id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
234721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapati | Chapati | Chapati (alternatively spelled chapatti, chappati, chapathi, or chappathi; pronounced as IAST: ), also known as roti, rotli, safati, shabaati, phulka, (in East Africa) chapo, and (in the Maldives) roshi, is an unleavened flatbread originating from the Indian subcontinent and staple in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, East Africa, Arabian Peninsula and the Caribbean. Chapatis are made of whole-wheat flour known as atta, mixed into dough with water, oil (optional), salt (optional) in a mixing utensil called a parat, and are cooked on a tava (flat skillet).
It is a common staple in the Indian subcontinent as well as amongst expatriates from the Indian subcontinent throughout the world. Chapatis were also introduced to other parts of the world by immigrants from the Indian subcontinent, particularly by Indian merchants to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East Africa, and the Caribbean islands.
History
The word chapat () means "slap" or "flat" which describes the traditional method of forming rounds of thin dough by slapping the dough between the wetted palms of the hands. With each slap, the round of dough is rotated. Chapati is noted 15th century in the Guru Granth Sahib as Roti. The shabad "Roti meri kath ki, lahvan meri bhukh" was written by Baba Farid ji in the 12th century. Chapati is noted in the 16th-century document Ain-i-Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, vizier of Mughal Emperor Akbar.
Chapatis are one of the most common forms of wheat bread which are a staple food in the Indian subcontinent. The carbonized wheat grains discovered at the excavations at Mohenjo-daro are of a similar variety to an endemic species of wheat still to be found in India today. The Indus Valley is known to be one of the ancestral lands of cultivated wheat. Chapati is a form of roti or rotta (bread). The words are often used interchangeably.
Chapatis, along with rotis, were introduced to other parts of the world by immigrants from the Indian subcontinent, particularly by Indian merchants who settled in Southeast Asia and the Caribbean islands.
Cooking
Chapatis are made using a soft dough comprising wheat flour, salt and water. It is more finely ground than most western-style whole wheat flours.
Chapati dough is typically prepared with flour, salt and water, kneaded with the knuckles of the hand made into a fist and left to proof for at least 10 or 15 minutes to an hour for the gluten in the dough to develop. After proofing, the dough becomes softer and more pliable. Small portions of the dough are pinched off and formed into round balls that are pressed between the two palms to form discs which are then dipped into flour and rolled out on a circular rolling board (a chakla), using a rolling pin known as a velan or belan, into a flat disc. There are also automatic roti makers which automate the whole process.
The rolled-out dough is then thrown on the preheated dry tava and cooked on both sides. In some regions of the Indian subcontinent chapatis are only partially cooked on the skillet, and then cooked directly over a flame, which makes them puff up. The hot steam cooks the chapati rapidly from the inside. In some parts of northern India and eastern Pakistan, this is called a phulka. In southern parts of India, it is called a pulka. It is also possible to puff up the roti directly on the tava. Once cooked, chapatis are often topped with butter or ghee. In western regions of Maharashtra, some oil is added inside rolled out dough and then put on tava, this is distinct from paratha.
Chapati diameter and thickness vary from region to region. Chapatis made in domestic kitchens are usually not larger than to in diameter since the tava on which they are made comes in sizes that fit comfortably on a domestic stovetop. Tavas were traditionally made of unglazed earthenware, but are now typically made from metal. The shape of the rolling pin also varies from region to region. Some households simply use a kitchen worktop as a sort of pastry board, but round flat-topped "boards" made of wood, stone, or stainless steel are available specifically for rolling out chapatis.
In most parts of the Indian subcontinent, there is a distinction made between a chapati and other related flatbreads eaten in the region like roti, paratha, kulcha, puri and naan based on cooking technique, texture and use of different types of flours. For example, parathas are either made layered by spreading with ghee, folding and rolling out again into a disc which turns out flakey once cooked or is filled with spinach, dal or cooked radish or potato. Parathas are mostly made using all-purpose flour instead of whole wheat flour.
There are many regional varieties of chapati in India.
Paneer chapati: Grated paneer is added to the usual chapati dough which is also called 'Paneer Paratha' (The Paratha means stuffed Chapati/Bread).
Radish or mullangi chapati: Grated radish and turmeric powder is added to the dough and the chapati is usually thick. It is often eaten by lorry drivers who eat in roadside dhabas during long trips. It is also called 'Mooli Paratha'.
Vegetable-stuffed chapati: Mashed carrot, potato, peas, and fenugreek are slightly sautéed into a masala gravy. These chapatis are usually served rolled, and many households prepare them using their own combinations of available vegetables.
The Aloo paratha (Chapati stuffed with boiled Potato and onions) is very famous in Northern parts of India especially New Delhi, Punjab and hilly areas of Shimla. It is eaten along with Pickle and Curd. In winters there are two more varieties of Parathas i.e. the Gobhi Paratha (Chapati stuffed with Cauliflower) and Mooli Paratha (Chapati Stuffed with Raddish).
In the Maldives, chapatis are traditionally eaten for breakfast along with a dish known as mas huni.
The Indian breads are tasty and equally nutritious. Flatbreads are staples of Indian food. Chapatis go well with curries, dry sabjis, chutneys or dal.
Gallery
See also
List of Indian breads
List of Pakistani breads
Indian bread
Blintz
Chakla
Chimta
Crêpe
Crispbread
Khubz
Lavash
Markook
Matzo
Naan
Pancake
Paratha
Pita
Poori
Tortilla
Tunnbröd
References
Andhra cuisine
Articles containing video clips
Bangladeshi cuisine
Bengali cuisine
Bihari cuisine
Burmese cuisine
Flatbreads
Indian breads
Indian cuisine
Indonesian breads
Karnataka cuisine
Malaysian breads
Mauritian cuisine
Muhajir cuisine
Nepalese cuisine
Pakistani breads
Punjabi cuisine
Roti
Singaporean cuisine
Tamil cuisine
Telangana cuisine
Trinidad and Tobago cuisine
Uttar Pradeshi cuisine
Gujarati cuisine
Kutchi cuisine
Maharashtrian cuisine
Jharkhandi cuisine | [
-0.2430630326271057,
-0.26970335841178894,
0.032486893236637115,
0.24190925061702728,
0.07089870423078537,
0.766671359539032,
-0.015502570196986198,
0.40863585472106934,
-0.46593499183654785,
-0.07442321628332138,
-0.42760440707206726,
-0.0822080448269844,
-0.2098051756620407,
0.3572612404823303,
-0.3236476182937622,
0.0011776858009397984,
0.8807045817375183,
0.2633430063724518,
-0.30422407388687134,
0.05320163816213608,
0.010774970054626465,
-0.3512854278087616,
0.05468254163861275,
0.15472358465194702,
0.30742231011390686,
0.17937782406806946,
-0.036175597459077835,
0.07227128744125366,
0.25599783658981323,
-0.3497951924800873,
-0.19833935797214508,
0.2128913551568985,
0.6207892894744873,
-0.2884480357170105,
0.2127075493335724,
-0.3038899004459381,
0.19500984251499176,
0.041300319135189056,
-0.5991168022155762,
-0.12052544951438904,
-0.05335833132266998,
-0.13626109063625336,
1.0249683856964111,
0.3079405725002289,
-0.14879067242145538,
-0.6428062319755554,
-0.8026228547096252,
0.6327383518218994,
-1.0545493364334106,
0.5314294099807739,
-0.24560031294822693,
0.2283022701740265,
0.04340813681483269,
-0.20965586602687836,
0.514758825302124,
0.5006651282310486,
-0.8892239332199097,
0.5354598164558411,
0.012519584968686104,
-0.6122894883155823,
0.2579444944858551,
0.21154570579528809,
0.30554094910621643,
-0.4824706017971039,
-0.10836130380630493,
0.4075694680213928,
0.03168322518467903,
0.020887751132249832,
-0.00033248733961954713,
0.0896809920668602,
-0.21410122513771057,
-0.6485255360603333,
-0.6349446773529053,
0.42482781410217285,
0.05567830801010132,
-0.48185884952545166,
-0.42850688099861145,
0.2892335057258606,
-0.009203457273542881,
0.5427693724632263,
-0.8065471649169922,
-0.32883986830711365,
0.5584520101547241,
0.13579684495925903,
0.41891875863075256,
0.2722263038158417,
0.13526056706905365,
0.02208692952990532,
0.03962372615933418,
0.4196220636367798,
-0.10910302400588989,
0.23887892067432404,
1.1448982954025269,
0.5176457166671753,
-0.497688889503479,
-0.5421825647354126,
0.14366939663887024,
-0.23567180335521698,
0.4964659512042999,
0.030574459582567215,
-0.19388993084430695,
0.12438386678695679,
0.47521063685417175,
0.2160029262304306,
-0.5516012907028198,
0.0017174642998725176,
-0.18135800957679749,
-0.40937092900276184,
-0.003038781462237239,
0.018341757357120514,
-0.01766151189804077,
0.15263095498085022,
0.496823251247406,
0.434925377368927,
-0.7192554473876953,
-0.18393032252788544,
-0.57611083984375,
-0.07517260313034058,
-0.8052896857261658,
-0.461264431476593,
0.12728314101696014,
0.17112679779529572,
0.8872829675674438,
0.07121240347623825,
0.22869840264320374,
-0.35683873295783997,
0.5151612758636475,
0.8248212933540344,
-0.11689404398202896,
0.6838822960853577,
0.5096020102500916,
-0.1421404629945755,
-0.20219369232654572,
-0.16594871878623962,
-0.5566739439964294,
0.03539242222905159,
0.25135746598243713,
-0.09144960343837738,
0.9320146441459656,
-0.08166827261447906,
-1.144318699836731,
-0.1408454328775406,
-0.09896960854530334,
-0.06428765505552292,
-0.3663448393344879,
-0.2849479019641876,
-0.3663901090621948,
-0.1139434352517128,
-0.1599547266960144,
-0.6787812113761902,
-0.18757404386997223,
-0.010748236440122128,
-0.055632539093494415,
-0.494276762008667,
-0.24318644404411316,
0.4068898856639862,
-0.35906708240509033,
0.0033205929212272167,
0.2811070680618286,
-0.322195827960968,
0.05371379107236862,
0.0676942765712738,
0.17610369622707367,
-0.49136796593666077,
0.0956173911690712,
0.5037530064582825,
0.7325647473335266,
0.5449920296669006,
0.1816740483045578,
0.8050803542137146,
-0.3385295271873474,
0.4962559640407562,
0.5030115246772766,
0.07714686542749405,
-0.7640752792358398,
0.07651052623987198,
0.12195859104394913,
-0.24822092056274414,
0.3527362644672394,
0.3592396676540375,
-0.4753255546092987,
0.2794235050678253,
0.14859384298324585,
0.13270993530750275,
-0.21931444108486176,
-0.19147002696990967,
0.06925202906131744,
-0.3825734257698059,
0.1949162781238556,
-0.12996409833431244,
-0.605892539024353,
-0.15004675090312958,
-0.08675665408372879,
-0.13624998927116394,
0.5321058630943298,
-0.2570662796497345,
-0.33264774084091187,
1.1043912172317505,
0.6605747938156128,
0.2980601191520691,
0.07017959654331207,
0.2131635695695877,
0.3406467139720917,
-0.33270207047462463,
-1.0144375562667847,
0.22993597388267517,
-0.5073741674423218,
0.7229783535003662,
0.622149646282196,
-0.12779633700847626,
0.32383838295936584,
-0.5568547248840332,
0.440573513507843,
-0.5997057557106018,
-0.1115097627043724,
-0.09619814157485962,
0.017458654940128326,
0.23262423276901245,
0.10798630863428116,
-0.6310597062110901,
0.819732666015625,
0.0012587358942255378,
-0.35133296251296997,
0.36672618985176086,
0.4865463674068451,
0.9202679395675659,
0.07429409772157669,
0.0678505152463913,
0.34365755319595337,
0.41185763478279114,
0.07283812016248703,
-0.2871626913547516,
0.53890460729599,
-0.21746714413166046,
-0.5004758834838867,
-0.2347446233034134,
0.4514982998371124,
0.04934118315577507,
0.6681012511253357,
-0.5715727210044861,
0.3498355746269226,
0.3184753656387329,
0.17004914581775665,
-0.7870796918869019,
0.5102307200431824,
-0.5323665142059326,
-0.19857925176620483,
-0.18473753333091736,
-0.02564496546983719,
0.4042102098464966,
0.1570243239402771,
0.4080592095851898,
0.4686206579208374,
0.27999600768089294,
-0.3637644052505493,
-0.19314366579055786,
-0.028818633407354355,
0.5245346426963806,
0.5620455145835876,
0.6114864945411682,
-0.4693588316440582,
0.10145541280508041,
0.17954887449741364,
-0.5626441240310669,
-0.06561090797185898,
-0.02102305181324482,
-0.12196658551692963,
-0.0397065244615078,
0.5294730067253113,
0.3812592327594757,
0.1922437995672226,
-0.3676643967628479,
-0.7938913106918335,
-0.1771891713142395,
-0.16143196821212769,
-1.1251856088638306,
0.41001632809638977,
-0.06492903083562851,
-0.37718701362609863,
-0.7185626029968262,
0.03352455049753189,
0.3463883697986603,
-0.07296951115131378,
-0.31435224413871765,
-0.04585084691643715,
-0.31543657183647156,
-0.0778690055012703,
-0.6949690580368042,
-0.41898372769355774,
0.4024597406387329,
0.032919880002737045,
0.7680358290672302,
-0.3134031295776367,
-0.3302111029624939,
0.43742185831069946,
-0.09938087314367294,
0.059475626796483994,
0.498351514339447,
0.3784250319004059,
-1.0762375593185425,
0.1631377935409546,
0.010223477147519588,
0.1347099244594574,
0.286729633808136,
0.08887608349323273,
0.059217046946287155,
-0.0336291678249836,
-0.42132848501205444,
-5.703055381774902,
-0.2980213761329651,
-0.5943750739097595,
-0.027520358562469482,
0.2276327908039093,
0.6613567471504211,
0.38713544607162476,
-0.22486981749534607,
0.5689173340797424,
-0.1258760243654251,
-0.04541822150349617,
-0.18004538118839264,
0.008810915052890778,
-0.022779883816838264,
-0.03543313220143318,
0.5399165749549866,
-0.6175225377082825,
0.1365799456834793,
0.11992377042770386,
0.015453901141881943,
0.11392391473054886,
-0.16818393766880035,
0.1046864315867424,
0.7410399913787842,
-0.3806424140930176,
0.004460901953279972,
-0.24827493727207184,
-0.12519478797912598,
-0.5612933039665222,
-0.2588355839252472,
-0.3001680374145508,
-0.4030642509460449,
0.539000391960144,
-0.6304096579551697,
0.11699946969747543,
-0.08829990029335022,
-0.041294898837804794,
0.01668955385684967,
0.1711912304162979,
0.172487273812294,
0.0005184788606129587,
0.18798112869262695,
0.33065059781074524,
-0.9042806029319763,
0.6049183011054993,
-0.13125400245189667,
-0.17544856667518616,
-0.5311193466186523,
-0.10131016373634338,
0.6228600144386292,
0.3670981228351593,
-0.03094126656651497,
-0.3708615005016327,
-0.07203620672225952,
0.1467970907688141,
0.6856300234794617,
0.4459386169910431,
0.17663884162902832,
-0.245600625872612,
-0.23322412371635437,
0.1349383145570755,
0.16372227668762207,
-0.23922260105609894,
-0.23979686200618744,
-0.017420951277017593,
0.040740128606557846,
-0.017654892057180405,
-0.013236470520496368,
0.31801366806030273,
0.15015460550785065,
-0.32007747888565063,
-0.9770292043685913,
0.3003024458885193,
-0.7941897511482239,
0.07749027013778687,
-1.000084638595581,
-0.009183784946799278,
0.044557590037584305,
-0.7090566158294678,
0.4600096344947815,
-0.03745550662279129,
-0.6128557920455933,
-0.026908352971076965,
-0.3980253338813782,
0.1779952049255371,
-0.5017266273498535,
-0.6775760054588318,
-0.41911590099334717,
-0.12222588807344437,
0.4275628626346588,
0.9239104986190796,
-0.1781615912914276,
0.12981849908828735,
-0.3906468451023102,
0.5409935116767883,
0.9449736475944519,
-0.43634092807769775,
0.1641443371772766,
0.16167539358139038,
-0.5013895630836487,
-0.28322479128837585,
-0.17534932494163513,
0.30261850357055664,
-0.21508705615997314,
0.298475056886673,
0.2697734534740448,
-0.16737616062164307,
-0.023696046322584152,
0.8682479858398438,
-0.6578823924064636,
-0.18072836101055145,
0.23675231635570526,
-0.4724133312702179,
-0.26007169485092163,
0.4431059658527374,
0.24384188652038574,
-0.15431930124759674,
-0.04647719860076904,
0.0225228164345026,
-0.07155407220125198,
0.3560467064380646,
-0.07287722080945969,
-0.6016865968704224,
-0.0403684601187706,
-0.13566549122333527,
-0.7719928026199341,
-0.03807863965630531,
-0.067437544465065,
0.461434930562973,
0.33323347568511963,
0.40485507249832153,
-0.35234779119491577,
0.2124788761138916,
0.1217576339840889,
-0.3324168622493744,
0.24298958480358124,
0.15218199789524078,
-0.484395831823349,
-0.6851856708526611,
-0.7726148366928101,
-0.06450791656970978,
-0.25846514105796814,
0.15751519799232483,
0.34467625617980957,
0.4861232042312622,
0.25865721702575684,
-0.6219053268432617,
-0.2202317863702774,
-0.11957662552595139,
0.5452278256416321,
0.20866446197032928,
0.360161155462265,
0.15868061780929565,
0.24170610308647156,
-0.9594541192054749,
-0.09646186232566833,
0.21023781597614288,
0.26311561465263367,
-0.3296552896499634,
0.14059166610240936,
-0.07509511709213257,
-0.797263503074646,
-1.1033809185028076,
0.04223670810461044,
-0.5764555931091309,
-0.03556233271956444,
-0.7837015986442566,
-0.24850590527057648,
0.08418057858943939,
0.20260681211948395,
0.032716553658246994,
-0.23551419377326965,
-0.19210295379161835,
0.09295319765806198,
0.5409407615661621,
-0.19305525720119476,
0.267916738986969,
0.19144070148468018,
-0.22061583399772644,
0.6265579462051392,
-0.26208940148353577,
-0.4675155282020569,
-0.13712793588638306,
0.36877360939979553,
0.08780454844236374,
-0.48199281096458435,
0.03381779417395592,
-0.10819559544324875,
-0.04431029036641121,
0.29269111156463623,
0.008357472717761993,
-0.031148815527558327,
0.3704429864883423,
0.2688465714454651,
0.16351507604122162,
-0.13988220691680908,
-0.17564892768859863,
0.4439457356929779,
-0.48922887444496155,
-0.06993605196475983,
0.1187274158000946,
-0.16361887753009796,
-0.9017221927642822,
0.18789222836494446,
0.06128118932247162,
-0.3830500841140747,
0.521668553352356,
-0.1135793924331665,
-0.24553103744983673,
0.04032910615205765,
-0.25293758511543274,
-0.514313280582428,
0.43456584215164185,
0.7472730875015259,
-0.01660354994237423,
0.5209358334541321,
-0.19594524800777435,
-0.15205629169940948,
0.3063684105873108,
-0.4696204364299774,
-0.0420791395008564,
-0.21160081028938293,
0.2418431043624878,
0.030090253800153732,
-0.6580988168716431,
0.496416836977005,
0.03589867427945137,
-0.5962291359901428,
0.05088040232658386,
-0.0224669948220253,
0.5817753076553345,
-0.37708568572998047,
-0.22128413617610931,
0.8317485451698303,
0.2540948987007141,
-0.08599939942359924,
-0.4502841830253601,
-0.14614468812942505,
0.27962052822113037,
0.8397955894470215,
0.2697465121746063,
0.2508924603462219,
0.5030020475387573,
-0.10358989238739014,
-0.9039177298545837,
0.34628188610076904,
0.3034929931163788,
-0.20987728238105774,
-0.3267824351787567,
0.5995787382125854,
0.20965087413787842,
-0.25829535722732544,
-0.46747714281082153,
-0.3837474584579468,
0.1689191460609436,
-0.6867598295211792,
0.2997870445251465,
0.18009071052074432,
-0.4129685163497925,
0.2770439088344574,
-0.10128751397132874,
0.17699451744556427,
0.5722177028656006,
0.14097923040390015,
0.051931701600551605,
-0.3287028670310974,
-0.31523358821868896,
-0.4100642204284668,
0.1663099080324173,
-0.26965010166168213,
0.49807581305503845,
-0.28032389283180237,
0.449408620595932,
-0.14277739822864532,
0.36790043115615845,
0.3244953155517578,
-0.24980147182941437,
-0.7999460101127625,
0.48379433155059814,
0.126031294465065,
-0.17385438084602356,
-0.22119423747062683,
-0.2404605746269226,
0.19677190482616425,
-0.005096582230180502,
-0.6060324907302856,
-0.004987715743482113,
0.0881679430603981,
-0.5409163236618042,
0.14204975962638855,
-0.21537356078624725,
0.6500225067138672,
0.23299771547317505,
0.44545823335647583,
-0.4617769122123718,
0.023942947387695312,
0.8443503379821777,
0.721043586730957,
-0.7099617719650269,
0.11332816630601883,
-0.37172815203666687,
0.2777901291847229,
0.1336747109889984,
-0.1992691457271576,
-0.2713228464126587,
0.23116186261177063,
-0.08197824656963348,
-0.3736876845359802,
-0.424436092376709,
0.09564927965402603,
0.5292078256607056,
0.027133041992783546,
0.3833926320075989,
0.5069085955619812,
0.3181646764278412,
-0.0006892491946928203,
0.4367845058441162,
-0.278586745262146,
-0.04709847271442413,
0.8177154064178467,
0.615274965763092,
-0.17974291741847992,
0.02165859565138817,
-0.04664422944188118,
0.5609805583953857,
0.30195900797843933,
-0.4459822475910187,
-0.48425838351249695,
-0.026078002527356148,
0.6713078618049622,
0.12567350268363953,
0.06338530778884888,
-0.3530631959438324,
-0.5190181136131287,
0.3018661439418793,
-0.6098657250404358,
-0.2745128870010376,
-0.1526252031326294,
-0.19547532498836517,
0.8816790580749512,
1.0692269802093506,
0.4462811052799225,
-0.08770943433046341,
-0.20967921614646912,
0.5211766362190247,
0.24928459525108337,
0.10515953600406647,
0.3241800367832184,
0.26353418827056885,
0.217878058552742,
0.029267730191349983,
-0.07725468277931213,
0.536551296710968,
-0.08479654788970947,
0.5856232643127441,
0.13023985922336578,
-0.13855285942554474,
-0.5415207147598267,
0.3957267999649048,
0.3920370638370514,
0.010909800417721272,
0.21880099177360535,
0.05658626928925514,
0.172527015209198,
-0.2683326005935669,
0.05475862696766853,
-0.5369110703468323,
-0.7752014398574829,
-0.21094971895217896,
0.2054608315229416,
0.13566531240940094,
0.294009268283844,
-0.272215873003006,
0.7363168597221375,
-0.0625726580619812,
0.4153779149055481,
-0.2642652988433838,
0.6066980361938477,
-0.0011523461434990168,
0.5121099948883057,
-0.8443184494972229,
-0.9405293464660645,
-0.10363750159740448,
-0.28881487250328064,
-0.048886626958847046,
0.34570538997650146,
-0.3816162645816803,
-0.03240155428647995,
-1.1340402364730835,
0.47449231147766113,
-0.7525509595870972,
-0.18226586282253265,
-0.13455642759799957,
0.3296017646789551,
0.3449074625968933,
0.03481430187821388,
-0.4027809798717499,
0.08139529824256897,
0.14028045535087585,
0.2267068475484848,
0.21566472947597504,
0.44930022954940796,
0.5062229633331299,
-0.18758371472358704,
-0.47516492009162903,
-0.25174760818481445,
-0.07518056780099869,
-0.14104366302490234,
-0.7735802531242371,
-0.30314400792121887,
-0.08038173615932465,
-0.25908932089805603,
-0.01911824569106102,
-0.25267264246940613,
-0.3291947841644287,
0.06751048564910889,
0.163580060005188,
-0.2899320423603058,
0.1682332307100296,
-0.9454077482223511,
0.10652719438076019,
-0.4636054039001465,
0.060438696295022964,
0.3633157014846802,
0.1998903900384903,
0.03523183614015579,
0.8366925716400146,
0.1966772824525833,
-0.891569972038269,
0.6737326383590698,
-0.6277756690979004,
0.39531853795051575,
-0.25401604175567627,
0.25628164410591125,
-0.4940918982028961,
0.059418145567178726,
0.6227246522903442,
0.449029803276062,
-0.2620399594306946,
-0.3121793866157532,
0.40159842371940613,
-0.038970425724983215,
-0.14487431943416595,
-0.17815040051937103,
-0.13250166177749634,
0.13846422731876373,
0.07424955815076828,
0.22183065116405487,
-1.1146965026855469,
0.5774439573287964,
0.1536034196615219,
-0.5629486441612244,
0.5220149755477905,
-0.014936013147234917,
0.43671971559524536,
-0.06623613089323044,
-0.28351083397865295,
-0.037729986011981964,
0.12127456068992615,
-0.24349664151668549
] |
234723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pionus | Pionus | Pionus is a genus of medium-sized parrots native to Mexico, and Central and South America. Characteristic of the genus are the chunky body, bare eye ring (which can vary in color), and short square tail. They are superficially similar to Amazon parrots, but smaller and in flight their wing-strokes are far deeper. Coloration is generally subdued yet complex compared to member species of the genus Amazona; under bright lighting, their feathers shimmer with iridescent brilliance. All species share bright red undertail coverts; the scientific name of one species, the blue-headed parrot (P. menstruus), refers to this. Males and females are similar, with no notable sexual dimorphism.
Taxonomy
The genus Pionus was introduced in 1832 by the German naturalist Johann Georg Wagler. The genus name is from Ancient Greek piōn, pionos meaning "fat". The type species was designated as the blue-headed parrot by George Robert Gray in 1840.
The speckle-faced parrot is often split into two species, while a small number of authorities have suggested the blue-headed parrot should be split into two or three species.
The genus contains eight species.
Blue-headed parrot (or blue-headed pionus), Pionus menstruus
Paler blue-headed parrot (or paler blue-headed pionus), Pionus (menstruus) rubrigularis
Reichenow's blue-headed parrot (or Reichenow's blue-headed pionus), Pionus (menstruus) reichenowi
Red-billed parrot (or red-billed pionus, coral-billed parrot, coral-billed pionus), Pionus sordidus
Scaly-headed parrot (or scaly-headed pionus, Maximilian's pionus, Maximilian's parrot), Pionus maximiliani
White-crowned parrot (or white-crowned pionus), Pionus senilis
Speckle-faced parrot (or speckle-faced pionus), Pionus tumultuosus
Plum-crowned parrot (or plum-crowned pionus), Pionus (tumultuosus) tumultuosus
White-capped parrot (or white-headed pionus), Pionus seniloides
Bronze-winged parrot (or bronze-winged pionus), Pionus chalcopterus
Dusky parrot (or dusky pionus), Pionus fuscus
Pets
Pionus parrots are regarded as excellent pets, although some species are very rare in captivity. Most commonly kept species are the Blue-headed, Maximillian (Scaly-headed) and White-capped. Others, such as the Dusky and the Bronze-winged have become more common due to captive breeding.
Pionus parrots are quieter than Amazon parrots. Unlike some other companion parrots, aviculturists have noted that they are not particularly energetic, and do not generally enjoy hands-on play (for example, being flipped on their backs), but they do provide companionship and are described as gentle and charming pets.
When excited or frightened, birds of this genus emit a characteristic wheezing or snorting sound that is sometimes mistaken for a sign of distress, or a symptom of disease. They also give off a musky or sweet odor that some caretakers find unpleasant, but others enjoy.
Health
Pionus parrots are susceptible to obesity, vitamin A deficiency, and aspergillosis in captivity. These conditions, with the exception of aspergillosis, are easily prevented.
Diet
As a species, the Pionus naturally eats mostly fruits, especially guavas. Pet owners should take care to not feed their bird any high-fat foods. Pet stores often carry banana chips (which are good snacks for many other birds) that are fried in oil to make them crispy, but they contain too much fat for the Pionus and could result in high cholesterol or other health issues related to too much fat intake.
Pionus owners should consult a knowledgeable veterinarian (preferably a South American exotic bird expert) on proper Pionus dietary needs.
Species
References
External links
Pionus info from Upatsix.com
Androglossini | [
-0.29998475313186646,
0.15990744531154633,
-0.6062536835670471,
0.10043357312679291,
0.36418697237968445,
0.8723339438438416,
0.3623277246952057,
0.5210633873939514,
-0.6308019757270813,
-0.24661469459533691,
-0.08921055495738983,
-0.06458352506160736,
-0.43024584650993347,
0.05070432648062706,
-0.027898717671632767,
0.15873469412326813,
0.4834277331829071,
0.9256969690322876,
-0.3001861870288849,
-0.11567749828100204,
0.09848184138536453,
-0.6762934923171997,
0.49672549962997437,
-0.7586135268211365,
-0.1968853920698166,
-0.10598348081111908,
-0.3932984471321106,
0.43101438879966736,
0.7589551210403442,
0.5112997889518738,
-0.2556703984737396,
0.4694198966026306,
0.12558335065841675,
-0.019968939945101738,
0.12093113362789154,
-0.06353512406349182,
-0.32655659317970276,
-0.5405724048614502,
0.49225303530693054,
-0.29376643896102905,
0.7714272141456604,
-0.40350058674812317,
-0.11682265996932983,
0.16307073831558228,
-0.5716924667358398,
-0.6592236161231995,
-1.5113940238952637,
0.4049103260040283,
-0.8749985694885254,
-0.020616963505744934,
-0.6749863624572754,
0.5183253884315491,
0.18121249973773956,
0.34526172280311584,
0.0074752578511834145,
0.6706196069717407,
-1.2048840522766113,
-0.17186462879180908,
0.081825390458107,
-0.11936922371387482,
-0.36987733840942383,
0.31569886207580566,
0.145487442612648,
-0.27354034781455994,
-0.13536694645881653,
-0.0077689653262495995,
0.5167493224143982,
0.13516834378242493,
-0.37709251046180725,
0.05627170205116272,
-0.3066515326499939,
0.12310382723808289,
-0.033729780465364456,
0.08455496281385422,
-0.38800621032714844,
-0.28205233812332153,
-0.0101544801145792,
0.23544561862945557,
0.5415211319923401,
0.2960572838783264,
0.3216531574726105,
0.5543757677078247,
0.8358075022697449,
-0.07448694109916687,
0.18480373919010162,
0.4512210488319397,
-0.6253951191902161,
-0.28125447034835815,
-0.14482484757900238,
-0.31870609521865845,
-0.7684105634689331,
-0.40901118516921997,
0.5227615833282471,
0.46308833360671997,
-0.23624639213085175,
-0.08992402255535126,
-0.3953119218349457,
-0.2580711543560028,
0.33373895287513733,
0.16018015146255493,
-0.3158417046070099,
0.07250617444515228,
0.4921952486038208,
-0.15139272809028625,
-0.4198996126651764,
-0.3944796919822693,
-0.37972521781921387,
-0.22385603189468384,
-0.27660539746284485,
-0.49834176898002625,
-0.9262416958808899,
0.18436315655708313,
0.5965486168861389,
0.21776561439037323,
0.05796033516526222,
0.8717154264450073,
0.7043027877807617,
-0.10879737883806229,
0.1725189983844757,
-0.5074836611747742,
-0.12287412583827972,
0.8625848889350891,
-0.2213929295539856,
0.5131428241729736,
0.07341232895851135,
0.4998253881931305,
0.7152737379074097,
-0.01827440783381462,
-0.5309399366378784,
0.050780851393938065,
0.3098830580711365,
0.6788533926010132,
-0.005755760706961155,
-0.22817106544971466,
0.308403342962265,
-0.5480341911315918,
-0.26831045746803284,
0.251023530960083,
0.4500328004360199,
0.503876805305481,
-0.5407251119613647,
0.05818243324756622,
-0.5499054193496704,
-0.032667942345142365,
0.20250287652015686,
0.23739232122898102,
-0.09080225229263306,
-0.2397415041923523,
-0.33609023690223694,
-0.3831242024898529,
0.2809208631515503,
0.04372311383485794,
0.5443295240402222,
0.06323564052581787,
-0.3007740080356598,
-0.4657413363456726,
0.126718670129776,
-0.7525832056999207,
0.3522951602935791,
-0.2673240602016449,
-0.11523032188415527,
-0.16108134388923645,
-0.3571237325668335,
-0.062445368617773056,
-0.2895515263080597,
0.09630543738603592,
0.5083154439926147,
0.5826629996299744,
-0.07871443033218384,
0.6952365636825562,
0.2867206633090973,
0.018306894227862358,
0.4372800290584564,
0.07745049148797989,
0.20543919503688812,
-0.48281291127204895,
0.1669076532125473,
0.25735339522361755,
0.18761812150478363,
-0.021892208606004715,
-0.6521833539009094,
0.24863839149475098,
-0.21628640592098236,
0.04363011196255684,
0.055135585367679596,
-0.12727223336696625,
0.5653287768363953,
0.5113188028335571,
0.4835202991962433,
-0.464140921831131,
-0.36665743589401245,
0.2103494554758072,
-0.19155797362327576,
-0.007878731936216354,
0.5532779097557068,
0.23950789868831635,
-0.9418991804122925,
0.239296093583107,
0.28394439816474915,
0.4863850176334381,
-0.5307855010032654,
-0.2045016586780548,
0.5205694437026978,
0.2245212197303772,
-0.7639352679252625,
0.2443414330482483,
-0.16720041632652283,
0.4280218183994293,
0.3709808588027954,
0.13406413793563843,
-0.1392984241247177,
-0.41095852851867676,
-0.01936325989663601,
-0.1189941018819809,
-0.2812594473361969,
-0.12111814320087433,
-0.19658535718917847,
0.004465519916266203,
0.2162410169839859,
-0.03840428963303566,
1.0618627071380615,
-0.39285919070243835,
0.23857730627059937,
0.29606693983078003,
-0.08112504333257675,
0.8699725866317749,
1.0864049196243286,
-0.612297773361206,
0.8365994691848755,
-0.49191179871559143,
-0.24140848219394684,
-0.2320980429649353,
-0.1406390219926834,
-0.5501391887664795,
-0.1926511526107788,
-0.1775018721818924,
0.036862827837467194,
-0.751823902130127,
0.18877065181732178,
-0.31796178221702576,
0.22273005545139313,
0.24205055832862854,
-0.48372939229011536,
0.4146556258201599,
0.9008566737174988,
-0.02818046696484089,
-0.18896424770355225,
0.1302986443042755,
-0.2928926646709442,
0.027053574100136757,
-0.6829175353050232,
0.8747777938842773,
-0.15667228400707245,
-0.48466455936431885,
0.4120231866836548,
0.2855958938598633,
0.520756185054779,
0.12834732234477997,
-0.12026122957468033,
-0.08504629880189896,
-0.6534711122512817,
0.10377294570207596,
0.015137100592255592,
0.3326602578163147,
-0.20610880851745605,
-0.5024162530899048,
-0.04649289324879646,
-0.4017227292060852,
0.2345210313796997,
-0.2371828705072403,
0.7821201086044312,
-0.4852924048900604,
-0.4149615168571472,
-0.4189560115337372,
0.027392085641622543,
-0.2310134470462799,
-0.604831874370575,
-0.14141033589839935,
-0.8085656762123108,
-0.6911977529525757,
0.33804237842559814,
0.847128689289093,
-0.08855830878019333,
-0.1655551940202713,
-0.07598929852247238,
-0.3916878402233124,
1.0169671773910522,
-0.6295244097709656,
-0.11816073954105377,
-0.5387784242630005,
-0.22834153473377228,
-0.42559197545051575,
-0.1257573962211609,
0.4587900936603546,
-1.1353065967559814,
0.2783561944961548,
0.02130211889743805,
0.3218719959259033,
0.47318172454833984,
-0.23027782142162323,
-0.6217790246009827,
-0.036811139434576035,
-0.032973457127809525,
-0.04223179817199707,
0.417086124420166,
-0.19709037244319916,
0.3546273410320282,
0.50413978099823,
-5.538384437561035,
0.2570786476135254,
-0.16927765309810638,
-0.11819455772638321,
0.18977181613445282,
0.2215222269296646,
0.12305940687656403,
-0.04304977506399155,
-0.057640254497528076,
-0.19908207654953003,
0.6383159756660461,
-0.1459376960992813,
-0.32641351222991943,
0.25320670008659363,
-0.041602715849876404,
0.5582904815673828,
0.17063038051128387,
0.1579481065273285,
0.25691086053848267,
-0.000242506546783261,
0.12526793777942657,
0.08548357337713242,
-0.3406371772289276,
0.21752560138702393,
-0.06339053809642792,
0.05925695598125458,
-0.00003848563937935978,
-0.5561876893043518,
-0.9199994802474976,
-0.3542899489402771,
-0.5774133205413818,
-0.1277846395969391,
-0.26005032658576965,
0.07675997912883759,
-0.3318283259868622,
0.20815235376358032,
0.47786110639572144,
-0.06786976009607315,
-0.32269179821014404,
-0.15129849314689636,
-0.34362536668777466,
0.06217755377292633,
0.0813298150897026,
-0.3383883833885193,
0.4555324912071228,
0.2768052816390991,
-0.4238223731517792,
-0.7063300013542175,
0.07130777090787888,
0.5489790439605713,
-0.05864547938108444,
-0.3939879834651947,
0.5404844880104065,
0.4328182339668274,
0.4718816876411438,
0.378848671913147,
0.19703124463558197,
-0.10835392028093338,
-0.06708873808383942,
0.3967372477054596,
0.6095549464225769,
-0.2696167230606079,
-0.18609106540679932,
-1.187052607536316,
0.25697994232177734,
-0.14788773655891418,
-0.19981560111045837,
-0.02087407372891903,
0.6830145120620728,
-0.3176599442958832,
-0.2145448923110962,
0.3779512345790863,
-0.5411885380744934,
-1.063065528869629,
0.29510772228240967,
-0.14453907310962677,
-0.3764526844024658,
-0.02833736687898636,
-0.7405747771263123,
0.20029570162296295,
-0.1413935124874115,
-0.15533187985420227,
-0.33329227566719055,
-0.2570614814758301,
0.11270969361066818,
-0.11829840391874313,
-0.6038873195648193,
0.03908316045999527,
-0.18284174799919128,
0.24395859241485596,
0.7058570981025696,
-0.4278821051120758,
0.3189513683319092,
-0.04919421672821045,
0.7306606769561768,
0.671609103679657,
-0.13315449655056,
0.5102128982543945,
0.012871433049440384,
-0.13402974605560303,
0.4089522361755371,
-0.5666424036026001,
-0.11305616796016693,
-0.012887879274785519,
-0.13246369361877441,
-0.28765907883644104,
0.23766575753688812,
0.4433702528476715,
0.24408508837223053,
0.11396798491477966,
0.4041610658168793,
-0.40892282128334045,
-0.2339736968278885,
-0.08930014073848724,
0.3212394416332245,
-0.056858040392398834,
0.2272135615348816,
0.6215242147445679,
1.0005266666412354,
0.3577280640602112,
-0.2769037187099457,
0.5151622295379639,
-0.11811422556638718,
-0.6847067475318909,
-0.7360496520996094,
-0.3829362988471985,
-0.40178245306015015,
0.3876314163208008,
-0.3643747568130493,
-0.5370365381240845,
0.06802745163440704,
-0.047027889639139175,
0.08917272835969925,
0.4433966279029846,
-0.035076748579740524,
-0.1899258941411972,
-0.0004967882996425033,
0.03179022669792175,
0.34471943974494934,
-0.47364476323127747,
-0.3707215487957001,
-0.10155339539051056,
-0.30005910992622375,
-0.01838921569287777,
0.3470194339752197,
0.04699118435382843,
-0.244145005941391,
-0.2822018265724182,
-0.534687876701355,
1.623141884803772,
0.8610069155693054,
-0.8608035445213318,
0.23809465765953064,
-0.532234251499176,
-0.10994656383991241,
0.2780463695526123,
0.19885273277759552,
0.4624590575695038,
0.30605387687683105,
0.14659300446510315,
0.12301217764616013,
-0.2972472012042999,
-0.5644875764846802,
-0.03532229736447334,
0.5659662485122681,
-0.33927202224731445,
-0.49794137477874756,
-0.507936954498291,
-0.49506086111068726,
0.4559333622455597,
0.2196602076292038,
-0.10064477473497391,
-0.7688579559326172,
-0.1028643324971199,
0.41982489824295044,
-0.4701920747756958,
-0.020869266241788864,
0.5812932252883911,
-0.2638028562068939,
-0.22173036634922028,
-0.3140568733215332,
0.30947887897491455,
0.02844318374991417,
-0.29381293058395386,
0.30569005012512207,
-0.5875800251960754,
0.49884751439094543,
-0.6790820956230164,
-0.2755131125450134,
-0.3577750623226166,
0.20103946328163147,
0.46098223328590393,
0.1483931690454483,
-0.014464577659964561,
-0.8393150568008423,
0.018603846430778503,
-0.07253830879926682,
0.39323723316192627,
-0.24185220897197723,
-0.6999096870422363,
-0.5412198901176453,
0.33240753412246704,
-0.3352603614330292,
0.47124725580215454,
0.3884643018245697,
-0.44276633858680725,
0.33886754512786865,
-0.05231009051203728,
-0.15131525695323944,
-0.085869699716568,
-0.16409039497375488,
-0.6375536322593689,
-0.5594316720962524,
0.2798839509487152,
0.14292092621326447,
0.47546830773353577,
0.09238464385271072,
-0.03424815088510513,
-0.8412225842475891,
-0.3578166365623474,
-0.03936338797211647,
-0.4503755569458008,
0.32316285371780396,
-0.7817803621292114,
-0.01488804817199707,
0.283250093460083,
-0.1678355187177658,
-0.0897323414683342,
1.2008672952651978,
-0.7545965313911438,
-0.0824878141283989,
-0.4464232623577118,
-0.005459209438413382,
-0.22566460072994232,
-0.40640878677368164,
0.10707834362983704,
-0.2339811772108078,
-0.19181515276432037,
-0.0422976128757,
0.8234202265739441,
0.25392648577690125,
0.6986174583435059,
-0.06604843586683273,
-0.47655344009399414,
-0.5117922425270081,
-0.07762812077999115,
0.42809998989105225,
-0.02587057091295719,
-0.4558638334274292,
-0.5577852129936218,
0.36824530363082886,
-0.31990116834640503,
-0.45148587226867676,
0.27853265404701233,
1.2595080137252808,
0.13103093206882477,
0.13218913972377777,
-0.05790391191840172,
0.16061125695705414,
-0.15712466835975647,
0.2804940938949585,
-0.4448549151420593,
-0.4225236177444458,
-0.006853321101516485,
-0.20178531110286713,
0.15169158577919006,
-0.4170134961605072,
-0.025963202118873596,
0.6208416223526001,
-0.050305385142564774,
-0.02722463384270668,
0.16754889488220215,
-0.20419469475746155,
0.2510000467300415,
-0.5949422121047974,
0.21142424643039703,
0.5251283645629883,
-0.055274948477745056,
0.4781247675418854,
0.05766865238547325,
-0.5955966711044312,
0.49355724453926086,
0.4373653829097748,
0.41878464818000793,
0.16431771218776703,
-0.04525182768702507,
-0.33395424485206604,
-0.3697487413883209,
0.14085085690021515,
0.12282843142747879,
-0.3608335256576538,
0.3607931435108185,
-0.07377641648054123,
-0.02826036512851715,
0.45395445823669434,
-0.24279221892356873,
0.4473101496696472,
0.24666815996170044,
-0.3356306254863739,
0.24211947619915009,
-0.49589067697525024,
0.4912014901638031,
0.27302083373069763,
0.10048374533653259,
-0.008688332512974739,
-0.42417511343955994,
0.3912152051925659,
0.0468798466026783,
-0.6543729901313782,
-0.3694972097873688,
-0.07184388488531113,
-0.16764645278453827,
0.16359657049179077,
0.24817131459712982,
-0.27429068088531494,
0.8507487773895264,
0.6132278442382812,
-0.3546198010444641,
0.09776465594768524,
0.7785389423370361,
0.5580379962921143,
0.023411311209201813,
0.24816077947616577,
-0.15814685821533203,
0.13491089642047882,
0.4935459792613983,
-0.8186181783676147,
-0.1882685273885727,
0.642024040222168,
0.4618472158908844,
0.5299432873725891,
-0.15768368542194366,
-0.4868970811367035,
0.009495523758232594,
0.13372181355953217,
-0.3446119725704193,
0.06262457370758057,
-0.16574116051197052,
-0.688220202922821,
0.9933288097381592,
0.9295218586921692,
0.8049057126045227,
-0.26102614402770996,
0.13045045733451843,
0.3257872462272644,
0.16904839873313904,
-0.07637729495763779,
0.11910998076200485,
0.358647882938385,
0.27691373229026794,
0.5628572106361389,
0.4718320369720459,
-0.020441938191652298,
-0.1634913980960846,
0.12148851901292801,
0.23864787817001343,
-0.20933562517166138,
-0.03820798173546791,
0.17307431995868683,
-0.22861532866954803,
0.43817898631095886,
0.20089414715766907,
0.006092961877584457,
-0.10698918253183365,
-1.0325809717178345,
0.3311821520328522,
-0.4705209732055664,
-0.01826711744070053,
-0.37124669551849365,
-0.2051752358675003,
0.09146840125322342,
0.24226073920726776,
-0.2587504982948303,
0.4000823199748993,
-0.05247696116566658,
0.4837074279785156,
0.19858674705028534,
0.3788643479347229,
-0.16602344810962677,
-0.06302275508642197,
-0.2784470319747925,
-0.12353246659040451,
-0.2742253839969635,
-0.06561346352100372,
0.5704371333122253,
0.037970926612615585,
0.3630101680755615,
-0.17064490914344788,
-0.35147625207901,
0.3380799889564514,
-0.09599918872117996,
-0.7159324884414673,
-0.33821266889572144,
0.14218592643737793,
-0.05255551263689995,
-0.38573458790779114,
-0.36445873975753784,
0.8765997886657715,
-0.22231368720531464,
-0.3215619921684265,
0.6757674217224121,
-0.709368109703064,
0.14945343136787415,
-0.04440359026193619,
0.3500766456127167,
-0.31776168942451477,
-0.5703784823417664,
0.23654115200042725,
-1.1590979099273682,
-0.003883767407387495,
0.8384189605712891,
0.4367947280406952,
-0.05002034828066826,
0.09057904034852982,
0.08677298575639725,
0.364789754152298,
0.6620837450027466,
-0.13475343585014343,
-0.265449583530426,
-0.09292379021644592,
0.09016076475381851,
-0.8134931921958923,
0.22074812650680542,
1.0515507459640503,
-0.19478961825370789,
-0.5424001216888428,
0.6830503344535828,
-0.017688041552901268,
-0.6317384839057922,
0.36014261841773987,
0.3612116277217865,
0.1582360714673996,
-0.08581303805112839,
0.39053231477737427,
-0.6877298355102539,
-0.6417438983917236,
0.7721408605575562,
0.872057318687439,
-0.3004055321216583,
0.16412988305091858,
0.089260034263134,
0.13731414079666138,
0.791391909122467,
0.10050618648529053,
-0.21589896082878113,
-0.21634376049041748,
-0.4943394660949707,
-0.5622550249099731,
-0.6641692519187927,
-0.1988164186477661,
-0.26896268129348755,
0.2760827839374542,
0.3646736443042755,
-0.37365877628326416,
-0.29736328125,
0.9720842242240906,
0.09227914363145828,
-0.5781744122505188,
0.12511029839515686,
0.3286198079586029
] |
234725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauxhall%20Astra | Vauxhall Astra | The Vauxhall Astra is a compact car/small family car (C-segment) that has been sold by Vauxhall since 1980. It is currently produced at the Ellesmere Port, Cheshire, England.
For its first two generations, the nameplate was applied to right-hand drive versions of the Opel Kadett for use in the UK. Since 1991, Opel has used the Astra nameplate on its B/C-platform. General Motors' Saturn division in the United States also offered a Belgian-built version of the Astra as a captive import from late 2007 until Saturn was discontinued following GM's 2010 bankruptcy.
First generation (1980–1984)
The Astra name originated with the Vauxhall-badged version of the first front-wheel drive Opel Kadett, which had been launched in 1979 as the Opel Kadett D. This model, which went on sale in March 1980, replaced the Vauxhall Viva in the UK. The last rear-wheel drive Kadett had also formed the basis of the Vauxhall Chevette, which remained in production until 1984. The Astra was Vauxhall's first model to have front wheel drive. Not all trim levels were available with all body styles. Confusingly, in the British market both the Kadett D and the Astra were sold through separate marketing operations, with overlapping lineups that competed directly with each other. By 1982 this anomaly had been sorted out and the Opel lineup was limited to the well-equipped five-door Berlina (1.3S or 1.6S) and the sporty 1.6 SR, leaving most of the market to the Vauxhall-badged cars. As the consolidation of Opel and Vauxhall dealerships was completed, the Opel badged versions were eventually phased out entirely.
Production began at Opel's West German plant at Bochum in August 1979, with British deliveries of the Opel Kadett commencing in November 1979, four months before the Vauxhall-badged versions were launched.
The overhead-camshaft engine (not 1200) was a huge leap forward from the earlier generation of small engines used in Vauxhall and Opel cars in terms of power, economy and refinement. It was initially available in 1300 and 1600 forms, and later an 1800 fuel-injected version was added, used in the Mk 1 Astra GTE model, introduced in 1983. This version of the Astra was an alternative to the Ford Escort XR3, Volkswagen Golf GTI and Fiat Strada 105TC.
The car featured a new unified engine for Vauxhall/Opel, featuring an all-aluminium head, overhead camshaft and hydraulic valve lifters, and it quickly became popular with buyers. A 1200 cc version which used the older Opel OHV engine was also available.
There were three body styles for the first generation Astra: hatchback, saloon, and estate, all available with two or four side doors. The saloons were styled exactly like the hatchbacks, except for a different rear window above a boot lid; from the side they looked almost indistinguishable from the hatchback, with no protruding notch at the rear. The saloon version was replaced by the Belmont saloon based on the Astra MK2 in early 1986.
The white 1800 GTE was the first UK car to be 'colour-coded' with body trim that matched the base colour of the car, this included wheel arch extensions, front side and rear lower skirts, mirror covers, bumpers and even the alloy wheels were painted white. The black, silver and red versions of the GTE also had colour-coding but had the more conventional black bumpers and silver painted alloy wheels.
There was also a van version which was badged as the Bedford Astra – the Bedford brand at that time being used for GM's commercial vehicles in Britain and a few continental European markets. Unlike the previous Opel T-Car, no Coupé was offered.
Early versions of the Astra were imported from the Opel factories in Germany and Belgium, with production beginning at Vauxhall's Ellesmere Port plant on 16 November 1981.
Sales of this first Astra were strong, and gave Vauxhall a much-needed boost in the small family car sector after several years of declining sales with the Viva HC. It soon overtook the Austin Allegro as Britain's second most popular small family car, although it was still a long way behind the Ford Escort in terms of sales success.
The original Astra was awarded What Car?'''s: 'Car of the Year' for 1980. However, it was pipped to the European Car of the Year award by the Lancia Delta.
Versions available were:
1200 E (2/4-door saloon, 3/5-door hatchback, 3/5-door estate)
1300 cc OHC
1600 cc OHC
1800 cc OHC
Small Engine sizes with round lights on the Bonnet while Large Engine sizes would have square lights on the Bonnet.
Second generation (1984–1991)
The Mark 2 Astra was launched on 17 October 1984. It used the same range of engines and running gear as the Mark 1, but with a completely restyled body with better aerodynamics. It was voted 1985 European Car of the Year.
Long-lived, the Mark 2 was available in estate, hatchback, saloon and cabriolet versions. The saloon was launched in January 1986 and sold as the Vauxhall Belmont; this trend to brand saloon models independently of hatchbacks was also used by other manufacturers of the period, with examples including the Ford Orion and the Volkswagen Jetta. However, this strategy was mostly unsuccessful, as this was Vauxhall's only attempt at badging its hatchback-based saloon as a separate model, and Ford rebadged its Orion range as Escorts in September 1993.
In 1987 a special one off "design exercise" based on a 1986 1.8 GTE was built by the Ellesmere Port factory to celebrate its 25th (Silver) Anniversary. The Astra GTE "Quicksilver" was first shown at the British International Motor show in 1987 and displayed in the Ellesmere Port showroom throughout the Plant's "Silver Anniversary" year.
Bertone built 6,764 cabriolets from 1987 to 1993. These came as 1.6 (with ) and 2-litre () GTEs, the latter available with powered roof and electric windows. These cars are praised for their shake-free shells and their looks.
The Mark 2 Astra sold well in the UK, and although it was never able to outsell the Ford Escort, it came closer than any other similar-sized car to achieving this.
In 2005, a survey found the two most stolen cars in Britain to be the Vauxhall Belmont and the Vauxhall Astra Mark 2, with more than 1 in 13 Belmonts stolen.
Astra GTE
Soon after the Mark 2 Astra was launched, they introduced the GTE using a 1.8-litre engine lifted from the Mark 1 GTE, but this was quickly dropped in favour of a 2.0 litre unit due to poorer than expected performance. All GTE models featured an all electronic dash with digital speedometer. Analogue instruments were an optional extra, but were very rarely selected over the digital dash. In 1988 Vauxhall's twin-camshaft version of the engine, the C20XE known as the "red top" (due to the red spark plug cover), was fitted to the GTE and instantly created a stir with the motoring press because of its performance. When this engine was originally released in Europe and the UK it developed and 150 ft lbs of torque in standard form. A few years later the GTE 16v, now subject to stricter emissions regulations, was fitted with a catalytic converter and a new exhaust manifold, which robbed the engine of 6 bhp, and 5 ft lbs of torque, and added .5 of a second to the 0–60 mph time, raising it from 7.0 seconds to 7.5 seconds. In 1990 the "leather edition" limited-edition was launched, and an allocation of around 250 examples sold only through London dealerships. This special edition came with Bordeaux paint work, and crossed spoke alloy wheels. It was also known as the "London Edition" and featured in a single sheet brochure printed in April 1990. Between the brochure being printed, and the time they hit the road the "Leather Edition" acquired some extra dealer fit decals to help them stand out further from the standard 16 valve GTE. These decals comprise a small three colour flash on the tail gate next to the GTE badge, and the same colours under the bumper strips on the sides near the rear arch. A silver strip was also added adjacent to this. The colours used were that of the GM racing teams, and once fitted these cars also became known as the "Champion" Edition. They came with Recaro seats and door cards clad in Connolly Leather.
Third generation (1991–1998)
Released in 1991, the Mark 3 model was essentially an evolution of the Mark 2, rather than a complete redesign.
While Vauxhall had retained the Astra name, this generation was the first to be called Astra by Opel (succeeding the Kadett E), and the first to also be sold by Holden. It was offered as a three or five-door hatchback, a saloon, and an estate. A cabriolet was also offered, designed and built by Bertone.
The Astra was sold as a Holden first in New Zealand in 1995, and then in Australia in 1996. The first models were imported from the UK, then later from Belgium. The Holden Astra nameplate had originally been placed on a rebadged Nissan Pulsar, first sold in Australia in 1984.
The Astra F consisted of two main revisions and was revised in 1994, with the launch of Opel's new Ecotec engine. For a short period, a submodel which consisted of parts from both revisions was produced. The submodel used all the new Ecotec running gear, but many parts from the previous revision were used in order to use up leftover parts. Other main changes included mildly-altered exterior styling – featuring Vauxhall's new corporate 'V' front grille first seen on the 1994 Omega, a smoked grey trim panel available on all cars on the rear tailgate to smooth over the protruding rear lamp clusters, and availability of new specification models.
The top Vauxhall Astra model was the 3-door only GSi, powered by either the same 2.0 engine found in the Mk2, or a new 1.8 16v petrol injected model with . It also featured sports bodykit and interior. The GSi ceased production in 1994 but was reintroduced in 1997, with the engine being replaced with a lower-powered but more modern 'Ecotec' version (2.0 16v with 134 bhp) the bodykit was slightly altered on these models – a longer rear spoiler with integrated brake light, fluted side skirts, a bonnet without vents, and removal of the GSi16v badging from the bumper and tailgate (replaced by the later chrome effect Vauxhall Astra 2.0 16v badging). The second phase GSi's had air conditioning (and no sunroof) available as an option.
In common with other car manufacturers, the early 1990s saw Vauxhall featuring safety as a selling point, and beginning to incorporate many new safety features into cheaper family cars that were previously only found on expensive luxury saloons. The Mark 3 Astra was one of the first such cars, being introduced ahead of the Volkswagen Golf and Ford Mondeo, two other cars with a similar new-found focus on safety. So, the Mark 3 saw the introduction of twin side impact bars, a toughened safety cage, a safely-designed steering wheel (with collapsible columns) and 'body-lock' mechanical front seat-belt pre-tensioners. After the first face-lift full-size drivers air bags became optional or standard (depending on the model). Crash tests by consumers association (as featured by BBC's Watchdog show in 1992) and also by ADAC and Auto Express showed that the Mark 3 Astra protected better in crashes than most rivals of its time.
In the UK, Vauxhall offered the following trim levels (and in some cases, engine size):
MERIT (1.4i, 1.7 diesel, 1.7 turbodiesel)
L (1.4i)
LS (1.4i, 1.6i, 1.7 diesel, 1.7 turbodiesel, 1.7 Isuzu turbodiesel)
GLS (1.4i, 1.6i, 1.7 diesel, 1.7 Turbodiesel, 1.7 Isuzu turbodiesel)
DUO (1.6)
CD (1.4i, 1.6i, 1.7 turbodiesel, 1.8i, 2.0i)
CDX (1.6i 1.7 turbodiesel, 2.0i)
Si (1.4i, 1.6i)
SRi (2.0i)
GSi (2.0i 16v (1991 onwards) and 1.8 16v – very early models could be ordered with a 2.0i 8v)
The car also had 'special edition' badging, which indicated special trim:
Sport
Expression
California
Arctic
Arctic II
Arizona
Premier
Cesaro
Montana
Diamond
Swing
Ethos
Atlas
Pacific
In later Sport and GSi models (from 1995 onwards), Lotus Sprung Suspension was used to give a better ride. The Sport models essentially replaced the GSi cars in 1994/1995 due to a drop in sales caused by insurance prices rising sharply.
The Pacific special edition was a model that featured a complete Irmscher body styling package with 15" Cesaro wheels from the Mark 3 Cavalier.
Fourth generation (1998–2004)
Released in 1998, the MK4 addressed many of the criticisms of the MK3 in the UK with greatly improved ride and handling. The growing emphasis on safety was also reflected in greater body rigidity, resulting in a Euro NCAP 4 star crash test rating, considered excellent for its time.
In the UK the MK4 Astra was available with a range of 16v Ecotec engines as well some 8v units. The 8v unit was refined during the model's life however, with the Z16SE offering good all round performance compared with its higher insurance 16v equivalent. In addition to the standard hatchback, the MK4 also had a popular choice of the coupé and convertible, both released in 2000. Although it was replaced in 2004 by the MK5, variants of the model continued for a while afterwards, 5-door hatchbacks were sold until mid-2005 with a reduced range, while the coupe, convertible and Astravan models continued into 2006. This was available in four petrol engine types:
The 1.2 Z12XE produced 75 bhp (available in Ireland and other E. European countries only)
The 1.4 16v X14XE produced .
The 1.6 8v X16SZR produced 75 hp, later the Z16SE produced 85 hp
The 1.6 16v Produced , later the 1.6 Twinport Z16XEP produced 105 bhp
The 1.8 X18XE1 produced 115 bhp, later Z18XE .
The 2.0 X20XEV produced 134 bhp.
The 2.2 Z22SE produced .
The 2.0 Turbocharged produced SRI Turbo and GSI Turbo Variant.
There were also these diesel variants:
The 1.7 DTi producing .
The 1.7 CDTi producing .
The 2.0 DTL 16v producing 85 bhp
The 2.0 DTi Y20DTH producing 100 bhp
The 1.9 L F9Q CDTI I4
Fifth generation (2004–2010)
The Astra Mark V or H was first launched in early 2004 as a five-door hatchback, which by the end of the year was joined by a five-door estate and a sporty three-door hatchback called the Sport Hatch in the UK. The Sport Hatch had the option of a "panoramic windscreen" (unique for a production car at the time of its launch) which extended the windscreen into the roof area.
The main variants were Life, Club, Design, SXi, SRi, Elite, and the flagship VXR (Sport Hatch only), which had 240 bhp. However, special edition models included Active, Energy, Breeze and VXR Nurburgring. The latter was only available in white with a distinctive black (and white) chequered stripe across the bonnet, roof & tailgate.
The Petrol Models included 1.4 90 bhp, 1.6 105 bhp or 115 bhp, 1.8 140 bhp, 1.6 Turbo and 2.0 litre Turbo (VXR).
The Diesel Models included 1.3 90 bhp, 1.7 with either 80 or 100 bhp and 1.9 with either 120 or 150 bhp.
All Diesel models feature the initials CDTI and the majority of engines have 16 valves.
From 2006 the TwinTop 2-door coupé convertible was available in the Vauxhall Astra range, having already been a variant on the Tigra.
The Astra Mark V was also the first Astra to feature a Euro NCAP 5 star crash test rating.
The five-door Astra was replaced in late 2009 (although various models were still available throughout 2010), while the three-door Sport Hatch wasn't replaced until late 2011.
This was the last Astra to include an Astravan variant, production ceased in 2013 and was effectively replaced by the Fiat Doblo-based Combo van.
Sixth generation (2009–2016)
The Vauxhall Astra Mark 6 was officially unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and has been available to purchase since late 2009. The principal manufacturing plant for the latest Astra (though not for its Zafira sibling) is at Ellesmere Port enabling the manufacturer to benefit from sterling depreciation with this model. Design has been a major consideration in the development of new Vauxhall Astra and the car is heavily influenced by the Vauxhall Insignia.
Despite being more expensive than the Astra H, the Astra J has been a strong sales success in the UK, where it was the best- selling car in June 2010 with well over 10,000 sales – outselling its crucial rival the Ford Focus by nearly 50%. This, however, was at a time when production of the Mk2 Focus was being scaled back prior to the launch of a new MK3 model in early 2011.
The Estate version of the Astra, the 'Sports Tourer', debuted at the 2010 Paris Motor Show and went on sale shortly afterwards, with a starting price of £16,575 for the ES version, then Exclusiv, SRI and SE versions, with the SE costing from £20,345.
In BBC2's Top Gear'', the Astra Mark 6 in the Tech Line trim, was used as their fourth "Reasonably Priced Car".
Seventh generation (2015–2021)
The seventh generation Astra was launched at the Frankfurt Motor Show, in September 2015.
A totally new design, the car is 200 kg lighter than its predecessor. It features a newly developed 1 litre 3 cylinder petrol engine.
A special feature is the "OnStar" system, which allows you to call for assistance with an inbuilt dial.
Eighth generation (2021–)
The eighth generation Astra, which is derived from the Opel Astra L, was unveiled on 13 July 2021 and it went on sale on 12 November 2021. The vehicle is based on the third-generation of the EMP2 platform which made its wheelbase grow by . It will be offered as a hybrid for the first time and will unveil a 180-horsepower engine. The 225 horsepower version, taken from the Peugeot 508 and Peugeot 3008, will also be available on the GT version.
Sales
The MK1 Astra was a strong seller in the United Kingdom, and quickly established itself as Britain's second most popular small family car, but was never able to match the sales success of the Ford Escort.
The MK2 Astra was a bigger seller than its predecessor, though again it failed to match the Ford Escort in terms of sales success. It further widened the gap between Vauxhall and rival products from Austin Rover, although the combined sales of ARG's Rover 200 and Austin Maestro ranges were often at least a match for the Astra's total sales.
The MK3 Astra further narrowed the gap with the Ford Escort.
The MK4 Astra was, by 2001, the second best selling car in Britain overall, behind the Ford Focus. Combined sales of Opel and Vauxhall Astra G made it the 26th most popular car in the world, with a total production of 3,799,015.
The MK5 was the most successful version of the Astra. It was Britain's second-best selling car in 2005, 2006 and 2007, further narrowing the gap between itself and the market–leading Ford Focus.
In March 2009, nearly 2,500,000 Astras had been sold over five generations since its launch 30 years earlier, making it the fourth most popular car ever sold in Britain, with 90,641 sold in 2009.
For 2010, it was Britain's second-best selling new car with 80,646 sold. It was only outsold by the smaller Ford Fiesta, and finally managed to outsell the Ford Focus, and end Ford's lead of the small family car market after 37 years. Sales were down to 62,575 in 2011, becoming the fifth most popular new car in Britain.
Many British police forces use the Astra as a panda car. The MK6 was used by 54 constabularies.
Motorsport
The Astra has been used in auto racing around the globe, in particular in touring car racing. Its highest success were achieved in the British Touring Car Championship (see BTC-T Vauxhall Astra Coupe). The Astra Coupe replaced the Vectra in the BTCC after the regulations changed in 2001 and immediately became a successful car in British Touring Car Championship taking both first and second in the drivers championship in 2001 with Jason Plato, 2002 with James Thompson, 2003 with Yvan Muller & 2004 with James Thompson. The Astra Coupe was able to also take the Teams and Manufacturers Championships at the same time between 2001 and 2004. During its 4 years in the hands of the works VXRacing team it was almost invincible taking 61 wins. After 2004, it was decided that Vauxhall would retire the Astra Coupe and move on to the Mark 5 Astra Sport Hatch for the next two years. Due to the reliability and speed of the Astra Coupe, they were used by many independent teams such as GA Motorsport, Collards Motorsport, Thurlby Motors and Arkas Racing for the next few years with one car entered this year by Martin Johnson. The newer cars struggled to match the coupe's pace and were beaten by the Hondas and SEATs on many occasions. Yvan Muller was runner-up and Colin Turkington sixth in 2005. In 2006 Yvan Muller moved to the World Touring Car Championship while Colin Turkington moved back to MG. They were replaced by Fabrizio Giovanardi who finished fifth overall and gave Vauxhall its 100th BTCC win, Gavin Smith seventh and Tom Chilton eighth. For 2007, VX Racing dropped the Astra in favour of the Vectra C and reduced to two cars. Fabrizio Giovanardi and Tom Chilton drove for the team in 2007.
The BTC-T Vauxhall Astra Coupe was a car that won 25 out of 26 races in the 2001 British Touring Car Championship season. The Astra 4S finished fourth in the final round of the 1986 British Rally Championship.
Awards
The Vauxhall Astra VXR won the Best Sporting Car from the Scottish Car of the Year 2012 held at Glasgow on 14 October 2012.
References
External links
Official Vauxhall Astra website
GMCOG (General Motors Classic Owners Group)
Astra
Cars introduced in 1980
Compact cars
Convertibles
Coupés
Euro NCAP small family cars
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Hardtop convertibles
Hatchbacks
Sedans
Station wagons
Rally cars | [
-0.2800024747848511,
-0.09402912855148315,
0.6322656869888306,
0.12133966386318207,
-0.057030681520700455,
0.6717541813850403,
0.3098919689655304,
0.24230626225471497,
-0.3185498118400574,
0.4843113124370575,
0.08326705545186996,
0.22224102914333344,
0.3910194933414459,
0.589679479598999,
0.14537140727043152,
-0.11478138715028763,
0.5181660652160645,
0.48217251896858215,
0.23593348264694214,
-0.08299423009157181,
0.43848511576652527,
-0.08633547276258469,
0.8323577642440796,
-0.5578485727310181,
0.2525416910648346,
-0.10945560783147812,
0.39379340410232544,
0.2570171356201172,
0.25896719098091125,
0.24998053908348083,
-0.0024947768542915583,
1.042242407798767,
-0.1067483127117157,
-0.28921204805374146,
-0.17519189417362213,
-0.3590763211250305,
0.11922460049390793,
-0.1508743017911911,
-0.813141942024231,
-0.3757132589817047,
-0.42094501852989197,
-0.3633147180080414,
0.13343355059623718,
0.3706807494163513,
-0.3915959596633911,
-0.0708269253373146,
-0.7796705961227417,
-0.12845303118228912,
-0.5887979865074158,
0.29693034291267395,
-0.3275816738605499,
-0.360371470451355,
0.10843750834465027,
0.36325550079345703,
0.41879454255104065,
0.5248816013336182,
-0.8481404185295105,
-0.5141085982322693,
-0.1707780361175537,
-0.6258776783943176,
0.6221655607223511,
0.29745402932167053,
0.26700469851493835,
-0.00944446586072445,
-0.4304911196231842,
0.42133811116218567,
-0.05691784992814064,
-0.09216645359992981,
-0.3545277714729309,
0.07781137526035309,
-0.2784584164619446,
-0.3763667047023773,
0.11129657179117203,
0.07495708018541336,
-0.2415761947631836,
-0.8322896957397461,
-0.05804162845015526,
0.2661707401275635,
0.5843532681465149,
-0.23975512385368347,
0.48579728603363037,
-0.2707347869873047,
1.2361326217651367,
0.7553094029426575,
0.3096294403076172,
0.6464487910270691,
-0.2625448703765869,
-0.31513330340385437,
-0.20592522621154785,
0.20646025240421295,
-0.6323359608650208,
-0.5115786790847778,
0.9464893937110901,
0.2026950567960739,
-0.5302093625068665,
-0.23381030559539795,
0.22161953151226044,
-0.07959874719381332,
0.5653021335601807,
0.185563325881958,
0.44015616178512573,
0.5528811812400818,
-0.41336020827293396,
-0.7540158629417419,
-0.22262726724147797,
0.3428817689418793,
-0.29559484124183655,
0.12652456760406494,
-0.0015763279516249895,
-0.26292988657951355,
-0.5417729020118713,
-0.22717586159706116,
-0.010709187015891075,
-0.007260144222527742,
-0.16646383702754974,
0.36724069714546204,
-0.2548345923423767,
0.07938585430383682,
-0.05915708467364311,
0.5716346502304077,
0.8335757255554199,
0.2103012651205063,
0.5083611011505127,
0.031716056168079376,
0.4753059446811676,
0.5306110382080078,
0.515028715133667,
0.6915674209594727,
-0.07088755816221237,
0.3175837993621826,
0.06055961176753044,
0.2794390916824341,
-0.3303719758987427,
-0.05402332916855812,
-0.08369532972574234,
0.03976031020283699,
0.5722472667694092,
-0.2697746455669403,
0.5920647978782654,
0.8715319037437439,
-0.43946292996406555,
0.2692418098449707,
-0.506467342376709,
-0.609971284866333,
0.44517871737480164,
0.021286625415086746,
0.36440756916999817,
0.23061488568782806,
-0.41553619503974915,
-0.5098680853843689,
0.15894459187984467,
-0.7154297232627869,
0.4387276768684387,
-0.3505231440067291,
0.291380375623703,
0.7174500823020935,
-0.09629102051258087,
0.08154330402612686,
-0.27795910835266113,
0.16784857213497162,
0.278801292181015,
0.5166515111923218,
-0.35376518964767456,
0.2502443492412567,
0.7015305757522583,
-0.21482719480991364,
-0.2783791720867157,
-0.43429264426231384,
0.44055473804473877,
0.1037338525056839,
-0.051041048020124435,
0.11698494851589203,
0.8853362202644348,
-0.4546480178833008,
-0.16047489643096924,
0.2692430019378662,
0.583849310874939,
0.24215058982372284,
0.24008674919605255,
0.1737332046031952,
-0.49229156970977783,
0.1969396322965622,
0.4671560823917389,
0.01746329292654991,
0.8884921073913574,
0.43046385049819946,
0.7909536361694336,
0.27438002824783325,
-0.52995365858078,
-0.35119321942329407,
-0.5668646693229675,
-0.6758537888526917,
0.3276823163032532,
-0.43933922052383423,
0.34504660964012146,
-0.5908616185188293,
-0.9133947491645813,
0.6691897511482239,
-0.4266843795776367,
0.9161065220832825,
-0.06109356880187988,
0.2533576190471649,
0.48054012656211853,
-0.20880356431007385,
-0.4432533085346222,
-0.30807629227638245,
0.11656766384840012,
0.022790683433413506,
0.4636361598968506,
0.7863420844078064,
-0.07846196740865707,
-1.1601078510284424,
0.2526448965072632,
0.2662763297557831,
-0.13792915642261505,
0.07349631190299988,
-0.10518159717321396,
0.11433842778205872,
0.026225127279758453,
-0.27981287240982056,
1.2904181480407715,
0.3803444504737854,
-0.6390876173973083,
0.003820211160928011,
-0.5192123055458069,
0.3658512234687805,
0.009493079036474228,
-0.341017484664917,
-0.22641026973724365,
-0.01920979842543602,
0.164610356092453,
0.23506399989128113,
0.1690460443496704,
-0.6109073162078857,
0.3419684171676636,
0.7789444327354431,
0.2594375014305115,
-0.26301857829093933,
0.3568040728569031,
-0.19701649248600006,
0.5138041973114014,
0.41341596841812134,
-0.282882422208786,
0.8519216775894165,
0.21778863668441772,
0.06157273054122925,
0.5473638772964478,
0.7875460386276245,
-0.1350633203983307,
-0.8981711268424988,
-0.4114592671394348,
0.13577617704868317,
0.15512467920780182,
0.3095611035823822,
-0.1663689762353897,
0.31083202362060547,
0.21545082330703735,
-0.01992558315396309,
0.5737481117248535,
0.6685429811477661,
-0.6179089546203613,
0.139224112033844,
0.12288999557495117,
0.8662047982215881,
-0.2786334455013275,
-0.4221706688404083,
0.285256564617157,
-0.30664801597595215,
0.06407579034566879,
0.18434882164001465,
-0.06991682946681976,
-0.3244820237159729,
-0.6059504747390747,
-0.025772511959075928,
0.08337348699569702,
0.03086131438612938,
-0.8704659938812256,
0.17814353108406067,
0.04382510483264923,
-0.2480737864971161,
0.21154141426086426,
0.916387677192688,
1.2199358940124512,
-0.14659366011619568,
-0.563676118850708,
-0.08383427560329437,
0.205265611410141,
0.0857868418097496,
-0.21401438117027283,
0.003448452102020383,
0.374140202999115,
0.3077532947063446,
-1.1790285110473633,
0.01542781013995409,
-0.1769833266735077,
-0.38579297065734863,
-0.6830093264579773,
0.48811259865760803,
0.4181426167488098,
-0.0023284927010536194,
-0.4894120395183563,
0.3283804655075073,
-0.6851872205734253,
0.03414216265082359,
0.6937232613563538,
0.1420600563287735,
-0.09944609552621841,
-0.9127120971679688,
-5.473370552062988,
-0.047760624438524246,
-0.22186098992824554,
-0.19050830602645874,
0.15912404656410217,
0.19029414653778076,
0.38863128423690796,
-0.1226559653878212,
-0.8722832798957825,
-0.6572285890579224,
0.30224430561065674,
0.03719772771000862,
-0.2848742604255676,
0.7199963331222534,
-0.1017506942152977,
1.0586806535720825,
-0.15249772369861603,
-0.3968397080898285,
0.344220370054245,
-0.16680912673473358,
-0.22312261164188385,
-0.4486340284347534,
-0.3104155361652374,
-0.04126705229282379,
0.21070154011249542,
-0.5398418307304382,
-0.6507997512817383,
-0.1997384876012802,
-0.5418066382408142,
-0.1172117367386818,
-0.20809653401374817,
0.1479010432958603,
-0.47063085436820984,
-0.21100099384784698,
-0.33453983068466187,
-0.42019912600517273,
0.08999326080083847,
-0.4101523458957672,
0.3557683229446411,
-0.4160049855709076,
-0.16036561131477356,
0.4389532506465912,
0.725226104259491,
0.3031744360923767,
0.2320200353860855,
0.15953974425792694,
-0.3444282114505768,
-0.19593942165374756,
-0.018493233248591423,
0.819258451461792,
0.5084789991378784,
-0.3725121021270752,
-0.1790517270565033,
-0.3323824405670166,
0.09040949493646622,
-0.13364407420158386,
0.3353593945503235,
0.15328022837638855,
0.20327353477478027,
0.5971958041191101,
-0.12832432985305786,
-0.16240958869457245,
0.3012263774871826,
-0.659963071346283,
-0.28888827562332153,
0.2616983652114868,
-0.12437709420919418,
0.07390248775482178,
0.2063230574131012,
0.36021557450294495,
-0.06810320913791656,
0.3348824679851532,
-0.44853782653808594,
-1.2375866174697876,
-0.04096537455916405,
-0.23280665278434753,
0.3260117173194885,
0.23302419483661652,
-0.1575564444065094,
0.6254796981811523,
0.4893206059932709,
-0.3740019202232361,
-0.428010493516922,
0.11720212548971176,
-0.0279140155762434,
-0.905130922794342,
-0.34059426188468933,
0.04878690838813782,
0.18844521045684814,
-0.06988118588924408,
0.6485080718994141,
-0.3863070011138916,
0.006104613654315472,
-0.2872028052806854,
-0.2928403913974762,
-0.3060813248157501,
0.029148297384381294,
0.1577441543340683,
0.02330227568745613,
-0.6384767889976501,
-0.7284451723098755,
-0.031156836077570915,
0.172184556722641,
-0.3871039152145386,
-0.9056024551391602,
-0.29669052362442017,
-0.562395453453064,
0.13533397018909454,
0.6400994658470154,
-0.3012581765651703,
0.0029049706645309925,
-0.7688215374946594,
-0.6269391179084778,
-0.19038991630077362,
0.7237390875816345,
-0.058613620698451996,
-0.7200133204460144,
0.3584851324558258,
0.2883729040622711,
-0.9935919642448425,
-0.11883500963449478,
0.2118384838104248,
-0.46774816513061523,
-0.429105669260025,
-0.8787824511528015,
-0.08509750664234161,
0.16067561507225037,
0.31047120690345764,
-0.22711479663848877,
-0.0931200310587883,
-0.3803257644176483,
0.5248575806617737,
-0.25248968601226807,
-0.3860660791397095,
0.12118464708328247,
0.08592302352190018,
-0.2100660800933838,
0.16154201328754425,
0.48013827204704285,
-0.0459744930267334,
0.643416702747345,
-0.10167103260755539,
0.11077581346035004,
0.3882741928100586,
0.27114740014076233,
0.5677003264427185,
0.6915959715843201,
-0.07242046296596527,
-0.23117020726203918,
-0.05384775251150131,
0.10392115265130997,
-0.07990002632141113,
0.511570394039154,
-0.04018155112862587,
0.250520259141922,
-0.5201787948608398,
0.2541952431201935,
0.0005787504487670958,
-0.46607449650764465,
-0.8404141664505005,
0.09559962898492813,
-0.08289757370948792,
-0.426428884267807,
0.35500600934028625,
0.48571497201919556,
0.2774374485015869,
0.023081952705979347,
-1.0522854328155518,
-0.2641814053058624,
0.49421536922454834,
0.4287066161632538,
-0.6004469394683838,
0.026822157204151154,
-0.4564954340457916,
0.5151467323303223,
0.400056391954422,
0.1952211558818817,
-0.45776116847991943,
-0.6292469501495361,
-0.2289748638868332,
0.13831020891666412,
0.30636313557624817,
-0.39981722831726074,
0.11938903480768204,
0.581357479095459,
-0.5503612756729126,
-0.9739941954612732,
0.12211763113737106,
0.45281633734703064,
-0.26090574264526367,
0.01240625325590372,
0.4514045715332031,
0.15765900909900665,
0.5801770091056824,
-0.652462899684906,
-0.5661109685897827,
-0.2849102318286896,
0.3585347533226013,
-0.6477964520454407,
-0.7797144651412964,
-0.06046345829963684,
0.3637339174747467,
0.5992105603218079,
0.27004313468933105,
0.2973244786262512,
-0.47077661752700806,
0.5334651470184326,
0.38748329877853394,
-0.49293413758277893,
0.6142358183860779,
-0.5782288908958435,
-0.5960353016853333,
0.5884935855865479,
0.7746994495391846,
-0.32169660925865173,
0.5423422455787659,
-0.25785428285598755,
-0.23474010825157166,
-0.8606062531471252,
-0.36983728408813477,
0.08029980212450027,
-0.659251868724823,
-0.29560527205467224,
-0.8859646320343018,
-1.0827544927597046,
0.44741886854171753,
0.7031811475753784,
-0.13712869584560394,
0.6073240041732788,
0.08087361603975296,
-0.13451634347438812,
0.20608730614185333,
-0.5645514130592346,
-0.6978681087493896,
0.21051010489463806,
-0.2547931671142578,
-0.06378716975450516,
0.18611693382263184,
-0.09179192781448364,
0.3332878053188324,
-0.11672662943601608,
0.38542377948760986,
-0.34551694989204407,
-0.4779249429702759,
-0.4255163371562958,
0.11505012214183807,
-0.4722924530506134,
0.0884518250823021,
-0.6907424330711365,
0.6844347715377808,
-0.44776856899261475,
-0.20400092005729675,
-0.4793434739112854,
-0.6161999106407166,
0.8743814826011658,
0.3838392198085785,
-0.38204482197761536,
0.02357863448560238,
-0.09829550236463547,
0.1628655642271042,
-0.2156861126422882,
0.7011741995811462,
-0.3835263252258301,
0.17735645174980164,
-0.13942687213420868,
0.16700153052806854,
-0.20820946991443634,
-0.5487908720970154,
0.5466687083244324,
-0.37153658270835876,
-0.15226231515407562,
-0.26399654150009155,
0.33044517040252686,
0.45283380150794983,
0.2671966254711151,
-0.2995450794696808,
-0.2095874398946762,
-0.49243849515914917,
0.4755606949329376,
-0.16651852428913116,
-0.3689038157463074,
0.5973953604698181,
0.50661301612854,
0.22955428063869476,
0.04749613627791405,
-0.5194893479347229,
-0.019359908998012543,
-0.4555223286151886,
-0.012706175446510315,
0.5524688959121704,
0.17489904165267944,
-0.17905737459659576,
0.38581570982933044,
0.4551696479320526,
-0.44608548283576965,
0.41032934188842773,
0.28087082505226135,
0.1122223511338234,
-0.2332501858472824,
0.546972930431366,
0.3081030249595642,
-0.16011378169059753,
0.6324728727340698,
0.045195650309324265,
-0.30660367012023926,
0.3485843539237976,
0.14149627089500427,
-0.4922558069229126,
0.05271386355161667,
0.2793910503387451,
0.04295209050178528,
-0.6942922472953796,
0.1289905458688736,
0.3463352620601654,
-0.586456835269928,
0.1219545379281044,
-0.11569073796272278,
-0.2853062152862549,
-0.04812546819448471,
0.18114235997200012,
0.2077825665473938,
0.49401965737342834,
-0.29544395208358765,
-0.2944715619087219,
-0.5809425115585327,
1.1250395774841309,
-0.619516909122467,
-0.20075824856758118,
0.18209637701511383,
0.7689759135246277,
0.4172275960445404,
0.22811616957187653,
-0.33666273951530457,
0.2458050698041916,
0.19863447546958923,
0.15674029290676117,
-0.3001335859298706,
-0.5278979539871216,
0.0574776753783226,
0.4375779628753662,
0.33319342136383057,
0.4257463812828064,
-0.06172362342476845,
-0.44617998600006104,
-0.1328510344028473,
0.3112095594406128,
0.18964198231697083,
0.24957123398780823,
0.7294142246246338,
-0.08503098785877228,
0.3676164746284485,
0.033978309482336044,
0.1132979765534401,
-0.1707192361354828,
-0.3252834677696228,
0.38760536909103394,
-0.19788777828216553,
-0.5063526034355164,
-0.26854756474494934,
0.08322428166866302,
0.009845181368291378,
0.05121656507253647,
0.19207113981246948,
0.3040381371974945,
-0.731833815574646,
-0.0402352400124073,
-0.4182652533054352,
-0.4738425016403198,
0.1160852462053299,
0.14997558295726776,
-0.18659067153930664,
0.18592901527881622,
-0.16820836067199707,
0.054329197853803635,
-0.1781480461359024,
0.01980559341609478,
0.42244473099708557,
0.2381129115819931,
-0.0604972317814827,
0.08718378841876984,
-0.6377654671669006,
-0.057304684072732925,
-0.7879440784454346,
-0.5024353861808777,
-0.08990710973739624,
-0.1540149450302124,
-0.20948468148708344,
0.23241354525089264,
-0.01674943044781685,
-0.11338447779417038,
-0.739227294921875,
-0.5632080435752869,
0.4232049882411957,
0.05242336913943291,
-0.3050510883331299,
-0.2970767319202423,
0.007695603650063276,
0.0706515982747078,
-0.2629491090774536,
-0.15805453062057495,
0.10560639202594757,
0.13747452199459076,
-0.36257731914520264,
0.5536822080612183,
0.2377178966999054,
0.7396485805511475,
0.022944683209061623,
-0.29063093662261963,
0.12851275503635406,
0.37783536314964294,
-0.0046307360753417015,
-0.2192826271057129,
-0.12936890125274658,
0.329479455947876,
-0.03996402770280838,
-0.24627159535884857,
0.527932345867157,
0.007575965020805597,
-0.6291271448135376,
-0.30678555369377136,
0.009243713691830635,
-0.008186748251318932,
0.6175578236579895,
0.12525574862957,
-0.07130131870508194,
0.4281967282295227,
0.7266242504119873,
-0.40749573707580566,
-0.2058616280555725,
0.49874284863471985,
0.366509348154068,
0.12071379274129868,
-0.5603731870651245,
0.25963646173477173,
-0.5427170991897583,
-0.29204413294792175,
0.17191199958324432,
0.0022359821014106274,
0.037441566586494446,
0.3553069531917572,
0.21151329576969147,
-0.16579289734363556,
0.9770920276641846,
-0.3623568117618561,
0.2968651354312897,
0.25917500257492065,
-0.8005579113960266,
-0.4482216238975525,
-1.3202766180038452,
-0.26877447962760925,
-0.16278398036956787,
-0.2168636918067932,
0.144243985414505,
-0.6254960298538208,
0.33915841579437256,
-0.36990123987197876,
0.5883875489234924,
-0.8276540637016296,
-0.4198610484600067,
-0.44477468729019165
] |
234726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTE%20%28disambiguation%29 | RTE (disambiguation) | RTÉ is the abbreviation for Raidió Teilifís Éireann, the public broadcasting service of the Republic of Ireland.
RTE may also refer to:
People
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 1954), President of Turkey
Mathematics and computing
Radiative transfer equation, a mathematical description of energy transfer
Round-trip engineering, a software engineering concept
Runtime environment
Other uses
Real-time enterprise, a business fulfilling orders immediately
Réseau de Transport d'Électricité, the French electrical transmission operator
Right to Education Act, a 2009 decree in India
Route 128 (Amtrak station) (station code: RTE), in Massachusetts, USA
Campo de Marte Airport (IATA code: RTE), Private airport in São Paulo, Brazil | [
0.4744569659233093,
0.2535763084888458,
-0.5252456068992615,
-0.827272891998291,
-0.4028894603252411,
-0.25538504123687744,
0.670104444026947,
0.3310016095638275,
-0.12821745872497559,
-0.08336412906646729,
-0.6067270040512085,
0.5582747459411621,
-0.5968846082687378,
0.08914875239133835,
-0.3319894075393677,
0.2707558870315552,
0.594366192817688,
0.3206010162830353,
0.5347150564193726,
-0.7593894004821777,
-0.10325606167316437,
0.43771886825561523,
-0.13435834646224976,
-0.39269310235977173,
0.30959394574165344,
0.01634061336517334,
0.29737550020217896,
-0.2970176339149475,
-0.5562288165092468,
0.021454863250255585,
0.3470619320869446,
-0.15341538190841675,
0.012682490050792694,
0.06853285431861877,
0.013265611603856087,
0.2598835825920105,
0.5167893171310425,
-0.2157086879014969,
-0.48893359303474426,
0.12688370048999786,
-0.17784276604652405,
-0.7390109300613403,
-0.062404483556747437,
0.3236229717731476,
-0.25746989250183105,
0.325120747089386,
-1.3131057024002075,
0.8738722205162048,
-0.47947242856025696,
0.598227858543396,
-0.9122768044471741,
0.013699153438210487,
0.1464933156967163,
0.6607974767684937,
-0.35291963815689087,
0.23445533215999603,
-0.3254222273826599,
-0.23150336742401123,
0.2433759570121765,
-0.31186601519584656,
0.5692444443702698,
0.5343812704086304,
-0.06839548051357269,
0.07519816607236862,
-0.2506904602050781,
-0.3551691472530365,
0.21116767823696136,
0.3944022059440613,
-0.5305127501487732,
-0.4002372920513153,
0.1559799164533615,
-0.01124749518930912,
-0.48375776410102844,
-0.05879208818078041,
-0.06133798882365227,
-0.12406162917613983,
0.2355051189661026,
-0.3066667318344116,
0.07853561639785767,
-0.10423285514116287,
0.21532082557678223,
0.41099557280540466,
0.1804535984992981,
0.1152283251285553,
0.21579301357269287,
-0.15194305777549744,
-0.6513078212738037,
-0.1414509415626526,
-0.23611746728420258,
0.5553368926048279,
-0.06395081430673599,
-0.20332328975200653,
0.16562756896018982,
-0.19959400594234467,
-0.7074187994003296,
0.25108107924461365,
0.32482972741127014,
0.24794325232505798,
0.17834696173667908,
-0.14376217126846313,
-0.22220756113529205,
-0.15785063803195953,
0.1522531360387802,
-0.20217488706111908,
-0.40046027302742004,
-0.47853925824165344,
-0.275613009929657,
-0.156244695186615,
-0.36819663643836975,
0.10251700133085251,
-0.42299550771713257,
0.03336897864937782,
-0.04112761840224266,
0.271623432636261,
0.03492998331785202,
-0.7098641991615295,
0.03922763839364052,
0.04444181174039841,
-0.22674641013145447,
0.4670037031173706,
0.005584104917943478,
0.6902004480361938,
-0.20702184736728668,
0.19889678061008453,
-0.013299926184117794,
0.37057948112487793,
0.2044074982404709,
0.4314647614955902,
-0.1423620730638504,
0.19940905272960663,
-0.06671024858951569,
0.7385334372520447,
-0.5800237655639648,
-0.34714144468307495,
0.04011574760079384,
-0.03490452840924263,
0.3465937674045563,
-0.24692203104496002,
0.5166744589805603,
0.4777645468711853,
-0.5129221081733704,
0.09307850152254105,
-0.7518554925918579,
0.08920758217573166,
0.15030604600906372,
-0.06867539137601852,
-0.18620184063911438,
0.4452352821826935,
-0.1843259334564209,
-0.1196633130311966,
-0.15738360583782196,
-0.11927244812250137,
0.4182189404964447,
0.9106531739234924,
-0.09767705947160721,
0.1096821203827858,
-0.06444656103849411,
0.014589554630219936,
-0.3997880816459656,
0.34988269209861755,
-0.02160649374127388,
-0.046597983688116074,
0.08438294380903244,
0.22038434445858002,
0.06799765676259995,
0.36017000675201416,
-0.10617848485708237,
0.5526813864707947,
0.376855731010437,
-0.8352338671684265,
-0.47665899991989136,
-0.4495697021484375,
0.8887096047401428,
-0.34927207231521606,
-0.3860328197479248,
0.19429771602153778,
0.21579504013061523,
-0.25688326358795166,
0.20141048729419708,
-0.10480551421642303,
-0.8121691346168518,
0.03614694997668266,
0.3458649516105652,
0.2654900550842285,
0.2962105870246887,
0.05192235857248306,
0.5519578456878662,
-0.21662500500679016,
-0.3121959865093231,
0.11671088635921478,
-0.5281766653060913,
-0.5732589364051819,
0.14394715428352356,
-1.2377620935440063,
0.10636390745639801,
-0.6115646958351135,
-0.12159723043441772,
0.5931439399719238,
0.13852617144584656,
0.4830898642539978,
0.43730536103248596,
-0.06677775830030441,
0.3783840239048004,
-0.22927261888980865,
-0.310570627450943,
0.9138492941856384,
0.30036312341690063,
0.09926368296146393,
0.21887750923633575,
-0.020577119663357735,
0.6406130790710449,
-0.27338695526123047,
0.45033249258995056,
0.07747114449739456,
-0.44962018728256226,
-0.16313934326171875,
-0.03677854686975479,
-0.3405414819717407,
-0.13153913617134094,
-0.10333913564682007,
0.7130962014198303,
0.0653172954916954,
0.19793157279491425,
0.23867946863174438,
-0.4160819351673126,
0.529276967048645,
0.0989287942647934,
0.1982525885105133,
0.4640524089336395,
-0.7310640215873718,
0.016953134909272194,
-0.10142526030540466,
-0.0771094560623169,
-0.6460062861442566,
0.12030996382236481,
-0.3403191566467285,
0.14750072360038757,
0.14275801181793213,
0.6103127002716064,
-0.5439978241920471,
0.37142321467399597,
-0.1772799789905548,
-0.11827389895915985,
-0.11520220339298248,
0.031683873385190964,
0.26497310400009155,
-0.16426825523376465,
0.3784646689891815,
-0.10708136111497879,
-0.17103278636932373,
0.872708797454834,
-0.11324576288461685,
0.3592965304851532,
-0.47823023796081543,
-0.009466039948165417,
0.32601398229599,
-0.14558054506778717,
-0.15661084651947021,
0.23922984302043915,
0.1010119616985321,
-0.18592284619808197,
-0.00006440444849431515,
0.09675901383161545,
-0.32053351402282715,
0.04612860456109047,
-0.828436017036438,
-0.7600743770599365,
-0.13074453175067902,
0.33624404668807983,
-0.016760392114520073,
0.4673280715942383,
-0.16919079422950745,
-0.2299712747335434,
0.08811455219984055,
-0.33379876613616943,
0.45658770203590393,
0.3327465355396271,
0.5550843477249146,
-0.43026116490364075,
-0.1803235113620758,
-0.32236403226852417,
-0.11047390103340149,
0.12554050981998444,
-0.7001751661300659,
-0.8238524794578552,
0.6499451994895935,
-0.20936688780784607,
-0.5311316847801208,
-0.5390891432762146,
0.21245303750038147,
-0.34322696924209595,
0.04627813398838043,
0.04219818487763405,
-0.3742283880710602,
0.32698556780815125,
-0.09542922675609589,
0.7593741416931152,
0.16664926707744598,
-0.3030344843864441,
-0.31313589215278625,
-0.5498216152191162,
0.5115910172462463,
-0.3141632378101349,
-0.511243462562561,
-0.1877129226922989,
-0.06628493219614029,
-0.47685810923576355,
-0.1870848387479782,
-5.831966400146484,
0.14601609110832214,
-0.3986799716949463,
-0.10615076124668121,
-0.01781301200389862,
-0.8075189590454102,
0.313071608543396,
-0.024634091183543205,
-0.04905198514461517,
-0.7727863192558289,
0.16296984255313873,
-0.42814138531684875,
0.4383818805217743,
0.30708691477775574,
0.21567264199256897,
-0.375385046005249,
0.5341823697090149,
-0.26309362053871155,
0.3292140066623688,
0.5661035180091858,
-0.36871373653411865,
-0.1440950483083725,
0.5912365913391113,
0.2543788254261017,
0.18345870077610016,
0.685845673084259,
-0.05095752701163292,
-0.08988510817289352,
-0.008908158168196678,
-0.1029883623123169,
0.5108864307403564,
-0.7191912531852722,
0.3528776466846466,
-0.02430291473865509,
-0.41478386521339417,
-0.20264238119125366,
0.6803429126739502,
-0.3580458164215088,
0.10910618305206299,
-0.7777332067489624,
0.10778395086526871,
0.06440755724906921,
0.3081094026565552,
-0.2363450825214386,
0.3903195559978485,
-0.2995534837245941,
-0.7035454511642456,
0.27462849020957947,
-0.7109959721565247,
1.1857852935791016,
-0.13309045135974884,
0.329668790102005,
0.10332397371530533,
0.25100669264793396,
0.041989631950855255,
-0.3976369798183441,
-0.04748614504933357,
-0.5245903730392456,
-0.14852362871170044,
0.5677590370178223,
0.5207064151763916,
-0.188943549990654,
-0.5071951150894165,
-0.20089396834373474,
-0.401980996131897,
-0.17129690945148468,
-0.742343544960022,
-0.23669198155403137,
0.5351718664169312,
-0.03843590244650841,
-0.5097138285636902,
-0.02696886844933033,
0.5358044505119324,
-0.6515268683433533,
-0.43093302845954895,
-0.10140301287174225,
-0.022209446877241135,
0.15466487407684326,
0.23715803027153015,
0.3213461637496948,
-0.4494616985321045,
-0.37307581305503845,
-0.5356652140617371,
-0.04468436911702156,
0.29973915219306946,
-0.517496645450592,
-0.37101128697395325,
0.7812693119049072,
0.09192684292793274,
-0.27699944376945496,
1.0887705087661743,
-0.23736104369163513,
0.15668044984340668,
0.7342003583908081,
-0.0783664807677269,
1.0660152435302734,
0.22656920552253723,
0.16724660992622375,
0.6335013508796692,
0.5316340923309326,
-0.004225826356559992,
-0.24218180775642395,
0.6836245656013489,
-0.6964116096496582,
0.14148160815238953,
-0.3574180006980896,
-0.4165676236152649,
-0.040777239948511124,
0.4488919675350189,
-0.7263768315315247,
-0.29964062571525574,
-0.11205371469259262,
-1.1312865018844604,
0.04953833296895027,
0.25675883889198303,
-0.15266145765781403,
0.20902052521705627,
-0.3669857084751129,
0.5306928157806396,
-0.07599378377199173,
0.4495513141155243,
0.4744457006454468,
0.011064652353525162,
-0.22437767684459686,
-1.3990739583969116,
-0.14514994621276855,
0.15112626552581787,
0.048708993941545486,
0.5295624732971191,
0.07713146507740021,
0.026075230911374092,
0.22038447856903076,
0.28014513850212097,
0.09785203635692596,
-0.3118900954723358,
0.09922323375940323,
-0.0029924199916422367,
0.1039796993136406,
0.4395911991596222,
-0.3937098979949951,
0.4188758134841919,
-0.41051843762397766,
0.07244669646024704,
-0.09821444004774094,
0.6520328521728516,
0.6874067187309265,
-0.6466013789176941,
-0.7253091335296631,
-0.16538158059120178,
0.04432860016822815,
0.366545706987381,
-0.37113162875175476,
0.36359483003616333,
-0.262869268655777,
-0.32376828789711,
0.5475468635559082,
0.07188498973846436,
-0.3430209159851074,
-0.5804174542427063,
-0.17327801883220673,
0.13526251912117004,
-0.5585358738899231,
-0.5652458071708679,
0.10721836984157562,
0.7816882133483887,
-0.3639114499092102,
0.48011255264282227,
-0.2156325727701187,
0.01216433010995388,
0.43602001667022705,
-0.861392617225647,
-0.07350718975067139,
-0.2762059271335602,
0.06304201483726501,
0.41525834798812866,
0.325469046831131,
-0.055445875972509384,
0.5225245952606201,
0.13161242008209229,
0.8921200633049011,
0.42710423469543457,
0.2323639690876007,
-0.06893360614776611,
0.7964527010917664,
0.27740150690078735,
-0.6582043766975403,
-0.29823699593544006,
0.45966124534606934,
-0.08129791170358658,
0.2747275233268738,
0.431384801864624,
0.6380296349525452,
0.5054237246513367,
0.06734282523393631,
-0.11924751847982407,
-0.4487823247909546,
-0.4051554501056671,
0.2719535231590271,
0.005057906731963158,
-0.45759037137031555,
0.35496625304222107,
0.4619258642196655,
-0.2875746488571167,
-0.32970893383026123,
0.16828908026218414,
-0.5822107195854187,
0.34044867753982544,
-0.2932479679584503,
-0.35229796171188354,
0.2857401669025421,
-0.06134919822216034,
-0.7850936055183411,
-0.3753967583179474,
0.42570018768310547,
-0.02646464854478836,
-0.0815131738781929,
-0.1426660567522049,
0.22513447701931,
0.08128491044044495,
-0.7104649543762207,
0.29071301221847534,
-0.3468267023563385,
0.3876710534095764,
0.7064473032951355,
0.43253758549690247,
0.32101669907569885,
-0.16062597930431366,
-0.7295050621032715,
0.3972577452659607,
0.16902686655521393,
-0.5540620684623718,
0.41005948185920715,
0.48145055770874023,
0.7095625400543213,
-0.3571658730506897,
-0.2614584267139435,
0.3470691740512848,
0.6770827174186707,
-0.5240666270256042,
0.5294505953788757,
0.6620815396308899,
1.0463509559631348,
-0.1340598613023758,
-0.45429137349128723,
-0.17839576303958893,
0.38292208313941956,
0.4006967842578888,
-0.17134295403957367,
-0.03883914276957512,
0.07913096994161606,
-0.14178358018398285,
-0.04934421554207802,
-0.7546153664588928,
-0.06872762739658356,
0.8869819641113281,
-1.0084513425827026,
0.34768569469451904,
0.1581084281206131,
0.14621515572071075,
-0.03044125996530056,
0.39242270588874817,
-0.32516342401504517,
-0.04909002035856247,
0.31561633944511414,
0.31104323267936707,
0.1332254856824875,
-0.4263015687465668,
-0.5625195503234863,
0.4711019992828369,
0.013346776366233826,
-0.16415740549564362,
-0.07336799800395966,
0.39298442006111145,
0.7333656549453735,
0.5639058947563171,
0.09647392481565475,
0.12334396690130234,
-0.2758376896381378,
0.25954821705818176,
-0.20864370465278625,
-0.16838650405406952,
-0.1812911331653595,
0.08739233016967773,
-0.0018844592850655317,
-0.04677879810333252,
-0.5081075429916382,
0.3788995146751404,
0.2668057084083557,
-0.5328094363212585,
-0.4487950801849365,
-0.11398716270923615,
-0.32199767231941223,
0.10663191974163055,
-0.11579560488462448,
-0.19197656214237213,
-0.0824018344283104,
0.06802280992269516,
0.16686739027500153,
0.29414746165275574,
0.17497240006923676,
-0.3125356435775757,
-0.5119481086730957,
0.0752887949347496,
-0.168693408370018,
-0.4893665015697479,
-0.250517338514328,
-0.010237506590783596,
-0.6905173659324646,
0.3683496415615082,
-0.45466238260269165,
0.20980744063854218,
-0.05547427758574486,
0.9435986280441284,
0.5540440082550049,
-0.1411401480436325,
0.1445496827363968,
0.6763488054275513,
-0.5261122584342957,
-0.2707691490650177,
0.30950483679771423,
0.10448203235864639,
0.2962128818035126,
0.12220456451177597,
0.3520399034023285,
-0.22506412863731384,
0.4890907108783722,
-0.2696121633052826,
-0.06288953125476837,
0.22149193286895752,
-0.1303016096353531,
0.523109495639801,
-0.061680570244789124,
-0.33496975898742676,
0.6856299042701721,
-0.8508399128913879,
-0.6753266453742981,
0.3123369812965393,
-0.24233312904834747,
-0.5120620131492615,
0.16343404352664948,
0.480118066072464,
-0.01706799864768982,
-0.21138295531272888,
-0.2772652804851532,
-0.2063366025686264,
0.40184324979782104,
0.10832861810922623,
-0.2928383946418762,
0.21156583726406097,
-0.14624328911304474,
0.22268538177013397,
0.032655198127031326,
0.4292426109313965,
0.16457131505012512,
-0.0560920275747776,
0.2859675884246826,
-0.50899738073349,
-0.4822891652584076,
-0.22252511978149414,
-0.3239613175392151,
-0.37525704503059387,
0.3869650363922119,
-0.08279967308044434,
-0.07095138728618622,
-0.41360145807266235,
-0.2825319170951843,
0.4041528105735779,
-0.03671715036034584,
0.5127965211868286,
0.18013636767864227,
-0.25927695631980896,
-0.15429973602294922,
-0.6315528154373169,
-0.4818224012851715,
-0.1888660341501236,
0.3365040421485901,
0.6947687864303589,
0.2259775549173355,
-0.07134118676185608,
-0.3213149905204773,
-0.2500974237918854,
0.20656827092170715,
-0.5261722207069397,
-0.2193470299243927,
-0.29181790351867676,
0.06903562694787979,
0.10566296428442001,
-0.21419458091259003,
-0.47147536277770996,
0.30738919973373413,
0.09908395260572433,
-0.3640696406364441,
0.22796660661697388,
0.07401790469884872,
0.09842391312122345,
-0.22510318458080292,
-0.3309113681316376,
0.2653181254863739,
0.6461049914360046,
-0.042743608355522156,
0.17526550590991974,
0.342164546251297,
-0.0925210639834404,
-0.284138560295105,
0.00043707661097869277,
0.349050909280777,
-0.022122981026768684,
-0.26545146107673645,
-0.23949235677719116,
-0.11851506680250168,
0.5441827774047852,
-0.3291469216346741,
0.30321168899536133,
0.04249085858464241,
-0.32344260811805725,
0.6377607583999634,
0.944715142250061,
-0.24901451170444489,
-0.27994823455810547,
-0.0612638033926487,
-0.21883539855480194,
0.35458970069885254,
-0.15653546154499054,
0.5237464308738708,
-0.289635568857193,
0.010488987900316715,
0.14858685433864594,
0.2991364598274231,
-0.4758792221546173,
0.3536161780357361,
0.005593367386609316,
-0.1394035965204239,
-0.17615529894828796,
0.1950223445892334,
-0.8085961937904358,
0.05415269359946251,
-0.10463739186525345,
0.36391913890838623,
-0.030485432595014572,
0.15838207304477692,
-0.2318078726530075,
0.5724539756774902,
0.23564980924129486,
-0.10848940163850784,
-0.2186426967382431,
-0.1474689245223999,
0.5229800939559937,
-0.2551271915435791,
-0.6322205066680908,
0.1694812774658203,
0.23612448573112488,
-0.4810574948787689,
0.3524976372718811,
-0.1586032211780548,
0.3870898485183716,
-0.3859349191188812,
0.7239912152290344,
-0.39089837670326233,
0.25150761008262634,
0.4268297553062439
] |
234727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tui | Tui | Tui or TUI may refer to:
Places
Tui, Pontevedra, Spain
Tui, Iran, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran
Tui, North Khorasan, North Khorasan Province, Iran
Tui Province, Burkina Faso
Tuis District, Costa Rica
Computing
Tangible user interface, in which people interact with digital information through the physical environment
Text-based user interface, as distinct from a graphical user interface
Touch user interface, a computer-pointing technology
Organisations
TUI Group, a tour operator
TUIfly, several airlines owned by TUI Group
TUI Travel, a British leisure travel group that merged with TUI Group
North Tui Sports, a 1930s New Zealand aircraft
Teachers' Union of Ireland, a trade union
Trident University International, an online university in the United States
Other uses
Tūī, a bird
Tui (beer), a brand of beer
Tui (intellectual), a neologism coined by Bertolt Brecht to describe a type of intellectual, as depicted in his play Turandot
Tu'i, a title of nobility in Polynesia and Melanesia
Tui Awards, New Zealand music awards
Tui mine, New Zealand
Tui Regio, a region on Saturn's moon Titan
Turaif Domestic Airport (IATA code), Saudi Arabia
HMNZS Tui, two ships that served in the Royal New Zealand Navy
Tui Mitcham, character in Top of the Lake, a 2013 television mini-series
Tuis (magazine), a South African magazine published by Media24
See also
Tuy (disambiguation) | [
0.4944694936275482,
0.13630351424217224,
0.18211732804775238,
0.245310977101326,
0.3404499292373657,
0.5437014698982239,
-0.051542479544878006,
0.5135758519172668,
-0.4175868630409241,
-0.14681574702262878,
-0.8092300295829773,
-0.16319894790649414,
-0.09770499169826508,
0.4129406213760376,
-0.1391783207654953,
0.23820598423480988,
0.2914273142814636,
0.4437914788722992,
-0.23717732727527618,
0.11559805274009705,
-0.3782305419445038,
-0.028438830748200417,
0.36053466796875,
-0.6974064111709595,
0.42833226919174194,
-0.24781689047813416,
0.2023998200893402,
0.42056959867477417,
-0.3206246793270111,
0.4423530399799347,
0.06246446073055267,
0.567147970199585,
-0.35113465785980225,
0.2155313938856125,
0.014018716290593147,
-0.17262765765190125,
-0.006118512712419033,
-0.3064862787723541,
-0.25569093227386475,
-0.4673686921596527,
0.16435180604457855,
-0.3506552577018738,
0.43291932344436646,
0.2408207207918167,
-0.5866796970367432,
-0.39131709933280945,
-1.7790510654449463,
0.8053286671638489,
-0.8727622628211975,
0.7172834277153015,
-0.5332522988319397,
0.14483357965946198,
0.12432605773210526,
-0.20855778455734253,
0.3989606201648712,
0.821716845035553,
-0.2757872939109802,
-0.2947350740432739,
0.20141328871250153,
-0.850944995880127,
0.3458194136619568,
0.43800464272499084,
-0.06452275067567825,
0.33126580715179443,
0.09216535836458206,
-0.27790653705596924,
0.16731169819831848,
-0.4560418426990509,
-0.44565561413764954,
-0.759158730506897,
0.08319812268018723,
-0.05327804386615753,
-0.28097227215766907,
0.07238378375768661,
-0.3067112863063812,
-0.1898600161075592,
-0.5824982523918152,
0.12457329779863358,
-0.19586125016212463,
0.5599958896636963,
-0.3213486969470978,
-0.17563816905021667,
0.8467279076576233,
-0.33292320370674133,
0.6678420901298523,
0.0679963231086731,
-0.5385185480117798,
0.1658831387758255,
-0.4191901981830597,
-0.3664182424545288,
0.3983582854270935,
-0.586232602596283,
0.31554877758026123,
-0.04141789674758911,
-0.08961112052202225,
-0.04055743291974068,
-0.06214532628655434,
0.18417705595493317,
-0.02947544865310192,
-0.10832960158586502,
-0.3281291127204895,
-0.2670153081417084,
0.6033744812011719,
0.02358151040971279,
-0.594842791557312,
-0.3763565421104431,
-0.5195698142051697,
-0.13150256872177124,
0.3758891820907593,
-0.08913730829954147,
-0.46573159098625183,
-0.35669365525245667,
0.29517877101898193,
0.4735668897628784,
0.1498885154724121,
-0.09460730850696564,
0.0884430781006813,
0.03765273094177246,
-0.07600817829370499,
-0.1588013470172882,
0.1434675008058548,
0.23347190022468567,
-0.08185455948114395,
0.007979418151080608,
0.20675061643123627,
0.2737562358379364,
0.455056756734848,
0.2729649245738983,
-0.6886727809906006,
-0.03979254513978958,
0.494494765996933,
0.11978317052125931,
-0.2861911952495575,
0.31084007024765015,
-0.11389376223087311,
-0.09166672825813293,
0.014232026413083076,
-0.7837273478507996,
0.9240959882736206,
0.3505130112171173,
-1.0230462551116943,
-0.1836981475353241,
-0.8096984624862671,
-0.060678791254758835,
0.4925934672355652,
-0.4088934659957886,
-0.30969345569610596,
-0.5161146521568298,
-0.09742620587348938,
-0.6128789782524109,
-0.1318381279706955,
0.050921473652124405,
0.06341073662042618,
0.7262269854545593,
0.11647237837314606,
0.2091941386461258,
0.33596622943878174,
-0.049141161143779755,
0.3837999403476715,
-0.3529790937900543,
-0.23061923682689667,
0.6394627690315247,
-0.28057971596717834,
0.15062707662582397,
0.3294432759284973,
0.18909092247486115,
0.11107616126537323,
0.6656116247177124,
-0.14334648847579956,
0.1919804960489273,
-0.3292432427406311,
0.21322102844715118,
0.46437153220176697,
0.6055843830108643,
-0.6662272214889526,
0.3154637813568115,
0.4051561951637268,
-0.015281102620065212,
0.2362803816795349,
0.4027349054813385,
-0.8258448839187622,
-0.05169639363884926,
-0.16395950317382812,
0.06653383374214172,
-0.20716550946235657,
-0.1692763715982437,
0.32306963205337524,
0.11000323295593262,
-0.24828168749809265,
-0.09404368698596954,
-0.6442515850067139,
-0.4901495575904846,
0.11696352809667587,
-0.5308879613876343,
0.6191185116767883,
0.01900503970682621,
-0.36132195591926575,
1.3987104892730713,
0.08871463686227798,
0.4524601101875305,
-0.4722408354282379,
-0.015745840966701508,
0.9296656847000122,
-0.41157880425453186,
-0.3658657371997833,
0.3063989579677582,
0.06336837261915207,
0.0868307426571846,
0.17495538294315338,
-0.28544852137565613,
0.09946208447217941,
-0.6566542387008667,
0.39075419306755066,
0.0716782957315445,
-0.16138021647930145,
-0.2505597472190857,
-0.8388510346412659,
0.2341442108154297,
-0.1455371379852295,
0.13744042813777924,
1.1002347469329834,
0.22647753357887268,
-0.09098499268293381,
0.42043453454971313,
0.18663400411605835,
0.5081530213356018,
0.25734221935272217,
0.08705925196409225,
0.5160278081893921,
-0.3609330952167511,
-0.04568517580628395,
-0.20498137176036835,
0.10929006338119507,
-0.5374158024787903,
0.3470456004142761,
0.3164968192577362,
0.5671201944351196,
-0.32692626118659973,
0.6688238382339478,
-0.24671608209609985,
-0.3275532126426697,
0.33303871750831604,
-0.36231112480163574,
-0.017575044184923172,
0.8798782229423523,
0.18252721428871155,
-0.30012887716293335,
-0.18088680505752563,
0.06426966190338135,
0.19266951084136963,
0.07469824701547623,
0.3368699848651886,
-0.5130923986434937,
0.09150591492652893,
0.005727844778448343,
-0.13176292181015015,
0.028999075293540955,
0.11319541186094284,
-0.13614405691623688,
-0.0853407010436058,
-0.9273489117622375,
-0.015894431620836258,
0.15594471991062164,
0.10522208362817764,
0.26898279786109924,
-0.352664589881897,
-0.2159540355205536,
-0.7897058129310608,
0.7399012446403503,
0.6501259803771973,
0.36840522289276123,
-0.32452765107154846,
-0.6833978295326233,
0.0128480838611722,
-0.7917711734771729,
-0.3916566073894501,
0.18028992414474487,
0.04666396975517273,
-0.2929985523223877,
-0.3567057251930237,
-0.11547427624464035,
0.2537505328655243,
0.3498794436454773,
-1.0453201532363892,
0.12265217304229736,
-0.10770121961832047,
0.10323315113782883,
-0.011999883688986301,
-0.7577349543571472,
-0.1822289526462555,
-0.18049968779087067,
-0.18757611513137817,
-0.172775536775589,
-0.016777250915765762,
0.40404921770095825,
0.15628504753112793,
0.4855829179286957,
0.12494093179702759,
0.44693705439567566,
-0.38003239035606384,
-0.0430573970079422,
-0.10490927845239639,
0.10948875546455383,
0.11996252834796906,
0.7401711344718933,
0.013524206355214119,
0.031764086335897446,
-0.4531012773513794,
-5.849272727966309,
-0.05506502464413643,
-0.09757223725318909,
-0.05014222487807274,
0.12403140217065811,
-0.012029427103698254,
0.6248493790626526,
-0.1327616572380066,
0.1100725308060646,
-0.5585938692092896,
0.49371448159217834,
0.33026981353759766,
-0.22120153903961182,
0.4130198061466217,
0.445921391248703,
0.7847802042961121,
0.4258024990558624,
0.5895038843154907,
-0.23600201308727264,
-0.16156567633152008,
-0.211770698428154,
0.12908391654491425,
0.11452825367450714,
0.9858613014221191,
-0.1476999968290329,
0.25510168075561523,
-0.24270249903202057,
-0.3612145185470581,
-0.615611732006073,
-0.42863962054252625,
-0.3562156558036804,
0.09912537038326263,
-0.06531631946563721,
-0.15239866077899933,
0.16758625209331512,
0.1272239089012146,
0.6134522557258606,
0.1291719377040863,
0.3814227879047394,
-0.13778246939182281,
-0.04147115349769592,
0.9520914554595947,
0.4284006953239441,
-0.7634296417236328,
0.3215555250644684,
-0.6850122213363647,
-0.5080716013908386,
0.00013042311184108257,
-0.49136966466903687,
0.6514104008674622,
0.2552056610584259,
0.16282640397548676,
0.32231849431991577,
0.42878469824790955,
0.011237872764468193,
0.3293701708316803,
0.4733443558216095,
0.26986902952194214,
-0.8186822533607483,
0.3098944425582886,
0.14104263484477997,
-0.24778258800506592,
-0.2694243788719177,
-0.844278872013092,
-0.25835466384887695,
0.00486513739451766,
-0.24111628532409668,
0.2268502563238144,
0.3067726790904999,
-0.21046829223632812,
-0.5398486852645874,
-0.07341521978378296,
-0.34213608503341675,
-0.7881017327308655,
-0.30213165283203125,
-0.8434411883354187,
-0.01899868994951248,
0.298102468252182,
-0.22148476541042328,
0.3472076952457428,
-0.644850492477417,
0.15435083210468292,
-0.7139871716499329,
-0.3600580394268036,
-0.07162083685398102,
-0.9245798587799072,
-0.1638476550579071,
0.11640648543834686,
-0.2260163426399231,
0.13067582249641418,
0.7118545770645142,
-0.22879135608673096,
0.3446483910083771,
0.03903846815228462,
0.5036172866821289,
0.3844091594219208,
-0.1619194746017456,
-0.46636107563972473,
0.3271290361881256,
-0.5951711535453796,
0.2986465394496918,
-0.1845027655363083,
-0.11933032423257828,
0.044540103524923325,
0.03785765916109085,
0.3143518269062042,
0.13840796053409576,
0.3071484863758087,
0.5785505175590515,
0.06463716924190521,
-0.32209303975105286,
0.23993222415447235,
-0.5108025074005127,
-0.2338593453168869,
0.02122669108211994,
-0.2159755975008011,
-0.17361879348754883,
0.5910293459892273,
0.542830228805542,
-0.3248811662197113,
-0.18536588549613953,
0.14843791723251343,
-0.1587352603673935,
0.05000358447432518,
-0.25512412190437317,
-0.3230202794075012,
-0.06971199065446854,
-0.06464044749736786,
0.5039130449295044,
0.26670193672180176,
0.40569326281547546,
-0.011642836965620518,
0.5272269248962402,
0.0849199891090393,
0.05770625174045563,
0.06477567553520203,
0.0591697134077549,
-0.5713135004043579,
0.04222951829433441,
-0.3754315972328186,
0.012865027412772179,
-0.2523361146450043,
-0.18747809529304504,
0.11872200667858124,
0.4540550708770752,
0.9074321985244751,
-0.590453028678894,
0.13380257785320282,
-0.0003021753509528935,
0.35094666481018066,
0.06227748095989227,
0.03470558300614357,
-0.0684795007109642,
-0.3781041204929352,
-0.347969651222229,
-0.14012305438518524,
-0.24134092032909393,
0.2610432207584381,
0.06958546489477158,
0.1593591272830963,
0.4611126780509949,
-0.5541344881057739,
-0.902706503868103,
0.0632578432559967,
0.18470777571201324,
-0.5122800469398499,
-0.4240730404853821,
-0.18036894500255585,
-0.4099384844303131,
0.21793873608112335,
0.6311567425727844,
-0.5004557967185974,
-0.5074414014816284,
-0.09879541397094727,
0.06531544774770737,
-0.2439154088497162,
0.1446980983018875,
0.3080676198005676,
0.16093076765537262,
0.4692668914794922,
0.08627582341432571,
0.021009687334299088,
0.41288474202156067,
0.3190193176269531,
0.14533168077468872,
0.024041427299380302,
0.5301607847213745,
0.32702401280403137,
0.24747948348522186,
-0.20723360776901245,
-0.13468262553215027,
0.48870065808296204,
0.4029424786567688,
0.3704639673233032,
0.24099892377853394,
-0.6800644993782043,
0.09967344254255295,
0.6514137387275696,
-0.32719916105270386,
0.22261203825473785,
-0.09849051386117935,
0.07889281213283539,
-0.600638747215271,
-0.2801405191421509,
-0.13595245778560638,
0.07632278650999069,
0.7914087176322937,
-0.4442899227142334,
-0.09769613295793533,
-0.4703439772129059,
-0.9546085000038147,
-0.5747879147529602,
0.05035138875246048,
0.39001980423927307,
-0.551455020904541,
0.08589838445186615,
0.1656898558139801,
-0.32336413860321045,
-0.4402786195278168,
-0.4772615432739258,
0.10243526846170425,
-0.17464105784893036,
-0.4965347647666931,
-0.4942086637020111,
-0.25494810938835144,
0.32435542345046997,
0.25124651193618774,
-1.1581358909606934,
0.32405877113342285,
-0.20959274470806122,
0.17017047107219696,
-0.09236136078834534,
-0.24183954298496246,
0.37860342860221863,
-0.18112123012542725,
0.2948344945907593,
0.06687114387750626,
-0.7483420968055725,
0.2264699935913086,
0.5201188325881958,
0.36078697443008423,
0.7336048483848572,
0.21666303277015686,
-0.3605010211467743,
-0.5472477674484253,
0.7140157222747803,
0.2911898195743561,
-0.19275858998298645,
-0.884182870388031,
0.10840670764446259,
0.17109014093875885,
-0.31156253814697266,
-0.36672770977020264,
-0.0663815513253212,
0.21701838076114655,
-0.5216275453567505,
0.11698608100414276,
0.2976089119911194,
0.36475011706352234,
0.2811937928199768,
-0.05756736546754837,
-0.17390936613082886,
-0.05751964449882507,
0.10133834183216095,
0.41065171360969543,
0.2544645667076111,
-0.44404345750808716,
-0.2936865985393524,
0.12798002362251282,
-0.49334776401519775,
0.11193906515836716,
0.6260390281677246,
0.8921898603439331,
0.030603228136897087,
0.36293110251426697,
-0.3956834375858307,
0.20881378650665283,
-0.27810022234916687,
0.23046347498893738,
-0.1823461651802063,
-0.4528234601020813,
-0.026195863261818886,
0.022971512749791145,
-0.2626456916332245,
0.3036123514175415,
-0.4497379958629608,
-0.30791419744491577,
0.3176487982273102,
-0.4239121675491333,
-0.1602499783039093,
-0.06778828799724579,
-0.20298141241073608,
-0.25794053077697754,
0.01805834099650383,
-0.24606801569461823,
0.13394755125045776,
0.18393732607364655,
-0.20337721705436707,
-0.3846670091152191,
0.25003504753112793,
-1.1305670738220215,
-0.0004945948021486402,
0.0172530859708786,
-0.773577868938446,
0.37165355682373047,
-0.011534595862030983,
0.2288961261510849,
-0.7032620906829834,
0.04835961014032364,
-0.5052677392959595,
0.4810243248939514,
-0.20215457677841187,
0.13906607031822205,
0.685610830783844,
0.41765066981315613,
0.35557490587234497,
0.3386398255825043,
-0.6998050808906555,
0.13339637219905853,
0.523400604724884,
0.2658896744251251,
-0.14344538748264313,
0.2050522267818451,
0.29554465413093567,
0.7204669117927551,
0.13905051350593567,
-0.1416507065296173,
-0.34247297048568726,
0.3603547513484955,
0.8603407144546509,
0.38014593720436096,
0.11188730597496033,
-0.1487879902124405,
0.0396307073533535,
-0.3240654468536377,
-0.19894114136695862,
0.01265696994960308,
-0.5669645667076111,
-0.48471882939338684,
0.5894531607627869,
0.595952570438385,
0.1305435746908188,
-0.2768573462963104,
0.008738369680941105,
0.28951653838157654,
0.09913783520460129,
0.19821208715438843,
0.5052359104156494,
0.05283169820904732,
0.3393670320510864,
0.22422116994857788,
-0.026298874989151955,
-0.12555168569087982,
-0.06035347655415535,
-0.07313648611307144,
-0.05269196629524231,
-0.2178649753332138,
-0.7353699207305908,
0.03023379109799862,
0.38815876841545105,
0.03549365699291229,
0.24691389501094818,
0.15295112133026123,
-0.2906007766723633,
-0.48726603388786316,
-0.1777152121067047,
0.017465556040406227,
-0.382256418466568,
0.19280096888542175,
0.04107927158474922,
0.3710138499736786,
0.6333541870117188,
-0.5420122146606445,
0.07233324646949768,
-0.04548417776823044,
0.18535244464874268,
0.438942015171051,
0.4893159866333008,
-0.10404098778963089,
-0.0014528719475492835,
-0.3939107656478882,
-0.26892808079719543,
0.214692622423172,
-0.40598350763320923,
0.18994954228401184,
-0.0305181797593832,
0.23708724975585938,
-0.07415270060300827,
-0.262504518032074,
0.22156627476215363,
-0.046313073486089706,
-0.6192859411239624,
-0.24359790980815887,
0.41073736548423767,
0.044159017503261566,
-0.14992327988147736,
-0.4614045321941376,
0.16224831342697144,
0.13954156637191772,
0.016284950077533722,
0.1025359034538269,
-0.44364869594573975,
0.6817902326583862,
-0.016352452337741852,
-0.30072078108787537,
0.25001052021980286,
-0.07281981408596039,
0.011963872238993645,
-0.7133686542510986,
0.26487427949905396,
0.6048752069473267,
0.16000092029571533,
0.1261768639087677,
0.27931642532348633,
-0.005137587897479534,
0.22607047855854034,
0.3095526695251465,
0.6064413785934448,
0.28014665842056274,
-0.443381130695343,
-0.3214966356754303,
-0.4507496654987335,
0.6921504139900208,
0.2032974660396576,
0.23743370175361633,
-0.5821664929389954,
-0.026043221354484558,
0.3039714992046356,
-0.8931629657745361,
0.5797330141067505,
0.10335901379585266,
-0.04192551597952843,
-0.06275569647550583,
0.17233607172966003,
-0.829303503036499,
0.25641873478889465,
-0.12097715586423874,
0.9672955870628357,
0.20786051452159882,
-0.1460428237915039,
0.040892187505960464,
0.3766885995864868,
-0.13537056744098663,
0.2645011842250824,
0.2849714756011963,
0.2805499732494354,
-0.1678827702999115,
-0.24868980050086975,
-0.9223885536193848,
-0.24293102324008942,
0.21584956347942352,
-0.4384429454803467,
0.4147450923919678,
-0.0023761987686157227,
0.19043003022670746,
-0.19920134544372559,
0.03819381818175316,
-0.3262641131877899,
0.11182250082492828,
0.6886430978775024
] |
234728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshihisa | Ashikaga Yoshihisa | was the 9th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1473 to 1489 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshihisa was the son of the eighth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa with his wife Hino Tomiko.
Since the almost 30-year-old shōgun Yoshimasa had no heir by 1464, he adopted his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshimi to succeed him. However, Yoshihisa was born in the next year starting a struggle for succession between brothers that erupted into the Ōnin War starting in 1467, beginning the Sengoku period of Japanese history. In the middle of hostilities, Yoshimasa retired in 1473, relinquishing the position of Sei-i Taishōgun to Yoshihisa.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshimasa
Mother: Hino Tomiko
Wife: Shōun'in, daughter of Hino Katsumitsu
Concubine: daughter of Tokudaiji priest
Child: a daughter
Events of Yoshihisa's bakufu
Significant events shape the period during which Yoshihisa was shōgun:
1479 – Yoshihisa's shogunal administration begins.
1488 – The Kaga Rebellion in Kaga Province
1489 – Yoshihisa dies in camp during campaign against Sasaki Takayori; Yoshimasa resumes administration.
1490 – Yoshimasa dies.
After the Ōnin war, Rokkaku Takayori, daimyō of southern Ōmi Province, seized land and manors owned by nobles of the imperial court, temples, and shrines. In 1487, Yoshihisa led a campaign (Rokkaku Tobatsu) against Takayori but died unexpectedly, leaving no heir.
Yoshihisa was followed by his cousin, tenth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshitane, the following year.
Eras of Yoshihisa's bakufu
The years in which Yoshihisa was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Bunmei (1469–1487)
Chōkyō (1487–1489)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.
Yoshihisa
1465 births
1489 deaths
15th-century shōguns
Yoshihisa
People of Muromachi-period Japan
1470s in Japan
1480s in Japan
15th-century Japanese people
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage | [
-0.729948878288269,
0.18315890431404114,
-0.42217883467674255,
0.2331380844116211,
-1.25216805934906,
0.728719174861908,
0.7052035927772522,
0.23317153751850128,
-0.4648261070251465,
-0.2949131727218628,
0.09179794043302536,
0.1306574046611786,
-0.23451796174049377,
0.013631477020680904,
-0.41616928577423096,
-0.022274091839790344,
0.6105059385299683,
-0.006813106592744589,
-0.04035680368542671,
-0.21755319833755493,
-0.08056850731372833,
-0.4460170269012451,
-0.08169122785329819,
-0.136646568775177,
0.6504998207092285,
0.020394928753376007,
0.7527099847793579,
0.6290309429168701,
0.04347649961709976,
-0.4608716666698456,
-0.13946907222270966,
0.2978668212890625,
0.25885453820228577,
-0.31150954961776733,
-0.7131466865539551,
-0.011254511773586273,
-0.17699034512043,
0.3369227349758148,
-0.4215560555458069,
0.16672545671463013,
-0.2717169225215912,
-0.05637136474251747,
0.2592274844646454,
0.21336369216442108,
0.25917115807533264,
-0.4156179428100586,
-1.6590566635131836,
0.08686695247888565,
-0.1304323375225067,
-0.5040209293365479,
-0.09330467134714127,
0.7114137411117554,
-0.45428624749183655,
0.2049192488193512,
-0.11387289315462112,
0.752412736415863,
-0.2957954406738281,
-0.47403836250305176,
-0.9138322472572327,
-0.2922963798046112,
0.3074447214603424,
-0.047554221004247665,
0.4963463246822357,
0.09682334214448929,
-0.020765839144587517,
-0.19808560609817505,
0.01266944594681263,
0.2626575529575348,
0.1461786925792694,
0.1799425482749939,
0.05963742733001709,
0.759168267250061,
0.08929535746574402,
0.4051927328109741,
0.20831230282783508,
-0.6879101395606995,
0.15427619218826294,
0.4210689663887024,
0.44188880920410156,
-0.15137137472629547,
-0.3355617821216583,
-0.7522594332695007,
0.7051445245742798,
0.2943643033504486,
0.4746246635913849,
-0.17210762202739716,
0.18993587791919708,
0.5849323868751526,
-0.7930121421813965,
-0.005038532894104719,
-0.04217905178666115,
0.3542708456516266,
0.5760989189147949,
-0.05615828558802605,
-0.2859640419483185,
-0.11688084900379181,
-0.556506335735321,
0.4525900185108185,
-0.4445834755897522,
-0.22747041285037994,
0.27107882499694824,
0.22842824459075928,
-0.06622377783060074,
-0.14026224613189697,
-1.0860801935195923,
-0.5314998030662537,
0.2047814279794693,
-0.22408488392829895,
-1.027928352355957,
0.12208962440490723,
-0.5072070956230164,
0.7708730101585388,
-0.004001843277364969,
-0.04452641308307648,
0.11623294651508331,
0.4119804799556732,
-0.049773186445236206,
-0.11385537683963776,
0.10639376193284988,
-0.11809792369604111,
0.1726195365190506,
-0.03723219409584999,
-0.2650444805622101,
0.4647088050842285,
-0.007753683719784021,
0.19384901225566864,
-0.2380087971687317,
-0.48058831691741943,
0.24122557044029236,
-0.556968629360199,
0.7376717925071716,
0.912592351436615,
-0.5187427401542664,
0.394901841878891,
0.2619878649711609,
-0.3039017617702484,
0.08740586042404175,
-0.13935120403766632,
-0.16879113018512726,
-0.510757327079773,
-1.0507142543792725,
0.029834778979420662,
-0.649690568447113,
0.0561707466840744,
0.09268908202648163,
0.5722100138664246,
-0.013926755636930466,
-0.4208899140357971,
-0.621231198310852,
-0.3325961232185364,
-0.5285214781761169,
0.38012826442718506,
-0.38472211360931396,
-0.1882007122039795,
-0.02908179722726345,
0.08626706898212433,
0.18277935683727264,
-0.27871283888816833,
-0.03789045289158821,
0.2386065125465393,
-0.3451470136642456,
0.035747263580560684,
-0.18017670512199402,
0.23248806595802307,
0.4472663402557373,
-0.5325626730918884,
0.2903575897216797,
0.09349807351827621,
-0.33313488960266113,
-0.37483036518096924,
-0.6022019386291504,
-0.21338646113872528,
-0.4440743923187256,
-0.458101749420166,
0.7479315400123596,
0.11278729140758514,
1.1082627773284912,
-0.32997065782546997,
0.05280424281954765,
-0.2783691883087158,
-0.6963551640510559,
-0.3813551664352417,
0.32473182678222656,
0.10547338426113129,
0.4917440116405487,
0.34843748807907104,
0.16099940240383148,
0.13339842855930328,
0.8572912216186523,
-0.266874760389328,
-0.34803134202957153,
0.015946682542562485,
0.4994671642780304,
-0.3194516897201538,
0.810523271560669,
0.4077622592449188,
-0.3706700801849365,
-0.2264096587896347,
0.029115257784724236,
1.0751873254776,
0.3679831922054291,
-0.6709424257278442,
0.2146884948015213,
0.2562980651855469,
0.18861404061317444,
-0.051736630499362946,
-0.5032757520675659,
0.13802428543567657,
0.6832905411720276,
0.8533347845077515,
-0.10380461812019348,
0.18017351627349854,
-0.33940669894218445,
-0.0169134009629488,
-0.4146926701068878,
0.34839728474617004,
-0.3321215808391571,
0.0958896279335022,
0.28295719623565674,
-0.4899100959300995,
0.8773840665817261,
0.0072340588085353374,
-0.6500295996665955,
0.41570886969566345,
-0.09422039240598679,
1.4857770204544067,
-0.35415589809417725,
0.46559014916419983,
-0.28744640946388245,
-1.0188419818878174,
0.017080357298254967,
0.15758438408374786,
0.00607504416257143,
0.349520206451416,
-0.13664649426937103,
0.399413526058197,
0.1974082738161087,
-0.07866247743368149,
-0.24671168625354767,
-0.5013231635093689,
0.4210818111896515,
0.145473912358284,
-0.1925658881664276,
0.3040507137775421,
0.17970828711986542,
0.5680713057518005,
-0.10107342153787613,
0.32827645540237427,
-0.8813851475715637,
-0.36439839005470276,
0.5364693999290466,
0.09303853660821915,
0.20751933753490448,
-0.007435361854732037,
-0.4289897680282593,
-0.585736870765686,
-0.13372312486171722,
-0.37612563371658325,
-0.4039768576622009,
0.17501507699489594,
0.042620692402124405,
0.1810208261013031,
0.2945287823677063,
0.2780710756778717,
0.2619749903678894,
-0.11940933018922806,
0.6201951503753662,
0.3277418911457062,
0.0003286294231656939,
0.04547378420829773,
0.08071275800466537,
-0.5557019114494324,
-0.5959482789039612,
-0.2734715938568115,
-0.05673905462026596,
-1.115378975868225,
-0.3979582190513611,
0.6347361207008362,
0.0649561733007431,
-0.6727288961410522,
0.590944766998291,
0.6423196196556091,
-0.48786771297454834,
-0.46423208713531494,
-0.4032173156738281,
-0.8197393417358398,
-0.8786089420318604,
-0.6072552800178528,
-0.02730402909219265,
-0.5417941212654114,
0.029170965775847435,
0.4729294180870056,
-0.45800018310546875,
-0.41488727927207947,
-0.23692353069782257,
1.0628602504730225,
-0.6812725067138672,
-0.22268857061862946,
0.8784977793693542,
-0.2571506202220917,
-0.987427294254303,
-0.8018975853919983,
0.8225957751274109,
0.19657479226589203,
0.6131687164306641,
0.48434773087501526,
0.12411294132471085,
-0.09298276156187057,
-5.307363986968994,
0.1558832824230194,
0.06863220036029816,
-0.13487446308135986,
0.13670191168785095,
0.5080176591873169,
0.7168087363243103,
0.09442045539617538,
0.7250975370407104,
-0.4223669767379761,
-0.17002788186073303,
0.22551651298999786,
0.0755765438079834,
0.24044018983840942,
0.16897441446781158,
0.39939063787460327,
0.6551229953765869,
-0.13722841441631317,
0.29404473304748535,
0.12950843572616577,
-0.019519168883562088,
-0.16053619980812073,
-0.3329358696937561,
1.0931246280670166,
0.657464325428009,
0.5667737126350403,
-0.7695479393005371,
-0.14936436712741852,
-0.6267986297607422,
-0.042118415236473083,
0.17834019660949707,
-0.383073627948761,
-0.0583474300801754,
0.2588675022125244,
-0.5828198790550232,
-0.48148113489151,
0.6751640439033508,
0.6613589525222778,
0.4144898056983948,
0.1771325021982193,
-0.0836506336927414,
-0.22864030301570892,
-1.1784677505493164,
0.5267693400382996,
0.42469343543052673,
-0.6268407106399536,
-0.7822931408882141,
0.14685600996017456,
-0.3621273934841156,
0.39011967182159424,
0.22227439284324646,
-0.1266797035932541,
0.2998460829257965,
-0.4054170846939087,
0.27239611744880676,
0.4270521402359009,
-0.12763072550296783,
0.4942322373390198,
-0.42703017592430115,
-0.04444420337677002,
0.48819053173065186,
-0.3254643678665161,
-0.08993411064147949,
-0.41746124625205994,
0.5805962681770325,
-0.19079425930976868,
0.36161744594573975,
0.04866804927587509,
-0.3329753279685974,
0.2832389175891876,
-0.7099239826202393,
0.8239787220954895,
0.17228886485099792,
-0.9779768586158752,
0.7063000798225403,
-0.03815993294119835,
-0.33277374505996704,
0.5617918968200684,
0.05529046803712845,
-0.19450490176677704,
-0.22943419218063354,
-0.1746361404657364,
0.29029619693756104,
0.5038340091705322,
0.17248547077178955,
0.7769971489906311,
0.20822280645370483,
0.2349986582994461,
0.09098648279905319,
0.758864164352417,
0.7274676561355591,
-0.5452442765235901,
-0.12893740832805634,
0.08735305815935135,
0.6426867246627808,
0.25985583662986755,
-0.2210870087146759,
0.2571938931941986,
0.36332809925079346,
-0.057379383593797684,
0.05418618023395538,
0.21405886113643646,
-0.8956617712974548,
-0.09566746652126312,
-0.29946306347846985,
-0.2765796482563019,
-0.08059719949960709,
0.3230769634246826,
0.6898960471153259,
0.6622618436813354,
0.21818974614143372,
-0.3058440387248993,
-0.5823342800140381,
-0.34277307987213135,
0.7047815322875977,
-0.13180163502693176,
-0.07499806582927704,
0.42276889085769653,
0.4894866645336151,
-0.10396251827478409,
-0.03648373857140541,
0.5423951148986816,
-0.6939715147018433,
-0.5599231719970703,
0.42587462067604065,
0.35071682929992676,
-0.19555650651454926,
0.3753172755241394,
-0.15077710151672363,
-0.2628302574157715,
0.257234662771225,
0.01086488924920559,
-0.31276485323905945,
0.07881008088588715,
-0.1011720672249794,
-0.4525749981403351,
-0.3304094672203064,
-0.8331213593482971,
0.2580750286579132,
-0.023778850212693214,
-0.6208563446998596,
0.01973336562514305,
-0.5286548137664795,
0.23975832760334015,
-0.5579005479812622,
0.3273320496082306,
-0.14295299351215363,
-0.14996491372585297,
0.34731554985046387,
0.2958965003490448,
-0.02084561623632908,
-0.8641107082366943,
0.24892230331897736,
-0.2795563340187073,
-0.3473187983036041,
0.31391119956970215,
-0.47461679577827454,
-0.1512528359889984,
-0.3643438518047333,
0.1535331755876541,
-0.08989091962575912,
-0.24344323575496674,
-0.7578139305114746,
-0.31685176491737366,
-0.20753346383571625,
-0.47797778248786926,
-0.04697691276669502,
-0.12457843869924545,
-0.02986362762749195,
0.28318363428115845,
0.6365488171577454,
-0.7161351442337036,
-0.12472950667142868,
-0.1580882966518402,
0.6878001093864441,
0.18977700173854828,
0.5254560708999634,
0.5268354415893555,
-0.5425060391426086,
-0.40199536085128784,
-0.01883583515882492,
0.025247041136026382,
-0.3287360668182373,
0.3713805675506592,
-0.07673612236976624,
-0.32784783840179443,
-0.4946686327457428,
-0.9846485257148743,
-0.484418123960495,
-0.24073034524917603,
-0.7937617897987366,
-0.16688640415668488,
0.05847988650202751,
0.3603917360305786,
-0.39368849992752075,
-0.435181587934494,
0.21932359039783478,
0.2765674293041229,
0.20961762964725494,
-0.06301748752593994,
-0.6074241995811462,
0.35489165782928467,
-0.40510863065719604,
-0.16074304282665253,
-0.05650879070162773,
-0.6293573975563049,
0.4496864974498749,
0.37826213240623474,
0.7091197967529297,
-0.11285452544689178,
-0.19919465482234955,
-0.5268434286117554,
-0.23016171157360077,
0.1305127888917923,
0.4525374174118042,
-0.0040950956754386425,
0.011671571061015129,
0.35758551955223083,
-0.15850608050823212,
-1.0304925441741943,
-0.2211768627166748,
0.07272488623857498,
-0.35590502619743347,
-0.4931049644947052,
-0.23871751129627228,
0.7176467776298523,
0.6435413360595703,
0.35659873485565186,
-0.1790773570537567,
-0.4447648227214813,
-0.0538104772567749,
0.2953881323337555,
-0.05225469544529915,
0.4613673686981201,
-0.5030159950256348,
-0.014821188524365425,
0.08968614786863327,
-0.2436753213405609,
0.5782415866851807,
0.41222700476646423,
0.14005319774150848,
0.8961722254753113,
0.26017531752586365,
0.24470804631710052,
0.594118058681488,
0.007723587565124035,
-0.014530773274600506,
-0.06939667463302612,
0.33146053552627563,
0.3221290409564972,
0.35256868600845337,
-0.38331612944602966,
-0.27143990993499756,
-0.12921230494976044,
1.021544337272644,
-1.1190520524978638,
-0.13448913395404816,
0.08770165592432022,
-0.4996547996997833,
-0.0807664766907692,
0.019990280270576477,
0.6486862897872925,
0.2903081178665161,
-0.13002105057239532,
0.4846547245979309,
0.1322300285100937,
-0.45847591757774353,
0.15465593338012695,
0.19578281044960022,
-0.9062737226486206,
-0.8767949342727661,
-0.21523134410381317,
-0.2500831186771393,
0.6996052861213684,
0.370914101600647,
0.052661728113889694,
-0.4573735296726227,
-0.09367053955793381,
0.3996058702468872,
0.27067941427230835,
-0.9390872120857239,
-0.29117056727409363,
0.03391676023602486,
-0.5847609639167786,
-0.8066243529319763,
-0.9583662748336792,
0.11255297809839249,
0.35048335790634155,
-0.24073797464370728,
0.22782954573631287,
-0.7128211259841919,
-0.16785289347171783,
0.14914728701114655,
-0.26963552832603455,
-0.29707831144332886,
0.5007781386375427,
-0.4178329110145569,
-0.23375606536865234,
-0.23742851614952087,
0.13201189041137695,
-0.2557021677494049,
0.12867656350135803,
0.27975019812583923,
0.9465732574462891,
-0.16552592813968658,
-0.07287544757127762,
-0.32915690541267395,
-0.236294224858284,
-0.17738403379917145,
0.3034181594848633,
0.08507227897644043,
-0.1665421575307846,
0.46305346488952637,
-0.017947694286704063,
-0.5819240212440491,
-0.014340866357088089,
-0.17837552726268768,
-0.11007179319858551,
-0.1485445648431778,
-0.8914777636528015,
0.7463798522949219,
0.11036641895771027,
-0.4699757993221283,
0.38115110993385315,
0.8462913036346436,
-0.2370835244655609,
-0.04891079664230347,
0.16650614142417908,
-0.03868129104375839,
0.3575509786605835,
-0.05565633624792099,
-0.08302148431539536,
-0.3635019063949585,
0.9460721015930176,
-0.08393633365631104,
0.552169680595398,
0.03949901461601257,
-0.794560432434082,
0.3975042402744293,
0.470329225063324,
0.7914416193962097,
0.670383632183075,
-0.7170798778533936,
0.028254346922039986,
0.002738740062341094,
0.322732537984848,
-0.1847776621580124,
0.1477489024400711,
0.2493480145931244,
0.39499548077583313,
0.4251002073287964,
0.5869382619857788,
0.3064578175544739,
-0.48892295360565186,
-0.06710118055343628,
0.29366546869277954,
0.7252711057662964,
0.0561816468834877,
-0.08251992613077164,
-0.3756886124610901,
-0.3115173876285553,
-0.2077973186969757,
0.4545018672943115,
-0.0016001201001927257,
-0.15794341266155243,
0.6014175415039062,
-0.30477991700172424,
-0.2675878703594208,
-0.1427387297153473,
0.5076421499252319,
0.1193707212805748,
-0.4587307572364807,
-0.015365444123744965,
0.18154758214950562,
0.25309523940086365,
1.1302909851074219,
0.6131243705749512,
-0.15252023935317993,
-0.015263850800693035,
-0.2327766865491867,
-0.41187265515327454,
0.3438120484352112,
-0.0982232317328453,
-0.5190874338150024,
0.261740118265152,
0.6003130674362183,
-0.03832707554101944,
0.39728447794914246,
-0.7020130157470703,
-0.14505286514759064,
-0.3550378382205963,
-0.4146488904953003,
-0.049767132848501205,
0.7234178185462952,
-0.15704882144927979,
0.10230285674333572,
0.16971679031848907,
0.6425510048866272,
0.49242058396339417,
0.18459376692771912,
-0.034292444586753845,
-0.2676125466823578,
0.18272510170936584,
0.26668593287467957,
0.08808118849992752,
0.5532600283622742,
-0.4290746748447418,
-0.19712883234024048,
-0.291415274143219,
0.007842077873647213,
0.5066854953765869,
0.5252586603164673,
-0.19148822128772736,
0.1162111684679985,
-0.6815334558486938,
-0.28793463110923767,
0.9656009674072266,
-0.5002376437187195,
0.09421183913946152,
-0.5559058785438538,
0.08286800235509872,
-0.32582658529281616,
0.1870013326406479,
0.3742896616458893,
-0.11343514919281006,
-0.13084983825683594,
0.6401343941688538,
0.04968051612377167,
0.06978427618741989,
0.6456472873687744,
-0.128488689661026,
-1.222235918045044,
-0.18933142721652985,
-0.4337534010410309,
0.03761235252022743,
-0.11795004457235336,
1.1335723400115967,
0.5639715194702148,
0.3801543414592743,
-0.6438984870910645,
-0.11045696586370468,
0.022306231781840324,
0.5389775037765503,
-0.10323760658502579,
0.21603992581367493,
-0.17568343877792358,
-0.06268246471881866,
-0.5471055507659912,
-0.5251120328903198,
0.0334557443857193,
0.6481255888938904,
-0.047693219035863876,
0.5949816703796387,
-0.7012307047843933,
0.043653592467308044,
-0.08377934992313385,
0.4571337401866913,
-0.5570451617240906,
0.01817871443927288,
0.0158100426197052
] |
234729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puri%20%28disambiguation%29 | Puri (disambiguation) | Puri is a city in Odisha, India.
