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234252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesius%20Bassus | Caesius Bassus | Gaius Caesius Bassus (d. AD 79) was a Roman lyric poet who lived in the reign of Nero.
He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on Persius, vi. I). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian (Instit. x. I. 96) went so far as to say that with the exception of Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading.
He is also identified with the author of a treatise De Metris of which considerable fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are extant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally in verse, and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as an instruction book. An account of some of the metres of Horace (in Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi. 305), bearing the title Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris is not by him but chiefly borrowed by its unknown author, from the treatise mentioned above.
He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 and to have been the husband of Rectina.
References
External links
Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum; complete texts and full bibliography.
Latin-language writers
Silver Age Latin writers
Roman-era poets
1st-century Roman poets
79 deaths
Deaths in volcanic eruptions
Year of birth unknown | [
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|
234254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remmius%20Palaemon | Remmius Palaemon | Quintus Remmius Palaemon or Quintus Rhemnius Fannius Palaemon was a Roman grammarian and a native of Vicentia. He lived during the reigns of Emperors Tiberius and Claudius.
Life
From Suetonius, we learn that he was originally a slave who obtained his freedom and taught grammar at Rome. Suetonius preserves several anecdotes of his profligate and arrogant character. He was so steeped in luxury that he bathed several times a day. Tiberius and Claudius both felt he was too dissolute to allow boys and young men to be entrusted to him. He referred to the great grammarian Varro as a "pig." However, he had a remarkable memory and wrote poetry in unusual meters, and he enjoyed a great reputation as a teacher; Quintilian and Persius are said to have been his pupils.
Works
His lost Ars, a system of grammar much used in his own time and largely drawn upon by later grammarians, contained rules for correct diction, illustrative quotations and discussed barbarisms and solecisms. An extant Ars grammatica (discovered by Jovianus Pontanus in the 15th century) and other unimportant treatises on similar subjects have been wrongly ascribed to him.
Among Palaemon's ascribed works is a Song on Weights and Measures () now dated to between the late 4th and early 6th centuries. In this poem, first edited in 1528, the term gramma is used for a weight equal to two oboli. (Two oboli—a diobol—corresponds to 1/24th of a Roman ounce or about 1.14 grams.) This eventually led to the adoption of the term gram as a unit of weight (poids, later of mass) by the French National Convention in 1795.
References
Citation
Bibliography
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External links
Bibliography on Palaemon at Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum
Suetonius's De Grammaticis in English translation
Roman Imperial era slaves and freedmen
Grammarians of Latin
Ancient linguists
1st-century Romans | [
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|
234260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20string%20quartets%20by%20Joseph%20Haydn | List of string quartets by Joseph Haydn | Joseph Haydn wrote sixty-eight string quartets. (The number was previously thought to be eighty-three, but this includes some arrangements and spurious works.) They are usually referred to by their opus numbers, not Anthony van Hoboken's catalogue numbers or their publication order in the First Haydn Edition (FHE).
Opus 1 (1762–64)
Quartet No. 1 in B major ("La Chasse"), Op. 1, No. 1, FHE No. 52, Hoboken No. III:1
Quartet No. 2 in E major, Op. 1, No. 2, FHE No. 53, Hoboken No. III:2
Quartet No. 3 in D major, Op. 1, No. 3, FHE No. 54, Hoboken No. III:3
Quartet No. 4 in G major, Op. 1, No. 4, FHE No. 55, Hoboken No. III:4
Quartet No. 5 in E major, Op. 1, No. 0, Hoboken No. II:6 (also referred to as Opus 0)
Quartet in B major, Op. 1, No. 5, FHE No. 56, Hoboken No. III:5 (later found to be the Symphony A, Hob. I/107)
Quartet No. 6 in C major, Op. 1, No. 6, FHE No. 57, Hoboken No. III:6
Opus 2 (1763–65)
The two quartets numbered 3 and 5 are spurious arrangements by an unknown hand.
Quartet No. 7 in A major, Op. 2, No. 1, FHE No. 58, Hoboken No. III:7
Quartet No. 8 in E major, Op. 2, No. 2, FHE No. 59, Hoboken No. III:8
Quartet in E major, Op. 2, No. 3, FHE No. 60 (arrangement of Cassation in E-flat major, Hob. II:21), Hoboken No. III:9
Quartet No. 9 in F major, Op. 2, No. 4, FHE No. 61, Hoboken No. III:10
Quartet in D major, Op. 2, No. 5, FHE No. 62 (arrangement of Cassation in D major, Hob. II:22), Hoboken No. III:11
Quartet No. 10 in B major, Op. 2, No. 6, FHE No. 63, Hoboken No. III:12
Opus 3 (spurious)
This set of quartets is now commonly attributed to Romanus Hoffstetter, though this is not universally agreed on. According to the scholar Allan Badley, "The works were omitted from the Entwurf-Katalog, the running catalogue of his works he (Haydn) kept from 1765 until after the London visits, but found their way into the Haydn-Verzeichnis prepared in 1805 under the composer’s direct supervision by his faithful factotum Joseph Elssler. Haydn also accepted the six works as genuine in the edition of his complete string quartets published by Ignaz Pleyel. Unfortunately, both strands of evidence are not beyond questioning." Badley goes on to say "The meagre bibliographical evidence has been painstakingly sifted and the works themselves subjected to every kind of analytical technique known to musicology. Haydn’s authorship still remains doubtful but so too does that of Pater Romanus Hoffstetter the most commonly favoured alternative."
In the 1980s, Scott Fruehwald claimed to show that the quartets were not by Haydn, based on stylistic analysis.. He also concluded that only the first two quartets were by Hoffstetter.
Quartet in E major, Op. 3, No. 1, FHE No. 64 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:13
Quartet in C major, Op. 3, No. 2, FHE No. 65 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:14
Quartet in G major, Op. 3, No. 3, FHE No. 66 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:15
Quartet in B major, Op. 3, No. 4, FHE No. 67 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:16
Quartet in F major, Op. 3, No. 5, FHE No. 68 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:17
Quartet in A major, Op. 3, No. 6, FHE No. 69 (spurious), Hoboken No. III:18
Opus 9 (1769)
Quartet No. 11 in D minor, Op. 9, No. 4, FHE No. 16, Hoboken No. III:22
Quartet No. 12 in C major, Op. 9, No. 1, FHE No. 7, Hoboken No. III:19
Quartet No. 13 in G major, Op. 9, No. 3, FHE No. 9, Hoboken No. III:21
Quartet No. 14 in E major, Op. 9, No. 2, FHE No. 8, Hoboken No. III:20
Quartet No. 15 in B major, Op. 9, No. 5, FHE No. 17, Hoboken No. III:23
Quartet No. 16 in A major, Op. 9, No. 6, FHE No. 18, Hoboken No. III:24
Opus 17 (1771)
Quartet No. 17 in F major, Op. 17, No. 2, FHE No. 2, Hoboken No. III:26
Moderato
Menuetto: Allegretto
Adagio
Finale: Allegro di molto
Quartet No. 18 in E major, Op. 17, No. 1, FHE No. 1, Hoboken No. III:25
Quartett in E-Dur, op. 17, Nr. 1, Hob. III:25
Moderato
Menuetto: Allegretto
Adagio
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 19 in C minor, Op. 17, No. 4, FHE No. 4, Hoboken No. III:28
Quartet No. 20 in D major, Op. 17, No. 6, FHE No. 6, Hoboken No. III:30
Quartet No. 21 In E major, Op. 17, No. 3, FHE No. 3, Hoboken No. III:27
Quartet No. 22 in G major, Op. 17, No. 5, FHE No. 5, Hoboken No. III:29
Opus 20, the "Sun" quartets (1772)
The nickname "Sun" refers to the image of a rising sun on the cover page of the 1779 Hummel edition, the most widely-distributed at the time.
Quartet No. 23 in F minor, Op. 20, No. 5, FHE No. 47, Hoboken No. III:35
Quartet No. 24 in A major, Op. 20, No. 6, FHE No. 48, Hoboken No. III:36
Quartet No. 25 in C major, Op. 20, No. 2, FHE No. 44, Hoboken No. III:32
Quartet No. 26 in G minor, Op. 20, No. 3, FHE No. 45, Hoboken No. III:33
Quartet No. 27 in D major, Op. 20, No. 4, FHE No. 46, Hoboken No. III:34
Quartet No. 28 in E major, Op. 20, No. 1, FHE No. 43, Hoboken No. III:31
Opus 33, the "Russian" quartets (1781)
Quartet No. 29 in G major ("How Do You Do?"), Op. 33, No. 5, FHE No. 74, Hoboken No. III:41
Quartet No. 30 in E major ("The Joke"), Op. 33, No. 2, FHE No. 71, Hoboken No. III:38
Quartet No. 31 in B minor, Op. 33, No. 1, FHE No. 70, Hoboken No. III:37
Quartet No. 32 in C major ("The Bird"), Op. 33, No. 3, FHE No. 72, Hoboken No. III:39
Quartet No. 33 in D major, Op. 33, No. 6, FHE No. 75, Hoboken No. III:42
Quartet No. 34 in B major, Op. 33, No. 4, FHE No. 73, Hoboken No. III:40
Opus 42 (1785)
Quartet No. 35 in D minor, Op. 42, FHE No. 15, Hoboken No. III:43
Andante ed innocentemente
Menuetto: Allegretto
Adagio e cantabile
Finale: Presto
Opus 50, the "Prussian" quartets (1787)
Quartet No. 36 in B major, Op. 50, No. 1, FHE No. 10, Hoboken No. III:44
Quartet No. 37 in C major, Op. 50, No. 2, FHE No. 11, Hoboken No. III:45
Quartet No. 38 in E major, Op. 50, No. 3, FHE No. 12, Hoboken No. III:46
Quartet No. 39 in F minor, Op. 50, No. 4, FHE No. 25, Hoboken No. III:47
Quartet No. 40 in F major ("Dream"), Op. 50, No. 5, FHE No. 26, Hoboken No. III:48
Quartet No. 41 in D major ("The Frog"), Op. 50, No. 6, FHE No. 27, Hoboken No. III:49
Opus 51 (1787)
The Seven Last Words of Our Savior on the Cross, Op. 51 (transcription of work written for orchestra), Hob. No. III:50–56
Opus 54, 55, the "Tost" quartets, sets I & II (1788)
Named after Johann Tost, a violinist in the Esterhazy orchestra from 1783–89.
Quartet No. 42 in C major, Op. 54, No. 2, FHE No. 20, Hoboken No. III:57
Vivace
Adagio
Menuetto: Allegretto
Finale: Adagio – Presto – Adagio
Quartet No. 43 in G major, Op. 54, No. 1, FHE No. 19, Hoboken No. III:58
Allegro con brio
Allegretto
Menuetto: Allegretto
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 44 in E major, Op. 54, No. 3, FHE No. 21, Hoboken No. III:59
Allegro
Largo cantabile
Menuetto: Allegretto
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 45 in A major, Op. 55, No. 1, FHE No. 22, Hoboken No. III:60
Allegro
Adagio cantabile
Menuetto
Finale: Vivace
Quartet No. 46 in F minor ("Razor"), Op. 55, No. 2, FHE No. 23, Hoboken No. III:61
Andante o più tosto allegretto
Allegro
Menuetto: Allegretto
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 47 in B major, Op. 55, No. 3, FHE No. 24, Hoboken No. III:62
Vivace assai
Adagio ma non troppo
Menuetto
Finale: Presto
Opus 64, the "Tost" quartets, set III (1790)
Quartet No. 48 in C major, Op. 64, No. 1, FHE No. 31, Hoboken No. III:65
Quartet No. 49 in B minor, Op. 64, No. 2, FHE No. 32, Hoboken No. III:68
Quartet No. 50 in B major, Op. 64, No. 3, FHE No. 33, Hoboken No. III:67
Quartet No. 51 in G major, Op. 64, No. 4, FHE No. 34, Hoboken No. III:66
Quartet No. 52 in E major, Op. 64, No. 6, FHE No. 36, Hoboken No. III:64
Quartet No. 53 in D major ("The Lark"), Op. 64, No. 5, FHE No. 35, Hoboken No. III:63
Opus 71, 74, the "Apponyi" quartets (1793)
Count Anton Georg Apponyi, a relative of Haydn’s patrons, paid 100 ducats for the privilege of having these quartets publicly dedicated to him.
Quartet No. 54 in B major, Op. 71, No. 1, FHE No. 37, Hoboken No. III:69
Allegro
Adagio
Menuetto: Allegretto
(Finale): Vivace
Quartet No. 55 in D major, Op. 71, No. 2, FHE No. 38, Hoboken No. III:70
Adagio – Allegro
Adagio (cantabile)
Menuetto: Allegretto
Finale: Allegretto
Quartet No. 56 in E major, Op. 71, No. 3, FHE No. 39, Hoboken No. III:71
Vivace
Andante con moto
Menuetto
Finale: Vivace
Quartet No. 57 in C major, Op. 74, No. 1, FHE No. 28, Hoboken No. III:72
Allegro (moderato)
Andantino (grazioso)
Menuetto: Allegro
Finale: Vivace
Quartet No. 58 in F major, Op. 74, No. 2, FHE No. 29, Hoboken No. III:73
Allegro spiritoso
Andante grazioso
Menuetto
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 59 in G minor ("Rider"), Op. 74, No. 3, FHE No. 30, Hoboken No. III:74
Allegro
Largo assai
Menuetto: (Allegretto)
Finale: Allegro con brio
Opus 76, the "Erdödy" quartets (1797)
Quartet No. 60 in G major, Op. 76, No. 1, FHE No. 40, Hoboken No. III:75
Quartet No. 61 in D minor ("Quinten", "Fifths", "The Donkey"), Op. 76, No. 2, FHE No. 41, Hoboken No. III:76
Quartet No. 62 in C major ("Emperor" or "Kaiser"), Op. 76, No. 3, FHE No. 42, Hoboken No. III:77
Quartet No. 63 in B major ("Sunrise"), Op. 76, No. 4, FHE No. 49, Hoboken No. III:78
Quartet No. 64 in D major ("Largo" or "Friedhofsquartett"), Op. 76, No. 5, FHE No. 50, Hoboken No. III:79
Quartet No. 65 in E major, Op. 76, No. 6, FHE No. 51, Hoboken No. III:80
Opus 77, the "Lobkowitz" quartets (1799)
Quartet No. 66 in G major, Op. 77, No. 1, FHE No. 13, Hoboken No. III:81
Allegro moderato
Adagio
Menuetto: Presto
Finale: Presto
Quartet No. 67 in F major, Op. 77, No. 2, FHE No. 14, Hoboken No. III:82
Allegro moderato
Menuet: Presto
Andante
Finale: Vivace assai
Opus 103 (1803)
Quartet No. 68 in D minor, Op. 103, Hoboken No. III:83 (incomplete); in 2013, Haydn specialist William Drabkin composed a completion of Haydn's unfinished final quartet.
Andante grazioso
Menuetto ma non troppo presto
List by keys
References
String quartets
Haydn | [
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234261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Clodius%20Thrasea%20Paetus | Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus | Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus (died 66 AD), Roman senator, who lived in the 1st century AD. Notable for his principled opposition to the emperor Nero and his interest in Stoicism, he was the husband of Arria, who was the daughter of A. Caecina Paetus and the elder Arria, father-in-law of Helvidius Priscus, and a friend and relative by marriage of the poet Persius. Thrasea was the most prominent member of the political faction known today as the Stoic Opposition.
Origins and early life
According to Cassius Dio, Thrasea belonged to a distinguished and wealthy family. It is certain that this family came from Patavium, but it is not known whether he was born there or in Rome. Certainly he maintained close links with Patavium, in later life taking an important part in the city's traditional festival. Nothing is known for certain of his early career, nor through whose influence he succeeded in entering the senate. By the year 42, however, he was married to Caecinia Arria, daughter of Caecina Paetus (suffect consul in 37). In that year Caecina was implicated in the revolt of Scribonianus against Claudius, probably with the aim of restoring the republic. According to his daughter Fannia, whose account is preserved in a letter of Pliny, Thrasea attempted unsuccessfully to prevent his mother-in-law Arria from killing herself along with her husband. It was probably after the death of Caecina Paetus that Thrasea added the name Paetus to his own, a very unusual step for a son-in-law and one which advertised his connection with an enemy of the emperor.
We have no information on the chronology of Thrasea's progression through the lower ranks of the cursus honorum. It is possible, but by no means certain, that his political career was at a standstill at least in the early years of Claudius' reign. He was suffect consul November to December 56 under Nero, perhaps due to the influence of Nero's adviser Seneca, who had preceded him in office in the same year. At some date probably not long after this, he was still in enough favour to be given an honorific priesthood as quindecimvir sacris faciundis. By the time of his consulship he had also acquired an important political ally in his son-in-law Helvidius Priscus.
There are some indications that Thrasea's rise to prominence may have been helped by activity in the lawcourts. At some point between 52 and 62 (whether before or after his consulship is not clear) he probably held some provincial governorship; this is the implication of the statement in the Life of Persius that the young poet 'travelled abroad' with his inlaw. Senators did not normally travel outside Italy simply for fun.
Political activity under Nero
In 57, Thrasea supported the cause of the Cilicians accusing their late governor, Cossutianus Capito, of extortion, and the prosecution succeeded apparently largely through his influence. But Tacitus' first reference to him in the Annals relates to the following year, when he surprised both friends and enemies by speaking against a routine motion in the senate, a request by the Syracusans to exceed the statutory number of gladiators at their games. The objections to this which Tacitus attributes to (anonymous) 'detractors' show, if accurate, that Thrasea already had a reputation for opposition to the status quo and for dedication to the ideal of senatorial freedom. To his friends, Thrasea explained that he was not unaware of the real state of affairs, but gave the senate the credit of understanding that those who paid attention to trivial matters would not pass over more important ones - leaving unspoken some such phrase as 'if they were permitted real debate on such issues'.
In spring of the following year, he first openly showed his disgust at the behaviour of Nero and the obsequiousness of the senate after the emperor's letter justifying the murder of Agrippina had been read, and various motions congratulating Nero proposed. Senatorial procedure required each individual in turn to give his opinion on the motion, and Thrasea chose to walk out of the meeting 'since he could not say what he would, and would not say what he could' (Dio).
In 62, the praetor Antistius Sosianus, who had written abusive poems about Nero, was accused on a maiestas charge by Thrasea's old enemy Cossutianus Capito, who had recently been restored to the senate through the influence of his father-in-law Tigellinus. Thrasea dissented from the proposal to impose the death sentence and argued that the proper legal penalty for such an offence was exile. His view won majority assent, and was eventually passed, despite a clearly unfavourable response from Nero, whom the consuls had consulted when the vote was taken. Whether Nero had intended Antistius to be put to death or whether, as many believed, he wished to make a display of his own clemency by saving him from a death sentence imposed by the senate, for the senate to have voted against the death penalty was clearly a serious upset to his plans.
In the same year, at the trial of the Cretan Claudius Timarchus in the senate, the defendant was alleged to have said several times that it was in his power whether the proconsul of Crete received the thanks of the province or not. Thrasea proposed that such abuses should be prevented by the prohibition of such votes of thanks. Once again he carried the majority, but a senatus consultum was not passed until the consuls had ascertained the views of the emperor.
The following year made plain Nero's displeasure with Thrasea. When a daughter was born to the emperor at Antium, the senate went in a body to offer congratulations, but Thrasea was expressly excluded by Nero. Such 'renunciations of friendship' on the part of the emperor were normally the prelude to the victim's death, but unexpectedly Nero seems to have changed his mind at this point, perhaps due to fluctuating power dynamics with Tigellinus, who as Capito's father-in-law might be presumed to have a strong motive to wish for Thrasea's elimination. It was said that when Nero told Seneca he had been reconciled with Thrasea, Seneca congratulated him on recovering a valuable friendship, rather than praising him for his clemency.
From about this time, however, Thrasea withdrew from political life. We do not know exactly when he took this decision (Tacitus makes Capito say in 66 that 'for three years he has not entered the senate-house' but Capito's list of complaints against him is clearly contentious and possibly unreliable), nor what was the catalyst for such a volte-face, but it was clear that it was intended, and understood, as itself a political action, especially coming from one who had previously applied himself so assiduously to senatorial business; it was the ultimate form of protest. During this time, Thrasea continued to look after the interests of his clients. It was probably also in this period that he wrote his Life of Cato, in which he praised the advocate of senatorial freedom against Caesar, with whom he also shared an interest in Stoicism. This work, now lost, was a major source for Plutarch's life of the younger Cato.
Trial and death
In 66, Cossutianus Capito finally succeeded in convincing Nero to move against Thrasea. Nero may have hoped to 'bury' his attack on Thrasea and simultaneously on Barea Soranus by acting during the visit of the Armenian king Tiridates to Rome; at all events, he began by excluding Thrasea from the reception of Tiridates. Perhaps, as Tacitus suggests, he wished to panic him into some sort of submission, but Thrasea's reaction was merely to inquire what the charges against him were and to ask for time to prepare a defence—the implication being probably that there was no legal basis for proceedings against him. This was likely true, to judge by the bizarre nature of some of the supporting evidence alleged by Capito (such as not sacrificing to the Heavenly Voice of the emperor), but the trial nonetheless took place in the senate. Thrasea, having consulted with his friends, decided not to attend; he also declined the offer of the young Arulenus Rusticus, one of the tribunes, to use his tribunician veto against the decree of the senate, saying that such an action would merely endanger the life of the tribune without saving his own.
On the day of the trial, the meeting-place of the senate was surrounded by armed cohorts of the Praetorian Guard. A letter from Nero was read, mentioning no names but blaming senior senators for neglecting their public duties; then Capito spoke against Thrasea, and was followed by Eprius Marcellus, whom Tacitus regards as the more effective speaker. No speeches for the defence are mentioned; the senators had little alternative but to vote for the death penalty, in the form of the 'free choice of death' (liberum mortis arbitrium), that is, an order to commit suicide. In a separate action, Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were also condemned to death; with Thrasea were condemned, but to lesser penalties, his son-in-law Helvidius Priscus and associates Paconius Agrippinus and Curtius Montanus.
When the news was brought to Thrasea at his suburban villa, where he was entertaining a number of friends and sympathisers, he retired to a bedroom, and had the veins of both his arms opened. Calling to witness the quaestor who had brought the death sentence, he identified the shedding of his blood as a libation to Iuppiter Liberator—Jupiter who gives freedom. The surviving text of Tacitus breaks off at the moment when Thrasea was about to address Demetrius, the Cynic philosopher, with whom he had previously that day held a conversation on the nature of the soul. His death, though painful and protracted, contained allusions to the deaths of Socrates and Cato, and was evidently presented by his biographer Arulenus Rusticus, and probably constructed by himself, as a model of a dignified, calm and humane end.
In popular culture
Thrasea is mentioned in Quo Vadis, the 1895 novel by Nobel laureate Henryk Sienkiewicz.
In the second chapter of Marguerite Yourcenar's 1951 novel, Memoirs of Hadrian, the emperor alludes to Thrasea's composure in the face of death when he muses, “If ever I am to undergo torture (and illness will doubtless see to that) I cannot be sure of maintaining the impassiveness of a Thrasea, but I shall at least have the resource of resigning myself to my cries.”
Notes
Ancient sources and further reading
See Tacitus, Annals 13. 49, 14. 12, 48, 15. 20–22, 16. 21–35, containing a full account of his trial and condemnation, Histories, 2. 91, 4. 5; Pliny the Younger, Letters 3.16.10, 6.29.1-2, 8.22.3; Dio Cassius 61. 15, 62. 26; Juvenal, Satire 5. 36 with scholia.
R. Syme, 'A Political Group', Roman Papers VII pp 568–87; C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea in Rome in the late republic and early principate, Cambridge 1950; P.A. Brunt, "Stoicism and the Principate", PBSR, 43 (1975) 7-35; V. Rudich, Political Dissidence under Nero, London 1993; O. Devillers, 'Le rôle des passages relatifs à Thrasea Paetus dans les Annales de Tacite', Neronia VI (Brussels 2002, Collection Latomus 268) 296–311; W. Turpin, 'Tacitus, Stoic exempla, and the praecipuum munus annalium''', Classical Antiquity 27 (2008) 359-404; T. E. Strunk, 'Saving the life of a foolish poet: Tacitus on Marcus Lepidus, Thrasea Paetus, and political action under the principate', Syllecta Classica'' 21 (2010) 119–139.
Senators of the Roman Empire
Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome
Philosophers of Roman Italy
Roman-era Stoic philosophers
1st-century philosophers
1st-century Romans
66 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Thrasea Paetus, Publius | [
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|
234262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Masses%20by%20Joseph%20Haydn | List of Masses by Joseph Haydn | Masses composed by Joseph Haydn are listed below. Masses are sorted using chronological indices given by New Grove. The Hoboken catalogue had also placed the masses in presumed chronological order, but further research has undermined that sequence.
No. 1 in G major: 'Missa rorate coeli desuper' (H. 22/3) (c.1750)
No. 2 in F major: 'Missa brevis' (H. 22/1) (1750)
No. 3 in C major: 'Missa Cellensis in honorem Beatissimae Virginis Mariae', also spuriously known as 'Cäcilienmesse' (St Cecilia) (H. 22/5) (1766–73)
No. 4 in D minor: 'Missa sunt bona mixta malis' (H. 22/2) (1768; Fragment)
No. 5 in E flat major: 'Missa in honorem Beatissimae Virginis Mariae', also known as the 'Große Orgelmesse' ('Great Organ Mass') (H. 22/4) (1770)
No. 6 in G major: 'Missa Sancti Nicolai, Nicolaimesse' (H. 22/6) (1772)
No. 7 in B flat major: 'Missa brevis Sancti Joannis de Deo', also known as the 'Kleine Orgelmesse' ('Little Organ Mass') (H. 22/7) (c.1775)
No. 8 in C major: 'Missa Cellensis, Mariazellermesse' (H. 22/8) (1782)
Masses nos. 9–14 form a group: each was composed by Haydn for the Esterházy family, to celebrate the name day (12 September) of Princess Maria Hermenegild, the wife of Prince Nikolaus II and a friend of the composer. The composition of these masses was Haydn's principal duty to his old employers at this time of his career.
The Heiligmesse in B-flat major, composed for the Capuchin friar Bernard of Offida, is thought to have been performed at the Feast of the Holy Name of Mary on September 11, 1796. Then there was the Paukenmesse in C major which was first performed on December 26, 1797. Thirdly, the Missa in Angustiis in D minor was performed on September 23, 1798. Fourthly, the Theresienmesse in B-flat major is from 1799, and was written for Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily. Fifth, the Schöpfungsmesse in B-flat major was performed on September 13, 1801, and features melodies from the Creation, especially in the "Gloria". Sixth, the Harmoniemesse in B-flat major was performed on September 8, 1802, and is almost certainly his last major work.
No. 9 in B flat major: 'Missa Sancti Bernardi von Offida', also known as the 'Heiligmesse' (H. 22/10) (1796)
No. 10 in C major: 'Missa in tempore belli' ('Mass in Time of War'), also known as the 'Paukenmesse' ('Kettledrum Mass') (H. 22/9) (1796)
No. 11 in D minor: 'Missa in Angustiis' ('Mass in Troubled Times'), also known as the 'Nelson Mass' (H. 22/11) (1798)
No. 12 in B flat major: 'Theresienmesse' (named for the Maria Theresa of the Two Sicilies) (H. 22/12) (1799)
No. 13 in B flat major: 'Schöpfungsmesse' ('Creation Mass') (H. 22/13) (1801)
No. 14 in B flat major: 'Harmoniemesse' ('Wind-band Mass') (H. 22/14) (1802).
The Harmoniemesse 1802 was Haydn's last major work. He shortly afterward sank into debilitating illness and was unable to compose further.
Notes
References
Jones, David Wyn, ed. (2002) Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn, Oxford University Press.
Steinberg, Michael (2005) Choral Works: A Listener's Guide, Oxford University Press.
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|
234263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barea%20Soranus | Barea Soranus | Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus was a Roman senator who lived in the reign of Nero. He was suffect consul in 52, but later attracted the hatred of Nero, and upon being condemned to death committed suicide. He was associated with a group of Stoics opposed to the perceived tyranny and autocratic tendencies of certain emperors, known today as the Stoic Opposition.
Life and career
Soranus was a member of the gens Marcia; his father, Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus, had been a suffect consul as well as governor of Africa. His brother was Quintus Marcius Barea Sura, friend of the future emperor Vespasian and maternal grandfather of Trajan.
His career prior to becoming consul is not well known. Subsequent to holding the fasces, Soranus was governor of Asia around 61/62. During this tenure, the Emperor Nero had ordered his freedman Acrato to take away the works of art of the city of Pergamon, but the people revolted; Soranus refused to follow the orders of the Emperor and punish its citizens.
Trial and death
Soranus was accused by Ostorius Sabinus, an equestrian, of being friends with Rubellius Plautus (another object of Nero's hatred), and for inciting the citizens of Asia to revolt. One of the chief witnesses against him was Egnatius Celer of Berytus, his client and former tutor. Soranus' daughter, Servilia, was also accused of having hired a sorcerer (magi), and was tried together with her father. Servilia confessed that she had consulted an astrologer, but only to pray in honor of her father and the emperor; Soranus asked that his daughter be spared because she was not involved in the conspiracy or aware of the misdeeds of her husband, Gaius Annius Pollio. In the end, Soranus was condemned to death (in 65 or 66), and committed suicide.
Family
Soranus is known to have one daughter, Marcia Servilia Sorana, better known as "Servilia".
References
Further reading
Tacitus, Histories iv.10
Juvenal, Satire III.116
Dio Cassius, lxii.26
60s deaths
Senators of the Roman Empire
Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome
Roman governors of Asia
1st-century Romans
Marcii
Ancient Romans who committed suicide
People executed by the Roman Empire | [
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234264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes | Diogenes | Diogenes ( ; ), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (, ), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia (Asia Minor) in 412 or 404 BC and died at Corinth in 323 BC.
Diogenes was a controversial figure. He was the son of a mintmaster and was banished from Sinope for debasement of currency. After being exiled, he moved to Athens and criticized many cultural conventions of the city. He modeled himself on the example of Heracles, and believed that virtue was better revealed in action than in theory. He used his simple lifestyle and behavior to criticize the social values and institutions of what he saw as a corrupt, confused society. He had a reputation for sleeping and eating wherever he chose in a highly non-traditional fashion, and took to toughening himself against nature. He declared himself a cosmopolitan and a citizen of the world rather than claiming allegiance to just one place. There are many tales about his dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his "faithful hound".
Diogenes made a virtue of poverty. He begged for a living and often slept in a large ceramic jar, or pithos, in the marketplace. He became notorious for his philosophical stunts, such as carrying a lamp during the day, claiming to be looking for a man (often rendered in English as "looking for an honest man"). He criticized Plato, disputed his interpretation of Socrates, and sabotaged his lectures, sometimes distracting listeners by bringing food and eating during the discussions. Diogenes was also noted for having mocked Alexander the Great, both in public and to his face when he visited Corinth in 336 BC.
Diogenes was captured by pirates and sold into slavery, eventually settling in Corinth. There he passed his philosophy of Cynicism to Crates, who taught it to Zeno of Citium, who fashioned it into the school of Stoicism, one of the most enduring schools of Greek philosophy. No writings of Diogenes survive but there are some details of his life from anecdotes (chreia), especially from Diogenes Laërtius' book Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers and some other sources.
Life
Nothing is known about Diogenes's early life except that his father, Hicesias, was a banker. It seems likely that Diogenes was also enrolled into the banking business aiding his father.
At some point (the exact date is unknown), Hicesias and Diogenes became involved in a scandal involving the adulteration or debasement of the currency, and Diogenes was exiled from the city and lost his citizenship and all his material possessions. This aspect of the story seems to be corroborated by archaeology: large numbers of defaced coins (smashed with a large chisel stamp) have been discovered at Sinope dating from the middle of the 4th century BC, and other coins of the time bear the name of Hicesias as the official who minted them. During this time there was much counterfeit money circulating in Sinope. The coins were deliberately defaced in order to render them worthless as legal tender. Sinope was being disputed between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may have been political rather than financial motives behind the act.
In Athens
According to one story, Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to ask for her advice and was told that he should "deface the currency". Following the debacle in Sinope, Diogenes decided that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than actual coins. He traveled to Athens and made it his life's goal to challenge established customs and values. He argued that instead of being troubled about the true nature of evil, people merely rely on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature ("physis") and custom ("nomos") is a favourite theme of ancient Greek philosophy, and one that Plato takes up in The Republic, in the legend of the Ring of Gyges.
Diogenes arrived in Athens with a slave named Manes who escaped from him shortly thereafter. With characteristic humor, Diogenes dismissed his ill fortune by saying, "If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?" Diogenes would mock such a relation of extreme dependency. He found the figure of a master who could do nothing for himself contemptibly helpless. He was attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student of Socrates. When Diogenes asked Antisthenes to mentor him, Antisthenes ignored him and reportedly "eventually beat him off with his staff". Diogenes responded, "Strike, for you will find no wood hard enough to keep me away from you, so long as I think you've something to say." Diogenes became Antisthenes's pupil, despite the brutality with which he was initially received. Whether the two ever really met is still uncertain, but he surpassed his master in both reputation and the austerity of his life. He considered his avoidance of earthly pleasures a contrast to and commentary on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was grounded in a disdain for what he regarded as the folly, pretence, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of human conduct.
The stories told of Diogenes illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself to the weather by living in a clay wine jar belonging to the temple of Cybele. He destroyed the single wooden bowl he possessed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. He then exclaimed: "Fool that I am, to have been carrying superfluous baggage all this time!" It was contrary to Athenian customs to eat within the marketplace, and still he would eat there, for, as he explained when rebuked, it was during the time he was in the marketplace that he felt hungry. He used to stroll about in full daylight with a lamp; when asked what he was doing, he would answer, "I am looking for a man." (Modern sources often say that Diogenes was looking for an "honest man", but in ancient sources he is simply "looking for a man" – . In his view, the unreasoning behavior of the people around him meant that they did not qualify as men.) Diogenes looked for a man but reputedly found nothing but rascals and scoundrels.
According to Diogenes Laërtius, when Plato gave the tongue-in-cheek definition of man as "featherless bipeds," Diogenes plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy, saying, "Behold! I've brought you a man," and so the Academy added "with broad flat nails" to the definition. Diogenes Laërtius also relates a number of more bawdy tales whereby Diogenes would spit, urinate on people, break wind, and masturbate in public.
In Corinth
According to a story which seems to have originated with Menippus of Gadara, Diogenes was captured by pirates while on voyage to Aegina and sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. Xeniades liked his spirit and hired Diogenes to tutor his children. As tutor to Xeniades's two sons, it is said that he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. There are many stories about what actually happened to him after his time with Xeniades's two sons. There are stories stating he was set free after he became "a cherished member of the household", while one says he was set free almost immediately, and still another states that "he grew old and died at Xeniades's house in Corinth." He is even said to have lectured to large audiences at the Isthmian Games.
Although most of the stories about his living in a jar are located in Athens, there are some accounts of his living in a jar near the Craneum gymnasium in Corinth:
Diogenes and Alexander
It was in Corinth that a meeting between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is supposed to have taken place. These stories may be apocryphal. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius recount that they exchanged only a few words: while Diogenes was relaxing in the morning sunlight, Alexander, thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, asked if there was any favour he might do for him. Diogenes replied, "Yes, stand out of my sunlight." Alexander then declared, "If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes." "If I were not Diogenes, I would still wish to be Diogenes," Diogenes replied. In another account of the conversation, Alexander found the philosopher looking attentively at a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained, "I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave."
Death
There are conflicting accounts of Diogenes's death. His contemporaries alleged he had held his breath until he expired; although other accounts of his death say he had become ill from eating raw octopus; or to have suffered an infected dog bite. When asked how he wished to be buried, he left instructions to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body. When asked if he minded this, he said, "Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!" When asked how he could use the stick since he would lack awareness, he replied: "If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?" To the end, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the "proper" treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.
Philosophy
Cynicism
Along with Antisthenes and Crates of Thebes, Diogenes is considered one of the founders of Cynicism. The ideas of Diogenes, like those of most other Cynics, must be arrived at indirectly. No writings of Diogenes survive even though he is reported to have authored over ten books, a volume of letters and seven tragedies. Cynic ideas are inseparable from Cynic practice; therefore what we know about Diogenes is contained in anecdotes concerning his life and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources.
Diogenes maintained that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality implies a return to the simplicity of nature. So great was his austerity and simplicity that the Stoics would later claim him to be a wise man or "sophos". In his words, "Humans have complicated every simple gift of the gods." Although Socrates had previously identified himself as belonging to the world, rather than a city, Diogenes is credited with the first known use of the word "cosmopolitan". When he was asked from where he came, he replied, "I am a citizen of the world (cosmopolites)". This was a radical claim in a world where a man's identity was intimately tied to his citizenship of a particular city-state. An exile and an outcast, a man with no social identity, Diogenes made a mark on his contemporaries.
Diogenes had nothing but disdain for Plato and his abstract philosophy. Diogenes viewed Antisthenes as the true heir to Socrates, and shared his love of virtue and indifference to wealth, together with a disdain for general opinion. Diogenes shared Socrates's belief that he could function as doctor to men's souls and improve them morally, while at the same time holding contempt for their obtuseness. Plato once described Diogenes as "a Socrates gone mad."
Obscenity
Diogenes taught by living example. He tried to demonstrate that wisdom and happiness belong to the man who is independent of society and that civilization is regressive. He scorned not only family and socio-political organization, but also property rights and reputation. He even rejected normal ideas about human decency. Diogenes is said to have eaten in the marketplace, urinated on some people who insulted him, defecated in the theatre, and masturbated in public, and pointed at people with his middle finger, which was considered insulting. When asked about his eating in public he said, "If taking breakfast is nothing out of place, then it is nothing out of place in the marketplace. But taking breakfast is nothing out of place, therefore it is nothing out of place to take breakfast in the marketplace." On the indecency of his masturbating in public he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly."
Diogenes as dogged or dog-like
Many anecdotes of Diogenes refer to his dog-like behavior, and his praise of a dog's virtues. It is not known whether Diogenes was insulted with the epithet "doggish" and made a virtue of it, or whether he first took up the dog theme himself. When asked why he was called a dog he replied, "I fawn on those who give me anything, I yelp at those who refuse, and I set my teeth in rascals." Diogenes believed human beings live artificially and hypocritically and would do well to study the dog. Besides performing natural body functions in public with ease, a dog will eat anything, and make no fuss about where to sleep. Dogs live in the present without anxiety, and have no use for the pretensions of abstract philosophy. In addition to these virtues, dogs are thought to know instinctively who is friend and who is foe. Unlike human beings who either dupe others or are duped, dogs will give an honest bark at the truth. Diogenes stated that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."
The term "cynic" itself derives from the Greek word κυνικός, kynikos, "dog-like" and that from κύων, kyôn, "dog" (genitive: kynos). One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called dogs was that Antisthenes taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word Cynosarges means the place of the white dog. Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained:
There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.
As noted (see Death), Diogenes's association with dogs was memorialized by the Corinthians, who erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.
Contemporary theory
In The Ego and Its Own, the Hegelian philosopher Max Stirner conceived of Diogenes's asceticism as a form of hedonism, posing the question: "What else was Diogenes of Sinope looking for if not the true enjoyment of life, which he found in having the least possible wants?" Stirner later referenced Diogenes's meeting with Alexander, during which the Cynic demanded the young king move out of the way of the sunlight, as an example of how an egoist should respond to a state.
Diogenes is discussed in a 1983 book by German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk (English-language publication in 1987). In Sloterdijk's Critique of Cynical Reason, Diogenes is used as an example of Sloterdijk's idea of the "kynical" – in which personal degradation is used for purposes of community comment or censure. Calling the practice of this tactic "kynismos", Sloterdijk theorizes that the kynical actor actually embodies the message he is trying to convey and that the kynical actor's goal is typically a false regression that mocks authority – especially authority that the kynical actor considers corrupt, suspect or unworthy.
There is another discussion of Diogenes and the Cynics in Michel Foucault's book Fearless Speech. Here Foucault discusses Diogenes's antics in relation to the speaking of truth (parrhesia) in the ancient world. Foucault expands this reading in his last course at the Collège de France, The Courage of Truth. In this course Foucault tries to establish an alternative conception of militancy and revolution through a reading of Diogenes and Cynicism.
Diogenes syndrome
Diogenes's name has been applied to a behavioural disorder characterised by apparently involuntary self-neglect and hoarding. The disorder afflicts the elderly and is quite inappropriately named, as Diogenes deliberately rejected common standards of material comfort, and was anything but a hoarder. The name itself is also often criticised as Diogenes believed he was helping himself.
Depictions
Art
Both in ancient and in modern times, Diogenes's personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre, and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
Among artists who have painted the famous encounter of Diogenes with Alexander, there are works by de Crayer, de Vos, Assereto, Langetti, Sevin, Sebastiano Ricci, Gandolfi, , Abildgaard, Monsiau, Martin, and Daumier. The famous story of Diogenes searching for an "honest man" has been depicted by Jordaens, van Everdingen, van der Werff, Pannini, Steen and Corinth. Others who have painted him with his famous lantern include de Ribera, Castiglione, Petrini, Gérôme, Bastien-Lepage, and Waterhouse. The scene in which Diogenes discards his cup has been painted by Poussin, Rosa, and Martin; and the story of Diogenes begging from a statue has been depicted by Restout. In Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, a lone reclining figure in the foreground represents Diogenes.
Diogenes has also been the subject of sculptures, with famous bas-relief images by Puget and Pajou.
Comics
In The Adventures of Nero album Het Zeespook (1948) Nero meets a character who claims to be Diogenes. Two scenes in the comic depict famous anecdotes of Diogenes's life, namely the moment when he was looking for a human and the moment when he asked Alexander to get out of his sun. He is also portrayed living in a barrel.
In the Suske en Wiske album De Mottenvanger Suske and Wiske travel back to ancient Greece, where they meet Diogenes.
Literature
Diogenes is referred to in Anton Chekhov's story "Ward No. 6"; William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell; François Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel; Goethe's poem Genialisch Treiben; Denis Diderot's philosophical novella Rameau's Nephew; as well as in the first sentence of Søren Kierkegaard's novelistic treatise Repetition. The story of Diogenes and the lamp is referenced by the character Foma Fomitch in Fyodor Dostoevsky's "The Friend of the Family" as well as "The Idiot". In Cervantes' short story "The Man of Glass" ("El licenciado Vidriera"), part of the Novelas Ejemplares collection, the (anti-)hero unaccountably begins to channel Diogenes in a string of tart chreiai once he becomes convinced that he is made of glass. Diogenes gives his own life and opinions in Christoph Martin Wieland's novel Socrates Mainomenos (1770; English translation Socrates Out of His Senses, 1771). Diogenes is the primary model for the philosopher Didactylos in Terry Pratchett's Small Gods. He is mimicked by a beggar-spy in Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Scion and paid tribute to with a costume in a party by the main character in its sequel, Kushiel's Justice. The character Lucy Snowe in Charlotte Brontë's novel Villette is given the nickname Diogenes. Diogenes also features in Part Four of Elizabeth Smart's By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept. He is a figure in Seamus Heaney's The Haw Lantern. In Christopher Moore's Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ's Childhood Pal, one of Jesus' apostles is a devotee of Diogenes, complete with his own pack of dogs which he refers to as his own disciples. His story opens the first chapter of Dolly Freed's 1978 book Possum Living.
The dog that Paul Dombey befriends in Charles Dickens' Dombey and Son is called Diogenes.
Alexander's meeting with Diogenes is portrayed in Valerio Manfredi's (Alexander Trilogy) "The Ends of the Earth". William S. Burroughs has been described as "Diogenes with a knife and gun." In Michael Ondaatje's In the Skin of a Lion, Diogenes is quoted at the climax of the third act. Earlier in the book, the character Caravaggio is described as keeping a dog to assist him in his burglaries because he does not trust anyone else. Throughout the book, light (from a lantern, flaming cattails and other sources) and darkness plays heavily in the context of the main characters and development of the plot.
The many allusions to dogs in Shakespeare's Timon of Athens are references to the school of Cynicism that could be interpreted as suggesting a parallel between the misanthropic hermit, Timon, and Diogenes; but Shakespeare would have had access to Michel de Montaigne's essay, "Of Democritus and Heraclitus", which emphasised their differences: Timon actively wishes men ill and shuns them as dangerous, whereas Diogenes esteems them so little that contact with them could not disturb him. "Timonism" is in fact often contrasted with "Cynicism": "Cynics saw what people could be and were angered by what they had become; Timonists felt humans were hopelessly stupid & uncaring by nature and so saw no hope for change."
The philosopher's name was adopted by the fictional Diogenes Club, an organization that Sherlock Holmes' brother Mycroft Holmes belongs to in the story "The Greek Interpreter" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. It is called such as its members are educated, yet untalkative and have a dislike of socialising, much like the philosopher himself. The group is the focus of a number of Holmes pastiches by Kim Newman. In the Rodgers and Hart musical The Boys from Syracuse (1938), the song Oh Diogenes!—which extols the philosopher's virtues—contains the lyrics "there was an old zany/ who lived in a tub;/ he had so many flea-bites / he didn't know where to rub."
References
Sources
Desmond, William D. 2008. Cynics. Acumen / University of California Press.
(Contains 124 sayings of Diogenes)
Further reading
Hard, Robin (2012). Diogenes the Cynic: Sayings and Anecdotes, With Other Popular Moralists, Oxford University Press.
External links
Lives & Writings on the Cynics, directory of literary references to Ancient Cynics
A day with Diogenes
Diogenes The Dog from Millions of Mouths
Diogenes of Sinope
James Grout: Diogenes the Cynic, part of the Encyclopædia Romana
410s BC births
323 BC deaths
4th-century BC philosophers
Ancient Greek agnostics
Ancient Greek bankers
Ancient Greek ethicists
Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen
Ancient Pontic Greeks
Anti-consumerists
Ascetics
Cosmopolitanism
Cultural critics
Cynic philosophers
Founders of philosophical traditions
Hermits
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Moral philosophers
People from Sinop, Turkey
Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of economics
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Philosophers of mind
Proto-anarchists
Simple living
Simple living advocates
Greek social commentators
Social critics
Social philosophers | [
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|
234266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine%20III | Constantine III | Constantine III may refer to:
Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor), self-proclaimed western Roman Emperor 407–411
Heraclius Constantine, Byzantine Emperor in 641
Constans II, Byzantine emperor 641–668, sometimes referred to under this name
Constantine III of Abkhazia, king of Abkhazia in 898/99–916/17
Constantine III of Scotland, king of Scotland 995–997
Patriarch Constantine III of Constantinople (ruled 1059–1063)
Constantine III of Armenia (ruled 1298–1299)
Constantine III of Cilicia, Catholicos of the Holy See of Cilicia in 1323–1326
Constantine III, Prince of Mukhrani (1696–1756), Georgian prince
See also
Constantius III | [
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|
234269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Valerius%20Probus | Marcus Valerius Probus | Marcus Valerius Probus, also known as M. Valerius Probus Berytius or Probus the Berytian (c. 20/30 – 105 AD), was a Roman grammarian and critic, who flourished during Nero's reign.
He was a student rather than a teacher, and devoted himself to the criticism and elucidation of the texts of classical authors (especially the most important Roman poets) by means of marginal notes or by signs, after the manner of the Alexandrine grammarians. In this way he treated Horace, Lucretius, Terence and Persius, the biography of the last-named being probably taken from Probus's introduction to his edition of the poet. With the exception of these texts, he published little, but his lectures were preserved in the notes taken by his pupils. Some of his criticisms on Virgil may be preserved in the commentary on the Bucolics and Georgics which goes under his name. We possess by him part of a treatise De notis, probably an excerpt from a larger work. It contains a list of abbreviations used in official and historical writings (especially proper names), in laws, legal pleadings and edicts.
The following works have been wrongly attributed to him.
Catholica Probi, on the declension of nouns, the conjugation of verbs, and the rhythmic endings of sentences. This is now generally regarded as the work of the grammarian Marius Plotius Sacerdos (3rd century).
Instituta artium, on the eight parts of speech, also called Ars vaticana from its having been found in a Vatican manuscript. As mention is made in it of the Baths of Diocletian, it cannot be earlier than the 4th century. It is possibly by a later Probus, whose existence is, however, problematical.
Appendix Probi, treating of the noun, the use of cases, rules of orthography (valuable in reference to the pronunciation of Latin at the time), and a table of Differentiae. As the author has evidently used the Institute, it also must be assigned to a late date.
De nomine excerpta, a compilation from various grammatical works.
De ultimis syllabis ad Caelestinum, a work explaining the quantities and other features of word-endings in the Latin language.
See J Steup, De Probis grammaticis (1871); W.S. Teuffel & Ludwig von Schwabe, A History of Roman Literature (Wilhelm Wagner trans., G.C.W. Warr ed., rev. ed. 1891) (1873), Vol. 2, p. 73, par. 295, available at .
References
External links
Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography
In Vergilii bucolica et georgica commentarius, accedunt scholiorum veronensium et aspri quaestionum vergilianarum fragmenta, Henricus Keil (ed.), Halis sumptibus Eduardi Anton, 1848.
Grammarians of Latin
Silver Age Latin writers
1st-century births
105 deaths
1st-century Romans
2nd-century Romans
1st-century writers
2nd-century writers
Valerii
Lebanon in the Roman era | [
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|
234271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Friedrich%20D%C3%BCbner | Johann Friedrich Dübner | Johann Friedrich Dübner (20 December 180213 December 1867) was a German classical scholar (naturalized a Frenchman).
Biography
He was born in Hörselgau, near Gotha. After studying at the University of Göttingen he returned to Gotha, where from 1827 to 1832 he held a post (inspector coenobii) in connection with the gymnasium. During this period he made his name known by editions of Justin and Persius (after Casaubon).
In 1832 he was invited by the brothers Didot to Paris, to cooperate in a new edition of Estienne's Greek Thesaurus. He also contributed largely to the Bibliotheca Graeca published by the same firm, a series of Greek classics with Latin translation, critical notes and valuable indexes. One of Dübner's most important works was an edition of Julius Caesar undertaken by command of Napoleon III, which obtained him the cross of the Legion of Honour.
His editions are considered to be models of literary and philological criticism, and did much to raise the standard of classical scholarship in France. He violently attacked Burnouf's method of teaching Greek, but without result. Dübner may have gone too far in his zeal for reform, and his opinions may have been too harshly expressed.
Dübner died in Montreuil, near Paris.
References
1802 births
1867 deaths
German classical scholars
French classical scholars
German emigrants to France
University of Göttingen alumni
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur | [
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|
234273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation%20of%20concerns | Separation of concerns | In computer science, separation of concerns (SoC) is a design principle for separating a computer program into distinct sections. Each section addresses a separate concern, a set of information that affects the code of a computer program. A concern can be as general as "the details of the hardware for an application", or as specific as "the name of which class to instantiate". A program that embodies SoC well is called a modular program. Modularity, and hence separation of concerns, is achieved by encapsulating information inside a section of code that has a well-defined interface. Encapsulation is a means of information hiding. Layered designs in information systems are another embodiment of separation of concerns (e.g., presentation layer, business logic layer, data access layer, persistence layer).
Separation of concerns results in more degrees of freedom for some aspect of the program's design, deployment, or usage. Common among these is increased freedom for simplification and maintenance of code. When concerns are well-separated, there are more opportunities for module upgrade, reuse, and independent development. Hiding the implementation details of modules behind an interface enables improving or modifying a single concern's section of code without having to know the details of other sections and without having to make corresponding changes to those other sections. Modules can also expose different versions of an interface, which increases the freedom to upgrade a complex system in piecemeal fashion without interim loss of functionality.
Separation of concerns is a form of abstraction. As with most abstractions, separating concerns means adding additional code interfaces, generally creating more code to be executed. So despite the many benefits of well-separated concerns, there is often an associated execution penalty.
Implementation
The mechanisms for modular or object-oriented programming that are provided by a programming language are mechanisms that allow developers to provide SoC. For example, object-oriented programming languages such as C#, C++, Delphi, and Java can separate concerns into objects, and architectural design patterns like MVC or MVP can separate content from presentation and the data-processing (model) from content. Service-oriented design can separate concerns into services. Procedural programming languages such as C and Pascal can separate concerns into procedures or functions. Aspect-oriented programming languages can separate concerns into aspects and objects.
Separation of concerns is an important design principle in many other areas as well, such as urban planning, architecture and information design. The goal is to more effectively understand, design, and manage complex interdependent systems, so that functions can be reused, optimized independently of other functions, and insulated from the potential failure of other functions.
Common examples include separating a space into rooms, so that activity in one room does not affect people in other rooms, and keeping the stove on one circuit and the lights on another, so that overload by the stove does not turn the lights off. The example with rooms shows encapsulation, where information inside one room, such as how messy it is, is not available to the other rooms, except through the interface, which is the door. The example with circuits demonstrates that activity inside one module, which is a circuit with consumers of electricity attached, does not affect activity in a different module, so each module is not concerned with what happens in the other.
Origin
The term separation of concerns was probably coined by Edsger W. Dijkstra in his 1974 paper "On the role of scientific thought".
Fifteen years later, it was evident the term was becoming an accepted idea. In 1989, Chris Reade wrote a book titled Elements of Functional Programming that describes separation of concerns:
Reade continues to say,
Examples
Internet protocol stack
Separation of concerns is crucial to the design of the Internet. In the Internet Protocol Suite, great efforts have been made to separate concerns into well-defined layers. This allows protocol designers to focus on the concerns in one layer, and ignore the other layers. The Application Layer protocol SMTP, for example, is concerned about all the details of conducting an email session over a reliable transport service (usually TCP), but not in the least concerned about how the transport service makes that service reliable. Similarly, TCP is not concerned about the routing of data packets, which is handled at the Internet Layer.
HTML, CSS, JavaScript
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript (JS) are complementary languages used in the development of web pages and websites. HTML is mainly used for organization of webpage content, CSS is used for definition of content presentation style, and JS defines how the content interacts and behaves with the user. Historically, this was not the case: prior to the introduction of CSS, HTML performed both duties of defining semantics and style.
Subject-oriented programming
Subject-oriented programming allows separate concerns to be addressed as separate software constructs, each on an equal footing with the others. Each concern provides its own class-structure into which the objects in common are organized, and contributes state and methods to the composite result where they cut across one another. Correspondence rules describe how the classes and methods in the various concerns are related to each other at points where they interact, allowing composite behavior for a method to be derived from several concerns. Multi-dimensional separation of concerns allows the analysis and composition of concerns to be manipulated as a multi-dimensional "matrix" in which each concern provides a dimension in which different points of choice are enumerated, with the cells of the matrix occupied by the appropriate software artifacts.
Aspect-oriented programming
Aspect-oriented programming allows cross-cutting concerns to be addressed as primary concerns. For example, most programs require some form of security and logging. Security and logging are often secondary concerns, whereas the primary concern is often on accomplishing business goals. However, when designing a program, its security must be built into the design from the beginning instead of being treated as a secondary concern. Applying security afterwards often results in an insufficient security model that leaves too many gaps for future attacks. This may be solved with aspect-oriented programming. For example, an aspect may be written to enforce that calls to a certain API are always logged, or that errors are always logged when an exception is thrown, regardless of whether the program's procedural code handles the exception or propagates it.
Levels of analysis in artificial intelligence
In cognitive science and artificial intelligence, it is common to refer to David Marr's levels of analysis. At any given time, a researcher may be focusing on (1) what some aspect of intelligence needs to compute, (2) what algorithm it employs, or (3) how that algorithm is implemented in hardware. This separation of concerns is similar to the interface/implementation distinction in software and hardware engineering.
Normalized systems
In normalized systems separation of concerns is one of the four guiding principles. Adhering to this principle is one of the tools that helps reduce the combinatorial effects that, over time, get introduced in software that is being maintained. In Normalized Systems separation of concerns is actively supported by the tools.
SoC via partial classes
Separation of concerns can be implemented and enforced via partial classes.
SoC via partial classes in Ruby
bear_hunting.rb
class Bear
def hunt
forest.select(&:food?)
end
end
bear_eating.rb
class Bear
def eat(food)
raise "#{food} is not edible!" unless food.respond_to? :nutrition_value
food.nutrition_value
end
end
bear_hunger.rb
class Bear
attr_accessor :hunger
def monitor_hunger
if hunger > 50
food = hunt
hunger -= eat(food)
end
end
end
See also
Abstraction principle (programming)
Aspect-oriented software development
Concern (computer science)
Coupling (computer science)
Holism
Modular design
Modular programming
Single-responsibility principle
References
External links
Multi-Dimensional Separation of Concerns
TAOSAD
Tutorial and Workshop on Aspect-Oriented Programming and Separation of Concerns
Programming principles
Reductionism
Edsger W. Dijkstra | [
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234275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepherd%27s%20Bush | Shepherd's Bush | Shepherd's Bush is a district of West London, England, within the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham west of Charing Cross, and identified as a major metropolitan centre in the London Plan.
Although primarily residential in character, its focus is the shopping area of Shepherd's Bush Green, with the Westfield London shopping centre a short distance to the north. The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road, Goldhawk Road and Askew Road, all with small and mostly independent shops, pubs and restaurants. The Loftus Road football stadium in Shepherd's Bush is home to Queens Park Rangers. In 2011, the population of the area was 39,724.
The district is bounded by Hammersmith to the south, Holland Park and Notting Hill to the east, Harlesden and Kensal Green to the north and by Acton and Chiswick to the west. White City forms the northern part of Shepherd's Bush. Shepherd's Bush comprises the Shepherd's Bush Green, Askew, College Park & Old Oak, and Wormholt and White City wards of the borough.
History
Origins
The name Shepherd's Bush is thought to have originated from the use of the common land here as a resting point for shepherds on their way to Smithfield Market in the City of London. An alternative theory is that it could have been named after someone in the area, because in 1635 the area was recorded as "Sheppard's Bush Green".
Evidence of human habitation can be traced back to the Iron Age. Shepherd's Bush enters the written record in the year 704 when it was bought by Waldhere, Bishop of London as a part of the "Fulanham" estate.
19th century
A map of London dated 1841 shows Shepherd's Bush to be largely undeveloped and chiefly rural in character, with much open farmland, compared with fast-developing Hammersmith. Residential development began in earnest in the late 19th century, as London's population expanded relentlessly. In 1904 the Catholic Church of Holy Ghost and St Stephen, built in the Gothic style with a triple-gabled facade of red brick and Portland stone, was completed and opened to the public.
20th century
Like other parts of London, Shepherd's Bush suffered from bomb damage during World War II, especially from V-1 flying bomb attacks (known as "doodlebugs" or "buzzbombs"), which struck randomly and with little warning.
On 13 April 1963 The Beatles recorded their first-ever BBC Television broadcast at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherd's Bush. The group returned in 1964 for a further recording. Lime Grove Studios was demolished in 1994 to make way for residential accommodation.
More recently, the White City bus station is housed in the redeveloped Dimco Buildings (1898), Grade II listed red brick buildings which were originally built in 1898 as a shed for a London Underground power station.
The Dimco buildings were used as a filming location for the ‘Acme Factory’ in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and later served as the interior of the British Museum in The Mummy Returns.
Geography
The area's focal point is Shepherd's Bush Green (also known as Shepherds Bush Common), a triangular area of about of open grass surrounded by trees and roads with shops, with Westfield shopping centre to its north.
The Green is a hub on the local road network, with four main roads radiating from the western side of the green and three roads approaching its eastern apex, meeting at the large Holland Park Roundabout. This position makes it an important node of the bus network, with eighteen bus routes arriving there. It is also served by five London Underground stations (see Transport below): Shepherd's Bush and White City both on the Central line, and Shepherd's Bush Market, Goldhawk Road and Wood Lane all on the Hammersmith & City and Circle lines.
To the east, Shepherd's Bush is bounded by the physical barrier of the West London railway line and the grade-separated West Cross Route (part of the aborted 1960s London Motorway Box scheme); the Holland Park Roundabout and the small Addison Bridge to the south are the only ways to cross this barrier from Shepherds Bush.
Most of the areas to the east of the barrier differ significantly in character, being associated with the more affluent Holland Park and Notting Hill; although the Edward Woods Estate just to the north-east of the roundabout is part of and is managed by the London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham.
To the south, Shepherd's Bush neighbours Brook Green and Hammersmith.
Commerce
Commercial activity in Shepherd's Bush is now focused on the Westfield shopping centre next to Shepherd's Bush Central line station and on the many small shops which run along the northern side of the Green.
Originally built in the 1970s with a rooftop car park and connecting bridge to the station, the older West 12 Shepherds Bush shopping centre was significantly redeveloped in the 1990s. The bridge was removed, and the centre now houses several chain stores, a 12-screen cinema, gym, pub, restaurants, a medical practice and a supermarket.
The small shops continue along many of the most popular roads within Shepherd's Bush, such as Uxbridge Road. Many of these establishments cater for the local ethnic minority communities. For example, a relatively large proportion of the local shops on Goldhawk Road (south of the Green) are dedicated to Ethiopian culture, whether that be through food, clothing or barbershops. (see Demographics).
Running parallel to, and partly under, an elevated section of the Hammersmith & City line there is a large permanent market, the Shepherd's Bush Market, selling all types of foodstuffs, cooked food, household goods, clothing and bric-à-brac.
The Westfield Group (with Hausinvest Europa) opened a shopping centre in October 2008.
Office buildings
As well as the offices within the Television Centre on Wood Lane, opposite this is Network House, 1 Ariel Way, a building that was let by Frost Meadowcroft on behalf of Westfield to Zodiak Entertainment in September 2009 and in Rockley Road is the Shepherds Building where Endemol another TV company are based and where Jellycat, a soft toy company, relocated their head office to in February 2010. The same building also houses Escape Studios, a digital art school providing computer graphics training for the visual effects industry in London.
Residential
The residential areas of Shepherd's Bush are primarily located to the west of the Green, either side of Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk Road to the southwest, and about as far as Askew Road in the west. Much of the housing in this area consists of three- or four-storey terraces dating from the late 19th century, and subsequently divided up into small flats.
Shepherd's Bush is also home to the White City Estate, a housing estate that was originally constructed in the 1930s and further extended after the war in the early 1950s. It was built on the site of the grounds of the 1908 Franco-British Exhibition and close to the White City Stadium and has given its name to the northern part of Shepherd's Bush which is now better known as White City.
Demographics
Significant communities from Australia and New Zealand exist in Shepherd's Bush. Street names in the area suggest links to South Africa but these were inspired by places and personalities from the Boer War or by their proximity to the former position of the South Africa Pavilion in the White City exhibition area. There is a Polish community, with a community centre in nearby Hammersmith. There are also Afro-Caribbean, Somali, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Syrian, Lebanese, Iranian, Irish, Algerian, Moroccan and Afghan communities that exist in Shepherd's Bush.
Transport
Rail and Tube
Shepherd's Bush is a major transport interchange in west London. Five London Underground stations serve the area, including:
Shepherd's Bush - at the eastern apex of Shepherd's Bush Green, near the Westfield shopping centre
Shepherd's Bush Market - to the north-west of the Green, on Uxbridge Road
Goldhawk Road - to the south-west of the Green, on Goldhawk Road
White City - to the north of the Westfield shopping centre
Wood Lane - to the north of the Westfield shopping centre
All stations are in London fare zone 2.
The Central line links the area to Ealing and areas of north-west London, such as Greenford and Ruislip. To the east, the line links Shepherd's Bush to London's West End, the City, and Stratford.
The Circle and Hammersmith & City lines share the same route through the area, with direct services southbound to nearby Hammersmith. To the north, the lines curve eastwards towards Latimer Road and Ladbroke Grove. The lines then run directly to key destinations such as Paddington, King's Cross, Moorgate in the City, and the East End.
Shepherd's Bush railway station is served by National Rail trains, operated by London Overground () and Southern. There are direct services from Shepherd's Bush to Kensington, and Clapham Junction and Balham, both of which are based in the south west of London, and Croydon in the south east of London. Northbound Southern services link the area to Wembley, Watford, Hemel Hempstead, and Milton Keynes. London Overground services running northbound travel towards Willesden Junction, where services continue towards West Hampstead, Camden, Hackney, and Stratford in east London. The station is an out-of-station interchange with Shepherd's Bush tube station on the Central line, and is situated on the western side of Holland Park Roundabout.
Bus
There are two main bus interchanges in Shepherd's Bush.
London Buses routes 31, 49, 72, 94, 95, 148, 207, 220, 228, 237, 260, 272, 283, 295, 316, 607, N72, N207, and C1 serve Shepherd's Bush Green and the southern side of the Westfield shopping centre.
Most of these routes also serve White City bus station on the northern side of Westfield.
Shepherd's Bush was also the proposed terminus of the West London Tram, an on-street light rail line running to Uxbridge via Acton, Ealing and Southall. This project was cancelled in 2007 in favour of an enhanced bus service and the development of Crossrail.
Cycling
Cycle lanes run around the southern rim of the Holland Park Roundabout on the eastern side of Shepherd's Bush. This provides cyclists with traffic-free access from Holland Park Avenue to Shepherd's Bush Green.
Transport for London (TfL) proposes that a cycle spur will link the roundabout to Cycleway 9, which is intended to run along Kensington High Street.
The Santander Cycles bicycle-sharing system operates around Shepherd's Bush, with docking stations near Westfield, Wood Lane station, and Shepherd's Bush Road.
Road
The A3220/West Cross Route runs along the eastern rim of the district. Until 2000, the route was the M41 motorway, part of the abandoned Ringways network of orbital roads in London. Despite not retaining motorway status, pedal cycles are prohibited from using the route northbound. The A3220 links Shepherd's Bush with the A40/Westway to the north. This provides the area with a dual-carriageway link to Paddington and Marylebone to the east, and westbound to Acton and the M40 motorway. Southbound, the A3220 is named Holland Road and links the area to Earl's Court, the A4, and Chelsea.
Other key routes through Shepherd's Bush include:
the A219 (Wood Lane/Shepherd's Bush Road) - northbound to White City, Wormwood Scrubs, and Harlesden, southbound to Hammersmith, Fulham, and Putney;
the A402 (Goldhawk Road/Holland Park Avenue) - westbound to Chiswick, eastbound to Notting Hill Gate, Marble Arch, and Oxford Street;
the A4020 (Uxbridge Road) - westbound to Acton and Ealing.
In popular culture
Arts and entertainment
The junkyard in the sitcom Steptoe & Son was situated at the fictional 24 Oil Drum Lane, Shepherd's Bush.
The BBC used to have many offices in Shepherd's Bush, but many have now been closed or moved. They included the Lime Grove Studios on the site of previous film studios Gaumont and Gainsborough Pictures. Sulgrave House, Threshold and Union Houses and Kensington House—now a hotel. The BBC's presence in the Bush is now concentrated in two huge sites on Wood Lane, Television Centre and the White City building. The Media Village was built next to the White City building in the mid-1980s on the former site of the White City Stadium. It is used by the BBC and other media companies including Red Bee Media (formerly BBC Broadcast, now a private company). Television Centre was the national home of BBC Television, and it is from there that BBC TV and radio news, the BBC website and a host of TV drama and light entertainment were broadcast. The BBC moved all of its news operations from Television Centre to Broadcasting House in central London in 2012.
Shepherd's Bush Green The newly regenerated green in 2012–13 was the site for the public sculptures Goaloids by Fine Artist Elliott Brook. This Inspire Mark (awarded by LOCOG (London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games) making it part of the Cultural Olympiad) artwork was installed on Shepherd's Bush Green for the duration of London 2012 and the Paralympic Games. These large unique rotating football related sculptures commemorated the history of Shepherd's Bush and White City, which hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics football. The London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham is the only Borough to have three football teams playing Premier League Football.
Bush Theatre is one of the most celebrated new writing theatres in the world. Situated on the green it has international reputation for discovering, nurturing and producing the best new theatre writers from the widest range of backgrounds, and for presenting their work to the high standards.
Shepherd's Bush Empire is a music venue and former television studio, and has played host to some very popular acts and TV programmes, including David Bowie, Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, The Old Grey Whistle Test, Wogan, That's Life!, Crackerjack and This is Your Life.
Bush Hall is another, rather smaller, venue at 310 Uxbridge Road, built in 1904 as a dance hall. It predominantly showcases smaller acoustic performers.
Shepherd's Bush Walkabout was a popular music and live sports venue located on the western end of the green. On Australian and New Zealand national holidays, big sporting events such as the Australian Football League grand final, and memorial days such as Anzac Day the Shepherd's Bush Walkabout became very busy. The live music was usually a mixture of up and coming local acts, and cover bands who played Australian and New Zealand classic songs and contemporary popular music. Shepherd's Bush Walkabout closed in early October 2013 and it was announced the site would be redeveloped into a hotel.
The casting agency 2020 Casting, which supplies extras for film shoots, is based in Hopgood Street, just off Shepherd's Bush Green.
Some important rock and roll groups have roots in Shepherd's Bush. The Who infused much of their work with the youth culture of Shepherd's Bush during the 1960s and 1970s. Steve Jones, guitarist of punk legends the Sex Pistols, was born in Shepherd's Bush, and Pistols drummer Paul Cook grew up here. The Clash's early work is infused with the culture of Shepherd's Bush and the Westway. Libertines and Babyshambles frontman Pete Doherty moved to Shepherd's Bush at age 16. Tony Butler, bass-player with 1980s band Big Country and others, was born in Shepherd's Bush. Bands Bush and Symposium hail from Shepherd's Bush, the former taking their name from the area.
Classical musicians Evelyn Glennie and Robert Steadman have both lived in Shepherd's Bush.
In the Westfield shopping centre area at White City, the grade II listed Dimco buildings (1898), now redeveloped as a bus station, were used as the location for the 'Acme Factory' in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit.
Sports
Shepherd's Bush is home to Queens Park Rangers football club, who play their home games in Loftus Road.
Olympic gold medal winner Linford Christie also grew up in Shepherd's Bush and lived in Loftus Road as a child. A stadium on nearby Wormwood Scrubs is named the Linford Christie Stadium in his honour. Some of the football games in the 1908 Olympics were hosted in Shepherd's Bush. Shepherds Bush F.C. were the local side till 1915.
Former England national rugby union team captain Lawrence Dallaglio was born in Shepherd's Bush.
The London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham has created the Shepherd's Bush Conservation Area in order to promote the protection of local buildings of historic interest, and improve the character of the neighbourhood.
Politics
At Westminster, Shepherd's Bush is represented by Andy Slaughter, the Labour Party MP for the constituency of Hammersmith, which includes Shepherd's Bush, Hammersmith and North Fulham.
See also
History of Shepherd's Bush
Shepherd's Bush Green
Gallery
References
External links
The Shepherd's Bush Blog Retrieved October 2014
Shepherd's Bush Local Information Retrieved July 2011
The Bush Theatre Retrieved July 2011
Shepherds Bush Empire Retrieved July 2011
Shepherds Bush Festival Retrieved July 2011
History of Shepherd's Bush Retrieved July 2011
Unofficial history of Lime Grove Studios Retrieved July 2011
History of Gaumont-British and Lime Grove Studios Retrieved July 2011
Districts of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Areas of London
History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Places formerly in Middlesex
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Sport in Hammersmith and Fulham | [
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|
234276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollongong | Wollongong | Wollongong ( ), informally referred to as "The Gong", is a city located in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. Wollongong lies on the narrow coastal strip between the Illawarra Escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, 85 kilometres (53 miles) south of central Sydney. Wollongong had an estimated urban population of 302,739 at June 2018, making it the third-largest city in New South Wales after Sydney and Newcastle and the tenth-largest city in Australia by population. The city's current Lord Mayor is Gordon Bradbery AM who was elected in 2021.
The Wollongong area extends from Helensburgh in the north to Windang and Yallah in the south. Geologically, the city is located in the south-eastern part of the Sydney basin, which extends from Newcastle to Nowra.
Wollongong is noted for its heavy industry, its port activity and the quality of its physical setting, occupying a narrow coastal plain between an almost continuous chain of surf beaches and the cliffline of the rainforest-covered Illawarra escarpment. It has two cathedrals, churches of many denominations and the Nan Tien Temple, the largest Buddhist temple in the southern hemisphere. Wollongong has a long history of coal mining and industry. The city attracts many tourists each year and is a regional centre for the South Coast fishing industry. The University of Wollongong has around 38,000 students.
History
The area was originally inhabited by the Dharawal (alternatively spelt Turuwal, Tharawal) Indigenous Australians. The first Europeans to visit the area were the navigators George Bass and Matthew Flinders, who landed at Lake Illawarra in 1796. The first settlers in the region were cedar cutters in the early nineteenth century, followed by graziers in 1812. Charles Throsby established a stockman's hut in the area in 1815. The first land grants were made in 1816. In 1830, a military barracks was constructed near the harbour. Further settlers arrived and in 1834 a town was planned. On 26 November 1834, the town was first gazetted and George Brown erected the first court house. The main road down the Escarpment through Bulli Pass was built by convict labour in 1835–6, although other passes were built during the 19th century as well, such as O'Briens Road and Rixons Pass. By 1856 Wollongong had a population of 864.
In 1858, a court house was built. In 1861, a horse-drawn tramway from Mount Keira to the harbour was completed. In 1862 a telegraph line was opened between Wollongong and Bellambi. In 1865, the first gas supply in Wollongong was provided from a gas plant in Corrimal Street. In 1868 the extensions to the harbour were opened by Lady Belmore and named Belmore Basin. Patrick Lahiff established a coke works at Wollongong Harbour in the 1870s. He erected two beehive coke ovens between the north eastern end of the basin and Pulpit Rock. The ovens were demolished in 1892. The remains of the coke ovens were uncovered and recovered and are now preserved beneath the hill, with a plaque explaining their history.
In 1871, the old lighthouse was completed. In 1880, steam locomotives were introduced to haul coal loads from Mount Keira mine to the harbour. Gas street lighting was introduced in 1883. In 1885, a new court house was erected in Market Street. Like many Australian court houses, it was designed in a Classical Revival style considered appropriate for public buildings. It is now listed on the Register of the National Estate. In 1886 the first town hall was erected. The Illawarra Railway to Wollongong was completed in 1887, and now continues as far south as the town of Bomaderry on the Shoalhaven River. The navigator George Bass first documented the Illawarra coal deposits in 1797. There have been many coalmines in the district. Australia's worst coal mining disaster occurred in 1902, at the Mount Kembla mine when an explosion killed 94 men and boys, the youngest aged 14, the oldest 69. Two other men died attempting to rescue survivors. Survivors were treated at the "A. M. (Albert Memorial) Hospital", which opened in 1864 and closed when the Wollongong Hospital opened in 1907 on Garden Hill. In 1916 the Wollongong High School was opened.
Heavy industry was attracted to the region by the ready availability of coal. In 1928, Hoskins, later Australian Iron & Steel, started a steelworks at Port Kembla, a few kilometres south of Wollongong. The former Broken Hill Proprietary Company (now BHP after merging with Billiton plc) acquired AI&S in 1935, but has since spun-out their steel division as a separate company, now known as BlueScope. The steelworks has grown to become a world-class flat rolled steel producer, operating as a fully integrated steel plant with a production of around 5 million tonnes per year. Other industries to have set up in the massive Port Kembla industrial complex—the largest single concentration of heavy industry in Australia—include a fertiliser plant, an electrolytic copper smelter, a locomotive workshop, a coal export shipping terminal, a grain export shipping terminal and an industrial gases manufacturing plant.
In 1936, the new Wollongong Lighthouse was finished on Flagstaff Point. In 1942 Wollongong was proclaimed a City. In 1947 City of Greater Wollongong was formed. In 1954 the population of Wollongong was 90,852. In 1956 new Wollongong City Council Chambers were opened. In 1961 the Wollongong University College was established. In 1963, the Wollongong Teachers College was established. In 1965 the Westfield shopping centre at Figtree opened.
In 1985, the railway line was electrified to Wollongong, and in 1993 to Dapto. In 1986 the Wollongong Mall was completed. For a short while, trams (trackless trains) were used in the mall, though this ceased due to dangers involved. The mall was re-opened to traffic after the initial test but re-zoned a pedestrian area after and has remained one since.
In 1987 the council chambers and library building were completed, replacing the old council building at the present art gallery site. The Crown Gateway Shopping Centre was completed. Wollongong Mall was opened. In 1988, the current council administration building was completed, as well as the Illawarra Performing Arts Centre (IPAC), across the road on Burelli Street. IPAC was officially opened by Prince Charles and Princess Diana in 1988. A sculpture recognizing Lawrence Hargrave was placed via \ helicopter on the eastern foothills of Mount Keira. In 1998 the 6000 seat Wollongong Entertainment Centre was opened.
