guest at balls and garden parties, and attended the opening of parliament in Ottawa (becoming the first member of the royal family to do so), all of which was documented in photographs that were sent back for the Queen to view. However, Arthur was not just engaged in social and state functions; on 25 May 1870 he was engaged in fending off Fenian invaders during the Battle of Eccles Hill, for which he received the Fenian Medal.
Arthur made an impression on many in Canada. He was given on 1 October 1869 the title Chief of the Six Nations by the Iroquois of the Grand River Reserve in Ontario and the name Kavakoudge (meaning the sun flying from east to west under the guidance of the Great Spirit), enabling him to sit in the tribe's councils and vote on matters of tribe governance. As he became the 51st chief on the council, his appointment broke the centuries-old tradition that there should only be 50 chiefs of the Six Nations. Of the Prince, Lady Lisgar, wife of then Governor General of Canada the Lord Lisgar, noted in a letter to Victoria that Canadians seemed hopeful Prince Arthur would one day return as governor general.
Arthur was promoted to the honorary rank of colonel on 14 June 1871, substantive lieutenant-colonel in 1876, colonel on 29 May 1880 and, on 1 April 13 years later, was made a general. He gained military experience as Commander-in-Chief of the Bombay Army from December 1886 to March 1890. He went on to be General Officer Commanding Southern District, at Portsmouth, from September 1890 to 1893. The Prince had hoped to succeed his first cousin once-removed, the elderly Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, as Commander-in-chief of the British Army, upon the latter's forced retirement in 1895. But this desire was denied to Arthur, and instead he was given, between 1893 and 1898, command of the Aldershot District Command.
In August 1899 the 6th Battalion, Rifles of the Canadian Non-Permanent Active Militia, located in Vancouver, British Columbia, asked Prince Arthur to give his name to the regiment and act as its honorary colonel. The regiment had recently been converted to the infantry role from the 2nd Battalion, 5th British Columbia Regiment of Canadian Artillery. With the Prince's agreement the unit was renamed 6th Regiment, Duke of Connaught's Own Rifles (DCORs) on 1 May 1900. He was subsequently appointed colonel-in-chief of the regiment, then known as The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own), in 1923. He held that appointment until his death.
On 26 June 1902 he was promoted to the post of field marshal, and thereafter served in various important positions, including Commander-in-Chief of Ireland, from January 1900 to 1904, with the dual position of commander of the Third Army Corps from October 1901, and Inspector-General of the Forces, between 1904 and 1907.
Peerage, marriage, and family
On his mother's birthday (24 May) in 1874, Arthur was created a royal peer, being titled as the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and Earl of Sussex. Some years later, Arthur came into the direct line of succession to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in Germany, upon the death in 1899 of his nephew, Prince Alfred of Edinburgh, the only son of his elder brother, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. He decided, however, to renounce his own and his son's succession rights to the duchy, which then passed to his other nephew, Prince Charles Edward, the posthumous son of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany.
At St. George's Chapel in Windsor Castle, on 13 March 1879, Arthur married Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, the daughter of Prince Frederick Charles and a great-niece of the German Emperor, Arthur's godfather, Wilhelm I. The couple had three children: Princess Margaret Victoria Charlotte Augusta Norah (born 15 January 1882), Prince Arthur Frederick Patrick Albert (born 13 January 1883), and Princess Victoria Patricia Helena Elizabeth (born 17 March 1886), who were all raised at the Connaughts' country home, Bagshot Park, in Surrey, and after 1900 at Clarence House, the Connaughts' London residence. Through his children's marriages, Arthur became the father-in-law of Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden; Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife; and Sir Alexander Ramsay. Arthur's first two children predeceased him; Margaret while pregnant with his sixth grandchild. For many years, Arthur maintained a liaison with Leonie, Lady Leslie, sister of Jennie Churchill, while still remaining devoted to his wife.
Royal duties
Alongside his military career, the Duke continued to undertake royal duties beyond, or only vaguely associated with, the army. He also represented the monarchy throughout the Empire. On the return from a posting in India, he again, this time with his wife, toured Canada in 1890, stopping in all major cities across the country. He also toured Canada in 1906. In January 1903, the Duke and Duchess represented the new King Edward VII at the 1903 Delhi Durbar to celebrate his accession. On their way to India, the couple passed through Egypt where the Duke opened the Assuan dam on 10 December 1902.
In 1910, Arthur travelled aboard the Union-Castle Line ship Balmoral Castle to South Africa, to open the first parliament of the newly formed union, and in Johannesburg on 30 November he laid a commemorative stone at the Rand Regiments Memorial, dedicated to the British soldiers that died during the Second Boer War.
Prince Arthur was a Freemason and was elected as Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England when his elder brother was obliged to resign the office upon his accession in 1901 as King Edward VII. He was subsequently re-elected an additional 37 times before 1939, when the Prince was nearly 90 years of age.
Governor General of Canada
It was announced on 6 March 1911 that King George V had, by commission under the royal sign-manual, approved the recommendation of his British prime minister, H.H. Asquith, to appoint Arthur as Governor General of Canada, the representative of the monarch. His brother-in-law, the Duke of Argyll, had previously served as the country's governor general, but when Arthur was sworn in on 13 October 1911 in the salon rouge of the parliament buildings of Quebec, he became the first Governor General who was a member of the British royal family.