Puri may also refer to:
Purí people, an extinct indigenous tribe that inhabited South America
Puri (food), an unleavened Indian bread
Places
Puri, Angola, a town and municipality in Uíge Province in Angola
Puri (Lok Sabha constituency), Odisha, India
Puri (Vidhan Sabha constituency), Odisha, India
Puri district, a district of Odisha, India
Puri, a palace in certain Bali kingdoms
Puri, East Java, a district in Mojokerto Regency, East Java, Indonesia
Puri, short for Puri Indah, a housing estate in Kembangan, Jakarta, Indonesia
People
Puri (surname), a Khatri surname
Eino Puri (born 1988), Estonian football player
Sander Puri (born 1988), Estonian football player
Puri Jagannadh (born 1966), Tollywood film director and producer
Puri Yáñez (born 1936), Spanish-born surrealist painter
See also
Puri Puri (disambiguation) | [
0.4314769506454468,
-0.17294980585575104,
-0.04966464266180992,
-0.24937109649181366,
0.11643441766500473,
0.4984194040298462,
0.40752723813056946,
0.1787557452917099,
-0.16191117465496063,
0.04161935672163963,
-0.3115759789943695,
-0.3739066421985626,
-0.8552138805389404,
0.220519557595253,
0.10897606611251831,
0.3522898852825165,
0.6145889759063721,
0.040218535810709,
-0.02070591412484646,
0.3027780055999756,
0.048768509179353714,
0.29971033334732056,
0.12955404818058014,
0.5960286259651184,
0.0957903191447258,
0.018492359668016434,
0.6318027973175049,
0.2650375962257385,
-0.5876463055610657,
0.018898969516158104,
-0.3251068890094757,
0.45050671696662903,
0.13189458847045898,
0.2852739095687866,
0.4188757538795471,
-0.06644055992364883,
-0.6111347079277039,
-0.17435406148433685,
-0.28765079379081726,
-0.15581229329109192,
-0.31628406047821045,
-0.3871597349643707,
-0.19808626174926758,
-0.1411246508359909,
-0.14561781287193298,
-0.11555434763431549,
-1.1159441471099854,
0.7130342721939087,
-0.5802936553955078,
0.26189252734184265,
-0.26326411962509155,
0.14366604387760162,
-0.2700279951095581,
0.002335034077987075,
0.40497076511383057,
0.12953127920627594,
-0.49824777245521545,
-0.06347552686929703,
0.11662142723798752,
0.1487324833869934,
0.5981189012527466,
0.11621672660112381,
-0.09207029640674591,
0.19255200028419495,
0.1851242333650589,
-0.14762292802333832,
-0.06606877595186234,
-0.0003878546704072505,
0.1074955016374588,
-0.3725121021270752,
-0.7179991602897644,
0.254697322845459,
-0.45648977160453796,
0.3737940788269043,
-0.7332044243812561,
-0.10612983256578445,
-0.10126299411058426,
-0.40115654468536377,
0.31949904561042786,
0.07449278980493546,
-0.39974990487098694,
0.20977532863616943,
0.6580539345741272,
-0.0524408295750618,
0.9460031390190125,
-0.1439260095357895,
-0.23187699913978577,
-0.30090630054473877,
0.17019973695278168,
0.3803872764110565,
0.06703802198171616,
0.04339083656668663,
0.3480295240879059,
-0.012007664889097214,
-0.6328104734420776,
-0.23235629498958588,
-0.304736852645874,
-0.279448926448822,
0.46315574645996094,
-0.5418029427528381,
-0.3195917010307312,
-0.17306680977344513,
0.10403963178396225,
0.8874306082725525,
-0.34487324953079224,
-0.23720626533031464,
0.2715562582015991,
-0.007457199040800333,
0.15903642773628235,
-0.25753167271614075,
-0.041139401495456696,
0.33151280879974365,
-0.19252797961235046,
-0.20074580609798431,
0.2205001562833786,
0.22776269912719727,
-0.01755165494978428,
0.13810259103775024,
-0.550419807434082,
-0.0025513493455946445,
0.13260062038898468,
0.7856228351593018,
0.6083222031593323,
0.5551565289497375,
0.26116427779197693,
0.04862380400300026,
0.3444320559501648,
0.13657701015472412,
-0.9919066429138184,
0.7298707962036133,
0.11421505361795425,
0.5724601745605469,
-0.5616492033004761,
-0.15560832619667053,
-0.2908877432346344,
-0.2274395078420639,
-0.22294825315475464,
0.2300718128681183,
0.26594629883766174,
-0.6098450422286987,
-0.8227410912513733,
0.5850560069084167,
-0.6706869006156921,
0.36345329880714417,
0.13259877264499664,
0.09474803507328033,
0.1106971800327301,
-0.1471097767353058,
-0.5756539106369019,
-0.3899030089378357,
0.20009678602218628,
0.7893204689025879,
-0.4713037610054016,
-0.03761376440525055,
-0.1386939287185669,
0.055781684815883636,
0.1823379099369049,
0.26334935426712036,
0.1987038552761078,
-0.024498991668224335,
-0.18819065392017365,
-0.1306801289319992,
0.07803510129451752,
0.1464156061410904,
-0.19842274487018585,
-0.34223973751068115,
0.565711498260498,
-0.28906142711639404,
0.3995322585105896,
0.10862034559249878,
-1.024265170097351,
-0.9987714290618896,
0.17322014272212982,
-0.21551677584648132,
0.04154327139258385,
0.05702974647283554,
0.413181334733963,
0.25495368242263794,
0.118916355073452,
-0.11860054731369019,
-0.5958244800567627,
0.013966517522931099,
-0.23711512982845306,
0.7418362498283386,
-0.4203377664089203,
-0.03279993310570717,
0.4670843183994293,
0.14119789004325867,
0.4897105395793915,
0.16491097211837769,
0.44192495942115784,
0.10522226244211197,
-0.11614832282066345,
0.16185691952705383,
0.7959737777709961,
0.48687005043029785,
-0.5749940276145935,
0.4368985593318939,
0.27491724491119385,
0.1523873209953308,
-0.39279162883758545,
0.24767982959747314,
0.11255843192338943,
-0.46290886402130127,
-0.5257753133773804,
1.0770153999328613,
-0.3885112404823303,
0.27621275186538696,
0.2652924954891205,
0.5923940539360046,
0.09025856107473373,
-0.1861497461795807,
0.20354771614074707,
-0.6795366406440735,
0.050460368394851685,
-0.13239675760269165,
-0.2197643667459488,
-0.004773647058755159,
0.5727255344390869,
-0.868816614151001,
0.3570258617401123,
0.03950712829828262,
-0.050372447818517685,
0.694337785243988,
-0.14781564474105835,
0.9580158591270447,
-0.17123505473136902,
0.13981010019779205,
0.2702047824859619,
-0.4799661338329315,
-0.21170777082443237,
-0.1029432937502861,
0.21948832273483276,
0.30139631032943726,
-0.43349993228912354,
0.005578798707574606,
-0.0046696714125573635,
-0.16970275342464447,
0.7392625212669373,
-0.5081123113632202,
0.3470343053340912,
0.4947335422039032,
-0.5511242747306824,
-0.051365796476602554,
0.2673805356025696,
0.125489741563797,
-0.03909197822213173,
0.1957964450120926,
-0.20853570103645325,
0.20056913793087006,
0.4904440641403198,
-0.06557384878396988,
-0.18141596019268036,
-0.14360572397708893,
0.08010958135128021,
-0.06906758248806,
-0.6482000350952148,
-0.023758623749017715,
0.8982003331184387,
-0.01851247251033783,
-0.247174471616745,
-0.5199528932571411,
-0.31317341327667236,
0.10779934376478195,
0.0009265365661121905,
0.10717973858118057,
-0.1619555950164795,
-0.1594628393650055,
0.4274613857269287,
0.023113854229450226,
0.023208197206258774,
-0.31645944714546204,
-0.3092940151691437,
-0.037482850253582,
0.08981244266033173,
-0.18240752816200256,
0.5117060542106628,
0.4341602325439453,
-0.20602428913116455,
-0.23105448484420776,
0.3584541082382202,
-0.0009011691436171532,
-0.4089774489402771,
-1.083552360534668,
-0.2363138496875763,
0.20336174964904785,
0.2096295803785324,
-0.40645545721054077,
-0.4272661507129669,
0.41441673040390015,
-0.13713087141513824,
0.19373483955860138,
0.019889280200004578,
0.1915314495563507,
-0.039790794253349304,
0.12635909020900726,
0.06259365379810333,
0.009366999380290508,
0.3172434866428375,
-0.4997900724411011,
-0.30011501908302307,
0.6094441413879395,
-0.2639419436454773,
-0.27761510014533997,
-0.5443480610847473,
-0.6223470568656921,
-0.3911096155643463,
0.14437662065029144,
-5.7434773445129395,
-0.09968026727437973,
-0.22051802277565002,
-0.11346022039651871,
0.24091172218322754,
-0.3756084740161896,
0.16535480320453644,
0.3090490400791168,
0.40866711735725403,
-0.38872867822647095,
0.3151791989803314,
-0.08534858375787735,
0.1852494329214096,
0.226058691740036,
0.4495338201522827,
0.6443015336990356,
0.9996219873428345,
0.08036154508590698,
0.548468291759491,
0.3133755028247833,
-0.26860445737838745,
0.6536014676094055,
-0.31010669469833374,
0.19138605892658234,
0.4098135530948639,
0.1766355186700821,
-0.8036583065986633,
0.47328782081604004,
-0.6926252245903015,
-0.4898357391357422,
-0.3066508173942566,
-0.3282884657382965,
0.08569864183664322,
0.05300259217619896,
-0.2302628606557846,
0.44483107328414917,
0.10212161391973495,
0.18113496899604797,
-0.20066234469413757,
0.21817195415496826,
0.03653623163700104,
0.007395179010927677,
0.006110230926424265,
-0.9905551075935364,
0.21999682486057281,
-0.37825849652290344,
-0.8748287558555603,
-0.08083520829677582,
0.04212173819541931,
0.3219064176082611,
-0.32203370332717896,
-0.4127359688282013,
0.6597779989242554,
-0.11366888880729675,
0.2145150899887085,
-0.324092835187912,
0.2992929518222809,
0.1900385320186615,
-0.5239506363868713,
0.4875601828098297,
0.08418341726064682,
-0.24569010734558105,
-0.057127561420202255,
-0.553889811038971,
0.15055714547634125,
0.5827954411506653,
0.049496687948703766,
-0.8197920322418213,
0.1691611260175705,
0.14609067142009735,
-0.8546222448348999,
0.360763281583786,
-0.10056459903717041,
-0.8909393548965454,
-0.7854245901107788,
-0.7828956246376038,
-0.17415779829025269,
0.05892409756779671,
-0.4883009195327759,
0.25313737988471985,
-0.39171120524406433,
-0.11633172631263733,
-0.3098061978816986,
0.2509099543094635,
0.19721679389476776,
0.21116240322589874,
-0.29387348890304565,
-0.486701101064682,
-0.1477125585079193,
-0.01073505263775587,
0.5947993397712708,
-0.17692656815052032,
0.18975257873535156,
0.11908832937479019,
0.12549906969070435,
0.1932145357131958,
-0.2551129460334778,
0.3961879312992096,
-0.047856830060482025,
-0.5357942581176758,
1.1726853847503662,
-0.09773872047662735,
-0.422618567943573,
-0.26557454466819763,
-0.49388930201530457,
-0.04202311486005783,
0.29615911841392517,
0.04239765182137489,
0.730013370513916,
-0.83509761095047,
-0.01619059592485428,
-0.1334509253501892,
0.24136346578598022,
-0.161285862326622,
1.0792393684387207,
0.44299575686454773,
-0.5101442337036133,
0.7135982513427734,
0.16484659910202026,
-0.18176576495170593,
0.4880976378917694,
0.2933875322341919,
-0.042088817805051804,
-0.058994557708501816,
-0.04613577947020531,
-0.21825875341892242,
-0.23096832633018494,
0.1254127323627472,
-0.038010645657777786,
0.621716320514679,
0.6071547865867615,
0.4544277489185333,
0.03455933555960655,
-0.4684341549873352,
-0.34061670303344727,
-0.021963223814964294,
-0.17348691821098328,
-0.17261327803134918,
-0.1896943300962448,
0.15026603639125824,
-0.0457443967461586,
0.2185031920671463,
0.4253562390804291,
0.18933336436748505,
0.5493395328521729,
-0.1025981530547142,
-0.15836498141288757,
-0.4921242594718933,
0.007969783619046211,
0.10743047297000885,
0.24698148667812347,
-0.6880823373794556,
0.2595246732234955,
-0.414376437664032,
-0.3516879379749298,
-0.2992245554924011,
0.20992837846279144,
0.3299331068992615,
0.9961147308349609,
0.3727227747440338,
0.11115717142820358,
-0.8613938689231873,
-0.7457059621810913,
0.25818297266960144,
-0.1589396893978119,
-0.3470473289489746,
0.20990067720413208,
-0.8294517993927002,
0.24676136672496796,
0.1180788055062294,
0.5648075938224792,
-0.043430183082818985,
-0.8068434596061707,
-0.08971501886844635,
0.26429805159568787,
-0.0829988345503807,
-0.11932343989610672,
0.4661238193511963,
-0.10902410000562668,
0.45617496967315674,
0.18225406110286713,
-0.4643401503562927,
-0.25856533646583557,
0.5570493340492249,
0.4127190113067627,
-0.3689289391040802,
-0.011659101583063602,
-0.44090408086776733,
-0.06694242358207703,
0.19398830831050873,
-0.5476066470146179,
-0.26215270161628723,
0.7451182007789612,
0.06705372780561447,
0.17670221626758575,
-0.8920882344245911,
0.09866933524608612,
0.08448848873376846,
-0.5042245388031006,
-0.4099022150039673,
-0.2546256184577942,
0.5038573741912842,
-0.09555388987064362,
0.4233914613723755,
0.04286239296197891,
-0.509779155254364,
0.24211235344409943,
0.36423051357269287,
-0.434086412191391,
0.1687256246805191,
-0.14241695404052734,
-0.06907948851585388,
-0.15878601372241974,
0.12377026677131653,
-0.2183595895767212,
0.1840497851371765,
-0.33504077792167664,
-0.18985818326473236,
0.021270297467708588,
-0.6239528059959412,
-0.5498281121253967,
0.06306726485490799,
0.6796281933784485,
-0.0030174104031175375,
0.10285501927137375,
-0.13570848107337952,
0.4538644254207611,
-0.9000779390335083,
-0.0790044292807579,
0.08001779019832611,
0.03343116119503975,
-0.24090206623077393,
0.23876801133155823,
0.1597188264131546,
0.06929372996091843,
-0.3131372034549713,
-0.03179122880101204,
0.12813054025173187,
-0.02364199608564377,
0.3456631302833557,
-0.19300517439842224,
0.20318228006362915,
-0.4330233931541443,
-0.8807761073112488,
-0.0958963930606842,
0.3560493588447571,
0.20129740238189697,
-0.10892622172832489,
-0.8099300265312195,
0.7051357626914978,
0.32454702258110046,
-0.1419437676668167,
-0.8403347134590149,
-0.18456245958805084,
1.0884473323822021,
-0.9566084146499634,
0.45606550574302673,
-0.0432516373693943,
0.28969913721084595,
0.08215568214654922,
0.12006766349077225,
-0.05480898916721344,
0.32701435685157776,
-0.2668076157569885,
-0.2052369862794876,
-0.360079288482666,
-0.37431028485298157,
-0.48594313859939575,
0.3271942138671875,
-0.6199118494987488,
0.20503653585910797,
-0.3944299817085266,
0.01892756298184395,
-0.07932186126708984,
0.04318281635642052,
-0.16683390736579895,
-0.3393339216709137,
0.02718939073383808,
0.6378778219223022,
-0.4490354359149933,
0.3922424614429474,
0.1761569082736969,
0.36348286271095276,
-0.16799359023571014,
0.0016084389062598348,
-0.29025956988334656,
0.47897666692733765,
0.3789338171482086,
-0.10801193863153458,
-0.29517775774002075,
-0.08445551991462708,
-0.2956608533859253,
-0.15962442755699158,
-0.04552588239312172,
-0.4438190460205078,
0.13383691012859344,
0.0495394803583622,
1.0444412231445312,
-0.24217408895492554,
-0.373195081949234,
-0.5485265254974365,
0.014819061383605003,
0.32534122467041016,
-0.0841967985033989,
-0.44793400168418884,
0.06310917437076569,
0.25205785036087036,
0.04954518377780914,
-0.15278007090091705,
-0.6857494115829468,
0.8974829316139221,
0.4015241265296936,
0.652907133102417,
0.7554851174354553,
-0.6738719344139099,
0.16471916437149048,
0.363636314868927,
-0.10368560254573822,
0.07793042063713074,
0.27519646286964417,
0.15633875131607056,
-0.6774014234542847,
0.5213715434074402,
0.1850948929786682,
0.3465996980667114,
0.31540024280548096,
-0.6104253530502319,
-0.12034547328948975,
-0.02501569874584675,
0.5478208661079407,
0.07486362010240555,
-0.7758080363273621,
-0.7536053657531738,
0.32102128863334656,
0.45216962695121765,
-0.4433233439922333,
0.6574935913085938,
-0.13112325966358185,
-0.29450491070747375,
-0.01810893602669239,
0.825904905796051,
0.4861055016517639,
-0.31589746475219727,
0.41127073764801025,
0.16360491514205933,
0.3388015925884247,
0.8121224045753479,
0.3697871267795563,
-0.30649060010910034,
0.4264328181743622,
-0.6540212035179138,
-0.06540550291538239,
-0.3481559455394745,
-0.3056255578994751,
0.09760303050279617,
0.15928545594215393,
0.4888323247432709,
-0.42639225721359253,
0.5201310515403748,
-0.3137483298778534,
0.2776437997817993,
-0.03333975002169609,
-0.1395801603794098,
0.4513810873031616,
-0.2194194495677948,
-0.20073282718658447,
0.1651943027973175,
-0.5060595870018005,
-0.648469090461731,
0.07120033353567123,
0.22191374003887177,
0.22779524326324463,
-0.5162739157676697,
0.039738189429044724,
0.15594059228897095,
0.6308770179748535,
-0.10961546748876572,
0.35998764634132385,
0.12538455426692963,
0.17671288549900055,
-0.08766990900039673,
0.03213274106383324,
0.2257043719291687,
-0.38651540875434875,
0.10400502383708954,
-0.08546281605958939,
-0.028335796669125557,
0.20462413132190704,
-0.6081030368804932,
-0.0009462923044338822,
-0.538300633430481,
-0.3636082708835602,
-0.6154053211212158,
0.6606466174125671,
-0.2116270661354065,
-0.12624230980873108,
-0.5177782773971558,
0.357138067483902,
0.5796982645988464,
-0.11661211401224136,
0.5865511894226074,
-0.08569414913654327,
-0.10977340489625931,
0.5691025853157043,
0.2753963768482208,
-0.20837055146694183,
-0.5336388349533081,
0.17741185426712036,
-0.7841989398002625,
0.27736717462539673,
-0.2971556484699249,
0.1527857482433319,
-0.2520650327205658,
-0.07239086180925369,
-0.004080976825207472,
0.5869835019111633,
0.4441863000392914,
0.0047547523863613605,
-0.26235756278038025,
-0.07647335529327393,
0.24923491477966309,
-0.02931024506688118,
-0.6990357041358948,
0.37458014488220215,
-0.11413314193487167,
-0.3061473071575165,
0.17324212193489075,
0.5410714149475098,
-0.7773237228393555,
-0.2691147029399872,
0.2529577910900116,
-0.4501270353794098,
-0.6734264492988586,
0.6748780012130737,
-0.376777708530426,
0.028008798137307167,
0.419733464717865,
0.5701884031295776,
-0.41064944863319397,
-0.2378210425376892,
-0.06308435648679733,
-0.21683430671691895,
-0.04582574963569641,
-0.15437288582324982,
-1.3901011943817139,
0.42443203926086426,
-0.06799809634685516,
0.13581331074237823,
-0.3236936330795288,
0.8260899186134338,
0.15087532997131348,
0.3370428681373596,
0.6983560919761658,
-0.08480872958898544,
0.7197270393371582,
0.5355495810508728,
-0.17373211681842804,
-0.5020655393600464,
0.3086681663990021,
0.5705226063728333
] |
234730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacPherson%20strut | MacPherson strut | The MacPherson strut is a type of automotive suspension system that uses the top of a telescopic damper as the upper steering pivot. It is widely used in the front suspension of modern vehicles, and is named for American automotive engineer Earle S. MacPherson, who invented and developed the design.
History
Earle S. MacPherson was appointed the chief engineer of Chevrolet's Light Car project in 1945, to develop new smaller cars for the immediate post-war market. That gave rise to the Chevrolet Cadet. By 1946 three prototypes of the Cadet design had been produced. These incorporated the first MacPherson strut independent suspension both in front and rear. The Cadet project was cancelled in 1947 and the disgruntled MacPherson was enticed to join Ford. Patents were filed in 1947 ( for GM) and in 1949 ( for Ford), the 1949 patent citing designs by Guido Fornaca of FIAT in the mid-1920s. The strut suspension of the pre-war Stout Scarab could have been an influence, and long-travel struts in aircraft landing gear were well known by that time. The French Cottin-Desgouttes utilized a similar design, albeit with less sophisticated leaf springs, but the Cottin-Desgouttes front suspension was in turn inspired by a 1904 design by American engineer J. Walter Christie.
MacPherson designed the strut for all four wheels, but it is normally used for the front suspension only, where it provides a steering pivot as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel.
The first production car to use MacPherson struts is often cited incorrectly as the French 1949 Ford Vedette, but it was developed before MacPherson, with an independent front suspension based on wishbones and an upper coil spring. Only in 1954, after the Vedette factory had been purchased by Simca, did the revised Simca Vedette switch to using front struts.
Following MacPherson's arrival at Ford, the first production car to feature MacPherson struts was the British-built 1950 Ford Consul and the later Zephyr.
Design
A MacPherson strut uses a wishbone, or a substantial compression link stabilized by a secondary link, which provides a mounting point for the hub carrier or axle of the wheel. The lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel. The upper part of the hub carrier is rigidly fixed to the bottom of the outer part of the strut proper. That slides up and down the inner part of it, which extends upwards directly to a mounting in the body shell of the vehicle. The line from the top mount of the strut to the bottom ball joint on the control arm gives the steering axis inclination. The axis of the strut may be angled inwards from the steering axis at the bottom, to clear the tyre, which makes the bottom follow an arc when steering.
To be really successful, the MacPherson strut required the introduction of unitary construction, because it needs a substantial vertical space and a strong top mount, which unibodies can provide, while benefiting them by distributing stresses. The strut will usually carry both the coil spring, on which the body is suspended, and the shock absorber, which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted within the strut (see coilover). The strut can also have the steering arm built into the lower outer portion. The whole assembly is very simple and can be pre-assembled into a unit. As well, the elimination of the upper control arm allows for more width in the engine compartment, which is useful for smaller cars, particularly with transverse-mounted engines, such as most front wheel drive vehicles have. The assembly can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll bar (torsion bar) for the radius arm. For those reasons, it has become almost ubiquitous with low cost manufacturers. Furthermore, it offers an easy method to set suspension geometry.
Many modern versions replace the lower control arm with a wishbone. An anti-roll bar is optional and, if present, is attached by a ball-jointed rod to the spring-damper, or by a ball or elastomerically jointed rod to the wishbone.
Advantages and disadvantages
Because MacPherson struts are packaged with a significant structure in the front crash structure of the car, it is easier to engineer cars that pass more stringent small overlap crashes with struts, as opposed to those with a double wishbone suspension. Notable examples include the Honda Accord and Civic, as well as the Mercedes E-Class, all of which adopted struts to improve crash performance. The overall simplicity of the design also means there are fewer joints in the suspension to wear, so there is less decline in handling and steering feel over time. Inverted monotube struts can also provide extra rigidity in the front suspension, as seen in the Porsche 911 GT3 and Cayman GT4, as well as the Subaru Impreza WRX STI. Finally, struts can package more efficiently than other types of front suspension, which allows for significant cargo space in rear/mid-engined cars, such as the Porsche 911 and Boxster.
Geometric analysis shows the assembly cannot allow vertical movement of the wheel without some degree of either camber angle change, sideways movement, or both. It is not generally considered to give as good handling as a double wishbone or multi-link suspension, because it allows the engineers less freedom to choose camber change and roll center. Cars that have cockpit adjustable ride height generally cannot have MacPherson struts because of the camber changes that are an unavoidable part of the design. Ride suffers because the shock absorber has almost the same vertical motion as the wheel, so there is relatively little leverage to break the stiction in the seals. A standard single pivot MacPherson strut also tends to have positive scrub where the center of the steering axis is offset from the center of the front tires, which results in torque steer.
Despite the drawbacks, the MacPherson strut set-up is still used on some high performance cars, because they tend to have relatively small suspension travel, and so do not have the same kinematic problems.
Up until the 1989 model year (964), Porsche 911 used a similar strut design that did not have coil springs, using torsion bar suspension instead. Since then, all Porsche 911s have had front MacPherson struts, except the 992-based 911 GT3, which uses a double wishbone.
In recent years, General Motors and Ford have introduced a modified strut set-up, "Hi-Per Strut" and "Revoknuckle" respectively, that split the strut into two components that handle the up-and-down flexibility and steering dynamics separately. The benefits of this design are greater surface contact and reduction in torque steer. The drawbacks are the additional weight and cost, but it is less expensive than either a double wishbone or multi-link setup. Honda introduced another variation strut set-up, called "dual-axis", which is used in the suspension design of the Civic Type-R. Another variant of the MacPherson strut is the double pivot front suspension, which splits the lower wishbone into two while retaining the standard upright design of the MacPherson strut. That allows for better control of steering geometry and scrub radius, while allowing for a larger brake assembly.
See also
Chapman strut
Coilover
Double wishbone suspension
Strut bar
References
External links
MacPherson Geometry Calculator
Automotive suspension technologies
Telescopic shock absorbers
American inventions | [
0.015894779935479164,
0.4296240508556366,
0.5210570096969604,
0.519697368144989,
-0.6909734010696411,
-0.05214766040444374,
0.2291395515203476,
-0.402828186750412,
-0.26864153146743774,
0.3563803434371948,
-0.12170099467039108,
0.5022327899932861,
-0.1486833691596985,
0.49535036087036133,
-0.16765452921390533,
0.15754152834415436,
0.422095388174057,
-0.11022097617387772,
0.0019280212000012398,
-0.3711138665676117,
-0.003735759761184454,
-0.32518911361694336,
0.6189884543418884,
-0.060584116727113724,
0.27787134051322937,
0.0962219387292862,
0.558045506477356,
0.43358251452445984,
0.12285591661930084,
-0.03314539045095444,
0.4055635333061218,
1.2579660415649414,
0.23181548714637756,
-0.3152711093425751,
0.061957236379384995,
-0.35943469405174255,
0.4556450843811035,
-0.3154711127281189,
0.05445577949285507,
-0.6515756249427795,
-0.2910829484462738,
-0.1278436779975891,
0.48859769105911255,
0.2681473195552826,
-0.03939078375697136,
-0.49572354555130005,
-1.2234567403793335,
0.6626732349395752,
-0.612457275390625,
-0.1600571870803833,
-0.7732881307601929,
0.49815309047698975,
0.4228360056877136,
-0.3000379204750061,
0.3598395884037018,
0.7027350068092346,
-0.7249161601066589,
-0.30070582032203674,
0.42525672912597656,
-0.04656210169196129,
-0.09846245497465134,
0.22934813797473907,
-0.11973981559276581,
0.3498653471469879,
-0.059561554342508316,
0.14058397710323334,
-0.5563246607780457,
-0.03910510241985321,
-0.3452851176261902,
0.29648739099502563,
-0.32542529702186584,
-0.05857185646891594,
0.36329135298728943,
0.23769740760326385,
-0.16842149198055267,
-0.2325775921344757,
-0.37523484230041504,
-0.2437480092048645,
0.6499921083450317,
-0.35557231307029724,
0.6195709705352783,
0.3486238718032837,
-0.11889014393091202,
0.33646702766418457,
0.16833220422267914,
0.4688863456249237,
-0.921091616153717,
0.09054702520370483,
-0.30714574456214905,
0.957970142364502,
-0.5036933422088623,
0.12345977872610092,
0.624118983745575,
0.32109108567237854,
0.2436753660440445,
-0.5636867880821228,
0.600744366645813,
-0.07876408845186234,
0.3508974611759186,
0.26226359605789185,
0.24869467318058014,
-0.33124667406082153,
0.5183917284011841,
-0.36397847533226013,
0.18025019764900208,
0.022060507908463478,
-0.736469030380249,
-0.4407469928264618,
-0.3154134452342987,
-0.14133621752262115,
-0.7858446836471558,
-0.23917487263679504,
-0.2501365542411804,
-0.39812618494033813,
0.45006293058395386,
0.14820438623428345,
0.2182670682668686,
-0.0826021283864975,
0.09229184687137604,
0.2855203449726105,
0.10349684208631516,
0.2770921587944031,
-0.8021563291549683,
-0.294920414686203,
-0.18114015460014343,
0.16845551133155823,
-0.03135080263018608,
0.46036234498023987,
-0.5373380184173584,
0.24134504795074463,
0.09347879141569138,
0.921552836894989,
-0.4181155860424042,
-0.38265562057495117,
-0.7973361611366272,
-0.06881292909383774,
0.3896724283695221,
-0.1944558173418045,
0.21301135420799255,
0.5907819867134094,
-0.8118021488189697,
-0.4563290774822235,
-0.6898977756500244,
-0.8860132694244385,
0.22139354050159454,
0.3176521062850952,
-0.1843857616186142,
-0.32988157868385315,
-0.4288290739059448,
-0.25070446729660034,
0.3928276002407074,
-0.04193079471588135,
-0.06806673854589462,
-0.11884608864784241,
0.0909961462020874,
0.020380118861794472,
0.7608569264411926,
-0.31062498688697815,
-0.3637750744819641,
0.05439310520887375,
0.052325788885354996,
0.15686726570129395,
-0.2780044376850128,
0.40501856803894043,
0.2669161558151245,
-0.37833625078201294,
0.3821111023426056,
0.33258017897605896,
0.06537744402885437,
0.3426750600337982,
-0.6677042841911316,
-0.0965808779001236,
0.15427589416503906,
-0.5129910707473755,
0.39059603214263916,
0.5796515941619873,
0.660833477973938,
-0.26538151502609253,
0.15214276313781738,
0.23693989217281342,
-0.5280197262763977,
0.4046751856803894,
0.44280415773391724,
0.05037545785307884,
0.48897966742515564,
0.5255563855171204,
0.4065662622451782,
-0.7437338829040527,
-0.2601531147956848,
-0.2808934450149536,
-0.8283442854881287,
-0.8734790682792664,
0.19096945226192474,
-0.6474338173866272,
1.2720078229904175,
0.014432278461754322,
-0.2781605124473572,
0.4192236363887787,
0.4813889265060425,
0.962683379650116,
-0.31897151470184326,
0.36959338188171387,
-0.0996381938457489,
-0.48988077044487,
-0.8175054788589478,
1.0086158514022827,
0.6227027177810669,
-0.12297137826681137,
0.5596153140068054,
-0.04090692102909088,
0.5832228064537048,
-0.33225831389427185,
0.17439156770706177,
-0.5854067802429199,
-0.3076488673686981,
-0.36614975333213806,
-0.016528863459825516,
0.44171372056007385,
-0.5219338536262512,
-0.06958959251642227,
0.5600206851959229,
0.015322822146117687,
-0.7958999276161194,
0.7129480242729187,
-0.21178986132144928,
0.17498260736465454,
0.18084600567817688,
0.6818795800209045,
0.04500968009233475,
-0.5347486734390259,
-0.021959612146019936,
-0.12895502150058746,
0.13692735135555267,
-0.6031186580657959,
-0.4506368339061737,
0.42469504475593567,
-0.0459580235183239,
-0.32017645239830017,
0.6059121489524841,
-0.24997149407863617,
-0.1003117561340332,
0.8603858947753906,
-0.8199759721755981,
0.13706210255622864,
0.0079532191157341,
-0.19514437019824982,
0.17335925996303558,
0.2668415307998657,
0.03841032832860947,
-0.1595018059015274,
0.5725404024124146,
0.3021458685398102,
0.6930081248283386,
-0.5655677318572998,
0.05689624696969986,
0.3327672481536865,
-0.036563605070114136,
0.10662286728620529,
-0.1837262511253357,
0.41911572217941284,
-0.4878537356853485,
0.19789345562458038,
0.3856784701347351,
-0.25736182928085327,
-0.5609914064407349,
-0.012782433070242405,
-0.21728727221488953,
-0.10393477231264114,
-0.14444346725940704,
0.08598413318395615,
-0.4261302351951599,
-0.27112817764282227,
-0.41034796833992004,
-0.9063910841941833,
-0.15641117095947266,
-0.31821390986442566,
0.3564346730709076,
0.24800388514995575,
-0.6216420531272888,
-0.18823513388633728,
-0.04440103843808174,
0.9953546524047852,
0.4456825852394104,
-0.3999001085758209,
0.102959543466568,
-0.21339717507362366,
-0.16962195932865143,
0.39380574226379395,
-0.1625203788280487,
-0.649644136428833,
0.07215294241905212,
0.06819108128547668,
-0.3831068277359009,
0.4665274918079376,
-0.15323130786418915,
0.8288228511810303,
0.01847687177360058,
-0.16040506958961487,
0.7159051895141602,
-0.678486704826355,
-0.3078644573688507,
0.10298806428909302,
-0.11433443427085876,
-0.34570565819740295,
0.1755867302417755,
0.1801428496837616,
-0.5260651707649231,
0.1028522402048111,
-5.35972261428833,
0.002013389952480793,
-0.5207862854003906,
-0.5496436357498169,
0.7351111769676208,
0.26717880368232727,
0.5587816834449768,
-0.35362789034843445,
-0.9033422470092773,
-0.12274093180894852,
0.22008003294467926,
-0.2831924259662628,
0.386756032705307,
-0.18274986743927002,
0.6036787033081055,
0.5342870950698853,
0.4524903893470764,
-0.6074638366699219,
0.353114515542984,
0.3109605014324188,
0.459401935338974,
-0.09688298404216766,
-0.1962730586528778,
-0.09709202498197556,
0.1428782045841217,
-0.24901056289672852,
-0.18716980516910553,
0.03712497651576996,
-0.795854389667511,
0.5485638380050659,
0.17315956950187683,
0.07951126247644424,
-0.06047620251774788,
-0.3987289071083069,
0.025695007294416428,
0.003503641113638878,
0.7097994089126587,
0.36634916067123413,
0.5647317171096802,
-0.017575105652213097,
-0.1049390658736229,
0.1451045274734497,
0.4262487292289734,
0.4271000623703003,
0.427066832780838,
-0.540183424949646,
-0.238728329539299,
-0.4096597731113434,
-0.0491618737578392,
1.2690677642822266,
0.16411516070365906,
0.2853463888168335,
0.46253806352615356,
-0.36749207973480225,
0.20348651707172394,
-0.1419520080089569,
0.7618920207023621,
-0.26484182476997375,
-0.5198160409927368,
0.15667441487312317,
0.292919784784317,
-0.5190739035606384,
0.05460132658481598,
-0.4541677236557007,
-0.0005020133103244007,
-0.5268597602844238,
-0.45807120203971863,
-0.24385161697864532,
0.3827296793460846,
0.024851543828845024,
-0.3090932369232178,
0.8402750492095947,
-0.2829085886478424,
-0.739393413066864,
-0.02512354776263237,
-0.4535229802131653,
0.41900068521499634,
-0.37962374091148376,
0.27175506949424744,
-0.21547351777553558,
-0.06595120579004288,
0.24141116440296173,
-1.123002052307129,
0.35145631432533264,
0.07663377374410629,
-0.3165465295314789,
-0.44213351607322693,
-0.09854023158550262,
-0.48309844732284546,
-0.40011316537857056,
0.3922897279262543,
-0.1372547149658203,
0.19328729808330536,
0.09232871979475021,
-0.07677901536226273,
-0.17155754566192627,
-0.3207489252090454,
0.18249882757663727,
0.2533574104309082,
-0.7601832747459412,
-0.1487254798412323,
-0.1397036612033844,
0.2529522478580475,
-0.14609183371067047,
0.012342775240540504,
-0.27462050318717957,
-0.4937511086463928,
0.3571431636810303,
0.5744102001190186,
0.5385087132453918,
0.36975395679473877,
-0.10111158341169357,
-0.22593457996845245,
-0.1696590781211853,
0.447275847196579,
0.061349689960479736,
-0.5225903987884521,
0.09571707993745804,
0.23037661612033844,
-0.33428719639778137,
-0.21139401197433472,
0.35985952615737915,
-0.08828111737966537,
-0.2507917284965515,
-0.09590160101652145,
0.046373918652534485,
0.28714707493782043,
-0.2193719744682312,
-0.07840166240930557,
-0.26096755266189575,
-0.0352628119289875,
0.12985354661941528,
-0.025325017049908638,
0.26419100165367126,
-0.6377429366111755,
-0.3928512632846832,
-0.4043966829776764,
0.2680230736732483,
-0.16037185490131378,
-0.8695278167724609,
-0.2729935050010681,
-0.12643489241600037,
-0.09952332824468613,
-0.05844234302639961,
0.7814404368400574,
0.6500690579414368,
-0.2136741578578949,
0.6886872053146362,
-0.3952626883983612,
0.46390724182128906,
0.21578732132911682,
-0.324155330657959,
-0.4023117423057556,
-0.9194972515106201,
0.2142554670572281,
-0.12936992943286896,
-0.19520774483680725,
0.4658862352371216,
0.5870656371116638,
-0.9815288186073303,
0.7251451015472412,
0.3067052364349365,
-0.9070475101470947,
-0.24871842563152313,
-0.2217932790517807,
0.3283788561820984,
-0.34784048795700073,
-0.7987143397331238,
-0.31402456760406494,
0.30834120512008667,
-0.4384656548500061,
-0.36163774132728577,
-1.114311695098877,
-0.7707618474960327,
0.31266170740127563,
0.38446924090385437,
0.06627599149942398,
-0.17918317019939423,
0.09907883405685425,
-0.5756394267082214,
-0.18650470674037933,
0.46699029207229614,
0.2208007127046585,
0.7818029522895813,
0.14607080817222595,
-0.9924890995025635,
-0.7778135538101196,
0.3014000952243805,
-0.2613672912120819,
-0.22709916532039642,
0.4544873833656311,
0.004667320288717747,
0.5025859475135803,
-0.0621681734919548,
-0.2110147774219513,
-0.20362412929534912,
-0.3817351162433624,
0.4743688404560089,
-0.5871576070785522,
-0.6623682379722595,
-0.3536531627178192,
0.958791196346283,
-0.4862883985042572,
0.3759203255176544,
0.21749305725097656,
0.08541955053806305,
0.4119443893432617,
-0.034361258149147034,
-0.17233458161354065,
0.6944369077682495,
-0.08342507481575012,
-1.0138050317764282,
0.004769065883010626,
0.5482868552207947,
-0.5776808857917786,
0.3073557913303375,
0.39751899242401123,
-0.3350219130516052,
-0.31933557987213135,
-0.09201179444789886,
0.2460210621356964,
-0.21829462051391602,
-0.3438446521759033,
-0.5736150741577148,
-0.7752577066421509,
0.3575555980205536,
0.21438057720661163,
-0.28120172023773193,
1.0100162029266357,
0.09970629960298538,
-0.6305826306343079,
-0.22024905681610107,
0.24916595220565796,
-0.5985469222068787,
-0.3901168704032898,
-0.017614657059311867,
-0.8006857633590698,
0.5841156244277954,
-0.0499115027487278,
-0.1845390498638153,
0.554013192653656,
1.547084927558899,
0.094977967441082,
-0.41010886430740356,
-0.4565957188606262,
0.22481253743171692,
0.2545045018196106,
-0.6883530616760254,
-0.08735091239213943,
-0.013571621850132942,
0.3962564766407013,
0.048533301800489426,
-0.9098429083824158,
0.02323245443403721,
0.007549033034592867,
0.13510248064994812,
-0.047169990837574005,
-0.6280485987663269,
0.7305995225906372,
0.4455605745315552,
0.08499488234519958,
0.6300691366195679,
-0.558028519153595,
0.2936704456806183,
-0.5503944754600525,
-0.022797584533691406,
0.028997592628002167,
-0.6197901964187622,
0.7952436208724976,
-0.07718885689973831,
0.4007106423377991,
-0.12878765165805817,
0.8528741598129272,
0.6362724304199219,
-0.001878666807897389,
0.1879635751247406,
0.22955627739429474,
-0.5812078714370728,
0.16434767842292786,
-0.46981996297836304,
-0.12171608209609985,
0.4106046259403229,
-0.060816626995801926,
-0.03189915791153908,
0.06655361503362656,
0.17186391353607178,
-0.07879646122455597,
-0.18028192222118378,
0.14837290346622467,
0.17206037044525146,
-0.6220300197601318,
-0.338667094707489,
-0.26877152919769287,
0.5930375456809998,
-0.052456337958574295,
0.4169420003890991,
-0.5170543193817139,
0.5007929801940918,
-0.46658045053482056,
0.27963852882385254,
-1.1466056108474731,
0.14454327523708344,
0.6399132609367371,
-0.8714196681976318,
0.6666984558105469,
-0.5232978463172913,
0.01990921050310135,
-0.5191893577575684,
0.5389631390571594,
0.05456482991576195,
0.39642369747161865,
-0.028054403141140938,
-0.28856360912323,
0.8370976448059082,
-0.41000980138778687,
-0.37358734011650085,
0.5354759097099304,
-0.052524905651807785,
-0.2977745532989502,
1.0471943616867065,
-0.5104775428771973,
0.4465872645378113,
0.36300796270370483,
-0.5017101168632507,
0.006652542855590582,
0.45341387391090393,
-0.3396185040473938,
-0.6533246636390686,
0.2673218548297882,
0.7860310673713684,
0.5339493155479431,
0.15764416754245758,
-0.4955011010169983,
1.0337105989456177,
-0.5240981578826904,
-0.029154308140277863,
0.43798741698265076,
-0.10306151956319809,
-0.22811424732208252,
0.5149267911911011,
-0.19228893518447876,
0.09500188380479813,
0.2856888771057129,
-0.15401163697242737,
0.0829705074429512,
0.005511096678674221,
0.2833803594112396,
0.4696537256240845,
0.36934271454811096,
0.182339608669281,
0.2639380097389221,
0.027513956651091576,
0.7519773244857788,
-0.6742890477180481,
-0.12258892506361008,
-0.13733956217765808,
0.39135274291038513,
-0.010873718187212944,
-0.3437994122505188,
-0.14390915632247925,
-0.15563656389713287,
0.37583547830581665,
-0.27360185980796814,
-0.5482226610183716,
0.8179349899291992,
-0.3552805185317993,
0.9132195115089417,
-0.6037603616714478,
0.4394036531448364,
0.9232734441757202,
0.2130535989999771,
0.4840487837791443,
-0.4996688961982727,
0.4321262240409851,
0.22216323018074036,
-0.09252335131168365,
0.23758965730667114,
0.5268778204917908,
0.3211359977722168,
-0.21029719710350037,
-0.27392688393592834,
0.4283733069896698,
-0.5538235306739807,
-0.30758029222488403,
-0.6097877025604248,
0.057557109743356705,
-0.186360165476799,
0.22232875227928162,
0.553291916847229,
-0.35319769382476807,
0.16431824862957,
-0.5371199250221252,
-0.0353323332965374,
-0.426798939704895,
-0.41933733224868774,
-0.39087536931037903,
-0.3647724390029907,
0.6373558044433594,
0.3841037452220917,
0.06287037581205368,
-0.36175039410591125,
0.2762645184993744,
-0.11552479863166809,
0.05164846032857895,
0.2156537026166916,
0.22319462895393372,
0.45540890097618103,
0.5669979453086853,
-0.1462194323539734,
0.8686069250106812,
0.29865843057632446,
-0.6697306036949158,
0.22840794920921326,
0.26804426312446594,
-0.1341538429260254,
0.33135926723480225,
0.6317967772483826,
-0.7178053259849548,
-0.3448517620563507,
-0.47444984316825867,
-0.062465690076351166,
0.37149015069007874,
0.35314568877220154,
0.1824406236410141,
0.03891534358263016,
-0.17728565633296967,
0.279575377702713,
0.11741215735673904,
-0.4180566668510437,
0.23586493730545044,
0.039589013904333115,
0.22379787266254425,
-0.36991798877716064,
0.3764568865299225,
-0.29453185200691223,
0.1846584677696228,
0.21071985363960266,
0.7176356911659241,
0.1618378609418869,
0.19574937224388123,
0.36529719829559326,
-0.24580614268779755,
-0.05117696896195412,
0.22637799382209778,
-1.0642130374908447,
0.10700292140245438,
-0.263537734746933,
0.09889085590839386,
-0.4143604338169098,
-0.22344493865966797,
0.558455765247345,
-0.9809854626655579,
0.07450660318136215,
-0.5408028364181519,
0.2622101306915283,
-0.02207527682185173,
-0.47528815269470215,
-0.9192429184913635,
-0.7361927032470703,
0.138758584856987
] |
234731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuosity | Virtuosity | Virtuosity is a 1995 American science fiction action film directed by Brett Leonard and starring Denzel Washington and Russell Crowe. Howard W. Koch Jr. served as an executive producer for the film. The film was released in the United States on August 4, 1995. Virtuosity had an estimated budget of $30 million and grossed $37 million worldwide.
Plot
In Los Angeles, Lt. Parker Barnes and John Donovan are testing a virtual reality system that is going to be used for training police officers. The two are tracking down a serial killer named SID 6.7 at a restaurant in virtual reality. SID (short for Sadistic, Intelligent, Dangerous, a VR amalgam of the most violent serial killers throughout history) causes Donovan to go into shock, killing him. The director overseeing the project, before Commissioner Elizabeth Deane and her associate, William Wallace, orders the programmer in charge of creating SID, Dr. Darrel Lindenmeyer, to shut down the project. Barnes is a former police officer imprisoned for killing political terrorist Matthew Grimes, who killed Parker's wife and daughter. Barnes killed Grimes and innocent bystanders. This caused him to become a convicted killer and serve 17 years to life.
Barnes meets with criminal psychologist Dr. Madison Carter following a fight between Barnes and another prisoner, Big Red. Meanwhile, Lindenmeyer informs SID that he is about to be shut down because the death caused when he disabled the fail-safes. At SID's suggestion, Lindenmeyer convinces another employee, Clyde Reilly, that a sexually-compliant virtual reality model, Sheila 3.2, another project created by Lindenmeyer, can be brought to life in a synthetically grown android body. Lindenmeyer replaces the Sheila 3.2 module with the SID 6.7 module. Now processed into the real world, SID 6.7 kills Reilly.
Once word gets out of SID being in the real world, Deane and Los Angeles Police Department Chief William Cochran offer Barnes a deal: if he catches SID and brings him back to virtual reality, he will be pardoned. Barnes agrees, and with help from Carter, they discover that Matthew Grimes, the terrorist who killed Barnes's wife and daughter, is a part of SID 6.7's personality profile. After killing a family along with group of security guards, SID heads over to the Media Zone, a local nightclub, where he takes hostages. Barnes and Carter go to the nightclub to stop him, but SID escapes.
The next day, SID begins a killing spree at the Los Angeles Olympic Auditorium. Barnes arrives at the Stadium to capture SID, and finds him on a train, where another hostage is being held by SID. However, Barnes seemingly kills the hostage in front of horrified witnesses. Having caught up with Barnes after the incident, Carter tries to prove Barnes's innocence, but Barnes is sent back to prison. Barnes is freed from his prisoner transport by SID, who once again escapes. Wallace and Deane are about to have Barnes terminated via a fail-safe transmitter implanted in him but Cochran destroys the system after learning from Carter that Barnes didn't kill the hostage on the train.
However, SID kidnaps Carter's daughter Karin and takes over a television studio. Lindenmeyer, having come out of hiding, sees what SID is doing and is impressed, but is captured by Carter. After a fight on the roof of the studio Barnes ultimately destroys SID's body, but is unable to learn where he hid Karin. They place SID back in VR to trick the location out of him which proves to be one of the fan enclosures on the studio roof. When SID discovers that he is back in virtual reality he goes into a rage. Cochran lets Carter out of VR, but Lindenmeyer kills Cochran before he can release Barnes. Barnes starts to go into the same shock that Donovan suffered, but Carter kills Lindenmeyer, and saves Barnes.
Barnes and Carter return to the building that SID took over in the real world, and save Karin from a booby trap set up by SID that's similar to the one that killed Barnes' family. After Karin is saved, Barnes destroys the SID 6.7 module.
Cast
Denzel Washington as Lieutenant Parker Barnes, who was imprisoned after killing a man who killed his family
Russell Crowe as SID 6.7, a virtual reality entity who later becomes a regenerating android
Kelly Lynch as Dr. Madison Carter, a criminal psychologist who teams with Barnes to understand SID's behavior
Stephen Spinella as Dr. Darrel Lindenmeyer, who created SID 6.7 and Sheila 3.2
William Forsythe as Chief Billy Cochran
Louise Fletcher as Commissioner Elizabeth Deane
William Fichtner as William Wallace
Costas Mandylor as John Donovan
Kevin J. O'Connor as Clyde Reilly
Kaley Cuoco as Karin Carter, Madison's daughter
Christopher Murray as Matthew Grimes
Mari Morrow as Linda Barnes
Johnny Kim as Lab Tech
Heidi Schanz as Sheila 3.2
Traci Lords as Media Zone singer
Gordon Jennison Noice as 'Big Red'
Michael Buffer as Emcee
Production
Washington restructured much of the story and dialogue during filming, entirely removing a romantic subtext between the Lt. Barnes and Dr. Carter characters from the original script.
Principal photography for the film began on January 25, 1995. Parts of the film were filmed at the abandoned Hughes Aircraft plant in Los Angeles.
Reception
Critical response
The film received mostly mixed to negative reviews. It has a rotten score of 32% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 31 reviews, with 32% of the audience indicating they liked it. The site's consensus states: "Woefully deficient in thrills or common sense, Virtuosity strands its talented stars in a story whose vision of the future is depressingly short on imagination." It also has a score of 39 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 17 reviews. Roger Ebert, however, wrote that the movie was "filled with bright ideas and fresh thinking" and "still finds surprises" despite a somewhat cliché premise.
The film was nominated for Best Picture at the Sitges Film Festival, losing to Citizen X.
Box office
The film grossed $24 million in the United States and Canada and $37 million worldwide.
See also
American Gangster, 2007 film starring Washington and Crowe in switched antagonist/protagonist roles
Simulated reality
References
External links
1995 films
1990s chase films
1990s science fiction action films
American chase films
American science fiction action films
American films
1990s English-language films
Films about computing
Films about telepresence
Films about virtual reality
Films directed by Brett Leonard
Films produced by Gary Lucchesi
Films scored by Christopher Young
Films set in 1999
Films set in California
Films set in Los Angeles
American police detective films
Paramount Pictures films | [
0.19381828606128693,
0.33647143840789795,
-0.24716734886169434,
0.3942601680755615,
0.1719466596841812,
-0.08414723724126816,
0.4048213064670563,
-0.2021016925573349,
0.30900320410728455,
0.10310802608728409,
0.2131834179162979,
0.9728063941001892,
0.12961412966251373,
0.04604446515440941,
0.3960573971271515,
0.10882987827062607,
0.5568592548370361,
0.19432854652404785,
0.12228557467460632,
-0.4717788100242615,
-0.09214507043361664,
-0.12262600660324097,
0.7564396858215332,
-0.14786502718925476,
-0.42739012837409973,
0.44452545046806335,
-0.4498348534107208,
0.3113844096660614,
-0.12024680525064468,
-0.08230749517679214,
0.08917778730392456,
0.14062058925628662,
0.05288828909397125,
-0.18053942918777466,
0.026156693696975708,
0.3016403913497925,
-0.15073487162590027,
0.19820602238178253,
-0.07447922974824905,
-0.5295403599739075,
0.4092930257320404,
-0.34408634901046753,
0.43928229808807373,
-0.6462090611457825,
-0.7858796715736389,
-0.3367324769496918,
-1.0805580615997314,
0.19842593371868134,
-0.6621846556663513,
-0.7037432789802551,
0.35565799474716187,
0.47061821818351746,
0.41472217440605164,
-0.01703786849975586,
0.0200762078166008,
0.2617092430591583,
-0.22634278237819672,
-0.16225047409534454,
-0.15414075553417206,
-0.5200130343437195,
-0.026411645114421844,
0.1939595341682434,
-0.33701762557029724,
-0.06652453541755676,
-0.0765991359949112,
0.3337078392505646,
0.26137375831604004,
-0.13383294641971588,
0.02268831618130207,
-0.6662237048149109,
0.09754634648561478,
-0.11418940126895905,
0.45455485582351685,
0.0750138908624649,
-0.20528489351272583,
-0.3954393267631531,
0.31835079193115234,
0.6064189672470093,
0.038472674787044525,
-0.07163235545158386,
0.5606488585472107,
0.2517891228199005,
0.6674202680587769,
0.34510353207588196,
-0.5068446397781372,
0.18073762953281403,
0.17602847516536713,
0.10369721800088882,
-0.5639927387237549,
0.4533931016921997,
-0.5838510394096375,
-0.7305036783218384,
0.42075973749160767,
0.44138455390930176,
0.3595893383026123,
-0.17140257358551025,
-0.08646869659423828,
-0.37553858757019043,
-0.06030818074941635,
0.10676218569278717,
-0.024211084470152855,
-0.1495288759469986,
-0.1863664984703064,
-0.307733416557312,
0.06504515558481216,
0.2970382869243622,
-0.09640580415725708,
-0.18386460840702057,
-0.485589861869812,
0.3186352849006653,
-0.07118789106607437,
0.17166224122047424,
-0.7892068028450012,
0.00982753187417984,
0.002431160770356655,
0.30755969882011414,
0.4023016691207886,
-0.0574401319026947,
-0.11594248563051224,
0.0027652019634842873,
0.29771533608436584,
0.32456815242767334,
0.03226795047521591,
0.304182231426239,
-0.32481464743614197,
0.4775210916996002,
0.511440634727478,
0.06676924228668213,
-0.0466020293533802,
0.16355742514133453,
0.12552158534526825,
0.41886383295059204,
0.21573659777641296,
-0.07496406883001328,
-0.07897751033306122,
-0.2837068736553192,
0.438327819108963,
-0.4337143898010254,
-0.7154000997543335,
0.48225006461143494,
0.06315494328737259,
-0.7582913637161255,
-0.4737659692764282,
-0.4210416078567505,
0.5075775384902954,
-0.105919249355793,
0.26817211508750916,
-0.013778372667729855,
0.20742997527122498,
-0.2984796464443207,
0.10800974816083908,
0.38672611117362976,
-0.3297463059425354,
-0.3529368042945862,
0.061116427183151245,
-0.17370575666427612,
0.6436446905136108,
0.12409340590238571,
-0.01837727054953575,
0.06319241225719452,
-0.17132635414600372,
0.08385668694972992,
-0.029108909890055656,
-0.16266916692256927,
0.05402890965342522,
-0.5410380363464355,
0.4900129437446594,
0.3306160867214203,
-0.7326392531394958,
-0.19519901275634766,
-0.39693912863731384,
0.24184376001358032,
-0.11472556740045547,
0.30282169580459595,
-0.4263901114463806,
0.4030170142650604,
0.7846669554710388,
0.6186993718147278,
0.288072407245636,
-0.0771697387099266,
-0.41143733263015747,
0.12065539509057999,
0.2531062066555023,
0.0557103268802166,
0.3088066875934601,
-0.18885751068592072,
0.3128524124622345,
-0.2837998867034912,
-0.3559857904911041,
-0.22892048954963684,
-0.6362519264221191,
-0.12111934274435043,
0.7698052525520325,
-0.22914479672908783,
0.794596254825592,
0.312931090593338,
-0.04709232226014137,
-0.23654554784297943,
0.5766963362693787,
0.5061449408531189,
-0.24681781232357025,
-0.4712374806404114,
0.4034581780433655,
0.02067021280527115,
-0.643307089805603,
-0.2161768227815628,
0.5107977986335754,
-0.2050114870071411,
-0.18500499427318573,
0.06716330349445343,
0.13063180446624756,
0.2321014106273651,
0.2583615481853485,
0.23719750344753265,
-0.27337563037872314,
-0.18867330253124237,
-1.2015916109085083,
-0.024071771651506424,
-0.059110578149557114,
-0.5260769724845886,
-0.057507649064064026,
0.17259928584098816,
-0.0718025416135788,
0.441405326128006,
-0.2765597999095917,
0.5947127938270569,
0.44983693957328796,
0.12145265936851501,
-0.5212068557739258,
-0.41605961322784424,
-0.44549646973609924,
0.03910862281918526,
-0.36646491289138794,
0.012213191948831081,
0.17560219764709473,
0.47632795572280884,
0.15695863962173462,
-0.23615683615207672,
0.38194739818573,
-0.5012983083724976,
-0.017878437414765358,
0.27877476811408997,
-0.43597856163978577,
0.42494380474090576,
0.12799575924873352,
0.4094678461551666,
0.4893900156021118,
0.5445986390113831,
-0.7285563945770264,
0.1741275191307068,
-0.001117012114264071,
0.296436607837677,
0.03462044894695282,
0.20247067511081696,
0.2712721526622772,
-0.10297246277332306,
0.1075214073061943,
-0.19093134999275208,
0.002751299412921071,
-0.3306228816509247,
0.1494615226984024,
-0.46914616227149963,
0.5019075274467468,
0.06593034416437149,
-0.34998905658721924,
-0.40724849700927734,
-0.2605644762516022,
-0.8158281445503235,
0.3417673408985138,
-0.10017722845077515,
-0.618800163269043,
0.09559810161590576,
-0.0096468236297369,
0.7289040088653564,
-0.08330926299095154,
0.02872229553759098,
-0.10886966437101364,
-0.2644692659378052,
-0.19014370441436768,
-0.12010892480611801,
0.866641640663147,
0.7453076839447021,
-0.11310897767543793,
-0.12221667915582657,
-0.24159125983715057,
-0.3673872649669647,
-0.07916717976331711,
-0.16527846455574036,
0.11702726036310196,
-0.7329815030097961,
-0.5245036482810974,
-0.12275619059801102,
-0.19745205342769623,
0.3997131586074829,
-0.4738162159919739,
-0.06124729663133621,
0.5825607776641846,
-0.2181481570005417,
0.1118927150964737,
0.14042967557907104,
0.08240894228219986,
0.6489834189414978,
-0.03015744499862194,
0.2244289070367813,
0.4323189854621887,
-0.1936797946691513,
0.03718255087733269,
-0.36677661538124084,
-6.000668525695801,
0.29980018734931946,
0.25278857350349426,
-0.01815708354115486,
0.1806924045085907,
0.4068082571029663,
-0.0985780656337738,
-0.19221095740795135,
-0.35153698921203613,
-0.1982627809047699,
-0.21494728326797485,
0.27528202533721924,
0.20598770678043365,
0.4812149405479431,
0.27954602241516113,
-0.08901263773441315,
0.2346620261669159,
-0.15987342596054077,
-0.19855251908302307,
0.584747314453125,
-0.3930357098579407,
-0.23288235068321228,
0.2935323119163513,
-0.18952009081840515,
0.1900317668914795,
0.08646511286497116,
-0.4737854599952698,
0.24667982757091522,
-0.43244317173957825,
0.03665292635560036,
-0.42769673466682434,
0.06574949622154236,
-0.12191528081893921,
-0.1876458078622818,
0.23038622736930847,
0.6424365639686584,
0.4633422791957855,
-0.20066042244434357,
0.5368290543556213,
-0.12923724949359894,
0.08066543936729431,
-0.07940888404846191,
-0.32688432931900024,
0.0384485237300396,
0.49782297015190125,
-0.02173415571451187,
-0.41653165221214294,
0.008129947818815708,
0.07755910605192184,
0.2217714786529541,
-0.16465552151203156,
-0.20717771351337433,
-0.11430328339338303,
0.29580220580101013,
-0.15552563965320587,
-0.17977787554264069,
0.31481632590293884,
0.29331904649734497,
-0.05285482853651047,
0.31602153182029724,
0.09353534132242203,
-0.31511643528938293,
-0.07830758392810822,
0.4145340025424957,
0.05903105065226555,
0.09840202331542969,
0.3591454029083252,
-0.32754531502723694,
-0.5310098528862,
0.3376155197620392,
0.3417467176914215,
0.26710614562034607,
-0.2630294859409332,
-0.9620046019554138,
-0.287788450717926,
-0.6825377345085144,
0.16543006896972656,
0.34989482164382935,
-0.6853635907173157,
0.34516796469688416,
-0.0381232425570488,
-0.2965147793292999,
0.25641557574272156,
0.007010454777628183,
0.27264323830604553,
0.03273902088403702,
-0.3590475618839264,
-0.17275458574295044,
0.16953487694263458,
-0.06011780723929405,
0.33442845940589905,
-0.39729124307632446,
-0.29393476247787476,
0.07419417053461075,
0.5915235877037048,
0.23459503054618835,
0.6566908359527588,
0.768494725227356,
0.31098672747612,
0.2747676968574524,
0.2243576943874359,
-0.17434453964233398,
0.4515274167060852,
-0.2565513849258423,
-0.3194216191768646,
-0.5390705466270447,
0.22616958618164062,
0.21580488979816437,
0.5131614208221436,
-0.2770656943321228,
0.13880516588687897,
-0.13003669679164886,
-0.19570982456207275,
0.10504322499036789,
0.22972755134105682,
-0.20938122272491455,
-0.37157920002937317,
0.4887984097003937,
0.8038549423217773,
-0.049729134887456894,
-0.10465145856142044,
0.18409693241119385,
-0.5582841038703918,
-0.30639025568962097,
-0.3939780294895172,
0.35499662160873413,
-0.3823007345199585,
0.40712133049964905,
-0.15510644018650055,
-0.20049329102039337,
-0.6258440613746643,
0.2604137659072876,
-0.12557591497898102,
0.6051408648490906,
0.10545925050973892,
-0.806333601474762,
-0.03390523046255112,
0.3256820738315582,
0.16813404858112335,
0.2753433883190155,
0.3836655020713806,
-0.013690716587007046,
0.004957320634275675,
0.30318164825439453,
0.3073907792568207,
-0.10731559991836548,
0.3073520064353943,
-0.4488219618797302,
-0.0988527238368988,
0.21056991815567017,
0.12315201759338379,
-0.10888389497995377,
0.5563076138496399,
-0.5269613265991211,
-0.03979666903614998,
0.18513314425945282,
-0.39161062240600586,
-0.3453998863697052,
0.27458733320236206,
0.32664942741394043,
0.5312445759773254,
0.252469927072525,
-1.3659782409667969,
-0.6270120739936829,
0.11089774966239929,
-0.09964665025472641,
-0.3098352253437042,
-0.9230510592460632,
-0.9632874131202698,
0.004513281863182783,
0.3918217420578003,
-0.20954295992851257,
-0.17693042755126953,
-0.008810307830572128,
-0.19684305787086487,
0.23284173011779785,
-0.30154046416282654,
-0.5679585337638855,
0.41544109582901,
-0.104209765791893,
0.11023024469614029,
0.15751981735229492,
-0.09494908899068832,
-0.3512888550758362,
-0.11070346087217331,
-0.47364088892936707,
0.08688633888959885,
-0.2655946910381317,
-0.22140243649482727,
0.4173795282840729,
-0.463140070438385,
0.3336159884929657,
0.2355847954750061,
-0.19543707370758057,
-0.177573561668396,
-0.4783182442188263,
0.14977329969406128,
0.5533340573310852,
-0.17497630417346954,
-0.3486064076423645,
0.3484477400779724,
0.24986639618873596,
-0.4467647969722748,
0.20789121091365814,
0.8615642786026001,
0.01864403486251831,
0.039326831698417664,
0.32381734251976013,
-0.3619019389152527,
0.5213354825973511,
-0.6139355897903442,
-0.6868705153465271,
0.3292829394340515,
-0.0826803594827652,
-0.06266431510448456,
0.16516263782978058,
0.04044788330793381,
-0.18109673261642456,
-0.4485200345516205,
-0.4371490180492401,
-0.045663021504879,
0.2820281684398651,
-0.46701449155807495,
-0.42102575302124023,
-0.8336947560310364,
-0.515415608882904,
0.5394023060798645,
-0.3954078257083893,
0.2733374238014221,
-0.6278647780418396,
-0.8183319568634033,
0.06976985186338425,
0.05503394827246666,
-0.09532433748245239,
-0.38610395789146423,
-0.31550490856170654,
-0.3854005038738251,
0.2810532748699188,
0.12799450755119324,
-0.3231227695941925,
0.4826011657714844,
0.7671027779579163,
-0.2471330612897873,
0.1852739453315735,
-0.021804040297865868,
0.4764765501022339,
-0.07321718335151672,
-0.13474376499652863,
-0.4733118414878845,
-0.20553532242774963,
-0.27013036608695984,
-0.0398298017680645,
-0.08351636677980423,
-0.16800227761268616,
0.7735938429832458,
-1.2383394241333008,
0.4475191831588745,
-0.3870645761489868,
-0.046438317745923996,
0.3035552203655243,
-0.037182483822107315,
-0.3086387515068054,
-0.5697449445724487,
0.141059011220932,
-0.2883855700492859,
0.21634015440940857,
0.18504877388477325,
-0.5776197910308838,
0.015156836248934269,
-0.316903293132782,
0.5939615368843079,
-0.23285727202892303,
-0.08321181684732437,
0.28300225734710693,
-0.27035951614379883,
-0.07307427376508713,
-0.13274165987968445,
0.044292137026786804,
-0.09650319814682007,
-0.06197783350944519,
0.009852904826402664,
0.5915722846984863,
-0.14965088665485382,
-0.9572210311889648,
-0.06839407980442047,
-0.5355736017227173,
0.0020754695869982243,
-0.5688013434410095,
-0.09337020665407181,
0.36320990324020386,
-0.30587518215179443,
0.042403001338243484,
-0.06310715526342392,
-0.2936578691005707,
0.32914862036705017,
0.004721053410321474,
-0.06082814559340477,
0.38788798451423645,
-0.34348273277282715,
-0.3121483623981476,
-0.13093602657318115,
0.5663047432899475,
0.6276934742927551,
-0.5250576734542847,
-0.20455537736415863,
-0.1028730720281601,
0.26535564661026,
-0.16599543392658234,
-0.4392450451850891,
-0.05384849011898041,
-0.19516335427761078,
-0.002944131614640355,
0.019828999415040016,
0.3216557204723358,
-0.16988839209079742,
0.030502377077937126,
1.012844204902649,
0.4007143974304199,
-0.01540693175047636,
0.5385162234306335,
-0.24061304330825806,
-0.84174644947052,
0.8044405579566956,
-0.5197205543518066,
-0.29028791189193726,
0.14993952214717865,
-0.042109258472919464,
-0.034705501049757004,
0.6908462643623352,
1.073211669921875,
0.024724725633859634,
-0.6025070548057556,
-0.0037530683912336826,
1.072320580482483,
0.043507371097803116,
-0.36931920051574707,
0.14959433674812317,
0.10850594192743301,
-0.10251167416572571,
0.35667359828948975,
0.4098982512950897,
0.2685755491256714,
0.6242731809616089,
0.618817925453186,
-0.2737043797969818,
-0.13969193398952484,
0.23113088309764862,
0.13024131953716278,
-0.6145922541618347,
-0.36556294560432434,
0.1991066336631775,
0.20846949517726898,
0.17354212701320648,
-0.018372418358922005,
0.46645811200141907,
-0.45966994762420654,
0.062458932399749756,
0.2257394641637802,
-0.0038569180760532618,
-0.13446415960788727,
-0.31649360060691833,
-0.23830094933509827,
0.49757736921310425,
0.3859458863735199,
0.05519109591841698,
0.16737976670265198,
0.2697891592979431,
0.07508061826229095,
-0.13615170121192932,
-0.06599482148885727,
-0.3063376545906067,
0.5755893588066101,
-0.09023825824260712,
-0.027841320261359215,
0.3652716279029846,
-0.03375803306698799,
-0.5150585174560547,
-0.020262503996491432,
-0.17226794362068176,
-0.4523715376853943,
-0.34266844391822815,
0.34382447600364685,
-0.23635943233966827,
-0.1904897689819336,
0.5389853715896606,
0.23395656049251556,
0.12410228699445724,
0.04952665790915489,
0.3308950364589691,
-0.8948547840118408,
0.6011234521865845,
-0.3915539085865021,
-0.46710994839668274,
0.089307501912117,
-0.6735588908195496,
-0.5697360634803772,
-0.07435522228479385,
0.18979521095752716,
0.1907837986946106,
0.3383220136165619,
0.6571705937385559,
0.07967639714479446,
0.24017810821533203,
0.14789608120918274,
-0.4287901520729065,
-0.051076263189315796,
-0.6908677816390991,
0.17966051399707794,
-0.8273950815200806,
0.2260800451040268,
0.296954870223999,
-0.25203371047973633,
-0.494525283575058,
0.17183096706867218,
-0.3583359718322754,
0.008118915371596813,
0.5388487577438354,
0.12630359828472137,
0.49025508761405945,
-0.7402515411376953,
-0.4763251543045044,
0.05106562376022339,
0.40632954239845276,
0.4308716952800751,
-0.09448091685771942,
0.5579059720039368,
-0.09741279482841492,
-0.3690241575241089,
-0.05987010896205902,
0.4589170813560486,
-0.500078558921814,
0.538037896156311,
0.07108837366104126,
0.30779194831848145,
-0.17274542152881622,
-0.6310709714889526,
0.636082649230957,
0.14691458642482758,
0.0359652005136013,
-0.4216161072254181,
0.42250752449035645,
0.20067788660526276,
0.295080304145813,
-0.019977189600467682,
-0.01535454299300909,
0.07881361991167068,
-0.2692984342575073,
-0.42546117305755615,
0.23294109106063843,
0.5368951559066772,
0.2820628583431244,
-0.10005117952823639,
0.4638877809047699,
-0.8587740659713745,
-0.4847951829433441,
0.2175203561782837,
0.45543232560157776,
0.28675684332847595,
0.42443138360977173,
-0.3074486553668976
] |
234732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denticle%20herring | Denticle herring | The denticle herring (Denticeps clupeoides) is a small, up to long, species of ray-finned fish found only in the rivers of Benin, Nigeria, and western Cameroon. It is related to the herrings, but notable for its large anal fin and its array of denticle-like scales under the head, which give it almost a furry appearance. It is the sole living member of the family Denticipitidae.
See also
List of fish families
References
P. H. Greenwood, The osteology and relationships of the Denticipitidae, a family of Clupeomorph fishes (London: British Museum, 1968)
denticle herring
Freshwater fish of West Africa
denticle herring | [
-0.24704255163669586,
0.036453794687986374,
-0.5503627061843872,
-0.00527828186750412,
0.15927307307720184,
0.9117337465286255,
0.06793242692947388,
0.6148180365562439,
-0.6957632899284363,
-0.21758678555488586,
0.44020774960517883,
0.4471808671951294,
-0.16315120458602905,
0.33454254269599915,
-0.005743259564042091,
0.5515477061271667,
0.47785744071006775,
0.19025403261184692,
0.4202136695384979,
0.2666434347629547,
-0.4705900251865387,
-0.43571531772613525,
0.22856979072093964,
-0.14945247769355774,
0.2624155580997467,
0.7452943325042725,
0.22261635959148407,
0.27743735909461975,
-0.020747045055031776,
-0.4685470163822174,
-0.19677968323230743,
1.1046948432922363,
0.3689422011375427,
0.33054473996162415,
0.13105781376361847,
0.31503280997276306,
0.013918188400566578,
-0.7452452182769775,
-0.15736150741577148,
-0.07244899868965149,
0.3681676685810089,
-0.11027569323778152,
0.12922434508800507,
0.3270642161369324,
-0.5559783577919006,
-0.27464643120765686,
-0.9746043086051941,
0.490568071603775,
-0.9997379779815674,
0.21534763276576996,
-0.1605890840291977,
0.5356389284133911,
0.29263851046562195,
0.12421802431344986,
0.6653920412063599,
0.3366442024707794,
-0.5648319721221924,
0.24675488471984863,
0.23620405793190002,
-0.07330693304538727,
-0.20128053426742554,
0.12602576613426208,
0.06203838810324669,
0.3393377959728241,
-0.27858179807662964,
0.6608443856239319,
0.5953457355499268,
0.6599659323692322,
-0.8172143697738647,
0.06830109655857086,
-0.24189980328083038,
-0.31630459427833557,
-0.19323964416980743,
0.7020090818405151,
-0.41777658462524414,
-0.3411919176578522,
0.0578358955681324,
0.13990670442581177,
0.39692869782447815,
0.0635024905204773,
0.04940246418118477,
0.1341625452041626,
1.086616039276123,
-0.13605481386184692,
0.056766726076602936,
0.42668846249580383,
-0.6176389455795288,
0.4985157549381256,
-0.7528351545333862,
0.19980446994304657,
-0.8724575638771057,
-0.16317999362945557,
0.17038895189762115,
0.40538716316223145,
0.0519365593791008,
-0.5531966686248779,
-0.5824595093727112,
0.726607084274292,
1.0645960569381714,
0.3000393211841583,
-0.013189857825636864,
-0.12572354078292847,
0.42427748441696167,
0.9355770945549011,
-1.319114089012146,
-0.30740368366241455,
-0.2436733990907669,
-0.24657897651195526,
-0.31312862038612366,
-0.2247115820646286,
-0.07605914771556854,
0.08233898133039474,
0.05684794485569,
0.17724256217479706,
0.17896604537963867,
0.7793490886688232,
-0.2289476990699768,
-0.27739426493644714,
-0.7645912766456604,
-0.6477268934249878,
0.13346275687217712,
-0.1219927966594696,
-0.11988133937120438,
-0.05894307792186737,
0.25436893105506897,
0.5711439847946167,
0.45720747113227844,
0.7526208162307739,
-0.37689483165740967,
-0.25043943524360657,
0.36544641852378845,
0.8470746874809265,
-0.33632874488830566,
-0.19315645098686218,
-0.3274743854999542,
-0.37108585238456726,
0.09700817614793777,
-0.5674616098403931,
0.41721951961517334,
0.0911344587802887,
-0.9539702534675598,
0.12044510245323181,
-0.9114727973937988,
-0.3225580155849457,
0.1014774739742279,
0.0757940411567688,
-0.0756317749619484,
0.036874450743198395,
0.04676000773906708,
-0.2753075659275055,
0.773431122303009,
0.5566372871398926,
0.17717409133911133,
-0.009220880456268787,
-0.23003773391246796,
-0.33692747354507446,
0.08408573269844055,
-0.4149819016456604,
0.2549324631690979,
0.14378440380096436,
0.06887611001729965,
0.7063691020011902,
-0.7856524586677551,
-0.046918708831071854,
0.18137387931346893,
-0.7805452346801758,
0.6126426458358765,
-0.24433103203773499,
-0.19478566944599152,
0.5815321803092957,
0.24416187405586243,
0.5711326599121094,
1.084715723991394,
-0.3939220905303955,
0.26197099685668945,
-0.14403709769248962,
0.2779172658920288,
0.2844301760196686,
0.7568226456642151,
-0.6119053363800049,
-0.9442093372344971,
0.5214372277259827,
0.7201142907142639,
-0.41722333431243896,
-0.5048010945320129,
-0.023920949548482895,
0.22449803352355957,
0.41881006956100464,
-0.4429616332054138,
-0.044753577560186386,
-0.6679444313049316,
-0.592871904373169,
0.2755245864391327,
0.0597623735666275,
0.6950511932373047,
0.3080473840236664,
-0.5678132176399231,
0.20233596861362457,
0.20133987069129944,
0.23912058770656586,
-0.7421439290046692,
-0.12202421575784683,
0.45221203565597534,
-0.31975385546684265,
-1.552268624305725,
0.3259826600551605,
-0.13131238520145416,
-0.43501296639442444,
0.2966872453689575,
0.32258281111717224,
0.3379907011985779,
-0.6977628469467163,
0.05303409695625305,
-0.3969466984272003,
-0.36945971846580505,
-0.04410460218787193,
0.1873680204153061,
0.228799968957901,
-0.3585216999053955,
-0.6541553139686584,
0.4741700291633606,
-0.2020622342824936,
-0.3958776295185089,
0.8139891624450684,
0.14299167692661285,
0.5567709803581238,
0.21686801314353943,
0.05984417349100113,
0.6558483242988586,
0.03477604314684868,
-0.08438195288181305,
0.1996433436870575,
0.4672878086566925,
-0.8002229928970337,
-0.2041330486536026,
-0.11844488233327866,
0.035884883254766464,
-0.6730499267578125,
0.591009795665741,
0.4174063801765442,
0.03692999854683876,
-0.07198112457990646,
-0.947898805141449,
-0.07058189064264297,
0.7225539684295654,
-0.10557922720909119,
0.427156001329422,
0.5586164593696594,
-0.5668816566467285,
-0.09226317703723907,
0.035078007727861404,
0.9671522974967957,
0.16617201268672943,
-1.038633942604065,
-0.17371876537799835,
-0.011811603792011738,
0.38445737957954407,
-0.25383782386779785,
0.13333365321159363,
-0.29280009865760803,
-0.21106499433517456,
0.3641728460788727,
-0.21892967820167542,
0.26051977276802063,
0.05571507290005684,
-0.3274777829647064,
-0.22276462614536285,
0.10928349196910858,
0.887877345085144,
0.4056563377380371,
0.48580437898635864,
0.2097814977169037,
-0.6000558137893677,
0.7289748787879944,
0.002670633140951395,
-0.6041659712791443,
0.015179942362010479,
0.35242560505867004,
-1.0007907152175903,
-0.8216860890388489,
0.24658577144145966,
0.6070815920829773,
0.3615474998950958,
-0.6400481462478638,
-0.3913341164588928,
-0.4663665294647217,
0.06810513138771057,
-0.5160651803016663,
-0.3264005184173584,
-0.8304721713066101,
-0.5340632796287537,
-0.10619180649518967,
-0.028735514730215073,
0.7020998001098633,
-1.1355843544006348,
-0.08883138746023178,
-0.24191106855869293,
0.33007821440696716,
0.7653356194496155,
-0.7429206967353821,
0.007039316464215517,
0.10166136920452118,
0.1581575870513916,
0.195839062333107,
0.1813950389623642,
-0.04819168895483017,
-0.10120245069265366,
-0.04041184112429619,
-5.180466651916504,
-0.12133321911096573,
-0.15098579227924347,
-0.0385788232088089,
0.6723611950874329,
0.37262892723083496,
0.4952183663845062,
-0.22835281491279602,
0.11092577129602432,
-0.22805145382881165,
0.3661935329437256,
0.4259551763534546,
-0.3499678075313568,
-0.0877525731921196,
0.1736551970243454,
-0.5005195140838623,
0.5241720676422119,
-0.29227861762046814,
0.11033040285110474,
-0.04745018854737282,
-0.08543495088815689,
0.083685502409935,
-0.08442483097314835,
0.6433258056640625,
-0.6911691427230835,
0.5217769742012024,
-0.3526143431663513,
-0.19510675966739655,
-0.48762214183807373,
-0.6276235580444336,
-0.13290522992610931,
-0.25777697563171387,
-0.021268855780363083,
-0.4181405305862427,
0.18316200375556946,
-0.12655529379844666,
-0.014909178949892521,
0.43412572145462036,
0.07990363240242004,
-0.8753706812858582,
-0.6154512166976929,
0.1880618780851364,
0.1052321195602417,
-0.49990829825401306,
0.5788357257843018,
0.12319916486740112,
0.18920303881168365,
-0.38283002376556396,
-0.04006093367934227,
0.9153782725334167,
-0.03903311863541603,
-0.5350833535194397,
-0.2853894531726837,
0.9462155103683472,
0.4392402768135071,
0.11883968114852905,
0.17537598311901093,
-0.0575384683907032,
-0.45547258853912354,
0.40984484553337097,
0.17054012417793274,
-0.3853297829627991,
-0.44777655601501465,
-0.5306788682937622,
-0.10396663844585419,
-0.18990424275398254,
-0.2877611219882965,
0.4951033294200897,
0.20193897187709808,
0.0260882880538702,
-0.580066442489624,
0.9219363927841187,
-0.005244716070592403,
-0.552179753780365,
0.7766915559768677,
-0.4968567490577698,
0.018513593822717667,
0.45703479647636414,
-0.5554307103157043,
0.35556209087371826,
-0.05461031571030617,
-0.013098064810037613,
-0.12774331867694855,
0.3036748170852661,
-0.3414559066295624,
-1.1337428092956543,
-0.08263534307479858,
0.42549699544906616,
0.06462293863296509,
-0.8441423177719116,
0.46939992904663086,
0.07264484465122223,
0.008202720433473587,
0.15349076688289642,
0.22630581259727478,
0.21473871171474457,
0.2869736850261688,
0.4390932321548462,
0.24101518094539642,
-0.9541425108909607,
0.7191153764724731,
-0.448476105928421,
-0.2009241133928299,
-0.46453240513801575,
-0.016084924340248108,
-0.6061369776725769,
-0.06475367397069931,
0.2973576486110687,
0.2749886214733124,
-0.26079419255256653,
0.2944777011871338,
-0.2817685008049011,
-0.967881977558136,
-0.01313480269163847,
0.5799140930175781,
0.3422413170337677,
-0.11544149369001389,
-0.24310661852359772,
0.5762804746627808,
0.07298062741756439,
0.5196336507797241,
0.4268495440483093,
-0.48770400881767273,
-0.12751631438732147,
0.07305790483951569,
-0.5935583114624023,
-0.07280609756708145,
-0.19727668166160583,
-1.0606586933135986,
-0.01666770875453949,
0.20616790652275085,
-0.3538369834423065,
-0.20937171578407288,
0.13438957929611206,
0.11694280058145523,
-0.4711410105228424,
-0.09887731075286865,
0.16465383768081665,
0.050319936126470566,
0.0038201455026865005,
-0.12799876928329468,
-0.03304146230220795,
-0.08177653700113297,
-0.3167816996574402,
0.5250823497772217,
0.7186247110366821,
-0.5810397267341614,
0.05547330528497696,
-0.31635069847106934,
1.2929320335388184,
0.1964808702468872,
-0.05491909384727478,
-0.1739092320203781,
-0.9599683284759521,
0.35675835609436035,
0.4851301312446594,
0.35973143577575684,
0.3419666588306427,
-0.03733980655670166,
-0.11325562000274658,
-0.017349502071738243,
-0.07035525143146515,
-0.36952969431877136,
-0.11848636716604233,
-0.2641828954219818,
0.275802344083786,
-0.9010034799575806,
-0.47671595215797424,
0.08869054168462753,
0.5384869575500488,
0.21501849591732025,
-0.09042070806026459,
-0.6327149271965027,
0.316983699798584,
0.21960364282131195,
-0.4107794463634491,
-0.40979525446891785,
0.7356374263763428,
0.1181471198797226,
0.01087761577218771,
-0.10197855532169342,
0.3467521667480469,
0.5904237031936646,
-0.24092791974544525,
0.6414531469345093,
-0.4471927285194397,
-0.16220366954803467,
0.03829009085893631,
-0.3193902373313904,
-0.194949209690094,
0.09950579702854156,
0.20245151221752167,
0.49478110671043396,
-0.09683048725128174,
-0.1596876084804535,
-0.5921446084976196,
-0.20327676832675934,
0.9285066723823547,
-0.1357874721288681,
-0.7791468501091003,
-0.06689808517694473,
0.4517279863357544,
-0.425339937210083,
0.5189188718795776,
-0.10165975987911224,
-0.3484140932559967,
0.087690569460392,
-0.15102389454841614,
-0.7748866081237793,
0.24294854700565338,
0.253223180770874,
-0.5798135995864868,
0.10358110070228577,
0.7677142024040222,
-0.4568710923194885,
-0.2522332966327667,
0.27931562066078186,
-0.15598160028457642,
-0.11361370235681534,
0.5097097158432007,
-0.895776093006134,
-0.5853137373924255,
-0.10897057503461838,
-0.16254715621471405,
-0.7173469066619873,
0.0930410772562027,
0.4992940425872803,
-0.047113433480262756,
0.2230093628168106,
-0.49114349484443665,
0.33297452330589294,
-0.5697678923606873,
0.296335369348526,
0.4392137825489044,
0.36828362941741943,
0.3156088590621948,
0.24673764407634735,
0.10049007087945938,
0.10604055970907211,
0.6294540762901306,
1.0826246738433838,
1.4031378030776978,
0.14128360152244568,
0.23426367342472076,
-0.0035534780472517014,
0.4139222502708435,
0.48001787066459656,
0.26958221197128296,
-0.8190233111381531,
0.1264389157295227,
0.7869824171066284,
-0.0014694221317768097,
-0.3438921868801117,
0.020853083580732346,
0.8709298968315125,
-0.7469813227653503,
0.03456109017133713,
0.12860144674777985,
-0.18120504915714264,
0.33489665389060974,
0.5008817315101624,
0.3108011782169342,
0.2719610929489136,
0.3806076943874359,
0.30251845717430115,
-0.5740147829055786,
-0.879660964012146,
0.03127961605787277,
0.35052257776260376,
-0.2681847810745239,
-0.0950089693069458,
-0.055967237800359726,
0.6546568870544434,
0.30495184659957886,
-0.347589910030365,
0.4442775249481201,
-0.30617451667785645,
-0.6407766342163086,
0.24802155792713165,
0.17957764863967896,
-0.4418981075286865,
0.10801543295383453,
0.4594571888446808,
-0.6032839417457581,
-0.11473481357097626,
-0.4727005958557129,
-0.5582408905029297,
-0.057798631489276886,
0.29399093985557556,
-0.5225407481193542,
-0.25747084617614746,
-0.24243713915348053,
-0.1947265863418579,
-0.13815096020698547,
0.44466567039489746,
0.621440052986145,
0.1095065325498581,
0.6924265623092651,
-0.5380091071128845,
0.7863250970840454,
-0.22938235104084015,
0.3304699659347534,
-0.42564964294433594,
-0.6853331327438354,
-0.00474171619862318,
0.24896608293056488,
0.048112720251083374,
0.2811911106109619,
0.053636327385902405,
-0.3773496448993683,
0.34670618176460266,
-0.27115046977996826,
0.05012988671660423,
0.6170212030410767,
0.11879639327526093,
0.6046292781829834,
0.03715015947818756,
-1.0382981300354004,
0.15275762975215912,
0.5540008544921875,
0.03141167387366295,
0.35324522852897644,
0.5355240106582642,
-0.00036684866063296795,
-0.045255325734615326,
0.22152216732501984,
-0.9824678897857666,
-0.24727009236812592,
0.6256499290466309,
0.5868479013442993,
-0.008237076923251152,
0.047531887888908386,
-0.21247482299804688,
0.15599556267261505,
-0.137528657913208,
0.14921560883522034,
0.035073138773441315,
-0.6226282715797424,
-0.11191131919622421,
0.4399568736553192,
0.8168472647666931,
0.2386115938425064,
-0.01940547674894333,
-0.019609734416007996,
0.40770018100738525,
0.3961116075515747,
-0.18892228603363037,
-0.2716248631477356,
0.26274770498275757,
0.13280728459358215,
0.2914409041404724,
-0.983327329158783,
0.11357904970645905,
-0.024515334516763687,
0.10525968670845032,
-0.09794396907091141,
-0.11688065528869629,
-0.22758835554122925,
-0.3166215717792511,
0.26294589042663574,
-0.5366144776344299,
-0.13319893181324005,
-0.23188331723213196,
0.08284842222929001,
-1.1319154500961304,
-0.010718093253672123,
-0.4518432021141052,
-0.3903917372226715,
0.02515997178852558,
0.24854236841201782,
0.2930367887020111,
0.43128105998039246,
0.4253765046596527,
-0.08463381230831146,
0.18055979907512665,
0.2918342351913452,
-0.2043781727552414,
0.314721018075943,
0.04166529327630997,
-0.0744868591427803,
-0.9849241971969604,
0.1457066386938095,
-0.08551251888275146,
-0.24592173099517822,
0.1206003874540329,
-0.08406467735767365,
-0.03282202035188675,
-0.15158170461654663,
0.13420380651950836,
-0.4580203890800476,
0.05740191414952278,
-1.1739251613616943,
-0.6526979804039001,
0.09059445559978485,
-0.47345659136772156,
-1.067089557647705,
-0.02277372218668461,
1.0058519840240479,
0.6091741919517517,
-0.3007041811943054,
-0.41947394609451294,
0.2371242195367813,
-0.11479570716619492,
1.0048965215682983,
-0.08132060617208481,
0.3701536953449249,
-0.11966539174318314,
0.7369015216827393,
-0.7041323781013489,
0.1565745770931244,
0.834900438785553,
0.2592906951904297,
-0.7269631028175354,
0.5227423906326294,
-0.28943607211112976,
0.10671427100896835,
0.3022831380367279,
-0.1524527668952942,
-0.32915109395980835,
-0.2315184623003006,
-0.2712113857269287,
-0.4356355667114258,
-0.09058544784784317,
0.14519479870796204,
0.29163751006126404,
-0.06243470683693886,
0.1516263484954834,
-0.2431696057319641,
-1.073319435119629,
0.08167693763971329,
-1.0111578702926636,
0.45894235372543335,
-0.6544023752212524,
0.14957842230796814,
-0.2398459017276764,
-0.8488791584968567,
0.4714127480983734,
0.6929460167884827,
0.4853728115558624,
-0.5964471101760864,
0.3579114079475403,
0.014822048135101795,
0.1757756918668747,
-0.4511096477508545,
-0.11455979943275452,
-0.18760323524475098,
0.2557510733604431,
-0.6729573011398315,
-0.4411180913448334,
0.020110949873924255,
0.043146587908267975,
-0.6046335697174072,
0.3166963756084442,
0.24919423460960388,
-0.6478808522224426,
-0.11155354976654053,
-0.05168505385518074,
-0.5656801462173462,
-0.38083213567733765,
0.3703794479370117
] |
234740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20governors-general | List of Swedish governors-general | A Governor-General, or generalguvernör, was appointed by the Swedish monarch as his permanent representative, with both civil and military jurisdiction, over parts of Sweden, from the 17th century to the early 19th century, when constitutional changes made the office obsolete. A Governor-General was always appointed as the highest representative of the Swedish monarch in the Dominions ruled, or the Possessions governed, by Sweden. Conquered, and unintegrated, territories were apart from this, more or less allowed to retain their internal political structure.
The term viceroy is better reserved for the Stattholder, the representative of the Swedish Monarch in Norway when that neighboring country was in personal union with Sweden, as it concerns a whole kingdom, and notably in the several cases where the incumbent was no lesser than the Swedish Crown prince.
Governors-General could also be appointed over parts of Sweden proper, today's Sweden and Finland, and usually consisting of several counties in that part of the country, when circumstances so required. When this happened the Royal Governor of each county would report to the Governor-General instead of directly to the Monarch or the Privy Council. A Royal Governor, regardless if whether under a Governor-General or not, held the civil, but not the military, jurisdiction over his county. The Governors-General were always members of the Privy Council.
The list of Governors-General is not complete. Some of the listed held the title Governor, not Governor-General.
Finland
List of Governors-General of Finland:
Nils Bielke (1623–1631)
Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna (1631–1634)
Per Brahe the younger (1637–1641; 1648–1654)
Gustaf Evertsson Horn (1657–1658)
Herman Fleming (1664–1669)
Henrik Henriksson Horn af Marienborg (1674)
Carl Nieroth (1710–1712)
Ingria
List of Governors-General of Ingria:
Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm (1617–)
Nils Assersson Mannersköld (1626–1629)
Johan Skytte (1629–1633)
Bengt Bengtsson Oxenstierna (1634–1643)
Erik Stenbock (1651–1654)
Gustaf Evertsson Horn (1654–1657)
Krister Klasson Horn af Åminne (1657–1659)
Simon Grundel-Helmfelt (1659)
Jacob Johan Taube (1660–1668)
Simon Grundel-Helmfelt (1668–1673)
Jacob Johan Taube (1673–1681)
Martin Schultz (von Ascheraden) (1681–1682) (governor)
Hans von Fersen d.ä. (1682–1683) (governor)
Göran Sperling (1683–1690)
Otto Wilhelm von Fersen (1691–1698)
Otto Vellingk (1698–1708)
Estonia
List of Governors-General of Estonia:
Anders Torstenson (1674–1681)
Robert Lichton (1681–1687)
Nils Turesson Bielke (1687)
Axel Julius De la Gardie (1687–1704)
Wolmar Anton von Schlippenbach (1704–1706)
Niels Jonsson Stromberg af Clastorp (1706–1709)
Carl Nieroth (1709–1710)
Livonia
List of Governors-General of Livonia:
Jacob De la Gardie (1622–1628)
Johan Skytte (1629–1634)
Bengt Oxenstierna (1634–1643)
Herman Wrangel (1643)
Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1655–)
Jacob Johan Hastfer (1687–1695)
Erik Dahlberg (1696–1702)
Carl Gustaf Frölich (1702–1706)
Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt (1706–1709)
Henrik Otto Albedyll (1709)
Niels Jonsson Stromberg af Clastorp (1709–1710)
Karelia
List of Governors-General of Karelia:
Johan Skytte (1629–1634)
Scania
The Scanian Dominion (Skånska Generalguvernementet in Swedish), was established after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 and initially included all of Skåneland. In 1660, Bornholm was returned to Denmark. Blekinge, which had been part of Kristianstad County while under the dominion, was removed in 1680 and placed under Kalmar County. The dominion was suspended in 1670, but recreated during the Scanian War. In 1675, Bohus County was added and it remained administered by the Scanian Governors-General until 1693. Halland County was removed from the dominion in 1693 and for the periods 1693–1719 and 1801–1809, the dominion included the counties in the province of Scania only.
List of Governors-General of Scania:
Gustaf Otto Stenbock (1658–1664) (Bornholm was returned to Denmark in 1660.)
Gustaf Persson Banér (1664–1669)
Fabian von Fersen (1676–1677)
Göran Sperling (1677–1679)
Johan Gyllenstierna (1679–1680)
Rutger von Ascheberg (1680–1693) (Bohus County added 1675; Blekinge removed 1680.)
List of Governors-General of Scania (the province only):
Otto Vellingk (1693–1698)
Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld (July 4, 1698–December 27, 1705)
Magnus Stenbock (December 27, 1705–1711)
Jacob Burenskiöld (1711–1716)
Carl Gustaf Skytte (1716–1719)
Carl Gustaf Hård (1717–1719)
Johan Christopher Toll (February 9, 1801–March 27, 1809)
Prussia
List of Governors-General of Prussia:
Axel Oxenstierna (1626–1631)
Pomerania
List of Governors-General of Pomerania:
1631-1633 Klas Horn
1633-1638 Sten Svantesson Bielke
1638-1641 Johan Banér
1641-1648 Lennart Torstenson
1648-1650 Carl Gustaf Wrangel
1650-1652 Johan Axelsson Oxenstierna
1652-1661(?) Axel Lillie
1661-1676(?) Carl Gustaf Wrangel
1678-1679 possessed by Brandenburg
1679-1685 Otto Wilhelm Königsmarck
1687-1698 Nils Bielke
1698-1711 Jürgen Mellin
1715-1720 possessed by Prussia and Denmark
1720-1747 Johan August Meijerfeldt d.ä.
1748-1766 Axel Löwen
1766-1772 Hans Henrik von Liewen d.y.
1772-1776 Fredrik Carl Sinclair
1776-1791 Fredrik Vilhelm von Hessenstein
1792-1796 Eric Ruuth
1796-1800 Philip von Platen
1800-1807 Hans Henric von Essen
1807-1809 possessed by France
1811-1812 Carl Mörner af Tuna
Bremen-Verden
List of Governors-General of Bremen-Verden:
Jurgen Mellin (1696–1698)
Nils Carlsson Gyllenstierna af Fogelvik (1698–1711)
Mauritz von Vellingk (1711–1712)
References
See also
Governor of Stockholm
Viceroy of Norway
Governor-General of Finland - For the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland (1808-1917)
List of Swedish politicians
List of Swedish field marshals
Governors-General
Governors | [
-0.3317721486091614,
-0.0632668137550354,
0.14462780952453613,
0.08981996774673462,
-0.8752458691596985,
0.08202408254146576,
0.5117941498756409,
0.7394331693649292,
-0.6730811595916748,
0.19243258237838745,
-0.20337019860744476,
-0.0753854513168335,
-0.23830050230026245,
0.5074002742767334,
-0.43873172998428345,
0.36535391211509705,
0.7554529905319214,
0.5399503707885742,
-0.7489647269248962,
-0.5190471410751343,
0.07024561613798141,
0.2072603851556778,
0.411247581243515,
-0.05655718967318535,
0.2710973024368286,
0.0714188665151596,
0.8962051272392273,
0.2659519910812378,
-0.22187696397304535,
0.13275152444839478,
-0.09647247195243835,
0.3780288100242615,
-0.3492937386035919,
0.23178988695144653,
-0.6229305267333984,
-0.06349842995405197,
0.03958212584257126,
-0.3670932352542877,
-0.38434919714927673,
-0.3364707827568054,
-0.13978737592697144,
-0.2908492684364319,
-0.3832617998123169,
0.40050172805786133,
-0.5487103462219238,
-0.6788476705551147,
-1.121425747871399,
0.5598418116569519,
-0.4832727909088135,
0.2726272940635681,
-0.8927143812179565,
0.2620687186717987,
-0.12314498424530029,
0.4032793343067169,
-0.2120721936225891,
-0.1396266371011734,
-0.2850227952003479,
-0.1324903815984726,
0.0444391593337059,
-0.13888369500637054,
0.3103823959827423,
0.391641765832901,
0.277138352394104,
0.3468984067440033,
0.305381178855896,
-0.16948159039020538,
-0.016152527183294296,
0.5909512639045715,
-0.36205539107322693,
-0.7841705083847046,
-0.3320316672325134,
0.6049110293388367,
0.5212400555610657,
-0.11828306317329407,
0.10077778249979019,
-0.4194240868091583,
0.32906344532966614,
0.03202037513256073,
0.5957449674606323,
-0.5823010802268982,
-0.5699949860572815,
-0.28854265809059143,
0.6646423935890198,
-0.4765099585056305,
0.1670973002910614,
0.08344320207834244,
-0.5002294778823853,
-0.46768030524253845,
-0.478981614112854,
0.15200074017047882,
0.22390291094779968,
0.35841163992881775,
0.4173521101474762,
0.08016190677881241,
0.13165725767612457,
-0.2654040455818176,
-0.021680431440472603,
0.3450198471546173,
0.18471919000148773,
0.39552411437034607,
-0.28550392389297485,
0.6928769946098328,
0.020087243989109993,
-0.2667129635810852,
-0.4677202105522156,
-0.39515742659568787,
-0.07617998868227005,
0.17707157135009766,
-0.4594517648220062,
0.3174867331981659,
-0.6662845015525818,
0.017843058332800865,
0.43206045031547546,
0.28457266092300415,
-0.03283903747797012,
0.08456609398126602,
-0.053153831511735916,
-0.20314443111419678,
-0.36604368686676025,
0.09773902595043182,
-0.3211446702480316,
0.3660852611064911,
-0.047215431928634644,
-0.1977124661207199,
-0.1243092492222786,
-0.3145071566104889,
0.3816107213497162,
-0.057878248393535614,
-0.44127875566482544,
-0.03797195479273796,
0.1840566098690033,
0.6366504430770874,
-0.19161519408226013,
0.5072469115257263,
-0.08415411412715912,
-0.5508635640144348,
-0.24349695444107056,
-0.088529571890831,
-0.2779712975025177,
-0.03671665117144585,
-0.9325937032699585,
-0.00425926735624671,
-0.2617945969104767,
-0.17753969132900238,
0.26199838519096375,
-0.3722805976867676,
0.08551361411809921,
-0.8425689339637756,
-0.5409457683563232,
0.2475513368844986,
-0.3396669626235962,
-0.009818038903176785,
-0.030045220628380775,
-0.005698549561202526,
-0.04707321524620056,
0.4964050352573395,
0.0963892713189125,
-0.08915520459413528,
0.6031690835952759,
0.32829591631889343,
0.07837839424610138,
0.261257141828537,
0.06716372072696686,
-0.48729097843170166,
0.0807894766330719,
-0.17039869725704193,
0.13583572208881378,
0.34482342004776,
0.10079249739646912,
-0.3142338991165161,
-0.34631651639938354,
0.005158417858183384,
0.004519488662481308,
-0.13204225897789001,
-0.6109820604324341,
0.7516360878944397,
0.607114851474762,
-0.3980957567691803,
0.6195692420005798,
-0.17049254477024078,
-0.4703759253025055,
-0.3386308252811432,
0.8027551174163818,
-0.2624908685684204,
-0.049991313368082047,
0.31996336579322815,
0.10879899561405182,
0.3151645064353943,
0.3043051064014435,
-0.24744707345962524,
-0.4833378493785858,
-0.7846474051475525,
0.2899841070175171,
0.10642215609550476,
0.6783983707427979,
0.08297646045684814,
-0.15494796633720398,
0.6315117478370667,
-0.11456155776977539,
0.771270751953125,
-0.17378219962120056,
-0.2961117923259735,
-0.00826870184391737,
0.33256417512893677,
0.2653006613254547,
0.428634375333786,
-0.22056494653224945,
-0.17135101556777954,
0.48332417011260986,
0.6720490455627441,
0.314972460269928,
-0.8100684881210327,
0.19692321121692657,
-0.12544281780719757,
0.4370341897010803,
-0.000755407614633441,
-0.650794267654419,
0.00669227447360754,
0.34052959084510803,
-0.4282688796520233,
0.7296568155288696,
0.16608449816703796,
0.09154728800058365,
1.048006534576416,
0.0639987513422966,
-0.20752787590026855,
-0.30232304334640503,
0.5162957906723022,
-0.033091526478528976,
-0.42925673723220825,
0.5759746432304382,
-0.5852713584899902,
0.4511326849460602,
-0.1680348813533783,
-0.28326061367988586,
-0.04656374827027321,
-0.4551447629928589,
0.2746492922306061,
-0.40950503945350647,
-0.18910114467144012,
0.25717321038246155,
-0.04247801750898361,
0.11162658780813217,
0.5698871612548828,
0.26622316241264343,
0.6677840352058411,
-0.5036945939064026,
-0.14068500697612762,
-0.09115161001682281,
-0.30336445569992065,
0.24422810971736908,
-0.18608492612838745,
-0.29400813579559326,
-0.37237492203712463,
0.33095988631248474,
-0.14232835173606873,
0.25170236825942993,
-0.03648575767874718,
-0.19490830600261688,
0.10014960914850235,
-0.4455200433731079,
0.11574484407901764,
-0.4400083124637604,
-0.08799263834953308,
0.13279195129871368,
0.009082910604774952,
0.09431148320436478,
-0.39067333936691284,
0.13348057866096497,
0.37277135252952576,
-0.1357148438692093,
-0.1960984170436859,
-0.27850472927093506,
-0.10876794159412384,
0.19280791282653809,
-1.0018218755722046,
0.16477589309215546,
0.3251958191394806,
-0.7796521186828613,
-0.4279068112373352,
-0.09014910459518433,
0.5653265714645386,
-0.0002108354092342779,
-0.47700175642967224,
-0.5498627424240112,
-0.7483594417572021,
0.1907707303762436,
-0.009134287014603615,
0.11018945276737213,
0.37631991505622864,
-0.11865639686584473,
0.19198161363601685,
-0.6000301241874695,
-0.15896566212177277,
-0.24809527397155762,
0.40888237953186035,
-0.08851166069507599,
-0.21772128343582153,
0.4790675640106201,
-0.1818404644727707,
-1.0394949913024902,
-0.4935399889945984,
0.16589497029781342,
0.35488325357437134,
-0.12223300337791443,
-0.07925743609666824,
-0.25548774003982544,
0.13966020941734314,
-5.683965682983398,
-0.25775671005249023,
-0.38494738936424255,
-0.4584263265132904,
0.16719737648963928,
0.6826978921890259,
0.4416508376598358,
-0.26820313930511475,
0.6903408765792847,
-0.315942645072937,
0.5868573784828186,
0.2085077166557312,
-0.07330747693777084,
0.6982543468475342,
0.5740429759025574,
0.39480727910995483,
0.4818912744522095,
0.3481515347957611,
-0.055688753724098206,
-0.2932683527469635,
0.18125207722187042,
-0.6266332268714905,
0.4483458399772644,
0.27622857689857483,
0.5708159804344177,
0.9380532503128052,
-0.24295055866241455,
0.2872987389564514,
-0.2446938008069992,
-0.37135836482048035,
-0.13641135394573212,
-0.05196025222539902,
0.11469165980815887,
-0.24973754584789276,
-0.5537750124931335,
0.29474300146102905,
0.2893315553665161,
1.324049472808838,
-0.11484871804714203,
-0.916732132434845,
0.024966003373265266,
0.509361982345581,
-0.3153113126754761,
0.43729132413864136,
0.09244045615196228,
-0.7168066501617432,
-0.7597390413284302,
0.9503278136253357,
-0.8981233239173889,
0.7067337036132812,
0.1553274244070053,
0.040284059941768646,
0.21783113479614258,
0.38119128346443176,
-0.20584341883659363,
-0.36029452085494995,
0.3058273494243622,
0.4849684536457062,
-0.47910913825035095,
0.1019105538725853,
0.5028151273727417,
-0.04429377615451813,
-0.5787200331687927,
-0.33289635181427,
0.08346990495920181,
-0.09230059385299683,
-0.8710360527038574,
0.6190010905265808,
0.21375878155231476,
0.30884069204330444,
0.028768381103873253,
0.1935824751853943,
-0.24771881103515625,
-0.7485212087631226,
0.19598007202148438,
-0.8038145303726196,
-0.1772775948047638,
0.08588050305843353,
0.3387298285961151,
0.1836017370223999,
-0.1416163444519043,
0.24150818586349487,
-0.06707312911748886,
0.6363145112991333,
0.3279891312122345,
-0.5297108292579651,
-0.03923948481678963,
-0.11264503747224808,
-0.311829537153244,
-0.8335446715354919,
0.3414194881916046,
-0.6861711144447327,
0.2907659113407135,
0.07580791413784027,
-0.026659918949007988,
0.05657144635915756,
-0.32068467140197754,
-0.24626974761486053,
0.25627943873405457,
-0.5642641186714172,
0.7413959503173828,
0.19196002185344696,
0.08447548002004623,
-0.555173397064209,
0.3455899953842163,
0.09340670704841614,
-0.5038517117500305,
0.587678074836731,
0.09703145921230316,
0.25652605295181274,
0.37235501408576965,
0.08381133526563644,
-0.0006074862321838737,
-0.8328293561935425,
0.14105099439620972,
-0.1893630474805832,
-0.05906697362661362,
1.070074439048767,
0.39470234513282776,
-0.013797777704894543,
-0.47879520058631897,
0.09971123188734055,
0.009536613710224628,
0.38303518295288086,
-0.018972642719745636,
0.1106860339641571,
0.004625609144568443,
-0.11394456028938293,
0.46738317608833313,
-0.003128585172817111,
1.027723789215088,
0.5791533589363098,
0.01980285346508026,
-0.28418952226638794,
0.4547884464263916,
-0.8792483806610107,
-0.06965342909097672,
-0.3574959933757782,
-0.06483609229326248,
-0.3444814383983612,
-0.07839541137218475,
-0.42856794595718384,
-0.12095288932323456,
0.24281728267669678,
-0.3740346133708954,
0.08111324906349182,
0.05009301006793976,
0.08159395307302475,
-0.3546670973300934,
0.5695115923881531,
-0.4795142114162445,
-0.1525355577468872,
0.4325791895389557,
-0.47438618540763855,
0.06863201409578323,
-0.5682872533798218,
-0.0916823297739029,
-0.07518620789051056,
-0.25976768136024475,
-0.5174694061279297,
-0.1595524549484253,
-0.7651566863059998,
-0.9473194479942322,
0.15603241324424744,
0.10866492241621017,
-0.27133890986442566,
-0.6324081420898438,
-0.383592814207077,
0.1423131674528122,
1.111741542816162,
-0.07422886788845062,
-0.7051700353622437,
-0.7649022936820984,
-0.015302024781703949,
0.27614229917526245,
-0.0027663297951221466,
0.06034395471215248,
0.3956298530101776,
-0.29025280475616455,
0.17221637070178986,
0.2867240011692047,
0.2514093816280365,
-0.005934547167271376,
0.5331244468688965,
0.6248761415481567,
-0.05214425548911095,
-0.4480971097946167,
-0.02147374488413334,
0.4052848815917969,
-0.2896222174167633,
0.01864359714090824,
0.1768849939107895,
0.05495069548487663,
-0.0010028352262452245,
-0.6228596568107605,
-0.36396706104278564,
0.14629149436950684,
0.17492851614952087,
0.13485366106033325,
-0.06148702651262283,
0.612038791179657,
0.31909164786338806,
-0.1604166179895401,
0.11115483194589615,
0.16175928711891174,
-0.3331761956214905,
0.231758251786232,
0.040777433663606644,
-0.04335939884185791,
0.3712159991264343,
-1.0609431266784668,
-0.08031833171844482,
-0.24014069139957428,
0.5208451151847839,
-0.5612947344779968,
-0.42909693717956543,
0.11681077629327774,
-0.6750373244285583,
-0.26409199833869934,
-0.5419068336486816,
-0.5405247807502747,
-0.3931388556957245,
-0.34585511684417725,
-0.020770709961652756,
-0.438350111246109,
0.14691844582557678,
0.28984546661376953,
-0.5185253024101257,
0.630772590637207,
-0.0035014094319194555,
0.9401262998580933,
-0.07397053390741348,
-0.2611774504184723,
-0.44297799468040466,
-0.1725083887577057,
-0.0891742929816246,
0.24310481548309326,
-0.0926145613193512,
0.074734166264534,
0.8780019879341125,
0.25980323553085327,
1.3275114297866821,
0.78141850233078,
0.0662483498454094,
-0.00535316439345479,
-0.23484955728054047,
-0.13025237619876862,
-0.6274482607841492,
0.34402504563331604,
0.07195115834474564,
0.015820683911442757,
-0.33569854497909546,
-0.32584914565086365,
0.0477537102997303,
1.1375631093978882,
-0.5041971802711487,
0.1439231038093567,
0.7809120416641235,
0.2215692549943924,
0.5171013474464417,
0.006877299398183823,
0.1435660570859909,
-0.11206231266260147,
0.30099624395370483,
0.30546778440475464,
-0.5013601779937744,
-0.6543851494789124,
-0.05583902448415756,
0.8180196285247803,
-0.21599897742271423,
-0.2031288594007492,
-0.19093859195709229,
-0.10015129297971725,
-0.02575381100177765,
-0.13489586114883423,
0.18824876844882965,
0.5778079032897949,
0.07379694283008575,
0.3815116882324219,
-0.2646740674972534,
-1.2804503440856934,
0.13897983729839325,
0.006664094980806112,
-0.601252019405365,
0.36588338017463684,
-0.9277772307395935,
-0.24259158968925476,
0.21702226996421814,
-0.1199457198381424,
0.028933783993124962,
-0.20128151774406433,
-0.015160582028329372,
-0.0210930984467268,
0.38718539476394653,
-0.49219492077827454,
0.5455541610717773,
-0.21096396446228027,
0.5854063034057617,
0.03292319178581238,
0.29245808720588684,
-0.6080328226089478,
0.32442522048950195,
-0.12112583220005035,
-0.29077205061912537,
-0.15681107342243195,
0.2537033259868622,
-0.015983331948518753,
0.030105574056506157,
-0.5029255747795105,
-0.3336141109466553,
0.2926023304462433,
0.1707761138677597,
0.3613036572933197,
0.14511701464653015,
-0.29478293657302856,
-0.36717936396598816,
0.05043743550777435,
-0.5178331136703491,
-0.267297625541687,
-0.06744484603404999,
0.4239976406097412,
0.28281500935554504,
-0.6472698450088501,
0.1505817174911499,
0.14990992844104767,
0.3475627899169922,
0.13054159283638,
-0.26283249258995056,
-0.23554861545562744,
0.0615953765809536,
-0.1025250181555748,
0.2795058786869049,
-0.7910255193710327,
0.3237852156162262,
-0.6601070761680603,
-0.16080492734909058,
0.5400624871253967,
-0.5317865014076233,
0.2866309583187103,
0.4260086715221405,
0.20276831090450287,
0.8693141341209412,
-0.12412170320749283,
-0.2282751500606537,
0.19471293687820435,
0.3000035881996155,
0.03632526472210884,
0.13554474711418152,
0.1980285942554474,
-0.25829240679740906,
0.41024914383888245,
-0.5447418093681335,
0.7206673622131348,
-0.048290226608514786,
0.01365855522453785,
-0.0374816469848156,
-0.08299815654754639,
-0.13157707452774048,
-0.28763383626937866,
-0.7599688768386841,
-0.4976234436035156,
-0.43759360909461975,
-0.04777492582798004,
0.10156108438968658,
0.31161898374557495,
0.18907059729099274,
0.3976457715034485,
-0.07765275239944458,
0.34096190333366394,
-0.1512134075164795,
0.35309043526649475,
-0.013152680359780788,
0.18517233431339264,
-0.4253735840320587,
0.15367458760738373,
0.2957322597503662,
0.7680859565734863,
0.5462992191314697,
0.5965807437896729,
-0.28908029198646545,
0.11182127892971039,
0.05263020843267441,
0.6749730110168457,
-1.229963779449463,
-0.29854685068130493,
-0.21186821162700653,
-0.15847474336624146,
0.15683092176914215,
0.2848970293998718,
-0.09632150828838348,
0.24833407998085022,
-0.548505961894989,
0.0423213355243206,
0.5414597988128662,
-0.3610628843307495,
-0.029041297733783722,
-0.23592859506607056,
0.6738831400871277,
0.4252389371395111,
-0.42584890127182007,
-0.08504755049943924,
0.2938087582588196,
-0.0042062606662511826,
0.32808297872543335,
0.174776092171669,
0.4735679626464844,
0.1785118728876114,
-0.2760215401649475,
0.4958253502845764,
0.6291889548301697,
0.22903326153755188,
-0.17137031257152557,
0.03551064804196358,
0.4456286132335663,
-0.07025349885225296,
-0.2334805577993393,
0.6622799038887024,
-0.2404065579175949,
0.05876655504107475,
-0.37514951825141907,
0.09895511716604233,
-0.15353511273860931,
0.07241736352443695,
0.389180451631546,
-0.13691972196102142,
-0.0044183433055877686,
0.3716164529323578,
0.11332734674215317,
-0.24339573085308075,
0.9395492076873779,
-0.6568560600280762,
-0.34666961431503296,
-0.37514057755470276,
-0.618625819683075,
0.08976738899946213,
0.3285139799118042,
0.45531630516052246,
0.6283459067344666,
0.5310404896736145,
-0.5522833466529846,
-0.3732518255710602,
0.007410458289086819,
0.09347283840179443,
0.6324213147163391,
0.2776619493961334,
0.2550312280654907,
0.11019457876682281,
-0.12853650748729706,
-0.9010906219482422,
0.08518296480178833,
0.2999471127986908,
-0.26813846826553345,
0.608292281627655,
-0.17504192888736725,
0.07726745307445526,
-0.1924462467432022,
0.1283058077096939,
-0.6330186128616333,
-0.20130187273025513,
0.27934813499450684
] |
234750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magali%20Febles | Magali Febles | Magali Febles (born December 24, 1964 in Santo Domingo) is a Dominican beautician and beauty pageant circuit personality.
Febles is the national director for the Miss Dominican Republic Universe franchise and has previously served as national director for Miss Universe Puerto Rico and Miss Haiti franchises.
Pageant business
Miss Universe Dominican Republic and Miss Universe Puerto Rico
In 2002, Febles acquired the Miss Puerto Rico Universe and Miss Dominican Republic Universe franchises and was responsible for preparing and sending delegates from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic to Miss Universe, her most successful delegatee so far was Zuleyka Rivera in 2006 who won the international pageant. She was the former owner of two salons, Magali Febles Salon and Spa in San Juan, Puerto Rico, which she later sold in order to concentrate her energy on running both franchises.
In 2009, shortly after Mayra Matos was crowned Miss Puerto Rico Universe 2009, Febles lost the Miss Puerto Rico Universe franchise to Luisito Vigoreaux and Desiree Lowry , who took over the training of Matos and renamed the pageant Miss Universe Puerto Rico. Febles' alleged treatment of Ingrid Rivera, Miss Puerto Rico Universe 2008, and problems with the organization are allegedly reasons for her losing the franchise.
Miss Haiti Universe
In 2010, she began managing the Miss Haiti Universe franchise. A delegate from Haiti is yet to place in Miss Universe since 1975, when Gerthie David became the first runner-up in the contest and the second black woman to be placed in the finals.
In 2016, the license of Miss Haiti Universe was awarded to Chris Puesan from the Dominican Republic, a pageant coach and license holder.
References
1964 births
Living people
Beauticians
Beauty pageant owners | [
0.0717088058590889,
0.22621606290340424,
0.1889205276966095,
-0.0672268196940422,
-0.08884535729885101,
0.5141131281852722,
0.41087251901626587,
0.6826162934303284,
-0.5667734146118164,
0.25428256392478943,
0.45164960622787476,
0.4388710856437683,
0.5468245148658752,
0.26921311020851135,
-0.26780447363853455,
-0.029864251613616943,
0.5672197937965393,
0.643251895904541,
-0.09695450961589813,
-0.43379753828048706,
-0.5633049607276917,
-0.496323823928833,
0.14862297475337982,
-0.18782193958759308,
-0.4773124158382416,
0.22690732777118683,
-0.14612048864364624,
0.6075860261917114,
0.06009923294186592,
-0.014061405323445797,
0.18053759634494781,
0.3491837680339813,
0.964854896068573,
0.18464140594005585,
0.2613470256328583,
0.7172810435295105,
0.38687726855278015,
-0.2559609115123749,
-0.3598039746284485,
-0.2283664047718048,
-0.6275635361671448,
0.08926291018724442,
-0.20586825907230377,
-0.026491226628422737,
-0.6132329702377319,
-0.2968878448009491,
-1.3298864364624023,
0.20645880699157715,
-0.4409064054489136,
-0.3809431195259094,
-0.31914207339286804,
-0.011341173201799393,
0.053420454263687134,
0.5742552280426025,
0.17329417169094086,
-0.0015361311379820108,
-0.5675698518753052,
0.1222827211022377,
-0.2098560482263565,
-0.3311830163002014,
0.20254240930080414,
0.14891348779201508,
0.1532619446516037,
-0.5415194034576416,
0.0048775323666632175,
0.07737162709236145,
0.7592834234237671,
-0.39419031143188477,
-0.2024204283952713,
-0.4360577464103699,
-0.0877280980348587,
-0.08945673704147339,
0.578060507774353,
-0.27476081252098083,
-0.22325660288333893,
-0.9820097088813782,
-0.45807337760925293,
-0.2731381356716156,
0.394290953874588,
0.6481837034225464,
0.44619220495224,
-0.40666916966438293,
0.4219497740268707,
0.21514680981636047,
0.5451809167861938,
0.6315677165985107,
0.19655345380306244,
-0.017356185242533684,
-0.8767259120941162,
0.6392409801483154,
-1.070227861404419,
-0.48475030064582825,
0.3848271667957306,
0.24262548983097076,
-0.24426846206188202,
-0.3730596601963043,
0.017705349251627922,
0.04794931411743164,
0.24129173159599304,
0.42209118604660034,
0.0634685531258583,
-0.07182770222425461,
0.16561217606067657,
-0.07434490323066711,
-0.5326334238052368,
-0.2845386266708374,
-0.25313910841941833,
0.13660550117492676,
-0.6114962100982666,
-0.14003026485443115,
-0.41027751564979553,
-0.034907709807157516,
-0.5381957292556763,
0.12115393579006195,
-0.07771081477403641,
0.47343605756759644,
0.4525966942310333,
-0.27357375621795654,
-0.348425954580307,
-0.04683629795908928,
0.3305593430995941,
-0.20055259764194489,
0.11239349097013474,
-0.22117763757705688,
-0.006144819315522909,
0.49424412846565247,
0.2134680151939392,
0.5413420796394348,
0.19622325897216797,
0.9196922779083252,
-0.02661709673702717,
-0.13100174069404602,
-0.44872504472732544,
-0.13127337396144867,
0.10144621133804321,
-0.9108346104621887,
-0.01801488921046257,
-0.20749475061893463,
0.20620213449001312,
-0.07689105719327927,
-0.7038127779960632,
0.08179466426372528,
-0.6711865067481995,
-0.11572134494781494,
0.4223397672176361,
-0.3773041069507599,
0.04092390835285187,
0.16055336594581604,
-0.7063475847244263,
-0.05951225385069847,
-0.3319120407104492,
0.10940203815698624,
-0.07269366830587387,
-0.41604310274124146,
-0.5503210425376892,
0.35858041048049927,
0.46806758642196655,
-0.3451964557170868,
0.09103400260210037,
0.32644692063331604,
0.3956414759159088,
0.1380743682384491,
-0.08042673021554947,
0.28883880376815796,
-0.10184107720851898,
0.13093943893909454,
0.8517171144485474,
0.7485383152961731,
0.21704807877540588,
0.04345065727829933,
-0.34289035201072693,
0.29056984186172485,
-0.2894406020641327,
-0.7739301323890686,
-0.864324688911438,
-0.15850266814231873,
0.30241161584854126,
-0.24180033802986145,
-0.46502426266670227,
0.12682682275772095,
-0.1890532672405243,
0.31546878814697266,
0.30366525053977966,
-0.15238282084465027,
0.6256502270698547,
-0.2905716896057129,
0.37899529933929443,
0.7099522352218628,
0.37104156613349915,
0.11931473016738892,
-0.3407968580722809,
0.14555807411670685,
0.26099008321762085,
-0.006652765441685915,
0.18811851739883423,
0.45145511627197266,
-0.465364009141922,
0.8373451828956604,
-0.2798672616481781,
0.4853903651237488,
-0.7162532210350037,
0.32989007234573364,
0.2656860649585724,
0.008698542602360249,
-0.44874024391174316,
0.27181920409202576,
0.7437683939933777,
1.0577852725982666,
0.1551564335823059,
1.2387171983718872,
-0.37341421842575073,
-0.37508198618888855,
-0.05348018556833267,
0.26514649391174316,
-0.22801277041435242,
-0.562780499458313,
0.016761979088187218,
-0.10056301206350327,
0.16509222984313965,
-0.009692814201116562,
0.8810443878173828,
0.31433770060539246,
-0.779486894607544,
0.3886213004589081,
-0.1933419108390808,
0.43904921412467957,
-0.18838948011398315,
-0.217823788523674,
0.7689158320426941,
-0.4386814832687378,
0.38734492659568787,
0.5930860638618469,
1.006767988204956,
-0.4653469920158386,
-0.08955616503953934,
0.4935773015022278,
0.2835019826889038,
-0.4703177809715271,
-0.03361642733216286,
-0.502350926399231,
0.07694626599550247,
0.4259279668331146,
-0.07654542475938797,
0.24687768518924713,
-0.2834686040878296,
0.4660387337207794,
-0.4292967915534973,
0.32910051941871643,
-0.24546054005622864,
-0.03085453249514103,
0.47842857241630554,
0.0789942741394043,
-0.07430538535118103,
-0.14237169921398163,
0.24312089383602142,
0.1235659047961235,
-0.5302949547767639,
-0.16700810194015503,
0.6222273707389832,
0.29124391078948975,
0.24196787178516388,
-0.09887532144784927,
0.24636100232601166,
0.9755107760429382,
-0.2172725647687912,
-0.49472689628601074,
0.31966447830200195,
-0.8433041572570801,
0.20913860201835632,
0.12074092030525208,
-0.05010489746928215,
-0.1442708522081375,
-0.2735750377178192,
-0.26711493730545044,
0.2634536027908325,
0.3851223886013031,
-0.6349018812179565,
0.5749664902687073,
-0.8054516315460205,
-0.403726726770401,
0.04566459730267525,
0.3641456067562103,
0.12703487277030945,
-0.28861936926841736,
-0.5621020197868347,
-0.024493759498000145,
0.31190940737724304,
-0.6876018643379211,
-0.7392792105674744,
0.26590198278427124,
-0.10788347572088242,
0.49751901626586914,
-0.8512001633644104,
0.6691163182258606,
-0.1089765876531601,
-0.49465033411979675,
-0.10791958123445511,
-0.3052960932254791,
0.07264774292707443,
-0.22255352139472961,
0.00807469617575407,
0.5625946521759033,
-0.6921776533126831,
0.23710934817790985,
0.24532967805862427,
0.13521134853363037,
0.13994619250297546,
-0.0498226135969162,
-5.790167808532715,
-0.01081154216080904,
0.2464555948972702,
-0.44148582220077515,
-0.06882685422897339,
-0.65821772813797,
-0.013335692696273327,
0.215840682387352,
0.38488924503326416,
-0.19174827635288239,
0.20556074380874634,
0.43769383430480957,
-0.2158399075269699,
0.7122088670730591,
0.457143098115921,
0.7911669015884399,
0.0179282333701849,
-0.6702976822853088,
0.3388594686985016,
0.4790952503681183,
0.38261276483535767,
-0.32083484530448914,
-0.23539422452449799,
0.22826433181762695,
-0.03245362639427185,
-0.13508760929107666,
-0.5254574418067932,
-0.1965145319700241,
-1.205790638923645,
-0.25898343324661255,
-0.22175957262516022,
0.18868263065814972,
-0.8176489472389221,
0.16106575727462769,
0.2923775911331177,
0.13252931833267212,
0.7243770360946655,
-0.3996172845363617,
0.17662137746810913,
-0.6078400611877441,
-0.12106578797101974,
0.28399887681007385,
-0.6353110074996948,
0.4232560396194458,
0.2574063837528229,
0.15050958096981049,
-0.6103044748306274,
-0.541946291923523,
-0.2999287247657776,
0.40799179673194885,
0.5487317442893982,
-0.43486306071281433,
0.3178462088108063,
0.07248211652040482,
0.42682403326034546,
-0.15095584094524384,
0.07941676676273346,
-0.48387306928634644,
-0.972951352596283,
0.4855591654777527,
0.26902085542678833,
0.18270033597946167,
0.3060326874256134,
-0.8389098048210144,
-0.11108081042766571,
-0.020857054740190506,
0.5817583203315735,
-0.2491362988948822,
0.2453519105911255,
-0.4549059569835663,
0.020339302718639374,
0.27820008993148804,
-0.24535341560840607,
-1.1276214122772217,
0.286581426858902,
-0.14259500801563263,
-0.18622525036334991,
0.033772438764572144,
-0.6565990447998047,
-0.5037333369255066,
0.4832935333251953,
-0.497956782579422,
0.43168994784355164,
0.08952293545007706,
0.16114996373653412,
-0.12561523914337158,
0.2832046449184418,
0.06451848894357681,
-0.38516557216644287,
0.41293612122535706,
0.19879184663295746,
-0.1402920037508011,
0.11041366308927536,
0.16689680516719818,
0.11701150238513947,
0.9048281311988831,
-0.08500900119543076,
-0.12173371016979218,
-0.039620060473680496,
-0.2517120838165283,
0.02907594107091427,
-0.2168973684310913,
0.4723781645298004,
-0.06103874742984772,
0.2835019826889038,
0.05329345166683197,
-0.07882563769817352,
-0.15509313344955444,
0.158392533659935,
-0.537803590297699,
0.5794650912284851,
0.4827169179916382,
-0.6702980399131775,
-0.3185943365097046,
0.46395954489707947,
-0.15816730260849,
-0.2013181447982788,
0.03035159781575203,
0.2281508892774582,
0.042620982974767685,
0.5008758902549744,
0.3052811026573181,
0.015013138763606548,
-0.10264027863740921,
-0.07884352654218674,
-0.23076792061328888,
0.24669386446475983,
0.8918724656105042,
-0.07394721359014511,
0.25555527210235596,
-0.4347567558288574,
0.36859992146492004,
0.5009604692459106,
-0.5470739603042603,
-0.17001286149024963,
0.3135879635810852,
-0.3669108748435974,
-0.32187968492507935,
0.5389527678489685,
-0.2416914403438568,
0.05153605714440346,
0.031155923381447792,
-0.183802992105484,
0.3298955261707306,
0.36682212352752686,
-0.06251093000173569,
0.01284687127918005,
0.06696316599845886,
-0.5195682644844055,
0.6591396927833557,
0.24292661249637604,
-0.044297102838754654,
-0.008936048485338688,
-0.684700608253479,
-0.4044298231601715,
-0.19647365808486938,
0.0047944230027496815,
-0.11357919126749039,
-0.2162042111158371,
-0.2556520700454712,
0.052840348333120346,
-0.6829966306686401,
-0.9596273303031921,
0.3626025915145874,
0.01714697852730751,
0.510914146900177,
-0.30853521823883057,
-0.437741219997406,
-0.24928532540798187,
0.542876660823822,
0.2770165503025055,
-0.5727748870849609,
-0.28108152747154236,
-0.3425733149051666,
0.15448206663131714,
-0.3113071024417877,
-0.027150833979249,
0.003452372271567583,
-0.0767393484711647,
0.5032848715782166,
-0.24441422522068024,
-0.316569060087204,
0.002149897161871195,
-0.28390103578567505,
0.4981120526790619,
0.21428869664669037,
-0.44765669107437134,
-0.2722966969013214,
-0.44280555844306946,
0.4248795509338379,
0.30038249492645264,
0.47026699781417847,
0.3121943175792694,
0.1172032505273819,
-0.4153175950050354,
-0.4785444438457489,
-0.4980320632457733,
0.9482202529907227,
0.3480643630027771,
-0.3249984085559845,
-0.8495954871177673,
0.1227976456284523,
-0.9603118300437927,
0.5186582803726196,
0.5613356828689575,
-0.7135506272315979,
0.09339867532253265,
0.6192230582237244,
0.03876533359289169,
0.0884852483868599,
-0.0808238834142685,
0.1621299535036087,
0.23355455696582794,
0.7829271554946899,
-0.23663099110126495,
-0.19798889756202698,
-0.4500220715999603,
0.08579358458518982,
-0.28204146027565,
-0.42194077372550964,
0.11648385226726532,
-0.6010804772377014,
-0.6062244176864624,
0.2742775082588196,
-0.3584882616996765,
0.8028852343559265,
0.10012856125831604,
-0.6869111061096191,
0.28604215383529663,
0.10682979971170425,
0.1685570925474167,
0.021193131804466248,
0.07672139257192612,
-0.4344126284122467,
-0.3039509356021881,
-0.2918793261051178,
0.05698841065168381,
0.5735719203948975,
-0.1639373004436493,
-0.0393543541431427,
0.3947783410549164,
-0.06751736253499985,
-0.22037075459957123,
-0.12400878965854645,
0.3126937448978424,
0.7394276857376099,
-0.11310966312885284,
-0.03678014501929283,
-0.3769121468067169,
0.07662264257669449,
-0.15249845385551453,
-0.11533601582050323,
-0.4889443516731262,
0.33643344044685364,
0.36096563935279846,
-0.23218703269958496,
-0.3789522349834442,
0.14580386877059937,
-0.14581717550754547,
0.1057262271642685,
0.17271962761878967,
0.07058056443929672,
-0.017641061916947365,
-0.40553563833236694,
-0.10260909795761108,
0.19999922811985016,
0.17346176505088806,
-0.12249109894037247,
-0.01152797695249319,
0.06592444330453873,
0.24177032709121704,
-0.009404161013662815,
-0.032891713082790375,
0.0734824612736702,
-0.05565464496612549,
0.6663712859153748,
0.08861580491065979,
-0.213815838098526,
0.42510196566581726,
-0.10181844234466553,
-0.5053380727767944,
0.10587210208177567,
-0.4079395830631256,
0.1087159737944603,
0.32788723707199097,
-0.12897810339927673,
-0.1146802008152008,
0.2559374272823334,
0.10677768290042877,
0.490038126707077,
-0.18574337661266327,
0.22794421017169952,
-0.2602306008338928,
-0.29707711935043335,
-0.24178269505500793,
0.22321777045726776,
-0.03404684364795685,
0.39466556906700134,
-0.34615930914878845,
-0.5326321721076965,
-0.27356457710266113,
0.1920713186264038,
0.35188624262809753,
0.24042415618896484,
-0.014216023497283459,
-0.7193278670310974,
0.5448357462882996,
-0.47116339206695557,
-0.32390907406806946,
0.21084478497505188,
-0.5439665913581848,
-0.06842906028032303,
0.38723549246788025,
-0.10143548995256424,
-0.4878171384334564,
0.3468526303768158,
0.36189699172973633,
-0.34357959032058716,
-0.27417176961898804,
0.7518957853317261,
-0.001003969693556428,
-0.209018275141716,
0.19798143208026886,
0.09183591604232788,
0.5081881880760193,
0.8768739700317383,
-0.31453561782836914,
0.09267209470272064,
0.0029624002054333687,
-0.33978286385536194,
0.11024395376443863,
0.09228668361902237,
-0.36196768283843994,
0.34155896306037903,
0.09616199880838394,
-0.1855338215827942,
-0.2261466681957245,
-0.23674486577510834,
0.2105799913406372,
0.24663817882537842,
0.2545829713344574,
0.7020231485366821,
-0.8083904385566711,
0.2284562587738037,
0.016564641147851944,
-0.059280816465616226,
-0.3123808205127716,
0.6977323293685913,
-0.26371902227401733,
-0.2857905924320221,
0.021382389590144157,
0.07708416879177094,
0.3328893482685089,
-0.33032476902008057,
0.11818243563175201,
-0.17051945626735687,
0.29354128241539,
-0.4092162251472473,
-0.8805199265480042,
0.1037965938448906,
-0.3255329728126526,
-0.6022474765777588,
0.08689823746681213,
0.2916312515735626,
-0.36671334505081177,
-0.4508865177631378,
-0.19570276141166687,
0.06862387806177139,
-0.263994425535202,
-0.014955700375139713,
-0.05868833512067795,
0.28580164909362793,
-0.3715514838695526,
0.8857954144477844,
-0.5431212186813354,
0.5301970839500427,
-0.0001647744356887415,
-0.11656774580478668,
-0.779910683631897,
-0.05172348394989967,
-0.5844369530677795,
0.19629955291748047,
-0.2525186538696289,
0.555217981338501,
-0.5375214219093323,
-0.3288341760635376,
-0.4813845157623291,
0.3344518542289734,
0.4720765948295593,
0.5958048701286316,
0.09141809493303299,
0.04586062207818031,
0.15452119708061218,
0.6579599976539612,
-0.32955223321914673,
0.1189534068107605,
-0.18539106845855713,
0.6397314667701721,
0.7683409452438354,
-0.19868768751621246,
-0.15210700035095215,
0.5352982878684998,
0.0809515118598938,
-0.09866665303707123,
-0.2557089030742645,
-0.6106169819831848,
0.015740806236863136,
0.550449788570404,
-0.12071535736322403,
0.07122888416051865,
-0.043546538800001144,
0.1744135171175003,
-0.4969829320907593,
-0.005737852770835161,
-0.07619026303291321,
0.8183022141456604,
0.1552310287952423,
0.12415093183517456,
-0.011615202762186527,
-0.015696538612246513,
-0.12831594049930573,
-0.47626933455467224,
-0.01729441061615944,
0.4590902626514435,
0.532309353351593,
-0.4521239101886749,
-0.29521113634109497,
-0.4189154803752899,
-0.4828096032142639,
-0.05051473155617714,
0.3633124828338623,
-0.00013343300088308752,
-0.4474430978298187,
0.23424652218818665,
-0.5250921249389648,
-0.4969155490398407,
0.09366712719202042,
0.8017410635948181,
1.1042546033859253,
-0.22232189774513245,
-0.03760799765586853,
-0.07165569812059402,
0.211298406124115,
-0.39339548349380493,
0.32206860184669495,
-0.14916975796222687,
-0.18397021293640137,
0.2942294180393219,
-0.011602134443819523,
0.09689365327358246,
-0.03119010478258133,
0.19269511103630066,
0.3302697539329529,
-0.45936471223831177,
-0.007250532042235136,
-0.20307770371437073,
0.3252556622028351,
-0.6739358901977539,
0.3960599899291992,
-0.04904835671186447
] |
234751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording%20studio | Recording studio | A recording studio is a specialized facility for sound recording, mixing, and audio production of instrumental or vocal musical performances, spoken words, and other sounds. They range in size from a small in-home project studio large enough to record a single singer-guitarist, to a large building with space for a full orchestra of 100 or more musicians. Ideally, both the recording and monitoring (listening and mixing) spaces are specially designed by an acoustician or audio engineer to achieve optimum acoustic properties (acoustic isolation or diffusion or absorption of reflected sound echoes that could otherwise interfere with the sound heard by the listener).