In 1999, the Gateway and Crown Central mall buildings were unified as Wollongong Central and a pedestrian walkway/café was built connecting the buildings in an above ground bridge. In 2000, as part of the Sydney Olympics, the Olympic torch was carried through Wollongong as part of its journey. In 2001, the population of Wollongong reached 181,612 people. In 2004 the Wollongong City Gallery celebrated its 25th anniversary. In 2005 Qantas established a daily air service from Wollongong to Melbourne that lasted till 2008.
In 2006/2007, the library was renovated, including new facilities, as part of the tenth anniversary of the library's current site. Also at this time the beachfront was renovated with a new lookout and walkway upgrade. In June 2007, erosion was caused via storms to the beaches, the worst in 30 years.
Despite the decline of traditional manufacturing and blue-collar industries due to the abandonment of protectionist economic policies in the 1980s, many of these industrial installations still exist. The city's economy is, however, on the rebound, thanks to diversification of economic activity including higher education, the fine arts, tourism, residential construction and eco-friendly electricity generation; however, the city's economy still relies primarily on heavy industry, and will continue to in the near future.
Various meanings are given for the Aboriginal word ' Wollongong' including 'seas of the South', ' great feast of fish' , 'hard ground near water', 'song of the sea' ' sound of the waves' 'many snakes' and ' five islands'.
Heritage listings
Wollongong has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
Church Street: St Michael's Cathedral
Cliff Road: North Beach Precinct
Cliff Road and Endeavour Drive: Wollongong Harbour Precinct
87 Crown Street: 87 Crown Street
91 Crown Street: Old Wollongong East Post Office
Darling Street: Elouera House
Illawarra railway: Wollongong railway station
197 Keira Street: Regent Theatre
11 Market Street: Old Wollongong Telegraph and Post Office
31–33 Smith Street: Little Milton
Geography
The city of Wollongong has a distinct geography. It lies on a narrow coastal plain flanked by the Tasman Sea to the east and a steep sandstone precipice known as the Illawarra Escarpment to the west. The coastal plain is widest in the south and narrowest in the north, with the city centre located about midway. South of the city centre but within the urban area is Lake Illawarra, a large lagoon.
The escarpment ranges between 150 and 750 metres (490–2,460 ft) above sea level, with locally famous mountains such as Mount Keira (464m), Mount Kembla (534m), Broker's Nose (440m) and Mount Murray (768m) to the south. It contains strata of coal measures, and the adit entrances to many coal mines have been established along the slopes of the escarpment throughout Wollongong. Suburbia encroaches on the escarpment's lower slopes in some areas, but the majority remains in a relatively natural state forested with dry sclerophyll and pockets of temperate rainforest. The escarpment is largely protected by a State Conservation Area and local scenic protection zoning, and provides the visual backdrop to the city.
In the north the escarpment meets the coastline, and north of this the coastal road Lawrence Hargrave Drive hugs the cliff line. The unstable geology of the escarpment resulted in rockfalls, forcing the closure of the road. Subsequently, part of Lawrence Hargrave Drive was replaced in 2005 by the Sea Cliff Bridge just off the coast, crossing the submerged rock shelf. The bridge carries both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The Illawarra railway line must go through several tunnels to reach the Sydney metropolitan area. The Southern Freeway and Princes Highway provide alternative inland routes, descending the escarpment further south at Bulli Pass or at Mount Ousley, entering just north of Wollongong's city centre.
To the south the plain reaches its maximum extent around Albion Park where it incorporates a large coastal saltwater lagoon called Lake Illawarra, separated from the Pacific Ocean by a long sandy spit.
The coastal strip consists of highly fertile alluvium, which made Wollongong so attractive to agriculturists in the nineteenth century. It contains many hills including the foothills of the escarpment's lower slopes, and while these generally do not exceed one hundred metres in height they give much of the city an undulating character. The coastal strip is traversed by several short but flood-prone and fast-flowing streams and creeks such as Fairy Creek (Para Creek), Cabbage Tree Creek, Allans Creek, Nostaw Ravine, Jimbob Creek, Mullet Creek and Macquarie Rivulet.
The coastline consists of many beaches characterised by fine pale gold-coloured sands; however, these beaches are sometimes interrupted by prominent and rocky headlands, such as Tego Rock, jutting into the sea. In places these headlands have been excavated or extended to create artificial harbours at Wollongong, Port Kembla, Shellharbour and Kiama. Just off the coast south of Wollongong centre, near Port Kembla, lies a group of five islands known collectively as The Five Islands. The islands are a wildlife refuge.
Inner city
The inner city area includes the suburbs of Wollongong and North Wollongong, extending from Fairy Creek in the north, west to include the Wollongong Hospital, and south to the Greenhouse Park. At the , the suburb of Wollongong had a population of 18,442.
The CBD is a major commercial hub containing many department stores and specialty shops, offices, and entertainment venues. It is centred on the Crown Street Mall and Wollongong Central, and approximates the area bounded by Market, Corrimal, and Burelli streets and the railway line. Surrounding the CBD lies a mixture of parks, reserves, light commercial property, houses and multi-story residential units. Multi-story housing is evident particularly on Smith's Hill, north-east of the CBD, reflecting the popularity of combining inner-city living, coastal views and a beachside lifestyle.
To the east of the city lies Flagstaff Point, a rocky headland with eroded low cliffs topped by a grassy hill. The northern side of the point was excavated by convict labour to form Belmore Basin. This was later extended with the northern breakwater to create Wollongong Harbour. The area is the site of a historic colonial fort, several restored cannons and two lighthouses, a feature peculiar to the east coast of Australia. The older Wollongong Breakwater Lighthouse located at the harbour entrance was made of wrought iron plates in 1871 and has become an icon of the city. The newer Wollongong Head Lighthouse was constructed in 1936 atop the Flagstaff Hill and is still used in the early 21st century. Belmore Basin houses the commercial fishing fleet and Fisherman's Co-op, while the main harbour shelters private vessels.
The main beaches of central Wollongong are North Wollongong (or simply North) Beach, extending from the harbour up to the Fairy lagoon and Puckeys Estate Reserve, and Wollongong City Beach, extending south from Flagstaff Point and into Coniston Beach.
Climate
Wollongong has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), but with humid subtropical (Cfa) influences as its warmest month mean of
is just below the subtropical isotherm of . The highest recorded temperature is 44.1 °C on 1 January 2006, and the lowest 0.8 °C on 27 July 1986. Annually, Wollongong receives 107.4 clear days.
Rainfall is spread through the months but has a bias to the first half of the year. It is often associated with orographic lift caused by the escarpment. A significant flood event occurred on 18 August 1998 when Wollongong recorded 316 mm of rainfall (the nearby suburb of Mt Ousley recorded in excess of 445 mm), mostly falling in a 3-hour period. Wollongong also experiences thunderstorms during the warmer months bringing lightning, heavy rain and occasionally hail.
July and August are known as the windy months, with westerly gales that can gust at over 100 km/h. These are generally dry foehn winds from the Great Dividing Range, which are common at this time of the year in southeast Australia on the leeward side of the Ranges.
Demographics
The Wollongong metropolitan area includes the suburbs, outlying towns and rural localities stretching from Helensburgh in the north to Kiama in the south. According to the 2016 census, it had a population of 285,678 people.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 2.9% of the population.
74.1% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 4.2%, North Macedonia 1.3%, China 1.1%, Italy 1.1% and New Zealand 1.0%.
80.4% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Macedonian 2.2%, Italian 1.5%, Mandarin 1.1%, Arabic 1.1% and Spanish 0.8%.
The most common responses for religion were No Religion 27.2%, Catholic 26.1% and Anglican 17.9%.
4.2% of employed people worked in Hospitals (except Psychiatric Hospitals). Other major industries of employment included Aged Care Residential Services 2.6%, Higher Education 2.6%, Supermarket and Grocery Stores 2.4% and Cafes and Restaurants 2.4%.
It is the third largest city in New South Wales and the tenth largest in Australia. Using 2006 ABS geography, around 89% of the statistical district's population reside in the built-up urban centre extending from Clifton to Shell Cove.
The following table includes selected 2006 census figures for these areas, together with those for the central suburb of Wollongong.
Wollongong is continuing to grow with a population growth of 3.1% for the period 2001 to 2006, although the supply of new residential land is limited by the geography particularly in the northern suburbs. The west Dapto area is a major centre of future growth with plans for 19,000 new dwellings and 50,000 people within 40 years. New residential areas are also being developed further south around the Albion Park, Shell Cove and Kiama areas.
Wollongong has a distinctly multicultural population. Many migrants were attracted to the area by the job opportunities at the Port Kembla steelworks in the post-war period, and settled in surrounding suburbs such as Cringila, Warrawong and Coniston. By 1966 about 60% of the wage earners at the Australian Iron and Steel steelworks were born overseas coming from over 100 different countries. These included British, Irish, Macedonians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Greeks, Italians, Arabs, Russians, Bosnians, Croatians, Serbians, Germans, Turks, Chileans and Brazilians. With the end of the White Australia policy these were followed by Indo-Chinese refugees in the 1970s, Indians, Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, Malaysians, Singaporeans, Koreans and Pacific Islanders in the 1980s and 1990s. The university continues to attract students and staff from all over the world, with around 5,000 overseas student enrolments.
Around 20,000 people commute daily to jobs in Sydney by road and rail, making it one of the busiest commuter corridors in Australia.
Education
Tertiary and further education
There are two campuses of the Illawarra Institute of TAFE. The Wollongong Campus is the network's largest campus, and it offers a variety of courses.
Wollongong has one university, the University of Wollongong, which was formerly part of the University of New South Wales. The University was awarded the "Australian University of the Year" in two consecutive years (1999–2000, 2000–2001) by the Good Universities Guide, and is internationally recognised. It has two main campuses: the primary campus on Northfields Avenue, and the Innovation Campus on Squires Way. The University's Sydney Business School also has a secondary campus in Sydney.
Schools
Wollongong has a number of primary and high schools, including public, denominational and independent.
Media
Wollongong has one daily newspaper, The Illawarra Mercury published and issued Monday to Saturday by Australian Community Media (ACM). Additionally, ACM publishes several free community newspapers including the Advertiser incorporating Lake Times and Kiama Independent.
Wollongong and the Illawarra region are serviced by three commercial television networks – WIN Television, Prime7 and Southern Cross 10. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) also broadcast television services to Wollongong. In addition to these channels, ten new channels broadcasting in are also available in Wollongong and the greater Illawarra region. These channels include ABC HD, ABC TV Plus, ABC Me, ABC News, Prime7HD, 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 9HD, 9Go!, 9Gem, 9Life, 10 HD, 10 Bold, 10 Peach and SBS Viceland. In some areas it is also possible to pick up Sydney channels. Subscription Television service Foxtel (formerly Austar) is also available via satellite.
Of the three main commercial networks:
WIN Television airs a half-hour local WIN News each weeknight at 5:30pm, produced and broadcast from the network's headquarters in the city
Southern Cross 10 airs short news & weather updates of 10 News First throughout the day from Hobart.
Prime7 airs short local news and weather updates throughout the day, produced and broadcast from its Canberra studios.
The region receives five ABC radio services – ABC Illawarra 97.3FM, Triple J 98.9, and Radio National 1431 AM, ABC Classic FM 95.7 and Newsradio 90.9FM. There are two commercial radio stations i98FM 98.1 and WAVE FM 96.5 – formerly 2WL, and two community radio stations Vox FM 106.9 and Christian broadcaster 94.1 FM.
Transport
Road
The main road connecting Wollongong is the M1 Princes Motorway (formerly the F6). The motorway, part of National Route 1, descends the escarpment via Mount Ousley Road to enter the city near the University of Wollongong and exits at its southern fringe. A second freeway, Memorial Drive (formerly the Northern Distributor), continues northward from the university to connect Wollongong's northern suburbs, Bulli Pass and the scenic Lawrence Hargrave Drive. The Illawarra Highway connects Wollongong's southern suburbs to the Southern Highlands via Macquarie Pass.
Rail
is served by the Illawarra railway line. Passenger rail services on this line connect the centres of Nowra and Kiama to the south and Sydney to the north. A branch line connects suburbs between the CBD and Port Kembla. A passenger rail service connecting Wollongong to the Southern Highlands has since been replaced with a coach service. Wollongong railway station is the city's main train station, and serves Wollongong's CBD.
Freight services connect Sydney markets with Port Kembla and the Manildra Group factory at Bomaderry. The Southern Highlands line is used primarily for freight, providing an important bypass for Sydney's congested rail network.
Bus
Route services in Wollongong are provided by Premier Illawarra and Dion's Bus Service who also provide school/charter services together with some other companies. Wollongong railway station serves as the network's hub. Services connect Wollongong suburbs to Shellharbour, Lake Illawarra and the Royal National Park. There is also a Free Shuttle Bus service that connects the CBD, University and the suburbs of North Wollongong, Fairy Meadow and Gwynneville.
Air
Wollongong is serviced by Shellharbour Airport, also known as Illawarra Regional Airport and Wollongong Airport. The Airport is located in Albion Park Rail, 18km south of Wollongong CBD in the Shellharbour City LGA.
Regular Public Transport (RPT) air services to Melbourne (Essendon) and Brisbane airports were recommenced by Fly Corporate in 2018, following the cancellation of previous services offered by JetGo and QantasLink. Fly Corporate operates 34 seat SAAB 340B turboprop aircraft.
There are multiple air charter businesses including NSW Air, EliteJet and Touchdown Helicopters. The Historical Aircraft Restoration Society (HARS) is also based at the airport.
Culture
Arts
Wollongong maintains an active arts scene. In the area of music the city is home to various music and jazz ensembles. The Wollongong Conservatorium of Music provides musical tuition for instruments and voice in classical, jazz and contemporary styles. It is one of the largest regional conservatoriums in Australia and located in the historic Gleniffer Brae Manor House, part of the Wollongong Botanic Gardens.
The local professional theatre company, Merrigong Theatre Company, is located at the Illawarra Performing Arts Centre. Merrigong also manages the city's key civic and community venue, the Wollongong Town Hall, and presents a diverse range of events in the heart of the city. Other local theatre groups include The Arcadians, The Phoenix Theatre and Wollongong Workshop Theatre.
The annual Wollongong Eisteddfod showcases local talent in music, theatre and dance.
The Wollongong City Gallery houses a significant collection of the art of the Illawarra, contemporary Australian, Aboriginal and Asian art.
The popular 1990s stoner rock band Tumbleweed were formed and based in Wollongong, as are Surf-Rock duo Hockey Dad.
Yours and Owls Festival is an annual music festival that attracts 12,000 people and features the best up and coming Australian and international bands.
Cyrus Villanueva, winner of the seventh season of The X Factor Australia, was born and raised in Wollongong.
Wollongong also hosts Wonderwalls, an annual street art festival featuring local and internationally acclaimed street artists.
Entertainment and Nightlife
Entertainment venues include the Crown Street Mall, many restaurants and cafes, the town cinemas and the Illawarra Performing Arts Centre. Adjacent to WIN Stadium, the home ground of the NRL team St. George Illawarra Dragons, is the WIN Entertainment Centre: a multipurpose venue which hosts concerts and sporting events (including Southern Stars, basketball and motocross stunt shows). There are numerous city nightclubs, pubs & registered clubs; Including The Illawarra Master Builders Club, The Grand Hotel (back to its original name, after being called Cooney's for a few years), Mr Crown, Ron De Vu, The Illawarra Hotel, The Harp Hotel, and The North Wollongong Hotel. Most suburbs also have their own hotels, each with individual character.
Recreation
Wollongong has 17 seasonally-patrolled local beaches: Stanwell Park, Coalcliff, Scarborough/Wombarra, Coledale, Austinmer, Thirroul, Sandon Point, Bulli, Woonona, Bellambi, Corrimal, Towradgi, Fairy Meadow, North Wollongong, Wollongong City, Port Kembla and Windang. Surfing, rock fishing, swimming, skimboarding are common activities. The Wollongong to Thirroul Bike Track, a thirteen kilometre Heart Foundation walking/biking pathway which runs northwards adjacent to the Illawarra coastline starting at Wollongong Beach, is frequented by walkers, joggers, skaters and bicycle riders. Bushwalking on nearby Mount Keira and Mount Kembla, and motorbike riding at the Motocross Track on the escarpment west of Wollongong, are also popular activities.
Wollongong has many parks. In the city centre is MacCabe Park, featuring a playground, the local youth centre, a war memorial, community hall, a sculpture called "Nike" and a brick amphitheatre. Lang Park, adjacent to the city beach, has a number of shelters built in the 1950s. These were subject for demolition but were saved by a community vote. Stuart Park, to the coastal north of the city but south of Fairy Lagoon and Puckeys Estate Reserve, is well known as a landing spot for skydivers as well as a place for outdoor recreation and social gatherings. Stuart Park is also distinctive for its Norfolk Island Pines, planted during the North Wollongong tourism boom in the 1920s. J.J.Kelly Park to the south is used by circuses, as well as a protected area of creek leading to the Greenhouse Park north of the Port Kembla Steelworks, containing a revegetated area of once waste and a lookout, as well as the small remnants of Tom Thumb Lagoon, which once stretched north to Swan Street. Beaton Park in Gwynneville is home to Tennis Wollongong and the Leisure Centre with an athletics complex, indoor heated swimming pool, gymnasium and multipurpose sports hall.
Sport
Rugby League
The St George Illawarra Dragons Rugby league club represents the city in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition. The club was formed in a merger between the St. George Dragons and the Illawarra Steelers in 1999, and continues to play some home games at WIN Stadium. They won the 2010 NRL Grand Final against the Sydney Roosters. Prior to the merger the Illawarra Steelers had represented the area in the New South Wales Rugby League premiership and NRL between 1982 and 1998. Rugby League has been played in Wollongong since 1911, and the area has produced at least 41 international players. At the local level league continues to have a strong following with a number of teams playing in the Illawarra Rugby League and Group 7 Rugby League competitions.
The Illawarra Cutters represent the Illawarra region in the New South Wales Cup and the Harold Matthews Cup.
Other sports
The city does not have a senior cricket team representing it. Ireland captain Trent Johnston grew up in Dapto and played for New South Wales before leaving for Ireland. Australian internationals and New South Wales players Brett and Shane Lee were raised in Oak Flats and played for the local cricket club Oak Flat Rats.
The Illawarra Lions represent the region in the Sydney AFL competition (as the only non-sydney base side).
The Illawarriors are a rugby union club based in the Illawarra, who contest the Shute Shield NSW club competition. The club play some of their home games at WIN Stadium.
The Illawarra Hawks basketball team play in the National Basketball League and are the only NBL club (as of 2019/20 season) to have competed in every season since the league's inception in 1979. Home games are played at the WIN Entertainment Centre, known as "The Sandpit" in the NBL.
Wollongong Wolves FC is the region's football club who compete in the New South Wales Premier League. Scott Chipperfield, a Wollongong native who became a professional football player in Europe, along with Tim Cahill, has recently expressed an interest in being involved in a Wollongong football club in the A-League, as well as the Sydney club playing some promotional games in Wollongong. Great South Football is a consortium preparing the Illawarra's South Coast A-League bid. In late 2008, the club folded due to debt incurred over the past season. It is proposed that a new community-based entity will take on the Football NSW licence previously held by Wollongong Wolves FC.
The first recorded match of water polo in Wollongong came in 1894, in a men's match between the Wollongong and Kiama Swim Clubs at Brighton Beach. The Kiama Swim Club prevailed, winning 3-0. Water polo is currently played at UOW Pool through the Illawarra Water Polo Club. Each year, Illawarra also compete at the NSW Country Club Championships, whereby the Illawarra U14's boys won in 2021.
The Illawarra Cycling Club holds road cycle races almost every week of the year. During the summer, velodrome racing is also promoted at the Unanderra Velodrome on the Princes Highway. A recent focus within the club has seen a shift to encompass a stronger emphasis on youth development programs alongside its already strong commitment to competitive under 19's, 23's and adult road racing. The club is represented at a state and national level regularly and has had several riders compete at international levels.
The Gong Scorpions are the local Floorball team from the Wollongong area. The Club plays socially at the Wollongong University and has recently been re-established in order to compete in the NSW Elite Series.
Baseball has been played in the region with structured competitions conducted since 1938. The Illawarra District Baseball Association was the governing body from this year until 1991 when the Illawarra Baseball League was created.
The Illawarra Junior Baseball League was inaugurated in 1984 to accommodate a growing number of juniors that peaked at around 950 players in 1995.
Eight regional clubs from four Local Government Areas play in the I B L.
A regional club, the Illawarra Flame Baseball Club, fielded teams in four grades in the New South Wales Baseball League Sydney Major League from 1994 to 2007. The first grade team made the Grand Final in their inaugural season. The Club won a total of four premierships while participating.
The IFBC played their inaugural games against the All Kawasaki Baseball Club in August 1994 the games being the first sporting exchange between the Sister Cities, Wollongong and Kawasaki.
The Wollongong Whales compete against Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club, South Maroubra Dolphins Winter Swimming Club, Cronulla Polar Bears Winter Swimming Club, Maroubra Seals Winter Swimming Club, Coolangatta Surf Life Saving Club, Clovelly Eskimos Winter Swimming Club, Bronte Splashers, Coogee Penguins Winter Swimming Club and Cottesloe Crabs in the Winter Swimming Association of Australia Championships.
Other popular sports in the Illawarra include golf, rock climbing, surfing, cup stacking, triathlon, ultimate frisbee and mountain biking.
In the book Quidditch Through the Ages by J. K. Rowling, the Wollongong Warriors are listed as one of Australia's quidditch teams. They have a rivalry with the Thundelarra Thunderers, and are the inventors of the Wollongong Shimmy, a high-speed zig-zag move designed to confuse and distract opposing Chasers. Wollongong Warriors is now a real club in Australian Quidditch Association, a Muggle quidditch league.
Wollongong will be hosting the UCI Road World Championships in 2022.
Attractions
In addition to numerous swimming, skate spots and surfing beaches, major visitor attractions to Wollongong City include:
Dicey Riley’s Hotel
Five Islands Brewery
Wollongong Botanic Gardens
Cockatoo Run scenic train ride from Wollongong to Robertson
Fairy Meadow Skatepark
Cycling to Sandon Point from North Wollongong
Rad Bar Wollongong
Wollongong Harbour (Belmore Basin), Wollongong Breakwater Lighthouse, Wollongong Head Lighthouse and surrounding foreshores
Illawarra Light Railway Museum, with light and miniature train rides
Illawarra Museum
iPac Theatre
Wollongong Town Hall
Wollongong Crown Street Mall
Wollongong City Library
Wollongong Art Gallery
Bulli Tops (Sublime Point and Cliffhanger Restaurant), Mount Keira, Port Kembla (Illowra Battery), Illawarra Fly Tree Top Walk,
Nan Tien Temple
Hill 60 Port Kembla
Fisherman’s Beach
Science Centre and Planetarium
WIN Stadium
WIN Entertainment Centre
Wodi Wodi Track
Sister and friendship cities
Wollongong has sister city and friendship city arrangements with:
Kawasaki, Japan, formally established 1988
Ohrid, North Macedonia, established 1981, lapsed, formally re-established 1999
Longyan, People's Republic of China (friendship city), formally established 2001
Notable people
See also
List of Wollongong suburbs
Norman Gunston and Aunty Jack Sings Wollongong
HMAS Wollongong
Newcastle
Geelong
References
External links
Wollongong City Council
"Illawarra From Above" – Satellite and Aerial Video
Tourism Wollongong
Wollongong – Visit NSW
Wollongong Advertiser incorporating Lake Times
Kiama Independent
Merrigong Theatre Company
Wollongong Town Hall
Wollongong TV Guide – All channels currently broadcasting in the Wollongong and surrounding areas
City of Wollongong
1834 establishments in Australia
Coastal cities in Australia
Populated places established in 1834
Port cities in New South Wales | [
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|
234279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loki%20Entertainment | Loki Entertainment | Loki Entertainment Software, Inc. was an American video game developer based in Tustin, California, that ported several video games from Microsoft Windows to Linux. It took its name from the Norse deity Loki. Although successful in its goal of bringing games to the Linux platform, the company folded in January 2002 after filing for bankruptcy.
History
Loki Software was founded on November 9, 1998, by Scott Draeker, a former lawyer who became interested in porting games to Linux after being introduced to the system through his work as a software licensing attorney. By December of that year Loki had gained the rights to produce a port of Activision's then-upcoming strategy game Civilization: Call to Power for Linux. This was to become Loki's first actual product, with the game hitting stores in May 1999. From there they gained contracts to port many other titles, such as Myth II: Soulblighter, Railroad Tycoon II, and Eric's Ultimate Solitaire. Throughout the next two years up until its eventual closure the company would continue to bring more games to Linux. After facing financial diificulties, Loki filed for bankruptcy in August 2001. The majority of the staff was laid off in January 2002 and Loki formally closed on January 31.
Legacy
Loki Software, although a commercial failure, is credited with the birth of the modern Linux game industry. Loki developed several free software tools, such as the Loki installer (also known as Loki Setup), and supported the development of the Simple DirectMedia Layer. They also started the OpenAL audio library project (now being run by Creative Technology and Apple Inc.) and with id Software wrote GtkRadiant. These are still often credited as being the cornerstones of Linux game development. They also worked on and extended several already developed tools, such as GCC and GDB. The book Programming Linux Games written in the early 2000s by Loki intern John R. Hall explains the major APIs Loki used to produce Linux games.
Loki also offered a start to many figures still in the Linux and gaming industries. Ryan C. Gordon (also known as icculus), a former employee of Loki, has been responsible for the Linux and Mac OS X ports of many commercial games after the demise of the company. Mike Phillips would help start Linux Game Publishing, which was itself founded in response to Loki's closure. Nicholas Vining would go on to do some porting work and is currently the lead programmer at Gaslamp Games, which would later release their game Dungeons of Dredmor for Linux. Sam Lantinga would also later join Blizzard Entertainment and found Galaxy Gameworks to commercially support the Simple DirectMedia Layer; he would later also join Valve's Linux team.
Although many Loki ports are unsupported since Loki's closure, Linux Game Publishing managed to pick up the rights to MindRover and offer a supported and updated version of the game's Linux port. id Software picked up the support for the Linux release of Quake III Arena, hiring Timothee Besset to maintain it; he would later also be responsible for porting some of id's later products to Linux. Running with Scissors, to celebrate the release of the movie Postal in 2007 published a multiplayer only version of Postal 2, without the single player campaign. In 2004 the source header files for Rune were released freely by Human Head Studios. But so far no one has updated the Linux version of Rune, though the company stated that a game sequel is in the making, and delayed the development of Prey 2.
Software contractor Frank C. Earl claimed in 2010 to hold the porting rights for the entire Myth series and says he will port it to Linux. Kevin Bentley worked in 2009 on a Descent 3 patch for Linux, which was re-released in 2014 on Steam by Rebecca Heineman, who got blessed source code access. On October 16, 2011, Project Magma released a new version of Myth II: Soulblighter for Linux.
Games published
In addition to the published titles, there is also an unfinished port of Deus Ex. The later update of Deus Ex for Microsoft Windows features the OpenGL driver for the Unreal engine from Loki Software's Linux port. This makes the title more compatible with Wine.
See also
Linux Game Publishing
Steam
Ryan C. Gordon
Linux gaming
References
External links
Official website
Icculus.org Ryan Gordon's site, hosting many Loki projects as well as other Linux gaming resources
Activision and Loki Partner to Bring Games to Linux Linux PR, October 11, 1999
Linux.com - Loki: In The Trenches (Interview with Loki Software Staff)
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2001
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Linux companies
Linux game porters
Video game companies established in 1998
Video game companies disestablished in 2002
Defunct video game companies of the United States | [
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|
234280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughing%20Gas%20%28novel%29 | Laughing Gas (novel) | Laughing Gas is a comic novel by P. G. Wodehouse, first published in the United Kingdom on 25 September 1936 by Herbert Jenkins, London, and in the United States on 19 November 1936 by Doubleday, Doran, New York. Written in first person narrative, the story is set in Hollywood in the early 1930s (the Depression is mentioned twice) and is, compared to, say, Budd Schulberg's What Makes Sammy Run? (1941), a light-hearted and exclusively humorous look at the film industry and in particular at child stars. Both Schulberg and Wodehouse describe the methods of all those would-be screenwriters and actors hunting for jobs, but Wodehouse's depiction is not at all serious or critical.
Plot summary
Drone Reginald ("Reggie") Swithin, narrator of the story, is the third Earl of Havershot. He is 28, unmarried, and has a face like a gorilla. As the new head of his family, he is assigned a delicate task by his Aunt Clara and by Plimsoll, the family lawyer: He is to go to Hollywood and look for Aunt Clara's son, his cousin Eggy, who seems to have gotten himself into trouble, and bring him back home. In particular, Reggie is to prevent Eggy from getting engaged, let alone married, to some American gold-digger who would undoubtedly be far beneath the titled family.
On the train from Chicago to Los Angeles, Reggie meets the famous film actress April June, and immediately falls head over heels in love with her. Once in Hollywood, he completely forgets to look for Eggy until, one night, he bumps into him at a party that April June is giving. What is more, Eggy is accompanied by Ann Bannister, Reggie's ex-fiancée, who is now engaged to Eggy. According to Eggy, Ann wants to reform him: make him drink less, and get a job as well. As the host of the party, the seemingly wonderful, tender, and caring April June ("Money and fame mean nothing to me, Lord Havershot") is difficult to get hold of. When he finally succeeds in doing so and is just about to propose to her, Reggie's tooth—in the nick of time, as it turns out later—starts hurting so badly that he has to postpone all his plans, hurry home, and make an appointment with a dentist.
On the following afternoon, he is in I.J. Zizzbaum's waiting-room when he gets to know Joey Cooley, the 12-year-old movie star and darling of all American mothers. Joey is also going to have a tooth out, but Joey is going to be operated on by B.K. Burwash, Zizzbaum's rival—they have a common waiting-room—exactly at the same time as Reggie. Presently reporters storm the dentist's practice to take photos of Joey and interview him.
Both Reggie and Joey get laughing gas as anaesthetic. When Reggie regains consciousness he finds himself spoken to by B.K. Burwash, and also in the latter's chair. He concludes that there has been a switch in the fourth dimension: Joey's and his souls have changed bodies. Before he can clear up the situation, he is shoved into a car and brought "home".
Joey's home in Hollywood—originally he is from Chillicothe, Ohio, where his mother lives—is the Brinkmeyer estate, a kind of golden cage for little Joey. He has been informally adopted by T.P. Brinkmeyer, Hollywood film mogul, and his middle-aged sister, Miss Brinkmeyer, who turns out to be particularly nasty. Gradually, Reggie, in Joey's body, gets to know the latter's daily practice, which he finds horrifying: He has been put on a strict diet consisting mainly of dried prunes—but now he has the appetite of a 12-year-old! He must not leave the grounds except on official occasions, and he is not given any pocket money. He finds out very quickly that he can beat Miss Brinkmeyer's strict regime by climbing out of his bedroom window onto the roof of an outbuilding. He finds some confederates among the Brinkmeyers' staff (all of whom are aspiring actors who want to attract Brinkmeyer's attention by playing their servant roles in real life): The gardener readily supplies him with Mexican horned toads and some frogs (to hide in Miss Brinkmeyer's room and clothes); and Chaffinch, the butler, even suggests to him that he may be able to sell Joey's tooth to the press (who in turn might be willing to give it to a souvenir hunter) at the considerable price of $5,000. Desperate for some cash, Reggie agrees but is cheated out of the money by Chaffinch, who takes the money and runs off to New York. Moreover, Reggie is very disturbed when he learns that Ann Bannister has been hired to serve as girl Friday for Joey. For example, her duties include bathing the boy, which Reggie categorically refuses.
In the meantime, Joey, in Reggie's body, embarks on a tour of vengeance: He has sworn to (literally) "poke" all the unpleasant people around him "in the snoot", starting with his press agent and the director of a recent film of his. He also enters the Brinkmeyer estate and pushes Miss Brinkmeyer into the swimming pool. Wherever he goes, eyewitnesses describe him as looking like a gorilla. (Fair-haired Reggie Havershot admits earlier on in the novel that he is not particularly handsome.)
On the other hand, wherever Eggy (whose complexion, especially in the morning, is described as "greenish") meets Reggie in Joey's body, he thinks his drinking habits have got the better of him. He starts to panic and joins the temperance movement—the Temple of the New Dawn, to be precise --, eventually becoming engaged to one of its promoters, Mabel Prescott. (All this happens in the course of only two days.) One of the meetings between Reggie/Joey and Eggy is when Eggy is hired as the kid's elocution teacher.
Reggie/Joey is also harassed by two other child film stars who live in the neighbourhood, but at least he discovers that he can outrun them. Also, he is kidnapped, but the whole abduction turns out to be a publicity stunt he has not been warned of.
While Reggie's soul is still inside Joey's body Reggie also realises that his beloved April June is a "pill" and a scheming and selfish little beast jealous of everybody else's success. When they are alone at her place, she even kicks him with her foot because by his turning up he has disturbed an interview for some magazine or newspaper. On the next morning his career abruptly comes to an end when it is in all the papers that he drank liquor and smoked.
At more or less the same time, a coincidence ends Reggie's ordeal: Just as he is walking along a street near where he has been held prisoner, Joey/Reggie comes along driving a police motorcycle and hitting the kid. After a brief period of being unconscious, they both come to again, to discover that they have switched bodies again. They both have to flee the city immediately: Joey because he wants to escape the Brinkmeyers' wrath; and Reggie because he does not want to be caught by the police for what Joey did while walking around in his body (poking several people in the nose, stealing a police motorcycle and similar misdemeanours). Ann Bannister has organised a car that will bring Joey back to his mother in Ohio, and Reggie readily agrees to accompany him. He also makes up with Ann, and they are going to be married.
Publication history
Laughing Gas was serialised in This Week magazine (US) in six issues between 24 March and 28 April 1935, illustrated by Wallace Morgan. It was also serialised in Pearson's Magazine (UK), between August and October 1935.
The story was included in The Hollywood Omnibus, a collection of Wodehouse stories published in May 1985 by Hutchinson, London.
See also
F. Anstey's novel Vice Versa (1882)
References
Notes
Sources
External links
The Russian Wodehouse Society's page, with a list of characters
Fiction about body swapping
Novels by P. G. Wodehouse
1936 British novels
Hollywood novels
Herbert Jenkins books
Publicity stunts in fiction
British comedy novels | [
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|
234282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus%20Hirschfeld | Magnus Hirschfeld | Magnus Hirschfeld (14 May 1868 – 14 May 1935) was a German physician and sexologist educated primarily in Germany; he based his practice in Berlin-Charlottenburg during the Weimar period. An outspoken advocate for sexual minorities, Hirschfeld founded the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee and World League for Sexual Reform. Historian Dustin Goltz characterized the committee as having carried out "the first advocacy for homosexual and transgender rights". "Hirschfeld's radical ideas changed the way Germans thought about sexuality." Hirschfeld was targeted by Nazis for being Jewish and gay; he was beaten by völkisch activists in 1920, and in 1933 his Institut für Sexualwissenschaft was sacked and had its books burned by Nazis. He was forced into exile in France, where he died in 1935.
Early life
Hirschfeld was born in Kolberg in Pomerania (since 1945 Kołobrzeg, Poland), in an Ashkenazi Jewish family, the son of a highly regarded physician and Senior Medical Officer Hermann Hirschfeld. As a youth he attended Kolberg Cathedral School which at the time was a Protestant school. In 1887–1888, he studied philosophy and philology in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), and then from 1888 to 1892 medicine in Strasbourg, Munich, Heidelberg, and Berlin. In 1892, he earned his medical degree.
After his studies, he traveled through the United States for eight months, visiting the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and living from the proceeds of his writing for German journals. During his time in Chicago, Hirschfeld became involved with the homosexual subculture in that city. Struck by the essential similarities between the homosexual subcultures of Chicago and Berlin, Hirschfeld first developed his theory about the universality of homosexuality around the world, as he researched in books and newspaper articles about the existence of gay subcultures in Rio de Janeiro, Tangier, and Tokyo. Then he started a naturopathic practice in Magdeburg; in 1896, he moved his practice to Berlin-Charlottenburg.
Hirschfeld became interested in gay rights because many of his gay patients took their own lives. In the German language, the word for suicide is Selbstmord ("self-murder"), which carried more judgmental and condemnatory connotations than its English language equivalent, making the subject of suicide a taboo in 19th century Germany.
In particular, Hirschfeld mentioned as a reason for his gay rights activism, the story of one of his patients: a young army officer suffering from depression, who killed himself in 1896, leaving behind a suicide note saying, despite his best efforts, he could not end his desires for other men, and so had ended his life out of his guilt and shame. In his suicide note, the officer wrote that he lacked the "strength" to tell his parents the "truth", and spoke of his shame of "that which nearly strangled my heart". The officer could not even bring himself to use the word "homosexuality", which he instead conspicuously referred to as "that" in his note. However, the officer mentioned at the end of his suicide note: "The thought that you [Hirschfeld] could contribute a future when the German fatherland will think of us in more just terms sweetens the hour of my death." Hirschfeld had been treating the officer for depression in 1895–1896, and the use of the term "us" led to speculation that a relationship existed between the two. However, the officer's use of Sie, the formal German word for you, instead of the informal Du, suggests Hirschfeld's relationship with his patient was strictly professional.
At the same time, Hirschfeld was greatly affected by the trial of Oscar Wilde, which he often referred to in his writings. Hirschfeld was struck by the number of his gay patients who had Suizidalnarben ("scars left by suicide attempts"), and often found himself trying to give his patients a reason to live.
Sexual rights activism
Scientific-Humanitarian Committee
Magnus Hirschfeld found a balance between practicing medicine and writing about his findings. Between 1 May–15 October 1896, the Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung ("Great Industrial Exhibition of Berlin") took place, which featured nine "human zoos" where people from Germany's colonies in New Guinea and Africa were put on display for the visitors to gawk at. Such exhibitions of colonial peoples were common at industrial fairs, and later after Qingdao, the Mariana Islands, and the Caroline Islands became part of the German empire, Chinese, Chamorros, and Micronesians joined the Africans and New Guineans displayed in the "human zoos". Hirschfeld, who was keenly interested in sexuality in other cultures, visited the Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung and subsequently other exhibitions to inquire of the people in the "human zoos" via interpreters about the status of sexuality in their cultures. It was in 1896, after talking to the people displayed in the "human zoos" at the Große Berliner Gewerbeausstellung, that Hirschfeld began writing what became his 1914 book Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes ("The Homosexuality of Men and Women"), an attempt to comprehensively survey homosexuality around the world, as part of an effort to prove that homosexuality occurred in every culture.
After several years as a general practitioner in Magdeburg, in 1896 he issued a pamphlet, Sappho and Socrates, on homosexual love (under the pseudonym Th. Ramien). In 1897, Hirschfeld founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee with the publisher Max Spohr (1850–1905), the lawyer Eduard Oberg (1858–1917), and the writer Franz Joseph von Bülow (1861–1915). The group aimed to undertake research to defend the rights of homosexuals and to repeal Paragraph 175, the section of the German penal code that, since 1871, had criminalized homosexuality. They argued that the law encouraged blackmail. The motto of the Committee, "Justice through science", reflected Hirschfeld's belief that a better scientific understanding of homosexuality would eliminate social hostility toward homosexuals.
Within the group, some of the members rejected Hirschfeld's (and Ulrichs's) view that male homosexuals are, by nature, effeminate. Benedict Friedlaender and some others left the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee and formed another group, the "Bund für männliche Kultur" or Union for Male Culture, which did not exist long. It argued that male-male love is an aspect of virile manliness, rather than a special condition.
Under Hirschfeld's leadership, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee gathered 6000 signatures from prominent Germans on a petition to overturn Paragraph 175. Signatories included Albert Einstein, Hermann Hesse, Käthe Kollwitz, Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann, Rainer Maria Rilke, August Bebel, Max Brod, Karl Kautsky, Stefan Zweig, Gerhart Hauptmann, Martin Buber, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, and Eduard Bernstein.
The bill was brought before the Reichstag in 1898, but was supported only by a minority from the Social Democratic Party of Germany. August Bebel, a friend of Hirschfeld from his university days, agreed to sponsor the attempt to repeal Paragraph 175. Hirschfeld considered what would, in a later era, be described as "outing": forcing out of the closet some of the prominent and secretly homosexual lawmakers who had remained silent on the bill. He arranged for the bill to be reintroduced and, in the 1920s, it made some progress until the takeover of the Nazi Party ended all hope for any such reform.
As part of his efforts to counter popular prejudice, Hirschfeld spoke out about the taboo subject of suicide and was the first to present statistical evidence that homosexuals were more likely to commit suicide or attempt suicide than heterosexuals. Hirschfeld prepared questionnaires that gay men could answer anonymously about homosexuality and suicide. Collating his results, Hirschfeld estimated that 3 out of every 100 gays committed suicide every year, that a quarter of gays had attempted suicide at some point in their lives and that the other three-quarters had had suicidal thoughts at some point. He used his evidence to argue that, under current social conditions in Germany, life was literally unbearable for homosexuals.
A figure frequently mentioned by Hirschfeld to illustrate the "hell experienced by homosexuals" was Oscar Wilde, who was a well-known author in Germany, and whose trials in 1895 had been extensively covered by the German press. Hirschfeld visited Cambridge University in 1905 to meet Wilde's son, Vyvyan Holland, who had changed his surname to avoid being associated with his father. Hirschfeld noted "the name Wilde" has, since his trial, sounded like "an indecent word, which causes homosexuals to blush with shame, women to avert their eyes, and normal men to be outraged". During his visit to Britain, Hirschfeld was invited to a secret ceremony in the English countryside where a "group of beautiful, young, male students" from Cambridge gathered together wearing Wilde's prison number, C33, as a way of symbolically linking his fate to theirs, to read out aloud Wilde's poem The Ballad of Reading Gaol. Hirschfeld found the reading of The Ballad of Reading Gaol to be "markerschütternd" (shaken to the core of one's being, i.e. something that is emotionally devastating), going on to write that the poem reading was "the most earth-shattering outcry that has ever been voiced by a downtrodden soul about its own torture and that of humanity". By the end of the reading of The Ballad of Reading Gaol, Hirshfeld felt "quiet joy" as he was convinced that, despite the way that Wilde's life had been ruined, something good would eventually come of it.
Feminism
In 1905, Hirschfeld joined the Bund für Mutterschutz (League for the Protection of Mothers), the feminist organization founded by Helene Stöcker. He campaigned for the decriminalisation of abortion, and against policies that banned female teachers and civil servants from marrying or having children. Both Hirschfeld and Stöcker believed that there was a close connection between the causes of gay rights and women's rights, and Stöcker was much involved in the campaign to repeal Paragraph 175 while Hirschfeld campaigned for the repeal of Paragraph 218, which had banned abortion. From 1909 to 1912, Stöcker, Hirschfeld, Hedwig Dohm, and others successfully campaigned against an extension to Paragraph 175 which would have criminalised female homosexuality.
In 1906, Hirschfeld was asked as a doctor to examine a prisoner in Neumünster to see if he was suffering from "severe nervous disturbances caused by a combination of malaria, blackwater fever, and congenital sexual anomaly". The man, a former soldier and a veteran of what Hirschfeld called the "Hereroaufstand" ("Herero revolt") in German Southwest Africa (modern Namibia) appeared to be suffering from what would now be considered post-traumatic stress disorder, saying that he had done terrible things in Southwest Africa, and could no longer live with himself. In 1904, the Herero and Namaqua peoples who had been steadily pushed off their land to make way for German settlers, had revolted, causing Kaiser Wilhelm II to dispatch General Lothar von Trotha to wage a "war of annihilation" to exterminate the Herero and Namaqua in what has since become known as the Herero and Namaqua genocide. The genocide came to widespread attention when the SPD leader August Bebel criticized the government on the floor of the Reichstag, saying the government did not have the right to exterminate the Herero just because they were black. Hirschfeld did not mention his diagnosis of the prisoner, nor he did mention in detail the source of the prisoner's guilt about his actions in Southwest Africa; the German scholar Heike Bauer criticized him for his seeming unwillingness to see the connection between the Herero genocide and the prisoner's guilt, which had caused him to engage in a petty crime wave.
Hirschfeld's position, that homosexuality was normal and natural, made him a highly controversial figure at the time, involving him in vigorous debates with other academics, who regarded homosexuality as unnatural and wrong. One of Hirschfeld's leading critics was Austrian Baron Christian von Ehrenfels, who advocated radical changes to society and sexuality to combat the supposed "Yellow Peril", and saw Hirschfeld's theories as a challenge to his view of sexuality. Ehrenfels argued that there were a few "biologically degenerate" homosexuals who lured otherwise "healthy boys" into their lifestyle, making homosexuality into a choice and a wrong one at that time.
African anthropology
At the same time, Hirschfeld became involved in a debate with a number of anthropologists about the supposed existence of the Hottentottenschürze ("Hottentot apron"), namely the belief that the Khoikhoi (known to Westerners as Hottentots) women of southern Africa had abnormally enlarged labia, which made them inclined toward lesbianism. Hirschfeld argued there was no evidence that the Khoikhoi women had abnormally large labia, whose supposed existence had fascinated so many Western anthropologists at the time, and that, other than being black, the bodies of Khoikhoi women were no different from German women. One Khoikoi woman, Sarah Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", did have relatively large buttocks and labia, compared to Northern European women, and had been exhibited at a freak show in Europe in the early 19th century, which was the origin of this belief about the Khoikhoi women. Hirschfeld wrote: "The differences appear minimal compared to what is shared" between Khoikhoi and German women. Turning the argument of the anthropologists on their head, Hirschfeld argued that, if same-sex relationships were common among Khoikhoi women, and if the bodies of Khoikhoi women were essentially the same as Western women, then Western women must have the same tendencies. Hirschfeld's theories about a spectrum of sexuality existing in all of the world's cultures implicitly undercut the binary theories about the differences between various races that was the basis of the claim of white supremacy. However, Bauer wrote that Hirschfeld's theories about the universality of homosexuality paid little attention to cultural contexts, and criticized him for his remarks that Hausa women in Nigeria were well known for their lesbian tendencies and would have been executed for their sapphic acts before British rule, as assuming that imperialism was always good for the colonized.
Eulenburg affair
Hirschfeld played a prominent role in the Harden–Eulenburg affair of 1906–09, which became the most widely publicized sex scandal in Imperial Germany. During the libel trial in 1907, when General Kuno von Moltke sued the journalist Maximilian Harden, after the latter had run an article accusing Moltke of having a homosexual relationship with the politically powerful Prince Philipp von Eulenburg, who was the Kaiser's best friend, Hirschfeld testified for Harden. In his role as an expert witness, Hirschfeld testified that Moltke was gay and, thus, what Harden had written was true. Hirschfeld – who wanted to make homosexuality legal in Germany – believed that proving Army officers like Moltke were gay would help his case for legalization. He also testified that he believed there was nothing wrong with Moltke.
Most notably, Hirschfeld testified that "homosexuality was part of the plan of nature and creation just like normal love." Hirschfeld's testimony caused outrage all over Germany. The Vossische Zeitung newspaper condemned Hirschfeld in an editorial as "a freak who acted for freaks in the name of pseudoscience". The Mūnchener Neuesten Nachrichten newspaper declared in an editorial: "Dr. Hirschfeld makes public propaganda under the cover of science, which does nothing but poison our people. Real science should fight against this!". A notable witness at the trial was Lilly von Elbe, former wife of Moltke, who testified that her husband had only made love to her twice in their entire marriage. Elbe spoke with remarkable openness for the period of her sexual desires and her frustration with a husband who was only interested in having sex with Eulenburg. Elbe's testimony was marked by moments of low comedy when it emerged that she had taken to attacking Moltke with a frying pan in vain attempts to make him have sex with her. The fact that General von Moltke was unable to defend himself from his wife's attacks was taken as proof that he was deficient in his masculinity, which many saw as confirming his homosexuality. At the time, the subject of female sexuality was taboo, and Elbe's testimony was very controversial, with many saying that Elbe must, in some way, be mentally ill because of her willingness to acknowledge her sexuality. At the time, it was generally believed that women should be "chaste" and "pure", and not have any sort of sexuality at all. Letters to the newspapers at the time, from both men and women, overwhelmingly condemned Elbe for her "disgusting" testimony concerning her sexuality. As an expert witness, Hirschfeld also testified that female sexuality was natural, and Elbe was just a normal woman who was in no way mentally ill. After the jury ruled in favor of Harden, Judge Hugo Isenbiel was enraged by the jury's decision, which he saw as expressing approval for Hirschfeld. He overturned the verdict under the grounds that homosexuals "have the morals of dogs", and insisted that this verdict could not be allowed to stand.
After the verdict was overturned, a second trial found Harden guilty of libel. At the second trial, Hirschfeld again testified as an expert witness, but this time, he was much less certain than he had been at the first trial about Moltke's homosexuality. Hirschfeld testified that Moltke and Eulenburg had an "intimate" friendship that was homoerotic in nature but not sexual, as he had testified at the first trial. Hirschfeld also testified that, though he still believed female sexuality was normal, Elbe was suffering from hysteria caused by a lack of sex, and so the court should discount her stories about a sexual relationship between Moltke and Eulenburg. Hirschfeld had been threatened by the Prussian government with having his medical license revoked if he testified as an expert witness again along the same lines that he had at the first trial, and possibly prosecuted for violating Paragraph 175. The trial was a libel suit against Harden by Moltke, but much of the testimony had concerned Eulenburg, whose status as the best friend of Wilhelm II meant that the scandal was threatening to involve the Kaiser. Moreover, far from precipitating increased tolerance as Hirschfeld had expected, the scandal led to a major homophobic and anti-Semitic backlash, and Hirschfeld's biographer Elena Mancini speculated that Hirschfeld wanted to bring to an end an affair that was hindering rather helping the cause for gay rights.
Because Eulenburg was a prominent anti-Semite and Hirschfeld was a Jew, during the affair, the völkisch movement came out in support of Eulenburg, whom they portrayed as an Aryan heterosexual, framed by false allegations of homosexuality by Hirschfeld and Harden. Various völkisch leaders, most notably the radical anti-Semitic journalist Theodor Fritsch, used the Eulenburg affair as a chance to "settle the accounts" with the Jews. As a gay Jew, Hirschfeld was relentlessly vilified by the völkisch newspapers. Outside Hirschfeld's house in Berlin, posters were affixed by völkisch activists, which read "Dr. Hirschfeld A Public Danger: The Jews are Our Undoing!". In Nazi Germany, the official interpretation of the Eulenburg affair was that Eulenburg was a straight Aryan whose career was destroyed by false claims of being gay by Jews like Hirschfeld. After the scandal had ended, Hirschfeld concluded that, far from helping the gay rights movement as he had hoped, the ensuing backlash set the movement back. The conclusion drawn by the German government was the opposite of the one that Hirschfeld wanted; the fact that prominent men like General von Moltke and Eulenburg were gay did not lead the government to repeal Paragraph 175 as Hirschfeld had hoped and, instead, the government decided that Paragraph 175 was being enforced with insufficient vigor, leading to a crackdown on homosexuals that was unprecedented and would not be exceeded until the Nazi era.
World War I
In 1914, Hirschfeld was swept up by the national enthusiasm for the Burgfrieden ("Peace within a castle under siege") as the sense of national solidarity was known where almost all Germans rallied to the Fatherland. Initially pro-war, Hirschfeld started to turn against the war in 1915, moving toward a pacifist position. In his 1915 pamphlet, Warum Hassen uns die Völker? ("Why do other nations hate us?"), Hirschfeld answered his own question by arguing that it was the greatness of Germany that excited envy from other nations, especially Great Britain, and so had supposedly caused them to come together to destroy the Reich. Hirschfeld accused Britain of starting the war in 1914 "out of envy at the development and size of the German Empire". Warum Hassen uns die Völker? was characterized by a chauvinist and ultra-nationalist tone, together with a rather crass Anglophobia that has often embarrassed Hirschfeld's admirers today such as Charlotte Wolff, who called the pamphlet a "perversion of the values which Hirschfeld had always stood for".
As a Jewish homosexual, Hirschfeld was acutely aware that many Germans did not consider him to be a "proper" German, or even a German at all; so, he reasoned that taking an ultra-patriotic stance might break down prejudices by showing that German Jews and/or homosexuals could also be good, patriotic Germans, rallying to the cry of the Fatherland. By 1916, Hirschfeld was writing pacifist pamphlets, calling for an immediate end to the war. In his 1916 pamphlet Kriegspsychologisches ("The Psychology of War"), Hirschfeld was far more critical of the war than he had been in 1915, emphasizing the suffering and trauma caused by it. He also expressed the opinion that nobody wanted to take responsibility for the war because its horrors were "superhuman in size". He declared that "it is not enough that the war ends with peace; it must end with reconciliation". In late 1918, Hirschfeld together with his sister, Franziska Mann, co-wrote a pamphlet Was jede Frau vom Wahlrecht wissen muß!" ("What every woman needs to know about the right to vote!") hailing the November Revolution for granting German women the right to vote and announced the "eyes of the world are now resting on German women".
Interwar period
In 1920, Hirschfeld was very badly beaten by a group of völkisch activists who attacked him on the street; he was initially declared dead when the police arrived. In 1921, Hirschfeld organised the First Congress for Sexual Reform, which led to the formation of the World League for Sexual Reform. Congresses were held in Copenhagen (1928), London (1929), Vienna (1930), and Brno (1932).
Hirschfeld was both quoted and caricatured in the press as a vociferous expert on sexual matters; during his 1931 tour of the United States, the Hearst newspaper chain dubbed him "the Einstein of Sex". He identified as a campaigner and a scientist, investigating and cataloging many varieties of sexuality, not just homosexuality. He developed a system which categorised 64 possible types of sexual intermediary, ranging from masculine, heterosexual male to feminine, homosexual male, including those he described under the term transvestite (Ger. Transvestit), which he coined in 1910, and those he described under the term transsexuals, a term he coined in 1923. He also made a distinction between transsexualism and intersexuality.
At this time, Hirschfeld and the Institute for Sexual Sciences issued a number of transvestite passes to trans people in order to prevent them from being harassed by the police.
Anders als die Andern
Hirschfeld co-wrote and acted in the 1919 film Anders als die Andern ("Different From the Others"), in which Conrad Veidt played one of the first homosexual characters ever written for cinema. The film had a specific gay rights law reform agenda; after Veidt's character is blackmailed by a male prostitute, he eventually comes out rather than continuing to make the blackmail payments. His career is destroyed and he is driven to suicide.
Hirschfeld played himself in Anders als die Andern, where the title cards have him say: "The persecution of homosexuals belongs to the same sad chapter of history in which the persecutions of witches and heretics is inscribed... Only with the French Revolution did a complete change come about. Everywhere where the Code Napoléon was introduced, the laws against homosexuals were repealed, for they were considered a violation of the rights of the individual... In Germany, however, despite more than fifty years of scientific research, legal discrimination against homosexuals continues unabated... May justice soon prevail over injustice in this area, science conquer superstition, love achieve victory over hatred!"
In May 1919, when the film premiered in Berlin, the First World War was still a very fresh memory and German conservatives, who already hated Hirschfeld, seized upon his Francophile speech in the film praising France for legalizing homosexuality in 1792 as evidence that gay rights were "un-German".
At the end of the film, when the protagonist Paul Körner commits suicide, his lover Kurt is planning on killing himself, when Hirschfeld appears to tell him: "If you want to honor the memory of your dead friend, you must not take your own life, but instead preserve it to change the prejudices whose victim – one of the countless many – this dead man was. That is the task of the living I assign you. Just as Zola struggled on behalf of a man who innocently languished in prison, what matters now is to restore honor and justice to the many thousands before us, with us, and after us. Through knowledge to justice!" The reference to Émile Zola's role in the Dreyfus affair was intended to draw a parallel between homophobia and anti-Semitism, while Hirschfeld's repeated use of the word "us" was an implied admission of his own homosexuality.
The anti-suicide message of Anders als die Andern reflected Hirschfeld's interest in the subject of the high suicide rate among homosexuals, and was intended to give hope to gay audiences. The film ends with Hirschfeld opening a copy of the penal code of the Reich and striking out Paragraph 175 with a giant X.
Institut für Sexualwissenschaft
Under the more liberal atmosphere of the newly founded Weimar Republic, Hirschfeld purchased a villa not far from the Reichstag building in Berlin for his new Institut für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute of Sexual Research), which opened on 6 July 1919. In Germany, the Reich government made laws, but the Länder governments enforced the laws, meaning it was up to the Länder governments to enforce Paragraph 175. Until the November Revolution of 1918, Prussia had a three-class voting system that effectively disfranchised most ordinary people, and allowed the Junkers to dominate Prussia. After the November Revolution, universal suffrage came to Prussia, which become a stronghold of the Social Democrats. The SPD believed in repealing Paragraph 175, and the Social Democratic Prussian government headed by Otto Braun ordered the Prussian police not to enforce Paragraph 175, making Prussia into a haven for homosexuals all over Germany.
The Institute housed Hirschfeld's immense archives and library on sexuality and provided educational services and medical consultations; the clinical staff included psychiatrists Felix Abraham and Arthur Kronfeld, gynecologist Ludwig Levy-Lenz, dermatologist and endocrinologist Bernhard Schapiro, and dermatologist Friedrich Wertheim. The Institute also housed the Museum of Sex, an educational resource for the public, which is reported to have been visited by school classes. Hirschfeld himself lived at the Institution on the second floor with his lover, Karl Giese, together with his sister Recha Tobias (1857–1942). Giese and Hirschfeld were a well-known couple in the gay scene in Berlin where Hirschfeld was popularly known as "Tante Magnesia". Tante ("aunt") was a German slang expression for a gay man but did not mean, as some claim, that Hirschfeld himself cross-dressed.
People from around Europe and beyond came to the Institute to gain a clearer understanding of their sexuality. Christopher Isherwood writes about his and W. H. Auden's visit in his book Christopher and His Kind; they were calling on Francis Turville-Petre, a friend of Isherwood's who was an active member of the Scientific Humanitarian Committee. Other celebrated visitors included German novelist and playwright Gerhart Hauptmann, German artist Christian Schad, French writers René Crevel and André Gide, Russian director Sergei Eisenstein, and American poet Elsa Gidlow.
In addition, a number of noted individuals lived for longer or shorter periods of time in the various rooms available for rent or as free accommodations in the Institute complex. Among the residents were Isherwood and Turville-Petre; literary critic and philosopher Walter Benjamin; actress and dancer Anita Berber; Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch; Willi Münzenberg, a member of the German Parliament and a press officer for the Communist Party of Germany; Dörchen Richter, one of the first transgender patients to receive sex reassignment surgery at the Institute, and Lili Elbe. Richter had been born Rudolf Richter and being arrested for cross-dressing had come to the institute for help. Hirschfeld had coined the term transvestite in 1910 to describe what today would be called transgender people, and the institution became a haven for transgender people, where Hirschfeld offered them shelter from abuse, performed surgeries, and gave otherwise unemployable transgender people jobs, albeit of a menial type, mostly as "maids".
The Institute and Hirschfeld's work are depicted in Rosa von Praunheim's feature film Der Einstein des Sex (The Einstein of Sex, Germany, 1999; English subtitled version available). Although inspired by Hirschfeld's life, the film is fictional. It contains invented characters and incidents and attributes motives and sentiments to Hirschfeld and others on the basis of little or no historical evidence. Hirschfeld biographer Ralf Dose notes, for instance, that "the figure of 'Dorchen' in Rosa von Praunheim's film The Einstein of Sex is complete fiction."
World tour
In March 1930, the Social Democratic chancellor Hermann Müller was overthrown by the intrigues of General Kurt von Schleicher. "Presidential" governments, responsible only to the President Paul von Hindenburg, pushed German politics in a more right-wing, authoritarian direction. In 1929, the Müller government had come very close to repealing Paragraph 175, when the Reichstag justice committee voted to repeal Paragraph 175. However, the Müller government fell before it could submit the repeal motion to the floor of the Reichstag. Under the rule of Chancellor Heinrich Brüning and his successor, Franz von Papen, the state became increasingly hostile toward gay rights campaigners like Hirschfeld, who began to spend more time abroad. Quite apart from the increased homophobia, Hirschfeld also became involved in a bitter debate within the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, as the repeal bill, championed by Müller also made homosexual prostitution illegal, which badly divided the committee. Hirschfeld had always argued that "what is natural cannot be immoral" and, since homosexuality was, in his view natural, it should be legal. Connecting the question of the legality of homosexuality to the legality of prostitution was a blurring of the issue, since these were different matters. Brüning, a conservative Catholic on the right-wing of the Zentrum party, who replaced Müller in March 1930, was openly hostile toward gay rights and the fall of Müller ended the possibility of repealing Paragraph 175.
America and a "straight turn"
In 1930, Hirschfeld predicted that there would be no future for people like himself in Germany, and he would have to move abroad. In November 1930, Hirschfeld arrived in New York, ostensibly on a speaking tour about sex, but in fact to see if it was possible for him to settle in the United States. Significantly, in his speeches on this American tour, Hirschfeld, when speaking in German, called for the legalization of homosexuality, but when speaking in English did not mention the subject of homosexuality, instead urging Americans to be more open-minded about heterosexual sex. The New York Times described Hirschfeld as having come to America to "study the marriage question", while the German language New Yorker Volkszeitung newspaper described Hirschfeld as wanting to "discuss love's natural turns" – the phrase "love's natural turns" was Hirschfeld's way of presenting his theory that there was a wide spectrum of human sexuality, all of which were "natural". Hirschfeld realized that most Americans did not want to hear about his theory of homosexuality as natural. Aware of a strong xenophobic tendency in the United States, where foreigners seen as trouble-makers were unwelcome, Hirschfeld tailored his message to American tastes.
In an interview with the Germanophile American journalist George Sylvester Viereck for the Milwaukee Sentinel done in late November 1930 that epitomised his "straight turn" in America, Hirschfeld was presented as a sex expert whose knowledge could improve the sex lives of married American couples. The Milwaukee Sentinel was part of the newspaper chain owned by William Randolph Hearst, which initially promoted Hirschfeld in America, reflecting the old adage that "sex sells". In the interview with Viereck, Hirschfeld was presented as the wise "European expert on romantic love" who had come to teach heterosexual American men how to enjoy sex, claiming there was a close connection between sexual and emotional intimacy. Clearly intending to flatter the egos of a heterosexual American male audience, Hirschfeld praised the drive and ambition of American men, who were so successful at business, but stated that American men needed to divert some of their energy to their sex lives. Hirschfeld added, he had seen signs that American men were now starting to develop their "romantic sides" as European men had long-since done, and he had come to the United States to teach American men how to love their women properly. When Viereck objected that the U.S was in the middle of the Great Depression, Hirschfeld replied he was certain that United States would soon recover, thanks to the relentless drive of American men.
At least part of the reason for his "straight turn" was financial; a Dutch firm had been marketing Titus Pearls (Titus-Perlen) pills, which were presented in Europe as a cure for "scattered nerves" and in the United States as an aphrodisiac, and had been using Hirschfeld's endorsement to help with advertising campaign there. Most Americans knew of Hirschfeld only as a "world-known authority on sex" who had endorsed the Titus Pearls pills, which were alleged to improve orgasms for both men and women. Since Hirschfeld's books never sold well, the money he was paid for endorsing the Titus Pearls pills were a major source of income for him, which he was to lose in 1933 when the manufacturer of the pills ceased using his endorsement in order to stay in the German market. In a second interview with Viereck in February 1931, Hirschfeld was presented by him as the "Einstein of Sex", which was again part of the marketing effort of Hirschfeld's "straight turn" in America. At times, Hirschfeld returned to his European message, when he planned to deliver a talk at the bohemian Dill Pickle Club in Chicago on "homosexuality with beautiful revealing pictures", which was banned by the city as indecent. In San Francisco, Hirschfeld visited San Quentin prison to meet Thomas Mooney, whose belief in his innocence he proclaimed to the press afterward, and asked for his release. Unfortunately for Hirschfeld, the Hearst newspapers, which specialized in taking a sensationalist, right-wing, populist line on the news, dug up his statements in Germany calling for gay rights, causing a sudden shift in tone from more-or-less friendly to hostile, effectively ending any chance of Hirschfeld being allowed to stay in the United States.
Asia
After his American tour, Hirschfeld went to Asia in February 1931. Hirschfeld had been invited to Japan by Keizō Dohi, a German-educated, Japanese doctor who spoke fluent German and who worked at Hirschfeld's institute for a time in the 1920s. In Japan, Hirchfeld again tailored his speeches to local tastes, saying nothing about gay rights, and merely argued that a greater frankness about sexual matters would prevent venereal diseases. Hirschfeld sought out an old friend, S. Iwaya, a Japanese doctor who lived in Berlin in 1900–02 and who joined the Scientific-Humanitarian committee during his time there. Iwaya took Hirschfeld to the Meiji-za to introduce him to the Kabuki theater. Hirschfeld become very interested in the Kabuki theater, where the female characters are played by men. One of the Kabuki actors, speaking to Hirschfeld via Iwaya, who served as the translator, was most insistent about asking him if he really looked like a woman on stage and was he effeminate enough as an actor. Hirschfeld noted that no-one in Japan looked down on the Kabuki actors who played female characters; on the contrary, they were popular figures with the public. Hirschfeld also met a number of Japanese feminists, such as Shidzue Katō and Fusae Ichikawa, whom he praised for their efforts to give Japanese women the right to vote. This greatly annoyed the Japanese government, which did not appreciate a foreigner criticizing the denial of female suffrage. Shortly before leaving Tokyo for China, Hirschfeld expressed the hope that his host and translator, Wilhelm Grundert, the director of the German-Japanese Cultural Institute, be made a professor at a German university. Grundert joined the Nazi Party in 1933 and, in 1936, was made a professor of Japanese studies at the University of Hamburg and, in 1938, become the chancellor of Hamburg university, all the while denouncing his former friend Hirschfeld as a "pervert". In Shanghai, Hirschfeld began a relationship with a 23-year-old Chinese man studying sexology, Tao Li, who remained his partner for the rest of his life. Hirschfeld promised Tao that he would introduce him to German culture, saying he wanted to take him to a "Bavarian beer hall" to show him how German men drank. Tao's parents, who knew about their son's sexual orientation and accepted his relationship with Hirschfeld, threw a farewell party when the two left China, with Tao's father expressing the hope that his son would become the "Hirschfeld of China".
After staying in the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia), where Hirschfeld caused an uproar by speech comparing Dutch imperialism to slavery, Hirschfeld arrived in India in September 1931. In Allahabad, Hirschfeld met Jawaharlal Nehru and gave speeches supporting the Indian independence movement, stating "it is one of the biggest injustices in the world that one of the oldest civilized nations... cannot rule independently". However, Hirschfeld's Indian speeches were mainly concerned with attacking the 1927 book Mother India by the white-supremacist American author Katherine Mayo, where she painted an unflattering picture of sexuality in India as brutal and perverted, as "England-friendly propaganda". As Mayo's book had caused much controversy in India, Hirschfeld's speeches defending Indians against her accusations were well received. Hirschfeld, who was fluent in English, made a point of quoting from the articles written by W. T. Stead in The Pall Mall Gazette in 1885, exposing rampant child prostitution in London as proving that sexuality in Britain could also be brutal and perverted: a matter which, he noted, did not interest Mayo in the slightest. Hirschfeld was very interested in the subject of Indian sexuality or, as he called it, "the Indian art of love". Hirschfeld's main guide to India was Girindrasekhar Bose and, in general, Hirschfeld's contacts were limited to the English-speaking Indian elite, as he did not speak Hindi or any of the other Indian languages. While staying in Patna, Hirschfeld drew up a will naming Tao as his main beneficiary and asking Tao, if he should die, to take his ashes to be buried at the Institute for Sexual Research in Berlin.
Africa and the Middle East
In Egypt, where Hirschfeld and Tao traveled to next, arriving in November 1931, Hirschfeld wrote "to the Arabs... homoerotic love practice is something natural and that Mohammad could not change this attitude". In Cairo, Hirschfeld and Tao met the Egyptian feminist leader Huda Sha'arawi-who stopped wearing the Muslim veil in 1923 and popularized going unveiled which, for Hirschfeld, illustrated how gender roles could change. In a rebuke to Western notions of superiority, Hirschfeld wrote "the average ethical and intellectual levels of the Egyptians was equal to that of the European nations". Hirschfeld's visit to the Palestine Mandate (current day Palestine and Israel) marked one of the few times when he publicly referred to his Jewishness saying, as a Jew, it was greatly moving to visit Jerusalem. Hirschfeld was not a religious Jew, stating that Gottesfurcht ("fear of God", i.e. religious belief) was irrational, but that he did feel a certain sentimental attachment to Palestine. In general, Hirschfeld was supportive of Zionism, but expressed concern about what he regarded as certain chauvinist tendencies in the Zionist movement and he deplored the adoption of Hebrew as the lingua franca saying, if only the Jews of Palestine spoke German rather than Hebrew, he would have stayed. In March 1932, Hirschfeld arrived in Athens, where he told journalists that, regardless of whether Hindenburg or Hitler won the presidential election that month, he probably would not return to Germany, as both men were equally homophobic.
Later life and exile
On 20 July 1932, the Chancellor Franz von Papen carried out a coup that deposed the Braun government in Prussia, and appointed himself the Reich commissioner for the state. A conservative Catholic who had long been a vocal critic of homosexuality, Papen ordered the Prussian police to start enforcing Paragraph 175 and to crack down in general on "sexual immorality" in Prussia. The Institut für Sexualwissenschaft remained open, but under Papen's rule, the police began to harass people associated with it.
On 30 January 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor. Less than four months after the Nazis took power, Hirschfeld's Institute was sacked. On the morning of 6 May, a group of university students who belonged to the National Socialist Student League stormed the institution, shouting "Brenne Hirschfeld!" ("Burn Hirschfeld!") and began to beat up its staff and smash up the premises. In the afternoon, the SA came to the institute, carrying out a more systematic attack, removing all volumes from the library and storing them for a book-burning event which was to be held four days later. In the evening, the Berlin police arrived at the institution and announced that it was closed forever.
By the time of the book burning, Hirschfeld had long-since left Germany for a speaking tour that took him around the world; he never returned to Germany. In March 1932, he stopped briefly in Athens, spent several weeks in Vienna and then settled in Zurich, Switzerland, in August 1932. While he was there, he worked on a book which recounted his experiences and observations while he was on his world tour and it was published in 1933 as Die Weltreise eines Sexualforschers (Brugg, Switzerland: Bözberg-Verlag, 1933). It was published in an English translation in the United States under the title Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935) and in England it was published under the title Women East and West: Impressions of a Sex Expert (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, 1935).
Hirschfeld stayed near Germany, hoping that he would be able to return to Berlin if the country's political situation improved. With the Nazi regime's unequivocal rise to power which coincided with the completion of his work on his tour book, he decided to go into exile in France. On his 65th birthday, 14 May 1933, Hirschfeld arrived in Paris, where he lived in a luxurious apartment building on 24 Avenue Charles Floquet, facing the Champ de Mars. Hirschfeld lived with Li and Giese. In 1934, Giese was involved in a dispute by a swimming pool that Hirschfeld called "trifling" but it led French authorities to expel him. Giese's fate left Hirschfeld very depressed.
A year-and-a-half after arriving in France, in November 1934, Hirschfeld moved south to Nice, a seaside resort on the Mediterranean coast. He lived in a luxurious apartment building with a view of the sea across an enormous garden on the Promenade des Anglais. Throughout his stay in France, he continued researching, writing, campaigning and working to establish a French successor to his lost institute in Berlin. Hirschfeld's sister, Recha Tobias, did not leave Germany and died in the Terezín Ghetto on 28 September 1942 (the cause of death entered in her death certificate was "heart weakness").
While in France, Hirschfeld finished a book which he had been writing during his world tour, Rassismus (Racism). It was published posthumously in English in 1938. Hirschfeld wrote that the purpose of the book was to explore "the racial theory which underlines the doctrine of racial war", saying that he himself was "numbered among the many thousands who have fallen victim to the practical realization of this theory."
Unlike many who saw the völkisch ideology of the Nazi regime as an aberration and a retrogression from modernity, Hirschfeld insisted that it had deep roots, going back to the German Enlightenment in the 18th century, and it was very much a part of modernity rather than an aberration from it. He added that, in the 19th century, an ideology which divided all of humanity into biologically different races – white, black, yellow, brown, and red – as devised by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – served as a way of turning prejudices into a "universal truth", apparently validated by science. In turn, Hirschfeld held the view that this pseudoscientific way of dividing humanity was the basis of Western thinking about modernity, with whites being praised as the "civilized" race in contrast to the other races, which were dismissed for their "barbarism"; such thinking was used to justify white supremacy.
In this way, he argued that the völkisch racism of the National Socialist regime was only an extreme variant of prejudices that were held throughout the Western world, and the differences between Nazi ideology and the racism that was practiced in other nations were differences in degree rather than differences in kind. Hirschfeld argued against this way of seeing the world, writing "if it were practical, we should certainly do well to eradicate the use of the word 'race' as far as subdivisions of the human species are concerned; or if we do use it in this way, to put it into quote marks to show it is questionable".
The last of Hirschfeld's books to be published during his lifetime, L'Ame et l'amour, psychologie sexologique [The Human Spirit and Love: Sexological Psychology] (Paris: Gallimard, 1935), was published in French in late April 1935; it was his only book that was never published in a German-language edition. In the book's preface, he described his hopes for his new life in France:
In search of sanctuary, I have found my way to that country, the nobility of whose traditions, and whose ever-present charm, have already been as balm to my soul. I shall be glad and grateful if I can spend some few years of peace and repose in France and Paris, and still more grateful to be enabled to repay the hospitality accorded to me, by making available those abundant stores of knowledge acquired throughout my career.
Death
On his 67th birthday, 14 May 1935, Hirschfeld died of a heart attack in his apartment at the Gloria Mansions I building at 63 Promenade des Anglais in Nice. His body was cremated, and the ashes interred in a simple tomb in the Caucade Cemetery in Nice. The upright headstone in gray granite is inset with a bronze bas-relief portrait of Hirschfeld in profile by German sculptor and decorative artist Arnold Zadikow (1884–1943), who like Hirschfeld was a native of the town of Kolberg. The slab covering the tomb is engraved with Hirschfeld's Latin motto, "Per Scientiam ad Justitiam" ("through science to justice"). (The Caucade Cemetery is likewise the location of the grave of surgeon and sexual-rejuvenation proponent Serge Voronoff, whose work Hirschfeld had discussed in his own publications.)
On 14 May 2010, to mark the 75th anniversary of Hirschfeld's death, a French national organization, the Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle (MDH), in partnership with the new LGBT Community Center of Nice (Centre LGBT Côte d'Azur), organized a formal delegation to the cemetery. Speakers recalled Hirschfeld's life and work and laid a large bouquet of pink flowers on his tomb; the ribbon on the bouquet was inscribed "Au pionnier de nos causes. Le MDH et le Centre LGBT" ("To the pioneer of our causes. The MDH and the LGBT Center").
Legacy
American Henry Gerber, attached to the Allied Army of Occupation following World War I, became impressed by Hirschfeld and absorbed many of the doctor's ideas. Upon his return to the United States, Gerber was inspired to form the short-lived Chicago-based Society for Human Rights in 1924, the first known gay rights organization in the nation. In turn, a partner of one of the former members of the Society communicated the existence of the society to Los Angeles resident Harry Hay in 1929; Hay would go on to help establish the Mattachine Society in 1950, the first national homosexual rights organization to operate for many years in the United States.
In 1979, the National LGBT Federation established the Hirschfeld Centre, Ireland's second gay and lesbian community centre. Although badly damaged by a 1987 fire, the centre continued to house the Gay Community News magazine until 1997.
In 1982, a group of German researchers and activists founded the Magnus Hirschfeld Society (Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft e.V.) in West Berlin, in anticipation of the approaching 50th anniversary of the destruction of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science. Ten years later, the society established a Berlin-based center for research on the history of sexology. The society's stated goals are the following:
To study the history of research on sexuality and gender, of the sexual reform movement and of related scholarly disciplines and life reform movements.
To help establish research on sexuality and gender within academic institutions.
Since the late 20th century, researchers associated with the Magnus Hirschfeld Society have succeeded in tracking down previously dispersed and lost records and artifacts of Hirschfeld's life and work. They have brought together many of these materials at the society's archives in Berlin. At an exhibition at the Schwules Museum in Berlin from 7 December 2011 to 31 March 2012, the society publicly displayed a selection of these collections for the first time.
The German Society for Social-Scientific Sexuality Research established the Magnus Hirschfeld Medal in 1990. The Society awards the Medal in two categories, contributions to sexual research and contributions to sexual reform.
The Hirschfeld Eddy Foundation, established in Germany in 2007, is named for Hirschfeld and lesbian activist FannyAnn Eddy.