To Canada, Arthur brought with him his wife and his youngest daughter, the latter of whom would become an extremely popular figure with Canadians. The Governor General and his viceregal family travelled throughout the country, performing such constitutional and ceremonial tasks as opening parliament in 1911 (for which Arthur wore his field marshal's uniform and the Duchess of Connaught wore the gown she had worn at the King's coronation the previous year) and, in 1917, laying at the newly rebuilt Centre Block on Parliament Hill the same cornerstone his older brother, the late King Edward VII, had set on 1 September 1860, when the original building was under construction. The family crossed the country a number of times and the Governor General made another trip to the United States in 1912, when he met with President William Howard Taft.
When in Ottawa, Connaught maintained a routine of four days each week at his office on Parliament Hill and held small, private receptions for members of all political parties and dignitaries. The Duke learned to ice skate and hosted skating parties at the royal and viceroyal residence Rideau Hall to which the Connaughts made many physical improvements during Arthur's term as governor general. The royal family also took to camping and other outdoor sports, such as hunting and fishing.
In 1914, the First World War broke out, with Canadians called to arms against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Arthur maintained a wider role in the empire for instance, from 1912 until his death, serving as Colonel-in-Chief of the Cape Town Highlanders Regiment but the Connaughts remained in Canada after the beginning of the global conflict, with Arthur emphasising the need for military training and readiness for Canadian troops departing for war, and giving his name to Connaught Cup for the Royal North-West Mounted Police, to encourage pistol marksmanship for recruits. He was also active in auxiliary war services and charities and conducted hospital visits. Though well intended, upon the outbreak of the war, Arthur immediately donned his field marshal's uniform and went, without advice or guidance from his ministers, to training grounds and barracks to address the troops and to see them off before their voyage to Europe. This was much to the chagrin of Prime Minister Robert Borden, who saw the Prince as overstepping constitutional conventions. Borden placed blame on the military secretary, Edward Stanton (whom Borden considered to be "mediocre"), but also opined that Arthur "laboured under the handicap of his position as a member of the royal family and never realised his limitations as Governor General." At the same time, the Duchess of Connaught worked for St John Ambulance, the Red Cross, and other organisations to support the war cause. She was also Colonel-in-Chief of the Duchess of Connaught's Own Irish Canadian Rangers battalion, one of the regiments in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, and Princess Patricia also lent her name and support to the raising of a new Canadian army regiment Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry.
His term as Canada's Governor General ended in 1916.
Following the war, Arthur commissioned in memory of Canada's fallen a stained glass window which is located in St. Bartholomew's Church, Ottawa, which the family attended regularly.
Later life
After his years in Canada, the Duke held no similar public offices but undertook a number of public engagements. In 1920, he travelled to South Africa to open Chapman's Peak Drive. The following year he travelled to India, where he officially opened the new Central Legislative Assembly, Council of State, and Chamber of Princes. During his time in India, the Indian National Congress's first satyagraha was ongoing; as part of this, shops were closed and few Indians attended the official ceremonies when he visited Calcutta in the same year. As president of the Boy Scouts Association and one of Lord Baden-Powell's friends and admirers, he performed the official opening of the 3rd World Scout Jamboree at Arrowe Park.
The Duke also returned to military service and continued well into the Second World War, where he was seen as a grandfather figure by aspiring recruits. The Duchess, who had been ill during their years at Rideau Hall, had died in March 1917, and Arthur mostly withdrew from public life in 1928; his last formal engagement was the opening of the Connaught Gardens in Sidmouth, Devon, on 3 November 1934.
Death
Prince Arthur died on 16 January 1942 at Bagshot Park, at the age of 91 years, 8 months and 16 days, the same age as his elder sister, Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, who had died two years and one month before. A funeral service for the Duke was held at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on 23 January, after which his body was placed temporarily in the Royal Vault beneath St. George's Chapel in Windsor. He was reburied on 19 March 1942 in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
As a member of the royal family and having been a viceroy, Prince Arthur held a number of titles and styles during his life. He was also the recipient of many honours, both domestic and foreign. He was an active member of the military, eventually reaching the rank of Field Marshal, and served as personal aide-de-camp to four successive sovereigns.
Arms
Issue
Ancestry
See also
British prince
Royal dukedoms in the United Kingdom
Named in his honour:
Connaught, a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Connaught Drive, Singapore
Connaught Place, New Delhi, the commercial centre of India's capital, the epicentre of the imperial Lutyens' Delhi
Connaught Place, London, at the south end of Edgware Road, very close to the Marble Arch and Hyde Park
Connaught Road, Hong Kong, a major thoroughfare on the north shore of Hong Kong Island.
Connaught Square, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island
, a street in Montreal which is partly a pedestrian mall.
Notes
References
External links
8 May 1915, newspaper coverage of the Duke of Connaught's appearance at McGill University Convocation.
Scouting Round the World, John S. Wilson, first edition, Blandford Press 1959 p. 81
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1850 births
1942 deaths
19th-century British people
20th-century British people
Connaught and Strathearn
English Anglicans
Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn
British field marshals
Governors General of Canada
British Army personnel of the Anglo-Egyptian War
Arthur of Connaught and Strathearn, Duke, Prince
House of Windsor
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Field marshals of the German Empire
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Commanders-in-Chief, Ireland
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Great Masters of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Connaught and Strathearn, Prince Arthur, Duke of
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Thistle
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
People from Westminster
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Grand Masters of the United Grand Lodge of England
Knights of the Order of Charles XIII
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Grenadier Guards officers
Rifle Brigade officers
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Connaught
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Burials at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore
Chief Scouts of Canada
Arthur
Sons of British monarchs
Children of Queen Victoria
Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry | [
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