Recording studios may be used to record singers, instrumental musicians (e.g., electric guitar, piano, saxophone, or ensembles such as orchestras), voice-over artists for advertisements or dialogue replacement in film, television, or animation, foley, or to record their accompanying musical soundtracks. The typical recording studio consists of a room called the "studio" or "live room" equipped with microphones and mic stands, where instrumentalists and vocalists perform; and the "control room", where audio engineers, sometimes with record producers, as well, operate professional audio mixing consoles, effects units, or computers with specialized software suites to mix, manipulate (e.g., by adjusting the equalization and adding effects) and route the sound for analog or digital recording. The engineers and producers listen to the live music and the recorded "tracks" on high-quality monitor speakers or headphones.
Often, there will be smaller rooms called isolation booths to accommodate loud instruments such as drums or electric guitar amplifiers and speakers, to keep these sounds from being audible to the microphones that are capturing the sounds from other instruments or voices, or to provide "drier" rooms for recording vocals or quieter acoustic instruments such as an acoustic guitar or a fiddle. Major recording studios typically have a range of large, heavy, and hard-to-transport instruments and music equipment in the studio, such as a grand piano, Hammond organ, electric piano, harp, and drums.
Design and equipment
Layout
Recording studios generally consist of three or more rooms:
The live room of the studio where instrumentalists play their instruments, with their playing picked up by microphones and, for electric and electronic instruments, by connecting the instruments' outputs or DI unit outputs to the mixing board (or by miking the speaker cabinets for bass and electric guitar);
Isolation booths are small sound-insulated rooms with doors, designed for instrumentalists (or their loud speaker stacks). Vocal booths are similarly designed rooms for singers. In both types of rooms, there are typically windows so the performers can see other band members and other studio staff, as singers, bandleaders and musicians often give or receive visual cues;
The control room, where the audio engineers and record producers mix the mic and instrument signals with a mixing console, record the singing and playing onto tape (until the 1980s and early 1990s) or hard disc (1990s and following decades) and listen to the recordings and tracks with monitor speakers or headphones and manipulate the tracks by adjusting the mixing console settings and by using effects units; and
The machine room, where noisier equipment, such as racks of fan-cooled computers and power amplifiers, is kept to prevent the noise from interfering with the recording process.
Even though sound isolation is a key goal, the musicians, singers, audio engineers and record producers still need to be able to see each other, to see cue gestures and conducting by a bandleader. As such, the live room, isolation booths, vocal booths and control room typically have windows.
Recording studios are carefully designed around the principles of room acoustics to create a set of spaces with the acoustical properties required for recording sound with accuracy. Architectural acoustics includes acoustical treatment and soundproofing and also the consideration of the physical dimensions of the room itself to make the room respond to sound in the desired way. Acoustical treatment includes and the use of absorption and diffusion materials on the surfaces inside the room. To control the amount of reverberation, rooms in a recording studio may have a reconfigurable combination of reflective and non-reflective surfaces. Soundproofing provides sonic isolation between rooms and prevents sound from entering or leaving the property. A Recording studio in an urban environment must be soundproofed on its outer shell to prevent noises from the surrounding streets and roads from being picked up by microphones inside.
Equipment
Equipment found in a recording studio commonly includes:
A professional-grade mixing console
Additional small mixing consoles for adding more channels (e.g., if a drum kit needs to be miked and all of the channels of the large console are in use, an additional 16 channel mixer would enable the engineers to mix the mics for the kit)
Microphone preamplifiers
Multitrack recorder or digital audio workstation
Computers
A wide selection of microphones typical for different types of instruments
DI unit boxes
Microphone stands to enable engineers to place microphones at the desired locations in front of singers, instrumentalists or ensembles
Studio monitors designed for listening to recorded mixes or tracks
Studio monitoring headphones (typically closed-shell, to prevent sound from "leaking" out into the microphones)
"On Air" or "Recording" lighted signs to remind other studio users to be quiet
Outboard effect units, such as compressors, reverbs, or equalizers
Music stands
Instruments
Not all music studios are equipped with musical instruments. Some smaller studios do not have instruments, and bands and artists are expected to bring their own instruments, amplifiers and speakers. However, major recording studios often have a selection of instruments in their live room, typically instruments, amplifiers and speaker cabinets that are large, heavy, and difficult to transport (e.g., a Hammond organ) or infeasible (as in the case of a grand piano) to hire for a single recording session. Having musical instruments and equipment in the studio creates additional costs for a studio, as pianos have to be tuned and instruments and associated equipment needs to be maintained.
The types and brands of music equipment owned by a studio depend on the styles of music for the bands and artists that typically record there. Instruments that may be present in a studio include:
Keyboard instruments and related keyboard gear
Grand piano (e.g., Steinway)
Hammond organ and rotating Leslie speaker
Electric pianos
MIDI keyboard or MIDI-equipped stage piano
Vintage synthesizers (e.g., Moog synthesizers)
Keyboard amplifier
Acoustic drum kit: this may only include the wood-shelled drums and the stands. Studios typically own major brands such as Premier, Ludwig and Gretsch. Some studios have a selection of classic snares. Drummers typically prefer to use their own snare drum and cymbals
Bass amplifier and bass speaker cabinet (e.g., a tube Ampeg SVT amp and an 8x10" cabinet)
Guitar amplifier and guitar speaker cabinets (e.g., a Fender Twin and a Marshall tube amp and speaker stack. Tube amps made by Vox, Ampeg, and Gibson may also be available.
Vintage guitars and basses made by Fender, Gibson, and Rickenbacker
In rare cases, studios may have a mellotron ethnic drums, sitars, a double bass, or unusual instruments that bands might wish to try for a particular sound.
Guitarists and bassists are often expected to bring their own guitars, basses and effects pedals. Drummers often bring their own snare drum, cymbals and sticks or brushes. Musicians that play other easily transported instruments, such as instruments from the violin family, accordion, ukulele, banjo, brass horns, and woodwinds will also be expected to bring their own instruments.
Digital audio workstations
General-purpose computers rapidly assumed a large role in the recording process. With software, a powerful, good quality computer with a fast processor can replace the mixing consoles, multitrack recording equipment, synthesizers, samplers and effects unit (reverb, echo, compression, etc.) that a recording studio required in the 1980s and 1990s. A computer thus outfitted is called a digital audio workstation, or DAW.
While Apple Macintosh is used for most studio work, there is a breadth of software available for Microsoft Windows and Linux.
If no mixing console is used and all mixing is done using only a keyboard and mouse, this is referred to as mixing in the box (ITB). OTB describes mixing with other hardware and not just the PC software.
Project studios
A small, personal recording studio is sometimes called a project studio or home studio. Such studios often cater to the specific needs of an individual artist or are used as a non-commercial hobby. The first modern project studios came into being during the mid-1980s, with the advent of affordable multitrack recording devices, synthesizers and microphones. The phenomenon has flourished with falling prices of MIDI equipment and accessories, as well as inexpensive direct to disk recording products.
Recording drums and amplified electric guitar in a home studio is challenging because they are usually the loudest instruments. Acoustic drums require sound isolation in this scenario, unlike electronic or sampled drums. Getting an authentic electric guitar amp sound including power-tube distortion requires a power attenuator or an isolation cabinet, or booth. A convenient compromise is amplifier modeling, whether a modeling amp, preamp/processor, or software-based guitar amp simulator. Sometimes, musicians replace loud, inconvenient instruments such as drums, with keyboards, which today often provide somewhat realistic sampling.
The capability of digital recording introduced by ADAT and its comparatively low cost, originally introduced at $3995, were largely responsible for the rise of project studios in the 1990s. Today's project studios are built around software-based DAWs running on standard PC hardware.
Isolation booth
An isolation booth is a small room in a recording studio, which is both soundproofed to keep out external sounds and keep in the internal sounds, and like all the other recording rooms in sound industry, it is designed for having a lesser amount of diffused reflections from walls to make a good sounding room. A drummer, vocalist, or guitar speaker cabinet, along with microphones, is acoustically isolated in the room. A typical professional recording studio has a control room, a large live room, and one or more small isolation booths.
All rooms are soundproofed by varying methods, including but not limited to, double-layer 5/8" sheetrock with the seams offset from layer to layer on both sides of the wall that is filled with foam, batten insulation, a double wall, which is an insulated wall built next to another insulated wall with an air gap in-between, by adding foam to the interior walls and corners, and by using two panes of thick glass with an air gap between them. The surface densities of common building materials determines the transmission loss of various frequencies through materials.
Thomas A. Watson invented, but did not patent, the soundproof booth for use in demonstrating the telephone with Alexander Graham Bell in 1877. There are variations of the same concept, including a portable standalone isolation booth and a guitar speaker isolation cabinet. A gobo panel achieves the same effect to a much more moderate extent; for example, a drum kit that is too loud in the live room or on stage can have acrylic glass see-through gobo panels placed around it to deflect the sound and keep it from bleeding into the other microphones, allowing better independent control of each instrument channel at the mixing console.
In animation, vocal performances are normally recorded in individual sessions, and the actors have to imagine (with the help of the director or a reader) they are involved in dialogue. Animated films often evolve rapidly during both development and production, so keeping vocal tracks from bleeding into each other is essential to preserving the ability to fine-tune lines up to the last minute. Sometimes, if the rapport between the lead actors is strong enough and the animation studio can afford it, the producers may use a recording studio configured with multiple isolation booths in which the actors can see each another and the director. This enables the actors to react to one another in real time as if they were on a regular stage or film set.
History
1890s to 1930s
In the era of acoustical recordings (prior to the introduction of microphones, electrical recording and amplification), the earliest recording studios were very basic facilities, being essentially soundproof rooms that isolated the performers from outside noise. During this era it was not uncommon for recordings to be made in any available location, such as a local ballroom, using portable acoustic recording equipment. In this period, master recordings were made by cutting a rotating cylinder (later disc) made from wax. Performers were typically grouped around a large acoustic horn (an enlarged version of the familiar gramophone horn). The acoustic energy from the voices or instruments was channeled through the horn to a diaphragm to a mechanical cutting lathe, which inscribed the signal as a modulated groove directly onto the surface of the master.
1930s to 1970s
Electrical recording was common by the early 1930s, and mastering lathes were electrically powered, but master recordings still had to be cut into a disc, by now a lacquer, also known as an Acetate disc. In line with the prevailing musical trends, studios in this period were primarily designed for the live recording of symphony orchestras and other large instrumental ensembles. Engineers soon found that large, reverberant spaces like concert halls created a vibrant acoustic signature as the natural reverb enhanced the sound of the recording. In this period large, acoustically "live" halls were favored, rather than the acoustically "dead" booths and studio rooms that became common after the 1960s. Because of the limits of the recording technology, which did not allow for multitrack recording techniques, studios of the mid-20th century were designed around the concept of grouping musicians (e.g., the rhythm section or a horn section) and singers (e.g., a group of backup singers), rather than separating them, and placing the performers and the microphones strategically to capture the complex acoustic and harmonic interplay that emerged during the performance. In the 2000s, modern sound stages still sometimes use this approach for large film scoring projects that use large orchestras.
Halls and churches
Because of their superb acoustics, many of the larger studios were converted churches. Examples include George Martin's AIR Studios in London, the famed Columbia Records 30th Street Studio in New York City (a converted Armenian church, with a ceiling over 100 feet high), and the Decca Records Pythian Temple studio in New York (where artists like Louis Jordan, Bill Haley and Buddy Holly were recorded) which was also a large converted church that featured a high, domed ceiling in the center of the hall.
Facilities like the Columbia Records 30th Street Studio in New York and Abbey Road Studios in London were renowned for their 'trademark' sound—which was (and still is) easily identifiable by audio professionals—and for the skill of their staff engineers. As the need to transfer audio material between different studios grew, there was an increasing demand for standardization in studio design across the recording industry, and Westlake Recording Studios in West Hollywood was highly influential in the 1970s in the development of standardized acoustic design.
In New York City, Columbia Records had some of the most highly respected sound recording studios, including the Columbia 30th Street Studio at 207 East 30th Street, the CBS Studio Building at 49 East 52nd Street, Liederkranz Hall at 111 East 58th Street between Park and Lexington Avenues (a building built by and formerly belonging to a German cultural and musical society, The Liederkranz Club and Society), and one of their earliest recording studios, "Studio A" at 799 Seventh Avenue.
Technologies and techniques
Electric recording studios in the mid-20th century often lacked isolation booths, sound baffles, and sometimes even speakers, and it was not until the 1960s, with the introduction of the high-fidelity headphones that it became common practice for performers to use headsets to monitor their performance during recording and listen to playbacks. It was difficult to isolate all the performers—a major reason that this practice was not used simply because recordings were usually made as live ensemble 'takes' and all the performers needed to be able to see each other and the ensemble leader while playing. The recording engineers who trained in this period learned to take advantage of the complex acoustic effects that could be created through "leakage" between different microphones and groups of instruments, and these technicians became extremely skilled at capturing the unique acoustic properties of their studios and the musicians in performance.
The use of different kinds of microphones and their placement around the studio was a crucial part of the recording process, and particular brands of microphones were used by engineers for their specific audio characteristics. The smooth-toned ribbon microphones developed by the RCA company in the 1930s were crucial to the "crooning" style perfected by Bing Crosby, and the famous Neumann U47 condenser microphone was one of the most widely used from the 1950s. This model is still widely regarded by audio professionals as one of the best microphones of its type ever made. Learning the correct placement of microphones was a major part of the training of young engineers, and many became extremely skilled in this craft. Well into the 1960s, in the classical field it was not uncommon for engineers to make high-quality orchestral recordings using only one or two microphones suspended above the orchestra. In the 1960s, engineers began experimenting with placing microphones much closer to instruments than had previously been the norm. The distinctive rasping tone of the horn sections on the Beatles recordings "Good Morning Good Morning" and "Lady Madonna" were achieved by having the saxophone players position their instruments so that microphones were virtually inside the mouth of the horn.
The unique sonic characteristics of the major studios imparted a special character to many of the most famous popular recordings of the 1950s and 1960s, and the recording companies jealously guarded these facilities. According to sound historian David Simons, after Columbia took over the 30th Street Studios in the late 1940s and A&R manager Mitch Miller had tweaked it to perfection, Miller issued a standing order that the drapes and other fittings were not to be touched, and the cleaners had specific orders never to mop the bare wooden floor for fear it might alter the acoustic properties of the hall. There were several other features of studios in this period that contributed to their unique "sonic signatures". As well as the inherent sound of the large recording rooms, many of the best studios incorporated specially-designed echo chambers, purpose-built rooms which were often built beneath the main studio.
These were typically long, low rectangular spaces constructed from hard, sound-reflective materials like concrete, fitted with a loudspeaker at one end and one or more microphones at the other. During a recording session, a signal from one or more of the microphones in the studio could be routed to the loudspeaker in the echo chamber; the sound from the speaker reverberated through the chamber and the enhanced signal was picked up by the microphone at the other end. This echo-enhanced signal—which was often used to 'sweeten' the sound of vocals—could then be blended in with the primary signal from the microphone in the studio and mixed into the track as the master recording was being made. Special equipment was another notable feature of the "classic" recording studio. The biggest studios were owned and operated by large media companies like RCA, Columbia and EMI, who typically had their own electronics research and development divisions that designed and built custom-made recording equipment and mixing consoles for their studios. Likewise, the smaller independent studios were often owned by skilled electronics engineers who designed and built their own desks and other equipment. A good example of this is the famous Gold Star Studios in Los Angeles, the site of many famous American pop recordings of the 1960s. Co-owner David S. Gold built the studio's main mixing desk and many additional pieces of equipment and he also designed the studio's unique trapezoidal echo chambers.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the sound of pop recordings was further defined by the introduction of proprietary sound processing devices such as equalizers and compressors, which were manufactured by specialist electronics companies. One of the best known of these was the famous Pultec equalizer, which was used by almost all the major commercial studios of the time.
Multi-track recording
With the introduction of multi-track recording, it became possible to record instruments and singers separately and at different times on different tracks on tape, although it was not until the 1970s that the large recording companies began to adopt this practice widely, and throughout the 1960s many "pop" classics were still recorded live in a single take. After the 1960s, the emphasis shifted to isolation and sound-proofing, with treatments like echo and reverberation added separately during the mixing process, rather than being blended in during the recording. One regrettable outcome of this trend, which coincided with rising inner-city property values, was that many of the largest studios were either demolished or redeveloped for other uses. In the mid-20th century, recordings were analog, made on ¼-inch or ½-inch magnetic tape, or, more rarely, on 35 mm magnetic film, with multitrack recording reaching 8 tracks in the 1950s, 16 in 1968, and 32 in the 1970s. The commonest such tape is the 2-inch analog, capable of containing up to 24 individual tracks. Generally, after an audio mix is set up on a 24-track tape machine, the signal is played back and sent to a different machine, which records the combined signals (called printing) to a ½-inch two-track stereo tape, called a master.
Before digital recording, the total number of available tracks onto which one could record was measured in multiples of 24, based on the number of 24-track tape machines being used. Most recording studios now use digital recording equipment, which limits the number of available tracks only on the basis of the mixing console's or computer hardware interface's capacity and the ability of the hardware to cope with processing demands. Analog tape machines are still used by some audiophiles and sound engineers for their unique sonic characteristics. Scarcity and age have led to certain models of analog tape machines rising significantly in value.
Radio studios
Radio studios are very similar to recording studios, particularly in the case of production studios which are not normally used on-air, such as studios where interviews are taped for later broadcast. This type of studio would normally have all of the same equipment that any other audio recording studio would have, particularly if it is at a large station, or at a combined facility that houses a station group, but is also designed for groups of people to work collaboratively in a live-to-air situation (see Ahern, S, Making Radio).
Broadcast studios also use many of the same principles such as sound isolation, with adaptations suited to the live on-air nature of their use. Such equipment would commonly include a telephone hybrid for putting telephone calls on the air, a POTS codec for receiving remote broadcasts, a dead air alarm for detecting unexpected silence, and a broadcast delay for dropping anything from coughs to profanity. In the U.S., stations licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also must have an Emergency Alert System decoder (typically in the studio), and in the case of full-power stations, an encoder that can interrupt programming on all channels which a station transmits to broadcast urgent warnings.
Computers are also used for playing ads, jingles, bumpers, soundbites, phone calls, sound effects, traffic and weather reports, and now full broadcast automation when no staff are present. For talk shows, a producer or assistant in a control room runs the show, including screening calls and entering the callers' names and subject into a queue, which the show's host can see and make a proper introduction with. Radio contest winner interviews can also be edited "on the fly" and put on the air within a minute or two after they have been recorded accepting their prize.
Additionally, digital mixing consoles can be interconnected via audio over Ethernet, or split into two parts, with inputs and outputs wired to a rackmount audio engine, and one or more control surfaces (mixing boards) or computers connected via serial port, allowing the producer or the talent to control the show from either point. With Ethernet and audio over IP (live) or FTP (recorded), this also allows remote access, so that DJs can do shows from a home studio via ISDN or the Internet. Additional outside audio connections are required for the studio/transmitter link for over-the-air stations, satellite dishes for sending and receiving shows, and for webcasting or podcasting.
See also
Film studio
List of music software
Re-amp
Recording studio as an instrument
Talkback (recording)
Television studio
References
Further reading
Cogan, Jim; Clark, William. Temples of Sound: Inside the Great Recording Studios. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2003.
Horning, Susan Schmidt. Chasing Sound: Technology, Culture, and the Art of Studio Recording from Edison to the LP. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
Ramone, Phil; Granata, Charles L. Making Records: The Scenes Behind the Music. New York: Hyperion, 2007.
External links
The History of Sound Recording Technology
The Complete Directory of Recording Studios
Television terminology | [
0.7272642254829407,
0.4616963565349579,
-0.4918145537376404,
0.4928954839706421,
0.669156551361084,
-0.07655805349349976,
0.1747491955757141,
0.016243072226643562,
-0.273582398891449,
-0.5336686968803406,
-0.580764651298523,
0.6413306593894958,
0.13056178390979767,
0.24626144766807556,
-0.32366877794265747,
-0.3269265294075012,
0.5135442614555359,
0.09240791201591492,
0.37978029251098633,
-0.5205656886100769,
-0.4403282403945923,
-0.15601412951946259,
0.06668677926063538,
-0.08115581423044205,
-0.1291060745716095,
-0.008198882453143597,
-0.2925863564014435,
0.30653223395347595,
-0.3340352773666382,
0.12397410720586777,
0.2797093391418457,
0.011724515818059444,
0.18464118242263794,
-0.6697609424591064,
0.12675249576568604,
0.46598249673843384,
0.05575021728873253,
-0.5346726179122925,
-0.1714908480644226,
-0.8771613240242004,
0.1751055121421814,
-0.09871292859315872,
0.36472874879837036,
0.48804357647895813,
-0.822519063949585,
-0.04358964040875435,
-1.2646104097366333,
0.07078195363283157,
-0.7652656435966492,
0.314117431640625,
-0.18299897015094757,
0.20893198251724243,
0.3222213387489319,
0.23645411431789398,
-0.23711955547332764,
0.7062923908233643,
0.10815246403217316,
0.09457896649837494,
0.14794416725635529,
-0.2890639007091522,
-0.04348398745059967,
-0.012969127856194973,
-0.098251111805439,
-0.14704199135303497,
0.5626685619354248,
-0.2955321669578552,
0.3394209146499634,
-0.5180454254150391,
-0.01713220775127411,
-0.17977023124694824,
-0.1763894408941269,
0.043561697006225586,
-0.15959477424621582,
-0.6659987568855286,
-0.5725184679031372,
-0.1740982085466385,
0.6016163229942322,
-0.5324766039848328,
-0.18658961355686188,
0.39177751541137695,
-0.05887840315699577,
0.4437236487865448,
0.2509751319885254,
-0.13825492560863495,
0.1423499435186386,
-0.16505710780620575,
-0.37017086148262024,
0.45601144433021545,
-0.6082330942153931,
-0.08753455430269241,
0.09610681235790253,
-0.5078704953193665,
0.22543975710868835,
0.22861507534980774,
0.07079654932022095,
0.4053264260292053,
0.2218507081270218,
0.22375263273715973,
0.07776515930891037,
0.3022969365119934,
0.050820525735616684,
-0.02988746389746666,
0.21400876343250275,
-0.1099371463060379,
0.3661165237426758,
0.21690379083156586,
-0.1625698208808899,
-0.28517982363700867,
-0.14854685962200165,
-0.07332901656627655,
-0.30562466382980347,
0.14271169900894165,
0.044563040137290955,
0.23288092017173767,
-0.38863271474838257,
-0.06459078937768936,
0.19868534803390503,
0.3933027684688568,
-0.5031456351280212,
0.043669044971466064,
0.7851083874702454,
0.43184950947761536,
0.1709495186805725,
-0.2593523859977722,
-0.8198447227478027,
0.015726285055279732,
0.5128229856491089,
0.9330810904502869,
-0.45873019099235535,
-0.477675199508667,
-0.3124866485595703,
0.3845359981060028,
0.04268743842840195,
0.37510350346565247,
-0.03872593119740486,
0.4689854085445404,
0.44563236832618713,
-0.3090322017669678,
0.3576854169368744,
0.47236281633377075,
-0.7575797438621521,
-0.38474664092063904,
-0.6094175577163696,
-0.47283604741096497,
-0.3543685972690582,
-0.4489118456840515,
-0.09165100753307343,
-0.30823060870170593,
-0.28444182872772217,
0.292374849319458,
0.34314829111099243,
0.2435888946056366,
-0.4421362578868866,
-0.3612448573112488,
-0.48607030510902405,
-0.2899554669857025,
0.6194542646408081,
-0.33575239777565,
-0.10380706936120987,
-0.37056538462638855,
0.11705175042152405,
0.2528260350227356,
-0.2794118821620941,
0.17220106720924377,
-0.20054307579994202,
0.04830018803477287,
-0.02500801719725132,
0.7035329937934875,
-0.40614238381385803,
0.04333769530057907,
0.023508170619606972,
0.2374274581670761,
-0.16322621703147888,
0.10243194550275803,
-0.5397486090660095,
-0.25282517075538635,
0.6813308000564575,
0.39646631479263306,
0.5518174767494202,
0.18309326469898224,
-0.659076988697052,
-0.08259082585573196,
0.1920430213212967,
-0.1924840658903122,
0.4437592327594757,
0.13779523968696594,
0.23539285361766815,
-0.04897454008460045,
-0.4260387122631073,
-0.19020064175128937,
-0.42165350914001465,
-0.8986231684684753,
-0.01912323571741581,
-0.5109239220619202,
0.7654974460601807,
-0.1882721334695816,
-0.024941125884652138,
0.6550496220588684,
-0.14021219313144684,
0.19169966876506805,
0.212458997964859,
0.2071235477924347,
0.31272226572036743,
-0.7115224599838257,
-0.47097766399383545,
0.32196754217147827,
0.7931722402572632,
-0.15010392665863037,
0.12077014148235321,
-0.658244788646698,
0.4798456132411957,
-0.1383199244737625,
0.7217638492584229,
-0.012831860221922398,
0.3506110906600952,
-0.0037798904813826084,
-1.045340895652771,
0.0741472914814949,
-0.2225293219089508,
-0.3814484775066376,
0.7320842742919922,
-0.15444856882095337,
0.03696036338806152,
0.4557700753211975,
-0.5777155160903931,
0.8134940266609192,
-0.5778542757034302,
-0.4692704677581787,
0.6199194192886353,
-0.30924302339553833,
-0.03540951386094093,
0.18587420880794525,
-0.39097467064857483,
-0.2616637647151947,
-0.18443794548511505,
0.5560505390167236,
-0.11292491108179092,
0.14009998738765717,
0.48684409260749817,
-0.05741746723651886,
-0.47718843817710876,
-0.14130090177059174,
-0.5562475323677063,
0.17453686892986298,
0.36056116223335266,
-0.02383989840745926,
-0.2976114749908447,
0.29693424701690674,
0.0717819482088089,
0.25896599888801575,
0.1392229050397873,
-0.021119404584169388,
0.37124425172805786,
0.0791580006480217,
0.07431907951831818,
-0.31217527389526367,
-0.047208838164806366,
-0.09212925285100937,
-0.18664070963859558,
-0.23693464696407318,
-0.4348243772983551,
-0.15297968685626984,
0.519922137260437,
-0.04281938448548317,
-0.19640174508094788,
-0.4883917272090912,
0.20495916903018951,
-0.3434596359729767,
0.3645997643470764,
0.21347229182720184,
0.1685076504945755,
0.635453462600708,
-0.3009307086467743,
0.3043005168437958,
-0.46989700198173523,
-0.3101230561733246,
0.26671329140663147,
-0.44005149602890015,
0.29731571674346924,
-0.49036091566085815,
0.6872088313102722,
0.08114584535360336,
0.07453272491693497,
-0.6659126281738281,
-0.4443646967411041,
-0.318775475025177,
-0.039853017777204514,
0.0661158636212349,
0.06010261923074722,
-0.3342808783054352,
-0.5466764569282532,
0.1866976022720337,
0.3540877103805542,
0.45364680886268616,
0.4679870009422302,
0.21802644431591034,
0.05483368784189224,
-0.1339164525270462,
0.1267315000295639,
-0.32077887654304504,
-0.5791770815849304,
0.21887600421905518,
-0.4252816438674927,
-0.3227710723876953,
-0.24903391301631927,
-0.13773790001869202,
0.007468026597052813,
-0.537834107875824,
-5.986708641052246,
-0.002277092542499304,
-0.3873130679130554,
-0.7048004865646362,
0.365075945854187,
-0.16487501561641693,
0.1742800623178482,
-0.5279488563537598,
-0.3196839690208435,
0.13036580383777618,
-0.666102945804596,
-0.04402914643287659,
0.26311227679252625,
0.606057345867157,
0.6992011666297913,
0.006838832516223192,
-0.20464859902858734,
0.21893736720085144,
-0.100079745054245,
0.23698683083057404,
0.14119625091552734,
0.010161543264985085,
-0.008816785179078579,
0.36914244294166565,
-0.045580487698316574,
-0.1672685146331787,
-0.3930658996105194,
0.3312802314758301,
-0.37921345233917236,
-0.19230738282203674,
0.34745776653289795,
-0.14763951301574707,
-0.3406847417354584,
0.05244212970137596,
0.2299945205450058,
0.46561524271965027,
0.6776226758956909,
0.016997825354337692,
-0.03045962192118168,
-0.19011619687080383,
0.2871268689632416,
0.42918306589126587,
0.22437700629234314,
0.08531783521175385,
0.17861030995845795,
-0.2402418851852417,
-0.044655460864305496,
-0.47719714045524597,
-0.3195054233074188,
0.5652201175689697,
-0.019033491611480713,
0.13420365750789642,
0.6044319868087769,
-0.006763880141079426,
0.2228652834892273,
-0.30777469277381897,
0.7386341691017151,
0.41590872406959534,
0.22781699895858765,
-0.038176920264959335,
0.09230438619852066,
-0.7512058019638062,
-0.5640096664428711,
-0.7416308522224426,
-0.04537302255630493,
-0.04043745994567871,
-0.42842790484428406,
-0.31879347562789917,
0.6654823422431946,
0.4189135432243347,
0.05579724535346031,
-0.07084944099187851,
0.35331952571868896,
-0.715111494064331,
0.18773134052753448,
-0.21353895962238312,
0.06961435824632645,
-0.37745943665504456,
0.22176018357276917,
0.4201314151287079,
-0.09410488605499268,
-0.10744023323059082,
-0.13328474760055542,
-0.14429697394371033,
0.1721547544002533,
0.05005713924765587,
-0.2006770521402359,
0.5660954713821411,
-0.17456747591495514,
-0.2565961480140686,
0.9746284484863281,
-0.060607388615608215,
0.07100719213485718,
0.10454590618610382,
0.37173375487327576,
0.2898886203765869,
0.6114984750747681,
0.12530426681041718,
0.9223575592041016,
-0.22494295239448547,
0.08700414001941681,
-0.16205307841300964,
0.07639656215906143,
-0.1374983936548233,
0.10047165304422379,
-0.487373024225235,
-0.549139678478241,
-0.20324967801570892,
0.6781390309333801,
0.06711528450250626,
-0.01647372357547283,
0.22874611616134644,
-0.1445438116788864,
-0.5423294305801392,
0.11260077357292175,
-0.4479469656944275,
-0.5175071954727173,
0.778933584690094,
0.10721912980079651,
-0.2889178991317749,
0.4030400216579437,
-0.17461080849170685,
0.07237046211957932,
-0.0701713114976883,
-0.5886473655700684,
0.06249561533331871,
-0.04716261848807335,
-0.24547667801380157,
-0.22910214960575104,
-0.29986509680747986,
0.7117106914520264,
0.1300245225429535,
0.25262361764907837,
0.4352591633796692,
0.3383408486843109,
0.085957832634449,
-0.468840092420578,
0.01541908923536539,
-0.008412285707890987,
-0.576024055480957,
0.431277334690094,
-0.4611314535140991,
-0.12811732292175293,
0.04849133640527725,
0.373501181602478,
0.4457005560398102,
-0.35473525524139404,
-0.17535477876663208,
0.22229962050914764,
-0.10281474143266678,
-0.10569454729557037,
-0.406119704246521,
-0.04833340272307396,
-0.18318326771259308,
0.008594270795583725,
-0.22541821002960205,
-0.2770748436450958,
-0.033508915454149246,
0.19557228684425354,
-0.2631019949913025,
0.46808964014053345,
0.07127739489078522,
-0.7441924214363098,
-0.07148336619138718,
-0.081209197640419,
-0.19447270035743713,
-0.6849804520606995,
0.000704376318026334,
-0.6225262880325317,
0.6281259655952454,
0.16736437380313873,
-0.47829142212867737,
0.014234553091228008,
-0.6755369305610657,
0.6459596157073975,
0.20989041030406952,
0.6029534339904785,
0.33105117082595825,
-0.18916724622249603,
-0.21147248148918152,
0.14714230597019196,
-0.449810653924942,
0.01946050487458706,
-0.07532989233732224,
0.22590754926204681,
-0.1262756735086441,
-0.3872213661670685,
0.06685173511505127,
-0.35454264283180237,
-0.2353527694940567,
-0.23395936191082,
-0.3294884264469147,
0.03355531021952629,
0.136432483792305,
0.03656488284468651,
-0.5291131734848022,
-0.22859710454940796,
0.2093607634305954,
-0.23425066471099854,
-0.1372448205947876,
-0.04779082164168358,
-0.11434222757816315,
-0.6728687286376953,
-0.06481939554214478,
0.49830424785614014,
-0.37838926911354065,
0.3391844928264618,
-0.17945456504821777,
-0.26554378867149353,
0.35117852687835693,
-0.44034603238105774,
-0.30716177821159363,
0.1412411481142044,
0.04442640393972397,
-0.5321811437606812,
-0.10422341525554657,
0.44680550694465637,
-0.29435014724731445,
-0.1187182292342186,
-0.09023690968751907,
0.13614046573638916,
-0.04909072071313858,
-0.3177684247493744,
0.1278865486383438,
-0.6684167981147766,
-0.06574913114309311,
0.20020081102848053,
0.097779281437397,
-0.00911622028797865,
-0.2115182876586914,
-0.08546195179224014,
0.008996719494462013,
0.24749115109443665,
-0.051360804587602615,
0.24466723203659058,
-0.21073852479457855,
-0.25057223439216614,
-0.0742432028055191,
0.14441640675067902,
0.001443925080820918,
0.3149202764034271,
0.8269388675689697,
-0.08637131005525589,
-0.0833873301744461,
-0.6718046069145203,
0.3591448962688446,
0.22825033962726593,
-0.2358044683933258,
-0.295712947845459,
0.3136618733406067,
0.4174048900604248,
-0.31805381178855896,
-0.4445633888244629,
-0.23397797346115112,
0.698491632938385,
0.03797877952456474,
0.105878546833992,
0.38285765051841736,
0.00018265994731336832,
0.30167850852012634,
-0.06444831192493439,
-0.5844939351081848,
0.012239181436598301,
0.0941561684012413,
0.46171826124191284,
-0.11204665154218674,
-0.1780174970626831,
-0.0835118517279625,
-0.21081805229187012,
-0.8543811440467834,
0.41496172547340393,
0.5702732801437378,
0.7359952926635742,
0.6541076302528381,
0.8776465058326721,
-0.10776282101869583,
0.11146489530801773,
-0.45544347167015076,
-0.20492616295814514,
0.3964880704879761,
0.3946441411972046,
-0.2058112919330597,
-0.0282613392919302,
-0.6249946355819702,
0.11527583003044128,
-0.2601790130138397,
0.050333693623542786,
-0.13068073987960815,
-0.45162051916122437,
-0.22589345276355743,
-0.24474526941776276,
-0.2186388373374939,
0.4908619821071625,
0.6804965138435364,
-0.185511514544487,
-0.0377127043902874,
0.4160514175891876,
0.15399949252605438,
0.3544079661369324,
0.11941241472959518,
-0.5734847784042358,
0.48875191807746887,
0.048450831323862076,
-1.0268796682357788,
0.9700741767883301,
0.0550326332449913,
-0.0002610196534078568,
-0.8226392865180969,
-0.25871020555496216,
-0.2511087656021118,
0.08643226325511932,
0.03374018892645836,
0.00143904029391706,
0.6377326250076294,
0.14506976306438446,
-0.1976328194141388,
0.7886151671409607,
-0.39340922236442566,
0.5785900950431824,
0.29453691840171814,
0.04697204753756523,
-0.7149820923805237,
0.5444102883338928,
0.1657485067844391,
0.059647709131240845,
0.3851379454135895,
-0.11686094850301743,
-0.5033731460571289,
0.3888058662414551,
-0.06512382626533508,
0.9731770753860474,
0.32252395153045654,
0.4167799651622772,
0.15283165872097015,
-0.620894193649292,
-0.5809465646743774,
-0.37155386805534363,
-0.4669042229652405,
-0.6828604936599731,
0.36741548776626587,
0.35216575860977173,
-0.14386959373950958,
0.31073570251464844,
0.7728272676467896,
-0.25571495294570923,
0.22843438386917114,
0.5122803449630737,
0.3654840290546417,
-0.9129405617713928,
0.01904778555035591,
-0.06341882050037384,
-0.36369284987449646,
0.5724377632141113,
0.029546529054641724,
0.3199431896209717,
-0.2078000158071518,
0.6205897927284241,
0.2831507921218872,
0.4877932369709015,
0.20027178525924683,
0.25270333886146545,
0.8319710493087769,
0.765946626663208,
0.06275594234466553,
-0.4304792881011963,
-0.24380142986774445,
0.2587055265903473,
-0.06349904090166092,
0.048141706734895706,
-0.10952804982662201,
-0.021921712905168533,
0.9483611583709717,
-0.6868720650672913,
0.2221873551607132,
0.050143834203481674,
-0.37005677819252014,
0.5984358191490173,
0.00575034087523818,
0.08005686104297638,
-0.14160124957561493,
0.14624060690402985,
0.004332398995757103,
-0.26946204900741577,
-0.5397287011146545,
0.1587752252817154,
-0.0010091246804222465,
0.1333608478307724,
0.20543988049030304,
-0.05127962306141853,
0.04376797378063202,
0.4446241855621338,
-0.7385551333427429,
0.6393609046936035,
-0.38094693422317505,
-0.32604631781578064,
-0.3033652603626251,
0.034388668835163116,
0.36751294136047363,
0.11437782645225525,
-0.1341148018836975,
-0.26727166771888733,
0.5974579453468323,
0.03921310976147652,
0.4179791212081909,
-0.4807596802711487,
0.10166805982589722,
-0.3355937600135803,
-0.10681486129760742,
-0.7190291881561279,
0.5553271770477295,
0.4678465723991394,
-0.053916171193122864,
0.07807151228189468,
0.2235962599515915,
0.18746314942836761,
0.04159168526530266,
0.29980650544166565,
0.06792479008436203,
0.4107993543148041,
-0.2582685351371765,
0.45473283529281616,
0.0834403783082962,
0.34712833166122437,
0.13974161446094513,
-0.03667161613702774,
0.04315265640616417,
0.0898253321647644,
-0.36021536588668823,
-0.13396649062633514,
0.6833844184875488,
-0.2294038087129593,
0.09521742165088654,
-0.5498222708702087,
0.527397632598877,
-0.4898102879524231,
-0.4038149416446686,
0.10332157462835312,
0.05780327320098877,
0.7259315848350525,
-0.47804874181747437,
-0.09187177568674088,
0.358484148979187,
0.033584848046302795,
0.18927791714668274,
-0.6006594300270081,
0.10765805095434189,
-0.3783760368824005,
-0.47881433367729187,
-0.7384551763534546,
0.17587901651859283,
0.2997075617313385,
-0.9730311036109924,
0.5102152824401855,
0.4073891043663025,
-0.6060256361961365,
0.210019052028656,
0.17638520896434784,
0.023270469158887863,
-0.2698630094528198,
0.08173234015703201
] |
234752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Loris-Melikov | Mikhail Loris-Melikov | Count Mikhail Tarielovich Loris-Melikov (, ; – 24 December 1888) was a Russian-Armenian statesman, General of the Cavalry, and Adjutant General of H. I. M. Retinue.
The Princes of Lori - Loris-Melikovs are the representatives of an old noble family whose ancestors in the 14th century owned the town of Lori and the province of the same name. They belonged to the top aristocratic society of Georgia. In Russian nobility the princely family of the Loris-Melikovs (is translated from Georgian as “The Princes of Lori”) was approved in 1832.
Biography
Early life
He was born in Tiflis, Caucasus Viceroyalty, Russian Empire in 1826, to Prince Tariel Zurabovich Loris-Melikov and his wife, Princess Ekaterina Ahverdova, and was educated in St Petersburg, first at the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages, and afterwards at the Guards' Cadet Institute. He joined a hussar regiment, and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent to the Caucasus, where he remained for more than twenty years, and made for himself during troubled times the reputation of a distinguished cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity, though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike and turbulent population committed to his charge for the transition from military to normal civil administration, and in this work his favorite instrument was the schoolmaster.
Military career
In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, he commanded a separate corps d'armée on the Turkish frontier in Asia Minor. After taking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Ahmed Muhtar Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at Ajaria, took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum. For these services he received the title of Count. He was awarded the Order of Saint George of the second degree on October 27, 1877, for his service in Ajaria.
Civil administrator
In the following year, Loris-Melikov became the temporary governor-general of the region of the Lower Volga to combat an outbreak of the plague. The measures he adopted proved so effectual that he was transferred to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the Nihilists and Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov.
His success in this struggle led to his appointment as chief of the Supreme Administrative Commission which had been created in St Petersburg after the February 1880 assassination attempt on the Tsar to deal with the terrorist agitation in general.
Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed a decided preference for the employment of ordinary legal methods rather than exceptional extralegal measures, even after an attempt on his own life soon afterwards. He believed that the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by removing the causes of popular discontent and recommended to the emperor Alexander II a large scheme of administrative and economic reforms. Alexander, who was beginning to lose faith in the efficacy of the simple method of police repression hitherto employed, lent a willing ear to the suggestion. When the Supreme Commission was dissolved in August 1880, he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of the Interior with exceptional powers.
The proposed scheme of reforms was at once taken in hand but was never carried out. The emperor signed a ukase creating several commissions, composed of officials and eminent private individuals, to prepare reforms in various branches of the administration, and while popular peoples' representatives from the Zemstvos were granted positions, they were not allowed to vote. The intellectuals of Russia derided these reforms as rubber-stamping and an unwillingness to put forward any substantial, constitutional reforms. This ukase was designed and advocated by Loris-Melikov, and on the very day (13 March 1881) of its acceptance by the emperor, the emperor was assassinated. But after the assassination, Loris-Melikov hesitated about publishing the order for a popular commission, and waited for the new tsar, who turned out to be very opposed to a constitution in Russia. Alexander III at once adopted a strongly anti-reformist policy.
When the new Tsar started to undo some of the reforms that his father, Alexander II had promulgated, Count Loris-Melikov resigned several months later and lived in retirement until his death at Nice on 22 December 1888.
See also
Melikov
Notes
References
Further reading
Wright, Patricia. "Loris-Melikov: Russia, 1880-1." History Today (June 1974), Vol. 24 Issue 6, pp 413–419 online.
External links
Armenian Aristocracy and the Military Tradition
1825 births
1888 deaths
Military personnel from Tbilisi
People from Georgia Governorate
Georgian people of Armenian descent
Russian nobility
Law enforcement in Russia
Imperial Russian Army generals
Politicians of the Russian Empire
Interior ministers of Russia
Members of the State Council (Russian Empire)
Russian military personnel of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
Russian people of Armenian descent
Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian)
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Third Degree
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Russian military personnel of the Caucasian War
People of the Russian Empire of Armenian descent | [
-0.6868875026702881,
0.7401485443115234,
-0.305168092250824,
0.17993828654289246,
-0.3178178369998932,
1.0470770597457886,
0.9377027153968811,
-0.5283110737800598,
-0.538953959941864,
0.3693753778934479,
-0.33319973945617676,
0.5345832109451294,
-0.5846112966537476,
0.3132224678993225,
-0.38978636264801025,
0.4548567831516266,
0.0447886660695076,
0.03833071514964104,
-0.6346088647842407,
-0.11132831871509552,
0.08278360962867737,
-0.020411638543009758,
0.31804072856903076,
-0.05123291164636612,
-0.09812144190073013,
0.2594912648200989,
0.3590553104877472,
0.6476907730102539,
-0.07632630318403244,
0.21855247020721436,
-0.15918400883674622,
0.8043315410614014,
0.0965314581990242,
-0.30947521328926086,
-0.451635479927063,
0.8148156404495239,
0.05988529324531555,
-0.35318896174430847,
0.33685770630836487,
-0.3890649676322937,
0.4961867034435272,
0.8718347549438477,
-0.5218793749809265,
0.16802792251110077,
-0.08705149590969086,
-0.7454500794410706,
-1.5835918188095093,
0.2923951745033264,
-0.7781855463981628,
-0.4448477327823639,
0.20078276097774506,
0.11867745965719223,
0.2945418953895569,
-0.26961788535118103,
-0.24234385788440704,
0.19866637885570526,
-1.2910397052764893,
0.024042610079050064,
0.37077274918556213,
0.39483094215393066,
0.4657139480113983,
0.20982623100280762,
0.5718866586685181,
0.017306329682469368,
0.895372748374939,
0.146370530128479,
-0.11795151978731155,
0.21836836636066437,
-0.0831824317574501,
0.17979125678539276,
-0.027090059593319893,
0.5267507433891296,
0.3805367350578308,
0.3482886850833893,
0.17628999054431915,
-0.5111865997314453,
-0.44536370038986206,
0.3148629665374756,
0.46724528074264526,
0.5259175896644592,
0.0033913739025592804,
-0.21844235062599182,
0.6948045492172241,
0.16141924262046814,
-0.1472274214029312,
0.024471627548336983,
-0.5770593285560608,
0.45633092522621155,
-0.31579920649528503,
0.06651784479618073,
0.15576432645320892,
-0.47644564509391785,
0.5338693857192993,
0.1215367466211319,
-0.1605377048254013,
-0.13578100502490997,
-0.4532642662525177,
0.09223132580518723,
-0.5182462334632874,
0.07778848707675934,
0.3825972378253937,
0.6612023711204529,
-0.3193376064300537,
-0.07172518223524094,
-0.4850143790245056,
0.0921756774187088,
-0.33491429686546326,
0.23667822778224945,
-0.3930448889732361,
0.03891252726316452,
-0.9606849551200867,
0.24795113503932953,
-0.6463757753372192,
-0.273450642824173,
-0.24658043682575226,
0.08050167560577393,
0.06434418261051178,
-1.0374058485031128,
-0.2750570774078369,
0.05087942257523537,
-0.08614709973335266,
0.8077666163444519,
-0.36610180139541626,
0.44876939058303833,
0.016532516106963158,
-0.31343263387680054,
0.02941066585481167,
0.5501267313957214,
-0.23965196311473846,
1.0878112316131592,
0.3378390669822693,
0.8831014633178711,
-0.5409159660339355,
0.3061350882053375,
0.10413766652345657,
-0.5249622464179993,
0.1843465119600296,
0.5053239464759827,
-0.25458645820617676,
0.6928307414054871,
-1.0373088121414185,
-0.2715492248535156,
0.01009657233953476,
-0.41148918867111206,
0.29249346256256104,
-0.27449825406074524,
0.012579111382365227,
0.1494547575712204,
-0.5254147052764893,
-0.46303707361221313,
0.13438887894153595,
-0.0030984641052782536,
-0.06661476939916611,
-0.15788806974887848,
-0.5678194761276245,
0.38823917508125305,
0.5548699498176575,
-0.1415800303220749,
0.3402198553085327,
-0.028362026438117027,
0.16140246391296387,
-0.08167917281389236,
-0.3130488395690918,
0.30039381980895996,
0.14239662885665894,
0.07697877287864685,
-0.15138716995716095,
0.3858426809310913,
-0.23610374331474304,
0.0771271213889122,
-0.5328602194786072,
-0.10453974455595016,
-0.4254937767982483,
-0.04722623527050018,
-0.1925165057182312,
1.014897346496582,
0.10853066295385361,
-0.09359294176101685,
-0.1925647258758545,
-0.9409282803535461,
-0.8597722053527832,
-0.043334271758794785,
0.03963898867368698,
0.15565136075019836,
0.33436015248298645,
0.34960588812828064,
0.14203178882598877,
-0.271029531955719,
0.6101763248443604,
-0.8220430612564087,
0.16848552227020264,
-0.6562455892562866,
0.313070684671402,
-0.33424681425094604,
1.0325160026550293,
0.09206925332546234,
-0.2680039405822754,
0.18074899911880493,
-0.12142353504896164,
0.953810453414917,
-0.0767846331000328,
-0.5185366868972778,
-0.14297057688236237,
0.34800490736961365,
0.27498096227645874,
0.44805827736854553,
0.12115548551082611,
0.13099168241024017,
0.028006361797451973,
0.7427854537963867,
0.7166721224784851,
-0.6571884751319885,
0.37884506583213806,
-0.1731829047203064,
-0.14138014614582062,
-0.3513984680175781,
-0.8752185106277466,
-0.23442181944847107,
0.1810186803340912,
-0.20975928008556366,
0.382075697183609,
-0.3027556240558624,
-0.17305158078670502,
0.876043975353241,
-0.24065126478672028,
0.37414950132369995,
0.09195519238710403,
0.19383125007152557,
-0.245502308011055,
-0.5418271422386169,
-0.025874806568026543,
0.06049751490354538,
0.3819916248321533,
-0.2640010416507721,
-0.21536603569984436,
-0.11435935646295547,
-0.3199407458305359,
-0.3672496974468231,
0.5132981538772583,
-0.5693259239196777,
-0.384375661611557,
0.4938126802444458,
0.12838169932365417,
0.5353594422340393,
0.1489887535572052,
0.24747762084007263,
-0.3879491686820984,
0.2535349726676941,
-0.46555444598197937,
-0.5974304676055908,
0.38873183727264404,
0.11201509088277817,
0.3325217068195343,
-0.15738826990127563,
-0.39961323142051697,
-0.3535567820072174,
0.6555228233337402,
0.02208687551319599,
-0.3268967568874359,
0.312192440032959,
0.13908500969409943,
0.3077281415462494,
-0.11403478682041168,
0.09271825850009918,
0.08900795876979828,
-0.25223398208618164,
0.1418905407190323,
-0.5891811847686768,
0.7945846319198608,
0.16546602547168732,
0.5794466733932495,
-0.42442670464515686,
-0.39259350299835205,
0.37185031175613403,
-0.15857334434986115,
-0.587548553943634,
-0.14241144061088562,
0.40443548560142517,
-0.7600576877593994,
-0.6008012294769287,
-0.016739534214138985,
0.9466571807861328,
0.2139139175415039,
0.24159692227840424,
-0.5502224564552307,
-0.08099135756492615,
-0.4039839208126068,
-0.17857347428798676,
0.7611896395683289,
-0.36455172300338745,
0.14282669126987457,
0.7639065980911255,
-0.24930201470851898,
0.14424771070480347,
-0.3517080247402191,
0.36327794194221497,
-0.08672211319208145,
-0.3495907187461853,
0.5417460203170776,
0.15261182188987732,
-0.9804216623306274,
-0.08742989599704742,
-0.2322636991739273,
0.02708139270544052,
0.19854171574115753,
0.14628487825393677,
-0.20413242280483246,
0.07741976529359818,
-5.508058071136475,
0.05790594592690468,
-0.12399793416261673,
-0.38308677077293396,
0.214801624417305,
0.3064004182815552,
0.20816102623939514,
-0.271518737077713,
0.19804775714874268,
-0.14635615050792694,
0.08150341361761093,
-0.042651738971471786,
-0.06129494309425354,
0.2420928180217743,
1.2688089609146118,
0.1267360895872116,
0.3681809902191162,
-0.0942596048116684,
0.3394033908843994,
-0.020314233377575874,
0.17317746579647064,
-0.02095090225338936,
0.0021385294385254383,
0.2917565107345581,
0.7172456979751587,
0.4541901648044586,
-0.08064769953489304,
-0.09249995648860931,
-1.10698664188385,
-0.32339948415756226,
-0.4073258340358734,
-0.03340436890721321,
0.04657501354813576,
0.12664178013801575,
0.140565887093544,
-0.7481114864349365,
0.39319053292274475,
0.9264616966247559,
-0.10389026254415512,
-0.05695962533354759,
-0.1493670493364334,
0.28808560967445374,
-0.006147650070488453,
0.006302427966147661,
0.1789725422859192,
-0.14760921895503998,
-0.7163724303245544,
0.23078353703022003,
-0.2718372941017151,
0.12641538679599762,
0.4241759479045868,
-0.21034468710422516,
0.10885705798864365,
0.21558263897895813,
0.19702622294425964,
0.2865177094936371,
0.6404354572296143,
-0.14551031589508057,
-0.3188808858394623,
0.931276261806488,
0.5389502644538879,
-0.4920955300331116,
0.053179170936346054,
-0.1537294089794159,
0.3635866940021515,
0.09539315104484558,
0.2332063913345337,
-0.356794148683548,
-0.26705029606819153,
-0.3776439428329468,
-0.34934505820274353,
0.9145172238349915,
-0.2628040611743927,
-0.8246075510978699,
0.30572259426116943,
-0.32284653186798096,
-0.40853679180145264,
0.1191926822066307,
-0.2944004535675049,
0.34809261560440063,
-0.30949893593788147,
-0.9919333457946777,
-0.06322050839662552,
0.4329775869846344,
0.885694146156311,
0.13424386084079742,
-0.16140159964561462,
0.11852916330099106,
-0.09756897389888763,
-0.2648254334926605,
0.1379816234111786,
-0.898102343082428,
0.3556431829929352,
0.44815516471862793,
-0.23631040751934052,
0.42422789335250854,
-0.19874022901058197,
0.2621169090270996,
0.3321244418621063,
0.23145966231822968,
-0.31995078921318054,
0.020699717104434967,
0.2890503704547882,
-0.5605149865150452,
0.9011884331703186,
-0.5574161410331726,
0.17815954983234406,
-0.018246706575155258,
0.9907602667808533,
0.13407465815544128,
-0.2447756677865982,
0.22295694053173065,
-0.3722586929798126,
-0.9762436151504517,
0.11507730931043625,
-0.18236102163791656,
0.10945603996515274,
0.23763276636600494,
0.20365780591964722,
0.502560019493103,
-0.6745047569274902,
-0.1737852692604065,
-0.35455188155174255,
0.024258816614747047,
0.11713331192731857,
0.32628852128982544,
0.05380452051758766,
-0.2322218269109726,
-0.02790677919983864,
-0.12399745732545853,
-0.03324856981635094,
0.503644585609436,
-0.3073734939098358,
-0.1307903528213501,
-0.00008542436989955604,
-0.2927076518535614,
-0.2669455111026764,
-0.7042793035507202,
0.18972735106945038,
-0.37800362706184387,
0.030628550797700882,
-0.536900520324707,
-0.5221500396728516,
0.6527419686317444,
0.19688449800014496,
0.5641554594039917,
0.17746293544769287,
0.2043791562318802,
-0.3149351477622986,
0.5346816778182983,
-0.08706633746623993,
-0.048006005585193634,
0.48008814454078674,
-0.057717349380254745,
-0.5601269602775574,
0.2496017962694168,
-0.18986690044403076,
0.04264271631836891,
-0.366775780916214,
-0.05659753084182739,
-0.005713087506592274,
-0.3828912377357483,
-1.0767054557800293,
-0.518539309501648,
0.5363073348999023,
-0.15145334601402283,
-0.6321713924407959,
-0.262459933757782,
-0.6335058808326721,
0.7500987648963928,
0.0029997825622558594,
-0.4063932001590729,
-0.5900111794471741,
0.18439894914627075,
-0.11746818572282791,
0.016696330159902573,
0.36176571249961853,
0.22644774615764618,
0.0020498735830187798,
-0.1050608679652214,
0.12194793671369553,
0.20854611694812775,
-0.21176807582378387,
0.8658959865570068,
0.2640276253223419,
-0.08524233102798462,
-0.03746465966105461,
-0.24978381395339966,
-0.30801859498023987,
-0.518597424030304,
0.224794402718544,
-0.26186221837997437,
-0.0757099911570549,
-0.27468761801719666,
0.2414301633834839,
-0.4427853226661682,
-0.12624341249465942,
0.21021711826324463,
-0.03521813452243805,
-0.09928877651691437,
0.1474173367023468,
0.3651522994041443,
0.24998736381530762,
-0.3516477346420288,
0.05841365084052086,
-0.9599969387054443,
0.3295326828956604,
0.31904828548431396,
-0.5490503907203674,
0.49491459131240845,
-0.43051719665527344,
-0.8503713011741638,
-0.0019650531467050314,
0.6639312505722046,
-0.5426010489463806,
-0.004756549373269081,
0.5460681915283203,
0.40489229559898376,
-0.708209753036499,
-0.49727538228034973,
-0.5412147045135498,
-0.40459302067756653,
0.11886216700077057,
-0.39880186319351196,
-0.6748806834220886,
-0.20459680259227753,
0.5035679340362549,
-0.06536904722452164,
0.37268343567848206,
-0.15059258043766022,
0.06675019860267639,
-0.42837148904800415,
0.05459848418831825,
-0.05649862065911293,
-0.4798719882965088,
-0.1993839144706726,
0.13925714790821075,
0.4343550503253937,
0.1128559485077858,
-0.07184131443500519,
0.6715407371520996,
0.768860399723053,
0.07497280091047287,
-0.2054300457239151,
-0.1550736278295517,
0.2997729778289795,
0.24365323781967163,
-0.6167440414428711,
0.005076151341199875,
0.22348511219024658,
0.210242360830307,
0.09127425402402878,
-0.8203619122505188,
-0.10619982331991196,
0.7363883852958679,
-0.1904449760913849,
0.04511936008930206,
0.690912663936615,
0.19307659566402435,
0.6303235292434692,
-0.8047787547111511,
0.37857645750045776,
-0.15010271966457367,
0.14813284575939178,
-0.312892884016037,
0.5566231608390808,
-0.21550065279006958,
-0.1644739955663681,
0.05029374733567238,
-0.36470675468444824,
-0.46660417318344116,
-0.7497103810310364,
-0.06328203529119492,
0.050111837685108185,
-0.8564760684967041,
0.08638928830623627,
0.26712360978126526,
-0.2111736685037613,
-0.0804145485162735,
0.21039630472660065,
-1.2398650646209717,
-0.365409791469574,
-0.041767146438360214,
-0.42990684509277344,
-0.27098608016967773,
-0.7600848078727722,
0.029346944764256477,
0.18552353978157043,
-0.29430222511291504,
0.47178399562835693,
-0.44801223278045654,
0.048307936638593674,
-0.04538682475686073,
0.1889379471540451,
0.05847841128706932,
-0.3579944670200348,
-0.6587347388267517,
0.7276620864868164,
-0.4286263585090637,
0.5616647005081177,
-0.4748856723308563,
0.7225522398948669,
0.18434886634349823,
-0.11942198872566223,
0.16827437281608582,
0.8180853128433228,
0.4880512058734894,
-0.4320324659347534,
-0.24776417016983032,
0.021967971697449684,
0.30763253569602966,
0.3875669240951538,
0.2742317020893097,
0.4146578013896942,
-0.23726916313171387,
-0.26185348629951477,
0.6467329263687134,
-0.3885440528392792,
-0.10666260868310928,
-0.2974725067615509,
0.6786434650421143,
0.0806698203086853,
0.41679883003234863,
-0.09339442104101181,
-0.5335868000984192,
0.842529833316803,
-0.0014669748488813639,
-0.15014226734638214,
-0.1587267518043518,
0.4633616805076599,
0.1396486908197403,
0.47016698122024536,
-0.9305384159088135,
0.08387695997953415,
0.1286611407995224,
-0.3379760980606079,
-0.17490914463996887,
-0.3398115336894989,
0.12179436534643173,
0.5979018211364746,
0.1564241200685501,
1.2431755065917969,
-0.49313440918922424,
0.10046263039112091,
0.2247513234615326,
0.587518572807312,
-0.01133936271071434,
0.8454678654670715,
0.021289408206939697,
-0.2790113389492035,
0.13376367092132568,
-0.0936630517244339,
0.09345023334026337,
-1.1910003423690796,
-0.24549703299999237,
-0.1910330206155777,
0.12985551357269287,
-0.6596207022666931,
-0.03370056301355362,
0.2266266942024231,
-0.06697693467140198,
-0.2738776206970215,
0.21938049793243408,
0.029853342100977898,
0.18839812278747559,
-0.38402512669563293,
0.46879780292510986,
-0.6178441047668457,
0.6539583802223206,
-0.11869492381811142,
-0.01447666622698307,
-0.3175899386405945,
-0.17423751950263977,
0.32540833950042725,
-0.021426856517791748,
0.036136265844106674,
0.9286912679672241,
-0.05001478269696236,
0.1724667251110077,
0.3897177577018738,
-0.3115794360637665,
0.5203825831413269,
0.2529573440551758,
-0.5716744661331177,
0.34274235367774963,
0.22564077377319336,
0.05711204186081886,
0.1349942833185196,
0.42654675245285034,
-0.289225697517395,
0.3367149531841278,
-0.49411988258361816,
-0.3931120038032532,
0.5759772062301636,
-0.7382779717445374,
-0.19284120202064514,
-0.5433387160301208,
0.42333757877349854,
0.6775695085525513,
-0.05630804970860481,
-0.24391554296016693,
0.11141682416200638,
0.33538204431533813,
-0.25944486260414124,
-0.5462479591369629,
0.2556449770927429,
-0.4805721938610077,
-0.08656416088342667,
-0.7147518992424011,
0.32092782855033875,
-0.13353799283504486,
-0.15585584938526154,
-0.23228396475315094,
0.3858111500740051,
-0.16694049537181854,
0.15687499940395355,
-0.02776801772415638,
-0.7197438478469849,
-0.0349397249519825,
-0.6779749393463135,
0.1691151261329651,
-0.2541846036911011,
0.10426412522792816,
-0.052517034113407135,
0.034148670732975006,
0.2439054697751999,
-0.22691938281059265,
-0.1638937145471573,
0.025942180305719376,
0.24131567776203156,
-0.03151806443929672,
0.04273047670722008,
0.23964698612689972,
-0.43654733896255493,
0.19020840525627136,
-0.15563644468784332,
0.5295829772949219,
0.4267648458480835,
0.5917641520500183,
-0.45832473039627075,
0.3224024772644043,
-0.03601209074258804,
0.175334632396698,
0.24270272254943848,
0.6500179171562195,
0.44919726252555847,
-1.035312533378601,
-0.29570603370666504,
-0.15639688074588776,
-0.033360909670591354,
0.32729992270469666,
-0.4180634915828705,
0.7304646372795105,
-0.5526937246322632,
0.3991883099079132,
-0.19441251456737518,
-0.13926857709884644,
-0.13192708790302277,
0.3750710189342499,
-0.4400103688240051
] |
234754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20Pomerania | Swedish Pomerania | Swedish Pomerania (; ) was a Dominion under the Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815, situated on what is now the Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish War and the Thirty Years' War, Sweden held extensive control over the lands on the southern Baltic coast, including Pomerania and parts of Livonia and Prussia (dominium maris baltici).
Sweden, present in Pomerania with a garrison at Stralsund since 1628, had gained effective control of the Duchy of Pomerania with the Treaty of Stettin in 1630. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the Treaty of Stettin in 1653, Sweden received Western Pomerania (German Vorpommern), with the islands of Rügen, Usedom, and Wolin, and a strip of Farther Pomerania (Hinterpommern). The peace treaties were negotiated while the Swedish queen Christina was a minor, and the Swedish Empire was governed by members of the high aristocracy. As a consequence, Pomerania was not annexed to Sweden like the French war gains, which would have meant abolition of serfdom, since the Pomeranian peasant laws of 1616 was practised there in its most severe form. Instead, it remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, making the Swedish rulers Reichsfürsten (imperial princes) and leaving the nobility in full charge of the rural areas and its inhabitants. While the Swedish Pomeranian nobles were subjected to reduction when the late 17th century kings regained political power, the provisions of the peace of Westphalia continued to prevent the pursuit of the uniformity policy in Pomerania until the Holy Roman empire was dissolved in 1806.
In 1679, Sweden lost most of her Pomeranian possessions east of the Oder river in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and in 1720, Sweden lost her possessions south of the Peene and east of the Peenestrom rivers in the Treaty of Stockholm. These areas were ceded to Brandenburg-Prussia and were integrated into Brandenburgian Pomerania. Also in 1720, Sweden regained the remainder of her dominion in the Treaty of Frederiksborg, which had been lost to Denmark in 1715. In 1814, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Swedish Pomerania was ceded to Denmark in exchange for Norway in the Treaty of Kiel, and in 1815, as a result of the Congress of Vienna, transferred to Prussia.
Geography
The largest cities in Swedish Pomerania were Stralsund, Greifswald and, until 1720, Stettin (now Szczecin). Rügen is today Germany's largest island.
Acquisition during the Thirty Years' War
Pomerania became involved in the Thirty Years' War during the 1620s, and with the town of Stralsund under siege by imperial troops, its ruler Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Stettin, concluded a treaty with King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in June 1628. On 10 July 1630, the treaty was extended into an 'eternal' pact in the Treaty of Stettin (1630). By the end of that year, the Swedes had completed the military occupation of Pomerania. After this point, Gustavus Adolphus was the effective ruler of the country, and even though the rights of succession to Pomerania, held by George William, Elector of Brandenburg due to the Treaty of Grimnitz, were recognised, the Swedish king still demanded that the Margraviate of Brandenburg break with Emperor Ferdinand II. In 1634, the Estates of Pomerania assigned the interim government to an eight-member directorate, which lasted until Brandenburg ordered the directorate disbanded in 1638 by right of Imperial investiture.
As a consequence, Pomerania lapsed into a state of anarchy, thereby forcing the Swedes to act. From 1641, the administration was led by a council ("Concilium status") from Stettin (Szczecin), until the peace treaty in 1648 settled rights to the province in Swedish favour. At the peace negotiations in Osnabrück, Brandenburg-Prussia received Farther Pomerania (Hinterpommern), the part of the former Duchy of Pomerania east of the Oder River except Stettin. A strip of land east of the Oder River containing the districts of Damm and Gollnow and the island of Wolin and Western Pomerania (Vorpommern) with the islands of Rügen and Usedom, was ceded to the Swedes as a fief from Emperor Ferdinand III. The recess of Stettin in 1653 settled the border with Brandenburg in a manner favourable to Sweden. The border against Mecklenburg, along the Trebel and the Recknitz, followed a settlement of 1591.
Constitution and administration
The nobility of Pomerania was firmly established and held extensive privileges, as opposed to the other end of the spectrum which was populated by a class of numerous serfs. Even by the end of the 18th century, the serfs made up two-thirds of the population of the countryside. The estates owned by the nobility were divided into districts and the royal domains, which covered about a quarter of the country, were divided into amts.
One fourth of the "knightly" estates (Rittergut) in Swedish Pomerania were held by Swedish nobles. The ducal estates (Domäne), initially distributed among Swedish nobles (two thirds) and officials, became in 1654 administered by the former Swedish queen Christina. Swedish and Pomeranian nobility intermarried and became ethnically indistinguishable in the course of the 18th century.
The position of Pomerania in the Swedish Realm came to depend on the talks that were opened between the Estates of Pomerania and the Government of Sweden. The talks showed few results until the Instrument of Government of 17 July 1663 (promulgated by the recess of 10 April 1669) could be presented, and only in 1664 did the Pomeranian Estates salute the Swedish Monarch as their new ruler.
The Royal Government of Pomerania (die königliche Landesregierung) was composed of the Governor-General, who always was a Swedish Privy Councillor, as chairman and five Councillors of the Royal Government, among them the President of the Appellate Court, the Chancellor and the Castle Captain of Stettin, over inspector of the Royal Amts. When circumstances demanded, the estates, nobility, burgesses, and — until the 1690s — the clergy could be summoned for meetings of a local parliament called the Landtag. The nobility was represented by one deputy per district, and these deputies were in turn mandated by their respective district convents of nobles. The estate of the burgesses consisted of one deputy per politically franchised city, particularly Stralsund. The Landtag were presided over by a marshall (Erb-landmarschall). A third element of the meeting of the Estates were the five, initially ten, Landtag councillors who were appointed by the Royal Government of Pomerania following their nomination by the Estates. The Landtag councillors formed the Land Council, which mediated with the Swedish Government and oversaw the constitution.
The Estates, which had exercised great authority under the Pomeranian dukes, were unable to exert any significant influence on Sweden, even though the Constitution of 1663 had provided them with a veto in as far as Pomerania was affected. Their rights of petition were however not limited, and by the privileges of King Frederick I of Sweden in 1720 they also had an explicit right to participate in legislation and taxation.
The towns of Stralsund, Stettin, Greifswald and Anklam were granted autonomous jurisdiction.
Legal system
The legal system in Pomerania was in a state of great confusion, due to the lack of a consistent legislation or even the most basic collection of laws and instead consisting of a disparate collection of legal principles. The Swedish rule brought, if nothing else, at least the rule of law into the court system. Starting in 1655, cases could be appealed from the first instance courts to the appellate court in Greifswald (located in Wolgast from 1665 to 1680), where sentences were issued under the appellate law of 1672, a work conducted by David Mevius. Cases under canon law were directed to a consistorium in Greifswald. From the appellate court cases could be appealed to the supreme court for the Swedish dominions in Germany, the High Tribunal in Wismar, which had opened in 1653.
Second Northern and Scanian Wars
From 1657 to 1659 during the Second Northern War, Polish, Austrian, and Brandenburger troops ravaged the country. The territory was occupied by Denmark and Brandenburg from 1675 to 1679 during the Scanian War, whereby Denmark claimed Rügen and Brandenburg the rest of Pomerania. Both campaigns were in vain for the winners when Swedish Pomerania was restored to Sweden in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1679, except for Gollnow and the strip of land on the east side of the Oder, which were held by Brandenburg as a pawn in exchange for reparations, until these were paid in 1693.
Because Pomerania had been hit hard by the Thirty Years' War already and found it hard to recover during the following years, the Swedish government in 1669 and 1689 issued decrees (Freiheitspatente) freeing anyone of taxes who built or rebuilt a house. These decrees were in force, though frequently modified, until 1824.
Territorial changes during the Great Northern War
The first years of the Great Northern War did not affect Pomerania. Even when Danish, Russian, and Polish forces had crossed the borders in 1714, the Kingdom of Prussia first appeared as a hesitant mediator before turning into an aggressor. King Charles XII of Sweden in the Battle of Stralsund led the defence of Pomerania for an entire year, November 1714 to December 1715, before fleeing to Lund. The Danes seized Rügen and Western Pomerania north of the Peene River (the former Danish Principality of Rugia that later would become known as New Western Pomerania or Neuvorpommern), while the Western Pomeranian areas south of the river (later termed Old Western Pomerania or Altvorpommern) were taken by Prussia.
Danish Pomerania was since April 1716 governed by a governmental commission seated in Stralsund, consisting of five members. In contrast to the Swedish administration, the commission exerted both judiciary and executive power. Denmark thereby drew from the experiences in Danish-occupied Bremen-Verden (1712–1715), the setting of the Danish chancellery, and the contemporary Danish absolutism under king Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway. The commission consisted of landdrost von Platen, later von Kötzschau, counsellors Heinrich Bernhard von Kämpferbeck, J. B. Hohenmühle and Peter von Thienen, and chancellor secretary August J. von John. In 1720, von Kämpferbeck died and was replaced by Andreas Boye.
By the Treaty of Frederiksborg, 3 June 1720, Denmark was obliged to hand back control over the occupied territory to Sweden, but in the Treaty of Stockholm, on 21 January the same year, Prussia had been allowed to retain its conquest, including Stettin. By this, Sweden ceded the parts east of the Oder River that had been won in 1648 as well as Western Pomerania south of the Peene and the islands of Wolin and Usedom to Brandenburg-Prussia.
Denmark returned her Pomeranian territories to Swedish administration on 17 January 1721. The administrative records from the Danish period were transferred to Copenhagen and are available at the Danish National Archives (rigsarkivet).
Seven Years' War
A feeble Swedish attempt to regain the lost territories in the Pomeranian campaigns of the Seven Years' War (1757–1762, "Pomeranian War") failed. Swedish troops struggled to co-ordinate with their French and Russian allies, and what had begun as a Swedish invasion of Prussian Pomerania soon led to the Prussians occupying much of Swedish Pomerania and threatening Stralsund. When Russia made peace with Prussia in 1762, Sweden also dropped out of the war with a return to the status quo ante bellum. Sweden's disappointing performance in the war further hurt its international prestige.
Integration in the eleventh hour
By royal proclamation on 26 June 1806, the Constitution of Pomerania was declared to have been suspended and abolished. The Swedish Instruments of Government of 1772, the Act of Union and Security of 1789, and the Law of 1734 were declared to have taken precedence and were to be implemented following 1 September 1808. The reason for perpetrating this royally sanctioned coup d'état was that the estates, despite a royal prohibition, had taken to the courts to appeal against royal statutes, specifically the statute of 30 April 1806 regarding the raising of a Pomeranian army. In the new order, King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden attempted to introduce a government divided into departments. Swedish church law was introduced. The country was divided into four hundreds (Härad) containing parishes
(Socken) complying with the Swedish model of administration. The Estates of Pomerania could only be called regarding questions that specifically concerned Pomerania and Rügen. The new order of the Landtag was modelled on the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates and a meeting according to the new order also took place in August 1806, which declared its loyalty to the king and hailed him as their ruler. In the wake of this revolution, a number of social reforms were implemented and planned; the most important was the abolishment of serfdom by a royal statute on 4 July 1806.
Also in 1806, Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden started constructing another major port city in Pomerania, Gustavia. Yet already in 1807, French forces occupied the site.
Loss during the Napoleonic Wars
The entry into the Third Coalition in 1805, in which Sweden unsuccessfully fought its first war against Napoleon, subsequently led to the occupation of Swedish Pomerania by French troops from 1807 to 1810. After the Treaty of Paris signed in 1810, the territory was returned to Sweden. In 1812, when French troops yet again marched into Pomerania, the Swedish Army mobilized and assisted against Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, together with troops from Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Sweden also attacked Denmark and, by the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January 1814, Sweden ceded Pomerania to Denmark in exchange for Norway.
The fate of Swedish Pomerania was settled during the Congress of Vienna through the treaties between Prussia and Denmark on 4 June and with Sweden on 7 June 1815. In this manoeuvre Prussia gained Swedish Pomerania in exchange for Saxe-Lauenburg, becoming Danish, with Prussia having bartered previously Hanoverian Saxe-Lauenburg only 14 years earlier in exchange for East Frisia ceded to Hanover again. Denmark also received 2.6 million Thalers from Prussia. 3.5 million Thalers were awarded to Sweden in war damages. "Swedish Pomerania" was incorporated into Prussia as New Western Pomerania (Neuvorpommern) within the Prussian Province of Pomerania.
Population
The population of Swedish Pomerania was 82,827 subjects in 1764, (58,682 rural, 24,145 urban population, 40% of the rural population were leibeigen serfs); 89,000 in 1766, 113,000 in 1802, with about a quarter living on the island of Rügen, and had reached 118,112 in 1805 (79,087 rural, 39,025 urban population, 46,190 of the rural population were leibeigen serfs).
List of governors-general
Source:
Notable people
Johann Franz Buddeus (1667–1729) a German Lutheran theologian and philosopher; born at Anklam
Johann Philipp Palthen (1672–1710) a Western Pomeranian historian and philologist; born in Wolgast
Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (1676–1747) a Swedish officer and geographer, contributed to the cartography of Russia; born in Stralsund,
Johann Joachim Spalding (1714–1804) a German Protestant theologian and philosopher of Scottish ancestry; a native of Tribsees
Aaron Isaac (1730–1817) a Jewish seal engraver and merchant in haberdashery; came from Pommery
Balthasar Anton Dunker (1746–1807) a German landscape painter and etcher, born at Saal, near Stralsund.
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786) a Swedish Pomeranian and German pharmaceutical chemist; born in Stralsund
Christian Ehrenfried Weigel (1748–1831) a German scientist, professor of Chemistry, Pharmacy, Botany, and Mineralogy at the University of Greifswald; born in Stralsund, died in Griefswald
Thomas Thorild (1759–1808) a Swedish poet, critic, feminist and philosopher; died at Greifswald
Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769–1860) a German nationalist historian, writer and poet; born at Gross Schoritz, now a part of Garz on the island of Rügen
Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) a German Romantic landscape painter; born in Greifswald
Philipp Otto Runge (1777–1810) a Romantic German painter and draughtsman; born in Wolgast
Johann Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten (1792–1860) a German orientalist born in Altenkirchen on the island of Rugen, died in Greifswald
Georg Friedrich Schömann (1793-1879) a German classical scholar of Swedish heritage; born in Stralsund
Arnold Ruge (1802–1880) German philosopher and political writer; born in Bergen auf Rügen
Johann Karl Rodbertus (1805–1875) a German economist and socialist of the scientific or conservative school; came from Greifswald
Adolf Friedrich Stenzler (1807–1887) a German Indologist; born in Wolgast
Joachim Daniel Andreas Müller (1812–1857) a Swedish gardener and writer; born in Stralsund
Nobility
Count Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld (1651–1722) a Swedish Field Marshal; born in Stralsund
Christof Beetz (1670–1746 in Stralsund) Platz-Major and Stabs-Major of the military garrison in Stralsund
Kurt Christoph, Graf von Schwerin (1684–1757) a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall; born in Löwitz
Georg Detlev von Flemming (1699–1771) a General in Polish-Saxon service; was born in Iven
Gustav David Hamilton (1699–1788) a Swedish count and soldier; commander of Swedish Pommeranian forces during the Seven Years' War
Hans Karl von Winterfeldt (1707–1757) a Prussian general; born at Vanselow Castle, now in Siedenbrünzow
John Mackenzie, Lord MacLeod (1727–1789) a Scottish Jacobite, soldier of fortune and mercenary
Curt Bogislaus Ludvig Kristoffer von Stedingk (1746–1837) a Swedish army officer and diplomat
Bernhard Ditlef von Staffeldt (1753-1818) officer, born in Kenz
Count Baltzar Bogislaus von Platen (1766–1829) a Swedish naval officer and statesman; born on the island of Rügen
Friedrich August von Klinkowström (1778–1835) a German artist, author and teacher from an old Pomeranian noble family; born in Ludwigsburg
Wilhelm Malte I, Prince of Putbus (1783–1854) a German prince, acted as a Swedish governor in Swedish Pomerania; born in Putbus, Rügen
See also
History of Sweden
Swedish Empire
Dominions of Sweden
Pomerania during the Early Modern Age
References
Footnotes
Sources
Andreas Önnerfors: Svenska Pommern: kulturmöten och identifikation 1720-1815. Lund, 2003 (Dissertation written in Swedish available as a PDF file)
External links
Foundation for the Swedish Cultural Heritage in Pomerania
Dänholm Island, Swedish Pomerania August 1807 at NapoleonSeries.org
Brune's 1807 Campaign in Swedish Pomerania at NapoleonSeries.org
Pomeraniæ Ducatus tabula. Map of the Duchy of Pomerania. at library.ucla.edu
1630 establishments in Europe
1815 disestablishments in Europe
States and territories established in 1630
Pomerania
Pomerania
Former states and territories of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
States of the Holy Roman Empire
1630 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire | [
-0.4029828608036041,
-0.3697476387023926,
0.5543321967124939,
0.18615709245204926,
-0.48745638132095337,
0.03425838053226471,
0.4873684346675873,
0.1696760207414627,
-0.5479135513305664,
-0.03423510864377022,
0.14378954470157623,
-0.5243455171585083,
0.11787396669387817,
0.7868134379386902,
-0.6439438462257385,
0.7187755107879639,
0.4357728362083435,
0.4342644512653351,
-0.17952364683151245,
-0.45453694462776184,
-0.21466252207756042,
-0.2924172580242157,
0.49547094106674194,
0.26363176107406616,
0.3173356056213379,
-0.5559528470039368,
0.48676159977912903,
0.4905637204647064,
0.2869283854961395,
-0.008646609261631966,
-0.40251463651657104,
0.1242184117436409,
-0.5314044952392578,
0.1515413075685501,
-0.02273387461900711,
0.30123022198677063,
-0.24426743388175964,
-0.18706576526165009,
-0.6949223875999451,
-0.46086084842681885,
0.11817861348390579,
0.4695791006088257,
-0.0865502655506134,
0.1019858792424202,
0.027854667976498604,
-0.5745266079902649,
-0.705138087272644,
0.8826489448547363,
-0.11843814700841904,
0.18824978172779083,
-0.48103657364845276,
0.2257629930973053,
0.20005887746810913,
0.3978508710861206,
-0.4686853587627411,
0.24607685208320618,
-0.7433375120162964,
-0.21083371341228485,
0.15775224566459656,
-0.01884273812174797,
0.7114159464836121,
0.33669206500053406,
0.13808538019657135,
0.14908869564533234,
0.11302478611469269,
-0.04665081575512886,
0.26076367497444153,
0.3067772090435028,
-0.08939976990222931,
-1.0538500547409058,
-0.05326375737786293,
0.2651056945323944,
-0.18284623324871063,
-0.07995375245809555,
0.10595028847455978,
-0.9034842848777771,
-0.021691815927624702,
-0.19173544645309448,
0.6556608080863953,
0.166202113032341,
0.02651040628552437,
0.11529501527547836,
0.5711366534233093,
-0.3516539931297302,
0.7420584559440613,
0.0671699121594429,
-0.11927614361047745,
-0.1079002395272255,
-0.5575992465019226,
-0.30934253334999084,
0.30890196561813354,
0.363386869430542,
0.21013955771923065,
0.1935689002275467,
0.25934574007987976,
-0.3354628384113312,
-0.027607183903455734,
0.7771282196044922,
-0.08792721480131149,
0.6888408064842224,
-0.38283228874206543,
0.8089507818222046,
0.04696517810225487,
-0.02499256655573845,
-0.4571489095687866,
-0.5416795015335083,
0.35667192935943604,
0.15918491780757904,
-0.4098282754421234,
0.44032809138298035,
-0.22903218865394592,
-0.3275388777256012,
0.1561369150876999,
0.45952296257019043,
-0.2949245274066925,
0.28254640102386475,
0.0655197873711586,
-0.6380573511123657,
0.5962994694709778,
0.403154581785202,
-0.4595767557621002,
0.503340482711792,
-0.39869192242622375,
0.013505876995623112,
-0.18505075573921204,
-0.014331207610666752,
0.4280020594596863,
0.43670278787612915,
-0.473759263753891,
-0.22188454866409302,
0.6517133712768555,
0.9267240166664124,
-0.29815158247947693,
0.3199649453163147,
0.17023088037967682,
-0.016024766489863396,
-0.0894819125533104,
0.21572408080101013,
-0.09161426872015,
-0.39752331376075745,
-0.9470956921577454,
-0.5723512768745422,
-0.5827626585960388,
-0.4222639501094818,
-0.022380392998456955,
-0.4268949627876282,
-0.036557637155056,
-0.8141737580299377,
-0.6485594511032104,
-0.03029380738735199,
0.2986518144607544,
0.3641096353530884,
-0.23100435733795166,
-0.31990817189216614,
-0.18252918124198914,
-0.30648937821388245,
0.12973614037036896,
0.3363941013813019,
0.5363967418670654,
0.22802220284938812,
-0.2304917424917221,
0.4795783758163452,
0.16235648095607758,
-0.3109433948993683,
0.14879626035690308,
-0.29956358671188354,
-0.07951299101114273,
0.5740095973014832,
-0.12201712280511856,
-0.31151172518730164,
-0.4890233278274536,
0.1262795329093933,
0.26047050952911377,
0.24344852566719055,
-0.08712613582611084,
0.5994322299957275,
0.21631185710430145,
-0.27972108125686646,
0.18578630685806274,
-0.3754401206970215,
-0.5777553915977478,
0.41830557584762573,
0.35760319232940674,
0.1965796798467636,
-0.16265088319778442,
0.6057632565498352,
0.04965851083397865,
-0.006448187865316868,
-0.15495437383651733,
-0.2185274213552475,
0.09520252048969269,
-0.6338367462158203,
0.44552671909332275,
0.08485934883356094,
0.9721799492835999,
-0.019545268267393112,
-0.22224165499210358,
0.24187695980072021,
-0.08347909897565842,
0.8233107328414917,
-0.3773328363895416,
-0.4857110381126404,
-0.46512535214424133,
0.00742435734719038,
-0.3614063560962677,
0.09220733493566513,
-0.15152379870414734,
0.08493626862764359,
0.0159443486481905,
0.27569809556007385,
-0.3870947062969208,
-0.6316146850585938,
0.6352788209915161,
-0.27639493346214294,
-0.24834902584552765,
-0.18154889345169067,
-0.25320592522621155,
0.2259826362133026,
0.20837625861167908,
-0.47303423285484314,
0.15252266824245453,
0.061586759984493256,
-0.023305125534534454,
0.34129318594932556,
-0.015814704820513725,
0.2268991470336914,
0.09238363057374954,
0.7491006255149841,
-0.13508105278015137,
-0.8070080280303955,
0.06124478578567505,
-0.09822482615709305,
-0.06781037896871567,
-0.27452540397644043,
-0.09527845680713654,
0.051903415471315384,
0.09269106388092041,
0.12000460922718048,
0.2818787693977356,
-0.6733852624893188,
0.4001520872116089,
0.007876057177782059,
0.0907282829284668,
0.37005677819252014,
0.5483510494232178,
0.6683917045593262,
0.04315359890460968,
-0.4051752984523773,
-0.2771596908569336,
-0.18348608911037445,
-0.12691643834114075,
0.12296801805496216,
-0.40759363770484924,
-0.3786177933216095,
-0.026497475802898407,
-0.6072038412094116,
0.40284377336502075,
-0.4751426577568054,
0.040471870452165604,
0.20589567720890045,
0.021417003124952316,
-0.1577698141336441,
-0.42473146319389343,
-0.15081097185611725,
-0.14032921195030212,
0.03743957728147507,
0.18222679197788239,
-0.7504870891571045,
0.6308593153953552,
0.28475505113601685,
-0.20200183987617493,
-0.16543640196323395,
-0.0269303135573864,
-0.32598239183425903,
-0.10501742362976074,
-0.6574753522872925,
0.2855771780014038,
-0.3131519556045532,
-0.18266619741916656,
-0.06530842930078506,
-0.42942720651626587,
0.5064749717712402,
0.03425612300634384,
-0.6805776357650757,
-0.4148731827735901,
-0.44691187143325806,
0.15355539321899414,
-0.4477814733982086,
0.09356598556041718,
0.6491308212280273,
0.19609931111335754,
0.0830361470580101,
-0.7411045432090759,
0.6160434484481812,
-0.3795820474624634,
0.4584845006465912,
-0.3471432626247406,
-0.28302502632141113,
0.7969015836715698,
-0.47806891798973083,
-1.1631277799606323,
-0.15056243538856506,
-0.6504985094070435,
0.11917644739151001,
0.09443298727273941,
-0.40256553888320923,
-0.5310255885124207,
-0.051495689898729324,
-5.730685710906982,
-0.39664286375045776,
-0.6287537217140198,
-0.11056791990995407,
-0.43891918659210205,
0.7323867082595825,
0.6113951206207275,
-0.05877586454153061,
0.38217470049858093,
0.15658964216709137,
0.8388847708702087,
0.33745288848876953,
0.23716682195663452,
0.38952454924583435,
0.6078599095344543,
0.47210556268692017,
0.24230049550533295,
-0.049073271453380585,
-0.1820930689573288,
-0.8692501187324524,
-0.5205931067466736,
0.1019076555967331,
0.031743790954351425,
0.3465876281261444,
0.5972241759300232,
0.19661659002304077,
0.3140469491481781,
0.030993720516562462,
-0.42276355624198914,
-0.579448938369751,
-0.4599487781524658,
-0.45113855600357056,
0.6827622056007385,
-0.2762029469013214,
-0.15664809942245483,
0.0009864140301942825,
0.47581449151039124,
1.0559229850769043,
0.321104496717453,
-0.08921549469232559,
-0.004717262461781502,
0.5991083383560181,
-0.09456557035446167,
0.13208381831645966,
0.5462594628334045,
-0.4361012876033783,
-0.1529545933008194,
0.627486526966095,
-0.5065625309944153,
0.8987539410591125,
0.20980501174926758,
0.0726427435874939,
-0.27288582921028137,
-0.010653771460056305,
0.17220106720924377,
-0.3954056203365326,
0.31765908002853394,
-0.17806504666805267,
-0.8081244826316833,
0.20436474680900574,
0.35993191599845886,
0.025354716926813126,
-0.30981433391571045,
0.03846457600593567,
-0.18255041539669037,
0.025048375129699707,
-0.16674265265464783,
0.20560050010681152,
0.19134588539600372,
0.16669124364852905,
-0.2187773436307907,
0.25147074460983276,
-0.09085923433303833,
-0.8187653422355652,
0.025129059329628944,
-0.7776636481285095,
-0.5884377360343933,
-0.06306486576795578,
0.08336424827575684,
0.33819666504859924,
0.255668967962265,
0.12687698006629944,
-0.1646934300661087,
0.8529275059700012,
0.16277487576007843,
-0.4994966685771942,
0.2746928930282593,
-0.059547387063503265,
-0.4159342348575592,
-0.25238850712776184,
0.36630016565322876,
-0.6164664030075073,
-0.02955254726111889,
-0.24566301703453064,
-0.7479509711265564,
0.6521651744842529,
-0.4618341028690338,
-0.11262118071317673,
0.3938960134983063,
-0.3930921256542206,
0.932990550994873,
0.1478431522846222,
0.19268521666526794,
-0.27007347345352173,
0.33041030168533325,
-0.22039379179477692,
0.0222177691757679,
0.18911582231521606,
0.9712315797805786,
-0.03956414759159088,
0.08695640414953232,
0.27559128403663635,
-0.3295590877532959,
-0.34186723828315735,
0.4241536557674408,
-0.6409090757369995,
-0.22270162403583527,
0.8503016829490662,
0.43081092834472656,
-0.3325808048248291,
-0.47059953212738037,
-0.2634134292602539,
0.13425637781620026,
0.38670769333839417,
0.0887177437543869,
-0.31903648376464844,
0.15841814875602722,
0.6890878677368164,
-0.499125599861145,
0.9660506844520569,
0.24326476454734802,
-0.04393143579363823,
0.2852681279182434,
-0.5925345420837402,
-0.044070180505514145,
-0.24719175696372986,
-0.2975195348262787,
-0.40179798007011414,
0.12588995695114136,
-0.050840824842453,
-0.18682479858398438,
-0.6673647165298462,
0.10311070084571838,
0.475681871175766,
-0.01781555265188217,
0.30400004982948303,
0.08775115758180618,
0.058754969388246536,
-0.28338366746902466,
0.2007964700460434,
-0.697516143321991,
0.20652130246162415,
0.16853883862495422,
0.23077303171157837,
0.29881200194358826,
-0.4405660331249237,
0.6069671511650085,
0.3480149507522583,
-0.01226668618619442,
-0.5578662753105164,
-0.23276573419570923,
-0.18109090626239777,
-0.6445347666740417,
-0.22601211071014404,
0.3178953528404236,
-0.05947001650929451,
-1.1438984870910645,
-0.20122195780277252,
0.04153703153133392,
0.381397008895874,
0.24703088402748108,
-0.9035353064537048,
-0.3058755397796631,
-0.17149068415164948,
0.2679893374443054,
0.2903406023979187,
0.09919936209917068,
-0.08037754893302917,
-0.5726850032806396,
0.007742340210825205,
0.28570330142974854,
-0.04091478884220123,
-0.17140355706214905,
0.5530874729156494,
0.37143275141716003,
0.11869446933269501,
0.19729286432266235,
-0.19460958242416382,
-0.1342085897922516,
0.46747738122940063,
0.22401072084903717,
-0.45786696672439575,
-0.17670372128486633,
0.3883427083492279,
-0.2230256050825119,
-0.306162029504776,
0.543462872505188,
0.3453666865825653,
0.033591870218515396,
-0.20282261073589325,
0.0389193594455719,
0.7036306858062744,
-0.18903987109661102,
0.07159587740898132,
-0.508753776550293,
-0.4010222256183624,
0.3784743547439575,
0.4090690314769745,
-0.21913491189479828,
0.22476017475128174,
-0.5224007368087769,
-0.10802168399095535,
-0.18167248368263245,
0.6362844109535217,
-0.3421536982059479,
0.1538989096879959,
0.45100927352905273,
-0.1893177628517151,
-0.1858590841293335,
-0.27632129192352295,
-0.3089456260204315,
0.007689286954700947,
-0.5265123248100281,
-0.33743590116500854,
-0.6922426819801331,
0.44273778796195984,
-0.304209440946579,
-0.5477899312973022,
0.2635341286659241,
0.11778993159532547,
0.6775529384613037,
-0.3012443780899048,
-0.015285111032426357,
0.028687555342912674,
0.18726828694343567,
-0.1658206731081009,
0.1355593353509903,
-0.036899860948324203,
0.465753436088562,
1.0934580564498901,
1.2832657098770142,
0.7971375584602356,
0.19161641597747803,
-0.005073527339845896,
0.2636874318122864,
-0.6082578301429749,
-0.2104089856147766,
-0.06390209496021271,
-0.14801806211471558,
0.04179299995303154,
-0.6807183623313904,
-0.6187227368354797,
-0.23338116705417633,
-0.42362451553344727,
1.1151355504989624,
-0.1750749945640564,
0.3947683274745941,
0.6105091571807861,
0.017746612429618835,
0.11964725703001022,
-0.46396222710609436,
0.3390031158924103,
-0.16089381277561188,
0.3053658902645111,
0.061783526092767715,
-0.266737699508667,
-0.43435510993003845,
0.2828967273235321,
-0.12334796786308289,
-0.3129446804523468,
-0.11711041629314423,
-0.3641473054885864,
0.7220224142074585,
-0.1412104219198227,
-0.5844148993492126,
0.19313646852970123,
0.3489578068256378,
0.03610170632600784,
0.4348994195461273,
-0.4224894940853119,
-0.9275884628295898,
-0.24834978580474854,
-0.4006422460079193,
-0.6196599006652832,
-0.3179555833339691,
-0.579575777053833,
-0.23097790777683258,
0.0857403427362442,
-0.1797810047864914,
0.06604362279176712,
0.1557227075099945,
-0.1834569275379181,
0.0064094760455191135,
0.5919191241264343,
0.3261770009994507,
0.10448973625898361,
-0.25778061151504517,
0.07049141824245453,
0.4273901581764221,
0.35429343581199646,
-0.8030842542648315,
0.17824521660804749,
-0.3894001841545105,
-0.3755161166191101,
0.08083704113960266,
0.0456872396171093,
0.2448349893093109,
0.6079120635986328,
-0.22679480910301208,
0.19168782234191895,
0.7980868220329285,
0.1796722561120987,
-0.03294205293059349,
0.027352895587682724,
-0.04439612478017807,
-0.21837903559207916,
0.6524237394332886,
-0.28352007269859314,
0.1052723303437233,
0.02129157818853855,
0.2011290341615677,
0.13291743397712708,
0.1223858967423439,
0.4761083722114563,
0.013050208799540997,
0.5127904415130615,
0.058653928339481354,
0.19309383630752563,
-0.538220226764679,
0.25215113162994385,
-0.15509752929210663,
-0.1507589966058731,
-0.6016443967819214,
0.7513489127159119,
-0.663111686706543,
-0.017576737329363823,
0.5221148133277893,
-0.74566650390625,
-0.3021921217441559,
0.6450689435005188,
0.45023036003112793,
0.36152589321136475,
0.14692343771457672,
-0.1311728060245514,
-0.09910012036561966,
0.1689774990081787,
-0.020723437890410423,
0.11872369796037674,
0.46325400471687317,
-0.269461989402771,
0.5990712642669678,
-0.13400039076805115,
0.33177679777145386,
-0.8006436824798584,
0.43118223547935486,
0.31209227442741394,
0.23501913249492645,
-0.48844653367996216,
-0.5914340019226074,
-0.5033311247825623,
-0.23520784080028534,
-0.7392216920852661,
0.2160368710756302,
-0.015202576294541359,
-0.12753435969352722,
-0.39036086201667786,
0.4091171324253082,
-0.007630901876837015,
0.07140520215034485,
-0.33805349469184875,
0.4559212625026703,
-0.4371873438358307,
0.23432977497577667,
-0.0422980822622776,
-0.031188391149044037,
0.5258116126060486,
0.42264002561569214,
0.7144173979759216,
0.4398009777069092,
0.09644259512424469,
-0.22014011442661285,
0.28618356585502625,
0.7437146902084351,
-0.738985002040863,
-0.295926570892334,
-0.4654841721057892,
0.26347050070762634,
0.020238365978002548,
-0.040975142270326614,
-0.409026563167572,
0.015178512781858444,
-0.6402691602706909,
0.47661641240119934,
0.29262614250183105,
-1.1052305698394775,
-0.45748037099838257,
-0.2409122884273529,
0.32301637530326843,
0.48615291714668274,
-0.4701831340789795,
-0.13876064121723175,
0.23442313075065613,
0.11206383258104324,
0.015375470742583275,
-0.27374961972236633,
0.765031635761261,
0.013885562308132648,
0.1062895804643631,
0.1614660918712616,
0.21112389862537384,
0.5004350543022156,
-0.2145502120256424,
-0.06948414444923401,
-0.18284007906913757,
0.020979177206754684,
-0.13123798370361328,
0.5736227631568909,
-0.4658716022968292,
-0.011165505275130272,
-0.09928786009550095,
0.10109920054674149,
-0.29008007049560547,
-0.21566244959831238,
0.4954725503921509,
0.14701120555400848,
0.22252044081687927,
0.12488136440515518,
0.3337717056274414,
-0.11181136220693588,
0.5572354793548584,
-0.39258694648742676,
-0.12713269889354706,
-0.4673749804496765,
0.08436006307601929,
0.09087498486042023,
0.24787047505378723,
0.3244440257549286,
0.5061463117599487,
0.813397228717804,
-0.7418218851089478,
-0.15422825515270233,
-0.10209643840789795,
0.35514119267463684,
-0.0072626410983502865,
0.21509508788585663,
0.2514920234680176,
0.14961755275726318,
-0.3828964829444885,
-0.9288709163665771,
0.3193056285381317,
-0.14577683806419373,
-0.35967308282852173,
0.8307392597198486,
-0.33688148856163025,
0.21170300245285034,
-0.518856406211853,
0.08814328908920288,
-0.6308478116989136,
-0.29509437084198,
0.12009543925523758
] |
234755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshimasa | Ashikaga Yoshimasa | was the 8th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1449 to 1473 during the Muromachi period of Japan.
Biography
Yoshimasa was the son of the sixth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshinori. His childhood name was Miharu (三春). His official wife was Hino Tomiko.
On August 16, 1443 (Kakitsu 3, 21st day of the 7th month), 10-year-old shōgun Yoshikatsu died of injuries sustained in a fall from a horse. He had been shōgun for only three years. Immediately, the bakufu elevated Yoshinari, the young shōgun's even younger brother, to be the new shōgun. Several years after becoming shōgun, Yoshinari changed his name to Yoshimasa, by which he is better known.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshinori
Mother: Hino Shigeko (1411–1463)
Wife: Hino Tomiko
Concubine: Oodate Sachiko
Children:
son (b. 1459) by Tomiko
Ashikaga Yoshihisa by Tomiko
daughter (1463–1486) by Tomiko
Koyama Masatoshi (1462–1505) buddhist priest in Keikyoji by Tomiko
Yuyama Suzho (1455–1532) later Sojiin by Sachiko
Adopted sons:
Ashikaga Yoshizumi
Ashikaga Yoshitane
Shogunal succession
Significant events which shaped the period during which Yoshimasa was shōgun:
1443 – Southern Court supporters steal the Imperial regalia.
1445 – Hosokawa Katsumoto, Kyoto kanrei.
1446 – Southern army suffers crushing defeat.
1448 – Remnants of Southern dynasty suppressed.
1449 – Yoshimasa appointed shōgun; Ashikaga Shigeuji appointed Kantō kubō.
1450–1455 – Disturbances in Kamakura between Kantō kubō Ashikaga Shigeuji and his Kanrei.
Events leading up to civil war
A number of decisions lead eventually to armed conflict:
1454 – Dissension of Hatakeyama succession.
1455 – Dissension in Kamakura between Kubō and his Uesugi Kanrei line: "Koga Kubō" (1455–1583) established.
1457 – "Horikoshi Kubō" (1457–1491) established.
1458 – Imperial regalia restored to Northern Court.
1460 – Hatakeyama rebels against Yoshimasa.
1464 – Yoshimasa adopts Ashikaga Yoshimi.
1466 – Yoshihisa born; Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado ascends throne.
1466 – Dissension over Shiba succession.
1467 – Outbreak of Ōnin War.
Ōnin War
By 1464, Yoshimasa had no heir, so he adopted his younger brother, Ashikaga Yoshimi, in order to avoid any conflicts which might arise at the end of his shogunate. However, in the next year, Yoshimasa was surprised by the birth of a son, Ashikaga Yoshihisa. The infant's birth created a conflict between the two brothers over who would follow Yoshimasa as shōgun. Yoshimasa's wife, Hino Tomiko, attempted to get Yamana Sōzen to support the infant's claim to the shogunate. By 1467 the simmering dispute had evolved, encouraging a split amongst the powerful daimyōs and clan factions. The armed conflict which ensued has come to be known as the Ōnin War. This armed contest marks the beginning of the Sengoku period of Japanese history, a troubled period of constant military clashes which lasted over a century. A number of developments affect the unfolding Ōnin War's battles:
1468 – Yoshimi joins Yamana Sōzen.
1469 – Yoshihisa appointed heir to shogunate.
1471 – Asakura Takakage appointed shugo of Echizen Province.
1473 – Yamana Sōzen and Hosokawa Katsumoto both die.
In the midst of on-going hostilities, Yoshimasa retired in 1473. He relinquished the position of Sei-i Taishōgun to his young son who became the ninth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshihisa; but effectively, Yoshimasa continued to hold the reins of power. With the leaders of the two warring factions dead and with the ostensible succession dispute resolved, the rationale for continuing to fight faded away. The exhausted armies dissolved and by 1477 open warfare ended.
1477 – The Ōnin War is considered at an end.
Yoshimasa's heirs
When Yoshimasa declared that Yoshihisa would be the next shōgun after he stepped down from that responsibility, he anticipated that his son would out-live him. When shōgun Yoshihisa died prematurely, Yoshimasa reassumed the power and responsibility he had wanted to lay aside. Shōgun Yoshimasa adopted the son of his brother, Yoshimi. In 1489, shōgun Yoshitane was installed; and Yoshimasa retired again.
Before Yoshimasa died in 1490, he again adopted a nephew as heir, this time the son of his brother, Masatomo. Although Yoshitane did outlive Yoshimasa, his shogunate would prove short-lived. Yoshitane died in 1493.
Also, before he married Hino Tomiko, sister of Hino Katsumitsu, he had a concubine, Lady Oima, who was 8 months pregnant when Tomiko pushed her from the stairs which resulted in a miscarriage.
Shōgun Yoshimasa was succeeded by shōgun Yoshihisa (Yoshimasa's natural son), then by shōgun Yoshitane (Yoshimasa's first adopted son), and then by shōgun Yoshizumi (Yoshimasa's second adopted son). Yoshizumi's progeny would directly succeed him as head of the shogunate. In the future, power struggles from outside the clan would also lead to a brief period in which the great-grandson of Yoshitane would be installed as a puppet leader of the Ashikaga shogunate.
Higashiyama culture
During Yoshimasa's reign Japan saw the growth of the Higashiyama culture (Higashiyama bunka), famous for tea ceremony (Sadō), flower arrangement (Kadō or Ikebana), Noh drama, and Indian ink painting. Higashiyama culture was greatly influenced by Zen Buddhism and saw the rise of Japanese aesthetics like Wabi-sabi and the harmonization of imperial court (Kuge) and samurai (Bushi) culture.
In the history of this Higashiyama bunka period, a few specific dates are noteworthy:
1459 (Chōroku 3): Shōgun Yoshimasa provided a new mikoshi and a complete set of robes and other accouterments for this festival on the occasion of repairs to the Atsuta Shrine in the 1457–1459 (Chōroku 1–3).
1460 (Chōroku 3): Yoshimasa initiated planning for construction of a retirement villa and gardens as early as 1460; and after his death, this property would become a Buddhist temple called Jishō-ji (also known as Ginkaku-ji or the "Silver Pavilion").
February 21, 1482 (Bummei 14 , 4th day of the 2nd month): Construction of the "Silver Pavilion" is commenced.
January 27, 1490 (Entoku 2, 7th day of the 1st month): The former shōgun Yoshimasa died at age 56 in his Higashiyama-dono estate, which marks the beginning of the end of Higashiyama bunka.
Eras of Yoshimasa's bakufu
The years in which Yoshimasa was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Hōtoku (1449–1452)
Kyōtoku (1452–1455)
Kōshō (1455–1457)
Chōroku (1457–1460)
Kanshō (1460–1466)
Bunshō (1466–1467)
Ōnin (1467–1469)
Bunmei (1469–1487)
Chōkyō (1487–1489)
Entoku (1489–1492)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Keene, Donald. (2003). Yoshimasa and the Silver Pavilion: The Creation of the Soul of Japan. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 52268947
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
Ashikaga Yoshihisa
Ashikaga Yoshihisa
Ashikaga Yoshihisa
15th-century shōguns
People of Muromachi-period Japan
Ashikaga Yoshihisa
Yoshimasa
1440s in Japan
1450s in Japan
1460s in Japan
1470s in Japan
1480s in Japan
15th-century Japanese people
15th-century monarchs in Asia | [
-0.8703398704528809,
0.11117395758628845,
-0.3194906711578369,
0.17008401453495026,
-0.9699020385742188,
0.7725545763969421,
0.6485718488693237,
0.2145041972398758,
-0.6062027215957642,
-0.5269254446029663,
0.05814511701464653,
0.25696149468421936,
-0.3584837019443512,
-0.03712914139032364,
-0.061018288135528564,
-0.10643745213747025,
0.6686778664588928,
-0.06083932891488075,
-0.2629815638065338,
-0.2896367311477661,
-0.11747579276561737,
-0.1659199595451355,
0.013904992491006851,
-0.042990751564502716,
0.6920857429504395,
-0.273934006690979,
0.6922585368156433,
0.4915347993373871,
0.13170373439788818,
-0.5628954768180847,
-0.04769863188266754,
0.22124572098255157,
0.33476030826568604,
-0.2850114107131958,
-0.7484601140022278,
-0.10010471194982529,
-0.12286176532506943,
0.4060301184654236,
-0.41824498772621155,
0.2146182358264923,
-0.513748288154602,
0.06771308928728104,
0.3715265989303589,
0.039677754044532776,
0.21771568059921265,
-0.5521610379219055,
-1.6030869483947754,
0.15584129095077515,
-0.08273658156394958,
-0.4869956076145172,
-0.40780094265937805,
0.8584597110748291,
-0.33137190341949463,
0.20649313926696777,
-0.10250583291053772,
0.7354224920272827,
-0.32079339027404785,
-0.3501512408256531,
-0.9271827340126038,
-0.2065596878528595,
0.3952661156654358,
-0.1660795509815216,
0.5505170822143555,
-0.06817809492349625,
-0.09227202087640762,
-0.09727392345666885,
0.015150083228945732,
-0.10464192926883698,
0.3109070062637329,
0.22889444231987,
0.08669005334377289,
0.534201443195343,
-0.18655534088611603,
0.2868000864982605,
0.1895904839038849,
-0.6371924877166748,
0.23380284011363983,
0.45768555998802185,
0.39506661891937256,
-0.26257357001304626,
-0.49963316321372986,
-0.6263740658760071,
0.498121440410614,
0.05777604505419731,
0.3488647937774658,
-0.04349519684910774,
0.0445169135928154,
0.5820980072021484,
-0.7748059034347534,
-0.08930081874132156,
-0.02420816756784916,
0.22084331512451172,
0.6804977059364319,
0.10783988982439041,
-0.2502416670322418,
-0.25577694177627563,
-0.22667980194091797,
0.2168937474489212,
-0.4688187539577484,
-0.403498113155365,
0.22265760600566864,
0.44938918948173523,
0.07554733753204346,
-0.06955045461654663,
-0.8059229254722595,
-0.570388913154602,
0.24386930465698242,
-0.1835743486881256,
-0.9000139832496643,
0.0693320482969284,
-0.7347371578216553,
0.6520872712135315,
-0.005315324757248163,
-0.21596889197826385,
-0.04460811987519264,
0.1917823851108551,
-0.17254777252674103,
-0.19366849958896637,
0.17895223200321198,
-0.08267796039581299,
0.3042601943016052,
0.11169229447841644,
-0.2730553448200226,
0.5244608521461487,
-0.24618908762931824,
0.005311356391757727,
-0.2955215275287628,
-0.4388771057128906,
0.17169854044914246,
-0.2471144050359726,
0.6622416973114014,
0.8978782296180725,
-0.5474143028259277,
0.48625367879867554,
0.23865623772144318,
0.02037530578672886,
0.0872722864151001,
0.005522797349840403,
-0.1860690414905548,
-0.5294888019561768,
-0.8127496838569641,
-0.1440831571817398,
-0.7330673933029175,
0.041782740503549576,
-0.1375184953212738,
0.48566269874572754,
-0.06884414702653885,
-0.5506831407546997,
-0.5535465478897095,
-0.5470425486564636,
-0.41861751675605774,
0.21060524880886078,
-0.4962054193019867,
-0.2728491425514221,
0.0004316797712817788,
0.12682296335697174,
0.13536925613880157,
-0.3877369463443756,
-0.08914019167423248,
0.1369783580303192,
-0.2055189460515976,
-0.038974225521087646,
-0.12392079085111618,
0.08718650788068771,
0.5286946892738342,
-0.668282151222229,
0.18991719186306,
0.24551886320114136,
-0.24555306136608124,
-0.40933290123939514,
-0.42356956005096436,
-0.059803273528814316,
-0.33169764280319214,
-0.623516321182251,
0.7032658457756042,
0.29517480731010437,
1.2582558393478394,
-0.34623488783836365,
0.1261899769306183,
-0.06524090468883514,
-0.650682270526886,
-0.3267255127429962,
0.06852326542139053,
0.09522391855716705,
0.5701607465744019,
0.45407068729400635,
0.07310070097446442,
0.08302488178014755,
1.1669435501098633,
-0.15756234526634216,
-0.30311354994773865,
-0.144166961312294,
0.5090092420578003,
-0.2271447628736496,
0.759541392326355,
0.4381963908672333,
-0.5574803948402405,
-0.04140598326921463,
0.10114231705665588,
1.0107396841049194,
0.33640366792678833,
-0.5552992224693298,
0.15313301980495453,
0.21068184077739716,
0.10945272445678711,
-0.08954383432865143,
-0.6176438927650452,
0.08366827666759491,
0.6863600611686707,
1.0354233980178833,
-0.1789163053035736,
0.1438758373260498,
-0.4803624749183655,
-0.12873007357120514,
-0.10794452577829361,
0.3235799968242645,
-0.5888540744781494,
-0.1322362720966339,
0.26506057381629944,
-0.5342977046966553,
0.819495439529419,
0.004999290686100721,
-0.5965336561203003,
0.553292453289032,
-0.17142385244369507,
1.3229646682739258,
-0.2669212222099304,
0.6795624494552612,
-0.16660091280937195,
-1.164225697517395,
0.10647732764482498,
0.26782986521720886,
0.18529777228832245,
0.264817476272583,
-0.05861124396324158,
0.4097301959991455,
0.25483882427215576,
-0.025345470756292343,
-0.17857030034065247,
-0.31911665201187134,
0.3721345067024231,
0.12525933980941772,
-0.10344941914081573,
0.2080039381980896,
0.18515704572200775,
0.5307232141494751,
-0.17423862218856812,
0.12867000699043274,
-0.9561167359352112,
-0.2706336975097656,
0.4086126387119293,
0.1377071589231491,
0.25387388467788696,
-0.021062074229121208,
-0.4950321316719055,
-0.6733257174491882,
-0.21866914629936218,
-0.2700425684452057,
-0.4085977375507355,
0.076906219124794,
0.12321378290653229,
-0.04347040504217148,
0.3113846182823181,
0.14913327991962433,
0.381791353225708,
-0.19952905178070068,
0.5356598496437073,
0.2976889908313751,
-0.021458853036165237,
-0.234198197722435,
0.047309570014476776,
-0.4499005377292633,
-0.46648895740509033,
-0.15745478868484497,
0.17035776376724243,
-1.2177250385284424,
-0.32226184010505676,
0.4314936697483063,
0.22912949323654175,
-0.7342615127563477,
0.6984326839447021,
0.7264930009841919,
-0.38692912459373474,
-0.29037079215049744,
-0.5578296780586243,
-0.6140304207801819,
-0.7230928540229797,
-0.5486640334129333,
0.12061112374067307,
-0.3661401569843292,
-0.11160068958997726,
0.3669531047344208,
-0.5358064770698547,
-0.3431982100009918,
-0.18084251880645752,
1.193466305732727,
-0.6133671998977661,
-0.1061229482293129,
0.8454943895339966,
-0.46950310468673706,
-0.8414417505264282,
-0.7960770130157471,
0.69659823179245,
0.18263201415538788,
0.555350124835968,
0.411136269569397,
-0.09276822954416275,
-0.03829959034919739,
-5.3319172859191895,
0.10167360305786133,
-0.07046505808830261,
-0.2299395501613617,
-0.10085396468639374,
0.4375184178352356,
0.43317118287086487,
0.04457930102944374,
0.4937944710254669,
-0.5559987425804138,
0.07700809091329575,
0.1718185395002365,
0.22267569601535797,
0.4311872124671936,
-0.015622391365468502,
0.4231872856616974,
0.621312141418457,
-0.3106120526790619,
0.12312629073858261,
0.1845594346523285,
0.08097466826438904,
-0.20789045095443726,
-0.2302156537771225,
1.001400113105774,
0.7411704063415527,
0.5597884058952332,
-0.7202546000480652,
-0.14921948313713074,
-0.46067050099372864,
-0.031644292175769806,
0.254905104637146,
-0.42796266078948975,
-0.042270075529813766,
0.4756135940551758,
-0.485183984041214,
-0.36399489641189575,
0.5645525455474854,
0.5075271725654602,
0.49466025829315186,
0.3777726888656616,
-0.05515002831816673,
-0.3190457820892334,
-1.233493685722351,
0.5478389263153076,
0.19292773306369781,
-0.5472459197044373,
-0.8641320466995239,
0.2045058310031891,
-0.3872276544570923,
0.548252284526825,
0.16490459442138672,
-0.01991337351500988,
0.3022478222846985,
-0.22795182466506958,
0.3899146318435669,
0.5107535719871521,
-0.029852746054530144,
0.5126873850822449,
-0.4373135566711426,
-0.1792900264263153,
0.4328352212905884,
-0.23848289251327515,
-0.054765667766332626,
-0.386334627866745,
0.5926684141159058,
-0.002633946482092142,
0.3393104374408722,
-0.025365110486745834,
-0.08223554491996765,
0.3314027488231659,
-0.6168511509895325,
0.6650954484939575,
0.12840843200683594,
-0.9986945986747742,
0.4626559615135193,
0.07111502438783646,
-0.18937188386917114,
0.520438015460968,
0.0055918521247804165,
-0.4249052405357361,
-0.02801642380654812,
-0.020701225847005844,
0.2414124608039856,
0.5073239207267761,
0.0648418739438057,
0.6285756826400757,
0.17319193482398987,
0.3134678602218628,
0.02861848659813404,
0.8139733672142029,
0.6582555770874023,
-0.633301317691803,
-0.1666141003370285,
0.06254813820123672,
0.6435455679893494,
0.11615709960460663,
-0.42416810989379883,
0.1019400954246521,
0.44707751274108887,
-0.19110406935214996,
0.3059522807598114,
0.15689241886138916,
-0.8924362659454346,
-0.11767739802598953,
-0.38004693388938904,
-0.07338499277830124,
0.027425456792116165,
0.09648654609918594,
0.5832453370094299,
0.6855775117874146,
0.02950090914964676,
-0.37746649980545044,
-0.6244633793830872,
-0.3619411885738373,
0.7511749863624573,
-0.1338965892791748,
0.05842853710055351,
0.34175020456314087,
0.4204177260398865,
0.034987784922122955,
-0.039878640323877335,
0.3537169098854065,
-0.7078976035118103,
-0.33861517906188965,
0.2267482876777649,
0.5041658282279968,
-0.2231004387140274,
0.5183902382850647,
-0.0908844918012619,
-0.30998358130455017,
0.216384619474411,
0.07404761016368866,
-0.25484371185302734,
0.06200244277715683,
-0.06609789282083511,
-0.5808125138282776,
0.00921027921140194,
-0.8538417220115662,
0.295658141374588,
0.044628068804740906,
-0.6095095872879028,
-0.11076024919748306,
-0.3044982850551605,
0.31064480543136597,
-0.6159539818763733,
0.2954902946949005,
0.010315562598407269,
-0.3271508812904358,
0.36279505491256714,
0.36471959948539734,
0.012785930186510086,
-0.8322500586509705,
0.27852874994277954,
-0.12208256870508194,
-0.5667653679847717,
0.47806477546691895,
-0.4276520907878876,
-0.24825911223888397,
-0.5471261739730835,
0.18726633489131927,
-0.03442777320742607,
-0.3133392333984375,
-0.7256848812103271,
-0.5499043464660645,
-0.23560990393161774,
-0.24597489833831787,
-0.08645960688591003,
-0.19339503347873688,
-0.07660239934921265,
0.2914634644985199,
0.7122899293899536,
-0.6785911321640015,
-0.08127322793006897,
-0.16613101959228516,
0.7428258657455444,
0.10892482846975327,
0.4971339702606201,
0.34635451436042786,
-0.4663350284099579,
-0.3847275972366333,
-0.10654690861701965,
-0.0800696462392807,
-0.6120538711547852,
0.47185465693473816,
-0.18571817874908447,
-0.32557278871536255,
-0.5427795052528381,
-1.1198608875274658,
-0.3207893669605255,
-0.4212617874145508,
-0.7891988158226013,
-0.1102416068315506,
0.0859227254986763,
0.2975606322288513,
-0.260883629322052,
-0.26297566294670105,
0.21619446575641632,
-0.07118942588567734,
0.22515878081321716,
-0.04660598188638687,
-0.4699092209339142,
0.3421816825866699,
-0.5754734873771667,
-0.1011710911989212,
0.05272059515118599,
-0.6319839954376221,
0.4431331753730774,
0.4080091416835785,
0.7016870975494385,
0.12438573688268661,
0.07950927317142487,
-0.5550047159194946,
-0.2521624267101288,
0.17898374795913696,
0.5142468214035034,
0.1370469033718109,
-0.07018548995256424,
0.47924482822418213,
-0.05002211779356003,
-1.005859613418579,
-0.5553514957427979,
0.10570097714662552,
-0.3532469868659973,
-0.4640098810195923,
-0.3172517418861389,
0.5732578635215759,
0.8233689665794373,
0.3322245180606842,
-0.21915318071842194,
-0.2837661802768707,
0.08339104056358337,
0.41747674345970154,
-0.1449475735425949,
0.4303821325302124,
-0.620184063911438,
-0.007905961945652962,
-0.11964169144630432,
-0.3910159468650818,
0.4717881977558136,
0.32816365361213684,
0.14716407656669617,
0.9566972255706787,
0.15591707825660706,
0.3075072467327118,
0.625587522983551,
0.2621426582336426,
-0.10063031315803528,
-0.146157369017601,
0.4051108658313751,
0.3076002895832062,
0.3500368297100067,
-0.3258148729801178,
-0.1844550371170044,
0.022249773144721985,
0.9828974008560181,
-0.961642861366272,
0.12258830666542053,
0.25443896651268005,
-0.5379191040992737,
0.1136198490858078,
-0.015300705097615719,
0.6146150231361389,
0.2949751615524292,
-0.09052886813879013,
0.41464513540267944,
-0.005766354035586119,
-0.2597586214542389,
0.1977998912334442,
0.08184482902288437,
-0.8779841065406799,
-0.6546987891197205,
-0.4039326012134552,
-0.24612420797348022,
0.8242703080177307,
0.5380734801292419,
-0.051918283104896545,
-0.45778173208236694,
-0.11585824936628342,
0.2622142732143402,
0.42300617694854736,
-0.9797620177268982,
-0.24347949028015137,
-0.09070377051830292,
-0.5770266652107239,
-0.6331621408462524,
-1.0023789405822754,
0.2766956388950348,
0.3778345584869385,
-0.2498374879360199,
-0.03605516254901886,
-0.6874517202377319,
-0.2524871826171875,
0.27484965324401855,
-0.18182021379470825,
-0.4968533217906952,
0.5682258009910583,
-0.4029007852077484,
-0.14566326141357422,
-0.16299626231193542,
-0.09557274729013443,
-0.15545867383480072,
0.25252896547317505,
0.3278486728668213,
1.1276774406433105,
0.02321382611989975,
-0.07073303312063217,
-0.28025975823402405,
-0.07990114390850067,
-0.35101452469825745,
0.46234220266342163,
0.19806919991970062,
-0.2930697202682495,
0.48282596468925476,
-0.010504829697310925,
-0.5940945148468018,
-0.05152067542076111,
-0.08943508565425873,
0.02373047173023224,
0.054945897310972214,
-0.9805360436439514,
0.6604735255241394,
0.28297242522239685,
-0.5863673686981201,
0.4850395917892456,
0.8083280920982361,
-0.2984742820262909,
-0.004006802104413509,
0.2591263949871063,
-0.05030542612075806,
0.4329913556575775,
-0.05036608874797821,
-0.016437817364931107,
-0.42250531911849976,
0.8428085446357727,
-0.13720738887786865,
0.4708837866783142,
0.0017221929738298059,
-0.6832219362258911,
0.42604151368141174,
0.5602521896362305,
0.880121648311615,
0.7597940564155579,
-0.780808687210083,
0.17466415464878082,
0.06545130163431168,
0.12365694344043732,
-0.18242979049682617,
0.15252825617790222,
0.14311683177947998,
0.23023800551891327,
0.39076560735702515,
0.6180457472801208,
0.46550828218460083,
-0.47540581226348877,
-0.1509280800819397,
0.4458186626434326,
0.7453120350837708,
0.05101478472352028,
-0.12808062136173248,
-0.39289480447769165,
-0.21038132905960083,
-0.15621764957904816,
0.47533300518989563,
-0.0541568398475647,
0.0670149177312851,
0.6407713294029236,
-0.44063708186149597,
-0.43407973647117615,
-0.010413515381515026,
0.378706157207489,
0.01414367463439703,
-0.43371012806892395,
0.014421258121728897,
-0.015375546179711819,
0.18777336180210114,
1.1318944692611694,
0.6094688773155212,
-0.13429675996303558,
0.02114698849618435,
-0.051364969462156296,
-0.3361053764820099,
0.4031077027320862,
-0.11905248463153839,
-0.5637235045433044,
0.3258242905139923,
0.6661300659179688,
0.05873667448759079,
0.3552885055541992,
-0.7328660488128662,
-0.2916051745414734,
-0.47596579790115356,
-0.6373826861381531,
-0.22622068226337433,
0.48895007371902466,
-0.007623731158673763,
0.15577572584152222,
0.0885220617055893,
0.6542252898216248,
0.43450668454170227,
0.0943930447101593,
0.08548633754253387,
-0.36531510949134827,
0.11842797696590424,
0.3275993764400482,
-0.08454320579767227,
0.43172985315322876,
-0.3595530092716217,
-0.2608048617839813,
-0.42070865631103516,
0.06624937057495117,
0.45913270115852356,
0.4768619239330292,
-0.18451596796512604,
0.03444112837314606,
-0.47834303975105286,
-0.2211526334285736,
0.7698671817779541,
-0.6134020090103149,
0.014098922722041607,
-0.19444216787815094,
0.15415391325950623,
-0.19396312534809113,
0.04569409415125847,
0.284180611371994,
-0.07835124433040619,
-0.14772720634937286,
0.8074285387992859,
0.27819323539733887,
0.20060060918331146,
0.6362366080284119,
-0.03833317011594772,
-1.2309441566467285,
-0.23961715400218964,
-0.369567334651947,
0.0735679566860199,
-0.36966660618782043,
1.099753499031067,
0.7163811326026917,
0.4155345559120178,
-0.42993542551994324,
0.11719223856925964,
-0.12758007645606995,
0.7290554642677307,
-0.18163569271564484,
0.18544310331344604,
-0.38615846633911133,
-0.03130070120096207,
-0.4691618084907532,
-0.5369728803634644,
0.20089508593082428,
0.5648108720779419,
-0.09006664156913757,
0.5197902917861938,
-0.8955309987068176,
0.2595565915107727,
0.0032415473833680153,
0.2647607922554016,
-0.3326321840286255,
0.13606330752372742,
-0.086990587413311
] |
234756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimi%20R%C3%A4ikk%C3%B6nen | Kimi Räikkönen | Kimi-Matias Räikkönen (; born 17 October 1979), nicknamed "The Iceman", is a Finnish racing driver who competed in Formula One between 2001 and 2021 for Sauber, McLaren, Ferrari, Lotus, and Alfa Romeo. Räikkönen won the 2007 Formula One World Championship driving for Scuderia Ferrari, their latest World Drivers' Championship to date. In addition to this title, he also finished second overall in and , and third in , and . With 103 podium finishes, he is one of only five drivers to have taken over 100 podiums. Räikkönen has won 21 Grands Prix, making him the most successful Finnish driver in terms of Formula One race wins, and is the only driver to win in the V10, V8 and the V6 turbo hybrid engine eras. After nine seasons racing in Formula One, he left the sport to compete in the World Rally Championship in 2010 and 2011, returning to Formula One from onward. He is known for his reserved personality and reluctance to participate in public relations. At the 2020 Eifel Grand Prix, he broke the record for most starts in Formula One.
Räikkönen entered Formula One as a regular driver for Sauber-Petronas in , having competed in only 23 car races previously. He joined McLaren-Mercedes in , and became a title contender by finishing runner-up in the championship to Michael Schumacher in 2003, and Fernando Alonso in 2005. Räikkönen's seasons at McLaren were plagued by severe unreliability from his cars, prompting a move to Ferrari in 2007. This change saw him crowned Formula One World Drivers' Champion that season, pipping both McLaren drivers—Lewis Hamilton and Alonso—to the title by one point. In 2008, he equalled the record for the greatest number of fastest laps in a season for the second time.
Räikkönen left both Scuderia Ferrari and the sport after the 2009 season, his sole victory that year having come in that season's Belgian Grand Prix due to driving an uncompetitive Ferrari F60. On his return to Formula One, Räikkönen drove for Lotus in 2012 and , scoring the team's only victories. In September 2013, Ferrari announced his re-signing on a two-year contract, beginning in the season. This contract was subsequently extended until the end of the 2018 season. During his second Ferrari stint, Räikkönen scored 26 podiums, two pole positions, and a victory at the 2018 United States Grand Prix, 113 Grands Prix after his last victory. Räikkönen finished among the top four overall in the championship on multiple occasions during his second Ferrari stint, finishing his total eight-year long Ferrari career with a third place in the 2018 championship. Räikkönen left Ferrari at the end of the 2018 season, and moved to Alfa Romeo Racing on a two-year contract, later extending it until the end of , after which he retired from Formula One.
In the World Rally Championship, Räikkönen drove a Citroën C4 WRC for the Citroën Junior Team in 2010, and a Citroën DS3 WRC for ICE 1 Racing in 2011. His stint in the WRC saw him beat some more experienced rally drivers with a best result of fifth, a stage win and 10th in the championship in both seasons. Concurrently, Räikkönen also competed in NASCAR, making one-off appearances in the Camping World Truck Series and the Nationwide Series in 2011.
Forbes magazine listed Räikkönen 36th in their 2008 "Celebrity 100" as the 26th highest paid celebrity and fifth highest paid sportsman. The same list in 2009 recorded him as the second highest-paid athlete.
As of 2022, after his retirement from Formula One, Räikkönen has been named as the team principal of the Kawasaki Racing Team for the 2022 season of the Motocross World Championship.
Career
Early career
Räikkönen was born in Espoo, Finland. He had a long line of success in karting from the age of 10. His first race outside Finland was in Monaco when he was 15 years old. During the race, the steering wheel broke, but he continued, informing his mechanic by frantically waving the steering wheel in the air on the home straight. Räikkönen's next Monaco race was also memorable; he was thrown on the wrong side of the safety fence in a first lap collision but continued driving until running out of road. Undeterred, he lifted his kart back onto the track and continued to race. His mechanic thought Räikkönen had retired, but he eventually caught up with the other competitors and finished third. In 1998 he was first in the Nordic Championship at Varna in Norway. In 1999, Räikkönen placed second in the European Formula Super A championship for the Dutch PDB Racing Team – run by 1980 world champion Peter de Bruijn – utilising a Gillard chassis. He also competed in the Formula Ford Euro Cup. By the age of twenty, he had won the British Formula Renault winter series of 1999, winning the first four races of the year. In 2000, he won seven out of ten events in the Formula Renault UK Championship. Combined, over these two series of Formula Renault, he won 13 out of 23 events – a 57% win rate.
Formula One (2001–2009)
Sauber (2001)
On the basis of these results, Peter Sauber gave the Finn a test with the Sauber Formula One team in September 2000 at the Mugello Circuit. On just the second day of the test, Räikkönen lapped half a second quicker than regular driver Pedro Diniz. Sauber had kept the news of his test quiet to distract potential competitors, internally referring to Räikkönen as "Eskimo". After further tests in Jerez and Barcelona, Sauber signed Räikkönen for the season. However, some critics (including FIA president Max Mosley) voiced concerns over granting an F1 Super Licence to such an inexperienced driver; Räikkönen had only 23 car races to his credit. He was nevertheless granted his licence from the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) after a performance delivery promise by his team boss, Peter Sauber, and scored a championship point in his debut at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix. Reportedly, Räikkönen was asleep 30 minutes before the race.
Räikkönen had a solid debut year, achieving four points-scoring finishes and eight finishes in the top eight. Completing the year with 9 points, Räikkönen, along with teammate Nick Heidfeld, helped Sauber to what was then its best result of fourth place in the Constructors' Championship.
McLaren (2002–2006)
Räikkönen, long linked to Sauber's engine supplier Ferrari, sufficiently impressed McLaren to earn a race seat in Ron Dennis's team for , taking the seat left vacant by double-world champion, mentor and fellow Finn Mika Häkkinen. The decision to choose Räikkönen over his Sauber teammate, the Mercedes linked Nick Heidfeld, was heavily influenced by Häkkinen who repeatedly told Ron Dennis "If you wanna win, get the Finn."
2002
Räikkönen scored a third-place podium finish in his first race with McLaren, the 2002 Australian Grand Prix. Although McLaren suffered many engine failures in 2002, Räikkönen scored 24 points and four podiums, and held his own against teammate David Coulthard. Räikkönen came close to winning his first Grand Prix in France but went off track at the Adelaide hairpin with a handful of laps to go, because of oil from the blown engine of Allan McNish's Toyota on the circuit. He finished the race second. He finished the season in sixth place, one place behind his teammate. Together they achieved a solid third place for McLaren in the Constructors' Championship.
2003
At the season-opening , Räikkönen qualified 15th in the spare car. In the race he took the lead before being caught speeding in the pitlane, caused by a software glitch in the car's electronic system. Räikkönen held off Michael Schumacher to finish third. In Malaysia, Räikkönen won his first race after starting from seventh on the grid. During the next round in Brazil, Räikkönen was declared the winner after the race was stopped on lap 55. According to the rules the winner is decided by the race order as of two laps before the race stopped, i.e. lap 53. However a week later, evidence emerged that Giancarlo Fisichella was on lap 56 when the race stopped, therefore the winner was decided by the order at lap 54. This granted the win to Fisichella, with Räikkönen second.
As other teams improved their cars, McLaren, who were still using the 2002 chassis, began to falter in terms of race speed. However, Räikkönen finished second at Imola. At the , Räikkönen made a mistake in qualifying and had to start from the back of the grid. At the start of the race, he collided with Antônio Pizzonia, who was stuck on his grid position owing to a launch control problem, causing Räikkönen to retire from the race.
The next few races came down more to strategy rather than speed. While having engine problems, Räikkönen successfully defended second position from Rubens Barrichello in Austria. He came extremely close to winning in Monaco, but lost by less than a second to Juan Pablo Montoya. Starting from the pitlane in Canada after he went off track during qualifying with understeer, Räikkönen finished sixth, more than a minute adrift of race winner Michael Schumacher.
At the , Räikkönen took pole, and controlled the race from the start until his engine failed on lap 25. Title rival Michael Schumacher finished fifth taking 4 points advantage from Räikkönen. Räikkönen finished fourth in France behind Schumacher, but finished one point ahead of him with a third-place finish at the . Räikkönen failed to finish the after being involved in an accident at the first corner with Ralf Schumacher and Rubens Barrichello. Räikkönen finished second at the next race, the .
Before the , the FIA were tipped-off by rivals Ferrari about an illegality in the Michelin tyre's tread width. Michelin were forced to bring in narrower tyres and it seemed as if they had lost the advantage they had been enjoying over Bridgestone all season. McLaren also announced that they would see out the season with the old MP4-17D chassis and would not bring out the MP4-18 as had been planned. Räikkönen eventually finished fourth in the race, losing five championship points to race winner Michael Schumacher.
Räikkönen took pole at the , but Michael Schumacher won the race with Räikkönen finishing second. With one race to go, Schumacher only needed one point to win the championship. Räikkönen would need to win the next race with Schumacher not scoring any points. After qualifying eighth in Japan, Räikkönen finished second while Michael Schumacher just slipped into the points to win his sixth World Championship. Montoya's retirement during the race also meant that Räikkönen finished second in the championship, just two points behind Schumacher. The team also narrowly lost second place in the Constructors' Championship, finishing third, two points behind runners-up Williams, and 12 points behind Ferrari. Mathematically, Williams or McLaren could have won the championship at the final race. The 2003 season was one of the closest of the 2000s.
2004
The season began with Räikkönen only claiming a single point in the first seven races. His McLaren, especially the Mercedes engine, suffered repeated breakdowns, allowing him to complete just two of the first seven events. After seven rounds Räikkönen had only one point to Michael Schumacher's 60. In Canada, Räikkönen made 5 pit-stops but was classified fifth since the Williams-BMWs and the two Toyotas were disqualified. At the , Räikkönen finished sixth.
At the , McLaren rolled out the new MP4-19B. Räikkönen finished seventh behind his team-mate, David Coulthard. At Silverstone, Räikkönen took pole and went on to finish second behind Michael Schumacher. Following on from this encouraging display, the McLarens qualified on the second row of the grid in Germany. Both cars got off to a good start, however Räikkönen lost his rear wing on lap 13 of the race while following race leader Michael Schumacher. He retired again from the after starting from 10th place on the grid, again on lap 13. At the , Räikkönen qualified 10th, but took the lead on lap 11 and held onto it to take McLaren's only win of the season. He also took the fastest lap. The next weekend at Monza, Räikkönen again retired on lap 13, this time owing to electrical problems. At the next race in China, he finished third, only 1.4 seconds behind race winner Rubens Barrichello.
At the , Räikkönen was shunted by Felipe Massa on the first lap of the race, which caused him handling problems. He later managed to make up some ground: he finished sixth, 2.5 seconds behind Alonso. At the last race of the season, the , he overtook pole sitter Barrichello, even before they had reached Curva De Sol. Räikkönen later battled Montoya for the lead and finished 1 second behind him in second. Räikkönen ended the year seventh, with 45 points, only one behind sixth placed Jarno Trulli, and four podiums.
Despite the disappointment of the 2004 season, Räikkönen was still seen as one of the rising stars of the sport, along with BAR's Button, Renault's Alonso and 2005 McLaren teammate Montoya. Many pundits predicted 2005 to be filled with great on-track battles from a resurgent team. He was also referred to by Ross Brawn and Jean Todt as a driver whom Ferrari might consider in the future. In early November 2004, Räikkönen announced his intention to create a racing team with his manager Steve Robertson, to be entitled Räikkönen Robertson Racing (otherwise known as "Double R"), which would compete in Formula Three in 2005.
2005
Räikkönen's start to the season was less than perfect. The car was reported to be too soft on its Michelin tyres, with the result that it was not generating enough heat to post competitive qualifying times. The best qualifying position that a McLaren driver could manage in the first 3 races was sixth. Räikkönen compounded this by stalling on the grid of the first race of the season, the , and ending the race with just a point. He looked set for a podium in Malaysia until a faulty tyre valve failed and dropped him out of the points. Bahrain saw him achieve his first podium of the season with a third place behind Renault's Alonso and the Toyota of Jarno Trulli.
Räikkönen then achieved three consecutive poles in San Marino, Spain, and a win after a safety car strategy call by Neil Martin at Monaco. An almost certain win was denied at Imola after a driveshaft failure, but he won the other two races, putting him within 22 points of leader Alonso. He registered strong, comfortable wins at Barcelona, beating Alonso, and at Monte Carlo, never dropping his lead in both races. At the , Räikkönen flat-spotted his right front tyre while lapping Jacques Villeneuve. The resultant vibrations caused his suspension to fail while he led on the final lap, sending him into the tyre wall and handing a further ten points to his rival Alonso. Changing a tyre would have given him a relatively safe third place. However, tyre changes were only allowed in 2005 in cases where a "punctured or damaged tyre" could be changed for "clear and genuine safety reasons" and there was no precedent for whether the stewards would consider a flat-spotted tyre dangerous enough. This incident, in part, resulted in a rules clarification allowing teams to change a flat-spotted tyre without punishment.
Alonso's first major mistake of the 2005 season handed the to Räikkönen. The following weekend saw all the Michelin teams, including McLaren, withdraw from the for safety reasons. At the , Räikkönen suffered a ten-place grid-penalty following the replacement of his new specification Mercedes Benz engine which failed in Friday practice. Räikkönen, putting in what Ron Dennis called his best ever qualifying lap, qualified third (demoted to 13th) with a significant fuel load. He finished second behind Fernando Alonso. A week later at the , Räikkönen suffered another Mercedes engine failure due to an oil leak; his second-place qualifying place became 12th. He claimed third place in the race.