In August 2011, after 30 years of advocacy by the Magnus Hirschfeld Society and other associations and individuals, the Federal Cabinet of Germany granted 10 million euros to establish the Magnus Hirschfeld National Foundation (Bundesstiftung Magnus Hirschfeld), a foundation to support research and education about the life and work of Magnus Hirschfeld, the Nazi persecution of homosexuals, German LGBT culture and community, and ways to counteract prejudice against LGBT people; the Federal Ministry of Justice (Germany) was expected to contribute an additional 5 million euros, bringing the initial endowment of the foundation to a total of 15 million euros.
Portrayals in popular culture
Magnus Hirschfeld has been portrayed in a number of works of popular culture both during his lifetime and subsequently. Following is a sampling of genres and titles:
Nonfiction
Season 4 episode 2 of the podcast Making Gay History is about Hirschfeld.
Caricature
Hirschfeld was a frequent target of caricatures in the popular press during his lifetime. Historian James Steakley reproduces several examples in his German-language book Die Freunde des Kaisers. Die Eulenburg-Affäre im Spiegel zeitgenössischer Karikaturen (Hamburg: MännerschwarmSkript, 2004). Additional examples appear in the French-language book Derrière "lui" (L'Homosexualité en Allemagne) (Paris: E. Bernard, [1908]) by .
Film and television
Different from the Others (Germany, 1919); directed by Richard Oswald; cowritten by Oswald and Magnus Hirschfeld. Hirschfeld appears in a cameo playing himself. Karl Giese, the young man who subsequently became Hirschfeld's lover, also had a part in the film.
Race d'Ep: Un Siècle d'Images de l'Homosexualité (France, 1979); directed by Lionel Soukaz; cowritten by Soukaz and Guy Hocquenghem; released in the United States under the title The Homosexual Century. An experimental film portraying 100 years of homosexual history in four episodes, one of which focuses on Hirschfeld and his work. French gay writer Pierre Hahn played the role of Hirschfeld.
Desire: Sexuality in Germany, 1910–1945 (United Kingdom, 1989); directed by Stuart Marshall. A feature-length documentary tracing the emergence of the homosexual subculture and the homosexual emancipation movement in pre-World War II Germanyand their destruction by the Nazi regime. According to film historian Robin Wood, Marshall "treats the burning of Hirschfeld's library and the closing of his Institute of Sexual Science as the film's... central moment...."
A segment on Hirschfeld appears in episode 19 of Real Sex, first shown on HBO on 7 February 1998.
The Einstein of Sex (Germany, 1999); directed by Rosa von Praunheim. A fictional biopic inspired by Hirschfeld's life and work.
Paragraph 175 (US, 2000); directed by Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman. A feature-length documentary on the persecution of homosexuals during the Nazi regime. The first part of the film provides a brief overview of the history of the homosexual emancipation movement in Germany from the late-19th century through the early 1930s, with Hirschfeld and his work prominently featured.
Several episodes of the second season of the Amazon television series Transparent (US, 2014–2019) include a portrayal of Hirschfeld and his institute. Hirschfeld is played by Bradley Whitford.
Fiction
Robert Hichens (1939). That Which Is Hidden (London: Cassell & Company). U.S. Edition: New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1940. The novel opens with the protagonist visiting the tomb of a famed Austrian sex expert, Dr. R. Ellendorf, in a cemetery in Nice. At the tomb, he meets the late doctor's protégé, a Chinese student named Kho Ling. The character of Ling refers to the memory of his mentor at numerous points in the novel. From the description of the settings and the characters, Ellendorf clearly was inspired by Hirschfeld, and Ling by Hirschfeld's last partner and heir, Li Shiu Tong (Tao Li).
Arno Schmidt (1970). Zettels Traum (Frankfurt-am-Main: S. Fischer Verlag). Hirschfeld is quoted often in this novel about sexuality.
Nicolas Verdan (2011). Le Patient du docteur Hirschfeld (Orbe, Switzerland: Bernard Campiche). A French-language spy thriller inspired by the sacking of Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science by the Nazis.
Works
Hirschfeld's works are listed in the following bibliography, which is extensive but not comprehensive:
Steakley, James D. The Writings of Magnus Hirschfeld: A Bibliography. Toronto: Canadian Gay Archives, 1985.
The following have been translated into English:
Sappho and Socrates: How Does One Explain the Love of Men and Women to Persons of Their Own Sex? (1896), translated by Michael Lombardi-Nash. Jacksonville, FL: Urania Manuscripts, 2019.
The Transvestites: The Erotic Drive to Cross-Dress (1910), Prometheus Books; translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash (1991).
Homosexuality of Men and Women (1914); translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash, 2000
The Sexual History of the World War (1930), New York City, Panurge Press, 1934; significantly abridged translation and adaptation of the original German edition: Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges, 2 vols., Verlag für Sexualwissenschaft, Schneider & Co., Leipzig & Vienna, 1930. The plates from the German edition are not included in the Panurge Press translation, but a small sampling appear in a separately issued portfolio, Illustrated Supplement to The Sexual History of the World War, New York City, Panurge Press, n.d.
Men and Women: The World Journey of a Sexologist (1933); translated by O. P. Green (New York City: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1935).
Sex in Human Relationships, London, John Lane The Bodley Head, 1935; translated from the French volume L'Ame et l'amour, psychologie sexologique (Paris: Gallimard, 1935) by John Rodker.
Racism (1938), translated by Eden and Cedar Paul. This denunciation of racial discrimination was not influential at the time, although it seems prophetic in retrospect.
Autobiographical
Hirschfeld, Magnus. Von einst bis jetzt: Geschichte einer homosexuellen Bewegung 1897–1922. Schriftenreihe der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft Nr. 1. Berlin: rosa Winkel, 1986. (Reprint of a series of articles by Hirschfeld originally published in Die Freundschaft, 1920–21.)
M.H. [Magnus Hirschfeld], "Hirschfeld, Magnus (Autobiographical Sketch)", in Victor Robinson (ed.), Encyclopaedia Sexualis, New York City: Dingwall-Rock, 1936, pp. 317–321.
Hirschfeld, Magnus. Testament. Heft II; introduced and annotated by Ralf Dose. Berlin: Hentrich und Hentrich Verlag, 2013. (Critical edition of the only surviving volume of Hirschfeld's personal journal.)
See also
Der Eigene: world's first gay journal, Berlin, 1896–1932
Willi Pape, a famous cabaret performer who appeared in Hirschfeld's 1912 book on transvestites
Harry Benjamin, an associated of Hirschfeld who brought his theories to the United States
First homosexual movement
List of sex therapists
References
Further reading
Biographies
Bauer, J. Edgar. "On Behalf of Hermaphrodites and Mongrels: Refocusing the Reception of Magnus Hirschfeld’s Critical Thought on Sexuality and Race." Journal of homosexuality (2019): 1-25. online
Domeier, Norman: "Magnus Hirschfeld", in: 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2016-04-07. .
Dose, Ralf. Magnus Hirschfeld: Deutscher, Jude, Weltbürger. Teetz: Hentrich und Hentrich, 2005.
Dose, Ralf. Magnus Hirschfeld: The Origins of the Gay Liberation Movement. New York City: Monthly Review Press, 2014; revised and expanded edition of Dose's 2005 German-language biography.
Herzer, Manfred. Magnus Hirschfeld: Leben und Werk eines jüdischen, schwulen und sozialistischen Sexologen. 2nd edition. Hamburg: Männerschwarm, 2001.
Koskovich, Gérard (ed.). Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935). Un pionnier du mouvement homosexuel confronté au nazisme. Paris: Mémorial de la Déportation Homosexuelle, 2010.
Kotowski, Elke-Vera & Julius H. Schoeps (eds.). Der Sexualreformer Magnus Hirschfeld. Ein Leben im Spannungsfeld von Wissenschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft. Berlin: Bebra, 2004.
Leng, Kirsten. "Magnus Hirschfeld’s Meanings: Analysing Biography and the Politics of Representation." German History 35.1 (2017): 96-116.
Mancini, Elena. Magnus Hirschfeld and the Quest for Sexual Freedom: A History of the First International Sexual Freedom Movement. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Steakley, James. "Per scientiam ad justitiam: Magnus Hirschfeld and the Sexual Politics of Innate Homosexuality", in Science and Homosexualities, ed. Vernon A. Rosario. New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 133–54.
Wolff, Charlotte. Magnus Hirschfeld: A Portrait of a Pioneer in Sexology. London: Quartet, 1986.
Others
Beachy, Robert. Gay Berlin: Birthplace of a Modern Identity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.
Blasius, Mark & Shane Phelan (eds.) We Are Everywhere: A Historical Source Book of Gay and Lesbian Politics. New York: Routledge, 1997. See chapter: "The Emergence of a Gay and Lesbian Political Culture in Germany".
Bullough, Vern L. (2002). Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context. New York, Harrington Park Press, an imprint of The Haworth Press. .
Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland, 1990.
Friedman, Sara, "Projecting Fears and Hopes: Gay Rights on the German Screen after World War I", Blog of the Journal of the History of Ideas, 28 May 2019.
Gordon, Mel. Voluptuous Panic: The Erotic World of Weimar Berlin. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2000.
Grau, Günter (ed.) Hidden Holocaust? Gay and Lesbian Persecution in Germany, 1933–45. New York: Routledge, 1995.
Grossman, Atina. Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Haeberle E.J. " Re-print of ' Die Sexualitaet des Mannes und des Weibes', with commentary by E.J. Haeberle. De Gruyter, 1984,
Haeberle E.J. Anfänge der Sexualwissenschaft, De Gruyter, 1983.
Haeberle E.J. "The birth of Sexology". World Association for Sexology, 1983.
Lauritsen, John and Thorstad, David. The Early Homosexual Rights Movement, 1864–1935. 2nd rev. edition. Novato, CA: Times Change Press, 1995.
Steakley, James D. The Homosexual Emancipation Movement in Germany. New York: Arno, 1975.
Steakley, James, "Anders als die Andern:" Ein Film und seine Geschichte. Hamburg: Männerschwarm Verlag 2007. (review by Dirk Naguschewski in HSozKult, 2008)
External links
Biography on the web site of the Bundesstiftung Magnus Hirschfeld (Magnus Hirschfeld National Foundation), Berlin
Magnus Hirschfeld – Leben und Werk Biographical information on the web site of the Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft (Magnus Hirschfeld Society), Berlin
Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft: Online Exhibit on the Institute for Sexual Science
Abortion-rights activists
Feminist writers
Gay feminists
German gay writers
German anti-fascists
German expatriates in the United States
German feminists
German male writers
German sexologists
German socialists
Jewish anti-fascists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to France
Jewish feminists
Jewish German scientists
Jewish German writers
Jewish physicians
Jewish socialists
LGBT academics
LGBT feminists
LGBT Jews
LGBT physicians
LGBT rights activists from Germany
LGBT scientists from Germany
LGBT writers from Germany
Male feminists
People from Kołobrzeg
People from the Province of Pomerania
Sex educators
Sex-positive feminists
Medical writers on LGBT topics
German socialist feminists
Transfeminists
Transgender rights activists
Transgender studies academics
1868 births
1935 deaths
19th-century LGBT people
Gay scientists
20th-century LGBT people | [
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|
234283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Conington | John Conington | John Conington (10 August 1825 – 23 October 1869) was an English classical scholar. In 1866 he published his best-known work, the translation of the Aeneid of Virgil into the octosyllabic metre of Walter Scott. He was Corpus Professor of Latin at the University of Oxford from 1854 till his death.
Life
He was born at Boston in Lincolnshire, and is said to have learned the alphabet at fourteen months, and to have been reading well at three and a half. He was educated at Beverley Grammar School, at Rugby School and at Oxford, where, after matriculating at University College, he came into residence at Magdalen, where he had been nominated to a demyship. He was Ireland and Hertford scholar in 1844; in March 1846 he was elected to a scholarship at University College, and in December of the same year he obtained a first class in classics; in February 1848 he became a fellow of University. He also obtained the Chancellor's prizes for Latin verse (1847), English essay (1848) and Latin essay (1849). He successfully applied for the Eldon Law Scholarship in 1849, and went to Lincoln's Inn; but after six months he resigned the scholarship and returned to Oxford.
During his brief residence in London he began writing for the Morning Chronicle, and continued to do so after leaving. He showed no special aptitude for journalism, but a series of articles on university reform (1849–1850) was the first public expression of his views on a subject that always interested him. In 1854 his appointment, as first occupant, to the chair of Latin literature, founded by Corpus Christi College, Oxford, gave him a congenial position.
Known to be sympathetic to Radical political causes such as Chartism, Conington’s inclinations were homosexual and he enjoyed the company of young men, inviting favoured individuals to accompany him on his regular 2pm walks. One such was the future Idealist philosopher, T.H. Green. Henry Nettleship described the selection procedure:
'First came the invitation to breakfast; then if the undergraduate pleased him, an invitation to walk: then more breakfasts and more walks: then, if the young man had survived this ordeal … perhaps an invitation to join a reading party in the Long [Vacation]. The final stage of intimacy was the fixing of a particular day in the week to walk with a particular man. To this last both Green and I at length attained, Green’s day being Monday and mine Wednesday.'
J.A. Symonds was another student friend of Conington's and he and Green accompanied Conington on several of his summer reading parties during the Long Vacation.
From this time he confined himself with characteristic conscientiousness almost exclusively to Latin literature. The only important exception was the translation of the last twelve books of the Iliad in the Spenserian stanza in completion of the work of P.S. Worsley, and this was undertaken in fulfilment of a promise made to his dying friend.
Conington died at Boston.
Works
Conington's edition of Persius, with commentary and a prose translation was published posthumously in 1872. In the same year appeared his Miscellaneous Writings, edited by John Addington Symonds, with a memoir by Henry John Stephen Smith (see also Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro in Journal of Philology, ii., 1869).
In 1852 Conington began, in conjunction with Goldwin Smith, a complete edition of Virgil with a commentary, of which the first volume appeared in 1858, the second in 1864, and the third soon after his death. Goldwin Smith was compelled to withdraw from the work at an early stage, and in the last volume his place was taken by Henry Nettleship.
Conington's other editions are:
Aeschylus, Agamemmon (1848), Choëphori (1857);
English verse translations of Horace, Odes and Carmen Saeculare (1863), Satires, Epistles and Ars Poëtica (1869).
See also
English translations of Homer: John Conington
References
External links
1825 births
1869 deaths
People from Boston, Lincolnshire
English classical scholars
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
People educated at Beverley Grammar School
Classical scholars of the University of Oxford
Corpus Christi Professors of Latin
Scholars of ancient Greek literature
Scholars of Latin literature
Latin–English translators
Greek–English translators
19th-century translators
English male writers
19th-century British male writers
Presidents of the Oxford Union
Translators of Homer | [
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|
16264259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily%20West | Emily West | Emily Marie Nemmers (born July 9, 1981) is an American music artist, who performs and records under the name Emily West. Signed to Capitol Records Nashville, she debuted on Billboard's Hot Country Songs charts in early 2008 with the single "Rocks in Your Shoes". This song peaked at No. 39 early in the year, and is the first single from a self-titled EP. She entered the country charts a second time with "Blue Sky", a duet with Keith Urban, in 2010.
In 2012, West guest-starred in Body of Proof.
In 2014, she competed on the 9th season of America's Got Talent, where she finished as the runner up to magician Mat Franco. Since her success on the show, West has toured extensively throughout the United States, first with her one-woman show and then with America's Got Talent Live: The All-Stars Tour!
Early life
West, the youngest of four children, was born in Waterloo, Iowa. In July 1994 her parents took her to Bird-On-Fire Recording Studio in West Union, Iowa where studio owner Doug Koempel worked with her producing four demos: "Sweet Dreams", "Piece Of My Heart", "Higher Love" and "Me And Bobby McGee." She moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 2000 following her graduation from Waterloo West High School in hopes of achieving her goals of becoming a country music singer. West soon signed a deal with a publishing company in Nashville, Warner-Chapell. West was then signed to Capitol Records Nashville when producer Mike Dungan listened to her demo tapes. One of her first appearances was as a background vocalist on Chely Wright's 2005 album The Metropolitan Hotel.
Career
2007–2012: Music and television
Capitol released a self-titled EP December 11, 2007, to the iTunes music store. In early 2008, West was featured in People magazine and completed a media tour for her debut single, "Rocks in Your Shoes". "Rocks in Your Shoes" peaked in the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in early 2008. A second single, "That Kind of Happy" was released in April 2009 and failed to enter the chart.
West appeared on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? on September 25, 2009, winning $25,000. In January 2010, West released a duet with labelmate Keith Urban titled "Blue Sky." The song debuted at No. 53 on the Hot Country Songs chart for the week of February 23, 2010. Roughstock gave the song 4½ stars out of 5, stating that Blue Sky' is already a contender for one of 2010's best singles." It spent thirteen weeks on the charts and peaked at No. 38.
Emily appeared in the April 18, 2010, episode of Celebrity Apprentice, as the "music make-over" target for the women's team led by Cyndi Lauper. Lauper won the challenge and as a result West donated 100% of the first month of iTunes sales of her song "Blue Sky" to the Stonewall Community Foundation, Lauper's charity.
She appeared in the January 10, 2012 "Shades of Blue" episode on Body of Proof on ABC. She played a drug addict trying to make it in the music business. She sings her single "Head On" at the end of the episode: Season 2 episode 12 in "Body of Proof." She shows herself to be a terrific actress & singer.
2014–present: America's Got Talent
In 2014, West competed on the 9th season of America's Got Talent, advancing to the finals. She finished in second place.
Shortly after the show ended, West signed a record deal with Sony Masterworks, and is set to release a two-track single on December 2, 2014; and an album in 2015.
On April 6, 2015, the first single, called "Bitter", off her upcoming album "All For You" was released, and the album was released in August 2015.
Performances and results
Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Singles
Music videos
References
External links
Emily West at Capitol Records Nashville
1981 births
21st-century American singers
Living people
American women country singers
American country singer-songwriters
Capitol Records artists
People from Waterloo, Iowa
America's Got Talent contestants
21st-century American women singers
Country musicians from Iowa
Singer-songwriters from Iowa | [
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|
234284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Stanhope%20Worsley | Philip Stanhope Worsley | Philip Stanhope Worsley (12 August 1835 – 8 May 1866) was an English poet.
Life
The son of the Rev. Charles Worsley, he was educated at Highgate School, where he made a lasting impression on Gerard Manley Hopkins, a fellow pupil in his boarding house, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize in 1857 with a poem on The Temple of Janus. In 1861 he published a translation of the Odyssey, followed in 1865 by a translation of the first twelve books of the Iliad, in both of which he employed the Spenserian stanza with success.
In 1863, he published a volume of Poems and Translations. His unfinished translation of the Iliad was completed after his death by John Conington.
References
External links
1835 births
1866 deaths
People educated at Highgate School
English male poets
19th-century English poets
19th-century British male writers
Translators of Homer | [
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|
234286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Coronado%20%28AGF-11%29 | USS Coronado (AGF-11) | USS Coronado (AGF-11) (originally LPD-11) was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named after the city of the same name in the U.S. state of California. She was designed as an Austin-class amphibious transport dock (LPD), one of seven fitted with an additional superstructure level for command ship duties. The ship was launched on 1 July 1966, commissioned 23 May 1970, and became the most advanced command ship in the world. The ship was the second combatant ship in the United States Navy (USS LaSalle - AGF 3 integrated women aboard in 1993) to integrate women as full-time crew members.
Coronado was decommissioned on 30 September 2006, was used for target practice during Valiant Shield 2012 exercises, and was sunk in the Marianas Island Range Complex on 12 September 2012.
History
The Coronados keel was laid down on 1 May 1965 by the Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company of Seattle, Washington. She was launched on 1 July 1966. After two years of labor shortages and a 12-month strike, she was commissioned 23 May 1970.
First assigned to the U.S. Atlantic Fleet in the 1970s, Coronado conducted extensive operations, deploying on numerous occasions to the Caribbean Sea and Mediterranean Sea, as well as northern Europe.
In 1980, the Coronado was re-designated an Auxiliary Command Ship (AGF-11). Her first assignment was to relieve the La Salle (AGF-3) as command ship for Commander, U.S. Middle East Force, stationed in the Persian Gulf.
Reassigned in October 1985, the Coronado relieved Puget Sound (AD-38) as the command ship of Commander, U.S. Sixth Fleet. During a ten-month tour with the Sixth Fleet, Coronado operated out of Gaeta, Italy, participating in operations in the Gulf of Sidra and strikes against Libyan terrorist support facilities.
In July 1986, the Coronado was relieved as Sixth Fleet command ship and ordered to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to become the command ship for Commander, U.S. 3rd Fleet. The admiral and his staff embarked on board Coronado in November 1986. Subsequently, Coronado was relieved as Third Fleet command ship and deployed to the Persian Gulf to assume duties as command ship for Commander, U.S. Middle East Force in January 1988. During this period she served as flagship for Operation Praying Mantis, the largest American naval action since World War II.
Upon her return to Pearl Harbor on 9 November 1988, Coronado again assumed her duties as Commander, U.S. Third Fleet command ship.
USS Coronado remained homeported in Hawaii until August 1991, when crew and staff changed homeports to San Diego.
On 28 February 1994, USS Coronado became the first combatant ship in the United States Navy to embark women as part of its regular, full-time crew.
Since then, Third Fleet and Coronado had become the center for naval innovation and technology experimentation. In November 1998 a large ship modification was completed. Incorporating the latest network-centric technology, Coronado became the most advanced command ship in the world.
Sea-Based Battle Lab
In October 2001, the Office of the Secretary of the Navy assigned Coronado to host the Navy's Sea-Based Battle Lab (SBBL), an afloat platform for testing prototype systems and software, evaluating future naval capabilities, and assessing operational compatibility and possible further implementation throughout the United States Navy.
Recent developments in technology have spawned significant advances in naval warfare capabilities. Wireless and Web-based tools, along with new weapon systems, have enabled naval forces to conduct precision operations with greater synchronization, expedience, and potency. With over of reconfigurable command space and one of the world's most advanced naval C4I suites, SBBL offers a unique shipboard environment that facilitates the evaluation of research for maritime and joint operations.
The Third Fleet J9 Directorate was responsible for managing the SBBL. Partnered with other services, national laboratories, academia, and industry, the Third Fleet staff developed joint exercises and experiments for evaluating the following in an operational environment:
JTF Command Center organization and configuration
Tactics, techniques, and procedures
Naval and joint doctrine
Biometrics (human feature recognition)
Wireless applications
Knowledge management
Web-based applications
Logistics
Humanitarian assistance/disaster relief
The staff and crew provided an unbiased evaluation of the proposal's viability and functionality. Promising, mature initiatives are endorsed for advancement into the beta testing cycle on board the next deploying carrier battle group (or amphibious ready group) and/or into the acquisition process.
Decommissioning and disposal
Late 2003 saw a see-saw change for the Coronado. In November it was decommissioned, transferred to the Military Sealift Command and redesignated T-AGF-11. However, it was concluded shortly thereafter that the operations the ship engaged in required it to be a warship and thus it was transferred back to the Navy and recommissioned, but kept a large civilian complement within the crew from the MSC. In 2004, the 7th Fleet command ship, USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19), went into dry dock and Coronado temporarily assumed 7th Fleet command responsibilities. On 27 September 2004, Blue Ridge returned to duty as the command ship.
Coronado was decommissioned at the end of Fiscal Year 2006.
On 12 September 2012, the Coronado was sunk by a number of warships, and now serves as an artificial reef for the Marianas region. The ship now rests 3045 fathoms deep at coordinates .
References
External links
1966 ships
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy California-related ships
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company | [
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|
234288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil%20Lanneau%20Gildersleeve | Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve | Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve (October 23, 1831January 9, 1924) was an American classical scholar. An author of numerous works, and founding editor of the American Journal of Philology, he has been credited with contributions to the syntax of Greek and Latin, and the history of Greek literature.
Biography
He was born in Charleston, South Carolina to Emma Louisa Lanneau (daughter of Bazille Lanneau and Hannah Vinyard) and Benjamin Gildersleeve (1791–1875). His father was a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor of the Charleston Christian Observer from 1826 to 1845, of the Richmond, Virginia Watchman and Observer from 1845 to 1856, and of The Central Presbyterian from 1856 to 1860. His maternal grandfather was Bazile Lanneau (born Basile Lanoue), one of the many French Acadians who were forcibly expelled by the British from present day Nova Scotia during the French and Indian War. His maternal grandmother was Hannah Vinyard. He graduated from Princeton in 1849 at the age of eighteen, and went on to study under Johannes Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under Friedrich Wilhelm Schneidewin at Göttingen, where he received his Ph.D. in 1853. Upon returning to the United States, he was offered a position as a Classics professor at Princeton, but he turned it down. From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek at the University of Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also from 1861 to 1866. He married September 18, 1866 in Middlebury, Virginia to Eliza Fisher Colston.
After service for the Confederate States Army in the American Civil War, during which Gildersleeve was shot in the leg, he returned to the University of Virginia. Ten years later, he accepted an offer from Daniel Coit Gilman to teach at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. When the Johns Hopkins University opened in 1876, Gildersleeve was one of five original full professors and was responsible for setting up a program in the study of Greek and Roman literature, at which he succeeded admirably. He chose junior faculty and graduate students who went on to make a major impact in classical studies, at Johns Hopkins and elsewhere. His hiring also helped to reassure the Baltimore community that the new university was not just a northern institution transplanted south. Johns Hopkins was known to be opposed to slavery, founding president Daniel Coit Gilman was from Connecticut, and most other faculty were from the northern states, which led to suspicion regarding the intent of the new institution.
In 1880, the American Journal of Philology, a quarterly published by the Johns Hopkins University, was established under his editorial charge, and his strong personality was expressed in the department of the Journal headed "Brief Report" or "Lanx Satura," and in the earliest years of its publication every tiny detail was in his hands. His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the true aim of scholarship is "that which is." He published a Latin Grammar (1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez B. Lodge, 1895 and 1899; reprinted 1997 with a bibliography of twentieth-century work on the subject) and a Latin Series for use in secondary schools (1875), both marked by lucidity of order and mastery of grammatical theory and methods. His edition of Persius (1875) has been attributed great value.
Gildersleeve bent was rather toward Greek than Latin. His special interest in Christian Greek was partly the cause of his editing the Apologies of Justin Martyr (1877), which claimed to have "used unblushingly as a repository for [his] syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies under Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek syntax, and his logic, untrammeled by previous categories, and his marvelous sympathy with the language were displayed in this most unlikely of places. His Syntax of Classic Greek (Part I, 1900, with CWE Miller) collects these formulae. Gildersleeve edited in 1885 The Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar, with what was called "a brilliant and valuable introduction." His views on the function of grammar were summarized in a paper on The Spiritual Rights of Minute Research delivered at Bryn Mawr on June 16, 1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared in 1890 under the title Essays and Studies Educational and Literary.
The Atlantic Monthly published an article by Gildersleeve titled "The Creed of the Old South" in January 1892, and an essay—"A Southerner in the Peloponnesian War"— in September 1897. The Johns Hopkins Press later published them in a book in 1915.
He was elected president of the American Philological Association in 1877 and again in 1908 and became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters as well as of various learned societies. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from William and Mary (1869), Harvard (1896), Yale (1901), Chicago (1901), and Pennsylvania (1911); D.C.L. from the University of the South (1884); L.H.D. from Yale (1891) and Princeton (1899); and Litt.D. from Oxford and Cambridge (1905).
Gildersleeve retired from teaching in 1915. He died on January 9, 1924 and was buried at the University of Virginia cemetery. In a memorial published in the American Journal of Philology, Professor C. W. E. Miller paid tribute to Gildersleeve by stating, “Of Greek authors, there were few with whom he did not have more than a bowing acquaintance.”
In more recent years, Gildersleeve has received critical attention for his unapologetic defense of slavery, during and after the Civil War. In Soldier and Scholar: Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve and the American Civil War, Ward Briggs published editorials written by Gildersleeve while he served as a staff officer in the Confederate Army and as a professor at the University of Virginia. These editorials feature vitriolic attacks on critics of slavery, with parallels drawn to ancient Greek authors and situations. He expressed his contempt for Confederate President Jefferson Davis, whom he considered inept. Jews also came under attack in his writings (including Confederate cabinet officer Judah P. Benjamin), as did those accused of miscegenation.
Legacy
Gildersleeve House, one of the undergraduate dormitories at Johns Hopkins, and Gildersleeve Portal, of Brown Residential College at the University of Virginia, are both named in his honor. His granddaughter Katherine Lane Weems made the two rhinoceros sculptures at Harvard University.
Fannie Manning Gildersleeve, a black woman born approximately 1869, lists Basil Gildersleeve as her father on her funeral records. Fannie Gildersleeve was married to famed Charlottesville, Virginia educator Benjamin Tonsler
The University of Virginia's Classics program also offers a distinguished professorship in Gildersleeve's honor. It is currently held by Anthony Corbeill.
References
External links
Works by Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, at Hathi Trust
Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve (1900), Syntax of Classical Greek
Gikandi, Simon: "Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve"
1831 births
1924 deaths
American classical scholars
American philologists
Burials at the University of Virginia Cemetery
Classical scholars of Johns Hopkins University
Confederate States Army officers
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
People from Charleston, South Carolina
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
Princeton University alumni
University of Bonn alumni
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy | [
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|
234290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlueScope | BlueScope | BlueScope Steel Limited is an Australian flat product steel producer that was spun-off from BHP Billiton in 2002.
History
BlueScope was formed when BHP Billiton spun-off its steel assets on 15 July 2002 as BHP Steel. It was renamed BlueScope on 17 November 2003.
Early in 2004, BlueScope merged with the American firm Butler Manufacturing. Such a merger was considered a strategic move for both companies as they were similar in character and non-overlapping in the markets they operated in, such that acquisition of Butler, based in Kansas City, Missouri, would provide BlueScope with access to United States and Chinese markets. Butler was founded in 1901, operated in sixteen countries and focused on non-residential building and building component construction. At the time of the merger, Butler had a dozen production facilities across the United States, China and Mexico.
In 2007, the company acquired four companies consisting of most of the United States holdings of the Argentinian firm Ternium, those being Steelscape, ASC Profiles, Varco Pruden Buildings; and Metl-Span, which was acquired by NCI Building Systems in 2012. The four companies had been held by the Mexican Grupo IMSA prior to their purchase by Ternium. Steelscape originated in 1996 as BHP Coated Steel and was originally owned by BlueScope.
In March 2012 a new coated steel manufacturing plant was inaugurated in Jamshedpur, India.
In February 2014, BlueScope purchased Orrcon Steel from Hills. Its products included RHS, SHS and CHS structural tubular steel, hot-rolled structural steel and fencing, roofing and building accessories.
Because of lower energy prices in the United States than in Australia, BlueScope in 2019 decided to expand its investment in America by $1 billion.
Operations
The corporate headquarters are located at 120 Collins Street, Melbourne.
The company has 16,000 personnel. Its largest operating plant, an integrated steelworks, is located at Port Kembla, New South Wales. In October 2011, No.6 Blast furnace, one of two at Port Kembla, was shut down, reducing the plant's production capacity by 50% after the company decided to exit the export market.
Major products include steel slab, hot rolled coil, steel plate, automotive steel, galvanised steel, corrugated galvanised iron, Zincalume brand (55% aluminium, 43.5% zinc, 1.5% silicon) coated steel, and Colorbond brand pre-painted steel. Tinplate production ceased in March 2007.
Orrcon Steel supplies steel, tube and pipe to steel fabricators, furniture and trailer body manufacturers, housing and construction companies and pipeline and infrastructure engineering firms.
It has distribution centres in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.
Carbon footprint
BlueScope reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 30 June 2020 at 10,280 Kt (-120 /-1.2% y-o-y).
Controversy
On August 2019, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission launched a civil case against BlueScope and a former executive for engaging in cartel conduct, alleging that they tried to induce competitors to enter contracts to fix prices for flat steel products between 2013-14. BlueScope denied the allegations, stating "we do not believe that BlueScope, or any current or former employees, have engaged in cartel conduct". On December 2020, the former executive was sentenced to eight months imprisonment and fined $10,000 after pleading guilty to obstructing the investigation, inciting two employees to give false information.
On 6 May 2020, a 59-year-old man was killed at BlueScope's Port Kembla facility after becoming trapped between a car and a crane, resulting in the site being temporarily shut.
On 14 May 2020, BlueScope was the subject of a cyberattack that forced its production systems to be temporarily halted company-wide after ransomware was discovered in one of its systems.
In July 2020, BlueScope was fined $30,000 by the New South Wales Environment Protection Authority for failing to comply with dioxin air emission limits on six occasions between March and April 2020. In response, BlueScope completed air emissions modelling and engaged an independent consultant to undertake a health assessment of the elevated emissions.
Major manufacturing facilities
Port Kembla, New South Wales
Western Port in Hastings, Victoria
New Zealand Steel, Glenbrook
Orrcon Brisbane Mill, Salisbury, Queensland
Orrcon Precision Tubing Mill, Adelaide, South Australia
Finished products are transported around Australia by rail freight operator Pacific National. In February 2007 Pacific National secured Australia's largest ever rail freight contract ($1 billion) with BlueScope Steel and OneSteel, to carry approximately three million tonnes of steel product each year for seven years. The contract was renewed for a further seven years from January 2015. In January 2022, Qube Holdings and SCT Logistics will take over from Pacific National.
References
External links
Company website
BHP
Companies based in Melbourne
Companies listed on the Australian Securities Exchange
Multinational companies headquartered in Australia
Manufacturing companies established in 2002
Steel companies of Australia
2002 establishments in Australia | [
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|
234293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistress | Mistress | Mistress is the feminine form of the English word "master" (master + -ess) and may refer to:
Romance and relationships
Mistress (lover), a term for a woman who is in a sexual and romantic relationship with a man who is married to a different woman
Title or form of address
Mistress (form of address), an old-fashioned term for the lady of the house
Ms., original abbreviation
Mistress (college), a female head of a college
Mistress of the Robes, the senior lady of the British Royal Household
Female schoolmaster, also called a schoolmistress or "schoolmarm"
In ancient religions
Isis, Egyptian goddess known as the mistress of the house of life
Hathor, Egyptian goddess known as the mistress of the west
Nepthys, Egyptian goddess of the underworld, known as the mistress of the temple
Despoina, a Greek title for the mistress of the house, applied to various women and goddesses
Potnia theron, or mistress of the animals, a title applied by Homer to the Greek goddess Artemis
Potnia ("Mistress"), a title applied to various Greek goddesses
Mistress of the labyrinth, in the palace of Knossos in Crete
In arts and entertainment
Mistress (band), a sludge metal/grindcore band from Birmingham, England
Mistress, a split-up death metal band from Germany, fronted by Angela Gossow
Mistress (1992 film)
Mistress (1987 film) starring Victoria Principal
Mistresses (British TV series)
Mistresses (American TV series), American adaptation of the UK series
Mistress (TV series), South Korean adaptation of the UK series
"Mistress", a song by Disturbed from Believe
"Mistress", a song by Rebecca Ferguson from Superwoman
"Mistress", a song by Suede from The Blue Hour
Mistress (novel), a 2013 novel by James Patterson
Other uses
Dominatrix, in BDSM
See also
The Mistress (disambiguation) | [
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|
234295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Coronado | USS Coronado | USS Coronado may refer to:
, a patrol frigate, served in World War II as a convoy escort.
, an auxiliary command ship, hosted the Navy's Sea Based Battle Lab (SBB).
, the fourth littoral combat ship commissioned on 5 April 2014.
United States Navy ship names | [
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|
234297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie%20Watts | Charlie Watts | Charles Robert Watts (2 June 1941 – 24 August 2021) was an English musician who achieved international fame as the drummer of the Rolling Stones from 1963 until his death in 2021.
Originally trained as a graphic artist, Watts developed an interest in jazz at a young age and joined the band Blues Incorporated. He also started playing drums in London's rhythm and blues clubs, where he met future bandmates Mick Jagger, Keith Richards and Brian Jones. In January 1963, he left Blues Incorporated and joined the Rolling Stones as drummer, while doubling as designer of their record sleeves and tour stages. Watts's first public appearance as a permanent member was in February 1963, and he remained with the group for 58 years.
Nicknamed "The Wembley Whammer" by Jagger, Watts cited jazz as a major influence on his drumming style. At the time of Watts's death, Watts, Jagger and Richards were the only members of the band to have performed on every one of the band's studio albums. Aside from his career with the Rolling Stones, Watts toured with his own group, the Charlie Watts Quintet, and appeared in London at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club with the Charlie Watts Tentet.
In 1989, Watts was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2004, he was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame with the Rolling Stones. He is often regarded as one of the greatest drummers of all time.
Early life
Charles Robert Watts was born at University College Hospital in Bloomsbury, London, to Charles Richard Watts, a lorry driver for the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, and wife Lillian Charlotte (née Eaves), who had been a factory worker. He had a sister, Linda.
As a child, Watts lived in Wembley, at 23 Pilgrims Way. Many of Wembley's houses had been destroyed by Luftwaffe bombs during World War II; Watts and his family lived in a prefab, as did many in the community. Watts's neighbour Dave Green, who lived opposite at 22 Pilgrims Way, was a childhood friend, and they remained friends until Watts's death. Green became a jazz bass player, and recalls that as boys, "we discovered 78rpm records. Charlie had more records than I did ... We used to go to Charlie's bedroom and just get these records out." Watts's earliest records were jazz recordings; he remembered owning 78 RPM records of Jelly Roll Morton and Charlie Parker. Green recalls that Watts also "had the one with Monk and the Johnny Dodge Trio. Charlie was ahead of me in listening and acquisitions."
Watts and his family subsequently moved to Kingsbury, where he attended Tylers Croft Secondary Modern School from 1952 to 1956; as a schoolboy, he displayed a talent for art, music, cricket and football. When he and Green were both about thirteen, Watts became interested in drumming:
Watts's parents gave him his first drum kit in 1955, and he practised drumming along to jazz records he collected. After completing secondary school, Watts enrolled at Harrow Art School (now the Harrow campus of the University of Westminster), which he attended until 1960.
Career
Jazz bands and Blues Incorporated
After leaving art school, he worked as a graphic designer for an advertising company called Charlie Daniels Studios, and also played drums occasionally with local bands in coffee shops and clubs. He and Green began their musical careers together from 1958 to 1959, playing in a jazz band in Middlesex called the Jo Jones All Stars. Watts initially found his transition to rhythm and blues puzzling: "I went into rhythm and blues. When they asked me to play, I didn't know what it was. I thought it meant Charlie Parker, played slow."
In 1961, Watts met Alexis Korner, who invited him to join his band Blues Incorporated. At that time, Watts was on his way to a sojourn working as a graphic designer in Denmark, but he accepted Korner's offer when he returned to London in February 1962. Watts played regularly with Blues Incorporated and maintained a job with the advertising firm Charles, Hobson and Gray.
Career with the Rolling Stones
In mid-1962, Watts first met Brian Jones, Ian "Stu" Stewart, Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, who also frequented the London rhythm and blues clubs, but it was not until January 1963 that Watts finally agreed to join the Rolling Stones. Initially, the band could not afford to pay Watts, who had been earning a regular salary from his gigs. His first public appearance as a permanent member was at the Ealing Jazz Club on 2 February 1963. Watts was often introduced as "The Wembley Whammer" by Jagger during live concerts.
Besides his work as a musician, Watts contributed graphic art and comic strips to early Rolling Stones records such as the Between the Buttons record sleeve and was responsible for the 1975 tour announcement press conference in New York City. The band surprised the throng of waiting reporters by driving and playing "Brown Sugar" on the back of a flatbed truck in the middle of Manhattan traffic. Watts remembered this was a common way for New Orleans jazz bands to promote upcoming dates. Moreover, with Jagger, he designed the elaborate stages for tours, first contributing to the lotus-shaped design of the Tour of the Americas, as well as the Steel Wheels/Urban Jungle Tour, the Bridges to Babylon Tour, the Licks Tour, and the A Bigger Bang Tour.
Watts' last live concert with the band was 30 August 2019 at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami, Florida. He had never missed a single concert throughout his career with the band. Besides Jagger and Richards, he is the only member to have appeared on every album in the Rolling Stones discography.
Activities outside the Stones
Watts was involved in many activities outside his life as a member of the Rolling Stones. In December 1964, he published a cartoon tribute to Charlie Parker titled Ode to a High Flying Bird. Although he made his name in rock, his personal tastes lay principally in jazz.
In the late 1970s, he joined Ian Stewart in the back-to-the-roots boogie-woogie band Rocket 88, which featured many of the UK's top jazz, rock and R&B musicians. In the 1980s, he toured worldwide with a big band – the Charlie Watts Orchestra – that included such names as Evan Parker, Courtney Pine and Jack Bruce, who was also a member of Rocket 88.
In 1991, he organised a jazz quintet as another tribute to Charlie Parker. The year 1993 saw the release of Warm and Tender by the Charlie Watts Quintet, which included vocalist Bernard Fowler. This same group released Long Ago and Far Away in 1996. Both records included a collection of Great American Songbook standards. Following their collaboration on the Rolling Stones' 1997 album Bridges to Babylon, he and drummer Jim Keltner released a techno/instrumental album titled Charlie Watts/Jim Keltner Project. Watts stated that even though the tracks bore such names as the "Elvin Suite" in honour of the late Elvin Jones, Max Roach and Roy Haynes, they were not copying their style of drumming, but rather capturing a feeling by those artists. Watts at Scott's was recorded with his group, "the Charlie Watts Tentet", at the Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in London.
In April 2009, he began performing with the ABC&D of Boogie Woogie. When asked to join by pianist Ben Waters, he quickly agreed; his only demand being that Dave Green play bass, stating, "If Dave does it, I'll do it."
Personal life and public image
On 14 October 1964, Watts married Shirley Ann Shepherd (born 11 September 1938), whom he had met before the band became successful. The couple had one daughter, Seraphina, born in March 1968, who in turn gave birth to Watts's only grandchild, a girl named Charlotte. They remained married until his death.
Watts lived near Dolton, a rural village in west Devon, where he owned an Arabian horse stud farm. He also owned a percentage of the Rolling Stones' various corporate entities.
While all the Rolling Stones collected cars, Watts never had a driving licence, preferring to view his cars as beautiful objects. Watts was also a fan of cricket, and had a collection of cricket memorabilia.
Touring and band relationships
Watts expressed a love–hate attitude towards touring, stating in 2003 that he "loved playing with Keith [Richards] and the band" but "wasn't interested in being a pop idol sitting there with girls screaming". In 1989, the Rolling Stones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Watts did not attend the ceremony.
Watts's personal life appeared to be substantially quieter than those of his bandmates and many of his rock-and-roll colleagues; onstage, he seemed to furnish a calm and amused counterpoint to his flamboyant bandmates. Known for his loyalty to Shirley, Watts consistently refused sexual offers from groupies on the road; in Robert Greenfield's STP: A Journey Through America with The Rolling Stones, a documentary of the 1972 American Tour, it is noted that when the group was invited to the Playboy Mansion during that tour, Watts took advantage of Hugh Hefner's game room instead of frolicking with the women. "I've never filled the stereotype of the rock star", he remarked. "Back in the '70s, Bill Wyman and I decided to grow beards, and the effort left us exhausted." In a 1996 interview with Rolling Stone magazine, he said that he had sketched every bed he had slept on while on tour since 1967. By 2001, he'd filled 12 to 15 diaries.
One anecdote relates that in the mid-1980s, an intoxicated Jagger phoned Watts's hotel room in the middle of the night, asking, "Where's my drummer?" Watts reportedly got up, shaved, dressed in a suit, put on a tie and freshly shined shoes, descended the stairs, and punched Jagger in the face, saying: "Never call me your drummer again. You're my fucking singer!" He expressed regret for the incident in 2003, attributing his behaviour to alcohol.
Health
In the mid-1980s, Watts's previously moderate use of alcohol and drugs became excessive. "[They were] my way of dealing with [family problems] ..." he said. "I think it was a mid-life crisis. All I know is that I became totally another person around 1983 and came out of it about 1986. I nearly lost my wife and everything over my behaviour."
Despite having quit smoking in the late 1980s, Watts was diagnosed with throat cancer in June 2004. He underwent a course of radiotherapy and the cancer went into remission. "I went into hospital," Watts recalled, "and eight months later Mick said, 'We're going to do a record. But we'll only do it when you're ready.' They were buggering about, writing songs, and when I was ready I went down and that was it, A Bigger Bang. Then I did a two-year tour. It seems that whenever we stop, I get ill. So maybe I should carry on!"
On 5 August 2021, it was reported that Watts had elected to sit out the resumption of the US No Filter Tour due to a heart procedure surgery and that Steve Jordan would temporarily replace him on drums.
Death and tributes
Watts died at a London hospital on 24 August 2021, at the age of 80, with his family around him. Watts's bandmates Jagger, Richards and Wood paid tribute to him, along with former bandmate Wyman. Several other celebrities and rock musicians paid tribute to Watts following his death, including Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Elton John, Brian Wilson, Pete Townshend, Nick Mason, Roger Daltrey, the members of U2, Bryan Adams, Liam Gallagher, Brian May, Roger Taylor, Kenney Jones, Chad Smith, Questlove and Max Weinberg. For 10 days, the contents of the Rolling Stones' official website were replaced with a single picture of Watts in his memory.
Two days after his death, Jason Isbell and Brittney Spencer dedicated a cover performance of "Gimme Shelter" to Watts. On 27 August, the band's social media accounts shared a video tribute to Watts consisting of a montage of pictures and film footage. The montage was set to the Rolling Stones' 1974 track "If You Can't Rock Me", which opens with the lines "The band's on stage and it's one of those nights ... / The drummer thinks that he is dynamite, oh yeah". Watts was laid to rest in Devon after a small ceremony.
Accolades
Drumming
In 1991 The Guardian described Watts as an "heroic yet quaint archetype ... of the 'Rock Drummer', and we are unlikely to hear their like again". The Guardian attributed his professional survival to not ever aspiring for stardom nor forcing himself into songwriting. In the July 2006 issue of Modern Drummer magazine, Watts was voted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame, joining Ringo Starr, Keith Moon, Steve Gadd, Buddy Rich and other highly esteemed and influential drummers from the history of rock and jazz. The music critic Robert Christgau, called Watts "rock's greatest drummer". Unlike in most bands where the other musicians follow the lead of the drummer, Watts followed Richards; according to New York Times critic Michiko Kakutani, that is what "makes the Stones impossible to copy".
He is often regarded as one of the greatest drummers of all time. In 2016, he was ranked 12th on Rolling Stones "100 Greatest Drummers of All Time" list. Variety wrote on the day he died that he was "universally recognized as one of the greatest rock drummers of all time". Music critic Rob Sheffield wrote for Rolling Stone that Watts was "rock's ultimate drum god" who "made the Stones great by conceding nothing to them".
Appearance
The Daily Telegraph named him one of the World's Best Dressed Men. In 2006, Vanity Fair elected Watts into the International Best Dressed Hall of Fame List.
Discography
In addition to his work with the Rolling Stones, Watts released the following albums:
The Charlie Watts Orchestra – Live at Fulham Town Hall (1986, Columbia Records)
The Charlie Watts Quintet – From One Charlie (1991, Continuum Records)
The Charlie Watts Quintet – A Tribute to Charlie Parker with Strings (1992, Continuum Records)
The Charlie Watts Quintet – Warm and Tender (1993, Continuum Records)
The Charlie Watts Quintet – Long Ago and Far Away (1996, Virgin Records)
The Charlie Watts-Jim Keltner Project (2000, Cyber Octave Records)
The Charlie Watts Tentet – Watts at Scott's (2004, Sanctuary Records)
The ABC&D of Boogie Woogie – The Magic of Boogie Woogie (2010, Vagabond Records)
The ABC&D of Boogie Woogie – Live in Paris (2012, Eagle Records)
Charlie Watts meets the Danish Radio Big Band (Live with DR Big Band at Copenhagen 2010) (2017, Impulse! Records)
References
External links
Charlie Watts on Drummerworld
Charlie Watts and the Tentet
Charlie Watts And Tim Ries On Piano Jazz 2006 NPR
1941 births
2021 deaths
People from Bloomsbury
British rhythm and blues boom musicians
Crossover (music)
English jazz drummers
English rhythm and blues musicians
English rock drummers
English graphic designers
English comics artists
Musicians from London
People from Kingsbury, London
Musicians from Wembley
The Rolling Stones members
English drummers
British male drummers
All-Stars (band) members
Blues Incorporated members
Arabian breeders and trainers
British male jazz musicians | [
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|
234298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Merivale | Charles Merivale | Charles Merivale (8 March 1808 – 27 December 1893) was an English historian and churchman, for many years dean of Ely Cathedral. He was one of the main instigators of the inaugural Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race which took place at Henley in 1829.
Life
Early life
Merivale was the second son of John Herman Merivale (1770–1844) and Louisa Heath Drury, daughter of Joseph Drury, headmaster of Harrow. He was educated at Harrow School under George Butler from 1818 to 1824, where his chief schoolfriends were Charles Wordsworth and Richard Chenevix Trench. He took part in the Eton versus Harrow cricket match in 1824. In 1824 he was offered a post in the Indian civil service, and went for a short time to Haileybury College, where he did well in Oriental languages. Deciding against an Indian career, he went up to St John's College, Cambridge in 1826. Among other distinctions he came out as fourth classic in 1830, and in 1833 was elected fellow of St John's. He was a member of the Apostles' Club, his fellow-members including Tennyson, A. H. Hallam, Monckton Milnes, W. H. Thompson, Trench and James Spedding. Merivale was the main protagonist on the Cambridge side in instigating the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race held at Henley on Thames in 1829. He rowed at number four in the Cambridge boat in the race which Oxford won.
Clerical career
Merivale was ordained deacon in 1833 and priest in 1834 and undertook college and university work successfully. He was appointed select preacher at Whitehall in 1839. In 1848 he took the college living of St Mary's Church, Lawford, near Manningtree in Essex. He was appointed Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons in 1863. In 1869, he declined the professorship of modern history at Cambridge, but in the same year accepted from Gladstone the deanery of Ely, and until his death devoted himself to the best interests of the cathedral, also receiving many honorary academical distinctions.
Personal life
Merivale married Judith Mary Sophia Frere, youngest daughter of George Frere in 1850. Their son John Herman Merivale was the first English professor of mining.
Death
Merivale died at Ely at the age of 85. There is a memorial to him in Ely Cathedral and St Mary's Church, Lawford.
Works
Merivale's principal work was A History of the Romans under the Empire in eight volumes, which came out between 1850 and 1862. It was intended to fill the gaps between the focus of the works by Mommsen and Gibbon.
He condensed his treatment and expanded his scope ten years later to complete A General History of Rome from the Foundation of the City to the Fall of Augustulus (1875).
He wrote several smaller historical works like The Roman Triumvirates (1876), and published sermons, lectures, and Latin verses. His rendering of John Keats's Hyperion into Latin verse (1862) received high praise.
See also
List of Cambridge University Boat Race crews
English translations of Homer: Charles Merivale
References
Autobiography of Dean Merivale, with selections from his correspondence, edited by his daughter, Judith A. Merivale (1899)
Family Memorials, by Anna W. Merivale (1884).
External links
1808 births
1893 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Cambridge University Boat Club rowers
English male rowers
English historians
19th-century English Anglican priests
Deans of Ely
English autobiographers
Scholars of Roman history
19th-century historians
English–Latin translators | [
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|
234308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngster | Youngster | Youngster may refer to:
a child
the Fisher Youngster single seat aircraft | [
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|
234310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20things%20named%20after%20James%20Joseph%20Sylvester | List of things named after James Joseph Sylvester | The mathematician J. J. Sylvester was known for his ability to coin new names and new notation for mathematical objects, not based on his own name. Nevertheless, many objects and results in mathematics have come to be named after him:
The Sylvester–Gallai theorem, on the existence of a line with only two of n given points.
Sylvester–Gallai configuration, a set of points and lines without any two-point lines.
Sylvester matroid, a matroid without any two-point lines.
Sylvester's determinant identity.
Sylvester's matrix theorem, a.k.a. Sylvester's formula, for a matrix function in terms of eigenvalues.
Sylvester's theorem on the product of k consecutive integers > k, that generalizes Bertrand's postulate.
Sylvester's law of inertia a.k.a. Sylvester's rigidity theorem, about the signature of a quadratic form.
Sylvester's identity about determinants of submatrices.
Sylvester's criterion, a characterization of positive-definite Hermitian matrices.
Sylvester domain.
The Sylvester matrix for two polynomials.
Sylvester's sequence, where each term is the product of previous terms plus one.
Sylvester cyclotomic numbers.
The Sylvester equation, AX + XB = C where are given matrices and X is an unknown matrix.
Sylvester's "four point problem" of geometric probability.
The Sylvester expansion or Fibonacci–Sylvester expansion of a rational number, a representation as a sum of unit fractions found by a greedy algorithm.
Sylvester's rank inequality rank(A) + rank(B) − n ≤ rank(AB) on the rank of the product of an matrix A and an matrix B.
Sylver coinage, a number-theoretic game.
Other things named after Sylvester
Sylvester (crater), an impact crater on the moon
Sylvester Medal, given by the Royal Society for the encouragement of mathematical research
Sylvester (javascript library), a vector, matrix and geometry library for JavaScript
See also
Sylvester's closed solution for the Frobenius coin problem when there are only two coins.
Sylvester's construction for an arbitrarily large Hadamard matrix.
Scientific equations named after people
References
Sylvester, J. J. | [
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|
234311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20German%20field%20marshals | List of German field marshals | Field marshal () was usually the highest military rank in various German armed forces. It had existed, under slightly different names, in several German states since 1631. After the unification of Germany it was the highest military rank of the Imperial German Army and later in the Wehrmacht until it was abolished in 1945.
The vast majority of the people promoted to field marshal won major battles in wars of their time. Field marshals played a compelling and influential role in military matters, were tax-exempt, members of the nobility, equal to government officials, under constant protection or escort, and had the right to directly report to the royal family. In the Prussian military tradition, which set the tone for the 19th century and the German Empire, field marshals could only be promoted in wartime and the royal family was excluded, both resulting in the creation of the rank of Colonel General with the rank of General Field Marshal (German: Generaloberst mit dem Range eines Generalfeldmarschalls) in 1854. Both restrictions would eventually end with the first royals being promoted during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, and later honoray promotions to foreign monarchs would follow. Adolf Hitler would end the wartime prerequisite effectively in 1936.
Electorate (1356–1806) and Kingdom of Saxony (1806–1918)
Brandenburg-Prussia and the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1870)
German Empire (1871–1918)
Weimar Republic (1918–33)
After the loss of the First World War, Germany was transformed into what became known as the Weimar Republic, which was established according to rules formulated under the Treaty of Versailles. These required the reduction of the German Army to 100,000 men, a reduction of the German Navy, and the abolition of the German Air Force. As a result of the new military arrangements, there were no field marshals created during the Weimar Republic.
Nazi Germany (1933–45)
See also
Field marshal (United Kingdom)
List of Russian field marshals
List of Swedish field marshals
Notes
References
Sources
Field marshals of Germany
Germany | [
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|
234313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar%20Bartholin | Caspar Bartholin | Caspar Bartholin (also Berthelsen or Bartholinus) may refer to:
Caspar Bartholin the Elder (1585–1629), Danish theologian and medical professor
Caspar Bartholin the Younger (1655–1738), Danish anatomist | [
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|
234315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Chenevix%20Trench | Richard Chenevix Trench | Richard Chenevix Trench (Richard Trench until 1873; 9 September 1807 – 28 March 1886) was an Anglican archbishop and poet.
Life
He was born in Dublin, Ireland, the son of Richard Trench (1774–1860), barrister-at-law, and the Dublin writer Melesina Chenevix (1768–1827). His elder brother was Francis Chenevix Trench. He went to school at Harrow, and graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1829. In 1830 he visited Spain. While incumbent of Curdridge Chapel near Bishop's Waltham in Hampshire, he published (1835) The Story of Justin Martyr and Other Poems, which was favourably received, and was followed in 1838 by Sabbation, Honor Neale, and other Poems, and in 1842 by Poems from Eastern Sources. These volumes revealed the author as the most gifted of the immediate disciples of Wordsworth, with a warmer colouring and more pronounced ecclesiastical sympathies than the master, and strong affinities to Alfred Lord Tennyson, John Keble and Richard Monckton Milnes.
In 1841 he resigned his living to become curate to Samuel Wilberforce, then rector of Alverstoke, and upon Wilberforce's promotion to the deanery of Westminster Abbey in 1845 he was presented to the rectory of Itchenstoke. In 1845 and 1846 he preached the Hulsean lecture, and in the former year was made examining chaplain to Wilberforce, now Bishop of Oxford. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a theological chair at King's College London.
Trench joined the Canterbury Association on 27 March 1848, on the same day as Samuel Wilberforce and Wilberforce's brother Robert.
In 1851 he established his fame as a philologist by The Study of Words, originally delivered as lectures to the pupils of the Diocesan Training School, Winchester. His stated purpose was to demonstrate that in words, even taken singly, "there are boundless stores of moral and historic truth, and no less of passion and imagination laid up"—an argument which he supported by a number of apposite illustrations. It was followed by two little volumes of similar character—English Past and Present (1855) and A Select Glossary of English Words (1859). All have gone through numerous editions and have contributed much to promote the historical study of the English tongue. Another great service to English philology was rendered by his paper, read before the Philological Society, On some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries (1857), which gave the first impulse to the great Oxford English Dictionary. Trench envisaged a totally new dictionary that was a 'lexicon totius Anglicitatis'. As one of the three founders of the dictionary, he expressed his vision thus: it would be 'an entirely new Dictionary; no patch upon old garments, but a new garment throughout'.
His advocacy of a revised translation of the New Testament (1858) helped promote another great national project. In 1856 he published a valuable essay on Calderón, with a translation of a portion of Life is a Dream in the original metre. In 1841 he had published his Notes on the Parables of our Lord, and in 1846 his Notes on the Miracles, popular works which are treasuries of erudite and acute illustration.
In 1856 Trench became Dean of Westminster Abbey, a position which suited him. Here he introduced evening nave services. In January 1864 he was advanced to the post of Archbishop of Dublin. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley had been first choice, but was rejected by the Irish Church, and, according to Bishop Wilberforce's correspondence, Trench's appointment was favoured neither by the prime minister nor the lord-lieutenant. It was, moreover, unpopular in Ireland, and a blow to English literature; yet it turned out to be fortunate. Trench could not prevent the disestablishment of the Irish Church, though he resisted with dignity. But, when the disestablished communion had to be reconstituted under the greatest difficulties, it was important that the occupant of his position should be a man of a liberal and genial spirit.
This was the work of the remainder of Trench's life; it exposed him at times to considerable abuse, but he came to be appreciated, and, when in November 1884 he resigned his archbishopric because of poor health, clergy and laity unanimously recorded their sense of his "wisdom, learning, diligence, and munificence." He had found time for Lectures on Medieval Church History (1878); his poetical works were rearranged and collected in two volumes (last edition, 1885). He died in London, after a lingering illness.
From 1872 and during his successor's incumbency the post of Dean of Christ Church, Dublin was held with the archbishopric. He died on 28 March 1886 at Eaton Square, London, and was buried at Westminster Abbey.
George W. E. Russell described Trench as "a man of singularly vague and dreamy habits" and recounted the following anecdote of his old age:He once went back to pay a visit to his successor, Lord Plunket. Finding himself back again in his old palace, sitting at his old dinner-table, and gazing across it at his wife, he lapsed in memory to the days when he was master of the house, and gently remarked to Mrs Trench, "I am afraid, my love, that we must put this cook down among our failures."
Trench's Letters and Memorial
Richard Chenevix Trench, Archbishop: Letters and Memorials, Edited by the Author of “Charles Lowder” (Maria Trench), Volume 1 (1888).
Richard Chenevix Trench, Archbishop: Letters and Memorials, Edited by the Author of “Charles Lowder” (Maria Trench), Volume 2 (1888).
Family
Richard Chenevix Trench married his cousin, Hon. Frances Mary Trench, daughter of Francis Trench and Mary Mason, and sister of the 2nd Lord Ashtown, on 1 June 1832. They had 14 children; 8 sons and 6 daughters:
Francis William Trench (1833–1841)
Melesina Mary Chenevix Trench (1834–1918)
Richard Trench (1836–1861)
Frederic Chenevix Trench (1837–1894) (Major General Trench)
Charles Chenevix Trench (1839–1933)
Arthur Julius Trench (1840–1860)
Emily Elizabeth Trench (1842–1842)
Philip Chenevix Trench (1843–1848)
Edith Chenevix Trench (1844–1942), married in 1889 Reginald Stephen Copleston (1845–1925), Bishop of Colombo and later Bishop of Calcutta
Helen Emily Chenevix Trench (1846–1935)
Frances Harriet Chenevix Trench (1847–1941)
Rose Julia Chenevix Trench (1848–1902)
Alfred Chenevix Trench (1849–1938)
Herbert Francis Chenevix Trench (1850–1900)
Works
The Story of Justin Martyr and other Poems (1835).
The Story of Justin Martyr and other Poems (2nd Edition, 1835).
Sabbation; Honor Neale, and other Poems (1838).
Poems (1841).
Poems from Eastern Sources: the Steadfast Prince, and other Poems (1842).
Genoveva: a Poem, (1842).
The Story of Justin Martyr: Sabbation and Other Poems (1844).
The Fitness of Holy Scripture for Unfolding the Spiritual Life of Man (1845 & 1856).
Christ the Desire of all Nations: Being The Hulsean Lectures (1846).
The Hulsean Lectures: Christ the Desire of all Nations for 1845 and 1846: 2nd ed., rev. (1847).
[https://archive.org/details/notesonparables02trengoog on the Parables of Our Lord (1847).]
Sacred Latin Poetry (1849).
Notes on the Miracles of Our Lord (1850).
The Star of the Wise Men (1850).
Exposition of the Sermon on the Mount: Second Edition Revised and Improved (1851).
Poems from Eastern Sources, Genoveva, and other Poems (1851).
On the Lessons in Proverbs: Five Lectures (1853).
On the Study of Words: Five Lectures, Fourth Edition Revised (1853).
The Fitness of the Holy Scripture (1854).
Alma: and Other Poems (1855).
Calderon, his Life and Genius, with Specimens of his Plays (1856).
Life's a Dream: The Great Theatre of the World trans from the Spanish of Calderon, with an Essay on His Life and Genius (1856 & 1860).]
[https://books.google.com/books?id=dWAXAAAAYAAJ Poems (1856).
On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries (1857).
Sermons Preached Before the University of Cambridge (1857).
On the Authorized Version of the New Testament (1858).
Brands Plucked Out of the Fire: A Sermon (1858).
On the English Language, Past and Present: Five Lectures (1858).
A Select Glossary of English Words (1860).
Sermons Preached in Westminster Abbey (1860).
Synonyms of the New Testament: Fifth Edition Revised (1860).
Proverbs and their Lessons (1861).
Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia: Revelation II, III (1863).
Every Good Gift from Above (1864).
Poems: Collected and Arranged Anew (1865).
Studies in the Gospels (1867).
A Household Book of English Poetry (1868).
Plutarch, his life, and his Lives and his Morals (1873).
Sermons Preached for the Most Part in Ireland (1873).
Synonyms of the New Testament: 9th ed., improved (1880).
Brief Thoughts and Meditations on some Passages in Holy Scripture (1884).
Lectures on Medieval Church History (1886).
Sermons New and Old (1886).
Shipwrecks of Faith: Three Sermons (1886).
Sonnets and Elegiacs (1910).
The Study of Words: Condensed by Grenville Kleiser (1911).
See also
Parables of Jesus
Miracles of Jesus
Notes
References
Further reading
Downing, Gregory M. (1998). "Richard Chenevix Trench and Joyce's Historical Study of Words," Joyce Studies Annual, Vol. IX, pp. 37–68.
Sperling, Matthew (2014). "Richard Chenevix Trench." In: Visionary Philology: Geoffrey Hill and the Study of Words. Oxford University Press, pp. 40–72.
Wiersbe, Warren W. (2009). “Richard Chenevix Trench” in 50 People Every Christian Should Know: Learning from Spiritual Giants of the Faith ''. BakerBooks, pp. 67–73
External links
New Testament Synonyms
on Trench’s tomb in Westminster Abbey.
C. Trench Loved Words: A Brief Biography.
Chenevix Trench: Poems.
biography and poems used as hymns.
0010010010101000111010010101
1807 births
1886 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Academics of King's College London
Deans of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
Anglican archbishops of Dublin
British poets
Presidents of the Cambridge Union
Deans of Westminster
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Richard
Members of the Canterbury Association
British male poets
19th-century poets
19th-century British male writers
Irish Anglican archbishops | [
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234317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavala | Kavala | Kavala (, Kavála ) is a city in northern Greece, the principal seaport of eastern Macedonia and the capital of Kavala regional unit.
It is situated on the Bay of Kavala, across from the island of Thasos and on the Egnatia motorway, a one-and-a-half-hour drive to Thessaloniki ( west) and a forty-minute drive to Drama ( north) and Xanthi ( east). It is also about 150 kilometers west of Alexandroupoli.
Kavala is an important economic centre of Northern Greece, a center of commerce, tourism, fishing and oil-related activities, and formerly a thriving trade in tobacco.
Names
Historically the city is also known by two different names. In antiquity the name of the city was Neapolis ('new city', like many Greek colonies). During the Middle Ages was renamed to Christo(u)polis ('city of Christ').
Etymology
The etymology of the modern name of the city is disputed. Some mention an ancient Greek settlement of Skavala near the town. Others propose that the name is derived from the Italian cavallo which means horse. The city is situated on the ancient route of Via Egnatia; hence Cavala designated "the horses" (cavalla) where imperial couriers changed horses. The French traveller Bellon, who visited Kavala in 1547, mentions a local tradition that the city initially took its name from Alexander the Great, who named it "Bukephala", after the name of his horse Bucephalus. Another possibility is that "Kavala" is a Turkish name, given by the Turks after they refounded the city at the beginning of the 16th century . Last but not least, as the archaeologist Georgios Bakalakis first pointed out, there was a Byzantine fortress named Kavala close to the Byzantine city of Ikonio - now Konya - in Asia Minor. When the Ottomans brought Muslim settlers from Ikonio to establish in the territory of Kavala at the beginning of the 16th century, these people brought the name of their homeland with them. Nowadays the city's nickname is "the cyan city" (Η γαλάζια πόλη) and the symbol of the municipality of Kavala is the head of goddess Parthenos, the patron goddess of ancient Neapolis, as depicted in the coinage of the ancient Greek city.
History
Antiquity
The city was founded in the late 7th century BC by settlers from Thassos. It was one of several Thassian colonies along the coastline, all founded in order to take advantage of rich gold and silver mines, especially those located in the nearby Pangaion mountain (which were eventually exploited by Phillip II of Macedonia).
Worship of Parthenos/Virgin, a female deity of Greek Ionian origin associated with Athena, is archaeologically attested in the Archaic period. At the end of the 6th century BC Neapolis claimed independence from Thassos and began issuing its own silver coins with the head of Gorgo (γοργὀνειο) on one side. A few decades later a large Ionic temple made from Thassian marble replaced the Archaic one. Parts of it can now be seen in the town's archaeological museum.
In 411 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, Neapolis was besieged by the allied armies of the Spartans and the Thassians but remained faithful to Athens. Two Athenian honorary decrees in 410 and 407 BC rewarded Neapolis for its loyalty.
Neapolis was a town of Macedonia, located from the harbour of Philippi. It was a member of the Second Athenian League; a pillar found in Athens mentions the contribution of Neapolis to the alliance.
The town was later conquered by the Kingdom of Macedonia.
Roman Era
The military Roman road Via Egnatia passed through the city and helped commerce to flourish. It became a Roman civitas in 168 BC, and was a base for Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC, before their defeat in the Battle of Philippi.
The Apostle Paul landed at Neapolis during his first voyage to Europe.
Middle Ages
In the 6th century, Byzantine emperor Justinian I, a descendant of a Romanised noble Thracian family (see Aromanians), fortified the city in an effort to protect it from barbarian raids. In later Byzantine times the city was called "Christo(u)polis" (Χριστούπολις, "city of Christ") and belonged initially to the theme of Macedonia and later to the Theme of Strymon. The first surviving mention of the new name is in a taktikon of the early 9th century. The city is also mentioned in the "Life of St. Gregory of Dekapolis". In the 8th and 9th centuries, Bulgarian attacks forced the Byzantines to reorganise the defence of the area, giving great care to Christoupolis with fortifications and a notable garrison. The city remained under Byzantine control and in 837 Byzantine armed forces from Christoupolis under the command of Caesar Alexius Moselie stopped Bulgarian raids in the plain of Philippoi.
At about 830-840 AD dates a Greek inscription on the walls of a defensive tower of the fortifications of the city, still visible today, and in 926, according to another inscription (nowadays in the archaeological museum of Kavala), the General of the Theme of Strymon Vasilios Klaudon, restored the "fallen and damaged" defensive walls.
In the mid of the 12th century the Arab geographer Edrisi visited Christoupolis and described it as a well fortified city and a center of sea trade. According to another inscription, also nowadays in the archaeological museum of Kavala, the Normans probably burnt the city in 1185, after they captured first Thessaloniki. Some years later, the city fell to the hands of the Lombards, after the Fourth Crusade and was liberated again by the leader of the state of Epirus, Theodorus Komnenos, in 1225.
In 1302, the Catalans failed to capture the city. In order to prevent them from coming back, the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos built a new long defensive wall. In 1357 two Byzantine officers and brothers, Alexios and John, controlled the city and its territory. Excavations have revealed the ruins of an early Byzantine basilica under an Ottoman mosque in the Old Town. It was used until the late Byzantine era.
Ottoman Era
The Ottoman Turks first captured the city in 1387. Kavala remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912. In the 16th century, an Aromanian that had converted to Islam in his late teenhood, Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier of Suleiman the Magnificent, contributed to the town's prosperity and growth by reconstructing the late Roman (1st - 6th century AD) aqueduct. The Ottomans also extended the Byzantine fortress on the hill of Panagia. Both landmarks are among the most recognizable symbols of the city today.
Mehmet Ali, the founder of a dynasty that ruled Egypt, was born in Kavala in 1769. His house has been preserved as a museum.
20th century
Kavala was liberated by the Greek navy during the Second Balkan War and was incorporated into Greece with the treaty of Bucharest. In August 1916 remnants of the IV Army Corps, stationed at Kavala under Ioannis Hatzopoulos surrendered to the advancing Bulgarian army. These events provoked a military revolt in Thessaloniki, which led to the establishment of the Provisional Government of National Defence, and eventually Greece's entry into the First World War.
The Bulgarian occupation of the city lasted from August 1916 till September 1918 and its result was the death of c. 12.000 Greeks, as the Bulgarian army organized an ethnic cleansing against the Greek population of the city and Eastern Macedonia. Hundreds of victims and eye-witnesses testified about the Bulgarian atrocities in the post-war inter-Allied interrogatory committee, which finally gave its report on 21 April 1919, after in situ examination of the circumstances.
After the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, the city entered a new era of prosperity because of the labor offered by the thousands of refugees that moved to the area from Asia Minor. The development was both industrial and agricultural. Kavala became greatly involved and developed further in the processing and trading of tobacco. Many buildings related to the storage and processing of tobacco from that era are preserved in the city. During the Interwar period and the Second Hellenic Republic, Kavala was the 4th largest city in Greece (after Athens, Thessaloniki, and Patras). In 1934 Dimitrios Partsalidis was elected mayor of Kavala, the first communist mayor in modern Greek history. The city gained temporarily by the Press, the nickname "Little Moscow".
During the Second World War and after the Battle of Greece, Bulgaria occupied the city again, following the German invasion (April 1941). During the Bulgarian occupation (1941–1944), almost the entire Jewish community of the city was exterminated as part of the Holocaust.
Following the years after the Second World War, the city faced economic decline and emigration.
In the late 1950s, Kavala expanded towards the sea by reclaiming land from the area west of the port.
In 1967, King Constantine II left Athens for Kavala in an unsuccessful attempt to launch a counter-coup against the military junta.
Historical population
Administration
Municipality
The municipality of Kavala was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the two former municipalities, which became municipal units:
The municipality has an area of . The population of the new municipality is 70,501 (2011). The seat of the municipality is in Kavala.
Some of the most important communities inside new municipality are:
Subdivisions (districts)
Kavala is built amphitheatrically, with most residents enjoying superb views of the coast and sea. Some of the areas inside Kavala are:
Main streets
Poulidou Street
Ethikis Antistaseos Avenue
Omonoias Street
Pipinou
Katsoni
Votsi
Kimonos
Dragoumi
Drakontos
Viktoros Hugo
Konstantinidi
Komninon
Kountourioti
Ermionis
Filikis Eterias
Venizelou
Anthemiou
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Kavala is twinned with:
Partnerships
Province
The province of Kavala () was one of the provinces of the Kavala Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipality Kavala, and part of the municipal unit Eleftheroupoli. It was abolished in 2006.
Economy
Traditionally the primary occupation of the population of Kavala was fishing. The fishermen of the town were well known all over northern Greece.
After the country's industrialization, Kavala also became a center of the tobacco industry in northern Greece. The building of the Municipal Tobacco Warehouse (1910) still stands today.
Oil deposits were found outside the city in the 1970s and are currently exploited by two oil rigs (Prinos and Epsilon).
Climate
Kavala has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) that borders on both a semi-arid climate and a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk, Cfa) with annual average precipitation of . Snowfalls are sporadic, but happen more or less every year. The humidity is always very high.
The absolute maximum temperature ever recorded was , while the absolute minimum ever recorded was .
Education and research
The International Hellenic University (IHU; Greek: Διεθνές Πανεπιστήμιο της Ελλάδος) has five departments in Kavala (Computer Science, Physics, Chemistry, Management Science and Technology, Accounting and Information Systems). The campus of the institute located in St. Lukas, Kavala and is approximately 132,000 m2 with buildings covering an area of 36,000 m2.
MSc in Management and Information Systems
Fisheries Research Institute (FRI) is one of the five specialized research institutes of N.AG.RE.F, being responsible to conduct research and to promote technological development in the fishery sector. The institute is located from Kavala, in Nea Peramos, at the center of a marine area with rich fishery grounds and high biodiversity in the surrounding lagoons, lakes, and rivers.
Institute of Mohamed Ali for the Research of the Eastern Tradition (IMARET) is a registered NGO with the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which was established by concerned citizens in Kavala. Its aims include the study of the Egyptian influence in Greece and vice versa. The intra-cultural exchange and dialogue, as well as the promotion of art as a means of intra-cultural understanding. The first major co-operation partner is Cultnat of Bibliotheca Alexandrina with the aim of documenting and digitizing the architectural heritage of the Mohamed Ali era in Egypt and Greece. The most important event that takes place every year at the institute is the International Roman Law Moot Court Competition.
Historical & Literary Archives of Kavala is a non-profiteering, public utility foundation. Its foundation was not subsidized by the Greek State, either by any other enterprise of the private sector. Its operational cost is covered only by its founders and by infrequent aids of the local self-government.
Egnatia Aviation is a private training college for pilots that started training in Greece in July 2006. The facilities of Egnatia Aviation are mostly located in the former passengers' terminal of the Kavala International Airport "Alexander the Great".
Culture
Festivals and events
Kavala hosts a wide array of cultural events, which mostly take place during the summer months. One of the top festivals is the Festival of Philippi which lasts from July to September and includes theatrical performances and music concerts. Since 1957, it has been the city's most important cultural event and one of the most important of Greece.
Kavala AirSea Show is also an annual air show held in late June.
"Cosmopolis" is an international festival held in the Old Town of Kavala that offers an acquaintance with cultures around the world through dancing and musical groups, traditional national cuisines, cinema, and exhibits at the kiosks of participant countries. The first festival took place in 2000, and from 2002 until 2009 was organized annually. It was revived in 2016 with a participation of 250 artists and musicians from all over the world.
Yiannis Papaioannou's Festival includes concerts and music seminars.
"Ilios kai Petra" (Sun and Stone) (July) is a festival held in "Akontisma" of Nea Karvali. The event is of folkloric character, with the participation of traditional dancing groups from all over the world.
Wood Water Wild Festival is an outdoor activities festival, inspired by nature. It includes live bands and DJ sets, body&mind activities, a book fair, outdoor theatre, ecology, camping, and debates.
Various cultural events are held in all municipalities of Kavala during the summer months.
In popular culture
In 1934 Mitsos Partsalidis was elected mayor of Kavala, the first communist mayor in modern Greek history. The city gained temporarily by the press, the nickname "little Moscow".
Among movies shot in the city is Topkapi (1964), partially shot in Kavala.
Cuisine
Fish and seafood, as well as the products of the local livestock breeding and agricultural sectors, are the prevailing elements of Kavala cuisine. In Kavala, the traditional local recipes have been also influenced by the cuisine of the refugees from Pontus and Asia Minor.