In Germany, Räikkönen was comfortably in the lead having dominated all weekend, but suffered a hydraulics failure, handing victory and a further 10 points to Alonso. It was his third retirement while leading a race during the season. On all three occasions, it was championship rival Alonso who took advantage to win. Significantly, at the opening of the , though saying he was very comfortable at McLaren, Räikkönen raised the possibility that he might leave McLaren when his contract expired in 2006, if reliability issues were not solved. He told a news conference, "We need to work in a better way just to make sure that the car is very reliable." However he went on to take the chequered flag with a convincing victory over Michael Schumacher, albeit after McLaren teammate Montoya retired with driveshaft failure while leading.
Räikkönen won the Hungarian Grand Prix from the most handicapped qualifying position, having had to do his qualifying run first on the notoriously dusty and dirty track because of his early retirement a week earlier at Hockenheim. No other driver had previously managed this feat. Räikkönen then became the first ever winner of the . Two weeks later at the , Räikkönen's pole position was taken from him as he received another 10-position grid penalty for an engine change. It would emerge that he had 5 laps of fuel more than teammate Montoya and 6 more than Alonso during qualifying yet still managed to outpace them. During the race, Räikkönen was forced to take an extra stop when his left-rear tyre delaminated, which dropped him down to 12th. He recovered, but spun his car after pushing too hard while chasing Giancarlo Fisichella. He eventually finished fourth.
He went on to win for the second year in a row in Belgium at Spa-Francorchamps. The following race, the , saw Alonso clinch the Drivers' Championship after finishing third behind Montoya and Räikkönen. In the penultimate race of the year, at the Suzuka Circuit in Japan, Räikkönen took his seventh victory of the season after starting 17th on the grid (as rain, and an engine failure for Räikkönen, had mixed up the qualifying grid). The win was secured when he overtook Renault driver Fisichella (who had started third on the grid, and had led most of the race) on the final lap – which Formula One journalist Peter Windsor thought the most impressive move of the race.
Räikkönen received the F1 Racing "Driver of the Year" accolade, and the Autosport "International Racing Driver of the Year" award.
2006
In Bahrain, Räikkönen suffered electronic problems during Friday practice and a spectacular rear suspension breakage during the first qualifying session, which forced him back to 22nd place on the grid. Nevertheless, he drove through the field, ending third behind Alonso and Michael Schumacher. In Malaysia, Räikkönen was hit from behind by Red Bull Racing's Christian Klien on the first lap. The impact caused a left rear suspension failure resulting in Räikkönen retiring from the race.
Having started the year clearly behind Renault, McLaren improved in Australia, where Räikkönen finished second after flat spotting a tyre and losing a wing end-plate, which caused him to fall off the pace somewhat around the midpoint of the race. Chasing down Alonso during the final stages of the race, he set the fastest lap of the race on the final lap, finishing only 1.8 seconds behind the Spaniard. At the , a bad choice of strategy and a mistake from Räikkönen in qualifying saw the McLarens get caught in traffic in the early part of the race allowing Michael Schumacher and Alonso to get away at the front. Räikkönen eventually finished fifth, with teammate Montoya ahead in third place. McLaren team boss Ron Dennis blamed what he deemed to be Räikkönen's poor performance for the team's failure to finish in the top two in the race.
At the , Räikkönen qualified ninth. However, he managed to get up to fifth place on the first lap of the race. He retained this position for most of the race, finishing in fifth place. A few days after the Spanish Grand Prix, he admitted that he had no chance of winning the 2006 Championship. In Monaco, Räikkönen qualified third. During the race he got up to second and kept pace with Alonso, however he retired during a safety car period after a failed heat shield led to a wiring loom inside the car catching fire. After the retirement he was seen on live TV walking along the Monaco sidewalks with his helmet still on to the harbour and climbing aboard a yacht.
The at Silverstone saw Räikkönen qualify second behind Alonso and in front of Michael Schumacher. The running order was Alonso, Räikkönen, Schumacher until the second set of pitstops where Räikkönen was demoted to third by Schumacher, a position he held until the end of the race. In Canada, Räikkönen achieved another podium. In the , his teammate punted him out in an expensive seven car accident. The saw Räikkönen qualify his car in sixth. His teammate was now former test driver Pedro de la Rosa in place of Montoya. Räikkönen ended the race in fifth. In Germany, Räikkönen qualified on pole. After a battle with Jenson Button, he finished the race for the first time in his career, ending in third place. Another pole came in Hungary, but he collided with Vitantonio Liuzzi after 25 laps, causing his fourth retirement of the season.
A first turn incident with Scott Speed at the led to an exploded tyre and suspension damage. After a tyre change, Räikkönen's race ended halfway into the next lap when he crashed into the barrier at turn 4 because of a loss of rear grip. Räikkönen qualified on pole for the by 2 thousandths of a second from Michael Schumacher. He led the early part of the race until the first pitstops where he was passed by Schumacher. He stayed in second place for the rest of the race. After the race, Schumacher announced that he would retire at the end of the season. Later, Ferrari announced that he would be replaced in the 2007 season by Räikkönen.
The saw another retirement for Räikkönen due to throttle problems. His last two Grands Prix, in Japan and Brazil, did lead to 2 finishes, but he missed the podium on both occasions. Räikkönen ended his time at McLaren-Mercedes with a fifth place in the World Drivers' Championship, with McLaren placing third in the World Constructors' Championship at the end of a winless year.
Räikkönen's British Formula 3 Championship team Räikkönen Robertson Racing claimed their first major success, with British driver Mike Conway winning the 2006 British F3 International Series title and the prestigious Macau Grand Prix.
Ferrari (2007–2009)
After the 2006 Italian Grand Prix, Ferrari announced that Räikkönen had signed a three-year contract with Scuderia Ferrari for the 2007–2009 seasons. Räikkönen said after the move that he was very happy with this change of events but wished McLaren the best of luck in the future. He became the teammate to Brazilian Felipe Massa, who had been driving for Ferrari since 2006.
2007
Räikkönen started the season in Australia by taking pole position, setting the fastest lap, and becoming the first driver since Nigel Mansell in to win his first Grand Prix with Ferrari.
At the , Räikkönen was passed by Lewis Hamilton at the start and remained behind him for the rest of the race, finishing third. In Bahrain, Räikkönen started from third but was passed by McLaren driver Fernando Alonso. He eventually regained third position from Alonso and finished the race third. At the , Räikkönen retired after only 10 laps with an electrical problem. This took him down to fourth position in the Championship, behind team-mate Felipe Massa. At the , Räikkönen struck a barrier in qualifying and broke his right front suspension. He started 16th and finished eighth.
In Canada, Räikkönen qualified fourth and finished fifth, Räikkönen's team-mate Massa was disqualified. At the , Räikkönen qualified fourth, finished fourth and recorded fastest lap of the race. With ten races in the season left, Räikkönen was 26 points behind leader Lewis Hamilton in the Drivers' Championship.
In France, Räikkönen qualified third, but overtook Hamilton at the first corner of the race. He subsequently ran second, behind teammate Massa, for much of the Grand Prix, but overtook the Brazilian during the pit stops and took his second victory of the season. This was the 11th victory of his Formula One career and Ferrari's first 1–2 win of the 2007 season. At the , Räikkönen qualified in second place, just missing the pole by running wide in the last corner. In the race, he again took the lead through pit stops, first overtaking Lewis Hamilton midway through the race and then putting in fast laps as Fernando Alonso pitted for the second time in the closing stages to pass him. Räikkönen led to the end of the race.
At the , Räikkönen captured his second pole position of the season but retired from the race, run in heavy rain, with a problem with the hydraulics of the car. In Hungary, Räikkönen qualified his car in fourth place, but started from third after Fernando Alonso was penalised. In the race he overtook Nick Heidfeld at the start and pressured Hamilton until the end, but had to settle for second, being 0.7s behind Hamilton. He set the fastest lap time on the last lap of the race, commenting after the race: "I was so bored behind Hamilton, I wanted to see how quick I could have been." In Turkey, Räikkönen missed pole position after making a mistake in the final sector of his fast lap, which left him third on the grid. On race day, he overtook Hamilton in the first corner and took second place, which he kept to the end of the race.
At Monza's third practice session, Räikkönen crashed into the tyre wall before entering the Ascari chicane. He qualified in fifth place, and raced in the Ferrari reserve car while suffering from a neck problem. The Ferrari team employed an unusual one-stop strategy, which left him third after Hamilton passed him late in the race on fresh tyres. At Spa-Francorchamps, Räikkönen's favourite circuit, he secured pole position again and took his fourth victory of the season. Massa finished second, Alonso third and Hamilton fourth. This was also Räikkönen's third consecutive Spa win, which placed him among six other drivers with three or more Spa wins.
At the Fuji Speedway in Japan, the only new track on the 2007 calendar, Räikkönen qualified in third position, while Hamilton took pole and Alonso second. In an extremely wet race, which saw the first 19 laps run behind the safety car, both Räikkönen and teammate Massa were badly affected by having to change to extreme wet tyres during the early stages, because the FIA's tyre-rule notification arrived late at Ferrari. Towards the end of the race, Räikkönen moved through the field to third place, but could not pass his fellow countryman Heikki Kovalainen for second.
At the in Shanghai, Räikkönen dominated the whole weekend with fastest laps in the free-practice sessions. In qualifying, Hamilton took pole position with a lighter fuel load, while Räikkönen qualified second and Massa third. There was light rainfall at the beginning of the race which prompted the cars to start on intermediate tyres. After the first round of pit stops Hamilton lost grip as his tyres suffered graining, and Räikkönen overtook him. Hamilton retired after sliding into a gravel trap in the pit lane. Räikkönen took his fifth win of the season, that revived his title hopes before the last race of the season. This was also the 200th race win and 600th podium in a World Championship event for Ferrari as a manufacturer (as a team, their 200th win was achieved at the next race in Brazil, and their 600th podium was achieved in 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix). Räikkönen moved to seven and three points behind Hamilton and Alonso in the Drivers' Championship, respectively, going into the last race in Brazil, the first three-way title battle in the final race of the season since .
Räikkönen took the 2007 Formula One Drivers' title with victory in the at Interlagos, in an incident-packed race. Massa had taken pole, followed by Hamilton, Räikkönen, and Alonso. At the start of the race Räikkönen passed Hamilton on the outside and lined up behind Massa. Alonso shortly afterwards passed Hamilton, who fell progressively down the order. Räikkönen eventually overtook Massa, who was already eliminated from contention for the Drivers' Championship in the Japanese Grand Prix. Massa's strategy for the second round of pit stops ensured Räikkönen kept the lead. Räikkönen went on to take the chequered flag, which handed him the crown by a single point from Hamilton and Alonso. Championship leader Hamilton eventually finished the race in seventh place, while defending champion Alonso managed third.
While Räikkönen had only one point more than Alonso and Hamilton at the end of the season, he had the most victories (six compared to four by each McLaren driver).
Räikkönen's Drivers' Championship was briefly put into doubt when race stewards began an investigation after identifying possible fuel irregularities in the cars of Nico Rosberg, Robert Kubica and Nick Heidfeld following post-race inspection. Their disqualification and a race reclassification would have seen Hamilton lifted from seventh to fourth in the race result. However the race stewards decided that no sanctions would be given, meaning the results would stand. McLaren appealed against the decision, however the FIA Court of Appeal rejected their appeal on 16 November 2007 thus confirming Räikkönen as the champion. As of the end of the 2020 Formula One season, Räikkönen's 2007 title triumph remains the most recent World Drivers' Championship win for a Scuderia Ferrari driver.
In January 2008, Räikkönen was beaten by Tero Pitkämäki in the race for the annually chosen Finnish Sports Personality of the Year award; finishing in second place in the competition.
2008
After a disappointing first race in Australia, where Räikkönen eventually finished eighth after qualifying only 15th due to a mechanical problem, he won his first race of the season at the , finishing ahead of Robert Kubica and Heikki Kovalainen. His victory in Kuala Lumpur came on the fifth anniversary of his maiden victory at the same track. In Bahrain, Räikkönen qualified in fourth on the grid. He moved up to second place by the third lap and finished in that position, behind his team-mate Felipe Massa. He also secured the lead in the championship.
In Spain, Räikkönen took the 15th pole of his career and his first of the 2008 season. He managed to take his second race win of the season and the fastest lap of the race. Räikkönen overtook Mika Häkkinen in the list of total number of fastest laps and also in terms of podium finishes, making him the highest-ranked Finnish driver in these statistics.
At the , Räikkönen qualified in fourth place. Despite damaging his front wing in the early stages after a collision with fellow Finn Heikki Kovalainen, Räikkönen was still able to set the fastest lap and finish in third place.
In Monaco, Räikkönen qualified in second behind teammate Felipe Massa. Räikkönen stayed second behind Massa until he was given a drive-through penalty for an infringement by the team on his car and dropped down to sixth. He was set for fifth until an incident with Adrian Sutil, when Räikkönen lost control on the damp track after exiting the tunnel, and hit Sutil's car in the rear. Räikkönen's car was not badly damaged and he was able to finish in ninth after replacing his front wing, also setting the fastest lap in the process. After the race, Mike Gascoyne, the Chief Technology Officer of Force India announced they were filing official protests with the stewards over the incident, demanding a ban for Räikkönen. However, the stewards decided not to penalise him.
In Canada, Räikkönen qualified third. In the race, he set the fastest lap during the first stint while catching up with Robert Kubica who was in second place. The safety car was deployed when Adrian Sutil's car broke down in a dangerous position. Both he and Kubica jumped ahead of race leader Lewis Hamilton when they pitted during the safety car period. As there was a red light at the end of the pitlane, Räikkönen and Kubica stopped alongside each other and waited for the signal to allow them back onto the circuit. Hamilton failed to notice the red light and hit the rear of Räikkönen's Ferrari, eliminating both cars.
Räikkönen went on to take his 16th pole position in France, which was the 200th pole for Scuderia Ferrari. Räikkönen dominated the race as he set the fastest lap and had a six-second lead until a bank exhaust failure some halfway through the race reduced his engine's power. He gave up the lead to his teammate Massa, but was far enough ahead of Toyota's Jarno Trulli, to secure second place and eight points.
Räikkönen qualified third at the . Before the race, Räikkönen pushed noted photographer Paul-Henri Cahier to the ground as he lined up a close-up shot. Räikkönen's manager Steve Robertson claimed the driver was provoked by Cahier touching him with his lens and standing on his belongings, but Cahier disputed this version of events. The race was in wet conditions and Räikkönen stayed third at the first corner behind Hamilton and Kovalainen. He kept pace and got up to second when Kovalainen spun. He then chased after Hamilton, and set the fastest lap as he drew up directly behind the McLaren. During the first pitstop, Ferrari did not change the intermediates on his car in the hope that the track would become dry. However, the track was hit by another shower, and Räikkönen rapidly lost pace, and dropped down to sixth before finally pitting for new tyres. He finished fourth, a lap down.
At the , Räikkönen qualified sixth and dropped down a place at the first corner. He was running fifth when the safety car came out after a crash involving Timo Glock. His teammate Felipe Massa was ahead of him on the track, and as a result, Räikkönen was forced to wait behind Massa when the pitlane opened. This dropped him down to 12th, but he eventually finished in sixth.
At the , Räikkönen again qualified sixth. He lost a position to Alonso at the beginning of the race but managed to finish third owing to Hamilton's tyre puncture, passing Alonso during the pitstops and Massa's retirement after an engine failure.
During the , Räikkönen qualified fourth and lost a place at the start to Kovalainen. He stayed fifth until the second round of pitstops when he exited before the fuel hose was properly disengaged from his car and left one of the mechanics with a fractured toe. Two laps later, he suffered a similar engine failure to Massa in the previous race; a connecting rod in his engine broke and he was forced to retire.
At the , Räikkönen again qualified fourth. He passed Kovalainen and Massa at the start to be second, and took the lead from Hamilton on the second lap. He pulled away, setting the fastest lap of the race and built a five-second gap. He looked set to win but owing to a late-race rain shower, Hamilton closed right up to him and tried to pass him at the final chicane with two laps to go. Hamilton cut the chicane and rejoined ahead of Räikkönen. He let Räikkönen take the place back. Hamilton then repassed him for the lead. The two battled on for the rest of the lap, with Räikkönen retaking the lead when the two stumbled upon spinning backmarker Nico Rosberg, forcing Hamilton onto the grass. Räikkönen spun at the next corner and fell behind Hamilton again. While trying to catch up, he lost control of the car, smashed into a wall and retired.
At the , which was held in extremely wet conditions, Räikkönen qualified 14th. He stayed in 14th position for the first two stints. He climbed to ninth position in the third and last stint in which he also set the fastest lap of the race.
In Singapore, the first night event in Formula One history, Räikkönen qualified third behind Massa and Hamilton. He remained in this position for most of the early laps. On lap 14, Nelson Piquet Jr.'s Renault hit the wall at turn 17 and the safety car was deployed. Both Ferrari drivers pitted during the safety car period, with Räikkönen queued behind Massa in a busy pitlane. Ferrari released Massa before the fuel hose was disconnected from the car, which compromised Räikkönen who rejoined in 16th. Räikkönen managed to climb to fifth place, but on lap 57, while attacking Timo Glock, he hit the wall after pushing too hard at turn 10 and retired. He set the fastest lap of the race as his tenth of the season. This equalled Michael Schumacher's 2004 record of ten fastest laps in a Formula One season.
At the at the Fuji Speedway circuit, Räikkönen qualified second on the grid, behind Hamilton, and took the lead at the start. Closing up to turn 1, Hamilton attempted to pass on the inside, braked late and went wide, forcing Räikkönen to also go wide. Räikkönen lost out heavily and went down to seventh position. He gained places after a collision between Hamilton and Massa, Kovalainen's hydraulic failure and an overtaking manoeuvre on Jarno Trulli. He eventually finished third, behind Renault's Fernando Alonso and BMW Sauber's Robert Kubica. This result meant that it was impossible for Räikkönen to retain his Drivers' Championship title for the second year.
In China, Räikkönen qualified second behind Hamilton. At the start he stayed second with his teammate and now Ferrari's world championship contender, Massa, behind him in third place. However, with Räikkönen out of the running for the world championship he let Massa through into second place on lap 49, to help the latter gain two additional points in his pursuit of Hamilton in the world championship race.
At the , Räikkönen qualified third and finished third, behind Massa and Alonso. As Kubica failed to score, he finished third in the championship.
Räikkönen also won the DHL Fastest Lap Award for the second year in a row. He set 10 fastest laps throughout the season.
2009
At the start of the season in the , Räikkönen qualified in ninth place. The pace of the Ferraris and McLarens in particular was significantly slower than the likes of the Brawn, Red Bull and other outfits who were struggling to keep up with them in 2008. In the race, both Ferraris were running well before Räikkönen hit a barrier. He was forced to make an unscheduled pit stop on lap 43 and subsequently retired with differential failure.
In Malaysia, Räikkönen topped the time sheet in the second practice session. Räikkönen was ninth in qualifying. Sebastian Vettel and Rubens Barrichello's ten and five-place penalties respectively meant that he was promoted to seventh. During the race, rain was predicted and the team took a gamble to change Räikkönen to full wet tyres while the track was still dry. The gamble did not pay off, and Räikkönen fell down the field. By the time the race was stopped on the 33rd lap due to torrential rain, Räikkönen was classified 14th.
Räikkönen's season did not get any better in Round 3 in China where he qualified in eighth place. In the wet race, he and Lewis Hamilton had duels early on, with Hamilton having to overtake Räikkönen three times to get the job done. Räikkönen complained about power loss from the engine from near the start and of a lack of grip after his one and only pit-stop. This meant that he could only finish 10th. In Bahrain, Räikkönen secured sixth place and Ferrari's first points of the year, but was disappointed by the team's performance. He retired from the due to a hydraulics failure after qualifying from the back of the grid.
At the , Räikkönen secured second place in qualifying, Ferrari and Räikkönen's best qualifying of the year so far. He admitted that he was still disappointed because he missed out on pole narrowly to the Brawn of Jenson Button. Räikkönen lost out to Rubens Barrichello at the start of the race, dropping back to third. He maintained this position until the chequered flag.
At the , Räikkönen qualified sixth, but damaged his front wing on the first lap. He could only finish ninth, out of the points. At the , Räikkönen qualified ninth but a good start saw him move up to fifth. However, he dropped to eighth during the pit stops because of traffic and remained until the finish.
At the , Räikkönen qualified ninth after a damp session. In the race however he collided with the Force India of Adrian Sutil like in the previous year in Monte Carlo, as the German was emerging from a pitstop. While Sutil managed to recover back to the pits to replace a nosecone, Räikkönen was forced to retire a few laps later with radiator damage as a result of the incident.
At the , Räikkönen took his and Ferrari's best finish of the season in second, after making a great start from seventh. After the first corner Räikkönen was in fourth place, but when Fernando Alonso retired after his early first stop, Räikkönen moved up to third. Räikkönen overtook Webber for second place at the first round of pit stops when Räikkönen and Webber pitted on the same lap. Räikkönen had a clean pit-stop, whereas Webber had a problem and was released into the path of the Ferrari. Räikkönen and Webber avoided collision, and Webber had to slot in behind Räikkönen. On his second pit stop, Räikkönen had a problem with an exhaust pipe. However, having built quite a gap between him and Webber, he held on to take second place.
At the , he qualified sixth. He jumped to fourth at the start of the race. He then moved up to third after the second pit stops jumping Heikki Kovalainen for the last podium place, and stayed in that position until the end of the race, claiming his second straight podium.
At the , he qualified sixth, jumping to second at the start of the race. After the safety car was removed, he passed Giancarlo Fisichella to take the race lead and led all the way to the chequered flag for his first race win in 25 races, and the first and only one for Ferrari in 2009. It was Räikkönen's fourth victory in the last five Belgian Grands Prix, bolstering his reputation as "The King of Spa".
Räikkönen continued his good form at the , qualifying and finishing third, after Lewis Hamilton's last-lap crash. It was his fourth consecutive podium finish.
Singapore saw the end of a great run for Räikkönen where he only finished 10th after qualifying 12th.
In Japan, Räikkönen came very close to another podium, finishing fourth. He had qualified fifth and was not able to gain a place at the start of the race, as he was on hard tyres. He put on softs for his second stint and was able to close in on Nick Heidfeld at about three-quarters of a second every lap. He overtook the German after the BMW Sauber came out of the pits. However, an accident involving Toro Rosso's Jaime Alguersuari brought out the safety car on lap 44, which kept the field stationary for a further five laps. Despite Lewis Hamilton suffering a KERS failure, Räikkönen's car did not have the grip necessary and was not able to overtake the third-placed McLaren at the restart. He went wide in an attempt to overtake Hamilton but recovered without losing a further place to Nico Rosberg.
In Brazil, Räikkönen qualified fifth and finished sixth. His race was already ruined when Mark Webber swerved into his path, damaging the Ferrari's front wing. At the pit stop while having the wing changed, fuel dripping from the fuel rig stuck on Kovalainen's car caused the Ferrari to briefly burst in flames as the two cars were exiting their pit stops. For the rest of the race even with his eyes burning from fuel, Räikkönen used his strategy to move up the order and eventually finished in sixth place.
In Abu Dhabi, the last race of the season, Räikkönen qualified 11th. He lost a place at the start of the race to Kamui Kobayashi. Räikkönen finished 12th, out of the points.
Leaving Formula One (2010–2011)
Near the end of the 2009 season, Ferrari announced that Räikkönen would be leaving the team, despite having a contract to race for them in . He would be replaced by Fernando Alonso. He was expected to return to McLaren alongside Lewis Hamilton but negotiations with the team failed. Räikkönen was then linked to Mercedes GP but the team eventually signed Michael Schumacher and Nico Rosberg. Toyota F1, before it pulled out of Formula One, offered Räikkönen a driving contract to replace Timo Glock in 2010. The BBC reported that he refused the contract owing to wanting to drive a race-winning car, not to mention Toyota not offering a large enough salary.
On 17 November 2009, his manager Steve Robertson confirmed that Räikkönen would not drive in Formula One in the 2010 season. But during 2010 itself, rumours emerged once again about another possible Räikkönen comeback this time with the Renault team in . This followed a resurgence in Renault's form, and the fact that the Russian Vitaly Petrov had yet to be re-signed like team-mate Robert Kubica. Team principal Éric Boullier claimed he had been contacted by Räikkönen in connection with a possible return, but said that although he was flattered by Räikkönen's alleged display of interest:
However Räikkönen angrily shot down the suggestion that he would race, claiming that Renault had simply used his name for "their own marketing purposes".
Rallying
Räikkönen made his initial rally debut at the Arctic Lapland Rally, which ran from 23 to 24 January 2009, driving a Tommi Mäkinen Racing-prepared Abarth Grande Punto S2000. He finished in 13th place. Räikkönen made his WRC debut in the 2009 Rally Finland, which took place between 30 July and 2 August, starting just four days after his second-place finish in the Hungarian Grand Prix. He was running third in group N and 15th overall before crashing out in Väärinmaja, last stage of Saturday.
On 4 December 2009, it was announced that Räikkönen would altogether shift from Formula 1 to the World Rally Championship for the 2010 season as a full-time driver for the Citroën Junior Team, and that he would be driving a Red Bull-sponsored Citroën C4 WRC with his co-driver, Kaj Lindström. As members of the team, the pair were scheduled to participate in 12 of 13 rallies in the 2010 WRC calendar, the exception being Rally New Zealand.
On 3 April 2010, Räikkönen scored his first WRC points when he finished eighth in the Jordan Rally. Consequently, he became the second driver after Carlos Reutemann to score championship points in both Formula One and the World Rally Championship. In the next WRC event, the Rally of Turkey, Räikkönen improved his best result with a fifth-place finish, 6m 44.3s off the winner, Sébastien Loeb. This result saw him beat established and more experienced drivers in the field.
In the 2010 Rally Finland, the retired four-time World Rally Champion Juha Kankkunen entered the race and said that if Räikkönen cannot beat him then he might as well go back to Formula One. The two were in a close battle for seventh until Räikkönen had a crash on the 12th stage of the rally. He finished seventh in the Rallye Deutschland, his second ever asphalt rally, while scoring his first ever career stage win on the last stage of the rally.
On 18 September 2010, Räikkönen achieved his first rally win when he participated in the Rallye Vosgien 2010 in France. He won all six stages in the asphalt rally. Räikkönen could not start in the Rally Catalunya because he crashed during the shakedown, leaving the roll cage damaged, and the team did not have enough time to repair it. Subsequently, Räikkönen decided to not take part in the rally at all, even when he could by super rally rules. The reason was stated to be saving the car. He would finish eighth in the Wales Rally GB, the final rally of the season. He scored 25 points during the season to finish 10th overall in the championship, the best result for a rookie that year.
Räikkönen entered the 2011 World Rally Championship season under his own team, ICE 1 Racing. He drove a Citroën DS3 WRC. He finished eighth in the opening round, Rally Sweden. Skipping the Mexico event, he next competed in Rally Portugal and finished seventh. He finished sixth in the following Jordan Rally, but would skip the next two rounds.
Räikkönen returned in the Acropolis Rally, finishing seventh. He would score points in his home rally, Rally Finland, after finishing ninth. He equaled his best result of the season with sixth in Rallye Deutschland, his seventh consecutive points finish and sixth consecutive points finish of the season. After the good form, the season ended in three retirements in the last three rallies. Räikkönen scored 34 points during the season, nine more than in 2010. Despite the increased number of points, he would again finish 10th in the championship.
NASCAR
It was reported on 29 March 2011 that Räikkönen would try his hand at NASCAR starting in the Camping World Truck Series sometime in the summer of 2011 with an eye on also running in the Nationwide and Sprint Cup Series. On 2 April Räikkönen signed a deal with Toyota team Kyle Busch Motorsports to run a limited schedule in the Truck Series. An earlier report claimed that Räikkönen's entry was related with former Richard Petty Motorsports executive Foster Gillett, whom Räikkönen announced would be a partner in his Ice 1 Racing team.
On 20 May, Räikkönen debuted in the North Carolina Education Lottery 200 at Charlotte Motor Speedway with a strong finish of 15th, though he started the day with tough practice sessions and qualified only at 31 out of 37 trucks. His race craft was well received by team crew chief Rick Ren and his teammate Kyle Busch. Räikkönen went on to race in the Nationwide Series at the same track on 28 May driving for Joe Nemechek and NEMCO Motorsports. He finished 27th after having debris stuck on the grille of his car and getting a penalty for speeding in the pitlane. Later in the month, Räikkönen tested Robby Gordon's car at Infineon Raceway, with plans of Gordon fielding a two-car team for him and Räikkönen at the Toyota/Save Mart 350. However, Räikkönen crashed the car in the test, and the deal with Robby Gordon Motorsports fell through.
Return to Formula One (2012–2021)
Lotus (2012–2013)
In the week before the 2011 Singapore Grand Prix, several news sources reported that Räikkönen was eyeing a return to Formula One for with Williams, after he was spotted at the team's headquarters in Grove, Oxfordshire. Several reports went so far as to suggest that Räikkönen had entered preliminary negotiations with the team. However, the team refused to comment on the reports, with driver Rubens Barrichello dismissing them as rumour and speculation. On 29 November 2011, it was announced that Räikkönen would be returning to Formula 1 in 2012, signing a two-year contract with Lotus.
2012
Räikkönen began the season by qualifying 17th for the after making a mistake on his last flying lap. However, he recovered his weekend during the race the next day, as he made a good start to move up to twelfth, before making it into the top ten. He took three places on the last lap of the race, to finish in seventh place. In the dry qualifying session for the Räikkönen qualified in fifth place. He started the race from 10th place because of an unscheduled gearbox change. In the race he had the opportunity to try Pirelli's wet-weather tyres for the first time. He finished the race in fifth despite being inexperienced with Pirelli's wet-weather tyres compared to most of the other drivers. At the he was 14th after running second before being overtaken by 10 cars in the space of one lap, due to a mistake in tyre strategy, expecting the Pirelli tyres to last longer in the last stint. At the he finished second starting from 11th position on the grid. It was his first podium and his best finish of this comeback. Three weeks later, Räikkönen finished third at the , after having qualified in fifth place, which had been promoted to fourth as a result of a penalty given to Lewis Hamilton. In the Räikkönen qualified in eighth but finished one place lower in ninth place. For the Räikkönen again had a bad qualifying session finishing 12th. He was able to finish eighth in the race taking, as he stated, "important championship points". In the at the Valencia Street Circuit he finished second behind Fernando Alonso. In the he finished fifth, after having qualified in sixth place. During qualifying for the , Räikkönen had good pace in Q1 with the harder set of tyres and was looking good for a potential shot at a higher grid place. At the start of Q2 the rain was already heavy meaning that Räikkönen lost the advantage he had in dry conditions. In the wet Q3 session he qualified in 10th place. Good pace in dry conditions from the qualifying session was proven in the race as Räikkönen succeeded to finish fourth, and eventually gaining the last podium spot after Sebastian Vettel was penalised for an illegal overtaking manoeuvre. For the Räikkönen qualified fifth. He lost fifth place at the start to Alonso due to a KERS issue on his E20 car. He succeeded in gaining a position over Alonso during the first round of pit-stops, and later did the same to Button and Vettel during the second round. He finished the race in second place, just one second behind the race winner Hamilton.
After a five-week long summer break, the much speculated introduction of a 'Drag Reduction Device' by the Lotus F1 team was delayed due to bad weather conditions on Friday for the . That did not stop Räikkönen from qualifying fourth. He went on to finish third behind Jenson Button and Sebastian Vettel. A week later at at Monza, Räikkönen qualified seventh and finished the race in fifth. At the , Räikkönen qualified 12th as his Lotus E20 could not match the pace of the top 3 teams and eventually finished sixth. At the , Räikkönen qualified eighth after spinning at his final attempt in Q3 and finished sixth after being passed by McLaren's Lewis Hamilton after the second round of pit stops. The saw the introduction of a coanda style exhaust system and several other minor updates to the Lotus E20 which, Lotus team boss Éric Boullier regarded as a new era in his team's development race. Räikkönen eventually qualified fifth and finished the race in fifth after an impressive battle with Hamilton which ended in Räikkönen's favour. Even though he was 48 points behind the championship leader Sebastian Vettel after 16 rounds of the season, Räikkönen said he takes inspiration from the season which he won at the last round in after Lewis Hamilton suffered gearbox problems. At the , Räikkönen qualified in seventh place. He could not manage to improve his starting position because of a lack of top speed on the straights. After this race, the contract with Lotus was extended for due to the fact that the terms of options in the contract have been met. On 4 November 2012, Räikkönen won his first race for the Lotus F1 team at the after a good start from fourth saw him take Pastor Maldonado and Mark Webber at the first corner. He was unable to match the pace of Hamilton, but a mechanical issue retired the McLaren and allowed Räikkönen to win the race, despite pressure from the Ferrari of Fernando Alonso in the closing stages. Although he was now mathematically eliminated from the championship as a result of Vettel finishing third, the Lotus name celebrated its first win since the 1987 Detroit Grand Prix which was won by Ayrton Senna. Still third, Räikkönen was 16 points clear of Lewis Hamilton in the championship. But after Hamilton's pole position at the concluding race of 2012, Räikkönen would have to finish at least fifth in the race if Hamilton were to win. He qualified only ninth. On lap 52, Räikkönen, who had been in-and-out of the points frequently, made a mistake and went off the track and tried to use an escape road to re-enter the track rather than drive over the grass. The road was blocked and he was forced to turn back. He lost numerous places and found himself behind a Caterham and a Marussia. He skidded again to be lapped, but re-claimed the lost places and with a retirement from Hamilton, finished the race in 10th and claimed his third place in the standings, with a 1-point contribution to the tally. He ended the season 71 points behind Fernando Alonso and 74 points behind champion Sebastian Vettel.
On 3 December 2012 through a poll in a French auto racing website, www.toileF1.com Räikkönen was named the driver of the year. In second place was Fernando Alonso.
2013
On 29 October 2012, Lotus confirmed that Räikkönen would be racing with the team in 2013, after several weeks of speculation that Räikkönen had several other options for 2013, including other forms of motorsport.
On 17 March 2013 he won the first race of the season, the despite starting from seventh, thanks to a two-stop strategy while most of the others did three stops. He also set the fastest lap of the race on lap 56. He described the victory as one of his easiest wins. Räikkönen qualified seventh in Malaysia, but was demoted three places for impeding Nico Rosberg during qualifying. He finished the race seventh, behind team-mate Grosjean, after damaging his car at the start.
At the , he qualified and finished second, despite having to regain the two places he lost at the start and having damaged the front of his car while battling Sergio Pérez for position. In the he qualified ninth, but was promoted to eighth after Lewis Hamilton received a five-place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change. He finished the race second ahead of his team-mate Romain Grosjean, with Sebastian Vettel winning the race. The podium of the race was exactly same as in 2012. At the , Räikkönen started fourth and finished second thanks to a three-stop strategy. At the next race in Monaco, Räikkönen started fifth but an aggressive overtake by Pérez gave him a puncture and dropped him out of the points until a last-ditch attempt on the final lap where he overtook Esteban Gutiérrez, Valtteri Bottas and Nico Hülkenberg to gain tenth place. In the process, it continued his streak of 23 consecutive points finishes, one shy of the record of 24 set by Michael Schumacher across three seasons between 2001 and 2003.
With his Lotus struggling during the , Räikkönen finished ninth. On 30 June 2013 at the , Räikkönen finished in the points for the 25th consecutive race, breaking Schumacher's record. He finished fifth but believed second place could have been possible had he pitted during the safety car period. The result kept him in third place in the championship. At the , Räikkönen qualified fourth and finished second, only a second behind Vettel with the help of the safety car. Räikkönen struggled in qualifying for the , unable to capitalise on strong times earlier in the weekend. He qualified sixth but finished second – for the fifth time at the circuit – holding off a last minute charge from Vettel with fresher tyres. The result promoted him to second in the Drivers' Championship, one point ahead of Fernando Alonso and 38 points behind championship leader, Vettel.
At the , Räikkönen finished fastest in Q2 but struggled during the wetter final session, qualifying eighth behind his teammate. Although Räikkönen did gain some places in the race, he was eventually forced to retire with a brake related issue on lap 27, ending the Finn's record-breaking run – also numbering 27 – of consecutive points finishes. The DNF also ended his chances of beating the most consecutive race finishes – a record held by Nick Heidfeld at 41 finishes – Räikkönen recorded 38.
He failed to score again at the after losing his front wing at the start. He managed to make his way up the order, but was unable to pass Jenson Button for a point scoring position. On the week following the race, it was announced that Räikkönen would not continue with Lotus for the season, and instead join Fernando Alonso at Ferrari. Before the following , it was revealed that Räikkönen had not been paid salary by Lotus for the whole season, meaning there were several million euros of outstanding fees. Räikkönen publicly cited this as the reason for leaving Lotus for Ferrari.
In the , Räikkönen had recurring back problems during the practice sessions, which at first put his participation in the race in question. He qualified only 13th, but was still able to return to the podium, clawing to the third place partly thanks to a safety car intervention in the middle of the race. At the , he qualified ninth and finished fifth.
Two weeks later, at the , Räikkönen qualified sixth. In the race, he opted for a one-stop tyre strategy, placing him in the second place at the closing stages of the Grand Prix. However, during the final few laps, his pace was more than a second slower than those chasing him, including Nico Rosberg and Räikkönen's Lotus teammate Romain Grosjean. With eight laps remaining, Rosberg was able to take over Räikkönen for second. Grosjean then caught up with Räikkönen on the fourth last lap, but was not immediately able to pass him. At this point, the Lotus trackside operations director Alan Permane had a heated radio exchange with Räikkönen, commanding him to move out of the way. The radio conversation was widely noted in the press, raising questions about the health of his relationship with the team. Räikkönen eventually finished seventh after stopping for new tyres with only two laps to go.
In the following questions about Räikkönen's relationship with his team were further fuelled by his absence from the usual Thursday media events. Räikkönen had reportedly only left his home at the last moment to make it to the Grand Prix after considering not racing at all in the event. On Friday, Räikkönen then publicly threatened that he would not continue to race with Lotus in the remaining two Grands Prix of the season after Abu Dhabi unless the salary dispute was resolved. In the Saturday's qualifying, Räikkönen made it to fifth, but was demoted to the 22nd and last grid spot due to his E21 car failing a post-qualifying floor deflection test. In the race, he immediately made contact with Giedo van der Garde's Caterham in the first corner of the first lap and broke his Lotus's right front suspension, forcing Räikkönen to retire on the first lap for the first time since the 2006 United States Grand Prix. Immediately after being recovered, he left the circuit and returned to his hotel while the race continued, further fuelling tensions between him and the team. Despite this, following the race, it was announced that Lotus and Räikkönen had reached a provisional agreement on the salary dispute that would see Räikkönen race for the team during the remainder of the season as the investment group Quantum Motorsports said that they had concluded long-running negotiations with Lotus for acquisition of a share in the team, providing the team with financial security.
However, a week before the following , it was announced that Räikkönen would nevertheless miss the rest of the season, having elected to have back surgery for the problems that had troubled him in the Singapore Grand Prix. For the remaining two Grands Prix, Räikkönen would be replaced at Lotus by fellow Finn Heikki Kovalainen.
Return to Ferrari (2014–2018)
On 11 September 2013, it was confirmed that Räikkönen had agreed a 2-year deal to return to Ferrari (where he won the championship in ), starting from . He revealed that it was for monetary reasons that he left Lotus.
2014
A rule change for the 2014 season allowed drivers to pick a unique car number that they will use for their entire F1 career. Räikkönen however decided to retain the No. 7 car number he used for Lotus during the 2013 season as "It's the number I already had last year and I saw no reason to change it".
After getting a great start, Räikkönen was on for a podium finish at the Monaco Grand Prix. However, Max Chilton punctured Räikkönen's left-rear tyre while unlapping himself during a safety car period, forcing Räikkönen to make a second pitstop. Räikkönen then set the fastest lap of the race on lap 75, but finished 12th.
After a mostly disappointing first half of the season, Räikkönen had a return to form at the first race back after the summer break in Belgium, where a good strategy and a series of fastest laps earned him fourth place, his best result of the season. It was also the first time Räikkönen had finished higher in a race than Alonso in 2014. Räikkönen ended the 2014 season a career-low 12th in the Drivers' Championship, and for the first time since his rookie year, did not finish on the podium. Throughout the season, Räikkönen struggled with the car's lack of turn-in on corner entry and the feeling of the new brake-by-wire systems, saying that "We try somehow to balance it out and try to have a front end on the car, but it is very, very difficult. I hate it when there is no front end on the car."
Räikkönen remained with Ferrari for the 2015 season, partnering former world champion Sebastian Vettel after Alonso announced his departure from the Scuderia.
2015
Räikkönen had to retire from the first race of the season in Australia due to a loose wheel following a pitstop. Following that mishap, he recovered to finish fourth both in Malaysia and China. Another pit issue befell Räikkönen during practice for the as he was reprimanded for exiting the pitlane in a 'potentially dangerous manner' by the stewards, having swerved around a standing car in an undesignated area. However, he escaped a possible grid penalty. During the same weekend, his manager Steve Robertson suggested that Räikkönen was heading towards a contract extension with Ferrari. That would contradict previous suggestions from Räikkönen himself that he would 'probably' retire at the end of his Ferrari contract, and that 2015 would be his last season. Courtesy of a considerate tyre strategy by the Ferrari team, at the , Räikkönen finished second after gaining that position late in the race and starting from fourth on the grid. In the process, Räikkönen recorded his first podium since the 2013 Korean Grand Prix for Lotus, and the first in his second spell with Ferrari – his most recent Ferrari podium was a third-place finish at the 2009 Italian Grand Prix. Räikkönen said that he was hopeful in winning races in the near future after the team's strong recovery relative to . He also commented that, both the engine and downforce had been significantly improved and that the car handled much more to his liking. In a post-race interview, Ferrari team boss, Maurizio Arrivabene, described this result as a sign that Räikkönen "is back" and that he "showed what a race animal he is", also implying that if he had a few more race laps available, Räikkönen would have challenged Hamilton for the race win.
At the next race of the season in Barcelona, Räikkönen was unhappy with the setup of the car and was able to qualify only in seventh place. However, he had a good opening lap in the race and made up 2 places to finish the race in fifth position. Räikkönen termed Monaco GP qualifying session to be a "disaster"; he was only able to qualify in sixth position, with his teammate Sebastian Vettel qualifying in third, followed by Daniel Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat in the Red Bulls. In the race, Räikkönen was able to move up to fifth place, before being controversially overtaken by Ricciardo, and thus held his qualifying position to finish the race in sixth. Räikkönen put up a strong qualifying performance at Montreal to take third on the grid behind the two Mercedes drivers. During the race, while on the out-lap from a pitstop, Räikkönen suffered a repeat of the incident at the previous year's race and spun at the hairpin, which was attributed to an engine torque mapping issue. This caused him to lose his third place to Valtteri Bottas. In the Austrian Grand Prix he was involved in a big crash with Fernando Alonso which left Alonso's McLaren on top of Räikkönen's Ferrari. However both left unscathed. After a disappointing showing caused by changing weather in Great Britain, Räikkönen bounced back strongly running second behind Vettel looking set for a 1–2 in Hungary, when a technical failure regarding the energy recovery system meant he lost straightline speed. An untimely safety car meant losing further positions after the restart and after a pitstop to re-fire the engine meant he dropped out of the points he retired when the problem did not fix itself as he had lost the chance to get back past any cars.
On 19 August, Ferrari announced that Räikkönen had extended his contract with the team for the 2016 season, taking his total tally with the team to six seasons spread out over a total of ten years. Räikkönen said that 'his dream went on' and confirmed that he wanted Ferrari to be the team where he ended his career. At the race following the announcement (Spa), miscommunication from the team coupled with gearbox change penalties saw Räikkönen start from 17th on the grid. However, he managed to overtake the middle pack and finished the race in seventh, after teammate Sebastian Vettel had a tire blowout on the 42nd lap causing him to lose a third-place finish.
Räikkönen qualified on the front row for Ferrari's home race at Monza, but a complete lack of movement for a few seconds at the start saw him drop down the order. Showing good pace however, he managed to pick his way from the back of the field to fifth. Räikkönen blamed a 'clutch positioning' problem, while team boss Arrivabene suggested Räikkönen had caused the anti-stall to kick in himself due to 'messing with his fingers' although he clarified it saying he did not fully know at the time. Nevertheless, he remained at one podium of the season, as teammate Vettel finished second to take his tally to eight in twelve races.
At the Singapore Grand Prix, Räikkönen showed consistent performances in the practice sessions and qualified in third, behind Sebastian Vettel and Daniel Ricciardo. Räikkönen maintained the position through the race despite being uncomfortable with the car, to take his second podium finish of the season. Räikkönen ended the season by finishing third in the season-ending Abu Dhabi Grand Prix to take his third podium of the year and securing fourth place in the Drivers' Championship.
2016
For the second year in a row, Räikkönen had to retire from the first race of the season in Australia, after a fire broke out in his airbox. Räikkönen finished in the second place at the Bahrain Grand Prix while his teammate Sebastian Vettel did not start the race after his car broke down on formation lap. Räikkönen outpaced teammate Sebastian Vettel in qualifying at the Chinese Grand Prix to take third on the grid, however a first lap collision with Vettel saw him damaging his front wing and he dropped down the order, he then showed good pace to move up the field and eventually finished fifth. He managed to finish the Russian Grand Prix in third place after a huge start collision, which left his teammate Vettel out of the race. This was also the 700th podium in Ferrari's Formula One history. Räikkönen finished behind Max Verstappen in second place to take his third podium of the season in the Spanish Grand Prix finishing ahead of his teammate Vettel who was third.
Räikkönen showed greatly improved qualifying performances during the 2016 season, out-qualifying teammate Vettel 11–10.
2017
Räikkönen started the 2017 season with fourth in Australia, fifth in China and then again fourth in Bahrain. Räikkönen scored his first podium of the season at the following Russian Grand Prix, finishing third. He retired from the Spanish Grand Prix after being involved in an incident on the first lap.
Räikkönen scored his first pole position in 129 races at the , qualifying 0.04 seconds faster than teammate Sebastian Vettel to become the sport's oldest polesitter since 1997. He finished the race second after Vettel had a superior strategy, giving Ferrari their first 1-2 finish since 2010. Räikkönen finished seventh in Canada after struggling with brake problems. He qualified third at the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, but retired from the race with an oil leak. He then finished fifth in Austria.
Räikkönen qualified second at the British Grand Prix, but suffered a tyre failure late in the race while in second place, however he still managed to finish third, ahead of teammate Vettel. At the , Räikkönen qualified second. In the race, after Vettel – who was in first position – made his pitstop first, Räikkönen was driving faster than him on older tyres, but Ferrari pitted Räikkönen early to defend Vettel from cars behind him, denying Räikkönen a chance of overcutting Vettel, eventually finishing second. He then finished fourth in Belgium and fifth in Italy. Räikkönen qualified fourth at the Singapore Grand Prix, but after getting a great start, was hit by Max Verstappen, who avoided Vettel's aggressive move across the circuit, which ultimately ended up in a crash that put all three drivers out of the race.
In Malaysia he qualified second but did not start the race because of a technical problem. After a fifth place at the Japanese Grand Prix, Räikkönen finished third at the United States Grand Prix. He repeated this performance in the and , scoring three consecutive podiums. A fourth-place finish in Abu Dhabi secured fourth position in the drivers' championship for Räikkönen.
2018
Räikkönen renewed his contract with Ferrari for the season on 22 August 2017. He qualified second for the first race in Australia and finished third, after being jumped by Vettel during the virtual safety car period. At the Bahrain Grand Prix, he qualified second after encountering traffic on his last run. He then ran in third for most of the race, but retired on lap 35 due to a pit stop error by Ferrari. He went on to finish third at the Chinese Grand Prix after recovering from a strategy aimed at helping his teammate.
At the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, Räikkönen recovered from a first lap incident with Esteban Ocon to eventually finish second. Räikkönen's engine failed during practice at the Spanish Grand Prix, forcing him to change engines. This meant that he missed Ferrari's upgraded engine introduced two races later in Canada and had to race with the old specification engine until the 13th round in Belgium to avoid a penalty. His engine failed again in the race in Spain, forcing him to retire from the race, but the engine did not have to be replaced. This was followed by a fourth-place finish in Monaco and sixth in Canada.
A third-place finish in the French Grand Prix started a run of consecutive podiums for Räikkönen. He would finish second at the following Austrian Grand Prix, then at the British Grand Prix he recovered from a controversial 10-second penalty to finish third, after which he finished third again at the German and Hungarian Grands Prix to score five consecutive podiums. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Räikkönen had strong pace during qualifying, but a fuel miscalculation by Ferrari meant that he could not complete a lap in the drying conditions later in session which left him sixth on the grid. He retired from the race as his car was damaged in a first lap crash initiated by Nico Hülkenberg.
Räikkönen took pole position at the Italian Grand Prix, breaking Juan Pablo Montoya's 14-year-old record to set the fastest lap ever recorded in Formula One history with an average speed of 263.588 kilometres per hour (163.786 mph). His race was compromised by Mercedes ordering Bottas to block him after his pit stop, but he nevertheless finished second to score his 100th podium finish, becoming only the fifth driver ever to do so. This was followed by a fifth-place finish in Singapore, fourth in Russia and fifth in Japan, where his car sustained damage from a hit by Verstappen.
Räikkönen won the United States Grand Prix, becoming, at 39, F1's oldest race winner since Nigel Mansell in 1994, and the 13th oldest F1 race winner ever. It was his first win since the 2013 Australian Grand Prix 2,044 days earlier, his first win for Ferrari since he returned to the team back in 2014, his first win for Ferrari since the 2009 Belgian Grand Prix 3,339 days and 140 races earlier, and his first win in the hybrid era. This victory made Räikkönen the most successful Finnish driver of all time in terms of race wins. He broke the record for the longest gap between Grand Prix wins (113 races) and the record for the biggest gap between first and last career wins (5,691 days). Coincidentally, this victory came on the 11th anniversary of his 2007 F1 world championship. He followed this victory with third-placed podiums at the Mexican and Brazilian Grands Prix. He retired in Abu Dhabi with an electrical issue, but nonetheless, despite four retirements that were not caused by him, he finished third in the Drivers' Championship in his final season with Ferrari.
Alfa Romeo (2019–2021)
2019
On 11 September 2018, it was announced that Räikkönen would leave Ferrari at the end of the season to rejoin Sauber on a two-year contract, the team he made his Formula One debut with in . Räikkönen made his Sauber return in the postseason Abu Dhabi Pirelli tyre test driving their 2018 car. The Sauber team was renamed Alfa Romeo Racing prior to the start of the season.
Räikkönen had an impressive first half of the season, scoring 31 points before the summer break, placing him eighth in the Drivers' Championship after 12 races. In comparison, his teammate Antonio Giovinazzi had scored only a single point during the same period. However, after the summer break, the Alfa Romeo Racing C38 struggled for pace and Räikkönen endured a seven-race pointless streak. He had an opportunity to score points in Belgium, starting from sixth on the grid, but he was hit by Max Verstappen at the first corner. The pointless streak ended at the , where a strong race and a penalty for Lewis Hamilton yielded a fourth-place finish, the first top-four finish for the Hinwil-based team since . Räikkönen finished 12th in the Drivers' Championship with 43 points, which, again, was the best result for a driver of the Hinwil-based team since 2013.
2020
Räikkönen remained at the Alfa Romeo Racing team for the 2020 season. The team's Ferrari-powered car proved to be one of the slowest cars of the season, and the team was left fighting at the back of the grid against Haas and Williams. During the season Räikkönen scored points twice, finishing ninth at the Tuscan Grand Prix and again ninth at the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, while he scored the team's best qualifying result with eighth in Turkey. This placed him 16th in the drivers' standings with four points, ahead of teammate Antonio Giovinazzi and the Haas and Williams drivers. Räikkönen was the highest finishing driver among this group in nine of the season's 17 races, while he finished ahead of his teammate in nine of the 13 races which both finished and qualified ahead of him eight times. He was also the highest finishing Ferrari-powered driver on four occasions.
Räikkönen's 323rd Formula One race start at the Eifel Grand Prix saw him break Rubens Barrichello's record for most Formula One race starts in history. He won the FIA Action of the Year award for his opening lap at the Portuguese Grand Prix, where he overtook 10 cars.
2021
Räikkönen continued with Alfa Romeo in alongside Giovinazzi. Before the season started Räikkönen had decided to retire at the end of the season. He tested positive for COVID-19 on the weekend of the Dutch Grand Prix and was replaced by reserve driver Robert Kubica at the Dutch and Italian Grand Prix. Räikkönen scored his first points of the season in Azerbaijan, with more points in Hungary, Russia and Mexico. In November he visited the Alfa Romeo factory in Switzerland for the last time as a team member and was given a farewell, and was subsequently given a farewell by the Scuderia Ferrari team prior to the race in Abu Dhabi. For his final race in Abu Dhabi the team inscribed "Dear Kimi, we will leave you alone now" on his C41. Räikkönen was forced to retire on lap 25 because of a technical issue with a wheel nut. "It doesn't matter how it comes to the end, it's the end now and yes, I'm looking forward to it," he said after the race. Räikkönen finished the season in 16th place with 10 points.
Personal life
Räikkönen met Finnish model and former Miss Scandinavia 2001, Jenni Dahlman in 2002. The couple married on 31 July 2004, living between Switzerland and Finland. They separated in February 2013, and divorced in 2014. Räikkönen became engaged to fitness and underwear model Minna-Mari "Minttu" Virtanen. On 28 January 2015, Virtanen gave birth to the couple's first child, a son. On 7 August 2016, Räikkönen married Virtanen in a ceremony in Siena, Italy. On 16 May 2017, Räikkönen became a father for the second time with the birth of his daughter.
Räikkönen's hobbies include snowboarding and ice hockey. He has also competed in several different kinds of motorsport events. In March 2007, while his Formula One rivals were in Australia preparing for the season opener, Räikkönen competed in a snowmobile race in Finland under the pseudonym "James Hunt", referring to the 1976 world champion whose "playboy" lifestyle has been compared with Räikkönen's own. Räikkönen won the Enduro Sprint race by over 20 seconds with his Lynx. Later in the year, he and two friends entered a powerboat race in the Finnish harbour city of Hanko while wearing gorilla suits. Again, he raced under the name "James Hunt". They then won a prize for the best-dressed crew.
In August 2008, it was announced that Räikkönen would appear on a set of Finnish postage stamps. The stamps, which were released to commemorate the Finnish postal service's 370th anniversary, feature images of him racing and on the podium, with the words "F1 World Champion '07 Kimi Räikkönen".
In 2011, Räikkönen founded his own Motocross World Championship team, Ice 1 Racing. The team consists of MX1 rider Toni Eriksson and MX2 rider Ludde Söderberg and is managed by seven-time enduro world champion Kari Tiainen. The Ice 1 Racing team also supports six junior riders competing in the Finnish national championship.
In 2018, Ferrari filed legal action on behalf of Räikkönen with Canadian authorities. The complaint claimed Räikkönen was being extorted by a woman demanding compensation and threatening to publicly accuse him of sexual misconduct at a function after the 2016 Canadian Grand Prix.
Räikkönen stated in 2007 that he believes in God. He has claimed his favorite movie to be Scarface. Räikkönen is also recognized for having a distinctive voice. Räikkönen has said that the reason behind it is a bicycle accident that he suffered when he was 5-years-old. Räikkönen fell, hit his neck to the bicycle handlebar, and injured his vocal cords which never fully healed.
Public persona and reaction
Räikkönen is known for his dislike of giving media interviews, and frequently answers questions in a blunt and monosyllabic manner. In the build-up to the 2006 Brazilian Grand Prix when then-ITV pundit Martin Brundle asked Räikkönen why he missed a ceremony in which footballer Pelé presented Michael Schumacher with a lifetime achievement award, Räikkönen replied "I was having a shit."
During his early years at McLaren, Ron Dennis gave him the nickname, "Iceman", with several layers of meaning; apart from its association with the cold climate of Finland, he is widely considered to have a cool temperament under pressure and also an 'icy' persona with most other drivers, team members and the media. He has said that he is "not here to try to please people. I'm here to do my best". Apart from his on-track driving, off-track instances demonstrating this calm demeanour include being asleep 30 minutes before his first Formula One race and eating an ice cream during the temporarily-suspended 2009 Malaysian Grand Prix.
Known to be frustrated by anything that prevents him from simply racing, he is relatively outspoken in his criticism of politics and off-circuit drama in sport. In a rare feature interview in the middle of the 2013 season, Räikkönen said "sometimes in Formula 1 there is politics, and the shit there is stupid". In the same article, Lotus team principal Éric Boullier described Räikkönen as someone "doing pretty much whatever he wants".
During the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix his McLaren MP4-21 broke down as the heat shield had exploded and he was forced to retire; he went from his car straight to his nearby yacht, fully dressed in his racing suit and immediately relaxed in his jacuzzi.
Räikkönen's terse radio communications have sometimes attracted comment. On the 20th lap of the 2012 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, Räikkönen had just taken the lead from Lewis Hamilton and his race engineer Simon Rennie advised that Fernando Alonso was five seconds behind and that he would be kept informed of Alonso's pace; Räikkönen replied, "Just leave me alone, I know what to do!" Later in the same race, he admonished his team again, when being told to manage the tyre temperature: "Yes, yes, yes, yes, I'm doing that all the time. You don't have to remind me every ten seconds!" The first quote attracted significant press coverage, and Räikkönen made no attempt to apologise in the post-race interview. It was earlier reported that he printed 500 T-shirts with the quote for the entire Lotus team, but this was later denied by Räikkönen in an interview with Formula One Group media personnel. The quote was featured on his official website.
Helmet
Räikkönen's helmet, designed by UffeDesigns, manufactured by Arai (2001–2006, 2012), Bell (2013, 2015–2021) and Schuberth (2007–2009, 2014), slightly changed during the years. The trident insignia was painted in white during his time racing for Sauber and McLaren until 2005, and red from 2006 with McLaren and during his time with Ferrari. His helmet has also always featured a V design running on the circle top (representing a flying bird) and the inscription "Iceman". In his debut race, his helmet was predominantly blue with white and silver details. When he joined McLaren in 2002 the design was left intact, only making the top circle all blue (rather than blue and silver) and with some black details on the chin area. In 2003–2005 his helmet was blue and white with some red and silver parts, red details were added on the symbol that was added to the M design. In 2006 his helmet was the same, only changing the blue to black with red and white lines on it. When racing for Ferrari Räikkönen's helmet changed radically: it was white with the middle part black and red with tribal designs and a black circle with the design in the top. In 2008, black paisley motifs were added in the chin. He retained this design in some rallies, although the helmet style was significantly different for this discipline.
In WRC and NASCAR he used a blue Stilo helmet with Red Bull's logo, silver and white accents (to resemble Red Bull's can design and Räikkönen's Sauber helmet lines), the symbol and the trident insignia (in white and red) and with the inscription "Iceman".
Upon his return to Formula One, he sported a black helmet with a white diagonal line crossing from each side until the angles of the visor and a thicker red diagonal line beneath the white line and a red number 9 in a corner of the white line (to allude to his car number), a white circle in the top with black edged designs (similar to horns) on the upper front. The design on the top became black and in the back of the helmet there was the inscription "Iceman" written in red letters. From the Australian Grand Prix, there were more details added on top of the helmet. For the Monaco Grand Prix, he wore a replica of the 1976 James Hunt helmet. The manufacturer of his helmet for the 2012 season was Arai.
In 2013, the helmet was similar to the previous season, but with the inverted colours (except for the red), the horn design in the upper front became red and on the sides there was a big red number 7 superimposed on the black section of the helmet. Unlike the 2012 model, the 2013 model is manufactured by Bell.
Upon his return to Ferrari in 2014, the base colour became a vibrant red, with white diagonal lines crossing from each side. A large number 7 was placed within the red, similar to that of 2013's. The "Iceman" inscription at the rear of the helmet was yellow, along with some of detailing around the top of the helmet. The manufacturer of his helmet for the 2014 season was officially Schuberth, yet it is believed that he continued using a Bell model for racing purposes.
In 2015, his helmet reverted to a white base, similar to the model he used back in 2007. The rear of the helmet reverted to black, with a red band above the "Iceman" inscription. The Insignia along the top was surrounded by red and grey detailing, and the large number 7 was bordered in grey. As of 2014, Räikkönen continued to race with a Bell model rather than Ferrari's official supplier Schuberth.
Karting record
Karting career summary
Racing record
Racing career summary
Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
Complete WRC results
Formula One records and achievements
In the and seasons, he equalled Michael Schumacher's record of 10 fastest laps in a season, set in .
, he holds the third highest number of fastest laps at .
In 2008, Räikkönen scored six consecutive fastest laps (in Spain, Turkey, Monaco, Canada, France and Britain), equalling Alberto Ascari's record for the most consecutive fastest laps in a single season and placing him one behind Ascari's overall record of seven consecutive fastest laps (which were split across two seasons: six in 1952 and one in 1953).
He was the first driver to win on his Ferrari debut since Nigel Mansell at the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix and the first to win, set the fastest lap and pole position on his Ferrari debut since Juan Manuel Fangio at the 1956 Argentine Grand Prix. His replacement Fernando Alonso also won on his Ferrari debut at the 2010 Bahrain Grand Prix, setting the fastest lap on the way; however Alonso qualified third.
The 2007 Chinese Grand Prix saw Räikkönen give Ferrari as a manufacturer their 200th Formula One GP win, as well as their 600th podium.
At the 2008 French Grand Prix Räikkönen gave Ferrari their 200th pole position.
The 2016 Russian Grand Prix saw Räikkönen give Scuderia Ferrari their 700th podium as a manufacturer (it was their 695th podium as a team).
Räikkönen is the second driver to win the World Championship after being third in the drivers standings before the final race, when he did this at the 2007 Brazilian Grand Prix. Giuseppe Farina, the first F1 World Champion, was the first to do this in , beating Juan Manuel Fangio by three points and Luigi Fagioli by six points. Sebastian Vettel repeated this feat in , when he won the championship at the 2010 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix.
He is the third Ferrari driver after Juan Manuel Fangio and Jody Scheckter to win the world title in their first year with the team.
He is the third Finnish driver to win the World Championship, after Keke Rosberg and Mika Häkkinen. , he is also the most successful Finnish Formula One driver in terms of points, podium finishes, fastest laps, and race wins.
, he holds the record for the most wins in a debut year with Ferrari with 6, beating Alain Prost's previous record of 5 from .
He achieved Lotus F1's first race win at the 2012 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix.
, he has the most second and third placed podium finishes combined (82).
, he holds the record for the most race starts between successive pole positions, with 129 starts between his pole positions at the 2008 French Grand Prix and 2017 Monaco Grand Prix.
He set the fastest lap in F1 history in qualifying at the 2018 Italian Grand Prix with an average speed of , eclipsing Juan Pablo Montoya's previous record. The record was later surpassed by Lewis Hamilton in qualifying for the 2020 Italian Grand Prix, with Hamilton setting an average speed of .
, he holds the record for the most races between Grand Prix wins, winning the 2018 United States Grand Prix 113 races after his 2013 Australian Grand Prix victory.
, he also holds the record for the biggest gap between first and last career wins, winning the 2018 United States Grand Prix 5,691 days after his 2003 Malaysian Grand Prix victory.
In August 2020, at the Spanish Grand Prix, Räikkönen broke the F1 distance record that was previously held by Fernando Alonso.
At the 2020 Eifel Grand Prix, Räikkönen broke the record of 322 F1 race starts.
At the 2020 Portuguese Grand Prix, Räikkönen broke the record of 326 F1 entries.
See also
The "Flying Finns"
References
Bibliography
External links
Formula One DataBase: Kimi Räikkönen
1979 births
Living people
Alfa Romeo Formula One drivers
British Formula Renault 2.0 drivers
Ferrari Formula One drivers
Finnish expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Finnish expatriate sportspeople in Japan
Finnish expatriates in Monaco
Finnish expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
Finnish expatriate sportspeople in the United Kingdom
Finnish Formula One drivers
Finnish racing drivers
Finnish rally drivers
Formula Ford drivers
Formula One race winners
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Formula Renault Eurocup drivers
Karting World Championship drivers
Lotus F1 Formula One drivers
McLaren Formula One drivers
Motorcycle racing team owners
NASCAR drivers
Sauber Formula One drivers
Sportspeople from Espoo
World Rally Championship drivers
Manor Motorsport drivers | [
-0.02351965755224228,
0.2943544387817383,
-0.1716202199459076,
0.4102843403816223,
0.2228105515241623,
0.6285056471824646,
0.18061316013336182,
0.006704534869641066,
-0.2001928985118866,
0.42848071455955505,
0.47596728801727295,
0.15077871084213257,
-0.4105144441127777,
-0.48583659529685974,
0.25733521580696106,
-0.4515434503555298,
-0.049769774079322815,
-0.006407334003597498,
0.04425843060016632,
0.034186601638793945,
-0.03523576632142067,
0.2583988904953003,
0.6202288866043091,
-0.38424575328826904,
-0.21704573929309845,
0.5094066858291626,
-0.3998461067676544,
0.2934119701385498,
-0.25537145137786865,
-0.2341214120388031,
0.10266284644603729,
0.4612153470516205,
0.2520144283771515,
-0.2262427657842636,
0.17950944602489471,
0.10836087167263031,
0.02371998503804207,
-0.1851021945476532,
0.36035656929016113,
0.06829337030649185,
-0.07996152341365814,
0.16118188202381134,
-0.3425716161727905,
0.26555079221725464,
0.022614166140556335,
0.05874793231487274,
-0.5513374209403992,
0.40796321630477905,
-0.5573207139968872,
-0.2703298032283783,
-0.4138699173927307,
-0.06476738303899765,
-0.3348560333251953,
0.20588693022727966,
0.2438821792602539,
0.42155975103378296,
-0.6474658846855164,
-0.5011845827102661,
-0.5030953884124756,
-0.3968287408351898,
0.7265563607215881,
-0.3821732699871063,
0.43252667784690857,
-0.01666576787829399,
0.24572567641735077,
-0.023322997614741325,
0.5199176073074341,
-0.21181312203407288,
-0.4099251925945282,
0.22298453748226166,
0.3199724853038788,
0.038355760276317596,
0.19516699016094208,
0.12047332525253296,
0.5992829203605652,
-0.9695579409599304,
-0.4202149212360382,
0.6177570223808289,
-0.02655615843832493,
-0.27308008074760437,
0.5116031765937805,
-0.6945958733558655,
0.6577927470207214,
0.945634126663208,
0.12563437223434448,
0.5097262263298035,
0.03149758279323578,
-0.11319203674793243,
-0.5420207381248474,
-0.08640513569116592,
-0.4627849757671356,
-0.4619302451610565,
0.5152833461761475,
0.043472688645124435,
-0.621280312538147,
0.19789928197860718,
0.005589213687926531,
0.42648792266845703,
0.22155000269412994,
-0.4925897419452667,
0.5810636878013611,
-0.3192879557609558,
-0.31606847047805786,
-0.37608349323272705,
-0.35701659321784973,
0.1042860820889473,
0.15649764239788055,
0.179001584649086,
-0.3039639890193939,
-0.07426214963197708,
-0.35376259684562683,
0.12423308193683624,
0.4471305310726166,
0.23633375763893127,
-0.7409281730651855,
0.3850266933441162,
-0.12884454429149628,
-0.5111144781112671,
-0.1838068962097168,
0.5972564220428467,
0.15200942754745483,
-0.13316328823566437,
0.2134311944246292,
0.06736304610967636,
-0.5674973726272583,
0.5647841095924377,
-0.03453237935900688,
0.22216591238975525,
-0.2863641679286957,
-0.1838260143995285,
0.3707670271396637,
0.38835957646369934,
-1.047273874282837,
0.2698107361793518,
0.11049716919660568,
0.1496945470571518,
0.2768428325653076,
-0.5924778580665588,
-0.06476472318172455,
0.8892707228660583,
-0.6943179368972778,
-0.7819744944572449,
-0.5637546181678772,
-0.6450591683387756,
-0.1351018249988556,
0.17852194607257843,
-0.4494777023792267,
0.18499602377414703,
0.4759003818035126,
-0.2839927673339844,
-0.48314791917800903,
0.2813567817211151,
-0.059742968529462814,
-0.7790983319282532,
0.21736328303813934,
0.834667980670929,
0.2692238390445709,
-0.14113926887512207,
0.15228186547756195,
-0.334820032119751,
0.14752767980098724,
-0.009357103146612644,
-0.4352380335330963,
-0.12350933253765106,
0.8783291578292847,
-0.513396143913269,
0.5204547047615051,
0.17578916251659393,
0.19976967573165894,
-0.49762439727783203,
0.23517975211143494,
-0.21686942875385284,
0.87730872631073,
-0.022008977830410004,
-0.46103107929229736,
0.7255872488021851,
0.5691709518432617,
-0.5725025534629822,
0.5541688203811646,
-0.13562780618667603,
-0.8676214218139648,
-0.016648802906274796,
-0.23143890500068665,
0.41674622893333435,
0.4171750545501709,
-0.11729440838098526,
0.574130654335022,
-0.09387928247451782,
-0.26693084836006165,
0.18438047170639038,
-0.3883732557296753,
-0.6531940698623657,
0.19763119518756866,
-0.39111292362213135,
0.2867584228515625,
-0.08796709775924683,
-0.08367825299501419,
-0.019968396052718163,
0.3995203971862793,
0.6772467494010925,
-0.4847445487976074,
-0.9644287824630737,
0.5958727598190308,
-0.26580601930618286,
-0.27038589119911194,
0.7505435347557068,
1.0757198333740234,
-0.17210331559181213,
-0.2955394387245178,
-0.1664547622203827,
0.011238203383982182,
-0.4867280125617981,
-0.12560702860355377,
0.015836337581276894,
-0.5281499624252319,
-0.24288152158260345,
-1.0263067483901978,
-0.011818477883934975,
-0.1030322015285492,
0.23603665828704834,
0.7430656552314758,
0.7113071084022522,
-0.2562499940395355,
0.7307507991790771,
0.025581447407603264,
1.0744926929473877,
0.1873900294303894,
-0.023888418450951576,
-0.338130384683609,
-0.3197019398212433,
0.12482669949531555,
0.21885716915130615,
0.27151453495025635,
-0.10236521065235138,
0.12262066453695297,
0.4043545722961426,
0.8333161473274231,
0.14221885800361633,
0.1342448741197586,
-0.45520707964897156,
0.20547299087047577,
1.1133582592010498,
-0.6960846185684204,
0.5451132655143738,
0.37795165181159973,
0.2748936116695404,
0.16993945837020874,
0.41895055770874023,
-0.8413072824478149,
0.07062450051307678,
-0.29915711283683777,
-0.6483280062675476,
0.07630498707294464,
-0.17344392836093903,
-0.009749975055456161,
-0.00814724713563919,
0.7581798434257507,
0.39754387736320496,
-0.002126408740878105,
0.418476939201355,
-0.20732460916042328,
-0.34813860058784485,
0.353468120098114,
0.08297505974769592,
-0.11634188890457153,
-0.6996080875396729,
0.0028867742512375116,
-0.8560859560966492,
0.3373574912548065,
-0.07049866020679474,
0.020656226202845573,
-0.10687577724456787,
-0.21442526578903198,
0.22200794517993927,
-0.2869374454021454,
-0.599066436290741,
-0.48376160860061646,
0.1778896600008011,
-0.539681613445282,
0.43142157793045044,
0.4167722761631012,
0.7666480541229248,
0.20029886066913605,
-0.5150302052497864,
-0.3927951455116272,
0.067910335958004,
-0.49774062633514404,
-0.1089906170964241,
-0.13682208955287933,
0.04497173801064491,
0.10158215463161469,
0.5535292029380798,
-0.7116365432739258,
0.7394236326217651,
0.5979747176170349,
-0.04787478595972061,
0.09626439213752747,
-0.2437789887189865,
0.5630019307136536,
0.04709517955780029,
-0.3382411301136017,
0.38036489486694336,
-0.13280723989009857,
0.37728771567344666,
0.581004798412323,
0.17700164020061493,
-0.3581605553627014,
-0.3448275625705719,
-5.298573970794678,
-0.007958353497087955,
-0.20981009304523468,
-0.2866089642047882,
1.2561227083206177,
0.2598399817943573,
0.11870891600847244,
0.06899978220462799,
0.24221327900886536,
-0.3465442657470703,
0.06985697895288467,
0.11141151189804077,
0.2061997354030609,
0.8862391114234924,
-0.12449201196432114,
0.0877591073513031,
-0.06457282602787018,
-0.36576414108276367,
0.19432461261749268,
0.39607179164886475,
-0.48175811767578125,
-0.10791351646184921,
-0.4446132779121399,
0.12808917462825775,
-0.20061683654785156,
0.4115782082080841,
-0.7844945788383484,
0.19444438815116882,
-0.971698522567749,
-0.22134359180927277,
-0.788232684135437,
0.023253032937645912,
-0.15382517874240875,
-0.18584471940994263,
-0.13891854882240295,
-0.3155563473701477,
0.17557530105113983,
0.2906285226345062,
0.6056810617446899,
-0.1519702821969986,
-0.07981494814157486,
-0.03203862905502319,
0.5585845708847046,
0.09423698484897614,
1.1580640077590942,
-0.34370583295822144,
-0.60313880443573,
-0.12429867684841156,
-0.6579824090003967,
0.42967355251312256,
0.646242082118988,
-0.10917618125677109,
-0.20047777891159058,
0.15556691586971283,
0.20683202147483826,
0.1487085372209549,
0.3905041515827179,
0.02833126112818718,
-0.02541528269648552,
0.6642853021621704,
-0.6835783123970032,
-0.542814314365387,
0.11011841148138046,
-0.13259221613407135,
-0.22637084126472473,
-0.001958310604095459,
0.9218667149543762,
-0.48193359375,
0.04919372871518135,
0.07984589040279388,
-0.3265247642993927,
0.4492991268634796,
0.0686965137720108,
-1.538704752922058,
-0.22477315366268158,
-0.34982120990753174,
0.2576735019683838,
0.2725684344768524,
-1.0408116579055786,
0.3919278681278229,
-0.18845947086811066,
-0.2708187699317932,
-0.514204740524292,
0.01133919321000576,
0.6406722664833069,
0.022667089477181435,
0.16981886327266693,
0.15960149466991425,
1.0090447664260864,
0.4759947955608368,
0.65167635679245,
-0.7856027483940125,
0.7003816366195679,
-0.19747468829154968,
0.15601223707199097,
-0.057054586708545685,
-0.3315134048461914,
0.5130345225334167,
0.5661410689353943,
-0.48521965742111206,
0.062085822224617004,
-0.22871607542037964,
0.45410680770874023,
-0.5059880018234253,
-0.38070404529571533,
-0.015849482268095016,
0.2935987710952759,
0.10455956310033798,
0.07037460058927536,
0.5011295676231384,
-0.021516017615795135,
0.16255560517311096,
-0.43695563077926636,
0.1442263275384903,
0.4489070177078247,
-0.3418762683868408,
-0.4707406163215637,
0.3230728507041931,
0.688277006149292,
0.08968418091535568,
-0.4626349210739136,
-0.4112348258495331,
-0.14385570585727692,
-0.7063650488853455,
0.17264562845230103,
0.27145934104919434,
-0.19129477441310883,
0.013597923330962658,
0.3722606301307678,
0.139901265501976,
-0.24806329607963562,
0.9343446493148804,
0.08126962929964066,
-0.04256921634078026,
0.05580704286694527,
-0.18236559629440308,
-0.40591228008270264,
-0.06632617115974426,
-0.25770363211631775,
-0.6238937973976135,
0.6875752806663513,
-0.36862194538116455,
0.5947169661521912,
0.6093210577964783,
0.01028567273169756,
-0.08994848281145096,
-0.060465261340141296,
-0.06791660189628601,
-0.045109864324331284,
0.45201408863067627,
0.2237052321434021,
-0.598127543926239,
-0.00741336727514863,
-0.32108092308044434,
0.37619635462760925,
0.546592652797699,
-0.11088603734970093,
0.005007531959563494,
-0.5160236358642578,
-0.7535495162010193,
0.7496759295463562,
-0.49420562386512756,
-0.9057105779647827,
-0.10074703395366669,
0.3114944100379944,
0.3389093577861786,
-0.352754145860672,
-0.7251596450805664,
-1.0990906953811646,
0.37226176261901855,
0.2053220570087433,
-1.3096858263015747,
-0.4939257502555847,
-0.46541258692741394,
0.045649584382772446,
-0.4894697666168213,
-0.031067408621311188,
0.08398851007223129,
0.15821708738803864,
-0.2997914254665375,
0.29808586835861206,
0.36403051018714905,
-0.5618048906326294,
0.37622854113578796,
0.4250471293926239,
-0.5874660611152649,
0.10531583428382874,
-0.444192498922348,
0.5516312718391418,
0.3062826097011566,
0.7664786577224731,
0.12457875907421112,
0.13779990375041962,
0.564760684967041,
0.29662299156188965,
-0.5044740438461304,
-0.2207530289888382,
0.8527341485023499,
-0.4220508635044098,
0.5132206678390503,
0.10879530012607574,
-0.32522889971733093,
0.1729590743780136,
-0.29908865690231323,
1.2313730716705322,
0.04205118492245674,
0.08611293882131577,
0.9068484902381897,
0.3358030617237091,
0.6360955834388733,
-0.9360197186470032,
-0.9157853126525879,
-0.04800967127084732,
0.3548162579536438,
-0.5763329267501831,
0.33382728695869446,
0.2117317169904709,
0.1415574550628662,
-0.8153076767921448,
-0.05466245859861374,
-0.9849583506584167,
-0.02330070175230503,
0.26549386978149414,
-1.0077388286590576,
-0.16580888628959656,
-0.3819250464439392,
0.30451762676239014,
0.16192997992038727,
0.30033576488494873,
-0.24861562252044678,
-0.10349295288324356,
-0.24870753288269043,
-0.06710359454154968,
-0.2910924553871155,
0.3295477330684662,
-0.3078938126564026,
0.7497537732124329,
0.47764265537261963,
-0.051555339246988297,
-0.07377968728542328,
0.6885556578636169,
0.5063599348068237,
0.4117615818977356,
0.044348590075969696,
-0.5443317294120789,
0.3361974358558655,
-0.03319462761282921,
-0.08123359084129333,
-0.6725894808769226,
-0.27961212396621704,
-0.22363775968551636,
0.3200243413448334,
-0.366547167301178,
0.25868383049964905,
0.9512993097305298,
-0.3446270525455475,
0.3021984100341797,
-0.6532610654830933,
0.4365854263305664,
-0.018393568694591522,
-0.4369095265865326,
-0.4891224503517151,
0.46019506454467773,
0.2712950110435486,
-0.4155323803424835,
0.2766164243221283,
-0.7567203640937805,
-0.4284544289112091,
0.4326672852039337,
-0.46833160519599915,
-0.38618117570877075,
-0.5909757614135742,
0.5465560555458069,
0.4012748599052429,
-0.2891947031021118,
0.25436314940452576,
0.22762945294380188,
0.1607716977596283,
-0.45093420147895813,
0.32807010412216187,
-0.25818750262260437,
0.5789793729782104,
-0.5371478796005249,
-0.04421476274728775,
-0.4761716425418854,
-0.4082213044166565,
0.3501754403114319,
0.29933109879493713,
0.4584665596485138,
0.534119188785553,
-1.033405065536499,
-0.32745644450187683,
0.18455757200717926,
0.009466579183936119,
-0.5533785223960876,
-0.3170466423034668,
0.16599921882152557,
0.9560469388961792,
-0.14589017629623413,
0.14015145599842072,
-0.08781959861516953,
0.31341156363487244,
0.26880112290382385,
-0.03552977740764618,
-0.6938891410827637,
-0.39561471343040466,
-0.061984941363334656,
-0.3801615834236145,
-0.41321688890457153,
0.24835476279258728,
0.2856929302215576,
0.13019342720508575,
-0.18160542845726013,
0.6596953868865967,
-0.49607980251312256,
-0.5367745161056519,
0.24738499522209167,
-0.7310608625411987,
-0.6454246640205383,
0.4100602865219116,
0.17073391377925873,
0.1378280222415924,
0.08516053110361099,
-0.1342727392911911,
0.26890483498573303,
0.2542518079280853,
0.5442779064178467,
-0.021870216354727745,
-0.1461419314146042,
0.9979656338691711,
0.19645939767360687,
-0.12781858444213867,
-0.43400558829307556,
0.4765566289424896,
-0.15996496379375458,
-0.10639083385467529,
-0.19240590929985046,
-0.6093442440032959,
0.11428296566009521,
0.5032010674476624,
0.1814907044172287,
0.9892339706420898,
-0.4220772087574005,
-0.0012668840354308486,
0.22792662680149078,
-0.17158713936805725,
-0.13067007064819336,
0.15193884074687958,
-0.7254547476768494,
0.34883344173431396,
0.2833874523639679,
-0.11229588836431503,
0.2252383679151535,
-0.6915703415870667,
0.06844653934240341,
0.19066348671913147,
-0.013225579634308815,
-0.9418607950210571,
-0.2975699305534363,
-0.17651823163032532,
0.4681069254875183,
-0.572832465171814,
1.1158775091171265,
0.5421487092971802,
-0.07352501153945923,
-0.588373064994812,
-0.08347917348146439,
-0.5131831169128418,
0.4583014249801636,
-0.42914021015167236,
-0.8389245867729187,
-0.06783054769039154,
-0.6924415826797485,
0.132703959941864,
-0.07276030629873276,
0.02852250076830387,
0.18025198578834534,
0.36830440163612366,
-0.6965450048446655,
-0.10269985347986221,
-0.8155105113983154,
-0.044371649622917175,
-0.26304182410240173,
-0.5271686315536499,
-0.5876767039299011,
-0.18993617594242096,
-0.09442924708127975,
-0.1415082961320877,
0.31250065565109253,
0.4071184992790222,
0.17087483406066895,
-0.4292704164981842,
-0.5522753596305847,
0.2846779525279999,
-0.45841625332832336,
-0.5693038105964661,
-0.4243926405906677,
-0.1688966304063797,
0.5596161484718323,
0.46970123052597046,
0.4332485496997833,
0.033486828207969666,
0.22325657308101654,
0.41064453125,
-0.7814003825187683,
0.20779898762702942,
0.13933709263801575,
0.061125706881284714,
0.1386319100856781,
-0.3580703139305115,
-0.18921151757240295,
0.11020529270172119,
0.020851850509643555,
0.06895581632852554,
-0.17525614798069,
0.08623039722442627,
0.5776914954185486,
0.06742828339338303,
0.565045952796936,
-0.03789908066391945,
0.3083011209964752,
-0.10625460743904114,
0.6120879054069519,
0.06870684772729874,
-0.19008934497833252,
0.8083946704864502,
-0.09312275052070618,
-0.7538449764251709,
-0.2630017101764679,
0.35808810591697693,
-0.26336607336997986,
-0.15522858500480652,
-0.2619039714336395,
-0.12200901657342911,
-0.11809580028057098,
-1.4317518472671509,
0.17275884747505188,
-0.03647987172007561,
0.47426602244377136,
-0.3882598876953125,
0.41499707102775574,
0.6991087794303894,
-0.600434422492981,
-0.09682910144329071,
0.5223981142044067,
0.33730652928352356,
-0.9084640741348267,
-0.239815816283226,
0.04499836266040802,
-0.29152050614356995,
0.7721455097198486,
-0.10064434260129929,
0.6250051856040955,
-0.07449758052825928,
0.541447639465332,
-0.23605406284332275,
0.38925543427467346,
-0.24629488587379456,
0.37624478340148926,
-0.23736773431301117
] |
234757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas%27s%20leaf%20warbler | Pallas's leaf warbler | Pallas's leaf warbler or Pallas's warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus) is a bird that breeds in mountain forests from southern Siberia east to northern Mongolia and northeast China. It is named for German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who first formally described it. This leaf warbler is strongly migratory, wintering mainly in south China and adjacent areas of southeast Asia, although in recent decades increasing numbers have been found in Europe in autumn.
Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest Palearctic warblers, with a relatively large head and short tail. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, a lemon-yellow rump, and yellow double wingbars, supercilia and central crown stripe. It is similar in appearance to several other Asian warblers, including some that were formerly considered to be its subspecies, although its distinctive vocalisations aid identification.
The female builds a cup nest in a tree or bush, and incubates the four to six eggs, which hatch after 12–13 days. The chicks are fed mainly by the female and fledge when they are 12–14 days old; both parents then bring food for about a week. Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects and spiders. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and its numbers are believed to be stable. It therefore is evaluated as of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Taxonomy
The English name of Pallas's leaf warbler commemorates the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who found it on the Ingoda River in Siberia in May 1772. He named the new species as Motacilla proregulus when he finally published his findings in 1811. The current genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific proregulus is from Greek pro, "close to", and the name regulus, referring to the similar-looking goldcrest, Regulus regulus.
First described by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826, the genus Phylloscopus comprises about 50 species of small insectivorous Old World woodland warblers that are either greenish or brown above and yellowish, white or buff below. The genus was formerly part of the Old World warbler family Sylvidae, but has now been split off as a separate family, the Phylloscopidae.
Within the genus, Pallas's leaf warbler is one of a group of similar tiny Asiatic species characterised by a yellow rump, a strong supercilium (stripe over the eye), double wing bars and a stripe on the crown of the head, once separated as the genus Abrornis but currently retained in Phylloscopus.
Pallas's leaf warbler was itself formerly treated as a complex of several subspecies, with the nominate form P. p. proregulus breeding in northern Asia, and other subspecies breeding much further south at high altitudes in the mountains from the western Himalayas east to western China (Yunnan and north to Gansu and Hebei).
Although nineteenth-century field naturalists such as Gilbert White and William Edwin Brooks had noted the importance of calls in separating often very similar-looking leaf warblers, for many years their views were not always accepted by the ornithological establishment. More recently, vocalisations have become increasingly important in taxonomy. In the case of the former subspecies of Pallas's leaf warbler, even though they differ only slightly in plumage, the southern forms are very distinctive vocally. Their songs and calls differ from those of the nominate race, and DNA analysis from 2006 has confirmed these forms to be sufficiently distinct that they are now treated as separate species, leaving Pallas's leaf warbler as a monotypic taxon. The split species are:
Lemon-rumped warbler Phylloscopus chloronotus. Himalayas, southwest China. Three subspecies, P. c. chloronotus, P. c. forresti and P. c. simlaensis.
Gansu leaf warbler Phylloscopus kansuensis. Central western China, monotypic.
Chinese leaf warbler Phylloscopus yunnanensis (synonym P. sichuanensis). Western China, monotypic.
Of these, Phylloscopus chloronotus forresti is possibly also a separate species, but further analysis is required to confirm this. The breeding ranges of the Gansu leaf warbler and the Chinese leaf warbler overlap in southern Gansu, but the species are separated ecologically: the Gansu leaf warbler is found in taller forest habitats and the Chinese leaf warbler uses lower, often scrubby habitats. "Lemon-rumped warbler" was sometimes used as synonym for Pallas's leaf warbler before the species' split. Pallas's leaf warbler appears to have diverged from the Chinese leaf warbler 4.1–5.5 million years ago, and from its other former subspecies about 1.7–3.2 million years ago.
Description
Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest warblers, with a large head and short tail. At long and in weight, it is slightly smaller than a yellow-browed warbler and barely any larger than a goldcrest. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, but is very striking, with prominent pale yellow double wingbars on the wing covert feathers, bold yellow supercilia and central crown stripe, and a lemon-yellow rump. The bill is blackish-brown with a yellowish tinge to the cutting edges and the base of the lower mandible, the iris is brown, and the legs are brown with a green or greyish tinge. Although the yellow rump is obvious when a bird is low in vegetation or hovering, it can otherwise be hard to see.
In Asia, Pallas's leaf warbler can be distinguished from its former subspecies by its yellower head stripes, wingbars and throat as well as its different vocalisations. Other yellow-rumped Asiatic warblers resemble Pallas's; buff-barred and Brooks's leaf warblers are larger, much duller green above and less strongly marked, and their wing bars are buff and white respectively, not yellow. Ashy-throated warbler has grey head markings, face and throat, and pale yellow underparts.
The sexes of Pallas's leaf warbler have similar plumage, but non-breeding birds are somewhat brighter green above and have broad, bright fringes to their flight feathers. Juveniles are like the adults, but have a brown tinge to the upperparts, greyish-white underparts and a duller supercilium. Adults have a complete post-breeding moult in August or September before migrating south. Juveniles and pre-breeding adults have a partial moult in March or April, replacing all the body plumage and some tail feathers.
The song of Pallas's leaf warbler is delivered from a concealed perch near the top of a tall tree. It is strong and prolonged, with a medley of whistles, or similar, with some phrases reminiscent of a canary, and interspersed trills. It lasts 2–4 seconds and may be heard in the winter quarters as well as from breeding birds. The call is a short, soft . In contrast, the former subspecies have quite different songs, with sustained rattles for several seconds, or sometimes minutes. Their calls are typically sharp and monosyllabic.
Distribution and habitat
Pallas's leaf warbler breeds in coniferous taiga forests including fir, spruce, pine and larch, or in mixed forest with rhododendron, karsu oak and a high percentage of conifers. In southern Russia, it was found breeding at up to . In winter, it uses a wider range of habitats, including broadleaf forest and scrub as well as conifers, and can be found in river valleys down to .
Pallas's leaf warbler breeds in Siberia from the Altai Mountains east to the Sea of Okhotsk, northern Mongolia, northeast China and possibly North Korea. It is strongly migratory and winters mainly in subtropical south China, northern Thailand and elsewhere in northeastern Indochina. It is rare but annual in Japan.
Other movements
Pallas's leaf warbler now occurs regularly in Europe in autumn. The first known European record was shot in 1829 in Dalmatia, now Croatia, but John Gould, who formally described it, did not realise the species had already been discovered in Asia, and named it as the "Dalmatian Regulus", Regulus modestus. German ornithologist Heinrich Gätke, who moved to the then-British island of Heligoland in 1837 and stayed there for some fifty years, subsequently showed that several Asiatic species, including an occasional Pallas's leaf warbler, were regularly found there in autumn.
In the far west of Europe, the UK's first Pallas's leaf warbler was shot in 1896, although it was not until 1951 that the second was found. Thereafter, this species became increasingly common, ceasing to be a national rarity at the end of 1990. In 2003, for example, 313 were recorded in Britain. Pallas's leaf warbler also occurs at least annually in Sweden, Finland and Denmark.
Most Pallas's leaf warblers found in Europe are first-year birds, and several reasons for the large increase in numbers in autumn have been proposed. In the past, these warblers were widely considered to be vagrants or reverse migrants, but were more recently thought to be undertaking a regular migration, taking advantage of the mild oceanic climate on the western fringes of Europe for overwintering. A flaw in that theory is that many birds should winter in Spain, particularly in the northwest, but Pallas's leaf warbler is rare in that country and tends to occur in the east. Spanish ornithologist Eduardo de Juana has therefore proposed that once the warblers reach northwest Europe, they then reorientate to a south easterly direction.
Outside Europe, Pallas's leaf warbler has been recorded as a vagrant in north Africa (Tunisia and Morocco), western Asia (Israel, Turkey and Iran), central Asia (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), southeast Asia (Bangladesh and Taiwan), and Alaska.
Behaviour
Pallas's leaf warbler is not wary but its unobtrusive arboreal lifestyle makes it difficult to observe, particularly in thick foliage. It is constantly in motion, and often hovers briefly like a goldcrest, although more frequently, and may sometimes hang upside-down.
Breeding
Nesting is from June to July, with eggs laid from mid-June. The nest is built by the female in a conifer, usually next to the trunk at above ground, sometimes in a bush. It is a round or elliptical cup made from twigs, leaves and other vegetation and lined with finer material including feathers, hair or fine grasses. Four to six blue-grey flecked white eggs are laid and incubated by the female. They hatch after 12–13 days, with the chicks fledging when 12–14 days old. They are fed mainly by the female while in the nest, but by both parents for about a week after fledging. In the south of the range, a pair may sometimes raise a second brood. The breeding territory in central Siberia is usually , infrequently as much as .
Pallas's leaf warbler, as with other members of its genus, is a host of the oriental cuckoo, a brood parasite. The cuckoo's egg is similar in appearance, though larger, to those of the host species.
Feeding
Like its relatives, Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects including flies, moths and aphids; spiders are also taken. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. When not breeding, they may join mixed-species foraging flocks together with tits, goldcrests and other warblers. In Asia, accompanying species may also include white-eyes, minivets and babblers.
Status
The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and although global population trends have not been quantified, numbers are believed to be stable. This species does not approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (that is, declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as of "least concern" by the IUCN.
Pallas's leaf warbler is widespread, common and locally abundant in Russia and northeast China. Breeding densities of up to 35–50 pairs/km2 (90–130 pairs/mi2) have been recorded in southeast Russia, with only slightly lower figures in Siberia. It is locally common in parts of its wintering grounds in southeast Asia.
Notes
References
Cited texts
Further reading
External links
Song and calls at xeno-canto
Pallas's leaf warbler
Birds of North Asia
Birds of Mongolia
Birds of Manchuria
Pallas's leaf warbler | [
-0.6464850306510925,
0.2233308106660843,
-0.7857562899589539,
-0.16798247396945953,
0.1648205667734146,
1.0038670301437378,
0.22715674340724945,
0.9343317151069641,
-1.1094354391098022,
-0.1960781067609787,
-0.28607451915740967,
-0.537442147731781,
-0.6897351145744324,
0.06185585632920265,
0.26257216930389404,
0.5558283925056458,
0.19310998916625977,
0.3687915802001953,
-0.02566460892558098,
-0.3418131172657013,
0.1604517549276352,
-0.45244890451431274,
0.8964327573776245,
-0.33765140175819397,
0.014438645914196968,
0.21876706182956696,
0.2402588129043579,
0.7453631162643433,
0.39655882120132446,
0.2175082564353943,
-0.515580415725708,
0.6306679844856262,
0.32040008902549744,
-0.24539178609848022,
0.21957367658615112,
-0.16102221608161926,
-0.026772987097501755,
-0.21737556159496307,
0.05416997894644737,
-0.4837413430213928,
0.6844450235366821,
-0.025212500244379044,
-0.560052752494812,
0.21347130835056305,
0.11357798427343369,
-0.46708112955093384,
-0.9743096828460693,
0.2624114453792572,
-0.7270567417144775,
-0.006244543939828873,
-0.10128208994865417,
0.697748601436615,
0.01219281554222107,
0.4927103519439697,
0.3066786527633667,
0.7171158790588379,
-1.0650596618652344,
0.3356621563434601,
0.24790391325950623,
0.2123965322971344,
-0.20278212428092957,
-0.15969355404376984,
-0.3189598321914673,
0.29867619276046753,
0.29561448097229004,
0.4699676036834717,
0.0031224703416228294,
0.16731630265712738,
-0.4950771927833557,
-0.6718504428863525,
-0.18785008788108826,
-0.3054744005203247,
0.060322076082229614,
0.9480471611022949,
-0.005749423056840897,
-0.0961780995130539,
-0.20293283462524414,
-0.1444564014673233,
0.3227139711380005,
-0.26303422451019287,
0.3986424207687378,
0.4570341408252716,
0.9897034764289856,
0.2262333780527115,
-0.027658984065055847,
0.0387364961206913,
-1.2296528816223145,
0.31577926874160767,
-0.06097685545682907,
-0.21396899223327637,
-0.4104694724082947,
-0.4811893403530121,
0.9604343175888062,
0.4395432770252228,
-0.3026143014431,
-0.022870296612381935,
-0.7936734557151794,
-0.03404126316308975,
0.3514907956123352,
0.28001490235328674,
-0.031250759959220886,
0.7268891334533691,
0.5159998536109924,
0.026100410148501396,
-0.6716419458389282,
0.22398342192173004,
-0.20121638476848602,
0.16250529885292053,
-0.49169477820396423,
-0.07669447362422943,
-0.9698935747146606,
0.0475485622882843,
-0.05371361970901489,
0.21768231689929962,
0.15564946830272675,
0.790622353553772,
0.0689425840973854,
-1.0167291164398193,
-0.23123323917388916,
0.03101768158376217,
0.5933359861373901,
0.45882609486579895,
-0.24574245512485504,
0.48901626467704773,
0.2073497176170349,
0.3990793824195862,
0.3201935589313507,
0.34559717774391174,
-0.3175359070301056,
1.073067307472229,
0.3612803816795349,
1.0444079637527466,
-0.05872001498937607,
0.10281215608119965,
-0.1257496476173401,
-0.02151867374777794,
0.6395233869552612,
-0.45279717445373535,
0.1498478800058365,
0.6942187547683716,
-1.403960943222046,
-0.12505541741847992,
-0.19383759796619415,
-0.5482350587844849,
0.4730447232723236,
0.4232618808746338,
0.07631175965070724,
-0.8513471484184265,
0.1133618950843811,
-0.9521220326423645,
0.4507025480270386,
0.06087672337889671,
0.37070316076278687,
-0.4254278540611267,
-0.6947780251502991,
0.50014328956604,
0.4234684109687805,
-0.3680588901042938,
0.6762327551841736,
-0.006919257342815399,
-0.11155518889427185,
0.03139152750372887,
-0.7710578441619873,
0.2518508732318878,
-0.24597179889678955,
0.29250821471214294,
0.46489688754081726,
0.04093813896179199,
0.2103680521249771,
0.6200434565544128,
-0.3501468598842621,
0.29086628556251526,
0.6960152983665466,
-0.023636771366000175,
-0.4630168676376343,
-0.5168582797050476,
-0.1156647652387619,
0.24768656492233276,
0.23943205177783966,
-0.5379584431648254,
-0.7432023286819458,
0.26723840832710266,
-0.28253883123397827,
-0.08244948834180832,
-0.18082600831985474,
-0.07725416123867035,
0.9421970844268799,
0.12325389683246613,
-0.40741845965385437,
-0.6232855916023254,
-0.41130417585372925,
-0.10635656118392944,
0.14166359603405,
0.05081295967102051,
0.7324134707450867,
-0.01866578683257103,
-0.519179105758667,
0.15202315151691437,
0.1579422801733017,
0.6592221856117249,
-0.7459354400634766,
-0.662693202495575,
0.3090951144695282,
0.20208273828029633,
-1.2357604503631592,
0.2901245653629303,
-0.7368703484535217,
0.21420884132385254,
0.6123252511024475,
0.29944494366645813,
0.489277720451355,
-0.6575413346290588,
0.10622069239616394,
0.20728395879268646,
-0.40096479654312134,
-0.006751616485416889,
-0.36132609844207764,
0.06487464159727097,
0.1587185114622116,
-0.10526333004236221,
0.7539652585983276,
-0.410734087228775,
0.09140747040510178,
0.5399461388587952,
0.017593100666999817,
0.2480793297290802,
0.8252136707305908,
0.24943342804908752,
0.3090686500072479,
-0.3397960364818573,
-0.5687744617462158,
-0.2194729447364807,
0.42985799908638,
-0.3469793498516083,
-0.3213081657886505,
-0.25917771458625793,
-0.5818482041358948,
-1.128625512123108,
0.5796578526496887,
0.06353572756052017,
0.1507980078458786,
0.004900429397821426,
0.4600665271282196,
-0.17955966293811798,
0.507388710975647,
0.03871031105518341,
-0.3389537036418915,
0.4238894283771515,
-0.3031826317310333,
0.26036137342453003,
-0.1333770900964737,
0.8596504330635071,
-0.7020527124404907,
-0.3967137932777405,
-0.29413434863090515,
0.7848771810531616,
0.5540602803230286,
0.1957724541425705,
0.45253583788871765,
0.005168601870536804,
-0.1552099734544754,
-0.06602176278829575,
-0.19039513170719147,
0.5068501234054565,
-0.17877930402755737,
-0.5334993600845337,
-0.20078064501285553,
0.363860547542572,
0.6720770597457886,
0.12374917417764664,
0.443103164434433,
-0.7113789916038513,
-1.0777792930603027,
0.2639632523059845,
-0.45857229828834534,
-0.6871660351753235,
-0.19681161642074585,
-0.3442665934562683,
-0.7879348397254944,
-0.46284279227256775,
-0.04135124012827873,
0.4912068247795105,
0.4501480162143707,
0.18399569392204285,
-0.39063364267349243,
-0.23740360140800476,
0.650140106678009,
-0.3412289321422577,
0.051143828779459,
-0.6126989722251892,
0.13088206946849823,
0.4775266647338867,
0.09076950699090958,
0.6507600545883179,
-0.5263562202453613,
0.28330114483833313,
0.06365188211202621,
0.22622184455394745,
1.0594562292099,
-0.43101125955581665,
-0.934824526309967,
-0.2133515626192093,
-0.1776285171508789,
0.07579003274440765,
0.038007307797670364,
-0.2398100346326828,
0.3411782681941986,
-0.15659429132938385,
-5.175983428955078,
0.434678316116333,
-0.1733970195055008,
-0.5817253589630127,
0.31886038184165955,
0.30753520131111145,
-0.1014692485332489,
-0.5258644223213196,
-0.7104026079177856,
0.1920173466205597,
0.26160627603530884,
-0.23861554265022278,
-0.17622098326683044,
0.24472536146640778,
0.8227997422218323,
0.4774421453475952,
-0.24054361879825592,
0.3496358394622803,
0.463932067155838,
-0.4638592302799225,
-0.17646093666553497,
-0.057665225118398666,
0.44078582525253296,
0.7463139891624451,
0.13906681537628174,
1.0305757522583008,
0.18446913361549377,
-0.42752909660339355,
-0.5257353782653809,
-0.439829558134079,
-0.13129188120365143,
-0.9095109105110168,
0.05391348525881767,
-0.2092212438583374,
-0.0018964045448228717,
-0.3406330347061157,
0.47872692346572876,
0.809499204158783,
0.032769132405519485,
-0.1694907695055008,
-0.39727747440338135,
-0.12775279581546783,
0.23556910455226898,
-0.31357255578041077,
0.5559055805206299,
-0.07340476661920547,
-0.6244769096374512,
-0.27467650175094604,
-0.08126681298017502,
0.6878412365913391,
0.22353075444698334,
-0.3800668716430664,
0.12223096191883087,
0.5111599564552307,
-0.14910286664962769,
0.5459659695625305,
0.5895165801048279,
-0.15800996124744415,
-0.6081264019012451,
0.23490481078624725,
0.8933439254760742,
-0.0030366340652108192,
-0.32386836409568787,
-0.6164581179618835,
0.674480676651001,
-0.11461406946182251,
-0.7632496356964111,
0.05470791459083557,
0.38512805104255676,
-0.006988321430981159,
-0.41226935386657715,
0.11077561229467392,
-0.2595597803592682,
-0.973438560962677,
0.30772721767425537,
-0.43922895193099976,
-0.2378029078245163,
-0.059164900332689285,
-0.48497405648231506,
0.7333552837371826,
-0.03594744950532913,
-0.3381653428077698,
-0.05598871409893036,
0.3374800682067871,
0.5188627243041992,
-0.6494355797767639,
-0.7821534276008606,
0.13650651276111603,
-0.08159423619508743,
-0.04995940253138542,
0.6544901728630066,
-0.4770109951496124,
-0.039193350821733475,
0.16537298262119293,
0.7064993381500244,
0.7921445965766907,
0.26267704367637634,
0.1377962827682495,
0.46471142768859863,
-0.15506209433078766,
0.29025065898895264,
-0.26249954104423523,
-0.2401236891746521,
-0.5506153702735901,
0.13860191404819489,
-0.6956632733345032,
-0.3958146870136261,
0.49891337752342224,
0.4511791169643402,
-0.4624578654766083,
0.4653030335903168,
-0.68433678150177,
-0.32511353492736816,
-0.32747524976730347,
0.326362669467926,
0.13045167922973633,
0.20624025166034698,
0.251822292804718,
0.24875374138355255,
0.05450720340013504,
-0.18889355659484863,
-0.5523687601089478,
-0.08364661782979965,
-0.3022843599319458,
-0.7128278613090515,
-0.5070845484733582,
-0.0112986508756876,
0.1679389327764511,
-0.8032205104827881,
-1.0828837156295776,
-0.015712853521108627,
-0.3736463487148285,
-0.22217339277267456,
-0.11201116442680359,
-0.31559547781944275,
0.1361139863729477,
-0.36373278498649597,
-0.09960942715406418,
0.9172177910804749,
-0.16465868055820465,
-0.5926396250724792,
-0.23744051158428192,
0.06121957674622536,
0.2620680034160614,
1.252786636352539,
0.1021728515625,
-0.43803703784942627,
-0.33730998635292053,
-0.3517903685569763,
0.5093272924423218,
-0.07517092674970627,
-0.24218103289604187,
0.07774602621793747,
-0.3823229670524597,
0.4161916971206665,
-0.1960350126028061,
-0.13018262386322021,
0.22567325830459595,
-0.015553747303783894,
-0.24924834072589874,
0.14164189994335175,
-0.7647057175636292,
-0.7268073558807373,
-0.18526294827461243,
0.18116246163845062,
-0.32475602626800537,
0.2151048630475998,
-0.28938549757003784,
-0.3167566657066345,
0.6374061107635498,
0.6375041007995605,
-0.15019308030605316,
-0.48653480410575867,
0.2526715099811554,
0.20074671506881714,
-0.5679087042808533,
-0.3411844074726105,
0.05109532177448273,
0.037209443747997284,
0.10628389567136765,
-0.9273527264595032,
0.07648230344057083,
-0.09466979652643204,
0.3490496277809143,
0.6107865571975708,
-0.3505648076534271,
0.07130548357963562,
-0.19099298119544983,
-0.15719129145145416,
-0.5545372366905212,
0.2700989246368408,
0.05844306945800781,
0.18768511712551117,
0.2733999192714691,
-0.13019295036792755,
-0.5142285227775574,
-0.11134883761405945,
0.696668803691864,
-0.19678765535354614,
-0.9388723373413086,
-0.11913640797138214,
-0.14883631467819214,
0.4878641664981842,
0.16347409784793854,
0.1643388271331787,
-0.9553142189979553,
0.5524957180023193,
0.23699210584163666,
-0.964365541934967,
0.22033822536468506,
-0.19736364483833313,
-0.5473706126213074,
-0.4678998291492462,
0.7701346278190613,
-0.290926069021225,
0.2481059581041336,
0.17311252653598785,
0.031949419528245926,
-0.9229171276092529,
0.07106542587280273,
-0.3065060079097748,
-0.28206250071525574,
-0.012796963565051556,
-0.5966557860374451,
-0.9618211388587952,
-0.09342873096466064,
0.5804721117019653,
0.14413109421730042,
0.4893891513347626,
-0.8135728240013123,
0.3870084285736084,
-0.37181082367897034,
0.4948548674583435,
-0.2972531318664551,
-0.18917274475097656,
0.4104926288127899,
0.012793276458978653,
-0.3250890076160431,
0.5723199248313904,
1.0278329849243164,
0.4013751149177551,
0.6466484665870667,
0.5880746841430664,
-0.08576454222202301,
-0.02467476576566696,
0.6650440692901611,
0.2570727467536926,
-0.4714762270450592,
-0.7285129427909851,
-0.20469976961612701,
0.43002083897590637,
0.2296697199344635,
-0.4105073809623718,
0.5561861395835876,
1.078931212425232,
-0.5380827188491821,
-0.44991329312324524,
-0.07204233109951019,
0.13901551067829132,
0.313777357339859,
-0.09867856651544571,
-0.2664724588394165,
-0.1585172563791275,
0.47184887528419495,
-0.08249523490667343,
-0.21540886163711548,
-0.33655843138694763,
0.022073782980442047,
0.14804938435554504,
-0.022722916677594185,
0.05634816735982895,
-0.32501399517059326,
0.4973568916320801,
-0.5353066325187683,
-0.5491323471069336,
0.2198215276002884,
0.07431942224502563,
-0.6284241080284119,
-0.0013068997068330646,
0.1805778443813324,
-0.9691528081893921,
-0.17416352033615112,
0.8819710612297058,
-0.18027180433273315,
0.005532979499548674,
-0.5958648920059204,
-0.19281688332557678,
0.06483479589223862,
0.2795819640159607,
-0.029055066406726837,
-0.820300817489624,
0.33117181062698364,
-0.25606849789619446,
-0.12121126055717468,
0.3100236654281616,
0.22145257890224457,
0.10151273012161255,
-0.007252429146319628,
-0.3907598853111267,
-0.12456171959638596,
-0.6704199314117432,
0.21765576303005219,
-0.040040235966444016,
-0.6314128637313843,
-0.18815213441848755,
0.06108133867383003,
0.0512000136077404,
-0.26301074028015137,
-0.44767266511917114,
-0.1797802746295929,
0.7397683262825012,
0.24689486622810364,
0.1364401876926422,
0.2604491412639618,
0.03482060879468918,
0.4961892366409302,
0.07310778647661209,
-0.47883903980255127,
0.06215136498212814,
0.6019195914268494,
0.47398799657821655,
0.5400147438049316,
0.9395930171012878,
-0.057408738881349564,
-0.5384321212768555,
0.5955095291137695,
-0.5352297425270081,
-0.4021168053150177,
0.44997501373291016,
0.4808013141155243,
0.4554996192455292,
-0.16473086178302765,
-0.4791407585144043,
0.4731064736843109,
0.39773568511009216,
-0.621964156627655,
-0.3485269546508789,
-0.7731837034225464,
0.030648937448859215,
0.493593692779541,
0.7049129605293274,
0.8149738311767578,
0.22419676184654236,
-0.017658747732639313,
-0.016253361478447914,
0.16730447113513947,
-0.03379552811384201,
0.2209726721048355,
-0.12891995906829834,
0.15920230746269226,
0.25268837809562683,
-0.05155552178621292,
-0.2013852447271347,
-0.5242409706115723,
0.2933877408504486,
0.2106168121099472,
-0.31969669461250305,
-0.12827423214912415,
-0.1897810995578766,
0.07032051682472229,
0.3040786385536194,
0.47822150588035583,
-0.8881933689117432,
0.2889125347137451,
-0.890006422996521,
0.22777631878852844,
-0.20100271701812744,
-0.3902059495449066,
-0.32445138692855835,
0.18467818200588226,
0.2598455250263214,
0.12850086390972137,
0.06410612910985947,
-0.12634949386119843,
0.3392406404018402,
-0.048394110053777695,
-0.0005198018043302,
0.23339754343032837,
0.18659448623657227,
0.18467645347118378,
-0.38226762413978577,
0.29189160466194153,
0.4372832179069519,
-0.8009758591651917,
0.3284446597099304,
-0.2479788362979889,
0.07786975055932999,
-0.3359731435775757,
0.1389807015657425,
-0.03192064166069031,
-0.12321434915065765,
-0.8709031343460083,
-0.021760500967502594,
-0.049450889229774475,
-0.06137271225452423,
-0.5464708209037781,
0.32358309626579285,
0.5768940448760986,
0.13098709285259247,
0.07699145376682281,
0.5794116258621216,
-0.4436977505683899,
0.07916296273469925,
0.26570990681648254,
0.23790641129016876,
0.17891523241996765,
-0.32236582040786743,
0.1916794776916504,
-0.5886884927749634,
0.8642436861991882,
0.6239259243011475,
0.5512931942939758,
-0.22734281420707703,
0.3708037734031677,
-0.16058988869190216,
0.4057714641094208,
0.4122452735900879,
0.06986907869577408,
-0.21408109366893768,
-0.41904935240745544,
0.18181617558002472,
-0.7594721913337708,
0.8021881580352783,
0.4482360780239105,
0.5781175494194031,
-0.008423550054430962,
0.3594144880771637,
-0.07118519395589828,
-0.5346106290817261,
0.3542453348636627,
-0.05777246132493019,
0.23302684724330902,
-0.18101611733436584,
0.11654103547334671,
-0.024470236152410507,
-0.4113377630710602,
-0.0034443200565874577,
0.7526234984397888,
-0.1438477337360382,
-1.1978530883789062,
0.3540479242801666,
-0.23426553606987,
0.8457163572311401,
-0.1679060012102127,
0.6258621215820312,
0.48092785477638245,
-0.45275959372520447,
-0.6291857957839966,
-0.8247732520103455,
0.18126645684242249,
0.37381604313850403,
-0.17401880025863647,
0.6392430663108826,
0.22436043620109558,
-0.19512230157852173,
0.2631179988384247,
0.05552113801240921,
-0.5893956422805786,
0.0466555655002594,
-0.18501703441143036
] |
234761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arditti%20Quartet | Arditti Quartet | The Arditti Quartet is a string quartet founded in 1974 and led by the British violinist Irvine Arditti. The quartet is a globally recognized promoter of contemporary classical music and has a reputation for having a very wide repertoire. They first became known taking into their repertoire technically challenging pieces. Over the years, there have been personnel changes but Irvine Arditti is still at the helm, leading the group. The repertoire of the group is mostly music from the last 50 years with a strong emphasis on living composers. Their aim from the beginning has been to collaborate with composers during the rehearsal process. However, unlike some other groups, it is loyal to music of a classical vein and avoids cross-genre music. The Quartet has performed in major concert halls and cultural festivals all over the world and has the longest discography of any group of its type. In 1999, it won the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize for lifetime achievement, being the first and only group to date to receive this award.
Repertoire
The Arditti Quartet is dedicated to 20th century and contemporary works, a niche in chamber music where classical masters dominate. While they only play a handful of works from before the 20th century, they require that their repertoire maintains the tradition that has been established in Europe for several centuries. They do not work with composers from fields such as jazz, pop or crossover. They concentrate on those from the last fifty years, along with very new music, mostly repertoire specially written for the ensemble to premiere.
The quartet is considered the authentic interpreters for many late 20th century composers, with a reputation for mastering the most difficult and complex compositions. They rarely improvise as their focus is on working with composers. These composers range from those active in the early 20th century to the present and include Hans Abrahamsen, Thomas Adès[3], Luciano Berio, John Cage[6][9], Elliott Carter, Franco Donatoni, Pascal Dusapin, Henri Dutilleux, Brian Ferneyhough, Morton Feldman, Georg Friedrich Haas, György Kurtag, Helmut Lachenmann, György Ligeti, Witold Lutoslawski, Wolfgang Rihm, Giacinto Scelsi[10], and Iannis Xenakis.
They have on occasion performed minimalist pieces such as Mishima by Philip Glass and the 1st quartet of Gavin Bryars which was written for them. Also works involving electronics are in their repertoire. York Holler's Antiphon, Kaija Saariaho's Nymphea and Roger Reynolds Ariadnes Thread. [7] In their first concert they played new compositions only, but by their second year, they decided that their repertoire needed to include works of the Second Viennese School and Bartók came soon after. Works from earlier in the 20th century as perspective followed and in the 1980s they incorporated Beethoven's Grosse Fuge. They have played Ligeti's Second Quartet and Xenakis 'Tetras' hundreds of times.
The focus on new music is to have the ability to collaborate with the composer in the interpretation of the piece, something the group considers very important, both in how to play and the fact that they consider their work as a kind of service to composers, especially younger and the lesser-known. Composers often make minor adjustments to their compositions after working with the quartet. Norwegian composer Sven Lyder Kahrs calls the group the "Rolls-Royce" of quartets, in part because he does not have to explain how to play his music to them. They just know.
In the past they have been compared to the Kronos Quartet but unlike them are not interested in crossover audiences or cross-genre pieces, but rather stick with the classical quartet form. There are very few pieces common to both groups.
History
The Quartet was founded in 1974 by Irvine Arditti with Levine Andrade, Lennox Mackenzie and John Senter while all were students at the Royal Academy of Music. They modeled themselves on the La Salle Quartet of the United States, focused at first on the LaSalle repertoire, with the aim of supporting composers, playing the pieces as they want them played. Very soon the size of their repertoire went way beyond what the LaSalle achieved or in fact any other group in the history of classical music.
Arditti was born in London in 1953, and began his studies in violin and composition at the Royal Academy at the age of sixteen. Arditti won prizes for violin and composition, but decided he was a better violinist and stopped composing. The focus of the quartet on new music is due to Arditti's interest in it, which began with composing in his childhood and hearing music by Stockhausen, Ligeti and others of the avant garde of the 1960s. It was later that Ardittí became aware of the work of the LaSalle Quartet. In his last year at the Royal Academy of Music the Quartet was founded, and it continued during the time he was in the London Symphony Orchestra from 1976-1980, after which he left the Orchestra in order to dedicate himself full-time to the quartet.
The Quartet's first concert was in September 1974, with the works of Krzysztof Penderecki, who was at the Royal Academy to receive an honorary degree. This gave the group a chance to collaborate with the composer, something they continue to do with composers ever since. The quartet was named after Arditti because they needed a name in 24 hours, so they used his with the idea that it would be temporary, but the name stuck.
In their early years, before the end of the 1970s, the ensemble performed and recorded all the quartets of Hans Werner Henze and Gyorgy Ligeti. They also began performing live on BBC. They commissioned their first piece in 1977, Jonathan Harvey's String Quartet No. 1.
The group continued to have success touring and recording in Europe but it was not until the success of Kronos Quartet that the ensemble came to the attention of US and Canadian audiences, with a tour in the late 1980s.
Over more than four decades of its existence, the only founder member that remains is its leader Irvine Arditti.
For the 40th anniversary of the quartet in 2014, one of the celebrations in London included a three-concert-in-one-day event, with works by fifteen different composers with whom their leader Arditti has been particularly closely associated, as well as the world premier or several new works.
Recognition
The Quartet has a worldwide reputation as a leader for its interpretation of 20th century and contemporary new music, receiving extensive critical praise. They have been noted for their "...astonishing virtuosity and their willingness to extend the boundaries of what can be expected of a string quartet..." However, they have also been criticized as being severe, dry and intellectual with a "kind of high-flown rhetoric that almost seemed designed to show that 'new music' can live in a pretentiously self-absorbed world."
Awards include the Deutsche Shallplatten Preis on various occasions, the Gramophone Award for best recording of contemporary music in 1999, 2002 and 2018, the Coup de Coeur Prize and Grand Prix from the Academie Charles Cros in 2004 and the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize for lifetime achievement in 1999. They are the first and only group to date to receive the Siemen Foundation prize.
Concerts and recordings
The Quartet is highly active throughout the year, mostly with performing and recording and premiering between twenty and fifty new works each year, taking time off only during the summer and Christmas vacations. They have performed hundreds of new works and commissions, with a discography of over 200 CDs on over twenty labels, by far the longest contemporary discography of any string quartet. A complete archive of the quartet's work is located at the Sacher Foundation in Basel, Switzerland.
Most of their performances are in concert halls and festivals within Europe, but they are known all over the world and have performed extensively in the US, Canada, Korea, South America, Japan and Mexico.
One special piece which Arditti himself arranged the commission involved not playing in a concert hall. This was Stockhausen's Helicopter quartet, which required each member to perform his part in his own helicopter, and be relayed to the ground electronically where the audience was listening in a concert hall.
Discography
Hans Abrahamsen: String Quartets 1-4 (CD Winter & Winter 910 242-2, released 2017)
Harrison Birtwistle: The Tree of Strings, 9 Movements (CD: AEON AECD1217, released 2012)
John Cage: Music for Four, 30 Pieces (CD: MODE Mode17, released 1989)
John Cage: String quartet in four parts, Four (CD: MODE Mode27, released 1992)
Elliott Carter: String quartets 1–4, Elegy (CD: Et Cetera KTC 1065-66, released 1989)
Pascal Dusapin: String quartets 1–5, Musique Fugitive (CD: AEON AECD0983, released 2012)
Pascal Dusapin: String quartets 6-7 (Quartet 6 Hinterland for quartet and orchestra) |AEON]] AECD1753, released 2017)
Brian Ferneyhough: String quartets Sonatas (1), 2-6, Adagissimo, Dum Transissets I-IV, Exordium, string trio's 1994 + 1995 AEON AECD1335, released 2017)
Roberto Gerhard: String quartets 1–2, Chaconne (CD: AEON AECD1225, released 2010)
Jonathan Harvey: String quartets 1–4, String trio (CD: AEON AECD0975, released 2009)
Hans Werner Henze: String quartets 1–5 (CD: WERGO WER 60114/ 15-50, released 1986)
Toshio Hosokawa: String quartets Urbilder, Landscape I, Silent flowers, Floral fairy, Blossoming, Kalligraphie (CD: WERGO WER 6761 2, released 2013)
Toshio Hosokawa: Quintets Fragmente II with recorder, Landscape II with harp, Landscape V with sho + solos elegy for violin, threnody for viola, chant for cello, (CD: WERGO WER 6769 2, released 2014)
Helmut Lachenmann: String quartets 1, 2 and 3 (CD: KAIROS Kairos 0012662, released 2011)
György Ligeti: String quartets 1, 2 (CD: WERGO WER 60079-50, released 1988)
György Ligeti: String quartets 1, 2, 2 Movements, Ballad und tanz, Hyllning (CD: SONY SK62306, released 1996)
Conlon Nancarrow: String quartets 1, 3, Studie 15, 31, 33, 34, Toccata (CD: WERGO WER 6696 2, released 2007)
Hilda Paredes: Cuerdos del Destino, Canciones Lunáticos, Papalote, In Memoriam Thomas Kakuska (CD: AEON AECD0975, released 2015)
Karl Aage Rasmussen: Solos and Shadows; Surrounded by Scales / Bent Sørensen: Alman; Adieu; Angels' Music (CD Dacapo 9003/9003b, released 1990)
Arnold Schönberg: String quartets I–IV (CD: Montaigne/naive MO782024, released 1994)
Arnold Schönberg: Chamber Music (CD: Montaigne/naive MO782025, released 1995)
Karlheinz Stockhausen: Helikopter quartett (CD: Stockhausen Verlag CD 53A + B, released 1999)
Anton Webern: complete string trios and quartets (CD: Montaigne/naive MO782136, released1991)
Iannis Xenakis: complete string chamber music (CD: Montaigne/naive MO782005, released 1992)
John Zorn Myth and Mythopoeia (Tzadik, released 2014)
Other activities
Members of the group regularly conduct master classes in Europe, the United States and Canada, for performers and composers, generally in a guest capacity. From 1982 to 1996, they worked with young composers at the Darmstadt International Summer Courses for New Music. They also encourage younger quartets interested in new music.
In 2013, they collaborated with the composer Brian Ferneyhough on a documentary called Climbing a Mountain'' which is about how the group prepares for the presentation of new pieces. It was created particularly for composers and music students to help them understand the rehearsal process.
Members
Irvine Arditti (violin), 1974–
Ashot Sarkissjan (violin), 2005–
Ralf Ehlers (viola), 2003–
Lucas Fels (cello), 2006–
Past members
Second violin
Lennox Mackenzie, 1974–1983
Alexander Balanescu, 1983–1985
David Alberman, 1985–1994
Graeme Jennings, 1994–2005
Viola
Levine Andrade, 1974–1990
Garth Knox, 1990–1997
Dov Scheindlin, 1997–2002
Cello
John Senter, 1974–1976
Helen Liebmann, 1976–1977
Rohan de Saram, 1977–2005
References
Further reading
External links
Arditti String Quartet at Sony BMG Masterworks
English string quartets
Contemporary classical music ensembles
Ernst von Siemens Music Prize winners
Musical groups established in 1974
Gramavision Records artists
Winter & Winter Records artists
Albany Records artists | [
-0.3233058750629425,
0.21608957648277283,
0.13293787837028503,
-0.7949217557907104,
-0.17930267751216888,
0.3630264103412628,
-0.275835245847702,
0.012199010699987411,
0.07512819766998291,
-0.3552760183811188,
-0.3569243848323822,
0.3206391930580139,
-0.7357314825057983,
0.23950079083442688,
-0.05606744438409805,
-0.0589190348982811,
0.7041482329368591,
-0.38350731134414673,
-0.5118585824966431,
-0.5174871683120728,
0.5654932856559753,
-0.29969966411590576,
-0.22045539319515228,
0.6684841513633728,
-0.3030208647251129,
-0.09953071922063828,
-0.004338054917752743,
-0.07945702224969864,
0.9805485010147095,
-0.02027888223528862,
0.17417007684707642,
0.8061777353286743,
0.45355871319770813,
-0.7676629424095154,
0.19723521173000336,
0.1521592140197754,
0.18534152209758759,
-0.030231472104787827,
-0.1105448380112648,
0.11571833491325378,
0.3815864622592926,
-0.23636241257190704,
0.19144189357757568,
0.5732461810112,
0.23426030576229095,
-0.6434812545776367,
-1.6570254564285278,
0.7501820921897888,
-0.06305687129497528,
0.10773637890815735,
-0.3130415976047516,
0.18023580312728882,
1.0499012470245361,
0.2794969379901886,
-0.22981828451156616,
-0.07241847366094589,
-0.12665309011936188,
-0.24612677097320557,
0.09383745491504669,
-0.6568728685379028,
-0.4542539119720459,
0.47960978746414185,
0.5952563881874084,
-0.5233796834945679,
-0.18403133749961853,
0.012050141580402851,
0.17777979373931885,
0.11517131328582764,
0.12345162779092789,
-0.24987667798995972,
-0.2989778220653534,
0.30980873107910156,
-0.46710845828056335,
-0.48878374695777893,
-0.006581798195838928,
-0.18286874890327454,
0.6465517282485962,
0.22448347508907318,
-0.01204726193100214,
0.7169901728630066,
0.30314311385154724,
0.6410813927650452,
0.8856098651885986,
-0.02700619585812092,
0.19863826036453247,
0.04424611106514931,
-0.6102156639099121,
-0.005831071641296148,
-0.3863769471645355,
0.10694053769111633,
-0.39698606729507446,
-0.9361421465873718,
0.7386291027069092,
0.3348817527294159,
-0.007239104714244604,
0.5870674848556519,
0.14894677698612213,
0.14475704729557037,
0.19073516130447388,
0.0032037403434515,
0.43561723828315735,
0.14509877562522888,
-0.12788042426109314,
-0.4374646544456482,
-0.8661702871322632,
0.0835561752319336,
-0.23033221065998077,
-0.7211226224899292,
-0.08701702952384949,
0.04486844688653946,
-0.2898654341697693,
-0.4030299186706543,
-0.002920689294114709,
-0.13592088222503662,
-0.0641326755285263,
0.31438982486724854,
-0.045959457755088806,
-0.210191011428833,
-0.5589943528175354,
-0.02804616466164589,
0.23947151005268097,
0.7910275459289551,
0.13541166484355927,
0.6722590923309326,
-0.493096262216568,
0.13414131104946136,
0.2871631681919098,
0.276990681886673,
-0.4754529595375061,
-0.2854432165622711,
-0.5244201421737671,
0.5952221751213074,
0.18742115795612335,
-0.2775804400444031,
0.4891428053379059,
0.08721908926963806,
-0.19652792811393738,
-0.04906080290675163,
-0.23431864380836487,
0.25895026326179504,
-0.6366374492645264,
-0.08659930527210236,
-0.5100806951522827,
-0.5455635190010071,
1.0183770656585693,
0.023159008473157883,
-0.5489239692687988,
-0.16120053827762604,
0.38033416867256165,
-0.6848828196525574,
-0.009989436715841293,
-0.6013071537017822,
-0.47123193740844727,
-0.017174437642097473,
-0.276690810918808,
0.06853635609149933,
0.5743475556373596,
-0.049234434962272644,
0.7263208627700806,
-0.500341534614563,
0.5035386681556702,
-0.4065231680870056,
-0.0002747167309280485,
-0.30751118063926697,
-0.16233199834823608,
-0.21827839314937592,
-0.053804777562618256,
0.2112329602241516,
0.11857131868600845,
0.08883588016033173,
-0.16003023087978363,
0.1569368690252304,
0.7085070013999939,
-0.2052612453699112,
0.027101818472146988,
0.10527229309082031,
0.6268287897109985,
0.28010812401771545,
-0.11643635481595993,
-0.08024878799915314,
-0.8301300406455994,
-0.6155768036842346,
0.311419278383255,
-0.48595672845840454,
0.53287672996521,
0.15712079405784607,
-0.2874623239040375,
0.24044091999530792,
0.5500916242599487,
0.22833462059497833,
-0.10762163251638412,
-0.17689096927642822,
0.49986910820007324,
0.0243711955845356,
1.4814924001693726,
0.2947555184364319,
-0.14155393838882446,
0.5057113766670227,
0.7049909830093384,
0.2525080442428589,
-0.00908876582980156,
-0.12210478633642197,
0.6744278073310852,
-0.054641712456941605,
0.16303876042366028,
0.07338777184486389,
0.08818919211626053,
-0.3150188624858856,
-0.1873040497303009,
0.16188043355941772,
0.09739457070827484,
-0.3395449221134186,
0.35375484824180603,
0.19880282878875732,
-0.10340237617492676,
-0.266635537147522,
-0.3602725863456726,
0.06461576372385025,
0.10305210202932358,
-0.16867095232009888,
0.8010832667350769,
0.09715243428945541,
0.10073168575763702,
0.3205655515193939,
-0.2033565789461136,
1.6057448387145996,
0.02843022719025612,
-0.08122088760137558,
-0.16839106380939484,
0.6129196286201477,
0.054905664175748825,
0.02919592335820198,
0.20449091494083405,
0.21286047995090485,
0.24880710244178772,
0.09305249899625778,
-0.06454963982105255,
-0.4902384281158447,
0.5074126720428467,
-0.29956966638565063,
0.7481997013092041,
0.17348028719425201,
-1.3784537315368652,
0.6170459985733032,
0.15633949637413025,
0.07155109196901321,
0.5291820764541626,
0.12517207860946655,
0.16318581998348236,
0.5478246212005615,
0.21720200777053833,
0.04301542043685913,
0.5565459728240967,
0.5400397181510925,
-0.22310775518417358,
-0.25388386845588684,
0.3196049630641937,
-0.5494088530540466,
0.3692297041416168,
0.1083415150642395,
-0.021151408553123474,
-0.09164208173751831,
0.4846329987049103,
0.0005191661766730249,
-0.28381580114364624,
-0.5287404656410217,
0.3602602779865265,
-0.6948853135108948,
0.6600033044815063,
-0.7880308032035828,
0.6289379000663757,
0.045522693544626236,
-0.033150091767311096,
0.9888943433761597,
-0.6273258328437805,
0.33695608377456665,
-0.6019802093505859,
-0.28403332829475403,
0.018479809165000916,
-0.525753378868103,
0.696944534778595,
-0.10684149712324142,
-0.2009045034646988,
-0.2361999899148941,
-0.9854995608329773,
0.7402655482292175,
-0.2693416476249695,
-0.1343311220407486,
0.22172848880290985,
-0.0699126347899437,
0.07612017542123795,
0.17448201775550842,
-0.082304947078228,
0.05765385180711746,
0.22853481769561768,
0.7113491296768188,
-0.06897766888141632,
0.06261719018220901,
-0.33320844173431396,
-0.5258238911628723,
0.007009650114923716,
0.12208501994609833,
-0.1738412082195282,
0.06875210255384445,
0.28171172738075256,
-0.1630224585533142,
-0.40194597840309143,
-0.15416830778121948,
-5.507445335388184,
0.13356913626194,
-0.1788579225540161,
0.20143304765224457,
0.04887492582201958,
0.2852458953857422,
0.5186976194381714,
-1.2426002025604248,
-0.06184615194797516,
-0.20428870618343353,
-0.23760657012462616,
-0.012265081517398357,
-0.6054993271827698,
0.5625261664390564,
0.00929110124707222,
0.10927333682775497,
-0.14545494318008423,
0.21847088634967804,
0.3744741380214691,
0.6173998117446899,
0.5172423720359802,
-0.0008033753256313503,
-0.3730536103248596,
-0.18664121627807617,
-0.12073824554681778,
0.2638871371746063,
-0.35915514826774597,
0.00009603564103599638,
-1.0230401754379272,
0.210281640291214,
-0.4402966797351837,
-0.2872157692909241,
-0.2745269536972046,
-0.029941530898213387,
-0.30119964480400085,
0.25246039032936096,
0.749984622001648,
-0.2664690315723419,
0.43066638708114624,
-0.08654516935348511,
-0.28114965558052063,
0.38847342133522034,
0.3663429319858551,
-0.052457068115472794,
-0.25937148928642273,
0.08046332746744156,
-0.4764106273651123,
-0.4316020905971527,
0.084580197930336,
0.7750996351242065,
-0.03584166243672371,
0.067305788397789,
0.22293907403945923,
-0.3081390857696533,
-0.041471078991889954,
-0.11731629818677902,
-0.299409419298172,
0.09341426193714142,
0.5303099155426025,
0.5829623341560364,
-0.12334108352661133,
-0.25644242763519287,
0.17380011081695557,
-0.5858007073402405,
-0.3807658851146698,
0.1366342455148697,
0.16676385700702667,
0.64236980676651,
0.18207356333732605,
0.7495527267456055,
0.4464847147464752,
0.4326813220977783,
-0.22504569590091705,
-0.9373654127120972,
-0.2899494171142578,
-1.0565276145935059,
0.03238783776760101,
-0.20192933082580566,
0.01733730547130108,
-0.07364717870950699,
-0.518891453742981,
0.003587869694456458,
-0.5664658546447754,
0.1810116022825241,
0.05595263093709946,
0.031253766268491745,
-0.08231430500745773,
0.09093465656042099,
-0.17751063406467438,
-0.08428733795881271,
0.06196649372577667,
-0.7944822907447815,
-0.3666134476661682,
0.9964128732681274,
0.20337490737438202,
0.36883407831192017,
0.22969146072864532,
0.8439069390296936,
0.4864084720611572,
-0.015704777091741562,
0.05339707061648369,
-0.5676906704902649,
-0.4315568208694458,
-0.3598349988460541,
-0.6669154167175293,
0.16840338706970215,
-0.1879192739725113,
-0.027769137173891068,
0.8403595089912415,
0.01685180515050888,
0.026327941566705704,
-0.2830252945423126,
-0.3156522214412689,
-0.7194258570671082,
-0.30223703384399414,
-0.7509269714355469,
-0.0876990407705307,
0.38672974705696106,
0.09257685393095016,
0.03207045793533325,
-0.01129950862377882,
-0.12594376504421234,
0.5358811020851135,
0.002999821910634637,
-0.5327548980712891,
0.36505815386772156,
-0.22059404850006104,
-0.601616382598877,
-0.44233962893486023,
0.22769604623317719,
-0.09118226170539856,
0.18082408607006073,
-0.11842978000640869,
0.5820339918136597,
0.13703325390815735,
-0.4040186107158661,
-1.331363320350647,
0.2438085824251175,
-0.26543885469436646,
0.29024770855903625,
0.1049615740776062,
0.08718107640743256,
-0.612326443195343,
-0.3028286099433899,
0.012762391939759254,
0.5864291787147522,
-0.5540375113487244,
-0.6144197583198547,
-0.830062747001648,
0.3157369792461395,
0.3106449544429779,
-0.2658386826515198,
0.8101786375045776,
-0.2166157364845276,
-0.07649433612823486,
-0.14738601446151733,
-0.4249899983406067,
0.14267408847808838,
-0.41755563020706177,
-0.028227590024471283,
0.583026647567749,
-0.039139676839113235,
-0.7437137961387634,
-0.11108644306659698,
0.42029014229774475,
-0.4497174918651581,
0.15023081004619598,
-0.865710973739624,
-0.6654980182647705,
0.4504973292350769,
-0.05463305488228798,
-0.6719365119934082,
0.5095133185386658,
-0.6314842700958252,
0.5648007392883301,
-0.020449116826057434,
-0.07681256532669067,
-0.02652217447757721,
-0.29035037755966187,
0.18962907791137695,
-0.057356689125299454,
0.10501144081354141,
-0.9478994607925415,
0.4018809199333191,
0.17218472063541412,
-0.020990101620554924,
-0.6321582198143005,
-0.8404040932655334,
-0.09721794724464417,
0.32451021671295166,
0.04451759159564972,
0.0666121169924736,
0.14587947726249695,
-0.012556561268866062,
-0.1761462390422821,
-0.6700124144554138,
-0.0874658152461052,
-0.293403685092926,
-0.3988112509250641,
-0.40914925932884216,
0.45951083302497864,
0.11371496319770813,
-0.8120478391647339,
-0.10702293366193771,
-0.10662158578634262,
-0.6199048757553101,
-0.12839998304843903,
-0.2544529139995575,
-0.4364861845970154,
0.8823705315589905,
-0.176193967461586,
-0.8525444865226746,
0.5430243611335754,
-0.07639256119728088,
-0.266938179731369,
0.08371616154909134,
-0.3984743654727936,
-0.5778800249099731,
-0.5309112668037415,
0.3547403812408447,
-0.5836691856384277,
-0.19837279617786407,
-0.19037476181983948,
-0.03386169299483299,
-0.19152028858661652,
0.31705984473228455,
0.09343115240335464,
-0.13848631083965302,
0.4591296911239624,
-0.5490916967391968,
-0.5396444797515869,
0.05503201484680176,
0.1731405258178711,
-0.21727874875068665,
-0.6834169626235962,
0.17590953409671783,
-0.29587242007255554,
0.16133816540241241,
-0.041932858526706696,
0.7640986442565918,
0.45356765389442444,
0.6378777027130127,
-0.013233193196356297,
-0.5293478965759277,
-0.1574099212884903,
0.11872129142284393,
0.5635303258895874,
-0.20500551164150238,
-0.3623645603656769,
0.3044770658016205,
0.14608235657215118,
-0.5092900395393372,
-0.4298381209373474,
-0.8365999460220337,
1.0079673528671265,
-0.4157652258872986,
0.5075005888938904,
-0.513782799243927,
0.10486513376235962,
-0.2647213935852051,
0.47790735960006714,
0.030844107270240784,
-0.8304930329322815,
-0.12862537801265717,
0.2601759731769562,
0.2570682168006897,
0.11712121963500977,
-0.6749637126922607,
-0.16924619674682617,
0.19902928173542023,
-0.31557440757751465,
-0.11718957871198654,
0.3201636075973511,
0.5163805484771729,
-0.393167644739151,
0.32916390895843506,
-0.1916893571615219,
0.004443253856152296,
-0.06619405746459961,
0.17448033392429352,
-0.18695199489593506,
0.5542377829551697,
0.5588361620903015,
-0.04001561179757118,
0.16483400762081146,
-0.0073451148346066475,
-0.7261180877685547,
-0.2822096049785614,
0.07269201427698135,
-0.194672629237175,
-0.44066882133483887,
-0.36988410353660583,
0.00295721716247499,
0.22127635776996613,
0.4649690091609955,
0.1531081646680832,
0.028492845594882965,
0.009814630262553692,
-0.35300159454345703,
-0.3270527422428131,
-0.4596462845802307,
0.594185471534729,
0.6371058225631714,
0.15053080022335052,
-0.11711679399013519,
-0.16032971441745758,
-0.0997365415096283,
-0.13945169746875763,
-0.24253250658512115,
0.02846764586865902,
0.29440972208976746,
-0.18783213198184967,
-0.06871236860752106,
1.0003334283828735,
-1.1553329229354858,
0.4762040376663208,
0.364107608795166,
0.1619376540184021,
0.1783142238855362,
-0.015015182085335255,
0.48370108008384705,
0.07684829086065292,
-0.07596474140882492,
0.6318792104721069,
-0.3243253231048584,
0.3981615900993347,
-0.036478228867053986,
-0.12421701848506927,
0.5160016417503357,
0.6170616745948792,
0.1986064314842224,
-0.5228174924850464,
-0.452865332365036,
0.6183918714523315,
-0.09856917709112167,
-0.4239928722381592,
0.5074805021286011,
-0.8450515270233154,
-0.41077497601509094,
0.22359856963157654,
0.8443730473518372,
0.2825034558773041,
-0.2810462713241577,
0.34264472126960754,
-0.12812885642051697,
0.5104940533638,
0.12796634435653687,
0.4867278039455414,
0.02619343250989914,
-0.2453562617301941,
0.6955413222312927,
0.9804173111915588,
0.08221325278282166,
-0.23999780416488647,
0.16390392184257507,
0.7427152991294861,
0.5513129830360413,
0.1275549829006195,
0.4239172041416168,
0.2883509397506714,
0.12247131019830704,
0.4938960075378418,
1.0036767721176147,
-0.26182737946510315,
-0.15068332850933075,
0.2543146014213562,
0.3403273820877075,
-0.4708814322948456,
0.09118907153606415,
0.04049813002347946,
0.11203709989786148,
0.33515551686286926,
-0.5369953513145447,
0.283496230840683,
0.18617136776447296,
0.04586711525917053,
0.07889162003993988,
0.5244650840759277,
0.014532648958265781,
0.8053283095359802,
-0.7117086052894592,
0.38610753417015076,
-0.3434962332248688,
0.21903060376644135,
0.052545733749866486,
-0.4588354527950287,
-0.1788758635520935,
-0.03192118555307388,
-0.1875648945569992,
-0.24432161450386047,
0.1091945692896843,
-0.5807328820228577,
-0.4063008427619934,
-0.0754438117146492,
-0.2017602026462555,
-0.6588153839111328,
-0.003404521383345127,
0.5380303859710693,
-0.023173658177256584,
0.8101016879081726,
0.03717311844229698,
0.12419934570789337,
0.5896580219268799,
0.06706349551677704,
-0.029980173334479332,
-0.26612451672554016,
-0.7574694156646729,
-0.15251827239990234,
-1.083329677581787,
0.15509596467018127,
0.5411856174468994,
-0.35747939348220825,
-0.5265800356864929,
0.5111421942710876,
-0.23575013875961304,
0.5561856627464294,
0.37424013018608093,
-0.19696296751499176,
-0.2855812609195709,
-0.1921958178281784,
-0.04892914369702339,
-0.032712314277887344,
0.008436847478151321,
0.05347179248929024,
-0.5094897747039795,
0.5345166325569153,
0.11613450199365616,
-0.13721336424350739,
0.012248579412698746,
0.6854168772697449,
-0.09383375942707062,
0.40943431854248047,
-0.09243078529834747,
0.009465578943490982,
-0.005650507286190987,
-0.5066598653793335,
0.7334410548210144,
-0.299505352973938,
0.7468074560165405,
-0.30086150765419006,
0.47322437167167664,
-0.2329210788011551,
-0.3373420238494873,
0.04986637830734253,
0.12728333473205566,
0.2158173769712448,
-0.31181126832962036,
-0.6381911635398865,
-0.21015189588069916,
0.5084468126296997,
0.11341293901205063,
-0.5484188199043274,
0.05128585547208786,
-0.8322503566741943,
0.06730341166257858,
-0.15618251264095306,
0.4002605974674225,
-0.29527467489242554,
0.03683376684784889,
0.025069639086723328
] |
234766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian%20Quartet | Aeolian Quartet | The Aeolian Quartet was a highly reputed string quartet based in London, England, with a long international touring history and presence, an important recording and broadcasting profile. It was the successor of the pre-War Stratton Quartet. The quartet adopted its new name in the late 1940s and disbanded in 1981.
Personnel
Before 1953 the leader of the Aeolian Quartet is listed as Alfred Cave.
During the 1950s the Quartet had the following celebrated line-up:
Sydney Humphreys (violin) (1952–1970) – leader
Trevor Williams (violin)
Watson Forbes (viola)
John Moore (cello) (before 1956)
In 1970 Emanuel Hurwitz took over as first violin, the remaining members staying with the quartet.
Emanuel Hurwitz (violin) (from 1970)
Raymond Keenlyside (violin) (from 1965)
Margaret Major (viola) (from 1965)
Derek Simpson (cello) (from 1956)
Origins and activities
The Stratton Quartet flourished in the 1920s and 1930s. George Stratton, the leader, found it increasingly difficult to lead the London Symphony Orchestra as well as the Stratton Quartet, and so the Aeolian came into being.
The Stratton Quartet performed under that name at the National Gallery frequently during the war, and in 1946 the group attended the first International Music Festival at Prague. At about that time the new name was adopted. Both Watson Forbes and John Moore, the violist and cellist, had been members of the Stratton Quartet. The Aeolian Quartet leader was Alfred Cave, for recordings made before 1953 of Peter Warlock's The Curlew with Leon Goossens and tenor René Soames and Purcell Fantasias which they recorded with future member Emanuel Hurwitz.
It was, however, under the leadership of Sydney Humphreys that the 1950s formation of the ensemble was particularly remembered. Humphreys, a Canadian violinist, studied in Vancouver and Toronto and in Europe trained with Frederick Grinke and George Enescu. He was leader of the Aeolian Quartet from 1952–1970. He was eminent both as a concertmaster and as a chamber player, notably in the St Cecilia Trio 1954-1965 and as first violin in the Purcell String Quartet 1979–1987.
Emanuel Hurwitz (leader) won a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music in a contest adjudicated by Bronislaw Huberman. In 1937 he was a member of the Scottish National Orchestra under Georg Szell, and in 1938 joined the London Philharmonic under Thomas Beecham. After the war he formed the Hurwitz string quartet, and led the small orchestra in the Glyndebourne premiere of Britten's The Rape of Lucretia. He was sub-leader of the Boyd Neel orchestra under Maurice Clare, and during the 1950s and 1960s leader of the Melos Ensemble and of the English Chamber Orchestra, which he led to international recognition. In 1965 he won the Worshipful Company of Musicians' Gold Medal for services to chamber music. He was guest leader for two seasons of the New Philharmonia Orchestra working with Carlo Maria Giulini and Otto Klemperer. He became leader of the Aeolian Quartet in 1970.
Raymond Keenlyside (the father of the baritone Simon Keenlyside) was also a leader of the Boyd Neel and English Chamber Orchestras. He studied at the Trinity College of Music, London, and later taught and became a professor there. he was professionally associated with string quartet playing from his college days. Margaret Major studied at the Royal College of Music and won the Lionel Tertis Viola Competition there. She then won the IMA concert award, leading to concerts in London, Paris and Geneva. From 1956-1960 she was principal viola for the Netherlands Chamber Orchestra, and then returned as principal viola of the Philo-musica of London. She was a noted soloist, and became the third wife of the cellist Derek Simpson. She became Professor at the Royal College of Music. Derek Simpson was first holder of the Suggia Scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and continued his studies in Paris. Returning to England he won the Queen's Prize and the Moulton-Meyer Award and soon afterwards made his debut in London recital. He was Professor at the Royal Academy of Music.
Activities
Between 1966 and 1973 the Quartet toured Canada, the United States, Mexico and Australia. By 1973 they had completed 33 concerts in Central and South America and the Caribbean, including a performance of Haydn Quartets at the Colon in Buenos Aires. their schedule also included Amsterdam and Brussels, and the Far East. In 1973-4 they were making tours of Spain, the Middle East and Belgium, with other recitals in Italy and Portugal. There were important appearances at the Edinburgh Festival in 1970 and 1972. In 1977 they planned to tour Australia and New Zealand with Kenneth Essex (viola), with whom they recorded Mozart's viola quintets. They held an international summer school in northern Italy, and established a similar course for chamber music players at the 1976 York Festival.
During the early 1970s they maintained a busy schedule in the UK, including appearances at Universities for concerts or master-classes. They were awarded Honorary Degrees at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1970, and were also connected with the University of Reading and the University of East Anglia. They gave regular broadcasts on the BBC. In 1973–76 they were engaged on a recording project for Argo Records (UK) (a limb of Decca), to record the complete Haydn quartets using a new edition by H.C. Robbins Landon. This was the first fully complete recording.
The Quartet broke new ground with a televised performance of all Beethoven's Late Quartets for BBC 2 Television channel, broadcast on five consecutive nights in March 1975, and afterwards repeated in other countries. They also recorded the theme-tune for the well-known BBC comedy Fawlty Towers, first broadcast in 1975.
Recordings
The Quartet in its earlier manifestation, with Humphreys, Keenlyside, Forbes and Simpson, sometimes appears on vinyl under a 'Revolution Records' label (a form of the Delta Records label, made and distributed by RCA, not to be confused with the 1996 label of that name), as for instance in a recording of the Elgar piano quintet with Leonard Cassini, Revolution LP RCB.8 . Since the Aeolian Quartet's predecessor the Stratton Quartet had made the 1933 recording of the Elgar quintet, this Aeolian version (through the continuity in the group of Watson Forbes) has the authority of a tradition going back to the composer.
A pre-1953 recording of Mozart's Quartets K. 575 and K.590 has been released on Allegro ALG 3036 and Allegro/Royale 1516, naming Alfred Cave, Leonard Dight, Watson Forbes and John Moore.
The Quartet made many recordings, but is especially noted for the complete Haydn cycle. This included the dubious op 3 series, and an account of the Seven Last Words From The Cross with poetic readings by Peter Pears (the Hurwitz-Keenlyside-Major-Simpson version, replacing a well-known Humphreys-Keenlyside-Forbes-Simpson version of the same work). In the Schubert C major quintet D956 (c1966) their collaborator is Bruno Schrecker. In recordings of the quartet (composed 1951-52) and clarinet quintet (1968) by Robert Simpson, the clarinettist is Bernard Walton.
In 1949, the quartet (with Cave as leader) recorded Nikolai Medtner's piano quintet, with the composer at the piano. This was the first recording of the work, made as part of a projected cycle of Medtner performing his own works, funded by his friend and admirer, the Maharaja of Mysore.
See also
List of string quartet ensembles
Stratton Quartet
References
Sources
Article in The Gramophone, 1973, (editorial referring to publication of the first of the Haydn series albums, containing opp 71 and 74.)
'The Aeolian String Quartet', in Haydn String Quartets, Argo LPs Volume Nine (HDNL 49-51) insert, page 6.
R. Barret-Ayres, 'The String Quartets of Joseph Haydn: Opus 3 & Seven Last Words from the Cross' (Decca, Argo division, London 1977). (Argo Haydn Volume Eleven, HDNV 82-84 insert).
External links
English string quartets
Musical groups established in the 1920s
Musical groups disestablished in 1981
Claddagh Records artists | [
-0.16509780287742615,
0.19941452145576477,
-0.22731490433216095,
-0.5935779213905334,
-0.253972589969635,
0.3682688772678375,
0.05368335545063019,
0.03870253637433052,
-0.16370776295661926,
-0.22769056260585785,
-0.6195195913314819,
-0.16056786477565765,
-0.49365341663360596,
0.5980069041252136,
-0.10506436228752136,
-0.14614979922771454,
0.48562702536582947,
-0.04392858222126961,
-0.22310975193977356,
-0.6568226218223572,
0.2337193489074707,
0.21331018209457397,
0.2703043818473816,
0.22931987047195435,
-0.14810395240783691,
-0.24201758205890656,
-0.0438552051782608,
0.15428690612316132,
0.7014815807342529,
-0.23711241781711578,
0.27903416752815247,
0.9647903442382812,
0.062013179063797,
-0.8286331295967102,
0.1967836171388626,
-0.01892928034067154,
0.2238890677690506,
0.03928130120038986,
0.039069779217243195,
-0.3738160729408264,
0.2988874316215515,
-0.22723375260829926,
0.6118191480636597,
0.6575658321380615,
-0.17800307273864746,
-0.9663004279136658,
-1.9734046459197998,
0.3890031576156616,
-0.3608304560184479,
-0.07897859066724777,
-0.016953973099589348,
0.13350743055343628,
0.957317590713501,
0.22138868272304535,
-0.1681869477033615,
0.23480115830898285,
-0.6634929776191711,
-0.19497063755989075,
0.4664321541786194,
-0.37850236892700195,
0.04389926418662071,
0.48005884885787964,
0.2683993875980377,
-0.3980117440223694,
0.035615745931863785,
0.27118900418281555,
0.11594890803098679,
0.24329553544521332,
0.08797483891248703,
-0.07079407572746277,
-0.6787471175193787,
0.2516227960586548,
-0.35316044092178345,
-0.308013379573822,
-0.1351025253534317,
-0.46331512928009033,
0.6032525300979614,
-0.1353760063648224,
0.33037593960762024,
0.6792150139808655,
0.628417432308197,
0.7323800921440125,
0.7977373600006104,
0.3050859868526459,
0.20607919991016388,
0.6112598180770874,
-0.9394034147262573,
-0.15088626742362976,
-0.18579375743865967,
0.0317806676030159,
-0.2310526967048645,
-0.9190852642059326,
0.6876406073570251,
0.4227718412876129,
0.06226596236228943,
0.40189915895462036,
-0.1327843815088272,
-0.07695016264915466,
0.2011643797159195,
0.0665392279624939,
0.04211495816707611,
-0.009638062678277493,
-0.08477684110403061,
-0.5035014748573303,
-0.42173731327056885,
0.1763155162334442,
-0.3277088701725006,
-0.3024122714996338,
-0.015782475471496582,
0.1831085979938507,
-0.24663136899471283,
-0.240401029586792,
-0.15140381455421448,
-0.051149141043424606,
0.058859605342149734,
0.290876179933548,
0.04150281473994255,
-0.3499320447444916,
-0.5104455947875977,
0.07634325325489044,
0.08268223702907562,
0.9562631845474243,
0.06664880365133286,
0.4390947222709656,
-0.37511274218559265,
0.2706839144229889,
0.3869338929653168,
0.43723684549331665,
-0.38755059242248535,
-0.30451270937919617,
-0.37779393792152405,
0.5604773163795471,
0.08701101690530777,
-0.47508230805397034,
0.05487603694200516,
0.010430248454213142,
-0.1535150408744812,
0.4336453974246979,
-0.15955227613449097,
0.7575432658195496,
-0.6320029497146606,
-0.43472912907600403,
-0.7000243663787842,
-0.3378196954727173,
0.6869716644287109,
-0.15179094672203064,
-0.16958072781562805,
-0.17029260098934174,
0.09709323942661285,
-0.25044456124305725,
0.34451189637184143,
-0.5854019522666931,
-0.5053932666778564,
-0.01850188337266445,
-0.4688269793987274,
-0.4650924801826477,
0.9483784437179565,
-0.20019705593585968,
0.46221020817756653,
-0.40749406814575195,
0.03366744518280029,
-0.4827122390270233,
0.04749014228582382,
-0.2693852186203003,
-0.3613831698894501,
-0.0676363855600357,
0.002119133248925209,
0.10333054512739182,
-0.11462241411209106,
0.3251083195209503,
-0.36048370599746704,
0.1600176841020584,
0.3396338224411011,
0.23224499821662903,
-0.12717244029045105,
0.21325720846652985,
0.7210427522659302,
0.3478643000125885,
-0.07326636463403702,
-0.1799701303243637,
-0.8925929069519043,
-0.3593500852584839,
0.22986957430839539,
-0.4950029253959656,
0.45608076453208923,
0.33635738492012024,
-0.08097807317972183,
0.4475165903568268,
-0.03447278216481209,
0.1411942094564438,
-0.20597514510154724,
-0.28011202812194824,
0.3741339147090912,
0.0816240906715393,
1.5236871242523193,
0.23612087965011597,
-0.5633412599563599,
0.6662951707839966,
0.4194270074367523,
0.4451703429222107,
0.3398512899875641,
0.2566535472869873,
0.5199636220932007,
-0.009913250803947449,
-0.006078710779547691,
-0.06202445179224014,
0.16835787892341614,
-0.11037406325340271,
0.1407480388879776,
0.1465560346841812,
-0.09680309891700745,
-0.45464733242988586,
0.40906861424446106,
0.3026849925518036,
0.08693163841962814,
-0.5508182048797607,
-0.1613951474428177,
0.20246176421642303,
-0.014245742000639439,
-0.22871710360050201,
0.9758083820343018,
-0.2745231091976166,
0.5863805413246155,
-0.23175029456615448,
-0.018659310415387154,
1.0970122814178467,
-0.05451769381761551,
-0.44190001487731934,
-0.21337592601776123,
0.3640342056751251,
0.02936221845448017,
0.21409517526626587,
0.006692726630717516,
-0.3485141396522522,
0.06455015391111374,
-0.2732293903827667,
-0.6130253076553345,
-0.7171530723571777,
0.5270797610282898,
-0.23436692357063293,
0.6798713803291321,
-0.044314708560705185,
-1.324824333190918,
0.5906268954277039,
0.03873465582728386,
-0.040068138390779495,
0.508787989616394,
-0.0825820043683052,
0.2855871021747589,
0.36759135127067566,
0.18627534806728363,
-0.21896050870418549,
0.30007535219192505,
0.29706594347953796,
0.20910193026065826,
-0.02017803117632866,
0.6233366131782532,
-0.6022369861602783,
0.4124327600002289,
-0.11863833665847778,
-0.31291285157203674,
-0.18549393117427826,
0.5975880026817322,
0.1291796714067459,
-0.07124663144350052,
-0.28864842653274536,
0.5482086539268494,
-1.0880489349365234,
0.5326400995254517,
-0.7346754670143127,
0.7153041958808899,
0.12507013976573944,
-0.10484644770622253,
0.7593215107917786,
-0.41891828179359436,
0.3394068777561188,
-0.6780845522880554,
-0.33354467153549194,
0.118167944252491,
-0.7233543992042542,
0.5933532118797302,
0.18158183991909027,
-0.46105220913887024,
-0.38627898693084717,
-0.660187304019928,
0.3741668462753296,
-0.015274234116077423,
-0.14024049043655396,
0.2200499325990677,
-0.2667870819568634,
-0.014720997773110867,
-0.02628224343061447,
-0.5244042873382568,
0.1331542283296585,
0.09410674124956131,
0.6938965916633606,
-0.30235859751701355,
0.17456457018852234,
-0.4213293790817261,
-0.20734819769859314,
-0.3839431703090668,
0.4313605725765228,
-0.49299532175064087,
-0.09230464696884155,
0.5088914632797241,
-0.45557478070259094,
-0.21600769460201263,
0.20490407943725586,
-5.5282697677612305,
0.27947360277175903,
-0.133211150765419,
0.26501402258872986,
0.027526909485459328,
0.26483380794525146,
0.5034501552581787,
-0.8297544121742249,
0.1129365861415863,
-0.0910683423280716,
0.1373104453086853,
0.1338721662759781,
-0.5075399279594421,
0.7641940116882324,
0.11523818224668503,
0.6749844551086426,
-0.06673067808151245,
0.27136215567588806,
0.2926398813724518,
0.22599799931049347,
0.44288745522499084,
-0.5703498125076294,
-0.07716725021600723,
0.06536270678043365,
0.04338356852531433,
-0.028227483853697777,
-0.06869648396968842,
0.26760393381118774,
-0.98130202293396,
0.08128786087036133,
-0.3601381182670593,
-0.5078967213630676,
-0.28223520517349243,
-0.43198162317276,
0.09542083740234375,
0.3357122540473938,
0.9781891703605652,
0.034590523689985275,
0.19780577719211578,
-0.020159445703029633,
-0.3291875422000885,
0.3031466007232666,
0.016220631077885628,
0.16079673171043396,
-0.19698752462863922,
0.16692829132080078,
-0.4040566384792328,
-0.20946305990219116,
-0.033790819346904755,
0.7127787470817566,
-0.1292455643415451,
0.011285276152193546,
0.2239672839641571,
-0.2371063232421875,
-0.11078372597694397,
-0.06963341683149338,
-0.2991195321083069,
0.2741535007953644,
0.6464584469795227,
0.16890700161457062,
-0.0023555634543299675,
-0.3148706555366516,
0.08246572315692902,
-0.5387892723083496,
-0.36844396591186523,
-0.05925009772181511,
-0.3182206451892853,
0.7383554577827454,
0.36711281538009644,
0.7021737694740295,
0.33251893520355225,
0.06044831499457359,
-0.3367825150489807,
-0.7334754467010498,
-0.39142218232154846,
-0.5337954759597778,
0.6127786040306091,
-0.18965275585651398,
0.08888865262269974,
0.1620815545320511,
-0.3397033214569092,
0.08376752585172653,
-0.6340755820274353,
0.6668593883514404,
0.09035895764827728,
-0.0803782269358635,
-0.3076971173286438,
0.32739612460136414,
-0.6567109227180481,
-0.2734556198120117,
0.13356977701187134,
-0.4449450969696045,
-0.6005244851112366,
1.435805082321167,
0.27368488907814026,
0.24980053305625916,
-0.11565955728292465,
0.5968448519706726,
0.5205621719360352,
-0.23680712282657623,
-0.19668389856815338,
-0.47099632024765015,
-0.3222275674343109,
0.08992873877286911,
-0.008970973081886768,
-0.07478582113981247,
-0.6028980016708374,
-0.14124765992164612,
0.7807260155677795,
-0.0723736360669136,
0.441310852766037,
-0.39219313859939575,
-0.1837739199399948,
-0.34127891063690186,
0.1295659840106964,
-0.8048623204231262,
-0.14146007597446442,
0.7101582884788513,
0.26094362139701843,
0.0029019718058407307,
-0.5146195888519287,
0.309579998254776,
0.18207617104053497,
0.1727570742368698,
-0.8217322826385498,
0.30649182200431824,
-0.18426766991615295,
-0.4035216271877289,
-0.7875961661338806,
0.059696562588214874,
-0.0960463359951973,
0.008700309321284294,
-0.35330286622047424,
0.786806583404541,
0.15852250158786774,
-0.2868094742298126,
-0.8064442276954651,
-0.05615495517849922,
-0.038901183754205704,
0.24135804176330566,
0.051624853163957596,
-0.005845402367413044,
-0.28152838349342346,
-0.14602282643318176,
0.3415803909301758,
0.6061494946479797,
-0.17334848642349243,
-0.3301840126514435,
-0.5524739027023315,
0.5182117223739624,
0.6147130727767944,
-0.028066739439964294,
0.773979663848877,
-0.2773313820362091,
-0.06914203613996506,
0.1322733759880066,
-0.319476842880249,
-0.032025642693042755,
-0.2115127146244049,
0.07846914976835251,
0.8640110492706299,
0.040846217423677444,
-0.8592981696128845,
-0.041776977479457855,
0.5229265689849854,
-0.3083740770816803,
-0.18207311630249023,
-0.6333553194999695,
-0.4991777539253235,
0.1371009200811386,
0.24966362118721008,
-0.43999138474464417,
0.4837287664413452,
-0.5963563919067383,
0.5643424987792969,
0.10269897431135178,
-0.1640002429485321,
-0.24150270223617554,
-0.5587896704673767,
-0.11078786849975586,
0.21368034183979034,
-0.01651342771947384,
-0.7928754091262817,
0.13324636220932007,
0.31862133741378784,
0.07194637507200241,
-0.32852739095687866,
-0.812960684299469,
-0.24930424988269806,
-0.17817610502243042,
0.12991902232170105,
0.005299676675349474,
0.08105707913637161,
-0.13668471574783325,
-0.17936104536056519,
-0.5559896230697632,
-0.19759957492351532,
0.08790652453899384,
-0.3701619505882263,
-0.7393666505813599,
0.10099781304597855,
0.11660012602806091,
-0.49187028408050537,
-0.042426686733961105,
-0.16132764518260956,
-0.6469786167144775,
0.10602164268493652,
-0.5738471150398254,
-0.613633930683136,
0.6706444025039673,
-0.5070362687110901,
-0.6366646885871887,
0.15151479840278625,
-0.19962163269519806,
-0.593653678894043,
-0.007660740055143833,
-0.42866969108581543,
-0.3260050415992737,
-0.1690874546766281,
0.16536939144134521,
-0.2605733871459961,
0.09944572299718857,
-0.6888816952705383,
-0.6193336844444275,
-0.19273200631141663,
0.4964142441749573,
0.3114224076271057,
-0.1890336573123932,
0.16226355731487274,
-0.6164720058441162,
-0.5861223936080933,
-0.023870661854743958,
-0.04405141994357109,
-0.4920511245727539,
-0.7937919497489929,
0.23695054650306702,
-0.42071735858917236,
-0.07615328580141068,
0.2964542806148529,
0.8173542022705078,
0.5832667350769043,
0.37663060426712036,
0.190656378865242,
-0.7218069434165955,
0.008445237763226032,
0.2639106214046478,
0.7914940714836121,
0.08222958445549011,
-0.5906549692153931,
-0.2049829065799713,
0.15489143133163452,
-0.39682507514953613,
-0.6470891237258911,
-0.6854898929595947,
0.7370935678482056,
-0.4960298240184784,
0.7425329685211182,
-0.13869085907936096,
-0.07065605372190475,
-0.40530645847320557,
0.3148821294307709,
-0.4197823405265808,
-0.8645013570785522,
-0.2731190323829651,
0.1894361525774002,
0.6772066354751587,
-0.07642251253128052,
-0.5496404767036438,
-0.006465925835072994,
-0.21686382591724396,
0.19082655012607574,
0.19952888786792755,
0.2709478735923767,
0.4016897976398468,
-0.25920894742012024,
0.007180649787187576,
0.2747415602207184,
-0.5219787359237671,
0.0880507081747055,
0.33768031001091003,
-0.052121296525001526,
0.4292260408401489,
0.5960032343864441,
-0.2068493813276291,
0.37677979469299316,
-0.13726158440113068,
-0.6728516817092896,
-0.24210846424102783,
0.20980170369148254,
-0.14071115851402283,
-0.26755765080451965,
-0.33702588081359863,
0.04016484320163727,
0.3395876884460449,
0.2935088872909546,
0.21406441926956177,
0.1545448750257492,
-0.2564123868942261,
0.040110133588314056,
-0.13082724809646606,
-0.9444687366485596,
0.7333993315696716,
0.6135274171829224,
0.2426692098379135,
0.3391716480255127,
0.21558889746665955,
-0.03898409754037857,
0.02878204546868801,
-0.13797412812709808,
-0.0372927300632,
0.1096908375620842,
-0.2742997705936432,
-0.047677405178546906,
1.0127471685409546,
-1.0492494106292725,
0.2663117051124573,
0.4702686667442322,
-0.15547968447208405,
0.49442461133003235,
0.37249118089675903,
0.23668470978736877,
0.12207520753145218,
0.4677485525608063,
0.31909486651420593,
-0.07366785407066345,
0.4185137450695038,
0.058394622057676315,
0.06525516510009766,
0.10938571393489838,
0.2673848569393158,
0.45459696650505066,
-0.37977781891822815,
-0.6273863315582275,
0.6015961170196533,
-0.2966490387916565,
-0.6068402528762817,
0.1687161922454834,
-0.7785787582397461,
-0.6162092089653015,
0.3842069208621979,
0.6747736930847168,
0.4544016718864441,
-0.11925612390041351,
0.017706742510199547,
-0.33712074160575867,
0.5687459111213684,
-0.2228577882051468,
0.28124797344207764,
-0.02650316432118416,
-0.20782114565372467,
0.9981711506843567,
0.8823228478431702,
0.22614745795726776,
-0.38528141379356384,
0.39752668142318726,
0.5069041848182678,
0.6684491038322449,
0.0027880878187716007,
0.5609798431396484,
0.45820873975753784,
0.40894579887390137,
0.709447979927063,
0.6590803265571594,
-0.2259964942932129,
-0.5732464790344238,
0.06862568110227585,
0.5469570159912109,
-0.6673240661621094,
-0.16803796589374542,
-0.2970103919506073,
0.6122737526893616,
0.0037841934245079756,
-0.538528561592102,
0.1591448038816452,
0.048029229044914246,
0.13155926764011383,
0.3413482904434204,
0.06312098354101181,
0.5986512899398804,
0.441586434841156,
-0.4485924541950226,
0.12938830256462097,
-0.03934813663363457,
0.02414148673415184,
0.20935319364070892,
-0.32646143436431885,
-0.25098010897636414,
0.2032197117805481,
-0.4480220079421997,
-0.08072910457849503,
0.2527545690536499,
-0.509441077709198,
-0.059337057173252106,
-0.2094394713640213,
-0.3208642899990082,
-0.816930890083313,
-0.002541894791647792,
0.5072404742240906,
-0.27928948402404785,
0.3526477813720703,
0.018006879836320877,
-0.009288833476603031,
0.5699994564056396,
-0.19202028214931488,
0.2772187888622284,
0.20138411223888397,
-0.84532630443573,
0.03691937401890755,
-1.2652207612991333,
0.35451456904411316,
0.6774015426635742,
-0.36097684502601624,
-0.2170143872499466,
0.5536903738975525,
0.008872429840266705,
0.5234540104866028,
0.24165843427181244,
-0.08860965073108673,
-0.5971933007240295,
0.020996445789933205,
0.03646746277809143,
0.08745510876178741,
0.33480313420295715,
0.11868457496166229,
-0.7408154606819153,
0.09848077595233917,
0.43926510214805603,
-0.09298518300056458,
-0.4337821900844574,
1.0573277473449707,
0.03325764462351799,
0.3272658586502075,
-0.41224321722984314,
-0.15300056338310242,
-0.384490430355072,
-0.24441568553447723,
0.43461811542510986,
0.07896699756383896,
0.5580527186393738,
-0.04421836882829666,
0.3178672194480896,
-0.26997098326683044,
0.3125911355018616,
0.23417063057422638,
0.25446614623069763,
0.26579198241233826,
-0.25351330637931824,
-0.6023077964782715,
-0.5095058679580688,
0.5345585346221924,
0.41600921750068665,
-0.828248143196106,
0.23953981697559357,
-0.6212167739868164,
-0.07927767187356949,
-0.3520689010620117,
0.37302538752555847,
-0.4263153374195099,
0.17311282455921173,
-0.3068358600139618
] |
234767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20Livonia | Swedish Livonia | Swedish Livonia () was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1629 until 1721. The territory, which constituted the southern part of modern Estonia (including the island of Ösel ceded by Denmark after the Treaty of Brömsebro) and the northern part of modern Latvia (the Vidzeme region), represented the conquest of the major part of the Polish-Lithuanian Duchy of Livonia during the 1600–1629 Polish-Swedish War. Parts of Livonia and the city of Riga were under Swedish control as early as 1621 and the situation was formalized in Truce of Altmark 1629, but the whole territory was not ceded formally until the Treaty of Oliva in 1660. The minority part of the Wenden Voivodeship retained by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was renamed the Inflanty Voivodeship ("Livonian Principality"), which today corresponds to the Latgale region of Latvia.
Riga was the second largest city in the Swedish Empire at the time. Together with other Baltic Sea dominions, Livonia served to secure the Swedish dominium maris baltici. In contrast to Swedish Estonia, which had submitted to Swedish rule voluntarily in 1561 and where traditional local laws remained largely untouched, the uniformity policy was applied in Swedish Livonia under Karl XI of Sweden: serfdom was abolished, peasants were offered education as well as military, administrative or ecclesiastical careers, and nobles had to transfer domains to the king in the Great Reduction.
The territory in turn was conquered by the Russian Empire during the Great Northern War and, following the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, formed the Governorate of Livonia. Formally, it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, together with Swedish Estonia and Swedish Ingria.
Governors-General
The dominion was ruled by appointed Governors-General, but retained its own diet.
Jacob De la Gardie (1622–1628)
Gustaf Horn (1628–1629)
Johan Skytte (1629–1633)
Nils Assersson Mannersköld (1633–1634)
Bengt Oxenstierna (1634–1643)
Herman Wrangel (1643)
Erik Eriksson Ryning (1644)
Gabriel Bengtsson Oxenstierna (1645–1647)
Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1649–1651)
Gustaf Horn (1652–1653)
Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1655–1657)
Axel Lillie (1661)
Bengt Oxenstierna (1662–1665)
Clas Åkesson Tott (the younger) (1665–1671)
Fabian von Fersen (1671–1674)
Krister Klasson Horn (1674–1686)
Jacob Johan Hastfer (1687–1695)
Erik Dahlberg (1696–1702)
Carl Gustaf Frölich (1702–1706)
Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt (1706–1709)
Henrik Otto Albedyll (1709)
Niels Jonsson Stromberg af Clastorp (1709–1710)
Military
Swedish infantry and cavalry regiments
Infantry regiments
Garnisonsregementet i Riga (Garrison Regiment in Riga)
Guvenörsregementet i Riga (Governor's Regiment in Riga)
Livländsk infanteribataljon I (Livonian Infantry Battalion I)
Livländsk infanteribataljon II (Livonian Infantry Battalion II)
Livländsk infanteribataljon III (Livonian Infantry Battalion III)
Livländsk infanteribataljon IV (Livonian Infantry Battalion IV)
Livländskt infanteriregemente I (Livonian Infantry Regiment I)
Livländskt infanteriregemente II (Livonian Infantry Regiment II)
Livländskt infanteriregemente III (Livonian Infantry Regiment III)
Livländskt infanteriregemente IV (Livonian Infantry Regiment IV)
Livländskt infanteriregemente V (Livonian Infantry Regiment V)
Cavalry regiments
Laurentzens fridragoner (Wolter Wolfgang von Laurentzen's Free Dragoons)
Lewenhaupts frikompani (Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt's Free Company)
Adelsfanan i Livland och Ösel (Livonian and Öselian Banner of Nobles)
Livländsk dragonskvadron I (Livonian Dragoon Squadron I)
Livländsk dragonskvadron II (Livonian Dragoon Squadron II)
Livländskt dragonregemente I (Livonian Dragoon Regiment I)
Livländskt dragonregemente II (Livonian Dragoon Regiment II)
Öselska lantdragonskvadronen (Öselian County Dragoon Squadron)
Temporary cavalry regiments:
Livländska ståndsdragonbataljonen (Livonian Rank Dragoon Battalion)
Öselska ståndsdragonbataljonen (Ösel Rank Dragoon Battalion)
See also
Rise of Sweden as a Great Power
Swedish Empire
Realm of Sweden
Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)
Estonia under Swedish rule
Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek
References
Andrejs Plakans, A Concise History of the Baltic States, Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 105ff
Further reading
Heikki Pihlajamäki. Conquest and the Law in Swedish Livonia, ca. 1630-1710: A Case of Legal Pluralism in Early Modern Europe. Northern World Series. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2017
States and territories disestablished in 1721
States and territories established in 1629
Livonia
Estonia–Sweden relations
Latvia–Sweden relations
1629 establishments in Sweden | [
-0.500333309173584,
-0.2814217805862427,
0.49365589022636414,
0.2808738648891449,
-0.6061118245124817,
0.30486077070236206,
0.6453356146812439,
0.4760676622390747,
-0.6403513550758362,
-0.2959698438644409,
0.09588360041379929,
-0.3980434238910675,
0.0881766602396965,
0.781683087348938,
-0.7773333787918091,
0.42570385336875916,
0.3784260153770447,
0.5853880643844604,
0.11956456303596497,
-0.42541566491127014,
0.02465338446199894,
0.2304593324661255,
0.767838716506958,
0.5325949788093567,
0.06077895686030388,
-0.6208419799804688,
0.9124277830123901,
0.24956396222114563,
0.243273064494133,
0.005042185541242361,
-0.5399616360664368,
0.3593311607837677,
-0.2031143605709076,
0.09284070879220963,
-0.04191690310835838,
0.16489987075328827,
-0.3582037389278412,
-0.12235698848962784,
-0.4235876500606537,
-0.363641619682312,
-0.3404901325702667,
0.09556286036968231,
-0.10927305370569229,
0.15806859731674194,
0.22500291466712952,
-0.5802786350250244,
-1.2042701244354248,
0.8972734808921814,
-0.13836228847503662,
0.5576632022857666,
-0.4938536584377289,
0.41769930720329285,
0.346794068813324,
0.5942338109016418,
-0.4046861529350281,
0.072245754301548,
-0.8954384326934814,
-0.4619366228580475,
0.023807676509022713,
0.42331889271736145,
1.02176034450531,
0.1474464386701584,
-0.4096604883670807,
-0.03964056074619293,
0.10756376385688782,
-0.5160897374153137,
0.13769085705280304,
0.42490002512931824,
-0.5480076670646667,
-1.095441222190857,
-0.3984655439853668,
0.3558081090450287,
0.1633770912885666,
-0.3994998037815094,
0.2090725153684616,
-0.9703461527824402,
0.40153616666793823,
0.04744257032871246,
0.5486060976982117,
-0.3359832763671875,
-0.018748430535197258,
0.23403002321720123,
0.5049957633018494,
-0.21078136563301086,
0.7052792310714722,
-0.20357653498649597,
-0.46992260217666626,
-0.44657033681869507,
-0.49810898303985596,
-0.21705377101898193,
0.3064340353012085,
0.4441780149936676,
0.4593525826931,
0.051505494862794876,
-0.1040220558643341,
-0.022109776735305786,
-0.43461689352989197,
0.7719497680664062,
-0.31786155700683594,
0.594671905040741,
-0.16393055021762848,
0.8400140404701233,
0.15142376720905304,
-0.01195840910077095,
-0.6737410426139832,
-0.33309265971183777,
0.2737041115760803,
0.23433643579483032,
-0.37602928280830383,
0.2700507640838623,
-0.5019183158874512,
0.014899450354278088,
0.1940617561340332,
0.5023674964904785,
-0.13285209238529205,
0.1403215229511261,
-0.11907906085252762,
-0.47203582525253296,
0.6237759590148926,
0.14243128895759583,
-0.2767930030822754,
0.40524131059646606,
-0.449086457490921,
0.1443188637495041,
-0.22980356216430664,
-0.15268735587596893,
0.08840503543615341,
0.20123398303985596,
-0.49606993794441223,
0.11540132761001587,
0.7182233929634094,
1.0249837636947632,
-0.41336292028427124,
0.49060049653053284,
-0.007601045537739992,
0.09745309501886368,
0.17243358492851257,
-0.15105584263801575,
0.08293547481298447,
-0.4327481687068939,
-0.9177699089050293,
-0.3959769606590271,
-0.46756815910339355,
-0.007938501425087452,
0.01257600449025631,
-0.16334716975688934,
0.292132169008255,
-0.4824322760105133,
-0.8257710933685303,
-0.4416828155517578,
0.11126336455345154,
0.01284360233694315,
-0.1390443593263626,
-0.20169563591480255,
0.009733431972563267,
0.132721409201622,
0.050792146474123,
0.03404168784618378,
0.589277982711792,
0.5802487730979919,
0.0021821698173880577,
0.46623900532722473,
0.35502371191978455,
-0.2174542397260666,
0.22049254179000854,
-0.10893760621547699,
-0.14609330892562866,
0.7396953105926514,
0.13041551411151886,
-0.24876756966114044,
-0.39925333857536316,
-0.05735476315021515,
0.3847709596157074,
0.29145634174346924,
-0.10583601891994476,
0.6165616512298584,
0.40871357917785645,
0.04103652015328407,
-0.0007435359875671566,
-0.4751119017601013,
-0.5678621530532837,
0.49007707834243774,
0.4286130368709564,
0.04952964559197426,
-0.24446360766887665,
0.9323546886444092,
0.2544734477996826,
0.06788086146116257,
0.14276409149169922,
0.010875700041651726,
0.1921030879020691,
-0.4237566292285919,
0.4672715663909912,
0.0032311624381691217,
1.1243301630020142,
0.17081263661384583,
-0.47707080841064453,
0.2554907500743866,
-0.026527607813477516,
1.0352323055267334,
-0.5348604917526245,
-0.639525830745697,
-0.10203047841787338,
-0.20434322953224182,
0.2015615999698639,
0.2817325294017792,
-0.34492701292037964,
0.27948567271232605,
0.23657509684562683,
0.558075487613678,
-0.20907628536224365,
-0.5062757730484009,
0.8306988477706909,
-0.23972594738006592,
0.13150754570960999,
-0.11825139820575714,
-0.2269742488861084,
-0.17121000587940216,
-0.05183777958154678,
-0.32962697744369507,
0.3260326087474823,
0.0010019198525696993,
0.20164836943149567,
0.45622485876083374,
0.3047184348106384,
0.3529995083808899,
0.062332700937986374,
0.8068690896034241,
-0.06742560118436813,
-0.7549015879631042,
-0.20096299052238464,
-0.2225404679775238,
0.19962087273597717,
-0.01457611471414566,
0.09570872038602829,
-0.37626489996910095,
-0.11697427183389664,
0.29425033926963806,
0.08380907773971558,
-0.15530838072299957,
0.3452954888343811,
0.04938449710607529,
-0.1945575624704361,
-0.12131012976169586,
0.4037257134914398,
0.790679395198822,
-0.21057045459747314,
-0.34009212255477905,
-0.24562574923038483,
-0.43365535140037537,
-0.08283936232328415,
-0.24806076288223267,
-0.6859844923019409,
-0.22736302018165588,
0.22179798781871796,
-0.48360592126846313,
0.3285248577594757,
-0.692010760307312,
0.2717197835445404,
0.027400659397244453,
-0.19177377223968506,
-0.11358574032783508,
-0.40958812832832336,
-0.061621326953172684,
0.2329777181148529,
0.1397516429424286,
-0.15628427267074585,
-0.26493149995803833,
0.4552347660064697,
0.20081861317157745,
-0.09597156196832657,
-0.2734755575656891,
0.05627073347568512,
-0.2779253423213959,
0.014133601449429989,
-0.569998562335968,
-0.07790859043598175,
-0.3676897883415222,
-0.5332896709442139,
-0.07824141532182693,
-0.2874274253845215,
0.6860643625259399,
0.0017971894703805447,
-0.9025788307189941,
-0.5081815719604492,
-0.20249438285827637,
0.2725726068019867,
-0.27880436182022095,
0.29102692008018494,
0.1631712168455124,
0.2256588488817215,
0.08829017728567123,
-0.6252647638320923,
0.25776180624961853,
-0.16182704269886017,
0.49833133816719055,
-0.2563389241695404,
0.026305248960852623,
0.6299741864204407,
-0.09608333557844162,
-1.1259572505950928,
-0.059434693306684494,
-0.6216955184936523,
-0.03141557797789574,
0.12357846647500992,
-0.21523688733577728,
-0.40679672360420227,
-0.08695830404758453,
-5.634212493896484,
-0.2672675549983978,
-0.5975475907325745,
-0.27582573890686035,
-0.1481645107269287,
0.45235875248908997,
0.496451735496521,
-0.010513472370803356,
0.2624818980693817,
-0.0366731733083725,
0.7869327068328857,
0.240176260471344,
0.02909807674586773,
0.3931003510951996,
0.3136945068836212,
0.45254889130592346,
0.6509636640548706,
0.296390563249588,
-0.320512980222702,
-0.5490173697471619,
-0.2752108871936798,
-0.42786797881126404,
-0.03222157433629036,
0.5289651155471802,
0.7088002562522888,
0.16732265055179596,
0.3638346195220947,
0.02806236781179905,
-0.3006473183631897,
-0.222495436668396,
-0.723459005355835,
-0.5528542995452881,
0.45424842834472656,
-0.5154166221618652,
-0.2647130787372589,
0.1576591283082962,
0.5350134968757629,
1.2592345476150513,
0.30155789852142334,
-0.4501160979270935,
0.2504016160964966,
0.48331180214881897,
0.055587220937013626,
0.3386369049549103,
0.13918305933475494,
-0.2938988208770752,
-0.4319395422935486,
0.630854606628418,
-0.9626880288124084,
1.1491177082061768,
0.137489452958107,
-0.07540402561426163,
-0.10635292530059814,
0.05136767402291298,
0.40537598729133606,
-0.35264307260513306,
0.22993719577789307,
0.049291934818029404,
-0.5383710265159607,
0.40842384099960327,
-0.025908181443810463,
-0.05915446951985359,
-0.1507619470357895,
-0.23323968052864075,
0.10826011002063751,
-0.36630627512931824,
-0.7059117555618286,
0.35860225558280945,
0.37200719118118286,
0.06534013152122498,
-0.1813315600156784,
0.2977257966995239,
-0.19630032777786255,
-0.7820290327072144,
-0.19823288917541504,
-0.9824792146682739,
-0.6659536957740784,
-0.13953585922718048,
-0.1493305116891861,
0.530142068862915,
0.092207171022892,
0.1532360315322876,
-0.15596631169319153,
0.7097176313400269,
0.06579960137605667,
-0.3306199610233307,
0.24330061674118042,
-0.08210379630327225,
-0.6843331456184387,
-0.07713168114423752,
0.16959655284881592,
-0.5585092306137085,
-0.09215118736028671,
0.035673461854457855,
-0.32875123620033264,
0.4058806002140045,
-0.10881421715021133,
-0.30125367641448975,
0.4022499620914459,
-0.5135934948921204,
0.9221047163009644,
0.1472858190536499,
-0.008889048360288143,
-0.31658637523651123,
-0.02157880924642086,
-0.03729334473609924,
-0.65061354637146,
-0.00689870398491621,
0.31316888332366943,
0.10308863967657089,
0.0055844951421022415,
-0.05563916638493538,
-0.28883346915245056,
-0.7097775936126709,
0.622991144657135,
-0.2643106281757355,
-0.14506816864013672,
1.0482087135314941,
0.2598373293876648,
-0.5128841996192932,
-0.3452495038509369,
-0.1954098492860794,
0.12164551019668579,
0.2658903896808624,
-0.16217099130153656,
-0.04158180207014084,
0.09000266343355179,
0.7998799681663513,
-0.30243438482284546,
0.3966248333454132,
0.077834352850914,
-0.3952092230319977,
-0.0927731916308403,
-0.2021099179983139,
0.22498242557048798,
-0.19909393787384033,
-0.40471410751342773,
-0.05094863846898079,
-0.19114845991134644,
-0.019093260169029236,
-0.4605134129524231,
-0.8288461565971375,
0.27090856432914734,
0.3782047927379608,
-0.13938258588314056,
0.3162919878959656,
0.017086923122406006,
-0.04982275515794754,
-0.15824942290782928,
0.29422318935394287,
-0.7905115485191345,
-0.34275245666503906,
0.12513287365436554,
-0.07630988210439682,
0.09968418627977371,
-0.5486741065979004,
0.3004477322101593,
0.05862904712557793,
-0.16048654913902283,
-0.49089884757995605,
0.021061543375253677,
-0.6134814023971558,
-0.7192332744598389,
0.06928948312997818,
0.3188224136829376,
-0.5099018812179565,
-0.9192484617233276,
-0.32330381870269775,
0.04548468068242073,
0.9834064841270447,
0.10435370355844498,
-0.6005457043647766,
-0.2181069701910019,
-0.20975416898727417,
0.5442187786102295,
0.01601014845073223,
0.2797171473503113,
0.1519487053155899,
-0.42729973793029785,
-0.012424568645656109,
0.2614513635635376,
0.011265560053288937,
-0.3106737434864044,
0.6414896845817566,
0.5495098233222961,
-0.12475386261940002,
0.3732043504714966,
-0.05709540471434593,
0.08979196101427078,
0.016900455579161644,
0.10222549736499786,
-0.1529635787010193,
0.06036301329731941,
-0.034851010888814926,
-0.5045157670974731,
-0.4065691828727722,
0.34445425868034363,
0.4829657971858978,
0.12489056587219238,
0.06374043971300125,
0.26175767183303833,
0.5773800015449524,
-0.009794577956199646,
-0.07112187892198563,
-0.10042926669120789,
-0.2860777676105499,
0.38896462321281433,
0.3092844486236572,
-0.5694613456726074,
0.2776656746864319,
-0.6094831228256226,
-0.04270651564002037,
-0.4284559488296509,
0.6568138003349304,
-0.2662011682987213,
-0.08070297539234161,
0.7270490527153015,
-0.42154332995414734,
-0.5654831528663635,
-0.3426021933555603,
-0.6247661113739014,
-0.15027815103530884,
-0.6348724961280823,
-0.22962556779384613,
-0.5261696577072144,
0.3444244861602783,
-0.3074777126312256,
-0.2768515944480896,
0.5763035416603088,
-0.04924600198864937,
0.6259739398956299,
-0.4834178388118744,
-0.013344423845410347,
-0.30792033672332764,
0.07938767969608307,
-0.05475655943155289,
0.6720001101493835,
0.07708375155925751,
0.059138327836990356,
1.3124066591262817,
0.8789350986480713,
0.8608798384666443,
0.30786457657814026,
-0.13360480964183807,
0.04468802735209465,
-0.5927643775939941,
-0.5924233794212341,
-0.0380430743098259,
-0.17529714107513428,
0.20548108220100403,
-0.598461925983429,
-0.49051403999328613,
-0.2228822261095047,
-0.166570246219635,
1.3487343788146973,
-0.3737320303916931,
0.5976625680923462,
0.421392560005188,
0.049897827208042145,
0.01458792481571436,
-0.21238577365875244,
0.33944830298423767,
-0.07545536756515503,
0.49360373616218567,
0.5009862780570984,
-0.1356787383556366,
-0.35944443941116333,
-0.10649800300598145,
0.36312785744667053,
-0.07433989644050598,
-0.2224884182214737,
-0.24448876082897186,
0.27970486879348755,
-0.24691298604011536,
-0.48841631412506104,
-0.08488722145557404,
0.5294865369796753,
-0.20903776586055756,
0.43230587244033813,
-0.2437511384487152,
-0.7816891074180603,
-0.08757772296667099,
-0.30075401067733765,
-0.27823692560195923,
-0.02748928591609001,
-0.6673183441162109,
-0.46264973282814026,
0.033091720193624496,
-0.3023122549057007,
0.18718531727790833,
-0.016636159271001816,
-0.27507972717285156,
-0.06472474336624146,
0.42185845971107483,
0.1859292984008789,
0.4413435161113739,
-0.3782379925251007,
0.03815387189388275,
0.20230229198932648,
0.22624829411506653,
-0.46555188298225403,
0.5712999105453491,
-0.15703926980495453,
-0.25410449504852295,
0.09563644975423813,
0.24517187476158142,
-0.27944692969322205,
0.48071742057800293,
-0.19514018297195435,
0.0659458339214325,
0.6567795872688293,
-0.21762363612651825,
0.057156387716531754,
0.00006200654024723917,
0.17684471607208252,
-0.29456672072410583,
0.6124158501625061,
-0.34671467542648315,
-0.15830768644809723,
-0.022561896592378616,
0.4673326313495636,
0.14250442385673523,
-0.23961307108402252,
0.36991676688194275,
0.20186488330364227,
0.8873211741447449,
0.09702815860509872,
-0.24067844450473785,
-0.23013511300086975,
0.09269975870847702,
0.16054168343544006,
-0.03830239549279213,
-0.91546231508255,
0.9970096349716187,
-0.4845077097415924,
0.069736547768116,
0.2212013155221939,
-0.9187208414077759,
0.036647386848926544,
0.8285122513771057,
0.24097056686878204,
0.33693727850914,
-0.11642876267433167,
-0.0888664498925209,
-0.04366046190261841,
-0.06461597979068756,
-0.2978161573410034,
-0.26883307099342346,
0.3908032178878784,
-0.37654200196266174,
0.695664644241333,
-0.282514750957489,
0.03913789615035057,
-0.5763643980026245,
0.4120534658432007,
-0.02113511599600315,
0.07394353300333023,
-0.5289718508720398,
-0.4141198396682739,
-0.551051676273346,
-0.2762826979160309,
-0.45559826493263245,
0.26902368664741516,
0.16179631650447845,
-0.09954416751861572,
-0.15947690606117249,
0.4699532091617584,
0.2054407000541687,
0.13926434516906738,
-0.2832184135913849,
0.6840920448303223,
-0.28694984316825867,
0.4838508367538452,
-0.2944112718105316,
0.1811940222978592,
0.5315690040588379,
0.45924293994903564,
0.6748098731040955,
0.14216096699237823,
-0.2545146346092224,
0.02785700187087059,
0.4258785843849182,
0.5738674402236938,
-1.0201835632324219,
-0.3302244246006012,
-0.3201267719268799,
0.2839195728302002,
-0.0015762526309117675,
0.30210256576538086,
-0.41876113414764404,
-0.35866308212280273,
-1.0068663358688354,
0.3053721785545349,
0.2856041193008423,
-1.064910888671875,
-0.2917931079864502,
-0.7169485092163086,
0.6592317819595337,
0.4295188784599304,
-0.3513364791870117,
0.3382161855697632,
0.30661842226982117,
-0.08062438666820526,
0.4497472643852234,
-0.2386900633573532,
0.885029137134552,
0.16147543489933014,
0.27626946568489075,
0.3829960823059082,
0.26162466406822205,
0.47081229090690613,
0.15039163827896118,
-0.00944332592189312,
0.06765253096818924,
-0.1791151911020279,
-0.12311884015798569,
0.9372905492782593,
-0.3775636851787567,
0.17118223011493683,
-0.015488463453948498,
0.18768271803855896,
-0.4053713381290436,
-0.025041965767741203,
0.2076682299375534,
0.03346442058682442,
0.05629737302660942,
0.01991131901741028,
0.29525625705718994,
-0.32885345816612244,
0.396294504404068,
-0.4689936339855194,
-0.155721977353096,
-0.08218969404697418,
-0.0030118494760245085,
-0.012424342334270477,
0.35553795099258423,
0.1710512787103653,
0.025534003973007202,
0.39594659209251404,
-0.926265299320221,
-0.2818870544433594,
-0.0667477399110794,
0.1202559620141983,
-0.0036763378884643316,
0.2492796778678894,
0.023762984201312065,
0.13670268654823303,
-0.4293467700481415,
-0.654929518699646,
0.1590873748064041,
-0.0818546861410141,
-0.2718418538570404,
0.7754858136177063,
-0.2217155396938324,
0.2035675048828125,
-0.32586243748664856,
0.23379316926002502,
-0.7775740623474121,
-0.2796245813369751,
0.16551615297794342
] |
234768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshikatsu | Ashikaga Yoshikatsu | was the 7th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1442 to 1443 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshikatsu was the son of 6th shōgun Ashikaga Yoshinori with his concubine, Hino Shigeko (1411–1463). His childhood name was Chiyachamaru (千也茶丸). Hino Tomiko, Wife of Ashikaga Yoshimasa at first was betrothed with Yoshikatsu.
Significant events which shaped the period during which Yoshikatsu was shōgun:<ref name="a330">Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron, p. 330.</ref>
July 12, 1441 (Kakitsu 1, 24th day of the 6th month): Shōgun Yoshinori is murdered at the age of 48 by Akamatsu Mitsusuke; and shortly thereafter, it is determined that his 8-year-old son, Yoshikatsu, will become the new shōgun.
1442 (Kakitsu 2): Yoshikatsu is confirmed as shōgun.
August 16, 1443 (Kakitsu 3, 21 day of the 7th month): Shōgun Yoshikatsu died at the age of 10. Fond of horse riding, he was fatally injured in a fall from a horse. He had been shogun for only three years. His 8-year-old brother, Yoshinari, was then named shōgun. Several years after he became shogun, Yoshinari changed his name to Yoshimasa, and he is better known by that name.
Era of Yoshikatsu's bakufu
The years in which Yoshikatsu was shōgun are more specifically identified by only one era name or nengō.
Kakitsu (1441–1444)
See also
East Asian age reckoning
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ; OCLC 65177072
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
Yoshikatsu
1434 births
1443 deaths
15th-century shōguns
Yoshikatsu
1440s in Japan
15th-century Japanese people
15th-century monarchs in Asia
Deaths by horse-riding accident in Japan | [
-0.6664534211158752,
-0.05532149225473404,
-0.2748323678970337,
0.19881075620651245,
-1.1294416189193726,
0.6214186549186707,
0.7140318155288696,
-0.027043962851166725,
-0.4334912598133087,
-0.3855605125427246,
0.0021177432499825954,
0.33327555656433105,
-0.1198115274310112,
0.03789445012807846,
-0.3485448658466339,
-0.039204686880111694,
0.5574558973312378,
0.028374655172228813,
-0.1594974547624588,
-0.3515608012676239,
-0.3164195120334625,
-0.3080142140388489,
-0.07950269430875778,
-0.2162892371416092,
0.6641051769256592,
-0.08052991330623627,
0.7470483183860779,
0.599094569683075,
0.23605941236019135,
-0.45128485560417175,
0.09800897538661957,
0.2531263530254364,
0.05555781349539757,
-0.3618046045303345,
-0.6018071174621582,
-0.017391357570886612,
-0.08741669356822968,
0.27180975675582886,
-0.2857886254787445,
0.01061967108398676,
-0.28263628482818604,
-0.005994377192109823,
0.29125553369522095,
0.09866002947092056,
0.1920071542263031,
-0.6452023386955261,
-1.6623114347457886,
0.17226801812648773,
-0.16093139350414276,
-0.5628408193588257,
-0.1957925707101822,
0.7740129232406616,
-0.5311785936355591,
0.25372111797332764,
-0.11390651017427444,
0.8402767181396484,
-0.18818119168281555,
-0.5043686628341675,
-0.7485631108283997,
-0.25842180848121643,
0.3174964487552643,
-0.14513525366783142,
0.6068333387374878,
0.12321976572275162,
-0.21433071792125702,
-0.06462033092975616,
0.1664867252111435,
-0.009506826288998127,
0.35472044348716736,
0.18546023964881897,
0.0859634280204773,
0.8475789427757263,
-0.10264619439840317,
0.26421406865119934,
0.2074871063232422,
-0.636132001876831,
0.09347212314605713,
0.24139373004436493,
0.5358967185020447,
-0.0015578524908050895,
-0.3978338837623596,
-0.6687548160552979,
0.3547284007072449,
0.23002588748931885,
0.3863458037376404,
-0.13907109200954437,
0.1260010153055191,
0.47727489471435547,
-0.7319865822792053,
0.31412628293037415,
-0.07073099166154861,
0.2819477617740631,
0.49895933270454407,
-0.013487206771969795,
-0.4857128858566284,
-0.20190384984016418,
-0.20707160234451294,
0.3423440158367157,
-0.3634525537490845,
-0.3565649390220642,
0.05978814885020256,
0.3601143956184387,
-0.09378612041473389,
-0.1996319741010666,
-1.0948894023895264,
-0.44056326150894165,
0.08408802002668381,
-0.28384119272232056,
-1.0190598964691162,
0.010820498690009117,
-0.4181142747402191,
0.5319288969039917,
0.11157742887735367,
0.05514182522892952,
0.08980082720518112,
0.19091634452342987,
0.002180351410061121,
-0.09087400138378143,
0.2380092442035675,
-0.013481025584042072,
0.2492838203907013,
0.06063741818070412,
-0.17168939113616943,
0.5242208242416382,
-0.021959582343697548,
0.1786232888698578,
-0.3089306652545929,
-0.6484127640724182,
-0.08293081820011139,
-0.41764405369758606,
0.7543606758117676,
0.9669279456138611,
-0.5573756098747253,
0.429178923368454,
0.15863144397735596,
0.009661965072154999,
0.19604788720607758,
-0.020427873358130455,
-0.3381759226322174,
-0.4732752740383148,
-0.8931161165237427,
-0.0000463041324110236,
-0.8851096630096436,
0.1409684121608734,
-0.04558229818940163,
0.5860825777053833,
-0.10654666274785995,
-0.431902676820755,
-0.6243874430656433,
-0.32736194133758545,
-0.49648037552833557,
0.46035897731781006,
-0.2767235338687897,
0.03066868521273136,
-0.14329884946346283,
0.16781756281852722,
0.29758021235466003,
-0.12738212943077087,
-0.13308648765087128,
0.14061924815177917,
-0.28983238339424133,
0.1559557467699051,
-0.14690668880939484,
0.25355106592178345,
0.3453715741634369,
-0.5646687150001526,
0.0897889956831932,
0.25484317541122437,
-0.4122183620929718,
-0.4456302523612976,
-0.343661367893219,
-0.3968510329723358,
-0.39688998460769653,
-0.6103376746177673,
0.7334846258163452,
0.2325497269630432,
1.0369237661361694,
-0.28608405590057373,
-0.0776020735502243,
-0.2612529695034027,
-0.5755127668380737,
-0.3452059030532837,
0.2553633749485016,
0.08994583040475845,
0.4969184994697571,
0.5349297523498535,
0.017316909506917,
0.17145384848117828,
0.8131781220436096,
-0.334327757358551,
-0.28168708086013794,
-0.06329193711280823,
0.5145637392997742,
-0.43096551299095154,
0.6967923641204834,
0.6101300716400146,
-0.3674493730068207,
0.16685350239276886,
0.1182008683681488,
0.969826877117157,
0.2824200987815857,
-0.5478067994117737,
0.21074090898036957,
0.10466420650482178,
0.23338578641414642,
-0.011730484664440155,
-0.5109642744064331,
0.27820533514022827,
0.5802262425422668,
0.8730851411819458,
0.013204875402152538,
0.16214163601398468,
-0.4586688280105591,
-0.025021512061357498,
-0.15030334889888763,
0.3363643288612366,
-0.4955964982509613,
0.01312300469726324,
0.4164544343948364,
-0.3428490459918976,
0.8133374452590942,
0.07515206187963486,
-0.7429937720298767,
0.42337334156036377,
0.07337910681962967,
1.3900843858718872,
-0.42797666788101196,
0.4063870906829834,
-0.07139290869235992,
-0.9563594460487366,
-0.03581666201353073,
0.2005605250597,
0.1212383359670639,
0.26586535573005676,
-0.2379101812839508,
0.40396547317504883,
0.37216711044311523,
0.05007531866431236,
-0.21094666421413422,
-0.2661244571208954,
0.35440579056739807,
0.2576434314250946,
0.17803211510181427,
0.24597273766994476,
0.04141293466091156,
0.40690335631370544,
-0.25147390365600586,
0.1864462047815323,
-0.878924548625946,
-0.273668497800827,
0.4319954216480255,
0.08987994492053986,
0.36567017436027527,
0.058515869081020355,
-0.2932632863521576,
-0.5851002335548401,
-0.20765268802642822,
-0.3259845972061157,
-0.5612806677818298,
0.08600559830665588,
-0.02892647124826908,
0.19009196758270264,
0.33076968789100647,
0.12355395406484604,
0.39852991700172424,
-0.14406636357307434,
0.5967907309532166,
0.22951526939868927,
0.05471654608845711,
-0.06178518757224083,
-0.019874608144164085,
-0.4917124807834625,
-0.3057088553905487,
-0.3625601530075073,
0.003982504364103079,
-1.006656289100647,
-0.34348419308662415,
0.596500039100647,
0.11076506972312927,
-0.7766802310943604,
0.48838645219802856,
0.659771740436554,
-0.39489150047302246,
-0.43270960450172424,
-0.37040945887565613,
-0.5190695524215698,
-0.8155393004417419,
-0.6858691573143005,
-0.0013313520466908813,
-0.3273732662200928,
0.048507995903491974,
0.608140230178833,
-0.404045969247818,
-0.4566129446029663,
-0.41190868616104126,
1.1880582571029663,
-0.4973398745059967,
-0.09266549348831177,
0.7144072651863098,
-0.35209396481513977,
-0.9117226004600525,
-0.7116109728813171,
0.7512814402580261,
0.20015829801559448,
0.6926229596138,
0.4599872827529907,
-0.04035627469420433,
-0.017008673399686813,
-5.516936302185059,
0.02880363166332245,
0.16386838257312775,
-0.13055263459682465,
0.13875527679920197,
0.48756512999534607,
0.6421018242835999,
0.06707166880369186,
0.5500012040138245,
-0.51784348487854,
0.11634759604930878,
0.19709382951259613,
0.24600912630558014,
0.33927759528160095,
0.2211051881313324,
0.15584999322891235,
0.6203664541244507,
-0.17349255084991455,
0.40977945923805237,
0.148813858628273,
0.03442743793129921,
-0.33955445885658264,
-0.3196880519390106,
1.0777616500854492,
0.5080085396766663,
0.4959161579608917,
-0.7316717505455017,
-0.052927207201719284,
-0.653100848197937,
0.061837147921323776,
-0.014389761723577976,
-0.1902618408203125,
-0.194952592253685,
0.36315906047821045,
-0.5749191641807556,
-0.4511167109012604,
0.5004245638847351,
0.361220121383667,
0.47936350107192993,
0.38794437050819397,
0.00046118765021674335,
-0.15487821400165558,
-1.1951998472213745,
0.5709834098815918,
0.14346088469028473,
-0.7065562605857849,
-0.6946125626564026,
0.19617736339569092,
-0.3050151467323303,
0.5643776655197144,
0.27211248874664307,
-0.1706504374742508,
0.41147351264953613,
-0.3323364555835724,
0.5189051628112793,
0.19153936207294464,
-0.05763775855302811,
0.4811636209487915,
-0.3117361068725586,
-0.11778439581394196,
0.3134428858757019,
-0.3822568356990814,
0.049993034452199936,
-0.3895297944545746,
0.38687413930892944,
-0.14842551946640015,
0.32361656427383423,
-0.1653035432100296,
-0.1792856901884079,
0.3232343792915344,
-0.8847811818122864,
0.6646631360054016,
0.013274844735860825,
-0.9957143068313599,
0.48705363273620605,
0.07813489437103271,
-0.11436348408460617,
0.4886866807937622,
0.0735028088092804,
-0.31957969069480896,
-0.16693347692489624,
-0.2225186675786972,
0.260450154542923,
0.48578840494155884,
0.06439211219549179,
0.7377195358276367,
0.16434001922607422,
0.28859299421310425,
-0.002135053277015686,
0.5843459963798523,
0.5729084610939026,
-0.6637201309204102,
-0.13942696154117584,
-0.002886591712012887,
0.5658764839172363,
0.16788724064826965,
-0.4211268723011017,
0.23914332687854767,
0.27362996339797974,
-0.17625415325164795,
0.22811242938041687,
0.0769217312335968,
-0.8469230532646179,
-0.15912656486034393,
-0.38751667737960815,
-0.09732408821582794,
0.03869236633181572,
0.17840470373630524,
0.6623882055282593,
0.7507601380348206,
0.026522694155573845,
-0.34649237990379333,
-0.563727855682373,
-0.37800389528274536,
0.5976648926734924,
-0.23291730880737305,
0.04959992319345474,
0.2836543917655945,
0.19432158768177032,
0.10236778855323792,
0.014824229292571545,
0.5255024433135986,
-0.4951156675815582,
-0.4775974154472351,
0.5393080115318298,
0.41526156663894653,
-0.3070720434188843,
0.5037792921066284,
-0.024688007310032845,
-0.2384510338306427,
0.22969888150691986,
-0.10877161473035812,
-0.10050688683986664,
0.09808212518692017,
0.02772984467446804,
-0.5263442397117615,
-0.2962926924228668,
-0.8023873567581177,
-0.027455702424049377,
-0.040701188147068024,
-0.5220045447349548,
-0.013524266891181469,
-0.5442078709602356,
0.3280549943447113,
-0.6957665085792542,
0.1395488679409027,
-0.1655435562133789,
-0.12584923207759857,
0.2339380979537964,
0.33667242527008057,
-0.036798618733882904,
-0.866266131401062,
0.3447049558162689,
-0.2626267373561859,
-0.5537216663360596,
0.33443310856819153,
-0.5026823878288269,
-0.1825551837682724,
-0.35975030064582825,
0.1572086662054062,
-0.17819121479988098,
-0.19410260021686554,
-0.8846452236175537,
-0.3258313238620758,
-0.09884630888700485,
-0.5082295536994934,
-0.10240260511636734,
-0.07911311835050583,
-0.08463191241025925,
0.2248772233724594,
0.6607983112335205,
-0.6120124459266663,
-0.037234410643577576,
-0.12069591879844666,
0.6175292134284973,
0.365342378616333,
0.43979623913764954,
0.3218955397605896,
-0.38751232624053955,
-0.4900532364845276,
0.05973929911851883,
0.2361292988061905,
-0.4469585716724396,
0.2983771562576294,
-0.23484818637371063,
-0.3733246326446533,
-0.5464614629745483,
-1.0454087257385254,
-0.3955824077129364,
-0.27969375252723694,
-0.5469052791595459,
-0.17883384227752686,
0.08413819968700409,
0.30388522148132324,
-0.1985703557729721,
-0.32609158754348755,
0.21967999637126923,
0.20408029854297638,
0.17498202621936798,
0.09750266373157501,
-0.33632856607437134,
0.3415178954601288,
-0.4391498863697052,
-0.22336693108081818,
0.013845288194715977,
-0.7038180232048035,
0.5538877248764038,
0.46251609921455383,
0.6868895292282104,
-0.12122338265180588,
-0.2226790338754654,
-0.6334884762763977,
-0.05689560994505882,
0.0376090332865715,
0.48603084683418274,
-0.08969730138778687,
0.06927907466888428,
0.4110565483570099,
-0.024164922535419464,
-0.9887725114822388,
-0.3616853952407837,
0.17269985377788544,
-0.4455082416534424,
-0.5187509059906006,
-0.2682511508464813,
0.582423210144043,
0.6745566129684448,
0.2948465347290039,
-0.13277281820774078,
-0.3236546516418457,
-0.07635322958230972,
0.27390024065971375,
0.08941769599914551,
0.3349210023880005,
-0.6190018057823181,
0.0355345644056797,
0.09087706357240677,
-0.39024415612220764,
0.5668872594833374,
0.17241214215755463,
0.19904975593090057,
0.9464884996414185,
0.2710690498352051,
0.4392938017845154,
0.4413502514362335,
0.32162365317344666,
-0.03265941143035889,
-0.18259724974632263,
0.45102497935295105,
0.38292962312698364,
0.12455473095178604,
-0.25718116760253906,
-0.21095360815525055,
-0.09291229397058487,
0.9605644345283508,
-0.7080217003822327,
0.007895105518400669,
0.1861783266067505,
-0.35177528858184814,
-0.0015132511034607887,
-0.054806653410196304,
0.440024197101593,
0.26197361946105957,
-0.11753970384597778,
0.22187450528144836,
0.18222984671592712,
-0.3995969295501709,
-0.012351814657449722,
0.023843154311180115,
-0.8847870230674744,
-0.8682646751403809,
-0.2932712435722351,
-0.18304452300071716,
0.7098485231399536,
0.38911452889442444,
0.15175433456897736,
-0.5773323774337769,
-0.04287834092974663,
0.042354170233011246,
0.35295525193214417,
-0.9108622074127197,
-0.5163596272468567,
0.05831509083509445,
-0.40551671385765076,
-0.7713773846626282,
-0.8621265292167664,
0.13715152442455292,
0.22531677782535553,
-0.10302172601222992,
-0.021644532680511475,
-0.6863918900489807,
-0.02366398647427559,
0.19452309608459473,
-0.25328895449638367,
-0.42527347803115845,
0.5144501328468323,
-0.3780500888824463,
-0.12012740969657898,
-0.24062012135982513,
0.17196416854858398,
-0.11172895133495331,
-0.017123747617006302,
0.20874620974063873,
1.051284909248352,
-0.0621885322034359,
-0.20370665192604065,
-0.3247328996658325,
0.016679959371685982,
-0.14445607364177704,
0.4633248448371887,
0.18084873259067535,
-0.22904331982135773,
0.5379012227058411,
-0.08265019208192825,
-0.42679867148399353,
-0.0772634744644165,
-0.0776185393333435,
0.010840656235814095,
-0.13097044825553894,
-0.9233469367027283,
0.7212340235710144,
0.1869749128818512,
-0.5331610441207886,
0.3607882261276245,
0.8419342637062073,
-0.12873244285583496,
-0.1264801174402237,
0.35354921221733093,
-0.03418559581041336,
0.347857266664505,
0.10120612382888794,
0.04031679779291153,
-0.316632479429245,
0.7129460573196411,
-0.22393205761909485,
0.4484929144382477,
0.032431818544864655,
-0.7550058364868164,
0.33608347177505493,
0.38782286643981934,
0.7280600070953369,
0.43148645758628845,
-0.814064621925354,
0.1525295078754425,
0.04365179315209389,
0.003484803019091487,
-0.03279316797852516,
0.05669573321938515,
0.23484504222869873,
0.26035264134407043,
0.5722846388816833,
0.6168530583381653,
0.5215253233909607,
-0.43674418330192566,
-0.03210822865366936,
0.39443477988243103,
0.7005748152732849,
0.09063529223203659,
-0.14189192652702332,
-0.5038247108459473,
-0.21017128229141235,
-0.1721545308828354,
0.6346451640129089,
-0.0047792415134608746,
0.011921575292944908,
0.527225136756897,
-0.39440351724624634,
-0.353919118642807,
-0.10481230914592743,
0.2775191366672516,
0.0944041982293129,
-0.44681310653686523,
-0.15360140800476074,
0.2694915533065796,
0.2194639891386032,
0.9649025797843933,
0.6401609182357788,
-0.04946387931704521,
-0.04782719165086746,
-0.19558098912239075,
-0.3275717794895172,
0.3845789432525635,
0.007403350435197353,
-0.4243873655796051,
0.4776460528373718,
0.6614310145378113,
0.18715813755989075,
0.3625158965587616,
-0.8939575552940369,
-0.22135381400585175,
-0.3172233998775482,
-0.33763399720191956,
-0.24676260352134705,
0.7929616570472717,
-0.1550053358078003,
0.2006710320711136,
-0.002504179021343589,
0.5729205012321472,
0.34917110204696655,
0.119387686252594,
0.04017689824104309,
-0.11153280735015869,
0.1555372178554535,
0.3206675946712494,
0.05022817850112915,
0.44667837023735046,
-0.42588865756988525,
0.03149948641657829,
-0.43769994378089905,
0.05068941414356232,
0.3751271963119507,
0.6723120808601379,
-0.11815125495195389,
-0.04126112535595894,
-0.5371686816215515,
-0.4481951594352722,
0.9301926493644714,
-0.592631995677948,
0.12321273982524872,
-0.23480747640132904,
0.19643498957157135,
-0.28390488028526306,
-0.007376382127404213,
0.17283350229263306,
-0.1282864809036255,
-0.2262130230665207,
0.5740917325019836,
0.33628758788108826,
-0.02005298249423504,
0.742339015007019,
0.05793772265315056,
-1.2008801698684692,
-0.20170238614082336,
-0.3423101007938385,
-0.012108766473829746,
-0.21783271431922913,
0.9158666729927063,
0.6026626825332642,
0.5438176393508911,
-0.4687671363353729,
0.07123040407896042,
-0.014837317168712616,
0.48036569356918335,
-0.057261597365140915,
-0.0933670625090599,
-0.29350462555885315,
0.00876473169773817,
-0.4654633104801178,
-0.4474583864212036,
0.09856473654508591,
0.6165648102760315,
-0.18206243216991425,
0.44800716638565063,
-0.7074896693229675,
0.28716132044792175,
-0.19275948405265808,
0.3543418049812317,
-0.3732162117958069,
0.07328155636787415,
0.12846319377422333
] |
234771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassment | Embarrassment | Embarrassment or awkwardness is an emotional state that is associated with mild to severe levels of discomfort, and which is usually experienced when someone commits a socially unacceptable or frowned-upon act that is witnessed by or revealed to others. Frequently grouped with shame and guilt, embarrassment is considered a “self-conscious emotion,” and it can have a profoundly negative impact on a person’s thoughts or behavior.
Usually, some perception of loss of honor or dignity (or other high-value ideals) is involved, but the embarrassment level and the type depends on the situation.
Causes
Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps or shyness. Some causes of embarrassment stem from personal actions, such as being caught in a lie or in making a mistake. In many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment (see modesty). Personal embarrassment can also stem from the actions of others who place the embarrassed person in a socially awkward situation—such as a parent showing one's baby pictures to friends, having someone make a derogatory comment about one's appearance or behavior, discovering one is the victim of gossip, being rejected by another person (see also humiliation), being made the focus of attention (e.g., birthday celebrants, newlyweds), or even witnessing someone else's embarrassment.
Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, and fidgeting. Sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is more common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the perceived seriousness of the situation, especially if the individual thinks another person is intentionally causing the embarrassment. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the embarrassing act as inconsequential or even humorous, to intense apprehension or fear.
The idea that embarrassment serves an apology or appeasement function originated with Goffman who argued the embarrassed individual "demonstrates that he/she is at least disturbed by the fact and may prove worthy at another time". Semin and Manstead demonstrated social functions of embarrassment whereby the perpetrator of knocking over a sales display (the "bad act") was deemed more likable by others if he/she appeared embarrassed than if he/she appeared unconcerned – regardless of restitution behavior (rebuilding the display). The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture. It has been demonstrated that those who are not prone to embarrassment are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior – for example, adolescent boys who displayed more embarrassment were found less likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviors. Similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behavior was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment (i.e., a concern for how one is evaluated by others) can act as a brake on behavior that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture.
Professional embarrassment
Embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, or loss of human life. Examples of causes include a government's failed public policy, exposure of corrupt practices or unethical behavior, a celebrity whose personal habits receive public scrutiny or face legal action, or officials caught in serious personally embarrassing situations. Even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved (e.g., see Space Shuttle Challenger).
Not all official failures result in official embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. For example, losing a close political election might cause some personal embarrassment for the candidate but generally would be considered an honorable loss in the profession and thus not necessarily lead to professional embarrassment. Similarly, a scientist might be personally disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong, but would not normally suffer professional embarrassment as a result. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a scientific claim (e.g., see Hwang Woo-Suk) would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by public expressions of anger, denial of involvement, or attempts to minimize the consequences. Sometimes the embarrassed entity issues press statements, removes or distances themselves from sub-level employees, attempts to carry on as if nothing happened, suffers income loss, emigrates, or vanishes from public view.
Vicarious embarrassment
Vicarious embarrassment is an embarrassed feeling from observing the embarrassing actions of another person. People who rate themselves as more empathic are more likely to experience vicarious embarrassment. The effect is present whether or not the observed party is aware of the embarrassing nature of their actions, although awareness generally increases the strength of the felt vicarious embarrassment, as does an accidental (as opposed to intentional) action.
Types in social psychology
One typology of embarrassment is described by Sharkey and Stafford. There are six types of embarrassment:
Privacy violations – for example where a part of the body is accidentally exposed, or there is an invasion of space, property, or information that may be warranted to privacy,
Lack of knowledge and skill – for example forgetfulness, or experiencing failure while performing a relatively easy task
Criticism and rejection – is another cause of embarrassment, as well as being made the center of attention positively or negatively
Awkward acts – refer to social situations, for example, inappropriate conversations, clumsiness or ungraceful actions (such as an emotional outbreak like speaking out unintentionally) that can trigger embarrassment
Appropriate image – refers to more of a personal reflection of embarrassment, like body image, clothing apparel, and personal possessions (for example owning an older mobile phone compared to the latest model)
Environment – can also have the effect of provoking embarrassment, as when an individual in a movie theatre with his or her parents, other family, co-workers, or mixed-company peers is made uncomfortable by an unexpected occurrence of nudity in the film that the group is watching.
Another typology, by Cupach and Metts, discusses the dimensions of intended-unintended and appropriate-inappropriate behavior, and four basic types of embarrassing circumstances:
Faux pas (socially awkward acts)
Accidents
Mistakes
Failure to perform a duty or moral obligation.
Based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations: the actor responsible and the observer responsible. Actor responsible situations are embarrassing when a person executes an act that is either inappropriate to a point of proficiency matching social norms and expectations, inconsistent with role expectations, or is out-of-sync with a social identity. The observer responsible categories are embarrassing when an individual becomes the focus of attention through:
Recognition, praise, criticism, correction, or teasing
Becomes initialized through being tripped or bumped, which is then associated with someone acting inappropriately
Has information revealed publicly to another individual or peer group
Etymology
The first known written occurrence of embarrass in English was in 1664 by Samuel Pepys in his diary. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, "to block" or "obstruct", whose first recorded usage was by Michel de Montaigne in 1580. The French word was derived from the Spanish embarazar, whose first recorded usage was in 1460 in Cancionero de Stúñiga (Songbook of Stúñiga) by Álvaro de Luna. The Spanish word comes from the Portuguese embaraçar, which is a combination of the prefix em- (from Latin im- for "in-") with baraço or baraça, "a noose" or "rope". Baraça originated before the Romans began their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 218 BC. Thus, baraça could be related to the Celtic word barr, "tuft". (Celtic people actually settled much of Spain and Portugal beginning in the 8th century BC) However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in Ibero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence.
The Spanish word may come from the Italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, "obstacle" or "obstruction". That word came from imbarrare, "to block" or "bar", which is a combination of in-, "in" with barra, "bar" (from the Vulgar Latin barra, which is of unknown origin). The problem with this theory is that the first known usage of the word in Italian was by Bernardo Davanzati (1529–1606), long after the word had entered Spanish.
In Judaism
Embarrassing another person is considered to be a serious sin in Judaism. Rabbis quoted in the Babylonian Talmud state that embarrassing another person in public is akin to murder (literally "spilling blood"). Rabbi Naḥman bar Yitzḥak responds by noting how the analogy of "spilling blood" is apt since, when a person is embarrassed, their face becomes less flushed and more pale (after the initial flush).
See also
Blushing
Criterion of embarrassment
Face (social concept)
Guilt
Humiliation
Modesty
Moral emotions
Shame
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Bibliography of Embarrassment Research
Embarrassment Research Information
Bullying
Emotions
Psychological abuse | [
-0.15129387378692627,
0.500937283039093,
-0.8746436834335327,
0.1674681305885315,
-0.49473699927330017,
-0.181672140955925,
0.8996553421020508,
0.4388498365879059,
-0.05332799255847931,
-0.7733064889907837,
-0.3408016860485077,
0.27773475646972656,
0.011038485914468765,
-0.12262601405382156,
-0.2107195407152176,
0.32650232315063477,
0.32025817036628723,
0.7146508693695068,
0.03847444802522659,
0.16491906344890594,
-0.39702022075653076,
-0.3044886887073517,
-0.5983430743217468,
-0.5952253341674805,
0.3611067831516266,
-0.22574040293693542,
0.11817380040884018,
-0.17470243573188782,
-0.0860963836312294,
-0.2841431796550751,
0.09203685820102692,
0.40910860896110535,
0.23488572239875793,
0.05153258889913559,
-0.2415686547756195,
0.1620321422815323,
-0.19846582412719727,
-0.35043057799339294,
-0.0694391131401062,
-0.16396291553974152,
-0.21077120304107666,
-0.09336548298597336,
-0.14258985221385956,
0.14831967651844025,
0.20099633932113647,
-0.6460201144218445,
-1.3059651851654053,
0.35525739192962646,
-0.20809590816497803,
0.05475155636668205,
-0.39289528131484985,
0.5701966881752014,
-0.0003892665554303676,
0.3277454376220703,
-0.19897890090942383,
-0.05811448395252228,
-0.3689256012439728,
-0.0449993871152401,
0.10797035694122314,
-0.614124059677124,
0.5898253321647644,
0.03194701671600342,
-0.08602705597877502,
-0.43984976410865784,
0.1837756633758545,
0.3437028229236603,
0.10920675098896027,
0.48929888010025024,
-0.013501236215233803,
-0.3615441620349884,
-0.005294845439493656,
-0.07044650614261627,
-0.04950498789548874,
-0.12670809030532837,
-0.33574599027633667,
0.016514958813786507,
0.11551263928413391,
-0.32345646619796753,
-0.34211379289627075,
0.08614543825387955,
-0.22412393987178802,
0.27495118975639343,
0.25011923909187317,
-0.02946406602859497,
0.3873084783554077,
-0.0984601080417633,
-0.08614403754472733,
1.2591661214828491,
-0.2721914052963257,
0.35172411799430847,
0.46925559639930725,
0.39144766330718994,
0.6919289231300354,
-0.2810162603855133,
-0.15941166877746582,
0.20170064270496368,
0.6227441430091858,
0.04841079190373421,
0.11745446920394897,
-0.24668249487876892,
-0.06289991736412048,
-0.3608670234680176,
0.18196183443069458,
-0.32445260882377625,
0.16198739409446716,
-0.22830574214458466,
-0.008910268545150757,
-0.058956846594810486,
0.2762296199798584,
-0.5114794969558716,
-0.18295860290527344,
0.273287296295166,
-0.2673264145851135,
-0.11956391483545303,
-0.6038622260093689,
0.06566905975341797,
0.14714105427265167,
0.18521974980831146,
-0.27573156356811523,
-0.4644240438938141,
0.026939725503325462,
-0.22628861665725708,
0.32530128955841064,
-0.005257016979157925,
-0.0962577611207962,
0.19198648631572723,
0.21905659139156342,
0.33890050649642944,
-0.3350076377391815,
0.21554234623908997,
0.1874362826347351,
0.3107524514198303,
-0.23230770230293274,
-0.03136356174945831,
0.06335261464118958,
0.47376546263694763,
0.2833140790462494,
0.5113434195518494,
0.42946797609329224,
-0.06771183758974075,
-0.4308378994464874,
-0.7059791684150696,
-0.6376166343688965,
0.37858787178993225,
0.05618498846888542,
-0.6087335348129272,
0.09811662882566452,
-0.10462694615125656,
-0.17211344838142395,
-0.057267557829618454,
0.3133583962917328,
-0.43071165680885315,
-0.5900669097900391,
-0.2370484322309494,
-0.2111164629459381,
-0.12683111429214478,
0.2930435538291931,
-0.4312824606895447,
0.04240570589900017,
0.5399685502052307,
0.3324662148952484,
-0.02355867810547352,
-1.1357066631317139,
-0.18660962581634521,
0.3318265974521637,
-0.00808295514434576,
-0.1939058154821396,
0.6009775400161743,
-0.07960700988769531,
0.42147141695022583,
-0.19154781103134155,
0.18247966468334198,
0.25691476464271545,
-0.49632197618484497,
0.1518121361732483,
0.5765219926834106,
-0.13891930878162384,
0.12063770741224289,
0.6133862137794495,
0.23364602029323578,
-0.6916298270225525,
-0.0751035064458847,
-0.004233594983816147,
-0.08942209184169769,
0.2913835644721985,
-0.025892743840813637,
0.32278209924697876,
-0.49430540204048157,
-0.604707658290863,
-0.36687585711479187,
-0.9557843208312988,
-0.3370365798473358,
-0.16798783838748932,
-0.24107886850833893,
1.2412787675857544,
-0.19975537061691284,
-0.5074139833450317,
1.0707852840423584,
0.41955769062042236,
0.04483069106936455,
0.10082007199525833,
0.03122096136212349,
0.4029220640659332,
0.12337233871221542,
-0.8988736271858215,
0.5918160676956177,
0.20442020893096924,
0.4730070233345032,
-0.11121224611997604,
0.030937807634472847,
0.03343205526471138,
-0.09591450542211533,
0.1195012629032135,
-0.14119265973567963,
0.014025125652551651,
0.31201815605163574,
-0.5333594083786011,
-0.14614172279834747,
-0.09321613609790802,
-0.5621848702430725,
0.4612278640270233,
-0.10694535821676254,
-0.14958709478378296,
0.16657477617263794,
0.04447758570313454,
0.5822290778160095,
0.1860005110502243,
0.1512497514486313,
0.9243311285972595,
-1.0141487121582031,
0.15328854322433472,
0.0868045762181282,
0.3340643048286438,
-0.2121582329273224,
-0.47337594628334045,
0.3336850702762604,
0.5226374864578247,
-0.3946804106235504,
0.2517213821411133,
-0.18441420793533325,
-0.30847543478012085,
0.26574355363845825,
0.08239918947219849,
0.5186618566513062,
-0.04616202041506767,
-0.3303543031215668,
0.2879166007041931,
0.47409787774086,
-0.5057578682899475,
0.32387688755989075,
0.24945548176765442,
0.7534834146499634,
0.08973988890647888,
-0.47934046387672424,
0.24576890468597412,
-0.11086214333772659,
0.15156754851341248,
0.03966715931892395,
-0.26046106219291687,
-0.22790780663490295,
-0.14660429954528809,
0.4568178951740265,
0.09022212773561478,
0.2294752448797226,
-0.27202925086021423,
0.27716636657714844,
-0.08450325578451157,
-0.0454576201736927,
0.20248158276081085,
0.20179885625839233,
0.6733037829399109,
-0.02264326997101307,
-0.7185835838317871,
-0.3321690559387207,
-0.39172908663749695,
-0.25204986333847046,
0.49060654640197754,
0.38961732387542725,
0.12840795516967773,
-0.2790699005126953,
-0.17662951350212097,
0.5962498188018799,
0.23894092440605164,
-0.5979316234588623,
0.059144359081983566,
-0.6827046871185303,
-0.11165077239274979,
-0.09433489292860031,
-0.5399171113967896,
-0.2568015456199646,
-0.3087804317474365,
0.5404552221298218,
0.3972168564796448,
0.22024841606616974,
0.6004027128219604,
0.2093193680047989,
0.045615799725055695,
0.7513552904129028,
0.7710747122764587,
-0.17330966889858246,
-0.2955258786678314,
-0.037079695612192154,
-0.16083119809627533,
-0.40588825941085815,
-0.15713301301002502,
0.0899847149848938,
-0.32406163215637207,
-0.31845933198928833,
-5.7961225509643555,
0.019419267773628235,
-0.024185696616768837,
-0.08130881190299988,
-0.48715484142303467,
0.25750496983528137,
0.9851959943771362,
-0.5683621168136597,
-0.8167110681533813,
0.527001142501831,
-0.1347251832485199,
0.31348851323127747,
0.4189140796661377,
0.27808043360710144,
0.014390341006219387,
-0.03267475962638855,
0.46692097187042236,
-0.37156012654304504,
-0.17521947622299194,
0.4619982838630676,
-0.4235789179801941,
0.9901608824729919,
-0.5541986227035522,
0.4508305490016937,
0.1285848617553711,
-0.10706791281700134,
0.14008566737174988,
0.20057812333106995,
-0.20757241547107697,
0.12818944454193115,
0.8385588526725769,
-0.2459314465522766,
0.4926389455795288,
0.25620654225349426,
-0.15987670421600342,
0.0444222092628479,
0.10461655259132385,
-0.08092670142650604,
-0.42853018641471863,
0.06953083723783493,
-0.46124306321144104,
0.12301631271839142,
0.2681526243686676,
0.2692604959011078,
0.662276029586792,
0.19995325803756714,
0.0332295186817646,
-0.5439513325691223,
0.18171557784080505,
0.28606104850769043,
0.17763258516788483,
0.18085768818855286,
0.17109932005405426,
0.1017310619354248,
0.19662082195281982,
-0.026405690237879753,
0.4847317934036255,
0.010619625449180603,
-0.3679998219013214,
-0.3451274037361145,
0.08910481631755829,
-0.3711857795715332,
-0.14330163598060608,
-0.3479606807231903,
0.21614550054073334,
-0.20499859750270844,
-0.5830203890800476,
-0.6641488671302795,
0.6272220611572266,
0.15028119087219238,
-0.3039761781692505,
0.05138968303799629,
0.5681883692741394,
-0.8807359933853149,
0.2568769156932831,
-0.4291039705276489,
-0.5072202086448669,
-0.1906163990497589,
0.3567589521408081,
-0.1867586225271225,
-0.3127650022506714,
0.12532880902290344,
-0.6801788806915283,
-0.04228948429226875,
0.32094690203666687,
-0.4384741187095642,
0.11876580864191055,
0.35157835483551025,
0.15313705801963806,
-0.38952916860580444,
1.0505812168121338,
0.3877405524253845,
0.09817995131015778,
0.012363906018435955,
-0.22892381250858307,
0.8284894227981567,
0.3526889383792877,
0.0677737146615982,
0.478932648897171,
-0.2591787576675415,
0.050922099500894547,
-0.6325775980949402,
-0.05771111696958542,
0.008144976571202278,
-0.12412550300359726,
0.2258908897638321,
-0.10833007097244263,
0.077945277094841,
1.253929615020752,
-0.7744913101196289,
0.3883053660392761,
0.1773902177810669,
-0.5937649607658386,
-0.16146238148212433,
0.5177633762359619,
0.04961969330906868,
-0.24883168935775757,
0.6848787069320679,
0.2511807680130005,
-0.1147853434085846,
0.4010133743286133,
0.14003005623817444,
-0.6486518979072571,
0.38752293586730957,
-0.3550799787044525,
-0.20358692109584808,
0.04919198155403137,
-0.1430509090423584,
-0.14670035243034363,
-0.1699400693178177,
0.849446177482605,
0.43229612708091736,
0.1725553274154663,
0.4360990822315216,
0.5705983638763428,
-0.40756121277809143,
0.3067816495895386,
0.03248745575547218,
-0.46585994958877563,
-1.1326487064361572,
0.3122396171092987,
-0.5211947560310364,
-0.4137210249900818,
0.305514395236969,
0.8070030212402344,
0.20580808818340302,
-0.5120012760162354,
-0.27183276414871216,
-0.3341291546821594,
0.5628092288970947,
-0.17246833443641663,
-0.23799532651901245,
-0.3888937830924988,
0.060719795525074005,
0.04714351147413254,
0.430746853351593,
-0.09551339596509933,
-0.13844460248947144,
-0.6798644065856934,
-0.16289927065372467,
0.11249687522649765,
-0.42984163761138916,
-1.1417078971862793,
-0.5518351197242737,
-0.34797489643096924,
-0.5568592548370361,
-0.9129400253295898,
-0.6556337475776672,
0.003311524400487542,
0.6223132014274597,
-0.19009283185005188,
-0.010309283621609211,
-0.208149716258049,
-0.6024441123008728,
0.3711436986923218,
-0.07096129655838013,
-0.24181661009788513,
0.07084970921278,
-0.34296101331710815,
-0.027278712019324303,
0.18803271651268005,
-0.1376771479845047,
0.007137781009078026,
0.10907016694545746,
0.46189457178115845,
-0.0856650322675705,
0.06635777652263641,
0.5877560377120972,
-0.1365635246038437,
-0.3131592571735382,
-0.12483052909374237,
-0.4781930148601532,
0.2030293047428131,
-0.2906492054462433,
0.05972907319664955,
0.1526239663362503,
-0.17503920197486877,
-0.011883800849318504,
-0.3524760603904724,
-0.12192713469266891,
0.0824490338563919,
0.2588823437690735,
-0.737298846244812,
0.08337611705064774,
0.10774043947458267,
-0.6157698035240173,
0.5785950422286987,
0.24817360937595367,
-0.8023533821105957,
0.33061784505844116,
-0.5666114091873169,
-0.5874381065368652,
-0.1440477967262268,
0.3249393701553345,
0.15063335001468658,
0.10414774715900421,
-0.08323033154010773,
-0.6241865754127502,
0.05795370414853096,
-0.029059963300824165,
0.2870999872684479,
0.45149481296539307,
-0.2683035433292389,
0.17143508791923523,
-0.44046151638031006,
-0.5845435261726379,
0.3500758111476898,
-0.26927757263183594,
0.7243067622184753,
0.0026838500052690506,
0.1254977583885193,
0.2570193111896515,
0.6262702941894531,
-0.31084030866622925,
-0.31289613246917725,
-0.5164440870285034,
0.2614017128944397,
0.10450146347284317,
0.5109177231788635,
0.27936050295829773,
-0.11234114319086075,
0.6224074363708496,
-0.007432515732944012,
-0.7980034351348877,
0.1752007007598877,
0.00234939344227314,
-0.14916081726551056,
-0.6244213581085205,
-0.3045685291290283,
0.5883012413978577,
0.4455201029777527,
-0.08663265407085419,
-0.4580022096633911,
-0.012537979520857334,
0.16432644426822662,
-0.1918618381023407,
-0.289702445268631,
-0.3715205788612366,
0.028676148504018784,
0.03679279610514641,
0.34102755784988403,
-0.25213494896888733,
0.06620851904153824,
0.10054134577512741,
0.28011107444763184,
-0.2128065526485443,
0.24719250202178955,
0.42733508348464966,
-0.10027138888835907,
-0.41683998703956604,
-0.02726980671286583,
0.026944810524582863,
0.3862683176994324,
0.44505494832992554,
-0.17918051779270172,
0.2682103216648102,
-0.659321665763855,
-0.534539520740509,
-0.13930924236774445,
-0.024813108146190643,
0.246690034866333,
-0.8563774824142456,
0.23684783279895782,
-0.6503884792327881,
0.15308518707752228,
-0.3773166239261627,
0.4535212218761444,
-0.39205047488212585,
-0.7384447455406189,
-0.2695523798465729,
-0.3012407124042511,
-0.039495453238487244,
-0.04988642409443855,
0.46128618717193604,
0.2284584641456604,
0.186950221657753,
0.12098383158445358,
0.44681236147880554,
-0.21622654795646667,
0.09831246733665466,
-0.7298959493637085,
0.3961907923221588,
0.011917355470359325,
-0.6035109758377075,
0.6634976267814636,
0.2410205900669098,
-0.3056419789791107,
-0.9237875938415527,
-0.12432204931974411,
-0.2172079235315323,
0.026283280923962593,
-0.07834643870592117,
0.5627462267875671,
0.4914731979370117,
-0.16646930575370789,
-0.002018493600189686,
0.41875144839286804,
-0.21812856197357178,
0.28804925084114075,
-0.04086906090378761,
-0.026228750124573708,
-0.3883335292339325,
0.8123183250427246,
-0.04935801774263382,
0.10995081067085266,
0.3849347233772278,
0.07784580439329147,
0.2712426483631134,
0.8614436388015747,
0.6622985601425171,
0.7604767680168152,
0.276670902967453,
0.4267788827419281,
0.20882762968540192,
0.01919149048626423,
-0.3667791783809662,
0.255511611700058,
-0.683924674987793,
-0.7418443560600281,
0.4955529272556305,
0.6633800268173218,
-0.11305958777666092,
0.2745080888271332,
0.4715402126312256,
-0.4057297110557556,
0.601771354675293,
0.35955914855003357,
0.5186309814453125,
-0.2787652909755707,
-0.24806739389896393,
0.29017627239227295,
-0.300718754529953,
0.34594613313674927,
-0.2836126983165741,
0.1809413880109787,
0.18839094042778015,
0.7956061363220215,
-0.1499057561159134,
-0.6762317419052124,
-0.12600232660770416,
0.17817987501621246,
0.020923735573887825,
0.5905327200889587,
0.17636889219284058,
0.1278071254491806,
-0.5032734870910645,
0.15219153463840485,
0.28555646538734436,
-0.1161140501499176,
-0.3431827425956726,
-0.2707116901874542,
0.2685842514038086,
-0.42046478390693665,
0.021821316331624985,
0.852668046951294,
-0.3221302032470703,
0.43252384662628174,
0.147805854678154,
-0.09200412034988403,
-0.2540633976459503,
-0.1332167237997055,
0.08196678012609482,
-0.7236921787261963,
-0.7057995796203613,
0.32439157366752625,
0.35430002212524414,
0.03906233236193657,
0.29394444823265076,
0.12603455781936646,
-0.1447172313928604,
0.2920605540275574,
-0.029092563316226006,
0.5424978733062744,
-0.0057604992762207985,
-0.13066929578781128,
-0.04359123483300209,
0.2334991991519928,
0.30116575956344604,
0.2780618965625763,
-0.16555474698543549,
0.04042879492044449,
0.28719475865364075,
-0.30926430225372314,
0.22312942147254944,
-1.0831239223480225,
0.5488526821136475,
-0.5242869853973389,
-0.16082225739955902,
-0.7903319597244263,
0.1340600997209549,
0.14587494730949402,
-0.1255665272474289,
0.14925721287727356,
0.23706944286823273,
0.169451043009758,
-0.18372295796871185,
0.4879396855831146,
-0.36165866255760193,
0.015393301844596863,
-0.17287874221801758,
0.08785663545131683,
-0.3048967719078064,
0.8328251838684082,
-0.12195860594511032,
-0.17320217192173004,
-0.0069476827047765255,
0.19056184589862823,
0.2441665083169937,
0.2577003538608551,
0.1348511427640915,
-0.8463738560676575,
0.05889211595058441,
-0.5608195066452026,
1.0010253190994263,
0.19266679883003235,
-0.13198940455913544,
0.34669461846351624,
0.20194189250469208,
0.22569695115089417,
-0.10780030488967896,
0.447945773601532,
-0.8172270655632019,
-0.04572179540991783,
0.027630066499114037,
-1.0060721635818481,
0.3139859437942505,
-0.5070056915283203,
-0.20870545506477356,
-0.4016064703464508,
-0.08859119564294815,
0.5261818170547485,
-0.931026816368103,
0.37083134055137634,
0.16214360296726227,
-0.37000322341918945,
-0.14732907712459564,
-0.006840312387794256,
-0.3899117112159729,
-0.6650582551956177,
0.36703401803970337
] |
234774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrass | Embarrass | Embarrass may refer to:
Communities
Embarrass Township, Edgar County, Illinois, United States
Embarrass Township, St. Louis County, Minnesota, United States
Embarrass, Wisconsin, United States
Other
Embarrass River (disambiguation)
See also
Embarras (disambiguation)
Embarrassment (disambiguation) | [
0.2193995863199234,
1.010958194732666,
-0.30823472142219543,
-0.16954673826694489,
0.08583008497953415,
0.4257572293281555,
1.2858660221099854,
0.15357288718223572,
-0.07127007842063904,
-0.5198771357536316,
-0.2177472859621048,
0.22307531535625458,
-0.49735337495803833,
0.3622516095638275,
0.10242458432912827,
0.4479517936706543,
0.29766255617141724,
0.6286110877990723,
0.34855782985687256,
-0.33016860485076904,
-0.3084331154823303,
0.01803038828074932,
0.15273258090019226,
-0.16807954013347626,
0.06947673112154007,
-0.08919548988342285,
0.5343003273010254,
0.4509885609149933,
-0.37915295362472534,
0.25689616799354553,
0.31719839572906494,
1.313678503036499,
-0.07792501896619797,
-0.2983577847480774,
-0.021492289379239082,
-0.07726214081048965,
-0.11885473877191544,
-0.5973671674728394,
0.03696950525045395,
-0.6747901439666748,
0.06476157158613205,
-0.30543386936187744,
-0.07612982392311096,
0.040759824216365814,
-0.02002701535820961,
0.03319252282381058,
-0.9768168926239014,
0.007682422176003456,
-0.8256519436836243,
0.0793234258890152,
-0.11339845508337021,
-0.058305367827415466,
-0.2070278525352478,
0.3288804888725281,
-0.11654660850763321,
0.09176179766654968,
-1.2453700304031372,
-0.0336742028594017,
1.0199121236801147,
-0.24394845962524414,
0.28519588708877563,
0.4309729337692261,
-0.34927845001220703,
0.1685895472764969,
0.012824204750359058,
0.4549106955528259,
-0.25727635622024536,
0.5737609267234802,
-0.22941836714744568,
-0.2165207713842392,
0.03241552785038948,
-0.18340559303760529,
0.24674826860427856,
0.2733655273914337,
0.07888223975896835,
0.005497088190168142,
-0.229934960603714,
-0.1285610944032669,
0.19503147900104523,
-0.23747368156909943,
0.14591842889785767,
-0.25873231887817383,
0.1782592386007309,
-0.47663912177085876,
0.5902678966522217,
0.0323871448636055,
-1.1282658576965332,
0.5721590518951416,
-0.582982063293457,
0.8416004776954651,
-0.0035216454416513443,
0.21100488305091858,
-0.004747205413877964,
0.44345152378082275,
-0.062144115567207336,
-0.21985845267772675,
0.506371021270752,
-0.18429449200630188,
0.5645262002944946,
0.6499865651130676,
-0.243612602353096,
0.11241378635168076,
0.3847413957118988,
0.5993500351905823,
-0.2220625877380371,
0.16987396776676178,
-0.06089860200881958,
0.05219586193561554,
0.5963206887245178,
-1.0333633422851562,
-0.09674841165542603,
0.47764697670936584,
-0.5828961133956909,
-0.043495409190654755,
-0.5871865153312683,
0.1875382661819458,
0.6425586342811584,
-0.3715667426586151,
-0.26624053716659546,
-0.818399965763092,
0.3523838222026825,
0.644199013710022,
-0.054628606885671616,
0.4050946831703186,
-0.016346577554941177,
0.47002118825912476,
0.12713320553302765,
0.16920827329158783,
-0.41487616300582886,
0.8773513436317444,
-0.37563180923461914,
0.2785172462463379,
0.1704091578722,
-0.2420855015516281,
0.009692748077213764,
-0.3242027759552002,
0.06797496974468231,
0.26051485538482666,
0.614612877368927,
0.2296215146780014,
-0.8235158324241638,
-0.35440659523010254,
-1.178231954574585,
-0.11267179995775223,
0.3120591342449188,
-0.708659291267395,
0.10151480883359909,
0.26509401202201843,
0.4471876919269562,
0.3570459187030792,
0.4280470907688141,
-0.2058202624320984,
-0.7144044041633606,
0.22793281078338623,
-0.5656418204307556,
-0.0634813904762268,
0.4842756986618042,
0.12155793607234955,
0.0780639722943306,
0.45215338468551636,
0.19659030437469482,
0.3952906131744385,
-0.5601949691772461,
0.025087567046284676,
0.3086111545562744,
-0.3566656708717346,
-0.14057831466197968,
-0.49503135681152344,
-0.1736619472503662,
0.48808684945106506,
-0.674972414970398,
0.17286643385887146,
0.08580026775598526,
-0.7579727172851562,
0.06055879592895508,
0.48319560289382935,
0.7383782267570496,
0.10114221274852753,
0.4987012445926666,
0.03113258257508278,
-0.27796435356140137,
-0.01305186003446579,
0.5443204045295715,
0.02038264088332653,
-0.10242888331413269,
-0.00860552117228508,
0.5550033450126648,
-0.41959816217422485,
-0.0044981990940868855,
0.3031516969203949,
-0.5735325813293457,
-0.6660000681877136,
1.00139319896698,
-0.4205109477043152,
1.388067364692688,
0.6074104905128479,
-0.6215558648109436,
0.16178089380264282,
0.06517001241445541,
0.7182475328445435,
-0.49518507719039917,
0.10051758587360382,
0.8186070919036865,
0.07199087738990784,
-1.0210676193237305,
1.0552314519882202,
-0.013647413812577724,
-0.462924599647522,
0.2967507243156433,
0.2551707923412323,
0.6465331315994263,
-0.48962390422821045,
0.020132139325141907,
-0.6098310351371765,
-0.010847385041415691,
-0.3325514793395996,
-0.4489925503730774,
0.03637339547276497,
-0.09787174314260483,
-0.6806840896606445,
-0.12656265497207642,
-0.2536267936229706,
0.26772141456604004,
0.24570658802986145,
0.0019230941543355584,
0.027729256078600883,
-0.04007721692323685,
0.38651230931282043,
0.5750992894172668,
-1.3879461288452148,
0.3482925593852997,
0.26137247681617737,
0.31371209025382996,
-0.5072054266929626,
0.07919666916131973,
-0.09232836961746216,
0.0254024900496006,
-0.6629492044448853,
0.7095654606819153,
0.025946976616978645,
-0.46637582778930664,
0.6803827285766602,
-0.7995848059654236,
0.40636953711509705,
-0.02044055610895157,
0.2258417308330536,
0.008912652730941772,
0.2975103557109833,
0.005141963716596365,
0.1754206269979477,
0.20901593565940857,
0.1464223563671112,
0.17114506661891937,
-0.32335013151168823,
0.6933680176734924,
0.07384667545557022,
0.36031433939933777,
0.19518506526947021,
-0.6660862565040588,
-0.6775832176208496,
-0.6976261734962463,
0.3229042887687683,
0.16786615550518036,
0.8442989587783813,
-0.38615715503692627,
-0.10236611217260361,
-0.28635212779045105,
0.10413433611392975,
0.45765358209609985,
-0.08193501830101013,
0.18153077363967896,
-0.1544562429189682,
-0.2019042670726776,
-1.0060985088348389,
0.023501267656683922,
0.2277742177248001,
0.2195756882429123,
0.30642619729042053,
-0.721805214881897,
0.3020423948764801,
-0.40958189964294434,
1.1882927417755127,
-0.2586551606655121,
-0.7747969627380371,
0.27325373888015747,
-0.5674073100090027,
0.8247617483139038,
-0.3741624355316162,
-0.6509522795677185,
0.13789531588554382,
-0.11496682465076447,
-0.1219852939248085,
-0.46682074666023254,
0.8151959776878357,
-0.28036895394325256,
-0.3456428647041321,
-0.34658563137054443,
0.17827026546001434,
0.09966562688350677,
-0.6193169355392456,
-0.46298035979270935,
0.4391961991786957,
-0.9643058776855469,
0.2044227570295334,
-0.09768287092447281,
-0.23561808466911316,
-0.667037844657898,
0.1152077317237854,
-5.1154303550720215,
0.8860904574394226,
-0.5758553743362427,
-0.1515631377696991,
-0.5514048933982849,
0.1424425095319748,
0.8433430194854736,
-0.2663641571998596,
-0.4553752541542053,
0.03188074752688408,
0.4608008861541748,
-0.38098689913749695,
0.453947514295578,
0.5970820784568787,
0.2950999438762665,
0.24777911603450775,
0.5816599726676941,
-0.3851865231990814,
0.24599020183086395,
0.4268374443054199,
0.14185257256031036,
0.4374738335609436,
-0.03668095916509628,
-0.13986220955848694,
0.47741401195526123,
0.2338056117296219,
-0.5611605048179626,
0.3527704179286957,
-0.5434566140174866,
-0.2547008693218231,
0.5770543217658997,
0.2728889584541321,
0.14738357067108154,
-0.6127725839614868,
-0.9214382767677307,
-0.22141984105110168,
0.13084308803081512,
-0.20690953731536865,
0.049503445625305176,
-0.03761470317840576,
-0.2556426525115967,
0.40331795811653137,
0.34465232491493225,
0.12268072366714478,
0.5219254493713379,
-0.4044266939163208,
-0.19928720593452454,
-0.22549758851528168,
-0.15551206469535828,
0.7290324568748474,
-0.04186709225177765,
-0.041603073477745056,
0.7154948115348816,
0.7783278226852417,
0.11178185045719147,
-0.8745748400688171,
0.7832233905792236,
-0.3961756229400635,
-0.5922709107398987,
0.5717869997024536,
0.4090123176574707,
-0.24266821146011353,
-0.037259895354509354,
-0.4503912329673767,
0.3948921263217926,
-0.4228456914424896,
-0.1142265647649765,
-0.26211634278297424,
0.3417547643184662,
-0.3242112994194031,
-0.33224424719810486,
0.5427173972129822,
-0.3552042245864868,
-0.9666522145271301,
-0.2880050837993622,
-0.10304442048072815,
-0.40020057559013367,
-0.12398095428943634,
0.25904664397239685,
-0.12626099586486816,
-0.0755397379398346,
0.48929259181022644,
-0.6788760423660278,
0.7250123023986816,
-0.07937051355838776,
-0.4703652858734131,
-0.3401200771331787,
0.35647889971733093,
-0.6076505780220032,
-0.7921935319900513,
0.6635763645172119,
0.38861849904060364,
0.25577327609062195,
-0.164089173078537,
-0.4872698485851288,
0.894706130027771,
0.3391933739185333,
0.03693326562643051,
0.4128430187702179,
0.236697256565094,
0.22438278794288635,
-0.6258916854858398,
0.6553627848625183,
-0.2796078324317932,
-0.14416064321994781,
-0.5627119541168213,
0.6077732443809509,
0.23217418789863586,
0.4839093089103699,
-0.7030012011528015,
-0.005029102321714163,
-0.3739566206932068,
-0.38331300020217896,
-0.33973127603530884,
0.1938953846693039,
-0.5252583622932434,
-0.07561805844306946,
0.493583083152771,
0.43826088309288025,
-0.1338357925415039,
0.6894725561141968,
0.0674356147646904,
-0.20613525807857513,
0.6619250178337097,
-0.4839920699596405,
-1.053145408630371,
0.5177863240242004,
0.2203521430492401,
-0.3722585141658783,
0.19735996425151825,
-0.04594879224896431,
0.5487871170043945,
-0.3279136121273041,
-0.48176175355911255,
-0.13054858148097992,
-0.9733172059059143,
0.16810770332813263,
-0.3308696448802948,
-0.28317612409591675,
-0.48710352182388306,
0.5076345205307007,
-0.3163374662399292,
-0.24599024653434753,
0.6752757430076599,
0.5801227688789368,
0.950688362121582,
0.23077605664730072,
0.09661969542503357,
-0.8514348268508911,
0.6641260981559753,
-0.4627273976802826,
0.08242551982402802,
-0.2521340548992157,
-0.8319603800773621,
0.07943736016750336,
0.23105287551879883,
-0.012490028515458107,
0.5057373642921448,
-0.21022777259349823,
-0.26039063930511475,
0.9150215983390808,
-0.1267567127943039,
-1.0610204935073853,
0.005023112520575523,
-0.16692405939102173,
-0.37571796774864197,
-0.47614121437072754,
-0.5994248986244202,
-0.6650177836418152,
0.43710023164749146,
-0.10899366438388824,
-0.3538566827774048,
-0.5098716616630554,
-0.29458433389663696,
0.3581179976463318,
0.042549990117549896,
-0.42835187911987305,
0.25808584690093994,
0.590080738067627,
-0.19247141480445862,
-0.14897367358207703,
0.08737345784902573,
0.11108817905187607,
0.6918408274650574,
0.0792056992650032,
-0.6241039633750916,
-0.1180686354637146,
0.4316595196723938,
-0.0410633347928524,
-0.6042492985725403,
-0.16698172688484192,
-0.5870132446289062,
0.002727825427427888,
-0.04853745922446251,
-0.15857122838497162,
-0.7357447743415833,
0.00655893050134182,
0.3652403950691223,
-0.3758728802204132,
-0.4759131968021393,
0.2097819745540619,
0.4398525655269623,
-0.4344450831413269,
1.032920241355896,
0.3259601891040802,
-0.903198778629303,
0.7360377311706543,
0.6388282775878906,
-1.0585074424743652,
0.8004920482635498,
-0.2133784294128418,
-0.9235813021659851,
0.12021898478269577,
0.7035893201828003,
-0.4768814444541931,
-0.08567196130752563,
0.2194308191537857,
0.2021622657775879,
-0.2527288794517517,
-0.26735591888427734,
-0.1454121321439743,
-0.3551759719848633,
-0.6451990604400635,
-0.17479312419891357,
-0.8855226039886475,
0.44375213980674744,
0.43820032477378845,
-0.3838188648223877,
0.9030001759529114,
-0.28782641887664795,
-0.27309706807136536,
0.7978977560997009,
0.6636079549789429,
0.08607471734285355,
-0.36257699131965637,
0.1581248939037323,
-0.03974492475390434,
-0.1757103055715561,
0.3948388993740082,
0.344325989484787,
0.029410449787974358,
0.5362090468406677,
0.27514225244522095,
-0.6654265522956848,
0.16933712363243103,
-0.035018425434827805,
0.19316168129444122,
-0.4124663472175598,
-0.6447924971580505,
0.24944162368774414,
-0.015842702239751816,
-0.09553834050893784,
-0.6142316460609436,
-0.3170878291130066,
0.94802325963974,
-0.5953894853591919,
-0.16277535259723663,
0.22947093844413757,
0.5109845995903015,
0.504023015499115,
-0.10906995832920074,
0.09302365034818649,
-0.2306482046842575,
0.710500955581665,
-0.2978593111038208,
-0.7797186374664307,
-0.04993029311299324,
-0.343997985124588,
0.19213537871837616,
-0.4605220556259155,
-0.09905929863452911,
-0.15024836361408234,
0.8173947930335999,
0.48100733757019043,
-0.458072692155838,
-0.038549721240997314,
-0.08885271847248077,
-0.5783787965774536,
-0.040201932191848755,
0.01742076873779297,
0.04318796470761299,
-0.048686541616916656,
-0.25160136818885803,
-0.9686214327812195,
0.4814533591270447,
-0.31683552265167236,
0.1949295848608017,
-0.038599323481321335,
-0.7073806524276733,
-0.2047271877527237,
-0.7164648771286011,
0.05038950964808464,
-0.11313550919294357,
0.30223068594932556,
-0.04447336867451668,
0.32450389862060547,
-0.3818422853946686,
0.12770403921604156,
-0.20432446897029877,
-0.2732764482498169,
-1.2412621974945068,
0.6641709208488464,
-0.16204595565795898,
-1.0354801416397095,
-0.08843033015727997,
0.21515195071697235,
0.2766469419002533,
-0.4081721305847168,
0.33170390129089355,
-0.27889490127563477,
-0.2103097289800644,
-0.011842967942357063,
0.23788195848464966,
1.0800405740737915,
0.17249980568885803,
0.4232363700866699,
0.3599438965320587,
-0.5672648549079895,
0.03421919792890549,
0.3104971945285797,
-0.4709989130496979,
-0.29257795214653015,
1.1222244501113892,
0.4777428209781647,
0.3126412034034729,
1.0279548168182373,
-0.2508474886417389,
0.1758832186460495,
0.2203083038330078,
0.7115414142608643,
-0.09505371004343033,
-0.45867475867271423,
-1.0296995639801025,
0.5310271978378296,
-0.2998792827129364,
-0.05559966340661049,
0.030603818595409393,
-0.6478998064994812,
-0.49115538597106934,
0.4015767276287079,
0.3426573872566223,
0.05638156831264496,
0.08375473320484161,
0.3720652759075165,
-0.5597658753395081,
-0.06144704669713974,
0.241620734333992,
0.6238592863082886,
-0.09282227605581284,
-0.36769771575927734,
-0.2947796881198883,
-0.19522492587566376,
0.2594715356826782,
-0.6379632353782654,
0.135005921125412,
0.3755356967449188,
0.05564770847558975,
-0.24133852124214172,
-0.5689785480499268,
-0.3372442424297333,
-0.5089935064315796,
-0.49570298194885254,
0.28323033452033997,
-0.05915557220578194,
0.11065489053726196,
-0.6126251816749573,
0.00292852520942688,
0.16588222980499268,
0.009338894858956337,
0.6305438280105591,
0.36627620458602905,
0.02355027385056019,
0.16501843929290771,
0.03716287389397621,
0.28187304735183716,
0.10824957489967346,
-0.197275772690773,
0.4121536612510681,
0.23776666820049286,
-0.1344052404165268,
-0.461234450340271,
0.3772948384284973,
-0.33222344517707825,
-0.6574894189834595,
0.5896373391151428,
0.1444733738899231,
-0.049709536135196686,
0.494310587644577,
0.0900798887014389,
-0.6354882717132568,
0.409903883934021,
0.374795138835907,
-0.29422813653945923,
0.2975166141986847,
-0.43735820055007935,
-0.16601040959358215,
0.003694915445521474,
0.8937301635742188,
0.1443440467119217,
0.25348785519599915,
0.5401695370674133,
0.34712570905685425,
-0.22346390783786774,
0.1776149868965149,
-0.7222449779510498,
0.4632675051689148,
-0.14244110882282257,
0.41363388299942017,
-0.7987979650497437,
0.28617170453071594,
-0.5437988638877869,
-0.1779152899980545,
0.005043153651058674,
0.5436489582061768,
-0.038555294275283813,
-0.3912988305091858,
0.20656530559062958,
-0.311227411031723,
-0.41173267364501953,
-0.488443523645401,
0.5196524858474731,
-0.4844663143157959,
0.28048843145370483,
0.15898917615413666,
-0.04419126361608505,
-0.3808063268661499,
-0.04016903042793274,
0.08386754989624023,
0.25229907035827637,
0.44447916746139526,
0.36999285221099854,
-0.2208738476037979,
-0.5254269242286682,
0.6363019943237305,
-0.00605930108577013,
-0.6733493208885193,
0.7617357969284058,
0.8888039588928223,
0.4230116903781891,
0.18636326491832733,
0.061823245137929916,
-0.4892136752605438,
-0.057776931673288345,
0.3214130103588104,
-1.3201076984405518,
0.28121262788772583,
-0.4161430299282074,
-0.1503833383321762,
0.20442527532577515,
0.3140806555747986,
0.49907976388931274,
-0.5438634753227234,
0.12801975011825562,
0.3564426600933075,
0.11707161366939545,
-0.4999404549598694,
0.09759063273668289,
-0.6275835633277893,
0.1324484795331955,
0.18293021619319916
] |
234776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skaraborg%20County | Skaraborg County | Skaraborg County ( ) was a county of Sweden from 1634 until 1997. It was disestablished at the end of 1997 when it was merged with the counties of Gothenburg and Bohus and Älvsborg to form Västra Götaland County.
The county was named after a fortress () outside the city of Skara. The seat of residence for the county governor was Mariestad from 1660 onwards and the largest city (during the 20th century) was first Lidköping and later Skövde. The county consisted of the northeastern part of the province of Västergötland.
Even though Skaraborg County itself no longer exists, various organizations are still named after it, and cover that approximate area. These include several newspapers, one public radio channel and various non-profit organizations. Also, the regional hospital complex in Skövde is named as is the Skaraborg Wing (F 7) in Såtenäs and the Skaraborg Regiment (P 4) in Skövde.
Two of the municipalities, Habo and Mullsjö, adjacent to the city of Jönköping, were transferred to the Jönköping County at the time of dissolution.
See also
List of governors of Skaraborg County
List of governors of Älvsborg County
List of governors of Gothenburg and Bohus County
List of governors of Västra Götaland County
County administrative boards of Sweden
Aron Gustafsson
References
Former counties of Sweden
County
1634 establishments in Sweden
1997 disestablishments in Sweden | [
-0.35961994528770447,
0.1092175841331482,
0.3627139627933502,
0.2920997440814972,
-1.127607822418213,
0.01347955223172903,
0.7765152454376221,
0.0463421456515789,
-0.6198475956916809,
-0.17034412920475006,
0.22989943623542786,
-0.5737327337265015,
-0.5642905235290527,
0.4993028938770294,
-0.550408124923706,
0.6550475358963013,
0.4397217929363251,
0.7652310132980347,
0.237680122256279,
-0.7812749147415161,
-0.11320213973522186,
0.5383797883987427,
0.4288786053657532,
0.24288535118103027,
0.6065143942832947,
-0.05108746141195297,
0.04848862811923027,
0.4765803813934326,
0.42500436305999756,
-0.02085646241903305,
-0.04418763518333435,
0.558235228061676,
-0.15742424130439758,
0.16232402622699738,
-0.017353449016809464,
0.13386167585849762,
-0.4389735758304596,
-0.508257269859314,
0.0001212907227454707,
-0.11585608124732971,
-0.4406079053878784,
0.20350484549999237,
-0.3011775314807892,
-0.3096594214439392,
0.4906017780303955,
-0.6667422652244568,
-0.6118325591087341,
0.6451459527015686,
-0.08418603241443634,
0.8187537789344788,
-0.7869212627410889,
0.046724289655685425,
-0.23584216833114624,
0.4840448498725891,
-0.04214637726545334,
-0.25058671832084656,
-0.6886327266693115,
0.07904423028230667,
-0.15508584678173065,
0.6293794512748718,
0.8062856793403625,
-0.232209250330925,
-0.5352507829666138,
0.15560880303382874,
0.21445512771606445,
-0.15385554730892181,
0.11654015630483627,
0.7116184234619141,
-0.1888180822134018,
-0.9228866696357727,
-0.20056799054145813,
0.37176549434661865,
0.25153443217277527,
-0.3466320037841797,
0.16192537546157837,
-0.5981762409210205,
0.31493666768074036,
-0.4013684093952179,
0.5888915657997131,
-0.7008837461471558,
0.5236514806747437,
0.09272804111242294,
0.6903870105743408,
0.3455100655555725,
0.5670344829559326,
0.3303819000720978,
-1.1544137001037598,
-0.3084390461444855,
-0.7915932536125183,
-0.030251391232013702,
-0.017047706991434097,
0.3130514323711395,
0.7310035824775696,
0.3766876459121704,
-0.11555495858192444,
0.09456398338079453,
-0.4458974003791809,
0.4496578872203827,
0.07759436219930649,
0.42400720715522766,
-0.08869433403015137,
0.42389270663261414,
0.11603060364723206,
-0.07776226848363876,
-0.2822433114051819,
-0.2567947506904602,
0.11274232715368271,
0.21312803030014038,
-0.6601593494415283,
0.09764080494642258,
-0.4492443799972534,
-0.15407225489616394,
-0.13914383947849274,
0.34324392676353455,
0.6013432145118713,
0.0820368081331253,
0.031456053256988525,
0.11104317009449005,
0.540581226348877,
0.331008642911911,
-0.2966790199279785,
0.544080913066864,
-0.4549601674079895,
0.05208859220147133,
-0.23131245374679565,
-0.24668656289577484,
0.06789886206388474,
0.12762975692749023,
-0.053221914917230606,
0.2090510129928589,
0.09963788837194443,
0.8060464262962341,
-0.3910861313343048,
0.5305362343788147,
0.013053212314844131,
-0.467116117477417,
0.09138654172420502,
0.11656814068555832,
-0.2191513180732727,
0.2471824586391449,
-0.3477829694747925,
-0.3090115785598755,
-0.22829052805900574,
-0.5087013244628906,
0.0692739263176918,
-0.13529179990291595,
-0.02352214977145195,
-0.4471900463104248,
-0.43224209547042847,
-0.5083833932876587,
0.6014240980148315,
0.2208743393421173,
0.04250457137823105,
0.4126008152961731,
-0.29489150643348694,
0.4651862680912018,
-0.4653937816619873,
-0.07518865913152695,
0.16969172656536102,
0.3211154341697693,
0.005046975798904896,
0.277521550655365,
0.2043268233537674,
-0.4586009383201599,
0.456003874540329,
-0.2526732385158539,
-0.04081885516643524,
0.25034642219543457,
0.3052309453487396,
-0.39729219675064087,
-0.8083180785179138,
-0.5969262719154358,
0.10645948350429535,
-0.19563454389572144,
0.03210482746362686,
0.4496832489967346,
0.6172440052032471,
0.045232731848955154,
-0.38849639892578125,
-0.0842437893152237,
-0.7529094219207764,
0.13475467264652252,
0.07277334481477737,
0.0569286048412323,
-0.20458446443080902,
0.7980230450630188,
0.4608594477176666,
0.24466504156589508,
0.043203920125961304,
-0.13480418920516968,
0.020899642258882523,
-0.32665789127349854,
0.7446378469467163,
0.07933776080608368,
1.2954314947128296,
0.07033070176839828,
-0.14327965676784515,
0.12053100019693375,
-0.2044537365436554,
1.0949307680130005,
-0.26880621910095215,
-0.3232138752937317,
0.22492921352386475,
-0.8983545899391174,
0.5404015183448792,
0.1955954134464264,
-0.31041666865348816,
-0.2526378333568573,
-0.04086620733141899,
0.5722852945327759,
-0.6494677066802979,
-0.5189703702926636,
0.6014614105224609,
0.13520726561546326,
0.14662589132785797,
0.2167811244726181,
-0.23885127902030945,
-0.2213156819343567,
0.47144415974617004,
-1.029810905456543,
0.2743077874183655,
0.22537429630756378,
-0.055679310113191605,
0.5929614901542664,
0.1677684336900711,
0.5165501236915588,
0.6851730346679688,
0.7352245450019836,
-0.16048559546470642,
-0.6662042737007141,
0.35914385318756104,
0.086540088057518,
0.5026918053627014,
-0.5823830366134644,
0.16461369395256042,
-0.22584769129753113,
-0.10506720840930939,
0.4085409939289093,
-0.06724997609853745,
-0.350664883852005,
0.4120710492134094,
-0.10023503005504608,
0.008838128298521042,
0.19905470311641693,
0.799564778804779,
0.6067001819610596,
-0.197940856218338,
0.08643452823162079,
-0.6570837497711182,
-0.5409693717956543,
-0.4068845808506012,
0.1098790392279625,
-0.24769119918346405,
-0.36107584834098816,
0.16801533102989197,
-0.13222648203372955,
0.21920524537563324,
-0.16274191439151764,
-0.1372223198413849,
0.1297101527452469,
-0.3391202390193939,
-0.41871148347854614,
0.13626956939697266,
-0.2649638056755066,
-0.48387590050697327,
0.2798192799091339,
-0.2047569304704666,
-0.5426825284957886,
0.4456970691680908,
-0.00836322270333767,
-0.13964197039604187,
-0.0319654606282711,
0.0976492241024971,
0.029387738555669785,
0.008454781025648117,
-0.42299333214759827,
0.19265694916248322,
0.1198733001947403,
-0.33779361844062805,
-0.029146164655685425,
-0.289302796125412,
0.6512445211410522,
0.2287701517343521,
-0.8557696342468262,
-0.6131311058998108,
-0.4770876169204712,
0.3112429082393646,
-0.11529760807752609,
0.17678937315940857,
0.013994389213621616,
-0.029305774718523026,
0.5859370231628418,
-0.9815092086791992,
-0.3481091856956482,
-0.31538140773773193,
-0.10751373320817947,
-0.4007723331451416,
0.3573170304298401,
0.9127787351608276,
-0.05600631237030029,
-1.3641599416732788,
-0.0059105814434587955,
-0.17162984609603882,
0.5466328859329224,
0.06215469539165497,
-0.4365704357624054,
-0.6457734107971191,
-0.009005756117403507,
-5.233410835266113,
-0.24153022468090057,
-0.08918756991624832,
-0.08144370466470718,
-0.3010571300983429,
0.5076215863227844,
0.6909265518188477,
-0.5765530467033386,
0.6500089168548584,
0.0018467784393578768,
0.6677591800689697,
0.2017054706811905,
0.22356542944908142,
0.6251623034477234,
0.47193264961242676,
0.26295316219329834,
0.9882131814956665,
0.17083781957626343,
-0.10654501616954803,
-0.5693387389183044,
-0.5971612334251404,
-0.4464609622955322,
-0.15911786258220673,
0.19759337604045868,
0.31798481941223145,
0.7336412668228149,
0.11218823492527008,
-0.2559806704521179,
-0.22841577231884003,
-0.47574520111083984,
-0.21680840849876404,
-0.20716392993927002,
0.07289976626634598,
-0.15270762145519257,
-0.34356653690338135,
0.3294670283794403,
0.7876009941101074,
1.383687138557434,
-0.15735353529453278,
-0.7464491724967957,
0.3464847505092621,
0.5677908658981323,
-0.24794159829616547,
0.023246588185429573,
0.5209195017814636,
-0.09686854481697083,
-0.6335159540176392,
0.3073505461215973,
-1.0598076581954956,
1.0669625997543335,
0.4211561977863312,
-0.5965678691864014,
0.1561945229768753,
0.03731133043766022,
0.12227783352136612,
-0.40580347180366516,
0.4161670207977295,
-0.15629397332668304,
-0.3248363733291626,
0.5965210199356079,
0.18148154020309448,
0.10703601688146591,
-0.6128987073898315,
-0.6634144186973572,
-0.3463613986968994,
0.016937168315052986,
-0.22952388226985931,
0.2638793885707855,
0.7462044358253479,
0.5682034492492676,
-0.1323128342628479,
0.38277536630630493,
-0.20002484321594238,
-1.0874613523483276,
-0.5226883292198181,
-0.6456830501556396,
-0.3426646292209625,
0.09677304327487946,
-0.24897779524326324,
0.6570737957954407,
0.3220522105693817,
0.14200188219547272,
-0.2715923488140106,
0.40421754121780396,
0.1544657200574875,
-0.5497403740882874,
-0.07591649889945984,
-0.2091861516237259,
-0.031187478452920914,
-0.5462542176246643,
0.34404003620147705,
-0.2488723248243332,
0.06056706979870796,
0.7650588154792786,
-0.494920939207077,
0.6729649901390076,
0.018448317423462868,
-0.7547105550765991,
-0.20448598265647888,
-1.0816274881362915,
1.3809858560562134,
0.27212369441986084,
0.3260980248451233,
-0.1815030872821808,
-0.5025904774665833,
-0.11019809544086456,
-0.6294111609458923,
0.0034734955988824368,
-0.22803254425525665,
0.4059678316116333,
-0.02831142581999302,
-0.11439559608697891,
-0.5343632102012634,
-0.685147762298584,
0.863118052482605,
-0.8185505867004395,
-0.2203519642353058,
1.1409661769866943,
0.2655908763408661,
-0.23277543485164642,
-0.31805136799812317,
0.06588049232959747,
0.11514455825090408,
0.09947225451469421,
-0.6809850335121155,
-0.16069163382053375,
-0.11750277876853943,
0.8843803405761719,
-0.18466834723949432,
0.5069192051887512,
0.3358038365840912,
-0.01632116176187992,
-0.09159418940544128,
-0.11050985753536224,
0.1280331015586853,
-0.18956220149993896,
-0.541384756565094,
0.1225074827671051,
0.2553689479827881,
0.14308173954486847,
0.6009466052055359,
-0.7449825406074524,
0.2711869478225708,
0.24647213518619537,
-0.3879309296607971,
0.1604471504688263,
0.1655609905719757,
-0.06958815455436707,
-0.41742363572120667,
-0.03254958242177963,
-1.4121503829956055,
-0.2325020283460617,
0.07001981139183044,
-0.2863500118255615,
0.14596208930015564,
-0.4450299143791199,
0.4574388861656189,
-0.07981936633586884,
-0.03757867589592934,
-0.6847680807113647,
-0.18545182049274445,
-0.5713964104652405,
-0.9901968836784363,
0.11469045281410217,
0.061554212123155594,
-0.28197672963142395,
-0.764983057975769,
-0.18569007515907288,
0.0751432254910469,
0.8901779651641846,
-0.5783447623252869,
-1.2211130857467651,
-0.3348328471183777,
-0.3063967823982239,
0.5003103613853455,
-0.10516251623630524,
0.22268567979335785,
0.1373184770345688,
-0.7536327242851257,
-0.04467052221298218,
0.32256242632865906,
0.11116665601730347,
-0.39290979504585266,
0.4394199550151825,
0.30463653802871704,
-0.5247178077697754,
-0.26389455795288086,
-0.1895686537027359,
0.3078124225139618,
-0.09658276289701462,
0.16116110980510712,
-0.037154797464609146,
0.4284120798110962,
0.20626692473888397,
-0.0910622701048851,
-0.7547608017921448,
-0.1160522997379303,
-0.05250801891088486,
0.008060705848038197,
-0.5952861309051514,
0.4790569543838501,
0.6584075093269348,
0.5517889857292175,
0.4847961366176605,
0.3149222731590271,
-0.14116667211055756,
0.15703915059566498,
0.8628205060958862,
-0.7088550329208374,
0.1803186982870102,
-0.6214116215705872,
-0.3695657253265381,
-0.6983658075332642,
0.5713804960250854,
-0.39257320761680603,
-0.03663971275091171,
0.6016973853111267,
-0.18225041031837463,
-0.4153761863708496,
-0.6997003555297852,
-0.7959514856338501,
-0.284078985452652,
-0.6150251030921936,
-0.15438883006572723,
-0.44639167189598083,
0.22539976239204407,
0.16795995831489563,
-0.38987377285957336,
1.1436083316802979,
-0.08829053491353989,
0.7476399540901184,
-0.11831946671009064,
-0.13142570853233337,
-0.308948278427124,
-0.31376516819000244,
-0.19866664707660675,
0.025245051831007004,
0.22392337024211884,
0.28411611914634705,
0.9286717176437378,
0.4758089482784271,
0.6941640377044678,
0.17584601044654846,
-0.20594316720962524,
0.051889870315790176,
-0.9049600958824158,
0.13095872104167938,
0.13485439121723175,
0.17714923620224,
0.43310093879699707,
-0.5404513478279114,
-0.38792088627815247,
0.09698086977005005,
-0.06130418926477432,
1.3323076963424683,
-0.3738858699798584,
0.5098434090614319,
0.8527551889419556,
0.38865774869918823,
-0.04485277459025383,
-0.5030412077903748,
0.1286894530057907,
-0.5223821401596069,
0.12861183285713196,
0.26714572310447693,
0.403687447309494,
-0.26975083351135254,
-0.1515210121870041,
0.9176965951919556,
-0.22348250448703766,
-0.17548464238643646,
-0.46635711193084717,
-0.1533670574426651,
-0.02739163488149643,
-0.14670009911060333,
0.12253523617982864,
0.2004268765449524,
0.024094553664326668,
0.42210501432418823,
-0.011520391330122948,
-0.5149429440498352,
0.09953932464122772,
-0.17644280195236206,
-0.5034327507019043,
-0.2342897206544876,
-0.9556251168251038,
-0.42888784408569336,
-0.3940644860267639,
-0.1628679484128952,
0.1619187742471695,
0.2281041294336319,
-0.08351059257984161,
0.21591903269290924,
0.39920327067375183,
-0.11366124451160431,
0.19850118458271027,
-0.12305071204900742,
0.6037108898162842,
0.09608900547027588,
0.03582132235169411,
-0.6203584671020508,
0.1732630729675293,
-0.15348835289478302,
-0.09846756607294083,
-0.19827428460121155,
0.4567686915397644,
-0.30980247259140015,
0.22790968418121338,
-0.3168196678161621,
0.40717875957489014,
0.6320616602897644,
-0.13578125834465027,
-0.2273499220609665,
0.43696004152297974,
-0.9600533843040466,
-0.28150951862335205,
0.45705610513687134,
-0.30359354615211487,
-0.31781691312789917,
0.14414222538471222,
0.26040107011795044,
0.4562881290912628,
-0.28900641202926636,
0.32252636551856995,
-0.3386332094669342,
0.8875872492790222,
0.4324166178703308,
0.30097895860671997,
-0.37657347321510315,
-0.3347833752632141,
0.30541113018989563,
-0.22751900553703308,
-0.6911749839782715,
0.5956546664237976,
-0.4039444625377655,
0.04916706308722496,
0.10565128922462463,
-0.4304087162017822,
-0.3247848153114319,
0.3511430621147156,
0.24314498901367188,
0.6809549927711487,
0.0014305104268714786,
0.29879575967788696,
0.46371448040008545,
-0.5175769925117493,
0.47516489028930664,
-0.7130593657493591,
-0.0379745215177536,
-0.31733423471450806,
0.2502588927745819,
-0.0663297027349472,
0.1981695592403412,
-0.05872498080134392,
0.32627689838409424,
0.2015179544687271,
-0.25450876355171204,
-0.26267507672309875,
-0.8030506372451782,
-0.44728079438209534,
-0.32502254843711853,
-0.5762365460395813,
0.01938077062368393,
0.45374682545661926,
-0.3953269422054291,
-0.5432466864585876,
0.10645630955696106,
0.19078581035137177,
-0.12325382232666016,
0.07761137932538986,
0.41587886214256287,
-0.6235954165458679,
0.23973266780376434,
-0.5276765823364258,
0.3937452435493469,
0.5600380897521973,
0.5418458580970764,
0.6746757626533508,
0.13684380054473877,
0.2829805612564087,
0.18221920728683472,
0.7294856309890747,
0.04779073968529701,
-1.6214897632598877,
-0.48537740111351013,
0.15680572390556335,
-0.13293446600437164,
0.27751022577285767,
0.26569536328315735,
-0.20444250106811523,
0.2916627824306488,
-0.4082481861114502,
0.5045392513275146,
0.5165899991989136,
-0.7991007566452026,
-0.35576751828193665,
-0.08856653422117233,
0.6770328879356384,
1.0864664316177368,
-0.3421202301979065,
0.09559797495603561,
0.05179227888584137,
-0.7920947670936584,
0.298985093832016,
-0.110500767827034,
0.6875903606414795,
-0.10244415700435638,
0.27297842502593994,
0.7483705282211304,
0.8014155030250549,
0.36226770281791687,
0.39287588000297546,
-0.21479478478431702,
0.2215854972600937,
-0.5516915321350098,
-0.0383421964943409,
1.261447787284851,
-0.9163667559623718,
-0.1638852208852768,
0.3585977554321289,
-0.6704898476600647,
0.11417259275913239,
0.20150849223136902,
0.7235270142555237,
0.16309167444705963,
-0.15013118088245392,
0.051421940326690674,
0.327894389629364,
0.19364362955093384,
0.33135131001472473,
-0.08724920451641083,
-0.4973444938659668,
-0.34997954964637756,
-0.3790072202682495,
0.25699514150619507,
-0.1118336021900177,
-0.25219398736953735,
0.26747164130210876,
0.7323143482208252,
-0.6010600924491882,
-0.2180258184671402,
-0.22898341715335846,
0.37190985679626465,
0.13310861587524414,
0.046549223363399506,
0.0752485916018486,
-0.1428459882736206,
-0.5319210290908813,
-0.6490533351898193,
0.12518633902072906,
0.07269836962223053,
-0.6467296481132507,
0.4800286889076233,
-0.35340797901153564,
0.35977232456207275,
0.10168273001909256,
0.5295206904411316,
-0.5549455881118774,
0.1859085112810135,
-0.3638775646686554
] |
234777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Peer | Ralph Peer | Ralph Sylvester Peer (May 22, 1892 – January 19, 1960) was an American talent scout, recording engineer, record producer and music publisher in the 1920s and 1930s. Peer pioneered field recording of music when in June 1923 he took remote recording equipment south to Atlanta, Georgia, to record regional music outside the recording studio in such places as hotel rooms, ballrooms, or empty warehouses.
Career
Peer, born in Independence, Missouri, spent some years working for Columbia Records, in Kansas City, Missouri, until 1920, when he was hired as recording director of General Phonograph's OKeh Records label in New York. In the same year, he supervised the recording of Mamie Smith's "Crazy Blues", the first blues recording specifically aimed at the African-American market. In 1924, he supervised the first commercial recording session in New Orleans, Louisiana, recording jazz, blues, and gospel music groups there.
He is also credited with what is often called the first country music recording, Fiddlin' John Carson's disc "Little Old Log Cabin In The Lane"/"That Old Hen Cackled and The Rooster's Goin' To Crow". In August 1927, while talent hunting in the southern states for the Victor Talking Machine Company, he recorded both Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family in the same session at a makeshift studio in Bristol, Tennessee, known as the Bristol sessions. This momentous event could be described as the genesis of country music as we know it today. Rodgers, who later became known as the Father Of Country Music, cut "The Soldier's Sweetheart" and "Sleep, Baby, Sleep", while the Carters' first sides (August 1, 1927) were: "Bury Me under the Weeping Willow", "Single Girl, Married Girl", "The Poor Orphan Child", and "The Storms Are on the Ocean". Also in 1927, Peer recorded the fathers of modern RnB, The Memphis Jug Band, in a makeshift studio in the heart of Memphis' Beale St. in the McCall Building, as well as a sanctified preacher named Elder J.E. Burch in Atlanta, who would become the inspiration for Dizzy Gillespie to begin playing music. In July 1929, he recorded female country singer Billie Maxwell.
In his autobiography, Nathaniel Shilkret, Manager of the Victor Talking Machine Company's Foreign Department from about 1920 through 1926 and then Director of Light Music until 1933, notes that about a year after he hired Peer, Peer asked for a raise, which Shilkret approved. Shilkret comments on Peer's business acumen in making a very profitable trade for this raise: "[Victor executive] Walter Clark met Peer, who sold Clark an idea. No raise, but a royalty of one cent per record side that he would divide with the artist.... When I heard of this I was stunned. No one on the musical staff had been offered royalty for his arrangements or compositions, and here was a man collecting royalties with other men's compositions!"
Peer went on to publish and record other country and jazz artists and songs through his company Southern Music Publishing Company. Fats Waller, Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie were on Southern's roster. Then into popular music with songs such as Hoagy Carmichael and Stuart Gorrell's "Georgia On My Mind".