Fresh fish and seafood, especially sardines, shrimp salad (garidosalata), mackerel "goúna" (sun-dried mackerel on the grill), kavouropilafo, mussels with rice, herring saganáki, anchovies wrapped in grape leaves, stuffed eggplants and from meat plates, lamb with spinach, are some renowned recipes in Kavala and the coastal settlements of the region. The grapes, wine, and tsipouro produced in the area, as well as the kourabiedes (sugar-coated almond biscuits) from Nea Karvali, are particularly famous.
Transport
Highway network
European route E90 runs through the city and connects Kavala with the other cities. The Egnatia Motorway (A2) lies north of the city. One can enter the city from one of two junctions: Kavala West and Kavala East. Kavala has regular connection with Interregional Bus Lines (KTEL) from and to Thessaloniki and Athens.
Airport
The Kavala International Airport "Alexander the Great" ( from Kavala) is connected with Athens by regularly scheduled flights and with many European cities by scheduled and charter flights.
Port
Kavala is connected with all the islands of the Northern Aegean Sea with frequent itineraries of various ferry lines.
Bus
The city is connected with all of the large Greek cities such as Thessaloniki and Athens. All of the local villages are also connected via bus lines. The cost of tickets is very cheap. There is also a shuttle bus in Kavala with these lines:
Vironas – Kallithea
Dexameni
Cemetery
Kipoupoli – Technological Institute
Agios Loukas
Profitis Ilias
Stadium
Kalamitsa – Batis (only in summer)
Agios Konstantinos
Neapoli
Hospital – Perigiali
Rail
Kavala is not currently connected to the Greek rail network. However, plans exist to build a new Thessaloniki–Xanthi rail line via Kavala, as part of the Egnatia Railway corridor, at a cost of €1.25 billion. In 2019, Hellenic Railways Organisation awarded the contract to build the initial section between Xanthi and Kavala at a cost of €250 million.
Sports
Kavala F.C.: AO Kavala (Greek: Athlitikos Omilos Kavala, Αθλητικός Όμιλος Καβάλα), the Athletic Club Kavala, is a professional association football club based in Kavala. The club plays in the municipal Kavala Stadium "Anthi Karagianni".
Kavala B.C.: Enosi Kalathosfairisis Kavalas () is a Greek professional basketball club in Kavala. The club is also known as E.K. Kavalas. The club's full Greek name is Ένωση Καλαθοσφαίρισης Καβάλας (Kavala Basketball Union or Kavala Basketball Association). The club competes in the Greek League.
Kavala '86: a women's football club, founded in 1986, with panhellenic titles in Greek women football
Kavala Chess Club: Chess is very popular in Kavala and the local chess club ranks top in Greece, enjoying plenty of success both domestically and internationally. The highlight is the club's annual International Open, which takes place every August in Kavala and attracts the biggest names in chess from all over the globe.
Nautical Club of Kavala (1945, Ναυτικός Ομιλος Καβάλας, ΝΟΚ): maritime sports (swimming, yachting, water polo)
Kavala Table Tennis Club (ΑΣΕΑ Καβάλας): table tennis
Kavala Titans (2009, Τιτάνες Καβάλας): rugby union/rugby league
Ecclesiastical history
Neapolis was important enough in the Late Roman province of Macedonia Secunda to be a suffragan of its capital Philippi's Metropolitan Archbishopric into the frames of the Greek - Christian eastern church. In the 8th century A.D. refers for the first time a bishopric of Christoupolis and later, between 886 - 912, during the reign of the emperor Leo the Wise, Christoupolis is mentioned as one of the six bishoprics of the metropolis of Philippi. Only later, in 1260, Christoupolis became a metropolis itself.
After the liberation of the city of Kavala by the Greek army during the Balkan Wars, the local church was re-established under the official title "Metropolis of Philippi, Neapolis and Thasos" till nowadays. Metropolis of Kavala established a conference center dedicated to Saint Paul, in the village of Lydia, near the spot where, according to tradition, Paul baptized saint Lydia, in the river Zygaktis. In the same spot, Metropolis established a unique open-air baptistery as well as a unique octagonal baptistery, with mosaic and stained - glass decoration, the only such temple in Greece.
Titular see
The diocese of Christopolis was nominally restored in 1933 as a Latin Catholic titular bishopric. There is also a Catholic church in the city ("Saint Paul", in the building of the old Lazarist monastery).
It is vacant, having had the following, far from consecutive, incumbents of the lowest (episcopal) rank, except the latest (archiepiscopal, intermediary rank):
Jean Isembert, Dominican Order (O.P.) (1450.05.11 – 1465.09.08)
Jaime Perez de Valencia, Augustinian Order (O.E.S.A.) (1468.10.01 – 1490.08.03)
Ausiás Carbonell, O.P. (1509.04.16 – 1532.12.09)
Enrique Rutil (1525.11.10 – ?)
Bishop-elect Francisco de Jaén (1530.12.05 – ?)
Francisco Estaña (1534.12.16 – 1549.06.23)
Gian Antonio Fassano (1544.06.04 – 1568.09.10)
Juan Segría (1547.11.28 – 1568.07.23) as Auxiliary Bishop of Valencia (Spain) (1547.11.28 – 1568.07.23); later Metropolitan Archbishop of Sassari (Sardinia, Italy) (1568.07.23 – death 1569.09.26), Metropolitan Archbishop of Palermo (Sicily, Italy) (1569.09.26 – 1569 not possessed)
Pedro Coderos (1570.02.20 – 1579.10.21) as Auxiliary Bishop of Valencia (Spain) (1570.02.20 – 1579.10.21); later Metropolitan Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1579.10.21 – 1585)
Marcin Szyszkowski (1603.11.24 – 1604.06)
Ludovico de Taragni, Benedictine Order (O.S.B.) (1612.03.21 – ?)
Michael Chumer, Friars Minor (O.F.M.) (1639.10.03 – 1651.06.30)
Maxime Tessier (1951.05.28 – 1955.05.08)
Otto Spülbeck (1955.06.28 – 1958.06.23)
Michael William Hyle (1958.07.03 – 1960.03.02)
Titular Archbishop Sante Portalupi (1961.10.14 – 1984.03.31), papal diplomat
Media
TV: ENA Channel, Center TV
Newspapers: Proini, Kavala (newspaper), Chronometro
Postage stamps
Austria opened a post office in Kavala before 1864. Between 1893 and 1903, the French post office in the city issued its own postage stamps; at first stamps of France overprinted with "Cavalle" and a value in piasters, then in 1902 the French designs inscribed "CAVALLE".
Consulates
In the past the city hosted consulates from different European countries. Currently hosts consulates from the following countries:
Italy
Notable figures
Ilarion Karatzoglou, rebel of the Greek Rebellion against the Ottoman Empire in 1821.
Muhammad Ali Pasha of Kavala, the Albanian Wali (governor) of Egypt between 1805 and 1848 and founder of the modern state of Egypt
Mohamed Sherif Pasha, Prime Minister of Egypt
Tryfon Alexiadis, politician
Christos Batzios, actor and filmmaker
Anna-Maria Botsari, chess player
Vassilis Daniil, football coach
Pavlos Dermitzakis, football coach
Periklis Drakos, Greek chieftain of the Macedonian Struggle and Balkan Wars
Nasos Galakteros, basketball player
Giorgos Georgiadis, footballer
Anna Gerasimou, tennis player
Nikos Karageorgiou (born 1962), football manager
Anthi Karagianni, silver medalist in the Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008 Paralympic Games; the city's Municipal stadium is named after her
Theodore Kavalliotis, Greek Orthodox priest, teacher and a figure of the Greek Enlightenment
Vasilis Karras, singer
Kostas Mitroglou, footballer
Leontios Petmezas, theorist, art historian, book critic, author and journalist
Yiannis Papaioannou, composer
Dimitris Paridis, footballer
Mitsos Partsalidis, first elected communist mayor in modern Greek history, on 1 April 1934
Betty Robbins, cantor
Sofoklis Schortsanitis, basketball player
Christos Terzanidis, footballer
Antigone Valakou, actress
Despina Vandi, singer
Anna Verouli, 1982 Gold Medalist, European Championship, javelin thrower
Vassilis Vassilikos, writer and diplomat
Zisis Vryzas (born 1973), former footballer
Theodoros Zagorakis (born 27 October 1971), former footballer, captain of national team of Greece, European Champions 2004
Giannis Stoforidis, kickboxer
Kyriakos Kapakoulak, strongman
Gallery
See also
List of settlements in the Kavala regional unit
References
Bibliography
Koukouli-Chrisanthaki Chaido, Kavala. Αrchaeological Museum of Kavala, Kavala: D.E.T.A., 2002 (in English).
Stefanidou Emilia, The City-Port of Kavala during the Period of Turkish Rule. An Urban Survey (1391–1912), Kavala: Historical & Literary Archive of Kavala, 2007 (in Greek).
Karagiannakidis Nikos – Likourinos Kyriakos, Neapolis-Christoupolis-Kavala, Kavala: Municipality of Kavala, 2009 (in Greek).
Koutzakiotis Georges, Cavalla, une Échelle égéenne au XVIIIe siècle. Négociants européens et notables ottomans, Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2009.
Roudometof Nikolaos (ed.), Notebooks of Bulgarian Occupation. Eastern Macedonia 1916–1918. v. 1, Kavala – Chrisoupoli – Eleutheroupoli, Kavala: Historical & Literary Archive of Kavala (in Greek).
Stavridou-Zafraka Alkmene, The development of the theme organization in Macedonia, in Byzantine Macedonia: Identity, Image and History, edited by J. Burke, R. Scott, Brill, 2000, p. 128 – 138.
External links
Official website (in Greek)
The official website of the prefecture of Kavala – online since 1996
GCatholic with titular incumbent biography links
Official Blog of students of ATEI Kavalas
sun disappeared – Fire Kavala 1985
Greek prefectural capitals
Municipalities of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
Christopolis
Fortified settlements
Mediterranean port cities and towns in Greece
Provinces of Greece
Port cities of the Aegean Sea
Pauline churches
Populated places in Kavala (regional unit)
Populated places established in the 7th century BC | [
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|
234318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20N%C3%B6rdlingen | Battle of Nördlingen | The term Battle of Nördlingen refers to two battles during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).
Battle of Nördlingen (1634)
Battle of Nördlingen (1645) | [
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|
234319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Horn | Gustav Horn | Gustav Horn may refer to:
Gustav Horn, Count of Pori (1592–1657), Swedish/Finnish soldier and politician
Gustav Evertsson Horn (1614–1666), Finnish-Swedish military and politician | [
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|
234320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutger%20von%20Ascheberg | Rutger von Ascheberg | Count Rutger von Ascheberg (2 June 1621 – 17 April 1693), also known as Roger von Ascheberg was a soldier, officer and civil servant in Swedish service, being appointed Lieutenant General in 1670, General in 1674, Field Marshal in 1678, Governor General of the Scanian provinces, in 1680, and Royal Councilor in 1681.
Biography
Ascheberg was born on the estate Berbonen (Perbohnen) in Courland (today part of Latvia) on 2 June 1621. He was of an old Westphalian family that had emigrated to Courland in the 16th century. His parents were Wilhelm von Ascheberg and Margaretha von der Osten.
Thirty Years' War
At the age of 13 he served as page for Colonel Brink of the Swedish army fighting in the Thirty Years' War in Germany. He was present at a number of major battles, including the Battle of Nördlingen in 1634.
In 1639 he left the army for studies in France. At the age of 19 he was drafted to a Hessian cavalry regiment in Swedish service. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Wolfenbüttel 1641. In the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642 he was wounded and captured by the enemy, but later rescued. During the remaining part of the Thirty Years' War, Ascheberg fought under Field Marshals Lennart Torstenson and Carl Gustaf Wrangel. He distinguished himself on a number of occasions and was made Cornet in 1644, Captain Lieutenant in 1645 and Rittmeister in 1646.
After the peace was settled in 1648, Ascheberg remained in Germany. He held a position as bailiff 1651–1655. In 1655, he was offered a position as Lieutenant Colonel and command of a regiment within the Swedish army, which prepared for a war against Poland-Lithuania.
Second Northern War (1655–1660)
The war, known as the Second Northern War, initially took place in Poland-Lithuania. Ascheberg proved to be successful during the campaign. In March 1656. after capturing the city of Jarosław, Ascheberg was promoted Colonel. In July of the same year, he attended the Battle of Warsaw. He commanded the Swedish forces in the Battle of Chojnice (Konitz), in which he was highly successful according to some sources. As a token of his appreciation, Swedish king Charles X Gustav gave von Ascheberg a rapier he had used in battle. von Ascheberg also received valuable jewellery and an estate in Prussia.
Denmark attacked Swedish dominions in Germany in 1657. This meant that the Swedish army, including the forces under Ascheberg's command, left Poland to instead engage their Danish enemy. In 1658, Ascheberg spearheaded the March across the Belts as the Swedish army marched across the ices of Little Belt and Great Belt in order to reach the Danish island of Zealand. He narrowly escaped being caught when the enemy under Frederick William of Brandenburg and Polish commander Stefan Czarniecki attacked Sønderborg in December 1658. In February 1659, he was badly wounded during the assault on Copenhagen. After spending 10 weeks abed, a recovered von Ascheberg returned to the battlefield in time to be in charge of the conquest of the island Møn in May 1659. He remained on the island until the war ended in 1660.
Promotions and knighting
In 1664, Ascheberg was promoted to Major General and in 1665, he took part when Field Marshal Wrangel led Swedish troops to the German city of Bremen during the conflict between Sweden and Bremen. He returned to Sweden when the conflict was settled. In 1670 he reached the rank of Lieutenant General and in 1673, he was declared Freiherr of the estate Kastellgården outside Kungälv. In 1674 he was promoted to General.
Scanian War (1675–1679)
In the Scanian War, Ascheberg first was responsible for the defence of Bohuslän against attacks from Norway. His force won a battle close to Kviström. He left Bohuslän for Scania and acted as commander in a number of battles, often alongside king Charles XI. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Halmstad in August 1676, where he was wounded in the arm. After recovering in Gothenburg, he joined the army in Scania in time to play a significant part in the largest battle of the war, the Battle of Lund in December. He contributed actively to the Swedish victory in the Battle of Landskrona 1677 after which he was appointed Lieutenant Field Marshal. Before the war ended he received highest command of the Swedish army in Scania. In November 1678, after the hostilities had practically ended but before a peace treaty had been negotiated, Ascheberg was handed the highest position within the Swedish army; Field Marshal.
Governor-General and Count
After the Scanian war had ended, in December 1679, Ascheberg was appointed Governor-General of Gothenburg, Bohuslän and Dalsland. In 1680, Scania and Halland was added to his governorship. He was declared Royal Councillor in 1681 and Count in 1687.
Mentor of the king
King Charles XI, who rose to the throne as a four-year-old when his father king Charles X Gustav died in 1660, saw Ascheberg as his military master. In a letter to Ascheberg, written 1680, Charles XI acknowledged that "...the little that I have learnt in this war, I have got Herr Field Marshal to thank for, and for as long as I live, I will acknowledge that".
Death
Ascheberg died in Gothenburg on 17 April 1693. He was buried in German Church (Tyska kyrkan), also known as Kristine Church, Gothenburg, on 26 August 1694. King Charles XI attended the funeral.
Among the manors and estates that Ascheberg owned at the time of his death were Kastellegården, Gullmarsberg, Holma, Torreby, Stenungsön and Ström, in Bohuslän, as well as Sövdeborg, Agerup and Tosterup in Scania.
Marriage and children
In 1650, Ascheberg married Maria Eleonora von Bussech, member of a noble family from Hessen. She lived 1632–1690 and was buried in 1691, in the same church that Ascheberg would be buried three years later. The couple had the following children:
George Fredrik von Ascheberg
Margareta Sabina von Ascheberg
Ludvig Volrath von Ascheberg
Anna Elisabeth von Ascheberg
Karl Gustaf von Ascheberg
Rutger von Ascheberg
Gustaf Adolf von Ascheberg
Kristian Ludvig von Ascheberg
Eleonora Elisabet von Ascheberg (1663–1737). She was born on 13 September 1663. On 14 September 1679 she married David Makeléer and she died on 13 November 1737.
Sofia Lovisa von Ascheberg (1664–1720), who married Hans Wachtmeister
Otto Vilhelm von Ascheberg (1665–1671)
Margareta von Ascheberg (1671–1753) who married Kjell Kristoffer Barnekow (1663–1700) on 26 January 1691
Legacy
A major street (Aschebergsgatan) is named in his honor in the city of Gothenburg.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Björlin, Gustaf.: Kriget mot Danmark 1675–1679. Stockholm 1885.
Wahlöö, Claes & Larsson, Göran.: Slaget vid Lund. Lund 1998.
See also
List of Swedish military commanders
List of Swedish wars
Dominions of Sweden
1621 births
1693 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish counts
Swedish people of German descent
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
17th-century Latvian people
Swedish people of the Thirty Years' War
Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War
Second Northern War
17th-century Swedish politicians | [
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|
234322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karmen%20Stavec | Karmen Stavec | Karmen Stavec (born 21 December 1973) is a Slovene musician and pop singer.
Early years
Karmen was born in West Berlin, at that time part of West Germany, to Slovene parents. After graduation she came to Domžale, Slovenia, where she joined the dance duo "4 Fun". She also began to study Germanic studies at the Philosophical Faculty at the University of Ljubljana. In 1998 she started her own solo career.
Music career
She has participated four times in Slovene national selection, called "EMA" for the Eurovision song contest in 1998 (with Patrik Greblo), EMA 2001, EMA 2002 and EMA 2003. In 2002, at the EMA, she took second place behind the transvestite trio Sestre ("The Sisters"), although she received the highest number of points from televoting. Her song, "Še in še" won the National Finals Song Contest. In 2003 she won, and she represented Slovenia at the Eurovision Song Contest 2003, where she finished in 23rd place with the song "Nanana", sung in English. The Slovene version of the song is called Lep poletni dan (meaning A Nice Summer Day).
In 2008, Karmen announced a return to the music scene with another entry in EMA 2009 with the song "A si želiš". She finished third in the semi-finals and tenth in the final.
Discography
Ostani Tu (2001)
Karmen (2003)
References
1973 births
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Slovenia
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
Living people
German people of Slovenian descent
Slovenian pop singers
21st-century Slovenian women singers
Musicians from Berlin
20th-century Slovenian women singers | [
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|
234326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20August%20Sandels | Johan August Sandels | Count Johan August Sandels (31 August 1764 – 22 January 1831) was a Swedish soldier and politician, being appointed Governor-general of Norway (Riksståthållare in Swedish, Rigsstatholder in Dano-Norwegian) 1818 and Field Marshal in 1824. He also served as acting Over-Governor of Stockholm in 1815.
Sandels was born in Stockholm. In the Finnish War (1808–1809) on 27 October 1808, he led the Swedish troops to victory against the Russian forces, at the Battle of Koljonvirta. His subordinate officers were Colonel Fahlander, Major Malm and Major Joachim Zachris Duncker.
These events and others in the Finnish War were later retold in a series of epic poems by Johan Ludvig Runeberg. Runeberg's poem tells a story of Sandels having a feast while the enemy mounts a premature attack. Sandels continues his meal and is accused of cowardice, after which he raises and rides to the battle, drives back the enemy and is praised by his men.
Sandels also fought in the Swedish ranks against Napoleon during the War of the Sixth Coalition in 1813 and 1814. He received some award for his services in form of a donation lands in the then Swedish Pomerania.
His granddaughter, Augusta Sandels, married Philip, Prince of Eulenburg and Hertefeld, bringing some Pomeranian inheritance to the Eulenburg family and her descendants. The couple were granted the Prussian title of Count Sandels, in addition to their other titles.
Named after Sandels
Sandels is a beer brewed by Olvi since 1971. Humorous stories about Colonel Sandels (and his love of beer and food) are printed on the back label. Sandels was named the top rated beer brand in Finland in a 2015 study.
See also
Finnish War
The Tales of Ensign Stål
References
External links
Biography of Johan August Sandels
1764 births
1831 deaths
Military personnel from Stockholm
Swedish nobility
Field marshals of Sweden
Swedish military personnel of the Finnish War
19th-century Swedish people
Swedish military commanders of the Napoleonic Wars | [
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|
234327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree%20warbler | Tree warbler | Tree warblers are medium-sized warblers in the marsh- and tree-warbler family Acrocephalidae. They are found in Europe, Africa and western Asia. Until recently, they were all classified in the single genus Hippolais.
These warblers are associated with trees, though normally in fairly open woodland rather than tight plantations. Compared with the closely related Acrocephalus species, tree warblers have squarer tails and broader bill-bases. Most are unstreaked greenish or brownish above and cream or white below. They are insectivorous, but will occasionally take berries or seeds. The species breeding in temperate regions are mostly strongly migratory.
Taxonomy
All the tree warblers were formerly placed in the "Old World warbler" family Sylviidae but are now separated in the family Acrocephalidae, along with the marsh warblers, Acrocephalus, and some related species.
Considerable evidence, much of it summarised in Parkin et al. (2004), suggests that the genus Hippolais is paraphyletic with respect to Acrocephalus. DNA studies, e.g. Leisler et al. (1997), interpreted by George Sangster in 1997, indicated that the olivaceous and booted/Sykes's warbler grouping (the subgenus Iduna) are more closely related to Acrocephalus species than they are to icterine and melodious warblers and as a result the Dutch Committee on Avian Systematics (CSNA) has moved these four species into Acrocephalus. A subsequent review by the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee retained the genus Hippolais, for all eight species, but in agreement with Sangster, acknowledged that they fell into two groups.
The retention of the Iduna grouping within Hippolais was done because it was felt that more evidence was needed for its placement, because of low bootstrap values, rather than because of a belief that the status quo was correct – no evidence was put forward to refute the DNA findings. Mark Constantine, in The Sound Approach to Birding, illustrated that there is extensive overlap in song types between species from the two genera, and that vocally, no characters existed which enabled species to be sorted into one genus or the other. Kenneth Williamson and Hadoram Shirihai, in discussing the identification of Hippolais and Acrocephalus warblers stressed the similarities between species in the two genera. Colin Bradshaw, in British Birds, has written several articles on morphological similarity between cross-generic species-pairs e.g. eastern olivaceous and Blyth's reed warblers (Bradshaw 2000) and paddyfield and booted warblers (e.g. Bradshaw & Steele 1995, Bradshaw & Steele 1997, the latter a response to Lars Svensson's comments on Bradshaw & Steele 1995).
The species are:
Genus Iduna
Thick-billed warbler, Iduna aedon
Booted warbler, Iduna caligata
Sykes's warbler, Iduna rama
Western olivaceous warbler (or isabelline warbler), Iduna opaca
Eastern olivaceous warbler, Iduna pallida
Mountain yellow warbler, Iduna similis
African yellow warbler, Iduna natalensis
Genus Hippolais
Upcher's warbler, Hippolais languida
Olive-tree warbler, Hippolais olivetorum
Melodious warbler, Hippolais polyglotta
Icterine warbler, Hippolais icterina
Genus Calamonastides
Papyrus yellow warbler, Calamonastides gracilirostris
References
Further reading
Hippolais
Iduna (bird)
Bird common names | [
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|
234328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20association | Stellar association | A stellar association is a very loose star cluster, looser than both open clusters and globular clusters. Stellar associations will normally contain from 10 to 100 or more stars. The stars share a common origin, but have become gravitationally unbound and are still moving together through space. Associations are primarily identified by their common movement vectors and ages. Identification by chemical composition is also used to factor in association memberships.
Stellar associations were first discovered by the Soviet Armenian astronomer Victor Ambartsumian in 1947. The conventional name for an association uses the names or abbreviations of the constellation (or constellations) in which they are located; the association type, and, sometimes, a numerical identifier.
Types
Victor Ambartsumian first categorized stellar associations into two groups, OB and T, based on the properties of their stars. A third category, R, was later suggested by Sidney van den Bergh for associations that illuminate reflection nebulae.
The OB, T, and R associations form a continuum of young stellar groupings. But it is currently uncertain whether they are an evolutionary sequence, or represent some other factor at work. Some groups also display properties of both OB and T associations, so the categorization is not always clear-cut.
OB associations
Young associations will contain 10–100 massive stars of spectral class O and B, and are known as OB associations. These are believed to form within the same small volume inside a giant molecular cloud. Once the surrounding dust and gas is blown away, the remaining stars become unbound and begin to drift apart. It is believed that the majority of all stars in the Milky Way were formed in OB associations.
O class stars are short-lived, and will expire as supernovae after roughly one to fifteen million years, depending on the mass of the star. As a result, OB associations are generally only a few million years in age or less. The O-B stars in the association will have burned all their fuel within
10 million years. (Compare this to the current age of the Sun at about 5 billion years.)
The Hipparcos satellite provided measurements that located a dozen OB associations within 650 parsecs of the Sun. The nearest OB association is the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, located about 400 light-years from the Sun.
OB associations have also been found in the Large Magellanic Cloud and the Andromeda Galaxy. These associations can be quite sparse, spanning 1,500 light-years in diameter.
T associations
Young stellar groups can contain a number of infant T Tauri stars that are still in the process of entering the main sequence. These sparse populations of up to a thousand T Tauri stars are known as T associations. The nearest example is the Taurus-Auriga T association (Tau-Aur T association), located at a distance of 140 parsecs from the Sun. Other examples of T associations include the R Corona Australis T association, the Lupus T association, the Chamaeleon T association and the Velorum T association. T associations are often found in the vicinity of the molecular cloud from which they formed. Some, but not all, include O-B class stars. To summarize the characteristics of Moving groups members: they have the same age and origin, the same chemical composition and they have the same amplitude and direction in their vector of velocity.
R associations
Associations of stars that illuminate reflection nebulae are called R associations, a name suggested by Sidney van den Bergh after he discovered that the stars in these nebulae had a non-uniform distribution. These young stellar groupings contain main sequence stars that are not sufficiently massive to disperse the interstellar clouds in which they formed. This allows the properties of the surrounding dark cloud to be examined by astronomers. Because R-associations are more plentiful than OB associations, they can be used to trace out the structure of the galactic spiral arms. An example of an R-association is Monoceros R2, located 830 ± 50 parsecs from the Sun.
Known associations
The Ursa Major Moving Group is one example of a stellar association. (Except for α Ursae Majoris and η Ursae Majoris, all the stars in the Plough/Big Dipper are part of that group.)
Other young moving groups include:
Local Association (Pleiades moving group)
Hyades Stream
IC 2391 supercluster
Beta Pictoris moving group
Castor moving group
AB Doradus moving group
Zeta Herculis moving group
Alpha Persei moving cluster
Cameleopardis OB1 association
See also
OB star
Moving groups
Open clusters
List of nearby stellar associations and moving groups
References
External links
Stellar kinematic groups, Superclusters, Moving Groups - D. Montes, UCM
New associations of young stars - D. Montes, UCM
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|
234329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Lower%20%28physician%29 | Richard Lower (physician) | Richard Lower (Cornwall, circa 1631 – London, 17 January 1691) was an English physician who heavily influenced the development of medical science: He is most remembered for his works on transfusion and the function of the cardiopulmonary system (Tractatus de Corde).
Life
Lower was born in St Tudy, Cornwall and studied at Westminster School where he met John Locke, and Christ Church, Oxford where he met Thomas Willis. He followed Willis to London, where he carried out research, some in partnership with Robert Hooke. His major work, Tractatus de Corde (1669) was concerned with the workings of the heart and lungs, and he experimented with blood transfusion.
Lower formed part of an informal research team, performing laboratory experiments at the University of Oxford during the Interregnum. He was a pioneer of experimental physiology. He earned an M.D. degree in 1665. Lower was a medical student under Willis (Professor of Natural Philosophy from 1660 to 1675) and then collaborated with him to investigate the nervous system. He began his own research on the heart. He traced the circulation of blood as it passes through the lungs and learned that it changes when exposed to air. He was the first to observe the difference in arterial and venous blood.
Lower showed it was possible for blood to be transfused from animal to animal and from animal to man intravenously, a xenotransfusion. In November 1667, he worked with Edmund King, another student of Willis, to transfuse sheep's blood into a man who was mentally ill. Lower was interested in advancing science but also believed the man could be helped, either by the infusion of fresh blood or by the removal of old blood. It was difficult to find people who would agree to be transfused, but an eccentric scholar, Arthur Coga, consented and the procedure was carried out by Lower and King before the Royal Society on 23 November 1667. Transfusion gathered some popularity in France and Italy, but medical and theological debates arose, resulting in transfusion being prohibited in France.
Lower studied the arterial circle at the base of the brain, named the circle of Willis after his teacher. He wanted to see if blood would continue to flow through the head if three of the four arteries supplying blood to the head were tied.
Lower also investigated to see how cerebrospinal fluid was formed and how it circulated. These experiments led to a study of hydrocephalus, a disease in which fluid collects in the cavities of the brain. In Lower's time, it was thought that catarrh, an inflammation of the mucous membranes, might be caused by seepage of fluid from the brain to the nose. De Catarrhis, Lower's book, is of historical significance because it was the first scholarly attempt by an English physician to take a classical doctrine (the theory that nasal secretions are an overspill from the brain) and to disprove it by scientific experiment.
Lower wrote Diatribae T. Willisii de Febribus Vindicatio, an eight-volume defence of Dr. Willis and his doctrine of fevers. In keeping with his interest in the circulatory system, Lower went on to write Tractatus de Corde, which described the muscular fibres of the heart, a method of ligaturing veins to produce dropsy, blood coagulation in the heart, the motion of digestive fluids, and other physiologic topics. Lower presented his Tractatus de Corde to the Royal Society in 1669.
Willis died in 1675 and Lower became busy with the demands of his medical practice. He took care of Charles II during his final illness in 1685. When James II took the throne, Lower did not continue as court physician because of his anti-Catholic and Whiggish sentiments. However, he was consulted during pregnancy by the woman who would later become Queen Anne.
Lower died in London from a fever.
See also
List of Cornish people
William Lower (dramatist), a cousin
Lower, Richard: Englisches Artzney-Büchlein . Vol. 1&2 . Gleditsch, Leipzig 1717 by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
References
External links
1631 births
1691 deaths
English scientists
People from St Tudy
17th-century English medical doctors
People educated at Westminster School, London
Fellows of the Royal Society
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford | [
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|
234337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Hunter%20%28anatomist%29 | William Hunter (anatomist) | William Hunter (23 May 1718 – 30 March 1783) was a Scottish anatomist and physician. He was a leading teacher of anatomy, and the outstanding obstetrician of his day. His guidance and training of his equally famous brother, John Hunter, was also of great importance.
Early life and career
Hunter was born at Long Calderwood, now a part of East Kilbride, South Lanarkshire, to Agnes Paul (c.1685–1751) and John Hunter (1662/3–1741). He was the elder brother of surgeon, John Hunter. After studying divinity at the University of Glasgow, he went into medicine in 1737, studying under William Cullen.
Arriving in London, Hunter became resident pupil to William Smellie (1741–44) and he was trained in anatomy at St George's Hospital, London, specialising in obstetrics. He followed the example of Smellie in giving a private course on dissecting, operative procedures and bandaging, from 1746. His courtly manners and sensible judgement helped him to advance until he became the leading obstetric consultant of London. Unlike Smellie, he did not favour the use of forceps in delivery. Stephen Paget said of him:
"He never married; he had no country house; he looks, in his portraits, a fastidious, fine gentleman; but he worked till he dropped and he lectured when he was dying."
To orthopaedic surgeons he is famous for his studies on bone and cartilage. In 1743 he published the paper On the structure and diseases of articulating cartilages – which is often cited – especially the following sentence: "If we consult the standard Chirurgical Writers from Hippocrates down to the present Age, we shall find, that an ulcerated Cartilage is universally allowed to be a very troublesome Disease; that it admits of a Cure with more Difficulty than carious Bone; and that, when destroyed, it is not recovered".
Later career
In 1764, he became physician to Queen Charlotte. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767 and Professor of Anatomy to the Royal Academy in 1768.
In 1768 he built the famous anatomy theatre and museum in Great Windmill Street, Soho, where the best British anatomists and surgeons of the period were trained. His greatest work was Anatomia uteri umani gravidi [The anatomy of the human gravid uterus exhibited in figures] (1774), with plates engraved by Rymsdyk (1730–90), and published by the Baskerville Press. He chose as a model for clear, precise but schematic illustration of anatomic dissections the drawings by Leonardo da Vinci conserved in the Royal Collection at Windsor: Kenneth Clark considered him responsible for the 18th century rediscovery of Leonardo's drawings in England. He praised them highly in his lectures and planned to publish them with his own commentary, but never had the time for the project before his death.
To aid his teaching of dissection, in 1775 Hunter commissioned sculptor Agostino Carlini to make a cast of the flayed but muscular corpse of a recently executed criminal, a smuggler. He was professor of anatomy at the Royal Academy of Arts in London from 1769 until 1772. He was interested in arts, and had strong connections to the artistic world.
An avid collector
Around 1765 William Hunter started collecting widely across a range of themes beyond medicine and anatomy: books, manuscripts, prints, coins, shells, zoological specimens, and minerals. In several of these areas, he worked closely with specialists, such as Johan Christian Fabricius, and George Fordyce who used his collections as tools for new biological and chemical science. He bequeathed his collections, plus a large sum to build a museum, to the University of Glasgow. The collections survive today as the nucleus of the University of Glasgow's Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, while his library and archives are now held in the University's library.
Hunter's coin collection was especially fine, and the Hunter Coin Cabinet in the Hunterian Museum is one of the world's great numismatic collections. According to the Preface of Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection (Macdonald 1899), Hunter purchased many important collections, including those of Horace Walpole and the bibliophile Thomas Crofts. King George III even donated an Athenian gold piece.
When the famous book collection of Anthony Askew, the Bibliotheca Askeviana, was auctioned off upon Askew's death in 1774, Hunter purchased many significant volumes in the face of stiff competition from the British Museum.
He died in London in 1783, aged 64, and was buried at St James's, Piccadilly. A memorial to him lies in the church.
Controversy
In 2010, the self-described historian Don Shelton made some lurid claims about the methods by which Hunter, his brother John, and his teacher and competitor William Smellie might have obtained bodies for their anatomical work. In a non-peer-reviewed opinion piece in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine he suggested that the two physicians committed multiple murders of pregnant women in order to gain access to corpses for anatomical dissection and physiological experimentation. He suggested that there was an inadequate match between supply and demand of pregnant corpses and that the two physicians must have commissioned many murders in order to carry out their work.
Shelton's comments attracted media publicity, but were heavily criticised on factual and methodological grounds by medical historians, who pointed out that in 1761, Peter Camper had indicated that figures "were not all from real life", and likely methods other than murder were available to obtain bodies of recently deceased pregnant women at that time. Hunter also provided case histories for at least four of the subjects illustrated in The Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures, published in 1774. A recent review of Hunter's sources of anatomical specimens was published in 2015.
Helen King indicated that the over-enthusiastic response of the media and the internet to Shelton's unreviewed speculations raised fresh questions about how medical history is generated, presented and evaluated in the media and, in particular, on the internet.
See also
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery
Hunterian Collection
Hunter House Museum, his birthplace
References
Further reading
External links
Hunter's anatomical collections
Biography of William Hunter
Zoological specimens
Selected images from Anatomia uteri humani gravidi From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library
1718 births
1783 deaths
Scottish anatomists
Fellows of the Royal Society
People from East Kilbride
18th-century Scottish medical doctors
Scottish scholars and academics
Scottish book and manuscript collectors
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish numismatists
Burials at St James's Church, Piccadilly | [
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234339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Toronto%20Schools | University of Toronto Schools | University of Toronto Schools (UTS) is an independent secondary day school affiliated with the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The school follows a specialized academic curriculum, and admission is determined by competitive examination. UTS is associated with two Nobel Prize Laureates.
History
University of Toronto Schools was founded in 1910 as a "practice school", also known as a laboratory school, for the University of Toronto's Faculty of Education. As originally conceived and reflected in its present name, UTS was intended to be a collection of at least two schools, one of which would enroll female students. The original plan was to recruit 200 teachers and 1200 students, but financial constraints limited the number of students to 375 boys.
The school operated a junior ice hockey team during the 1910s and 1920s in the Ontario Hockey Association. The school won the J. Ross Robertson Cup as the playoffs champions in 1919, and were finalists in 1914 and 1923. The Memorial Cup was established as the junior hockey championship of Canada in 1919. The school defeated Montreal Melville by an 8–2 score in a single game playoff to qualify as the Eastern Canada representative at the 1919 Memorial Cup. They defeated the Regina Patricias in two games, by scores of 14-3 and 15–5. Memorial Cup alumnus Dunc Munro later played as a defenceman in the National Hockey League.
UTS's first headmaster was H. J. "Bull" Crawford, who also taught Classics at the school. Crawford was responsible for most administrative tasks, which, until a secretary was hired in 1921, included signing admit slips. In 1925, Mike Rodden coached the UTS Rugby team to an undefeated season, culminating in the Canadian Interscholastic Championship.
In 1934, A.C. Lewis succeeded John Althouse to become the third headmaster. In 1944, W. B. "Brock" MacMurray, a 1924 graduate of the school, became the fourth headmaster; his 28-year term at UTS remains the longest in school history. In 1957, the House System was established, with three of four houses named after the school's first three headmasters - Crawford, Althouse, and Lewis. The fourth house, Cody, was named after a former president of the University of Toronto.
The 1960s were a "turbulent" decade in the history of UTS. Prior to the 1960s, the Ontario Ministry of Education required seniors to complete a number of matriculation exams in order to graduate. The student who scored highest in his or her exams province-wide would be awarded the Prince of Wales Scholarship; during the matriculation era, UTS students won thirteen Prince of Wales Scholarships.
Although matriculation exams would eventually be abolished in the 1960s, UTS students had been calling for change since the late 1930s in the form of valedictory addresses and protests. Addresses in 1963 and 1966 targeted the tendency for matriculations to reduce "a tangible desire for knowledge", producing instead "a mind that cannot think for itself". In 1967 the valedictory address lambasted a number of teachers and administrators who had been responsible for rigidly holding UTS to its past. The speech was not published in The Twig the following year, but was still circulated among students. Discontent with the school's inability to reform climaxed in the "Protest for Nothing" in May 1969, which was led by Brian Blugerman, Michael Eccles, Paul Eprile and David Glennie. Unlike most protests, the placards that the protesters held were blank; when headmaster MacMurray asked for their demands, a student famously showed him a blank sheet of paper and stated, "This is a list of our demands." The protest was front-page news in Toronto newspapers and was widely reported in the U.S. media, including the New York Times.
At the turn of the decade, UTS developed a "New Program", which focused on completing subjects ("units") for graduation instead of matriculations. The administration also agreed to allow students to complete their secondary school requirements in 4 years instead of 5, an advantage that was enjoyed until the 2003 double cohort. The Executive Council was formed in 1968 to provide a liaison between students and staff. Some of the Executive Council's first recommendations were implemented in 1969, including making Latin optional after grade 11 and introducing non-numerical grades for Arts and Music courses. In addition to academics, certain aspects of the school's extracurricular traditions were gradually being phased out. In 1966, participation in the Cadet Corps, which had been a bastion of UTS tradition, became optional; in 1972, the "new administration" announced that the cadet corps would be discontinued. Instead, it became an "open" corps, severing its affiliation with the school, and continues to this day. Change was also evident in the school's teaching staff: in the 1960s alone, 35 new teachers were hired, compared to only 15 hirings during the 1950s.
Donald Gutteridge had originally arrived in 1962 at MacMurray's request, and had taught Grade 13 English. In 1972, Gutteridge succeeded MacMurray. Although he was the school's fifth headmaster, he was the first to call himself a "principal". During his tenure as the Premier of Ontario, Bill Davis came under fire for publicly funding UTS, which Liberal education critic Tom Reed called an "elitist" institution. Under pressure from the provincial government and the University of Toronto, a decision was made to admit girls into the school. Two proposals were tabled: the first involved expanding the school by maintaining the same number of incoming boys, and the second involved maintaining the class size by reducing the number of incoming boys. On January 18, 1973, the University of Toronto approved the second proposal, paving the way for a co-educational UTS the following academic year.The first two co-educational cohorts totalled 70 students; each cohort was divided into two classes of 35 students. In spite of initial concerns about the watered-down quality of UTS boys athletics, the junior girls basketball team won a city title in 1978. In order to assist families in financial need, the UTS Endowment Fund was set up in 1980; in 1989, approximately $50,000 was distributed to students in need.
In April 1993, the New Democratic government of Ontario announced the withdrawal of public funding from the school, leading to a dramatic rise in tuition costs, and prompting the mobilization of all its constituencies to make up the loss.
In 2004, UTS became an ancillary unit of the University of Toronto separate from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. The school formed its own board of directors representing alumni, parents and the university administration. Throughout the 2009–2010 school year, the school celebrated its centennial year with the Kickoff celebration at Varsity Stadium and the Homecoming weekend to be held in the school itself. The centennial year also saw the introduction of its new school song, written by Nathalie Siah '10, the House Centennial spirit pennant, as well as the House Cup, awarding the House who collected the most points (athletic, literary, and spirit) over the school year.
In 2015, Anand Mahadevan, a teacher at University of Toronto Schools, was the recipient of the Prime Minister's Awards for Teaching Excellence.
Relocation and redevelopment
The University of Toronto informed UTS in 2011 that it was rejecting its proposal for a $48 million refurbishment of its facilities and that the university intends to reclaim the property at 371 Bloor Street West for its own use. UTS had been given until 2021 to find and move to new space. However, in 2014, it was announced by the chair of the UTS board of directors that the University of Toronto and UTS were negotiating to maintain an affiliation between the two institutions and keep the school at its present location but redevelop the site so that it could fit meet the needs of both the university and the school.
In October 2015, the University of Toronto and UTS announced a 50-year agreement that would renew the school's official affiliation with the university, allow UTS to remain on its Bloor Street campus, redevelop 70,000 square feet of its space as well as build a 70,000 square feet addition. The redevelopment proposal would include the construction of a 700-seat auditorium that would also function as a university classroom, a double gym, an atrium and a black box theatre. The university would retain ownership of the building and land but UTS would pay for construction and operating costs. The agreement is subject to approval by the university's governing council.
In 2018, UTS began fundraising for a redevelopment of the Bloor Street campus, under a campaign title of "Building the Future". The fundraising goal is $60 million. The redevelopment will include the creation of four new science labs, a blackbox theatre, an atrium, a media lab and visual arts rooms. In preparation of the redevelopment, UTS was relocated to its Ossington campus, 30 Humbert St. The school is expected to remain there until the spring of 2022.
Admissions
Most students enter in Grade 7 through a two-stage competitive process. Prior to the admission of the class of 2014, the first stage consisted of a multiple-choice exam; those who passed this test in the top percentiles (usually 200 students) were invited back for a second written exam and an interview. However, starting with the class of 2014, the admission process consists of the Secondary School Admission Test (SSAT), and for the top 170 - 190 applicants, a second exam (focused on Math and English) and an interview with multiple staff members and UTS alumni (using an MMI format). Ultimately, 96 candidates (48 boys and 48 girls) are chosen from around 350 applicants in the first-stage process each year; the typical cutoff for SSAT scores for Grade 7 entrance is in the mid to high 1900s for boys, and low 1900s for girls, depending on the applicant pool for that year. For upper-year entrance the process is slightly different. UTS will admit approximately 24 students, the average size of a class, for grade 9, and a handful at grade 10 and 11. Aside from a few cases, UTS rarely admits new students for grade 8. Usually, there is an equal number of boys and girls who are accepted into the school. On average, for the first year (F1/grade 7) there are four classes each of which consists of 26-27 students. Candidates must be Canadian citizens or landed immigrants and may apply to enter either Grade 7 or the upper school (Grade 9 and above).
Academics
UTS is attended by students from grades 7 through 12, with 78 students per grade in classes graduating before 2001, 104 students per grade in classes graduating before 2009, and 110 in classes graduating thereafter.
UTS has enriched courses and a specialized curriculum, which are designed to challenge and educate at a higher level than at most public and many independent schools. Because potential UTS candidates are required to pass a rigorous entrance examination to attend the school, its curriculum is accelerated on the assumption that its students assimilate information faster. For this reason several higher-grade subjects are taught at lower grade levels. For example, Grade 10 students can take an enriched version of Ontario's Grade 11 courses in introductory physics, biology, and/or chemistry and Grade 7 students take both the Ontario grade 7 curriculum and grade 8 curriculum. As well, effort is made to enrich classes with extra material and more in-depth discussions.
UTS offers Advanced Placement courses, but does not have an International Baccalaureate program. In addition to the Ontario Secondary School Diploma, graduates earn a UTS Diploma, which signifies the completion of certain specialized courses and attesting to an attainment level beyond the provincial standards.
UTS's rate of student achievement is commensurate with its selective admissions policy, both in academics and in extracurricular activities. Virtually all UTS students go on to university following graduation. The school's alumni include 22 Rhodes Scholars and two Nobel Prize winners: chemist John Polanyi and economist Michael Spence.
UTS's grade level nomenclature differs from that used commonly in Ontario high schools. This nomenclature has varied somewhat over the many years, and is due in part to a curriculum whose courses do not fit neatly into the provincial grading system, and in part to what had until the elimination of Grade 13 in Ontario constituted a six-year course to seven grade levels. The grade level nomenclature, with rough equivalents, consists of:
Foundation Zero (F0): Grade 6 students who have been accepted to and will begin attending UTS the following school year.
Foundation One (F1): Grade 7. Formerly known as Foundation Year (F)
Foundation Two (F2): Grade 8. Formerly known as Form II
Middle Three (M3): Grade 9. Formerly known as Form III
Middle Four (M4): Grade 10. Formerly known as Form IV
Senior Five (S5): Grade 11. Formerly known as Form V
Senior Six (S6): Grade 12. Formerly known as Form VI
Prior to the double cohort in 2003, F1 and F2 formed both halves of the Ontario Grade 7-9 curriculum; M3 was equivalent to Grade 10, and so forth.
Notable alumni
Brig-Gen. Donald Agnew, C.B.E., C.D., Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada
Chris Alexander, former Minister of Citizenship and Immigration and former Ambassador to Afghanistan
Jay Bahadur, journalist and author
Charles Baillie, OC, chancellor of Queen's University, former CEO of TD Bank
Henry J. M. Barnett, CC, neurologist
Rod Beattie, actor
John Brewin, Member of Parliament
Ian Brodie, Chief of staff for prime minister Stephen Harper
Timothy Brook, historian
Catherine Bush, novelist
J. M. S. Careless, OC, OOnt, FRSC, historian and biographer, two-time winner of the Governor General's Award
Jim Chamberlin, Chief designer of the Avro Arrow
Sujit Choudhry, law professor and former dean of the UC Berkeley School of Law
Paul Davis, sailor and bronze medallist (racing for Norway) at 2000 Summer Olympic Games
John Duffy, political strategist
John Evans, CC, Rhodes Scholar, medical leader and former University of Toronto president
Mark Evans, rower and gold medallist in pairs sculling at 1984 Los Angeles Olympics
James Fleck, CC, businessman and philanthropist
David Frum, journalist and author
Peter George, CM, former president of McMaster University
Chris Giannou, CM, war surgeon, former Chief Surgeon of the International Committee of the Red Cross, and author
Donald B. Gillies, computer scientist
Peter Godsoe, OC, former Chairman of The Bank of Nova Scotia
Ian Goldberg, computer scientist and cryptographer
Laurie Graham, Olympic downhill skier, Alpine Champion
Doug Hamilton, rower and bronze medallist at 1984 Los Angeles Olympics
John Ellis Hare, author and scholar of French-Canadian literature and history
Lawrence Hill, author and essayist
Greg Hollingshead, CM, novelist and winner of the Governor General's Award for Fiction
Thomas Hurka, philosopher
Hal Jackman, OC, OOnt, businessman and former Lieutenant Governor of Ontario
Dennis Lee, OC, poet
Pericles Lewis, literature professor and former president of Yale-NUS College
Simu Liu, actor
John Macfarlane, magazine editor
Thomas MacMillan, chairman of Gluskin Sheff and President and CEO of CIBC Mellon
Jack McClelland, CC, publisher
Claire Messud, novelist
Lydia Millet, author
Mavor Moore, CC, writer, producer, and public servant
Dunc Munro, hockey player, Stanley Cup winner, and Olympic gold medallist
Fraser Mustard, CC, OOnt, FRSC, medical pioneer and founder of the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
John C. Polanyi, PC, CC, Nobel Prize winner for Chemistry, 1986
John Riddell, Marxist writer and former leader of the League for Socialist Action
John Josiah Robinette, CC, OOnt, litigator and constitutional lawyer, Chancellor of Trent University
Robert Gordon Rogers, OC, OBC, 24th Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia and Chancellor of the University of Victoria
Peter H. Russell, OC, political scientist
Arthur Scace, CM, QC, lawyer and jurist
Donald Schmitt, architect
J. Blair Seaborn, CM, diplomat
Robert Seaborn, MC, Anglican Bishop of Newfoundland and Metropolitan of Canada
Jeffrey Simpson, OC, journalist
James Sommerville, horn player and conductor
A. Michael Spence, Nobel Prize winner for Economics, 2001
C. P. Stacey, OC, OBE, FRSC, historian
Harry Stinson, real estate developer
Wayne Sumner, philosophy professor and member of the Royal Society of Canada
Thomas Symons, CC, OOnt, FRSC, founding president of Trent University
John Tory, OOnt, former leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario and 65th Mayor of Toronto
John A. Tory, former financial advisor to Ken Thomson
Paul Tough, editor at the New York Times Magazine
Garth Turner, Conservative, then independent, then Liberal MP
Jessica Ware, entomologist
Brigadier William Denis Whitaker, CM DSO & Bar ED CD, athlete, soldier, businessman, and author.
Graham Yost, screenwriter of Speed, Broken Arrow, Hard Rain, and two-time Emmy winner
References
Further reading
Batten, Jack. University of Toronto Schools 1910-2010.
Chapnick, Adam, ed. Through Our Eyes: An Alumni History of UTS, 1960-2000. Toronto: University of Toronto Schools Alumni Association, 2005 (pdf).
Lane, Byron. University of Toronto Schools: An Academic History of the Era of Province-Wide Standardized Matriculation Testing in Ontario. Toronto: Byron Lane, 2005.
External links
University of Toronto Schools
High schools in Toronto
Toronto
Private schools in Toronto
University of Toronto
Educational institutions established in 1910
1910 establishments in Ontario | [
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234340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Globe%20and%20Mail | The Globe and Mail | The Globe and Mail is a Canadian newspaper printed in five cities in western and central Canada. With a weekly readership of approximately 2 million in 2015, it is Canada's most widely read newspaper on weekdays and Saturdays, although it falls slightly behind the Toronto Star in overall weekly circulation because the Star publishes a Sunday edition, whereas the Globe does not. The Globe and Mail is regarded by some as Canada's "newspaper of record".
The newspaper is owned by The Woodbridge Company, based in Toronto.
History
Forebears
The predecessor to The Globe and Mail was called The Globe; it was founded in 1844 by Scottish immigrant George Brown, who became a Father of Confederation. Brown's liberal politics led him to court the support of the Clear Grits, a precursor to the modern Liberal Party of Canada. The Globe began in Toronto as a weekly party organ for Brown's Reform Party, but seeing the economic gains that he could make in the newspaper business, Brown soon targeted a wide audience of liberal minded freeholders. He selected as the motto for the editorial page a quotation from Junius, "The subject who is truly loyal to the Chief Magistrate will neither advise nor submit to arbitrary measures." The quotation is carried on the editorial page to this day.
By the 1850s, The Globe had become an independent and well-regarded daily newspaper. It began distribution by railway to other cities in Ontario shortly after Confederation. At the dawn of the twentieth century, The Globe added photography, a women's section, and the slogan "Canada's National Newspaper", which remains on its front-page banner. It began opening bureaus and offering subscriptions across Canada.
1936 formation and expansion
On 23 November 1936, The Globe merged with The Mail and Empire, itself formed through the 1895 merger of two conservative newspapers, The Toronto Mail and Toronto Empire. (The Empire had been founded in 1887 by a rival of Brown's, Tory politician and then-Prime Minister John A. Macdonald.) Press reports at the time stated, "the minnow swallowed the whale" because The Globes circulation (at 78,000) was smaller than The Mail and Empires (118,000).
The merger was arranged by George McCullagh, who fronted for mining magnate William Henry Wright and became the first publisher of The Globe and Mail. McCullagh committed suicide in 1952, and the newspaper was sold to the Webster family of Montreal. As the paper lost ground to The Toronto Star in the local Toronto market, it began to expand its national circulation.
The newspaper was unionised in 1955, under the banner of the American Newspaper Guild.
From 1937 until 1974, the newspaper was produced at the William H. Wright Building which was located at then 140 King Street West on the northeast corner of King Street and York Street, close to the homes of the Toronto Daily Star at Old Toronto Star Building at 80 King West and the Old Toronto Telegram Building at Bay and Melinda. The building at 130 King Street West was demolished in 1974 to make way for First Canadian Place, and the newspaper moved to 444 Front Street West, which had been the headquarters of the Toronto Telegram newspaper, built in 1963.
"Canada's national newspaper"
In 1965, the paper was bought by Winnipeg-based FP Publications, controlled by Bryan Maheswary, which owned a chain of local Canadian newspapers. FP put a strong emphasis on the Report on Business section that was launched in 1962, thereby building the paper's reputation as the voice of Toronto's business community. FP Publications and The Globe and Mail were sold in 1980 to The Thomson Corporation, a company run by the family of Kenneth Thomson. After the acquisition, there were few changes made in editorial or news policy. However, there was more attention paid to national and international news on the editorial, op-ed, and front pages in contrast to its previous policy of stressing Toronto and Ontario material.
The Globe and Mail has always been a morning newspaper. Since the 1980s, it has been printed in separate editions in six Canadian cities: Montreal, Toronto (several editions), Winnipeg (Estevan, Saskatchewan), Calgary and Vancouver.
Southern Ontario Newspaper Guild (SONG) employees took their first-ever strike vote at The Globe in 1982, also marking a new era in relations with the company. Those negotiations ended without a strike, and the Globe unit of SONG still has a strike-free record. SONG members voted in 1994 to sever ties with the American-focused Newspaper Guild. Shortly afterwards, SONG affiliated with the Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada (CEP).
Under the editorship of William Thorsell in the 1980s and 1990s, the paper strongly endorsed the free trade policies of Progressive Conservative Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. The paper also became an outspoken proponent of the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord, with their editorial the day of the 1995 Quebec Referendum mostly quoting a Mulroney speech in favour of the Accord. During this period, the paper continued to favour such socially liberal policies as decriminalizing drugs (including cocaine, whose legalization was advocated most recently in a 1995 editorial) and expanding gay rights.
In 1995, the paper launched its website, globeandmail.com; on 9 June 2000, the site began covering breaking news with its own content and journalists in addition to the content of the print newspaper.
Bell Globemedia merger (2001)
Since the launch of the National Post as another English-language national paper in 1998, some industry analysts had proclaimed a "national newspaper war" between The Globe and Mail and the National Post. Partly as a response to this threat, in 2001, The Globe and Mail was combined with broadcast assets held by Bell Canada to form the joint venture Bell Globemedia.
In 2004, access to some features of globeandmail.com became restricted to paid subscribers only. The subscription service was reduced a few years later to include an electronic edition of the newspaper, access to its archives, and membership to a premium investment site.
On April 23, 2007, the paper introduced significant changes to its print design and also introduced a new unified navigation system to its websites. The paper added a "lifestyle" section to the Monday-Friday editions, entitled "Globe Life", which has been described as an attempt to attract readers from the rival Toronto Star. Additionally, the paper followed other North American papers by dropping detailed stock listings in print and by shrinking the printed paper to 12-inch width.
Bell Globemedia divestment (2010)
At the end of 2010, the Thomson family, through its holding company Woodbridge, re-acquired direct control of The Globe and Mail with an 85-percent stake, through a complicated transaction involving most of the Ontario-based mediasphere. BCE continued to hold 15 percent, and would eventually own all of television broadcaster CTVglobemedia.
Redesign and relaunch 2010
On October 1, 2010, The Globe and Mail unveiled redesigns to both its paper and online formats, dubbed "the most significant redesign in The Globes history" by Editor-in-Chief John Stackhouse. The paper version has a bolder, more visual presentation that features 100% full-colour pages, more graphics, slightly glossy paper stock (with the use of state-of-the-art heat-set printing presses), and emphasis on lifestyle and similar sections (an approached dubbed "Globe-lite" by one media critic). The Globe and Mail sees this redesign as a step toward the future (promoted as such by a commercial featuring a young girl on a bicycle), and a step towards provoking debate on national issues (the October 1 edition featured a rare front-page editorial above the Globe and Mail banner).
The paper has made changes to its format and layout, such as the introduction of colour photographs, a separate tabloid book-review section, and the creation of the Review section on arts, entertainment, and culture. Although the paper is sold throughout Canada and has long called itself "Canada's National Newspaper", The Globe and Mail also serves as a Toronto metropolitan paper, publishing several special sections in its Toronto edition that are not included in the national edition. As a result, it is sometimes ridiculed for being too focused on the Greater Toronto Area, part of a wider humorous portrayal of Torontonians being blind to the greater concerns of the nation. Critics sometimes refer to the paper as the "Toronto Globe and Mail" or "Toronto's National Newspaper". In an effort to gain market share in Vancouver, The Globe and Mail began publishing a distinct west-coast edition, edited independently in Vancouver, containing a three-page section of British Columbia news, and during the 2010 Winter Olympics, which were staged in Vancouver, The Globe and Mail published a Sunday edition, marking the first time that the paper had ever published on Sunday.
Changes since 2010
In October 2012, The Globe and Mail relaunched its digital subscription offering under the marketing brand "Globe Unlimited" to include metered access for some of its online content.
In 2013, The Globe and Mail ended distribution of the print edition to Newfoundland.
In 2014, the then-publisher Phillip Crawley announced the recruitment of a former staffer returned from afar, David Walmsley, as Editor-in-Chief, to be enacted 24 March.
The headquarters site at 444 Front Street West was sold in 2012 to three real estate firms (RioCan Real Estate Investment Trust, Allied Properties Real Estate Investment Trust, and Diamond Corporation) who planned to redevelop the site at Front Street West into a retail, office and residential complex. In 2016, the newspaper moved to 351 King Street East, adjacent to the former Toronto Sun Building. It now occupies five of the new tower's 17 stories, and is named "The Globe and Mail Centre" under a 15-year lease.
In 2015, the Woodbridge Company acquired the remaining 15% of the newspaper from BCE.
Globe and Mail employees are represented by Unifor, whose most recent negotiations brought in a three-year contract, which was to end in 2017. In the spring of 2017, the company offered, and the guild voted to accept, a one-year extension of this contract, which was then due to expire in 2018.
In 2017, The Globe and Mail refreshed its web design with a new pattern library and faster load times on all platforms. The new website is designed to display well on mobile, tablet, and desktop, with pages that highlight journalists and newer articles. The new website has won several awards, including an Online Journalism Award. The Globe and Mail also launched the News Photo Archive, a showcase of more than 10,000 photos from its historic collection dedicated to subscribers. In concert with the Archive of Modern Conflict, The Globe and Mail digitized tens of thousands of negatives and photo prints from film, dating from 1900 to 1998, when the film was last used in the newsroom.
The Globe and Mail ended distribution of the print edition to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and PEI on 30 November 2017.
Report on Business
"Report on Business", commonly referred to as "ROB", is the financial section of the newspaper. It is the most lengthy daily compilation of economic news in Canada, and is considered an integral part of the newspaper. Standard ROB sections are typically fifteen to twenty pages, and include the listings of major Canadian, US, and international stocks, bonds, and currencies.
Every Saturday, a special "Report on Business Weekend" is released, which includes features on corporate lifestyle and personal finance, and extended coverage of business news. On the last Friday of every month, the Report on Business Magazine is released, the largest Canadian finance-oriented magazine.
Business News Network (formerly ROBtv) is a twenty-four-hour news and business television station, founded by The Globe and Mail but operated by CTV through the companies' relationship with CTVglobemedia.
Top 1000
The Top 1000 is a list of Canada's one thousand largest public companies ranked by profit released annually by the Report on Business Magazine.
Controversies
On September 25, 2012, The Globe and Mail announced it had disciplined high-profile staff columnist Margaret Wente after she admitted to plagiarism. The scandal emerged after University of Ottawa professor and blogger, Carol Wainio, repeatedly raised plagiarism accusations against Wente on her blog.
On October 22, 2012, online Canadian magazine The Tyee published an article criticizing the Globe'''s "advertorial" policies and design. The Tyee alleged that the Globe intentionally blurred the lines between advertising and editorial content in order to offer premium and effective ad space to high-paying advertisers. The Tyee reporter Jonathan Sas cited an 8-page spread in the October 2, 2012, print edition, called "The Future of the Oil Sands", to illustrate the difficulty in distinguishing the spread from regular Globe content.
Former Minister Michael Chan filed a libel lawsuit against The Globe and Mail in 2015 for $4.55 million after they allegedly "declined to retract their unfounded allegations" suggesting that Chan was "a risk to national security because of his ties to China".
Political stance
The Globe and Mail takes a center-right, red tory editorial stance. It is less socially liberal than its competitor, the Toronto Star. Canadian sociologist Elke Winter writes that "While the Globe has probably lost parts of its more conservative and corporate readership to the National Post, it continues to cater to the Canadian political and intellectual elite" (such as managers and professionals). The newspaper is considered an "upmarket" newspaper, in contrast to downmarket newspapers such as the Toronto Sun.
In federal general elections, The Globe and Mail has endorsed different parties over time. The newspaper endorsed Stephen Harper's Conservative Party in the 2006, 2008, and 2011 elections; in the 2015 election, the paper again endorsed the Conservatives but called for the party's leader, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, to step down. In previous elections, the paper endorsed the Liberals (2000, 2004); the Progressive Conservatives (1984, 1988, 1997), a minority government for the Liberals in 1993 ("Let us declare firmly for a minority. We do not trust the Liberals to govern unguarded."). In the 2019 federal election it did not make an endorsement.
While the paper was known as a generally conservative voice of the business establishment in the postwar decades, historian David Hayes, in a review of its positions, has noted that the Globes editorials in this period "took a benign view of hippies and homosexuals; championed most aspects of the welfare state; opposed, after some deliberation, the Vietnam War; and supported legalizing marijuana". It was a December 12, 1967, Globe and Mail editorial that stated, "Obviously, the state's responsibility should be to legislate rules for a well-ordered society. It has no right or duty to creep into the bedrooms of the nation." On December 21, 1967, then Justice Minister Pierre Trudeau, in defending the government's Omnibus bill and the decriminalization of homosexuality, coined the phrase "There's no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation."
The Globe and Mail endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election.
Editors-in-chief
George McCullagh (1936–1952)
Oakley Dalgleish (1952–1963)
R. Howard Webster (1963–1965)
James L. Cooper (1965–1974)
Richard S. Malone (1974–1978)
Richard Doyle (1978–1983)
Norman Webster (1983–1989)
William Thorsell (1989–1999)
Richard Addis (1999–2002)
Edward Greenspon (2002–2009)
John Stackhouse (2009–2014)
David Walmsley (2014–present)
Editorial board
The editorial board of the newspaper is chaired by the editor-in-chief, who nominates new members as need be. The editorial board controls the overall direction of the newspaper and is given prime billing on the editorial pages. It is the editorial board who endorses political candidates in the run-up to elections. The editorial board, whose membership list has become a closely guarded secret under the tenure of David Walmsley, consisted under John Stackhouse as of 20 March 2011 of the following writers:
John Stackhouse, Editor-in-chief
John G. Geiger
Gerald Owen
Sean Fine (journalist)
Marina Jimenez de la Flor
Lisa Priest
Key people (present)
Masthead
David Walmsley, Editor-in-Chief
Sinclair Stewart, Deputy Editor
Angela Pacienza, Executive Editor
Gary Salewicz, Editor, Report on Business
Christine Brousseau, Assistant Managing Editor, News
Dennis Choquette, Managing Editor, ROB
Matt Frehner, Head of Visuals
Tony Keller, Editorial Page Editor
Natasha Hassan, Opinion Editor
Sylvia Stead, Public Editor
Foreign bureaus
Americas
Adrian Morrow, Washington bureau chief
Europe
Eric Reguly, European bureau (Rome)
Mark MacKinnon, European bureau (London)
Paul Waldie, European bureau (London)
Middle East, Asia and Africa
Nathan Vanderklippe, China bureau (Beijing)
Geoffrey York, Africa bureau (Johannesburg)
The Decibel Podcast
Tamara Khandaker, Host
Kasia Mychajlowycz, Senior Podcast Producer
Madeline White, Producer
David Crosbie, Audio Editor
Notable journalists and columnists
See :Category:The Globe and Mail people
See also
List of newspapers in Canada
References
David Hayes, Power and Influence: The Globe and Mail and the News Revolution (Key Porter Books, Toronto, 1992)
"The Globe and Mail" in The Canadian Encyclopedia, Second Edition, Volume II (Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1988)
World Press Review online, "Canada: Newspapers and Magazines Online"
Further reading
Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 138–42
External links
Report on Business Report on Business Magazine''
Publications established in 1936
National newspapers published in Canada
Newspapers published in Toronto
Companies acquired by Bell Canada Enterprises
Websites utilizing paywalls
Internet properties established in 1995
Daily newspapers published in Ontario
1936 establishments in Ontario | [
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234342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Post | National Post | The National Post is a Canadian, English-language, conservative broadsheet daily newspaper. The paper is the flagship publication of Postmedia Network, which is 66 percent American owned by New Jersey based hedge fund Chatham Asset Management, and is published Mondays through Saturdays, with Monday released as a digital e-edition only. It was founded in 1998 by Conrad Black. Once distributed nationally, it later began publishing a daily edition in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia, with only its weekend edition available in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. As of 2006, the Post is no longer distributed in Canada's Atlantic provinces and the territories.
History
Origins
Conrad Black built the National Post around the Financial Post, a financial newspaper in Toronto which Hollinger Inc. purchased from Sun Media in 1997. Financial Post was retained as the name of the new newspaper's business section.
Outside Toronto, the Post was built on the printing and distribution infrastructure of Hollinger's national newspaper chain, formerly called Southam Newspapers, that included the newspapers Ottawa Citizen, Montreal Gazette, Edmonton Journal, Calgary Herald, and Vancouver Sun. The Post became Black's national flagship title, and Ken Whyte was appointed editor.
Beyond his political vision, Black attempted to compete directly with Kenneth Thomson's media empire led in Canada by The Globe and Mail, which Black and many others perceived as the platform of the Liberal establishment.
When the Post launched, its editorial stance was conservative. It advocated a "unite-the-right" movement to create a viable alternative to the Liberal government of Jean Chrétien, and supported the Canadian Alliance. The Post'''s op-ed page has included dissenting columns by ideological liberals such as Linda McQuaig, as well as conservatives including Mark Steyn and Diane Francis, and David Frum. Original members of the Post editorial board included Ezra Levant, Neil Seeman, Jonathan Kay, Conservative Member of Parliament John Williamson and the author/historian Alexander Rose.
The Post's magazine-style graphic and layout design has won awards. The original design of the Post was created by Lucie Lacava, a design consultant based in Montreal. The Post now bears the motto "World's Best-Designed Newspaper" on its front page.
Sale to CanWest Global
The Post was unable to maintain momentum in the market without continuing to operate with annual budgetary deficits. At the same time, Conrad Black was becoming preoccupied by his debt-heavy media empire, Hollinger International. Black divested his Canadian media holdings, and sold the Post to CanWest Global Communications Corp, controlled by Israel "Izzy" Asper, in two stages – 50 percent in 2000, along with the entire Southam newspaper chain, and the remaining 50 percent in 2001. CanWest Global also owned the Global Television Network.
Izzy Asper died in October 2003, and his sons Leonard and David Asper assumed control of CanWest, the latter serving as chairman of the Post. Editor-in-chief Matthew Fraser departed in 2005 after the arrival of a new publisher, Les Pyette – the paper's seventh publisher in seven years. Fraser's deputy editor, Doug Kelly succeeded him as editor. Pyette departed seven months after his arrival, replaced by Gordon Fisher.
21st century
The Post limited print distribution in Atlantic Canada in 2006, part of a trend to which The Globe and Mail and the Toronto Star, Canada's other two papers with inter-regional distribution, have all resorted. Print editions were removed from all Atlantic Canadian newsstands except in Halifax as of 2007. Focussing further on its online publishing, in 2008, the paper suspended weekday editions and home delivery in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The reorientation towards digital continued into its next decade.
Politically, the Post has retained a conservative editorial stance although the Asper family has long been a strong supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada. Izzy Asper was once leader of the Liberal Party in his home province of Manitoba. The Aspers had controversially fired the publisher of the Ottawa Citizen, Russell Mills, for calling for the resignation of Liberal prime minister Jean Chrétien.
However, the Post endorsed the Conservative Party of Canada in the 2004 election when Fraser was editor. The Conservatives narrowly lost that election to the Liberals. After the election, the Post surprised many of its conservative readers by shifting its support to the victorious Liberal government of prime minister Paul Martin, and was highly critical of the Conservatives and their leader, Stephen Harper. The paper switched camps again in the runup to the 2006 election (in which the Conservatives won a minority government).
Like its competitor The Globe and Mail, the Post publishes a separate edition in Toronto, Ontario, Canada's largest city and the fourth largest English-language media centre in North America after New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago. The Toronto edition includes additional local content not published in the edition distributed to the rest of Canada, and is printed at the Toronto Star Press Centre in Vaughan.
On September 27, 2007, the Post unveiled a major redesign of its appearance. Guided by Gayle Grin, the Post's managing editor of design and graphics, the redesign features a standardization in the size of typeface and the number of typefaces used, cleaner font for charts and graphs, and the move of the nameplate banner from the top to the left side of Page 1 as well as each section's front page.
In 2009, the paper announced that as a temporary cost-cutting measure, it would not print a Monday edition from July to September 2009. On October 29, 2009, Canwest Global announced that due to a lack of funding, the National Post might close down as of October 30, 2009, subject to moving the paper to a new holding company. Late on October 29, 2009, Ontario Superior Court Justice Sarah Pepall ruled in Canwest's favour and allowed the paper to move into a holding company. Investment bankers hired by Canwest received no offers when they tried to sell the National Post earlier that year. Without a buyer closing the paper was studied, but the costs were greater than gains from liquidating assets. The lawyer for Canwest, in arguing to Justice Pepall, said the National Post added value to other papers in the Canwest chain.
On October 28, 2011, the Post announced its first ever yearly profit.
The paper now belongs to Postmedia Network Canada Corp. which is a Canadian media company headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, consisting of the publishing properties of the former Canwest, with primary operations in newspaper publishing, news gathering and Internet operations.
The ownership group was assembled by National Post CEO Paul Godfrey in 2010 to bid for the chain of newspapers being sold by the financially troubled Canwest (the company's broadcasting assets were sold separately to Shaw Communications). Godfrey secured financial backing from U.S. private-equity firm Golden Tree Asset Management as well as other investors. The group completed a $1.1 billion transaction to acquire the chain from Canwest on July 13, 2010. The new company has over 5,500 employees. The company's shares were listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange in 2011.
Controversy
2006 Iran hoax
On May 19, 2006, the newspaper ran two pieces alleging that the Iranian parliament had passed a law requiring religious minorities to wear special identifying badges. One piece was a front-page news item titled "IRAN EYES BADGES FOR JEWS" accompanied by a 1935 picture of two Jews bearing Nazi-ordered yellow badges. Later on the same day, experts began coming forward to deny the accuracy of the Post story. The story proved to be false, but not before it had been picked up by a variety of other news media and generated comment from world leaders. Comments on the story by the Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper caused Iran to summon Canada's ambassador to Tehran, Gordon E. Venner, for an explanation.
On May 24, 2006, the editor-in-chief of the newspaper, Doug Kelly, published an apology for the story on Page 2, admitting that it was false and the National Post had not exercised enough caution or checked enough sources.
Accusation of anti-Islam sentiment
From 1998 to 2014, the now defunct Canadian Islamic Congress (CIC) had been actively monitoring media coverage for anti-Muslim or anti-Islam sentiment and had issued reports highlighting its findings. It had opposed the use of phrases such as "Islamic guerrillas," "Islamic insurgency" and "Muslim militants" saying that terms like "militant" or "terrorist" should be used without a religious association "since no religion teaches or endorses terrorism, militancy or extremism." The Congress had singled out the National Post, saying the paper "consistently is No. 1" as an anti-Islam media outlet.
A number of writers for the National Post have subsequently criticized the CIC over accusations that the newspaper is anti-Islam. Alexander Rose wrote that "judging by its [CIC's] support for the [2001] Durban Conference, during which hook-nosed Jews were equated with apartheid and genocide, the CIC doesn't seem to have problems with some kinds of truly inflammatory racist language" and that the CIC's "fetish for censorship in the interest of "social harmony", as the CIC puts it, reeks of the very authoritarianism oppressing Muslims in Egypt, Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia." In addition, Rose stated that "By editing out bad language, it seems, the CIC believes that correct thoughts will result, even at the necessary expense of reporting the truth." Robert Fulford wrote that the CIC "justifies its existence mainly by complaining about acts of prejudice that haven't happened" and that "it's ridiculous to suggest that we avoid the subject of religion when crimes are committed in the name of that religion by men and women considered part of it", while Jonathan Kay wrote that "the folks at the Canadian Islamic Congress purport to be the arbiters of what can and can't be said in this country" and that CIC President Elmasry is "the country's self-appointed judge of all that is hateful."
Editors-in-chief
Kenneth Whyte, 1998–2003
Matthew Fraser, 2003–2005
Doug Kelly, 2005–2010
Stephen Meurice, 2010–2014
Anne Marie Owens, 2014–2019
Rob Roberts, 2019–
Editorial positions in 2010s
Anne Marie Owens, Editor-in-Chief
Nicole MacAdam, Executive Producer, Financial Post
Jonathan Kay, Managing Editor, Comment (1998–2014)
Dustin Parkes, Executive Producer, Features
Gayle Grin, Managing Editor, Design and Graphics
Tim Rostron, Arts Editor (1998–2003)
Terence Corcoran, FP Comment Editor
Andrew Coyne, Executive Producer, Comment & Editorial (2014–2015)
Diane Francis, FP Editor-at-large
Jo-Anne MacDonald, National Editor
Jeff Wasserman, Photography and Multimedia Editor
Notable columnists
The following is a list of past and present columnists for the National Post.
Current
Conrad Black, Baron Black of Crossharbour (Founder)
Terence Corcoran – with Financial Post
The Reverend Father Raymond J. de Souza
Diane Francis – with Financial Post
Lorne Gunter
Larysa Harapyn – with Financial Post
John Ivison
Barbara Kay
Rex Murphy
Lawrence Solomon
Jordan Peterson
Former
Dave Bidini
Christie Blatchford
Andrew Coyne
David Frum
Robert Fulford
Christopher Hitchens
George Jonas
Jonathan Kay
Tasha Kheiriddin
Charles Krauthammer
Faisal Kutty
Garry Marr
Steve Murray
John O'Sullivan
Rosemary Sexton
Mireille Silcoff
Mark Steyn
Robyn Urback
George Will
Brett Wilson
Operations
The National Posts main office is at 365 Bloor Street East in Toronto, Ontario. It was formerly located at 1450 Don Mills Road in the Don Mills neighbourhood of Toronto, which was vacated in 2012.
The National Post is published at Postmedia's Islington Printing Plant in Toronto's Rexdale neighbourhood, along with the Toronto Sun, London Free Press and various Postmedia and Metroland-owned weekly newspapers.
The newspaper was previously printed at the Toronto Star Press Centre in Vaughan, Ontario until the Toronto Star'' closed the site.
See also
Media in Canada
List of Canadian newspapers
List of the largest Canadian newspapers by circulation
Institute for Canadian Values ad controversy
Notes
External links
National newspapers published in Canada
Newspapers published in Toronto
Postmedia Network publications
Publications established in 1998
Websites utilizing paywalls
Right-wing politics in Canada
Daily newspapers published in Ontario
1998 establishments in Ontario
Conservative media in Canada | [
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|
234344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mameluke%20%28American%20horse%29 | Mameluke (American horse) | Mameluke (foaled 1948) was an American Thoroughbred race horse. Bred and raced by Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, he was out of the mare, Schwester, and was sired by the 1936 Epsom Derby winner, Mahmoud who became the Leading sire in North America in 1946 and the Leading broodmare sire in North America in 1957.
Ridden by jockey Raymond Adair, and trained by Sylvester Veitch, Mameluke won a division of the 1951 Blue Grass Stakes but in that year's Kentucky Derby, the horse slowed badly before being pulled up sore and finishing last.
In 1952, Mameluke won the Metropolitan Handicap and ran third in the Suburban Handicap.
References
Mameluke's pedigree and partial racing stats
1948 racehorse births
Thoroughbred family 5-j
Racehorses bred in the United States
Racehorses trained in the United States | [
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234346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto%20Rico%20%28board%20game%29 | Puerto Rico (board game) | Puerto Rico is a Euro-style board game designed by German designer Andreas Seyfarth and published in 2002 by Alea in German, by Rio Grande Games in English, by Grow in Brazilian Portuguese, and by Κάισσα in Greek. Players assume the roles of colonial governors on the island of Puerto Rico during the age of Caribbean ascendancy. It was the highest-rated game on the board game website BoardGameGeek for over five years, until it was surpassed by Agricola. The aim of the game is to amass victory points in two ways: by exporting goods and by constructing buildings.
Puerto Rico can be played by three, four or five players, although an official two-player variant also exists. There is an official expansion released in 2004, which adds new buildings with different abilities that can replace or be used alongside those in the original game. A second, smaller expansion became available in 2009. Additionally, a couple of changes to the rules have been suggested that serve to balance the game.
In February 2004, Andreas Seyfarth released a separate card game called San Juan for two, three or four players. It is based on Puerto Rico and published by the same companies, following the same art style and making use of some of the same buildings and resources.
Gameplay
Each player uses a separate small board with spaces for city buildings, plantations, and resources. Shared between the players are three ships, a trading house, and a supply of resources and doubloons (money).
The resource cycle of the game is that players grow crops which they exchange for points or doubloons. Doubloons can then be used to buy buildings, which allow players to produce more crops or give them other abilities. Buildings and plantations do not work unless they are manned by colonists.
During each round, players take turns selecting a role card from those on the table (such as "Trader" or "Builder"). When a role is chosen, every player gets to take the action appropriate to that role. The player who selected the role acts first and also receives a small privilege - for example, choosing the "Builder" role allows all players to construct a building, but the player who chose the role may do so at a discount on that turn. Roles that have already been selected earlier in a round are not available to be selected again. Unused roles gain a doubloon bonus at the end of each turn, so the next player who chooses that role gets to keep any doubloon bonus associated with it. This encourages players to make use of all the roles throughout a typical course of a game.
The available roles are as follows:
Settler: Each player in turn order may select one of the plantation tiles available in the central offer and add it to their personal player board. The player who selected Settler has the option to instead take a quarry tile, which provides a discount on building prices. After each player has had the option to add a plantation, the offer is replenished from a face-down pile so that it contains one more plantation than the number of players.
Builder: Each player in turn order has the ability to purchase one building from the central market and add the building to their personal player board. The player who selected Builder receives a one-doubloon discount on any building they purchase, and occupied quarries provide further discounts. There are three types of buildings in the game: production buildings are required for producing goods, "violet buildings" grant players in-game advantages when occupied by a colonist, and large violet buildings provide bonus victory points if occupied at the end of the game.
Mayor: Each player in turn order takes one colonist from the colonist ship until its supply is exhausted. The player who selected Mayor may then take an additional colonist from the central supply. After this, players may place their newly acquired colonists on their plantations, quarries, and buildings, as well as reposition their existing colonists. If a player has more colonists than available buildings, excess colonists can be stored on the San Juan space to be reassigned in a future Mayor phase. Finally, the colonist ship is replenished with a number of colonists from the supply - either the total number of unoccupied building spaces on all player boards or the total number of players, whichever is larger.
Craftsman: Each player produces goods based on their occupied plantations and production buildings, taking them from the supply and storing them on their player boards. Corn can be produced simply by having an occupied plantation, while all other goods require an occupied plantation and an occupied production building. The player who selected Craftsman may produce one additional good of their choosing, provided that they were able to produce at least one of that type.
Trader: Each player in turn order has the option to sell one of their resources by placing them on an empty space in the trading house and taking the appropriate number of doubloons in return. Players can only trade goods that are not already in the trading house, and if the trading house is full they cannot trade at all. The player who selected Trader earns an additional doubloon, provided they were able to trade a good. At the end of the phase the trading house is cleared of all goods if all four of its spaces are filled, otherwise it remains partially filled for future Trader phases.
Captain: Each player in turn order ships goods in exchange for victory points, placing goods on the empty spaces of one of the available ships and taking one victory point chip for each barrel. The player who selected Captain gains one additional victory point, provided they were able to ship at least one good. The Captain phase is the only phase where player actions are not optional - a player must ship a good if able to, and must ship as many barrels of that good as possible. Each ship can contain only one type of good, and goods cannot be added to ships that have already been filled. The Captain phase continues until it is no longer possible for any player to ship, meaning that some players may get multiple turns in the phase. Afterward, any ships that are completely filled are cleared, while partially filled ships remain so for future Captain phases, and all remaining unshipped goods spoil - players may keep one barrel of their choosing on their player board, but all others are returned to the supply.
Prospector: The player who selected Prospector takes one doubloon from the supply, and all other players take no action. The game is played with two Prospectors with five players, one Prospector with four players, and no Prospectors with three players, ensuring that there will always be three unselected roles in every round.
Puerto Rico uses a variable phase order mechanic, where a "governor" token is passed clockwise to the next player at the conclusion of a turn. The player with the token begins the round by choosing a role and taking the first action.
Players earn victory points for owning buildings, for shipping goods, and for manned "large buildings." Each player's accumulated shipping chips are kept face down and come in denominations of one or five. This prevents other players from being able to determine the exact score of another player. Goods and doubloons are placed in clear view of other players and the totals of each can always be requested by a player. As the game enters its later stages, the unknown quantity of shipping tokens and its denominations require players to consider their options before choosing a role that can end the game.
Game balance variants
The following changes may be made to the official rules in order to create what some players believe is a more balanced game giving each player a more equal chance of winning:
The prices of the Factory and University buildings may be swapped, such that the Factory costs 8 doubloons and the university costs 7 doubloons. In a private conversation, the designer Andreas Seyfarth said he would make this change.
In a forum on BoardGameGeek, some players have suggested that players starting with a corn plantation should start with 1 doubloon fewer than players who start with an indigo plantation.
Ending
The game can end in three different ways:
Mayor is selected and there are not enough colonists to refill the colonist ship with the appropriate number.
Captain is selected and the last VP chip is given to a player. (Additional chips are to be used during that round, once the supply is exhausted.)
Builder is selected and a player has built out their 12th city space, thus having no room left to build.
In each case, players finish the current round before the game ends.
A player's total score is calculated by adding the number on each of their victory chips, the building value of all of their buildings, and the bonus points from large buildings. Manned large buildings award bonus points based on various game conditions (such as the Fortress, which gives one victory point for every three colonists on the player board, or the City Hall, which awards a point for every small or large violet building owned by the player).
The winner is the player with the most victory points. In the event of a tie, the player with the most total goods added to doubloons is given the tie-breaker. If a tie still exists between players, they tie.
Two-player variant
Puerto Rico was released as a 3-5 player game but later received an official two-player variant from Alea. The two-player game is played with one Prospector, and in each round both players select three roles, before a doubloon is added to the seventh role and the Governor tile switches sides. Some players prefer to instead play with just five roles being selected each round - three for the Governor and two for the non-Governor - so that players never have the ability to select twice in a row and pull off powerful combos (like Craftsman/Trader).
Strategy
There are two primary strategies used in Puerto Rico, corresponding to the two means of earning victory points (VP). One strategy, often called the 'shipping strategy', is to attempt a high level of goods production, and to ship those goods back to the homeland for points. Corn is produced free and indigo has a low investment cost, therefore these goods are commonly chosen when this strategy is used because all exports are valued the same. The major disadvantage of this strategy is that doubloons are harder to acquire, and thus buildings are harder to build.
The other major strategy is to produce crops that are worth more (i.e. tobacco and coffee), and to use the cash produced from selling/trading to buy more buildings that also give new abilities. Expensive buildings can give a player many victory points, but fewer goods are likely to be shipped to the homeland, and so the VPs from exports can be expected to be low. In filling all their building spaces, a player can cause the game to end relatively quickly, before players using the 'shipping strategy' can capitalise on their investment in buildings and crops that increase shipment VPs.
There are also many minor strategies that play on the nuances of how the buildings interact.
Expansions and online versions
In January 2004, Alea released an official expansion to Puerto Rico. The addition consists of 14 new buildings that may be used alongside of, or instead of, the original 17.
A second expansion was under development, but it was later announced that it was cancelled. Instead, a different, but inclusive, expansion is included in the Alea 10th anniversary 'treasure chest' released in 2009, which contains expansions for a number of different games by the company. The Puerto Rico expansions included consist of the original expansion, as well as a small expansion of several new buildings and red 'nobleman' colonists, which interact with the new buildings. An English language translation of the new expansion was released at the end of 2009 by Rio Grande Games.
A playable online version is available, and, as of January 2017, 660,000 games had been played this way. An iPad version was launched in August 2011.
Criticism
Sam Desatoff at Vice stated "It feels disrespectful for Seyfarth to disregard slavery so completely. By using slavery as a gameplay mechanic without acknowledging the human cost of it (or even using its name directly), by rendering the institution to a mere tool, the true costs of running your economic engine are ignored. It almost seems to uncritically adopt the slavers' mindset, without any self-awareness. The effect is to make players gathered around a table for a game of Puerto Rico into unwitting moral accomplices in the horrors of human servitude."
For academics, Cornel Borit, Melania Borit, Petter Olsen in their article Representations of Colonialism in Three Popular, Modern Board Games: Puerto Rico, Struggle of Empires, and Archipelago note "In Puerto Rico, the indigenous population is completely absent. The world is populated only by colonists who arrive from the metropolitan centres by ship and settle into the new world with the support of the administrator (i.e. the Mayor), fitting into the freshly colonised society in accordance with labour force needs. Thus, the subaltern, who, from a historical point of view, had inhabited the Greater Antilles prior to colonisation, is excluded from the re-enactment of this colonial reality. To use Spivak’s critical parlance, it has no voice within the simulated historical world of the game."
Jarrah E. Hodge at Bitch Media observed "Puerto Rico is sanitized of all references to the exploitation of African slaves on plantations, or the indigenous Taino inhabitants of the island, who were virtually wiped out by the Spanish colonists."
Stephanie Patridge, the Professor and Department Chair, Religion & Philosophy highlighted in Playing Games With History: Philosophers On The Ethics Of Historical Board Games
"Still, even those of us who are fairly good at seeing the connection between some games and our collective, colonialist past and present tend to find ourselves bracketing such concerns for the sake of gameplay. (Honestly, we probably pull in and out of the gameplay as the incorrigible social meanings impress themselves on us more or less, depending on what game activity we are carrying out). How many of us have carried on playing Puerto Rico or (Settlers of) Catan as if there are no indigenous peoples present in our fictionalized colonial world to “mess it up” — a terra nullius fantasy — or bracketing the (abstracted) exploitation or even enslavement of indigenous peoples. Our tendency to bracket, of course, doesn't mean that there aren't legitimate objections to such colonialist-themed games. It suggests that we have subjectively made an internal calculation about how egregious we think that the representational offense is and whether it is “worth it” to criticize the collective ludic activity of our friends. We'll get this wrong often because we don't want to be killjoys. But sometimes playing on in a particular case will be appropriate. And sometimes it won't."
The Lancaster Board Gaming and Roleplay Shop reviewed it "...Slavery was intrinsic to the Spanish Colonies and is the basis upon which they were built, pretending it never happened like this particular game does is dangerous and sanitises history. Those forcibly ripped from their homes might have been colonists in the broadest sense, in that without them the colony simply wouldn't have existed and they were the foundational point upon which the colony was built. They can be called colonists by the game but the vast majority of players will understand they are slaves and, although they might ignore the implications in order to play the game (I know we do), the game is dishonest in trying to hide it."
Awards and rankings
Deutscher Spiele Preis, Winner. 2002
Essen Feather, Winner. 2002
Spiel des Jahres, Nominee. 2002
International Gamers Award (General strategy, Multiplayer Category), Winner. 2003
BoardGameGeek, Number #1 Rated Game. 2003 - August 17, 2008 and March 1, 2010 – December 2010
BoardGameGeek, Number #2 Rated Game. August 18, 2008 - February 28, 2010 and December 2010 – unknown. Currently, #24 rated game.
See also
San Juan, card game based on Puerto Rico
Other games by Seyfarth
Manhattan
Thurn and Taxis
References
Further reading
External links
Alea's home page for the game
iPad - The official version of Puerto Rico for iPad
Tropic Euro - free online multiplayer adaptation of Puerto Rico for 2-5 players
An unofficial online multiplayer version of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico at Rio Grande Games, American Publisher, with PDF download of English language rules
Video review and rules explanation by Board Games with Scott
BGA - Puerto Rico can be played online multiplayer at Board Game Arena.
Board games about history
Andreas Seyfarth games
Deutscher Spiele Preis winners
Alea games
Rio Grande Games games
Multiplayer games
Board games introduced in 2002 | [
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|
234351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further%20education | Further education | Further education (often abbreviated FE) in the United Kingdom and Ireland is education in addition to that received at secondary school, that is distinct from the higher education (HE) offered in universities and other academic institutions. It may be at any level in compulsory secondary education, from entry to higher level qualifications such as awards, certificates, diplomas and other vocational, competency-based qualifications (including those previously known as NVQ/SVQs) through awarding organisations including City and Guilds, Edexcel (BTEC) and OCR. FE colleges may also offer HE qualifications such as HNC, HND, foundation degree or PGCE. The colleges are also a large service provider for apprenticeships where most of the training takes place at the apprentices' workplace, supplemented with day release into college.
FE in the United Kingdom is usually a means to attain an intermediate, advanced or follow-up qualification necessary to progress into HE, or to begin a specific career path outside of university education. Further Education is offered to students aged over 16 at colleges of Further Education, through work-based learning, or adult and community learning institutions.
In the United States and Canada, the term continuing education has a similar meaning.
By country
United Kingdom
England
Further education colleges were laid out in the Education Act 1944. In the 1960s, A-level students predominantly studied at school rather than colleges (often referred to as "techs" at that time). More types of colleges were introduced over the next decades, and by 1990 colleges took in almost half of A-level students.
Colleges in England are corporate bodies under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, which removed further education colleges from local government control. Types of college include:
General further education colleges
Sixth form colleges
Tertiary colleges
Land-based colleges (e.g. agricultural specialisms)
Specialist designated colleges (e.g. working men's clubs)
Art, design and performing art colleges
Policies relating to colleges are primarily the responsibility of the Department for Education (DfE). Until July 2016, colleges were also covered by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS); on the abolition of BIS and formation of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), responsibility for FE colleges moved to DfE. The regulatory body for sixth form colleges was already DfE prior to the 2016 changes.
Following the merger of the Education Funding Agency and the Skills Funding Agency in 2017, funding for colleges is provided through the Education and Skills Funding Agency for all further education students.In 2018/19, colleges’ income totalled £6.5 billion, of which £5.1 billion (78%) was public funding. Most college funding follows the learner. Colleges must attract students, competing with each other and with other types of education and training provider. Colleges can borrow commercially, own assets, employ staff and enter into contracts, and they may make financial surpluses or deficits.
The Technical and Further Education Act 2017 laid out a framework for an insolvency regime for further education colleges known as "Education Administration". This is a form of corporate administration adapted to the needs of further education, to be used "where a further education body is unable to pay its debts or is likely to become unable to pay its debts" and intended "to avoid or minimise disruption to the studies of the existing students of the further education body as a whole". Education administrators were appointed to run Hadlow College and West Kent College in 2019.
All colleges and FE providers are subject to inspection by Ofsted, which monitors the quality of provision in publicly funded institutions in England. Membership organisations for providers include the Association of Colleges and the Sixth Form Colleges' Association.
In 2020, the government allocated £200 million for repairs and upgrades of FE college buildings, subject to a degree of matched funding by the colleges, and the Department for Education is allocating this to colleges via the Further Education Capital Transformation Fund. Sixteen colleges with sites in poor condition have been selected, and detailed proposals are expected by October 2021 for projects which can be completed by December 2024.
Northern Ireland
Further education in Northern Ireland is provided through seven multi-campus colleges. Northern Ireland's Department for Employment and Learning has the responsibility for providing FE in the province.
Belfast Metropolitan College
North West Regional College
Northern Regional College
South Eastern Regional College
South West College
Southern Regional College
Most secondary schools also provide a sixth form scheme whereby a student can choose to attend for two additional years to complete their AS and A-levels.
Scotland
Scotland's further education colleges provide education for those young people who follow a vocational route after the end of compulsory education at age 16. They offer a wide range of vocational qualifications to young people and older adults, including vocational, competency-based qualifications (previously known as SVQs), Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas. Frequently, the first two years of higher education – usually in the form of an HND – are taken in an FE college, followed by attendance at university.
Wales
Further education in Wales is provided through:
Sixth form colleges
FE colleges
Sixth forms within secondary schools
Further education in Wales comes under the remit of the Welsh Assembly Government. Funding came from Education and Learning Wales from 2000 until 2006, when that organisation was merged with the Assembly.
Republic of Ireland
Further education in the Republic of Ireland is similar to that offered in the UK. Typical areas include apprenticeships and other vocational qualifications in many disciplines, such as childcare, farming, retail, and tourism. The many types of further education awards are known as Post Leaving Certificates.
Further education has expanded immensely in recent years, helped by the institutions and their relationships with their communities. Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI), which was established in November 2012, is the regulator for FE qualifications.
See also
Bullying in further education
Education by country
European Qualifications Framework
Learning environment
Learning space
ISCED
Jisc
National Union of Students of the United Kingdom
Technical and Further Education (Australia)
Workers Educational Association
References
External links
UK Association of Colleges website
UK Further Education & College Vacancies
UK National Union of Students website
UK Ofsted website
UK Skills Funding Agency website
Continuing education
Education in the Republic of Ireland
Educational stages
Further education colleges in the United Kingdom
Higher education in the United Kingdom
Vocational education in the United Kingdom | [
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|
234352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladas | Palladas | Palladas (; fl. 4th century AD) was a Greek poet, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt. All that is known about this poet has been deduced from his 151 epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology (Anthologia graeca); another twenty-three appear in that collection under his name, but his authorship is suspect. His poems describe the persona of a pagan schoolteacher resigned to life in a Christian city, and bitter about his quarrelsome wife.
One of the epigrams attributed to him on the authority of Maximus Planudes is a eulogy on the celebrated Hypatia, daughter of Theon of Alexandria, whose death took place in 415. Another was, according to a scholium in the Palatine Manuscript (the most important source for our knowledge of Greek epigram), written in the reign of the joint emperors Valentinian and Valens (364–375). A third epigram on the destruction of Beirut (Anth. Gr. 9.27) suggests an alternative chronology dating Palladas' activity to the age of Constantine the Great. It is based on his edition of a papyrus codex that arrived from a private collection to the Beinecke Library at Yale University in 1996. Some of his arguments in favor of this new chronology have, however, been called into question.
An anonymous epigram (Anth. Gr. 9.380) speaks of Palladas as having a high poetical reputation. However, Isaac Casaubon dismisses him in two contemptuous words as versificator insulsissimus ("a most coarse poet"). John William Mackail concurs with Casaubon, writing that "this is true of a great part of his work, and would perhaps be true of it all but for the savage indignation which kindles his verse, not into the flame of poetry, but to a dull red heat."
There is little direct allusion in his epigrams to the struggle against the onslaught of Christianity. One epigram speaks obscurely of the destruction of the "idols" of Alexandria popular in the archiepiscopate of Theophilus in 389; another in even more enigmatic language (Anth. Gr. 10.90) seems to be a bitter attack on the doctrine of the Resurrection; and a scornful couplet against the swarms of Egyptian monks might have been written by a Reformer of the 16th century. For the most part his sympathy with the Greco-Roman pagan tradition is only betrayed in his despondency over all things. But it is in his criticism of life that the power of Palladas lies; with a remorselessness like that of Jonathan Swift he tears the coverings from human frailty and holds it up in its meanness and misery. The lines on the Descent of Man (Anth. Gr. 10.45), fall as heavily on the Neo-Platonic martyr as on the Christian persecutor, and remain even now among the most mordant and crushing sarcasms ever passed upon mankind.
Mackail groups Palladas to the same period with Aesopus and Glycon, each the author of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. All three belong to the age of the Byzantine translators, when infinite pains were taken to rewrite well-known poems or passages in different metres, by turning Homer into elegiacs or iambics, and recasting pieces of Euripides or Menander as epigrams.
Notes
References
K. W. Wilkinson, "Palladas and the Age of Constantine", The Journal of Roman Studies, 99 (2009), 36–60.
John William Mackail, Select epigrams from the Greek Anthology
Harold Anthony Lloyd, The Complete Palladas (complete verse translation of all the epigrams)
"Palladas", William Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, p. 94.
External links
4th-century poets
Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology
Christianity in the Roman Empire
Roman-era Alexandrians
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown | [
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234353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Anderson Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Anderson Township is a township located southeastern Hamilton County along the Ohio and Little Miami Rivers, approximately 13 miles southeast of downtown Cincinnati. The 2010 census found 43,446 people in the township, making it one of the most populous townships in the state of Ohio.
History
Anderson Township's earliest settlement came in 1788, when pioneer Benjamin Stites settled near the mouth of the Little Miami River. The treaty of Easton forbade entering Ohio. but because England had been run out in the Revolutionary War, the local natives did not know treaty was void. The township was organized in 1793 as part of the Virginia Military District and was bounded by the Ohio and Little Miami Rivers, and the mouth of the Eight Mile Creek to the east. The township was important during its early days as the site of Flinn's Ford, the southernmost crossing of the Little Miami River. Anderson Township remained mainly undeveloped forest and agricultural land until post-World War II suburbanization brought new infrastructure to the community. The population grew by an average of 1,000 persons per year from the 1950s through the early 1990s bringing massive residential and commercial developments to the area. Anderson Township is named for Richard Clough Anderson Sr., Virginia's chief surveyor when the township was created.
Anderson Township became a qualified Tree City USA as recognized by the National Arbor Day Foundation in 2009.
Geography
Located in the southeastern corner of the county between the Ohio and Little Miami rivers and a line extending due south from the confluence of the latter's East Fork and main channels (west of which belongs to Clermont County), Anderson Township has the following borders:
Linwood, Mt. Washington, East End, and California (all, officially, of Cincinnati) - west
Mariemont - northwest
Plainville (officially, Columbia Township) - north
Terrace Park - northeast
Summerside, Mt. Carmel, and Tobasco (all, officially, of Union Township, Clermont County) - east
Locust Grove (officially, Pierce Township, Clermont County) - southeast
Campbell County, Kentucky - south and southwest
Other municipalities and subdivisions of note that neighbor the township not directly, but by proximity of one-eighth of a mile or less, include Mt. Lookout, Hyde Park, Fairfax, and Milford.
Also of note is the fact that Anderson's nearest neighbors to the west, Mt. Washington and California, are functionally exclaves of the City of Cincinnati, impossible to reach via land or water without crossing into territory administered by Anderson Township (which controls the Little Miami River as it exists within Hamilton County). The two themselves barely connect, only able to do so via a narrow terrestrial connection spanning approximately 1000 feet (304 meters) exists, but contains no road, public or otherwise, and spans ten private land parcels uniformly developed and all facing away from the hilltop center of the community. Thus, this is not a passage available to the public. The official neighborhood borders of Mt. Washington were drawn to "overflow" from this bottleneck slightly and include an unestablished group of smaller residential subdivisions between the bottleneck and the Little Miami delta, where Mt. Washington and California meet and at least avoid their individual designations as exclaves of their mother city.
Anderson Township includes the following census-designated places:
Cherry Grove
Coldstream
Dry Run
Forestville
Fruit Hill
Salem Heights
Sherwood
Turpin Hills
The township is composed of of rolling hills with steep, wooded hillsides leading down to the Little Miami and Ohio rivers. As of 1990, 36% of Anderson Township had been developed into suburban communities for Cincinnati, 13% into farmland, and the remainder being left as woodland.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 43,446 people in the township. The population density was 1,392.5 people per square mile. There were 16,684 housing units at an average density of 534.7/sq mile). The racial makeup of the township was 86.9% White, 7.1% African American, and 6.0% of all other races combined.
In the township the population was spread out, with 29.9% under the age of 20, 12.4% from 20 to 34, 22.0% from 35 to 49, 22.1% from 50 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 93.9 males.
The median income for a household in the township was $88,008.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees. Anderson Township is also a member of the Ohio-Kentucky-Indiana Regional Council of Governments.
Police and fire services
Police services are provided by the Hamilton County Sheriff's Office. Fire and Emergency Medical Services are provided by the Anderson Township Fire Department.
Transportation
Major roads
Anderson Township is served by Interstate 275, US Route 52, State Route 32 and State Route 125 (Beechmont Avenue). Interstate 275 crosses the Ohio River into Kentucky near the southern border of the township on the Combs-Hehl Bridge. Anderson Township is also in close proximity to US Route 27, US Route 50 and Interstate 471.
Transit
Anderson Township is served by the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority, which provides local and commuter bus service on various routes to and from the township. Uber and Lyft operate in the township.
Airports
Cincinnati Municipal Lunken Airport (IATA: LUK) provides private and limited amounts of commercial air service and is located immediately southwest of the township near the confluence of the Ohio and Little Miami Rivers. The Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (IATA: CVG) provides most commercial air service to the area and is located approximately 20 miles southwest in nearby Hebron, Kentucky.
Rail
Rail service is provided by Norfolk Southern Railway in the northernmost portions of the township on a rail line between Cincinnati and Portsmouth.
Education
Schools
Nearly all of Anderson Township is located in the Forest Hills Local School District. The district boasts an "Excellent with Distinction" rating from Ohio Department of Education.
Forest Hills Local School District serves an approximate student population of 7,655 in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. The district employs 422 full-time classroom teachers and the district's overall student/teacher ratio is 18.1:1, with an instructional expense of $4,048 per student.
Schools within the district include:
Anderson High School
Ayer Elementary School
Maddux Elementary School
Mercer Elementary School
Nagel Middle School
Sherwood Elementary School
Summit Elementary School
Turpin High School
Wilson Elementary School
In 2005, the Forest Hills School District was presented a banner from the Ohio Department of Education recognizing the achievement of receiving an "Excellent" rating on the State Report Card for five consecutive years. Only 47 of the state's 614 school districts have achieved an Excellent rating for five consecutive years putting the district in the top 8 percent of districts in the state. This was achieved with more than 7,000 students and by spending less per pupil than many of the other school districts that are rated excellent.
Library
Anderson Township is served by a branch of the Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County., and consistently has one of the highest rates of circulation of the Library's branches.
Notable people
Marty Brennaman, sportscaster
Thom Brennaman, sportscaster; graduate of Anderson High School
Marc Burch, professional soccer player for Seattle Sounders FC; 2002 graduate of Turpin High School
Dennis Courtney, aka Denis Beaulne, Broadway Actor and Director; graduate of Anderson High School
Richard Dotson, former MLB pitcher (Chicago White Sox, New York Yankees, Kansas City Royals); graduate of Anderson High School
Ira Joe Fisher, broadcaster, poet, and educator
Julie Isphording, long-distance runner, competed in 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles; graduate of Anderson High School
Jensen Lewis, former MLB pitcher for Cleveland Indians; graduate of Anderson High School
Vicki Lewis, actress of film, stage, and television; graduate of Anderson High School
Jim Leyritz, former professional baseball player, mostly with the New York Yankees; graduate of Turpin High School
Andrew Norwell, NFL guard for Jacksonville Jaguars; graduate of Anderson High School
Allen M. Potter, American television soap opera producer
Dave Wilson, gold and silver medalist in swimming, 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles; graduate of Anderson High School
Michelle Yi, contestant on CBS' Survivor: Fiji; 2002 graduate of Turpin High School
Marilyn Zayas, judge on Ohio's First District Court of Appeals
Recreation
Anderson Township is home to Coney Island Amusement Park, Sunlite Pool, Riverbend Music Center and Belterra Park Gaming & Entertainment Center. It has become known to its numerous parks, greenspaces and outdoor activities. The Anderson Parks district is an impressive organization supporting 9 parks and an indoor RecPlex, totaling over 500 acres of land. The Anderson Foundation for Parks & Recreation was established in 1991 to help support these parks and expand their offerings and mission.
References
External links
Township website
Forest Hills Local Schools
History of Anderson Township found in this PDF from Township website
Anderson Parks
Anderson Foundation for Parks & Recreation
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Populated places established in 1788
1788 establishments in the Northwest Territory
Townships in Ohio | [
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234355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colerain%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Colerain Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Colerain Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The population of the township was 58,499 at the 2010 census. It is the second-largest township in Ohio by population to West Chester Twp., Butler County, Ohio and the second-largest in area to Madison Township, Lake County, Ohio.
Geography
Located in the northern part of the county, it borders the following townships and cities:
Ross Township, Butler County - north
Fairfield - northeast
Springfield Township - east
Forest Park - east, between sections of Springfield Township
Cincinnati - southeast
Green Township - south
Miami Township - southwest
Whitewater Township - west
Crosby Township - northwest
The only municipality in Colerain Township is a small part of the city of North College Hill in the far southeast, but ten census-designated places occupy most of the township in the east
Dry Ridge, in the center, north of Northgate
Dunlap, in the north
Groesbeck, in the southeast, north of White Oak
Mount Healthy Heights, in the northeast, south of Pleasant Run
Northbrook, in the east
Northgate, in the center
Pleasant Run, in the northeast
Skyline Acres, in the southeast, also in bordering Springfield Township
Taylor Creek, in the southwest
White Oak, in the southeast
The unincorporated communities of White Oak, Groesbeck, Northbrook, and Northgate are all within the township. White Oak is unique in its geography, in that it is part in Colerain Township and part in Green Township to the south.
The township is composed of 42.9 sq mi (111 km) of gentle wooded hills separating the Mill Creek and Great Miami River basins, sloping down to the flood plain of the Miami. The terrain generally rises toward the north of the township. As of 1990, 29% of the township's land had been urbanized, and 15% developed as agricultural property, while half remained as woodlands. The township is crossed by Interstates 74 and 275, while the main north–south artery is Colerain Avenue (U.S. Route 27).
Name and history
Statewide, other Colerain Townships are located in Belmont and Ross counties. The village of Colerain was laid out in 1790 by surveyor John Dunlap, who was Scots-Irish and a native of the town Coleraine, in Londonderry County, Ireland (in what has since become Northern Ireland). Fort Coleraine, aka Dunlap's Station, was one of the earliest attempts to settle the area despite the natives who had resided here for centuries without signing any land treaties.
The township was organized in 1794.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Colerain Township has a sister city arrangement with Obergiesing, a suburb of the German city of Munich.
References
External links
Township website
Northwest School District
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
1794 establishments in the Northwest Territory
Townships in Ohio | [
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|
234356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Annaeus%20Cornutus | Lucius Annaeus Cornutus | Lucius Annaeus Cornutus (), a Stoic philosopher, flourished in the reign of Nero (c. 60 AD), when his house in Rome was a school of philosophy.
Life
Cornutus was a native of Leptis Magna in Libya, but resided for the most part in Rome. He is best known as the teacher and friend of Persius, whose fifth satire is addressed to him, as well as other distinguished students, such as Claudius Agathemerus. "Through Cornutus Persius was introduced to Annaeus, as well as to Lucan, who was of his own age, and also a disciple of Cornutus". At Persius's death, Cornutus returned to Persius' sisters a bequest made to him, but accepted Persius' library of some 700 scrolls. He revised the deceased poet's satires for publication, but handed them over to Caesius Bassus to edit, at the special request of the latter.
Among Persius's satires were lines that, as Suetonius records, "even lashed Nero himself, who was then the reigning prince. The verse ran as follows:
(King Midas has an ass's ears)
but Cornutus altered it to:
Who has not an ass's ears?
in order that it might not be supposed that it was meant to apply to Nero."
Annaeus Cornutus was banished by Nero nevertheless — in 66 or 68 AD — for having indirectly disparaged the emperor's projected history of the Romans in heroic verse, after which time nothing more is heard of him.
Writings
He was the author of various rhetorical works in both Greek and Latin, such as . Excerpts from his treatise are preserved in Cassiodorus. A commentary on Virgil is frequently quoted by Servius, but tragedies mentioned by Suetonius have not survived.
Cornutus wrote a work on Rhetoric, and a commentary on the Categories of Aristotle, () whose philosophy he attacked along with his fellow Stoic Athenodorus. He also wrote a work called On Properties ().
Compendium of Greek Theology
His one major surviving work, the philosophical treatise, ("Compendium of Greek Theology") is a manual of "popular mythology as expounded in the etymological and symbolical interpretations of the Stoics". This early example of a Roman educational treatise, provided an account of Greek mythology on the bases of highly elaborated etymological readings. Cornutus sought to recover the earliest beliefs that primitive people had about the world by examining the various names and titles of the gods. The result, to modern eyes, is often bizarre, with many forced etymologies, as can be seen from the opening paragraph, where Cornutus describes Heaven ():
The Heaven [], my boy, encompasses round about the earth and the sea and everything both on the earth and the sea. On this account it has acquired its appellation, since it is an "upper limit" [] of all things and "marks of the bounds" [] of nature. Some say, however, that it is called Heaven [] from its "looking after" [] or "tending to" [] things, that is, from its guarding them, from which also "doorkeeper" [] and "watching carefully" [] are named. Still others derive its etymology from its "being seen above" []. Together with everything it encompasses, it is called the "world" [] from its being "so beautifully ordered" []
The book continues in a similar vein, proceeding from such gods as Zeus, Hera, Cronus, and Poseidon, to the Furies, Fates, Muses, and Graces. The work is pervaded throughout with a strong undercurrent of Stoic Physics.
We are told that the world has a soul that preserves it called Zeus who dwells in Heaven whose substance is fiery. Zeus is the power that pervades everything, and who assigns Fate to each person. The gods have sent us Reason (), which does not work evil, but which is part of the divine Reason of the universe:
"Ocean" is the that "glides swiftly" and changes continuously, whereas Tethys is the stability of the qualities. For from their blending or mixing come about those things that exist; and nothing would exist if either one unmixed gained the upper hand over the other.
Spurious works
Scholia to Persius are also attributed to Annaeus Cornutus; the latter, however, are of much later date, and are assigned by Jahn to the Carolingian period. The so-called Disticha Cornuti belong to the Late Middle Ages.
In 1891, Johannes Graeven proposed that an anonymous rhetorical treatise (the Anonymous Seguerianus) written in the 3rd century was written by a Cornutus. This attribution has not been generally accepted and, in any case, would refer to a later Cornutus.
Notes
Further reading
Ilaria Ramelli (ed.). Anneo Cornuto. Compendio di teologia greca. Milan: Bompiani Il Pensiero Occidentale. 2003. .
1st-century philosophers
1st-century Romans
Philosophers of Roman Italy
Romans from Africa
Roman-era Stoic philosophers
Cornutus, Lucius
Roman-era philosophers
Hellenistic writers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown | [
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234357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Columbia Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Columbia Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 4,532 people in the township. Originally one of Ohio's largest townships by area at its inception in 1791, it gradually shrank to one of the smallest by the early 1950s.
Name
Columbia Township is named after Columbia, the first white settlement in the historical Miami Valley, near Cincinnati Municipal Lunken Airport and now part of Cincinnati's Columbia-Tusculum neighborhood. Statewide, other Columbia Townships are located in Lorain and Meigs counties.
History
Columbia Township was formed in 1791, a year after Hamilton County was organized, when the court of general quarter sessions of the peace divided the southern part of the county into Columbia, Cincinnati, and Miami townships, each extending from the Ohio River north past the present-day Butler County line. Each township was assigned a standard cattle brand; historians have considered Columbia Township to be the county's first township, on account of its cattle brand of "A". The township's boundaries were defined as:
Columbia Township was one of the largest townships in Ohio, larger than some present-day counties. The three townships included virtually all the white residents of the Symmes Purchase; in the midst of the Northwest Indian War, conflicts with indigenous peoples continued to take place to the north until the Treaty of Greenville.
The township gradually shrank as Hamilton County's population grew. In 1795, upon the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, the court of general quarter sessions of the peace created Deerfield and Dayton townships out of the northern reaches of Columbia Township. In 1803, the county commissioners created Sycamore Township from the northern half of Columbia Township and, in turn, created Symmes Township from Sycamore Township's eastern half between 1820 and 1826. In the early 1840s, Spencer Township was carved out of the southwestern part of Columbia Township.
In 1861, the United States Army built Camp Dennison on in the northeastern corner of the township.
In 1876, Madisonville became the first village to incorporate within the township, followed by Norwood in 1881, Pleasant Ridge in 1891, and Terrace Park in 1893. The township's population grew further as the Cincinnati Street Railway extended lines further into the suburbs between 1890 and 1910. Cincinnati annexed Madisonville, Pleasant Ridge, Oakley, and Kennedy Heights between 1911 and 1914.
From the 1920s, car ownership spurred additional growth in the southwestern corner of the township. Mariemont was developed as a car-centric community in 1922. The completion of Columbia Parkway in 1938 caused Cincinnati to annex surrounding unincorporated land, leading Indian Hill and Mariemont to incorporate as villages in 1941, followed by Fairfax in 1951. Unlike in other parts of Ohio, most villages in southwestern Ohio withdrew from their surrounding townships via paper townships, reducing the township to one of the smallest in Ohio by the early 1950s. One exception was Fairfax, which only withdrew on January 1, 2010, due in part to city residents' low tax contribution compared to their influence on township elections.
Columbia Township invested $75,000 through its partnership to support Mariemont’s development of the next segment of the Murray Path extension. In 2021 the path will be extended from Settle Rd. east to Plainville Rd. at the southern gateway to Columbia’s Plainville Business District and historic Madison Place neighborhood.
Geography
Located in the eastern part of Hamilton County, Ohio, the township currently consists of eight disconnected parcels:
The largest parcel is the Ridge & Highland/Red Bank area. Its western part contains several big-box stores, its central part mainly contains a segment of Interstate 71, and its eastern part contains a few residential subdivisions. It is mostly surrounded by the Cincinnati neighborhoods of Kennedy Heights, Pleasant Ridge, and Madisonville, but is bordered by Silverton and Madeira to the northeast.
Norwood Green is the westernmost parcel, consisting mainly of Fenwick Park. It is bordered by Norwood to the south and Pleasant Ridge in Cincinnati to the north.
Ridgewood contains a residential subdivision. It is bordered by Amberley to the north and east, Pleasant Ridge in Cincinnati to the south, and Golf Manor to the west.
The Stewart Road Area is the northernmost parcel, containing residences. It borders Sycamore Township on the north, Madeira to the east, and Silverton to the west
The Camargo Road Area is mostly wooded with a few residences on its eastern fringe. It is bordered by Madeira to the north, Indian Hill to the east, and Madisonville in Cincinnati to the west.
Madison Place covers two parcels each of which is a residential subdivision. These border Indian Hill to the east, Madisonville in Cincinnati to the west, and Mariemont to the south.
Plainville is a fairly large parcel that stretches along the northern bank of the Little Miami River; it contains a commercial district and some residential subdivisions in its central portion, but is otherwise mainly undeveloped. It borders Fairfax to the west, Mariemont and Indian Hill to the north, Terrace Park to the east, and Anderson Township to the south.
Camp Dennison, the northeasternmost parcel, is mostly wooded but contains a public works facility of the Village of Indian Hill. It is bordered by the separate Camp Dennison CDP in Symmes Township to the north, Miami Township, Clermont County to the east, Milford to the south, and Indian Hill to the west.
The former extent of Columbia Township is now largely occupied by the following municipalities:
Some of the remaining township (only about 2.5 sq mi (6 km) in area) is land that is unsuitable for development, especially the banks of the Little Miami River.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Joint Economic Development Zone (JEDZ)
On November 5, 2013, the residents of Columbia Township voted to establish a Joint Economic Development Zone (JEDZ) and to implement an earnings tax on individuals working in the Zone and on net profits from businesses in the Zone, in partnership with the Village of Fairfax.
References
Further reading
External links
Township website
County website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio | [
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234360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosby%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Crosby Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Crosby Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 2,767 people in the township.
Geography
Located in the northwestern part of the county, it borders the following townships:
Ross Township, Butler County - northeast
Colerain Township - east
Whitewater Township - south
Harrison Township - west
Morgan Township, Butler County - northwest
One municipality, Harrison, while located primarily in Harrison Township, extends eastward into Crosby Township.
The township's total area is 20 sq mi (52 km). The terrain rises in a series of hills from the Great Miami River in the southeast and the becomes more regular in the north and west. As of 1990, only 9% of the township's land had been developed for suburban use, while 60% was agricultural and 27% remained wooded. Most of the extensive County Park, Miami Whitewater Forest, is located in Crosby Township.
The township retains much of its original area and rural character.
Settlements
While there are no formally organized villages in the township, there have been three settlements: New Baltimore, New Haven, and Whitewater Shaker Village.
New Baltimore, formed in 1819 by Samuel Pottinger, is situated on the Miami River about east of New Haven. In July 1863, Morgan's Raiders used a ford at New Baltimore to cross the Miami River.
New Haven was platted as a village by Joab Comstock in 1815. In the 19th century the village had a post office, but was known as "Preston". This was necessary since there was already a New Haven in Huron County, Ohio, and the name was assigned by the first postmaster, Alexander Preston Cavender.
In 1824 settlement was accelerated by the founding of Whitewater Shaker Village as a commune of the Shakers, the organization's fourth and last village in Ohio. Starting with 18 members and , the community eventually grew to over 125 members and occupied , and it remained an active community until it was abandoned in 1916 as a part of the general decline of the sect. Today the village's Shaker Cemetery is maintained by the township trustees and is open to the public; while most of the settlement's buildings remain along Oxford Road, they are all privately owned.
Name
Named for Joab Comstock's mother Thankful Crosby, it is the only Crosby Township statewide. Willey road however, may have been named for Joab's wife Eunice Willey.
History
The lands in Crosby Township were opened later and more slowly than its southern neighbors. While good land remained for sale in the more accessible townships there was little incentive to move this far away from the Ohio River. Difficulties with local Indians contributed to this delay.
Joab Comstock was the first settler. He came from New Haven, Connecticut in 1801 and purchased several sections leading up from the banks of the Great Miami River. The township was organized in 1803.
A singular element of Crosby Township's role in history is related to the pacifist beliefs of the Shakers and some of their neighbors. During the Civil War, a subscription fund was raised and held by the township clerk, with the funds used to pay a bounty to a volunteer to replace any drafted subscriber. When the war and the draft ended in 1865, the remaining $1,200 was used to erect the frame building that has served as the Crosby Township Hall ever since.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Fernald
A major issue in the township is the ongoing activity related to the clean-up of the Fernald plant site, which was built during World War II and was used to refine uranium isotopes needed for the first atom bomb.
References
External links
Township website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
1803 establishments in Ohio
Populated places established in 1803
Townships in Ohio | [
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|
234362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxana%20Malaya | Oxana Malaya | Oksana Oleksandrivna Malaya (), born 4 November 1983), better known as Oxana Malaya, is a Ukrainian woman internationally known for her dog-imitating behavior. Malaya has been the subject of documentaries, interviews and tabloid headlines as a feral child "raised by dogs".
Biography
Malaya was born in the village of Nova Blagovishchenka in Hornostaivka Raion, Kherson Oblast, of the Ukrainian SSR. According to doctors and medical records, she was a normal child at birth, but was later neglected by her alcoholic father at age three, and she lived surrounded by dogs. When Malaya was found by authorities, she was seven and a half years old, but she could not talk, lacked many basic skills, and physically behaved like a dog. She was running around on all fours, barking, slept on the floor, and she ate and took care of her hygiene like a dog. Malaya was removed from her parents' custody by social services.
Malaya was eventually transferred to the foster home for mentally-disabled children in Barabol (rural Ovidiopol Raion of Odessa Oblast). She underwent years of specialized therapy and education to address her behavioural, social and educational issues. Upon adulthood, Malaya was taught to subdue her dog-like behaviour; she learned to speak fluently and intelligibly and works at a farm milking cows, but remains somewhat intellectually impaired.
In a Channel 4 documentary, and in the Portuguese SIC channel documentary, her doctors stated that it is unlikely that she will ever be completely rehabilitated into "normal" society. In 2001, Russian TV channel "NTV" made a documentary about her life. There have been multiple articles about her in the press.
In 2013, Malaya gave an interview on national Ukrainian TV, on the talk-show Govorit Ukraina, where she talked about herself and answered questions. During the show, Malaya said that she wants to be treated like a normal human being, and is offended when others call her a "dog-girl". She said that she wants her brothers to visit her more often and that her main dream in her life is to find her biological mother. She also talked about her boyfriend, her life in the state foster home and her work with animals on the farm.
See also
Feral child
Genie (feral child)
References
External links
Oxana talks about her life on the Ukrainian TV talk-show "Govorit Ukraina" (2013)
Повторившая судьбу маугли 17-летняя воспитанница одесского интерната оксана малая совсем не обижается, когда ее называют девочкой-собакой - 2001 article in Fakty i kommentarii tabloid
У героини публикации «фактов» оксаны малой, которая выросла в… Собачьей конуре, нашлись родной брат и маленькая племянница, тоже оксана - 2003 follow-up article in Fakty i kommentarii
Daily Telegraph article
Animal Planet Raised Wild documentary (geo locked)
1983 births
Living people
People from Hornostaivka Raion
Feral children
Canids and humans
Ukrainian people with disabilities | [
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|
234364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvian | Salvian | Salvian (or Salvianus) was a Christian writer of the 5th century in Roman Gaul.
Personal life
Salvian's birthplace is uncertain, but some scholars have suggested Cologne or Trier some time between 400 and 405. He was educated at the school of Trier and seems to have been brought up as a Christian. His writings appear to show that he had made a special study of the law; and this is the more likely as he appears to have been of noble birth and could describe one of his relations as being "of no small account in her own district and not obscure in family". He was certainly a Christian when he married Palladia, the daughter of pagan parents, Hypatius and Quieta, whose displeasure he incurred by persuading his wife to retire with him to a distant monastery, which is almost certainly that founded by St Honoratus at Lerins. For seven years there was no communication between the two branches of the family, till at last, when Hypatius had become a Christian, Salvian wrote him a most touching letter in his own name, his wife's, and that of his little daughter Auspiciola, begging for the renewal of the old affection. This whole letter is a most curious illustration of Salvian's reproach against his age that the noblest man at once forfeited all esteem if he became a monk.
It was presumably at Lerins that Salvian made the acquaintance of Honoratus (died 429), Hilary of Arles (died 449), and Eucherius of Lyon (died 449). That he was a friend of the former and wrote an account of his life we learn from Hilary. To Eucherius's two sons, Salonius and Veranus, he acted as tutor in consort with Vincent of Lérins. As he succeeded Honoratus and Hilary in this office, this date cannot well be later than the year 426 or 427, when the former was called to Arles, whither he seems to have summoned Hilary before his death in 429.
Later work
Salvian continued his friendly intercourse with both father and sons long after the latter had left his care; it was to Salonius (then a bishop) that he wrote his explanatory letter just after the publication of his treatise Ad ecclesiam; and to the same prelate a few years later he dedicated his great work, the De gubernatione Dei ("The Government of God"). If French scholars are right in assigning Hilary's Vita Honorati to 430, Salvian, who is there called a priest, had probably already left Lyons for Marseilles, where he is known to have spent the last years of his life (Gennadius, ap. Migne, lviii. 1099). It was probably from Marseilles that he wrote his first letter — presumably to Lerins — begging the community there to receive his kinsman, the son of a widow of Cologne, who had been reduced to poverty by the barbarian invasions. It seems a fair inference that Salvian had divested himself of all his property in favour of that society and sent his relative to Lerins for assistance (Ep. i., with which compare Ad eccles. ii. 9, 10; iii. 5). It has been conjectured that Salvian paid a visit to Carthage; but this is a mere inference based on the minute details he gives of the state of this city just before its fall to the Vandals (De gub. vii. viii). He seems to have been still living at Marseilles when Gennadius wrote under the papacy of Gelasius (492–496).
Accounts of the fall of the Roman Empire
Of Salvian's writings there are still extant two treatises, entitled respectively De gubernatione Dei (more correctly De praesenti judicio) and Ad ecclesiam, and a series of nine letters. Several works mentioned by Gennadius, notably a poem "in morem Graecorum" on the six days of creation (hexaemeron), and certain homilies composed for bishops, are now lost (Genn. 67).
De gubernatione Dei (De praesenti judicio)
The De gubernatione (On the Government of God), Salvian's greatest work, was published after the capture of Litorius at Toulouse (439), to which he plainly alludes in vii. 40, and after the Vandal conquest of Carthage in the same year (vi. 12), but before Attila's invasion (451), as Salvian speaks of the Huns, not as enemies of the empire, but as serving in the Roman armies (vii. 9). The words "proximum bellum" seem to denote a year very soon after 439.
In this work, which furnishes a valuable if prejudiced description of life in 5th century Gaul, Salvian deals with the same problem that had moved the eloquence of Augustine and Orosius: why were these miseries falling on the empire? Could it be, as the pagans said, because the age had forsaken its old gods? Or was it, as the semi-pagan creed of some Christians taught, that God did not constantly overrule the world he had created (i. 1)? With the former Salvian will not argue (iii. 1). To the latter he replies by asserting that "just as the navigating steersman never loses the helm, so does God never remove his care from the world". Hence the title of the treatise.
In books i. and ii. Salvian sets himself to prove God's constant guidance, first by the facts of Scripture history, and secondly by the enumeration of special texts declaring this truth. Having thus "laid the foundations" of his work, he declares in book iii. that the misery of the Roman world is all due to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every class of society. It is not merely that the slaves are thieves and runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons - the rich are worse (iv. 3). It is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the Bagaudae and fly for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6). Everywhere the taxes are heaped upon the needy, while the rich, who have the apportioning of the impost, escape comparatively free (v. 7). The great towns are wholly given up to the abominations of the circus and the theatre, where decency is wholly set at nought, and Minerva, Mars, Neptune and the old gods are still worshipped (vi. 11; cf. vi. 2 and viii. 2).
Treves was almost destroyed by the barbarians; yet the first petition of its few surviving nobles was that the emperor would re-establish the circus games as a remedy for the ruined city (vi. 15). And this was the prayer of Christians, whose baptismal oath pledged them to renounce "the devil and his works ... the pomps and shows (spectacula)" of this wicked world (vi. 6). Darker still were the iniquities of Carthage, surpassing even the unconcealed licentiousness of Gaul and Spain (iv. 5); and more fearful to Salvian than all else was it to hear men swear "by Christ" that they would commit a crime (iv. 15). It would be the atheist's strongest argument if God left such a state of society unpunished (iv. 12) - especially among Christians, whose sin, since they alone had the Scriptures, was worse than that of barbarians, even if equally wicked, would be (v. 2). But, as a matter of fact, the latter had at least some shining virtues mingled with their vices, whereas the Romans were wholly corrupt (vii. 15, iv. 14).
With this iniquity of the Romans Salvian contrasts the chastity of the Vandals, the piety of the Goths, and the ruder virtues of the Franks, the Saxons, and the other tribes to whom, though heretic Arians or unbelievers, God is giving in reward the inheritance of the empire (vii. 9, II, 21). It is curious that Salvian shows no such hatred of the heterodox barbarians as was rife in Gaul seventy years later. It is difficult to credit the universal wickedness adduced by Salvian, especially in face of the contemporary testimony of Symmachus, Ausonius and Sidonius Apollinaris.
Ad ecclesiam
Ad ecclesiam is explained by its common title, Contra avaritiam. It strongly commends meritorious almsgiving to the church. It is quoted more than once in the De gubernatione. Salvian published it under the name of Timothy, and explained his motives for so doing in a letter to his old pupil, Bishop Salonius (Ep. ix.).
This work is chiefly remarkable because in some places it seems to recommend parents not to bequeath anything to their children, on the plea that it is better for the children to suffer want in this world than that their parents should be damned in the next (iii. 4). Salvian is very clear on the duty of absolute self-denial in the case of sacred virgins, priests and monks (ii. 8–10).
References
The Ad ecclesiam was first printed in Sichard's Antidoton (Basel, 1528); the De gubernatione by Brassican (Basel, 1530). The two appeared in one volume at Paris in 1575. Pithoeus added variae lectiones and the first seven letters (Paris, 1580); Ritterhusius made various conjectural emendations (Altorf, 1611), and Baluze many more based on manuscript authority (Paris, 1663–1669).
Numerous other editions appeared from the 16th to the 18th century, all of which are now superseded by those of Karl Felix Halm (Berlin, 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, 1883).
The two oldest manuscripts of the De gubernatione belong to the 10th century (Cod. Paris, No. 13,385) and the 13th (Brussels, 10,628); of the Ad ecclesiam to the 10th (Paris, 2172) and the 11th (Paris, 2785); of Epistle IX to the 9th (Paris, 2785); of Epistle VIII. to the 7th or 8th century (Paris, 95,559) and to the 9th or 10th century (Paris, 12,237, 12,236). Of the first seven epistles there is only one manuscript extant, of which one part is now at Bern (No. 219), the other at Paris (No. 3791). See Histoire littéraire de France, vol. ii.; Zschimmer's Salvianus (Halle, 1875).
Salvian's works are reprinted (after Baluze) in Migne's Cursus patrologiae, ser. lat. vol. liii. For bibliography, see T. G. Schoenemann's Bibliotheca patrum (ii. 823), and the prefaces to the editions of C. Halm (Monum. Germ., 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, Corp. scr. eccl. Lat., 1883).
Gennadius, Hilary and Eucherius may be consulted in Migne, vols. lviii. and I. See also Samuel Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, pp. 115–120.
Notes
External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
400s births
490s deaths
5th-century Christians
Christian writers
5th-century Gallo-Roman people
5th-century Latin writers
5th-century Roman poets | [
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234366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Delhi Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Delhi Township () is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 29,510 people in the township. It is the only Delhi Township statewide.
History
The area of modern-day Delhi Township was first settled by Americans in 1789, with the founding of the village of South Bend. Delhi was then incorporated as a township in 1816.
The name is pronounced "DEL-high", rather than "dell-hee", which is how its namesake in India's pronounced as Dell-Hee.
Sedam Springhouse
The Sedam Springhouse, which may date back to the 1790s, is one of the oldest buildings in the township. Now known as the Delhi Springhouse, the structure stands on land near the stone house Colonel Cornelius Ryker Sedam built in 1796. The house no longer exists, but the springhouse has been restored. The structure protected a natural spring, which supplied water as late as 1937. The springhouse was also used to provide storage for perishable foods.
Geography
Located in the southwestern part of the county along the Ohio River, it has the following borders:
Green Township - north
Cincinnati - east (Price Hill), west (Sayler Park), and south (Riverside and Sayler Park)
Miami Township - northwest
Much of what was once part of Delhi Township, including its entire shoreline along the Ohio River, is now part of the city of Cincinnati, the county seat of Hamilton County. Unincorporated communities in the township include Delhi Hills, Delshire, and Mount Saint Joseph. The Cincinnati communities of Price Hill, Sayler Park, Sedamsville and Riverside were part of Delhi Township until they were annexed by Cincinnati at the turn of the 20th century.
The township has an area of . Because the township covers the slopes leading down to the floodplain of the Ohio River, the township contains many hills, and its landscape is cut by a number of ravines caused by streams that make the descent.
Climate
Delhi Township is located within a climatic transition zone at the extreme northern limit of the humid subtropical climate. Being located within the northern periphery of the Upland South and also within the Bluegrass region of southern Ohio and Kentucky, the local climate is a basically a blend of the subtropics to the south and the humid continental climate to the north.
Delhi Township's average annual rainfall is , received over an average of 82 days, along with of snow. Temperatures range from an average July high of 88 °F (31 °C) to an average January low of 15 °F (-5 °C).
Demographics
The median age of males in the township is 36.7 years of age, and the median age of females in the township is 38.4 years of age.
The median income for households in the township was $64,504 in 2008. In 1999, the median income for households in the township was $55,052.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Infrastructure
Fire department
Three fire stations serve the township. Fire Station #33 serves as the fire department's headquarters. The other stations are Station #30 and Station #36.
Culture and recreation
Delhi Skirt Game
Delhi has various annual celebrations, including the Delhi Skirt Game. The Delhi Skirt Game is a Chicago-style softball game between officers of the Delhi Township Police Department and the firefighters of the Delhi Township Fire Department; the teams consist of male officers dressed in drag. The game is played in Delhi Park on the first Friday of August, with festivities surrounding the game including live music, games of chance, concessions, auctions and fireworks. The Skirt Game benefits needy families of Delhi Township.
"Floral Paradise"
Following an 1850s grape blight which destroyed most of the township's vineyards, many growers turned to vegetable farming. On the heels of a successful transition to vegetable farming, growers began to construct greenhouses in order to extend the growing season. At some point in the 1920–1930s, nearly all of the Delhi greenhouse operators began to realize the greater profit potential of growing flowers, and subsequently converted their greenhouses from vegetable-centric operations to growing cut flowers full-time.
The peak of local hothouse agriculture was reached during the late pre-WWII years, when as many as 55 family-run greenhouses operated in the township. Notably, Delhi Township-based greenhouses produced a significant percentage of carnations supplied throughout the United States by this time. In the local region, Delhi Township became known as the "Floral Paradise of Ohio", a trademark phrase that is still featured on modern, official Delhi Township signage.
The importance of greenhouses in Delhi Township was even reflected in the equipment of the Delhi Township Fire Department; as late as 1986, small-diameter fire attack lines were equipped with iron pipe couplings (rather than otherwise ubiquitous National Standard threads) in order to be compatible with the fittings in use on most greenhouse irrigation standpipes of the time. This arrangement permitted firefighters to connect their hoses to the source of water closest to an interior greenhouse fire, eliminating the need to drag (potentially) hundreds of feet of heavy, charged hose connected at the fire apparatus's pump panel outside. In this arrangement, water pressure in the involved greenhouse was boosted by a connection from the pumper to a standpipe connection on the outside of the structure. The requirement to carry a large variety of thread adapters (in order to be compatible with nearby, mutual aid departments), along with the rapid, penultimate decline of hothouse agriculture in Delhi Township led to the complete standardization to National Standard-threaded couplings within the department by the late 1980s.
Today, only a few family-run greenhouses remain—the combined results of a decline in business due to foreign flower imports, as well as the lucrative conversion of greenhouse properties to land made available for residential and commercial development in the post-World War II suburbanization boom.
Parks
The township operates over of park property. Parks operated by the township include Delhi Park, Five-Points Park, and Story Woods Park. Delhi Park, which opened in 1954, is the oldest park in the township. It has nine ball fields, including baseball courts, football fields, soccer fields, tennis courts, and sand volleyball courts. Delhi Park also has the Glen Carder Lodge, four picnic shelters and the "Spray Park." Five-Points Park, a park, has a gazebo and the firefighter's memorial. Story Woods Park, a park, has a playground facility, a picnic shelter, toilet facilities, and of walking trails. The township also has the Delhi Springhouse, which opened to protect the springs. The springhouse was also used as a source of drinking water and as cold storage for perishable foods. The Great Parks of Hamilton County operates Embshoff Woods, a park which opened in 1982 and consists of of protected natural areas.
In November 2007, the township dedicated Veterans Memorial Park in honor of the township's military veterans. Located within the park are the Wall of Honor Monument and the Killed-in-Action Memorial.
Newspaper
The Delhi Press serves the areas of Delhi and Sayler Park, Cincinnati. It is distributed once a week on Wednesdays. An average Delhi Press contains a main article, other articles about the area, school articles, athletic articles (usually focused on high schoolers), recipes, a response article, and an obituary.
Education
Colleges and universities
Mount St. Joseph University is located in Delhi Township. It has approximately 2,200 students and offers liberal arts and professional education programs. Other nearby universities include Cincinnati Christian University, the University of Cincinnati, Xavier University, and Northern Kentucky University.
Primary and secondary schools
Oak Hills Local School District operates public schools in Delhi Township. Public schools within the township include Delshire Elementary School, C.O. Harrison Elementary School, Delhi Middle School, and Rapid Run Middle School. Oak Hills High School, outside of the township, serves as the area high school.
Private schools in the township include Our Lady of Victory (Cincinnati) School and St. Dominic School. Other area schools include Elder High School and Seton High School.
Our Lady of Victory Catholic Church
Our Lady of Victory is the third oldest Catholic Church in Hamilton County, Ohio, established in 1842. OLV has a church, school and athletics. They are known as "Vipers". A notable alumnus of the school is news anchor Bill Hemmer. OLV is the site of the Greater Cincinnati Kansas City Barbeque Society barbeque competition, hosted in August.
Public libraries
The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County operates the Delhi Township Branch. The township first received a library in 1949 when a collection of books opened in Delhi Public School. A permanent library facility was dedicated in January 1968. In 1999, an addition added of space to the building, increased the size of the collection, expanded the children's area, added a glass reading room, and altered the landscaping. The branch was renamed to the Delhi Township Branch Library during its reopening and rededication.
Notable residents
Sebastian Rentz (winemaker)
Jim Herman
Andy Biersack
References
External links
Township website
County website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio
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234368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coming%20of%20age | Coming of age | Coming of age is a young person's transition from being a child to being an adult. It continues through adolescence. The specific age at which this transition takes place varies between societies, as does the nature of the change. It can be a simple legal convention or can be part of a ritual or spiritual event, as practiced by many societies. In the past, and in some societies today, such a change is associated with the age of sexual maturity (puberty), especially menarche and spermarche. In others, it is associated with an age of religious responsibility. Particularly in western societies, modern legal conventions which stipulate points in late adolescence or early adulthood (most commonly 17–21 when adolescents are generally no longer considered children or minors and are granted the full rights and responsibilities of an adult) are the focus of the transition. In either case, many cultures retain ceremonies to confirm the coming of age, and coming-of-age stories are a well established sub genre in literature, film industry and even comics.
Religious
Baha'i
Turning 15, the "age of maturity", as the Baha'i faith terms it, is a time when a child is considered spiritually mature. Declared Baha'is that have reached the age of maturity are expected to begin observing certain Baha'i laws, such as obligatory prayer and fasting.
Buddhism
Theravada boys, typically just under the age of 20 years, undergo a Shinbyu ceremony, where they are initiated into the Temple as Novice Monks (Samanera). They will typically stay in the monastery for between 3 days and 3 years, most commonly for one 3-month "rainy season retreat" (vassa), held annually from late July to early October. During this period the boys experience the rigors of an orthodox Buddhist monastic lifestyle – a lifestyle that involves celibacy, formal voluntary poverty, absolute nonviolence, and daily fasting between noon and the following day's sunrise.
Depending on how long they stay, the boys will learn various chants and recitations in the canonical language (Pali) – typically the Buddha's more famous discourses (Suttas) and verses (Gathas) – as well as Buddhist ethics and higher monastic discipline (Vinaya). If they stay long enough and conditions permit, they may be tutored in the meditative practices (bhavana, or dhyana) that are at the heart of Buddhism's program for the self-development of alert tranquillity (samadhi), wisdom (prajna), and divine mental states (brahmavihara).
After living the novitiate monastic life for some time, the boy, now considered to have "come of age", will either take higher ordination as a fully ordained monk (a bhikkhu) or will (more often) return to lay life. In Southeast Asian countries, where most practitioners of Theravada Buddhism reside, women will often refuse to marry a man who has not ordained temporarily as a Samanera in this way at some point in his life. Men who have completed this Samanera ordination and have returned to lay life are considered primed for adult married life and are described in the Thai language and the Khmer language by terms which roughly translate as "cooked", "finished", or "cooled off" in English, as in meal preparation/consumption. Thus, one's monastic training is seen to have prepared one properly for familial, social, and civic duty and/or one's passions and unruliness of the boy are seen to have "cooled down" enough for him to be of use to a woman as a proper man.
Christianity
In many Western Christian churches (those deriving from Rome after the East-West Schism), a young person is eligible to receive the sacrament of confirmation. This is usually done by a bishop or an abbot laying their hands upon the foreheads of the young person (usually between the ages of 12 to 15 years), and marking them with the seal of the Holy Spirit. In some denominations with this sacrament, the confirmand (now an adult in the eyes of the Church) takes a Saint's name as a confirmation name.
In Christian denominations that practice Believer's Baptism (baptism by voluntary decision, as opposed to baptism in early infancy), the ritual can be carried out after the age of accountability has arrived. Some traditions withhold the rite of Holy Communion from those not yet at the age of accountability, on the grounds that children do not understand what the sacrament means. In the 20th century, Roman Catholic children began to be admitted to communion some years before confirmation, with an annual First Communion service – a practice that was extended to some paedobaptist Protestant groups – but since the Second Vatican Council, the withholding of confirmation to a later age, e.g. mid-teens in the United States, early teens in Ireland and Britain, has in some areas been abandoned in favour of restoring the traditional order of the three sacraments of initiation.
In some denominations, full membership in the Church, if not bestowed at birth, often must wait until the age of accountability and frequently is granted only after a period of preparation known as catechesis. The time of innocence before one has the ability to understand truly the laws of God and that God sees one as innocent is also seen as applying to individuals who suffer from a mental disability which prevents them from ever reaching a time when they are capable of understanding the laws of God. These individuals are thus seen, according to some Christians, as existing in a perpetual state of innocence.
Catholicism and Orthodox Churches
In 1910, Pope Pius X issued the decree Quam singulari, which changed the age of eligibility for receiving both the sacrament of Penance and the Eucharist to a "time when a child begins to reason, that is about the seventh year, more or less." Previously, local standards had been at least 10 or 12 or even 14 years old. Historically, the sacrament of confirmation has been administered to youth who have reached the "age of discretion". The catechism states that confirmation should be received "at the appropriate time", but in danger of death it can be administered to children. Together with the sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist, the sacrament of confirmation completes the sacraments of Christian initiation, "for without Confirmation and Eucharist, Baptism is certainly valid and efficacious, but Christian initiation remains incomplete."
In Eastern Catholic Churches, infants receive confirmation and communion immediately after baptism. In Eastern Christianity the baptising priest confirms infants directly after baptism.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) sets the age of accountability and minimum age for baptism at 8 years of age. All persons younger than 8 are considered innocent and not accountable for their sinning. The LDS Church considers mentally challenged individuals whose mental age is under 8 to be in a perpetual state of innocence, while other doctrines teach that no one is 'without sin', both believe that those at a certain age are considered innocent. (Note: Other denominations of Christian believe the age is not set at 8 and cannot be specified biblically.)
Confucianism
According to the Grand Historian, Zhou Gongdan or the Duke of Zhou wrote the Rite of Zhou in about 3000 years ago, which documented fundamental ceremonies in ancient China, the Coming of Age rite was included. Then Confucius and his students wrote the Book of Rites, which introduced and further explained important ceremonies in Confucianism. When a man turned 20, his parents would hold a Guan Li (also named the capping ceremony); if a girl turns to 15, she would receive a Ji Li (also the Hairpin Ceremony). These rites were considered the representatives of a person being mature and was prepared to get married and start a family; therefore, they were the beginning of all the moral rites. The main dates, participants and procedures may differ in different historical periods or geology.
During this rite of passage, the young person receives his/her style name.
Hinduism
In Hinduism coming of age generally signifies that a boy or girl is mature enough to understand his responsibility towards family and society. Some Casts in Hinduism also has the sacred thread ceremony, called Upanayana for Dvija (twice-born) boys that mark their coming of age to do religious ceremonies. A rite of passage males have to go through is Bhrataman (or Chudakarma) that marks adulthood.
Ifá
In the traditional Ifá faith of the Yoruba people of West Africa and the many New World religions that it subsequently gave birth to, men and women are often initiated to the service of one of the hundreds of subsidiary spirits that serve the Orisha Olodumare, the group's conception of the Almighty God. The mystic links that are forged by way of these initiations, which typically occur at puberty, are the conduits that are used by adherents to attempt to achieve what can be seen as the equivalent of the Buddhist enlightenment by way of a combination of personalized meditations, reincarnations and spirit possessions.
Islam
Children are not required to perform any obligatory religious obligations prior to reaching the age of puberty, although they are encouraged to begin praying at the age of seven. Once a person begins puberty, they are required to perform salat and other obligations of Islam.
A girl is considered an adult when she begins menstruating, while a boy is considered an adult at twelve-to-fifteen years old. The evidence for this is the narration of Ibn Umar that he said: "Allah's Apostle called me to present myself in front of him on the eve of the battle of Uhud, while I was fourteen years of age at that time and he did not allow me to take part in that battle but he called me in front of him on the eve of the battle of the Trench when I was fifteen years old, and he allowed me to join the battle." (Reported by Bukhari and Muslim). When Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz heard this Hadith he made this age the evidence to differentiate between a mature and an immature person.
In some Islamic cultures circumcision (khitan) can be a ritual associated with coming of age for boys, taking place in late childhood or early adolescence.
Judaism
In the Jewish faith, boys reach religious maturity at the age of thirteen and become a bar mitzvah ("bar mitzvah" means "son of the commandment" literally, and "subject to commandments" figuratively). Girls mature a year earlier, and become a bat mitzvah ("bat mitzvah" means "daughter of the commandment") at twelve. The new men and women are looked upon as adults and are expected to uphold the Jewish commandments and laws. Also, in religious court they are adults and can marry with their new title of an adult. Nonetheless in the Talmud; Pirkei Avot (5:25), Rabbi Yehuda ben Teime gives the age of 18 as the appropriate age to get married. At the end of the bar or bat mitzvah, the boy or girl is showered with candies, which act as "sweet blessings". Besides the actual ceremony, there usually is a bar or bat mitzvah party.
Chassidim
In various Chassidic sects when boys turn 3 years of age, they have an upsherin (sect related typical Brooklin-Yiddish for Yiddish Abshern, for German Abscheren, "Haare schneiden", engl. hair cut, lit. "to sheer away") ceremony, when they receive their first haircut. Until then, their parents allow their hair to grow long, until they undergo this esoteric rite. Little girls for the first time co-light some extra ″Shabbat candles, after their mothers did so, also when they turn 3 years of age, for – sect typically – the ′traditional′ late 18th century chassidic rite forced uppon the rabbinic rite is always almost more important than halacha.
Shinto
In the Shinto faith, boys were taken to the shrine of their patron deity at approximately 12–14 years old. They were then given adult clothes and a new haircut. This was called Genpuku.
Sikhism
In Sikhism, when one reaches the age of maturity, Amrit is consumed in a ceremony called Amrit Sanchar.
Cultural
Ancient Greek
In certain states in Ancient Greece, such as Sparta and Crete, adolescent boys were expected to enter into a mentoring relationship with an adult man, in which they would be taught skills pertaining to adult life, such as hunting, martial arts and fine arts.
isiXhosa
Ancient Rome
The puberty ritual for the young Roman male involved shaving his beard and taking off his bulla, an amulet worn to mark and protect underage youth, which he then dedicated to his household gods, the Lares. He assumed the toga virilis ("toga of manhood"), was enrolled as a citizen on the census, and soon began his military service. Traditionally, the ceremony was held on the Liberalia, the festival in honor of the god Liber, who embodied both political and sexual liberty, but other dates could be chosen for individual reasons.
Rome lacked the elaborate female puberty rituals of ancient Greece, and for girls, the wedding ceremony was in part a rite of passage for the bride. Girls coming of age dedicated their dolls to Artemis, the goddess most concerned with virginity, or to Aphrodite when they were preparing for marriage. All adolescents in ritual preparation to transition to adult status wore the tunica recta, the "upright tunic", but girls wove their own. The garment was called recta because it was woven by tradition on a type of upright loom that had become archaic in later periods.
Roman girls were expected to remain virgins until marriage, but boys were often introduced to heterosexual behaviors by a prostitute. The higher the social rank of a girl, the sooner she was likely to become betrothed and married. The general age of betrothal for women of the upper classes was fourteen, but for patricians as early as twelve. Weddings, however, were often postponed until the girl was considered mature enough. Males typically postponed marriage till they had served in the military for some time and were beginning their political careers, around age 25. Patrician males, however, might marry considerably earlier; Julius Caesar was married for the first time by the age of 18.
On the night before the wedding, the bride bound up her hair with a yellow hairnet she had woven. The confining of her hair signifies the harnessing of her sexuality within marriage. Her weaving of the tunica recta and the hairnet demonstrated her skill and her capacity for acting in the traditional matron's role as custos domi, "guardian of the house". On her wedding day, she belted her tunic with the cingulum, made from the wool of a ewe to symbolize fertility, and tied with the "knot of Hercules", which was supposed to be hard to untie. The knot symbolized wifely chastity, in that it was to be untied only by her husband, but the cingulum also symbolized that the bridegroom "was belted and bound" to his wife. The bride's hair was ritually styled in "six tresses" (seni crines), and she was veiled until uncovered by her husband at the end of the ceremony, a ritual of surrendering her virginity to him.
Anglo-Celtic
In Anglo-Celtic cultures, (such as Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Ireland) when a female reaches 16 years of age, she may have a sweet sixteenth birthday party. However, the legal age of majority is 18 in most of these countries. At 18, one is legally enabled to vote, purchase tobacco and alcohol, marry without parental consent (although one can wed at 16 in Scotland and New Zealand) and sign contracts. But in the early twentieth century, the age of legal majority was 21, although the marriageable age was typically lower. Even though turning 21 now has few, if any, legal effects in most of these countries, its former legal status as the age of majority has caused it to continue to be celebrated.
Canada
In Canada, a person aged 16 and over can legally drive a car and work, but are only considered to be an adult at age 18 like in the US. In most provinces, the legal age to purchase alcohol and cigarettes is 19, except in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec where it is 18 years old.
United States
In the United States, people are allowed to drive at 16 in all states except New Jersey, which requires drivers to be 17 and older, and sometimes receive the responsibility of owning their own car. People may drive at age 15 in Idaho and Montana. At 16, people are also legally allowed to donate blood and work in most establishments. In spite of all this, it is not until the age of 18 that a person is legally considered an adult and can vote and join the military. The legal age for purchasing and consuming alcohol, tobacco, and recreational marijuana, the latter of which is only legal in the District of Columbia, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, California, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Nevada, Michigan, Virginia, and Alaska, is 21. Multiple localities have also raised the minimum purchase age independent of state laws.
Humanist
In some countries Humanist or freethinker organisations have arranged courses or camps for non-religious adolescents, in which they can study or work on ethical, social and personal topics important for adult life, followed by a formal rite of passage comparable to the Christian Confirmation. Some of these ceremonies are even called "civil confirmations". The purpose of these ceremonies is to offer a festive ritual for those youngsters, who do not believe in any religion, but nevertheless want to mark their transition from childhood to adulthood.
Indonesia
In Bali, the coming of age ceremony is supposed to take place after a girl's first menstrual period or a boy's voice breaks. However, due to expense, it is often delayed until later. The upper canines are filed down slightly to symbolize the effacing of the individual's "wild" nature.
While in Nias island, a young man must jump up over a stone (normally about 1 or 2 meters) as a part of the coming of age ceremony.
Japan
Since 1948, the age of majority in Japan has been 20; persons under 20 are not permitted to smoke or drink. Until June 2016, people under 20 were not permitted to vote. The government of Japan plans to lower the age of majority to 18, coming into effect in 2021. Coming-of-age ceremonies, known as seijin shiki, are held on the second Monday of January. At the ceremony, all of the men and women participating are brought to a government building and listen to many speakers, similar to a graduation ceremony. At the conclusion of the ceremony Government officials give speeches, and small presents are handed out to the new adults.
Korea
In Korea, citizens are permitted to marry, vote, drive, drink alcohol, and smoke at age 19.
The Monday of the third week of May is "coming-of-age day". There has been a traditional coming of age ceremony since before the Goryeo dynasty, but it has mostly disappeared. In the traditional way, when boys or girls were between the ages of fifteen and twenty, boys wore gat, a Korean traditional hat made of bamboo and horsehair, and girls did their hair in chignon with binyeo, a Korean traditional ornamental hairpin. Both of them wore hanbok, which are sometimes worn at the coming of age ceremony in the present day.
Latin America
In some Latin American countries, when a female reaches the age of 15, her relatives organize a very expensive celebration. It is usually a large party, called a Quinceañera in Spanish speaking countries and Baile de Debutantes in Brazil. The legal age of adulthood varies by country.
Papua New Guinea
Kovave is a ceremony to initiate Papua New Guinea boys into adult society. It involves dressing up in a conical hat which has long strands of leaves hanging from the edge, down to below the waist. The name Kovave is also used to describe the head-dress.
Philippines
In the Philippines, a popular coming of age celebration for 18-year-old women is the debut. It is normally a formal affair, with a strict dress code such as a coat and tie for the upper-middle and upper classes, and usually has a theme or color scheme that is related to the dress code. The débutante traditionally chooses for her entourage "18 Roses", who are 18 special men or boys in the girl's life such as boyfriends, relatives and brothers, and "18 Candles", who are the Roses' female counterparts. Each presents a rose or candle then delivers a short speech about the debutante. The Roses sometimes dance with the débutante before presenting their flower and speech, with the last being her father or boyfriend. Other variations exist, such as 18 Treasures (of any gender; gives a present instead of a candle or flower) or other types of flowers aside from roses being given, but the significance of "18" is almost always retained.