The company became influential in the 1930s, and success came through Peer's introducing Central American music to the world. In 1940, there was a major development when a dispute between the copyright organization American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and US radio stations led to the inauguration of the rival Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI). BMI supported music by blues, country and hillbilly artists, and Peer, through his Peer-International company, soon contributed a major part of BMI's catalogue.
During and after World War II Peer published songs such as "Deep In The Heart Of Texas" and "You Are My Sunshine" (sung by Jimmie Davis, covered by Bing Crosby and many others), "Humpty Dumpty Heart" (Glenn Miller), "You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You" (Russ Morgan), "The Three Caballeros" (Andrews Sisters), "Say A Prayer For The Boys Over There" (Deanna Durbin), "I Should Care", and "The Coffee Song" (both Frank Sinatra). In 1945, he published Jean Villard Gilles and Bert Reisfeld's composition "Les trois cloches" ("The Three Bells"), which was recorded by The Browns.
In the 1950s, Peer published "Mockingbird Hill", a million seller for Patti Page, "Sway" (Dean Martin and Bobby Rydell), and the novelty "I Know An Old Lady" (Burl Ives). Then came rock 'n' roll and Southern published hits by Buddy Holly, Little Richard, The Big Bopper, and The Platters. In 1948, Peermusic founded its concert music division, today Peermusic Classical; composers published by Peermusic include Lou Harrison, Jerome Kitzke, Mario Lavista, Tania León, Charles Ives, and Stefan Wolpe.
Starting in the late 1940s, Peer took an avid interest in horticulture, growing and becoming an expert on camellias. He died in Hollywood, California, in 1960. His widow, Monique Iversen Peer, became president of his company, then called the Peer-Southern Organization. Their son, Ralph Peer, II joined the firm in the late 1960s and became CEO in 1980.
Honors
In 1955, Ralph S. Peer was awarded the Veitch Memorial Medal by the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS).
Peer was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1984.
Legacy
In 2017, Peer was featured in the award-winning documentary series American Epic. Directed by Bernard MacMahon, the films featured restored audio recordings of Ralph Peer discussing how he found and recorded some of the first country, blues, and RnB musicians in the 1920s.
Further reading
Ralph Peer and the Making of Popular Roots Music, by Barry Mazor (Chicago Review Press) was published in November 2014.
References
Bibliography
Wald, Elijah & McGourty, Allison & MacMahon, Bernard. American Epic: The First Time America Heard Itself. New York: Touchstone, 2017. .
External links
Ralph S. Peer official website
Ralph Peer biography
Ralph Peer's account of his work with Jimmie Rodgers
Peermusic.com the current incarnation of the company started by Ralph S. Peer and now run by Ralph I. Peer II
[ Allmusic]
Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum
Ralph Peer recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1892 births
1960 deaths
People from Independence, Missouri
Record producers from Missouri
American audio engineers
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
20th-century American engineers
Early Recording Engineers (1930-1959) | [
-0.34560495615005493,
0.03900645673274994,
-0.6449392437934875,
0.21168166399002075,
0.045642685145139694,
0.1460057944059372,
0.4087682068347931,
-0.40178072452545166,
-0.0556703545153141,
-0.660129725933075,
0.19009768962860107,
0.7545279860496521,
-0.013446832075715065,
0.09838922321796417,
-0.9100207686424255,
-0.2644600570201874,
-0.23118062317371368,
-0.257592111825943,
-0.407599538564682,
-0.5354878306388855,
-0.16587160527706146,
-0.5069478750228882,
0.14785821735858917,
0.20737825334072113,
-0.44843536615371704,
0.3457130491733551,
-0.6096494197845459,
0.18143625557422638,
0.14417867362499237,
0.2633918821811676,
-0.12327869981527328,
0.33939188718795776,
0.7889549136161804,
-0.2712773084640503,
-0.8052282929420471,
0.32281574606895447,
-0.1757587343454361,
-0.11764286458492279,
-0.23141597211360931,
0.012496216222643852,
-0.12966975569725037,
0.2048599123954773,
0.5066545605659485,
0.28060221672058105,
-0.4883117973804474,
-0.22768142819404602,
-1.9337284564971924,
0.49450087547302246,
-0.3880475163459778,
-0.7812352776527405,
-0.3959996998310089,
0.3375872075557709,
-0.10706371068954468,
0.30639272928237915,
-0.10771820694208145,
-0.4290899336338043,
-0.030366748571395874,
0.09154418110847473,
-0.3917529582977295,
-0.2232435941696167,
0.031847719103097916,
-0.16099637746810913,
0.4325959384441376,
-0.3060963451862335,
0.5119571685791016,
0.3232533037662506,
0.4156450033187866,
-0.10299699008464813,
-0.21630746126174927,
-0.3137207329273224,
-0.2517774701118469,
0.7303510904312134,
0.4731663763523102,
-0.4401792287826538,
0.2656083405017853,
-0.16818012297153473,
0.31560710072517395,
-0.35119906067848206,
-0.034281011670827866,
0.5983741283416748,
0.21522733569145203,
-0.7231512665748596,
0.32831519842147827,
0.14185336232185364,
-0.08795548230409622,
-0.40574613213539124,
-0.6874539852142334,
0.47732478380203247,
-1.1269428730010986,
-0.49632567167282104,
0.18572282791137695,
-0.959035336971283,
-0.0806749016046524,
0.23102758824825287,
-0.46037161350250244,
-0.013779093511402607,
0.388849675655365,
-0.046967048197984695,
0.03891623765230179,
-0.32384344935417175,
0.06075010821223259,
-0.2599776089191437,
-0.15244841575622559,
-0.44467344880104065,
-0.32629314064979553,
-0.005613946821540594,
0.18457365036010742,
-0.2882167398929596,
0.08290829509496689,
0.0792267918586731,
-0.5281819105148315,
-0.1388804167509079,
0.011865816079080105,
-0.04442611336708069,
0.20862333476543427,
0.4353123903274536,
-0.2901919484138489,
-0.6453685164451599,
-0.7131073474884033,
0.21948997676372528,
0.12511183321475983,
0.3114975690841675,
0.12989743053913116,
0.03737655654549599,
-1.0132123231887817,
-0.2547035217285156,
0.6413970589637756,
0.48107367753982544,
0.028378665447235107,
-0.13496239483356476,
0.3344043493270874,
0.3518759608268738,
0.2700377404689789,
0.3435679078102112,
-0.49075740575790405,
-0.2632862329483032,
-0.10423406213521957,
-0.08363650739192963,
-0.5163360238075256,
-0.14328423142433167,
-0.024891695007681847,
0.1908273547887802,
-0.8296484351158142,
-0.49885424971580505,
0.6352085471153259,
-0.15133358538150787,
0.13762030005455017,
-0.17481210827827454,
-0.09664545953273773,
-0.3692236840724945,
0.47861021757125854,
-0.05341619253158569,
0.2749007046222687,
-0.42030492424964905,
-0.05961946025490761,
-0.13519279658794403,
0.6259693503379822,
0.29302161931991577,
0.3745906949043274,
-0.40874963998794556,
0.3013994097709656,
0.23311437666416168,
-0.45813190937042236,
0.5094798803329468,
0.28219372034072876,
0.0464356504380703,
-0.1398155391216278,
0.278450071811676,
-0.5385202169418335,
0.20465528964996338,
-0.19930757582187653,
0.3440868854522705,
-0.0028934001456946135,
0.135951966047287,
0.1925126165151596,
0.5863913893699646,
0.8670527935028076,
0.3421134650707245,
0.7509124279022217,
-0.39205798506736755,
-0.5445041656494141,
-0.2657741904258728,
0.3882630467414856,
-0.03969841077923775,
0.38188207149505615,
1.0551042556762695,
0.12336892634630203,
0.02175082080066204,
0.4000234007835388,
-0.7995951175689697,
-0.8135008215904236,
-1.2207717895507812,
-0.12206289917230606,
-0.1075936108827591,
0.6227043271064758,
0.2793636620044708,
0.2470557689666748,
-0.014421520754694939,
0.2530531585216522,
-0.048373445868492126,
-0.16930240392684937,
-0.08521601557731628,
0.037923239171504974,
-0.24698618054389954,
-0.0439077652990818,
0.4099813401699066,
0.4514569044113159,
-0.3397236466407776,
-0.06658083945512772,
0.3582438826560974,
0.09398514777421951,
-0.6349713802337646,
0.3389419913291931,
0.25141048431396484,
-0.6493889093399048,
-0.48830392956733704,
-1.1400929689407349,
0.042277105152606964,
0.6915625333786011,
-0.3995455801486969,
0.47850146889686584,
0.5485299229621887,
-0.1720581352710724,
0.43651890754699707,
0.014238188043236732,
0.663930356502533,
-0.24911074340343475,
-0.3108982443809509,
-0.1573036164045334,
0.044374193996191025,
0.1658705174922943,
0.15767185389995575,
0.30375081300735474,
-0.4276919364929199,
0.1689697951078415,
0.6755979061126709,
0.1528824269771576,
-0.46295782923698425,
0.32208555936813354,
-0.7542173266410828,
-0.6422086358070374,
-0.031485963612794876,
-0.5812519788742065,
0.2537313401699066,
0.35105887055397034,
0.21891944110393524,
-0.3298157751560211,
-0.6224642395973206,
0.2072584480047226,
0.20879711210727692,
0.33484187722206116,
0.731819212436676,
0.18198682367801666,
0.3550398051738739,
-0.1185915395617485,
0.5840261578559875,
0.5447918176651001,
-0.3365982472896576,
0.5987192988395691,
0.08024191111326218,
0.4569252133369446,
0.22882425785064697,
0.15217727422714233,
-0.07257529348134995,
0.09821475297212601,
-0.5505933165550232,
-0.010000606998801231,
0.1458098292350769,
0.7390966415405273,
-0.6135998964309692,
-0.19870619475841522,
0.33223047852516174,
-0.2162693291902542,
0.8940325379371643,
0.367445170879364,
0.2440107762813568,
-0.16006366908550262,
-0.07704224437475204,
0.2334553450345993,
-1.1907297372817993,
0.5512351393699646,
0.46263378858566284,
-0.4334834814071655,
-0.6106287837028503,
-0.09807685017585754,
0.036488838493824005,
-0.139637291431427,
-0.24899259209632874,
0.4280906915664673,
-0.14644521474838257,
-0.5689430832862854,
1.2037428617477417,
-0.8266170620918274,
0.489332914352417,
0.07269603759050369,
1.0901552438735962,
-0.15199483931064606,
-0.5227800011634827,
0.057924915105104446,
-0.187748983502388,
-0.010830801911652088,
-0.06630906462669373,
0.1722671240568161,
-0.12994998693466187,
0.40110719203948975,
0.3880961835384369,
0.0700744017958641,
-0.643440842628479,
-5.51751184463501,
0.009135250933468342,
-0.3723248243331909,
-1.220711588859558,
0.08319593220949173,
0.13505271077156067,
0.4178493022918701,
-0.38648417592048645,
0.13838033378124237,
-0.10544244945049286,
0.006161682773381472,
0.28956401348114014,
-0.22224530577659607,
0.5681049227714539,
0.6826780438423157,
0.6724907159805298,
0.7491629719734192,
0.1550316959619522,
-0.21109017729759216,
0.10226127505302429,
-0.10762082785367966,
-0.7985471487045288,
0.3414575159549713,
0.21583764255046844,
0.01572379656136036,
-0.215315580368042,
-0.1451493203639984,
0.37528347969055176,
-0.46760034561157227,
-0.5684767961502075,
0.37727558612823486,
-0.4372316598892212,
-0.3921646773815155,
-0.43668973445892334,
0.14674346148967743,
-0.1378800868988037,
0.48349738121032715,
0.434235155582428,
0.3439203202724457,
0.47499552369117737,
0.15604795515537262,
-0.10364563763141632,
-0.2919784486293793,
0.10281386971473694,
-0.26596659421920776,
0.324221670627594,
-0.0184713676571846,
-0.07785441726446152,
-0.32918721437454224,
1.0519212484359741,
0.6477341055870056,
-0.1111869215965271,
-0.03295378014445305,
-0.26352691650390625,
-0.1332319676876068,
0.05354760214686394,
0.06351691484451294,
-0.22167260944843292,
-0.565387487411499,
0.4769427478313446,
0.530242383480072,
-0.5896868109703064,
-0.05453800782561302,
-0.46671193838119507,
0.07113467901945114,
-0.34646177291870117,
-0.48293331265449524,
-0.14492467045783997,
0.29349103569984436,
-0.20359544456005096,
0.6002324819564819,
0.2934015989303589,
0.4339276850223541,
-1.3384860754013062,
-0.2643482983112335,
-0.08021105080842972,
0.5533952116966248,
0.15024827420711517,
-0.7480339407920837,
0.13387607038021088,
-0.019116701558232307,
-0.3273210823535919,
0.007406041957437992,
0.41486480832099915,
0.285373330116272,
0.41099005937576294,
-0.38160738348960876,
0.535994291305542,
-0.9269551634788513,
-0.4231860339641571,
0.46053075790405273,
-0.4782859683036804,
-0.22115345299243927,
-0.1435016542673111,
0.4549837112426758,
0.3717488646507263,
0.15683209896087646,
0.654647946357727,
0.4921204149723053,
0.4577253758907318,
-1.1630127429962158,
-0.3775307238101959,
0.3097435235977173,
-0.4189740717411041,
0.2482726275920868,
-0.1963471621274948,
-0.16785801947116852,
-0.2739097476005554,
0.8541113138198853,
-0.04056080803275108,
-0.17265670001506805,
0.2797905504703522,
-0.7620542049407959,
-0.29871752858161926,
0.713047206401825,
-0.6867328882217407,
0.267091304063797,
0.373691201210022,
0.16093572974205017,
0.02660745196044445,
0.2739497423171997,
0.3614158630371094,
-0.2813846170902252,
0.45226866006851196,
-1.06484055519104,
-0.2566026449203491,
0.049789909273386,
-0.22479018568992615,
-0.5246219635009766,
0.1618175506591797,
-0.23935054242610931,
0.4577426314353943,
-0.09474330395460129,
0.37658411264419556,
0.048154380172491074,
0.1953536719083786,
-0.5071228742599487,
0.06624892354011536,
-0.4588763415813446,
-0.5331019163131714,
-0.20745733380317688,
-0.379032701253891,
0.31245002150535583,
0.22575387358665466,
0.3983883559703827,
0.1074753850698471,
0.04855513945221901,
-0.27434250712394714,
0.012744344770908356,
-0.1468060463666916,
-0.012163917534053326,
-0.11213008314371109,
0.5041800141334534,
-0.5462109446525574,
-0.41438770294189453,
0.454738050699234,
-0.801430881023407,
-0.4905247986316681,
0.2373117357492447,
0.13434092700481415,
-0.11786369979381561,
-0.051959455013275146,
-1.0515339374542236,
-0.38444042205810547,
0.1527339518070221,
0.6234768033027649,
-0.08568672090768814,
-0.31116342544555664,
-0.19176453351974487,
0.3459751307964325,
0.14002378284931183,
-0.33299607038497925,
0.15268579125404358,
-0.4519636929035187,
0.016170695424079895,
0.3778425455093384,
0.2166796177625656,
-0.5746235251426697,
0.15800578892230988,
0.3531612753868103,
-0.2760589122772217,
0.2320232391357422,
-1.3632593154907227,
-0.09351441264152527,
0.33633843064308167,
-0.4836861193180084,
-0.5616368055343628,
-0.7084538340568542,
-0.21352718770503998,
0.05861435458064079,
-0.6838652491569519,
-0.44991859793663025,
0.38236987590789795,
0.4493432641029358,
0.3067866861820221,
-0.0770198330283165,
0.12242437154054642,
-0.12258249521255493,
-0.6444475650787354,
-0.1750825196504593,
-0.25050315260887146,
-0.27136731147766113,
0.3509415090084076,
-0.17565737664699554,
0.12262905389070511,
-1.0572692155838013,
-0.107707180082798,
-0.11551947891712189,
-0.8385571241378784,
0.5069996118545532,
-0.17980033159255981,
-0.19408352673053741,
0.04502963274717331,
0.10441762953996658,
-0.009167330339550972,
0.057000670582056046,
0.3028056025505066,
0.3138011395931244,
-0.6841225624084473,
-0.2897114157676697,
-0.5298653841018677,
0.4978013038635254,
-0.34917131066322327,
-0.058428533375263214,
-0.3146219253540039,
-0.33092787861824036,
-0.27152329683303833,
0.3919672667980194,
0.5757539868354797,
-0.42014357447624207,
0.13663727045059204,
-0.2692634165287018,
-0.21323543787002563,
0.023001542314887047,
-0.5688759684562683,
-0.02569824643433094,
0.2692883312702179,
0.5682344436645508,
0.5960092544555664,
0.1913367360830307,
0.569217324256897,
0.8801186680793762,
0.5777148604393005,
0.3882807195186615,
0.10264205187559128,
-0.09417743235826492,
0.3087320029735565,
-0.44739195704460144,
0.025201642885804176,
0.41283464431762695,
0.6410235166549683,
0.22535443305969238,
-0.6691975593566895,
0.5784921050071716,
0.8080774545669556,
-0.19338224828243256,
-0.03273775056004524,
-0.0592806413769722,
-0.04224489629268646,
0.6112377047538757,
0.38891610503196716,
0.4428393840789795,
-0.06246310472488403,
-0.17115920782089233,
0.17106939852237701,
0.22561854124069214,
0.02536189928650856,
0.04182553291320801,
-0.019449995830655098,
-0.2898840010166168,
0.1105748862028122,
0.04190598800778389,
-0.26856279373168945,
0.21280449628829956,
0.18969304859638214,
0.16905663907527924,
-0.003248334862291813,
-0.37755611538887024,
-0.28558531403541565,
-0.2037642002105713,
-0.987564742565155,
-0.29286161065101624,
-0.2560219466686249,
-0.2782917022705078,
-0.5818122625350952,
-0.21833567321300507,
-0.530787467956543,
-0.426364928483963,
-0.001324365264736116,
-0.5032951235771179,
-0.5012077689170837,
0.20761704444885254,
-0.405879944562912,
0.6533089876174927,
-0.3295328915119171,
0.01853099651634693,
0.3406328558921814,
0.537344753742218,
-0.2248152792453766,
-0.40970802307128906,
0.05534335970878601,
0.35338303446769714,
0.3031121790409088,
-0.47468268871307373,
0.4745751917362213,
0.10150481015443802,
-0.1281566619873047,
-0.40258997678756714,
-0.4583680033683777,
0.15041401982307434,
0.4386887550354004,
0.060477666556835175,
0.10294800996780396,
0.7532902956008911,
-0.3257436156272888,
0.5774904489517212,
0.931311309337616,
0.03677693381905556,
-0.010128051042556763,
0.1531468629837036,
0.22455313801765442,
0.2986479699611664,
0.40166527032852173,
0.07493045926094055,
0.04237528145313263,
0.20147335529327393,
0.2350427508354187,
-0.08212945610284805,
0.021571293473243713,
0.3037532866001129,
0.5357034802436829,
0.016501842066645622,
0.39211809635162354,
0.44152140617370605,
0.01317613199353218,
-0.3738558292388916,
-0.2039048969745636,
-0.2165910005569458,
-0.24577131867408752,
0.20928603410720825,
-0.5411918759346008,
0.28945600986480713,
0.29208606481552124,
0.3806372284889221,
0.42576250433921814,
-0.14759668707847595,
-0.1398482620716095,
0.5700114965438843,
-0.5019413232803345,
-0.3403026759624481,
0.06086648628115654,
-0.08497146517038345,
-0.1958618313074112,
-0.46423888206481934,
0.4220709502696991,
0.25985652208328247,
0.7347413897514343,
-0.3676145672798157,
0.16930055618286133,
0.23046162724494934,
-0.09674487262964249,
-0.6521868109703064,
1.0359153747558594,
0.12099459767341614,
-0.23827573657035828,
-0.07174178957939148,
0.302501916885376,
-0.07567939907312393,
0.1777007132768631,
0.2644219398498535,
0.04915483668446541,
0.08792694658041,
-0.22110585868358612,
1.0136775970458984,
-0.29991814494132996,
0.298282265663147,
0.28674307465553284,
-0.197595477104187,
0.41125667095184326,
0.10918363183736801,
-0.2070106714963913,
0.22973160445690155,
0.06063428148627281,
-0.29918405413627625,
0.059822626411914825,
-0.8145322203636169,
-0.14609315991401672,
-0.3832695484161377,
0.2989003360271454,
-0.5567795634269714,
0.3102336823940277,
-0.7426063418388367,
-0.41516730189323425,
0.5593202710151672,
-0.47210487723350525,
-0.35815754532814026,
-0.08571935445070267,
0.8325462937355042,
0.15357087552547455,
0.5092014670372009,
0.051088783890008926,
-0.28518545627593994,
0.25255268812179565,
-0.023470185697078705,
0.2697235643863678,
-0.14974188804626465,
-0.24011091887950897,
-0.1956973373889923,
-0.25217267870903015,
0.9091742634773254,
-0.03140091150999069,
0.29449743032455444,
-0.15478402376174927,
0.4349415600299835,
0.18430785834789276,
-0.004710710141807795,
0.5296323895454407,
0.38286712765693665,
-0.49060237407684326,
-0.3288455605506897,
0.5713819265365601,
0.05779169499874115,
0.40988993644714355,
-0.105998195707798,
0.07251386344432831,
0.5485817790031433,
0.07481034100055695,
-0.2562263309955597,
-0.33906298875808716,
0.7338501811027527,
-0.3442823588848114,
-0.3849809765815735,
-0.1591002345085144,
0.020644277334213257,
-0.05879955738782883,
-0.04471326619386673,
0.360835462808609,
0.39200299978256226,
0.6700139045715332,
-0.6681374907493591,
0.7534016370773315,
0.21907831728458405,
0.44129571318626404,
-0.13683195412158966,
0.19309504330158234,
0.0971251130104065,
0.35788851976394653,
-0.22218993306159973,
-0.36682993173599243,
0.8864613771438599,
-0.2612498104572296,
-0.5109937787055969,
0.3996168076992035,
-0.06437660753726959,
-0.002040650462731719,
-0.39985784888267517,
0.025706907734274864,
0.4627479612827301,
0.3101722002029419,
-0.4212648272514343
] |
234779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84lvsborg%20County | Älvsborg County | Älvsborg County () was a county of Sweden until 1997, when it was merged with the counties of Gothenburg and Bohus and Skaraborg to form Västra Götaland County.
The county consisted of the provinces of Dalsland and the central part of Västergötland with the seat of residence in the city of Vänersborg.
See also
List of governors of Älvsborg County
List of governors of Gothenburg and Bohus County
List of governors of Skaraborg County
List of Västra Götaland Governors
County Governors of Sweden
Västra Götaland County
Former counties of Sweden
1634 establishments in Sweden
1997 disestablishments in Sweden | [
-0.08747097104787827,
0.04960218071937561,
0.69065260887146,
0.22537511587142944,
-0.9402170777320862,
-0.19445770978927612,
0.46823298931121826,
-0.09135611355304718,
-0.30664700269699097,
0.025576388463377953,
0.2059677541255951,
-0.13860972225666046,
-0.6391489505767822,
0.18913784623146057,
-0.41943877935409546,
0.45325279235839844,
0.3554140329360962,
0.7149231433868408,
-0.042697660624980927,
-0.6106887459754944,
-0.15505099296569824,
0.45003819465637207,
0.2906591296195984,
0.4264708459377289,
0.5172942876815796,
-0.1951603889465332,
0.19897808134555817,
0.5496258735656738,
0.047275494784116745,
0.18091757595539093,
-0.12003070116043091,
0.6579307317733765,
-0.14470571279525757,
0.061400480568408966,
-0.2576402723789215,
-0.0653538852930069,
-0.2832697927951813,
-0.8216286897659302,
-0.2405511438846588,
0.1357492357492447,
-0.6021327376365662,
0.08136709779500961,
-0.7337286472320557,
-0.39261066913604736,
0.44976967573165894,
-0.6051921844482422,
-0.8238765001296997,
0.6557711362838745,
-0.29248255491256714,
1.0684874057769775,
-1.2397693395614624,
-0.0739361122250557,
-0.8228455185890198,
0.5752046704292297,
-0.09671500325202942,
-0.35205721855163574,
-0.6822526454925537,
0.12918278574943542,
-0.022959576919674873,
0.622675895690918,
0.7748580574989319,
-0.337073415517807,
-0.5058090686798096,
0.19232122600078583,
0.1993786096572876,
-0.1191505491733551,
0.09105797857046127,
0.33433347940444946,
-0.35596761107444763,
-0.581518828868866,
-0.08347553014755249,
0.366782546043396,
-0.31215375661849976,
-0.5071681141853333,
0.1097695380449295,
-0.39664265513420105,
0.20603249967098236,
-0.43158137798309326,
0.4691755175590515,
-0.2596278786659241,
0.27317678928375244,
-0.0027623982168734074,
0.9287808537483215,
0.2708335816860199,
0.5585203766822815,
0.1212008148431778,
-1.1160074472427368,
-0.46034374833106995,
-0.5539960265159607,
0.14306031167507172,
-0.015782155096530914,
0.35022619366645813,
0.6322057843208313,
0.2818413972854614,
0.34532108902931213,
-0.067180335521698,
-0.018240060657262802,
0.5131855607032776,
-0.22188156843185425,
0.24769532680511475,
-0.009637703187763691,
0.6276994943618774,
0.009142602793872356,
-0.18392205238342285,
-0.44834402203559875,
-0.07451790571212769,
-0.011363946832716465,
-0.051680177450180054,
-0.2688673138618469,
0.12051987648010254,
-0.448825478553772,
-0.2622605264186859,
0.21007782220840454,
0.3912695348262787,
0.3052290380001068,
-0.27381184697151184,
0.12187574058771133,
0.2876845896244049,
0.4518396258354187,
0.44809311628341675,
-0.05947801470756531,
0.729019284248352,
-0.10428005456924438,
0.03323714807629585,
-0.007082055322825909,
-0.368333637714386,
-0.3292129635810852,
0.31139469146728516,
-0.3549012541770935,
0.6144999265670776,
0.3319378197193146,
0.5880878567695618,
-0.22718694806098938,
0.7285579442977905,
0.33270859718322754,
-0.7398461699485779,
-0.37792280316352844,
-0.0026906360872089863,
0.3391043245792389,
0.1589612513780594,
-0.9488186836242676,
-0.34942394495010376,
-0.48216021060943604,
-0.3901539742946625,
-0.08914446830749512,
-0.11566389352083206,
-0.11713345348834991,
-0.2272675782442093,
-0.5188155174255371,
-0.4411235749721527,
0.5169337391853333,
-0.024343347176909447,
-0.011816226877272129,
0.11797186732292175,
-0.08072865009307861,
0.493926465511322,
-0.1806294173002243,
0.035885896533727646,
0.07757048308849335,
0.41490793228149414,
0.07249577343463898,
0.186143159866333,
0.2602299153804779,
-0.5447920560836792,
0.5755955576896667,
-0.3462413549423218,
-0.16816265881061554,
0.6593988537788391,
0.262755423784256,
-0.2679815888404846,
-0.8569092154502869,
-0.642623245716095,
0.4271736443042755,
-0.11833836883306503,
-0.1617143452167511,
0.5212007761001587,
0.8436911702156067,
-0.1023658812046051,
-0.33851730823516846,
-0.050901807844638824,
-0.757420539855957,
0.2004614919424057,
0.010341083630919456,
0.2516734302043915,
-0.23267792165279388,
0.9571083188056946,
-0.03693551570177078,
0.43841513991355896,
0.12605291604995728,
0.18682833015918732,
-0.09158764034509659,
-0.5172948837280273,
0.814275860786438,
0.06488844007253647,
0.905332088470459,
0.12610428035259247,
-0.16156905889511108,
0.5539048910140991,
-0.2672242820262909,
0.8411025404930115,
-0.30644404888153076,
-0.40269219875335693,
0.21522381901741028,
-0.5820359587669373,
0.48241710662841797,
0.4166869521141052,
-0.31253689527511597,
-0.2186146378517151,
-0.2733735740184784,
0.5838704109191895,
-0.4612288773059845,
-0.6643345952033997,
0.610914945602417,
0.11398424208164215,
0.33725041151046753,
0.14306330680847168,
-0.3033658266067505,
-0.2569528818130493,
0.4363892376422882,
-0.8590447902679443,
0.11199411004781723,
0.1016816794872284,
-0.16957099735736847,
0.5129497647285461,
0.19647587835788727,
0.5891098380088806,
0.6005823612213135,
0.8326959013938904,
0.155084028840065,
-0.5647550821304321,
0.3891558051109314,
0.05290635675191879,
0.5533842444419861,
-0.43426743149757385,
0.28619205951690674,
-0.11134623736143112,
-0.1235310435295105,
0.8067696690559387,
0.2108277529478073,
-0.20714086294174194,
0.1846764087677002,
-0.05103885754942894,
-0.0519975982606411,
0.14528433978557587,
0.7013562917709351,
0.7228531241416931,
-0.4433920681476593,
0.3867571949958801,
-0.5417552590370178,
-0.21031823754310608,
-0.14187641441822052,
-0.27014651894569397,
-0.3849204480648041,
-0.26473888754844666,
0.13387268781661987,
-0.130160853266716,
0.32751771807670593,
0.16654761135578156,
0.042255476117134094,
0.191110759973526,
-0.5887631177902222,
-0.33285149931907654,
-0.07705583423376083,
-0.4098433554172516,
-0.29789578914642334,
0.11339550465345383,
-0.3139570951461792,
-0.8004654049873352,
0.3922881484031677,
0.05377906933426857,
-0.13436414301395416,
0.1619425266981125,
0.2204275131225586,
0.10645975172519684,
-0.11235611140727997,
-0.4840393662452698,
-0.009553230367600918,
-0.12481619417667389,
-0.3292562961578369,
-0.06971016526222229,
-0.22227223217487335,
0.6772637367248535,
0.1852121204137802,
-0.9633525013923645,
-0.8805122971534729,
-0.7104789614677429,
0.5212170481681824,
0.025759415701031685,
-0.136699840426445,
0.13473357260227203,
-0.3501662313938141,
0.2585640251636505,
-0.6092014908790588,
-0.41011154651641846,
-0.3271329998970032,
-0.12151817977428436,
-0.3283994197845459,
0.46433213353157043,
0.7175161242485046,
-0.2515038549900055,
-1.3541589975357056,
0.07231781631708145,
-0.3848579227924347,
0.3354918956756592,
0.026295430958271027,
-0.0605563148856163,
-0.5767996311187744,
0.2733640670776367,
-5.305661678314209,
0.040490441024303436,
-0.4655260443687439,
-0.028377056121826172,
-0.3956368863582611,
0.4705507755279541,
0.13801147043704987,
-0.6564408540725708,
0.36006155610084534,
-0.08821699768304825,
0.8289058208465576,
0.09560777246952057,
0.5651198625564575,
0.8106119632720947,
0.3779013156890869,
0.2062840759754181,
0.5943435430526733,
0.11223509907722473,
0.0018281957600265741,
-0.5247202515602112,
-0.6553860902786255,
-0.6526429653167725,
-0.3282097280025482,
0.273492693901062,
0.3959449231624603,
0.8410338163375854,
0.33544865250587463,
-0.2215413600206375,
-0.06762981414794922,
-0.5625436902046204,
-0.035777293145656586,
-0.23368099331855774,
0.3159329295158386,
0.22203794121742249,
-0.3174532651901245,
0.3186176121234894,
0.4974571466445923,
1.1211267709732056,
0.052019454538822174,
-0.895769476890564,
0.3354467451572418,
0.7597277760505676,
-0.334175705909729,
-0.15723979473114014,
0.07662977278232574,
-0.19003130495548248,
-0.7075101733207703,
0.7643172740936279,
-1.054311990737915,
0.6844421029090881,
0.498451828956604,
-0.4694178104400635,
0.07983134686946869,
0.012944536283612251,
0.05157337337732315,
-0.44929611682891846,
0.43720975518226624,
-0.3495693802833557,
-0.21669892966747284,
0.5976858139038086,
-0.05957311764359474,
0.33509641885757446,
-0.6099302768707275,
-0.46267032623291016,
-0.31441664695739746,
0.48801133036613464,
0.07002316415309906,
0.25341278314590454,
0.8745397329330444,
0.6242817044258118,
-0.2691017985343933,
0.36123043298721313,
-0.44746074080467224,
-0.8945900201797485,
-0.48674437403678894,
-0.6220593452453613,
-0.299185574054718,
0.14803485572338104,
-0.001517650787718594,
0.4907880127429962,
0.17789587378501892,
0.011120539158582687,
0.24388191103935242,
0.19527475535869598,
-0.003074842970818281,
-0.608484148979187,
-0.017320796847343445,
-0.075579933822155,
0.39609238505363464,
-0.7069491744041443,
0.3016465902328491,
-0.24756409227848053,
0.36453568935394287,
0.4318758249282837,
-0.4828912317752838,
0.6585627198219299,
-0.040177036076784134,
-0.6785153746604919,
-0.13299740850925446,
-0.8900744915008545,
1.3898423910140991,
0.3286244571208954,
0.3958079516887665,
-0.08399199694395065,
-0.4144715964794159,
0.05030786618590355,
-0.2541356682777405,
-0.1455402672290802,
-0.3024536669254303,
0.21594861149787903,
0.09205654263496399,
-0.06331636011600494,
-0.21647626161575317,
-0.7154553532600403,
0.914236843585968,
-0.8973014950752258,
-0.14647552371025085,
1.0940279960632324,
0.3493163585662842,
-0.20102427899837494,
-0.14882980287075043,
-0.05977252498269081,
0.37201908230781555,
0.25633132457733154,
-0.25021636486053467,
-0.007637413684278727,
-0.3818935453891754,
0.9091254472732544,
0.04639192298054695,
0.6023633480072021,
0.5853896737098694,
-0.1539566069841385,
0.09416569024324417,
-0.3229404091835022,
0.11104533821344376,
-0.30104973912239075,
-0.779457151889801,
0.037135183811187744,
0.07309886068105698,
-0.12788109481334686,
0.7726110816001892,
-0.5580187439918518,
0.20473121106624603,
0.44051849842071533,
-0.13941840827465057,
0.0900811105966568,
0.15314720571041107,
-0.1500026434659958,
-0.7115445137023926,
-0.22870585322380066,
-1.0531725883483887,
-0.2832985818386078,
-0.12750865519046783,
-0.21131351590156555,
-0.1273697018623352,
-0.5361262559890747,
0.32624030113220215,
-0.010723902843892574,
0.010711025446653366,
-0.5824191570281982,
-0.2661285102367401,
-0.8691950440406799,
-0.9734482765197754,
0.30194926261901855,
0.004523489624261856,
-0.37852415442466736,
-0.7537285685539246,
-0.3699970543384552,
-0.1063549742102623,
0.9360510110855103,
-0.5278087854385376,
-1.3183506727218628,
-0.23520000278949738,
-0.20957794785499573,
0.24552728235721588,
-0.12373568117618561,
0.054048776626586914,
0.03914540633559227,
-0.622401237487793,
-0.31131839752197266,
0.385163813829422,
0.021945582702755928,
-0.6338077187538147,
0.5431755781173706,
0.4955458641052246,
-0.6936790943145752,
-0.2951323986053467,
-0.10143148899078369,
0.4083678126335144,
-0.16103461384773254,
0.24008801579475403,
-0.32753533124923706,
0.3269701898097992,
0.3126066327095032,
-0.0795452669262886,
-0.6631791591644287,
0.014723620377480984,
-0.5464107394218445,
-0.1554497629404068,
-0.467187762260437,
0.3801063895225525,
0.6179369688034058,
0.2622600793838501,
0.3720023036003113,
0.058653976768255234,
-0.1255081593990326,
0.32829639315605164,
0.35601598024368286,
-0.6088370084762573,
0.4971773624420166,
-0.7046539187431335,
-0.16072022914886475,
-0.40495213866233826,
0.5591355562210083,
-0.3063320815563202,
0.01583137921988964,
0.5638194680213928,
-0.27389195561408997,
-0.45688313245773315,
-0.7821106910705566,
-0.7376329302787781,
-0.45668748021125793,
-0.3770536184310913,
-0.09840655326843262,
-0.5510197281837463,
0.29133909940719604,
0.3428853452205658,
-0.5576748847961426,
1.090625524520874,
0.11453323066234589,
1.0188053846359253,
-0.04701608791947365,
-0.14030377566814423,
-0.1831158846616745,
-0.2628796100616455,
-0.19318275153636932,
-0.090375155210495,
0.01817340776324272,
0.1491200178861618,
0.5159739851951599,
0.7436999082565308,
0.8160760998725891,
0.1614016443490982,
-0.04128944128751755,
0.15464618802070618,
-0.9383276104927063,
0.21447709202766418,
-0.3817345201969147,
-0.07654312252998352,
0.3102557361125946,
-0.41693270206451416,
-0.37818124890327454,
0.039945729076862335,
-0.07176516950130463,
1.3321439027786255,
-0.4167080223560333,
0.1812499612569809,
0.8696479797363281,
0.30359572172164917,
0.2212269902229309,
-0.21176010370254517,
0.12565870583057404,
-0.18740542232990265,
0.11413303762674332,
0.3358343243598938,
0.17970746755599976,
-0.1606718897819519,
-0.21031028032302856,
1.0009711980819702,
-0.1643715798854828,
-0.17710648477077484,
-0.4088333249092102,
0.06504657864570618,
0.09355766326189041,
0.07741404324769974,
0.028903240337967873,
0.2558670938014984,
-0.13643227517604828,
0.4177790880203247,
-0.04742003604769707,
-0.49857795238494873,
0.276906281709671,
-0.11427122354507446,
-0.45852896571159363,
-0.2173701971769333,
-0.760902464389801,
-0.2462855875492096,
-0.13787932693958282,
-0.0001442388747818768,
0.22713616490364075,
0.42257726192474365,
-0.43570655584335327,
0.25715017318725586,
0.06953338533639908,
-0.015323740430176258,
0.18265298008918762,
0.008319605141878128,
0.8217107057571411,
-0.08057519793510437,
-0.025566911324858665,
-0.6359902620315552,
0.377093642950058,
-0.29605263471603394,
-0.2226729542016983,
-0.18116693198680878,
0.25676000118255615,
-0.1898500770330429,
0.3227601945400238,
-0.24744416773319244,
0.48490363359451294,
0.6644425988197327,
0.0016824407503008842,
-0.2626011073589325,
1.0752919912338257,
-0.3571740984916687,
-0.023943688720464706,
0.24675306677818298,
-0.26563918590545654,
0.022256365045905113,
0.22126738727092743,
0.19675570726394653,
0.6560912728309631,
-0.46574634313583374,
0.39742690324783325,
-0.1926650106906891,
0.8223161697387695,
0.40227481722831726,
0.3045046627521515,
-0.06430143862962723,
-0.2385609745979309,
0.13388663530349731,
-0.5440142750740051,
-0.7384586930274963,
0.5879283547401428,
-0.7789496779441833,
-0.13374438881874084,
0.1611812263727188,
-0.5703878402709961,
-0.18218621611595154,
0.486502081155777,
0.36339420080184937,
0.8116306662559509,
-0.08150827884674072,
0.23138657212257385,
0.3667607307434082,
-0.18521076440811157,
0.3762088716030121,
-0.40120968222618103,
0.17341038584709167,
-0.6995518803596497,
0.1972401887178421,
-0.2837182581424713,
0.19158366322517395,
-0.23228180408477783,
0.12691590189933777,
0.23520588874816895,
-0.6143145561218262,
-0.40648606419563293,
-0.5802853107452393,
-0.30282410979270935,
-0.3546929955482483,
-0.31302139163017273,
-0.14940768480300903,
0.6054918169975281,
-0.08697397261857986,
-0.655357301235199,
0.4628978371620178,
-0.0013832156546413898,
-0.06068336218595505,
0.00745141739025712,
0.01514215674251318,
-0.5947082042694092,
0.3137391209602356,
-0.613860011100769,
0.19267117977142334,
0.5292165875434875,
0.5361940860748291,
0.5863837003707886,
0.12726759910583496,
0.31428107619285583,
0.3113477826118469,
0.4492904543876648,
0.26615282893180847,
-1.4849764108657837,
-0.3149992823600769,
-0.1573987603187561,
-0.04108842462301254,
0.07368560880422592,
0.46241360902786255,
-0.40556463599205017,
0.23444561660289764,
-0.601938009262085,
0.44875699281692505,
0.42788639664649963,
-0.4323051869869232,
-0.33268436789512634,
-0.21806780993938446,
0.7024936079978943,
1.1357589960098267,
-0.323000967502594,
0.17851026356220245,
0.40653231739997864,
-0.3029366433620453,
0.229034885764122,
-0.3275509178638458,
0.5573053956031799,
0.17882578074932098,
0.019659852609038353,
0.4849942624568939,
0.7478682994842529,
0.42094898223876953,
0.20429159700870514,
-0.16384679079055786,
0.1876969337463379,
-0.5735927820205688,
-0.3972504436969757,
1.0728849172592163,
-0.799550473690033,
-0.30993160605430603,
0.18984444439411163,
-0.4021143913269043,
0.04552775248885155,
0.0420648492872715,
0.6898219585418701,
0.33585336804389954,
-0.15254363417625427,
-0.2519291639328003,
0.267196923494339,
0.1423673927783966,
0.7431305646896362,
-0.11150109022855759,
-0.3921144902706146,
-0.5714503526687622,
-0.6273641586303711,
0.14482983946800232,
-0.12290479242801666,
-0.34188106656074524,
0.19357311725616455,
0.5748214721679688,
-0.1859387904405594,
-0.1704784482717514,
-0.06250575184822083,
-0.27584752440452576,
0.2801567316055298,
-0.13853974640369415,
0.2909649908542633,
-0.3254168927669525,
-0.27977827191352844,
-0.7842519879341125,
0.24886822700500488,
-0.05135710909962654,
-0.4979919195175171,
0.5028295516967773,
-0.24914780259132385,
0.3725253939628601,
0.05247311294078827,
0.40863272547721863,
-0.3573206961154938,
0.23770098388195038,
0.03294647857546806
] |
234784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshinori | Ashikaga Yoshinori | was the sixth shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1429 to 1441 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshinori was the son of the third shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. His childhood name was Harutora ().
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
Mother: Fujiwara no Yoshiko (1358–1399)
Wives:
Hino Muneko (d. 1447)
Sanjo Yoshiko, daughter of Sanjo Masaaki
Concubines:
Hino Shigeko (1411–1463)
Kozaisho no Tsubone
Shoben-dono
Otomi no Kata, daughter of Tamagawa no Miya and granddaughter of Emperor Chōkei
Children:
Ashikaga Yoshikatsu by Shigeko
Ashikaga Yoshimasa by Shigeko
Daijin'in by Shigeko
Ashikaga Yoshikano later Shogoin by Shigeko
a daughter by Kozaisho
Ashikaga Yoshimi by Kozaisho
Ashikaga Masatomo (1435–1491) by Shoben
Ashikaga Yoshinaga by Shoben
Kosho'in
Sankyo
Shogunal succession
After the death of the Fifth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshikazu in 1425, The Fourth Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi resumed his role as head of the shogunate. Yoshimochi had no other sons, nor did he name a successor before he himself died in 1428.
Yoshinori, who had been a Buddhist monk since the age of ten, became Sei-i Taishōgun on the day of Yoshimochi's death. From amongst the handful of possible Ashikaga candidates, his name was selected by the shogunal deputy (Kanrei), Hatakeyama Mitsuie, who drew lots in the sanctuary of Iwashimizu Hachiman Shrine in Kyoto; and it was believed that Hachiman's influence had affected this auspicious choice.
Significant events which shaped the period during which Yoshinori was shōgun:
1429 – Yoshinori appointed shōgun.
1430 – The Southern Court's army surrenders.
1432 – Akamatsu Mitsusuke flees; Yoshinori receives rescript from China.
1433 – Ōtomo rebels; Hieizan monks rebel.
1434 – Tosen bugyō established to regulate foreign affairs.<ref name="k1">Kinihara, Misako. The Establishment of the Tosen-bugyō in the Reign of Ashikaga Yoshinori" (唐船奉行の成立 : 足利義教による飯尾貞連の登用)], Tokyo Woman's Christian University: Essays and Studies. Abstract.</ref>
1436 – Yasaka Pagoda at Hokanji in Kyoto destroyed by fire.
1438 – Kantō kubō Ashikaga Mochiuji rebels – Eikyō Rebellion.
1439 – Mochiuji commits suicide; dissatisfaction with Yoshinori grows.
1440 – Yasaka Pagoda at Hokanji in Kyoto re-constructed by Yoshinori.
1441 – Yoshinori grants Shimazu suzerainty over the Ryūkyū Islands; Akamatsu murders Yoshinori – Kakitsu Incident; Yamana kills Akamatsu.
Yoshinori strengthened the power of the shogunate by defeating Ashikaga Mochiuji in the Eikyo Rebellion of 1438. During the period, Chinese contacts were increased and Zen Buddhism gained influence, which had broad cultural consequences. For example, the Hon-dō or main hall at Ikkyu-ji is today the oldest standing Tang-style temple in the Yamashiro (southern Kyoto Prefecture) and Yamato (Nara Prefecture) Provinces. It was built in 1434 and was dedicated by Yoshinori.
Foreign relations
In 1432, trade and diplomatic relations between Japan and China] were restored. Both had been discontinued by Yoshimochi. The Chinese emperor reached out to Japan by sending a letter to the shogunate via the kingdom of the Ryūkyū Islands; Yoshinori responded favorably.Keene,
According to Mansai Jugo Nikki (満済准后日記), the system of the Tosen-bugyō (唐船奉行) was established in 1434 to mediate overseas trade. The functions of the Tosen-bugyō included: (1) defending trading ships in Japanese waters, (2) procuring export goods, (3) mediating between the Muromachi shogunate and shipping interests, and (4) managing record-keeping. It is significant that the Muromachi shogunate was the first to appoint the executive officers of the samurai class to high positions in its diplomatic bureaucracy. After Yoshinori's time, the totosen (渡唐船) (the fleet of ships going from Japan to Ming China) consisted of the ships belonging principally to three different kinds of owners: the Muromachi shōgun, temples, and the shugo daimyō.
Assassination
Yoshinori was notorious for his oppressive measures and unpredictable dictatorial whims. In 1441, Yoshinori was assassinated by Akamatsu Noriyasu, son of Akamatsu Mitsusuke who invited him to a Noh performance at their residence and assassinated him during the evening play. Yoshinori was 48 at the age of his assassination which was organized by Mitsusuke, who had learned that Yoshinori planned to bestow three provinces belonging to him to his cousin Akamatsu Sadamura, who came to be given an important position by Yoshinori because Sadamura's younger sister became his concubine and gave birth to a son. Shortly thereafter, it was determined that his 8-year-old son, Yoshikatsu, would become the new shōgun. Akamatsu Mitsusuke had already a problem in 1427 with the fifth Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimochi, who tried to confiscate his territory; Mitsusuke burned down his own residence in Kyoto and went to Harima province, and gathered his family to prepare for the battle. This infuriated Yoshimochi, who ordered to search and kill them, but the confusion continued as those who were ordered to subjugate them refused to dispatch troops. Also died in the incident Yamana Hirotaka (Shugo of Iwami province), Kyogoku Takakazu (Shugo of Yamashiro, Izumo, Oki and Hida provinces), and Ouchi Mochiyo (Shugo of Suo, Nagato, Buzen and Chikuzen provinces). Mitsusuke confined himself in Yamashiro Castle, and died with 69 members of his family on October 12, after he was attacked by the shogunal army.
Although the Ashikaga line continued through this seventh shogun, the power of the shōguns gradually eroded and the shogunate fell into decline. The mere fact of that assassination and treason had become a reality served to undercut the previous military ethic of loyalty.
Eras of Yoshinori's bakufu
The years in which Yoshinori was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.Eikyō (1429–1441)Kakitsu (1441–1444)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Blum, Mark Laurence and Shinʼya Yasutomi. (2005). Rennyo and the Roots of Modern Japanese Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press, USA. (cloth)
Crompton, Louis, Homosexuality and Civilization, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003.
Keene, Donald. (2003). Yoshimasa and the Silver Pavilion: The Creation of the Soul of Japan. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 52268947
Kinihara, Misako. "The Establishment of the Tosenbugyo in the Reign of Ashikaga Yoshinori" (唐船奉行の成立 : 足利義教による飯尾貞連の登用), Tokyo Woman's Christian University: Essays and Studies. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 27–53.
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran''; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
See also
East Asian age reckoning
1394 births
1441 deaths
14th-century Japanese people
15th-century shōguns
Yoshinori
Ashikaga clan | [
-0.608281672000885,
-0.07649119943380356,
-0.5741133689880371,
0.3192360997200012,
-1.1893775463104248,
0.5569078922271729,
0.8521043062210083,
-0.044642090797424316,
-0.40768811106681824,
-0.46701186895370483,
-0.04020106419920921,
0.1892629861831665,
0.03252532333135605,
0.18229885399341583,
-0.3006076514720917,
0.0007244129665195942,
0.6696931719779968,
-0.08134336024522781,
-0.3250022232532501,
-0.4858400225639343,
-0.34567520022392273,
-0.28514283895492554,
-0.17993752658367157,
-0.23163819313049316,
0.7288197875022888,
0.17519597709178925,
0.7480688095092773,
0.5976582765579224,
0.10924509912729263,
-0.4528656303882599,
0.00001400107066729106,
0.18711136281490326,
0.2926028370857239,
-0.41853412985801697,
-0.3939424157142639,
-0.10970694571733475,
-0.16086608171463013,
0.040247030556201935,
-0.4478638172149658,
0.04795924574136734,
-0.3996497690677643,
-0.09311896562576294,
0.48971274495124817,
0.12703905999660492,
0.1754770576953888,
-0.5365793108940125,
-1.5908546447753906,
0.03998325765132904,
-0.04079412668943405,
-0.3227998614311218,
-0.15860125422477722,
0.5896053314208984,
-0.2828293442726135,
0.3579487204551697,
-0.12719209492206573,
0.8013584017753601,
-0.2824417054653168,
-0.7601956129074097,
-0.7155126333236694,
-0.4279669225215912,
0.5061948895454407,
-0.19114047288894653,
0.4999440312385559,
0.35892942547798157,
0.06718359887599945,
-0.09698504954576492,
0.24498799443244934,
-0.131759911775589,
0.4816754162311554,
0.1757303923368454,
0.09524576365947723,
0.8913275003433228,
0.13134093582630157,
0.5138818025588989,
0.14969637989997864,
-0.5900517106056213,
0.16220873594284058,
0.08124661445617676,
0.4551345407962799,
-0.2166706919670105,
-0.49854499101638794,
-0.7320484519004822,
0.25931403040885925,
0.10764174908399582,
0.30159157514572144,
-0.11664196103811264,
0.02191941998898983,
0.2421027272939682,
-0.9578732252120972,
0.2800142168998718,
-0.2178429514169693,
0.2861696183681488,
0.60701984167099,
0.25666314363479614,
-0.40332475304603577,
-0.3457884192466736,
-0.16669520735740662,
0.2075641006231308,
-0.3471980094909668,
-0.06914526969194412,
-0.21054433286190033,
0.20974639058113098,
-0.17376621067523956,
-0.19984865188598633,
-0.9818007349967957,
-0.559759259223938,
0.12014255672693253,
-0.41577839851379395,
-1.0055586099624634,
-0.04747465252876282,
-0.3962898254394531,
0.47570839524269104,
0.25272712111473083,
-0.14818859100341797,
-0.07392104715108871,
-0.05361898988485336,
-0.032291628420352936,
-0.19349385797977448,
0.2345115840435028,
-0.09885843098163605,
0.10537620633840561,
0.26744434237480164,
-0.2237292379140854,
0.43787622451782227,
0.02497614547610283,
0.17484931647777557,
-0.24021771550178528,
-0.5281343460083008,
-0.18518535792827606,
-0.3030282258987427,
0.7011232376098633,
1.1734076738357544,
-0.7243114709854126,
0.402790367603302,
0.13607370853424072,
0.2739088535308838,
-0.05103631690144539,
-0.13648925721645355,
-0.3817611336708069,
-0.5795241594314575,
-0.8391562700271606,
0.02157522737979889,
-1.0216952562332153,
0.19723202288150787,
0.06960897147655487,
0.6178281903266907,
-0.15675584971904755,
-0.38083893060684204,
-0.6340447664260864,
-0.4956147074699402,
-0.5885485410690308,
0.24806837737560272,
-0.4468196928501129,
0.0162118561565876,
-0.11026708781719208,
-0.110031358897686,
0.09193810075521469,
-0.23476749658584595,
-0.053053852170705795,
0.2544146478176117,
-0.33172523975372314,
0.10682175308465958,
-0.0726003423333168,
0.25725752115249634,
0.4210435152053833,
-0.5132351517677307,
0.2940910756587982,
0.12960676848888397,
-0.6109813451766968,
-0.48813438415527344,
-0.36829060316085815,
-0.249916672706604,
-0.20751994848251343,
-0.7174733877182007,
0.6707780957221985,
0.222208634018898,
1.2028272151947021,
-0.4755939543247223,
-0.0882139727473259,
-0.27163124084472656,
-0.6636275053024292,
-0.3561871349811554,
0.3804311752319336,
0.05466724932193756,
0.4555431604385376,
0.5307163000106812,
-0.3117983341217041,
0.14596475660800934,
0.7813963890075684,
-0.12294111400842667,
-0.3448685109615326,
-0.18828192353248596,
0.5466016530990601,
-0.5666090250015259,
0.6475281119346619,
0.4472237825393677,
-0.05888333171606064,
0.1424318552017212,
0.059691172093153,
0.9958750605583191,
0.14093686640262604,
-0.39521679282188416,
0.3835771083831787,
0.2855980694293976,
0.35174059867858887,
0.0777968168258667,
-0.4180595576763153,
0.35966727137565613,
0.6395546197891235,
0.9845806956291199,
0.09336966276168823,
0.1430564522743225,
-0.4290887713432312,
-0.1456390768289566,
-0.013438417576253414,
0.1513999104499817,
-0.3592962622642517,
-0.036522116512060165,
0.26549026370048523,
-0.39834776520729065,
0.7730896472930908,
0.04184665530920029,
-0.6447538137435913,
0.5010164380073547,
-0.032154012471437454,
1.0516648292541504,
-0.23251406848430634,
0.5481199622154236,
-0.1904931217432022,
-0.9194241166114807,
-0.061688002198934555,
0.34144890308380127,
-0.027879765257239342,
0.43931129574775696,
-0.2213970273733139,
0.29601234197616577,
0.32915017008781433,
0.1876956820487976,
0.046893518418073654,
-0.4230630695819855,
0.28823742270469666,
0.11588874459266663,
0.2630385458469391,
0.3086208701133728,
0.4131433963775635,
0.5353354215621948,
-0.16221396625041962,
0.34803664684295654,
-0.6720175743103027,
-0.29529401659965515,
0.546489953994751,
0.09490151703357697,
0.36100491881370544,
-0.23498718440532684,
0.16444623470306396,
-0.5411427617073059,
-0.1339709609746933,
-0.31010010838508606,
-0.40034615993499756,
-0.11281789839267731,
0.11245465278625488,
0.26282891631126404,
0.46683692932128906,
-0.07822748273611069,
0.4341084361076355,
-0.028630796819925308,
0.44669169187545776,
0.19726258516311646,
0.23428109288215637,
0.0323902852833271,
-0.04072558879852295,
-0.2661530375480652,
-0.27564558386802673,
-0.4485143721103668,
0.0038671286311000586,
-1.0193653106689453,
-0.501821756362915,
0.5022237300872803,
0.2326684147119522,
-0.7225292921066284,
0.4257315397262573,
0.5491988062858582,
-0.4704432487487793,
-0.40341809391975403,
-0.1697358936071396,
-0.36140576004981995,
-0.6593214273452759,
-0.5545873641967773,
-0.015950724482536316,
-0.27657806873321533,
-0.0034325404558330774,
0.5127309560775757,
-0.5529464483261108,
-0.2890664339065552,
-0.3076190948486328,
1.1171694993972778,
-0.7569386959075928,
-0.10475395619869232,
0.5969389081001282,
-0.32568567991256714,
-0.8332267999649048,
-0.449446439743042,
0.7833524346351624,
0.22760751843452454,
0.6356902718544006,
0.4491358697414398,
-0.06634219735860825,
0.10841874778270721,
-5.462084770202637,
0.0951138585805893,
-0.08976442366838455,
0.09966609627008438,
0.013111772947013378,
0.3496367335319519,
0.360429048538208,
0.04402388632297516,
0.5299885869026184,
-0.42426198720932007,
0.10222487151622772,
0.2477046698331833,
0.4655138850212097,
0.46810829639434814,
0.13039925694465637,
-0.015619323588907719,
0.402092844247818,
-0.0979764312505722,
0.2652355432510376,
0.00019917148165404797,
0.07788114249706268,
-0.10251662135124207,
-0.4610588550567627,
1.0075668096542358,
0.5455737709999084,
0.399679958820343,
-0.9011479616165161,
-0.11038696020841599,
-0.7115033864974976,
-0.28308016061782837,
-0.18047408759593964,
-0.28866851329803467,
-0.11923512071371078,
0.4060676097869873,
-0.47883594036102295,
-0.2019595503807068,
0.33811789751052856,
0.2600604295730591,
0.6071206331253052,
0.36603644490242004,
0.0614648163318634,
-0.05144589766860008,
-1.029512882232666,
0.590252161026001,
0.12279177457094193,
-0.5916902422904968,
-0.7094112634658813,
0.5143529176712036,
-0.1964847892522812,
0.4731113612651825,
0.173433318734169,
-0.0598737895488739,
0.3553990423679352,
-0.12795299291610718,
0.4649343490600586,
0.14287568628787994,
0.03317936882376671,
0.24648895859718323,
-0.4313395619392395,
-0.14450709521770477,
0.31358954310417175,
-0.40780365467071533,
-0.09427379816770554,
-0.3648417592048645,
0.42274707555770874,
-0.3643830120563507,
0.4228433072566986,
-0.17183420062065125,
-0.3567223846912384,
0.23391714692115784,
-1.0463818311691284,
0.5835164785385132,
0.013611797243356705,
-1.0275906324386597,
0.6542300581932068,
-0.17800478637218475,
-0.3335464894771576,
0.6413595080375671,
-0.15104761719703674,
-0.15152157843112946,
0.01749163493514061,
-0.3818676173686981,
0.16609877347946167,
0.5550422668457031,
-0.02859620377421379,
0.4072815179824829,
0.29414740204811096,
0.08116842806339264,
0.16978059709072113,
0.5182536244392395,
0.6142043471336365,
-0.5759186148643494,
-0.22788336873054504,
0.0008446152787655592,
0.5297399163246155,
0.06348748505115509,
-0.561795711517334,
0.2500719130039215,
0.42555898427963257,
0.03448853641748428,
0.2087976485490799,
0.1171669140458107,
-0.8980405330657959,
-0.12388165295124054,
-0.41499024629592896,
-0.08099094778299332,
0.04881691560149193,
0.23944294452667236,
0.4727557599544525,
0.9412046670913696,
0.09615013003349304,
-0.4580572247505188,
-0.5737664699554443,
-0.25120100378990173,
0.6161053776741028,
-0.3560970723628998,
0.10647682100534439,
0.479428231716156,
0.16073286533355713,
0.22390277683734894,
0.14639392495155334,
0.4128842055797577,
-0.4645051658153534,
-0.36088934540748596,
0.49979108572006226,
0.3749215304851532,
-0.39464259147644043,
0.4641444981098175,
-0.17551004886627197,
-0.06113860011100769,
0.40448111295700073,
0.042515866458415985,
-0.2874419093132019,
0.0884280651807785,
-0.010677753016352654,
-0.716355562210083,
-0.3415047228336334,
-1.0125207901000977,
-0.023966509848833084,
-0.06385332345962524,
-0.37053975462913513,
0.137351393699646,
-0.463055819272995,
0.3141796886920929,
-0.3974131941795349,
0.24093806743621826,
-0.031633615493774414,
-0.2359965741634369,
0.1465764343738556,
0.6822816729545593,
-0.144774928689003,
-0.7519979476928711,
0.3200945556163788,
-0.26761066913604736,
-0.663232147693634,
0.30058708786964417,
-0.45480746030807495,
-0.12911753356456757,
-0.3436351716518402,
0.32815784215927124,
-0.28753188252449036,
-0.09615030884742737,
-0.8889346122741699,
-0.4643896818161011,
0.05575637146830559,
-0.6159255504608154,
-0.3158469796180725,
-0.1283126026391983,
0.06979313492774963,
0.3902040421962738,
0.37697112560272217,
-0.5289797186851501,
-0.07858026027679443,
-0.17922529578208923,
0.8484727740287781,
0.11663142591714859,
0.6675335168838501,
0.45772436261177063,
-0.2164883017539978,
-0.4943256378173828,
0.102872334420681,
0.2645539343357086,
-0.33334672451019287,
0.39584043622016907,
-0.011037149466574192,
-0.1685141921043396,
-0.5666893720626831,
-1.0375206470489502,
-0.46266356110572815,
-0.42235255241394043,
-0.5775048136711121,
-0.15710215270519257,
0.07151509821414948,
0.4801836311817169,
-0.18224994838237762,
-0.32725629210472107,
0.5361597537994385,
0.2712109088897705,
0.19037245213985443,
0.18553952872753143,
0.016314418986439705,
0.3853420615196228,
-0.6113780736923218,
0.0253303125500679,
0.10841703414916992,
-0.905803918838501,
0.6347798705101013,
0.3735853135585785,
0.6816242337226868,
0.06948868930339813,
-0.3768722414970398,
-0.6183065176010132,
-0.06039494276046753,
0.09498735517263412,
0.5583513379096985,
-0.1541203111410141,
0.044339507818222046,
0.21656593680381775,
-0.1322525292634964,
-0.9605110883712769,
-0.28749796748161316,
-0.04131113365292549,
-0.4528171122074127,
-0.6018435955047607,
-0.4244411587715149,
0.22819548845291138,
0.7058340907096863,
0.47058916091918945,
-0.1469918191432953,
-0.19258111715316772,
-0.04565702751278877,
0.2538501024246216,
0.1385875791311264,
0.363995760679245,
-0.6122379302978516,
-0.30938485264778137,
-0.03053615614771843,
-0.47502201795578003,
0.4704822599887848,
0.267382949590683,
0.33379286527633667,
0.9641351103782654,
0.8297282457351685,
0.16733276844024658,
0.3592437207698822,
-0.09643823653459549,
0.1105431541800499,
-0.21321892738342285,
0.5060280561447144,
0.2786749005317688,
0.03437931463122368,
-0.618900716304779,
-0.3187643587589264,
-0.3010510206222534,
0.8443116545677185,
-0.7029520273208618,
0.08663393557071686,
0.20526331663131714,
-0.3492676317691803,
0.08998876065015793,
-0.023866260424256325,
0.22573921084403992,
0.1801854819059372,
0.009605121798813343,
0.18199267983436584,
0.11055498570203781,
-0.4075174629688263,
0.03811904415488243,
-0.04864278808236122,
-0.8346629738807678,
-0.7129173874855042,
-0.059951696544885635,
-0.21498630940914154,
0.5917465686798096,
0.393945574760437,
0.41870424151420593,
-0.4360455870628357,
-0.07699171453714371,
0.06622996926307678,
0.13969294726848602,
-0.7623901963233948,
-0.363175630569458,
-0.1440701186656952,
-0.3684843182563782,
-0.7788739800453186,
-0.8235417008399963,
0.17287905514240265,
0.152200847864151,
0.025452567264437675,
0.005077187903225422,
-0.5519466400146484,
0.008473418653011322,
0.2721389830112457,
0.1886894553899765,
-0.37886887788772583,
0.5866010189056396,
-0.49707964062690735,
0.13948988914489746,
0.09237856417894363,
0.12088153511285782,
-0.1824708729982376,
0.1937372386455536,
0.13819265365600586,
0.8263253569602966,
-0.15550276637077332,
-0.08672697097063065,
-0.29214391112327576,
0.0830172449350357,
-0.18496470153331757,
0.5917159914970398,
0.2709161937236786,
-0.16102349758148193,
0.48024633526802063,
-0.15481367707252502,
-0.4927924573421478,
-0.05770046263933182,
-0.0220217052847147,
0.06384489685297012,
-0.1334569901227951,
-1.097510814666748,
0.8065975308418274,
0.22491446137428284,
-0.4769054055213928,
0.49903059005737305,
0.5644381046295166,
-0.027984799817204475,
-0.17939430475234985,
0.30060186982154846,
0.03882205858826637,
0.42952215671539307,
0.1973847597837448,
0.12576507031917572,
-0.5191839933395386,
0.49121448397636414,
-0.37397319078445435,
0.5495404005050659,
-0.11469689756631851,
-0.5311542749404907,
0.4789270758628845,
0.304502934217453,
0.6977090835571289,
0.4478068947792053,
-0.8280481100082397,
-0.02868654765188694,
0.051633864641189575,
0.3175835609436035,
0.021498609334230423,
0.20669445395469666,
0.40270090103149414,
0.3050982356071472,
0.5468839406967163,
0.2521945834159851,
0.6203985214233398,
-0.43294697999954224,
-0.007682964205741882,
0.49802833795547485,
0.4569818079471588,
0.16928605735301971,
-0.10163668543100357,
-0.4269651770591736,
-0.30769285559654236,
-0.49933740496635437,
0.5427981615066528,
-0.10592710226774216,
0.053140681236982346,
0.5118908286094666,
-0.25612160563468933,
-0.3871231973171234,
0.04662603512406349,
0.17203274369239807,
0.07285218685865402,
-0.3907594382762909,
-0.10010194778442383,
0.06234545633196831,
0.3347862660884857,
0.9743319153785706,
0.5082139372825623,
-0.18580348789691925,
-0.05154406651854515,
-0.09909296035766602,
-0.5162913799285889,
0.25667205452919006,
-0.03098965808749199,
-0.32437440752983093,
0.34859204292297363,
0.6631592512130737,
0.19408363103866577,
0.2895207405090332,
-0.8450865745544434,
-0.37873804569244385,
-0.0521659180521965,
-0.4937880337238312,
-0.3588663637638092,
0.8842066526412964,
-0.33640241622924805,
0.17093460261821747,
0.11175382137298584,
0.4201381504535675,
0.6016537547111511,
0.10991375148296356,
0.01447636354714632,
-0.10178451240062714,
0.17165444791316986,
0.34810107946395874,
-0.13900387287139893,
0.35965174436569214,
-0.3481399714946747,
-0.26969045400619507,
-0.7314984798431396,
0.08037707954645157,
0.445812463760376,
0.5340486168861389,
-0.20248310267925262,
0.21683037281036377,
-0.6619547009468079,
-0.2944263219833374,
1.0139448642730713,
-0.6608712673187256,
0.2547031044960022,
0.039283931255340576,
0.16549421846866608,
-0.2753406763076782,
-0.08559354394674301,
0.2039036899805069,
-0.31749826669692993,
-0.3116704225540161,
0.6770551204681396,
0.32562997937202454,
0.16291818022727966,
0.7488898038864136,
-0.23201137781143188,
-1.2142837047576904,
-0.1277737021446228,
-0.006201055366545916,
-0.10794416069984436,
-0.29983633756637573,
0.9244136810302734,
0.7166208624839783,
0.7090001106262207,
-0.46615275740623474,
0.13753296434879303,
-0.15859940648078918,
0.543326735496521,
0.043394267559051514,
-0.23268869519233704,
-0.06441018730401993,
0.0340535044670105,
-0.6511598825454712,
-0.3075575828552246,
0.29672184586524963,
0.657092273235321,
-0.10113053768873215,
0.5972521901130676,
-0.7749658823013306,
0.3978520333766937,
-0.2117665708065033,
0.10733445733785629,
-0.35029280185699463,
0.01268578227609396,
0.011071762070059776
] |
234786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20pitch | Wild pitch | In baseball, a wild pitch (WP) is charged against a pitcher when his pitch is too high, too short, or too wide of home plate for the catcher to control with ordinary effort, thereby allowing a baserunner, or the batter (on an uncaught third strike), to advance.
A wild pitch usually passes the catcher behind home plate, often allowing runners on base an easy chance to advance while the catcher chases the ball down. Sometimes the catcher may block a pitch, and the ball may be nearby, but the catcher has trouble finding the ball, allowing runners to advance.
A closely related statistic is the passed ball. As with many baseball statistics, whether a pitch that gets away from a catcher is counted as a wild pitch or a passed ball is at the discretion of the official scorer. The benefit of the doubt is usually given to the catcher if there is uncertainty; therefore, most of these situations are scored as wild pitches. If the pitch was so low as to touch the ground, or so high that the catcher has to jump to get to it, or so wide that the catcher has to lunge for it, it is usually ruled a wild pitch and not a passed ball. Because the pitcher and catcher handle the ball much more than other fielders, certain misplays on pitched balls are defined in Rule 10.13 as wild pitches and passed balls. No error shall be charged when a wild pitch or passed ball is scored.
A wild pitch may only be scored if one or more runners advance. If the bases are empty, or if the catcher retrieves the ball quickly and no runner is able to advance, a wild pitch is not charged. A run scored on a wild pitch is recorded as an earned run. A runner who advances on a wild pitch is not credited with a stolen base unless he breaks before the pitcher begins his delivery.
Records
Nolan Ryan is the modern-era leader in the wild pitches, throwing 277 over his 27 years in Major League Baseball (MLB). He also led his league in the category in six different seasons. However, the all-time record belongs to Tony Mullane, who threw 343 in the early years of the game from 1881 to 1894. After Ryan's 277, the next pitcher on the list is Mickey Welch with 274, followed by Bobby Matthews, who threw 253.
The single-season record for wild pitches is held by Mark Baldwin, who threw 83 in 1889 while pitching in the American Association. Second place on the season list is held jointly by Tony Mullane and Bill Stemmyer, who threw 63 wild pitches in 1884 and 1886, respectively. Since 1900, the highest total in a season has been 30, by Red Ames in 1905.
The modern-era MLB record for wild pitches in a single game is six, shared by three pitchers: Bill Gullickson, Phil Niekro, and J. R. Richard. The modern-era MLB record for wild pitches in a single inning during the regular season is four, shared by six pitchers: Walter Johnson, Kevin Gregg, R. A. Dickey, Phil Niekro, Ryan Madson, and Brooks Kriske. Bert Cunningham of the Players' League (considered a major league) threw five wild pitches in an inning in 1890. On June 26, 2017, Adam Ottavino allowed five runs on four wild pitches, the most runs allowed on wild pitches in a single game in at least 50 years.
, the active career leaders for wild pitches thrown in MLB are Trevor Cahill and Ervin Santana, with 100 each.
Postseason
Rick Ankiel of the St. Louis Cardinals threw five wild pitches in the third inning of the first game of the 2000 National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves.
Only one World Series has ended on a wild pitch—the 1927 edition. An errant delivery by Pittsburgh Pirates reliever Johnny Miljus in the ninth inning of Game 4 allowed Earle Combs of the New York Yankees to score the winning run.
In the bottom of the 10th inning of Game 6 of the 1986 World Series, with the Boston Red Sox leading 5–4, the New York Mets had runners on first and third with two outs. Boston relief pitcher Bob Stanley threw a wild pitch which allowed Kevin Mitchell to score the tying run from third and Ray Knight to move from first to second base. With Knight in scoring position, he was able to score the winning run on first baseman Bill Buckner's famous error.
References
External links
Baseball Rules See section 10.13
Pitching statistics
Baseball terminology
Baseball pitches | [
-0.045891791582107544,
-0.7378413081169128,
-0.7188577055931091,
0.1328825056552887,
-0.46452847123146057,
-0.4640562832355499,
0.4465043544769287,
-0.10091952234506607,
0.07090908288955688,
-0.16027842462062836,
-0.5325638055801392,
0.3135540783405304,
-0.25583669543266296,
0.18259482085704803,
-0.3813498318195343,
0.5217207670211792,
0.5101588368415833,
0.17339342832565308,
-0.3282311260700226,
-0.29110485315322876,
-0.5090633034706116,
-0.43586599826812744,
-0.17407333850860596,
-0.3606341481208801,
0.4687121510505676,
-0.14707022905349731,
-0.3631248474121094,
0.378645658493042,
0.03519212827086449,
0.16752280294895172,
-0.07131984084844589,
0.5481189489364624,
-0.016101865097880363,
-0.2893441915512085,
0.06680501997470856,
-0.007165176328271627,
-0.207024484872818,
-0.37719789147377014,
-0.35703471302986145,
-0.7359084486961365,
0.10657280683517456,
-0.31079086661338806,
0.24370549619197845,
-0.16185413300991058,
-0.1824556142091751,
-0.14452382922172546,
-1.393449068069458,
0.018484951928257942,
-0.6988049745559692,
0.01207919791340828,
0.4132818877696991,
-0.017052436247467995,
-0.6226728558540344,
0.3272568881511688,
-0.24145527184009552,
0.20817774534225464,
-0.5891742706298828,
0.03590052202343941,
0.13036374747753143,
-0.10656227916479111,
-0.12666857242584229,
-0.1238718256354332,
0.21326182782649994,
-0.004952042829245329,
0.5257857441902161,
0.461253821849823,
-0.2642180919647217,
0.3529854714870453,
-0.42536959052085876,
-0.7298311591148376,
-0.20107075572013855,
-0.5459922552108765,
-0.34366801381111145,
-0.044623371213674545,
-0.17362265288829803,
-0.27312013506889343,
-0.05623094365000725,
-0.0226670540869236,
0.02618882991373539,
0.5658952593803406,
-0.3216494619846344,
0.6493276953697205,
-0.16519668698310852,
0.05474606528878212,
0.5757675170898438,
-0.2051706463098526,
-0.07493044435977936,
0.6919735670089722,
-0.2642606198787689,
0.5423130989074707,
1.105562686920166,
0.08772676438093185,
0.11554322391748428,
-0.24097533524036407,
-0.2770952582359314,
0.5062010288238525,
0.5496578812599182,
0.007840641774237156,
0.1859843134880066,
-0.12798632681369781,
-0.25385063886642456,
-0.12790288031101227,
0.3243173658847809,
0.10314690321683884,
-0.24769754707813263,
-0.2400505542755127,
0.3894628882408142,
-0.9815000891685486,
-0.4989725947380066,
-0.10945544391870499,
-0.19595424830913544,
0.5905987620353699,
0.3997834026813507,
0.044622570276260376,
-0.7120696306228638,
-0.18158969283103943,
0.9681077599525452,
0.4343268573284149,
0.3483947515487671,
-0.0025719974655658007,
0.3034628927707672,
0.24945688247680664,
0.3182297945022583,
-0.05704496055841446,
-0.08742081373929977,
-0.09730052947998047,
0.3733009994029999,
1.1124454736709595,
-0.12453477084636688,
-0.5177478194236755,
0.1135149896144867,
0.8309353590011597,
-0.08870352804660797,
-0.008384049870073795,
-0.04194331914186478,
0.35396647453308105,
-0.011211779899895191,
0.1563655138015747,
0.43825095891952515,
-0.03555624559521675,
-0.7702043056488037,
-0.1819581389427185,
-0.045529015362262726,
-0.5079920291900635,
0.13280637562274933,
-0.3908846080303192,
0.09203336387872696,
-0.3798380196094513,
-0.36100509762763977,
0.21740326285362244,
0.24101053178310394,
0.4210759401321411,
0.11016418784856796,
0.46969741582870483,
-0.36249154806137085,
0.009150221943855286,
0.33309924602508545,
-0.3699311912059784,
-0.12533828616142273,
0.6048109531402588,
-0.15129166841506958,
-0.0716114193201065,
0.04076525568962097,
-0.3320579528808594,
0.03354451432824135,
-0.23080065846443176,
0.19687628746032715,
0.16596746444702148,
-0.31515493988990784,
0.2722609043121338,
-0.015997372567653656,
0.14019373059272766,
0.3674238622188568,
0.4883406460285187,
0.8919990658760071,
-0.2970990240573883,
0.4435923993587494,
0.012020589783787727,
0.8295457363128662,
0.34878861904144287,
-0.4876766800880432,
0.28873410820961,
0.290486216545105,
-0.19873034954071045,
0.38462942838668823,
-0.07845167070627213,
0.31980475783348083,
-0.04475146532058716,
0.39832013845443726,
-0.29104000329971313,
-0.23218131065368652,
-0.38536396622657776,
-0.43455231189727783,
-0.5763755440711975,
0.7492138147354126,
-0.45874643325805664,
-0.39470022916793823,
0.7851479053497314,
0.6703092455863953,
-0.05030333623290062,
0.028984902426600456,
0.0686744749546051,
0.3901899755001068,
-0.1842346340417862,
-0.8710244297981262,
0.18190640211105347,
0.873793363571167,
0.44368234276771545,
-0.07644235342741013,
0.3274878263473511,
0.23896311223506927,
0.29280078411102295,
0.08329065144062042,
-0.6042354106903076,
0.008449765853583813,
0.44958385825157166,
-0.5735775828361511,
0.450223833322525,
0.344327837228775,
-0.4632553160190582,
0.38233762979507446,
-0.4159230589866638,
-0.3395861089229584,
0.159978985786438,
-0.07316452264785767,
0.7315773963928223,
0.1702297329902649,
0.4750766456127167,
0.4925442934036255,
-0.8497747182846069,
0.19142895936965942,
-0.28156596422195435,
0.04994271323084831,
-0.41225317120552063,
-0.5817350745201111,
-0.24892748892307281,
0.24630947411060333,
-0.05208708345890045,
0.4094633162021637,
-0.21883751451969147,
-0.05494087561964989,
0.28604376316070557,
0.09245525300502777,
0.47530561685562134,
-0.33894652128219604,
-0.2177630066871643,
0.12177688628435135,
0.251981258392334,
-0.027648774906992912,
-0.06470773369073868,
0.36300045251846313,
0.2743869125843048,
0.5127439498901367,
-0.6206904649734497,
0.4049007296562195,
0.09521568566560745,
-0.6920262575149536,
0.030529463663697243,
0.5755405426025391,
-0.10895358771085739,
-0.2509254813194275,
0.05195297673344612,
-0.1210186779499054,
-0.07017134130001068,
-0.2432793825864792,
-0.520118772983551,
-0.44928795099258423,
0.4998212456703186,
-0.1809067726135254,
-0.4848138689994812,
0.6561393737792969,
0.4250026345252991,
-0.4359143078327179,
-0.33175188302993774,
-0.9794754981994629,
-0.7700092196464539,
0.9018399119377136,
0.14592745900154114,
-0.3109421133995056,
-0.583031952381134,
0.0056803482584655285,
0.16472814977169037,
0.5539043545722961,
-0.7545210719108582,
-0.15692704916000366,
-0.24632808566093445,
0.40147557854652405,
-0.03446092829108238,
-0.3258408308029175,
-0.06547261774539948,
-0.24030055105686188,
-0.062416862696409225,
0.042171720415353775,
0.5569782257080078,
0.30435824394226074,
0.09440603107213974,
-0.3820153474807739,
0.6960135102272034,
0.31945329904556274,
-0.20180393755435944,
-0.5432537794113159,
-0.11564280092716217,
-0.552232027053833,
-0.46184542775154114,
-0.09414413571357727,
-0.2742341458797455,
-0.685572624206543,
0.33800122141838074,
-5.794106960296631,
0.09469328820705414,
-0.3290049731731415,
0.17831923067569733,
0.07941602915525436,
-0.01986759901046753,
0.4886877238750458,
-0.036239419132471085,
-0.1835722029209137,
0.796384871006012,
-0.28738346695899963,
-0.25088152289390564,
0.5469664335250854,
-0.20527897775173187,
0.5392898321151733,
-0.14453892409801483,
-0.04812176898121834,
-0.7802211046218872,
-0.5459651947021484,
-0.20376700162887573,
0.040524404495954514,
0.9162514209747314,
0.03955729305744171,
0.20659251511096954,
0.1247306764125824,
0.1616683453321457,
0.454769492149353,
-0.16404272615909576,
-0.47760725021362305,
-0.10968274623155594,
0.2459295094013214,
-0.4310326874256134,
-0.1379096806049347,
0.7896857261657715,
-0.4794504642486572,
0.16607965528964996,
0.3877268433570862,
-0.28518274426460266,
-0.5040960311889648,
0.07592209428548813,
-0.38343727588653564,
0.17151281237602234,
0.17028337717056274,
0.10063641518354416,
0.5703065395355225,
-0.3083798289299011,
-0.01545038167387247,
-0.4346730709075928,
-0.32623937726020813,
0.5594823360443115,
0.24916858971118927,
0.2691269516944885,
-0.08593567460775375,
0.06517957150936127,
0.5187010169029236,
0.1646183878183365,
0.6071715354919434,
-0.3766687214374542,
-0.004482235759496689,
0.022614169865846634,
0.4870123565196991,
-0.9188477396965027,
0.3401097357273102,
0.16049212217330933,
0.46986448764801025,
-0.46966955065727234,
-0.28658655285835266,
-0.7561309933662415,
0.7938424944877625,
0.28724461793899536,
0.0998743399977684,
-0.07997699081897736,
0.3104592561721802,
-0.6777504682540894,
0.647939920425415,
-0.10399222373962402,
-0.27060768008232117,
-0.21117743849754333,
0.1465235948562622,
0.16821393370628357,
-0.5758630633354187,
-0.3138570785522461,
-0.01165110431611538,
0.018558979034423828,
-0.1021646112203598,
-0.14909933507442474,
0.22313061356544495,
0.042245104908943176,
-0.26869553327560425,
0.1514933705329895,
0.7283468842506409,
-0.09440996497869492,
0.341823548078537,
-0.08033329248428345,
-0.3895283341407776,
0.840598464012146,
-0.37439703941345215,
0.33039501309394836,
0.20295318961143494,
0.19225263595581055,
0.30015772581100464,
-0.5836312174797058,
-0.05512157827615738,
-0.6736846566200256,
-0.05201530456542969,
-0.344991534948349,
0.17940601706504822,
0.4065021276473999,
0.9240100979804993,
-0.08919256925582886,
0.644644558429718,
0.47232016921043396,
-0.3223210871219635,
0.15257252752780914,
0.6008293628692627,
0.14295855164527893,
-0.43065914511680603,
0.8710660338401794,
0.5500603318214417,
0.008453287184238434,
0.24771706759929657,
-0.0381661057472229,
-0.7217541337013245,
-0.45249274373054504,
-0.1354103982448578,
-0.2613312304019928,
0.17529389262199402,
0.19889625906944275,
0.1467878371477127,
-0.23111476004123688,
0.17253996431827545,
0.2548879384994507,
0.34227555990219116,
-0.24475914239883423,
-0.2943620979785919,
-0.3670952618122101,
-0.4432685673236847,
-0.08510387688875198,
-0.2600131332874298,
-0.29457175731658936,
-0.2735886573791504,
-0.21139070391654968,
0.05096863582730293,
0.1692264974117279,
0.6018987894058228,
-0.16564473509788513,
-0.12510262429714203,
-0.17344826459884644,
-0.019993269816040993,
0.19710353016853333,
0.13438230752944946,
0.3428514897823334,
0.508864164352417,
-0.6614692807197571,
-0.27166688442230225,
-0.09120690077543259,
0.0648878738284111,
-0.10961628705263138,
-0.13590684533119202,
-0.5053514838218689,
-0.23865407705307007,
-0.12535075843334198,
-1.2237664461135864,
-0.24698807299137115,
0.14231126010417938,
-0.1699315905570984,
-0.4574100375175476,
-0.32985207438468933,
0.001831814763136208,
0.3460436463356018,
-0.05224056541919708,
-0.9895235896110535,
-0.012646685354411602,
-0.16400636732578278,
0.03972255066037178,
0.347269743680954,
0.6241226196289062,
-0.0000034154957120335894,
-0.010321758687496185,
-0.5945793986320496,
-0.06337227672338486,
-0.28076231479644775,
-0.2680204212665558,
0.9052721858024597,
0.415694922208786,
-0.36902207136154175,
-0.08421066403388977,
0.3900158405303955,
-0.5206595659255981,
0.5047197937965393,
0.3140915036201477,
0.595703661441803,
0.10560686886310577,
0.10106923431158066,
-0.13825233280658722,
0.26416611671447754,
-0.018316878005862236,
0.32517462968826294,
-0.6939871907234192,
-0.008740611374378204,
0.01231097150593996,
-0.4063606858253479,
-0.31655988097190857,
-0.41784143447875977,
0.3480772376060486,
-0.6852902770042419,
0.21252398192882538,
-0.13253359496593475,
-0.27452734112739563,
0.23970985412597656,
0.02566102333366871,
0.10879010707139969,
-0.30962422490119934,
-0.17745237052440643,
0.4030459225177765,
-0.3612780272960663,
-0.1452612280845642,
-0.2213265299797058,
-0.3482118248939514,
-0.3999226689338684,
0.3355661630630493,
-0.29526495933532715,
-0.20348751544952393,
0.22630783915519714,
-0.174919992685318,
-0.15927597880363464,
-0.16401849687099457,
-0.9678092002868652,
0.9893657565116882,
0.31637120246887207,
0.4176952838897705,
-0.33525770902633667,
-0.24282369017601013,
0.7835513353347778,
-0.1056378185749054,
-0.33622241020202637,
-0.12383359670639038,
0.1603962630033493,
-0.5475125312805176,
-0.07229623943567276,
0.47681933641433716,
0.2443731278181076,
-0.10472232848405838,
-0.005999960470944643,
-0.24485211074352264,
-0.2526297867298126,
0.38375023007392883,
-0.7554683089256287,
-0.5844468474388123,
0.5107256174087524,
0.18935059010982513,
0.19149154424667358,
-0.5930737853050232,
0.17663002014160156,
0.6809607744216919,
-0.2568131387233734,
-0.5111825466156006,
-0.3870447874069214,
-0.01998484507203102,
0.9265145063400269,
0.16634489595890045,
-0.4283842444419861,
-1.0765916109085083,
0.0018937333952635527,
0.4041469693183899,
-0.47126173973083496,
-0.2195056527853012,
-0.3263844847679138,
-0.30431056022644043,
-0.2927778959274292,
-0.32535848021507263,
0.05664987489581108,
0.9512109756469727,
0.7370915412902832,
0.5127137303352356,
0.014696208760142326,
-0.11556397378444672,
-0.53360915184021,
-0.2514425814151764,
-0.23964382708072662,
-0.7704986929893494,
-0.3638899028301239,
-0.22786356508731842,
-0.524959146976471,
-0.3155491352081299,
0.03781075403094292,
0.42047685384750366,
-0.2513810694217682,
-0.38499006628990173,
-0.21413470804691315,
-0.1891176700592041,
-0.03728344291448593,
0.3639347553253174,
-0.037779487669467926,
-0.08050298690795898,
-0.46267348527908325,
0.5655437707901001,
-0.14877265691757202,
-0.029648274183273315,
-0.22574007511138916,
-0.9531553387641907,
0.5597788691520691,
-0.1398843377828598,
-0.7297079563140869,
0.4718601405620575,
-0.45001548528671265,
0.16053666174411774,
0.050518978387117386,
-0.412841260433197,
0.07911045849323273,
0.09810624271631241,
-0.011178514920175076,
-0.19803807139396667,
0.33293426036834717,
-0.4546142518520355,
0.3779771625995636,
0.9380922317504883,
-0.017679033800959587,
0.35521167516708374,
0.15017922222614288,
0.5424712300300598,
-0.11140026897192001,
0.0889672115445137,
0.1400790810585022,
-0.2810699939727783,
0.21634702384471893,
-0.08571835607290268,
0.08641266077756882,
0.9277639985084534,
-0.12242485582828522,
1.0539705753326416,
0.18386933207511902,
-0.3098648488521576,
0.44267377257347107,
0.18352903425693512,
-0.4332537353038788,
-0.12959952652454376,
-0.269316166639328,
-0.3536558747291565,
0.10726802796125412,
0.950858473777771,
0.2506586015224457,
0.2135561853647232,
0.3225078284740448,
-0.4153275191783905,
0.0018728714203462005,
0.6477361917495728,
0.20323766767978668,
-0.42413073778152466,
0.10393818467855453,
0.29772594571113586,
0.18547743558883667,
0.4418216645717621,
-0.834166944026947,
0.5673480033874512,
-0.3141161799430847,
0.24253526329994202,
-0.1720619946718216,
-0.5025548934936523,
-0.31132733821868896,
0.421040415763855,
0.6281512975692749,
0.11463801562786102,
0.015083227306604385,
0.1763855665922165,
-0.3175624907016754,
0.26785823702812195,
0.07425243407487869,
-0.6863824129104614,
0.16751272976398468,
0.09209763258695602,
0.044333603233098984,
-0.4141683876514435,
0.8676559925079346,
0.1900203675031662,
-0.08109436184167862,
0.8689746260643005,
0.1742090880870819,
0.16989681124687195,
-0.25794702768325806,
0.011434318497776985,
0.5187010169029236,
-0.961881160736084,
-0.04613998904824257,
0.1526847779750824,
-0.14903056621551514,
0.35591161251068115,
0.6270484924316406,
-0.5572280287742615,
-0.009761636145412922,
0.04231151193380356,
-0.2532956004142761,
0.056956030428409576,
0.17038291692733765,
0.3433660864830017,
-0.2920243442058563,
0.22812722623348236,
0.6212186813354492,
0.10780259966850281,
0.2891160249710083,
0.37303870916366577,
0.009689942933619022,
0.12151850014925003,
0.23584125936031342,
-0.795152485370636,
0.024054134264588356,
-0.2144349068403244,
-0.12915271520614624,
-0.7458910942077637,
0.489187628030777,
0.766727089881897,
0.1170010194182396,
-0.1957646757364273,
0.06411560624837875,
0.04206794127821922,
-0.6540220975875854,
0.8992540836334229,
-0.4474746882915497,
0.4039883315563202,
-0.8431398868560791,
0.24905362725257874,
-0.2580071687698364,
0.16511547565460205,
0.7453254461288452,
-0.5942201018333435,
0.2030867338180542,
0.7539830803871155,
-0.009914597496390343,
-0.23165775835514069,
0.269351065158844,
-0.2646154761314392,
-0.005599604919552803,
-0.46592336893081665,
0.41065260767936707,
-0.09864555299282074,
-0.6112651228904724,
-0.03177623823285103,
0.2994807958602905,
0.5423718094825745,
-0.10259708762168884,
0.45473918318748474,
-0.33301877975463867,
-0.2966473400592804,
-0.3415938913822174,
-0.23623274266719818,
0.37875571846961975,
-0.30116066336631775,
0.2829504609107971,
-0.05559448525309563,
0.5694289803504944,
0.21065568923950195,
-0.08389757573604584,
0.32256028056144714,
0.32101303339004517,
-0.34798556566238403,
-0.24556799232959747,
-0.16142435371875763,
-0.14366307854652405,
-0.37711864709854126,
0.22266463935375214
] |
234787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshikazu | Ashikaga Yoshikazu | was the 5th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1423 to 1425 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshikazu was the son of the fourth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi.
Yoshimochi ceded power to his son, and Yoshikazu became Sei-i Taishōgun at age 18;
1423 – Yoshikazu appointed shōgun.
1424 – Go-Kameyama dies.
1425 – Yoshikazu dies; Yoshimochi resumes the responsibilities of office.
1428 – Yoshimochi dies; Shōkō dies; Go-Hanazono ascends throne in second repudiation of agreement.
Yoshimochi was succeeded by his uncle, the sixth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshinori, in 1429.
Era of Yoshikazu's bakufu
The years in which Yoshikazu was shōgun are encompassed within a single era name or nengō.
Ōei (1394–1428)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce I. (1982) Lessons from History: the Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
De Benneville, James S. (1915) Tales of the Samurai: Oguri Hangan ichidaiki, being the story of the lives, the adventures, and the misadventures of the Hangwan-dai Kojirō Sukeshige and Terute-hime, his wife.. Yokohama: The Fukuin Printing Co. OCLC 45027056
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
See also
East Asian age reckoning
1407 births
1425 deaths
15th-century shōguns
Yoshikazu
Yoshikazu | [
-0.6727978587150574,
-0.010811728425323963,
-0.3377301096916199,
0.4433382451534271,
-0.9697483777999878,
0.7056869268417358,
0.6902176141738892,
-0.057604216039180756,
-0.6762835383415222,
-0.4043107330799103,
0.18536224961280823,
0.13017874956130981,
-0.1575283259153366,
0.19356948137283325,
-0.47407087683677673,
-0.12185230106115341,
0.6322616934776306,
-0.017930226400494576,
-0.21456405520439148,
-0.28305086493492126,
-0.33099621534347534,
-0.2496362328529358,
-0.15230996906757355,
-0.08193782716989517,
0.6684916019439697,
0.08425761014223099,
0.5953119397163391,
0.4741964042186737,
0.14213615655899048,
-0.32380619645118713,
0.2140219509601593,
0.14662715792655945,
0.2683583199977875,
-0.4073130488395691,
-0.6527849435806274,
-0.28903090953826904,
-0.25987836718559265,
0.2335556149482727,
-0.2936921715736389,
0.05473867803812027,
-0.2501070201396942,
0.08530235290527344,
0.41064563393592834,
0.37518343329429626,
0.27966898679733276,
-0.41205012798309326,
-1.745576024055481,
0.10675326734781265,
0.13780933618545532,
-0.34268832206726074,
-0.16949458420276642,
0.7348951697349548,
-0.4802871346473694,
0.1368296593427658,
-0.19632527232170105,
0.771968424320221,
-0.2353963851928711,
-0.7165350914001465,
-0.8178648948669434,
-0.38980239629745483,
0.3761191666126251,
-0.2201925665140152,
0.5424580574035645,
0.1528756320476532,
-0.051151473075151443,
-0.2386355847120285,
0.22526271641254425,
0.10213002562522888,
0.32872673869132996,
0.2821694016456604,
0.09674910455942154,
0.8821471333503723,
0.05620681494474411,
0.41875162720680237,
0.13088944554328918,
-0.6190193891525269,
0.19555845856666565,
0.3524763584136963,
0.5863705277442932,
-0.10767867416143417,
-0.35672727227211,
-0.9068096876144409,
0.3248296082019806,
0.18862292170524597,
0.38103359937667847,
-0.10642757266759872,
0.13410235941410065,
0.4023982286453247,
-0.8180772662162781,
0.15576834976673126,
-0.16264180839061737,
0.4369162917137146,
0.5934026837348938,
0.17854228615760803,
-0.37548136711120605,
-0.24820533394813538,
-0.23584651947021484,
0.2889028787612915,
-0.4256555438041687,
-0.25637003779411316,
0.010978811420500278,
0.21509285271167755,
-0.010790369473397732,
-0.19595536589622498,
-0.9237651824951172,
-0.6036708354949951,
-0.07739446312189102,
-0.08033917844295502,
-1.11195969581604,
0.18430845439434052,
-0.30110135674476624,
0.6102456450462341,
0.007916772738099098,
-0.17897960543632507,
-0.032925304025411606,
0.2814030647277832,
-0.0004530682344920933,
-0.3248312473297119,
0.2734779417514801,
-0.06832420825958252,
-0.06321434676647186,
0.19906717538833618,
-0.2751707136631012,
0.32802125811576843,
-0.11467351764440536,
0.08740811794996262,
-0.16343902051448822,
-0.6752157807350159,
-0.1756763458251953,
-0.5329827070236206,
0.6394374370574951,
1.1629397869110107,
-0.6038726568222046,
0.3740708827972412,
0.036081504076719284,
-0.024376818910241127,
0.19503909349441528,
-0.06222888454794884,
-0.4391542971134186,
-0.5443152189254761,
-0.8162401914596558,
-0.24424779415130615,
-0.7647607326507568,
0.22225356101989746,
0.07964558154344559,
0.7378987073898315,
-0.1449812799692154,
-0.5120554566383362,
-0.782489538192749,
-0.37461957335472107,
-0.5845440030097961,
0.5292407274246216,
-0.5349001288414001,
-0.2995985448360443,
-0.10786644369363785,
0.17424944043159485,
0.11413492262363434,
-0.5227764844894409,
0.1140187457203865,
0.23063211143016815,
-0.27143147587776184,
0.02424781583249569,
-0.24840475618839264,
0.12164530158042908,
0.3793082535266876,
-0.6175212860107422,
0.22685331106185913,
0.1833381950855255,
-0.4791255593299866,
-0.3963976502418518,
-0.42218565940856934,
-0.22800292074680328,
-0.43275362253189087,
-0.7585384249687195,
0.9366292357444763,
0.17864324152469635,
1.0402320623397827,
-0.361696720123291,
0.04233243316411972,
-0.31169891357421875,
-0.667685866355896,
-0.29770174622535706,
0.24024614691734314,
0.024718254804611206,
0.49742600321769714,
0.5099685192108154,
0.12460925430059433,
0.2068958580493927,
0.847251296043396,
-0.2654510736465454,
-0.29812052845954895,
-0.21473638713359833,
0.4834708869457245,
-0.32240405678749084,
0.8883680105209351,
0.5071735382080078,
-0.22556042671203613,
-0.13955068588256836,
-0.1223287582397461,
1.0225178003311157,
0.1536274552345276,
-0.3578929007053375,
0.39285025000572205,
0.2533116042613983,
0.23249301314353943,
-0.08383509516716003,
-0.4179064631462097,
0.04057840630412102,
0.5955432057380676,
1.1029963493347168,
-0.10833459347486496,
0.1641799956560135,
-0.4418638050556183,
-0.11535725742578506,
-0.010027281008660793,
0.30236688256263733,
-0.2530979812145233,
-0.1875864416360855,
0.1583973914384842,
-0.39800330996513367,
0.960033655166626,
0.062177520245313644,
-0.7112561464309692,
0.566546618938446,
-0.013628802262246609,
1.3678207397460938,
-0.22817254066467285,
0.5156609416007996,
-0.22178097069263458,
-1.0172449350357056,
-0.12448837608098984,
0.13930252194404602,
-0.02825109101831913,
0.26133543252944946,
-0.16444174945354462,
0.4128788411617279,
0.3117321729660034,
-0.006560685578733683,
-0.07352679967880249,
-0.3513326942920685,
0.36507874727249146,
-0.025355903431773186,
0.005921607371419668,
0.24004562199115753,
0.3118221163749695,
0.3991405963897705,
-0.28036022186279297,
0.14724209904670715,
-0.9009628891944885,
-0.4194613993167877,
0.42075905203819275,
0.1232842430472374,
0.38284870982170105,
-0.1970062106847763,
-0.1772386133670807,
-0.7727809548377991,
0.03942467272281647,
-0.3753100037574768,
-0.6662541031837463,
0.14754006266593933,
0.16309700906276703,
0.3558568060398102,
0.3045242130756378,
0.14868882298469543,
0.3858832120895386,
-0.051228150725364685,
0.4214286804199219,
0.2777039408683777,
0.09918512403964996,
-0.013607824221253395,
-0.06372971087694168,
-0.42047935724258423,
-0.2687143385410309,
-0.410836398601532,
-0.01201919186860323,
-0.9326962232589722,
-0.4971431791782379,
0.6709147095680237,
0.25127890706062317,
-0.7768116593360901,
0.4651757478713989,
0.44730687141418457,
-0.6629138588905334,
-0.3353961706161499,
-0.27574655413627625,
-0.503510594367981,
-0.9284178614616394,
-0.5840610265731812,
-0.07321301847696304,
-0.4521027207374573,
0.11073701828718185,
0.6517064571380615,
-0.3247756063938141,
-0.14616379141807556,
-0.28918397426605225,
1.2028629779815674,
-0.744256854057312,
-0.15691664814949036,
0.6515215635299683,
-0.3097434639930725,
-0.9893578886985779,
-0.6894314885139465,
0.8235501050949097,
0.09079989045858383,
0.7294886112213135,
0.3584182560443878,
0.1452769786119461,
0.10912667214870453,
-5.28477668762207,
0.1873595118522644,
0.054428212344646454,
0.07695581763982773,
-0.06602887809276581,
0.46321049332618713,
0.44732430577278137,
0.06728173792362213,
0.7402107119560242,
-0.3827773630619049,
0.0834091454744339,
0.3212217390537262,
-0.007564913015812635,
0.31126081943511963,
0.15726515650749207,
0.31653597950935364,
0.5583351254463196,
0.08629479259252548,
0.20005889236927032,
0.13511447608470917,
-0.01867687702178955,
-0.15953373908996582,
-0.17800571024417877,
1.1191015243530273,
0.7251816391944885,
0.3655875623226166,
-0.7636184692382812,
-0.1689123809337616,
-0.7629244923591614,
-0.04035504162311554,
0.015269781462848186,
-0.2375861257314682,
-0.09563597291707993,
0.39727938175201416,
-0.4350181519985199,
-0.35431164503097534,
0.5135807991027832,
0.43849945068359375,
0.3239605724811554,
0.36960867047309875,
-0.10039462149143219,
-0.25860756635665894,
-1.1422932147979736,
0.6803699135780334,
0.20318087935447693,
-0.6660672426223755,
-0.5765835046768188,
0.35597145557403564,
-0.23429784178733826,
0.47846561670303345,
0.14525142312049866,
-0.10006929188966751,
0.44055089354515076,
-0.27594518661499023,
0.5052377581596375,
0.17693322896957397,
-0.05575364828109741,
0.28629884123802185,
-0.3224085867404938,
0.08479265868663788,
0.4794352352619171,
-0.35469505190849304,
-0.004349266644567251,
-0.4069608449935913,
0.4821150600910187,
-0.2868826389312744,
0.2688221037387848,
-0.15011367201805115,
-0.27688780426979065,
0.22791023552417755,
-0.8954914808273315,
0.7775316834449768,
0.03918721154332161,
-0.9785879254341125,
0.42936205863952637,
-0.031313084065914154,
-0.32841768860816956,
0.5908849239349365,
0.011549984104931355,
-0.03684450685977936,
-0.20143835246562958,
-0.1849886178970337,
0.06247113645076752,
0.6817107200622559,
0.05116955563426018,
0.5938326716423035,
0.20392997562885284,
0.12729933857917786,
0.14283861219882965,
0.6704641580581665,
0.537693440914154,
-0.6310430765151978,
-0.21244172751903534,
0.003126557217910886,
0.5255587697029114,
-0.1799042820930481,
-0.48034074902534485,
0.26498356461524963,
0.36891329288482666,
-0.02722732350230217,
0.20491144061088562,
0.38579192757606506,
-1.0254273414611816,
-0.0427972637116909,
-0.18715468049049377,
-0.28361067175865173,
-0.06756763905286789,
0.2728540301322937,
0.561897873878479,
0.9771644473075867,
0.14209723472595215,
-0.34352540969848633,
-0.6498144268989563,
-0.4597998261451721,
0.6497017741203308,
-0.17496350407600403,
0.1579822599887848,
0.29550281167030334,
0.44794145226478577,
-0.022898266091942787,
0.05275983363389969,
0.6800524592399597,
-0.527380645275116,
-0.3093591630458832,
0.5847155451774597,
0.478691428899765,
-0.22252172231674194,
0.42257994413375854,
-0.13023856282234192,
-0.17136786878108978,
0.3820357322692871,
0.20503510534763336,
-0.15074050426483154,
0.17124128341674805,
0.12966471910476685,
-0.6685850620269775,
-0.3088447153568268,
-1.0366837978363037,
0.2176973670721054,
0.010499470867216587,
-0.5745016932487488,
-0.039155036211013794,
-0.4897916316986084,
0.3269733786582947,
-0.4967018961906433,
0.4483552575111389,
-0.09717584401369095,
-0.06735558062791824,
0.2453969419002533,
0.46421676874160767,
-0.21814791858196259,
-0.9856923222541809,
0.24961785972118378,
-0.18916496634483337,
-0.3454495966434479,
0.10268302261829376,
-0.5510457754135132,
-0.2388734668493271,
-0.3657597005367279,
0.12087033689022064,
-0.0554644837975502,
0.05588436499238014,
-0.668820321559906,
-0.5256256461143494,
-0.2266303300857544,
-0.17727963626384735,
-0.21717259287834167,
-0.07878969609737396,
-0.18997138738632202,
0.2814798057079315,
0.40625327825546265,
-0.7109901905059814,
-0.21706967055797577,
-0.14356228709220886,
0.7990302443504333,
0.11916462332010269,
0.5383874177932739,
0.5925734639167786,
-0.5032002329826355,
-0.49438366293907166,
0.1575193852186203,
0.19097638130187988,
-0.44400402903556824,
0.39201948046684265,
-0.06671236455440521,
-0.48115110397338867,
-0.5283104181289673,
-1.1405280828475952,
-0.46774473786354065,
-0.16971084475517273,
-0.5197328925132751,
-0.07194722443819046,
0.03829851374030113,
0.4012642204761505,
-0.2547987699508667,
-0.4514431953430176,
0.32902729511260986,
0.26405206322669983,
0.39610713720321655,
0.028167201206088066,
-0.43582192063331604,
0.3859643042087555,
-0.4395691752433777,
-0.09683714061975479,
0.06973155587911606,
-0.6330941915512085,
0.5650158524513245,
0.544280469417572,
0.7942935228347778,
-0.025024330243468285,
-0.12701605260372162,
-0.8153812289237976,
-0.25758498907089233,
0.13728168606758118,
0.26425573229789734,
-0.015648316591978073,
0.019433649256825447,
0.30667710304260254,
-0.03988229110836983,
-0.9683713912963867,
-0.3075564503669739,
0.16436612606048584,
-0.49374398589134216,
-0.6228818893432617,
-0.3694656491279602,
0.7310407161712646,
0.5692293643951416,
0.511245846748352,
-0.17897363007068634,
-0.15628036856651306,
-0.31802070140838623,
0.004759612027555704,
0.17992761731147766,
0.18674835562705994,
-0.6441827416419983,
-0.14156419038772583,
0.20344866812229156,
-0.24933402240276337,
0.511188805103302,
0.3294665515422821,
0.08734934031963348,
1.1131696701049805,
0.446541428565979,
0.40264803171157837,
0.4591045081615448,
0.18281446397304535,
-0.1214180588722229,
-0.13041095435619354,
0.40723249316215515,
0.3570883274078369,
0.25303977727890015,
-0.4742836356163025,
-0.2997469902038574,
-0.04451509192585945,
0.7909894585609436,
-0.6519410014152527,
0.016104305163025856,
0.297538161277771,
-0.43192991614341736,
0.058443740010261536,
0.006448226515203714,
0.5440303087234497,
0.20939527451992035,
-0.04608253762125969,
0.30075234174728394,
0.308915913105011,
-0.30103665590286255,
0.09913147240877151,
0.025428621098399162,
-0.9490966796875,
-0.6158051490783691,
-0.3028604984283447,
-0.2552309036254883,
0.9535294771194458,
0.47215646505355835,
0.4814787209033966,
-0.6482592225074768,
0.06888922303915024,
0.039457399398088455,
0.20640936493873596,
-0.9034530520439148,
-0.3791044056415558,
-0.2630421221256256,
-0.5020250678062439,
-0.7031943202018738,
-0.8190550208091736,
0.0020651747472584248,
0.33226266503334045,
0.1768563985824585,
0.13898608088493347,
-0.6963675618171692,
-0.39567282795906067,
0.34265607595443726,
0.036004096269607544,
-0.312518447637558,
0.4604117274284363,
-0.4734143912792206,
0.09191060811281204,
-0.04289229214191437,
0.21184593439102173,
-0.17460282146930695,
0.2677396237850189,
0.3003831207752228,
0.9561597108840942,
0.05917637050151825,
-0.11133204400539398,
-0.42823636531829834,
-0.102132648229599,
-0.10503923892974854,
0.5228815078735352,
0.2689971923828125,
-0.2041151374578476,
0.4390016794204712,
-0.022867394611239433,
-0.8033521175384521,
-0.11675436049699783,
-0.28513768315315247,
0.02582264132797718,
0.015492911450564861,
-1.0158268213272095,
0.6530541181564331,
0.13300417363643646,
-0.49393945932388306,
0.30333179235458374,
0.7835384607315063,
-0.21573741734027863,
-0.24463413655757904,
0.24150653183460236,
-0.01848161593079567,
0.5277272462844849,
-0.01580967754125595,
-0.05135753005743027,
-0.5850828289985657,
0.892718493938446,
-0.09577424079179764,
0.5775571465492249,
0.008043183945119381,
-0.6511306762695312,
0.35401609539985657,
0.36958810687065125,
0.7358072400093079,
0.5568506717681885,
-0.8764621615409851,
0.047935258597135544,
-0.056458860635757446,
0.3747284710407257,
-0.12191307544708252,
0.10510551184415817,
0.2759047746658325,
0.46321919560432434,
0.5313052535057068,
0.39012688398361206,
0.497100830078125,
-0.37363201379776,
-0.086495041847229,
0.48554545640945435,
0.7046108841896057,
0.16362272202968597,
-0.2317304015159607,
-0.3908241093158722,
-0.31271058320999146,
-0.4467081129550934,
0.5573067665100098,
-0.06125105172395706,
0.00889753457158804,
0.6338702440261841,
-0.2629412114620209,
-0.42089906334877014,
0.008007415570318699,
0.21810995042324066,
-0.13964912295341492,
-0.48703235387802124,
0.07511911541223526,
0.03418448939919472,
0.4139915406703949,
0.9375797510147095,
0.24089685082435608,
-0.23194894194602966,
-0.17420069873332977,
-0.15548813343048096,
-0.48141899704933167,
0.383342981338501,
0.14110435545444489,
-0.6444061994552612,
0.2290177196264267,
0.7375527620315552,
0.00014373919111676514,
0.30383923649787903,
-0.688817024230957,
-0.3174911439418793,
-0.36125463247299194,
-0.46309223771095276,
-0.2552584409713745,
0.8781367540359497,
-0.1686089187860489,
0.09754617512226105,
0.09308376163244247,
0.5815696716308594,
0.5592389106750488,
0.1654045432806015,
-0.26863545179367065,
-0.28785786032676697,
-0.02910766378045082,
0.12932716310024261,
-0.011331508867442608,
0.6572486162185669,
-0.49482646584510803,
-0.2601948082447052,
-0.35779571533203125,
0.17454643547534943,
0.2583200931549072,
0.45100265741348267,
-0.2760329842567444,
0.27907267212867737,
-0.8014042973518372,
-0.13925109803676605,
1.0892043113708496,
-0.7475525140762329,
0.17945371568202972,
-0.2054654061794281,
0.1486888825893402,
-0.19871094822883606,
-0.006912382785230875,
0.2540147602558136,
-0.03898505121469498,
-0.34007716178894043,
0.5448379516601562,
0.24342532455921173,
-0.18316961824893951,
0.6245920062065125,
-0.22488771378993988,
-1.0489579439163208,
-0.18625636398792267,
-0.3573893904685974,
-0.14365802705287933,
-0.3483904302120209,
1.197425127029419,
0.6304664611816406,
0.5797742009162903,
-0.533244788646698,
0.1061062440276146,
-0.0015314362244680524,
0.6533325910568237,
-0.1899840086698532,
0.03204730525612831,
-0.3203096091747284,
0.044031091034412384,
-0.5667637586593628,
-0.4869905412197113,
0.06458749622106552,
0.7732548713684082,
-0.10358984023332596,
0.6813539266586304,
-0.6678822040557861,
0.1700408160686493,
-0.0694928914308548,
0.0805516391992569,
-0.4726363718509674,
0.16259285807609558,
0.0192292258143425
] |
234788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games%20started | Games started | In baseball statistics, games started (denoted by GS) indicates the number of games that a pitcher has started for his team. A pitcher is credited with starting the game if he throws the first pitch to the first opposing batter. If a player is listed in the starting lineup as the team's pitcher, but is replaced before facing an opposing batter, the player is credited with a game pitched but not a game started; there have been instances in major league history in which a starting pitcher was removed before his first pitch due to an injury, perhaps suffered while batting or running the bases during the top half of the first inning.
The all-time leader for games started is Cy Young with 815 over a 22-year career. The players with the most starts in a single season are Pud Galvin and Will White, each with 75 games started.
For position players, games started is also used to denote the number of times their names appear in a team's starting lineup during the season.
See also
List of Major League Baseball leaders in games started
List of Major League Baseball leaders in games finished
Complete game
Shutouts in baseball
References
Pitching statistics | [
-0.7814027070999146,
-0.30813971161842346,
-0.4652746021747589,
0.34625405073165894,
-0.43685969710350037,
-0.1366700828075409,
0.0013495803577825427,
0.3736817240715027,
-1.1161394119262695,
-0.7583374977111816,
-0.05054599791765213,
0.44101977348327637,
0.4377923607826233,
0.32118627429008484,
0.007550674024969339,
0.6485868692398071,
-0.04653856158256531,
0.2823109030723572,
-0.4449121356010437,
-0.08169572800397873,
-0.07717381417751312,
-0.3111801743507385,
0.1354602873325348,
-0.6996117234230042,
0.049226075410842896,
-0.08859381824731827,
-0.7077077627182007,
0.021882690489292145,
-0.1681821346282959,
-0.14586488902568817,
-0.26556825637817383,
-0.48994672298431396,
0.3299299478530884,
0.10831288248300552,
-0.33661842346191406,
-0.2857000529766083,
0.06754644960165024,
-0.16338405013084412,
-0.1636427640914917,
-0.6918036937713623,
-0.2897395193576813,
-0.8413260579109192,
-0.07422152161598206,
-0.08218228816986084,
0.09450175613164902,
0.3422183692455292,
-0.7560276389122009,
-0.2810448408126831,
-0.2231147140264511,
-0.25894054770469666,
0.10410840064287186,
-0.15840116143226624,
0.6125913262367249,
-0.12963174283504486,
0.13686129450798035,
0.14698445796966553,
-0.12857870757579803,
0.21850080788135529,
-0.343834787607193,
-0.259259968996048,
0.24762213230133057,
-0.31136125326156616,
-0.018573246896266937,
-0.6087351441383362,
0.7551645040512085,
0.44916772842407227,
0.07589255273342133,
0.7187398076057434,
0.2551121115684509,
-0.1639416366815567,
0.14044371247291565,
-0.8608701825141907,
-0.033260930329561234,
0.28445693850517273,
0.16141538321971893,
-0.5194403529167175,
-0.5966309309005737,
-0.19043299555778503,
0.06681419163942337,
-0.24662651121616364,
-0.48882967233657837,
-0.2123984545469284,
0.290222704410553,
-0.5597100257873535,
0.7810476422309875,
0.05905691534280777,
-0.05138527974486351,
-0.47906485199928284,
-0.07262081652879715,
0.9765016436576843,
0.8895713686943054,
-0.3356219232082367,
0.7108412384986877,
-0.4638860523700714,
-0.4326328933238983,
-0.27718913555145264,
0.353353887796402,
0.6035850644111633,
0.34026092290878296,
-0.26690423488616943,
0.1768823117017746,
0.07267992198467255,
0.06431562453508377,
0.3018985986709595,
0.08273676782846451,
-0.23148661851882935,
0.8694574236869812,
-0.03854656219482422,
-0.42882707715034485,
-0.4650699198246002,
-0.13758927583694458,
-0.0745684802532196,
-0.09932880848646164,
0.4763554334640503,
-0.582062840461731,
-0.09372290223836899,
0.5720986723899841,
-0.07766111940145493,
0.11662420630455017,
0.18933528661727905,
-0.042625490576028824,
0.31779029965400696,
0.7010776996612549,
-0.17865385115146637,
-0.40361469984054565,
0.607617199420929,
0.3546113669872284,
0.700856626033783,
0.4746477007865906,
-0.45258620381355286,
-0.31804391741752625,
0.9622785449028015,
-0.13242517411708832,
0.3494901657104492,
0.31587642431259155,
0.16228319704532623,
0.22035658359527588,
0.28556111454963684,
-0.2061932384967804,
-0.2988995909690857,
-0.6146601438522339,
-0.3512398898601532,
0.4027555584907532,
-0.5492225289344788,
-0.22456619143486023,
-0.054906051605939865,
0.017173323780298233,
-0.4244486093521118,
-0.17663250863552094,
0.30252522230148315,
0.30911606550216675,
-0.15235772728919983,
-0.4697452485561371,
-0.03111984208226204,
-0.624944806098938,
0.5643240809440613,
-0.05705048143863678,
-0.6321306824684143,
-0.05712052807211876,
0.46428295969963074,
0.15690332651138306,
0.14158274233341217,
0.10337242484092712,
0.44845473766326904,
-0.023972315713763237,
0.19567184150218964,
0.1356050819158554,
-0.2578624486923218,
0.22274526953697205,
-0.3007715046405792,
0.10471140593290329,
0.21367968618869781,
0.15785838663578033,
0.3738363981246948,
0.20296894013881683,
-0.33605843782424927,
0.7995789051055908,
0.35625705122947693,
0.3978365659713745,
0.03435166925191879,
-0.48852667212486267,
0.07810702174901962,
-0.22175942361354828,
0.0022891052067279816,
0.9620868563652039,
0.1854981780052185,
0.033209048211574554,
0.0010624571004882455,
0.8094449639320374,
0.04909169673919678,
-0.08674481511116028,
0.1636016070842743,
-0.18762627243995667,
-0.23440387845039368,
0.3065342307090759,
-0.5414491891860962,
-0.2090110033750534,
0.18956616520881653,
0.7964410185813904,
-0.05099667236208916,
0.21775904297828674,
-0.38603681325912476,
0.046771857887506485,
0.18208976089954376,
-0.4269382953643799,
0.20401209592819214,
-0.13338863849639893,
0.2786175310611725,
-0.03491639718413353,
0.519185483455658,
-0.1162153035402298,
0.19799022376537323,
0.09902579337358475,
-0.0007883052458055317,
-0.36703649163246155,
-0.16302019357681274,
-0.27893906831741333,
-0.7674571871757507,
0.3104404807090759,
-0.385478675365448,
0.24303525686264038,
0.09361866861581802,
0.31503596901893616,
0.7735251784324646,
-0.7899078726768494,
0.4642537236213684,
-0.042258623987436295,
0.25993111729621887,
0.2303629219532013,
-1.4023677110671997,
0.7972899079322815,
-0.36012864112854004,
0.03932737186551094,
-0.45434287190437317,
-0.5044066309928894,
0.21518348157405853,
0.14011229574680328,
-0.11286266893148422,
-0.1384323537349701,
-0.10925412178039551,
0.0359945185482502,
0.356162428855896,
0.41239818930625916,
0.4267137348651886,
0.5061954259872437,
-0.31238293647766113,
0.4544718265533447,
0.17923177778720856,
-0.6485148668289185,
-0.6201415657997131,
0.15924377739429474,
-0.004951366689056158,
0.5745384693145752,
-0.08118192851543427,
-0.19484356045722961,
0.23136986792087555,
-0.5705903172492981,
0.04722478613257408,
-0.24798543751239777,
0.5357636213302612,
0.5126579999923706,
-0.23392896354198456,
0.09077653288841248,
0.11952616274356842,
-0.2848762571811676,
-0.14942221343517303,
-0.555457353591919,
-0.40766429901123047,
0.026055412366986275,
-0.6474077701568604,
-0.2588579058647156,
0.3628332316875458,
-0.030590644106268883,
-0.12206190824508667,
0.025197824463248253,
-0.2970364987850189,
0.3216301500797272,
-0.026958387345075607,
0.038816310465335846,
-0.37522414326667786,
0.4223509430885315,
0.055332429707050323,
-0.04968605190515518,
-0.38345634937286377,
-0.6269108057022095,
-0.8509485721588135,
0.10387947410345078,
-0.36740589141845703,
0.012460480444133282,
-0.30911993980407715,
-0.08423415571451187,
0.16572149097919464,
0.09996102005243301,
1.0394569635391235,
0.7144517302513123,
0.02645348757505417,
-0.10418155044317245,
0.27358555793762207,
0.5426537990570068,
0.12939207255840302,
-0.40217411518096924,
-0.43854111433029175,
-0.3108372986316681,
-0.30869975686073303,
-0.3850538730621338,
-0.31648802757263184,
-0.731537938117981,
0.22537550330162048,
-5.7122015953063965,
-0.20807300508022308,
-0.04555873945355415,
-0.1491679698228836,
0.04386022314429283,
-0.21998153626918793,
0.7972783446311951,
-0.6208037734031677,
-0.0613834410905838,
0.6576963663101196,
0.04323064908385277,
0.1720544695854187,
0.2368783801794052,
0.6996805667877197,
0.3960956931114197,
0.3439887762069702,
0.7563185691833496,
-0.40304794907569885,
-0.5185404419898987,
-0.12557171285152435,
-0.2345372438430786,
0.15739746391773224,
0.2013416439294815,
-0.31787121295928955,
0.0546887144446373,
1.2817120552062988,
0.015079395845532417,
0.3856585621833801,
-0.42261046171188354,
-0.028737952932715416,
0.13553623855113983,
-0.4054975211620331,
0.0515977144241333,
0.4976730942726135,
-0.37972018122673035,
0.14546552300453186,
0.41832825541496277,
-0.08355456590652466,
-0.38573312759399414,
-0.5939784646034241,
-0.011329550296068192,
0.052362844347953796,
-0.4901958703994751,
0.29279932379722595,
0.3574375510215759,
0.014441289007663727,
0.07142870873212814,
-0.39229026436805725,
-0.7955630421638489,
0.42924177646636963,
0.11059718579053879,
0.19416512548923492,
0.14763948321342468,
0.36508116126060486,
0.43242165446281433,
-0.3280574679374695,
0.021625632420182228,
-0.7251732349395752,
0.19674889743328094,
0.08771082013845444,
-0.05558454990386963,
-0.6435360312461853,
0.11446250975131989,
0.10646161437034607,
0.7322133779525757,
-0.499737948179245,
-0.32066142559051514,
-0.6021928787231445,
-0.026108037680387497,
0.6533476710319519,
-0.2182857096195221,
0.4522410035133362,
0.4089895784854889,
-0.7890051007270813,
0.08348562568426132,
-0.2685106098651886,
0.19210116565227509,
0.49544620513916016,
-0.36747220158576965,
0.074952632188797,
-0.27811384201049805,
-0.16141442954540253,
-0.29123276472091675,
0.2824785113334656,
0.3491060733795166,
0.15480108559131622,
0.03851144388318062,
-0.2627315819263458,
-0.14705286920070648,
0.3542010188102722,
0.9124288558959961,
-0.30415618419647217,
0.767716109752655,
-0.1329510658979416,
-0.40705326199531555,
0.6650269627571106,
0.15007011592388153,
0.4554450809955597,
0.14484886825084686,
-0.5095785856246948,
0.25583615899086,
-0.19298572838306427,
0.3362544775009155,
-0.6687862873077393,
-0.37405654788017273,
-0.14599661529064178,
-0.6869569420814514,
0.4537096917629242,
0.9814417958259583,
-0.30941417813301086,
0.3265593647956848,
-0.16587048768997192,
-0.6505886912345886,
-0.5297068953514099,
0.9454615712165833,
0.16282545030117035,
0.4099140763282776,
1.1114016771316528,
0.9358455538749695,
0.3146613538265228,
-0.06850666552782059,
-0.4030911922454834,
-0.03141835331916809,
-0.8028252124786377,
-0.8447792530059814,
0.06533186882734299,
0.009910196997225285,
0.1342136561870575,
0.1762741059064865,
-0.08418284356594086,
0.1753336489200592,
0.9031462669372559,
0.555184006690979,
0.3507673144340515,
-0.3597746193408966,
-0.26774248480796814,
-0.4995759129524231,
-0.013917790725827217,
0.18242141604423523,
-0.04498665779829025,
0.18709909915924072,
-0.03697595372796059,
0.021368499845266342,
0.1301814764738083,
0.27810925245285034,
0.29647427797317505,
0.2349763959646225,
-0.6218400001525879,
0.005296844057738781,
0.8132648468017578,
0.11180465668439865,
-0.606806218624115,
0.831056535243988,
-0.06763853132724762,
0.32521316409111023,
0.3319726288318634,
-0.20513492822647095,
-0.16086339950561523,
-0.6957797408103943,
-0.43569567799568176,
-0.3324684500694275,
-0.054639872163534164,
-0.9789506196975708,
-0.028344182297587395,
0.3843848407268524,
0.008459817618131638,
-0.3425425589084625,
-0.08822648972272873,
-0.005473659373819828,
0.50117027759552,
0.016623375937342644,
-0.8817980885505676,
-0.49507153034210205,
-0.2238868623971939,
-0.060852840542793274,
-0.21355701982975006,
0.08120308071374893,
0.20775581896305084,
0.41544944047927856,
-1.195585012435913,
0.22773073613643646,
-0.3112558424472809,
-0.31545165181159973,
0.43887341022491455,
0.5792058110237122,
0.2487305849790573,
-0.1250903159379959,
-0.05029186233878136,
-0.08878948539495468,
0.7791872024536133,
0.03786194697022438,
-0.19293785095214844,
0.24939888715744019,
-0.15686005353927612,
-0.041351813822984695,
-0.014819384552538395,
0.6741142868995667,
0.5557193160057068,
-0.6823723316192627,
-0.26803261041641235,
0.011713116429746151,
-0.3001675605773926,
-0.9112625122070312,
-0.6276570558547974,
1.1912578344345093,
-0.2992778718471527,
0.05733105167746544,
0.11702467501163483,
-0.21902242302894592,
0.7755032777786255,
0.5778088569641113,
-0.6141575574874878,
-0.7038137316703796,
0.07701476663351059,
1.138419270515442,
-0.09739594161510468,
-0.020159583538770676,
-0.10184290260076523,
0.24106238782405853,
-0.41765454411506653,
-0.19132108986377716,
0.2318992018699646,
-0.37776878476142883,
-0.3563995957374573,
0.18260686099529266,
-0.6693171262741089,
-0.2643335461616516,
-0.5353517532348633,
0.11633799225091934,
-0.44784319400787354,
-0.21909795701503754,
-0.1347864419221878,
0.22574427723884583,
0.03184224292635918,
0.12036546319723129,
-0.3530973196029663,
0.12628816068172455,
0.008781976997852325,
0.0005715217557735741,
0.01046968623995781,
-0.3031621277332306,
0.5193960666656494,
-0.23094922304153442,
-0.4654506742954254,
0.007800505496561527,
-0.05605041980743408,
-0.011368661187589169,
-0.46333861351013184,
-0.2539592981338501,
0.8292416930198669,
0.2788631021976471,
-0.5294533371925354,
-0.9444657564163208,
-0.10490943491458893,
0.6965715885162354,
-0.2446867823600769,
-0.5027410984039307,
-0.3741939961910248,
-0.45837295055389404,
0.18460199236869812,
-0.15902568399906158,
-0.030017254874110222,
0.32814499735832214,
0.2911837100982666,
-0.01453620009124279,
0.6066180467605591,
-0.20323343575000763,
0.09687931090593338,
-0.1357099413871765,
-0.09765390306711197,
-0.8167867064476013,
-0.16497349739074707,
0.39610886573791504,
0.5576284527778625,
0.312480092048645,
0.2704283893108368,
-0.22438444197177887,
0.2245507538318634,
-0.13383406400680542,
-0.05879544839262962,
-0.5184817910194397,
-0.0742676854133606,
-0.509928286075592,
0.1648084670305252,
0.2107723355293274,
-0.6822527050971985,
0.04553515464067459,
0.3255734443664551,
0.32149261236190796,
0.37427398562431335,
-0.07020945847034454,
0.3538477122783661,
-0.47830966114997864,
0.5844235420227051,
-0.061613038182258606,
0.003898023860529065,
0.4336686432361603,
0.522895336151123,
0.07357801496982574,
0.04297258332371712,
-0.2159080058336258,
1.002232551574707,
-0.707270085811615,
0.23145972192287445,
0.45536965131759644,
-0.007545608561486006,
0.14968517422676086,
-0.437972754240036,
-0.954403281211853,
-0.21669337153434753,
0.5835768580436707,
0.2675705850124359,
-0.03519771993160248,
0.14162012934684753,
-0.44495293498039246,
-0.2606310248374939,
0.24755261838436127,
-0.21948614716529846,
-0.26038047671318054,
0.38649633526802063,
0.08229930698871613,
-0.13368190824985504,
0.02191115729510784,
0.021292997524142265,
-0.5522994995117188,
0.7757427096366882,
-0.34212175011634827,
-0.6935998797416687,
0.6142811179161072,
0.36975499987602234,
0.1786511391401291,
-0.5925044417381287,
0.2145056277513504,
0.15571808815002441,
-0.013461151160299778,
-0.256637841463089,
0.08540681004524231,
-0.1757061928510666,
0.08031003177165985,
0.025781694799661636,
0.9286649823188782,
0.5803236365318298,
0.35583508014678955,
0.0019127258565276861,
-0.2856176793575287,
-0.053175874054431915,
-0.060766126960515976,
0.07998409122228622,
-0.42511940002441406,
0.017523394897580147,
0.04210413992404938,
0.3534019887447357,
0.3868301808834076,
0.0027371165342628956,
-0.017999792471528053,
-0.6786275506019592,
0.26182863116264343,
0.006605857517570257,
-0.1667758822441101,
-0.7714096903800964,
0.20780882239341736,
-0.15577875077724457,
0.427114874124527,
-0.09113005548715591,
0.33581170439720154,
-0.39225852489471436,
0.6381669044494629,
0.45512598752975464,
-0.33482012152671814,
0.12090550363063812,
-0.4947575628757477,
0.5840911865234375,
-0.32875025272369385,
-0.014561817049980164,
-0.09316044300794601,
-0.13527582585811615,
0.9123998284339905,
-0.3639240264892578,
0.02652621455490589,
-0.18941353261470795,
-0.41576024889945984,
0.1336010992527008,
-0.5195516347885132,
-0.27369797229766846,
-0.11533742398023605,
0.35086068511009216,
-0.33729538321495056,
0.33239614963531494,
-0.13916254043579102,
-0.17980743944644928,
0.2168925255537033,
-0.1894204467535019,
-0.1683194637298584,
-0.1287330985069275,
0.2975330650806427,
0.07427427172660828,
-0.03348841145634651,
0.4166938364505768,
0.830892026424408,
0.013546408154070377,
0.08921927958726883,
-0.47150474786758423,
0.3934687674045563,
-0.059843167662620544,
-0.5016008615493774,
0.02333749644458294,
-0.5633483529090881,
0.00762863177806139,
0.5791648626327515,
0.23849037289619446,
-0.14626997709274292,
0.1961396336555481,
-0.6090680360794067,
-0.3428342342376709,
-0.47841688990592957,
-0.0651492327451706,
0.7236058115959167,
-0.7834921479225159,
0.16807246208190918,
-0.6675710678100586,
0.278315931558609,
0.05604830011725426,
0.18337363004684448,
0.3767227530479431,
0.055171120911836624,
-0.10524734854698181,
0.43729734420776367,
-0.16092127561569214,
0.18712259829044342,
0.7026726603507996,
-0.08571084588766098,
-0.11744475364685059,
-0.46692416071891785,
0.5185102820396423,
-0.29479846358299255,
-0.32737332582473755,
0.38056766986846924,
0.5698727965354919,
0.8937698006629944,
-0.39915040135383606,
0.04148637875914574,
0.12107609957456589,
-0.4703841209411621,
0.06804309040307999,
-0.14598163962364197,
0.528704047203064,
-0.432861864566803,
0.06977255642414093,
-0.5946483612060547,
0.1177256628870964,
0.01201604213565588,
-0.15518690645694733,
0.10705194622278214,
0.46761584281921387,
-0.0370032973587513,
-0.3011317551136017,
-0.09624521434307098,
-0.11362230777740479,
-0.03818405419588089,
0.4799845814704895
] |
234791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshimochi | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | was the 4th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1394 to 1423 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshimochi was the son of the third shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
Mother: Fujiwara no Yoshiko (1358–1399)
Wife: Hino Eiko (1390–1431)
Concubines:
Tokudaiji Toshiko
Kohyoe-dono
Children:
Ashikaga Yoshikazu
Succession and rule
In 1394, Yoshimitsu gave up his title in favor of his young son, and Yoshimochi was formally confirmed in his office as Sei-i Taishōgun. Despite any appearance of retirement, the old shōgun didn't abandon any of his powers, and Yoshimitsu continued to maintain authority over the shogunate until his death. Yoshimochi exercised unfettered power as shōgun only after his father died in 1408.
In 1398 – in the 6th year of the reign of King Taejo of Joseon, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. Pak Tong-chi and his retinue arrived in Kyoto in 1398 (Ōei 5, 8th month). Shogun Yoshimochi presented the envoy with a formal diplomatic letter; and presents were given for the envoy to convey to the Joseon court.
Significant events shape the period during which Yoshimochi was shōgun:
1408 – Yoshimochi comes into his own as a shōgun.
1409 – Ashikaga Mochiuji becomes Kantō kubō.
1411 – Yoshimochi breaks off relations with China.
1413 – Emperor Go-Komatsu abdicates; Emperor Shōkō ascends throne in repudiation of agreement; renewed hostility between shogunate and supporters of Southern Court.
1415 – Dissension between Ashikaga Mochiuji, the Kantō Kubō in Kamakura, and Uesugi Zenshū (the Kantō Kanrei).
1416 – Uesugi rebels.
1417 – Uesugi's rebellion quelled by Mochiuji.
1419 – Korean attack on Tsushima (Ōei Invasion).
1420 – Serious famine with great loss of life.
1422 – Resurgence of Southern Court supporters.
1423 – Yoshimochi cedes authority to his son.
Yoshimochi followed his father's example by formally ceding his powers to a young son, fifth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshikazu, who was then 18.