Filipino men, on the other hand, celebrate their debut on their 21st birthday. There is no traditionally set program marking this event, and celebrations differ from family to family. Both men and women may opt not to hold a debut at all.
Romani
In the Romani culture, males are called Shave when they come of age at 20, and females Sheya. Males are then taught to drive and work in their family's line of trade, while females are taught the women's line of work.
Scandinavian and Slavic
In Ukraine, Poland and the Scandinavian Countries, the legal coming of age of a person is celebrated at either 18 or 21.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Xhosa Ulwaluko and the Sotho Lebollo la banna circumcision and manhood ceremonies are still undertaken by the majority of males.
Spain
In Spain during the 19th century, there was a civilian coming of age bound to the compulsory military service. The quintos were the boys of the village that reached the age of eligibility for military service (18 years), thus forming the quinta of a year. In rural Spain, the mili was the first and sometimes the only experience of life away from family. In the days before their departure, the quintos knocked every door to ask for food and drink. They held a common festive meal with what they gathered and sometimes painted some graffiti reading "Vivan los quintos del año" as a memorial of their leaving their youth. Years later, the quintos of the same year could still hold yearly meals to remember times past. By the end of the 20th century, the rural exodus, the diffusion of city customs and the loss of prestige of military service changed the relevance of quintos parties. In some places, the party included the village girls of the same age, thus becoming less directly relevant to military service. In others, the tradition was simply lost.
In 2002, conscription was abolished in Spain in favor of an all-professional military. As a result, the quintos disappeared except for a few rural areas where it is kept as coming of age traditional party without further consequences.
Vietnam
During the feudal period, the coming of age was celebrated at 15 for noblemen. Nowadays, the age is 18 for boys and girls.
See also
Adolescence
Age of consent
Age of majority
Age of Majority (Catholic Church)
Bildungsroman
Coming of Age (Unitarian Universalism)
Coming-of-age story
Defense of infancy#The age of criminal responsibility
Manhood
Person (canon law)#Age of Majority
Quinceañera (age 15)
Rite of passage
Self-discovery
Sweet sixteen (birthday)
Coming of Age in Samoa
References
External links
Rites of passage
Adolescence
Adulthood | [
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234369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Green Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Green Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 58,370 people in the township. It was founded in 1809.
Geography
Located in the west central part of the county, it borders the following townships and city:
Colerain Township - north
Cincinnati - east
Delhi Township - south
Miami Township - west
Two cities occupy what was once part of Green Township: Cheviot in the east center, and Cincinnati, the county seat of Hamilton County, in the east and southeast. Nearly all of the remainder of the township is part of one of the following census-designated places:
Bridgetown, in the center
Covedale, in the south
Dent, in the northwest
Mack, in the west and southwest
Monfort Heights, in the northeast, south of White Oak
White Oak, in the northeast
The township encompasses 27.9 sq mi (72.3 km) of gently rolling hills above the Ohio River northwest of downtown Cincinnati. As of 1990, over 50% of the township's area has been was converted to urban use, largely as a suburb of Cincinnati; 38% is classed as forested, and 11% as farmland.
Name and history
It is one of sixteen Green Townships statewide.
The township was originally held intact by John Cleves Symmes, with the apparent intent of naming it as the academy township for his purchase. In 1802 a court order awarded half the township to one of his Miami Company investors, Elias Boudinot. This became part of the disputes over the entire Symmes Purchase. The township is named after Nathanael Greene, a Revolutionary War general.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Parks
Green Township has a township park system with six different parks including:
Bicentennial Park
Blue Rock Park
Bosken Park
Kuliga Park
Veterans Park
West Fork Park
Education
Catholic schools
There are several Catholic schools in Green Township. This includes LaSalle High School, St. Antoninus, Our Lady of Visitation, St. Aloysius Gonzaga, St. Jude, St. James White Oak, and St. Ignatius.
Public schools
Most of Green Township is within the Oak Hills Local School District. The Monfort Heights and White Oak areas of Green Township are within the Northwest Local School District.
Within the Oak Hills Local School District:
Oakdale Elementary School, Bridgetown Middle School and Oak Hills High School are within Bridgetown, Green Township. John F. Dulles Elementary School is within Mack. Springmyer Elementary School is also within Mack.
Within the Northwest Local School District:
Two Northwest schools are located in Green Township. Monfort Heights Elementary School serves Monfort Heights students, while White Oak Middle School serves White Oak and Monfort Heights students.
Three Northwest schools located in Colerain Township serve Green Township students.
Ann Weigel Elementary School and Struble Elementary School serve White Oak students, while Colerain High School serves Monfort Heights and White Oak students.
Public libraries
Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County operates the Green Township Branch in Mack and the Monfort Heights Branch in Monfort Heights. The Green Township branch, which opened in January 1990, has a central copper dome with two smaller domed structures, which were designed to resemble barns of horse farms which at one time prevalent in Green Township.
Notable people
John Cranley, 69th Mayor of Cincinnati
Rocky Boiman, former professional American football linebacker and ESPN commentator
Todd Portune, politician
John A. Gurley, U.S. Congressman from Ohio
Steve Driehaus, politician
Patrick Osborne, Academy Award-winning animator
References
External links
Township website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio
1809 establishments in Ohio | [
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|
234370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Harrison Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Harrison Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 13,934 people in the township.
Geography
Located in the northwestern corner of the county, it borders the following townships:
Morgan Township, Butler County - north
Crosby Township - east
Whitewater Township - southeast
Miller Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - southwest corner
Harrison Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - west
Whitewater Township, Franklin County, Indiana - northwest corner
The city of Harrison is located in central Harrison Township but also extends into Crosby Township.
Name and history
It is one of nineteen Harrison Townships statewide.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
References
External links
Township website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio | [
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234371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governess | Governess | A governess is a largely obsolete term for a woman employed as a private tutor, who teaches and trains a child or children in their home. A governess often lives in the same residence as the children she is teaching. In contrast to a nanny, the primary role of a governess is teaching, rather than meeting the physical needs of children; hence a governess is usually in charge of school age children, rather than babies.
The position of governess used to be common in affluent European families before the First World War, especially in the countryside where no suitable school existed nearby. Parents' preference to educate their children at home—rather than send them away to boarding school for months at a time—varied across time and countries. Governesses were usually in charge of girls and younger boys. When a boy was old enough, he left his governess for a tutor or a school.
Governesses are rarer now, except within large and wealthy households or royal families such as the Saudi royal family and in remote regions such as outback Australia. There has been a recent resurgence amongst families worldwide to employ governesses or full-time tutors. The reasons for this include personal security, the benefits of a tailored education, and the flexibility to travel or live in multiple locations.
Role
Traditionally, governesses taught "the three Rs" (reading, writing, and arithmetic) to young children. They also taught the "accomplishments" expected of middle-class women to the young ladies under their care, such as French or another language, the piano or another musical instrument, and often painting (usually the more ladylike watercolours rather than oils) or poetry. It was also possible for other teachers (usually male) with specialist knowledge and skills to be brought in, such as a drawing master or dancing master.
In the United Kingdom
The governess occupied a uniquely awkward position in the Victorian household, because she was neither a servant nor a member of the host family. She worked in the upper-class home of the landed gentry or aristocracy. She herself had a middle-class background and education, yet was paid for her services. As a sign of this social limbo she frequently ate on her own, away from the rest of the family and servants. By definition, a governess was an unmarried woman who lived in someone else's home, which meant that she was subject to their rules. In any case, she had to maintain an impeccable reputation by avoiding anything which could embarrass or offend her employers. If a particular governess was young and beautiful, the lady of the house might well perceive a potential threat to her marriage, and enforce the governess's social exclusion more rigorously. As a result of these various restrictions, the lifestyle of the typical Victorian governess was often one of social isolation and solitude, without the opportunity to make friends. The fact that her presence in the household was underpinned by an employment contract emphasized that she could never truly be part of the host family.
However, being a governess was one of the few legitimate ways by which an unmarried, middle-class woman could support herself in Victorian society. The majority of governesses were women whose fortunes had drastically declined, due to perhaps the death of their father or both of their parents, or the failure of the family business, and had no relatives willing to take them in. Not surprisingly, her position was often depicted as one to be pitied, and the only way out of it was to get married. It was difficult for a governess to find a suitable husband because most of the eligible men she encountered were her social superiors, who preferred a bride from within their own social class, particularly since such women generally had better financial resources.
Once a governess's charges grew up, she had to seek a new position, or, exceptionally, might be retained by a grown daughter as a paid companion.
British governesses outside the United Kingdom
An option for the more adventurous was to find an appointment abroad. There is also some allusion to the phenomenon of governesses being engaged abroad in A galaxy of governesses by Bea Howe.
The Russian Empire proved to be a relatively well-paid option for many. According to Harvey Pitcher in When Miss Emmie was in Russia: English Governesses before, during and after the October Revolution, as many as thousands of English-speaking governesses went there. As English became the fashionable language of choice among the aristocracy during the later days of the regime, clearly they were displacing opportunities formerly spread more across the French-speaking world. The estimate of numbers ('thousands'), although necessarily vague, is justified by some knowledge of the main lodging house used by those not accommodated with their host families, St. Andrew's House, Moscow, and by the places of worship they preferentially frequented, for example the church associated with the House. Pitcher drew extensively on the archives of the Governesses' Benevolent Institution in London.
Notable governesses
Katherine Swynford (c. 1350 – 1403), governess to the children of John of Gaunt, became his mistress and the mother of his Beaufort children; after some time, the couple married, and eventually the children were legitimised. She was a great-great grandmother of Henry VII of England through his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort.
Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (1473 – 1541), governess to the future Queen Mary I of England. They were also third cousins.
Anne Hegerty (1958-), TV quizzer on The Chase
Kat Ashley (circa 1502 – 1565), governess to Queen Elizabeth I of England.
Madame de Maintenon (1635 – 1719), who became the last mistress of Louis XIV of France, gained entry to his inner circle as governess to his illegitimate offspring, the children of Madame de Montespan.
Jane Gardiner (1758-1840), from her mid-teens governess to the daughters of Lady Martin, and from 1780 to the children of Lord Ilchester. She was succeeded in this second post by Agnes Porter, whose memoirs were reprinted in 1998 as A Governess in the Age of Jane Austen.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), author of the early feminist classic A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, worked as a governess in the household of the Anglo-Irish Kingsborough family, where she greatly influenced Margaret King.
Maria Flaxman (1768–1833), artist, governess to the children of Georgiana Hare-Naylor and Francis Hare-Naylor while the family lived on the Continent
Baroness Louise Lehzen (1784 – 1870) and Charlotte Percy, Duchess of Northumberland (1787 – 1866), governesses to the future Queen Victoria.
Anna Brownell Jameson (1794-1860), who became a well-known British writer on a range of subjects including early feminism
Anna Leonowens (1831-1915), governess to the harem of Mongkut (King of what is now Thailand). Her memoirs were later novelised as Anna and the King of Siam, which in turn inspired the musical drama The King and I.
Edith Cavell (1865-1915) worked first as a governess before she trained as a nurse
Anne Sullivan (1866-1936), the so-called Miracle Worker, who educated the remarkable deaf and blind girl Helen Keller.
Marie Curie (1867-1934), who worked as a governess in multiple households to fund her education, later became one of the most influential women in the history of science.
Maria von Trapp (1905-1987), the real-life inspiration for The Sound of Music.
Marion Crawford ("Crawfie") (1909-1988), governess of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret.
Fictional
Novels
Several well-known works of fiction, particularly in the nineteenth century, have focused on governesses.
The Governess, or The Little Female Academy (1749) is a collection of short stories for children, by Sarah Fielding
Jane Austen's novel Emma (1815) opens with the eponymous heroine losing Miss Taylor, the governess who had become a family companion, to marriage with Mr. Weston. Later, Jane Fairfax feels the threat of being forced to become a governess if her covert attachment to Frank Churchill all comes to nothing.
Mary Martha Sherwood wrote The Governess, or The Little Female Academy in 1820.
Jane Eyre, the protagonist in Charlotte Brontë's novel of that name (1847), serves as a governess to the ward of her future husband, Edward Fairfax Rochester.
Agnes Grey by Anne Brontë the same year portrays a more realistic view of what life for a governess was like.
Becky Sharp, the main character in William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair (1847–48), is employed as a governess.
Madame de la Rougierre is the wicked and mentally unbalanced French governess to heiress orphan Maud Ruthyn in Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu's gothic novel Uncle Silas (1864).
Stiva, the brother of the eponymous heroine in Anna Karenina (1878), had an affair with his children's governess.
Henry James's most famous governess is the over-sensitive and perhaps hysterical protagonist in The Turn of the Screw (1898).
Two of the Sherlock Holmes stories tell the tales of governesses: Violet Hunter, in "The Adventure of the Copper Beeches", and Violet Smith, in "The Adventure of the Solitary Cyclist". In addition, Mary Morstan, the wife of Dr. John Watson, used to be a governess.
Dante serves as governess to Stephen Dedalus and his siblings in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916).
In Winifred Watson's novel Miss Pettigrew Lives for a Day (1938), the title character is a life-long governess who unexpectedly finds other employment.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld series features a governess named Susan Sto Helit.
Eva Ibbotson's children's novel Journey to the River Sea (2001) features Arabella Minton as governess to the main character.
Michel Faber's historical fiction The Crimson Petal and the White (2002) features a clever woman, Sugar, who climbs improbably from prostitution to governess
In Libba Bray's Gemma Doyle Trilogy (2003-2007), the title character's orphaned friend is brought up to be a governess.
Diane Setterfield's gothic suspense novel The Thirteenth Tale (2006) develops parallels with Jane Eyre, including the role of the governess.
In the Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's writing Containing Dialogues between a Governess and Several Young Ladies of Quality Her Scholars, which was published in The Young Misses Magazine, she writes about the polite talks between Ms. Bonne and her class.
In film
The Governess is a 1998 British period drama film written and directed by Sandra Goldbacher.
Maggie Evans/Victoria Winters is hired to be governess to David Collins in the 2012 film Dark Shadows.
Miss Mary (1986) stars Julie Christie as the eponymous English governess in pre-Peron Argentina.
In television
Soap opera Dark Shadows featured the character Victoria Winters as the governess to David Collins.
In Star Trek: Voyager, Captain Kathryn Janeway spends recreation time playing the role of a governess, Lucille Davenport, on the holodeck
Clara Oswin Oswald in the 2012 Doctor Who Christmas special The Snowmen
Other uses
The term "governess" is an archaic gendered job title for a politician; now the word "governor" is used for men or women. For example, Keʻelikōlani was known as the governess of Hawaii.
Anne Hegerty, one of the Chasers on the British and Australian versions of The Chase, is nicknamed "The Governess".
See also
English Nanny & Governess School
Home schooling
References
Further reading
Budde, Gunilla (2018), Traveling teachers in Europe: Gouvernanten, governesses, and gouvernantes, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf).
External links
The Victorian Governess, a bibliography, at Victorian Web
VAM.ac.uk, Richard Redgrave's 'The Governess' discussed at the V&A Museum.
Domestic work
Education and training occupations
Gendered occupations | [
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|
234373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medley | Medley | Medley or Medleys may refer to:
Sports
Medley swimming, races requiring multiple swimming styles
Medley relay races at track meets
Music
Medley (music), multiple pieces strung together
People
Medley (surname), list of people with this name
Places
Medley, Florida, a town
Medley, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Medley, Alberta
Other
Medley cloth or Medleys, a woollen fabric
Medley Hall
Medley Centre, shopping mall in Irondequoit, New York
Medley Footbridge, Oxford, England
Medley Sailing Club, Oxford, England | [
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|
234374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Miami Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Miami Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 15,757 people in the township, 10,728 of whom lived in the unincorporated portions of the township.
Geography
Located in the southwestern corner of the county along the Ohio River, it borders the following townships:
Whitewater Township - north
Colerain Township - northeast
Green Township - east
Delhi Township - southeast
Boone County, Kentucky - south, across the Ohio River.
Lawrenceburg Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - southwest
Four municipalities are located in Miami Township:
A small part of the city of Cincinnati, the county seat of Hamilton County, in the southeast, along the Ohio River above Addyston
The village of Addyston, in the southeast, along the Ohio River between Cincinnati and North Bend
The village of North Bend, in the south, along the Ohio River below Addyston
The village of Cleves, in the center
The census-designated places of Grandview, Miami Heights, Shawnee, and a portion of Mack are located in Miami Township.
Name and history
Statewide, other Miami Townships are located in Clermont, Greene, Logan, and Montgomery counties.
The township was named for its location at the point where the Great Miami River flows into the Ohio River.
The monument and tomb of U.S. President William Henry Harrison is located just off U.S. Route 50 in the township, and his former residence is located in nearby North Bend.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
References
External links
Township website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio | [
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|
234375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryphaea | Gryphaea | Gryphaea, one of the genera known as devil's toenails, is a genus of extinct oysters, marine bivalve mollusks in the family Gryphaeidae.
These fossils range from the Triassic period to the middle Paleogene period, but are mostly restricted to the Triassic and Jurassic. They are particularly common in many parts of Britain.
These oysters lived on the sea bed in shallow waters, possibly in large colonies. The complete fossils consist of two articulated valves: a larger gnarly-shaped shell (the "toenail") and a smaller, flattened shell, the "lid". The soft parts of the animal occupied the cavity between the two shells, just like modern oysters. The shells also feature prominent growth bands. The larger, curved shell sat within the mud on the sea floor. These shells are sometimes found in fossil plates along with Turritella, clams, and sometimes sharks' teeth and fossilized fish scales. Its distribution is common in areas of both Europe.
A classic location to find these fossils is Redcar, on the northeast coast of England. There used to be a common folk belief that carrying one of these fossils could prevent rheumatism.
The name "devil's toenail" is also used for some fossil species of the genus Exogyra, which is in the same family (Gryphaeidae) as Gryphaea.
Two genera have been removed from this genus: Pycnodonte and Texigryphaea.
Selected species
Gryphaea arcuata
Gryphaea dilatata
References
External links
The Bedford Museum: Gryphaea
Fossil Folklore: Devil's Toenails – Natural History Museum, London
Gryphaeidae
Triassic bivalves
Prehistoric bivalve genera
Jurassic bivalves
Cretaceous bivalves
Paleocene bivalves
Eocene bivalves
Fossils of the United Kingdom
Carnian genus first appearances
Eocene genus extinctions
Fossils of Serbia | [
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234376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Springfield Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Springfield Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 36,319 people in the township. Springfield Township is home to the largest private school in Ohio (St. Xavier High School), the largest lake in Hamilton County (at Winton Woods County Park), and the Cincinnati area's annual Greek Festival (at Holy Trinity-St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church).
Geography
Springfield Township is suburban with abundant green space and parks, including most of the 2,500-acre Winton Woods County Park. The township also includes the largest lake in Hamilton County, the 188 surface-acre Winton Woods lake.
Springfield Township today consists of the core of the original township boundaries, although five non-contiguous "islands" exist due to annexations. The Township Master Plan divides the township into eleven (11) neighborhoods which closely align with or subdivide the seven (7) public school districts serving the township:
Finneytown—Finneytown Local Schools
Hamilton (Road) Southwest—Mount Healthy City Schools
Hamilton (Road) Northeast—Mount Healthy City Schools
Hollydale—Princeton City Schools
Lexington Heights, Glencoe and Wellsprings—Mount Healthy City Schools
Pleasant Run Farm—the northwest "island" served by Northwest Local Schools
Seven Hills—Mount Healthy City Schools
The Valley—three southeast "islands" served by Cincinnati Public Schools
West College Hill—the southwest "island" served by North College Hill City Schools
Winton (Road) Northeast—Winton Woods Local Schools
Winton (Road) Northwest—Winton Woods Local Schools
The following census-designated places are in the township:
Finneytown, in the south
New Burlington, in the west
Pleasant Hills, in the south center, north of Finneytown
Pleasant Run Farm, in the northwest
Skyline Acres, in the southwest
The following municipalities have annexed into the original Springfield Township boundaries:
The Township borders ten municipalities, and Colerain township to the west:
Fairfield - north, north of Forest Park
Forest Park - north, between Fairfield and Green Hills, west of Springdale
Greenhills - north, south of Forest Park
Springdale - northeast, between Forest Park and Glendale
Glendale - northeast, between Springdale and Woodlawn
Woodlawn - east, between Glendale and Wyoming
Wyoming - southeast, between Woodlawn and Cincinnati
Cincinnati - south
North College Hill - southwest, south of Mount Healthy
Mount Healthy - southwest, north of North College Hill
Colerain Township - west
Name
Springfield Township is one of 11 townships by this name statewide.
History
In 1795, upon the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, the court of general quarter sessions of the peace for Hamilton County created Springfield and Fairfield townships out of the northern reaches of Cincinnati Township.
In 1810, Millcreek Township was formed from the northern part of Cincinnati Township and the southern part of Springfield Township.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member Board of Trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it, alongside an elected township Fiscal Officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election.. Vacancies in the Fiscal Office or on the Board of Trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
The current Trustees are Kristie Dukes Davis, Joseph Honerlaw, and Mark Berning. Dan Berning is the Fiscal Officer.
Education
Public elementary and secondary education is provided by seven school districts:
Only Finneytown school boundaries are solely within the boundaries of Springfield Township.
Private schools within the boundaries of Springfield Township include:
St. Xavier is the largest private school in Ohio
References
External links
Township website
County website
Waycross Community Media
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio
1795 establishments in the Northwest Territory | [
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|
234381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CineMagic%20%28film%20festival%29 | CineMagic (film festival) | Cinemagic is an international children's film festival in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and in Dublin, Republic of Ireland, founded in 1988 that bills itself as the World Screen Festival for young people. The organisation is a company Limited By Guarantee and a registered charity.
Cinemagic's patrons include Dermot O'Leary, Brian Cox and Julian Fellowes.
See also
Northern Ireland Screen
External links
Official site
Festivals in Belfast
Film festivals in Ireland
Film festivals in Northern Ireland
Children's film festivals
Children's festivals in the United Kingdom | [
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234382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant%20%282003%20film%29 | Elephant (2003 film) | Elephant is a 2003 American psychological drama film written, directed, and edited by Gus Van Sant. It takes place in the fictional Watt High School, in the suburbs of Portland, Oregon, and chronicles the events surrounding a school shooting, based in part on the 1999 Columbine High School massacre. The film begins a short time before the shooting occurs, following the lives of several characters both in and out of school, who are unaware of what is about to unfold. The film stars mostly new or non-professional actors, including John Robinson, Alex Frost, and Eric Deulen.
Elephant is the second film in Van Sant's "Death Trilogy"—the first is Gerry (2002) and the third Last Days (2005)—all three of which are based on actual events.
Although Elephant was controversial for its subject matter and allegations of influence on the Red Lake shootings, it was generally praised by critics and received the Palme d'Or at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival, in which Patrice Chéreau was the head of the jury.
Plot
At the start of the film, John McFarland is being driven to school by his father, who is driving erratically down the road. Noticing the damage done to the car, John realizes that his father is drunk and makes him move to the passenger seat so he can drive. When John arrives at school late, he is reprimanded by the principal, Mr. Luce.
The majority of the film is spent following several high school students going about their daily lives just before a school shooting. In addition to John, who struggles with controlling his alcoholic father, photography student Elias builds a portfolio of other students. Outcast Michelle struggles with her body issues and assists in the library. Bulimics Nicole, Brittany, and Jordan gripe about their parents and squabble while popular athlete and lifeguard Nathan meets with his girlfriend, Carrie. Acadia, a close friend of John's, attends a Gay-Straight Alliance meeting.
Unknown to anyone, two other students, Alex and Eric, are preparing to carry out a bomb/shooting attack on their school. Flashbacks throughout the film show them preparing for the massacre by ordering weapons online and formulating an attack plan. The two have a brief sexual encounter in the shower after they both admit that they've never kissed anyone before. Their motives for the shooting appear vague; the film provides evidence suggesting bullying, neglect, violent video games, and Nazism.
On the day of the shooting, the pair make their way to school in Alex's car. Alex is armed with a rifle while Eric has a semi-automatic pistol. As they enter the school, they encounter John, and Alex tells him to leave. Realizing what is about to happen, John tries to warn students and teachers outside not to go into the school, but few people listen. He then notices his dad is missing after they arrived earlier and goes looking for him.
Alex and Eric plant propane bombs in the cafeteria, hoping to blow it up and shoot people as they try to escape the fire. When the bombs fail, they decide to start shooting indiscriminately. The pair head into the library, where Elias photographs them right before they open fire on students. Michelle is killed, while Elias' fate is left unclear. Other students quickly realize that the gunfire is real and begin to panic, and teachers begin evacuating students.
Alex and Eric split up to opposing ends of the school to continue their shooting. Alex enters the girls' bathroom where he surprises Jordan, Nicole, and Brittany, presumably shooting all three. A student attending the Gay-Straight Alliance meeting enters the hallway investigating the gunfire and is shot dead. The alliance members evacuate through a window save for Acadia, who freezes at the sight of her dead classmate. Benny, an African-American student athlete, finds her and helps her out the window before deciding to find and confront the shooters.
Outside the school, John finds his now sobered-up father, who tries to comfort his son as the shooting continues. While helping students escape, Mr. Luce is cornered and threatened by Eric, prompting Mr. Luce to try and reason with him. Benny walks up behind Eric, but Eric abruptly turns around and shoots Benny dead. Eric tells Mr. Luce not to treat kids like him and Alex poorly. He then lets Mr. Luce go, only to gun him down seconds later.
Alex enters the cafeteria, which is strewn with overturned chairs, backpacks, several dead bodies, and numerous abandoned half-eaten lunches, and sits down. Alex picks up a cup from an abandoned lunch and casually drinks from it. Eric meets up with him, and they have a brief conversation about who they've shot, which ends when Alex shoots Eric mid-sentence. Alex leaves the cafeteria, showing no emotion over killing Eric, and discovers Carrie and Nathan hiding in a freezer. He tauntingly recites "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe" to them to decide whom he should kill first. The film then cuts to credits leaving the ending ambiguous.
Cast
Alex Frost as Alex, the more intelligent of the two killers, implied to be the one in charge. He is an accomplished but frustrated pianist and sketch artist. He and Eric kiss before the massacre, both citing the fact that they had never been kissed.
Eric Deulen as Eric, a slacker, Alex's friend, and the other killer. He is less intelligent than Alex, and Alex is obviously aware of this. He is shot in the chest by Alex near the end of the film, while talking about whom he had killed earlier.
John Robinson as John McFarland, Alex's friend who has trouble at school while managing his alcoholic father. Alex warns him to stay away from the massacre.
Timothy Bottoms as Mr. McFarland, John's alcoholic father.
Matt Malloy as Mr. Luce, the principal of the school. Cornered by Eric, who briefly spares him, he is presumed dead after being shot several times.
Elias McConnell as Elias, a photography student building his portfolio with portraits of other students.
Nathan Tyson and Carrie Finklea as Nathan and Carrie, a popular lifeguard/football player and his girlfriend. Alex taunts them with Eeny, meeny, miny, moe.
Kristen Hicks as Michelle, a nerdy girl ashamed of her body. The film follows her through the locker room and into the library where she assists. She is the first to die during the massacre.
Brittany Mountain, Jordan Taylor, and Nicole George as Brittany, Jordan, and Nicole, three bulimic girls who talk incessantly, gripe about parents, and squabble with one another.
Bennie Dixon as Benny, an athletic student who helps Acadia escape out of a window before approaching Eric. He is shot and presumed dead.
Alicia Miles as Acadia, a close friend of John and a member of the Gay-Straight Alliance. She is assumed to have a panic disorder which causes her to freeze and break down in times of fear or stress. During the shooting, Benny discovers her standing still in a classroom and helps her escape from the school and the shooters.
Production
The film began as a documentary that Van Sant had intended to make about the Columbine High School massacre; eventually, the idea of a factual account was dropped.
Elephant was filmed in Van Sant's hometown, Portland, Oregon, in late 2002, on the former campus of Whitaker Middle School (previously Adams High School). Whitaker was closed by the Portland Public Schools in 2001 due to structural problems and safety concerns with the school building. The Whitaker/Adams building, completed in 1969, was torn down in 2007.
There was no initial script before the filming started. The script was "written" to its final form during shooting, with cast members improvising freely and collaborating in the direction of scenes. It was shot over 20 days.
JT LeRoy (a pen name for author Laura Albert) is credited as an associate producer for the film.
The title Elephant is a tribute to the 1989 BBC short film of the same name, directed by Alan Clarke. Van Sant originally believed Clarke's title referred to the parable of the blind men and an elephant, in which several blind men try to describe an elephant, and each draws different conclusions based on which body part he touched, and Van Sant's film uses that interpretation, as the same general timeline is shown multiple times from multiple viewpoints. Later, Van Sant discovered Clarke's film referred to the phrase "elephant in the room" (the collective denial of some obvious problem).
Also, Gus Van Sant named Chantal Akerman's film Jeanne Dielman, 23 quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles (1975) an inspiration.
Clarke's film Elephant reflects on sectarian violence in Northern Ireland. Van Sant's minimalist style and use of tracking shots mirrors Clarke's film.
A drawing of an elephant as well as an image of an elephant on a bed throw can be seen in Alex's room while he plays the piano.
Release
The film competed at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2003. Van Sant claimed audiences in attendance at Cannes argued over its quality, leading to altercations.
Elephant premiered in North America at a benefit for the Outside In youth shelter at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall, in Portland, Oregon, on Saturday, October 4, 2003, with several teenagers who appeared in the film in attendance. The film was released for incremental distribution by HBO in 38 theaters in the United States, beginning October 24, 2003. The film is notable for being the launch title for the Italian channel Rai 4.
Reception
Critical response
Elephant received mainly positive reviews from critics and has a score of 73% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 160 reviews with an average rating of 7.10/10. The critical consensus states "The movie's spare and unconventional style will divide viewers." The film also has a score of 70 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 37 critics indicating "generally favourable reviews".
Roger Ebert praised the film and gave it 4 out of 4 stars writing "Gus Van Sant's Elephant is a violent movie in the sense that many innocent people are shot dead. But it isn't violent in the way it presents those deaths. There is no pumped-up style, no lingering, no release, no climax. Just implacable, poker-faced, flat, uninflected death. Truffaut said it was hard to make an anti-war film because war was exciting even if you were against it. Van Sant has made an anti-violence film by draining violence of energy, purpose, glamor, reward and social context. It just happens. I doubt that Elephant will ever inspire anyone to copy what they see on the screen. Much more than the insipid message movies shown in social studies classes, it might inspire useful discussion and soul-searching among high school students."
Accolades
Red Lake shootings controversy
The Red Lake shootings that occurred in 2005 were briefly blamed on the film, as it was viewed by gunman Jeff Weise 17 days prior to the event. A friend of Weise said that he brought the film over to a friend's house and skipped ahead to parts that showed two students planning and carrying out a school massacre. Although they talked about the film afterwards, Weise said and did nothing to make anyone suspect what he was planning.
See also
Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, the students behind the Columbine High School massacre
Bowling for Columbine, a documentary about gun violence in America with emphasis on the Columbine massacre
Duck! The Carbine High Massacre, a film made in 1999 inspired by the Columbine High School massacre
Heart of America, yet another film revolving around a fictionalized school massacre
Zero Day, another film inspired by the Columbine High School massacre made in 2003
The Only Way, a 2004 independent film inspired by the Columbine High School massacre
2:37, a 2006 film set in Australia that follows the same themes and style
Run Hide Fight, a 2020 film follows a high school sieged by a quartet of school shooters.
References
External links
2003 films
2003 crime drama films
2003 LGBT-related films
2000s teen drama films
American crime drama films
American films
American high school films
American teen drama films
American teen LGBT-related films
2000s English-language films
Films about bullying
Films about murderers
Films about school violence
Films about virginity
Films directed by Gus Van Sant
Films set in Oregon
Films shot in Portland, Oregon
HBO Films films
LGBT-related drama films
Films about mass murder
American nonlinear narrative films
Palme d'Or winners
Films with screenplays by Gus Van Sant
Works about the Columbine High School massacre
Hyperlink films
Features based on short films
American psychological drama films
2000s psychological drama films | [
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|
234388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmes%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Symmes Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Symmes Township ( ) is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 14,683 people in the township.
Geography
Located in the northeastern corner of the county, the township has been cut into two "islands" due to annexations by surrounding cities. They have the following borders:
The northern island
Deerfield Township, Warren County – north
Hamilton Township, Warren County – northeast
Loveland – east
Miami Township, Clermont County – southeast
Indian Hill – south
Montgomery – southwest
Sycamore Township – west
The southern island
Miami Township, Clermont County – north and east
Columbia Township – south
Indian Hill – west
Unincorporated communities
The cities of Indian Hill, Loveland, and Montgomery have annexed large portions of Symmes Township, especially Indian Hill. The following census-designated places (unincorporated communities) are in the township:
Camp Dennison, in the southern part of the township
Loveland Park, in the northeastern corner, extending north into Warren County
Remington, in the southern tip of the northern "island"
Sixteen Mile Stand, in the western portion of the northern "island"
Name
Named for John Cleves Symmes, it is one of two Symmes Townships statewide; the other Symmes Township is located in Lawrence County.
History
Symmes Township is located in what was originally the Symmes Purchase. The township was incorporated by an act of the General Assembly on January 19, 1822. However, its year of establishment is usually given as 1824, as seen in the township's previous logo. In 1853, the Little Miami Railroad was completed, connecting the township to Cincinnati. Symmes Township survived a 1994 attempt to merge with Loveland, as well as efforts the following year to incorporate most of Symmes and Deerfield Townships as the City of Heritage.
In June 1994, dozens of people witnessed what was initially thought to be an advertising balloon, though Hamilton County has no record of a permit for an advertising balloon that day. The orb remained stationary and was circled by local air traffic. It was visible into the night, but by the next morning it was gone.
Parks
Symmes Township has 10 parks: Symmes Park, Home of the Brave Park, Hopewell Meadows Park, Stonebridge Park, Shore Drive Park, Seven Gables Park, Meade Historic Preserve, Little Miami Scenic Trail, Camp Dennison Nature Trail, and Blong Memorial Park.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
Police and fire protection in Symmes Township are the responsibility of the Hamilton County Sheriff and the Loveland-Symmes Fire Department respectively.
Education
Three different school districts include parts of the township:
The Indian Hill Exempted Village School District serves the southern part of the township.
The Loveland City School District serves the northeastern part of the township
The Sycamore Community School District serves the western part of the township.
Many private schools are located near Symmes Township as well, including Cincinnati Country Day School, Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy, Archbishop Moeller High School, Ursuline Academy, St. Margaret of York Elementary School, and St. Columban School.
The township is also served by a branch of the Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County.
References
External links
Township website
Loveland-Symmes Fire Department
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio
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234393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignity | Dignity | Dignity is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and to be treated ethically. It is of significance in morality, ethics, law and politics as an extension of the Enlightenment-era concepts of inherent, inalienable rights. The term may also be used to describe personal conduct, as in "behaving with dignity".
Etymology
The English word "dignity", attested from the early 13th century, comes from Latin dignitas (worthiness)
by way of French dignité.
Modern use
English-speakers often use the word "dignity" in prescriptive and cautionary ways: for example, in politics it can be used to critique the treatment of oppressed and vulnerable groups and peoples, but it has also been applied to cultures and sub-cultures, to religious beliefs and ideals, and even to animals used for food or research.
"Dignity" also has descriptive meanings pertaining to the worth of human beings. In general, the term has various functions and meanings depending on how the term is used and on the context.
In ordinary modern usage, the word denotes "respect" and "status", and it is often used to suggest that someone is not receiving a proper degree of respect, or even that they are failing to treat themselves with proper self-respect. There is also a long history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it is rarely defined outright in political, legal, and scientific discussions. International proclamations have thus far left dignity undefined,
and scientific commentators, such as those arguing against genetic research and algeny, cite dignity as a reason but are ambiguous about its application.
Violations
Categories
Human dignity can be violated in multiple ways. The main categories of violations are:
Humiliation Violations of human dignity in terms of humiliation refer to acts that humiliate or diminish the self-worth of a person or a group. Acts of humiliation are context dependent but we normally have an intuitive understanding where such a violation occurs. As Schachter noted, “it has been generally assumed that a violation of human dignity can be recognized even if the abstract term cannot be defined. ‘I know it when I see it even if I cannot tell you what it is’”. More generally, etymology of the word “humiliation” has a universal characteristic in the sense that in all languages the word involves “downward spatial orientation” in which “something or someone is pushed down and forcefully held there”. This approach is common in judicial decisions where judges refer to violations of human dignity as injuries to people's self-worth or their self-esteem.
Instrumentalization or objectification This aspect refers to treating a person as an instrument or as means to achieve some other goal. This approach builds on Immanuel Kant's moral imperative stipulating that we should treat people as ends or goals in themselves, namely as having ultimate moral worth which should not be instrumentalized.
Degradation Violations of human dignity as degradation refer to acts that degrade the value of human beings. These are acts that, even if done by consent, convey a message that diminishes the importance or value of all human beings. They consist of practices and acts that modern society generally considers unacceptable for human beings, regardless of whether subjective humiliation is involved, such as selling oneself to slavery, or when a state authority deliberately puts prisoners in inhuman living conditions.
Dehumanization These are acts that strip a person or a group of their human characteristics. It may involve describing or treating them as animals or as a lower type of human beings. This has occurred in genocides such as the Holocaust and in Rwanda where the minority were compared to insects.
Examples
Some of the practices that violate human dignity include torture, rape, social exclusion, labor exploitation, bonded labor, and slavery.
Both absolute and relative poverty are violations of human dignity, although they also have other significant dimensions, such as social injustice. Absolute poverty is associated with overt exploitation and connected to humiliation (for example, being forced to eat food from other people's garbage), but being dependent upon others to stay alive is a violation of dignity even in the absence of more direct violations. Relative poverty, on the other hand, is a violation because the cumulative experience of not being able to afford the same clothes, entertainment, social events, education, or other features of typical life in that society results in subtle humiliation; social rejection; marginalization; and consequently, a diminished self-respect.
Another example of violation of human dignity, especially for women in developing countries, is lack of sanitation. Having no access to toilets leaves currently about 1 billion people of the world with no choice other than to defecation in the open, which has been declared by the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations as an affront to personal dignity. Human dignity is also violated by the practice of employing people in India for "manual scavenging" of human excreta from unsanitary toiletsusually by people of a lower caste, and more often by women than men.
A further example of violation of human dignity, affecting women mainly in developing countries, is female genital mutilation (FGM).
The movie The Magic Christian depicts a wealthy man (Peter Sellers) and his son (Ringo Starr) who test the limits of dignity by forcing people to perform self-degrading acts for money. The Simpsons episode "Homer vs. Dignity" has a similar plot.
Philosophical history
Pico della Mirandola
A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola, granted dignity to ideas and to beings. In his "Oration on the Dignity of Man", he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels. His comments implied the dignity of philosophers. This oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance, intimately tied with the growth of humanist philosophies.
Kant
A philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment (18th century), Immanuel Kant held that there were things that should not be discussed in terms of value, and that these things could be said to have dignity. 'Value' is necessarily relative, because the value of something depends on a particular observer's judgment of that thing. Things that are not relativethat are "ends in themselves", in Kant's terminologyare by extension beyond all value, and a thing is an end in itself only if it has a moral dimension; if it represents a choice between right and wrong. In Kant's words: "Morality, and humanity as capable of it, is that which alone has dignity." Specifically with respect to human dignity, which his writings brought from relative obscurity in Western philosophy into a focal point for philosophers, Kant held that "free will" is essential; human dignity is related to human agency, the ability of humans to choose their own actions.
Mortimer Adler and Alan Gewirth
Philosophers of the late 20th century who have written significant works on the subject of dignity include Mortimer Adler and Alan Gewirth. Gewirth's views on human dignity are typically compared and contrasted with Kant's, for like Kant he theorizes that human dignity arises from agency. But while sharing Kant's view that rights arise from dignity, Gewirth focused far more than Kant on the positive obligations that dignity imposed on humans, the moral requirement not only to avoid harming but to actively assist one another in achieving and maintaining a state of "well-being".
Among other topics, including the dignity of labor, Adler extensively explored the question of human equality and equal right to dignity. According to Adler, the question of whether humans have equal right to dignity is intrinsically bound in the question of whether human beings are truly equal, which itself is bound in the question of whether human beings are a distinct class from all things, including animals, or vary from other things only by degree. Adler wrote that the only sense in which it is true that all human beings are equal is that they are equally distinct from animals. "The dignity of man," he said, "is the dignity of the human being as a person—a dignity that is not possessed by things." To Adler, failure to recognize the distinction challenged the right of humans to equal dignity and equal treatment.
Others
Dan Egonsson, followed by Roger Wertheimer, argued that while it is conventional for people to equate dignity with 'being human' (Egonsson's 'Standard Attitude', Wertheimer's 'Standard Belief'), people generally also import something other than mere humanness to their idea of dignity. Egonsson suggested that an entity must be both human and alive to merit an ascription of dignity, while Wertheimer states "it is not a definitional truth that human beings have human status."
According to Arthur Schopenhauer, dignity is opinion of others about our worth and subjective definition of dignity is our fear from this opinion of others.
More recently, Philippe-André Rodriguez has argued that human dignity is best understood as an essentially contested concept. As he argues, "it seems that it is this very nature of the concept that has allowed, on the one hand, human rights to receive such international acceptance as a theoretical enterprise and, on the other hand, has led the concept to be constantly challenged by different cultures worldwide."
Religion
Human dignity is a central consideration of Christian philosophy The Catechism of the Catholic Church insists the "dignity of the human person is rooted in his or her creation in the image and likeness of God." "All human beings," says the Church, "in as much as they are created in the image of God, have the dignity of a person." The catechism says, "The right to the exercise of freedom belongs to everyone because it is inseparable from his or her dignity as a human person." The Catholic Church's view of human dignity is like Kant's insofar as it springs from human agency and free will, with the further understanding that free will in turn springs from human creation in the image of God.
Human dignity, or kevod ha-beriyot, is also a central consideration of Judaism. Talmud cautions against giving charity publicly rather than in private to avoid offending the dignity of the recipient. Medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides in his codification of Halakha cautioned judges to preserve the self-respect of people who came before them: "Let not human dignity be light in his eyes; for the respect due to man supersedes a negative rabbinical command".
An Islamic view of dignity is crystallized in the Quran through the selected biographies of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, David, Moses, Mary, Jesus, Muhammed, and others (differing from the narratives in the Bible, which the Quran claims were corrupted). Individuals such as these are presented as role-models of dignity because they did not abandon their self-respect by bowing to social pressures. When faced with the fear of disapproval, poverty, hunger, death etc. these individuals held firm in their sense of right and wrong, which was in-line with Divine ordinances. "The right course is that on which one keeps his attitudes, ambitions and requirements subjected to the Divine Laws; and in this way leads a balanced and graceful life. Such a person has grasped the most trustworthy support which will never fail him" (Quran 31:22) Such individuals are given the title of Muhsineen, who faced immense pressures but held firm in their positive actions. God awarded these individuals with authority and status in the land, and this reward is open to anyone who proves themselves worthy: "We bestow such honour and position on all those who lead their lives according to Our Laws." (Quran 37:80) Those who fall into this category are also afforded Divine protection from their mistakes: "Therefore We have saved you and your son from this. We have done so because We keep those who lead their lives according to Divine guidance safe from such mishaps." (37:104-105) The Quranic State that Muhammad began in Medinah sought to protect human dignity, since in a Quranic Welfare State individuals are free to work and live without the pressures faced by the threat of poverty, and thus can obey God's Laws as free individuals, contributing as part of a unified brotherhood working towards achieving humanity's full potential. Elaborations on dignity have been made by many scholars of Islam, such as Mohammad-Ali Taskhiri, head of the Islamic Culture and Communications Organization in Iran, in 1994. According to Taskhiri, dignity is a state to which all humans have equal potential, but which can only be actualized by living a life pleasing to the eyes of God. This is in keeping with the 1990 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, which states that "True faith is the guarantee for enhancing such [basic human] dignity along the path to human perfection".
Ultimately, the Buddhist understanding of human dignity is rooted in the idea that we are able to choose the path of self-perfection...... This state of self-perfection—a condition of fully developed courage, wisdom and compassion—is described as Buddhahood or enlightenment. The idea that all people—all life, in fact—have this potential is expressed by the concept, stressed particularly in the Mahayana tradition, that all living beings possess Buddha nature.
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Medicine
In the 20th century, dignity became an issue for physicians and medical researchers. It has been invoked in questions of the bioethics of human genetic engineering, human cloning, and end-of-life care (particularly in such situations as the Terri Schiavo case, a controversial situation in which life support was withdrawn from a woman diagnosed in a persistent vegetative state).
International bodies
In June 1964, the World Medical Association issued the Declaration of Helsinki. The Declaration says at article 11, "It is the duty of physicians who participate in medical research to protect the life, health, dignity, integrity, right to self-determination, privacy, and confidentiality of personal information of research subjects."
The Council of Europe invoked dignity in its effort to govern the progress of biology and medicine. On 4 April 1997, the council, at Oviedo, approved the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine. The convention's preamble contains these statements, among others:
The Convention states, "Parties to this Convention shall protect the dignity and identity of all human beings and guarantee everyone, without discrimination, respect for their integrity and other rights and fundamental freedoms with regard to the application of biology and medicine."
In 1998, the United Nations mentioned dignity in the UNESCO Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights. At Article 2, the declaration states, "Everyone has a right to respect for their dignity." At Article 24, the declaration warns that treating a person to remove a genetic defect "could be contrary to human dignity." The Commentary that accompanies the declaration says that, as a consequence of the possibility of germ-line treatment, "it is the very dignity of the human race which is at stake."
Canada
In 1996, the Government of Canada issued a report entitled "New Reproductive and Genetic Technologies". The report used "the principles of respect for human life and dignity" as its reason for recommending that various activities associated with genetic research and human reproduction be prohibited. The report said the prohibited activities were "contrary to Canadian values of equality and respect for human life and dignity."
Denmark
The Ministry of Health enacted the Danish Council Act 1988, which established the Danish Council of Ethics. The Council advises the Ministry on matters of medicine and genetic research on humans. In 2001, the Council condemned "reproductive cloning because it would violate human dignity, because it could have adverse consequences for the cloned person and because permitting research on reproductive cloning would reflect a disregard for the respect due to the moral status of embryos."
France
In 1984, France set up the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences (CCNE) to advise the government about the regulation of medical practices and research. In 1986, the CCNE said, "Respect for human dignity must guide both the development of knowledge and the limits or
rules to be observed by research." The CCNE said that research on human embryos must be subject to "the rule of reason" and must have regard for "undefined dignity in its practical consequences." The CCNE insisted that, in research on human embryos, the ethical principles that should apply are "respecting human dignity" and respecting "the dignity of science."
Portugal
The National Council of Ethics of Portugal published its Opinion on the Ethical Implications of Cloning in 1997. The opinion states, "the cloning of human beings, because of the problems it raises concerning the dignity of the human person, the equilibrium of the human species and life in society, is ethically unacceptable and must be prohibited."
Sweden
Sweden's The Genetic Integrity Act (2006:351), The Biobanks in Medical Care Act (2002:297), Health and Medical Services (Professional Activities) Act (1998:531), and The Health and Medical Services Act (1982:763) all express concern for "the integrity of the individual" or "human dignity."
United States
In 2008, The President's Council on Bioethics tried to arrive at a consensus about what dignity meant but failed. Edmund D. Pellegrino, M.D., the council's chairman, says in the Letter of Transmittal to the President of The United States, "… there is no universal agreement on the meaning of the term, human dignity."
Law
McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen studied dignity as a basis for international law. They said that using dignity as the basis for laws was a "natural law approach." The natural law approach, they said, depends upon "exercises of faith." McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen observed:
Canada
In 2004, Canada enacted the Assisted Human Reproduction Act. Section 2(b) of the Act states, "the benefits of assisted human reproductive technologies and related research for individuals, for families and for society in general can be most effectively secured by taking appropriate measures for the protection and promotion of human health, safety, dignity and rights in the use of these technologies and in related research." The Act prescribes a fine not exceeding $500,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or both, if someone undertakes a proscribed activity such as the creation of a chimera.
European Union
Article 1 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms the inviolability of human dignity.
France
In 1997, the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences, as well as other observers, noted that France's dignity-based laws on bio-medical research were paradoxical. The law prohibited the willful destruction of human embryos but directed that human embryos could be destroyed if they were more than five years old. The law prohibited research on human embryos created in France but permitted research on human embryos brought to France. The law prohibited researchers from creating embryos for research but allowed researchers to experiment with embryos that were superfluous after in vitro fertilization.
Germany
Human dignity is the fundamental principle of the German constitution. Article 1, paragraph 1 reads: "Human dignity shall be inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all state authority." Human dignity is thus mentioned even before the right to life. This has a significant impact on German law-making and jurisdiction in both serious and trivial items:
Human dignity is the basis of § 131 StGB, which prohibits the depiction of cruelty against humans in an approving way. § 131 has been used to confiscate horror movies and to ban video games like Manhunt and the Mortal Kombat series.
A decision by the German Federal Constitutional Court in 1977 said life imprisonment without the possibility of parole is unconstitutional as a violation of human dignity (and the Rechtsstaat principle). Today, a prisoner serving a life term can be granted parole on good behavior as early as 15 years after being incarcerated, provided that his release is held to constitute little danger to the public. Note that persons deemed still dangerous can be incarcerated indefinitely on a life term, if this judgment is regularly reaffirmed.
§ 14(3) of the Luftsicherheitsgesetz, which would have allowed the Bundeswehr to shoot down airliners if they are used as weapons by terrorists, was declared unconstitutional mainly on the grounds of human dignity: killing a small number of innocent people to save a large number cannot be legalized since it treats dignity as if it were a measurable and limited quantity.
A Benetton advertisement showing human buttocks with an "H.I.V. positive" stamp was declared a violation of human dignity by some courts, but in the end found legal.
The first German law legalizing abortion in 1975 was declared unconstitutional because the court held that embryos had human dignity. A new law on abortion was developed in the 1990s. This law makes all abortions de jure illegal, except if preceded by counseling (§ 219 I GERMAN CRIMINAL CODE).
In a decision from 1981-12-15, the Bundesverwaltungsgericht declared that peep shows violated the human dignity of the performer, regardless of their feelings. The decision was later revised. Peep shows where the performer cannot see the persons who are watching them remain prohibited as a matter of dignity.
India
The word 'dignity' is mentioned in the Preamble to the Constitution of India:
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th day of November 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
The preamble is widely regarded as the backbone of the Indian constitution, and is seen as embodying its spirit. There have been instances where in contentious situations like the passing of the Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019, criticisms have been made by recalling the constitutional Values of dignity and national integrity, as mentioned in the Preamble.
Iran
The need to respect human dignity has been written in the Iranian constitution law. Article 2 of the Iranian Constitution Law mentions six principles and infrastructures as basic to the governing system which in Article 1 is called the Islamic Republic of Iran. The sixth principle of this Article concerns human dignity and stipulates that “the Islamic Republic of Iran is a system founded on faith in ….6) Human dignity and high value and his/her freedom as well as his responsibility before God”[3]. Besides, in the prelude to the Constitution, human dignity is referred to concerning the mass media.
South Africa
The Constitution of South Africa lists "human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms" as one of the founding values of the South African state, and the Bill of Rights is described as affirming the "democratic values of human dignity, equality and freedom". Section 10 of the Constitution explicitly states that "Everyone has inherent dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and protected." In jurisprudence, the right to dignity is often seen as underlying more specific rights, such as equality, security of the person or privacy, but it has been directly applied in a number of cases relating to criminal punishment, the law of defamation, and the right to marriage and family life.
Switzerland
The Swiss Federal Constitution provides in article 7 that "Human dignity must be respected and protected." It also provides, in art. 120, that the state must "take account of the dignity of living beings as well as the safety of human beings, animals and the environment" when legislating on the use of reproductive and genetic material; consequently the Federal Ethics Commission on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) issued, in 2008, a publication entitled "The dignity of living beings with regard to plants".
See also
Autonomy
Admiration
Anger
Beyond Freedom and Dignity
Dignity of risk
Dignity Taking
Humanity (virtue)
Human rights
Individual
Industriousness
Justice
Quality of life
Respect
Righteous indignation
Right to life with dignity
Self-determination theory
Self-concept
Self-esteem
Self-respect
References
Further reading
Andorno, Roberto. "Human dignity and human rights as a common ground for a global bioethics". Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 2009, 34(3):223–40.
Saccà, Luigi. "A Biophilosophical Model of Human Dignity: The Argument from Development in a Four-Dimensionalist Perspective". International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 2013, 27(2):175–94.
Folot, Eric. "Human Dignity (Part 1): Its Critics" https://ssrn.com/abstract=2354171 and http://www.legavox.fr/blog/ethos/dignite-humaine-partie-detracteurs-12702.htm
Thomas De Koninck, De la dignité humaine, Paris, Quadrige/PUF, 1995, 2nd ed. in 2002 (Award "La Bruyère" of the Académie française, 1996).
Thomas De Koninck, "Protecting Human Dignity in Research Involving Humans", Journal of Academic Ethics, vol. 7, issue 1–2, 2009, pp. 17–25.
Pele, Antonio. Una aproximación al concepto de dignidad humana Universitas. Revista de filosofía, derecho y política (Spain), Nº. 1, 2004 2005, pp. 9–13.
Piechowiak, Marek. Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity. Berlin: Peter Lang, 2019; second edition, revised and extended, Berlin: Peter Lang 2021. doi: 10.3726/b18092.
Sweet, William. . 'Whose Dignity is it Anyway? Lecture presented as part of the 'Breakfast on the Hill' series, Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Canada, May 2007.
Dignity Spiritualwiki
Dilley, Stephen and Nathan Palpant (eds.), Human Dignity in Bioethics. From Worldviews to the Public Square. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Spiegel, Alix: For The Dying, A Chance To Rewrite Life, Radio Feature about dignity therapy, an end-of-life treatment created Harvey Chochinov, NPR, 12. September 2011 (link checked 15. Octobre 2014).
Salehi, Hamid Reza. "Human Dignity From the Viewpoint of Iranian Law", Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, Volume 10, Issue 2, June 2013, 135–136. .
External links
Autonomy
Constitutional law
Ethics
Honor
Human rights concepts
Morality
Positive mental attitude
Psychological attitude
Social graces | [
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|
234397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba%20Dushi%20Tera | Aruba Dushi Tera | "Aruba Dushi Tera" ("Aruba Sweet Land", or "Aruba Lovely Country") is the national anthem of Aruba. It is a waltz written by Juan Chabaya Lampe and composed by Rufo Wever. The last verse was written by . It was accepted as the Aruban national anthem on 18 March 1976. It is written in Papiamento.
History
On 16 January 1976, the Executive Council of Aruba appointed an advisory committee with the assignment to come up with an anthem that took into account "Aruba dushi tera". The song was already very popular among the population and dated from the early 1950s. The committee included Rufo Wever (chairman), Eddy Bennett, Maybeline Arends-Croes and Hubert (Lio) Booi. The committee advised not to alter the melody of the "old" Aruba dushi tera into a march but to increase the number of verses. The third verse was written by Hubert Booi.
Lyrics
Notes
References
External links
Aruba National Anthems In The World All Countries National Anthems
National symbols of Aruba
North American anthems
Papiamento-language mass media
1976 songs
Dutch anthems
National anthems | [
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|
234398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycamore%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Sycamore Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Sycamore Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 19,200 people in the township.
Geography
Located in the northern part of the county, the township has been cut into three "islands" by annexations. They have the following borders:
Most of the township has been annexed by the various municipalities that the islands border. The central (or southeastern) "island" of Sycamore Township is occupied by the census-designated places (CDPs) of Dillonvale, Rossmoyne, Kenwood, and Concorde Hills, from west to east. Much of the northern "island" is occupied by the CDPs of Highpoint (north) and Brecon (south).
Name and history
Statewide, the only other Sycamore Township is located in Wyandot County.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
References
External links
Township website
County website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio | [
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|
234400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewater%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio | Whitewater Township, Hamilton County, Ohio | Whitewater Township is one of the twelve townships of Hamilton County, Ohio, United States. The 2010 census found 5,519 people in the township.
Geography
Located in the western part of the county, it borders the following townships:
Harrison Township - north
Crosby Township - northeast, west of Colerain Township
Colerain Township - northeast, east of Crosby Township
Miami Township - southeast
Lawrenceburg Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - southwest
Miller Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - west
Harrison Township, Dearborn County, Indiana - northwest corner
No municipalities are located in Whitewater Township, although four unincorporated census-designated places lie in the township: Elizabethtown in the southwest, Hooven in the southeast, Blue Jay in the north, and Miamitown in the east.
Name and history
It is the only Whitewater Township statewide.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees.
See also
Long Island Beach
References
External links
Township website
Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio | [
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|
234403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermopylae%20%28clipper%29 | Thermopylae (clipper) | Thermopylae was an extreme composite clipper ship built in 1868 by Walter Hood & Co of Aberdeen, to the design of Bernard Waymouth of London.
Construction
Thermopylae was built for the Aberdeen Line, which was founded in 1825 by George Thompson. She measured 212' × 36' × 20.9', with tonnage 991 GRT, 948 NRT and 927 tons under deck. The hull planking was American rock elm from the garboard to the light water line, and then teak from there to the rail. Being of composite construction, the planking was fastened over an iron frame.
She had exceptionally fine lines. The coefficient of under deck tonnage was 0.58. This compares with, for instance, Cutty Sark at 0.55 (i.e. slightly sharper than Thermopylae) and Ariel at 0.60. Iron was used for the fore and main lower masts and, when built, the yards for these masts.
Performance
Thermopylae was designed for the China tea trade. Her outbound passage was usually to Australia. On her maiden voyage, starting November 1868, she set a speed record of 63 days from Gravesend to Hobsons Bay, Melbourne, or 60 days measured from the Lizard. On the return trip, leaving Fuzhou on 3 July 1869, she was 89 days to the Lizard, or 91 to London. Her first 10 outward passages to Melbourne averaged 69 days (starting from the Lizard) and her eleven homeward voyages with a cargo of tea averaged 106 and a half days.
Thermopylae was particularly suited to the tea trade, putting in excellent performances in light winds. Though fast on all point of sailing, she was especially quick sailing to windward. Both of these characteristics were important for getting across the China Sea, and it was this section of the homeward passage which was crucial for achieving a fast time back to London.
Her last tea passage was in 1881. After that, she carried wool home from Sydney. On this route she did not perform as well as her rival Cutty Sark as she no longer had the advantage of her light wind performance. In 1890 she was sold to Canadian owners and used in the timber trade. At this stage her rig was reduced to barque, with some further reductions in the height of her fore and main masts; she had already seen the height of some of her masts reduced during her time in the wool trade. In 1892 she served on routes across the Pacific from Canada, before being sold to the Portuguese government in 1896.
Race with Cutty Sark
In 1872, Thermopylae raced the clipper Cutty Sark from Shanghai back to London. Thermopylae won by seven days after Cutty Sark lost her rudder. From 1882 onward, Thermopylae took part in the Australian wool trade; however, on this route Cutty Sark proved faster.
Naval training ship
After her sale to Portugal, she was use as a naval training ship and renamed Pedro Nunes. On 13 October 1907, the Portuguese Navy towed her down the Tagus river and sunk by naval gunfire.
References
Further reading
Hume, Cyril L.; Armstrong, Malcolm C. The Cutty Sark and Thermopylae Era of Sail. Glasgow: Brown, Son & Ferguson, 1987 (hardcover, ).
Matheson, Marny. Clippers for the record: The story of ship Thermopylae, S.S. Aberdeen, and Captain Charles Matheson. Melbourne: Spectrum, 1984 ().
Crosse, John; Thermopylae and the Age of Clippers. Historian Publishers, Vancouver.
External links
Thermopylae at Aberdeen Built Ships.
Tea clippers
Training ships
Individual sailing vessels
Ships built in Aberdeen
Victorian-era merchant ships of the United Kingdom
Naval ships of Portugal
Maritime incidents in 1907
1868 ships
Ships of the Aberdeen Line
Ships sunk as targets
Shipwrecks of Portugal
Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean | [
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|
234405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Game%20of%20the%20Century%20%28chess%29 | The Game of the Century (chess) | The Game of the Century is a chess game that was won by the 13-year-old future world champion Bobby Fischer against Donald Byrne in the Rosenwald Memorial Tournament at the Marshall Chess Club in New York City on October 17, 1956. In Chess Review, Hans Kmoch dubbed it "The Game of the Century" and wrote: "The following game, a stunning masterpiece of play performed by a boy of 13 against a formidable opponent, matches the finest on record in the history of chess prodigies."
Background
Donald Byrne (1930–1976) was one of the leading American chess masters at the time of this game. He won the 1953 U.S. Open Championship, and represented the United States in the 1962, 1964, and 1968 Chess Olympiads. He became an International Master in 1962, and probably would have risen further if not for ill health. Robert "Bobby" Fischer (1943–2008) was at this time a promising junior facing one of his first real tests against master-level opposition. His overall performance in the tournament was mediocre, but he soon had a meteoric rise, winning the 1957 U.S. Open on tiebreaks, winning the 1957–58 U.S. (Closed) Championship (and all seven later championships in which he played), qualifying for the Candidates Tournament and becoming in 1958 the world's youngest grandmaster at age 15. He won the world championship in 1972, and is considered one of the greatest chess players of all time.
In this game, Fischer (playing Black) demonstrates noteworthy innovation and improvisation. Byrne (playing White), after a standard opening, makes a seemingly minor mistake on move 11, losing a tempo by moving the same piece twice. Fischer pounces with brilliant sacrificial play, culminating in a queen sacrifice on move 17. Byrne captures the queen, but Fischer gets copious for it – a rook, two bishops, and a pawn. At the end, Fischer's pieces coordinate to , while Byrne's queen sits useless on the other side of the board.
The game
White: Donald Byrne Black: Bobby Fischer Opening: Grünfeld Defence (ECO D92)
1. Nf3
A noncommittal move by Byrne. From here, the game can develop into a number of different openings.
1... Nf6 2. c4 g6 3. Nc3 Bg7
Fischer defends based on "hypermodern" principles, inviting Byrne to establish a classical pawn stronghold in the , which Fischer intends to target and undermine with his fianchettoed bishop and other pieces.
4. d4 0-0
Fischer castles, bringing his king to safety. The Black move 4...d5 would have reached the Grünfeld Defence immediately. After Fischer's 4...0-0, Byrne could have played 5.e4, whereupon 5...d6 6.Be2 e5 reaches the main line of the King's Indian Defense.
5. Bf4 d5
The game has now transposed to the Grünfeld Defence (5...d5, ECO code D92), usually initiated by 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5.
6. Qb3
A form of the so-called Russian System (the usual move order is 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5 4.Nf3 Bg7 5.Qb3), putting pressure on Fischer's central d5-pawn.
6... dxc4
Fischer relinquishes his center, but draws Byrne's queen to a square where it is exposed and can be attacked.
7. Qxc4 c6
Also possible is 7...Na6 (the Prins Variation), preparing ...c5 to challenge White's center.
8. e4 Nbd7
In later games, Black played the more active 8...b5 followed by 9...Qa5. An example is Bisguier–Benko, U.S. Championship 1963–64. Fischer's choice is a little slow, although one would not guess that from the subsequent play.
9. Rd1 Nb6 10. Qc5
An awkward square for the queen, which leaves it exposed to a possible ...Na4 or ...Ne4, as Fischer brilliantly demonstrates. Since both those squares are protected by Byrne's knight on c3, he understandably did not appreciate the danger. 10.Qb3 would have left the queen better placed, although it would have invited further harassment with 10...Be6.
10... Bg4
Byrne's pawns control the center squares, but Fischer is ahead in and has castled, while Byrne's king is still in the center. These factors would not have been very significant had Byrne attended to his development on his next move.
11. Bg5 (diagram)
Intended to prevent 11...Nfd7 followed by ...e5, but Byrne errs by not completing his development. Numerous authors suggest 11.Be2 instead, protecting the king and preparing kingside castling. Flear–Morris, Dublin 1991, continued 11.Be2 Nfd7 12.Qa3 Bxf3 13.Bxf3 e5 14.dxe5 Qe8 15.Be2 Nxe5 16.0-0 and White was slightly better.
11... Na4
"One of the most powerful moves of all time." (Jonathan Rowson). Fischer offers an ingenious knight sacrifice. If Byrne plays 12.Nxa4, Fischer will reply 12...Nxe4, leaving Byrne with some terrible choices:
13.Qxe7 Qa5+ 14.b4 Qxa4 15.Qxe4 Rfe8 16.Be7 Bxf3 17.gxf3 Bf8 produces a deadly pin;
13.Bxe7 Nxc5 14.Bxd8 Nxa4 15.Bg5 Bxf3 16.gxf3 Nxb2 gives Fischer an extra pawn and ruins Byrne's pawn structure;
13.Qc1 Qa5+ 14.Nc3 Bxf3 15.gxf3 Nxg5 regains the sacrificed piece with a better position and extra pawn;
13.Qb4 Nxg5 14.Nxg5 Bxd1 15.Kxd1 Bxd4 16.Qd2 Bxf2 with a winning material advantage (Fischer).
12. Qa3 Nxc3 13. bxc3 Nxe4
Fischer again offers material in order to open the e-file and get at White's uncastled king.
14. Bxe7 Qb6 15. Bc4
Byrne wisely declines the offered material. If 15.Bxf8 Bxf8 16.Qb3, Fischer analyzes 16...Nxc3! 17.Qxb6 (17.Qxc3 Bb4 wins the queen) axb6 18.Ra1 Re8+ 19.Kd2 Ne4+ 20.Kc2 Nxf2 21.Rg1 Bf5+, which he considers winning for Black. Also strong is 16...Re8 17.Qxb6 (17.Be2 Nxc3!) axb6 18.Be2 Nxc3 19.Rd2 Bb4 20.Kf1 Ne4 21.Rb2 Bc3 22.Rc2 Nd2+! 23.Kg1 (23.Nxd2 Bxe2+ 24.Kg1 Bd3! 25.Rc1 Bxd2 leaves Black with a winning material advantage) 23...Rxe2 24.Rxc3 Nxf3+ 25.gxf3 Bh3 26.Rc1 Rxa2, leaving White paralyzed.
15... Nxc3!
Now both 16.Qxc3 Rfe8 and 16.Bxf8 Bxf8 favor Black.
16. Bc5 Rfe8+ 17. Kf1 (see diagram)
Byrne threatens Fischer's queen; Fischer brings his rook into play, displacing Byrne's king. It appears that Fischer must solve his problems with his queen, whereupon White can play 18.Qxc3, with a winning material advantage. Jack Straley Battell writes that the masters observing the game considered Black's position lost.
17... Be6!!
This is the move that made this game famous. Instead of saving his queen, Fischer offers to sacrifice it. Fischer pointed out that 17...Nb5? loses to 18.Bxf7+ Kxf7 19.Qb3+ Be6 20.Ng5+ Kg8 21.Nxe6 Nxd4 22.Nxd4+ Qxb3 23.Nxb3.
18. Bxb6?
Byrne takes the offered queen, hoping to outplay his 13-year-old opponent in the ensuing complications, but Fischer gets far too much for it, leaving Byrne with a hopeless game. 18.Bxe6 would have been even worse, leading to a smothered mate with 18...Qb5+ 19.Kg1 Ne2+ 20.Kf1 Ng3+ 21.Kg1 Qf1+! 22.Rxf1 Ne2. 18.Qxc3 would have been met by 18...Qxc5! and if 19.dxc5, 19...Bxc3 and Black should win the endgame. White's best chance may have been 18.Bd3 Nb5!, which Kmoch wrote would also result in "a win for Black in the long run".
18... Bxc4+
Fischer now begins a 'windmill' series of , picking up material.
19. Kg1 Ne2+ 20. Kf1 Nxd4+ 21. Kg1
21.Rd3? axb6 22.Qc3 Nxf3 23.Qxc4 Re1# (Fischer).
21... Ne2+ 22. Kf1 Nc3+ 23. Kg1 axb6
Fischer captures a piece, simultaneously attacking Byrne's queen.
24. Qb4 Ra4!
Fischer's pieces cooperate nicely: the bishop on g7 protects the knight on c3, which protects the rook on a4, which in turn protects the bishop on c4 and forces Byrne's queen away. Perhaps Byrne overlooked this move when analyzing 18.Bxb6, expecting instead 24...Nxd1? 25.Qxc4, which is much less clear. Otherwise, it is hard to explain why Byrne played 18.Bxb6, since Black now has a clear .
25. Qxb6
Trying to protect his rook with 25.Qd6 loses the queen to 25...Nxd1 26.Qxd1 Rxa2 threatening 27...Ra1.
25... Nxd1 (see diagram)
Fischer has gained a rook, two bishops, and a pawn for his sacrificed queen, leaving him ahead the equivalent, roughly, of one – an easily winning advantage in master play. White's queen is far outmatched by Black's pieces, which dominate the board and will soon overrun White's position. Moreover, Byrne's remaining rook is stuck on h1 and it will take precious time (and the loss of the pawn on f2) to free it. Byrne could have resigned here, but chose to play on until checkmate, as a courtesy to Fischer's skill.
26. h3 Rxa2 27. Kh2 Nxf2 28. Re1 Rxe1 29. Qd8+ Bf8 30. Nxe1 Bd5 31. Nf3 Ne4 32. Qb8 b5
Every piece and pawn of Black's is defended, leaving White's queen with nothing to do.
33. h4 h5 34. Ne5 Kg7
Fischer breaks the pin, allowing the bishop to attack as well.
35. Kg1 Bc5+ (see diagram)
Now Fischer uses his pieces in concert to force mate.
36. Kf1 Ng3+ 37. Ke1 Bb4+
Kmoch notes that with 37...Re2+ Fischer could have mated a move sooner.
38. Kd1 Bb3+ 39. Kc1 Ne2+ 40. Kb1 Nc3+ 41. Kc1 Rc2
Asked how he was able to pull off such a brilliant win, Fischer said: "I just made the moves I thought were best. I was just lucky."
See also
Immortal Game
List of books and documentaries by or about Bobby Fischer
List of chess games
Notes
References
Burgess, Graham, John Nunn, and John Emms. The Mammoth Book of The World's Greatest Chess Games. 1998. . pp. 213–16.
Eade, James. Chess for Dummies. NY, NY: IDG Books. 1996. .
Fischer, Bobby. Bobby Fischer's Games of Chess. Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1959, pp. 63–67.
Wade, Robert G. and Kevin J. O'Connell. Bobby Fischer's Chess Games. 1972. . pp. 110–13 (game 179).
Further reading
External links
Annotated text of The Game of the Century source for this article, with permission
The game online
Frank Brady, Bobby Fischer's Game of the Century, chessbase.com, May 29 2011
"The Byrne v Fischer ‘Game of the Century” by Edward Winter
Visualization, FEN and PGN of the game analysed by Stockfish on Lichess
Videos
by thechesswebsite
by ChessNetwork
by kingscrusher
Chess games
Chess in the United States
1956 in chess
1956 in sports in New York City
Bobby Fischer
October 1956 sports events
Nicknamed sporting events | [
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|
234409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join%20point | Join point | In computer science, a join point is a point in the control flow of a program where the control flow can arrive via two different paths. In particular, it's a basic block that has more than one predecessor. In aspect-oriented programming a set of join points is called a pointcut. A join point is a specification of when, in the corresponding main program, the aspect code should be executed.
The join point is a point of execution in the base code where the advice specified in a corresponding pointcut is applied.
See also
AspectJ, an aspect-oriented extension for the Java programming language
References
Aspect-oriented software development
Aspect-oriented programming
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|
234411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20campaign | Open campaign | An open campaign can encompass several definitions.
An open campaign may be a set of public protest actions against a person (e.g. a politician), an organization (e.g. a private education association), or a corporation with a clear goal and transparent methods.
In most cases, people who organise an open campaign are people willing to act by themselves, rather than strictly relying on politicians or other leaders. They often are willing to take control of their struggle and define their priorities, and work as a team, with little or no hierarchy, but rather favor people to participate with their own skills.
Typical open campaigns rely on organizing talks, video displays, mailings, protest letters, leaflets distributions, articles in newspapers, petitions. The location and time of a campaign is usually heavily dependent upon the focus chosen.
The signs of an open campaign are ones associated with mystery, uncertainty, consensus and discussion. Open campaign is mysterious in that it is often difficult to pinpoint a head or a leader. There is fair levels of uncertainty when it comes to the next steps within the campaign journey. Decisions are usually passed through discussions and consensus.
Examples
civil society organisations developing a common theory of change to shape a common campaign
petitions from shopkeepers to allow small convenience local food shop to trade in their full range of goods from early until late on seven days a week
Online services for the implementation of moral purchasing or MeatballWiki to improve virtual community and especially wiki governance
Open fundraising platforms that then use the funds to support community-led campaigns
an association trying to make the public aware of an issue (see example below)
The expression is also often used by politicians officially starting to campaign as a candidate for a specific election. A similar meaning is given in sports, with the official start of a sport season (e.g. in France, Roland Garros Tournament).
The expression is sometimes used in games, in particular role gaming.
Examples of open campaigns
Greenpeace is using "open campaign" as part of its effort to engage and empower old and new audiences to play a leading and meaningful role in pushing for change, with the willingness to be transparent down to the merest tactical details, although there may be some situations where some of these are hidden to provide some element of surprise.
An Open campaign is not a dictionary matter it is instead a framework for understanding, planning and involving people, organisations and input in a bottom-up manner not the vintage top-down campaign planning process. The core of the open campaign is and must be, the meaningful involvement of people either in setting campaign strategy or in open tactics.
Wikipedia is arguably an open campaign to create an online encyclopedia.
Meta is arguably an open campaign to govern an online encyclopedia.
MeatballWiki is arguably an open campaign to improve virtual community and especially wiki governance.
SourceWatch is an open campaign to disclose propaganda techniques and participants.
Consumerium is an open campaign to implement moral purchasing.
OpenCampaign is an online petition campaign management software.
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|
234412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointcut | Pointcut | In aspect-oriented programming, a pointcut is a set of join points. Pointcut specifies where exactly to apply advice, which allows separation of concerns and helps in modularizing business logic. Pointcuts are often specified using class names or method names, in some cases using regular expressions that match class or method name. Different frameworks support different Pointcut expressions; AspectJ syntax is considered as de facto standard. Frameworks are available for various programming languages like Java, Perl, Ruby, and many more which support pointcut.
Background
Due to limitations in various programming languages, cross-cutting concern has not modularized. Cross-cutting concern refers to parts of software that logically belong to one module and affect the whole system: this could be security or logging, for example. Aspect-oriented programming tries to solve these cross cutting concerns by allowing programmers to write modules called aspects, which contain pieces of code executed at particular point. The expressions required to select a particular point led to creation of Pointcut Expressions.
Execution
Whenever the program execution reaches one of the join points described in the pointcut, a piece of code associated with the pointcut (called advice) is executed. This allows a programmer to describe where and when additional code should be executed in addition to already-defined behavior. Pointcut permits the addition of aspects to existing software, as well as the design of software with a clear separation of concerns, wherein the programmer weaves (merges) different aspects into a complete application.
Example
Suppose there is an application where we can modify records in a database. Whenever users modify the database, we want to have a log of information regarding who is modifying the records. The traditional way to log is to call a log method just before modifying the database. With aspect-oriented programming, we can apply pointcut to the Modify Database method and have an advice that is called to log the required information.
Expressions
Following are some of the important pointcut expressions supported by AspectJ. These expressions can be combined using logical operators.
execution(void User.setPassword(password))
This pointcut matches execution of the User.setPassword method.
call(void User.getPassword())
When User.getPassword is called, this pointcut is matched.
handler(ArrayIndexOutOfBounds)
Pointcut will match when there is an ArrayIndexOutOfBounds exception
this(UserType)
Pointcut will match when the object currently executing is of UserType.
target(UserType)
Pointcut will match when the target object is of UserType.
within(UserType)
Pointcut will match when the code executing belongs to UserType.
Criticisms
Pointcut languages impact important software properties like evolvability and comprehensibility in a negative way. There might be a possibility where there is a need to perform refactoring to define a correct aspect, which in general should not happen since refactoring is to make code cleaner. It is also not scalable when there are multiple aspects to be applied on the same code and each aspect requires a different refactoring. In general every aspect will be tightly coupled with an application’s structure as the pointcuts explicitly contain a method’s signature, so when an application changes the pointcut needs to be changed as well. This can be quite problematic for a developer.
References
External links
Paper "Back to the Future: Pointcuts as Predicates over Traces" by Karl Klose and Klaus Ostermann
Paper "Remote Pointcut - A Language Construct for Distributed AOP" by Muga Nishizawa, Shigeru Chiba and Michiaki Tatsubori
Paper "Datalog as a Pointcut Language in Aspect-Oriented Programming"
Paper "Expressiveness and Complexity of Crosscut Languages" by Karl J. Lieberherr, Jeffrey Palm and Ravi Sundaram
Aspect-oriented software development
Aspect-oriented programming | [
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|
234414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delator | Delator | Delator (plural: delatores, feminine: delatrix) is Latin for a denouncer, one who indicates to a court another as having committed a punishable deed.
Secular Roman law
In Roman history, it was properly one who gave notice (deferre) to the treasury officials of monies that had become due to the imperial fisc. This special meaning was extended to those who lodged information as to punishable offences, and further, to those who brought a public accusation (whether true or not) against any person (especially with the object of getting money). Although the word delator itself, for "common informer," is confined to imperial times, the right of public accusation had long existed. When exercised from patriotic and disinterested motives, its effects were beneficial; but the moment the principle of reward was introduced, this was no longer the case. Sometimes the accuser was rewarded with the rights of citizenship, a place in the senate, or a share of the property of the accused. At the end of the republican period, Cicero (De Officiis, ii. 14) expresses his opinion that such accusations should be undertaken only in the interests of the state or for other urgent reasons.
Under the Roman Empire the system became openly corrupt, which reached its height during the reign of Tiberius, although the delators continued to exercise their activity till the reign of Theodosius I. They were drawn from all classes of society: patricians, equites, freedmen, slaves, philosophers, literary men, and, above all, lawyers. The objects of their attacks were the wealthy, all possible rivals of the emperor, and those whose conduct implied a reproach against the imperial mode of life. Special opportunities were afforded by the law of majestas, which originally directed against attacks on the ruler by word or deed came to include all kinds of accusations with which it really had nothing to do; indeed, according to Tacitus, a charge of treason was regularly added to all criminal charges. The chief motive for these accusations was no doubt the desire of amassing wealth, since by the law of majestas one-fourth of the goods of the accused, even if he committed suicide in order to avoid confiscation (which was always carried out in the case of those condemned to capital punishment), was assured to the accuser (who was hence called quadruplator).
Pliny the Elder and Martial mention instances of enormous fortunes amassed by professional delators. But it was not without its dangers. If the delator lost his case or refused to carry it through, he was liable to the same penalties as the accused; he was exposed to the risk of vengeance at the hands of the proscribed in the event of their return, or of their relatives; while emperors like Tiberius would have no scruples about banishing or putting out of the way those whom he had no further use for and who might have proved dangerous to himself.
Titus drove into exile or reduced to slavery those who had served Nero, after they had first been flogged in the amphitheatre. The abuses reappeared under Domitian; the delators, with whom Vespasian had not interfered, although he had abolished trials for majestas, were again banished by Trajan, and threatened with capital punishment in an edict of Constantine; but delating lasted till the end of the 4th century.
Jewish law
Canon law
The term delatores was used by the Hispanian Synod of Elvira (c. 306) to stigmatize those Christians who appeared as accusers of their brethren. This synod decided that if any Christian was proscribed or put to death through the denunciation (delatio) of another Christian, such a delator was to suffer perpetual excommunication, an extreme ecclesiastical punishment.
No distinction is made between true and false accusation, but the synod probably meant only the accusation of Christianity before the pagan judges, or at most a false accusation. Any false accusation against a bishop, priest or deacon was visited with a similar punishment by the same synod. The punishment for false witness in general was proportioned by can. lxxiv to the gravity of the accusation.
The Council of Arles (314) issued a similar decree when it decided that Christians who accused falsely their brethren were to be forever excluded from communion with the faithful.
During the persecutions of the early Christians it sometimes happened that apostates denounced their fellow Christians. The younger Pliny relates in a letter to Trajan that an anonymous bill of indictment was presented to him on which were many names of Christians; we do not know if the author of this libellus was a Christian. According to can. xiii of the Council of Arles, during the persecution of Diocletian Christians were denounced by their own brethren to the pagan judges. If it appeared from the public acts that an ecclesiastic had done this, he was punished by the synod with perpetual deposition; however, his ordinations were still considered valid.
In general, false accusation is visited with severe punishments in later synods, e.g. Second Council of Arles, the Council of Agde and others. These decrees appear in the later medieval collections of canons.
New punitive decrees against calumny were issued by Pope Gregory IX in his Decretals.
Uses as an English word
See Owen J. Blum, OFM Peter Damian Letters 31–60 (Washington D.C.: The Catholic University of America, 1990), 49 ("being an informer and delator of my brother's crimes").
In the alternate reality TV series An Englishman's Castle, depicting a Nazi-occupied Britain, the word "delator" is revived in reference to informers helping the Nazi occupiers.
Notes
References
See Mayor's note on Juvenal, Satire IV . 48 for ancient authorities; C Merivale, Hist. of the Romans under the Empire, chap. 44; W Rein, Criminalrecht der Römer (1842); T Mommsen, Romisches Strafrecht (1899); Kleinfeller in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopädie.
Roman law
Ancient Roman delatores | [
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|
234415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Montagu | Charles Montagu | Charles Montagu may refer to:
Charles Montagu (of Boughton) (1564–1625), English MP for Higham Ferrers
Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax (1661–1715), English poet and statesman
Charles Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester (c.1656–1722)
Hon. Charles Montagu (died 1721) (c.1658–1721), Member of Parliament for Durham
Charles Montagu (of Papplewick) (died 1759), Member of Parliament for Westminster, St. Germans, Camelford, Northampton and St. Albans
Sir Charles Montagu (British Army officer) (died 1777), British general
Lord Charles Montagu (1741–1784), Royal Governor of the Province of South Carolina
Charles Montagu, 5th Baron Swaythling (born 1954)
See also
Charles Montagu-Scott, 4th Duke of Buccleuch (1772–1819) | [
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|
234416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advice | Advice | Advice (noun) or advise (verb) may refer to:
Advice (opinion), an opinion or recommendation offered as a guide to action, conduct
Advice (constitutional law) a frequently binding instruction issued to a constitutional office-holder
Advice (programming), a piece of code executed when a join point is reached
Advice (complexity), in complexity theory, a string with extra information used by Turing machine or other computing device
Pay advice, also known as a pay slip
, various Royal Navy ships
"Advice" (song), a 2018 song by Cadet and Deno Driz
"Advice" (song), the debut single by Christina Grimmie
"Advice", a song by Kehlani from her album SweetSexySavage
ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight, and Semantic Enhancement), a research and development program within the US Department of Homeland Security
The Advice, an American Contemporary Christian band
The Advice (album), the band's 2013 debut album
See also
Advisor
Advocate | [
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234417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebar | Rebar | Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), known when massed as reinforcing steel or reinforcement steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension. Concrete is strong under compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often "deformed" with ribs, lugs or indentations to promote a better bond with the concrete and reduce the risk of slippage.
The most common type of rebar is carbon steel, typically consisting of hot-rolled round bars with deformation patterns. Other readily available types include stainless steel, and composite bars made of glass fiber, carbon fiber, or basalt fiber. The steel reinforcing bars may also be coated in an epoxy resin designed to resist the effects of corrosion, especially when used in saltwater environments. Bamboo has been shown to be a viable alternative to reinforcing steel in concrete construction. These alternate types tend to be more expensive or may have lesser mechanical properties and are thus more often used in specialty construction where their physical characteristics fulfill a specific performance requirement that carbon steel does not provide. Steel and concrete have similar coefficients of thermal expansion, so a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal differential stress as the temperature changes.
History
Reinforcing bars in masonry construction have been used since Antiquity, with Rome using iron or wooden rods in arch construction, later iron tie rods and Anchor plates were employed across Medieval Europe, as a device to reinforce arches, vaults, and cupolas. 2,500 meters of rebar was used in the 14th Century Château de Vincennes.
During the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, and there is no corrosion on the bars to this day. The carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods.
However, it was not until the mid-19th century that rebar displayed its greatest strengths with the embedding of steel bars into concrete, thus producing modern reinforced concrete. Several people in Europe and North America developed reinforced concrete in the 1850s. These include Joseph-Louis Lambot of France, who built reinforced concrete boats in Paris (1854) and Thaddeus Hyatt of the United States, who produced and tested reinforced concrete beams. Joseph Monier of France is one of the most notable figures for the invention and popularization of reinforced concrete. As a French gardener, Monier patented reinforced concrete flower pots in 1867, before proceeding to build reinforced concrete water tanks and bridges.
Ernest L. Ransome, an English engineer and architect who worked in the United States, made a significant contribution to the development of reinforcing bars in concrete construction. He invented twisted iron rebar, which he initially thought of while designing self-supporting sidewalks for the Masonic Hall in Stockton, California. His twisted rebar was, however, not initially appreciated and even ridiculed at the Technical Society of California, where members stated that the twisting would weaken the iron. In 1889, Ransome worked on the West Coast mainly designing bridges. One of these, the Alvord Lake Bridge in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, was the first reinforced concrete bridge built in the United States. He used twisted rebar in this structure.
At the same time Ernest L. Ransome was inventing twisted steel rebar, C.A.P. Turner was designing his "mushroom system" of reinforced concrete floor slabs with smooth round rods and Julius Kahn was experimenting with an innovative rolled diamond-shaped rebar with flat-plate flanges angled upwards at 45° (patented in 1902). Kahn predicted concrete beams with this reinforcing system would bend like a Warren truss, and also thought of this rebar as shear reinforcement. Kahn's reinforcing system was built in concrete beams, joists, and columns. The system was both praised and criticized by Kahn's engineering contemporaries: C.A.P. Turner voiced strong objections to this system as it could cause catastrophic failure to concrete structures. He rejected the idea that Kahn's reinforcing system in concrete beams would act as a Warren truss and also noted that this system would not provide the adequate amount of shear stress reinforcement at the ends of the simply supported beams, the place where the shear stress is greatest. Furthermore, Turner warned that Kahn's system could result in a brittle failure as it did not have longitudinal reinforcement in the beams at the columns. This type of failure manifested in the partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach, California and total collapse of the Eastman Kodak Building in Rochester, New York, both during construction in 1906. It was, however, concluded that both failures were the consequences of poor quality labor. With the increase in demand of construction standardization, innovative reinforcing systems such as Kahn's were pushed to the side in favor of the concrete reinforcing systems seen today.
Requirements for deformations on steel bar reinforcement were not standardized in U.S. construction until about 1950. Modern requirements for deformations were established in "Tentative Specifications for the Deformations of Deformed Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement", ASTM A305-47T. Subsequently, changes were made that increased rib height and reduced rib spacing for certain bar sizes, and the qualification of “tentative” was removed when the updated standard ASTM A305-49 was issued in 1949. The requirements for deformations found in current specifications for steel bar reinforcing, such as ASTM A615 and ASTM A706, among others, are the same as those specified in ASTM A305-49.
Use in concrete and masonry
Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads. Most steel reinforcement is divided into primary and secondary reinforcement, but there are other minor uses:
Primary reinforcement refers to the steel which is employed to guarantee the resistance needed by the structure as a whole to support the design loads.
Secondary reinforcement, also known as distribution or thermal reinforcement, is employed for durability and aesthetic reasons, by providing enough localized resistance to limit cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as temperature changes and shrinkage.
Rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area.
Rebar may also be used to hold other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads.
External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome and the Vatican.
Masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar, which is then secured in place with grout. This combination is known as reinforced masonry.
Physical characteristics
Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. Although rebar has ribs that bind it mechanically to the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often accompanies a larger-scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members (40–60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.
Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and, ultimately, structural failure. This phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a particular problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter, or in marine applications. Uncoated, corrosion-resistant low carbon/chromium (microcomposite), silicon bronze, epoxy-coated, galvanized, or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project. Extra care is taken during the transport, fabrication, handling, installation, and concrete placement process when working with epoxy-coated rebar, because damage will reduce the long-term corrosion resistance of these bars. Even damaged epoxy-coated bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the epoxy coating from the bars and corrosion under the epoxy film have been reported. These epoxy-coated bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the US, but this technology was slowly being phased out in favor of stainless steel rebar as of 2005 because of its poor performance.
Requirements for deformations are found in US-standard product specifications for steel bar reinforcing, such as ASTM A615 and ASTM A706, and dictate lug spacing and height.
Fibre-reinforced plastic rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in many forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods, and meshes. Most commercially available rebar is made from unidirectional fibers set in a thermoset polymer resin, and is often referred to as FRP.
Some special construction such as research and manufacturing facilities with very sensitive electronics may require the use of reinforcement that is non-conductive to electricity, and medical imaging equipment rooms may require non-magnetic properties to avoid interference. FRP rebar, notably glass fibre types have low electrical conductivity and are non-magnetic which is commonly used for such needs. Stainless steel rebar with low magnetic permeability is available and is sometimes used to avoid magnetic interference issues.
Reinforcing steel can also be displaced by impacts such as earthquakes, resulting in structural failure. The prime example of this is the collapse of the Cypress Street Viaduct in Oakland, California as a result of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, causing 42 fatalities. The shaking of the earthquake caused rebars to burst from the concrete and buckle. Updated building designs, including more circumferential rebar, can address this type of failure.
Sizes and grades
US sizes
US/Imperial bar sizes give the diameter in units of for bar sizes #2 through #8, so that #8 = inch = diameter. The cross-sectional area, as given by πr², works out to (bar size/9.027)², which is approximated as (bar size/9)² square inches. For example, the area of #8 bar is (8/9)² = 0.79 square inches.
Bar sizes larger than #8 follow the -inch rule imperfectly and skip sizes #12-13, and #15-17 due to historical convention. In early concrete construction bars 1 inch and larger were only available in square sections, and when large format deformed round bars became available around 1957 the industry manufactured them to provide the cross-sectional area equivalent of standard square bar sizes that were formerly used. The diameter of the equivalent large format round shape is rounded to the nearest inch to provide the bar size. For example, #9 bar has a cross section of , and therefore a diameter of . #10, #11, #14, and #18 sizes correspond to 1 inch, 1, 1, and 2 inch square bars, respectively. #14 rebar is particularly affected by this approximation; by diameter it would be #13.5.
Sizes smaller than #3 are no longer recognized as standard sizes. These are most commonly manufactured as plain round undeformed rod steel, but can be made with deformations. Sizes smaller than #3 are typically referred to as "wire" products and not "bar", and specified by either their nominal diameter or wire gage number. #2 bars are often informally called "pencil rod" as they are about the same size as a pencil.
When US/Imperial sized rebar are used in projects with metric units, the equivalent metric size is typically specified as the nominal diameter rounded to the nearest millimeter. These are not considered standard metric sizes, and thus is often referred to as a soft conversion or the "soft metric" size. The US/Imperial bar size system recognizes the use of true metric bar sizes (No. 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 50 and 60 specifically) which indicates the nominal bar diameter in millimeters, as an "alternate size" specification. Substituting a true metric size for a US/Imperial size is called a hard conversion, and sometimes results in the use of a physically different sized bar.
There are no fractional bar sizes in this system. The "#" symbol in this system indicates the number sign, and thus "#6" is read as "number six". The use of the "#" sign is customary for US sizes, however "No." is sometimes used instead.
Canadian sizes
Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimeters, rounded to the nearest 5 mm.
European sizes
Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimetres. Preferred bar sizes in Europe are specified to comply with Table 6 of the standard EN 10080, although various national standards still remain in force (e.g. BS 4449 in the United Kingdom). In Switzerland some sizes are different from European standard.
Australian sizes
Reinforcement for use in concrete construction is subject to the requirements of Australian Standards AS3600-2009 (Concrete Structures) and AS/NZS4671-2001 (Steel Reinforcing for Concrete). There are other standards that apply to testing, welding and galvanizing.
The designation of reinforcement is defined in AS/NZS4671-2001 using the following formats:
Shape/ Section
D- deformed ribbed bar, R- round / plain bar, I- deformed indented bar
Ductility Class
L- low ductility, N- normal ductility, E- seismic (Earthquake) ductility
Standard grades (MPa)
250N, 300E, 500L, 500N, 500E
Examples:
D500N12 is deformed bar, 500 MPa strength, normal ductility and 12 mm nominal diameter - also known as "N12"
Bars are typically abbreviated to simply 'N' (hot-rolled deformed bar), 'R' (hot-rolled round bar), 'RW' (cold-drawn ribbed wire) or 'W' (cold-drawn round wire), as the yield strength and ductility class can be implied from the shape. For example, all commercially available wire has a yield strength of 500 MPa and low ductility, while round bars are 250 MPa and normal ductility.
New Zealand
Reinforcement for use in concrete construction is subject to the requirements of AS/NZS4671-2001 (Steel Reinforcing for Concrete). There are other standards that apply to testing, welding and galvanizing.
'Reinforcement steel bar Grade 300 & 500 Class E
India
Rebars are available in the following grades as per IS:1786-2008 FE 415/FE 415D/FE 415S/FE 500/FE 500D/FE 500S/FE 550, FE550D, FE 600. Rebars are quenched with water at a high level pressure so that the outer surface is hardened while the inner core remains soft. Rebars are ribbed so that the concrete can have a better grip. Coastal regions use galvanized rebars to prolong their life. BIS rebar sizes are 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40 and 50 millimeters.
Jumbo and threaded bar sizes
Very large format rebar sizes are widely available and produced by specialty manufacturers. The tower and sign industries commonly use "jumbo" bars as anchor rods for large structures which are fabricated from slightly oversized blanks such that threads can be cut at the ends to accept standard anchor nuts. Fully threaded rebar is also produced with very coarse threads which satisfy rebar deformation standards and allow for custom nuts and couplers to be used. Note that these customary sizes while in common use, do not have consensus standards associated with them, and actual properties may vary by manufacturer.
Grades
Rebar is available in grades and specifications that vary in yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, and percentage of elongation.
The use of a grade by itself only indicates the minimum permissible yield strength, and it must be used in the context of a material specification in order to fully describe product requirements for rebar. Material specifications set the requirements for grades as well as additional properties such as, chemical composition, minimum elongation, physical tolerances, etc. Fabricated rebar must exceed the grade's minimum yield strength and any other material specification requirements when inspected and tested.
In US use, the grade designation is equal to the minimum yield strength of the bar in ksi (1000 psi) for example grade 60 rebar has a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi. Rebar is most commonly manufactured in grades 40, 60, and 75 with higher strength readily available in grades 80, 100, 120 and 150. Grade 60 (420 MPa) is the most widely used rebar grade in modern US construction. Historic grades include 30, 33, 35, 36, 50 and 55 which are not in common use today.
Some grades are only manufactured for specific bar sizes, for example under ASTM A615, Grade 40 (280 MPa) is only furnished for US bar sizes #3 through #6 (soft metric No.10 through 19). Sometimes limitations on available material grades for specific bar sizes is related to the manufacturing process used, as well as the availability of controlled quality raw materials used.
Some material specifications cover multiple grades, and in such cases it is necessary to indicate both the material specification and grade. Rebar grades are customarily noted on engineering documents, even when there are no other grade options within the material specification, in order to eliminate confusion and avoid potential quality issues such as might occur if a material substitution is made. Note that "Gr." is the common engineering abbreviation for "grade", with variations on letter capitalization and the use of a period.
In certain cases, such as earthquake engineering and blast resistant design where post-yield behavior is expected, it is important to be able to predict and control properties such as the maximum yield strength and minimum ratio of tensile strength to yield strength. ASTM A706 Gr. 60 is an example of a controlled property range material specification which has a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi (420 MPa), maximum yield strength of 78 ksi (540 MPa), minimum tensile strength of 80 ksi (550 MPa) and not less than 1.25 times the actual yield strength, and minimum elongation requirements that vary by bar size.
In countries that use the metric system, the grade designation is typically the yield strength in megapascals MPa, for example grade 400 (similar to US grade 60, however metric grade 420 is actually the exact substitution for the US grade).
Common US specifications, published by ACI and ASTM, are:
American Concrete Institute: "ACI 318-14 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary", (2014)
ASTM A82: Specification for Plain Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A184/A184M: Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A185: Specification for Welded Plain Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A496: Specification for Deformed Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A497: Specification for Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A615/A615M: Deformed and plain carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcement
ASTM A616/A616M: Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A617/A617M: Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A706/A706M: Low-alloy steel deformed and plain bars for concrete reinforcement
ASTM A722/A722M: Standard Specification for High-Strength Steel Bars for Prestressed Concrete
ASTM A767/A767M: Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM A775/A775M: Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars
ASTM A934/A934M: Specification for Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars
ASTM A955: Deformed and plain stainless-steel bars for concrete reinforcement (Supplementary Requirement S1 is used when specifying magnetic permeability testing)
ASTM A996: Rail-steel and axle-steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement
ASTM A1035: Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain, Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
ASTM marking designations are:
'S' billet A615
'I' rail A616 ()
'IR' Rail Meeting Supplementary Requirements S1 A616 )
'A' Axle A617 )
'W' Low-alloy — A706
Historically in Europe, rebar is composed of mild steel material with a yield strength of approximately 250 MPa (36 ksi). Modern rebar is composed of high-yield steel, with a yield strength more typically 500 MPa (72.5 ksi). Rebar can be supplied with various grades of ductility. The more ductile steel is capable of absorbing considerably more energy when deformed - a behavior that resists earthquake forces and is used in design. These high yield strength ductile steels are usually produced using the TEMPCORE process, a method of thermomechanical processing. The manufacture of reinforcing steel by re-rolling finished products (e.g. sheets or rails) is not allowed. In contrast to structural steel, rebar steel grades are not harmonized yet across Europe, each country having their own national standards. However some standardization of specification and testing methods exist under EN 10080 and EN ISO 15630:
BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete. Weldable reinforcing steel. General. (2005)
BS 4449: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete. Weldable reinforcing steel. Bar, coil and product. Specification. (2005/2009)
BS 4482: Steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete products. Specification (2005)
BS 4483: Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete. Specification (2005)
BS 6744: Stainless steel bars for the reinforcement of and use in concrete. Requirements and test methods. (2001/2009)
DIN 488-1: Reinforcing steels - Part 1: Grades, properties, marking (2009)
DIN 488-2: Reinforcing steels - Part 2: Reinforcing steel bars (2009)
DIN 488-3: Reinforcing steels - Part 3: Reinforcing steel in coils, steel wire (2009)
DIN 488-4: Reinforcing steels - Part 4: Welded fabric (2009)
DIN 488-5: Reinforcing steels - Part 5: Lattice girders (2009)
DIN 488-6: Reinforcing steel - Part 6: Assessment of conformity (2010)
BS EN ISO 15630-1: Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete. Test methods. Reinforcing bars, wire rod and wire. (2010)
BS EN ISO 15630-2: Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete. Test methods. Welded fabric. (2010)
Placing rebar
Rebar cages are fabricated either on or off the project site commonly with the help of hydraulic benders and shears. However, for small or custom work a tool known as a Hickey, or hand rebar bender, is sufficient. The rebars are placed by steel fixers "rodbusters" or concrete reinforcing iron workers, with bar supports and concrete or plastic rebar spacers separating the rebar from the concrete formwork to establish concrete cover and ensure that proper embedment is achieved. The rebars in the cages are connected by spot welding, tying steel wire, sometimes using an electric rebar tier, or with mechanical connections. For tying epoxy-coated or galvanized rebars, epoxy-coated or galvanized wire is normally used, respectively.
Stirrups
Stirrups form the outer part of a rebar cage. Stirrups are usually rectangular in beams, and circular
in piers and are placed at regular intervals along a column or beam to secure the structural rebar and prevent it from shifting out of position during concrete placement. The main usage for stirrups or ties is to increase the shear capacity of reinforced concrete component it is included in.
Welding
The American Welding Society (AWS) D 1.4 sets out the practices for welding rebar in the U.S. Without special consideration the only rebar that is ready to weld is W grade (Low-alloy — A706). Rebar that is not produced to the ASTM A706 specification is generally not suitable for welding without calculating the "carbon-equivalent". Material with a carbon-equivalent of less than 0.55 can be welded.
ASTM A 616 & ASTM A 617 (now replaced by the combined standard A996) reinforcing bars are re-rolled rail steel and re-rolled rail axle steel with uncontrolled chemistry, phosphorus and carbon content. These materials are not common.
Rebar cages are normally tied together with wire, although spot welding of cages has been the norm in Europe for many years, and is becoming more common in the United States. High strength steels for prestressed concrete cannot be welded.
Reinforcement placement in rolls
Roll reinforcement system is a remarkably fast and cost-efficient method for placing a large quantity of reinforcement over a short period of time. Roll reinforcement is usually prepared off-site and easily unrolled on site. The idea of roll reinforcement was originally introduced by BAM AG as BAMTEC Reinforcement Technology. Roll reinforcement placement has been applied successfully in slabs (decks, foundations), wind energy mast foundations, walls, ramps, etc.
Mechanical connections
Also known as "mechanical couplers" or "mechanical splices", mechanical connections are used to connect reinforcing bars together. Mechanical couplers are an effective means to reduce rebar congestion in highly reinforced areas for cast-in-place concrete construction. These couplers are also used in precast concrete construction at the joints between members.
The structural performance criteria for mechanical connections varies between countries, codes, and industries. As a minimum requirement, codes typically specify that the rebar to splice connection meets or exceeds 125% of the specified yield strength of the rebar. More stringent criteria also requires the development of the specified ultimate strength of the rebar. As an example, ACI 318 specifies either Type 1 (125% Fy) or Type 2 (125% Fy and 100% Fu) performance criteria.
For concrete structures designed with ductility in mind, it is recommended that the mechanical connections are also capable of failing in a ductile manner, typically known in the reinforcing steel industry as achieving "bar-break". As an example, Caltrans specifies a required mode of failure (i.e., "necking of the bar").
Safety
To prevent injury, the protruding ends of steel rebar are often bent over or covered with special steel-reinforced plastic caps. They may provide protection from scratches and other minor injuries, but provide little to no protection from impalement.
Designations
Reinforcement is usually tabulated in a "reinforcement schedule" on construction drawings. This eliminates ambiguity in the notations used around the world. The following list provides examples of the notations used in the architectural, engineering, and construction industry.
Reuse and recycling
In many countries, after the demolition of a concrete structure, workers are called in to remove the rebar. They scour the site, extracting the metal using bolt cutters, welding equipment, sledgehammers, and other tools. The metal is partially straightened, bundled and sold.
Rebar, like almost all metal products, can be recycled as scrap. It is usually combined with other steel products, melted down, and re-formed.
References
External links
OSHA rebar impalement protection measures
Building materials
Concrete
Reinforced concrete
Russian inventions
Steels
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|
234424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Prince%20Lee | James Prince Lee | James Prince Lee (28 July 1804 – 24 December 1869) was an English clergyman and schoolmaster who became head master of King Edward's School, Birmingham, and was later the first Bishop of Manchester.
Early life
Born in London, Lee was educated at St Paul's School, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he displayed exceptional ability as a classical scholar, graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in 1828; this was promoted by seniority to master of arts in 1831 and in 1861 he was awarded the degree of doctor of divinity. He married Susannah, elder daughter of George Penrice, of Elmbridge, Worcestershire, on 25 December 1830, and they had two daughters.
Teaching career
After his ordination into the Church of England priesthood in 1830, Lee served as an assistant schoolmaster at Rugby School under Thomas Arnold, who thought highly of him. In 1837, he became rector of Ayot St Peter, Hertfordshire, and in 1838 headmaster of King Edward's School, Birmingham, where he had among his pupils Edward White Benson, Joseph Barber Lightfoot and Brooke Foss Westcott. There is also a house of the school named after him. In 1847 he was appointed as an honorary canon of Worcester Cathedral.
Episcopal career
On 23 October 1847, Lee was nominated as the first bishop of the newly constituted Anglican Diocese of Manchester by Queen Victoria, on the advice of the prime minister of the day, Lord John Russell. His election took place on 17 November 1847, followed by consecration on 23 January 1848, and enthronement at Manchester Cathedral on 11 February 1848.
Lee's schoolmasterly manner was an irritation to his clergy. However, he carried out great work in church extension. During his twenty-one years' tenure of the see, he consecrated 130 churches. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849. He took a foremost part in founding the Manchester free library in 1852, and bequeathed his own valuable collection of books to Owens College.
He died at his home, Mauldeth Hall, Stockport, in 1869, and was buried in Heaton Mersey churchyard. His memorial sermon was preached by the Rev. Edward Benson (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury) and was published with biographical details by J. F. Wickenden and others.
References
Bibliography
Attribution
Further reading
Owens College (1870) A Catalogue of the MSS. and Printed Books, bequeathed to Owens College, Manchester by the late Right Rev. James Prince Lee. (Manchester, [1870]).
External links
Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury
1804 births
1869 deaths
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Bishops of Manchester
Chief Masters of King Edward's School, Birmingham
Doctors of Divinity
Fellows of the Royal Society
People from Stockport
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society | [
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|
234427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Gunning | Peter Gunning | Peter Gunning (1614 – 6 July 1684) was an English Royalist church leader, Bishop of Chichester and Bishop of Ely.
Life
He was born at Hoo St Werburgh, in Kent, and educated at The King's School, Canterbury and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. Having taken orders, he advocated the Royalist cause eloquently from the pulpit. In 1644, during the English Civil War, he retired to Oxford, and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered to the Parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington (1629–1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the Restoration in 1660 he was installed as a canon of Canterbury Cathedral. In the same year he returned to Cambridge as Master of Corpus Christi, and was appointed Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity. He also received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutland, and Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire.
In 1661 he became head of St John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius Professor of Divinity. While he served as Regius Professor of Divinity he established an Arminian soteriological tradition at Cambridge that was furthered by his successor Joseph Beaumont. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669, and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674–1675. Holding moderate religious views, he disliked equally Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.
Works
His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that which appears in the Scisme Unmask't (Paris, 1658), in which the definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents John Spenser and John Lenthall.
Family
A relative of his, Sir Robert Gunning, became a famous diplomat.
References
External links
1614 births
1684 deaths
17th-century Church of England bishops
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
Arminian ministers
Arminian theologians
Bishops of Chichester
Bishops of Ely
English male non-fiction writers
English theologians
Lady Margaret's Professors of Divinity
Masters of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Masters of St John's College, Cambridge
Participants in the Savoy Conference
People educated at The King's School, Canterbury
People from Hoo St Werburgh
17th-century Anglican theologians | [
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|
234429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chine | Chine | A chine () is a steep-sided coastal gorge where a river flows to the sea through, typically, soft eroding cliffs of sandstone or clays. The word is still in use in central Southern England—notably in East Devon, Dorset, Hampshire and the Isle of Wight—to describe such topographical features. The term 'bunny' is sometimes used to describe a chine in Hampshire. The term chine is also used in some Vancouver suburbs in Canada to describe similar features.
Formation and features
Chines appear at the outlet of small river valleys when a particular combination of geology, stream volume, and coastal recession rate creates a knickpoint, usually starting at a waterfall at the cliff edge, that initiates rapid erosion and deepening of the stream bed into a gully leading down to the sea.
All chines are in a state of constant change due to erosion. The Blackgang Chine on the Isle of Wight, for example, has been destroyed by landslides and coastal erosion during the 20th century. As the walls of the chines and cliffs are so unstable and erode continually, particularly those of the south coast of the Isle of Wight, the strata are clearly visible. Chines are, therefore, very important for their fossil records, their archaeology and the unique flora and fauna, such as invertebrates and rare insects, for which they provide shelter.
On the UK mainland
In Devon, Sherbrooke Chine is west of Budleigh Salterton, and Seaton Chine is at the western end of the West Walk esplanade, Seaton. In Dorset, west of Bournemouth are found Flaghead Chine, Branksome Chine, Alum Chine, Middle Chine and Durley Chine, and east towards Boscombe, Boscombe Chine and Honeycombe Chine. Bournemouth town centre itself is built in the former Bourne Chine (the Pleasure Gardens being the original valley floor), although urban development since the late 19th century has altered the topography somewhat. Becton Bunny and Chewton Bunny are other examples of chines near Barton on Sea, Hampshire ("Bunny" being the New Forest equivalent to "Chine"). In Ramsgate, Kent, there is Courtstairs Chine, leading from the cliff top to the undercliff promenade.
A rare example of the use of 'Chine' in a non-coastal setting is Chineham, a civil parish near Basingstoke.
On the Isle of Wight
There are twenty chines on the Isle of Wight, to which fascinating folklore is attached because of their history with local smuggling, fishing and shipwrecks. The popular tourist attraction of Shanklin Chine is also famous for its involvement in the Second World War, when it was used to carry one of the Operation Pluto pipelines and as training area for the 40 Royal Marine Commando battalion before the 1942 Dieppe Raid.
Geologically, the chines in Alum Bay, in Totland (Widdick Chine), and the three in Colwell Bay (Colwell Chine, Brambles Chine and Linstone Chine) are in Tertiary rocks. The remainder on the island's south coast are in Cretaceous rocks.
An inventory of chines on the Isle of Wight follows, listing chines clockwise from Cowes:
Shanklin Chine
Luccombe Chine
Blackgang Chine
New Chine
Walpen Chine or Old Walpen Chine
Ladder Chine
Whale Chine
Shepherd's Chine
Cowleaze Chine
Barnes Chine
Grange/Marsh Chine
Chilton Chine
Brook Chine
Churchill Chine
Shippards Chine
Compton Chine
Alum Bay Chine
Widdick Chine
Colwell Chine
Brambles Chine
Linstone Chine
In Canada
The Vancouver suburb of Coquitlam has a neighbourhood called Harbour Chines that was built in the 1950s, along with the adjoining neighbourhood of Chineside to the east. Both are situated upon the tops of cliffs that overlook a large number of streams flowing down to the adjoining suburb of Port Moody's Chines Park, from where they flow to Burrard Inlet, onwards out to the Georgia Strait of the Salish Sea, and the Pacific Ocean.
See also
Ravine
References
Erosion landforms
Fluvial landforms
Geology of England
Ravines | [
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234432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20H%C3%BCbner | Emil Hübner | Ernst Willibald Emil Hübner (7 July 183421 February 1901) was a German classical scholar.
He was born at Düsseldorf, the son of the historical painter Julius Hübner (1806–1882).
After studying at Berlin and Bonn, he traveled extensively with a view to antiquarian and epigraphical researches. The results of these travels were published in several important works: Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae (1869, supplement 1892), Inscriptiones Hispaniae Christianae (1871, supplement 1900); Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae (1873), Inscriptiones Britanniae Christianae (1876); La Arqueologia de Espana (1888); Monumenta Linguae Ibericae (1893).
Hübner also wrote two books for the classical student: Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Litteraturgeschichte (4th edition, 1878, edited, with large additions, by JEB Mayor as Bibliographical clue to Latin literature, 1875), and Bibliographie der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft (2nd edition, 1889). He was also author of Römische Epigraphik (2nd edition, 1892); Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae (1885); and Römische Herrschaft in Westeuropa (1890).
In 1870 Hübner was appointed professor of classical philology at the University of Berlin, where he died.
References
External links
1834 births
1901 deaths
German classical scholars
University of Bonn alumni
Writers from Düsseldorf
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
German classical philologists | [
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|
234436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary%20of%20Arles | Hilary of Arles | Hilary of Arles, also known by his Latin name Hilarius (c. 403–449), was a bishop of Arles in Southern France. He is recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, with his feast day celebrated on 5 May.
Life
In his early youth, or the 420s, Hilary joined the abbey of Lérins which was, at the time, presided over by his kinsman Honoratus. Hilary seems to have been living in Dijon before this, although other authorities believe he came from Belgica, or Provence. Hilary may have been a relative or "even the son" of the Hilarius who had been prefect of Gaul in 396 and of Rome in 408.
Hilary succeeded his kinsman Honoratus as bishop of Arles in 429. Following the example of Augustine of Hippo, he is said to have organized his cathedral clergy into a "congregation," devoting a great part of their time to social exercises of asceticism. He held the rank of metropolitan bishop of Vienne and Narbonne, and attempted to exercise the sort of primacy over the church of south Gaul, which seemed implied in the vicariate granted to his predecessor Patroclus of Arles (417).
Hilary deposed the bishop of Besançon, Chelidonus, for ignoring this primacy, and for claiming a metropolitan dignity for Besançon. An appeal was made to Rome, and Pope Leo I used it, in 444, to extinguish the Gallican vicariate headed by Hilary, thus depriving him of his rights to consecrate bishops, call synods, or oversee the church in the province. The pope also secured the edict of Valentinian III, so important in the history of the Gallican church, which freed the Church of Vienne from all dependence on that of Arles. These papal claims were made imperial law, and violation of them were subject to legal penalties. Léon Clugnet suggests that the dispute arose from the fact that the respective rights of the Court of Rome and of the metropolitan were not sufficiently clearly established at that time, and that the right of appeal to the pope was not explicitly enough recognized.
Following his death in 449, Hilary's name was introduced into the Roman martyrology.
Writings
During his lifetime Hilary had a great reputation for learning and eloquence as well as for piety; his extant works (Vita S. Honorati Arelatensis episcopi and Metrum in Genesin) compare favourably with any similar literary productions of that period.
A poem, De providentia, usually included among the writings of Prosper of Aquitaine, is sometimes attributed to Hilary of Arles.
References
Sources
External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
403 births
449 deaths
5th-century archbishops
5th-century Christian saints
Bishops of Arles
5th-century bishops in Gaul
Gallo-Roman saints
5th-century Latin writers | [
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234439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosper%20of%20Aquitaine | Prosper of Aquitaine | Prosper of Aquitaine (; – AD), a Christian writer and disciple of Augustine of Hippo, was the first continuator of Jerome's Universal Chronicle.
Life
Prosper was a native of Aquitaine, and may have been educated at Bordeaux. By 417 he arrived in Marseilles as a refugee from Aquitaine in the aftermath of the Gothic invasions of Gaul. In 429 he was corresponding with Augustine. In 431 he appeared in Rome to appeal to Pope Celestine I regarding the teachings of Augustine; there is no further trace of him until 440, the first year of the pontificate of Pope Leo I, who had been in Gaul, where he may have met Prosper. In any case Prosper was soon in Rome, attached to the pope in some secretarial or notarial capacity. Gennadius of Massilia's De viris illustribus (lxxxiv, 89) repeats the tradition that Prosper dictated the famous letters of Leo I against Eutyches. The date of his death is not known, but his chronicle goes as far as 455, and the fact that the chronicler Marcellinus mentions him under the year 463 seems to indicate that his death was shortly after that date.
Prosper was a layman, but he threw himself with ardour into the religious controversies of his day, defending Augustine and propagating orthodoxy. In his De vocatione omnium gentium ("The Call of all Nations"),<ref>Seventeenth-century doubts as to its authorship, attributing it to Pope Leo I, are not sustained by its most recent editor, De Letter (1952), nor by Joseph J. Young, Studies on the style of De vocatione omnium Gentium ascribed to Prosper of Aquitaine Patristic Studies, 87 (Catholic University of America) 1954.</ref> in which the issues of the call to the Gentiles is discussed in the light of Augustine's doctrine of Grace, Prosper appears as the first of the medieval Augustinians.
The Pelagians were attacked in a glowing polemical poem of about 1000 lines, Adversus ingratos, written about 430. The theme, dogma quod ... pestifero vomuit coluber sermone Britannus, is relieved by a treatment not lacking in liveliness and in classical measures. After Augustine's death he wrote three series of Augustinian defences, especially against Vincent of Lérins (Pro Augustino responsiones).
His chief work was his De gratia Dei et libero arbitrio (432), written against John Cassian's Collatio. He also induced Pope Celestine to publish an open letter to the bishops of Gaul, Epistola ad episcopos Gallorum against some members of the Gaulish Church. He had earlier opened a correspondence with Augustine, along with his friend Hilary (not Hilary of Arles), and although he did not meet him personally, his enthusiasm for the great theologian led him to make an abridgment of his commentary on the Psalms, as well as a collection of sentences from his works—probably the first dogmatic compilation of that class in which Peter Lombard's Liber sententiarum is the best-known example. He also put into elegiac metre, in 106 epigrams, some of Augustine's theological dicta.
Far more important historically than these is Prosper's Epitoma chronicon (covering the period 379–455) which Prosper first composed in 433 and updated several times, finally in 455. It was circulated in numerous manuscripts and was soon continued by other hands, whose beginning dates identify Prosper's various circulated editions. The Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 found it a careless compilation from Jerome in the earlier part, and from other writers in the later, but that the lack of other sources makes it very valuable for the period from 425 to 455, which is drawn from Prosper's personal experience. Compared with his continuators, Prosper gives detailed coverage of political events. He covers Attila's invasions of Gaul (451) and Italy (452) in lengthy entries under their respective years. Though he was a poet himself, the sole secular writer Prosper mentions is Claudian. There were five different editions, the last of them dating from 455, just after the death of Valentinian III. For a long time the Chronicon imperiale was also attributed to "Prosper Tiro", but without the slightest justification. It is entirely independent of the real Prosper, and in parts even shows Pelagian tendencies and sympathies.
Writings
Prosper of Aquitaine's most influential writings are admired for their classical qualities, but have been criticized for being flat and dull. This lack of interest is proof that technical competence is not sufficient to make a poet. His writings come mostly from the second quarter of the fifth century.De vocatione omnium gentium (Calling of All Nations)
This was Prosper's attempt to reconcile Augustine of Hippo’s teaching on grace in which he suggests that God wishes all men to be saved. The argument is that although all human beings do not receive the grace that saves, they do receive God's general grace. Written in AD 450, the Calling of All Nations was Prosper's most original contribution to theology.Epitoma ChroniconThis was Prosper's version of the history of the World. In it he sought to give his own version of the Pelagian controversy and in his own interpretation of recent history. The Epitoma Chronicon ends in 455.CapitullaThis was a simple list of ten doctrinal points asserting the efficacy and necessity of God's Grace, each separately supported by papal statements. It was a strong defense of an essential Augustinian doctrine, but most moderate one to its date. Prosper did not mention Augustine's name in the doctrine, but also did not reject any of his thoughts on predestination. It was written between 435 and 442.Sententia and EpigrammataThe Sententia was a collection of 392 maxims drawn up against the writings of Augustine of Hippo. The epigrammata was a compilation of 106 epigrams of florilegium in verse. Both were intended to be used as handbooks for the serious Christian, drawn from an Augustinian point of view. The work was devoted to the discussion of doctrines of grace and the incarnation. The motto of the florilegia was monastically influenced, urging the reader to patience through adversity, exercise of virtue, and constant striving to perfection.Liber contra CollatoremThis writing represents the final opinion of Prosper on the problem of necessity of grace. It was written during the reign of Pope Sixtus III (link) and is a step-by step response to Conference XIII of the Conlationes of John Cassian.Carmen de Providentia Divina (Poem on Divine Providence)
The problem of providence is discussed in the context of God's creation of the World and in relation to the invasion of Gaul by the Vandals and the Goths. This work has been attributed to Prosper of Aquitaine in the past, but this theory has been discredited.
Legacy
"Prosper of Aquitaine was much more famous for what he wrote than for what he did." (Abbé L. Valentin) However, many historians believe his chief fame rests not on his historical work, but on his activities as a theologian and an aggressive propagator of the Augustinian doctrine of grace. It is no doubt that Prosper holds a place in the ranks of the moulders of theological understanding of the doctrine of grace.
Most of his works were aimed at defending and distribution Augustine's teachings, especially those pertaining to grace and free will. Following Augustine's death in 430, Prosper continued to disseminate his teachings and spent his life working to make them acceptable. Prosper was the first chronicler to add to Jerome's account, beginning his continuation half a century later. Prosper's epigrams became most popular in his later years, providing a method for students of Christianity to learn moral lessons and aspects of the Augustinian doctrine.
Prosper also played a vital role in the Pelagian controversy in southern Gaul in the 420's. With the help of Augustine and Pope Celestine, Prosper was able to put down revolutions of the Pelagian Christians.
Prosper's works were very popular during the Middle Ages: the Epigrams alone sum no fewer than one hundred and eighty manuscripts.
Editions
Prosper's Epitoma Chronicon was edited by Theodor Mommsen in the Chronica minora of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1892) and by Maria Becker and Jan–Markus Kötter as part of the Kleine und fragmentarische Historiker (KFHist G 5) (2016). Prosper's complete works are in Migne's Patrologia Latina. vol. 51. See also Saint Prosper of Aquitaine, the Call of All Nations, edited and translated by P. De Letter, S.J. (Series Ancient Christian writers 14) 1952. Prosper's Epitoma Chronicon is available in English translation in From Roman to Merovingian Gaul: A Reader ed. & trans. A. C Murray (Ontario, 2003) pp. 62–76.
Prosper's Epigrams were edited by Albertus G. A. Horsting in Prosper Aquitanus. Liber epigrammatum, Berlin-New York 2016 (Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 100).
See also
Uncial 0208
Notes
References
Arturo Elberti, Prospero d'Aquitania: Teologo e Discepolo (Rome, 1999).
Mark Humphries. "Chronicle and Chronology: Prosper of Aquitaine, his methods and the development of early medieval chronography." Early Medieval Europe 5 (1996) 155–175.
Steven Muhlberger, The Fifth Century Chroniclers (Great Britain: Redwood Press, 1990) pp. 48–60.
Alexander Hwang. Intrepid Lover of Perfect Grace: The Life and Thought of Prosper of Aquitaine. Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 2009.
Caroline White, Early Christian Latin Poets (New York, 2000) pp. 113–118.
The Fathers of the Church (New York: The Catholic University of America, 1949) pp. 335–343.
This work in turn cites:
L. Valentin, St. Prosper d'Aquitaine: Étude sur la littérature écclésiastique au cinqième siècle en Gaule (Paris, 1900). This work offers a complete list of previous writings on Prosper and is still the main reference.
August Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (1896).
External links
Tiro Prosper of Aquitaine article from The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (Newadvent Website)
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
Carmen de ingratis et epigrammata selecta full text on Google Books
450s deaths
People from Aquitaine
French Roman Catholic saints
Italian Roman Catholic saints
5th-century Latin writers
5th-century Christian saints
Year of birth uncertain
5th-century historians | [
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234442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%20Five | Cambridge Five | The Cambridge Spy Ring was a ring of spies in the United Kingdom that passed information to the Soviet Union during World War II and was active from the 1930s until at least into the early 1950s. None of the known members were ever prosecuted for spying. The number and membership of the ring emerged slowly, from the 1950s onwards. The general public first became aware of the conspiracy after the sudden flight of Donald Maclean (cryptonym: Homer) and Guy Burgess (cryptonym: Hicks) to the Soviet Union in 1951. Suspicion immediately fell on Harold "Kim" Philby (cryptonyms: Sonny, Stanley), who eventually fled the country in 1963. Following Philby's flight, British intelligence obtained confessions from Anthony Blunt (cryptonyms: Tony, Johnson) and then John Cairncross (cryptonym: Liszt), who have come to be seen as the last two of a group of five. Their involvement was kept secret for many years: until 1979 for Blunt, and 1990 for Cairncross. The moniker Cambridge Four evolved to become the Cambridge Five after Cairncross was added.
The term "Cambridge" refers to the recruitment of the group during their education at the University of Cambridge in the 1930s. Debate surrounds the exact timing of their recruitment by Soviet intelligence. Blunt claimed that they were not recruited as agents until after they had graduated. A Fellow of Trinity College, Blunt was several years older than Burgess, Maclean, and Philby; he acted as a talent-spotter and recruiter.
All of the five were convinced that the Marxism–Leninism of Soviet Communism was the best available political system, and especially the best defence against the rise of fascism. All pursued successful careers in branches of the British government. They passed large amounts of intelligence to the Soviet Union, so much so that the KGB became suspicious that at least some of it was false. Perhaps as important as the intelligence they passed was the demoralizing effect to the British Establishment of their slow unmasking, and the mistrust in British security this caused in the United States.
Many others have also been accused of membership in the Cambridge ring. Blunt and Burgess were both members of the Cambridge Apostles, an exclusive secret society at Cambridge University. Other Apostles accused of having spied for the Soviets include Michael Straight and Guy Liddell.
Membership
The following five supplied intelligence to the Soviets under their controller Yuri Modin who later defected to the West. Modin said that Moscow did not really trust the Cambridge double agents during WWII. The KGB had difficulty believing that the men would have access to top secret documents; they were particularly suspicious of Philby, wondering how he could have become an agent given his Communist past. One report later stated that "About half the documents the British spies sent to Moscow were never even read" due to the paranoia. Nonetheless, the Soviets accepted a great deal of secret information, 1,771 documents from Blunt, 4,605 from Burgess, 4,593 from MacLean and 5,832 from Cairncross, during 1941 to 1945.
Donald Maclean and Guy Burgess
Donald Maclean was a British diplomat who was a spy for the Soviet Union during World War II and early on into the Cold War. Maclean studied at the University of Cambridge in the early 1930s where he met Guy Burgess. Burgess was also a British diplomat who spied for the Soviet Union in World War II and early on into the Cold War. They both disagreed with the idea of capitalism. Later they were both recruited by Soviet intelligence operatives and became undercover agents for the Soviet Union. Maclean began delivering information to the Soviet intelligence operatives as a member of the British Foreign Office in 1934. Soon after, Burgess also began supplying information to the Soviet Union in 1936 from his position as a BBC correspondent up until 1938, then as an active member of MI6 intelligence continued to supply classified information up until 1941, and then finally as a member of the British Foreign Office up until 1944.
Maclean and Burgess were soon known as the "hopeless drunks" due to the fact that they had a hard time keeping their secret occupations to themselves. It is said that one time, while highly intoxicated, Burgess risked exposing his second identity. He was leaving a pub where he accidentally dropped one of the secret files he had taken from the Foreign Office. Maclean was also known to have loose lips and said to have leaked information about his secret duties to his brother and close friends. Although they struggled to keep secrets, that did not stop them from delivering information. It is said that Burgess handed over about 389 top secret documents to the KGB within the early part of 1945 along with an additional 168 documents in December of 1949.
All five were active during World War II. Philby, when he was posted in the British embassy in Washington, DC, after the war, learned that US and British intelligence were searching for a British embassy mole (cryptonym Homer) who was passing information to the Soviet Union, relying on material uncovered by the Venona project.
Philby learned one of the suspects was Maclean. Realizing he had to act fast, he ordered Burgess, who was also on the embassy staff and living with Philby, to warn Maclean in England, where he was serving in the Foreign Office headquarters. Burgess was recalled from the United States due to "bad behaviour" and upon reaching London, warned Maclean.
In early summer 1951, Burgess and Maclean made international headlines by disappearing. (They had taken a ship from Southampton to St. Malo, France, a train to Paris, and a flight to Moscow.) Their whereabouts were unclear for some time and the suspicion that they had defected to the Soviet Union turned out to be correct; that did not become public knowledge until 1956 when the two appeared at a press conference in Moscow. A warrant was not issued for their arrest until 1962.
It was obvious they had been tipped off, and Philby quickly became the prime suspect due to his close relation with Burgess. Though Burgess was not supposed to defect at the same time as Maclean, he went along. It has been claimed that the KGB ordered Burgess to go to Moscow. This move damaged Philby's reputation, with many speculating that had it not occurred, Philby could have climbed even higher in the Secret Intelligence Service.
Between 1934 and 1951 Maclean passed numerous secrets to Moscow. The lack of detection was due to the refusal of the Secret Service to listen to warnings from the US, "even after the FBI had established that an agent code-named Homer had been operating inside the British embassy in Washington during the war", according to a review of MacLean's biography (in 2018) by author Roland Philipps.
In 2019, Russia honoured Burgess and Maclean in a ceremony; a plaque was attached to the building where they had lived in the 50s. The head of the SVR foreign intelligence service, praised the duo on social media for "having supplied Soviet intelligence with the most important information for more than 20 years, [making] a significant contribution to the victory over fascism, the protection of our strategic interests and ensuring the safety of our country".
A book review in The Guardian of Andrew Lownie's biography of Guy Burgess included this conclusion: "[leaving] us all the more astonished that such a smelly, scruffy, lying, gabby, promiscuous, drunken slob could penetrate the heart of the establishment without anyone apparently noticing that he was also a Soviet masterspy".
Stalin's Englishman: The Lives of Guy Burgess is a biography of Burgess that argues that he, of all the members of the Cambridge Five, was perhaps the most influential.
Harold "Kim" Philby
Harold "Kim" Philby was a senior officer in Britain's Secret Intelligence Service, known as MI6, who began his work for the Soviet Union as a spy in 1934. He went on to serve the KGB for 54 years. He was known for passing more than 900 British documents over to the KGB. He served as a double agent.
Investigation of Philby found several suspicious matters but nothing for which he could be prosecuted. Nevertheless, he was forced to resign from MI6. In 1955 he was named in the press, with questions also raised in the House of Commons, as chief suspect for "the Third Man" and he called a press conference to deny the allegation. That same year, Philby was ruled out as a suspect when British Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan cleared him of all charges.
In the later 1950s, Philby left the secret service and began working as a journalist in the Middle East; both The Economist and The Observer provided his employment there. MI6 then re-employed him at around the same time, to provide reports from that region.
In 1961, defector Anatoliy Golitsyn provided information which pointed to Philby. An MI6 officer and friend of Philby from his earlier MI6 days, John Nicholas Rede Elliott, was sent in 1963 to interview him in Beirut and reported that Philby seemed to know he was coming (indicating the presence of yet another mole). Nonetheless, Philby allegedly confessed to Elliott.
Shortly afterwards, apparently fearing he might be abducted in Lebanon, Philby defected to the Soviet Union under cover of night, aboard a Soviet freighter. For the first seven years in Moscow, he was under virtual house arrest since the Soviets were concerned that he might defect to the West. According to an article in The New York Times, he was given no rank nor an office. In fact, "for the most part, Philby was frozen out, his suggestions ignored" ... This ruined his life". After his death, however, Philby was awarded a number of medals by the Soviets.
Anthony Blunt
Anthony Blunt was a former Surveyor of the King's Pictures and later Queen's Pictures for the royal art collection. He served as an MI5 member and supplied secret information to the KGB, while also providing warnings to fellow agents of certain counterintelligence that could potentially endanger them.
In 1964, MI5 received information from the American Michael Whitney Straight pointing to Blunt's espionage; the two had known each other at Cambridge some thirty years before and Blunt had tried to recruit Straight as a spy. Straight, who initially agreed, changed his mind afterwards.
Blunt was interrogated by MI5 and confessed in exchange for immunity from prosecution. As he was—by 1964—without access to classified information, he had secretly been granted immunity by the Attorney General, in exchange for revealing everything he knew. Peter Wright, one of Blunt's interrogators, describes in his book Spycatcher how Blunt was evasive and only made admissions grudgingly, when confronted with the undeniable.
By 1979, Blunt was publicly accused of being a Soviet agent by investigative journalist Andrew Boyle, in his book Climate of Treason. In November 1979, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher admitted to the House of Commons that Blunt had confessed to being a Soviet spy fifteen years previously.
The term "Five" began to be used in 1961, when KGB defector Anatoliy Golitsyn named Maclean and Burgess as part of a "Ring of Five", with Philby a 'probable' third, alongside two other agents whom he did not know.
Of all the information provided by Golitsyn, the only item that was ever independently confirmed was the Soviet affiliation of John Vassall. Vassall was a relatively low-ranking spy who some researchers believe may have been sacrificed to protect a more senior one.
At the time of Golitsyn's defection, Philby had already been accused in the press and was living in Beirut, Lebanon, a country with no extradition agreement with Britain. Select members of MI5 and MI6 already knew Philby to be a spy from Venona project decryptions. Golitsyn also provided other information, such as the claim that Harold Wilson (then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) was a KGB agent.
Golitsyn's reliability remains a controversial subject and as such, there is little certainty of the number of agents he assigned to the Cambridge spy ring. To add to the confusion, when Blunt finally confessed, he named several other people as having been recruited by him.
Blunt wrote his memoirs but insisted they not be released until 25 years after his death. They were made public by the British Museum in 2009. The manuscript indicated that he regretted having passed information to the Soviets because of the way it eventually affected his life, that he believed that the government would never reveal his treachery and that he had dismissed suicide as "cowardly". Christopher Andrew felt that the regret was shallow, and that he found an "unwillingness to acknowledge the evil he had served in spying for Stalin".
John Cairncross
John Cairncross was known as a British literary scholar until he was later identified as a Soviet atomic spy. While a civil servant in the Foreign Office, he was recruited in 1937 by James Klugmann to become a Soviet spy. He moved to the Treasury in 1938 but transferred once again to the Cabinet office in 1940 where he served as the private secretary of Sir Maurice Hankey, the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster at that time. In May 1942, he transferred to the British cryptanalysis agency, the Government Code and Cypher School, at Bletchley Park and then, in 1943, to MI6. Following World War II, it is said that Cairncross leaked information regarding the new NATO alliance to the Soviets.
On the basis of the information provided by Golitsyn, speculations raged on for many years as to the identity of the "Fifth Man". The journalistic popularity of this phrase owes something to the unrelated novels The Third Man and The Tenth Man, written by Graham Greene who, coincidentally, worked with Philby and Cairncross during the Second World War.
Cairncross confessed to having been a spy for the Soviets, in a 1964 meeting with MI6 that was kept secret for some years. He was given immunity from prosecution.
The public became aware of his treachery in December 1979, however, when Cairncross made a public confession to journalist Barrie Penrose. The news was widely publicized leading many to surmise that he was in fact the "fifth man"; that was confirmed in 1989 by KGB agent Oleg Gordievsky who had defected to Britain.
His designation as the fifth man was also confirmed in former KGB agent Yuri Modin's book published in 1994: My Five Cambridge Friends: Burgess, Maclean, Philby, Blunt, and Cairncross.
Cairncross is not always deemed to have been part of the 'Ring of Five'. Though a student at the University of Cambridge, he only knew Blunt, who was by then teaching modern languages. By 1934, when Cairncross arrived at Cambridge, the other three members of the ring had already graduated.
This reference suggests the KGB itself recognized Cairncross as the fifth man (found by Gordievsky while doing research on the history of the KGB).
A few sources, however, believe that the "fifth man" was Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild. In his book The Fifth Man, Roland Perry asserts this claim. After the book was published, former KGB controller Yuri Modin denied ever having named Rothschild as "any kind of Soviet agent". Modin's own book's title clarifies the name of all five of the Cambridge spy group: My Five Cambridge Friends: Burgess, Maclean, Philby, Blunt, and Cairncross by Their KGB Controller. Since Rothschild had died prior to publication of the Perry book, the family was unable to start a libel action.
In a 1991 interview with The Mail on Sunday, Cairncross explained how he had forwarded information to Moscow during WWII and boasted that it "helped the Soviets to win that battle (the Battle of Kursk) against the Germans". Cairncross did not view himself as one of the Cambridge Five, insisting that the information he sent to Moscow was not harmful to Britain and that he had remained loyal to his homeland. Unlike many other spies, he was never charged for passing information to Moscow.
Attempted coverup
For unknown reasons, Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home was not advised of Anthony Blunt's spying, although the Queen and Home Secretary Henry Brooke were informed. It was only in November 1979 that then-PM Margaret Thatcher formally advised Parliament of Blunt's treachery and the immunity deal that had been arranged 15 years earlier.
A 2015 article in The Guardian discussed "400 top-secret documents which have been released at the National Archives" and indicated that MI5 and MI6 had worked diligently to prevent information about the five from being disclosed, "to the British public and even to the US government". A 2016 review of a new book about Burgess added that "more than 20% of files relating to the spies, most of whom defected more than 50 years ago, remain closed". In conclusion, the review stated that "the Foreign Office, MI6 and MI5 all have an interest in covering up, to protect themselves from huge embarrassment" and that "more taxpayers' money is spent by Whitehall officials in the futile attempt to keep the files under lock and key for ever".
Under the 30-year rule, the 400 documents should have been made available years earlier. It was particularly surprising that 20 per cent of the information was redacted or not released. A news item at the time stated that "it is clear the full story of the Cambridge Spies has not yet emerged". A summary of the documents indicated that they showed that "inaction and incompetence on the part of the authorities enabled Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean to make their escape to Moscow".
Additional secret files were finally released to the National Archives in 2020. They indicated that the government had intentionally conducted a campaign to keep Kim Philby's spying confidential "to minimise political embarrassment" and prevented the publication of his memoirs according to a report by The Guardian. Nonetheless, the information was publicized in 1967 when Philby granted an interview to journalist Murray Sayle of The Times. Philby confirmed that he had worked for the KGB and that "his purpose in life was to destroy imperialism". This revelation raised concerns that Blunt's spying would also be revealed to the public.
Alleged additional members
Some researchers believe the spy ring had more than five, or different, members. Several of the following have been alleged to be possible Soviet spies:
Baron Rothschild was named by Roland Perry in his book The Fifth Man. According to Spycatcher, Rothschild had been friendly with Burgess as an undergraduate, and had originally owned the lease on a house off Welbeck Street, No. 5 Bentinck Street, where Blunt and Burgess both lived during the war. This was supposedly confirmed by Yuri Modin, the alleged controller of the five, who—according to Perry—had claimed Cairncross was never part of the group. However in reviewing Perry's book, commentator Sheila Kerr pointed out that as soon as the book came out, Modin denied Perry's version of their discussions (having already stated that the fifth man was Cairncross), and concluded that "Perry's case against Rothschild is unconvincing because of dubious sources and slack methods".
Leonard Henry (Leo) Long was accused by Blunt in 1964. Blunt claimed to have recruited Long to the Communist cause while Blunt was tutor at Cambridge. Long served as an intelligence officer with MI14 from 1940 to 1945, and later with the British element of the Allied Control Commission in Occupied Germany from 1945–1952. Long passed analyses but not original material relating to the Eastern Front to Blunt. Blunt also was associated with other Cambridge persons subsequently involved in espionage (Michael Straight, Peter Ashby, Brian Symon) but they are generally considered as minor figures as compared to the "Cambridge Five".
Guy Liddell was an MI5 officer and nearly rose to become director of the service but was passed over because of rumours he was a double agent; he took early retirement from MI5 in 1953 after he was investigated for his personal links to Kim Philby. He was accused of having been the "fifth man" by Goronwy Rees as part of Rees' confession in 1979. The academic consensus is that he was naïve in his friendships rather than a spy.
Andrew Gow: in his memoirs published in 2012, Brian Sewell suggested that Gow was the "fifth man" and spy master of the group. This suggestion was subsequently refuted by Anthony Powell.
Wilfrid Basil Mann: Mann had been accused on several occasions of being the "fifth man," based on rumored former work at the Embassy and the resemblance between his name and the "Basil" of Boyle's codename. In his memoirs, Mann argued using contemporary correspondence, publications, and verified passport entries that he was incapable of having worked with Donald Maclean in the British Embassy. As part of his hiring at the Bureau of Standards, Mann underwent intense security screening and received a top-level "Q" clearance from the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
In popular culture
Books
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (New York 1974). John le Carré's novelisation of his experiences of the revelations in the 1950s and the 1960s which exposed the Cambridge Five traitors.
A Perfect Spy, by John Le Carré (New York 1986). Events in the life of the character Magnus Pym are partly based upon the life and career of Kim Philby.
From Russia With Love by Ian Fleming contains several references to Burgess and Maclean while Soviet characters discuss then-contemporary espionage related scandals. In Chapter 11, James Bond himself says that what is needed in the atomic age is the 'intellectual spy', before mentioning the treacherous pair directly, though admits to only doing so in order to annoy a superior.
The Untouchable by John Banville. The character Victor Maskell seems to be a combination of Anthony Blunt and poet Louis MacNeice.
In Alan Moore's graphic novel The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier, there appears a Cambridge Five analogue consisting of the Famous Five from Greyfriars School, including Harry Wharton, who became Big Brother; Bob Kim Cherry (named after Kim Philby), who was also known as Harry Lime and subsequently M or Mother; Francis Alexander Waverly (possibly formerly known as Frank Nugent); and Sir John Night (possibly formerly known as John Bull).
The Fourth Protocol, a novel by Frederick Forsyth, uses a fictionalised Kim Philby as a central character, who conspires to smuggle a portable nuclear weapon into Britain.
Burgess, Maclean and Philby appear in the Doctor Who Eighth Doctor Adventures novel Endgame dealing with their defection to Russia.
The Innocent, a novel by Ian McEwan, involves a spy tunnel which the Soviets discover but do not initially expose, similar to the Philby tunnel.
Philby appears in The Other Woman of the Gabriel Allon series by novelist Daniel Silva
The plot of Charles Cumming's 2011 novel, The Trinity Six, is built on the premise that there was a sixth spy and that his existence is being covered up by MI6.
Television
The Hour (BBC TV series)
Dennis Potter's television play Traitor (1971) is a spy drama television film that features a central character called Adrian Harris (John Le Mesurier) being interviewed in his Moscow flat by western newspaper reporters, eager to get the story on his defection. Harris appears to be a composite of Philby, Burgess and Maclean. Potter later returned to similar territory with Blade on the Feather (1980), inspired by the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, although in this drama the protagonist Jason Cavendish (Donald Pleasence) is clearly modeled after Philby. Philby is later name-checked as the sports reporter on The Daily Telegraph in Potter's Lipstick on Your Collar (1993), and appears to be giving inside tips on horse-races to officials at the War Office.
The Channel 4 education show KNTV features a character called Burgess MacPhilbin, who provides information for teenagers in the form of a spy dossier.
Philby, Burgess and Maclean was a 1977 Granada Television drama-documentary for ITV, re-broadcast on BBC Four in 2007, with Derek Jacobi as Burgess.
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, 1979 miniseries adaptation of John le Carré's novel
An Englishman Abroad, 1983 dramatization of Burgess in Russia by Alan Bennett
Blunt: the Fourth Man, 1987 television drama with Anthony Hopkins as Guy Burgess and Ian Richardson as Anthony Blunt.
Cambridge Spies, 2003 BBC drama with Toby Stephens as Kim Philby, Tom Hollander as Guy Burgess, Rupert Penry-Jones as Donald Maclean, Samuel West as Anthony Blunt, and Alastair Galbraith as John Cairncross.
Samuel West reprises his role as Anthony Blunt from Cambridge Spies in The Crown in 2019, in the season three episode titled "Olding".
Film
The Jigsaw Man, 1983 film starring Laurence Olivier and Michael Caine. Caine plays a character named Philip Kimberley who returns to England after his defection.
Another Country, 1984 adaptation of the play by Julian Mitchell
A Different Loyalty, 2004 film directed by Marek Kanievska, is inspired by Kim Philby's affair and subsequent marriage to Eleanor Brewer, as well as events leading up to his defection.
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy, 2011 adaptation of John le Carré's novel
The Imitation Game, 2014 biopic of Alan Turing, includes Allen Leech as John Cairncross; Burgess and Maclean are mentioned in passing.
Theatre
A Question of Attribution, 1988 dramatization of Blunt's term as Keeper of the Queen's Pictures; and The Old Country, 1977 play about a fictional Philby-esque spy in exile, both by Alan Bennett
Another Country, 1981 play loosely based on Guy Burgess's life by Julian Mitchell
In 2009, Michael Dobbs wrote a short play, Turning Point, for a series of live broadcast TV plays on Sky Arts channel. Based on a 1938 meeting between a young Guy Burgess and Winston Churchill, the play sees Burgess urging Churchill to fight the appeasement policy of the British government. In the live broadcast, Burgess was played by Benedict Cumberbatch.
Kim Philby appears as one of the central antagonists in William F. Buckley's 2005 novel Last Call for Blackford Oakes.
Alan Bennett's play Single Spies centres around Burgess and Blunt.
Music
"Philby", a 1979 composition from Irish blues-rock musician Rory Gallagher and his album Top Priority.
See also
Arnold Deutsch
Theodore Maly
Yuri Modin
Portland Spy Ring
Jim Skardon
Bob Stewart (communist)
References
Further reading
Andrew Sinclair, The Red and the Blue: Intelligence, Treason and the Universities (Coronet Books, Hodder and Stoughten, U.K. 1987). .
External links
Friday 23 October 2015, The National Archives, File release: Cold War Cambridge spies Burgess and Maclean, nationalarchives.gov.uk
British spies for the Soviet Union
Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
Cold War espionage
World War II spies for the Soviet Union
British communists
Quintets
1940s in the United Kingdom
Spy rings
Five
Double agents
History of Cambridge
Politics of Cambridge
1963 in British politics
1950s in the United Kingdom | [
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|
234444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic%20number | Automorphic number | In mathematics, an automorphic number (sometimes referred to as a circular number) is a natural number in a given number base whose square "ends" in the same digits as the number itself.
Definition and properties
Given a number base , a natural number with digits is an automorphic number if is a fixed point of the polynomial function over , the ring of integers modulo . As the inverse limit of is , the ring of -adic integers, automorphic numbers are used to find the numerical representations of the fixed points of over .
For example, with , there are four 10-adic fixed points of , the last 10 digits of which are one of these
Thus, the automorphic numbers in base 10 are 0, 1, 5, 6, 25, 76, 376, 625, 9376, 90625, 109376, 890625, 2890625, 7109376, 12890625, 87109376, 212890625, 787109376, 1787109376, 8212890625, 18212890625, 81787109376, 918212890625, 9918212890625, 40081787109376, 59918212890625, ... .
A fixed point of is a zero of the function . In the ring of integers modulo , there are zeroes to , where the prime omega function is the number of distinct prime factors in . An element in is a zero of if and only if or for all . Since there are two possible values in , and there are such , there are zeroes of , and thus there are fixed points of . According to Hensel's lemma, if there are zeroes or fixed points of a polynomial function modulo , then there are corresponding zeroes or fixed points of the same function modulo any power of , and this remains true in the inverse limit. Thus, in any given base there are -adic fixed points of .
As 0 is always a zero divisor, 0 and 1 are always fixed points of , and 0 and 1 are automorphic numbers in every base. These solutions are called trivial automorphic numbers. If is a prime power, then the ring of -adic numbers has no zero divisors other than 0, so the only fixed points of are 0 and 1. As a result, nontrivial automorphic numbers, those other than 0 and 1, only exist when the base has at least two distinct prime factors.
Automorphic numbers in base b
All -adic numbers are represented in base , using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35.
Extensions
Automorphic numbers can be extended to any such polynomial function of degree with b-adic coefficients . These generalised automorphic numbers form a tree.
a-automorphic numbers
An -automorphic number occurs when the polynomial function is
For example, with and , as there are two fixed points for in ( and ), according to Hensel's lemma there are two 10-adic fixed points for ,
so the 2-automorphic numbers in base 10 are 0, 8, 88, 688, 4688...
Trimorphic numbers
A trimorphic number or spherical number occurs when the polynomial function is . All automorphic numbers are trimorphic. The terms circular and spherical were formerly used for the slightly different case of a number whose powers all have the same last digit as the number itself.
For base , the trimorphic numbers are:
0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 24, 25, 49, 51, 75, 76, 99, 125, 249, 251, 375, 376, 499, 501, 624, 625, 749, 751, 875, 999, 1249, 3751, 4375, 4999, 5001, 5625, 6249, 8751, 9375, 9376, 9999, ...
For base , the trimorphic numbers are:
0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, B, 15, 47, 53, 54, 5B, 61, 68, 69, 75, A7, B3, BB, 115, 253, 368, 369, 4A7, 5BB, 601, 715, 853, 854, 969, AA7, BBB, 14A7, 2369, 3853, 3854, 4715, 5BBB, 6001, 74A7, 8368, 8369, 9853, A715, BBBB, ...
Programming example
def hensels_lemma(polynomial_function, base: int, power: int):
"""Hensel's lemma."""
if power == 0:
return [0]
if power > 0:
roots = hensels_lemma(polynomial_function, base, power - 1)
new_roots = []
for root in roots:
for i in range(0, base):
new_i = i * base ** (power - 1) + root
new_root = polynomial_function(new_i) % pow(base, power)
if new_root == 0:
new_roots.append(new_i)
return new_roots
base = 10
digits = 10
def automorphic_polynomial(x):
return x ** 2 - x
for i in range(1, digits + 1):
print(hensels_lemma(automorphic_polynomial, base, i))
See also
Arithmetic dynamics
Kaprekar number
P-adic number
P-adic analysis
Zero divisor
References
External links
Arithmetic dynamics
Base-dependent integer sequences
Mathematical analysis
Modular arithmetic
Number theory
P-adic numbers
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|
234446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphic | Automorphic | Automorphic may refer to
Automorphic number, in mathematics
Automorphic form, in mathematics
Automorphic representation, in mathematics
Automorphic L-function, in mathematics
Automorphism, in mathematics
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|
234447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutyches | Eutyches | Eutyches (; c. 380c. 456) was a presbyter and archimandrite at Constantinople. He first came to notice in 431 at the First Council of Ephesus, for his vehement opposition to the teachings of Nestorius; his condemnation of Nestorianism as heresy led him to an equally extreme, although opposite view, which precipitated his being denounced as a heretic himself.
Life
Eutyches was an archimandrite of a monastery outside the walls of Constantinople, where he ruled over three hundred monks. He was much respected and was godfather to Chrysaphius, an influential eunuch at the court of Theodosius II.
Controversy
The patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, having asserted that Mary ought not to be referred to as the "Mother of God" (Theotokos in Greek, literally "God-bearer"), was denounced as a heretic; in combating this assertion of Patriarch Nestorius, Eutyches declared that Christ was "a fusion of human and divine elements", causing his own denunciation as a heretic twenty years after the First Council of Ephesus at the 451 AD Council of Chalcedon.
According to Nestorius, all the human experiences and attributes of Christ are to be assigned to 'the man', as a distinct personal subject from God the Word, though united to God the Word from the moment of his conception. In opposition to this, Eutyches inverted the assertion to the opposite extreme, asserting that human nature and divine nature were combined into the single nature of Christ without any alteration, absorption or confusion: that of the incarnate Word. Although this accorded with the later teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, Eutyches went beyond Cyril in denying that Christ was "consubstantial with us men", by which he did not intend to deny Christ's full manhood, but to stress His uniqueness.
Career
Eutyches denied that Christ's humanity was limited or incomplete, which some were led to believe was similar to the Alexandrine doctrine (this, however, is strongly rejected by the Coptic church that sees Eutyches a heretic), but the energy and imprudence with which he asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. He was accused of heresy by Domnus II of Antioch and Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum, at a synod presided over by Flavian at Constantinople in 448. His explanations deemed unsatisfactory, the council deposed him from his priestly office and excommunicated him.
In 449, however, at the Second Council of Ephesus convened by Dioscorus of Alexandria who was under the impression that Eutyches had renounced Monophysitism, overawed by the presence of a large number of Egyptian monks, not only was Eutyches reinstated to his office, but Eusebius, Domnus and Flavian, his chief opponents, were deposed. This judgment is the more interesting as being in distinct conflict with the opinion of the bishop of Rome—Leo—who, departing from the policy of his predecessor Celestine, had written very strongly to Flavian in support of the doctrine of the two natures and one person.
Meanwhile, the emperor Theodosius II died, and Pulcheria and Marcian who succeeded, summoned, in October 451, a council (the fourth ecumenical) which met at Chalcedon and which Dioscorus attended and at which he was condemned. There the synod of Ephesus was declared to have been a "robber synod" with claims that Dioscorus had threatened the bishops with death if they did not agree with him. Its proceedings were annulled, and, in accordance with the more miaphysite strand in the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, it was declared that the two natures are united in Christ (without any alteration, absorption or confusion) and 'come together to form one person and one hypostasis'. Eutyches died in exile, but of his later life nothing is known.
Those who did not approve the Chalcedonian Council were later accused of being "Monophysites" and are nowadays known as "Oriental Orthodox", including the Coptic Church, the Armenian Orthodox Church, and the Syrian Orthodox Church. They were wrongfully accused of agreeing with Eutyches about "one nature" in Christ that rejected Christ's dual consubstantiality (with the Father and with us men); however, Oriental Orthodox churches prefer to be called "Miaphysites" and are against the teachings of Eutyches. This was confirmed in May 1973 when the late Coptic pope, Shenouda III, visited Rome and penned a Christological statement with Pope Paul VI.
His memory was kept alive by the Chalcedonians, who until recently used the term 'Eutychean' as a pejorative description of the non-Chalcedonians who in their turn accused the Chalcedonians of being Nestorians and dyophysite.
Notes
References
G. A. Bevan and P. T. R. Gray, "The Trial of Eutyches: A New Interpretation", Byzantinische Zeitschrift 101 (2009), 617–57.
Adolf Harnack, History of Dogma, iv. passim
F. Loofs, Dogmnegeschichte (4th ed., 1906), 297 ff.
R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, ii. 97 ff.
Article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. für prot. Theol., with a full bibliography.
380s births
450s deaths
4th-century Romans
Byzantine theologians
Christologists
Founders of religions
People declared heretics by the first seven ecumenical councils
5th-century Christian clergy
5th-century Christian theologians | [
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|
234451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian%20of%20Constantinople | Flavian of Constantinople | Flavian (; , Phlabianos; 11 August 449), sometimes Flavian I, was Archbishop of Constantinople from 446 to 449. He is venerated as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church.
Consecration as archbishop and imperial dispute
Flavian was a presbyter and the guardian of the sacred vessels of the great Church of Constantinople and, according to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos, was reputed to lead a saintly life, when he was chosen to succeed Proclus as Archbishop of Constantinople.