Era of Yoshimochi's bakufu
The years in which Yoshimochi was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Ōei (1394–1428)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce I. (1982) Lessons from History: the Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Kang, Etsuko Hae-jin. (1997). Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese–Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Basingstoke, Hampshire; Macmillan. ;
Sansom, George Bailey (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ;
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
Ashikaga Yoshimochi
Ashikaga Yoshimochi
14th-century shōguns
15th-century shōguns
Yoshimochi
Yoshimochi | [
-0.700331449508667,
-0.021344032138586044,
-0.28379547595977783,
0.28287026286125183,
-1.2928944826126099,
0.6919594407081604,
0.7208591103553772,
-0.1306833028793335,
-0.6014806032180786,
-0.33548805117607117,
0.2624068558216095,
0.1580076813697815,
-0.09210818260908127,
0.05843105912208557,
-0.4850560128688812,
-0.04137038439512253,
0.6910359263420105,
-0.00872641708701849,
-0.30449482798576355,
-0.3950788378715515,
-0.1971772015094757,
-0.32423821091651917,
-0.06851610541343689,
-0.012773796916007996,
0.4371476471424103,
0.1578199565410614,
0.49612507224082947,
0.45954078435897827,
0.12656167149543762,
-0.609939694404602,
0.085590660572052,
0.17250853776931763,
0.23392249643802643,
-0.23019608855247498,
-0.8039554953575134,
-0.15520261228084564,
-0.28022363781929016,
0.29007115960121155,
-0.15273699164390564,
0.03401247039437294,
-0.27073773741722107,
0.12770971655845642,
0.4278123080730438,
0.2849908471107483,
0.15658479928970337,
-0.5252379775047302,
-1.7009220123291016,
0.20007649064064026,
0.10989745706319809,
-0.35013991594314575,
-0.120766282081604,
0.739246666431427,
-0.47410884499549866,
0.27233970165252686,
-0.1856367141008377,
0.6810796856880188,
-0.3749135732650757,
-0.7307720184326172,
-0.7719599008560181,
-0.5369446873664856,
0.17567011713981628,
-0.23331177234649658,
0.46705201268196106,
-0.01824381947517395,
-0.037600189447402954,
-0.14073121547698975,
0.08011020720005035,
0.2585658133029938,
0.3066873848438263,
0.20402340590953827,
-0.019394651055336,
0.8277026414871216,
0.19610169529914856,
0.3601858615875244,
0.28738752007484436,
-0.6977533102035522,
0.08429420739412308,
0.2619483470916748,
0.5452531576156616,
0.07192954421043396,
-0.2703497111797333,
-0.6560699343681335,
0.12996044754981995,
0.12615415453910828,
0.47412869334220886,
-0.09072742611169815,
-0.022341331467032433,
0.49221232533454895,
-0.8490211367607117,
-0.014509676955640316,
-0.17240378260612488,
0.29101577401161194,
0.6815085411071777,
0.29075685143470764,
-0.4838111698627472,
-0.033685069531202316,
-0.2259802669286728,
0.24780309200286865,
-0.3112265467643738,
-0.12466412037611008,
0.11890178173780441,
0.06637121737003326,
-0.1356610357761383,
-0.1432352513074875,
-1.028059482574463,
-0.3095936179161072,
0.06539098173379898,
0.036541081964969635,
-1.030706763267517,
0.10514390468597412,
-0.4695957899093628,
0.6047393679618835,
-0.260050505399704,
-0.03439714387059212,
0.04421078786253929,
0.08676756173372269,
-0.07759369909763336,
-0.3100898861885071,
0.1421729177236557,
-0.14416192471981049,
0.01972259394824505,
0.2858346402645111,
-0.38367047905921936,
0.5335304737091064,
-0.07069019973278046,
0.0728493258357048,
-0.35207444429397583,
-0.4790855050086975,
0.13619858026504517,
-0.39792224764823914,
0.854186475276947,
1.1203465461730957,
-0.48192158341407776,
0.3639752268791199,
0.19121143221855164,
-0.1421787291765213,
0.08224257826805115,
0.19920390844345093,
-0.5772215127944946,
-0.5247176289558411,
-0.980720043182373,
-0.2225043624639511,
-0.7298223376274109,
0.37712788581848145,
0.04012255743145943,
0.6957870721817017,
-0.12992581725120544,
-0.34847351908683777,
-0.6202898025512695,
-0.2526715099811554,
-0.31295257806777954,
0.4382569193840027,
-0.48745957016944885,
-0.09395455569028854,
-0.12767986953258514,
0.2514033019542694,
0.0548882931470871,
-0.5115600824356079,
0.27572494745254517,
0.07792306691408157,
-0.31447505950927734,
-0.039979707449674606,
-0.40592506527900696,
0.36650988459587097,
0.4655236303806305,
-0.6528578400611877,
0.22328336536884308,
0.2551012933254242,
-0.5086333155632019,
-0.3345488905906677,
-0.5501731038093567,
-0.3038187325000763,
-0.4174939692020416,
-0.646207869052887,
0.9400849342346191,
0.120803602039814,
1.0030587911605835,
-0.4121733009815216,
-0.0647672712802887,
-0.14902542531490326,
-0.7319722771644592,
-0.3127710819244385,
0.0999976247549057,
-0.10502436757087708,
0.4172310531139374,
0.5544978380203247,
0.05261118710041046,
0.014797545969486237,
0.8008683919906616,
-0.22074612975120544,
-0.4273781478404999,
-0.24026748538017273,
0.5138985514640808,
-0.4686830937862396,
1.173834204673767,
0.322104811668396,
-0.29215601086616516,
-0.0688573569059372,
-0.18684057891368866,
0.9300115704536438,
0.2711229920387268,
-0.40604710578918457,
0.44664710760116577,
0.2808578610420227,
0.17834517359733582,
0.042771678417921066,
-0.3175208866596222,
0.27761855721473694,
0.6912358403205872,
0.9836779832839966,
-0.052086010575294495,
0.34694260358810425,
-0.3618398904800415,
-0.037699323147535324,
-0.08963391929864883,
0.39181044697761536,
-0.4904654324054718,
-0.2120087891817093,
0.39049622416496277,
-0.29982084035873413,
0.9336055517196655,
0.011570177040994167,
-0.5011090040206909,
0.6957919001579285,
-0.013273109681904316,
1.4484750032424927,
0.00791467260569334,
0.5795766711235046,
-0.30088528990745544,
-1.0448236465454102,
-0.017175083979964256,
0.2814110815525055,
0.05546556040644646,
0.09486798942089081,
-0.11555656045675278,
0.3748777508735657,
0.43376424908638,
0.15069462358951569,
-0.13413769006729126,
-0.4080207943916321,
0.4595779776573181,
0.0868297889828682,
-0.019249938428401947,
0.3060227036476135,
0.33872461318969727,
0.6204936504364014,
-0.17503294348716736,
0.1313018798828125,
-0.870948314666748,
-0.36757537722587585,
0.6018301248550415,
0.34635987877845764,
0.46862632036209106,
-0.13053317368030548,
0.050782036036252975,
-0.6118476986885071,
-0.14814206957817078,
-0.3523545265197754,
-0.5018861293792725,
0.19391551613807678,
0.1295878142118454,
0.2010613977909088,
0.3798401355743408,
0.08917737752199173,
0.573800265789032,
0.13294367492198944,
0.3883303701877594,
0.06208054721355438,
0.10143435001373291,
-0.3448183834552765,
-0.16835860908031464,
-0.46709099411964417,
-0.3688134551048279,
-0.2619953155517578,
0.030890583992004395,
-0.8105354309082031,
-0.5537699460983276,
0.5433416962623596,
0.029827063903212547,
-0.7876512408256531,
0.39373722672462463,
0.543531060218811,
-0.5002851486206055,
-0.5695352554321289,
-0.04960568994283676,
-0.5109442472457886,
-0.7977256774902344,
-0.7305182218551636,
-0.04881351813673973,
-0.7926537394523621,
0.0929730013012886,
0.4630465805530548,
-0.5275569558143616,
-0.004377681761980057,
-0.16032908856868744,
1.1328331232070923,
-0.6590911149978638,
-0.01944209262728691,
0.8641009330749512,
-0.4365141987800598,
-0.7304586172103882,
-0.6770360469818115,
0.717949390411377,
0.15712809562683105,
0.510871410369873,
0.2915463149547577,
0.22636131942272186,
0.206117644906044,
-5.324466228485107,
0.15632008016109467,
-0.039154842495918274,
-0.054472725838422775,
-0.0030200020410120487,
0.5055155754089355,
0.6350181102752686,
0.0406658835709095,
0.7589081525802612,
-0.5816361308097839,
0.1953895390033722,
0.19604796171188354,
-0.05605531483888626,
0.3994303345680237,
0.1546381562948227,
0.5518253445625305,
0.5996378660202026,
0.0692308321595192,
0.024216635152697563,
0.13817651569843292,
0.10211864113807678,
0.04242566227912903,
-0.372825026512146,
1.0733153820037842,
0.7580246329307556,
0.2575819790363312,
-0.545578122138977,
0.008366755209863186,
-0.6394668221473694,
0.001325085642747581,
0.04371247813105583,
-0.2403736710548401,
-0.0652957484126091,
0.29260915517807007,
-0.6560640335083008,
-0.3423224687576294,
0.6715798377990723,
0.5588939189910889,
0.21204882860183716,
0.34726735949516296,
-0.33434176445007324,
-0.15851283073425293,
-1.273130178451538,
0.6745733022689819,
0.28616049885749817,
-0.8438220620155334,
-0.7151851058006287,
0.10151147097349167,
-0.29798099398612976,
0.5071247220039368,
0.174961656332016,
-0.2066735178232193,
0.5764123797416687,
-0.15286922454833984,
0.5718964338302612,
0.14893145859241486,
-0.3557245433330536,
0.4859662652015686,
-0.25209274888038635,
0.14589878916740417,
0.31691670417785645,
-0.38605567812919617,
-0.20232439041137695,
-0.44147539138793945,
0.6433907151222229,
-0.13917860388755798,
0.27876541018486023,
-0.16200043261051178,
-0.35169485211372375,
0.023267153650522232,
-0.8989837765693665,
0.711264431476593,
0.11790212988853455,
-0.9437727928161621,
0.6121363639831543,
-0.023661993443965912,
-0.22996477782726288,
0.642778217792511,
-0.0418722964823246,
-0.02900051511824131,
-0.3115641474723816,
-0.20177195966243744,
0.06011892110109329,
0.43707433342933655,
0.14802642166614532,
0.6452972292900085,
0.19807592034339905,
0.09977670758962631,
0.10357773303985596,
0.7135671973228455,
0.5523452162742615,
-0.7261949181556702,
-0.09981599450111389,
0.08521207422018051,
0.6219120025634766,
0.07640083879232407,
-0.3029795289039612,
0.08703850209712982,
0.16871388256549835,
-0.0887983962893486,
0.13387587666511536,
0.37914103269577026,
-1.184350609779358,
-0.04859021678566933,
-0.4113636314868927,
-0.2958391010761261,
-0.09320273250341415,
0.2684222459793091,
0.4693402945995331,
0.7509552240371704,
-0.12071777135133743,
-0.3711734712123871,
-0.6361657381057739,
-0.5187739133834839,
0.7776257991790771,
-0.26156380772590637,
0.17416998744010925,
0.21003222465515137,
0.5348650217056274,
-0.15510646998882294,
0.11288001388311386,
0.7832278609275818,
-0.4433378279209137,
-0.49017348885536194,
0.20652224123477936,
0.4725325107574463,
-0.2938106954097748,
0.5461057424545288,
-0.16028043627738953,
-0.08254338055849075,
0.27405181527137756,
0.16573618352413177,
-0.13138045370578766,
0.1708507239818573,
-0.023857222869992256,
-0.6845669746398926,
0.015227208845317364,
-0.8917686343193054,
-0.0065682721324265,
-0.12449543923139572,
-0.4984912574291229,
-0.06178213655948639,
-0.6277572512626648,
0.36155936121940613,
-0.8648210763931274,
0.5073707699775696,
-0.17340482771396637,
0.121477410197258,
0.061021097004413605,
0.5024198293685913,
-0.1447993963956833,
-0.8630158305168152,
0.36231493949890137,
-0.20133619010448456,
-0.3410477936267853,
0.263144314289093,
-0.5914573073387146,
-0.1669411063194275,
-0.2669357657432556,
0.18574239313602448,
-0.0007936431211419404,
0.04304661229252815,
-0.6238089203834534,
-0.2859639525413513,
-0.14727963507175446,
-0.33628296852111816,
-0.06684209406375885,
-0.23440659046173096,
-0.1119261234998703,
0.3803449869155884,
0.562019944190979,
-0.4969439208507538,
-0.1943921446800232,
-0.20657044649124146,
0.7657140493392944,
0.20473261177539825,
0.41369763016700745,
0.22047117352485657,
-0.6175042986869812,
-0.5035080909729004,
0.267204612493515,
0.018827952444553375,
-0.3249322175979614,
0.40179455280303955,
0.128980815410614,
-0.4201190769672394,
-0.4562581181526184,
-1.0586833953857422,
-0.35686376690864563,
-0.09262901544570923,
-0.5556761622428894,
-0.20333807170391083,
0.02395915798842907,
0.3647007346153259,
-0.301408976316452,
-0.3893168866634369,
0.3960356116294861,
0.15237204730510712,
0.14806954562664032,
-0.10198614001274109,
-0.5437408685684204,
0.28142049908638,
-0.2783096134662628,
-0.1897275149822235,
-0.12872099876403809,
-0.6246939301490784,
0.630915105342865,
0.28976917266845703,
0.655430257320404,
0.0657118409872055,
-0.22667638957500458,
-0.6756444573402405,
-0.1016760766506195,
-0.04015456140041351,
0.4021475613117218,
0.10480755567550659,
0.040465205907821655,
0.4961695671081543,
-0.05686252936720848,
-1.0642931461334229,
-0.5429497957229614,
0.02007419429719448,
-0.4277500808238983,
-0.46399831771850586,
-0.3964112102985382,
0.6014599800109863,
0.4573914408683777,
0.29097679257392883,
-0.22046829760074615,
-0.2784503400325775,
-0.16540831327438354,
0.03288831189274788,
0.059767477214336395,
0.09271281212568283,
-0.5583442449569702,
0.17268610000610352,
0.15554168820381165,
-0.14491404592990875,
0.5704498887062073,
0.2895936667919159,
0.16905300319194794,
1.008790135383606,
0.22737811505794525,
0.457585871219635,
0.5251372456550598,
0.2567617893218994,
-0.09557706117630005,
-0.019486919045448303,
0.33511555194854736,
0.16686931252479553,
0.18993891775608063,
-0.39093369245529175,
-0.23670266568660736,
-0.06659634411334991,
0.8921647071838379,
-1.0319492816925049,
0.047416802495718,
0.13811209797859192,
-0.45277509093284607,
0.139908567070961,
-0.27234604954719543,
0.5261015892028809,
0.3473082482814789,
-0.31321170926094055,
0.38569164276123047,
0.3844270706176758,
-0.36701321601867676,
-0.15371833741664886,
0.13789494335651398,
-0.9343650341033936,
-0.7677913308143616,
-0.34256666898727417,
-0.3586622178554535,
0.6746277213096619,
0.33083289861679077,
0.2861495316028595,
-0.560056209564209,
-0.15474745631217957,
-0.10621707141399384,
0.26863759756088257,
-0.8496896624565125,
-0.39000239968299866,
-0.21347571909427643,
-0.5175617337226868,
-0.7384039759635925,
-0.7102868556976318,
0.043472226709127426,
0.23168110847473145,
-0.03972294181585312,
0.1618701070547104,
-0.5557743906974792,
-0.24259814620018005,
0.14939796924591064,
-0.21341052651405334,
-0.20457561314105988,
0.5690717697143555,
-0.6299089193344116,
0.010747402906417847,
-0.2656517028808594,
0.09359737485647202,
-0.09272170066833496,
0.25800448656082153,
0.2712741196155548,
1.0271481275558472,
0.05343728885054588,
0.005653186701238155,
-0.3867752254009247,
-0.028376230970025063,
-0.03475681319832802,
0.5565805435180664,
-0.01889527030289173,
-0.07426615059375763,
0.48462000489234924,
-0.22530925273895264,
-0.7262361645698547,
-0.041988082230091095,
-0.13657987117767334,
-0.04988980293273926,
-0.11562898755073547,
-1.086807131767273,
0.7903884649276733,
0.25905704498291016,
-0.33204421401023865,
0.35248827934265137,
0.6311878561973572,
-0.09328870475292206,
-0.24483837187290192,
0.0790364071726799,
-0.1409459114074707,
0.3651723861694336,
0.22716812789440155,
0.1671818643808365,
-0.5610431432723999,
0.677634596824646,
-0.19766058027744293,
0.6118993759155273,
-0.13512133061885834,
-0.5602424144744873,
0.5349392890930176,
0.4421548843383789,
0.6015952825546265,
0.5750641822814941,
-0.6855130195617676,
0.1321413367986679,
-0.2534913122653961,
0.5540440082550049,
-0.217264786362648,
0.01853964291512966,
0.1838015913963318,
0.4271436035633087,
0.6092929244041443,
0.48710566759109497,
0.425851970911026,
-0.4702349007129669,
-0.24312332272529602,
0.3617781102657318,
0.6004437208175659,
0.12074335664510727,
0.0970572754740715,
-0.31675028800964355,
-0.13159945607185364,
-0.34871336817741394,
0.44307586550712585,
0.06774069368839264,
-0.13427038490772247,
0.6585801243782043,
-0.5185413956642151,
-0.5055955648422241,
-0.026378078386187553,
0.3641059994697571,
-0.19997842609882355,
-0.5321059823036194,
-0.0900983214378357,
-0.02989732101559639,
0.2604643702507019,
1.1246685981750488,
0.399334579706192,
-0.1783589869737625,
-0.17043976485729218,
0.04404372721910477,
-0.3256629705429077,
0.23943756520748138,
-0.16333365440368652,
-0.4719562530517578,
0.39664480090141296,
0.6625360250473022,
-0.0033334509935230017,
0.4785250425338745,
-0.7260749340057373,
-0.15699557960033417,
-0.3226935863494873,
-0.5273391008377075,
-0.3933447301387787,
0.8184455633163452,
-0.22808994352817535,
0.025785788893699646,
0.1458868384361267,
0.48214811086654663,
0.4737145006656647,
0.28405213356018066,
-0.11199945211410522,
-0.3252983093261719,
-0.08063426613807678,
0.09820365160703659,
-0.030607331544160843,
0.8265390992164612,
-0.4983732998371124,
-0.053859490901231766,
-0.2735547423362732,
0.04131966084241867,
0.3649805188179016,
0.5526516437530518,
-0.2615700364112854,
0.11542490869760513,
-0.6528980135917664,
-0.2717565894126892,
0.9965483546257019,
-0.5647902488708496,
0.037945158779621124,
-0.2607554495334625,
-0.08608288317918777,
-0.11512833088636398,
0.1875569373369217,
0.32581132650375366,
0.12441204488277435,
-0.05261358618736267,
0.5873280763626099,
0.18460552394390106,
0.0023014245089143515,
0.586551308631897,
0.03259577229619026,
-1.1670728921890259,
-0.28767430782318115,
-0.3340999186038971,
0.010858270339667797,
-0.0059540425427258015,
1.1013836860656738,
0.48892125487327576,
0.39921292662620544,
-0.3183797299861908,
0.07263456284999847,
-0.0982336476445198,
0.6205297708511353,
-0.004534022882580757,
-0.021920524537563324,
-0.0994509756565094,
0.07539432495832443,
-0.8110324144363403,
-0.35681596398353577,
0.21912190318107605,
0.7322026491165161,
-0.08802174031734467,
0.6667850613594055,
-0.7257556915283203,
0.06420036405324936,
0.10203254222869873,
0.3114612400531769,
-0.5269371271133423,
0.27278992533683777,
0.04012006148695946
] |
234796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness | Sadness | Sadness is an emotional pain associated with, or characterized by, feelings of disadvantage, loss, despair, grief, helplessness, disappointment and sorrow. An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic, and withdraw themselves from others. An example of severe sadness is depression, a mood which can be brought on by major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder. Crying can be an indication of sadness.
Sadness is one of the "six basic emotions" described by Paul Ekman, along with happiness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.
Childhood
Sadness is a common experience in childhood. Sometimes, sadness can lead to depression. Some families may have a (conscious or unconscious) rule that sadness is "not allowed", but Robin Skynner has suggested that this may cause problems, arguing that with sadness "screened off", people can become shallow and manic. Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems.
Sadness is part of the normal process of the child separating from an early symbiosis with the mother and becoming more independent. Every time a child separates a little more, he or she will have to cope with a small loss. If the mother cannot allow the minor distress involved, the child may never learn how to deal with sadness by themselves. Brazelton argues that too much cheering a child up devalues the emotion of sadness for them; and Selma Fraiberg suggests that it is important to respect a child's right to experience a loss fully and deeply.
Margaret Mahler also saw the ability to feel sadness as an emotional achievement, as opposed for example to warding it off through restless hyperactivity. D. W. Winnicott similarly saw in sad crying the psychological root of valuable musical experiences in later life.
Neuroanatomy
A large amount of research has been conducted on the neuroscience of sadness. According to the American Journal of Psychiatry, sadness has been found to be associated with "increases in bilateral activity within the vicinity of the middle and posterior temporal cortex, lateral cerebellum, cerebellar vermis, midbrain, putamen, and caudate." Jose V. Pardo has his M.D and Ph.D and leads a research program in cognitive neuroscience. Using positron emission tomography (PET) Pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things. They observed increased brain activity in the bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal cortex. In a study that induced sadness in subjects by showing emotional film clips, the feeling was correlated with significant increases in regional brain activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex, in the region called Brodmann's area 9, and the thalamus. A significant increase in activity was also observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures.
Coping mechanisms
People deal with sadness in different ways, and it is an important emotion because it helps to motivate people to deal with their situation. Some coping mechanisms include: getting social support and/or spending time with a pet, creating a list, or engaging in some activity to express sadness. Some individuals, when feeling sad, may exclude themselves from a social setting, so as to take the time to recover from the feeling.
While being one of the moods people most want to shake, sadness can sometimes be perpetuated by the very coping strategies chosen, such as ruminating, "drowning one's sorrows", or permanently isolating oneself. As alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above, cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging one's negative thoughts, or scheduling some positive event as a distraction.
Being attentive to, and patient with, one's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude; while emotional support to help people stay with their sadness can be further helpful. Such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss (when felt wholeheartedly) can lead to a new sense of aliveness, and to a re-engagement with the outside world.
Pupil empathy
Pupil size may be an indicator of sadness. A sad facial expression with small pupils is judged to be more intensely sad as the pupil size decreases. A person's own pupil size also mirrors this and becomes smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils. No parallel effect exists when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions. The greater degree to which a person's pupils mirror another predicts a person's greater score on empathy. However, in disorders such as autism and psychopathy facial expressions that represent sadness may be subtle, which may show a need for a more non-linguistic situation to affect their level of empathy.
Vocal expression
According to DIPR scientist Swati Johar, sadness is an emotion "identified by current speech dialogue and processing systems". Measurements to distinguish sadness from other emotions in the human voice include root mean square (RMS) energy, inter-word silence and speaking rate. It is communicated mostly by lowering the mean and variability of the fundamental frequency (f0), besides being associated with lower vocal intensity, and with decreases in f0 over time. Johar argues that, "when someone is sad, slow, low pitched speech with weak high audio frequency energy is produced". Likewise, "low energy state of sadness attributes to slow tempo, lower speech rate and mean pitch".
Sadness is, as stated by Klaus Scherer, one of the "best-recognized emotions in the human voice", although it's "generally somewhat lower than that of facial expression". In a study by Scherer, it was found that in Western countries sadness had 79% of accuracy for facial recognition and 71% for vocal, while in Non-Western countries the results were of 74% and 58%, respectively.
Cultural explorations
During the Renaissance, Edmund Spenser in The Faerie Queene endorsed sadness as a marker of spiritual commitment.
In The Lord of the Rings, sadness is distinguished from unhappiness, to exemplify J. R. R. Tolkien's preference for a sad, but settled determination, as opposed to what he saw as the shallower temptations of either despair or hope.
Julia Kristeva considered that "a diversification of moods, variety in sadness, refinement in sorrow or mourning are the imprint of a humanity that is surely not triumphant but subtle, ready to fight and creative".
See also
Joie de vivre
Melancholia
Mood (psychology)
References
Further reading
Ambady & Gray, 2002
Emotions
Personal life
Grief | [
-0.13291853666305542,
0.4462386965751648,
-0.3537569046020508,
-0.0783572569489479,
-0.29164862632751465,
0.4716411530971527,
0.45375287532806396,
0.47821876406669617,
-0.20698069036006927,
-0.7639220952987671,
-0.302972674369812,
0.16821517050266266,
-0.21840329468250275,
0.7295132875442505,
-0.26078712940216064,
0.6105037331581116,
-0.04349580407142639,
0.6322054266929626,
-0.13199444115161896,
-0.14371445775032043,
-0.45544394850730896,
-0.40498799085617065,
0.2649121582508087,
-0.18290863931179047,
0.21279995143413544,
0.0015651528956368566,
0.06571599841117859,
0.018415022641420364,
0.04060136899352074,
0.10679997503757477,
-0.5983772277832031,
0.4124327003955841,
0.10205195099115372,
-0.07376070320606232,
-0.47928646206855774,
0.2928926646709442,
-0.2834950089454651,
-0.2215147614479065,
-0.2746976613998413,
-0.06526610255241394,
-0.03196367621421814,
-0.27009275555610657,
0.05111528933048248,
0.15024127066135406,
-0.1509064882993698,
-0.39698880910873413,
-1.6470227241516113,
0.3818497359752655,
-0.33384037017822266,
-0.29592251777648926,
-0.32194533944129944,
0.7298839092254639,
0.3483486473560333,
0.111310213804245,
-0.2917908728122711,
0.35042229294776917,
-0.20911070704460144,
-0.001552854897454381,
0.10089311003684998,
-0.6543834805488586,
0.46753016114234924,
-0.1323310285806656,
0.16999578475952148,
-0.2595975995063782,
0.08139503747224808,
0.26578038930892944,
-0.1374610811471939,
0.173196941614151,
-0.5466485023498535,
-0.5244489908218384,
-0.17922832071781158,
-0.2514445185661316,
0.14383171498775482,
-0.062471892684698105,
-0.09780452400445938,
0.1321946084499359,
-0.15919935703277588,
-0.525886595249176,
0.10545562207698822,
0.4551078975200653,
-0.20361328125,
0.4403681755065918,
0.4573891758918762,
0.1074153259396553,
0.18685868382453918,
-0.2087561935186386,
0.27087700366973877,
1.166945219039917,
-0.016601165756583214,
0.48223164677619934,
0.2883586287498474,
0.12448178976774216,
0.6144012808799744,
0.15517351031303406,
-0.09294851869344711,
-0.20917928218841553,
0.7596844434738159,
0.13071851432323456,
-0.2707785964012146,
-0.13278813660144806,
0.11122768372297287,
-0.31368643045425415,
0.29078489542007446,
-0.46067366003990173,
0.1871960163116455,
-0.4254111647605896,
0.1276339590549469,
-0.01047550793737173,
0.03582891821861267,
-0.5174754858016968,
-0.825798749923706,
0.34857553243637085,
-0.387961208820343,
0.250590980052948,
-0.48193809390068054,
-0.04635855183005333,
-0.045648060739040375,
-0.2525330185890198,
-0.11395256966352463,
-0.317544162273407,
0.24101416766643524,
-0.28845125436782837,
-0.07739327102899551,
-0.3771037757396698,
-0.22170379757881165,
0.10332094132900238,
-0.10183930397033691,
0.29618147015571594,
-0.5192365646362305,
0.027851369231939316,
0.5391840934753418,
0.4185110032558441,
-0.3234042823314667,
-0.01853851228952408,
-0.05132066830992699,
-0.10626616328954697,
0.10028748214244843,
-0.12088511884212494,
0.48335471749305725,
-0.06322988122701645,
-0.780555784702301,
-0.6603248715400696,
-0.6092046499252319,
-0.1806764006614685,
0.22674265503883362,
-0.43961355090141296,
0.21255169808864594,
-0.056327518075704575,
-0.04702099785208702,
-0.4033862352371216,
0.04856050759553909,
-0.07446940988302231,
-0.45484089851379395,
-0.17916396260261536,
-0.1864570677280426,
-0.4154122471809387,
0.20830440521240234,
-0.49763381481170654,
0.2806960344314575,
0.11283601820468903,
0.16298027336597443,
0.2662312090396881,
-0.5025138854980469,
0.1850564181804657,
-0.07131355255842209,
-0.035553060472011566,
0.11144030839204788,
0.24645334482192993,
-0.06575975567102432,
0.2661249041557312,
-0.5182388424873352,
0.3871557116508484,
0.466193825006485,
-0.3395262062549591,
-0.10664822161197662,
0.19208118319511414,
0.1408921182155609,
0.07842458784580231,
0.49544328451156616,
-0.005272030830383301,
-0.4522368609905243,
0.18133097887039185,
0.12802138924598694,
0.1553708165884018,
-0.097001813352108,
-0.21583636105060577,
0.3531281054019928,
-0.14278607070446014,
-0.13570237159729004,
-0.5978536605834961,
-1.014978289604187,
-0.8766289353370667,
-0.07157904654741287,
0.0804876983165741,
0.8234179615974426,
-0.420920729637146,
-0.6278160810470581,
1.1656209230422974,
0.181300088763237,
0.034188300371170044,
-0.03031504712998867,
-0.4052202105522156,
0.13680869340896606,
0.09304334968328476,
-0.8443381786346436,
0.49033039808273315,
0.057090431451797485,
0.5096363425254822,
-0.48728784918785095,
0.14610910415649414,
0.06983144581317902,
-0.4466666281223297,
0.09137260168790817,
-0.12254423648118973,
0.13320951163768768,
0.16579489409923553,
-0.6041949987411499,
-0.24301652610301971,
-0.5336564779281616,
-0.2053639143705368,
0.2220478504896164,
-0.16813205182552338,
-0.251664936542511,
0.22006714344024658,
0.16264024376869202,
0.5165899991989136,
-0.20404621958732605,
-0.19851307570934296,
0.5706979036331177,
-0.5516563653945923,
0.25475025177001953,
0.5641577839851379,
-0.11686351150274277,
-0.09553051739931107,
-0.3359772861003876,
0.5715627670288086,
0.38176557421684265,
-0.3654499351978302,
-0.13720151782035828,
-0.40190836787223816,
-0.3434937298297882,
-0.05057992413640022,
0.02984352596104145,
0.05345199629664421,
0.022549957036972046,
-0.4570334553718567,
-0.24984616041183472,
0.19058533012866974,
-0.6744374632835388,
0.40654921531677246,
-0.13799569010734558,
0.7686210870742798,
0.23592478036880493,
0.26753032207489014,
0.04559969902038574,
-0.027270857244729996,
-0.012230859138071537,
0.07410561293363571,
-0.13686862587928772,
-0.23894859850406647,
-0.2950075566768646,
0.12954148650169373,
0.16192762553691864,
-0.34476834535598755,
-0.28447315096855164,
0.19230248034000397,
-0.45641621947288513,
-0.00030874446383677423,
0.4139980375766754,
0.799691915512085,
0.6501163840293884,
-0.38101229071617126,
-0.6708273887634277,
0.3577008843421936,
-0.5129411816596985,
-0.6280502080917358,
0.31469273567199707,
-0.177116259932518,
-0.472375750541687,
-0.3022267818450928,
0.21966484189033508,
0.6783413887023926,
0.45782914757728577,
-0.602741539478302,
0.09073006361722946,
-0.39965131878852844,
0.26784947514533997,
0.06034817174077034,
0.060715947300195694,
-0.15811845660209656,
-0.5764641761779785,
0.4220726191997528,
0.4720028340816498,
0.11174801737070084,
0.7011134624481201,
0.26802802085876465,
0.39370372891426086,
0.5656662583351135,
0.7200913429260254,
-0.6097650527954102,
-0.11357592791318893,
-0.255214661359787,
-0.2837051749229431,
-0.561307966709137,
0.04530675336718559,
0.310726135969162,
-0.08967074006795883,
-0.2029937207698822,
-5.999955177307129,
-0.025235306471586227,
-0.24679160118103027,
-0.5459564328193665,
-0.08130864053964615,
0.5540528297424316,
0.6431995630264282,
-0.16835880279541016,
-0.5422468781471252,
-0.23845474421977997,
-0.1696501076221466,
0.10893328487873077,
0.215940922498703,
0.02833857201039791,
0.2692764103412628,
-0.01988545060157776,
0.10854577273130417,
-0.15422411262989044,
-0.07544882595539093,
0.3601967990398407,
0.06163521483540535,
0.686154305934906,
-0.5719485878944397,
0.4864482283592224,
0.0634184256196022,
0.16339558362960815,
0.21320779621601105,
0.2681899964809418,
-0.527767539024353,
0.23386162519454956,
0.3549056649208069,
-0.04659171774983406,
0.13146404922008514,
0.00672853272408247,
0.24374186992645264,
0.1950075924396515,
0.17889341711997986,
0.2355477511882782,
0.1278187483549118,
0.33589163422584534,
-0.3172193169593811,
0.15153703093528748,
-0.05016476288437843,
0.15375664830207825,
0.3356575667858124,
0.002375628799200058,
-0.1259365677833557,
-0.4524880349636078,
-0.2601345479488373,
0.3007446825504303,
0.31863102316856384,
0.1820608675479889,
0.19636306166648865,
-0.06661147624254227,
0.5411183834075928,
0.2755289673805237,
0.09589145332574844,
-0.2596343159675598,
-0.40041446685791016,
-0.04024512693285942,
0.1863439679145813,
-0.18544608354568481,
0.0523308627307415,
-0.4373098313808441,
-0.430304616689682,
-0.12098033726215363,
-0.499178409576416,
-0.5494199395179749,
0.5236527323722839,
0.04725223034620285,
0.02497633919119835,
0.03257191181182861,
0.1775982826948166,
-0.7632966637611389,
0.22136829793453217,
-0.5899134278297424,
-0.4678800702095032,
-0.2179415374994278,
-0.10801052302122116,
0.055106136947870255,
-0.27184388041496277,
-0.0614679716527462,
-0.303566038608551,
0.0032610769849270582,
0.05588420107960701,
-0.1144287958741188,
-0.2616104185581207,
0.3902139961719513,
-0.16135160624980927,
0.135108083486557,
0.35783815383911133,
0.005194487981498241,
0.37550079822540283,
-0.21171927452087402,
0.19720713794231415,
0.7545499801635742,
0.3502030372619629,
0.0716044008731842,
0.5685720443725586,
-0.2618359923362732,
0.5173599123954773,
-0.12396125495433807,
-0.03213445097208023,
0.2222817987203598,
0.21070750057697296,
-0.3421914279460907,
-0.08666414767503738,
0.589275598526001,
1.051344871520996,
-0.4553850591182709,
0.5650914311408997,
0.15592627227306366,
-0.19385556876659393,
-0.2927192747592926,
0.3439522981643677,
0.15477874875068665,
-0.30076223611831665,
0.8033472895622253,
0.2696439027786255,
-0.10422948002815247,
0.1267196536064148,
-0.09291065484285355,
-0.383834570646286,
-0.17746534943580627,
0.014829634688794613,
-0.01676698960363865,
-0.034837834537029266,
0.08604970574378967,
-0.30200478434562683,
0.25963225960731506,
0.7592929005622864,
0.3803451657295227,
0.3680945634841919,
0.39720600843429565,
0.051543887704610825,
-0.3337162733078003,
0.18962015211582184,
-0.06437727808952332,
-0.3396547734737396,
-1.190469741821289,
0.21881136298179626,
-0.15179267525672913,
-0.4968259334564209,
-0.07901853322982788,
0.8258714079856873,
0.13273738324642181,
-0.7715076804161072,
-0.2063492089509964,
-0.042048875242471695,
0.1583150178194046,
-0.12002098560333252,
0.15890946984291077,
-0.19434912502765656,
-0.19168202579021454,
-0.2966018617153168,
0.08011842519044876,
0.08949992805719376,
-0.0956866592168808,
-0.2686515152454376,
-0.3137117624282837,
-0.016711698845028877,
-0.6015445590019226,
-0.9306194186210632,
-0.4903774559497833,
-0.8409698605537415,
-0.24346700310707092,
-0.48640337586402893,
-0.5152066946029663,
0.5175901651382446,
0.6041393876075745,
0.33137112855911255,
-0.05588460713624954,
-0.06480755656957626,
-0.3698790371417999,
0.1936103105545044,
-0.14060571789741516,
-0.4599877893924713,
-0.4495772123336792,
-0.2750503420829773,
0.18861664831638336,
-0.3349878191947937,
-0.4238969087600708,
-0.06632725894451141,
0.1062304824590683,
0.03723333403468132,
0.3819119930267334,
0.26102256774902344,
0.42804592847824097,
-0.45715057849884033,
-0.058771610260009766,
-0.4521746337413788,
-0.5122168660163879,
-0.05092024803161621,
0.02586529217660427,
0.16401724517345428,
-0.0009654701570980251,
0.10426780581474304,
0.0021384544670581818,
-0.051190607249736786,
-0.26518964767456055,
0.3250814378261566,
0.31755802035331726,
-0.5628036260604858,
0.1505110114812851,
0.2817654311656952,
-0.4265021085739136,
0.4758760929107666,
-0.09132884442806244,
-0.8115214109420776,
0.43808242678642273,
-0.5676780939102173,
-0.12179738283157349,
-0.21380941569805145,
0.6190118193626404,
0.10910234600305557,
0.23231583833694458,
0.32743367552757263,
-0.5771830081939697,
0.04427298158407211,
-0.4346816837787628,
0.3903373181819916,
0.15504863858222961,
-0.527270495891571,
-0.1513933390378952,
-0.5850324034690857,
-0.126806378364563,
0.1159728541970253,
-0.5154138207435608,
0.6807536482810974,
0.2638155519962311,
-0.04497043415904045,
0.15005013346672058,
0.12832899391651154,
-0.2914242744445801,
-0.08894675225019455,
-0.559956967830658,
0.0625189021229744,
-0.013597958721220493,
0.39683812856674194,
0.07908942550420761,
0.13591770827770233,
0.5932703018188477,
0.3083352744579315,
-0.6395471692085266,
0.24407300353050232,
0.11628057807683945,
-0.09635024517774582,
-0.9270115494728088,
-0.4783920347690582,
0.8272191286087036,
0.7334619760513306,
-0.2457733303308487,
-0.5537921786308289,
-0.012081438675522804,
-0.009691713377833366,
-0.0036035184748470783,
-0.276142954826355,
-0.5708975195884705,
0.27643319964408875,
0.3555973172187805,
0.26049524545669556,
-0.01270502619445324,
0.1978810727596283,
0.20852528512477875,
0.7714608907699585,
0.15462791919708252,
0.2590219974517822,
0.5060065984725952,
0.30382639169692993,
-0.33497458696365356,
0.39019066095352173,
0.6884188055992126,
0.2857910692691803,
0.2250199168920517,
-0.059742271900177,
0.44894829392433167,
-0.37836751341819763,
-0.40913188457489014,
-0.26582688093185425,
0.18534038960933685,
0.028449108824133873,
-0.6830624938011169,
-0.05410950630903244,
-0.5401858687400818,
0.41930729150772095,
-0.6036632061004639,
0.3849640190601349,
-0.05435183644294739,
-0.6990265846252441,
-0.09134607762098312,
-0.10147594660520554,
0.08394467085599899,
-0.1731429249048233,
0.27938997745513916,
-0.15524089336395264,
0.25967150926589966,
-0.36106348037719727,
0.5156890749931335,
-0.03238619118928909,
-0.1896391659975052,
-0.8651171922683716,
0.35443541407585144,
-0.5396783947944641,
-0.45278000831604004,
0.5264020562171936,
-0.039638545364141464,
-0.22656290233135223,
-0.5893864631652832,
0.15159015357494354,
0.004248268902301788,
0.21415624022483826,
0.11648233979940414,
0.4980921149253845,
0.5790794491767883,
0.2372526079416275,
-0.08521896600723267,
0.2875734865665436,
0.10986895859241486,
0.33266523480415344,
0.32560408115386963,
0.06368831545114517,
-0.13690167665481567,
0.865716278553009,
-0.66567462682724,
0.19432902336120605,
0.3104831278324127,
-0.09541085362434387,
0.14764179289340973,
0.6703627109527588,
0.4661056697368622,
0.467648446559906,
0.012410215102136135,
0.3465851843357086,
0.6681408286094666,
0.024429401382803917,
-0.4667260944843292,
0.07036161422729492,
-0.6259849071502686,
-0.5915170907974243,
0.6607772707939148,
0.5418891906738281,
-0.2131246030330658,
0.474149614572525,
0.8206360936164856,
0.07709453999996185,
0.3541307747364044,
0.20253054797649384,
0.68889981508255,
-0.01759362779557705,
-0.3714827001094818,
0.4533534049987793,
-0.3184974491596222,
0.07173722982406616,
-0.26814088225364685,
0.19000700116157532,
0.2812623977661133,
1.1574355363845825,
-0.10727233439683914,
-0.5965806245803833,
0.16269373893737793,
-0.13488730788230896,
0.37907758355140686,
0.2635733187198639,
0.027167189866304398,
0.33294814825057983,
-0.3500480353832245,
0.28065961599349976,
-0.3121144771575928,
-0.22849217057228088,
-0.28950557112693787,
-0.2770729660987854,
0.5297701358795166,
-0.41297298669815063,
0.391384094953537,
0.6126775741577148,
-0.009782562963664532,
0.6410703063011169,
0.27429014444351196,
-0.0951542854309082,
-0.22623558342456818,
0.15467458963394165,
-0.19134663045406342,
-0.0876476988196373,
-0.2896054983139038,
0.043521393090486526,
0.0968153104186058,
0.2491631805896759,
0.05473913624882698,
0.6126605272293091,
-0.18379011750221252,
0.490131139755249,
0.3345963954925537,
0.2557080388069153,
0.04504035785794258,
0.4314821660518646,
-0.061910443007946014,
-0.216786727309227,
0.43813556432724,
0.17535385489463806,
-0.047557659447193146,
-0.09276533126831055,
0.02050800621509552,
-0.11851467937231064,
0.1910996288061142,
-0.7734500765800476,
-0.0032514098566025496,
0.11574867367744446,
0.11894837021827698,
-0.8506535887718201,
0.310956746339798,
0.21673636138439178,
-0.061984892934560776,
-0.1061941385269165,
0.4927307963371277,
0.36618533730506897,
-0.12111754715442657,
0.7538360953330994,
-0.320082426071167,
0.1121475026011467,
-0.6952306628227234,
0.47899705171585083,
-0.0545862577855587,
0.7095313668251038,
-0.0093159731477499,
-0.028331434354186058,
-0.03734607622027397,
-0.2652502954006195,
0.09533791989088058,
0.015646720305085182,
0.040293484926223755,
-0.711470901966095,
0.3040536642074585,
-0.334057092666626,
0.9181736707687378,
-0.1622656136751175,
-0.11273548752069473,
0.27208325266838074,
-0.2954132556915283,
0.15728646516799927,
-0.3127819001674652,
-0.1064893826842308,
-0.7550718784332275,
-0.05883068963885307,
0.09538941830396652,
-0.03011297434568405,
0.35615554451942444,
-0.33177676796913147,
-0.38674837350845337,
-0.549096405506134,
0.03035387583076954,
0.3263269364833832,
-0.6354220509529114,
0.23322929441928864,
0.20795497298240662,
-0.022677261382341385,
-0.05308078974485397,
-0.23049019277095795,
-0.39220938086509705,
-0.49837666749954224,
0.26484137773513794
] |
234798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief | Grief | Grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, grief also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical dimensions. While the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss, while grief is the reaction to that loss.
The grief associated with death is familiar to most people, but individuals grieve in connection with a variety of losses throughout their lives, such as unemployment, ill health or the end of a relationship. Loss can be categorized as either physical or abstract; physical loss is related to something that the individual can touch or measuresuch as losing a spouse through deathwhile other types of loss are more abstract, possibly relating to aspects of a person's social interactions.
Grieving process
Between 1996 and 2006, there was extensive skepticism about a universal and predictable "emotional pathway" that leads from distress to "recovery" with an appreciation that grief is a more complex process of adapting to loss than stage and phase models have previously suggested. The two-track model of bereavement, created by Simon Shimshon Rubin in 1981, is a grief theory that provided a deeper focus on the grieving process. The model examines the long-term effects of bereavement by measuring how well the person is adapting to the loss of a significant person in their life. The main objective of the two-track model of bereavement is for the individual to "manage and live in reality in which the deceased is absent" as well as returning to normal biological functioning. (Malkinson, 2006)
Track One is focused on the biopsychosocial functioning of grief. This focuses on the anxiety, depression, somatic concerns, traumatic responses, familial relationships, interpersonal relationships, self-esteem, meaning structure, work, and investment in life tasks. Rubin (2010) Points out, "Track 1, the range of aspects of the individuals functioning across affective, interpersonal, somatic and classical psychiatric indicators is considered" (Shimshon 686). All of the terms listed above are noted for the importance they have in relation to people's responses to grief and loss.The significance of the closeness between the bereaved and the deceased is important to Track 1 because this could determine the severity of the mourning and grief the bereaved will endure. This first track is the response to the extremely stressful life events and requires adaptation along with change and integration. The second track focuses on the ongoing relationship between the griever and the deceased. Track two mainly focuses on how the bereaved was connected to the deceased, and on what level of closeness was shared. The two main components considered are memories, both positive and negative, and emotional involvement shared with the decedent. The stronger the relationship to the deceased, the greater the evaluation of the relationship with heightened shock.
Any memory could be a trigger for the bereaved, the way the bereaved chose to remember their loved ones, and how the bereaved integrate the memory of their loved ones into their daily lives.
Ten main attributes to this track include; imagery/memory, emotional distance, positive effect, negative effect, preoccupation with the loss, conflict, idealization, memorialization/transformation of the loss, impact on self-perception and loss process (shock, searching, disorganized) (Rubin, 1999). An outcome of this track is being able to recognize how transformation has occurred beyond grief and mourning (Rubin, 1999). By outlining the main aspects of the bereavement process into two interactive tracks, individuals can examine and understand how grief has affected their life following loss and begin to adapt to this post-loss life. The Model offers a better understanding with the duration of time in the wake of one's loss and the outcomes that evolve from death. By using this model, researchers can effectively examine the response to an individual's loss by assessing the behavioral-psychological functioning and the relationship with the deceased.
The authors from What's Your Grief?, Litza Williams and Eleanor Haley, state in their understanding of the clinical and therapeutic uses of the model:
in terms of functioning, this model can help the bereaved identify which areas of his/her life has been impacted by the grief in a negative way as well as areas that the bereaved has already begun to adapt to after the loss. If the bereaved is unable to return to their normal functioning as in before loss occurred, it is likely they will find difficulty in the process of working through the loss as well as their separation from the deceased.
Along the relational aspect, the bereaved can become aware of their relationship with the deceased and how it has changed or may change in the future (Williams & Haley, 2017).
"The Two-Track Model of Bereavement can help specify areas of mutuality (how people respond affectivity to trauma and change) and also difference (how bereaved people may be preoccupied with the deceased following loss compared to how they may be preoccupied with trauma following the exposure to it)" (Rubin, S.S, 1999).
While the grief response is considered a natural way of dealing with loss, prolonged, highly intense grief may at times become debilitating enough to be considered a disorder.
Reactions
Crying is a normal and natural part of grieving. It has also been found, however, that crying and talking about the loss is not the only healthy response and, if forced or excessive, can be harmful. Responses or actions in the affected person, called "coping ugly" by researcher George Bonanno, may seem counter-intuitive or even appear dysfunctional, e.g., celebratory responses, laughter, or self-serving bias in interpreting events. Lack of crying is also a natural, healthy reaction, potentially protective of the individual, and may also be seen as a sign of resilience.
Science has found that some healthy people who are grieving do not spontaneously talk about the loss. Pressing people to cry or retell the experience of a loss can be damaging. Genuine laughter is healthy. When a loved one dies, it is not unusual for the bereaved to report that they have "seen" or "heard" the person they have lost. In a 2008 survey, 27% of respondents who had lost a loved one said they had this kind of "contact" experience.
Bereavement science
Bonanno's four trajectories of grief
George Bonanno, a professor of clinical psychology at Columbia University, conducted more than two decades of scientific studies on grief and trauma, which have been published in several papers in the most respected peer-reviewed journals in the field of psychology, such as Psychological Science and The Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Subjects of his studies number in the several thousand and include people who have suffered losses in the U.S. and cross-cultural studies in various countries around the world, such as Israel, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and China. His subjects suffered losses through war, terrorism, deaths of children, premature deaths of spouses, sexual abuse, childhood diagnoses of AIDS, and other potentially devastating loss events or potential trauma events.
In Bonanno's book, The Other Side of Sadness: What the New Science of Bereavement Tells Us About Life After a Loss, he summarizes his research. His findings include that a natural resilience is the main component of grief and trauma reactions. The first researcher to use pre-loss data, he outlined four trajectories of grief. Bonanno's work has also demonstrated that absence of grief or trauma symptoms is a healthy outcome, rather than something to be feared as has been the thought and practice until his research. Because grief responses can take many forms, including laughter, celebration, and bawdiness, in addition to sadness, Bonanno coined the phrase "coping ugly" to describe the idea that some forms of coping may seem counter intuitive. Bonanno has found that resilience is natural to humans, suggesting that it cannot be "taught" through specialized programs and that there is virtually no existing research with which to design resilience training, nor is there existing research to support major investment in such things as military resilience training programs.
The four trajectories are as follows:
Resilience: "The ability of adults in otherwise normal circumstances who are exposed to an isolated and potentially highly disruptive event, such as the death of a close relation or a violent or life-threatening situation, to maintain relatively stable, healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning" as well as "the capacity for generative experiences and positive emotions".
Recovery: When "normal functioning temporarily gives way to threshold or sub-threshold psychopathology (e.g., symptoms of depression or post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD), usually for a period of at least several months, and then gradually returns to pre-event levels".
Chronic dysfunction: Prolonged suffering and inability to function, usually lasting several years or longer.
Delayed grief or trauma: When adjustment seems normal but then distress and symptoms increase months later. Researchers have not found evidence of delayed grief, but delayed trauma appears to be a genuine phenomenon.
Five stages theory
The Kübler-Ross model, commonly known as the five stages of grief, is a theory first introduced by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book, On Death and Dying. Based on the uncredited earlier work of John Bowlby and Colin Murray-Parkes, Kübler-Ross actually applied the stages to persons who were dying, not persons who were grieving. Her studies involved her work with the terminally ill. The popular but empirically unsupported model describes in five distinct stages how people deal with their impending death.
The five stages are:
denial
anger
bargaining
depression
acceptance
The theory holds that the stages are a part of the framework that helps people learn to live without what they have lost.
The stages model, which came about in the 1960s, is a theory based on observation of people who are dying, not people who experienced the death of a loved one. This model found limited empirical support in a study by Maciejewski et al. That is that the sequence was correct although Acceptance was highest at all points throughout the persons experience. The research of George Bonanno, however, is acknowledged as debunking the five stages of grief because his large body of peer-reviewed studies show that the vast majority of people who have experienced a loss are resilient and that there are multiple trajectories following loss.
Physiological and neurological processes
Studies of fMRI scans of women from whom grief was elicited about the death of a mother or a sister in the past 5 years resulted in the conclusion that grief produced a local inflammation response as measured by salivary concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These responses were correlated with activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex. This activation also correlated with the free recall of grief-related word stimuli. This suggests that grief can cause stress, and that this reaction is linked to the emotional processing parts of the frontal lobe. Activation of the anterior cingulate cortex and vagus nerve is similarly implicated in the experience of heartbreak whether due to social rejection or bereavement.
Among those persons who have been bereaved within the previous three months of a given report, those who report many intrusive thoughts about the deceased show ventral amygdala and rostral anterior cingulate cortex hyperactivity to reminders of their loss. In the case of the amygdala, this links to their sadness intensity. In those individuals who avoid such thoughts, there is a related opposite type of pattern in which there is a decrease in the activation of the dorsal amygdala and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
In those not so emotionally affected by reminders of their loss, studies of fMRI scans have been used to conclude that there is a high functional connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting that the former regulates activity in the latter. In those people who had greater intensity of sadness, there was a low functional connection between the rostal anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting a lack of regulation of the former part of the brain upon the latter.
Evolutionary theories
From an evolutionary perspective, grief is perplexing because it appears costly, and it is not clear what benefits it provides the sufferer. Several researchers have proposed functional explanations for grief, attempting to solve this puzzle. Sigmund Freud argued that grief is a process of libidinal reinvestment. The griever must, Freud argued, disinvest from the deceased, which is a painful process. But this disinvestment allows the griever to use libidinal energies on other, possibly new attachments, so it provides a valuable function. John Archer, approaching grief from an attachment theory perspective, argued that grief is a byproduct of the human attachment system. Generally, a grief-type response is adaptive because it compels a social organism to search for a lost individual (e.g., a mother or a child). However, in the case of death, the response is maladaptive because the individual is not simply lost and the griever cannot reunite with the deceased. Grief, from this perspective, is a painful cost of the human capacity to form commitments.
Other researchers such as Randolph Nesse have proposed that grief is a kind of psychological pain that orients the sufferer to a new existence without the deceased and creates a painful but instructive memory. If, for example, leaving an offspring alone at a watering hole led to the offspring's death, grief creates an intensively painful memory of the event, dissuading a parent from ever again leaving an offspring alone at a watering hole. More recently, Bo Winegard and colleagues argued that grief might be a socially selected signal of an individual's propensity for forming strong, committed relationships. From this social signaling perspective, grief targets old and new social partners, informing them that the griever is capable of forming strong social commitments. That is, because grief signals a person's capacity to form strong and faithful social bonds, those who displayed prolonged grief responses were preferentially chosen by alliance partners. The authors argue that throughout human evolution, grief was therefore shaped and elaborated by the social decisions of selective alliance partners.
Risks
Bereavement, while a normal part of life, carries a degree of risk when severe. Severe reactions affect approximately 10% to 15% of people. Severe reactions mainly occur in people with depression present before the loss event. Severe grief reactions may carry over into family relations. Some researchers have found an increased risk of marital breakup following the death of a child, for example. Others have found no increase. John James, author of the Grief Recovery Handbook and founder of the Grief Recovery Institute, reported that his marriage broke up after the death of his infant son.
Health risks
Many studies have looked at the bereaved in terms of increased risks for stress-related illnesses. Colin Murray Parkes in the 1960s and 1970s in England noted increased doctor visits, with symptoms such as abdominal pain, breathing difficulties, and so forth in the first six months following a death. Others have noted increased mortality rates (Ward, A.W. 1976) and Bunch et al. found a five times greater risk of suicide in teens following the death of a parent. Bereavement also increases the risk of heart attack.
Complicated grief
Prolonged grief disorder (PGD), formerly known as complicated grief disorder (CGD), is a pathological reaction to loss representing a cluster of empirically derived symptoms that have been associated with long-term physical and psycho-social dysfunction. Individuals with PGD experience severe grief symptoms for at least six months and are stuck in a maladaptive state. An attempt is being made to create a diagnosis category for complicated grief in the DSM-5. It is currently an "area for further study" in the DSM, under the name Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder. Critics of including the diagnosis of complicated grief in the DSM-5 say that doing so will constitute characterizing a natural response as a pathology, and will result in wholesale medicating of people who are essentially normal.
Shear and colleagues found an effective treatment for complicated grief, by treating the reactions in the same way as trauma reactions.
Complicated grief is not synonymous with grief. Complicated grief is characterised by an extended grieving period and other criteria, including mental and physical impairments. An important part of understanding complicated grief is understanding how the symptoms differ from normal grief. The Mayo Clinic states that with normal grief the feelings of loss are evident. When the reaction turns into complicated grief, however, the feelings of loss become incapacitating and continue even though time passes. The signs and symptoms characteristic of complicated grief are listed as "extreme focus on the loss and reminders of the loved one, intense longing or pining for the deceased, problems accepting the death, numbness or detachment ... bitterness about your loss, inability to enjoy life, depression or deep sadness, trouble carrying out normal routines, withdrawing from social activities, feeling that life holds no meaning or purpose, irritability or agitation, lack of trust in others". The symptoms seen in complicated grief are specific because the symptoms seem to be a combination of the symptoms found in separation as well as traumatic distress. They are also considered to be complicated because, unlike normal grief, these symptoms will continue regardless of the amount of time that has passed and despite treatment given from tricyclic antidepressants. Individuals with complicated grief symptoms are likely to have other mental disorders such as PTSD (post traumatic syndrome disorder), depression, anxiety, etc.
An article by the NEJM (The New England Journal of Medicine) states complicated grief cases are multifactorial, and that complicated grief is distinguished from major depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Evidence shows that complicated grief is a more severe and prolonged version of acute grief than a completely different type of grief. While only affecting 2 to 3% of people in the world, complicated grief is usually contracted when a loved one passes away suddenly and in a violent way.
In the study "Bereavement and Late-Life Depression: Grief and its Complications in the Elderly" six subjects with symptoms of complicated grief were given a dose of Paroxetine, a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, and showed a 50% decrease in their symptoms within a three-month period. The Mental Health Clinical Research team theorizes that the symptoms of complicated grief in bereaved elderly are an alternative of post-traumatic stress. These symptoms were correlated with cancer, hypertension, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, increased smoking, and sleep impairments at around six months after spousal death.
A treatment that has been found beneficial in dealing with the symptoms associated with complicated grief is the use of serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors such as Paroxetine. These inhibitors have been found to reduce intrusive thoughts, avoidant behaviors, and hyperarousal that are associated with complicated grief. In addition psychotherapy techniques are in the process of being developed.
Disenfranchised grief
Disenfranchised grief is a term describing grief that is not acknowledged by society. Examples of events leading to disenfranchised grief are the death of a friend, the loss of a pet, a trauma in the family a generation prior, the loss of a home or place of residence particularly in the case of children, who generally have little or no control in such situations, and whose grief may not be noticed or understood by caregivers. American military children and teens in particular move a great deal while growing up, an aborted/miscarried pregnancy, a parent's loss or surrender of a child to adoption, a child's loss of their birth parent to adoption, the death of a loved one due to a socially unacceptable cause such as suicide, or the death of a celebrity.
Examples of bereavement
Death of a child
Death of a child can take the form of a loss in infancy such as miscarriage or stillbirth or neonatal death, SIDS, or the death of an older child. Among adults over the age of 50, approximately 11% have been predeceased by at least one of their offspring.
In most cases, parents find the grief almost unbearably devastating, and it tends to hold greater risk factors than any other loss. This loss also bears a lifelong process: one does not get 'over' the death but instead must assimilate and live with it. Intervention and comforting support can make all the difference to the survival of a parent in this type of grief but the risk factors are great and may include family breakup or suicide.
Feelings of guilt, whether legitimate or not, are pervasive, and the dependent nature of the relationship disposes parents to a variety of problems as they seek to cope with this great loss. Parents who suffer miscarriage or a regretful or coerced abortion may experience resentment towards others who experience successful pregnancies.
Suicide
Parents may feel they cannot openly discuss their grief and feel their emotions because of how their child died and how the people around them may perceive the situation. Parents, family members and service providers have all confirmed the unique nature of suicide-related bereavement following the loss of a child. The difference in suicide-related bereavement is that there are different reactions and ways when we respond to the loss of someone we love dearly. Some examples are post-traumatic stress, family, and relationship tensions. Post-traumatic stress (PTS) can affect the person severely when witnessing the death of someone. It can give them horrible trauma and nightmares may occur making them have a lack sleep. Another reaction is family and relationship tensions. Having loved ones by their side could really support them, but some families might lack connections or communications with one another. They feel as if they are going to bring more burden to others. Some have different perspectives on themselves when communicating with others and might keep their feelings to themselves. It's a way to protect their inner feelings as if they're scared to share with others.
Death of a spouse
Many widows and widowers describe losing 'half' of themselves. A factor is the manner in which the spouse died. The survivor of a spouse who died of an illness has a different experience of such loss than a survivor of a spouse who died by an act of violence. Often, the spouse who is "left behind" may suffer from depression and loneliness, and may feel it necessary to seek professional help in dealing with their new life.
Furthermore, most couples have a division of 'tasks' or 'labor', e.g., the husband mows the yard, the wife pays the bills, etc. which, in addition to dealing with great grief and life changes, means added responsibilities for the bereaved. Planning and financing a funeral can be very difficult if pre-planning was not completed. Changes in insurance, bank accounts, claiming of life insurance, securing childcare can also be intimidating to someone who is grieving. Social isolation may also become imminent, as many groups composed of couples find it difficult to adjust to the new identity of the bereaved, and the bereaved themselves have great challenges in reconnecting with others. Widows of many cultures, for instance, wear black for the rest of their lives to signify the loss of their spouse and their grief. Only in more recent decades has this tradition been reduced to a period of two years, while some religions such as Orthodox Christianity many widows will still continue to wear black for the remainder of their lives.
Death of a sibling
Grieving siblings are often referred to as the 'forgotten mourners' who are made to feel as if their grief is not as severe as their parents' grief (N.a., 2015). However, the sibling relationship tends to be the longest significant relationship of the lifespan and siblings who have been part of each other's lives since birth, such as twins, help form and sustain each other's identities; with the death of one sibling comes the loss of that part of the survivor's identity because "your identity is based on having them there".
If siblings were not on good terms or close with each other, then intense feelings of guilt may ensue on the part of the surviving sibling (guilt may also ensue for having survived, not being able to prevent the death, having argued with their sibling, etc.)
Death of a parent
For an adult
When an adult child loses a parent in later adulthood, it is considered to be "timely" and to be a normative life course event. This allows the adult children to feel a permitted level of grief. However, research shows that the death of a parent in an adult's midlife is not a normative event by any measure, but is a major life transition causing an evaluation of one's own life or mortality. Others may shut out friends and family in processing the loss of someone with whom they have had the longest relationship.
In developed countries, people typically lose parents after the age of 50.
For a child
For a child, the death of a parent, without support to manage the effects of the grief, may result in long-term psychological harm. This is more likely if the adult carers are struggling with their own grief and are psychologically unavailable to the child. There is a critical role of the surviving parent or caregiver in helping the children adapt to a parent's death. However, losing a parent at a young age also has some positive effects. Some children had an increased maturity, better coping skills and improved communication. Adolescents who lost a parent valued other people more than those who have not experienced such a close loss.
Loss during childhood
When a parent or caregiver dies or leaves, children may have symptoms of psychopathology, but they are less severe than in children with major depression. The loss of a parent, grandparent or sibling can be very troubling in childhood, but even in childhood there are age differences in relation to the loss. A very young child, under one or two, may be found to have no reaction if a carer dies, but other children may be affected by the loss.
At a time when trust and dependency are formed, even mere separation can cause problems in well-being. This is especially true if the loss is around critical periods such as 8–12 months, when attachment and separation are at their height and even a brief separation from a parent or other caregiver can cause distress.
Even as a child grows older, death is still difficult to fathom and this affects how a child responds. For example, younger children see death more as a separation, and may believe death is curable or temporary. Reactions can manifest themselves in "acting out" behaviors, a return to earlier behaviors such as thumb sucking, clinging to a toy or angry behavior. Though they do not have the maturity to mourn as an adult, they feel the same intensity. As children enter pre-teen and teen years, there is a more mature understanding.
Adolescents may respond by delinquency, or oppositely become "over-achievers". Repetitive actions are not uncommon such as washing a car repeatedly or taking up repetitive tasks such as sewing, computer games, etc. It is an effort to stay above the grief. Childhood loss can predispose a child not only to physical illness but to emotional problems and an increased risk for suicide, especially in the adolescent period.
Grief can be experienced as a result of losses due to causes other than death. For example, women who have been physically, psychologically or sexually abused often grieve over the damage to or the loss of their ability to trust. This is likely to be experienced as disenfranchised grief.
In relation to the specific issue of child sexual abuse, it has been argued by some commentators that the concepts of loss and grief offer particularly useful analytical frames for understanding both the impact of child sexual abuse and therapeutic ways to respond to it. From this perspective, child sexual abuse may represent for many children multiple forms of loss: not only of trust but also loss of control over their bodies, loss of innocence and indeed loss of their very childhoods.
Relocations can cause children significant grief particularly if they are combined with other difficult circumstances such as neglectful or abusive parental behaviors, other significant losses, etc.
Loss of a friend or classmate
Children may experience the death of a friend or a classmate through illness, accidents, suicide, or violence. Initial support involves reassuring children that their emotional and physical feelings are normal.
Survivor guilt (or survivor's guilt; also called survivor syndrome or survivor's syndrome) is a mental condition that occurs when a person perceives themselves to have done wrong by surviving a traumatic event when others did not. It may be found among survivors of combat, natural disasters, epidemics, among the friends and family of those who have died by suicide, and in non-mortal situations such as among those whose colleagues are laid off.
Other losses
Parents may grieve due to loss of children through means other than death, for example through loss of custody in divorce proceedings; legal termination of parental rights by the government, such as in cases of child abuse; through kidnapping; because the child voluntarily left home (either as a runaway or, for overage children, by leaving home legally); or because an adult refuses or is unable to have contact with a parent. This loss differs from the death of a child in that the grief process is prolonged or denied because of hope that the relationship will be restored.
Grief may occur after the loss of a romantic relationship (i.e. divorce or break up), a vocation, a pet (animal loss), a home, children leaving home (empty nest syndrome), sibling(s) leaving home, a friend, a faith in one's religion, etc. A person who strongly identifies with their occupation may feel a sense of grief if they have to stop their job due to retirement, being laid off, injury, or loss of certification. Those who have experienced a loss of trust will often also experience some form of grief.
Veteran bereavement
The grief of living veteran soldiers is often ignored. Psychological effects and post traumatic syndrome disorder have been researched and studied but very few focus on grief and bereavement specifically. Additionally, there have been many studies conducted about families losing members who were in the military but little about soldiers themselves. There are many monuments paying respect to those who were lost which emphasizes the lack of focus living veterans and soldiers get in regards to grief.
Gradual bereavement
Many of the above examples of bereavement happen abruptly, but there are also cases of being gradually bereft of something or someone. For example, the gradual loss of a loved one by Alzheimer's produces a "gradual grief".
The author Kara Tippetts described her dying of cancer, as dying "by degrees": her "body failing" and her "abilities vanishing". Milton Crum, writing about gradual bereavement says that "every degree of death, every death of a person's characteristics, every death of a person's abilities, is a bereavement".
Sensory experiences of the deceased
Bereaved people often report having sensory and quasi-sensory experiences of the deceased (SED), which were correlated with pathology like grief complications.
Support
Professional support
Many people who grieve do not need professional help. Some, however, may seek additional support from licensed psychologists or psychiatrists. Support resources available to the bereaved may include grief counseling, professional support-groups or educational classes, and peer-led support groups. In the United States of America, local hospice agencies may provide a first contact for those seeking bereavement support.
It is important to recognize when grief has turned into something more serious, thus mandating contacting a medical professional. Grief can result in depression or alcohol- and drug-abuse and, if left untreated, it can become severe enough to impact daily living. It recommends contacting a medical professional if "you can't deal with grief, you are using excessive amounts of drugs or alcohol, you become very depressed, or you have prolonged depression that interferes with your daily life". Other reasons to seek medical attention may include: "Can focus on little else but your loved one's death, have persistent pining or longing for the deceased person, have thoughts of guilt or self-blame, believe that you did something wrong or could have prevented the death, feel as if life is not worth living, have lost your sense of purpose in life, wish you had died along with your loved one".
Professionals can use multiple ways to help someone cope and move through their grief. Hypnosis is sometimes used as an adjunct therapy in helping patients experiencing grief. Hypnosis enhances and facilitates mourning and helps patients to resolve traumatic grief. Art therapy may also be used to allow the bereaved to process their grief in a non-verbal way.
Lichtenthal and Cruess (2010) studied how bereavement-specific written disclosure had benefits in helping adjust to loss, and in helping improve the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), prolonged grief disorder, and depression. Directed writing helped many of the individuals who had experienced a loss of a significant relationship. It involved individuals trying to make meaning out of the loss through meaning-making (making sense of what happened and the cause of the death), or through benefit finding (consideration of the global significance of the loss of one's goals, and helping the family develop a greater appreciation of life). This meaning-making can come naturally for some, but many need direct intervention to "move on".
Support groups
Support groups for bereaved individuals follow a diversity of patterns. Many are organized purely as peer-to-peer groups such as local chapters of the Compassionate Friends, an international group for bereaved parents. Other grief support groups are led by professionals, perhaps with the assistance of peers. Some support groups deal with specific problems, such as learning to plan meals and cook for only for one person.
Cultural differences in grieving
Each culture specifies manners such as rituals, styles of dress, or other habits, as well as attitudes, in which the bereaved are encouraged or expected to take part. An analysis of non-Western cultures suggests that beliefs about continuing ties with the deceased varies. In Japan, maintenance of ties with the deceased is accepted and carried out through religious rituals. In the Hopi of Arizona, the women go into self induced hallucinations where they conjure images of the passed loved one to mourn and process their grief.
Different cultures grieve in different ways, but all have ways that are vital in healthy coping with the death of a loved one. The American family's approach to grieving was depicted in "The Grief Committee", by T. Glen Coughlin. The short story gives an inside look at how the American culture has learned to cope with the tribulations and difficulties of grief. The story is taught in the course, "The Politics of Mourning: Grief Management in a Cross-Cultural Fiction" at Columbia University.
In those with cognitive impairment
Contrary to the belief that those who have a high degree of cognitive impairment, such as an intellectual disability, are unable to process the loss of those around them, those with cognitive impairments are able to process grief in a similar manner to those without cognitive impairment. One of the main differences between those with an intellectual disability and those without is typically the ability to verbalize their feelings about the loss, which is why non-verbal cues and changes in behavior become so important, because these are usually signs of distress and expression of grief among this population. It is important when working with individuals with these such impairments that caregivers and family members meet them where their level of functioning is and allow them to process the loss and grief with assistance given where needed, and not to ignore the grief that these individuals undergo. An important aspect of treatment of grief for those with an intellectual disability is family involvement where possible, which may take the form of a biological family or a family created in a group home or clinical setting. By having the family involved in an open and supporting dialogue with the individual it helps them to process. However, if the family is not properly educated on how these individuals handle loss, their involvement may not be as beneficial than those who are educated. The importance of the family unit is very crucial in a socio-cognitive approach to bereavement counseling. In this approach the individual with intellectual disability has the opportunity to see how those around them handle the loss and have the opportunity to act accordingly by modeling behavior. This approach also helps the individual know that their emotions are acceptable and normal.
In animals
Previously it was believed that grief was only a human emotion, but studies have shown that other animals have shown grief or grief-like states during the death of another animal, most notably elephants, wolves, apes, and goats. This can occur between bonded animals which are animals that attempt to survive together (i.e. a pack of wolves or mated prairie voles). Animals are bonded species like humans. There is evidence that animals experience grief in the loss of their group member, a mate, or their owner for many days. Some animals show their grief for their loss for many years. When animals are grieving, their life routines change the same as humans. For instance, they may stop eating, isolate themselves, or change their sleeping routine by taking naps instead of sleeping during the night. After the death of their group member or a mate, some of the animals become depressed, while others like the bonobo keep the dead bodies of their babies for a long time. Cats try to find their dead fellow with a mourning cry, and dogs and horses become depressed.
Since it is more difficult to study emotion in animals because of the lack of clear communication, in effort to study grief, research has been done on hormone levels. One study found that "females [baboons] showed significant increases in stress hormones called glucocorticoids". The female baboons then increased grooming, promoting physical touch, which releases "oxytocin, which inhibits glucocorticoid release".
Mammals
Mammals have demonstrated grief-like states, especially between a mother and her offspring. She will often stay close to her dead offspring for short periods of time and may investigate the reasons for the baby's non-response. For example, some deer will often sniff, poke, and look at its lifeless fawn before realizing it is dead and leaving it to rejoin the herd shortly afterwards. Other animals, such as a lioness, will pick up its cub in its mouth and place it somewhere else before abandoning it.
When a baby chimpanzee or gorilla dies, the mother will carry the body around for several days before she may finally be able to move on without it; this behavior has been observed in other primates, as well. The Royal Society suggests that, "Such interactions have been proposed to be related to maternal condition, attachment, environmental conditions or reflect a lack of awareness that the infant has died." Jane Goodall has described chimpanzees as exhibiting mournful behavior toward the loss of a group member with silence and by showing more attention to it. And they will often continue grooming it and stay close to the carcass until the group must move on without it. One example of this Goodall observed was of a chimpanzee mother of three who had died. The siblings stayed by their mother's body the whole day. Of the three siblings the youngest showed the most agitation by screaming and became depressed but was able to recover by the care of the two older siblings. However, the youngest refused behavior from the siblings that were similar to the mother. Another notable example is Koko, a gorilla who was taught sign language, who expressed sadness and even described sadness about the death of her pet cat, All Ball.
Elephants, have shown unusual behavior upon encountering the remains of another deceased elephant. They will often investigate it by touching and grabbing it with their trunks and have the whole herd stand around it for long periods of time until they must leave it behind. It is unknown whether they are mourning over it and showing sympathy, or are just curious and investigating the dead body. Elephants are thought to be able to discern relatives even from their remains. When encountering the body of a deceased elephant or human, elephants have been witnessed covering the body with vegetation and soil in what seems to be burial behavior. An episode of the acclaimed BBC Documentary Life on Earth shows this in detail – the elephants, upon finding a dead herd member, pause for several minutes at a time, and carefully touch and hold the dead creature's bones.
Birds
Some birds seem to lack the perception of grief or quickly accept it; mallard hens, although shocked for a moment when losing one of their young to a predator, will soon return to doing what they were doing before the predator attacked. However, some other waterbirds, such as mute swans are known to grieve for the loss of a partner or cygnet, and are known to engage in pining for days, weeks or even months at a time. Other species of swans such as the black swan have also been observed mourning the loss of a close relative.
Monogamous animals
Another form of grief in animals is when an individual loses its mate; this can be especially brutal when the species is monogamous. So when a pair bonding species, such as a black-backed jackal, loses its mate it can be very difficult for it to detach itself from its dead mate.
See also
References
Further reading
Hoy, William G. (2016). Bereavement Groups and the Role of Social Support: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice. New York: Routledge.
Schmid, Wilhelm, What We Gain As We Grow Older: On Gelassenheit. New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2016 (Living Now Gold Award)
Smith, Melinda; Robinson, Lawrence; Segal, Jeanne. (1997). Depression in Older Adults and the Elderly. Helpguide, Retrieved Feb. 08, 2012.
Span, Paula. (2011, Dec. 29). The unspoken diagnosis: Old age. New York Times. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2012
Stengel, Kathrin, November Rose: A Speech on Death. New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2007 (Independent Publisher Book Award for Aging/Death & Dying)
External links
"Grieving: A study of bereavement" by Megan O'Rourke at Slate.com
"Grief & Bereavement – An Overview by Associated Counsellors & Psychologists
Speaking Grief
Counseling
Undertaking
Emotions | [
-0.11115027219057083,
0.49900612235069275,
-0.4107312560081482,
-0.11387670040130615,
-0.3906231224536896,
0.33688798546791077,
0.5435329079627991,
0.3676430284976959,
0.0026723158080130816,
-0.4912063777446747,
-0.3473656177520752,
0.21843942999839783,
-0.06327848136425018,
0.7461974024772644,
-0.47379299998283386,
0.33492183685302734,
-0.06230490282177925,
0.5962561368942261,
-0.29344165325164795,
-0.3067060708999634,
-0.5532190799713135,
-0.25811895728111267,
0.009272351861000061,
0.15310360491275787,
0.40226873755455017,
0.3103971779346466,
0.4297064542770386,
-0.34020623564720154,
0.18758279085159302,
-0.06884385645389557,
-0.2582455277442932,
0.3692033290863037,
-0.13124236464500427,
-0.30319690704345703,
-0.6899730563163757,
0.2842622995376587,
-0.1760043501853943,
-0.4453905522823334,
-0.6201302409172058,
-0.40492525696754456,
0.011269682087004185,
0.005232061725109816,
-0.1699751764535904,
0.5123755931854248,
-0.14439205825328827,
-0.4407176673412323,
-1.7302805185317993,
0.36929935216903687,
-0.30560946464538574,
-0.40076640248298645,
-0.01506881695240736,
0.17044463753700256,
0.4953140616416931,
0.2891770601272583,
-0.48546385765075684,
0.47691479325294495,
-0.3346787393093109,
0.033497296273708344,
0.30355003476142883,
-0.6379230618476868,
0.38594070076942444,
-0.26101380586624146,
0.21377885341644287,
-0.03901924192905426,
0.251420795917511,
0.12900537252426147,
0.03492758423089981,
0.4504654109477997,
-0.4082965850830078,
-0.7022631168365479,
-0.3589393198490143,
-0.19761954247951508,
0.17499497532844543,
0.2841460704803467,
-0.4473307430744171,
0.3396417498588562,
-0.34564733505249023,
-0.866240918636322,
-0.10618976503610611,
0.3709098696708679,
-0.4171425998210907,
0.48548468947410583,
0.06059170141816139,
-0.06754694133996964,
0.343139111995697,
-0.33252784609794617,
0.027019407600164413,
0.8347375392913818,
-0.1660851389169693,
0.7326701879501343,
0.6316885948181152,
-0.13064192235469818,
0.7430610656738281,
0.018794937059283257,
0.03223474323749542,
0.12105756253004074,
0.8464586138725281,
-0.004727591760456562,
-0.07808898389339447,
-0.049292758107185364,
0.04800640046596527,
-0.3139488101005554,
0.19947177171707153,
-0.6370155215263367,
0.22700129449367523,
-0.5463497638702393,
-0.0180551465600729,
-0.3965299725532532,
0.1772708147764206,
-0.7918738126754761,
-0.315329372882843,
0.4496496319770813,
-0.5791259407997131,
0.23011429607868195,
-0.8704879283905029,
-0.24498425424098969,
0.17553821206092834,
-0.12602956593036652,
0.2520938217639923,
-0.21852533519268036,
0.03651970997452736,
-0.1312105804681778,
-0.2885008752346039,
-0.5879471898078918,
-0.4337332844734192,
0.10268628597259521,
0.14370796084403992,
0.4763535261154175,
-0.7575835585594177,
-0.11439620703458786,
0.10522516071796417,
0.33458954095840454,
-0.16933326423168182,
-0.24876245856285095,
0.1526559740304947,
-0.10382668673992157,
-0.0024471727665513754,
0.01940772496163845,
0.11009383946657181,
-0.11849968880414963,
-0.45004311203956604,
-0.6140915155410767,
-0.7779902815818787,
0.03492746502161026,
0.5728142261505127,
-0.18864049017429352,
0.18669699132442474,
-0.20205995440483093,
0.18419939279556274,
-0.08006852865219116,
-0.07952387630939484,
0.08044049888849258,
-0.020593369379639626,
0.015332141891121864,
-0.4473534822463989,
-0.07028181105852127,
0.31154370307922363,
-0.6522926688194275,
0.333239883184433,
0.33654657006263733,
0.07637804001569748,
0.01930873468518257,
-0.09643895924091339,
-0.025017714127898216,
0.06397949159145355,
-0.11141832917928696,
0.21085965633392334,
0.422957181930542,
-0.19511152803897858,
0.050047166645526886,
-0.3687264323234558,
0.30807608366012573,
0.33917027711868286,
-0.3705796003341675,
-0.1094716340303421,
0.04862242937088013,
0.07597295939922333,
-0.10592518746852875,
0.48332932591438293,
0.07209934294223785,
-0.5640700459480286,
0.40492209792137146,
-0.1693185418844223,
-0.11265213787555695,
0.31148821115493774,
-0.029485100880265236,
-0.11493005603551865,
0.08531080931425095,
-0.09987861663103104,
-0.07536919414997101,
-0.7637204527854919,
-0.8661123514175415,
-0.28539934754371643,
-0.15870250761508942,
0.7469041347503662,
-0.6323096752166748,
-0.27189090847969055,
1.0504050254821777,
0.32573434710502625,
0.3151579201221466,
-0.2014874368906021,
-0.4163111746311188,
0.07099886238574982,
-0.255899041891098,
-0.513871431350708,
0.7506053447723389,
0.3023775517940521,
0.5794435739517212,
-0.28316813707351685,
0.08067379146814346,
0.04309340938925743,
-0.16142424941062927,
0.16987329721450806,
0.010630689561367035,
0.10159541666507721,
0.28447672724723816,
-0.46016085147857666,
0.25560262799263,
-0.3856493830680847,
-0.16074199974536896,
0.5039797425270081,
-0.10749025642871857,
-0.17891180515289307,
0.18431885540485382,
0.0055883293971419334,
0.7839365601539612,
-0.12537746131420135,
-0.20943930745124817,
0.5503112077713013,
-0.8858219981193542,
0.5310397148132324,
0.629892885684967,
0.015201998874545097,
-0.021322662010788918,
-0.5573943257331848,
0.33652716875076294,
0.19950875639915466,
-0.5259735584259033,
-0.013601124286651611,
-0.10616520792245865,
-0.3607262074947357,
0.12667952477931976,
0.3992626965045929,
0.28752753138542175,
0.21808737516403198,
-0.23153364658355713,
-0.16666650772094727,
0.26557815074920654,
-0.5492153763771057,
0.5377300381660461,
0.1153661459684372,
0.43951985239982605,
0.230631485581398,
0.2026374638080597,
0.14081791043281555,
-0.5231307744979858,
0.16120584309101105,
0.20170198380947113,
-0.18274123966693878,
-0.16322550177574158,
0.09439551085233688,
0.24894164502620697,
0.32401856780052185,
-0.15264785289764404,
-0.1955757886171341,
-0.20404714345932007,
-0.6746667623519897,
0.0890074074268341,
0.489745557308197,
0.5394127368927002,
0.7856295704841614,
-0.08454594761133194,
-0.2241448163986206,
0.059812992811203,
-0.4862824082374573,
-0.6259005069732666,
0.4218432605266571,
0.0812186449766159,
-0.08404991030693054,
-0.18966716527938843,
0.022063929587602615,
0.6953012943267822,
0.24580241739749908,
-0.5509285926818848,
0.1260133683681488,
-0.3037120997905731,
0.18596918880939484,
-0.1318047046661377,
0.06139430031180382,
0.13981568813323975,
-0.3469705879688263,
0.2704823315143585,
0.5571305155754089,
0.020615529268980026,
0.8237195014953613,
0.25511932373046875,
0.27620819211006165,
0.6681673526763916,
0.31696784496307373,
-0.5582395792007446,
-0.424443781375885,
-0.42532768845558167,
-0.46834298968315125,
-0.4487919211387634,
0.0682644248008728,
0.16996483504772186,
-0.010380089282989502,
-0.07480619102716446,
-5.8629279136657715,
-0.2794138193130493,
0.04079010710120201,
-0.44066062569618225,
0.1319480985403061,
0.4623126983642578,
1.1347863674163818,
-0.07129543274641037,
-0.645881175994873,
0.3558647632598877,
-0.2820514440536499,
0.024059459567070007,
0.3687225878238678,
0.028805755078792572,
0.33015263080596924,
-0.2834978699684143,
-0.04935198649764061,
0.3377617299556732,
-0.17060820758342743,
0.2634364366531372,
-0.09857627749443054,
0.6489806175231934,
-0.5411615371704102,
0.6714009046554565,
-0.08898774534463882,
-0.1249399334192276,
0.25029832124710083,
0.47809112071990967,
-0.3058905303478241,
0.5385352373123169,
0.6880614161491394,
0.20628942549228668,
0.44462332129478455,
0.25103098154067993,
0.02804194949567318,
0.17778554558753967,
0.22469253838062286,
0.18290893733501434,
-0.21693482995033264,
0.002155188238248229,
-0.37423837184906006,
0.15056751668453217,
0.24678200483322144,
-0.10737907141447067,
0.11751476675271988,
-0.0693812221288681,
-0.28616026043891907,
-0.25764092803001404,
-0.22538937628269196,
0.4213417172431946,
0.03638594597578049,
0.30310383439064026,
0.29415181279182434,
-0.36935049295425415,
0.2482355386018753,
0.08821460604667664,
0.2730269730091095,
-0.6413463950157166,
-0.5852981805801392,
-0.09294499456882477,
0.14899234473705292,
-0.03972526267170906,
0.30875635147094727,
-0.5289825797080994,
0.04930448904633522,
-0.16883264482021332,
-0.7223188281059265,
-1.0062323808670044,
0.30907759070396423,
0.18128646910190582,
-0.06681623309850693,
0.10284102708101273,
0.042837388813495636,
-0.8442104458808899,
-0.08881795406341553,
-0.601918637752533,
-0.200166255235672,
-0.040681492537260056,
-0.1076851561665535,
0.038377344608306885,
-0.1969670206308365,
0.01843038573861122,
-0.533653974533081,
-0.1222456619143486,
0.19803303480148315,
-0.14039207994937897,
-0.008173022419214249,
0.11997540295124054,
-0.43220797181129456,
-0.0775771290063858,
0.48255783319473267,
0.24906520545482635,
-0.12070679664611816,
-0.06652811914682388,
-0.05293305218219757,
0.6387348175048828,
-0.0799555629491806,
-0.023322366178035736,
0.7118337154388428,
-0.30695584416389465,
0.5945236682891846,
-0.12218806147575378,
-0.1357104331254959,
-0.0029350616969168186,
0.37952157855033875,
-0.3780859708786011,
-0.16229628026485443,
0.5680950880050659,
1.1319671869277954,
-0.30151796340942383,
0.4063057601451874,
0.30186915397644043,
-0.1259341537952423,
-0.17266644537448883,
0.10632482916116714,
0.03439982235431671,
-0.44282469153404236,
0.2995646297931671,
0.33578184247016907,
0.11634088307619095,
0.35803496837615967,
0.05756305903196335,
-0.5607019066810608,
0.017043055966496468,
0.06521579623222351,
-0.19362320005893707,
-0.009277582168579102,
-0.16861750185489655,
-0.27698585391044617,
0.22369487583637238,
0.9269188046455383,
0.2992474436759949,
0.34285473823547363,
0.5873585939407349,
-0.06622756272554398,
-0.4628353416919708,
0.2071111500263214,
0.04163213446736336,
-0.30522552132606506,
-1.0807298421859741,
0.34878474473953247,
-0.1437177211046219,
-0.564935028553009,
-0.04141377657651901,
0.8172913789749146,
0.2577846050262451,
-0.5829570889472961,
-0.06120915338397026,
-0.09346838295459747,
-0.10184987634420395,
-0.4819698631763458,
-0.12216782569885254,
-0.2691105306148529,
-0.12173067033290863,
-0.33939576148986816,
-0.04181845486164093,
-0.01567947492003441,
0.022767456248402596,
-0.288217157125473,
-0.3613107204437256,
-0.5454776287078857,
-0.3929463028907776,
-0.776786744594574,
-0.5232794880867004,
-0.29421934485435486,
-0.20091891288757324,
-0.48062044382095337,
-0.39202865958213806,
0.26553064584732056,
0.61038738489151,
0.11055763065814972,
-0.17469210922718048,
-0.3137980103492737,
-0.6235687732696533,
0.2049342393875122,
0.05862518772482872,
-0.3283596932888031,
0.043213557451963425,
-0.11118980497121811,
0.14735795557498932,
-0.0740191861987114,
0.027424585074186325,
-0.11107460409402847,
0.16624853014945984,
0.10362788289785385,
0.2235749363899231,
-0.012808340601623058,
0.3326888978481293,
-1.010366678237915,
-0.09309422969818115,
0.0883893221616745,
-0.4721243381500244,
0.03520508110523224,
0.12625160813331604,
0.3228623569011688,
0.24163399636745453,
-0.06673126667737961,
-0.3977249562740326,
-0.2384704351425171,
-0.11980629712343216,
0.5839808583259583,
0.5206201672554016,
-0.3735114336013794,
0.052144140005111694,
-0.022297369316220284,
-0.636681854724884,
0.5012770891189575,
0.19447852671146393,
-0.8887958526611328,
0.47217410802841187,
-0.5246193408966064,
-0.12181852012872696,
-0.19745159149169922,
0.6099284887313843,
0.16373507678508759,
0.20898942649364471,
0.43690380454063416,
-0.6162253022193909,
0.499532550573349,
-0.8098104596138,
0.6059018969535828,
0.39816537499427795,
-0.19697554409503937,
0.0007885347586125135,
-0.43393275141716003,
-0.06493796408176422,
0.33346521854400635,
-0.6179410815238953,
0.5548410415649414,
0.18812258541584015,
-0.4257853031158447,
0.22049447894096375,
0.03050193563103676,
-0.3793645203113556,
-0.31105586886405945,
-0.743883490562439,
0.12110372632741928,
-0.04925791174173355,
0.308681845664978,
-0.2843971252441406,
0.2912648022174835,
0.7938024401664734,
0.4739009439945221,
-0.3526487350463867,
-0.0331730991601944,
0.26751112937927246,
0.041307009756565094,
-0.6834180355072021,
-0.22928623855113983,
0.4962090253829956,
0.5325925946235657,
-0.26689523458480835,
-0.5627315044403076,
-0.1887972354888916,
-0.07612097263336182,
0.028223294764757156,
-0.36161842942237854,
-0.40185314416885376,
0.33147987723350525,
0.4106767475605011,
0.41439732909202576,
-0.21937555074691772,
-0.21334537863731384,
0.01678418181836605,
0.8039841651916504,
0.33376747369766235,
0.2034444659948349,
0.5096239447593689,
0.033753059804439545,
-0.35026848316192627,
0.2662641108036041,
0.44000643491744995,
0.435003399848938,
0.19096998870372772,
0.17228850722312927,
0.41406169533729553,
-0.35795557498931885,
-0.2526056170463562,
-0.17281602323055267,
-0.07858636230230331,
0.48310256004333496,
-0.6425756812095642,
0.2580326199531555,
-0.31344959139823914,
0.15102732181549072,
-0.5225000977516174,
0.6354198455810547,
-0.045135121792554855,
-0.6690395474433899,
-0.22791032493114471,
-0.5099217295646667,
-0.18578968942165375,
0.12925836443901062,
0.6826106309890747,
-0.10517305880784988,
0.36039596796035767,
-0.4064229130744934,
0.5989210605621338,
-0.15487301349639893,
-0.057623524218797684,
-0.9487425684928894,
0.6058086156845093,
-0.393382728099823,
-0.48491254448890686,
0.43808090686798096,
-0.022558722645044327,
-0.1696929782629013,
-0.5279600620269775,
0.31996950507164,
0.1521279513835907,
-0.03637693449854851,
0.0538063682615757,
0.31283944845199585,
0.6682004332542419,
-0.11412136256694794,
-0.37046000361442566,
0.4081471562385559,
-0.34094342589378357,
0.3192581534385681,
0.26225563883781433,
-0.01945084147155285,
-0.19472569227218628,
0.8681707382202148,
-0.5888073444366455,
0.15530744194984436,
0.4540230631828308,
-0.38264548778533936,
0.3714900314807892,
0.14648044109344482,
0.5830617547035217,
0.666103720664978,
0.27183786034584045,
0.17833831906318665,
0.4570004642009735,
0.005555054638534784,
-0.40624216198921204,
-0.0613272525370121,
-0.39679569005966187,
-0.7420072555541992,
0.6018245220184326,
0.4119766056537628,
0.13794738054275513,
0.49713194370269775,
0.6476888656616211,
-0.16085697710514069,
0.33131006360054016,
0.17740772664546967,
0.9379897117614746,
0.22721467912197113,
-0.4848363399505615,
0.5087532997131348,
-0.20330055058002472,
0.4101381003856659,
-0.027363717555999756,
-0.09384968876838684,
0.22531761229038239,
1.0284008979797363,
0.027128929272294044,
-0.5035580992698669,
-0.020707031711935997,
-0.13089212775230408,
0.29318416118621826,
0.5370503664016724,
0.025461342185735703,
0.7661751508712769,
-0.40453386306762695,
0.23041361570358276,
-0.7022257447242737,
-0.04021168500185013,
0.13646680116653442,
-0.36061134934425354,
0.5096656680107117,
-0.4523439109325409,
0.3559107482433319,
0.5835544466972351,
-0.2936911880970001,
0.47014665603637695,
0.08539235591888428,
-0.4252663850784302,
-0.3061782419681549,
0.10564348101615906,
-0.3303698003292084,
-0.17470484972000122,
-0.7377061247825623,
0.2311483919620514,
-0.15702205896377563,
0.23406364023685455,
0.2237703800201416,
0.3096701502799988,
-0.11542700976133347,
0.6684427857398987,
0.06166553124785423,
0.2538060247898102,
0.1071653738617897,
0.067921943962574,
-0.07161767780780792,
0.037468016147613525,
0.16644172370433807,
0.2785518169403076,
-0.2639382481575012,
-0.5932198762893677,
0.32518133521080017,
-0.016916286200284958,
-0.013868553563952446,
-0.4752020835876465,
-0.04735668748617172,
-0.07724351435899734,
0.31328997015953064,
-0.8209862112998962,
0.8115148544311523,
0.3647811710834503,
-0.4690873324871063,
-0.17462816834449768,
0.36232057213783264,
0.0974726602435112,
-0.2179553359746933,
0.7077012062072754,
-0.3902842402458191,
0.0907692164182663,
-0.5348385572433472,
0.39978286623954773,
-0.32398343086242676,
0.5989516377449036,
0.2272399365901947,
-0.4162503778934479,
-0.30396604537963867,
-0.029715076088905334,
0.1718159019947052,
-0.318409264087677,
0.09472580254077911,
-0.641373336315155,
0.6358097791671753,
-0.31299319863319397,
0.7230979204177856,
-0.1806401014328003,
-0.23050656914710999,
0.1460573524236679,
-0.3860868215560913,
0.4203296899795532,
-0.17207039892673492,
-0.1832178831100464,
-0.8403392434120178,
0.20595009624958038,
0.0020934713538736105,
-0.8975417613983154,
0.271137535572052,
-0.3998037278652191,
-0.4696260690689087,
-0.6715409755706787,
-0.03268105164170265,
0.5937221050262451,
-0.42368972301483154,
0.5215336084365845,
0.051766056567430496,
-0.05263221263885498,
0.0925254225730896,
-0.425229549407959,
-0.3308304250240326,
-0.4478248655796051,
0.5025040507316589
] |
234799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Afra | Saint Afra | Saint Afra (died 304) was martyred during the Diocletian persecution. Along with Saint Ulrich, she is a patron saint of Augsburg. Her feast day is August 7. Afra was dedicated to the service of the goddess, Venus, by her mother, Hilaria. Through his teachings, Bishop Narcissus converted Afra and her family to Christianity. When it was learned that Afra was a Christian, she was brought before Diocletian and ordered to sacrifice to the pagan gods. She refused, and was condemned to death by fire.
Biography
Although many different accounts of her life exist, the most widely known is The Acts of St. Afra, which dates from the Carolingian period (8th century AD). In the opinion of most critics this is compilation of two different accounts, the story of the conversion of St. Afra, and the story of her martyrdom. The former is of later origin, and is merely a legendary narrative of Carolingian times, drawn up with the intention of connecting with St. Afra the organization of the church of Augsburg.
In the late 3rd century, her pagan family journeyed from Cyprus to Augsburg. Afra was dedicated to the service of the goddess Venus by her mother, Hilaria. According to this source, she was originally a prostitute in Augsburg, having gone there from Cyprus, maybe even as the daughter of the King of Cyprus. She is reputed either to have run a brothel in that town or worked as a hierodule in the Temple of Venus. As the persecution of Christians during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian began, Bishop Narcissus of Girona (in Spain) sought refuge in Augsburg and lodged with Afra and her mother, Hilaria. Through his teachings, Bishop Narcissus converted Afra and her family to Christianity.
She continued to hide the bishop from the authorities. When it was learned that Afra was a Christian, she was brought before Diocletian and ordered to sacrifice to the pagan gods. She refused, and was condemned to death by fire on a small island in the Lech River, with her remains being buried at a distance from the place of her martyrdom. Her mother and her maids (viz., Ligna, Eunonia, and Eutropia) later suffered the same fate, for interring her in a burial vault.
According to an alternative account in an earlier document, Afra was beheaded, rather than having been burned. The Martyrologium Hieronymianum (a compilation of martyrs) mentions that Afra "suffered in the city of Augsburg" and was "buried there". Her feast day is August 5.
According to Carl Egger, it appears that the author of the passio blended the account of Afra with that of Venerea, a martyr of Antioch, who is mentioned on the same day in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum. Contrary to this, other ancient calendars portray Afra as a virgin.
Legacy
St. Ulrich's and St. Afra's Abbey, Augsburg () is a former Benedictine abbey dedicated to Saint Ulrich and Saint Afra in the south of the old city in Augsburg, Bavaria. From the medieval Saint Afra's church in Meissen, the name passed via a former monastery of the Canons Regular to the current Sächsisches Landesgymnasium Sankt Afra zu Meißen, a boarding school in Saxony.
There was a Church of Saint Afra in Brescia (that was destroyed during the bombing of World War II).
See also
Saint Afra, patron saint archive
References
External links
Short Fact List
3rd-century births
304 deaths
Saints of Germania
People executed by the Roman Empire
4th-century Christian martyrs
4th-century Romans
4th-century executions
4th-century Christian saints
History of Augsburg
People from Augsburg
Executed people from Bavaria
Late Ancient Christian female saints
Executed Roman women
Executed German women
German prostitutes
Converts to Christianity from pagan religions
Germanic women
3rd-century Germanic people
4th-century Germanic people
4th-century Roman women | [
-0.5948222875595093,
0.04062172770500183,
-0.8679056763648987,
-0.16776855289936066,
-0.7793404459953308,
1.201805591583252,
0.9312641024589539,
-0.2196108102798462,
-0.6557865142822266,
-0.16260243952274323,
0.25245141983032227,
0.4861140847206116,
-0.6901963949203491,
-0.4526251554489136,
0.10130587220191956,
0.21994861960411072,
0.41453829407691956,
0.39409691095352173,
-0.2899642288684845,
-0.012176633812487125,
-0.007119463756680489,
-0.5334252119064331,
0.25584089756011963,
-0.12478310614824295,
0.4494371712207794,
-0.021282438188791275,
0.30157971382141113,
0.31867507100105286,
-0.5206196904182434,
-0.21701961755752563,
0.37709254026412964,
0.24921168386936188,
0.2764749825000763,
-0.09033595025539398,
-0.3465658128261566,
-0.05656018480658531,
0.3923455774784088,
0.18182633817195892,
-0.11476356536149979,
0.43117645382881165,
-0.7510780096054077,
0.23282842338085175,
0.33297276496887207,
0.19039395451545715,
-0.2524460554122925,
-0.0036691788118332624,
-1.3536077737808228,
0.024649005383253098,
-0.3972960114479065,
0.012129094451665878,
-0.173750102519989,
0.20221778750419617,
0.13489773869514465,
0.13421471416950226,
0.2736315131187439,
1.0712064504623413,
-1.1612086296081543,
-0.2648960053920746,
0.35158610343933105,
-0.6927022337913513,
0.9248888492584229,
0.1867089569568634,
0.18302273750305176,
-0.14394932985305786,
0.14916475117206573,
0.1844967156648636,
-0.3215082585811615,
0.7627694606781006,
0.3568449914455414,
-0.4311192035675049,
-0.13481636345386505,
0.1414828896522522,
-0.7638838291168213,
0.011927280575037003,
-0.3317231237888336,
-0.9969924092292786,
0.020373942330479622,
-0.6354674100875854,
0.9011581540107727,
-0.4054378569126129,
0.2164658159017563,
-0.41328689455986023,
0.724658727645874,
-0.17432983219623566,
0.23752260208129883,
-0.44653213024139404,
-0.09208764880895615,
0.36009207367897034,
-1.2318449020385742,
-0.04703506827354431,
0.21477653086185455,
-0.6693922281265259,
0.1642000675201416,
0.3800555169582367,
-0.5146601796150208,
0.34583690762519836,
-0.671137273311615,
0.02860136143863201,
-0.058993708342313766,
-0.22638830542564392,
0.042243655771017075,
0.34513232111930847,
-0.488444060087204,
-0.4098356366157532,
0.20786164700984955,
0.40129223465919495,
0.28983375430107117,
0.013450928963720798,
-0.9118533730506897,
-0.10081944614648819,
-0.4270293116569519,
0.46605661511421204,
-0.32598769664764404,
-0.6707336902618408,
-0.5780233144760132,
0.748456597328186,
0.001972038298845291,
-0.5302991271018982,
-0.45576322078704834,
-0.11292672157287598,
0.23442840576171875,
0.16859422624111176,
0.24753279983997345,
0.2357417792081833,
-0.5914995670318604,
0.043054744601249695,
0.8568806648254395,
0.48550915718078613,
-0.24744749069213867,
0.867316722869873,
0.3383389413356781,
0.9473394155502319,
-0.7269644737243652,
0.39614856243133545,
0.503040075302124,
0.053179141134023666,
-0.30537667870521545,
0.008861562237143517,
0.0829489529132843,
0.02710738778114319,
-0.45838773250579834,
0.1944771409034729,
-0.27426403760910034,
0.4403010904788971,
0.017293082550168037,
-0.25595158338546753,
0.3253493905067444,
0.1782347708940506,
0.013869100250303745,
-0.17767281830310822,
-0.2751380205154419,
-0.07275038957595825,
0.04533027485013008,
-0.38267818093299866,
-0.25848907232284546,
-0.09264039248228073,
0.27290546894073486,
-0.25330761075019836,
-0.19117386639118195,
0.3593635559082031,
0.16585467755794525,
0.1906089335680008,
-0.16962306201457977,
-0.13796070218086243,
0.3877609372138977,
0.12418842315673828,
0.4655681252479553,
-0.1644221544265747,
0.3595811426639557,
-0.48634788393974304,
-0.5476810932159424,
0.11890550702810287,
0.04944371432065964,
-0.178061842918396,
-0.3098030984401703,
0.3738340139389038,
1.096315622329712,
-0.020836742594838142,
-0.35327818989753723,
-0.39443621039390564,
-0.7431299686431885,
0.17032039165496826,
0.08224974572658539,
0.2341252863407135,
0.8326583504676819,
0.40969118475914,
-0.013291975483298302,
-0.023597663268446922,
0.13631197810173035,
-0.31350138783454895,
-0.7935985326766968,
-0.16623327136039734,
0.05713106691837311,
-0.12825366854667664,
1.361538052558899,
-0.23312124609947205,
-0.9438080787658691,
-0.12119178473949432,
0.25155818462371826,
0.6274214386940002,
-0.5416272878646851,
-0.26704758405685425,
0.04957941174507141,
-0.22652952373027802,
-0.08398648351430893,
0.6846011281013489,
-0.3176977038383484,
0.8604894876480103,
0.5188656449317932,
0.9087443351745605,
0.37878575921058655,
-0.02753503993153572,
-0.20008431375026703,
-0.0850953534245491,
-0.3633105456829071,
-0.13031639158725739,
-0.5161513090133667,
0.06349176168441772,
0.15331873297691345,
-0.43144816160202026,
0.7423135042190552,
-0.7936467528343201,
-0.4142287075519562,
0.31121212244033813,
-0.24146445095539093,
0.4094384014606476,
-0.07454004138708115,
-0.5463219881057739,
0.08180126547813416,
-1.0800973176956177,
0.11245127767324448,
1.0511817932128906,
0.3226068317890167,
-0.39947640895843506,
-0.5121867656707764,
0.05968600511550903,
0.009520881809294224,
-0.3145253360271454,
0.5771427154541016,
-0.4449986517429352,
-0.019454557448625565,
0.5047839283943176,
-0.2150833159685135,
-0.10458820313215256,
0.08898349106311798,
0.268633097410202,
0.6300681233406067,
-0.29865697026252747,
0.08445862680673599,
0.17338331043720245,
0.15690569579601288,
0.024709170684218407,
0.1538453996181488,
-0.0220070518553257,
0.9269405603408813,
-0.09920158237218857,
-0.008498878218233585,
0.25202783942222595,
0.23965567350387573,
-0.22182045876979828,
-0.31336939334869385,
-0.07975577563047409,
0.7119914293289185,
0.542829155921936,
0.7609124779701233,
-0.4468936622142792,
-0.37357038259506226,
-0.3144336938858032,
0.15746256709098816,
-0.05579087883234024,
-0.13620920479297638,
-0.11832011491060257,
-0.24400420486927032,
0.2027263045310974,
0.3586979806423187,
-0.35126781463623047,
-0.35262131690979004,
0.33569055795669556,
0.40606433153152466,
-0.037788573652505875,
0.19798921048641205,
0.8075711727142334,
-0.34705132246017456,
0.027262451127171516,
-0.09702873229980469,
0.5314147472381592,
0.47024255990982056,
0.00037746760062873363,
0.08325359970331192,
-0.3381708860397339,
-0.4960789680480957,
0.44114428758621216,
0.21747663617134094,
0.19069954752922058,
0.1066754087805748,
0.4076230823993683,
-0.022816725075244904,
0.05128401890397072,
0.039700042456388474,
-0.5233145356178284,
-0.25182831287384033,
0.7162439227104187,
-0.21594882011413574,
0.14737918972969055,
0.5525410771369934,
-0.11417422443628311,
-0.48352375626564026,
-0.022051174193620682,
-5.385113716125488,
0.40494024753570557,
-0.19558706879615784,
-0.1849895417690277,
-0.14656007289886475,
-0.3743007779121399,
0.4362902045249939,
-0.11465458571910858,
0.7259827256202698,
-0.3573440909385681,
0.04747401550412178,
0.09213000535964966,
-0.2109886258840561,
0.18937547504901886,
1.3077222108840942,
0.8280602097511292,
0.5648342967033386,
-0.45866745710372925,
0.3763202428817749,
-0.03683021292090416,
0.05705040693283081,
0.1360103040933609,
-0.5818756222724915,
0.4379253089427948,
0.25841277837753296,
0.43066850304603577,
-0.37704282999038696,
0.655706524848938,
-0.4249950647354126,
0.050931964069604874,
0.8850878477096558,
-0.47007033228874207,
0.19837328791618347,
-0.22310686111450195,
-0.08256733417510986,
0.4544376730918884,
0.5896117687225342,
0.31783008575439453,
0.5088979005813599,
-0.3897051513195038,
-0.1299809217453003,
-0.3954430818557739,
-0.5350463390350342,
0.7456573247909546,
0.18943370878696442,
-0.32820484042167664,
-0.6660032272338867,
0.31540974974632263,
-0.014410890638828278,
0.6766905784606934,
-0.2399415820837021,
-0.7194445729255676,
0.046263448894023895,
0.24576829373836517,
0.44013890624046326,
-0.23820772767066956,
-0.2988288402557373,
0.501692533493042,
0.0006680304068140686,
0.13054929673671722,
0.8440535068511963,
-0.3046623468399048,
-0.7797088623046875,
-0.45260846614837646,
0.29165375232696533,
-0.32848235964775085,
-0.07563725113868713,
-0.3594047427177429,
-0.2552350163459778,
-0.07630284130573273,
-0.3195872902870178,
0.2830706834793091,
-0.2132020741701126,
-0.6496244668960571,
0.06467787176370621,
-0.18461640179157257,
-0.3784019649028778,
0.15263845026493073,
0.012824025005102158,
-0.15181921422481537,
-0.08940759301185608,
-1.1921316385269165,
0.4152757227420807,
0.14601105451583862,
0.35332489013671875,
0.22912152111530304,
-0.016402633860707283,
0.136399045586586,
-0.5821928977966309,
0.23321029543876648,
0.879907488822937,
-0.4131326377391815,
0.15214526653289795,
0.9382298588752747,
-0.2114758938550949,
0.7082067728042603,
-0.4229821264743805,
-0.28315269947052,
1.0758535861968994,
0.17347337305545807,
-0.04059514030814171,
0.23798713088035583,
0.21464210748672485,
0.05723994970321655,
-0.18915434181690216,
0.08059576153755188,
-0.6971534490585327,
0.03023216873407364,
0.6877170205116272,
-0.05515352636575699,
0.6446518301963806,
-0.2854682207107544,
-0.37670207023620605,
0.08608078956604004,
0.46030327677726746,
0.01873018965125084,
0.22790876030921936,
0.4225618243217468,
0.8237643837928772,
0.26357316970825195,
0.2773739993572235,
-0.3639691472053528,
-0.2270927131175995,
0.14661933481693268,
-0.14200128614902496,
0.2737905979156494,
0.05635027959942818,
0.40157049894332886,
-0.625159502029419,
0.0989246740937233,
0.07812277227640152,
-0.3861902058124542,
-0.373409241437912,
0.29285523295402527,
0.12430013716220856,
-0.7355857491493225,
-0.15296082198619843,
-0.5953576564788818,
0.26866570115089417,
0.08042743802070618,
-0.5158379077911377,
-0.3213457763195038,
-0.2052929401397705,
0.5886587500572205,
0.3219698965549469,
0.5841799378395081,
0.3714536130428314,
0.04880779609084129,
0.04947597160935402,
0.10096655786037445,
-0.37085098028182983,
0.003920850809663534,
0.747718095779419,
-0.39987584948539734,
-0.8689383268356323,
0.015890037640929222,
0.6355733275413513,
0.2941146492958069,
-0.600340723991394,
-0.1351030468940735,
-0.4722155034542084,
0.14423875510692596,
-0.6935926079750061,
-0.18162600696086884,
-0.2576781213283539,
-0.10608011484146118,
0.577227771282196,
-0.753282368183136,
0.047214657068252563,
0.5083639621734619,
0.16585136950016022,
-0.039601340889930725,
-0.4290710687637329,
-0.17165522277355194,
0.6042255759239197,
-0.3013226389884949,
-0.2952849268913269,
-0.02066674269735813,
-0.10868782550096512,
0.07694463431835175,
-0.406634658575058,
0.2719077169895172,
-0.39098474383354187,
0.20843645930290222,
0.48103952407836914,
0.3202885687351227,
-0.6427655816078186,
-1.147840976715088,
-0.3828563392162323,
-0.4822481870651245,
-0.3303527235984802,
0.44886425137519836,
-0.38398224115371704,
0.6949782371520996,
-0.40345853567123413,
-1.087551236152649,
0.13121159374713898,
-0.3604212701320648,
0.22017504274845123,
-0.011508462950587273,
-0.667688250541687,
0.22300976514816284,
-0.7411608695983887,
0.3732873499393463,
-0.5581385493278503,
-0.6758557558059692,
0.9674705266952515,
0.23373384773731232,
-0.29864999651908875,
0.11662052571773529,
-0.3238966166973114,
-0.5874609351158142,
-0.1080993115901947,
1.2097206115722656,
-0.3042500913143158,
0.5470264554023743,
-0.7584745287895203,
0.2455955445766449,
-0.44530078768730164,
-0.620805561542511,
-0.875877857208252,
-0.6092646718025208,
0.11724699288606644,
-0.18607638776302338,
-0.2431604415178299,
0.5557085871696472,
0.4179209768772125,
-0.04434564337134361,
0.1864408552646637,
0.18020404875278473,
0.42242178320884705,
0.5674665570259094,
0.11381453275680542,
-0.3497929275035858,
-0.18635700643062592,
-0.40887650847435,
0.5965229868888855,
-0.3344365358352661,
-0.571135938167572,
-0.16752123832702637,
-0.014228671789169312,
0.4438157379627228,
-0.5405830144882202,
-0.5894158482551575,
0.42393383383750916,
0.20390303432941437,
-0.6335411071777344,
-0.21531501412391663,
0.446088582277298,
-0.2117541879415512,
-0.22109749913215637,
0.47045016288757324,
-0.45680707693099976,
-0.19895559549331665,
0.25997939705848694,
-0.4220760762691498,
-0.670955240726471,
-0.19473788142204285,
-0.018160397186875343,
-0.46598127484321594,
1.132735013961792,
-0.09677699953317642,
0.06996511667966843,
0.20553208887577057,
-0.38371679186820984,
-0.16020329296588898,
0.3042789399623871,
-0.60741126537323,
0.15584833920001984,
-0.43394580483436584,
-0.8059681057929993,
-0.8587143421173096,
-0.0068161021918058395,
0.2441127449274063,
-0.3388713002204895,
-0.24425692856311798,
-0.24506326019763947,
-0.13263347744941711,
0.4402567148208618,
0.2532080411911011,
-1.2296650409698486,
0.05089803412556648,
0.14969953894615173,
0.3796619772911072,
0.422717422246933,
-0.5121703147888184,
0.24626536667346954,
0.10224837809801102,
0.06065010279417038,
0.04213421419262886,
-0.1786489337682724,
-0.30895212292671204,
0.04358761012554169,
0.5223675966262817,
-0.05105779320001602,
0.24788951873779297,
-0.44836825132369995,
0.31018948554992676,
-0.04079604893922806,
-1.0888162851333618,
-1.1040685176849365,
0.5017580389976501,
0.8202962875366211,
-0.08649829030036926,
-0.2783717215061188,
0.03298164904117584,
0.2945338189601898,
0.5727052688598633,
-0.40725043416023254,
0.33919402956962585,
-0.4187484085559845,
-0.30667799711227417,
0.31215956807136536,
0.06030722334980965,
-0.2888859510421753,
-0.4937657117843628,
0.3939799964427948,
-0.2796187996864319,
0.10306919366121292,
0.05643029510974884,
0.014201543293893337,
-0.014572208747267723,
0.10386667400598526,
0.19387297332286835,
0.26727333664894104,
0.5785207152366638,
-0.3653549253940582,
0.30133476853370667,
-0.055707454681396484,
0.3530504107475281,
0.5018401741981506,
-0.12987880408763885,
-0.584848940372467,
0.7269131541252136,
0.028905393555760384,
-0.4109381437301636,
0.6586703062057495,
-0.5022271871566772,
-0.15854841470718384,
-0.09699659049510956,
0.40709489583969116,
0.5658478736877441,
-0.1838071197271347,
-0.07362069189548492,
-0.6655609011650085,
0.6971121430397034,
-0.48887899518013,
-0.1684533804655075,
0.2888781726360321,
-0.3914945125579834,
0.17511847615242004,
0.12167473137378693,
0.02626834437251091,
-0.2830151617527008,
-0.13016843795776367,
0.6403617262840271,
0.7228443026542664,
0.07583941519260406,
-0.13609996438026428,
-0.044055595993995667,
0.1164156123995781,
-0.4606952667236328,
0.44170039892196655,
0.10404378920793533,
-0.4148688316345215,
-0.0252869613468647,
-0.5184895992279053,
-1.0921167135238647,
-0.01211990974843502,
0.602075457572937,
0.28411567211151123,
-0.0666457936167717,
0.26259681582450867,
0.6262516379356384,
0.45951926708221436,
0.313410222530365,
0.37965527176856995,
0.03063203953206539,
0.023466508835554123,
-0.04964444413781166,
-0.6234518885612488,
-0.078124038875103,
-0.099774070084095,
-0.904765248298645,
-0.12001735717058182,
-0.16041964292526245,
-0.1014714166522026,
-0.08128774166107178,
-0.5659684538841248,
-0.29108211398124695,
-0.17150963842868805,
-0.2438211739063263,
0.1649894416332245,
-0.3730912506580353,
-0.5530717372894287,
0.4845424294471741,
0.5343034267425537,
0.7304335236549377,
0.25711187720298767,
0.3598516285419464,
0.04869058355689049,
-0.18386346101760864,
-0.33800339698791504,
0.6095054745674133,
-0.0857422724366188,
0.27811771631240845,
0.04007147625088692,
-0.2758452296257019,
-0.5070278644561768,
0.015721702948212624,
0.1816873401403427,
0.7659859657287598,
-0.1290927231311798,
-0.024300018325448036,
0.030932532623410225,
0.08232659101486206,
0.2998240888118744,
-0.11515194177627563,
-0.17460958659648895,
0.6017953157424927,
0.4994252920150757,
-0.04326246306300163,
-0.3799551725387573,
0.1950361132621765,
-0.15608254075050354,
-0.09474080801010132,
0.20405864715576172,
0.12687967717647552,
-0.6719357371330261,
0.3050793409347534,
0.15401366353034973,
-0.34009847044944763,
0.024781854823231697,
0.07637171447277069,
-0.09389930218458176,
0.10055185109376907,
0.32944628596305847,
-0.06163620203733444,
0.16253863275051117,
-0.12193494290113449,
0.5901728272438049,
-0.5802598595619202,
0.6515809297561646,
-0.21048027276992798,
0.25573286414146423,
0.2648954689502716,
-0.2249099612236023,
-0.4142172634601593,
0.10597368329763412,
0.9741562008857727,
-0.259538471698761,
-0.28463175892829895,
0.21290458738803864,
-0.31673768162727356,
-0.15912242233753204,
-0.1926664561033249,
0.034787971526384354,
-0.15634788572788239,
0.13610322773456573,
0.025451984256505966
] |
234801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughter | Laughter | Laughter is a pleasant physical reaction consisting usually of rhythmical, often audible contractions of the diaphragm and other parts of the respiratory system. It is a response to certain external or internal stimuli. Laughter can arise from such activities as being tickled, or from humorous stories or thoughts. Most commonly, it is considered an auditory expression of a number of positive emotional states, such as joy, mirth, happiness, or relief. On some occasions, however, it may be caused by contrary emotional states such as embarrassment, surprise, or confusion such as nervous laughter or courtesy laugh. Age, gender, education, language, and culture are all indicators as to whether a person will experience laughter in a given situation. Some other species of primate (chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans) show laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact such as wrestling, play chasing or tickling.
Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain, helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and providing an emotional context to conversations. Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group—it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others. Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious, and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback.
The study of humor and laughter, and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body, is called gelotology.
Nature
Laughter might be thought of as an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy and happiness. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli completely unrelated to psychological state, such as nitrous oxide. One group of researchers speculated that noises from infants as early as 16 days old may be vocal laughing sounds or laughter, however the weight of the evidence supports the appearance of such sounds at 15 weeks to four months of age.
Laughter researcher said: "Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are thousands of languages, hundreds of thousands of dialects, but everyone speaks laughter in pretty much the same way." Babies have the ability to laugh before they ever speak. Children who are born blind and deaf still retain the ability to laugh.
Provine argues that "Laughter is primitive, an unconscious vocalization." Provine argues that it probably is genetic. In a study of the "Giggle Twins", two happy twins who were separated at birth and only reunited 43 years later, Provine reports that "until they met each other, neither of these exceptionally happy ladies had known anyone who laughed as much as they did." They reported this even though they had been brought together by their adoptive parents, who they indicated were "undemonstrative and dour". He indicates that the twins "inherited some aspects of their laugh sound and pattern, readiness to laugh, and maybe even taste in humor".
Scientists have noted the similarity in forms of laughter induced by tickling among various primates, which suggests that laughter derives from a common origin among primate species.
A very rare neurological condition has been observed whereby the sufferer is unable to laugh out loud, a condition known as aphonogelia.
Brain
Neurophysiology indicates that laughter is linked with the activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, that produces endorphins. Scientists have shown that parts of the limbic system are involved in laughter. This system is involved in emotions and helps us with functions necessary for humans' survival. The structures in the limbic system that are involved in laughter are the hippocampus and the amygdala.
The December 7, 1984, Journal of the American Medical Association describes the neurological causes of laughter as follows:
"Although there is no known 'laugh center' in the brain, its neural mechanism has been the subject of much, albeit inconclusive, speculation. It is evident that its expression depends on neural paths arising in close association with the telencephalic and diencephalic centers concerned with respiration. Wilson considered the mechanism to be in the region of the mesial thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus. Kelly and co-workers, in turn, postulated that the tegmentum near the periaqueductal grey contains the integrating mechanism for emotional expression. Thus, supranuclear pathways, including those from the limbic system that Papez hypothesised to mediate emotional expressions such as laughter, probably come into synaptic relation in the reticular core of the brain stem. So while purely emotional responses such as laughter are mediated by subcortical structures, especially the hypothalamus, and are stereotyped, the cerebral cortex can modulate or suppress them."
Some drugs are well known for their laughter-facilitating properties (e. g. ethanol and cannabis), while the others, like salvinorin A (the active ingredient of Salvia divinorum), can even induce bursts of uncontrollable laughter.
A research article was published December 1, 2000 on the psycho-evolution of laughter (Panksepp 2000).
Health
A link between laughter and healthy function of blood vessels was first reported in 2005 by researchers at the University of Maryland Medical Center with the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow. Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford) theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.
Laughter has proven beneficial effects on various other aspects of biochemistry. It has been shown to lead to reductions in stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine. When laughing the brain also releases endorphins that can relieve some physical pain. Laughter also boosts the number of antibody-producing cells and enhances the effectiveness of T-cells, leading to a stronger immune system. A 2000 study found that people with heart disease were 40 percent less likely to laugh and be able to recognize humor in a variety of situations, compared to people of the same age without heart disease.
Anecdotally, journalist and author Norman Cousins developed in 1964 a treatment program for his ankylosing spondylitis and collagen disease consisting of large doses of Vitamin C alongside laughter induced by comic films, including those of the Marx Brothers. "I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep," he reported. "When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval."
Communication
A number of studies using methods of conversation analysis and discourse analysis have documented the systematic workings of laughter in a variety of interactions, from casual conversations to interviews, meetings, and therapy sessions. Working with recorded interactions, researchers have created detailed transcripts that indicate not only the presence of laughter but also features of its production and placement.
These studies challenge several widely held assumptions about the nature of laughter. Contrary to notions that it is spontaneous and involuntary, research documents that laughter is sequentially organized and precisely placed relative to surrounding talk. Far more than merely a response to humor, laughter often works to manage delicate and serious moments. More than simply an external behavior "caused" by an inner state, laughter is highly communicative and helps accomplish actions and regulate relationships.
Causes
Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well.
A general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and "psychic energy". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. This theory explains why laughter can be used as a coping mechanism when one is upset, angry or sad.
Philosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel.
For example: a joke creates an inconsistency and the audience automatically tries to understand what the inconsistency means; if they are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and they realize that the surprise was not dangerous, they laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: "when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh." This is one of the basic laws of a comedian, referred to as "exactness". It is important to note that sometimes the inconsistency may be resolved and there may still be no laugh. Because laughter is a social mechanism, an audience may not feel as if they are in danger, and the laugh may not occur. In addition, the extent of the inconsistency (and aspects of its timing and rhythm) has to do with the amount of danger the audience feels, and how hard or long they laugh.
Laughter can also be brought on by tickling. Although most people find it unpleasant, being tickled often causes heavy laughter, thought to be an (often uncontrollable) reflex of the body.
Structure and anatomy
A normal laugh has the structure of "ha-ha-ha" or "ho-ho-ho". It is unnatural, and one is physically unable, to have a laugh structure of "ha-ho-ha-ho". The usual variations of a laugh most often occur in the first or final note in a sequence- therefore, "ho-ha-ha" or "ha-ha-ho" laughs are possible. Normal note durations with unusually long or short "inter-note intervals" do not happen due to the result of the limitations of our vocal cords. This basic structure allows one to recognize a laugh despite individual variants.
It has also been determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands.
Negative aspects
Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or "sham mirth," usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations "at the time of the punch line".
Excessive elation is a common symptom associated with bipolar disorder psychoses and mania/hypomania. Those with schizophrenic psychoses seem to experience the opposite—they do not understand humor or get any joy out of it. A fit describes an abnormal time when one cannot control the laughter or one's body, sometimes leading to seizures or a brief period of unconsciousness. Some believe that fits of laughter represent a form of epilepsy.
Therapy
Laughter has been used as a therapeutic tool for many years because it is a natural form of medicine. Laughter is available to everyone and it provides benefits to a person's physical, emotional, and social well being. Some of the benefits of using laughter therapy are that it can relieve stress and relax the whole body. It can also boost the immune system and release endorphins to relieve pain. Additionally, laughter can help prevent heart disease by increasing blood flow and improving the function of blood vessels. Some of the emotional benefits include diminishing anxiety or fear, improving overall mood, and adding joy to one's life. Laughter is also known to reduce allergic reactions in a preliminary study related to dust mite allergy sufferers.
Laughter therapy also has some social benefits, such as strengthening relationships, improving teamwork and reducing conflicts, and making oneself more attractive to others. Therefore, whether a person is trying to cope with a terminal illness or just trying to manage their stress or anxiety levels, laughter therapy can be a significant enhancement to their life.
Ramon Mora-Ripoll in his study on The Therapeutic Value Of Laughter In Medicine, stated that laughter therapy is an inexpensive and simple tool that can be used in patient care. It is a tool that is only beneficial when experienced and shared. Care givers need to recognize the importance of laughter and possess the right attitude to pass it on. He went on to say that since this type of therapy is not widely practiced, health care providers will have to learn how to effectively use it. In another survey, researchers looked at how Occupational Therapists and other care givers viewed and used humor with patients as a means of therapy. Many agreed that while they believed it was beneficial to the patients, the proper training was lacking in order to effectively use It. Even though laughter and humor has been used therapeutically in medical conditions, according to Mora-Ripoll, there was not enough data to clearly establish that laughter could be used as an overall means of healing. It did suggest that additional research was still needed since "well-designed randomized controlled trials have not been conducted to date validating the therapeutic efficacy of laughter."
In 2017, an institution in Japan conducted an open-label randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of laughter therapy on quality of life in patients with cancer. The study used laughter yoga, comedy, clown and jokes. The result showed that laughter therapy was helpful in improving quality of life and cancer symptoms in some areas for cancer survivors. Improvements were seen in the area of depression, anxiety and stress levels. There were limited harmful side effects. Laughter therapy should be used in conjunction with other cancer treatment.
Research and philosophy
Laughter in literature, although considered understudied by some, is a subject that has received attention in the written word for millennia. The use of humor and laughter in literary works has been studied and analyzed by many thinkers and writers, from the Ancient Greek philosophers onward. Henri Bergson's Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic (Le rire, 1901) is a notable 20th-century contribution.
Ancient
Herodotus
For Herodotus, laughers can be distinguished into three types:
Those who are innocent of wrongdoing, but ignorant of their own vulnerability
Those who are mad
Those who are overconfident
According to Donald Lateiner, Herodotus reports about laughter for valid literary and historiological reasons. "Herodotus believes either that both nature (better, the gods' direction of it) and human nature coincide sufficiently, or that the latter is but an aspect or analogue of the former, so that to the recipient the outcome is suggested." When reporting laughter, Herodotus does so in the conviction that it tells the reader something about the future and/or the character of the person laughing. It is also in this sense that it is not coincidental that in about 80% of the times when Herodotus speaks about laughter it is followed by a retribution. "Men whose laughter deserves report are marked, because laughter connotes scornful disdain, disdain feeling of superiority, and this feeling and the actions which stem from it attract the wrath of the gods."
Modern
There is a wide range of experiences with laughter. A 1999 study by two humor researchers asked 80 people to keep a daily laughter record, and found they laughed an average of 18 times per day. However, their study also found a wide range, with some people laughing as many as 89 times per day, and others laughing as few as 0 times per day.
Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes wrote, "The passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory arising from sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the infirmity of others, or with our own formerly."
Schopenhauer
Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer devotes the 13th chapter of the first part of his major work, The World as Will and Representation, to laughter.
Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche distinguishes two different purposes for the use of laughter. In a positive sense, "man uses the comical as a therapy against the restraining jacket of logic, morality and reason. He needs from time to time a harmless demotion from reason and hardship and in this sense laughter has a positive character for Nietzsche." Laughter can, however, also have a negative connotation when it is used for the expression of social conflict. This is expressed, for instance, in The Gay Science : "Laughter -- Laughter means to be schadenfroh, but with clear conscience."
"Possibly Nietzsche's works would have had a totally different effect, if the playful, ironical and joking in his writings would have been factored in better"
Bergson
In Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic, French philosopher Henri Bergson, renowned for his philosophical studies on materiality, memory, life and consciousness, tries to determine the laws of the comic and to understand the fundamental causes of comic situations. His method consists in determining the causes of the comic instead of analyzing its effects. He also deals with laughter in relation to human life, collective imagination and art, to have a better knowledge of society. One of the theories of the essay is that laughter, as a collective activity, has a social and moral role, in forcing people to eliminate their vices. It is a factor of uniformity of behaviours, as it condemns ludicrous and eccentric behaviours.
Ludovici
Anthony Ludovici developed the thoughts of Hobbes even further in The Secret of Laughter. His conviction is that there's something sinister in laughter, and that the modern omnipresence of humour and the idolatry of it are signs of societal weakness, as instinctive resort to humour became a sort of escapism from responsibility and action. Ludovici considered laughter to be an evolutionary trait and he offered many examples of different triggers for laughter with their own distinct explanations.
See also
Death from laughter
Evil laughter
Laughter yoga
Paradoxical laughter
Pathological laughing and crying
Smile
References
Further reading
Bachorowski, J.-A., Smoski, M.J., & Owren, M.J. The acoustic features of human laughter. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 110 (1581) 2001
Chapman, Antony J.; Foot, Hugh C.; Derks, Peter (editors), Humor and Laughter: Theory, Research, and Applications, Transaction Publishers, 1996. . Books.google.com
Cousins, Norman, Anatomy of an Illness As Perceived by the Patient, 1979.
Fried, I., Wilson, C.L., MacDonald, K.A., and Behnke EJ. Electric current stimulates laughter. Nature, 391:650, 1998 (see patient AK)
Goel, V. & Dolan, R. J. The functional anatomy of humor: segregating cognitive and affective components. Nature Neuroscience 3, 237 - 238 (2001).
Greig, John Young Thomson, The Psychology of Comedy and Laughter, New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1923.
Knight, Chris, Does laughter hold the key to human consciousness? – Chris Knight | Aeon Essays "Does laughter hold the key to human consciousness?" Aeon Magazine February 2019.
Marteinson, Peter, On the Problem of the Comic: A Philosophical Study on the Origins of Laughter, Legas Press, Ottawa, 2006. utoronto.ca
Provine, R. R., "Laughter". American Scientist, V84, 38:45, 1996. ucla.edu
included in book:
Raskin, Victor, Semantic Mechanisms of Humor (1985).
MacDonald, C., "A Chuckle a Day Keeps the Doctor Away: Therapeutic Humor & Laughter" Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services (2004) V42, 3:18-25. psychnurse.org
Kawakami, K., et al., "Origins of smile and laughter: A preliminary study" Early Human Development (2006) 82, 61–66. kyoto-u.ac.jp
Johnson, S., Emotions and the Brain Discover (2003) V24, N4. discover.com
Panksepp, J., Burgdorf, J.,"'Laughing' rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?" Physiology & Behavior (2003) 79:533-547. psych.umn.edu
Milius, S., "Don't look now, but is that dog laughing?" Science News (2001) V160 4:55. sciencenews.org
Simonet, P., et al., Dog Laughter: Recorded playback reduces stress related behavior in shelter dogs 7th International Conference on Environmental Enrichment (2005). petalk.org
Discover Health (2004) Humor & Laughter: Health Benefits and Online Sources, helpguide.org
Klein, A. The Courage to Laugh: Humor, Hope and Healing in the Face of Death and Dying. Los Angeles, CA: Tarcher/Putman, 1998.
Ron Jenkins Subversive laughter (New York, Free Press, 1994), 13ff
Bogard, M. Laughter and its Effects on Groups. New York, New York: Bullish Press, 2008.
Humor Theory. The formulae of laughter by Igor Krichtafovitch, Outskitspress, 2006,
Hans-Georg Moeller und Günter Wohlfart (Hrsg.): Laughter in Eastern and Western Philosophies. Verlag Karl Alber, Freiburg / München 2010.
External links
Did laughter make the mind?, Aeon magazine
The Origins of Laughter, chass.utoronto.ca
Human laughter up to 16 million years old, cosmosmagazine.com
More information about Gelotology from the University of Washington, faculty.Washington.edu
WNYC's Radio Lab radio show: Is Laughter just a Human Thing?, wnyc.org
Transcriptions of laughter, writtensound.com
Recordings of people laughing, 99 audio examples of human laughter
Comprehensive summary of research on the benefits of laughter
Happiness | [
0.04783357307314873,
0.5514726042747498,
-0.7083712220191956,
-0.20062682032585144,
-0.42802873253822327,
-0.005934834945946932,
0.8317293524742126,
0.6249780058860779,
-0.39879846572875977,
-0.01093059778213501,
-0.507240891456604,
0.7062574625015259,
-0.1796058714389801,
0.07047944515943527,
-0.21805459260940552,
0.10962801426649094,
0.041166119277477264,
0.6473774313926697,
0.1399080604314804,
0.10760992020368576,
-0.27154043316841125,
-0.48731502890586853,
0.1578546166419983,
-0.14609362185001373,
0.27769920229911804,
-0.26678070425987244,
0.25114327669143677,
0.000834224047139287,
0.12615695595741272,
-0.4931715726852417,
-0.5253697037696838,
0.8084477186203003,
0.15494737029075623,
-0.12277441471815109,
-0.027795977890491486,
0.4167487323284149,
-0.41717031598091125,
-0.4027988910675049,
-0.46392616629600525,
-0.1727001816034317,
0.24362590909004211,
-0.107236348092556,
0.07574302703142166,
-0.3154214024543762,
0.20472270250320435,
-0.8173275589942932,
-1.490631103515625,
0.3508214056491852,
-0.5356661081314087,
0.038471851497888565,
-0.3399614691734314,
0.5773376226425171,
0.004954663570970297,
-0.01514529064297676,
-0.21030409634113312,
0.3329416513442993,
-0.722801923751831,
0.029470421373844147,
0.3382474482059479,
-0.2055194079875946,
0.563439130783081,
-0.20267054438591003,
-0.14443735778331757,
-0.2883320152759552,
0.1285511702299118,
0.39586660265922546,
-0.13050270080566406,
0.4839620590209961,
-0.14871224761009216,
-0.04952476546168327,
-0.29667964577674866,
-0.6141391396522522,
-0.20137549936771393,
-0.01494398433715105,
0.14819209277629852,
0.07438404113054276,
0.265796422958374,
-0.354927122592926,
-0.0042976331897079945,
0.502115786075592,
-0.28004106879234314,
0.5555136799812317,
0.3546769917011261,
0.0388525016605854,
0.054513730108737946,
-0.0037952051497995853,
-0.0597226545214653,
1.112236499786377,
-0.12239120155572891,
0.22795379161834717,
0.32767045497894287,
0.004262093920260668,
0.20263005793094635,
-0.18958868086338043,
0.013148305006325245,
0.5154621601104736,
0.7225878238677979,
0.22155120968818665,
-0.05043303221464157,
0.10410851985216141,
0.6822146773338318,
0.13916704058647156,
0.17737779021263123,
-0.10876190662384033,
0.26367896795272827,
0.26025763154029846,
0.3054627776145935,
-0.7238247990608215,
0.12176033109426498,
-0.10993099212646484,
-0.21120011806488037,
-0.08092919737100601,
-0.10813528299331665,
-0.09578657895326614,
-0.8754611611366272,
-0.20168349146842957,
0.4462055563926697,
0.4102170169353485,
-0.27157869935035706,
-0.38638314604759216,
0.21380870044231415,
-0.5469099283218384,
-0.15553703904151917,
-0.2794252932071686,
-0.2509032189846039,
0.05921374261379242,
-0.26767590641975403,
0.2430855929851532,
-0.07101678848266602,
0.13987384736537933,
0.19659669697284698,
0.4389455318450928,
0.10404503345489502,
-0.5336086750030518,
-0.015000716783106327,
0.12560199201107025,
0.6095825433731079,
0.16407302021980286,
0.5096070170402527,
0.0964844822883606,
-0.6279160976409912,
-0.5969716310501099,
-0.9626388549804688,
0.35168901085853577,
0.10606856644153595,
-0.561394214630127,
-0.46075814962387085,
-0.1939799189567566,
-0.07003124058246613,
0.005674377083778381,
-0.21836788952350616,
-0.24145571887493134,
-0.13317616283893585,
-0.018075760453939438,
-0.16801607608795166,
0.06430406123399734,
0.0489591620862484,
-0.41103455424308777,
0.4976702928543091,
0.035197772085666656,
0.2201048731803894,
0.14167770743370056,
-0.49659278988838196,
-0.4463215470314026,
-0.2472103089094162,
-0.05967416241765022,
-0.09673848748207092,
-0.0172281377017498,
-0.2959408760070801,
0.17474116384983063,
-0.2701365351676941,
0.10892603546380997,
0.3727715313434601,
-0.24653728306293488,
-0.34472933411598206,
0.015641197562217712,
0.27297064661979675,
0.44315004348754883,
0.2954387664794922,
-0.15264469385147095,
-0.6463388800621033,
0.2689797282218933,
0.3115829825401306,
-0.27906572818756104,
0.7413417100906372,
-0.3002717196941376,
0.1633363515138626,
-0.7348069548606873,
-0.2743481397628784,
-0.314875066280365,
-0.4698484241962433,
-0.21400855481624603,
0.20169875025749207,
-0.09903699904680252,
1.2501907348632812,
-0.10036543011665344,
-0.7571105360984802,
0.7928801774978638,
0.26527899503707886,
-0.05415752902626991,
0.014194455929100513,
0.08461353182792664,
0.3623811900615692,
0.01063003670424223,
-0.9794318675994873,
0.8557113409042358,
0.2723127603530884,
0.16983063519001007,
0.2536996901035309,
0.35543927550315857,
0.24462226033210754,
-0.4169253706932068,
0.1387030929327011,
-1.2480826377868652,
-0.2072710245847702,
0.008478991687297821,
-0.3194670081138611,
0.1731528490781784,
-0.43417224287986755,
-0.11467240750789642,
0.21163155138492584,
-0.05546821653842926,
-0.37083345651626587,
0.1767016351222992,
0.5190324187278748,
0.5650008320808411,
0.20879703760147095,
0.39630597829818726,
0.2806583344936371,
-0.5686288475990295,
0.2210301160812378,
0.06480744481086731,
0.33864274621009827,
-0.09675910323858261,
-0.41787460446357727,
0.06365110725164413,
0.65654456615448,
-0.5426368713378906,
-0.23483674228191376,
-0.24426046013832092,
-0.09945048391819,
0.011279817670583725,
-0.3299667537212372,
0.3079223036766052,
0.038798440247774124,
-0.09442280977964401,
0.0823238343000412,
0.32860252261161804,
-0.5978948473930359,
0.3020769953727722,
0.35103821754455566,
0.632588803768158,
0.6048083305358887,
0.052300404757261276,
0.4474089443683624,
-0.5780575275421143,
0.05580366775393486,
-0.2494528591632843,
0.18740329146385193,
-0.09577085822820663,
-0.023362809792160988,
-0.3154897093772888,
0.25169023871421814,
0.17376460134983063,
-0.3684077858924866,
-0.21488021314144135,
-0.17442277073860168,
-0.26560041308403015,
-0.016878526657819748,
0.11212677508592606,
1.0771150588989258,
-0.0008833195315673947,
-0.42486920952796936,
-0.04953273758292198,
0.23421518504619598,
-0.0635557472705841,
0.6516717076301575,
-0.15571258962154388,
-0.44705402851104736,
-0.09806852042675018,
-0.1131708100438118,
0.41632407903671265,
0.23134246468544006,
0.022083908319473267,
-0.0925302505493164,
-0.09937602281570435,
-0.24623343348503113,
0.04555058106780052,
-0.1055200845003128,
-0.15192830562591553,
-0.4863031208515167,
-0.22112703323364258,
0.3884882628917694,
0.06053111329674721,
0.2289624959230423,
0.07304776459932327,
0.27055662870407104,
0.7592960596084595,
0.4129042327404022,
-0.27438002824783325,
-0.11381207406520844,
0.29467013478279114,
-0.7487950325012207,
-0.22976982593536377,
0.0007643037824891508,
0.11485929042100906,
0.044635873287916183,
-0.141509011387825,
-5.7974324226379395,
-0.28914275765419006,
-0.22074250876903534,
-0.7841371297836304,
-0.13932298123836517,
0.20763280987739563,
0.8752396106719971,
-0.41969600319862366,
-0.8788546323776245,
0.45605388283729553,
-0.2692324221134186,
-0.04350775480270386,
0.32147616147994995,
0.2809620201587677,
0.651153564453125,
-0.3760509490966797,
-0.08743330091238022,
-0.4625791311264038,
0.3012971878051758,
0.42873910069465637,
0.5871704816818237,
0.7242072820663452,
-0.4975869655609131,
0.6248471736907959,
-0.010118487291038036,
-0.31551098823547363,
0.5542035698890686,
0.03999505937099457,
-0.537336528301239,
0.4793725907802582,
0.07483420521020889,
-0.42102181911468506,
-0.14180247485637665,
0.2801569104194641,
0.3187807500362396,
0.13313493132591248,
0.12786352634429932,
-0.3285159170627594,
0.7842990756034851,
0.08657287061214447,
-0.5151407718658447,
0.29008275270462036,
0.049413565546274185,
0.3938964009284973,
0.40756598114967346,
-0.3470519781112671,
-0.5261375904083252,
-0.2605883479118347,
-0.4491261839866638,
0.27762115001678467,
0.2860490381717682,
-0.10689109563827515,
0.08223465085029602,
0.1606644093990326,
0.4826109707355499,
0.30536603927612305,
0.3967124819755554,
-0.27247604727745056,
-0.00038216233951970935,
-0.010804888792335987,
0.081290602684021,
-0.09626130759716034,
-0.5363188982009888,
-0.529700517654419,
-0.049092043191194534,
-0.03420713171362877,
-0.5729813575744629,
-0.9779646992683411,
0.7032468914985657,
0.500232458114624,
-0.18183533847332,
0.21082313358783722,
0.08151703327894211,
-0.7553191184997559,
0.3765293061733246,
-0.29876452684402466,
-0.36641356348991394,
0.1512446403503418,
0.30522680282592773,
0.16761571168899536,
-0.4928447902202606,
-0.053314462304115295,
-0.6499260663986206,
-0.15231715142726898,
-0.10057158023118973,
-0.18337275087833405,
-0.02058633230626583,
-0.005524458829313517,
0.05365613102912903,
-0.29759982228279114,
0.5690550804138184,
-0.04688958078622818,
-0.43367674946784973,
0.25025737285614014,
-0.12746821343898773,
0.5005962252616882,
0.35840892791748047,
0.374735563993454,
0.5840394496917725,
-0.4836088716983795,
0.15466952323913574,
-0.5202168822288513,
-0.07443536818027496,
-0.18446868658065796,
0.11012852191925049,
0.12273798882961273,
-0.39692702889442444,
-0.06303528696298599,
1.0028800964355469,
-0.6088720560073853,
0.07376253604888916,
0.20103567838668823,
-0.21143347024917603,
-0.21714191138744354,
0.21473780274391174,
0.0013299648417159915,
-0.0900711864233017,
0.4374779462814331,
0.2797240614891052,
0.03509876877069473,
0.4301336705684662,
0.1707271933555603,
-0.0917353630065918,
0.001175672048702836,
-0.22121568024158478,
0.10558000952005386,
0.1711280792951584,
0.09067446738481522,
-0.05698143690824509,
-0.22221910953521729,
0.2547949552536011,
0.017408976331353188,
0.6566888093948364,
0.9361591339111328,
0.22499330341815948,
-0.5852480530738831,
-0.20727011561393738,
-0.2601672112941742,
-0.2878143787384033,
-0.7369487881660461,
0.08180972188711166,
0.2553710639476776,
-0.15750879049301147,
0.4369933009147644,
0.7180373072624207,
0.18986953794956207,
-0.6211658120155334,
-0.2677919864654541,
-0.3422981798648834,
0.3318154215812683,
0.1565193086862564,
-0.04706309735774994,
-0.06613144278526306,
0.18077917397022247,
-0.21159498393535614,
0.270611435174942,
-0.027360375970602036,
0.14280636608600616,
-0.13037584722042084,
-0.0995328277349472,
0.1963987648487091,
-0.1534101366996765,
-1.2239974737167358,
-0.19284841418266296,
-0.2889251410961151,
-0.2670055031776428,
-0.38939201831817627,
-0.4870908856391907,
0.38558197021484375,
0.5172427892684937,
-0.30323174595832825,
-0.0573439747095108,
-0.22171105444431305,
-0.09454508870840073,
0.42754557728767395,
0.027764318510890007,
-0.20615604519844055,
0.17030614614486694,
-0.12987574934959412,
-0.13184873759746552,
0.013068640604615211,
-0.5543169975280762,
-0.2768663763999939,
0.17835189402103424,
0.1742614358663559,
0.25459226965904236,
0.4229223132133484,
0.126504048705101,
-0.1311553418636322,
-0.1485653519630432,
-0.13902494311332703,
0.18018898367881775,
0.26682978868484497,
-0.048056259751319885,
0.08832443505525589,
0.26506397128105164,
-0.11711009591817856,
-0.08579076826572418,
-0.18418285250663757,
-0.2531898319721222,
0.44005638360977173,
-0.13023383915424347,
-0.7711068391799927,
-0.28701335191726685,
0.2570631206035614,
-0.5797571539878845,
0.19421075284481049,
0.16807040572166443,
-0.5264796018600464,
0.8736752271652222,
-0.40027308464050293,
-0.6237470507621765,
-0.26398995518684387,
0.3807843327522278,
0.14812594652175903,
0.22988221049308777,
0.1047297865152359,
-0.4135206341743469,
0.08939626067876816,
0.05817393586039543,
-0.26211997866630554,
-0.1474313884973526,
-0.8854075074195862,
-0.03057221509516239,
-0.41129785776138306,
-0.534127950668335,
-0.04521987959742546,
-0.35216236114501953,
1.0308510065078735,
-0.42781803011894226,
-0.7391557097434998,
0.39532166719436646,
0.6070466637611389,
-0.19678938388824463,
-0.6348084211349487,
-0.3954324722290039,
0.10601412504911423,
0.30516189336776733,
0.09159724414348602,
0.2821073830127716,
0.34451085329055786,
1.0522295236587524,
0.18077948689460754,
-0.16592977941036224,
0.12655813992023468,
0.27704447507858276,
0.1798594444990158,
-0.8236570954322815,
-0.497323602437973,
0.3319617211818695,
0.7478183507919312,
0.10343695431947708,
-0.7758598923683167,
0.02035597525537014,
-0.04757622629404068,
-0.4285251796245575,
-0.30911508202552795,
0.006158994976431131,
0.23478804528713226,
-0.12269307672977448,
0.5394600629806519,
0.014063972048461437,
-0.6029378175735474,
0.08168450742959976,
0.3410482406616211,
-0.10450682044029236,
-0.013361785560846329,
0.14819613099098206,
0.5781990885734558,
-0.2654791474342346,
0.3505938649177551,
0.015227152965962887,
0.22314468026161194,
0.43741318583488464,
-0.027737658470869064,
0.723261833190918,
-0.5249970555305481,
-0.343591570854187,
-0.49954304099082947,
0.0037655672058463097,
0.6432675719261169,
-0.05002639442682266,
0.4451621472835541,
-0.5730583071708679,
0.2930689752101898,
-0.6422517895698547,
0.2645833194255829,
-0.6252071857452393,
-0.42830419540405273,
0.040220629423856735,
-0.17637509107589722,
0.16465099155902863,
-0.1015257015824318,
-0.0798087865114212,
-0.04296918958425522,
0.04339845851063728,
0.20484702289104462,
0.36303433775901794,
-0.45156070590019226,
-0.18880680203437805,
-0.5673158168792725,
0.698927104473114,
0.15555787086486816,
-1.1685041189193726,
0.23956212401390076,
0.05843647941946983,
-0.42328470945358276,
-0.5718365907669067,
-0.045843455940485,
-0.286151647567749,
-0.11462138593196869,
0.2702628970146179,
0.1847645342350006,
0.4431113600730896,
0.08968552201986313,
-0.38170450925827026,
0.34731802344322205,
-0.4246801435947418,
0.16248390078544617,
0.7388097047805786,
0.18171747028827667,
-0.2876375615596771,
0.34890303015708923,
-0.6451641321182251,
-0.4510130286216736,
0.1724691241979599,
0.14551928639411926,
0.40642717480659485,
0.9220125675201416,
0.14589789509773254,
0.9216485023498535,
-0.4713241755962372,
0.31326624751091003,
0.4927612841129303,
0.02290170080959797,
-0.6058346033096313,
0.5949485898017883,
-0.7901516556739807,
-0.9741110801696777,
0.2651800513267517,
0.7797753810882568,
-0.1979350447654724,
0.004046211950480938,
0.5310605764389038,
-0.12222633510828018,
0.3850516378879547,
0.41440925002098083,
0.887580156326294,
-0.1841847449541092,
-0.16492018103599548,
0.8193913698196411,
0.01085827499628067,
0.658249020576477,
-0.20403951406478882,
0.694539487361908,
-0.10270629823207855,
0.2539871037006378,
-0.2671029269695282,
-0.6450775265693665,
0.06151382997632027,
0.14448127150535583,
0.6382330060005188,
0.8055862188339233,
-0.1395205855369568,
0.6872492432594299,
0.22176243364810944,
0.2576097846031189,
-0.11075098812580109,
0.08308564871549606,
-0.1462809294462204,
-0.027007415890693665,
0.42559757828712463,
-0.884144127368927,
0.14473120868206024,
0.2153269201517105,
-0.14167815446853638,
-0.15899136662483215,
0.20066586136817932,
-0.09524428844451904,
-0.011544739827513695,
-0.2148953378200531,
0.5173272490501404,
-0.6797758340835571,
-0.08051283657550812,
0.3409070670604706,
0.39745211601257324,
0.17876829206943512,
0.04986416921019554,
-0.1502627283334732,
-0.263164222240448,
0.21987885236740112,
0.07737453281879425,
0.45570218563079834,
-0.12367016077041626,
0.41828474402427673,
-0.14312992990016937,
-0.008993771858513355,
0.6379833817481995,
0.0005108231562189758,
-0.4323253035545349,
0.4787140488624573,
0.6990858912467957,
-0.27269962430000305,
0.18472400307655334,
-0.6540807485580444,
0.18534442782402039,
0.1205538958311081,
-0.147019162774086,
-0.9165175557136536,
0.4593900144100189,
0.34433382749557495,
0.28485578298568726,
-0.1032966822385788,
0.1846170276403427,
0.1496855467557907,
-0.06838569790124893,
0.5568350553512573,
-0.8131255507469177,
-0.07956767827272415,
-0.8730421662330627,
0.4094993770122528,
-0.4824761152267456,
0.34844836592674255,
-0.18063166737556458,
-0.13459640741348267,
0.09719598293304443,
0.3052482604980469,
-0.5714563727378845,
-0.2304263859987259,
-0.45246806740760803,
-0.7429510354995728,
0.1749197244644165,
-0.1327352523803711,
0.580377995967865,
-0.15709617733955383,
-0.7858513593673706,
0.40008544921875,
0.4569939970970154,
0.19107899069786072,
-0.11965444684028625,
0.3839321434497833,
-0.47523412108421326,
-0.19522058963775635,
0.02330036088824272,
-0.9815497994422913,
-0.03153941407799721,
-0.40648090839385986,
-0.554442286491394,
-0.17070069909095764,
-0.28253501653671265,
0.24007192254066467,
-0.535034716129303,
-0.1749054342508316,
-0.042557939887046814,
-0.09231320768594742,
-0.05546236410737038,
0.11369233578443527,
-0.2590424716472626,
-0.19539721310138702,
0.4003422260284424
] |
234802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackboard | Blackboard | A blackboard (also known as a chalkboard) is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulphate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone.