During his consecration, Roman Emperor Theodosius II was staying at Chalcedon. His eunuch Chrysaphius attempted to extort a present of gold to the Emperor but as he was unsuccessful, he began to plot against the new Archbishop by supporting the archimandrite Eutyches in his dispute with Flavian.
Home Synod of Constantinople
Flavian presided at a council of forty bishops at Constantinople on November 8, 448, to resolve a dispute between the metropolitan bishop of Sardis and two bishops of his province. Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum, presented an indictment against Eutyches. The speech of Flavian remains, concluding with this appeal to the bishop of Dorylaeum: "Let your reverence condescend to visit him and argue with him about the true faith, and if he shall be found in very truth to err, then he shall be called to our holy assembly, and shall answer for himself." Eventually the synod deposed Eutyches.
Second Council of Ephesus
However, as Eutyches protested against this verdict and received the support of Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria, the Emperor convoked another Council to Ephesus. At this council, which assembled on August 8, 449, Flavian was beaten during the sessions of this council by impudent monks led by a certain Barsumas. Flavian was then deposed, exiled, and the council reinstated Eutyches.
Death
Flavian died on August 11, 449, at Hypaepa in Lydia, Asia Minor and was buried obscurely.
Aftermath
Pope Leo I, whose legates had been ignored at the council, protested, first calling the council a "robber synod", and declared its decisions void.
After Theodosius II died in 450, his sister Pulcheria returned to power, marrying the officer Marcian, who became Emperor. The new Imperial couple had Flavian's remains brought to Constantinople in a way that, in the words of a chronicler, more resembled "a triumph .. than a funeral procession". The Council of Chalcedon, called in 451, condemned Eutyches, confirmed Pope Leo's Tome (letter 28) and canonized Flavian as a martyr.
In the Roman Catholic Church St. Flavian is commemorated on February 18, the date assigned to him in the Roman Martyrology. Flavian of Ricina is sometimes identified with him.
See also
St Fravitta of Constantinople, known as Flavian or Flavianus II in some sources
References
Attribution
Evagrius. ii. 2. etc.
Facund, Pro Trib. Capit. viii. 5; xii. 5.
Leo. Mag. Epp. 23, 26, 27, 28, 44.
Liberatus Diac. Breviar. xi. xii.
Nicephorus, Constant. xiv. 47.
Sozomen H. E. ix. 1.
Theophanes the Confessor, Chronology pp. 84–88.
Bibliography
External links
St Flavian of Constantinople Orthodox Synaxarion (February 18)
449 deaths
Flavian
Ancient Christians involved in controversies
5th-century Christian martyrs
Year of birth unknown | [
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|
234454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulate | Regulate | Regulate may refer to:
Regulation
Regulate...G Funk Era, an album from rapper Warren G
Regulate (song), title song from the album
See also
Regulator (disambiguation)
Regulation (disambiguation) | [
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|
234457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum | Asylum | Asylum may refer to:
Kinds of asylum
Asylum (antiquity), places of refuge in ancient Greece and Rome
Benevolent Asylum, a 19th-century Australian institution for housing the destitute
Cities of Refuge, places of refuge in ancient Judea
Church asylum or sanctuary, a right to be safe from arrest in the sanctuary of a church or temple
Lunatic asylum or mental asylum, an historical term for psychiatric hospital
Orphan asylum, orphanage
Right of asylum, political asylum
Entertainment
Fiction
Asylum (comics), a comic series
Asylum (Darvill-Evans novel), a 2001 Doctor Who novel
Asylum (McGrath novel), a 1996 novel by Patrick McGrath
Asylum (series), a young adult horror series
Asylums (book), a 1961 nonfiction book by Erving Goffman
Film
Asylum (1972 horror film), a horror film starring Peter Cushing
Asylum (1972 documentary film), a film featuring the psychiatrist R. D. Laing
Asylum (1997 film), an American film starring Robert Patrick and Malcolm McDowell
Asylum (2003 film), an American short documentary
Asylum (2005 film), a British drama by David Mackenzie based on the novel by Patrick McGrath
Asylum (2008 film), an American horror film by David R. Ellis
Asylum (2014 film), an American horror film
Television
Asylum (1996 TV series), a UK comedy series on Paramount Comedy Channel
Asylum (2015 TV series), a UK comedy series on the BBC
"Asylum" (Law & Order), an episode of Law & Order
"Asylum" (Person of Interest), an episode of Person of Interest
"Asylum" (Sliders), an episode of Sliders
"Asylum" (Supernatural), an episode of Supernatural
"Asylum" (Torchwood), a 2009 episode of Torchwood
American Horror Story: Asylum, the second season of American Horror Story
Albums
Asylum (The Back Horn album), 2010
Asylum (Disturbed album), 2010
Asylum (Kiss album), 1985
Asylum (The Legendary Pink Dots album), 1985
Songs
"Asylum" (The Orb song), 1997
"Asylum", by Disturbed from Asylum
"Asylum", by John Legend from Love in the Future
"Asylum", by Alanis Morissette from Flavors of Entanglement (non-album track)
"Asylum", by Gary Numan from The Pleasure Principle
"Asylum", by Onslaught from In Search of Sanity
"Asylum", by Slaughterhouse, featuring Eminem, from Welcome to: Our House
"Asylum", by Supertramp from Crime of the Century
Other
Asylum Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Asylum (magazine), a magazine about mental health and psychiatry
Asylum Records, an American record label,
Asylum (1981 video game), an adventure game
Asylum (upcoming video game), a horror game in development since 2010
The Asylum, an American film production company
See also
Asylum seeker (disambiguation) | [
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|
234458 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vereniging%20Martijn | Vereniging Martijn | Vereniging Martijn (; "Martijn Association"; stylized as MARTIJN) was a Dutch association that advocated the societal acceptance of pedophilia and legalization of sexual relationships between adults and children.
Establishment
The organization began in 1984. It claimed to fight for "the social and societal acceptance of child-adult relationships", emphasising what they called the "consent of both child and adult" and the "freedom for the child to withdraw from the relationship". It claimed to be in favour of "objective, scientifically verifiable truth and against political terror and discrimination."
OK Magazine
From 1986 until 2006 the group published OK Magazine, available only through the mail and not in shops, featuring essays, letters, interviews and photographs of scantily clad or naked children, mostly boys.
Opposition
MARTIJN was expelled from the International Lesbian and Gay Association in 1994. The group was seen as "widely reviled" though Dutch prosecutors initially formed the view that it could not be prosecuted.
In 2003 Vereniging MARTIJN faced opposition by the Actiecomité Stop MARTIJN (Action Committee Stop MARTIJN), which organized demonstrations against them. Formed and led by Michiel Smit of the New Right, Florens van der Kooi of the NNP, as well as Inge Bleecke of Moeders tegen Pedofilie (Mothers against Pedophilia), the committee was labelled as extreme right by their opponents.
Photographs of Princess Amalia
The organization was in the news in October 2007 when it was learned that photographs of Princess Catharina-Amalia (then aged 3½), daughter of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange (now King) and his wife Princess Maxima (now Queen), were on display on the website's forum. The Prince went to court to request a €50,000 fine and the removal of the photos from the website. The court agreed that the photos must be removed, and imposed a fine of €5,000 to be paid every time photos of children of the royal family are placed on the site again. The organisation had to pay €1,235 in costs.
Police investigations
The home of the organization's president, Ad van den Berg, was raided by police in October 2010; downloads of illegal material had been traced back to Van den Berg's internet connection. It was announced in March 2011 that large quantities of child pornography were found among the confiscated material, and even more material, including computers, was confiscated when Van den Berg was arrested on 29 March.
Suspects in the Amsterdam sex case, an investigation into the abuse of tens of children in Amsterdam kindergartens, were members of MARTIJN.
Priests' involvement
On 20 May 2011 Herman Spronck, the head of the Dutch arm of the Salesian Catholic order, confirmed to RTL Nieuws that a priest under him had been on the board of MARTIJN until the Van den Berg raids. He added, "Of course we reject this and distance ourselves from this personal initiative." RTL obtained interviews both with Spronck and the priest (73-year-old "Father Van B.") in which the two defended adult-child sex as not always damaging. The priest concerned had prior convictions for child sexual abuse. The provincial for the Salesians, Jos Claes, open disciplinary procedures against Spronck.
Disbandment
On 18 June 2011, the Ministry of Security and Justice announced that the association's activities were not illegal. Crimes committed by its members could not be attributed to the association and as such the organisation could not be prosecuted, banned or disbanded.
On 27 June 2012, a Dutch court in Assen ruled that the group was illegal and ordered the group to cease activities and disband immediately. The judge stated that the group's actions and statements regarding sexual contact between adults and children were in conflict with the accepted norms and values of Dutch society. In his statement, the judge emphasised the overriding need to protect children. However, in April 2013, a higher court overturned this decision, upholding the Martijn club's right to freedom of association. On 18 April 2014 the Supreme Court overturned the acquittal and reinstated the trial judge's order. In 2015, an appeal by the association to the European Court for Human Rights (ECHR) was rejected.
See also
Edward Brongersma
Dutch Society for Sexual Reform
Party for Neighbourly Love, Freedom, and Diversity
NAMBLA
Joop Wilhelmus
List of pedophile and pederast advocacy organizations
References
Pedophile advocacy
Organizations established in 1982
Organizations disestablished in 2014
1982 establishments in the Netherlands
2014 disestablishments in the Netherlands | [
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|
234459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20West%20Trains | South West Trains | Stagecoach South Western Trains Limited, trading as South West Trains (SWT), was an English train operating company owned by Stagecoach, which operated the South Western franchise between February 1996 and August 2017.
SWT operated the majority of commuter services from its Central London terminus at London Waterloo to South West London and was the key operator for outer suburban and regional services in the counties of Surrey, Hampshire and Dorset. It also provided regional services in Devon, Somerset, Berkshire, Wiltshire and on the Isle of Wight through its Island Line subsidiary. Unlike the majority of franchises, SWT operated without subsidies, being a profitable concern due to the high number of commuters that regularly used its services.
The area of operation was the former South Western division of Network SouthEast, and was also roughly that of the pre-1923 London & South Western Railway (excluding everything west of Exeter). As part of the privatisation of British Rail, SWT was taken over by Stagecoach. In 2004, the franchise was retained by Stagecoach when re-tendered. In 2007, the franchise was merged with the Island Line franchise to form a newly extended South Western franchise, which was won by Stagecoach. When next tendered, the franchise was awarded to South Western Railway which took over the franchise on 20 August 2017.
History
Origins
As a consequence of the privatisation of British Rail during the mid 1990s, railway operations were segmented into various franchises, one of which being the South Western franchise. These franchises were awarded to various privately owned companies following an evaluation of competitive bids. During 1995, it was announced that the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising had awarded the South West Trains franchise to the Scottish transport group Stagecoach. Operations commenced on 4 February 1996, with South West Trains' first train, the 05:10 Twickenham to London Waterloo; it was the first privatised scheduled train to operate for 48 years.
In April 2001, the Strategic Rail Authority awarded Stagecoach a new franchise for the region, its bid having been judged to be superior to those from its rivals, FirstGroup / NedRailways and Sea Containers. The 2001 franchises awarded were (as promulgated) to run for twenty years; however, only one year later, the Strategic Rail Authority decided to reduce the duration of franchises, thus South West Trains was awarded a three-year franchise starting on 1 February 2004. Shortly following this award, SWT placed a substantial order for new rolling stock for the network, it was described as being the largest such order in British history.
During the early days of its franchise, SWT gained notoriety for enacting severe cuts to its services, which were typically attributed to the shortage of drivers; the company sought to remedy this by seeking to hire additional drivers. SWT also implemented significant improvements upon the network, including replacing much of the inherited British Rail-era rolling stock, along with the refurbishment of most stations, which included increasing their accessibility to disabled passengers. There was also an emphasis on the improving the customer experience, such as better access to service information. During the early 2000s, improvements included the introduction of new rail services and the reopening of Chandler's Ford station in Hampshire.
Changes
From May 2004, a smoking ban on all SWT services was introduced; this move, which came partly in response to a fire caused by a cigarette left next to an under-seat heater during the previous year that raised safety concerns, also pre-empting the public smoking ban that was introduced two years later. Additional staff were deployed onboard trains to help enforce the change. At the time, most other commuter services had already banned smoking, and the measure was claimed by the Evening Standard to be popular with the majority of the travelling public.
On 12 December 2004, the company completely recast its timetable, the first occasion that such an exercise had been performed in the South West region since 1967. This was reportedly motivated by ambitions to bring service provision into line with changing demand and to take into account the different characteristics of modern rolling stock, with the intention that this would improve reliability and punctuality across the network. Further major changes to the timetable followed in subsequent years, including the restoration of services between Yeovil and Yeovil Pen Mill that had been withdrawn under the Beeching cuts.
During December 2005, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced that Arriva, FirstGroup, MTR/Sea Containers, National Express and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to tender for the new South Western franchise, which combined the South West Trains and Island Line Trains franchises; National Express later withdrew. In September 2006, the DfT awarded the franchise to Stagecoach, the new franchise starting on 4 February 2007, for a period of ten years.
Throughout the operation of the franchise, passenger numbers grew year on year, along with rapid spikes in numbers occurring in some years. While many franchises required government funding to sustain their services, SWT operated without any subsidies and was a profitable venture. This outcome was largely on account of the high proportion of commuters that made frequent use of its services. One of the franchise's major ongoing concerns was the overcrowding that occurred on some services, particularly around rush hour, thus SWT's management paid considerable attention to increasing capacity when feasible.
Major measures performed by SWT to expand the network's capacity included the substantial redevelopment of its London Waterloo station and the procurement of new rolling stock. Christian Roth, SWT's engineering director, claimed in 2015 that the firm was in the process of delivering similar capacity improvements to the Thameslink programme at a tenth of the cost and a quarter of the time. While some rival companies chose to pursue driver-only operated trains, eliminating the necessity of a guard, SWT senior manager Brian Souter promised to keep a guard on every service; one consequence of this agreement was strong relations between the company and the trade unions.
Further measures were also proposed by SWT; Tim Shoveller, the company's managing director, periodically spoke out on his desire to eventually introduce double-decker trains to serve its busiest commuter routes. While typically viewed as an effective means of increasing capacity, such ambitions were complicated by multiple factors, the principal of which that there were no double-deck trains in operation that were believed to be suitable for SWT's needs, thus likely necessitating the development of an original design. Procuring a small fleet of bespoke rolling stock would certainly incur a steep price rise over conventional rolling stock, while handling the increased dwell times typically necessary when operating double-deck trains would also adversely impact the timetable; finally, no such rolling stock could be operated until the completion of track lowering across substantial portions of the network, particularly around bridges and tunnels, for sufficient headroom to be achieved.
Between 2012 and 2015, Stagecoach partnered with the British railway infrastructure owner Network Rail to jointly operate London Waterloo via a single management team that operated both tracks and trains in and around the station from a on-site joint control room. At the time, the partnership was hailed as an advancement for rail operations, However, the arrangement was dissolved in 2015 without any official explanation, although anonymous insiders claimed the cause to be Network Rail's reluctance to devolve power over its centralised infrastructure to individual routes while Stagecoach desired a local decisions made in partnership.
Demise
In March 2013, the Secretary of State for Transport announced the DfT was in talks with Stagecoach to extend the franchise until April 2019. At one point, it seemed certain that the franchise would be renewed, information to that effect having been included on the Government's published Rail Franchise Schedule in October 2014. However, in July 2015, Stagecoach confirmed that talks had failed and the franchise would be relet. This outcome was viewed by several industry commentators as being unexpected and inconvenient in its timing; the periodical Rail speculated that Stagecoach's rejection had been largely due to government officials feeling that the state was not receiving a sufficiently large share of the profits being generated.
Stagecoach and a FirstGroup / MTR Corporation joint venture were shortlisted on 4 February 2016 to bid for the new franchise. On 27 March 2017, the franchise was awarded to South Western Railway, in spite of concerns that it would result in a single company holding a monopoly on services between London and the West of England, Dorset and Somerset, due to FirstGroup also operating the Greater Western franchise in those regions.
Services
South West Trains was the key operator for western Surrey, Hampshire and Dorset, and also served Berkshire, Wiltshire, Somerset and Devon. In Greater London, it operated all National Rail services (other than London Overground) in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames and the London Boroughs of Richmond-upon-Thames and Hounslow, and also served the London Boroughs of Merton, Wandsworth and Lambeth.
Most SWT services ran on electrified lines using the 750 V DC third-rail system. There is a diesel fleet for services on the West of England line to Salisbury, Exeter and Bristol, using the unelectrified track beyond Worting Junction just west of Basingstoke, and for Salisbury to Southampton via Romsey services which also served Eastleigh. By 2015, SWT was reportedly operating roughly 1,600 train services each day and managing in excess of 200 stations.
From Waterloo, SWT's London terminus, long-distance trains ran to southern England, including the major coastal population centres of Portsmouth, Southampton, Bournemouth, Poole and Weymouth. There were also trains to Reading, Exeter and Bristol, but these were not the principal fast services from London to those cities, which are operated from by Great Western Railway. The majority of its passengers were on suburban commuter lines in inner and south-west London, Surrey, east Berkshire, and north-east Hampshire.
Since privatisation in 1996, the network changed considerably. It no longer served West Croydon, Sutton, 'Coastway' stations between Chichester and Brighton, or the Reading to Basingstoke line. Services to Bristol (introduced in 2004 to replace withdrawn Arriva Trains Wales services), Mottisfont and Dunbridge and Dean were introduced after the start of the franchise. Its longstanding services beyond Exeter to Paignton, Plymouth and Penzance, which ran in competition with First Great Western and its predecessors, ceased in December 2009 so as to release stock for the hourly Waterloo to Exeter service.
As with most rail companies, non-folding bicycles were banned from peak-time trains to and from London. However, these restrictions applied only to cyclists boarding or alighting in the area bounded by Hook, Alton, Guildford, Reading and Dorking. The aim was to maximise available passenger space on the most crowded trains.
South West Trains had Quiet Zones, similar to the Quiet Coaches on trains operated by certain other Train Operating Companies. Quiet Zones were available on most outer-suburban services and on some express services and are indicated by notices in the windows and signs on the doors. Passengers in these zones are requested not to use mobile phones to take calls or play music out loud.
Routes
South West Trains operated suburban and long-distance trains. Main destinations included: London Waterloo, Clapham Junction, , Richmond, Twickenham, Hounslow, Ascot, Staines, Reading, Windsor & Eton Riverside, Kingston, Raynes Park, Motspur Park, New Malden, Chessington South, Surbiton, Leatherhead, Weybridge, Dorking, Effingham Junction, Woking, Guildford, Aldershot, Alton, Farnborough Main, Fleet, Basingstoke, Haslemere, Andover, Winchester, Eastleigh, Southampton Central, Romsey, Salisbury, Fareham, Portsmouth & Southsea, Brockenhurst, Portsmouth Harbour, Bournemouth, Westbury, Bristol Temple Meads, Weymouth, Yeovil Junction and Exeter St Davids.
Main lines
The seven main lines operated by SWT were:
The South West Main Line (SWML) to Southampton Central, Bournemouth and Weymouth. 2 trains an hour through to Weymouth (1 fast and 1 semi-fast) and 1 train an hour to Poole (stopping) Mondays-Saturdays, with Sunday Bournemouth services extended to Poole.
The Portsmouth Direct Line via Guildford and Haslemere: leaves the main line at Woking. 4 trains per hour to Guildford, then 1 semi-fast service and 1 stopping service to Haslemere. The semi-fast service continued as a stopping service to Portsmouth. The fast services ran approximately half-hourly Mondays-Saturdays, 2 trains per hour (1 fast, 1 stopping from Guildford) on Sundays.
The West of England Main Line to Salisbury, Yeovil Junction and : leaves the main line at Basingstoke.
Wessex Main Line (part): Salisbury to Bristol Temple Meads. This service originated from London Waterloo and divides at Salisbury.
Heart of Wessex Line (part): Yeovil Junction to Yeovil Pen Mill / Frome. This service originates from London Waterloo and divides at Yeovil Junction.
London Waterloo to Portsmouth Harbour via Basingstoke and Eastleigh. Hourly service off-peak Mondays-Saturdays, merges with the Poole train on Sundays.
London Waterloo to Reading via Staines-upon-Thames, Ascot and .
Suburban services
Suburban services diverged from the above routes. Taken in order westwards from Waterloo, travelling down the SWML, they are:
Waterloo to Reading line: from Clapham Junction
The Hounslow Loop Line from Barnes to Whitton or Feltham
The Windsor branch from Staines-upon-Thames
The Chertsey loop line from Virginia Water to Weybridge
The Ascot to Guildford line via Aldershot
The Mole Valley Line, from Raynes Park to Dorking via Epsom
The Chessington branch from Motspur Park
The branch to Guildford from Leatherhead
The Kingston Loop Line, from New Malden (Main Line) to Twickenham (Reading Line)
The Shepperton branch from Teddington; normally, these services run via New Malden, some peak services run via Twickenham
The New Guildford Line, to Guildford via Cobham from Surbiton (travellers from Guildford to London can also travel via the main line through Woking)
The Hampton Court branch, also from Surbiton
The Alton branch, from Brookwood also serves the Mid Hants Railway, a heritage line
Other services
Southampton local lines: Salisbury to Romsey via Southampton Central and Chandler's Ford (previously this service ran to Totton)
Lymington Branch Line (Brockenhurst to Lymington Pier)
Island Line, Isle of Wight, Ryde Pier Head to Shanklin
Southampton Central to Portsmouth & Southsea
Ticketing
Travelcards
London Travelcards were available and widely used for journeys into Greater London beyond any of the South West Trains stations. They were valid on London Buses, Tramlink, Docklands Light Railway, London Underground and national rail services within the London travelcard area. All tickets and (London) Travelcards were available on weekly, monthly and annual bases (such tickets are traditionally known as season tickets), a pre-requisite for which is a passport-sized photograph for a booking hall to issue a nationally valid railcard. All ticket pricing structures are regulated by the Office of Rail & Road.
Daily tickets fell into four categories: Peak 'Anytime', Off Peak, Super Off Peak and Advance (pre-booked, long distance). These were broken down into whether the user requires a Single, Return (valid for one calendar month) or a Day Return.
Smartcards
Oyster pay-as-you-go could be used on services within Greater London. Oyster cards holding season tickets were accepted within the London Travelcard area, in the same way as normal paper Travelcards and season tickets.
In November 2010, the DfT announced that passengers would be able to top up Oyster cards at all stations operated by South West Trains in the London Travelcard area from May 2011. SWT was the last rail company franchise to offer this facility (except at Wimbledon and Richmond stations) for passengers using suburban rail services within the London Travelcard area.
The smartcard scheme for tickets on the national rail system was extended in early 2010 to cover the lines from Weymouth to Basingstoke and from Staines to Wokingham, and on the Isle of Wight, in addition to the current trial area between Staines and Windsor. It was also announced that SWT proposed to reduce operating hours at 24 of its ticket offices.
Penalty fares
South West Trains issued penalty fares for passengers travelling by train without a valid ticket. However, the company had planned to install at least one self-service ticket machine at each of its served stations in the bid to stop fare evasion. In 2009, ticket gates were installed at Waterloo to improve revenue protection.
Megatrain
Stagecoach, SWT's parent company, sold seats on some off-peak services under the Megatrain brand from Mondays to Saturdays. This used a similar low-cost model to its Megabus service. Megatrain tickets were available on certain services expected to be lightly loaded. Tickets were generally between London Waterloo and other principal stations, and ticket-holders are assigned to a specific train.
Performance
Latest performance figures released by Network Rail for period 5 (2014/15) were 88.2% (Public Performance Measure – PPM) and 88.9% (Moving Annual Average – MAA) for the 12 months up to 16 August 2014.
Rolling stock
Electric
Desiro fleet
The introduction of Desiro rolling stock built by Siemens was to replace the old , , and slam-door trains which were coming to the end of their useful lives, and which did not meet modern health and safety requirements. The Desiro trains have on-board information systems and full air-conditioning. Their faster acceleration is counterbalanced by the need to dwell longer at each station, since they have fewer doors.
The Desiro stock comes in two variants – units which have four 20 m cars and are mainly used on suburban and outer-suburban services, and units which have five 23 m cars as well as intercity-style door layouts and are used on longer-distance services to and .
British Rail EMUs (Class 455)
South West Trains operated a fleet of metro-style commuter trains on services from London Waterloo to Shepperton, Hampton Court, Woking, Guildford, Dorking and Chessington, as well as services on the Kingston and Hounslow loops and occasionally on Windsor line services. These were built for British Rail.
A full refurbishment programme started in 2004 on the fleet of 91 four-car units, and was completed in March 2008. Modifications included a new 2+2 seating layout with high-back seats, CCTV, cycle storage, wheelchair space, doors that open further to allow for faster alighting, and additional passenger information systems.
British Rail EMUs (Class 456)
All 24 two-car EMUs were transferred from Southern to SWT, with the first units entering SWT service on 23 March 2014. These early 1990s-built units are compatible with the existing Class 455 fleet and are coupled with these to form ten-car trains, increasing capacity on some local services in and out of Waterloo.
Juniper fleet (Class 458/0 – 458/5)
Thirty of these four-car units were ordered by South West Trains in 1998, to create extra capacity and to replace some of the ageing Class 411 (4-CEP) trains, which at the time were on short-term lease. Deliveries of these trains began in 1998.
The class suffered major technical problems, so in the end, none of the older trains were withdrawn from service at that time. It was six more years, in 2004, before the full fleet was in service. In 2003 and 2004, reliability was so poor that, although they were only six years old, South West Trains decided that the units should be replaced by 2005 with the newer Desiro units. Only a handful of units were required each day to help maintain services from Waterloo to Reading, and these had been expected to cease after 31 July 2006, when the lease with the rolling stock company expired. An application by SWT to extend this by six months was refused, as the class did not meet all the requirements of disability legislation.
However, later it was decided that, on or before the start of the new franchise in February 2007, the class would be reinstated and take over all operations on the Waterloo to Reading line, indirectly covering the loss of the Class 442. They have been fitted with new, larger destination screens that comply with the disability legislation, but the trains still fall foul in some other areas, such as the height of the door-open buttons.
All 30 Class 458 trains were split up and the 120 vehicles reconfigured into 36 five-car sets, incorporating 60 extra vehicles from the mechanically similar formerly used on Gatwick Express services. The five-car sets are now designated Class 458/5 and coupled together to form ten-car trains from 2014.
The first two of the five-car sets were delivered in October 2013, and underwent testing ahead of the introduction of the first ten-car train into service in December 2013. Passenger service started in March 2014, with the work concluding in 2016, thereby rendering the Class 458/0 extinct.
Diesel
South West Trains had 11 two-car units and 30 three-car units (22 Class 159/0 and eight Class 159/1).
The Class 159/1 units were converted at Wabtec, Doncaster from Class 158s, received from First TransPennine Express in exchange for s. Eleven further two-car Class 158 units were received from First TransPennine Express, which were also refurbished at Wabtec.
Two Class 158 units transferred from Central Trains entered service in July 2005 on the new Bristol Temple Meads service, moving to First ScotRail in February 2007.
The Class 159 has on occasion been used for railtours.
Locomotives
Although South West Trains did not operate locomotive-hauled services, until 2009 it maintained three locomotives for recovery duties. Locomotive 73109 had been in service with SWT since the start of the franchise; the other two, 73201 and 73235, were acquired from Gatwick Express in 2005. 73235 was the only one of the three locomotives to be owned by South West Trains at the end of the Franchise.
Fleet at end of franchise
Isle of Wight Fleet
Past fleet
Former units operated by South West Trains include:
Wessex Electrics fleet
These units were initially dedicated to the Weymouth line but, in the 1990s, began to be operated on the London to Portsmouth direct line also. In preparation for the Class 444 and Class 450 "Desiro" units taking over from the slam-door fleet, the Wessex Electrics were withdrawn from Portsmouth line services and were again wholly dedicated to the Weymouth line.
South West Trains announced that it would be withdrawing these units, and they last ran on 3 February 2007. This move coincided with SWT reinstating all Class 458s for the Waterloo–Reading line. As a result, the Class 444 inherited the Waterloo–Weymouth route and the Class 450 took over some Portsmouth Harbour services, while the Class 442 units went into storage at Eastleigh. From 2008 to 2017, Southern leased these trains for its Gatwick Express service and operated them on services from London Victoria to Gatwick Airport and Brighton. Eighteen Class 442 units will return to the franchise when the changeover to South Western Railway occurs.
Turbostar fleet
In 2000, South West Trains acquired eight 2-car Class 170/3 units to supplement its existing Class 159 fleet. They were used on London to Salisbury services as well as a new Southampton local service, and on Reading to Basingstoke services. They were sometimes pressed into use on Waterloo-Exeter services but, as they were not fitted with end gangways for catering or selective door opening for the short platforms at some stations, this was not a regular route.
From late 2006 to mid-2007, the Class 170 units were gradually transferred to First TransPennine Express in exchange for a larger number of Class 158 units, to expand and standardise the fleet. One unit, 170392, originally built to Southern specifications but taken over by SWT soon after its construction, went to Southern and was converted to a Class 171.
Preserved trains
Of the Classes 411, 412, 421 and 423 slam-door trains, several complete former SWT units have been preserved.
Class 411 411198 at Chinnor and Princes Risborough Railway
Class 412 412311 and 422315 at Eden Valley Railway
Class 412 412325 at East Kent Railway
Class 421 421399 at Dartmoor Railway
Class 421 421497 at Mid-Norfolk Railway
Class 421 421498 at Epping Ongar Railway
Class 423 423417 at Bluebell Railway, currently at Strawberry Hill.
In contrast, just two former Southern units have been preserved – one Class 421 and one Class 423. No complete units from South Eastern Trains have been preserved.
Class 121/Class 960 55028 is preserved on the Swanage Railway.
Liveries
Depots
Wimbledon
Wimbledon Traincare depot is located between Wimbledon and Earlsfield stations, on the main line to Waterloo, next to the Wimbledon railway viaduct.
Bournemouth
Bournemouth depot is southwest of Bournemouth station, occupying the approach to the former Bournemouth West station. Until their withdrawal in February 2007, the depot was home to the Class 442 (5Wes) Wessex Electrics. The branch turns off at Branksome station where trains can be seen stopping at platform 2 and reversing into the depot.
Clapham
Clapham Junction depot provides stabling for the Desiro fleet.
Northam
Northam depot was built by Siemens in 2002 as the home depot for the Desiro fleet as part of a 20-year maintenance contract. It is located south of St Denys station and is near Southampton Football Club's St Mary's Stadium.
Effingham
Located next to Effingham Junction station, the depot is used for the berthing of MPVs (Multipurpose Vehicles). It has two pitted roads and a fuel point.
Salisbury
Salisbury depot provides servicing for South West Trains' diesel fleet.
Fratton
Fratton Traincare depot is in central Portsea Island, alongside Fratton station. It has a carriage washer and is the fuelling point for the 158s and 159s. The depot has a train shed with two pitted roads for maintenance of rolling stock. Class 444 and 450 units berth overnight. Stabling sidings and bay platforms at Portsmouth & Southsea station are co-ordinated from the depot.
Farnham
Farnham depot, in Weydon Lane, was opened by the Southern Railway at the time of the electrification of the Portsmouth and lines in 1937. It was refurbished for the introduction of modern units when slam-door trains were replaced circa 2005. At the same time, disused quarry and ballast dump sidings behind the carriage shed were removed and a number of outdoor sidings were laid for overnight storage and servicing of units.
See also
Commuter rail in the United Kingdom
References
External links
Defunct train operating companies
Rail transport in Surrey
Rail transport in Dorset
Rail transport in Hampshire
Rail transport in Wiltshire
Rail transport in Devon
Railway companies established in 1996
Railway companies disestablished in 2017
Railway operators in London
Stagecoach Group rail services
1996 establishments in England
2017 disestablishments in England
British companies established in 1996
British companies disestablished in 2017 | [
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|
234466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DWI%20%28disambiguation%29 | DWI (disambiguation) | DWI usually means driving under the influence (or driving while impaired, or driving while intoxicated). Other meanings include:
Dwi-, a prefix formerly used for undiscovered chemical elements
Danish West Indies
Deathwish, Inc., a record label
Diffusion-weighted imaging, a technique used in magnetic resonance imaging
DreamWorks Interactive, a video game company
Drinking Water Inspectorate, regulates water supply companies in England and Wales | [
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|
234469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Party%20faction%20%28Bundestag%29 | Green Party faction (Bundestag) | The German Green Party (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) has been present in the German parliament (Bundestag) continuously since 29 March 1983 as a parliamentarian party.
10th Bundestag (1983–1987)
Scoring 5.6% in the federal parliamentary elections in 1983, the Greens entered the Bundestag for the first time with a total of 28 seats. Faction members were rotated after two years in 1985 (with the exception of Petra Kelly and Gert Bastian), but the concept was abolished in May 1986 again. The executive board, elected by faction members on 3 April 1984, consisted of Annemarie Borgmann, Waltraud Schoppe, Antje Vollmer, Christa Nickels, Heidemarie Dann and Erika Hickel.
The members of the faction were:
Hendrik Auhagen (1985–1987)
Sabine Bard (1983–1985)
Gert Bastian (1983–1987, not a member of the faction from 1984 to 1986)
Marieluise Beck (1983–1985)
Dieter Burgmann (1983–1985)
Annemarie Borgmann (1985–1987)
Eberhard Bueb (1985–1987)
Heidemarie Dann (1985–1987)
Dieter Drabiniok (1983–1985)
Wolfgang Ehmke (1983–1985)
Uschi Eid (1985–1987)
Joschka Fischer (1983–1985)
Ulrich Fischer (1986–1987)
Horst Fritsch (1986–1987)
Gabriele Gottwald (1983–1985)
Klaus Hecker (1983)
Erika Hickel (1983–1985)
Hannegret Hönes (1985–1987)
Milan Horacek (1983–1985, successor of Klaus Hecker)
Willi Hoss (1983–1985)
Gert Jannsen (1983–1985)
Petra Kelly (1983–1987)
Hubert Kleinert (1983–1986)
Julius Kriszan (1983–1985)
Torsten Lange (1985–1987)
Norbert Mann (1985–1987)
Joachim Müller (1985–1987)
Christa Nickels (1983–1985)
Gabriele Potthast (1983–1985)
Jürgen Reents (1983–1985)
Christa Reetz (1983–1985)
Herbert Rusche (1985–1987)
Walter Sauermilch (1983–1985)
Henning Schierholz (1985–1987)
Otto Schily (1983–1986)
Christian Schmidt (1985–1987)
Dirk Schneider (1983–1985)
Waltraud Schoppe (1983–1985)
Walter Schwenninger (1983–1985)
Stefan Schulte (1985–1987)
Hans-Werner Senfft (1985–1987)
Eckhard Stratmann (1983–1985)
Hans-Christian Ströbele (1985–1987)
Heinz Suhr (1985–1987)
Willi Tatge (1986–1987)
Udo Tischer (1985–1987, left the faction in 1986)
Hans Verheyen (1983–1985)
Axel Vogel (1985–1987)
Roland Vogt (1983–1985)
Antje Vollmer (1983–1985)
Ludger Volmer (1985–1987)
Marita Wagner (1985–1987)
Gerd Werner (1985–1987)
Helmut Werner (1985–1987)
Karin Zeitler (1985–1987)
11th Bundestag (1987–1990)
In the 1987 parliamentary elections, the Green Party managed to increase its share of votes to 8.3%, gaining 44 parliament seats in the process. When the East German parliament, the Volkskammer, which was freely elected on 18 March 1990 for the first time, was disbanded in the process of the German reunification, another 7 seats were added as 7 members of the 21-member Volkskammer faction of the Green Party, elected by their peers, entered the Bundestag.
The members of the faction were:
Marieluise Beck-Oberdorf
Angelika Beer
Helga Brahmst-Rock
Hans-Joachim Brauer
Ulrich Briefs (left the faction in 1990)
Wolfgang Daniels
Thomas Ebermann (1987–1989)
Tay Eich (1989–1990)
Uschi Eid
Dora Flinner
Sieglinde Friess (1989–1990)
Charlotte Garbe
Gerald Häfner
Karitas Hensel
Imma Hillerich
Willi Hoss
Uwe Hüser
Petra Kelly
Hubert Kleinert
Wilhelm Knabe
Almut Kottwitz (1989–1990)
Matthias Kreuzeder
Verena Krieger (1987–1989)
Helmut Lippelt
Alfred Mechtersheimer
German Meneses-Vogl (1989–1990)
Christa Nickels
Jutta Oesterle-Schwerin
Ellen Olms (1987–1989)
Norbert Roske (1990)
Bärbel Rust
Hannelore Saibold
Gertrud Schilling
Otto Schily (left the faction in 1989 and became a member of the SPD faction)
Marieluise Schmidt (1989–1990)
Regula Schmidt-Bott (1987–1989)
Waltraud Schoppe
Peter Sellin (1987–1989)
Eckhard Stratmann
Manfred Such (1989–1990)
Maria Luise Teubner
Erika Trenz
Trude Unruh (left the faction in 1989)
Christa Vennegerts
Antje Vollmer
Ludger Volmer
Michael Weiß
Dietrich Wetzel
Heike Wilms-Kegel
Lieselotte Wollny
Thomas Wüppesahl (left the faction on 26 January 1988)
12th Bundestag (1990–1994)
In 1990, elections were held separately in former East and West Germany; in West Germany, the Green Party did not manage to gain enough votes to enter parliament, only scoring 4.8% instead of the necessary 5%, but in East Germany, the Greens gained a 6.1% share of the votes and 8 seats in the Bundestag. While a green presence in the 12th Bundestag was thus secured, the Greens could not form a faction, instead remaining a "group" (with less rights and a smaller budget).
The members of the faction were:
Klaus-Dieter Feige
Ingrid Köppe
Vera Lengsfeld
Gerd Poppe
Christina Schenk (left the faction in 1994)
Werner Schulz
Wolfgang Ullmann
Konrad Weiß
13th Bundestag (1994–1998)
4 years later, in 1994, the Greens managed to recover from their losses again, achieving 7.3% and entering the parliament with 48 seats. Antje Vollmer, long-time member of the faction, was elected as first Green Vice President of the Bundestag with the help of the CDU faction.
The members of the faction included:
Elisabeth Altmann
Gila Altmann
Marieluise Beck
Volker Beck
Angelika Beer
Matthias Berninger
Annelie Buntenbach
Amke Dietert-Scheuer
Franziska Eichstädt-Bohlig
Uschi Eid
Andrea Fischer
Joschka Fischer
Rita Grießhaber
Gerald Häfner
Antje Hermenau
Kristin Heyne
Ulrike Höfken
Michaele Hustedt
Manuel Kiper
Monika Knoche
Angelika Köster-Loßack
Steffi Lemke
Vera Lengsfeld (left the faction in 1996 and became a member of the CDU faction)
Helmut Lippelt
Oswald Metzger
Kerstin Müller
Winfried Nachtwei
Christa Nickels
Egbert Nitsch (1994–1996)
Cem Özdemir
Gerd Poppe
Simone Probst
Jürgen Rochlitz
Hannelore Saibold
Christine Scheel
Irmingard Schewe-Gerigk
Rezzo Schlauch
Albert Schmidt
Wolfgang Schmitt
Ursula Schönberger
Waltraud Schoppe
Werner Schulz
Rainder Steenblock (1996–1998)
Marina Steindor
Christian Sterzing
Manfred Such
Antje Vollmer
Ludger Volmer
Helmut Wilhelm
Margareta Wolf
14th Bundestag (1998–2002)
In 1998, the Green Party suffered slight losses, dropping down to 6.7%, but still managed to gain 47 seats in a larger parliament. For the first time it was possible to form a red-green government coalition with the election-winning SPD.
The members of the faction were:
Gila Altmann
Marieluise Beck
Volker Beck
Angelika Beer
Matthias Berninger
Grietje Bettin (2000–2002)
Annelie Buntenbach
Ekin Deligöz
Amke Dietert-Scheuer (2002)
Thea Dückert
Franziska Eichstädt-Bohlig
Uschi Eid
Hans-Josef Fell
Andrea Fischer
Joschka Fischer
Katrin Göring-Eckardt
Rita Grießhaber
Gerald Häfner (2001–2002)
Winfried Hermann
Antje Hermenau
Kristin Heyne
Ulrike Höfken
Michaele Hustedt
Monika Knoche
Angelika Köster-Loßack
Steffi Lemke
Helmut Lippelt
Reinhard Loske
Oswald Metzger
Kerstin Müller
Klaus Müller (1998–2000)
Winfried Nachtwei
Christa Nickels
Cem Özdemir
Simone Probst
Claudia Roth (1998–2001)
Christine Scheel
Irmingard Schewe-Gerigk
Rezzo Schlauch
Albert Schmidt
Werner Schulz
Christian Simmert
Christian Sterzing
Hans-Christian Ströbele
Jürgen Trittin
Antje Vollmer
Ludger Volmer
Sylvia Voß
Helmut Wilhelm
Margareta Wolf
15th Bundestag (2002–2005)
While the ruling SPD suffered substantial losses during the 2002 parliamentary elections and only barely managed to become the biggest faction in the Bundestag, the Green Party gained 1.9 points compared to the 1998 elections, for a total of 8.6%, yielding 55 seats.
The members of the faction were:
Kerstin Andreae
Marieluise Beck
Volker Beck
Cornelia Behm
Birgitt Bender
Matthias Berninger
Grietje Bettin
Alexander Bonde
Ekin Deligöz
Thea Dückert
Jutta Dümpe-Krüger
Franziska Eichstädt-Bohlig
Uschi Eid
Hans-Josef Fell
Joschka Fischer
Katrin Göring-Eckardt
Anja Hajduk
Winfried Hermann
Antje Hermenau
Peter Hettlich
Ulrike Höfken
Thilo Hoppe
Michaele Hustedt
Renate Künast
Fritz Kuhn
Markus Kurth
Undine Kurth
Reinhard Loske
Anna Lührmann
Jerzy Montag
Kerstin Müller
Winfried Nachtwei
Christa Nickels
Friedrich Ostendorff
Simone Probst
Claudia Roth
Krista Sager
Christine Scheel
Irmingard Schewe-Gerigk
Rezzo Schlauch
Albert Schmidt
Werner Schulz
Petra Selg
Ursula Sowa
Rainder Steenblock
Silke Stokar
Hans-Christian Ströbele
Jürgen Trittin
Marianne Tritz
Hubert Ulrich
Antje Vogel-Sperl
Antje Vollmer
Ludger Volmer
Josef Winkler
Margareta Wolf
16th Bundestag (2005–2009)
The ruling SPD/Green Party suffered losses during the 2005 parliamentary elections leading to a Grand Coalition between the SPD and the CDU/CSU. The Green Party lost four seats to go from 55 to 51 and went into opposition with the FDP and the Left Party.
The members of the faction were:
Kerstin Andreae
Marieluise Beck
Cornelia Behm
Birgitt Bender
Alexander Bonde
Ekin Deligöz
Thea Dückert
Uschi Eid
Hans-Josef Fell
Kai Gehring
Katrin Göring-Eckardt
Anja Hajduk
Britta Haßelmann
Winfried Hermann
Peter Hettlich
Priska Hinz
Ulrike Höfken
Bärbel Höhn
Anton Hofreiter
Thilo Hoppe
Ute Koczy
Sylvia Kotting-Uhl
Renate Künast
Fritz Kuhn
Markus Kurth
Undine Kurth
Monika Lazar
Reinhard Loske
Anna Lührmann
Nicole Maisch
Jerzy Montag
Kerstin Müller
Winfried Nachtwei
Omid Nouripour
Brigitte Pothmer
Claudia Roth
Krista Sager
Elisabeth Scharfenberg
Christine Scheel
Irmingard Schewe-Gerigk
Gerhard Schick
Grietje Staffelt
Rainder Steenblock
Silke Stokar von Neuforn
Hans-Christian Ströbele
Harald Terpe
Jürgen Trittin
Wolfgang Wieland
Josef Philip Winkler
Margareta Wolf
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234474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubian%20languages | Nubian languages | The Nubian languages () are a group of related languages spoken by the Nubians. They form a branch of the Eastern Sudanic languages, which is part of the wider Nilo-Saharan phylum. Initially, Nubian languages were spoken throughout much of Sudan, but as a result of Arabization they are today mostly limited to the Nile Valley between Aswan (southern Egypt) and Al Dabbah as well as villages in the Nuba mountains and Darfur.
History
In the October War, Egypt employed Nubian-speaking Nubian people as code talkers.
Languages
Rilly (2010) distinguishes the following Nubian languages, spoken by in total about 900,000 speakers:
Nobiin, the largest Nubian language with 545,000 speakers in Egypt, Sudan, and the Nubian diaspora. Previously known by the geographic terms Mahas and Fadicca/Fiadicca. As late as 1863 this language, or a closely related dialect, was known to have been spoken by the arabized Nubian Shaigiya tribe.
Kenzi (endonym: Mattokki) with 100,000 speakers in Egypt and Dongolawi (endonym: Andaandi) with 180,000 speakers in Sudan. They are no longer considered a single language, but closely related. The split between Kenzi and Dongolawi is dated relatively recently to the 14th century.
Midob (Meidob) with 30,000 speakers. The language is spoken primarily in and around the Malha volcanic crater in North Darfur.
Birgid, now extinct, was spoken north of Nyala around Menawashei, with the last known speakers alive in the 1970s. It was the predominant language between the corridor of Nyala and al-Fashir in the north and the Bahr al-Arab in the south as recently as 1860.
Hill Nubian or Kordofan Nubian, a group of closely related languages or dialects spoken in various villages in the northern Nuba Mountains; in particular by the Dilling, Debri, and Kadaru. An extinct language, Haraza, is known only from a few dozen words recalled by village elders in 1923.
Old Nubian is preserved in at least a hundred pages of documents, comprising both texts of a Christian religious nature and documentary texts dealing with state and legal affairs. Old Nubian was written with a slanted uncial variety of the Coptic alphabet, with the addition of characters derived from Meroitic. These documents range in date from the 8th to the 15th century AD. Old Nubian is currently considered ancestral to modern Nobiin, even though it shows signs of extensive contact with Dongolawi. Another, as yet undeciphered Nubian language has been preserved in a few inscriptions found in Soba, the capital of Alodia. Since their publication by Adolf Ermann in 1881, they are referred as 'Alwan inscriptions' or 'Alwan Nubian.'
Synchronic research on the Nubian languages began in the last decades of the nineteenth century, first focusing on the Nile Nubian languages Nobiin and Kenzi-Dongolawi. Several well-known Africanists have occupied themselves with Nubian, most notably Lepsius (1880), Reinisch (1879) and Meinhof (1918); other early Nubian scholars include Almkvist and Schäfer. Additionally, important comparative work on the Nubian languages has been carried out by Thelwall, Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst in the second half of the twentieth century and Claude Rilly and George Starostin in the twenty-first.
Classification
Traditionally, the Nubian languages are divided into three branches: Northern (Nile), Western (Darfur), and Central. Ethnologue's classifies the Nubian languages as follows:.
Northern (Nile)
Old Nubian
Nobiin
Western (Darfur)
Midob
Central
Kenzi
Birgid
Dongolawi
Hill (Kordofan)
Kadaru-Ghulfan
Ghulfan
Kadaru
Unclassified
Dair
Dilling
El Hugeirat
Karko
Wali
Glottolog groups all non-Northern Nubian branches in a single group named West-Central Nubian. Additionally, within Hill Nubian, Glottolog places Dair in the same branch as Kadaru.
The relation between Dongolawi and Nobiin remains a matter of debate within Nubian Studies. Ethnologue's classification is based on glotto-chronological research of Thelwall (1982) and Bechhaus-Gerst (1996), which considers Nobiin the earliest branching from Proto-Nubian. They attribute the current syntactical and phonological proximity between Nobiin and Dongolawi to extensive language contact. Arguing that there is no archeological evidence for a separate migration to the Nile of Dongolawi speakers, Rilly (2010) provides evidence that the difference in vocabulary between Nobiin and Dongolawi is mainly due to a pre-Nubian substrate underneath Nobiin, which he relates to the Meroitic. Approaching the inherited proto-Nubian vocabulary in all Nubian languages systematically through a comparative linguistic approach, Rilly arrives at the following classification:
Nile Nubian
Old Nubian
Nobiin
Kenzi-Dongolawi
Dongolawi
Kenzi
Western Nubian
Birgid
Midob-Kordofan
Midob
Kordofan
Reconstruction
A reconstruction of Proto-Nubian has been proposed by Claude Rilly (2010: 272-273).
Orthography
There are three currently active proposals for a Nubian alphabet: based on the Arabic script, the Latin script and the Old Nubian alphabet. In the publication of various books of proverbs, dictionaries, and textbooks since the 1950s, Latin has been used by four authors, Arabic by two authors, and Old Nubian by three authors. For Arabic, the extended ISESCO system may be used to indicate vowels and consonants not found in the Arabic alphabet itself.
See also
List of Proto-Nubian reconstructions (Wiktionary)
References
Sources
Abdel-Hafiz, A. (1988). A Reference Grammar of Kunuz Nubian. PhD Thesis, SUNY, Buffalo, NY.
Adams, W. Y. (1982). 'The coming of Nubian speakers to the Nile Valley', in The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Edited by C. Ehret & M. Posnansky. Berkeley / Los Angeles, 11–38.
Armbruster, Charles Hubert (1960). Dongolese Nubian: A Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Armbruster, Charles Hubert (1965). Dongolese Nubian: A Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Asmaa M. I. Ahmed, "Suggestions for Writing Modern Nubian Languages", and Muhammad J. A. Hashim, "Competing Orthographies for Writing Nobiin Nubian", in Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages No. 9, SIL/Sudan, Entebbe, 2004.
Ayoub, A. (1968). The Verbal System in a Dialect of Nubian. Khartoum: University of Khartoum.
Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne (1989). 'Nile-Nubian Reconsidered', in Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics. Edited by M. Lionel Bender. Hamburg: Heinrich Buske.
Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne (2011). The (Hi)story of Nobiin: 1000 Years of Language Change. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Erman, Adolf (1881). 'Die Aloa-Inschriften.' Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 19, no. 4." 112–15.
Jakobi, Angelika & Tanja Kümmerle (1993). The Nubian Languages: An Annotated Bibliography. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.
Khalil, Mokhtar (1996). Wörterbuch der nubischen Sprache. Warsaw: Nubica.
Rilly, Claude (2010). Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique. Leuven: Peeters.
Starostin, George (2011). 'Explaining a Lexicostatistical Anomaly for Nubian Languages,' lecture, May 25, 2011. Online version.
Thelwall, Robin (1982). 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Edited by C. Ehret & M. Posnansky. Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56. Online version.
Werner, Roland (1987). Grammatik des Nobiin (Nilnubisch). Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
Werner, Roland (1993). Tìdn-Àal: A Study of Midoob (Darfur Nubian). Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
External links
Swadesh List comparing basic words of the Nubian languages
Panafrican localization page on Nubian (summaries of information, links)
Nubian alphabet examples
The Lucky Bilingual: Ethnography of Factors Influencing Code-switching Among the Nubian Community in Southern Egypt
Nubia
Language families
Languages of Egypt
Languages of Sudan
Northern Eastern Sudanic languages | [
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234478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20M.%20Cain | James M. Cain | James Mallahan Cain (July 1, 1892 – October 27, 1977) was an American author and journalist. Cain vehemently opposed labeling, but he is usually associated with the hardboiled school of American crime fiction and is seen as one of the creators of the roman noir. His crime novels The Postman Always Rings Twice (1934), Serenade (1937),
Mildred Pierce (1941) and Double Indemnity (1936, 1943) became well known movies.
Early life
Cain was born into an Irish Catholic family in Annapolis, Maryland. The son of an educator and a failed opera singer, he inherited a love of music from his mother, but his hopes of a career as a singer were thwarted when she told him that his voice was not good enough. The family moved to Chestertown, Maryland, in 1903. In 1910, Cain graduated from Washington College, where his father, James W. Cain, served as president. By 1914, Cain had decided to become a writer. He began working as a journalist for the Baltimore American and then the Baltimore Sun.
Cain was drafted into the United States Army and spent the final year of World War I in France writing for an army magazine.
Career
Upon returning to the United States, Cain continued working as a journalist, writing editorials for the New York World and a play, a short story, and satirical pieces for American Mercury. He briefly served as the managing editor of The New Yorker and later worked mainly on screenplays and novels.
His first novel, The Postman Always Rings Twice, was published in 1934. Two years later Double Indemnity was serialized in Liberty magazine.
Cain made use of his love of music, particularly the opera, in at least three of his novels: Serenade, about an American opera singer who loses his voice and, after spending part of his life south of the border, re-enters the United States illegally with a Mexican prostitute; Mildred Pierce, in which, as part of the subplot, the surviving daughter of a successful businesswoman trains as an opera singer; and Career in C Major, a short semi-comic novel about the unhappy husband of an aspiring opera singer, who unexpectedly discovers that he has a better voice than she does. In his novel The Moth, music is important in the life of the main character. Cain's fourth wife, Florence Macbeth, was a retired opera singer.
Cain spent many years in Hollywood working on screenplays, but his name appears as a screenwriter in the credits of only two films: Stand Up and Fight (1939) and Gypsy Wildcat (1944), for which he is one of three credited screenwriters. For Algiers (1938) Cain received a credit for "additional dialogue", and he had story credits for other films.
In 1975 Roy Hoopes contacted Cain after reading his article in The Washington Post about Walter Lippmann. Hoopes conducted a series of interviews with Cain until his death in 1977 which he turned into a biography of the author in 1984.
American Authors' Authority
In 1946, Cain wrote four articles for Screen Writer magazine in which he proposed the creation of an "American Authors' Authority" to hold writers' copyrights and represent writers in contract negotiations and court disputes. This idea was dubbed the "Cain plan" in the media. The plan was denounced as communist by some writers, who formed the American Writers Association to oppose it. James T. Farrell was the foremost of these opponents. The Saturday Review printed a debate between Cain and Farrell in November 1946. Farrell argued that the commercial Hollywood writers would control the market and keep out independents. "This idea is stamped in the crude conceptions of the artist which Mr. Cain holds, the notion that the artist is a kind of idiot who thinks that he is a God, but who has only the defects and none of the virtues of a God.” In his reply, Cain argued that his opponents understood the issue incorrectly as freedom versus control. It is fear of reprisals from publishers, Cain said, that is the real cause of opposition from well-to-do writers.
Although Cain worked vigorously to promote the Authority, it did not gain widespread support, and the plan was abandoned.
Personal life
Cain was married to Mary Clough in 1919. That marriage ended in divorce, and he soon married Elina Sjösted Tyszecka. Cain never had any children of his own, but he was close to Elina's two children from a previous marriage. In 1944, Cain married the film actress Aileen Pringle, but the marriage was a tempestuous union and dissolved in a bitter divorce two years later. His fourth marriage, to Florence Macbeth, lasted until her death in 1966.
Cain continued writing up to his death, at the age of 85. He published many novels from the late 1940s onward, but none achieved the financial and popular success of his earlier books.
Bibliography
Novels and novellas
The Postman Always Rings Twice (1934)
Serenade (1937)
Two Can Sing (1938)
Mildred Pierce (1941)
Love's Lovely Counterfeit (1942)
Three of a Kind (1943) contained three novellas - Career in C Major; Double Indemnity (first published in Liberty magazine, 1936); The Embezzler (first published as Money and the Woman, in Liberty magazine, 1938)
Past All Dishonor (1946)
The Butterfly (1947)
The Moth (1948)
Sinful Woman (1948)
Jealous Woman (1950)
The Root of His Evil (1951), also published as Shameless
Galatea (1953)
Mignon (1962)
The Magician's Wife (1965)
Rainbow's End (1975)
The Institute (1976)
Cloud Nine (1984)
The Enchanted Isle (1985)
The Cocktail Waitress (edited by Charles Ardai, 2012)
The Postman Always Rings Twice was published as an Armed Services Edition during WWII, as was Three of a Kind. (The Armed Services Edition of Three of a Kind was published under the title Double Indemnity.)
Short story collections
Our Government (1930)
Career in C Major and Other Fiction (1986)
The Baby in the Icebox (1981).
The Baby in the Icebox; The Birthday Party; Brush Fire; Coal Black; Dead Man; The Girl in the Storm; Joy Ride to Glory; Pastorale; The Taking of Montfaucon. The British edition (Robert Hale, 1982) includes one more story, The Embezzler.
Short Fiction
Pastorale. The American Mercury, March 1928. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
The Taking of Montfaucon. The American Mercury, June 1929. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
The Baby in the Icebox. The American Mercury, January 1933. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
Dead Man. The American Mercury, March 1936. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
The Birthday Party. Ladies Home Journal, May 1936. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
Brush Fire. Liberty Magazine, December 5, 1936. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
Coal Black. Liberty Magazine, April 3, 1937. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
The Girl in the Storm. Liberty Magazine, January 6, 1940. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
Money and the Woman. Liberty Magazine, five instalments published weekly from February 17 to March 16 of 1940. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox as The Embezzler.
Joy Ride to Glory. First publication details unknown. Collected in The Baby in the Icebox.
Films
The following films were adapted from Cain's novels, screenplays and stories.
Hot Saturday (1932), uncredited contribution to the script
She Made Her Bed (U.S., 1934), directed by Ralph Murphy, based on the story "The Baby in the Icebox"
Dr. Socrates (1935), uncredited contribution to the script
Algiers (1938), screenplay
Stand Up and Fight (1939), screenplay
Wife, Husband and Friend (U.S., 1939), directed by Gregory Ratoff, based on the story "Two Can Sing" (also known as "Career in C Major")
Le Dernier tournant (France, 1939), directed by Pierre Chenal, based on the novel The Postman Always Rings Twice
When Tomorrow Comes (The Modern Cinderella in some publicity material) (U.S., 1939), directed by John M. Stahl, based on the novel The Root of His Evil
Money and the Woman (1940), based on his magazine serial "The Embezzler", published in Three of a Kind
The Shanghai Gesture (1941), uncredited contribution to the script
Ossessione (Italy, 1943), directed by Luchino Visconti, based on the novel The Postman Always Rings Twice (uncredited)
The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1943), uncredited contribution to the script
Double Indemnity (U.S., 1944), directed by Billy Wilder, based on the magazine serial included in Three of a Kind
Gypsy Wildcat (U.S., 1944), an original script
Mildred Pierce (U.S., 1945), directed by Michael Curtiz
The Postman Always Rings Twice (U.S., 1946), directed by Tay Garnett
Out of the Past (1947), directed by Jacques Tourneur, based on the Daniel Mainwaring (writing as Geoffrey Homes) novel "Build My Gallows High". Script by Mainwaring with uncredited revisions from Cain and Frank Fenton
Everybody Does It (U.S., 1949), directed by Edmund Goulding, based on the story "Two Can Sing" (also known as "Career in C Major"), remake of Wife, Husband and Friend
Slightly Scarlet (U.S., 1956), directed by Allan Dwan, based on the novel Love's Lovely Counterfeit
Serenade (U.S, 1956), directed by Anthony Mann
Interlude (U.S., 1957), directed by Douglas Sirk, based on the novel The Root of His Evil
Interlude (U.S., 1968), directed by Kevin Billington
Double Indemnity (1973), TV film based on the novel
The Postman Always Rings Twice (U.S., 1981), directed by Bob Rafelson
Butterfly (U.S., 1982), directed by Matt Cimber
Girl in the Cadillac (U.S., 1995), directed by Lucas Platt, based on the novel The Enchanted Isle
Szenvedély (Hungary, 1997), directed by Fehér György, based on the novel The Postman Always Rings Twice
Jerichow (Germany, 2008), directed by Christian Petzold, based on the novel The Postman Always Rings Twice
Mildred Pierce (U.S., 2011), directed by Todd Haynes
References
Notes
Bibliography
Madden, David & Mecholsky, Kristopher (2011). James M. Cain: Hard-Boiled Mythmaker, Scarecrow Press, Inc.
External links
Bibliography and reviews
Two essays on Cain by William Marling
1892 births
1977 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
American crime fiction writers
American male novelists
American male screenwriters
American male short story writers
United States Army personnel of World War I
American people of Irish descent
American short story writers
Edgar Award winners
Novelists from Maryland
People from Annapolis, Maryland
People from Chestertown, Maryland
People from University Park, Maryland
Screenwriters from California
Screenwriters from Maryland
Washington College alumni
Writers from Annapolis, Maryland
American Noir writers
20th-century American screenwriters | [
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|
234482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiplash%20%28medicine%29 | Whiplash (medicine) | Whiplash is a non-medical term describing a range of injuries to the neck caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck associated with extension, although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a colloquialism. "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms.
Whiplash is commonly associated with motor vehicle accidents, usually when the vehicle has been hit in the rear; however, the injury can be sustained in many other ways, including headbanging, bungee jumping and falls. It is one of the most frequently claimed injuries on vehicle insurance policies in certain countries; for example, in the United Kingdom 430,000 people made an insurance claim for whiplash in 2007, accounting for 14% of every driver's premium.
Before the invention of the car, whiplash injuries were called "railway spine" as they were noted mostly in connection with train collisions. The first case of severe neck pain arising from a train collision was documented around 1919. The number of whiplash injuries has since risen sharply due to rear-end motor vehicle collisions. Given the wide variety of symptoms associated with whiplash injuries, the Quebec Task Force on Whiplash-Associated Disorders coined the phrase 'Whiplash-Associated Disorders'.
While there is broad consensus that acute whiplash is not uncommon, the topic of chronic whiplash is controversial, with studies in at least three countries showing zero to low prevalence, and some academics positing a linkage to financial issues.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms reported by sufferers include: pain and aching to the neck and back, referred pain to the shoulders, sensory disturbance (such as pins and needles) to the arms and legs, and headaches. Symptoms can appear directly after the injury, but often are not felt until days afterwards. Whiplash is usually confined to the spine. The most common areas of the spine affected by whiplash are the neck and middle of the spine. "Neck" pain is very common between the shoulder and the neck. The "missing link" of whiplash may be towards or inside the shoulder and this would explain why neck therapy alone frequently does not give lasting relief.
Cognitive symptoms following whiplash trauma, such as being easily distracted or irritated, seems to be common and possibly linked to a poorer prognosis.
Cause
The exact injury mechanism that causes whiplash injuries is forceful sudden hyperextension followed by hyperflexion of the cervical vertebrae, mainly spraining the nuchal ligament and the Anterior Longitudinal Ligament respectively. A whiplash injury may be the result of impulsive retracting of the spine, mainly the ligament: anterior longitudinal ligament which is stretched or tears, as the head snaps forward and then back again causing a whiplash injury.
A whiplash injury from an automobile accident is called a cervical acceleration–deceleration injury. Cadaver studies have shown that as an automobile occupant is hit from behind, the forces from the seat back compress the kyphosis of the thoracic spine, which provides an axial load on the lumbar spine and cervical spine. This forces the cervical spine to deform into an S-shape where the lower cervical spine is forced into a kyphosis while the upper cervical spine maintains its lordosis. As the injury progresses, the whole cervical spine is finally hyper-extended.
Whiplash may be caused by any motion similar to a rear-end collision in a motor vehicle, such as may take place on a roller coaster or other rides at an amusement park, sports injuries such as skiing accidents, other modes of transportation such as airplane travel, or from being hit, kicked or shaken..
Whiplash associated disorders sometimes include injury to the cerebrum. In a severe cervical acceleration–deceleration syndrome, a brain injury known as a coup-contra-coup injury occurs. A coup-contra-coup injury occurs as the brain is accelerated into the cranium as the head and neck hyperextend, and is then accelerated into the other side as the head and neck rebound to hyper-flexion or neutral position.
"Volunteer studies of experimental, low-velocity rear-end collisions have shown a percentage of subjects to report short-lived symptoms",
From this type of research, it has been inferred that whiplash symptoms might not always have any pathological (injury) explanation.
However, over the last decade, academic surgeons in the UK and US have sought to unravel the whiplash enigma. A 1000-case, four-year observational study published in 2012 said that the "missing link" in whiplash injuries is the trapezius muscle which may be damaged through eccentric muscle contraction during the whiplash mechanism described above and below. Another study suggested that "shneck pain" was in the nearby supraspinatus muscle and this resulted from a seemingly asymptomatic form of shoulder impingement. Shoulder impingement is commonly asymptomatic and the shoulder may be injured along with the neck in a motor vehicle accident. Whiplash due to The Referred Shoulder Impingement Syndrome was successfully treated using conventional treatments for shoulder impingement including anti-inflammatory steroids and non steroids, and by avoiding the overhead position of shoulder impingement during the day and night time. All of this work demonstrates that historically and indeed presently whiplash patients' pain sources may be missed if it is outside of the neck. Hence the pathology in whiplash may have been missed and the treatment ineffective.
Mechanism
Whiplash can be described as a sudden strain to the muscles, bones and nerves in the neck. The neck is made up of seven vertebrae, referred to as the cervical vertebrae. The first two cervical vertebrae, the axis and atlas, are shaped differently from the remaining five. The atlas and axis are responsible for movement of the skull from side to side (cervical rotation to the right and left); also moving forward and backward (cervical flexion and extension). Excessive extension and flexion can disrupt the vertebrae.
There are four phases that occur during "whiplash": Initial position (before the collision), retraction, extension and rebound. In the initial position there is no force on the neck it is stable due to inertia. Anterior longitudinal ligament injuries in whiplash may lead to cervical instability. They explain that during the retraction phase that is when the actual "whiplash" occurs, since there is an unusual loading of soft tissues. The next phase is the extension, the whole neck and head switches to extension, and it is stopped or limited by the head restraint. The rebound phase transpires as result of the phases that are mentioned.
During the retraction phase, the spine forms an S-Shaped curve, and this caused by the flexion in the upper planes and hyperextension at the lower planes and this exceed their physiological limits this phase the injuries occur to the lower cervical vertebrae. At the extension phase, all cervical vertebrae and the head are fully extended, but do not surpass their physiological limits. Most of the injuries happen in C-5 and C-6.
Pathophysiology
While the time associated with a specific collision will vary, the following provides an example of the occupant and seat interaction sequence for a collision lasting approximately 300 milliseconds.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis occurs through a patient history, head and neck examination, X-rays to rule out bone fractures and may involve the use of medical imaging to determine if there are other injuries.
Québec Task Force
The Québec Task Force (QTF) has divided whiplash-associated disorders into five grades.
Grade 0: no neck pain, stiffness, or any physical signs are noticed
Grade 1: neck complaints of pain, stiffness or tenderness only but no physical signs are noted by the examining physician.
Grade 2: neck complaints and the examining physician finds decreased range of motion and point tenderness in the neck.
Grade 3: neck complaints plus neurological signs such as decreased deep tendon reflexes, weakness and sensory deficits.
Grade 4: neck complaints and fracture or dislocation, or injury to the spinal cord.
Prevention
The focus of preventive measures to date has been on the design of car seats, primarily through the introduction of head restraints, often called headrests. This approach is potentially problematic given the underlying assumption that purely mechanical factors cause whiplash injuries — an unproven theory. So far the injury reducing effects of head restraints appears to have been low, approximately 5–10%, because car seats have become stiffer in order to increase crashworthiness of cars in high-speed rear-end collisions which in turn could increase the risk of whiplash injury in low-speed rear impact collisions. Improvements in the geometry of car seats through better design and energy absorption could offer additional benefits. Active devices move the body in a crash in order to shift the loads on the car seat.
For the last 40 years, vehicle safety researchers have been designing and gathering information on the ability of head restraints to mitigate injuries resulting from rear-end collisions. As a result, different types of head restraints have been developed by various manufactures to protect their occupants from whiplash.
Below are definitions of different types of head restraints.
Head restraint — refers to a device designed to limit the rearward displacement of an adult occupant's head in relation to the torso in order to reduce the risk of injury to the cervical vertebrae in the event of a rear impact. The most effective head restraint must allow a backset motion of less than 60 mm to prevent the hyperextension of the neck during impact.
Integrated head restraint or fixed head restraint — refers to a head restraint formed by the upper part of the seat back, or a head restraint that is not height adjustable and cannot be detached from the seat or the vehicle structure except by the use of tools or following the partial or total removal of the seat furnishing".
Adjustable head restraint — refers to a head restraint that is capable of being positioned to fit the morphology of the seated occupant. The device may permit horizontal displacement, known as tilt adjustment, and/or vertical displacement, known as height adjustment.
Active head restraint — refers to a device designed to automatically improve head restraint position and/or geometry during an impact".
Automatically adjusting head restraint — refers to a head restraint that automatically adjusts the position of the head restraint when the seat position is adjusted.
A major issue in whiplash prevention is the lack of proper adjustment of the seat safety system by both drivers and passengers. Studies have shown that a well designed and adjusted head restraint could prevent potentially injurious head-neck kinematics in rear-end collisions by limiting the differential movement of the head and torso. The primary function of a head restraint is to minimize the relative rearward movement of the head and neck during rear impact. During a rear-end collision, the presence of an effective head restraint behind the occupant's head can limit the differential movement of the head and torso. A properly placed head restraint where one can sufficiently protect his/her head lower the chances of head injury by up to 35% during a rear-end collision.
In contrast to a properly adjusted head restraint, research suggests that there may be an increased risk of neck injuries if the head restraint is incorrectly positioned. More studies by manufacturers and automobile safety organizations are currently undergoing to examine the best ways to reduce head and torso injuries during a rear-end impact with different geometries of the head restraint and seat-back systems.
In most passenger vehicles where manually adjustable head restraints are fitted, proper use requires sufficient knowledge and awareness by occupants. When driving, the height of the head restraint is critical in influencing injury risk. A restraint should be at least as high as the head's center of gravity, or about 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) below the top of the head. The backset, or distance behind the head, should be as small as possible. Backsets of more than 10 centimeters (about 4 inches) have been associated with increased symptoms of neck injury in crashes.
In a sitting position, the minimum height of the restraint should correspond to the top of the driver's ear or even higher. In addition, there should be minimal distance between the back of head and the point where it first meets the restraint.
Due to low public awareness of the consequence of incorrect positioning of head restraints, some passenger vehicle manufactures have designed and implemented a range of devices into their models to protect their occupants.
Some current systems are:
Mercedes-Benz A-Class Active Head Restraint (AHR),
Saab (Responsible for the first active head restraint), Opel, Ford, Nissan, Subaru, Hyundai, and Peugeot — Active Head restraint (SAHR),
Volvo and Jaguar — Whiplash Protection System/Whiplash Prevention System (WHIPS), and
Toyota — Whiplash Injury Lessening (WIL).
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and other testing centers around the world have been involved in testing the effectiveness of head restraint and seat systems in laboratory conditions to assess their ability to prevent or mitigate whiplash injuries. They have found that over 60% of new motor vehicles on the market have "good" rated head restraints. Various organisations exist which list such vehicles
Management
Rehabilitation (e.g. physical therapy)
Symptoms remaining more than six months after trauma is labelled Whiplash syndrome. The main purpose with early rehabilitation is to reduce the risk for development of Whiplash syndrome. Early rehabilitation for whiplash depends on the grade category. It can be categorized as grade 0 being no pain to grade 4 with a cervical bone fracture or dislocation. Grade 4 obviously needs admission to hospital while grade 0-3 can be managed as outpatients. The symptoms from the potential injury to the cervical spine may be debilitating, and pain was reported to be one of the biggest stressor events experienced in daily living, so it is important to begin rehabilitation immediately to prevent future pain.
Current research supports that active mobilization rather than a soft collar results in a more prompt recovery both in the short and long term perspective. Furthermore, Schnabel and colleagues stated that the soft collar is not a suitable medium for rehabilitation, and the best way of recovery is to include an active rehabilitation program that includes physical therapy exercises and postural modifications. Another study found patients who participated in active therapy shortly after injury increased mobilization of the neck with significantly less pain within four weeks when compared to patients using a cervical collar.
Active treatments are light repetitive exercises that work the area to maintain normality. Basic information is also given to teach the patient that exercises as instructed will not cause any damage to their neck. These exercises are done at home or under the care of a health professional. When beginning a rehabilitation regimen, it's important to begin with slow movements which include cervical rotation until pain threshold three to five times per day, flexion and extension of the shoulder joint by moving the arms up and down two to three times, and combining shoulder raises while inhaling and releasing the shoulder raise while exhaling. Soderlund and colleagues also recommend that these exercises should be done every day until pain starts to dissipate. Early mobilization is important for preventing chronic pain, but pain experienced from these exercises might cause psychological symptoms that could have negative impact on recovery. Rosenfeld found that doing active exercises as often as once every waken hour during one month after trauma decreases the need for sick leave three years after trauma from 25% to 5.7%.
Passive treatments such as acupuncture, massage therapy, and stimulation may sometimes be used as a complement to active exercises. Return to normal activities of daily living should be encouraged as soon as possible to maximize and expedite full recovery.
For chronic whiplash patients, rehabilitation is recommended. Patients who entered a rehabilitation program said they were able to control their pain, they continued to use strategies that were taught to them, and were able to go back to their daily activities. A Cochrane review published in 2007 found that evidence neither supports nor refutes the effectiveness conservative treatments including physiotherapy, acupuncture, or a collar to treat Grades 1 or 2.
Medications
According to the recommendations made by the Quebec Task Force, treatment for individuals with whiplash associated disorders grade 1–3 may include non-narcotic analgesics. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may also be prescribed in the case of WAD 2 and WAD 3, but their use should be limited to a maximum of three weeks. Botulinum toxin A is used to treat involuntary muscle contraction and spasms. Botulinum toxin type-A is only temporary and repeated injections need to take place in order to feel the effects.
According to a year long follow-up study in 2008 on 186 patients, the WAD-classification and Quebec Task Force regimen were not linked to better clinical outcomes.
Prognosis
The consequences of whiplash range from mild pain for a few days (which is the case for most people), to severe disability. It seems that around 50% will have some remaining symptoms.
Alterations in resting state cerebral blood flow have been demonstrated in patients with chronic pain after whiplash injury. There is evidence for persistent inflammation in the neck in patients with chronic pain after whiplash injury.
There has long been a proposed link between whiplash injuries and the development of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD). A recent review concluded that although there are contradictions in the literature, overall there is moderate evidence that TMD can occasionally follow whiplash injury, and that the incidence of this occurrence is low to moderate.
Epidemiology
Whiplash is the term commonly used to describe hyperflexion and hyperextension, and is one of the most common nonfatal car crash injuries. More than one million whiplash injuries occur each year due to car crashes. This is an estimate because not all cases of whiplash are reported. In a given year, an estimated 3.8 people per 1000 experience whiplash symptoms. "Freeman and co-investigators estimated that 6.2% of the US population have late whiplash syndrome". The majority of cases occur in patients in their late fourth decade. Unless a cervical strain has occurred with additional brain or spinal cord trauma mortality is rare.
Whiplash can occur at speeds of fifteen miles per hour or less; it is the sudden jolt, as one car hits another, that causes one's head to be abruptly thrown back and sideways. The more sudden the motion, the more bones, discs, muscles and tendons in ones neck and upper back will be damaged. Spinal cord injuries are responsible for about 6,000 deaths in the US each year and 5,000 whiplash injuries per year result in quadriplegia.
After 12 months, only 1 in 5 patients remain symptomatic, only 11.5% of individuals were able to return to work a year after the injury, and only 35.4% were able to get back to work at a similar level of performance after 20 years. Estimated indirect costs to industry are $66,626 per year, depending on the level and severity. Lastly, the total cost per year was $40.5 billion in 2008, a 317% increase over 1998.
Incidence
Altogether it is of note that, especially in many Western countries, after a motor vehicle collision those involved seek health care for the assessment of injuries and for insurance documentation purposes. In contrast, in many less wealthy countries, there may be limited access to care and insurance may only be available to the wealthy. Against this background, the “(late) whiplash syndrome” (ICD-10: S13.4) has been one special focus of continuous and controversial scientific research since the 1950s as the worldwide incidence of such injuries varies enormously, from 16-2000 per 100,000 population, and the late whiplash syndrome in these cases varies between 18% to 40%. Thus, important work by Schrader et al. in The Lancet showed that late whiplash syndrome after a motor vehicle collision is rare or uncommon in Lithuania, and Cassidy et al.’s conclusion in the New England Journal of Medicine is that “the elimination of compensation for pain and suffering is associated with a decreased incidence and improved prognosis of whiplash injury”.
Moreover, an experimental study in 2001 places participants in a stationary vehicle with a curtain blocking their rear view, and exposed them to a simulated rear-end collision. Twenty percent of patients had symptoms at 3 days, despite the fact that no collision actually occurred.
From the evolving viewpoint of naturalistic Internet search engine analytics in has been shown in 2017 that the expectations for receiving compensation may influence Internet search behavior in relation to whiplash injury.
See also
Railway spine
Traffic collision
References
External links
Contortion
Injuries of neck
Law of negligence
Dislocations, sprains and strains | [
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|
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