Design
A blackboard can simply be a board painted with a dark matte paint (usually black, occasionally dark green). Matte black plastic sign material (known as closed-cell PVC foamboard) is also used to create custom chalkboard art. Blackboards on an A-frame are used by restaurants and bars to advertise daily specials.
A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use.
Lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement. The lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then moves them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously.
The chalk marks can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, a sponge or a special blackboard eraser usually consisting of a block of wood covered by a felt pad. However, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove. Blackboard manufacturers often advise that a new or newly resurfaced blackboard be completely covered using the side of a stick of chalk and then that chalk brushed off as normal to prepare it for use.
Chalk sticks
Sticks of processed "chalk" are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. White chalk sticks are made mainly from calcium carbonate derived from mineral chalk rock or limestone, while coloured or pastel chalks are made from calcium sulphate in its dihydrate form, CaSO4·2H2O, derived from gypsum. Chalk sticks containing calcium carbonate typically contain 40–60% of CaCO3 (calcite).
Advantages and disadvantages
As compared to whiteboards, blackboards still have a variety of advantages:
Chalk requires no special care; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they will dry out.
Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of writing.
It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers.
Dashed lines can be drawn very quickly using a technique involving the friction of the chalk (or chalk marker) and blackboard.
Chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odour.
Chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers.
Chalk can be easily erased; writing which has been left on a whiteboard for a prolonged period may require a solvent to remove.
Chalk can be easily removed from most clothing; whiteboard markers often permanently stain fabric, wood (wood frame), etc.
Chalk is mostly biodegradable, whereas most plastic recyclers will not take whiteboard markers.
On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used. Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and according to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI), there are links between chalk dust and allergy and asthma problems. The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. The writing on blackboards is difficult to read in the dark. Chalk sticks shrink through use, and are notorious for breaking in half unless inserted in a writing utensil designed for chalk. Blackboards can suffer from ghosting. Ghosting occurs when old coloured chalk, pastels or chalkpen ink absorbs into the black finish of the board, making it impossible to remove.
The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard, as well as other pointed, especially metal objects against blackboards, produces a sound that is well known for being extremely irritating to most people. According to a study run by Michael Oehler, a professor at the University of Cologne, Germany, humans are "predisposed to detest" the sound of nails on a blackboard. The findings of the study were presented at the Acoustical Society of America conference and support earlier findings from a 1986 study by Vanderbilt psychologist Randolph Blake and two colleagues found that the sound of nails on a chalkboard annoyed people even when the high-pitch frequencies were removed. The study earned Blake a 2006 Ig Nobel Prize.
Etymology and history
The writing slate was in use in Indian schools as mentioned in Alberuni's Indica (Tarikh Al-Hind), written in the early 11th century:
They use black tablets for the children in the schools, and write upon them along the long side, not the broadside, writing with a white material from the left to the right.
The first classroom uses of large blackboards are difficult to date, but they were used for music education and composition in Europe as far back as the 16th century. The term "blackboard" is attested in English from the mid-18th century; the Oxford English Dictionary provides a citation from 1739, to write "with Chalk on a black-Board". The first attested use of chalk on blackboard in the United States dates to September 21, 1801, in a lecture course in mathematics given by George Baron. James Pillans has been credited with the invention of coloured chalk (1814); he had a recipe with ground chalk, dyes and porridge.
The use of blackboard did change methods of education and testing, as found in the Conic Sections Rebellion of 1830 in Yale.
Manufacturing of slate blackboards began by the 1840s. Green porcelain enamel surface, was first used in 1930, and as this type of boards became popular, the word "chalkboard" appeared. In the US green porcelain enamelled boards started to appear at schools in 1950s.
Gallery
See also
Blackboard Jungle
Chalkboard gag from The Simpsons
Chalkzone
Conic Sections Rebellion, an 1830 student uprising when Yale students were required to draw their own diagrams on the blackboard
Tacita Dean, an artist who often uses blackboards in her work
Sidewalk chalk
Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings
Slate
Sound of fingernails scraping chalkboard
Whiteboard
Notes
Further reading
External links
Office equipment
Educational devices
School terminology
Writing media | [
0.4376148581504822,
0.2873912453651428,
-0.6547184586524963,
0.33207592368125916,
0.6114256381988525,
0.3820935785770416,
-0.2554984390735626,
0.5945655703544617,
-0.30728498101234436,
-0.8248927593231201,
-0.44564518332481384,
-0.02943412773311138,
-0.17319761216640472,
0.10151588916778564,
-0.09848904609680176,
0.4458595812320709,
0.44070932269096375,
0.2625085711479187,
-0.1535690873861313,
-0.0668453574180603,
-0.3593336343765259,
0.10671418160200119,
-0.18740214407444,
-0.35730433464050293,
0.545731782913208,
0.09406311810016632,
-0.008236010558903217,
-0.42620012164115906,
-0.23259997367858887,
0.17113210260868073,
0.1849433034658432,
0.08681666105985641,
0.46538978815078735,
-0.1536468118429184,
0.48749199509620667,
-0.06559121608734131,
-0.4109688401222229,
0.25083795189857483,
0.06504818052053452,
-0.3834487795829773,
0.15086476504802704,
0.22158510982990265,
0.26487720012664795,
0.3326047360897064,
-0.22222261130809784,
0.3897215723991394,
-1.3360625505447388,
0.3475054204463959,
-0.420709490776062,
0.34629929065704346,
-0.30819061398506165,
1.249427318572998,
0.054157983511686325,
0.5424805879592896,
-0.30386871099472046,
-0.009013715200126171,
0.25080716609954834,
0.05699755996465683,
0.5808860659599304,
-0.4853355884552002,
0.6403965950012207,
0.33290570974349976,
-0.4987025856971741,
0.5163061618804932,
-0.05341600254178047,
0.05449972674250603,
0.03147382289171219,
0.17498168349266052,
-0.5493237972259521,
-0.2737674415111542,
-0.20084206759929657,
0.19378472864627838,
-0.31294602155685425,
-0.5266358852386475,
-0.15030835568904877,
0.0627763494849205,
0.17628222703933716,
-0.3205433785915375,
-0.2488912045955658,
0.36776313185691833,
0.2172258496284485,
0.7055650949478149,
0.5359184145927429,
0.22436492145061493,
0.3650200664997101,
0.4675004780292511,
-0.4853321313858032,
0.31786203384399414,
-0.002098129829391837,
-0.15896347165107727,
0.3674929141998291,
0.07012908160686493,
0.32200148701667786,
0.09705144912004471,
0.05521617829799652,
-0.5299057960510254,
-0.10758268088102341,
0.10111519694328308,
-0.02983708120882511,
-0.0028152165468782187,
-0.00826727319508791,
-0.5007215738296509,
0.9366716146469116,
0.20744122564792633,
-0.11743507534265518,
0.09611593931913376,
-0.209864541888237,
0.3525812029838562,
0.06352846324443817,
0.38151729106903076,
-0.05376932770013809,
0.11054866015911102,
-0.22022145986557007,
-0.0264724288135767,
-0.5393243432044983,
-0.14132444560527802,
0.07083708047866821,
0.5181378126144409,
-0.21949444711208344,
0.17171010375022888,
-0.09148084372282028,
0.45200344920158386,
0.0030770227313041687,
-0.002267052885144949,
-0.27182450890541077,
0.08537742495536804,
0.5162394642829895,
0.8560963869094849,
-1.0414371490478516,
0.40794363617897034,
0.41367483139038086,
1.0132519006729126,
0.0012681387597694993,
0.16355477273464203,
-0.07227540016174316,
0.3327944278717041,
0.27874282002449036,
0.3217654824256897,
0.5465258955955505,
-0.2027856558561325,
-0.6422334909439087,
-0.40156248211860657,
-0.3139761984348297,
-0.3335079848766327,
0.12675198912620544,
-0.5921831727027893,
0.24667204916477203,
-0.5788640975952148,
-0.41233453154563904,
0.044250402599573135,
0.06081586703658104,
-0.33276960253715515,
0.3622214198112488,
-0.18031194806098938,
-0.42894288897514343,
-0.06723573058843613,
0.2117794156074524,
-0.4408743679523468,
-0.7047939896583557,
-0.3080497086048126,
-0.16134989261627197,
0.48615723848342896,
-0.35348910093307495,
-0.0015270550502464175,
-0.060360971838235855,
0.11641280353069305,
0.07824254035949707,
-0.11674381047487259,
0.1708332598209381,
0.5982224941253662,
0.2987040877342224,
0.20798535645008087,
0.24477091431617737,
0.17297124862670898,
-0.6800373792648315,
0.167344868183136,
0.47308456897735596,
0.5304146409034729,
1.0328669548034668,
-0.3227989673614502,
-0.6436911821365356,
-0.06594851613044739,
0.46158602833747864,
0.16907735168933868,
-0.3082445561885834,
-0.3356913626194,
0.6550791263580322,
-0.31046193838119507,
-0.31348758935928345,
-0.3970004916191101,
-0.7860106825828552,
-0.3952476978302002,
-0.15681113302707672,
-0.3084520101547241,
1.0595980882644653,
-0.8416867852210999,
-0.7883652448654175,
1.0799068212509155,
0.06263309717178345,
0.7184300422668457,
-0.14928926527500153,
0.3476366400718689,
0.3047465980052948,
-0.5015463829040527,
-0.01453749742358923,
0.30686458945274353,
0.5363978147506714,
0.3247629702091217,
0.08641456067562103,
-0.608726441860199,
0.40451568365097046,
-0.45798414945602417,
0.3451681435108185,
0.4152441918849945,
0.14294451475143433,
-0.07468796521425247,
-0.34238147735595703,
-0.1879345178604126,
0.1751561164855957,
-0.6250244975090027,
0.40760329365730286,
-0.5727096199989319,
-0.2304695099592209,
0.1827852874994278,
-0.39581769704818726,
0.5567807555198669,
-0.703589141368866,
-0.33208662271499634,
0.7981386780738831,
-0.5688944458961487,
-0.010963262990117073,
0.240947887301445,
0.20519882440567017,
-0.3229439854621887,
-0.6179894208908081,
-0.20686590671539307,
0.40586569905281067,
-0.27202528715133667,
0.3482406735420227,
0.08010759949684143,
0.1125144213438034,
-0.05083239823579788,
-0.14477328956127167,
-0.6290308833122253,
0.3026304244995117,
-0.13632312417030334,
-0.03237663954496384,
0.6223854422569275,
-0.15805506706237793,
0.309177041053772,
0.20397306978702545,
0.346265971660614,
-0.1572759598493576,
-0.2490197718143463,
-0.5175877809524536,
-0.1162208542227745,
-0.13451740145683289,
-0.2805637717247009,
0.02490587905049324,
-0.16211745142936707,
-0.74726802110672,
0.09616391360759735,
0.10341212153434753,
-0.010732127353549004,
-0.07182983309030533,
-0.7051007151603699,
0.3725130259990692,
0.11474262177944183,
0.6464676260948181,
0.6192066073417664,
0.4276186525821686,
0.5806483626365662,
-0.6847742795944214,
0.1520162671804428,
-0.7075916528701782,
-0.5133911967277527,
0.6917317509651184,
-0.20419134199619293,
-0.5058068633079529,
-0.2842620015144348,
0.3043422996997833,
0.15484312176704407,
0.4944663941860199,
-0.47434523701667786,
0.07883342355489731,
-0.06364814937114716,
0.2700996994972229,
-0.3668286204338074,
-0.05805541202425957,
0.0494779609143734,
-0.5352039933204651,
1.139573097229004,
0.04256906360387802,
-0.1460145115852356,
0.6295973062515259,
0.5530118942260742,
-0.09686940908432007,
-0.3247973322868347,
0.2078457921743393,
-0.017567917704582214,
0.12359289079904556,
-0.13579343259334564,
0.11134543269872665,
0.1642909049987793,
0.14870402216911316,
0.08611556887626648,
-0.39802777767181396,
-0.07471344619989395,
-5.831510543823242,
0.8315179944038391,
0.07657365500926971,
-0.3461059033870697,
-0.26916247606277466,
0.2714409828186035,
0.15875723958015442,
-0.04770397022366524,
0.01343957707285881,
-0.6820871233940125,
-0.32273486256599426,
0.6133977174758911,
0.21023456752300262,
0.39430132508277893,
0.49681350588798523,
0.2617947459220886,
0.5892854332923889,
-0.3846341669559479,
0.013385460712015629,
0.5861127972602844,
-0.6153429746627808,
0.3976534903049469,
0.36382031440734863,
0.637840211391449,
0.24399316310882568,
1.042465090751648,
-0.5365901589393616,
0.16837690770626068,
0.16366341710090637,
-0.2830643355846405,
0.2680596709251404,
-0.5948188304901123,
0.012950393371284008,
-0.5721340179443359,
-0.1615235060453415,
0.039185069501399994,
0.2797185778617859,
0.025112036615610123,
-0.9370272159576416,
-0.22547967731952667,
-0.055806782096624374,
0.6801736950874329,
-0.5145928859710693,
-0.39339616894721985,
0.5781695246696472,
0.18509423732757568,
-0.00625152513384819,
-0.5180630087852478,
-0.28570854663848877,
0.2799229919910431,
-0.613020122051239,
0.0018525290070101619,
-0.18819677829742432,
-0.011862649582326412,
0.12764590978622437,
0.08327962458133698,
0.32897382974624634,
-0.02279607579112053,
-0.7665174007415771,
-0.06811549514532089,
0.1772349625825882,
-0.5408175587654114,
-0.764524519443512,
-0.3364023268222809,
-0.10724572837352753,
-0.7242509126663208,
-0.7139925956726074,
-0.0008072626078501344,
0.8285067677497864,
0.3417806625366211,
0.1991172581911087,
-0.28677278757095337,
0.21864670515060425,
-0.812978982925415,
0.12652790546417236,
-0.2951165735721588,
-0.06439422070980072,
-0.6877062320709229,
0.16044506430625916,
0.18201591074466705,
-0.31439539790153503,
0.004662238992750645,
0.04357144981622696,
0.0066647036001086235,
-0.01322146225720644,
0.11104921251535416,
-0.17529644072055817,
0.5420805811882019,
-0.31468111276626587,
-0.07204674929380417,
0.8821350932121277,
-0.005961880087852478,
-0.06345067918300629,
0.07101769745349884,
0.6749562621116638,
-0.18453727662563324,
0.5389805436134338,
-0.1864567995071411,
0.44238540530204773,
-0.373555451631546,
0.3894851803779602,
-0.027983546257019043,
0.30264443159103394,
-1.1254547834396362,
0.06818214058876038,
0.2912484109401703,
-0.5692676305770874,
0.2686055600643158,
0.18061010539531708,
0.13051457703113556,
-0.5369563698768616,
0.3311149775981903,
-0.4063149690628052,
-0.30158132314682007,
0.13937950134277344,
0.19265536963939667,
-0.22498361766338348,
-0.2600029408931732,
-0.2868410348892212,
-0.6767597198486328,
0.12379079312086105,
-0.026607129722833633,
0.03298573940992355,
-0.43940499424934387,
-0.3310179114341736,
-0.2234036922454834,
0.3560244143009186,
0.07157272845506668,
0.199226975440979,
-0.1593739092350006,
0.6734187006950378,
0.23957277834415436,
-0.1911594420671463,
0.3139618933200836,
-0.09115039557218552,
-0.29858383536338806,
-0.4437952935695648,
0.13250212371349335,
0.2540784180164337,
-0.3873009979724884,
0.01904384046792984,
-0.5613877773284912,
0.2536974847316742,
-0.20563103258609772,
1.176795482635498,
0.023009298369288445,
-0.9007075428962708,
-0.22286100685596466,
0.13240689039230347,
0.5475403070449829,
0.15355557203292847,
-0.23429471254348755,
-0.31371060013771057,
-0.23113925755023956,
0.19111943244934082,
-0.11839473247528076,
0.1895078420639038,
-0.028317958116531372,
0.3659144341945648,
-0.7648773193359375,
0.27106764912605286,
0.18756712973117828,
-0.8874086737632751,
-0.08605341613292694,
-0.24126414954662323,
-0.7435718178749084,
-0.20573052763938904,
0.2995474636554718,
-0.41735324263572693,
0.014446998946368694,
0.18666911125183105,
-0.4748152196407318,
-0.2868834435939789,
0.12117328494787216,
0.23356351256370544,
0.03944488614797592,
-0.4778391122817993,
0.7169066667556763,
-0.23941080272197723,
-0.263218492269516,
-0.06564854830503464,
-0.5501578450202942,
0.033306751400232315,
-0.4378946125507355,
0.03241625055670738,
-0.2743244171142578,
0.035032253712415695,
0.6076592206954956,
-0.1764095276594162,
-0.6421275734901428,
0.2171064019203186,
-0.5846394300460815,
0.30103644728660583,
0.21204771101474762,
-0.3082027733325958,
-0.3023258447647095,
0.14424701035022736,
0.5089542865753174,
0.4138045907020569,
-0.1216721460223198,
-0.3979417383670807,
0.010699563659727573,
-1.078753113746643,
0.2693343162536621,
-0.11466926336288452,
-0.3252160847187042,
0.14028601348400116,
-0.08371449261903763,
-0.24809150397777557,
0.25115352869033813,
-0.43038055300712585,
-0.18601956963539124,
-0.48444151878356934,
0.28842389583587646,
-0.36817777156829834,
0.33861449360847473,
0.3061167001724243,
-0.6628572940826416,
0.2896656394004822,
-0.4015290141105652,
0.18330103158950806,
0.02835657447576523,
-0.1932552456855774,
0.3180701434612274,
0.5191503763198853,
0.05917422100901604,
0.46056872606277466,
-0.26677435636520386,
0.15849925577640533,
-0.20637062191963196,
0.21164177358150482,
-0.1555572897195816,
0.006713141221553087,
0.25122469663619995,
0.07142390310764313,
0.1414666324853897,
-0.2655365467071533,
-0.38526442646980286,
0.518753707408905,
0.38171371817588806,
0.5963535904884338,
0.5053281188011169,
-0.24098576605319977,
-0.20958516001701355,
-0.028027014806866646,
0.5542049407958984,
0.08950068056583405,
-0.24938464164733887,
-0.5122527480125427,
0.3039943277835846,
0.506645143032074,
-0.4350897967815399,
-0.42914432287216187,
-0.2710680365562439,
0.1314355731010437,
0.23063254356384277,
0.18298722803592682,
-0.024155937135219574,
0.030619604513049126,
0.41590702533721924,
0.047583915293216705,
-0.37529200315475464,
-0.12309201061725616,
0.1296442449092865,
0.09482092410326004,
-0.1736796498298645,
0.09293504059314728,
0.091049425303936,
0.12329431623220444,
-0.7533616423606873,
0.31016701459884644,
0.16759155690670013,
0.377138614654541,
0.07164862751960754,
0.3807623088359833,
-0.3296234905719757,
-0.030720103532075882,
-0.39224973320961,
-0.19918935000896454,
0.3840261995792389,
-0.9034276604652405,
0.21409791707992554,
0.08766494691371918,
-0.7847398519515991,
0.2112322747707367,
-0.014813855290412903,
0.7274103164672852,
0.025369713082909584,
-0.27284976840019226,
-0.7393467426300049,
-0.43188199400901794,
0.13921037316322327,
0.029116027057170868,
-0.2122555524110794,
-0.5462267994880676,
0.2490580528974533,
-0.18549548089504242,
0.08661064505577087,
0.630516767501831,
0.18595200777053833,
-0.5646052360534668,
1.0460362434387207,
-0.19264473021030426,
-0.4132869839668274,
0.49605831503868103,
-0.13941848278045654,
0.17914579808712006,
-0.31404370069503784,
-0.4190438985824585,
0.18114794790744781,
0.01160470675677061,
-0.4749894142150879,
0.07936033606529236,
-0.033974871039390564,
-0.03683438152074814,
-0.3164578974246979,
0.6740830540657043,
-0.3450448513031006,
0.5074610710144043,
-0.18749137222766876,
0.27331387996673584,
-0.42754602432250977,
0.4684990346431732,
-0.1368619054555893,
-0.29591456055641174,
0.2838839888572693,
-0.2510637044906616,
0.17874734103679657,
-0.16486763954162598,
-0.041909415274858475,
0.5036582946777344,
0.267611026763916,
0.05404527112841606,
-0.2848329246044159,
-0.25310197472572327,
-0.42719346284866333,
0.29165688157081604,
-0.09225942939519882,
0.04267064854502678,
0.7281237840652466,
0.41937223076820374,
0.33177265524864197,
-0.03315020725131035,
-0.10947026312351227,
-0.10441005975008011,
0.07152380794286728,
-0.1700270175933838,
0.1543925255537033,
-0.6805832386016846,
-0.0023655835539102554,
-0.04779529944062233,
-0.02672787755727768,
0.34439516067504883,
0.21850819885730743,
0.43534213304519653,
-0.47709429264068604,
0.8279125094413757,
-0.12172462046146393,
-0.5297770500183105,
0.16037890315055847,
-0.41443952918052673,
0.5904173851013184,
0.37415266036987305,
0.13678862154483795,
-0.5772207379341125,
0.24860334396362305,
0.3734322190284729,
-0.4951954185962677,
-0.10971201211214066,
-0.2020561546087265,
0.2925497591495514,
0.08617111295461655,
0.002790351863950491,
0.46486613154411316,
-0.03361038863658905,
-0.21140561997890472,
0.7820135354995728,
0.6244856119155884,
0.3535928428173065,
-0.21098002791404724,
-0.19468584656715393,
-0.509738564491272,
-0.17448949813842773,
-0.6251504421234131,
0.568987250328064,
-0.49286314845085144,
0.08352947980165482,
0.5387516617774963,
-0.3424045741558075,
0.27294307947158813,
-0.5207969546318054,
-0.513749361038208,
-0.08636461943387985,
-0.15142443776130676,
-0.16068647801876068,
0.32981157302856445,
0.2924354672431946,
1.2697252035140991,
-0.031205615028738976,
0.039355259388685226,
-0.2749517858028412,
0.28842365741729736,
0.3662257492542267,
-0.04643881320953369,
-0.9520359039306641,
0.40798667073249817,
-0.38206833600997925,
0.24716761708259583,
-0.9445980191230774,
0.17485411465168,
0.4028294086456299,
0.009705699980258942,
0.26502200961112976,
0.3575802445411682,
-0.03710879012942314,
0.15834152698516846,
0.3497500419616699,
-0.08529135584831238,
-0.08702484518289566,
0.06821801513433456,
0.3230278193950653,
0.20770281553268433,
0.02571142464876175,
0.17035013437271118,
-0.334711492061615,
-0.007889966480433941,
0.38318097591400146,
-0.042981091886758804,
-0.08810627460479736,
0.009267603978514671,
-0.6437903046607971,
-0.09317397326231003,
-0.45063433051109314,
0.43005916476249695,
-0.4681372046470642,
-0.24462459981441498,
0.0874706283211708,
0.2336391657590866,
-0.0068457103334367275,
-1.1253669261932373,
0.01752985641360283,
0.2482214719057083,
-0.22573034465312958,
-0.017732257023453712,
-0.29789143800735474,
-0.03453938663005829,
-0.5305218696594238,
-0.13975676894187927,
0.05802787095308304,
0.4079919457435608,
0.21839305758476257,
-0.4880988299846649,
0.29182010889053345,
0.15309205651283264,
0.3937036097049713,
0.27284708619117737,
-0.0504511334002018,
-0.17052742838859558,
-0.3570998013019562,
0.337632954120636
] |
234803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20valve | Heart valve | A heart valve is a one-way valve that allows blood to flow in one direction through the chambers of the heart. Four valves are usually present in a mammalian heart and together they determine the pathway of blood flow through the heart. A heart valve opens or closes according to differential blood pressure on each side.
The four valves in the mammalian heart are two atrioventricular valves separating the upper atria from the lower ventricles – the mitral valve in the left heart, and the tricuspid valve in the right heart. The other two valves are at the entrance to the arteries leaving the heart these are the semilunar valves – the aortic valve at the aorta, and the pulmonary valve at the pulmonary artery.
The heart also has a coronary sinus valve, and an inferior vena cava valve, not discussed here.
Structure
The heart valves and the chambers are lined with endocardium. Heart valves separate the atria from the ventricles, or the ventricles from a blood vessel. Heart valves are situated around the fibrous rings of the cardiac skeleton. The valves incorporate flaps called leaflets or cusps, similar to a duckbill valve or flutter valve, which are pushed open to allow blood flow and which then close together to seal and prevent backflow. The mitral valve has two cusps, whereas the others have three. There are nodules at the tips of the cusps that make the seal tighter.
The pulmonary valve has left, right, and anterior cusps. The aortic valve has left, right, and posterior cusps. The tricuspid valve has anterior, posterior, and septal cusps; and the mitral valve has just anterior and posterior cusps.
The valves of the human heart can be grouped in two sets:
Two atrioventricular valves to prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria:
Tricuspid valve or right atrioventricular valve, between the right atrium and right ventricle
Mitral valve or bicuspid valve, between the left atrium and left ventricle
Two semilunar valves to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricle:
Pulmonary valve, located at the opening between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
Aortic valve, located at the opening between the left ventricle and the aorta.
Atrioventricular valves
These are the mitral and tricuspid valves, which are situated between the atria and the ventricles and prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria during systole. They are anchored to the walls of the ventricles by chordae tendineae, which prevent the valves from inverting.
The chordae tendineae are attached to papillary muscles that cause tension to better hold the valve. Together, the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae are known as the subvalvular apparatus. The function of the subvalvular apparatus is to keep the valves from prolapsing into the atria when they close. The subvalvular apparatus has no effect on the opening and closure of the valves, however, which is caused entirely by the pressure gradient across the valve. The peculiar insertion of chords on the leaflet free margin, however, provides systolic stress sharing between chords according to their different thickness.
The closure of the AV valves is heard as lub, the first heart sound (S1). The closure of the SL valves is heard as dub, the second heart sound (S2).
The mitral valve is also called the bicuspid valve because it contains two leaflets or cusps. The mitral valve gets its name from the resemblance to a bishop's mitre (a type of hat). It is on the left side of the heart and allows the blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
During diastole, a normally-functioning mitral valve opens as a result of increased pressure from the left atrium as it fills with blood (preloading). As atrial pressure increases above that of the left ventricle, the mitral valve opens. Opening facilitates the passive flow of blood into the left ventricle. Diastole ends with atrial contraction, which ejects the final 30% of blood that is transferred from the left atrium to the left ventricle. This amount of blood is known as the end diastolic volume (EDV), and the mitral valve closes at the end of atrial contraction to prevent a reversal of blood flow.
The tricuspid valve has three leaflets or cusps and is on the right side of the heart. It is between the right atrium and the right ventricle, and stops the backflow of blood between the two.
Semilunar valves
The aortic and pulmonary valves are located at the base of the aorta and the pulmonary trunk respectively. These are also called the "semilunar valves". These two arteries receive blood from the ventricles and their semilunar valves permit blood to be forced into the arteries, and prevent backflow from the arteries into the ventricles. These valves do not have chordae tendineae, and are more similar to the valves in veins than they are to the atrioventricular valves. The closure of the semilunar valves causes the second heart sound.
The aortic valve, which has three cusps, lies between the left ventricle and the aorta. During ventricular systole, pressure rises in the left ventricle and when it is greater than the pressure in the aorta, the aortic valve opens, allowing blood to exit the left ventricle into the aorta. When ventricular systole ends, pressure in the left ventricle rapidly drops and the pressure in the aorta forces the aortic valve to close. The closure of the aortic valve contributes the A2 component of the second heart sound.
The pulmonary valve (sometimes referred to as the pulmonic valve) lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, and has three cusps. Similar to the aortic valve, the pulmonary valve opens in ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle rises above the pressure in the pulmonary artery. At the end of ventricular systole, when the pressure in the right ventricle falls rapidly, the pressure in the pulmonary artery will close the pulmonary valve. The closure of the pulmonary valve contributes the P2 component of the second heart sound. The right heart is a low-pressure system, so the P2 component of the second heart sound is usually softer than the A2 component of the second heart sound. However, it is physiologically normal in some young people to hear both components separated during inhalation.
Development
In the developing heart, the valves between the atria and ventricles, the bicuspid and the tricuspid valves, develop on either side of the atrioventricular canals. The upward extension of the bases of the ventricles causes the canal to become invaginated into the ventricle cavities. The invaginated margins form the rudiments of the lateral cusps of the AV valves. The middle and septal cusps develop from the downward extension of the septum intermedium.
The semilunar valves (the pulmonary and aortic valves) are formed from four thickenings at the cardiac end of the truncus arteriosus. These thickenings are called endocardial cushions. The truncus arteriosus is originally a single outflow tract from the embryonic heart that will later split to become the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk. Before it has split, four thickenings occur. There are anterior, posterior, and two lateral thickenings. A septum begins to form between what will later become the ascending aorta and pulmonary tract. As the septum forms, the two lateral thickenings are split, so that the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk have three thickenings each (an anterior or posterior, and half of each of the lateral thickenings). The thickenings are the origins of the three cusps of the semilunar valves. The valves are visible as unique structures by the ninth week. As they mature, they rotate slightly as the outward vessels spiral, and move slightly closer to the heart.
Physiology
In general, the motion of the heart valves is determined using the Navier–Stokes equation, using boundary conditions of the blood pressures, pericardial fluid, and external loading as the constraints.
The motion of the heart valves is used as a boundary condition in the Navier–Stokes equation in determining the fluid dynamics of blood ejection from the left and right ventricles into the aorta and the lung.
Relationship between pressure and flow in open valves
The pressure drop, , across an open heart valve relates to the flow rate, Q, through the valve:
If:
Inflow energy conserved
Stagnant region behind leaflets
Outflow momentum conserved
Flat velocity profile
Valves with a single degree of freedom
Usually, the aortic and mitral valves are incorporated in valve studies within a single degree of freedom. These relationships are based on the idea of the valve being a structure with a single degree of freedom. These relationships are based on the Euler equations.
Equations for the aortic valve in this case:
where:
u = axial velocity
p = pressure
A = cross sectional area of valve
L = axial length of valve
Λ(t) = single degree of freedom; when
Atrioventricular valve
Clinical significance
Valvular heart disease is a general term referring to dysfunction of the valves, and is primarily in two forms, either regurgitation, (also insufficiency, or incompetence) where a dysfunctional valve lets blood flow in the wrong direction, or stenosis, when a valve is narrow.
Regurgitation occurs when a valve becomes insufficient and malfunctions, allowing some blood to flow in the wrong direction. This insufficiency can affect any of the valves as in aortic insufficiency, mitral insufficiency, pulmonary insufficiency and tricuspid insufficiency. The other form of valvular heart disease is stenosis, a narrowing of the valve. This is a result of the valve becoming thickened and any of the heart valves can be affected, as in mitral valve stenosis, tricuspid valve stenosis, pulmonary valve stenosis and aortic valve stenosis. Stenosis of the mitral valve is a common complication of rheumatic fever. Inflammation of the valves can be caused by infective endocarditis, usually a bacterial infection but can sometimes be caused by other organisms. Bacteria can more readily attach to damaged valves. Another type of endocarditis which doesn't provoke an inflammatory response, is nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis. This is commonly found on previously undamaged valves. A major valvular heart disease is mitral valve prolapse, which is a weakening of connective tissue called myxomatous degeneration of the valve. This sees the displacement of a thickened mitral valve cusp into the left atrium during systole.
Disease of the heart valves can be congenital, such as aortic regurgitation or acquired, for example infective endocarditis. Different forms are associated with cardiovascular disease, connective tissue disorders and hypertension. The symptoms of the disease will depend on the affected valve, the type of disease, and the severity of the disease. For example, valvular disease of the aortic valve, such as aortic stenosis or aortic regurgitation, may cause breathlessness, whereas valvular diseases of the tricuspid valve may lead to dysfunction of the liver and jaundice. When valvular heart disease results from infectious causes, such as infective endocarditis, an affected person may have a fever and unique signs such as splinter haemorrhages of the nails, Janeway lesions, Osler nodes and Roth spots. A particularly feared complication of valvular disease is the creation of emboli because of turbulent blood flow, and the development of heart failure.
Valvular heart disease is diagnosed by echocardiography, which is a form of ultrasound. Damaged and defective heart valves can be repaired, or replaced with artificial heart valves. Infectious causes may also require treatment with antibiotics.
Congenital heart disease
The most common form of valvular anomaly is a congenital heart defect (CHD), called a bicuspid aortic valve. This results from the fusing of two of the cusps during embryonic development forming a bicuspid valve instead of a tricuspid valve. This condition is often undiagnosed until calcific aortic stenosis has developed, and this usually happens around ten years earlier than would otherwise develop.
Less common CHD's are tricuspid and pulmonary atresia, and Ebstein's anomaly. Tricuspid atresia is the complete absence of the tricuspid valve which can lead to an underdeveloped or absent right ventricle. Pulmonary atresia is the complete closure of the pulmonary valve. Ebstein's anomaly is the displacement of the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve causing a larger atrium and a smaller ventricle than normal.
History
Function of heart valves
Artificial heart valve
Pericardial heart valves
Bjork–Shiley valve
References
External links
Mitral Valve Repair at The Mount Sinai Hospital – "Mitral Valve Anatomy"
3D, animated, rotatable heart valves (Rich media including Javascript and Flash player required)
Transcatheter mitral valve implantation: Tendyne
Cardiac anatomy | [
0.21708501875400543,
0.12300381809473038,
-0.057589128613471985,
0.12293431907892227,
0.10071025788784027,
0.11891542375087738,
0.39536869525909424,
0.0648743286728859,
-0.002050316659733653,
-0.6717346906661987,
-0.29012659192085266,
0.32976123690605164,
-0.4084882438182831,
0.6480188369750977,
-0.08457397669553757,
-0.2285737246274948,
0.9348180890083313,
0.4247318506240845,
0.5256680250167847,
-0.5715065002441406,
-0.12182272225618362,
0.17941096425056458,
0.7498051524162292,
0.21205173432826996,
0.04469134658575058,
-0.7158640027046204,
-0.48006439208984375,
-0.5475514531135559,
0.311892032623291,
0.01843361184000969,
0.2866497337818146,
1.0325137376785278,
0.006148878950625658,
-0.5681163668632507,
-0.08604457229375839,
-0.4512943625450134,
0.08683893084526062,
-0.5200709700584412,
-0.4331585466861725,
-0.344145804643631,
-0.39796289801597595,
0.08233395963907242,
0.33441123366355896,
0.23384515941143036,
-0.09296362847089767,
-0.4298635423183441,
-1.358992576599121,
0.20014843344688416,
-0.36563974618911743,
0.35757026076316833,
0.1309739053249359,
-0.0936984121799469,
-0.035984106361866,
0.6767482757568359,
0.1333625167608261,
0.4494398832321167,
-0.6525973677635193,
0.3789880573749542,
0.18419846892356873,
-0.3448284864425659,
0.1538320928812027,
0.014003276824951172,
-0.504574179649353,
0.2305246889591217,
0.6257100701332092,
0.1238483190536499,
0.15691672265529633,
0.013766692951321602,
-0.23226012289524078,
-0.4713192582130432,
-0.34574300050735474,
-0.4654826521873474,
0.4580889940261841,
0.02603008598089218,
-0.3500294089317322,
0.1360335648059845,
-0.3411861062049866,
-0.3829284608364105,
0.17429539561271667,
-0.11352629214525223,
0.3682480752468109,
0.4014401435852051,
0.01801835000514984,
0.6346890330314636,
-0.06008898839354515,
0.46395131945610046,
-0.6354252099990845,
0.37669914960861206,
-0.05921633541584015,
0.25199106335639954,
-0.12564726173877716,
-0.3792092204093933,
0.5542976260185242,
-0.35779625177383423,
0.13599394261837006,
-0.04820096865296364,
0.4823509454727173,
0.24722659587860107,
0.22217543423175812,
0.3881085515022278,
-0.3932315707206726,
0.06495866924524307,
0.398102343082428,
-0.6006602644920349,
0.09139744937419891,
-0.021939368918538094,
-0.3558594882488251,
-0.01753353886306286,
-0.09268065541982651,
0.4179774820804596,
-0.33076781034469604,
-0.2774733006954193,
-0.2996276617050171,
-0.12521828711032867,
-0.4857453405857086,
0.20829233527183533,
0.3358912765979767,
-0.05087132379412651,
0.18568997085094452,
-0.30109578371047974,
0.7914881706237793,
0.3110514283180237,
0.11055336147546768,
-0.12110906094312668,
-0.3290633261203766,
-0.10115934163331985,
0.5129797458648682,
0.7166705131530762,
-0.06619569659233093,
0.01794346049427986,
-0.11413882672786713,
0.8933071494102478,
-0.09974208474159241,
0.30201447010040283,
-0.08995313197374344,
-0.32020503282546997,
0.055206626653671265,
-0.043646275997161865,
0.06776074320077896,
0.489553302526474,
-0.45550572872161865,
-0.11609026044607162,
-0.6822382807731628,
-0.3977658152580261,
0.29837656021118164,
0.4179820418357849,
0.03134872764348984,
-0.3790612518787384,
-0.21407635509967804,
-0.7286643385887146,
-0.0035827576648443937,
0.5575301051139832,
0.014954877085983753,
0.5265722274780273,
-0.2120443731546402,
0.24967065453529358,
0.4261132776737213,
-0.09366326034069061,
0.14949007332324982,
-0.18052881956100464,
0.05579322576522827,
0.4233725070953369,
0.18775726854801178,
0.23428715765476227,
0.113184355199337,
0.16835705935955048,
0.653516948223114,
0.590334951877594,
0.1770908087491989,
0.39801520109176636,
-0.4293637275695801,
0.19704189896583557,
0.166479229927063,
-0.2964922785758972,
-0.08208774030208588,
-0.4738294780254364,
0.9121620655059814,
0.3290564715862274,
0.9601892828941345,
-0.32349270582199097,
-0.588892936706543,
0.17750337719917297,
-0.007334212306886911,
-0.1359957754611969,
0.6237620115280151,
0.0599069781601429,
0.21175111830234528,
0.156492680311203,
-0.13083069026470184,
-0.051203787326812744,
-0.05898286774754524,
-0.10177255421876907,
-0.3191792964935303,
0.2154652625322342,
1.0319533348083496,
-0.09735512733459473,
-0.19862030446529388,
0.816623866558075,
-0.09390005469322205,
0.4155353605747223,
-0.1939454972743988,
0.18601766228675842,
-0.05376630276441574,
-0.31915783882141113,
-0.9943628907203674,
0.8781948685646057,
1.0444581508636475,
-0.247961163520813,
0.3768233358860016,
-0.15294428169727325,
0.4837661683559418,
-0.03916340321302414,
0.4490848779678345,
-0.6975597739219666,
0.07710935920476913,
0.2988530099391937,
-0.6168882846832275,
0.13294467329978943,
0.03723505884408951,
-0.11393839120864868,
0.6415002346038818,
-0.183846116065979,
-0.18672147393226624,
0.7570012807846069,
-0.05733215808868408,
0.3846612870693207,
0.22584779560565948,
-0.06749696284532547,
-0.06064656749367714,
-0.6667168736457825,
-0.07892890274524689,
-0.6295804977416992,
0.3536345064640045,
-0.06992453336715698,
-0.4252042770385742,
0.2893432080745697,
0.18105773627758026,
-0.2392091453075409,
-0.042687807232141495,
0.10745351761579514,
0.6540172100067139,
-0.13733573257923126,
-0.519068717956543,
0.4528707265853882,
0.43961161375045776,
0.08800184726715088,
0.158382385969162,
-0.015603949315845966,
0.15142278373241425,
-0.23150986433029175,
-0.061343636363744736,
0.6897383332252502,
0.012075284495949745,
-0.35132697224617004,
0.47006067633628845,
-0.053796641528606415,
-0.2850521206855774,
0.38093096017837524,
0.19905737042427063,
-0.055969469249248505,
-0.1971062421798706,
-0.07995247095823288,
0.2911883592605591,
-0.013450090773403645,
-0.23498885333538055,
-0.5234964489936829,
-0.6345434188842773,
-0.10146395117044449,
0.3072625994682312,
0.5112861394882202,
0.40981489419937134,
0.339120477437973,
-0.47478312253952026,
-0.5496946573257446,
-0.10253725945949554,
-0.41018497943878174,
-0.12458010017871857,
0.23982840776443481,
-0.3426286578178406,
-0.1786722093820572,
0.61350017786026,
0.28830021619796753,
0.778781533241272,
-0.3903019428253174,
-0.5836965441703796,
0.2232813537120819,
0.06001042202115059,
0.13731658458709717,
-0.16299182176589966,
-0.378449946641922,
-0.36258381605148315,
-0.2257581353187561,
-0.1268327832221985,
0.3880266845226288,
0.2011842280626297,
0.343520849943161,
-0.2541637122631073,
0.15095824003219604,
0.2989031672477722,
-0.4540930390357971,
-0.44231685996055603,
-0.006338962819427252,
-0.0019410285167396069,
-0.6348881125450134,
0.017027363181114197,
0.0942770391702652,
0.09670528024435043,
0.15515966713428497,
-5.799856662750244,
-0.20062127709388733,
0.35177114605903625,
-0.3749437630176544,
0.26037806272506714,
0.32318350672721863,
0.3840918242931366,
-0.0166943222284317,
-0.34805622696876526,
0.09588880836963654,
-0.11580114811658859,
0.6913098692893982,
0.1137155145406723,
0.2578609883785248,
0.42697906494140625,
0.16570749878883362,
-0.1779405176639557,
0.08987483382225037,
-0.18311509490013123,
-0.07389884442090988,
-0.009537998586893082,
-0.11291000992059708,
0.16027003526687622,
0.22098051011562347,
0.09556004405021667,
-0.6096919178962708,
0.0561152845621109,
0.20423169434070587,
-0.3933089077472687,
0.15365494787693024,
-0.3281896710395813,
-0.002392161637544632,
-0.15609988570213318,
-0.05914831534028053,
-0.05915924161672592,
-0.07306677103042603,
0.3575458526611328,
-0.0070616137236356735,
0.5742065906524658,
0.009638882242143154,
-0.3948303461074829,
0.42898842692375183,
0.07018493115901947,
-0.19661222398281097,
-0.33235642313957214,
-0.8356133103370667,
-0.15419258177280426,
0.38121819496154785,
-0.21968522667884827,
1.1759543418884277,
-0.07942966371774673,
-0.09419043362140656,
0.6348254680633545,
-0.24123764038085938,
0.10156448185443878,
0.3420703113079071,
0.4133967161178589,
-0.12373382598161697,
-0.28907522559165955,
0.09488637000322342,
-0.5523492097854614,
-0.5359392166137695,
-0.4253961443901062,
-0.2796068787574768,
0.31731000542640686,
-0.2196493148803711,
-0.6841710805892944,
-0.2776612937450409,
0.6696447730064392,
0.9840842485427856,
-0.1611880660057068,
0.7367848753929138,
0.18815620243549347,
-0.9118536114692688,
0.19356977939605713,
-0.5896021723747253,
-0.0026467281859368086,
-0.7374526262283325,
0.1446119248867035,
-0.08599098771810532,
-0.3905894458293915,
0.2793973982334137,
-0.5211818218231201,
0.07958068698644638,
0.26307815313339233,
0.04806883633136749,
-0.060648947954177856,
0.032079361379146576,
-0.3617114722728729,
-0.5385838747024536,
0.6242527365684509,
0.1119600310921669,
0.16326141357421875,
0.11164171248674393,
-0.18592146039009094,
0.47556072473526,
0.04869589954614639,
0.2445262372493744,
0.47110995650291443,
-0.38559919595718384,
0.7989462614059448,
-0.13635486364364624,
-0.01513074990361929,
-0.3705897331237793,
-0.39026039838790894,
0.056714870035648346,
-0.8090658783912659,
0.20200775563716888,
0.3097018301486969,
0.23856061697006226,
-0.0552053339779377,
0.11298337578773499,
0.1580246388912201,
-0.2888364791870117,
0.23384706676006317,
-0.2063375562429428,
-0.4075044095516205,
0.14616447687149048,
0.4866628646850586,
-0.22144389152526855,
0.8226604461669922,
0.4967670142650604,
-0.3945732116699219,
-0.4879794120788574,
0.2258133888244629,
0.37888631224632263,
0.13015060126781464,
0.2625655233860016,
-0.25598642230033875,
-0.30001065135002136,
0.40898314118385315,
0.2802400290966034,
-0.0804152563214302,
0.22318027913570404,
-0.09540300816297531,
-0.6226455569267273,
-0.40844330191612244,
0.32545503973960876,
-0.0476963073015213,
-0.11473885923624039,
0.2628237009048462,
-0.36924082040786743,
-0.4826100766658783,
-0.47826287150382996,
0.7842566967010498,
0.4370577931404114,
-0.8571439385414124,
0.058094605803489685,
-0.05573369562625885,
0.7579723596572876,
-0.11473802477121353,
-0.8102015256881714,
-0.1467931866645813,
-0.6666252613067627,
-0.09446850419044495,
-0.21267467737197876,
0.07981591671705246,
0.12794043123722076,
0.11760681122541428,
-0.37330910563468933,
0.2814880609512329,
0.04645475372672081,
-0.7298576831817627,
-0.03809037804603577,
-0.22825467586517334,
0.3453844487667084,
-0.3989569842815399,
-0.449400395154953,
-0.2972056269645691,
0.6887418031692505,
-0.06986626982688904,
-0.03923122584819794,
-0.17009425163269043,
-0.3024880290031433,
0.25600162148475647,
0.25227850675582886,
-0.11169195920228958,
0.4250966012477875,
-0.4460110068321228,
-0.7878710031509399,
0.4769882261753082,
-0.3346197307109833,
0.21172550320625305,
0.22185616195201874,
0.14667873084545135,
-0.5400944948196411,
-0.1857967972755432,
-0.21533793210983276,
-0.3855689764022827,
0.007742041256278753,
-0.2730156481266022,
0.3697325587272644,
0.3229171931743622,
-0.49998918175697327,
-0.1008453369140625,
0.09486421197652817,
-0.8928598761558533,
0.40993353724479675,
-0.33368921279907227,
-0.5796332359313965,
0.18693098425865173,
0.2814820408821106,
-0.3647591173648834,
0.45849359035491943,
0.5565603375434875,
-0.46666717529296875,
0.46806707978248596,
0.19144196808338165,
0.00013713310181628913,
0.8372159004211426,
0.22816887497901917,
-0.4395191967487335,
-0.0679011195898056,
0.5894815325737,
-0.4507158696651459,
-0.10968514531850815,
-0.11699331551790237,
-0.2525571882724762,
-0.22763748466968536,
-0.48260605335235596,
0.2769434452056885,
-0.6305501461029053,
-0.19333606958389282,
-0.35882654786109924,
-0.5920342206954956,
0.05719095468521118,
-0.09561783075332642,
-0.5338646769523621,
0.9353482127189636,
-0.06565481424331665,
-0.9451140761375427,
-0.17538835108280182,
-0.2964854836463928,
-0.7087339162826538,
-0.17721951007843018,
-0.18479476869106293,
-0.1836148351430893,
-0.20888514816761017,
-0.5988631844520569,
0.0181124210357666,
0.3857068419456482,
1.1995567083358765,
-0.49627023935317993,
-0.0228946041315794,
-0.0933084785938263,
0.3112110197544098,
-0.1137237697839737,
-0.9564724564552307,
-0.4501965343952179,
0.29825133085250854,
0.6094202399253845,
-0.4829438030719757,
-0.08396470546722412,
-0.5450410842895508,
0.36332446336746216,
0.014164645224809647,
0.36394166946411133,
0.06198778748512268,
0.15029455721378326,
0.25492164492607117,
0.12510131299495697,
-0.7145206928253174,
-0.3608911335468292,
-0.14877718687057495,
0.6231313943862915,
-0.1527789980173111,
-0.14440494775772095,
-0.16687986254692078,
-0.0886334553360939,
-0.6154063940048218,
0.9226161241531372,
0.35226911306381226,
0.24203093349933624,
-0.385497123003006,
0.26715201139450073,
0.43797412514686584,
0.07448577135801315,
-0.13476863503456116,
0.14870387315750122,
-0.04425559565424919,
-0.13260643184185028,
-0.440826952457428,
0.3988228142261505,
-0.15412525832653046,
0.42566075921058655,
-0.36166656017303467,
-0.10110008716583252,
0.2914251983165741,
0.0354485884308815,
-0.06866775453090668,
-0.5567272305488586,
-0.504622757434845,
-0.20041988790035248,
0.4661816954612732,
0.6170305013656616,
0.3103855848312378,
-0.13778014481067657,
0.4430583715438843,
-0.31926241517066956,
0.18490970134735107,
-0.4748761057853699,
0.23848949372768402,
0.21276253461837769,
-0.38695406913757324,
0.42651283740997314,
0.2812817394733429,
-0.09122763574123383,
-0.45413023233413696,
-0.09684976190328598,
-0.03489195927977562,
0.40457883477211,
-0.14835545420646667,
-0.021309744566679,
0.07540591061115265,
-0.5294525027275085,
-0.2539863586425781,
0.1712244749069214,
-0.643208384513855,
-0.3863449990749359,
0.32916340231895447,
0.3451211452484131,
0.05936466157436371,
0.22636376321315765,
-0.423294335603714,
-1.1036683320999146,
0.3446629047393799,
-0.532730758190155,
-0.4436648190021515,
0.28941649198532104,
0.4127741754055023,
1.5410455465316772,
0.4089885950088501,
0.026660898700356483,
0.36905837059020996,
-0.05076794698834419,
-0.41295936703681946,
-0.22351059317588806,
-0.8276385068893433,
-0.6951213479042053,
0.08487650752067566,
0.5974406003952026,
0.05733760818839073,
0.5736400485038757,
0.43336451053619385,
-0.12353980541229248,
0.5667902231216431,
0.06878038495779037,
0.6118932366371155,
-0.6266446709632874,
-0.11205403506755829,
0.36598047614097595,
-0.3875110447406769,
0.34697118401527405,
0.521154522895813,
-0.003681315341964364,
-0.2375432401895523,
0.7357276678085327,
0.01609238050878048,
0.2590901553630829,
-0.29339370131492615,
-0.40960803627967834,
0.09417690336704254,
0.10671582818031311,
-0.1948925405740738,
0.19490818679332733,
-0.03556278720498085,
0.109136201441288,
-0.8298273086547852,
-0.26304543018341064,
-0.33913224935531616,
0.05127923563122749,
0.4381316304206848,
-0.4448219835758209,
0.5500826835632324,
0.00684574106708169,
-0.11332723498344421,
-0.34740620851516724,
0.27757322788238525,
0.014005804434418678,
-0.4788377583026886,
-0.00008177017298294231,
0.14179784059524536,
-0.23487907648086548,
-0.564521074295044,
-0.783221960067749,
-0.11687570065259933,
-0.2319212108850479,
-0.16243305802345276,
0.36567336320877075,
-0.15416520833969116,
-0.04274163022637367,
-0.17726434767246246,
0.5926515460014343,
-0.5001651048660278,
0.20841357111930847,
-0.3928498923778534,
0.14133575558662415,
0.3864276111125946,
0.20673882961273193,
0.06038769707083702,
0.12448222190141678,
0.45599180459976196,
0.15089863538742065,
-0.07072162628173828,
-0.600716769695282,
0.5188965201377869,
0.06989974528551102,
0.7338570952415466,
-0.15782062709331512,
0.6256255507469177,
0.4677879512310028,
-0.29129737615585327,
-0.09537898004055023,
0.5916075110435486,
0.19124740362167358,
0.1788073480129242,
0.5445752739906311,
-0.346805602312088,
0.029747437685728073,
-0.9276726245880127,
-0.4603548049926758,
-0.056910157203674316,
-0.07657372951507568,
0.1405779868364334,
-0.07651601731777191,
-0.5259796977043152,
0.07016180455684662,
0.03805093839764595,
-0.6665374636650085,
0.5113234519958496,
-0.6209055781364441,
-0.11413010209798813,
-0.6943692564964294,
0.32924312353134155,
-0.22754298150539398,
-0.06664968281984329,
-0.0371871218085289,
0.2979021966457367,
0.33072081208229065,
-0.10702985525131226,
0.08782168477773666,
0.0775751993060112,
-0.43070003390312195,
0.11529268324375153,
-0.7664492130279541,
-0.693550705909729,
-0.2660996615886688,
-0.5105823874473572,
-0.11297842860221863,
0.4171620309352875,
0.7230644226074219,
-0.3719173073768616,
0.41320207715034485,
-0.011314460076391697,
-0.17162585258483887,
0.5841609835624695,
0.16531962156295776,
-0.06287403404712677,
-0.8654386401176453,
0.7189157009124756
] |
234805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughing%20%28disambiguation%29 | Laughing (disambiguation) | Laughing may refer to:
Laughter, an expression or sound
Laughing (character), a character in the Hong Kong TV series E.U.
Laughing (EP), an EP by Anne McCue
"Laughing" (The Guess Who song), a single by Canadian rock band The Guess Who from their 1969 album Canned Wheat
"Laughing" (David Crosby song), a song by American guitarist and singer David Crosby on his 1971 solo album If I Could Only Remember My Name
"Laughing", a song by The Byrds from their 1973 album Byrds
"Laughing", a song by R.E.M. from their 1983 album Murmur
Laughing dove, a small pigeon that is a resident breeder in Sub-Saharan Africa
"The Laughing Song", Adele's aria "Mein Herr Marquis" from Johann Strauss the Younger's 1874 operetta Die Fledermaus
See also
Laugh (disambiguation) | [
0.31422269344329834,
0.2971312701702118,
-0.4970977008342743,
-0.2897602617740631,
-0.6559081673622131,
0.13633081316947937,
0.32841652631759644,
0.485154390335083,
-0.515930712223053,
0.09006774425506592,
-0.5900302529335022,
0.5686474442481995,
-0.20465558767318726,
0.16481919586658478,
-0.24004720151424408,
0.12101931869983673,
0.32660382986068726,
0.7181335687637329,
-0.1363513469696045,
-0.1661292165517807,
-0.25807932019233704,
-0.34361010789871216,
0.06486058980226517,
-0.7030521631240845,
-0.14371925592422485,
-0.1259067952632904,
0.25146862864494324,
0.37963876128196716,
0.14391347765922546,
-0.5385761857032776,
-0.4126586318016052,
0.9529227614402771,
0.11957813799381256,
0.6027876138687134,
-0.052139781415462494,
-0.08735160529613495,
-0.19557058811187744,
-0.4172604978084564,
-0.018104851245880127,
-0.20457670092582703,
0.46824049949645996,
-0.23998554050922394,
0.26824507117271423,
-0.006280869711190462,
-0.07656922191381454,
-0.6746940612792969,
-1.7526006698608398,
-0.2403169423341751,
-0.6239112615585327,
-0.07247735559940338,
-0.3346649408340454,
0.4637659192085266,
-0.31883448362350464,
0.21374250948429108,
-0.19181561470031738,
0.6179417967796326,
-0.8153804540634155,
-0.42188137769699097,
0.4647843837738037,
0.07206083834171295,
0.7602861523628235,
-0.05955895408987999,
-0.011640424840152264,
-0.18776780366897583,
-0.029624609276652336,
0.7796850800514221,
-0.1639827936887741,
0.4580947160720825,
-0.20980539917945862,
-0.278716504573822,
-0.20805607736110687,
-0.3260231018066406,
-0.2947106659412384,
-0.024606358259916306,
-0.40078651905059814,
0.08867934346199036,
0.13629084825515747,
-0.24853827059268951,
0.2608705461025238,
-0.36547988653182983,
-0.18283618986606598,
0.12490127980709076,
0.3351578414440155,
-0.17312154173851013,
0.10091032087802887,
0.13285285234451294,
-0.07330912351608276,
0.46744850277900696,
-0.21722440421581268,
0.7059543132781982,
0.24911850690841675,
0.23245275020599365,
-0.04105232656002045,
-0.006523949094116688,
-0.38322117924690247,
0.4820748269557953,
0.3758324682712555,
-0.08769509941339493,
0.5258182287216187,
-0.18977020680904388,
0.2547666132450104,
-0.30711814761161804,
0.3464929759502411,
-0.01838664710521698,
-0.5141417980194092,
-0.09001826494932175,
0.23788116872310638,
-0.3620356023311615,
0.32526299357414246,
-0.5151773691177368,
-0.6532526612281799,
0.2571793496608734,
-0.11609865725040436,
0.15225501358509064,
-0.6201604008674622,
-0.0728638544678688,
-0.04588230326771736,
0.22299420833587646,
-0.4875454604625702,
-0.008931807242333889,
-0.11803954839706421,
-0.124766506254673,
0.0026561960112303495,
0.017425384372472763,
0.45691508054733276,
0.24234639108181,
-0.08698175102472305,
0.525890588760376,
-0.15464481711387634,
0.5859173536300659,
-0.0767882913351059,
0.7662063241004944,
-0.08462100476026535,
-0.20036131143569946,
0.1187746673822403,
-0.1444861739873886,
0.6136496067047119,
0.061759840697050095,
0.007678621914237738,
-0.1394713968038559,
-1.0479379892349243,
-0.29942476749420166,
-1.5156714916229248,
0.35501351952552795,
0.17763206362724304,
-0.20832829177379608,
-0.5300111770629883,
-0.07165255397558212,
-0.15902452170848846,
0.26985839009284973,
-0.1253347098827362,
-0.09146888554096222,
-0.08541922271251678,
-0.022197972983121872,
-0.10904273390769958,
0.22195006906986237,
0.26554641127586365,
-0.3187357783317566,
-0.027312245219945908,
0.23250193893909454,
0.2591908276081085,
-0.07317735999822617,
-0.8225369453430176,
-0.47485432028770447,
0.12410686165094376,
-0.3810485601425171,
-0.029284099116921425,
0.27923449873924255,
-0.6063042283058167,
0.18794651329517365,
-0.34278589487075806,
-0.2567286193370819,
0.12159611284732819,
0.02478545717895031,
-0.28672343492507935,
0.2503894567489624,
0.25430023670196533,
0.20647871494293213,
0.2749612033367157,
0.39713144302368164,
-0.7317726016044617,
0.3661074936389923,
0.5946228504180908,
-0.1829528659582138,
0.40154215693473816,
-0.03230057284235954,
-0.02531527541577816,
0.0877392366528511,
0.20224900543689728,
0.2102150321006775,
-0.6738195419311523,
-0.16495195031166077,
0.6364087462425232,
-0.4694198668003082,
0.8481559157371521,
0.13161171972751617,
-0.4868949353694916,
0.7376717329025269,
0.07786214351654053,
0.2445100098848343,
-0.1501747965812683,
0.0419701412320137,
0.37655943632125854,
0.45604056119918823,
-0.7709963321685791,
1.59011971950531,
0.1810688078403473,
0.3827727138996124,
0.09043128043413162,
0.43146756291389465,
0.34606191515922546,
-0.033541250973939896,
0.17591919004917145,
-0.9109849333763123,
0.04115981236100197,
0.07056701928377151,
-0.38147595524787903,
-0.33343929052352905,
-0.3265320360660553,
-0.681445837020874,
0.1460704207420349,
-0.08562372624874115,
-0.20911654829978943,
0.10440464317798615,
0.22990602254867554,
0.7904847860336304,
0.3647668659687042,
0.4548988938331604,
0.6732409000396729,
-0.8705520629882812,
0.13412325084209442,
0.34354671835899353,
0.47712603211402893,
-0.05584951490163803,
-0.37566089630126953,
0.1350085735321045,
0.8313422203063965,
-0.2372259497642517,
0.34689611196517944,
-0.22694630920886993,
-0.21721504628658295,
0.16578739881515503,
-0.21093027293682098,
-0.18850316107273102,
0.1732426881790161,
0.032854530960321426,
-0.3335219919681549,
0.013748211786150932,
-0.7864473462104797,
0.20056885480880737,
0.43689393997192383,
0.26053673028945923,
0.2910033166408539,
0.2063020020723343,
0.38586241006851196,
-0.4132355749607086,
-0.06606844812631607,
-0.2623792588710785,
-0.0743054747581482,
-0.2948977053165436,
-0.26136523485183716,
-0.16358628869056702,
0.37202656269073486,
-0.15917065739631653,
-0.33420827984809875,
0.1364305168390274,
-0.26606327295303345,
-0.05418866127729416,
0.048353131860494614,
0.30545708537101746,
0.28591659665107727,
-0.08448732644319534,
-0.5754815936088562,
-0.7440314292907715,
0.006112273782491684,
-0.18392930924892426,
0.5204542875289917,
0.2370210438966751,
-0.7402433753013611,
-0.3242475390434265,
-0.1789979785680771,
0.23367008566856384,
0.28432491421699524,
-0.29822325706481934,
0.10812697559595108,
-0.45685577392578125,
-0.39143428206443787,
-0.09556971490383148,
0.053074564784765244,
-0.05374428257346153,
0.11997772008180618,
0.35730940103530884,
0.2831132709980011,
-0.2539633810520172,
0.5162124633789062,
0.05190696567296982,
-0.012005827389657497,
0.6382081508636475,
0.5178402662277222,
-0.16486291587352753,
-0.18712389469146729,
0.20508694648742676,
-0.007552557159215212,
-0.2860713601112366,
-0.10721220076084137,
-0.16326819360256195,
-0.27654704451560974,
0.1361956149339676,
-5.937192440032959,
0.12526240944862366,
0.035719506442546844,
-0.07310274243354797,
-0.3739411234855652,
0.03388689458370209,
0.7891600728034973,
-0.07359788566827774,
-0.4479002058506012,
0.2920055091381073,
0.2299458384513855,
-0.1924716681241989,
0.24935929477214813,
0.08037710934877396,
0.21034666895866394,
-0.1313156634569168,
0.412659615278244,
-0.3226013481616974,
0.28006085753440857,
0.4384746849536896,
0.13833776116371155,
0.7136504054069519,
-0.37578070163726807,
0.6616593599319458,
-0.028616080060601234,
0.18373477458953857,
-0.02053544856607914,
0.26843246817588806,
-0.4561080038547516,
0.055222246795892715,
0.24418163299560547,
-0.21684634685516357,
-0.13234978914260864,
-0.04149702563881874,
-0.06460674107074738,
-0.06016301363706589,
0.43338558077812195,
-0.25154024362564087,
0.4923901855945587,
0.08008632063865662,
-0.45486581325531006,
0.27022242546081543,
-0.2290591597557068,
0.21010661125183105,
0.23348687589168549,
-0.15175394713878632,
-0.19724029302597046,
-0.062495119869709015,
-0.24998784065246582,
0.30617839097976685,
0.061245158314704895,
0.034571848809719086,
0.20679135620594025,
0.23990343511104584,
0.47746753692626953,
0.02189810387790203,
0.5514101386070251,
0.1001603901386261,
-0.09621784836053848,
0.0313388854265213,
0.5263243317604065,
-0.4617795944213867,
-0.22565782070159912,
-0.49054720997810364,
-0.03735452517867088,
-0.04875399172306061,
-0.469338595867157,
-0.6413691639900208,
0.5210255980491638,
0.25593605637550354,
-0.41053256392478943,
0.377368301153183,
0.6527398228645325,
-0.6678133606910706,
0.16455653309822083,
0.14225859940052032,
-0.31365665793418884,
0.5005441308021545,
0.08842606842517853,
0.08895854651927948,
-0.30379733443260193,
-0.35584786534309387,
-0.2967059314250946,
0.16891737282276154,
-0.11578558385372162,
-0.39663025736808777,
0.10055644810199738,
0.18038064241409302,
0.011699739843606949,
0.09082556515932083,
0.7173953056335449,
0.13094225525856018,
0.01941375993192196,
0.48849642276763916,
-0.17212757468223572,
0.7214174866676331,
0.4740845859050751,
0.179733544588089,
0.5839826464653015,
-0.4477576017379761,
0.1522769182920456,
-0.48902735114097595,
0.1358654797077179,
-0.32978859543800354,
0.07190687954425812,
0.014202612452208996,
0.03512433171272278,
0.30044031143188477,
0.6720187664031982,
-0.5959281921386719,
-0.06402964144945145,
0.2625870108604431,
-0.46576055884361267,
0.09637819230556488,
0.6247156262397766,
0.26951512694358826,
-0.10734871029853821,
0.04676608368754387,
0.5516485571861267,
0.1060398668050766,
0.3038257360458374,
0.5566579103469849,
0.025802701711654663,
-0.5403054356575012,
-0.2747465670108795,
0.016038067638874054,
0.10268384218215942,
0.13986697793006897,
-0.13022197782993317,
0.05467049032449722,
0.14878499507904053,
0.2582292854785919,
0.39742061495780945,
0.07734934985637665,
0.3484037518501282,
-0.6236242651939392,
-0.12205386161804199,
0.025428734719753265,
-0.30289196968078613,
-0.7113082408905029,
0.6653445959091187,
-0.23323239386081696,
-0.3147984445095062,
0.4219813346862793,
0.35390451550483704,
0.17402982711791992,
-0.2008480578660965,
-0.6122840046882629,
-0.03553326800465584,
0.7527067065238953,
0.49253255128860474,
-0.7031784057617188,
0.27626359462738037,
-0.08312366157770157,
-0.22536516189575195,
0.3980960249900818,
-0.46156230568885803,
0.04824003204703331,
-0.14854003489017487,
-0.2956005036830902,
0.4777304530143738,
-0.3555085361003876,
-1.0205501317977905,
-0.16370302438735962,
-0.17684605717658997,
-0.2581954002380371,
-0.19783878326416016,
-0.15790113806724548,
0.3114166855812073,
0.5835748314857483,
-0.21007096767425537,
-0.006515556946396828,
-0.3166966736316681,
0.1448003202676773,
0.42673155665397644,
-0.07230112701654434,
0.25936824083328247,
0.3289928138256073,
0.13017921149730682,
0.024541426450014114,
0.12747763097286224,
-0.41529956459999084,
-0.26475438475608826,
0.2093379944562912,
0.27779367566108704,
-0.11605337262153625,
0.33608493208885193,
0.3960854411125183,
-0.34991705417633057,
-0.09598635137081146,
-0.20445865392684937,
0.20615334808826447,
0.49550116062164307,
-0.006479671224951744,
0.020378829911351204,
-0.12764158844947815,
-0.01570695824921131,
-0.08843410015106201,
0.018710121512413025,
-0.14988777041435242,
0.26447585225105286,
0.28897625207901,
-0.8436903357505798,
-0.45510444045066833,
0.35761427879333496,
-0.8453691601753235,
0.2221623659133911,
0.10385893285274506,
-0.46545565128326416,
0.2552095949649811,
-0.37466391921043396,
-0.8302273154258728,
-0.6437259316444397,
-0.008418004959821701,
-0.0884438306093216,
-0.2819051444530487,
0.2569584250450134,
-0.08232718706130981,
0.015987666323781013,
-0.3490906059741974,
0.31593096256256104,
-0.11770354956388474,
-0.6910887360572815,
0.2840002179145813,
-0.30167731642723083,
-0.15836264193058014,
-0.009772439487278461,
-0.39349600672721863,
0.6838051080703735,
-0.1559557020664215,
-0.8766821026802063,
0.10857205092906952,
0.6118634343147278,
0.3706834018230438,
-0.7997937202453613,
-0.3445630967617035,
0.18761876225471497,
0.3251040279865265,
0.24619947373867035,
0.19576814770698547,
0.33842864632606506,
0.7193785309791565,
0.05298113077878952,
-0.3799923360347748,
-0.14072546362876892,
0.5270635485649109,
0.18776419758796692,
-0.8861162066459656,
-0.5072473883628845,
0.17552176117897034,
0.09679441154003143,
-0.24046625196933746,
-0.5028548836708069,
-0.2273588925600052,
0.2335241734981537,
-0.5061845779418945,
0.046674951910972595,
0.08040817081928253,
0.2690671980381012,
-0.09567175805568695,
0.2841629087924957,
-0.022261762991547585,
-0.06289026141166687,
-0.052707090973854065,
0.048165079206228256,
0.2799284756183624,
-0.1325158327817917,
0.5777797698974609,
0.13213050365447998,
-0.1048300638794899,
0.18381749093532562,
-0.3215870261192322,
0.023573627695441246,
0.828124463558197,
-0.0017675994895398617,
0.30682286620140076,
-0.6732168197631836,
-0.32920917868614197,
-0.44413265585899353,
-0.24310535192489624,
0.5354288220405579,
-0.1999337375164032,
0.46936726570129395,
-0.22241516411304474,
0.12479555606842041,
-0.11820726096630096,
0.5418597459793091,
-0.28228759765625,
-0.3731285333633423,
-0.1665826439857483,
-0.5107043385505676,
0.08085177838802338,
-0.20983825623989105,
-0.2889609634876251,
0.21006634831428528,
-0.31912651658058167,
0.33989375829696655,
0.27664777636528015,
-0.22375404834747314,
-0.6735724210739136,
-0.4703180193901062,
0.45498567819595337,
0.1883314996957779,
-0.4936871826648712,
0.27086085081100464,
-0.14537449181079865,
-0.13873517513275146,
-0.6615137457847595,
0.18129967153072357,
0.07945766299962997,
0.3825068771839142,
0.165669247508049,
-0.17099690437316895,
0.6209045648574829,
0.5963565707206726,
-0.19125692546367645,
0.050469525158405304,
-0.42919716238975525,
0.043433379381895065,
0.40052035450935364,
-0.1557294875383377,
-0.6508776545524597,
0.7831647396087646,
-0.12244077026844025,
-0.4684244692325592,
0.18704243004322052,
0.1123489961028099,
0.020799880847334862,
0.7928225994110107,
0.4116115868091583,
0.6118695735931396,
-0.30188289284706116,
0.022322122007608414,
0.17652444541454315,
0.006754525005817413,
-0.5768008232116699,
0.6977894902229309,
-0.5516543388366699,
-0.43431878089904785,
0.43041571974754333,
0.47142112255096436,
0.047925420105457306,
-0.4349491596221924,
0.10567902773618698,
0.04357120022177696,
0.35540270805358887,
-0.020165175199508667,
0.33297792077064514,
-0.18578816950321198,
-0.1802597939968109,
0.30309581756591797,
-0.0948505699634552,
0.31412360072135925,
-0.6300773024559021,
0.4379511773586273,
0.2075360119342804,
-0.4251234829425812,
-0.3664010167121887,
-0.2583017945289612,
-0.4799807369709015,
0.1401909589767456,
0.4029195308685303,
0.328291118144989,
-0.33856961131095886,
0.22987231612205505,
0.07438450306653976,
0.003356622764840722,
-0.0032177360262721777,
-0.2121572047472,
0.2497604936361313,
-0.07208022475242615,
0.2682027816772461,
-0.02529541216790676,
0.19625450670719147,
0.20637252926826477,
0.29084402322769165,
0.2822933495044708,
0.38993120193481445,
-0.04844341799616814,
-0.27704259753227234,
-0.32517215609550476,
0.38410454988479614,
-0.1945635825395584,
-0.08361352235078812,
0.3411598801612854,
0.326680064201355,
0.218087300658226,
0.3511010408401489,
-0.3160863220691681,
0.12762556970119476,
-0.20596936345100403,
-0.21218229830265045,
0.13083826005458832,
0.15258197486400604,
-0.014223587699234486,
-0.18768975138664246,
-0.5045048594474792,
0.639372706413269,
0.4109233319759369,
-0.24730871617794037,
0.13516969978809357,
0.309841126203537,
-0.04133202135562897,
0.17117200791835785,
-0.6131973266601562,
0.1308191865682602,
-0.14446738362312317,
0.1297236680984497,
-0.9710321426391602,
0.2627255916595459,
0.5752280354499817,
-0.008670510724186897,
-0.021720878779888153,
0.017156248912215233,
-0.07695526629686356,
-0.005242368672043085,
0.2996523380279541,
-0.3708946704864502,
-0.011701305396854877,
-0.5594506859779358,
-0.29453134536743164,
-0.5597957372665405,
0.13094814121723175,
0.0360528826713562,
-0.09233054518699646,
-0.0890095978975296,
0.3446395695209503,
-0.45879247784614563,
-0.1096886694431305,
0.23678697645664215,
-0.8383337259292603,
0.2616805136203766,
-0.41365960240364075,
0.302424818277359,
-0.26679205894470215,
-0.4191136956214905,
0.6885095238685608,
0.503528892993927,
-0.003504061372950673,
0.10640911757946014,
0.2686130106449127,
-0.21960867941379547,
-0.49013298749923706,
0.47403931617736816,
-2.1486527919769287,
0.13964787125587463,
0.00008998125849757344,
0.0041329870000481606,
-0.09453130513429642,
0.04047919064760208,
0.48949506878852844,
-0.5825561285018921,
0.049525223672389984,
-0.4317632019519806,
-0.002923052990809083,
-0.021815521642565727,
0.28016260266304016,
-0.11918442696332932,
0.09563937783241272,
0.2749580442905426
] |
234806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazepam | Diazepam | Diazepam, first marketed as Valium, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic. It is commonly used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety, seizures, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, muscle spasms, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome. It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures. It can be taken by mouth, inserted into the rectum, injected into muscle, injected into a vein or used as a nasal spray. When given into a vein, effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour. By mouth, effects begin after 15 to 60 minutes.
Common side effects include sleepiness and trouble with coordination. Serious side effects are rare. They include suicide, decreased breathing, and an increased risk of seizures if used too frequently in those with epilepsy. Occasionally, excitement or agitation may occur. Long-term use can result in tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms on dose reduction. Abrupt stopping after long-term use can be potentially dangerous. After stopping, cognitive problems may persist for six months or longer. It is not recommended during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Its mechanism of action works by increasing the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Diazepam was patented in 1959 by Hoffmann-La Roche. It has been one of the most frequently prescribed medications in the world since its launch in 1963. In the United States it was the best-selling medication between 1968 and 1982, selling more than 2billion tablets in 1978 alone. In 2019, it was the 117th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions. In 1985 the patent ended, and there are now more than 500 brands available on the market. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Medical uses
Diazepam is mainly used to treat anxiety, insomnia, panic attacks and symptoms of acute alcohol withdrawal. It is also used as a premedication for inducing sedation, anxiolysis, or amnesia before certain medical procedures (e.g., endoscopy). In 2020, it was approved for use in the United States as a nasal spray to interrupt seizure activity in people with epilepsy. Diazepam is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for "tapering" benzodiazepine dependence due to the drug's comparatively long half-life, allowing for more efficient dose reduction. Benzodiazepines have a relatively low toxicity in overdose.
Diazepam has a number of uses including:
Treatment of anxiety, panic attacks, and states of agitation
Treatment of neurovegetative symptoms associated with vertigo
Treatment of the symptoms of alcohol, opiate, and benzodiazepine withdrawal
Short-term treatment of insomnia
Treatment of muscle spasms
Treatment of tetanus, together with other measures of intensive treatment
Adjunctive treatment of spastic muscular paresis (paraplegia/tetraplegia) caused by cerebral or spinal cord conditions such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, or spinal cord injury (long-term treatment is coupled with other rehabilitative measures)
Palliative treatment of stiff person syndrome
Pre- or postoperative sedation, anxiolysis or amnesia (e.g., before endoscopic or surgical procedures)
Treatment of complications with stimulant overdoses and psychosis, such as cocaine or methamphetamine
Used in treatment of organophosphate poisoning and reduces the risk of seizure induced brain and cardiac damage.
Preventive treatment of oxygen toxicity during hyperbaric oxygen therapy
Dosages should be determined on an individual basis, depending on the condition being treated, severity of symptoms, patient body weight, and any other conditions the person may have.
Seizures
Intravenous diazepam or lorazepam are first-line treatments for status epilepticus. However, intravenous lorazepam has advantages over intravenous diazepam, including a higher rate of terminating seizures and a more prolonged anticonvulsant effect. Diazepam gel was better than placebo gel in reducing the risk of non-cessation of seizures. Diazepam is rarely used for the long-term treatment of epilepsy because tolerance to its anticonvulsant effects usually develops within six to 12 months of treatment, effectively rendering it useless for that purpose.
The anticonvulsant effects of diazepam can help in the treatment of seizures due to a drug overdose or chemical toxicity as a result of exposure to sarin, VX, or soman (or other organophosphate poisons), lindane, chloroquine, physostigmine, or pyrethroids.
Diazepam is sometimes used intermittently for the prevention of febrile seizures that may occur in children under five years of age. Recurrence rates are reduced, but side effects are common so the decision to treat febrile seizures (which are benign in nature) with medication should use this as part of the evaluation. Long-term use of diazepam for the management of epilepsy is not recommended; however, a subgroup of individuals with treatment-resistant epilepsy benefit from long-term benzodiazepines, and for such individuals, clorazepate has been recommended due to its slower onset of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects.
Alcohol withdrawal
Because of its relatively long duration of action, and evidence of safety and efficacy, diazepam is preferred over other benzodiazepines for treatment of persons experiencing moderate to severe alcohol withdrawal. An exception to this is when a medication is required intramuscular in which case either lorazepam or midazolam is recommended.
Other
Diazepam is used for the emergency treatment of eclampsia, when IV magnesium sulfate and blood-pressure control measures have failed. Benzodiazepines do not have any pain-relieving properties themselves, and are generally recommended to avoid in individuals with pain. However, benzodiazepines such as diazepam can be used for their muscle-relaxant properties to alleviate pain caused by muscle spasms and various dystonias, including blepharospasm. Tolerance often develops to the muscle relaxant effects of benzodiazepines such as diazepam. Baclofen is sometimes used as an alternative to diazepam.
Availability
Diazepam is marketed in over 500 brands throughout the world. It is supplied in oral, injectable, inhalation, and rectal forms.
The United States military employs a specialized diazepam preparation known as Convulsive Antidote, Nerve Agent (CANA), which contains diazepam. One CANA kit is typically issued to service members, along with three Mark I NAAK kits, when operating in circumstances where chemical weapons in the form of nerve agents are considered a potential hazard. Both of these kits deliver drugs using autoinjectors. They are intended for use in "buddy aid" or "self aid" administration of the drugs in the field prior to decontamination and delivery of the patient to definitive medical care.
Contraindications
Use of diazepam should be avoided, when possible, in individuals with:
Ataxia
Severe hypoventilation
Acute narrow-angle glaucoma
Severe hepatic deficiencies (hepatitis and liver cirrhosis decrease elimination by a factor of two)
Severe renal deficiencies (for example, patients on dialysis)
Liver disorders
Severe sleep apnea
Severe depression, particularly when accompanied by suicidal tendencies
Psychosis
Pregnancy or breast feeding
Caution required in elderly or debilitated patients
Coma or shock
Abrupt discontinuation of therapy
Acute intoxication with alcohol, narcotics, or other psychoactive substances (with the exception of hallucinogens or some stimulants, where it is occasionally used as a treatment for overdose)
History of alcohol or drug dependence
Myasthenia gravis, an autoimmune disorder causing marked fatiguability
Hypersensitivity or allergy to any drug in the benzodiazepine class
Caution
Benzodiazepine abuse and misuse should be guarded against when prescribed to those with alcohol or drug dependencies or who have psychiatric disorders.
Pediatric patients
Less than 18 years of age, this treatment is usually not indicated, except for treatment of epilepsy, and pre- or postoperative treatment. The smallest possible effective dose should be used for this group of patients.
Under 6 months of age, safety and effectiveness have not been established; diazepam should not be given to those in this age group.
Elderly and very ill patients can possibly suffer apnea or cardiac arrest. Concomitant use of other central nervous system depressants increases this risk. The smallest possible effective dose should be used for this group of people. The elderly metabolise benzodiazepines much more slowly than younger adults, and are also more sensitive to the effects of benzodiazepines, even at similar blood plasma levels. Doses of diazepam are recommended to be about half of those given to younger people, and treatment limited to a maximum of two weeks. Long-acting benzodiazepines such as diazepam are not recommended for the elderly. Diazepam can also be dangerous in geriatric patients owing to a significant increased risk of falls.
Intravenous or intramuscular injections in hypotensive people or those in shock should be administered carefully and vital signs should be monitored.
Benzodiazepines such as diazepam are lipophilic and rapidly penetrate membranes, so rapidly cross over into the placenta with significant uptake of the drug. Use of benzodiazepines including diazepam in late pregnancy, especially high doses, can result in floppy infant syndrome. Diazepam when taken late in pregnancy, during the third trimester, causes a definite risk of a severe benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome in the neonate with symptoms including hypotonia, and reluctance to suck, to apnoeic spells, cyanosis, and impaired metabolic responses to cold stress. Floppy infant syndrome and sedation in the newborn may also occur. Symptoms of floppy infant syndrome and the neonatal benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome have been reported to persist from hours to months after birth.
Adverse effects
Adverse effects of benzodiazepines such as diazepam include anterograde amnesia, confusion (especially pronounced in higher doses) and sedation. The elderly are more prone to adverse effects of diazepam, such as confusion, amnesia, ataxia, and hangover effects, as well as falls. Long-term use of benzodiazepines such as diazepam is associated with drug tolerance, benzodiazepine dependence, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Like other benzodiazepines, diazepam can impair short-term memory and learning of new information. While benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam can cause anterograde amnesia, they do not cause retrograde amnesia; information learned before using benzodiazepines is not impaired. Tolerance to the cognitively impairing effects of benzodiazepines does not tend to develop with long-term use, and the elderly are more sensitive to them. Additionally, after cessation of benzodiazepines, cognitive deficits may persist for at least six months; it is unclear whether these impairments take longer than six months to abate or if they are permanent. Benzodiazepines may also cause or worsen depression. Infusions or repeated intravenous injections of diazepam when managing seizures, for example, may lead to drug toxicity, including respiratory depression, sedation and hypotension. Drug tolerance may also develop to infusions of diazepam if it is given for longer than 24 hours. Sedatives and sleeping pills, including diazepam, have been associated with an increased risk of death.
In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.
Diazepam has a range of side effects common to most benzodiazepines, including:
Suppression of REM sleep and Slow wave sleep
Impaired motor function
Impaired coordination
Impaired balance
Dizziness
Reflex tachycardia
Less commonly, paradoxical side effects can occur, including nervousness, irritability, excitement, worsening of seizures, insomnia, muscle cramps, changes in libido, and in some cases, rage and violence. These adverse reactions are more likely to occur in children, the elderly, and individuals with a history of a substance use disorder, such as an alcohol use disorder, or a history of aggressive behavior. In some people, diazepam may increase the propensity toward self-harming behaviours and, in extreme cases, may provoke suicidal tendencies or acts. Very rarely dystonia can occur.
Diazepam may impair the ability to drive vehicles or operate machinery. The impairment is worsened by consumption of alcohol, because both act as central nervous system depressants.
During the course of therapy, tolerance to the sedative effects usually develops, but not to the anxiolytic and myorelaxant effects.
Patients with severe attacks of apnea during sleep may suffer respiratory depression (hypoventilation), leading to respiratory arrest and death.
Diazepam in doses of 5 mg or more causes significant deterioration in alertness performance combined with increased feelings of sleepiness.
Tolerance and dependence
Diazepam, as with other benzodiazepine drugs, can cause tolerance, physical dependence, substance use disorder, and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Withdrawal from diazepam or other benzodiazepines often leads to withdrawal symptoms similar to those seen during barbiturate or alcohol withdrawal. The higher the dose and the longer the drug is taken, the greater the risk of experiencing unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.
Withdrawal symptoms can occur from standard dosages and also after short-term use, and can range from insomnia and anxiety to more serious symptoms, including seizures and psychosis. Withdrawal symptoms can sometimes resemble pre-existing conditions and be misdiagnosed. Diazepam may produce less intense withdrawal symptoms due to its long elimination half-life.
Benzodiazepine treatment should be discontinued as soon as possible by a slow and gradual dose reduction regimen. Tolerance develops to the therapeutic effects of benzodiazepines; for example tolerance occurs to the anticonvulsant effects and as a result benzodiazepines are not generally recommended for the long-term management of epilepsy. Dose increases may overcome the effects of tolerance, but tolerance may then develop to the higher dose and adverse effects may increase. The mechanism of tolerance to benzodiazepines includes uncoupling of receptor sites, alterations in gene expression, down-regulation of receptor sites, and desensitisation of receptor sites to the effect of GABA. About one-third of individuals who take benzodiazepines for longer than four weeks become dependent and experience withdrawal syndrome on cessation.
Differences in rates of withdrawal (50–100%) vary depending on the patient sample. For example, a random sample of long-term benzodiazepine users typically finds around 50% experience few or no withdrawal symptoms, with the other 50% experiencing notable withdrawal symptoms. Certain select patient groups show a higher rate of notable withdrawal symptoms, up to 100%.
Rebound anxiety, more severe than baseline anxiety, is also a common withdrawal symptom when discontinuing diazepam or other benzodiazepines. Diazepam is therefore only recommended for short-term therapy at the lowest possible dose owing to risks of severe withdrawal problems from low doses even after gradual reduction. The risk of pharmacological dependence on diazepam is significant, and patients experience symptoms of benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome if it is taken for six weeks or longer. In humans, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of diazepam occurs frequently.
Dependence
Improper or excessive use of diazepam can lead to dependence. At a particularly high risk for diazepam misuse, substance use disorder or dependence are:
People with a history of a substance use disorder or substance dependence Diazepam increases craving for alcohol in problem alcohol consumers. Diazepam also increases the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers.
People with severe personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder
Patients from the aforementioned groups should be monitored very closely during therapy for signs of abuse and development of dependence. Therapy should be discontinued if any of these signs are noted, although if dependence has developed, therapy must still be discontinued gradually to avoid severe withdrawal symptoms. Long-term therapy in such instances is not recommended.
People suspected of being dependent on benzodiazepine drugs should be very gradually tapered off the drug. Withdrawals can be life-threatening, particularly when excessive doses have been taken for extended periods of time. Equal prudence should be used whether dependence has occurred in therapeutic or recreational contexts.
Diazepam is a good choice for tapering for those using high doses of other benzodiazepines since it has a long half-life thus withdrawal symptoms are tolerable. The process is very slow (usually from 14 to 28 weeks) but is considered safe when done appropriately.
Overdose
An individual who has consumed too much diazepam typically displays one or more of these symptoms in a period of approximately four hours immediately following a suspected overdose:
Drowsiness
Mental confusion
Hypotension
Impaired motor functions
Impaired reflexes
Impaired coordination
Impaired balance
Dizziness
Coma
Although not usually fatal when taken alone, a diazepam overdose is considered a medical emergency and generally requires the immediate attention of medical personnel. The antidote for an overdose of diazepam (or any other benzodiazepine) is flumazenil (Anexate). This drug is only used in cases with severe respiratory depression or cardiovascular complications. Because flumazenil is a short-acting drug, and the effects of diazepam can last for days, several doses of flumazenil may be necessary. Artificial respiration and stabilization of cardiovascular functions may also be necessary. Though not routinely indicated, activated charcoal can be used for decontamination of the stomach following a diazepam overdose. Emesis is contraindicated. Dialysis is minimally effective. Hypotension may be treated with levarterenol or metaraminol.
The oral (lethal dose in 50% of the population) of diazepam is 720 mg/kg in mice and 1240 mg/kg in rats. D. J. Greenblatt and colleagues reported in 1978 on two patients who had taken 500 and 2000 mg of diazepam, respectively, went into moderately deep comas, and were discharged within 48 hours without having experienced any important complications, in spite of having high concentrations of diazepam and its metabolites desmethyldiazepam, oxazepam, and temazepam, according to samples taken in the hospital and as follow-up.
Overdoses of diazepam with alcohol, opiates or other depressants may be fatal.
Interactions
If diazepam is administered concomitantly with other drugs, attention should be paid to the possible pharmacological interactions. Particular care should be taken with drugs that potentiate the effects of diazepam, such as barbiturates, phenothiazines, opioids, and antidepressants.
Diazepam does not increase or decrease hepatic enzyme activity, and does not alter the metabolism of other compounds. No evidence would suggest diazepam alters its own metabolism with chronic administration.
Agents with an effect on hepatic cytochrome P450 pathways or conjugation can alter the rate of diazepam metabolism. These interactions would be expected to be most significant with long-term diazepam therapy, and their clinical significance is variable.
Diazepam increases the central depressive effects of alcohol, other hypnotics/sedatives (e.g., barbiturates), other muscle relaxants, certain antidepressants, sedative antihistamines, opioids, and antipsychotics, as well as anticonvulsants such as phenobarbital, phenytoin, and carbamazepine. The euphoriant effects of opioids may be increased, leading to increased risk of psychological dependence.
Cimetidine, omeprazole, oxcarbazepine, ticlopidine, topiramate, ketoconazole, itraconazole, disulfiram, fluvoxamine, isoniazid, erythromycin, probenecid, propranolol, imipramine, ciprofloxacin, fluoxetine, and valproic acid prolong the action of diazepam by inhibiting its elimination.
Alcohol in combination with diazepam may cause a synergistic enhancement of the hypotensive properties of benzodiazepines and alcohol.
Oral contraceptives significantly decrease the elimination of desmethyldiazepam, a major metabolite of diazepam.
Rifampin, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and phenobarbital increase the metabolism of diazepam, thus decreasing drug levels and effects. Dexamethasone and St John's wort also increase the metabolism of diazepam.
Diazepam increases the serum levels of phenobarbital.
Nefazodone can cause increased blood levels of benzodiazepines.
Cisapride may enhance the absorption, and therefore the sedative activity, of diazepam.
Small doses of theophylline may inhibit the action of diazepam.
Diazepam may block the action of levodopa (used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease).
Diazepam may alter digoxin serum concentrations.
Other drugs that may have interactions with diazepam include antipsychotics (e.g. chlorpromazine), MAO inhibitors, and ranitidine.
Because it acts on the GABA receptor, the herb valerian may produce an adverse effect.
Foods that acidify the urine can lead to faster absorption and elimination of diazepam, reducing drug levels and activity.
Foods that alkalinize the urine can lead to slower absorption and elimination of diazepam, increasing drug levels and activity.
Reports conflict as to whether food in general has any effects on the absorption and activity of orally administered diazepam.
Pharmacology
Diazepam is a long-acting "classical" benzodiazepine. Other classical benzodiazepines include chlordiazepoxide, clonazepam, lorazepam, oxazepam, nitrazepam, temazepam, flurazepam, bromazepam, and clorazepate. Diazepam has anticonvulsant properties. Benzodiazepines act via micromolar benzodiazepine binding sites as calcium channel blockers and significantly inhibit depolarization-sensitive calcium uptake in rat nerve cell preparations.
Diazepam inhibits acetylcholine release in mouse hippocampal synaptosomes. This has been found by measuring sodium-dependent high-affinity choline uptake in mouse brain cells in vitro, after pretreatment of the mice with diazepam in vivo. This may play a role in explaining diazepam's anticonvulsant properties.
Diazepam binds with high affinity to glial cells in animal cell cultures. Diazepam at high doses has been found to decrease histamine turnover in mouse brain via diazepam's action at the benzodiazepine-GABA receptor complex. Diazepam also decreases prolactin release in rats.
Mechanism of action
Benzodiazepines are positive allosteric modulators of the GABA type A receptors (GABAA). The GABAA receptors are ligand-gated chloride-selective ion channels that are activated by GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex promotes the binding of GABA, which in turn increases the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane. This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron's membrane potential. As a result, the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely. As a result, the arousal of the cortical and limbic systems in the central nervous system is reduced.
The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits, the most common ones being two αs, two βs, and one γ (α2β2γ). For each subunit, many subtypes exist (α1–6, β1–3, and γ1–3). GABAA receptors containing the α1 subunit mediate the sedative, the anterograde amnesic, and partly the anticonvulsive effects of diazepam. GABAA receptors containing α2 mediate the anxiolytic actions and to a large degree the myorelaxant effects. GABAA receptors containing α3 and α5 also contribute to benzodiazepines myorelaxant actions, whereas GABAA receptors comprising the α5 subunit were shown to modulate the temporal and spatial memory effects of benzodiazepines. Diazepam is not the only drug to target these GABAA receptors. Drugs such as flumazenil also bind to GABAA to induce their effects.
Diazepam appears to act on areas of the limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus, inducing anxiolytic effects. Benzodiazepine drugs including diazepam increase the inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex.
The anticonvulsant properties of diazepam and other benzodiazepines may be in part or entirely due to binding to voltage-dependent sodium channels rather than benzodiazepine receptors. Sustained repetitive firing seems limited by benzodiazepines' effect of slowing recovery of sodium channels from inactivation.
The muscle relaxant properties of diazepam are produced via inhibition of polysynaptic pathways in the spinal cord.
Pharmacokinetics
Diazepam can be administered orally, intravenously (must be diluted, as it is painful and damaging to veins), intramuscularly (IM), or as a suppository.
The onset of action is one to five minutes for IV administration and 15–30 minutes for IM administration. The duration of diazepam's peak pharmacological effects is 15 minutes to one hour for both routes of administration. The half-life of diazepam in general is 30–56 hours. Peak plasma levels occur between 30 and 90 minutes after oral administration and between 30 and 60 minutes after intramuscular administration; after rectal administration, peak plasma levels occur after 10 to 45 minutes. Diazepam is highly protein-bound, with 96 to 99% of the absorbed drug being protein-bound. The distribution half-life of diazepam is two to 13 minutes.
Diazepam is highly lipid-soluble, and is widely distributed throughout the body after administration. It easily crosses both the blood–brain barrier and the placenta, and is excreted into breast milk. After absorption, diazepam is redistributed into muscle and adipose tissue. Continual daily doses of diazepam quickly build to a high concentration in the body (mainly in adipose tissue), far in excess of the actual dose for any given day.
Diazepam is stored preferentially in some organs, including the heart. Absorption by any administered route and the risk of accumulation is significantly increased in the neonate, and withdrawal of diazepam during pregnancy and breast feeding is clinically justified.
Diazepam undergoes oxidative metabolism by demethylation (CYP 2C9, 2C19, 2B6, 3A4, and 3A5), hydroxylation (CYP 3A4 and 2C19) and glucuronidation in the liver as part of the cytochrome P450 enzyme system. It has several pharmacologically active metabolites. The main active metabolite of diazepam is desmethyldiazepam (also known as nordazepam or nordiazepam). Its other active metabolites include the minor active metabolites temazepam and oxazepam. These metabolites are conjugated with glucuronide, and are excreted primarily in the urine. Because of these active metabolites, the serum values of diazepam alone are not useful in predicting the effects of the drug. Diazepam has a biphasic half-life of about one to three days, and two to seven days for the active metabolite desmethyldiazepam. Most of the drug is metabolised; very little diazepam is excreted unchanged. The elimination half-life of diazepam and also the active metabolite desmethyldiazepam increases significantly in the elderly, which may result in prolonged action, as well as accumulation of the drug during repeated administration.
Physical and chemical properties
Diazepam is a 1,4-benzodiazepine. Diazepam occurs as solid white or yellow crystals with a melting point of 131.5 to 134.5 °C. It is odorless, and has a slightly bitter taste. The British Pharmacopoeia lists it as being very slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and freely soluble in chloroform. The United States Pharmacopoeia lists diazepam as soluble 1 in 16 ethyl alcohol, 1 in 2 of chloroform, 1 in 39 ether, and practically insoluble in water. The pH of diazepam is neutral (i.e., pH = 7). Due to additives such as benzoic acid/benzoate in the injectable form. (Plumb's, 6th edition page 372) Diazepam has a shelf life of five years for oral tablets and three years for IV/IM solutions.
Diazepam should be stored at room temperature (15–30 °C). The solution for parenteral injection should be protected from light and kept from freezing. The oral forms should be stored in air-tight containers and protected from light.
Diazepam can absorb into plastics, so liquid preparations should not be kept in plastic bottles or syringes, etc. As such, it can leach into the plastic bags and tubing used for intravenous infusions. Absorption appears to depend on several factors, such as temperature, concentration, flow rates, and tube length. Diazepam should not be administered if a precipitate has formed and does not dissolve.
Detection in body fluids
Diazepam may be quantified in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients, provide evidence in an impaired driving arrest, or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma diazepam concentrations are usually in a range of 0.1–1.0 mg/l in persons receiving the drug therapeutically. Most commercial immunoassays for the benzodiazepine class of drugs cross-react with diazepam, but confirmation and quantitation are usually performed using chromatographic techniques.
History
Diazepam was the second benzodiazepine invented by Leo Sternbach of Hoffmann-La Roche at the company's Nutley, New Jersey, facility following chlordiazepoxide (Librium), which was approved for use in 1960. Released in 1963 as an improved version of Librium, diazepam became incredibly popular, helping Roche to become a pharmaceutical industry giant. It is 2.5 times more potent than its predecessor, which it quickly surpassed in terms of sales. After this initial success, other pharmaceutical companies began to introduce other benzodiazepine derivatives.
The benzodiazepines gained popularity among medical professionals as an improvement over barbiturates, which have a comparatively narrow therapeutic index, and are far more sedative at therapeutic doses. The benzodiazepines are also far less dangerous; death rarely results from diazepam overdose, except in cases where it is consumed with large amounts of other depressants (such as alcohol or opioids). Benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam initially had widespread public support, but with time the view changed to one of growing criticism and calls for restrictions on their prescription.
Marketed by Roche using an advertising campaign conceived by the William Douglas McAdams Agency under the leadership of Arthur Sackler, diazepam was the top-selling pharmaceutical in the United States from 1969 to 1982, with peak annual sales in 1978 of 2.3 billion tablets. Diazepam, along with oxazepam, nitrazepam and temazepam, represents 82% of the benzodiazepine market in Australia. While psychiatrists continue to prescribe diazepam for the short-term relief of anxiety, neurology has taken the lead in prescribing diazepam for the palliative treatment of certain types of epilepsy and spastic activity, for example, forms of paresis. It is also the first line of defense for a rare disorder called stiff-person syndrome.
Society and culture
Recreational use
Diazepam is a medication with a high risk of misuse and can cause drug dependence. Urgent action by national governments has been recommended to improve prescribing patterns of benzodiazepines such as diazepam. A single dose of diazepam modulates the dopamine system in similar ways to how morphine and alcohol modulate the dopaminergic pathways.
Between 50 and 64% of rats will self-administer diazepam.
Diazepam has been shown to be able to substitute for the behavioural effects of barbiturates in a primate study.
Diazepam has been found as an adulterant in heroin.
Diazepam drug misuse can occur either through recreational misuse where the drug is taken to achieve a high or when the drug is continued long term against medical advice.
Sometimes, it is used by stimulant users to "come down" and sleep and to help control the urge to binge. These users often escalate dosage from 2 to 25 times the therapeutic dose of 5 to 10 mg.
A large-scale study in the US, conducted by SAMHSA, using data from 2011, determined benzodiazepines were present in 28.7% of emergency department visits involving nonmedical use of pharmaceuticals. In this regard, benzodiazepines are second only to opiates, the study found in 39.2% of visits. About 29.3% of drug-related suicide attempts involve benzodiazepines, making them the most frequently represented class in drug-related suicide attempts. Males misuse benzodiazepines as commonly as females.
Benzodiazepines, including diazepam, nitrazepam, and flunitrazepam, account for the largest volume of forged drug prescriptions in Sweden, a total of 52% of drug forgeries being for benzodiazepines.
Diazepam was detected in 26% of cases of people suspected of driving under the influence of drugs in Sweden, and its active metabolite nordazepam was detected in 28% of cases. Other benzodiazepines and zolpidem and zopiclone also were found in high numbers. Many drivers had blood levels far exceeding the therapeutic dose range, suggesting a high degree of potential for misuse for benzodiazepines, zolpidem, and zopiclone. In Northern Ireland, in cases where drugs were detected in samples from impaired drivers who were not impaired by alcohol, benzodiazepines were found in 87% of cases. Diazepam was the most commonly detected benzodiazepine.
Legal status
Diazepam is regulated in most countries as a prescription drug:
International
Diazepam is a Schedule IV controlled drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
UK
Classified as a controlled drug, listed under Schedule IV, Part I (CD Benz POM) of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001, allowing possession with a valid prescription. The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 makes it illegal to possess the drug without a prescription, and for such purposes it is classified as a Class C drug.
Germany
Classified as a prescription drug, or in high dosage as a restricted drug (Betäubungsmittelgesetz, Anlage III).
Australia
Diazepam is Schedule 4 substance under the Poisons Standard (June 2018). A schedule 4 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as, "Substances, the use or supply of which should be by or on the order of persons permitted by State or Territory legislation to prescribe and should be available from a pharmacist on prescription."
United States
Diazepam is controlled as a Schedule IV substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
Judicial executions
The states of California and Florida offer diazepam to condemned inmates as a pre-execution sedative as part of their lethal injection program, although the state of California has not executed a prisoner since 2006. In August 2018, Nebraska used diazepam as part of the drug combination used to execute Carey Dean Moore, the first death row inmate executed in Nebraska in over 21 years.
Veterinary uses
Diazepam is used as a short-term sedative and anxiolytic for cats and dogs, sometimes used as an appetite stimulant. It can also be used to stop seizures in dogs and cats.
References
Further reading
External links
21-Hydroxylase inhibitors
Anxiolytics
Benzodiazepines
Chemical substances for emergency medicine
Chloroarenes
Euphoriants
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Genentech brands
Glycine receptor antagonists
Hoffmann-La Roche brands
Lactams
TSPO ligands
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | [
-0.2632175087928772,
0.2910267114639282,
-0.34394168853759766,
-0.27045902609825134,
-0.6333858966827393,
-0.17272941768169403,
0.5345882177352905,
-0.0017022566171362996,
-0.004883510060608387,
0.23194240033626556,
-0.0105608981102705,
0.6751116514205933,
-0.3117457926273346,
0.39464661478996277,
0.3325616717338562,
0.5529993772506714,
0.6580827236175537,
0.7775312066078186,
0.18064020574092865,
-0.5356839895248413,
0.007018758449703455,
-0.16272151470184326,
0.22193488478660583,
-0.31149792671203613,
0.14589351415634155,
0.15862813591957092,
-0.0946701318025589,
0.18988341093063354,
0.005979988723993301,
-0.29855138063430786,
-0.1557006686925888,
0.945592999458313,
0.4886039197444916,
-0.43637368083000183,
0.4964301884174347,
0.9966052174568176,
-0.37747448682785034,
-0.043304603546857834,
-0.2987858057022095,
-0.3535658121109009,
-0.7732170224189758,
-0.35829678177833557,
-0.054791346192359924,
0.10647144913673401,
0.0242476649582386,
0.3860108554363251,
-1.0629496574401855,
0.436271995306015,
-0.5768948197364807,
-0.10234366357326508,
-0.015533605590462685,
0.21541784703731537,
0.7914970517158508,
-0.16396474838256836,
0.9311476945877075,
0.5061197876930237,
-1.2509374618530273,
-0.13485737144947052,
-0.24638806283473969,
0.5412558913230896,
-0.41559645533561707,
-0.24779656529426575,
0.08738609403371811,
0.1297774463891983,
0.16229107975959778,
0.18271854519844055,
-0.46423548460006714,
0.3680710196495056,
-0.45701465010643005,
0.2559226155281067,
-0.41767674684524536,
-0.2225949615240097,
-0.8148367404937744,
0.06959005445241928,
-0.04995118826627731,
-0.272828608751297,
0.09553076326847076,
-0.07493992149829865,
-0.5370364785194397,
0.19011102616786957,
0.05238918215036392,
0.42744147777557373,
0.5476790070533752,
0.07912279665470123,
0.2314019501209259,
0.0951433777809143,
-0.43032386898994446,
1.1806421279907227,
-0.17851980030536652,
0.041955459862947464,
-0.19484233856201172,
0.5467504262924194,
0.5903217196464539,
-0.15302130579948425,
-0.386364609003067,
-0.6441049575805664,
-0.025529779493808746,
0.35009971261024475,
0.41169363260269165,
0.0025730414781719446,
0.6757229566574097,
0.29816606640815735,
0.2533290982246399,
0.021320579573512077,
-0.07675906270742416,
0.18644589185714722,
-0.4247578978538513,
-0.9813329577445984,
-0.602973222732544,
0.6725416779518127,
-0.7397755980491638,
0.5374208688735962,
0.1405983716249466,
-0.13518142700195312,
-0.6208667159080505,
-0.12305314093828201,
0.23433904349803925,
0.6003091335296631,
-0.27323371171951294,
0.19284366071224213,
-0.05434657260775566,
1.0176509618759155,
0.0677710771560669,
0.17738744616508484,
-0.6979354023933411,
0.21418441832065582,
0.30934277176856995,
0.36827903985977173,
0.15024632215499878,
0.3771931827068329,
0.29744940996170044,
0.7118375301361084,
0.3265945613384247,
-0.08138515800237656,
-0.046090759336948395,
-0.3081637918949127,
0.18291930854320526,
0.3100815713405609,
0.9562026858329773,
0.2923995852470398,
-0.4227924942970276,
-0.13436223566532135,
-0.27657607197761536,
-0.363003671169281,
0.16144582629203796,
0.2508977949619293,
-0.007914740592241287,
-0.09076452255249023,
-0.13410314917564392,
0.31597191095352173,
-0.010411769151687622,
-0.2980040907859802,
-0.29112115502357483,
-0.3678678572177887,
-0.28710541129112244,
0.17265744507312775,
-0.22590725123882294,
0.09757710248231888,
-0.16816900670528412,
-0.46531975269317627,
0.22493594884872437,
-0.11446558684110641,
0.47868162393569946,
0.07214196771383286,
0.6092209219932556,
0.2268674522638321,
-0.36138325929641724,
0.37543267011642456,
0.5274436473846436,
0.33967339992523193,
-0.21669264137744904,
-0.27243930101394653,
0.18041333556175232,
-0.7891664505004883,
0.3313576579093933,
0.02085598185658455,
0.031070325523614883,
0.015761815011501312,
0.5817824602127075,
0.10903581976890564,
-0.5708519220352173,
0.49196696281433105,
-0.268675297498703,
-0.6476789116859436,
0.09003335982561111,
0.09746658802032471,
0.4364757537841797,
0.13467217981815338,
0.7953361868858337,
0.09249351918697357,
-0.9801476001739502,
0.14248521625995636,
-0.1770753711462021,
-0.44995370507240295,
0.7647886276245117,
-0.08867006748914719,
-0.8054351210594177,
-0.09559738636016846,
0.5200626850128174,
-0.14267826080322266,
-0.029992029070854187,
0.5106202960014343,
0.2535400986671448,
-0.04459530860185623,
-1.2360824346542358,
0.17968010902404785,
0.03264210745692253,
-0.24296538531780243,
0.4018658697605133,
1.1369465589523315,
0.5298259854316711,
-0.22191326320171356,
0.3807007372379303,
-0.14384786784648895,
-0.020073581486940384,
0.048852380365133286,
0.18107080459594727,
0.810151994228363,
0.01775267720222473,
0.496365487575531,
-0.41771960258483887,
-0.3209841847419739,
-0.686089813709259,
1.5323045253753662,
-0.15138906240463257,
0.9928889870643616,
-0.1815265268087387,
-0.2720794081687927,
0.026941534131765366,
0.08904074132442474,
0.8180036544799805,
0.12714453041553497,
0.1587689220905304,
-0.3007654845714569,
0.03581130877137184,
0.1474977284669876,
-0.11685793101787567,
-0.14723366498947144,
-0.060365281999111176,
-0.962665319442749,
0.9153687953948975,
-0.3703521490097046,
-0.19892965257167816,
-0.147710919380188,
0.42423853278160095,
-0.1968475878238678,
0.26748019456863403,
0.7590603828430176,
-0.5171054005622864,
-0.6577153205871582,
0.1905258148908615,
0.46212390065193176,
0.32717499136924744,
0.06171908602118492,
0.07147566974163055,
-0.3498653173446655,
-0.7801234722137451,
0.1287347674369812,
0.07424984872341156,
0.3224903643131256,
-0.276597797870636,
0.929698646068573,
0.6049255728721619,
0.31842681765556335,
-0.12256632000207901,
-0.26049935817718506,
-0.07998305559158325,
0.1952504813671112,
-0.37254616618156433,
-0.26098528504371643,
0.6702451705932617,
-0.621934711933136,
-0.8303813934326172,
-0.3237020671367645,
-0.438703328371048,
-0.19422923028469086,
0.1888592690229416,
0.27514076232910156,
-1.0105210542678833,
-0.3298054337501526,
0.5084021091461182,
0.9213303327560425,
-0.00675909873098135,
0.19654661417007446,
-0.7803149223327637,
-0.9023095369338989,
-0.2792187035083771,
-0.6670976877212524,
0.09872391819953918,
-0.18738558888435364,
-0.3542852997779846,
0.36133289337158203,
-0.5177437663078308,
0.706274688243866,
0.11108861863613129,
-0.27332398295402527,
-0.2142876833677292,
1.0583176612854004,
0.1777469962835312,
-0.6248995065689087,
0.5829831957817078,
0.06850571185350418,
-0.16503076255321503,
0.25847283005714417,
-0.0789966955780983,
-0.4923182427883148,
0.24240007996559143,
-0.11680729687213898,
-5.001612663269043,
0.15060840547084808,
-0.757035493850708,
-0.13656435906887054,
0.36517491936683655,
0.4668205976486206,
0.3220285475254059,
-0.6561877131462097,
-0.11383549869060516,
0.15488722920417786,
-0.26867520809173584,
-0.2143665999174118,
0.24717843532562256,
-0.16211062669754028,
-0.17064546048641205,
-0.03308749943971634,
-0.20182164013385773,
-0.6292988657951355,
0.9275831580162048,
-0.17948229610919952,
0.43092405796051025,
0.3223101794719696,
-0.2974574565887451,
1.1486150026321411,
-0.3297860026359558,
-0.4659132957458496,
0.13032321631908417,
0.6380258202552795,
-0.6408481001853943,
0.12169016897678375,
0.17990639805793762,
0.12649685144424438,
-0.4747721254825592,
-0.23393191397190094,
0.05451755225658417,
-0.08651086688041687,
0.1795090138912201,
-0.7662739753723145,
-0.2914763391017914,
-0.4578714370727539,
-0.5840305685997009,
-0.08742334693670273,
0.5470184087753296,
0.027441784739494324,
0.8255153298377991,
0.4024653136730194,
-0.3475477397441864,
-0.7481133937835693,
0.26160621643066406,
0.7603633999824524,
0.0367869958281517,
-0.09389548003673553,
-0.4208119511604309,
-0.04711304232478142,
-0.4372757077217102,
0.07131768763065338,
-0.34331172704696655,
-0.3532603681087494,
-0.4266980290412903,
0.6388822793960571,
-0.05017700418829918,
0.5372961759567261,
-0.380587637424469,
0.29649555683135986,
-0.0780099481344223,
-0.5835422277450562,
0.06375817954540253,
-0.5457628965377808,
0.10243818908929825,
-0.06075642630457878,
-0.12083911150693893,
0.48728346824645996,
0.008797689341008663,
-1.1594316959381104,
0.3002590537071228,
-0.049812089651823044,
-0.42211976647377014,
0.019552920013666153,
-0.43239492177963257,
0.42262765765190125,
-0.5453602075576782,
-0.23837779462337494,
0.2802461087703705,
0.6076600551605225,
0.18197226524353027,
-0.12323646247386932,
-0.8268184065818787,
0.4441222846508026,
-0.36116382479667664,
-0.020817626267671585,
0.5680848956108093,
-0.5647907853126526,
0.7233198881149292,
0.002223395276814699,
-0.6682193279266357,
0.6417388319969177,
-0.018344512209296227,
0.4952731430530548,
0.8130643963813782,
0.13151854276657104,
0.37340375781059265,
0.11555550247430801,
0.41761869192123413,
-0.3813793659210205,
-0.06977672129869461,
-0.32558855414390564,
-0.19880235195159912,
-0.17031288146972656,
0.7415608763694763,
-0.3578549027442932,
-0.10507380217313766,
0.4737332761287689,
-0.16848011314868927,
-0.11779046803712845,
1.1306626796722412,
-0.40888512134552,
-0.40594589710235596,
0.5852274894714355,
0.47425562143325806,
0.04561556130647659,
-0.15700703859329224,
0.8832014799118042,
-0.2331242710351944,
-0.3802793323993683,
0.060429755598306656,
-0.36926841735839844,
-0.11621247231960297,
-0.19397474825382233,
0.28634417057037354,
0.8449205756187439,
0.15967556834220886,
-0.015812531113624573,
-0.8135184645652771,
-0.12899675965309143,
-0.15195110440254211,
-0.6238546371459961,
-0.7335193157196045,
0.3476969599723816,
-0.11790123581886292,
-0.12547677755355835,
0.08762180805206299,
-1.0148786306381226,
-0.22948050498962402,
0.0036458210088312626,
0.6654438972473145,
0.0006849131896160543,
0.2194388061761856,
-0.3753167688846588,
-0.5033138394355774,
0.484678715467453,
0.13773709535598755,
0.35610634088516235,
-0.6139357089996338,
0.15482677519321442,
-0.3974984884262085,
-0.0656634047627449,
0.32544785737991333,
1.0141535997390747,
-0.07272135466337204,
-0.666132390499115,
0.13106025755405426,
-0.4989392161369324,
-0.9711924195289612,
-0.34545770287513733,
-0.13658960163593292,
-0.014275631867349148,
-0.26916104555130005,
-0.09145080298185349,
-0.13080966472625732,
0.15189285576343536,
-0.2160334289073944,
-0.9750312566757202,
-0.6667641997337341,
-0.12206811457872391,
0.43933379650115967,
0.6180465817451477,
-0.12230409681797028,
0.3299681842327118,
-0.8893779516220093,
-0.5959029197692871,
-0.5682937502861023,
-0.4460744857788086,
-0.42883798480033875,
0.2007535696029663,
0.09771715104579926,
-1.0774011611938477,
-0.34846529364585876,
-0.6723229289054871,
-0.018944745883345604,
-0.19675040245056152,
0.42319953441619873,
-0.18763776123523712,
-0.21346570551395416,
-0.006976705975830555,
-0.22370930016040802,
-0.5070248246192932,
0.005654790438711643,
0.5031147003173828,
-0.11549826711416245,
-0.5555122494697571,
0.18261565268039703,
0.562640368938446,
-0.3411068320274353,
0.07442671060562134,
0.2640296220779419,
-0.4856758713722229,
-0.6776617765426636,
0.623243510723114,
-0.11893752217292786,
0.2967848777770996,
-0.2631058394908905,
-0.5118586421012878,
-0.3324958384037018,
0.2326672524213791,
-0.4073903262615204,
0.7141236662864685,
0.20106586813926697,
-0.5101985335350037,
-0.4491807222366333,
0.006429533939808607,
0.46172022819519043,
-0.2825790345668793,
-0.2694660425186157,
-0.48724207282066345,
-0.48431339859962463,
0.733736515045166,
0.1641971319913864,
0.029266132041811943,
0.8376966714859009,
0.1811724752187729,
-0.1882011592388153,
0.030097685754299164,
-0.01995408907532692,
0.5124610662460327,
0.12574511766433716,
0.23878048360347748,
-0.8133580684661865,
0.794705331325531,
-0.10186421126127243,
0.16018658876419067,
-0.2555480897426605,
0.557277500629425,
0.32941555976867676,
0.17198868095874786,
-0.27936625480651855,
0.0044194976799190044,
0.5802648067474365,
-0.005873676855117083,
-0.5274932384490967,
0.9373832941055298,
0.48313024640083313,
-0.433661550283432,
0.007724314462393522,
-0.8529489040374756,
0.6554237008094788,
-0.5933741331100464,
0.42896801233291626,
-0.08399227261543274,
-0.5370637774467468,
0.29386067390441895,
-0.12135276943445206,
0.8850923776626587,
-1.0868380069732666,
0.9174204468727112,
0.1047985628247261,
-0.5681193470954895,
-0.27861133217811584,
-0.1990470439195633,
0.6662234663963318,
-0.7961522340774536,
-0.45240506529808044,
-0.7180799841880798,
0.4870932698249817,
0.6343693733215332,
0.572815477848053,
0.9574617147445679,
0.25113528966903687,
-1.3275001049041748,
0.1312195360660553,
-0.4012202322483063,
-0.70491623878479,
0.2548467516899109,
0.6441343426704407,
-0.43155038356781006,
0.5724793672561646,
-0.6812378764152527,
-0.7047144770622253,
-0.869814932346344,
-1.3836289644241333,
-0.07110253721475601,
-0.003759836545214057,
0.40086787939071655,
-0.4121725857257843,
0.15605950355529785,
-0.21221192181110382,
0.2545756995677948,
-0.5130040049552917,
0.30066096782684326,
-0.06842810660600662,
0.018145229667425156,
-0.03291069343686104,
0.7315514087677002,
0.6797958612442017,
-0.4167022109031677,
-0.0018155090510845184,
0.1909721940755844,
0.13109199702739716,
-0.5022135376930237,
-0.09987421333789825,
0.007990029640495777,
-0.03294946253299713,
-0.5612280964851379,
-0.0692746639251709,
0.747326672077179,
-0.2561125159263611,
0.8526249527931213,
0.4534127712249756,
-0.08988302201032639,
0.23995697498321533,
0.4814777076244354,
0.6859937906265259,
-0.40372583270072937,
0.31911811232566833,
-0.25131669640541077,
-0.13976998627185822,
0.6537582874298096,
-0.23911337554454803,
0.14729531109333038,
0.3141888678073883,
0.8007804155349731,
0.6608153581619263,
0.0804273933172226,
-0.02918929047882557,
0.12979933619499207,
-0.028615927323698997,
-0.37214210629463196,
0.0531439445912838,
-0.03673636168241501,
-0.8864150047302246,
0.3347552716732025,
1.0250216722488403,
0.5013138055801392,
0.17745845019817352,
0.41428908705711365,
0.685834527015686,
0.566449761390686,
0.783713698387146,
-0.041586361825466156,
0.3434189260005951,
-0.07792607694864273,
0.05636364221572876,
0.7089971899986267,
0.7058334946632385,
-0.19393208622932434,
-0.12136820703744888,
0.3804101347923279,
0.5315755009651184,
0.13778743147850037,
-0.9725777506828308,
-0.028701912611722946,
-0.5700184106826782,
-0.5161685943603516,
0.13646771013736725,
0.6790251135826111,
0.042198240756988525,
-0.5758187174797058,
-0.49507102370262146,
-0.5326583385467529,
-0.22577983140945435,
0.1629539132118225,
0.34096887707710266,
-0.1713237315416336,
-0.3268427550792694,
0.29053857922554016,
0.26808691024780273,
0.07243198901414871,
0.3223763704299927,
-0.12166575342416763,
0.32685989141464233,
0.09479955583810806,
-0.41512683033943176,
0.20286987721920013,
-0.7764995098114014,
-0.4194067418575287,
0.21442477405071259,
0.10772722959518433,
-0.7281625270843506,
-0.01638747937977314,
-0.2440633922815323,
-0.033572133630514145,
-0.15277427434921265,
0.2827642560005188,
-0.022037873044610023,
-0.10803758352994919,
0.2302311360836029,
0.15365760028362274,
0.33330288529396057,
0.25250470638275146,
-0.27847376465797424,
-0.33162087202072144,
0.06866569817066193,
0.38236328959465027,
-0.5485550761222839,
0.1871732622385025,
-0.3360682427883148,
0.3131231367588043,
-1.3035835027694702,
0.16035597026348114,
-0.8572338819503784,
0.5332642793655396,
0.21021391451358795,
0.39939045906066895,
0.12051297724246979,
0.4006860554218292,
0.24787117540836334,
-0.08489435911178589,
0.5538638234138489,
-0.6925569176673889,
-0.24723567068576813,
-0.8164471983909607,
0.5709092020988464,
0.1967814862728119,
-0.23176367580890656,
-0.0745636373758316,
-0.7927578091621399,
-0.09428226202726364,
0.20072880387306213,
0.03265126049518585,
0.0223626010119915,
-0.0013170435559004545,
0.17633074522018433,
0.5564675331115723,
-0.3910396695137024,
0.011673443019390106,
-0.6046743392944336,
-0.2084234058856964,
0.5396201014518738,
1.3609610795974731,
-0.5199838280677795,
0.3168017566204071,
0.031012531369924545,
0.31818607449531555,
-0.21080636978149414,
-0.34709301590919495,
-0.22845980525016785,
-0.5140023231506348,
-0.6304773688316345,
-0.8618419766426086,
-0.7005534172058105,
-0.19994892179965973,
-0.0393492691218853,
-0.3315776586532593,
-0.8336808085441589,
0.35218241810798645,
0.35231611132621765,
-0.025584319606423378,
0.09268414974212646,
-0.760369598865509,
-0.10568390041589737,
0.3159622550010681
] |
234810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshiakira | Ashikaga Yoshiakira | was the 2nd shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1358 to 1367 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshiakira was the son of the founder and first shōgun of the Muromachi shogunate, Ashikaga Takauji. His mother was Akahashi Tōshi, also known as Hōjō Nariko.
His childhood name was Senjuō (). He spent his childhood in Kamakura as a hostage of the Hōjō clan. His father Takauji joined forces with the banished Emperor Go-Daigo. The Kamakura shogunate was overthrown, and Go-Daigo began the process which came to be known as the Kenmu Restoration.
Yoshiakira assisted Nitta Yoshisada (1301–1338) in his attack on the Kamakura shogunate.
In 1349, an internal disturbance of the government caused Yoshiakira to be called back to Kyoto, where he found himself named as Takauji's heir. On 5 April 1352, Loyalist forces led by Kitabatake Akiyoshi, Kusunoki Masanori and Chigusa Akitsune occupied Kyoto for twenty days before Yoshiakira was able to retake the city. Loyalist forces led by Masanori and Yamana Tokiuji captured Kyoto again in July 1353, but were repulsed by Yoshiakira in August. In January 1355, Loyalist forces led by Momonoi, Tadafuyu, and Yamana captured Kyoto again. However, Kyoto was recaptured on 25 April by Takauji's and Yoshiakira's combined forces. Yoshiakira succeeded his father Takauji as Sei-i Taishōgun after his death in 1358.
Significant events shape the period during which Yoshiakira was shōgun:
1358 – Takauji dies; Yoshiakira appointed shōgun'7; dissention and defections in shogunate.<ref name="ackroyd329">Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron, p. 329.</ref>
1362 – Hosokawa Kiyouji and Kusunoki Masanori attack Kyoto, Yoshiakira flees, but regains the capital in twenty days.
1365 – Emperor Go-Daigo's son, Prince Kaneyoshi (also known as Kanenaga) gains control of Kyushu.
1367 – Kantō kubō Ashikaga Motouji dies; Yoshiakira falls ill and cedes his position to his son.
Some months after his death he was succeeded by his son Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who became the third shōgun in 1368. Yoshiakira was posthumously named , and his grave is at Tōji-in, Kyoto, at the same site as his father's grave.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Takauji
Mother: Akahashi Toshi (1306–1365)
Wife: Shibukawa Koshi (1332–1392)
Concubine: Ki no Yoshiko (1336–1413)
Children:
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
Eras of Yoshiakira's bakufu
The years in which Yoshiakira was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Nanboku-chō southern court
Eras as reckoned by legitimate Court (as determined by Meiji rescript):
Shōhei (1346–1370)
Nanboku-chō northern Court
Eras as reckoned by pretender Court (as determined by Meiji rescript):
Enbun (1356–1361)
Kōan (1361–1362)
Jōji (1362–1368)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce I. (1982) Lessons from History: the Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Sansom, George Bailey (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ;
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
Ashikaga Yoshiakira
Ashikaga Yoshiakira
14th-century Japanese people
14th-century shōguns
Ashikaga shōguns
Ashikaga clan | [
-0.8160597085952759,
-0.09354637563228607,
-0.5430538654327393,
0.213646799325943,
-1.3356279134750366,
0.47299841046333313,
0.7918278574943542,
-0.24500326812267303,
-0.4367751479148865,
-0.5236747860908508,
0.2259538322687149,
0.18875664472579956,
-0.10991272330284119,
-0.06656834483146667,
-0.2673250436782837,
-0.09958939254283905,
0.6916648149490356,
-0.04015735536813736,
-0.18571200966835022,
-0.34822362661361694,
-0.19219572842121124,
-0.2656668722629547,
-0.13731013238430023,
-0.10741160809993744,
0.3637646734714508,
-0.0056754425168037415,
0.7258842587471008,
0.6228487491607666,
0.039434369653463364,
-0.5412512421607971,
-0.19165463745594025,
0.1870994120836258,
0.06078227236866951,
-0.2292114496231079,
-0.5623143315315247,
0.024225542321801186,
0.07597066462039948,
0.09945917129516602,
-0.14856766164302826,
0.19315795600414276,
-0.2168423980474472,
0.34923890233039856,
0.29243147373199463,
0.3112311065196991,
0.04592694342136383,
-0.44717544317245483,
-1.7451858520507812,
0.08951859176158905,
0.09224972873926163,
-0.43437620997428894,
0.009642152115702629,
0.7485328316688538,
-0.1426810622215271,
0.2830813527107239,
-0.18065737187862396,
0.8126899600028992,
-0.37231096625328064,
-0.44147080183029175,
-0.9414830207824707,
-0.40499547123908997,
0.43089568614959717,
-0.09735355526208878,
0.3641812205314636,
-0.1437964141368866,
-0.0672106221318245,
-0.15796023607254028,
-0.007720546796917915,
0.32252123951911926,
0.39647242426872253,
0.20794782042503357,
-0.02792534790933132,
0.8869713544845581,
0.055096689611673355,
0.3594761788845062,
0.2495475858449936,
-0.6779376864433289,
0.16791664063930511,
0.257542222738266,
0.48379918932914734,
-0.10191032290458679,
-0.4579016864299774,
-0.5968247652053833,
0.17136810719966888,
0.09671705961227417,
0.42578125,
-0.12973518669605255,
0.12714175879955292,
0.6159037351608276,
-0.8499085903167725,
-0.026384802535176277,
-0.15906164050102234,
0.2798087000846863,
0.5124201774597168,
0.04912453517317772,
-0.3023868501186371,
-0.2325732707977295,
-0.29123133420944214,
0.36403945088386536,
-0.30535346269607544,
-0.17350749671459198,
0.1417369395494461,
0.03887331485748291,
-0.18676763772964478,
-0.2731841206550598,
-0.8696076273918152,
-0.5512486100196838,
0.020001119002699852,
-0.09071218967437744,
-0.999062180519104,
0.10866083949804306,
-0.3248658776283264,
0.5806847810745239,
-0.12998493015766144,
-0.24008053541183472,
0.03742607310414314,
0.19955642521381378,
-0.17458607256412506,
-0.29766392707824707,
0.09736492484807968,
-0.046748824417591095,
0.23712098598480225,
0.1065627858042717,
-0.44936734437942505,
0.4364994466304779,
-0.16062156856060028,
0.05593428388237953,
-0.2657278776168823,
-0.32865598797798157,
0.16909369826316833,
-0.14719617366790771,
0.791860044002533,
0.8933005332946777,
-0.6623544692993164,
0.4228317439556122,
0.3543045222759247,
-0.41235288977622986,
-0.04598677530884743,
0.008996458724141121,
-0.3767707943916321,
-0.3528435230255127,
-0.8845259547233582,
0.10612410306930542,
-0.901068925857544,
0.2863129675388336,
0.04310102015733719,
0.6129987835884094,
-0.01757514290511608,
-0.3998164236545563,
-0.5853859782218933,
-0.3753950893878937,
-0.3454885184764862,
0.4061172902584076,
-0.47448137402534485,
0.22289632260799408,
-0.20915602147579193,
0.2620489299297333,
0.12139251828193665,
-0.5759028792381287,
0.003965471871197224,
0.23612052202224731,
-0.167997345328331,
-0.27384597063064575,
-0.47175049781799316,
0.2285354733467102,
0.5293434262275696,
-0.6942632794380188,
0.36363446712493896,
0.31314656138420105,
-0.32530292868614197,
-0.517284095287323,
-0.3752104341983795,
-0.45251426100730896,
-0.4969256520271301,
-0.5364671349525452,
0.600925624370575,
0.3223026990890503,
1.0908243656158447,
-0.27552342414855957,
0.0257438775151968,
-0.22746333479881287,
-0.788354218006134,
-0.41945046186447144,
0.1774875521659851,
0.049076102674007416,
0.8157789707183838,
0.5736009478569031,
0.019034653902053833,
0.15619179606437683,
0.8289958238601685,
-0.08864028751850128,
-0.291448712348938,
-0.2008863389492035,
0.44910728931427,
-0.46831101179122925,
0.9303238987922668,
0.4788880944252014,
-0.3196253478527069,
-0.10064681619405746,
-0.025442354381084442,
0.8476676940917969,
0.12313050031661987,
-0.4320291578769684,
0.22474294900894165,
0.23720192909240723,
0.19925273954868317,
0.04623847454786301,
-0.28165146708488464,
0.33541831374168396,
0.6958247423171997,
1.0205565690994263,
-0.12789520621299744,
0.29413843154907227,
-0.27898672223091125,
-0.12457790970802307,
-0.12612098455429077,
0.24939797818660736,
-0.2674144506454468,
-0.0998399406671524,
0.438483327627182,
-0.3334168791770935,
0.9672998785972595,
0.05463879182934761,
-0.41486018896102905,
0.5535563826560974,
0.01605905406177044,
1.3885998725891113,
-0.08431296795606613,
0.4612980782985687,
-0.2960380017757416,
-0.8528866171836853,
0.06383553147315979,
0.3927827775478363,
0.43238332867622375,
0.1826859563589096,
-0.08666154742240906,
0.6314635872840881,
0.46900779008865356,
-0.03232768923044205,
-0.22164738178253174,
-0.3005219101905823,
0.28746211528778076,
0.4105663001537323,
0.11874181032180786,
0.41102567315101624,
0.13273479044437408,
0.5351347327232361,
-0.05936453863978386,
0.38477134704589844,
-0.6958194971084595,
-0.4178907573223114,
0.5105670094490051,
0.10124978423118591,
0.34748995304107666,
-0.21430949866771698,
-0.08263257145881653,
-0.5032668113708496,
-0.24438883364200592,
-0.1850334107875824,
-0.2799965441226959,
0.21598610281944275,
0.028097394853830338,
0.12987305223941803,
0.3708879053592682,
0.28213533759117126,
0.234828382730484,
0.287809282541275,
0.3207509517669678,
0.09228667616844177,
0.04016474634408951,
-0.11478709429502487,
-0.03708666190505028,
-0.3959296941757202,
-0.4911509156227112,
-0.4884117543697357,
-0.1009245216846466,
-0.8157989382743835,
-0.4058482348918915,
0.740152895450592,
0.15514196455478668,
-0.6363806128501892,
0.590191662311554,
0.6378670930862427,
-0.21910452842712402,
-0.42321136593818665,
-0.4275277256965637,
-0.46380776166915894,
-0.5593600273132324,
-0.845647394657135,
0.05620304495096207,
-0.4818834662437439,
-0.015992717817425728,
0.6147463321685791,
-0.632646918296814,
-0.12519371509552002,
-0.25035133957862854,
1.0332698822021484,
-0.8260660767555237,
-0.1386636197566986,
0.7940474152565002,
-0.28398412466049194,
-0.9283522963523865,
-0.8447816371917725,
0.5160552859306335,
0.22795407474040985,
0.6780460476875305,
0.3030347526073456,
0.06188938021659851,
-0.14639024436473846,
-5.450734615325928,
0.010832090862095356,
0.14193856716156006,
-0.14883321523666382,
0.11701543629169464,
0.3327079117298126,
0.4994795620441437,
-0.09245319664478302,
0.7224078178405762,
-0.3113289773464203,
0.12436024844646454,
0.22837597131729126,
0.08920339494943619,
0.4063188135623932,
0.07501763850450516,
0.42624685168266296,
0.7731950879096985,
0.01230278518050909,
-0.0192185677587986,
-0.012599664740264416,
0.1786678582429886,
0.05925869569182396,
-0.23128817975521088,
0.8956609964370728,
0.8958048820495605,
0.46526122093200684,
-0.8238053917884827,
-0.05860833078622818,
-0.5533052682876587,
-0.29294097423553467,
0.31750261783599854,
-0.037696000188589096,
0.06582595407962799,
0.4915487766265869,
-0.43425172567367554,
-0.3556077778339386,
0.6179254651069641,
0.5881434679031372,
0.405650794506073,
0.34524574875831604,
-0.1289517730474472,
-0.06685543805360794,
-1.0646684169769287,
0.7259819507598877,
0.1814483255147934,
-0.8786954283714294,
-0.871210515499115,
0.14472262561321259,
-0.4285666048526764,
0.5389869213104248,
-0.05823395028710365,
-0.25697827339172363,
0.498041033744812,
-0.23546993732452393,
0.47968214750289917,
0.2946554720401764,
-0.3597891926765442,
0.440894216299057,
-0.3110331594944,
0.020017944276332855,
0.13043342530727386,
-0.4915092885494232,
-0.13954906165599823,
-0.3937997817993164,
0.4290362596511841,
0.014553959481418133,
0.366946816444397,
-0.11384046077728271,
-0.15346749126911163,
0.18705499172210693,
-0.8655731678009033,
0.5256122350692749,
0.25902408361434937,
-0.9392216801643372,
0.7112523913383484,
0.000622772378847003,
-0.3115985691547394,
0.48411500453948975,
-0.24864807724952698,
-0.20927061140537262,
-0.10937760025262833,
-0.04246833547949791,
-0.004222927149385214,
0.7104526162147522,
0.3830889165401459,
0.5793758034706116,
0.25729742646217346,
0.13408930599689484,
-0.20101071894168854,
0.6367747783660889,
0.5371986627578735,
-0.5574945211410522,
-0.0942753329873085,
0.030209803953766823,
0.4499940574169159,
0.28815385699272156,
-0.5076887607574463,
0.12825477123260498,
0.2297649383544922,
-0.2576681971549988,
0.20478616654872894,
0.37406399846076965,
-0.8247624039649963,
-0.19546711444854736,
-0.3400098383426666,
-0.057014890015125275,
-0.23292681574821472,
0.27349451184272766,
0.4849720895290375,
0.6342254281044006,
-0.1572372019290924,
-0.23353828489780426,
-0.7000995874404907,
-0.384885311126709,
0.6145606637001038,
-0.19896329939365387,
-0.30104324221611023,
0.2112814038991928,
0.4557039141654968,
0.0955388993024826,
-0.021799173206090927,
0.761520266532898,
-0.6539377570152283,
-0.5708836317062378,
0.09787527471780777,
0.5681406855583191,
-0.3826708197593689,
0.4005979895591736,
-0.13232269883155823,
0.023996764793992043,
0.4224516749382019,
0.1785370260477066,
-0.2861405611038208,
-0.08138540387153625,
-0.03722415119409561,
-0.7811382412910461,
-0.21334509551525116,
-0.7772611975669861,
0.0334225632250309,
-0.19082263112068176,
-0.39740729331970215,
-0.16519758105278015,
-0.48248523473739624,
0.24179409444332123,
-0.7801446914672852,
0.29728949069976807,
-0.06543151289224625,
-0.22148151695728302,
0.18791450560092926,
0.28681373596191406,
-0.035433728247880936,
-0.9476711750030518,
0.3277457654476166,
-0.42519932985305786,
-0.5572770833969116,
0.0989317074418068,
-0.5085926651954651,
-0.049712393432855606,
-0.24950136244297028,
0.2937692403793335,
-0.026246165856719017,
-0.1973951756954193,
-0.634422242641449,
-0.2363400161266327,
-0.018224650993943214,
-0.2920406460762024,
0.008965500630438328,
-0.3704358637332916,
-0.28990495204925537,
0.45213285088539124,
0.5498049259185791,
-0.8509438037872314,
0.03848268464207649,
-0.19528333842754364,
0.6342473030090332,
0.10547738522291183,
0.6377487182617188,
0.2711995542049408,
-0.5660508871078491,
-0.5037105679512024,
0.10676998645067215,
0.0626053512096405,
-0.4481632709503174,
0.5460319519042969,
0.06682446599006653,
-0.5554019808769226,
-0.28662678599357605,
-1.0804634094238281,
-0.30862748622894287,
-0.3700513541698456,
-0.3945821523666382,
-0.2459917962551117,
0.21342091262340546,
0.22138585150241852,
-0.20298026502132416,
-0.5259971618652344,
0.40985146164894104,
0.0915990099310875,
0.21687589585781097,
-0.11699306219816208,
-0.41853222250938416,
0.36027586460113525,
-0.2995339334011078,
-0.06419503688812256,
-0.010612602345645428,
-0.5830406546592712,
0.4011072814464569,
0.35427966713905334,
0.7706457376480103,
-0.03442729637026787,
-0.25651589035987854,
-0.5890058279037476,
-0.09821878373622894,
-0.07520129531621933,
0.3751053214073181,
0.2248174399137497,
-0.07181466370820999,
0.5003438591957092,
-0.05483977496623993,
-1.0729899406433105,
-0.4983792006969452,
-0.11606141179800034,
-0.43171998858451843,
-0.3614773452281952,
-0.12233838438987732,
0.49847835302352905,
0.5668120384216309,
0.14872333407402039,
-0.1665632426738739,
-0.26416292786598206,
-0.11768526583909988,
0.11688882857561111,
-0.11702131479978561,
-0.15237899124622345,
-0.5410701036453247,
-0.03473654389381409,
0.1908549666404724,
-0.14916923642158508,
0.6401921510696411,
0.25909122824668884,
0.20797953009605408,
1.026383638381958,
0.22175011038780212,
0.37767454981803894,
0.2638187110424042,
0.20747414231300354,
-0.08377014845609665,
-0.20957930386066437,
0.30290159583091736,
0.23830096423625946,
0.19968491792678833,
-0.3864317834377289,
-0.2909458577632904,
0.030970685184001923,
1.0287959575653076,
-1.0200637578964233,
-0.10959918051958084,
0.372439444065094,
-0.6175598502159119,
0.23483017086982727,
-0.17786291241645813,
0.6234763860702515,
0.2636103332042694,
-0.1336071938276291,
0.36165082454681396,
0.28181079030036926,
-0.18098071217536926,
-0.19761191308498383,
0.11334647983312607,
-0.6952333450317383,
-0.7210386395454407,
-0.20489920675754547,
-0.3651774823665619,
0.39254331588745117,
0.216049924492836,
0.25238263607025146,
-0.5936666131019592,
-0.053866125643253326,
-0.001209778361953795,
0.36055752635002136,
-0.5968913435935974,
-0.5082892775535583,
-0.024015862494707108,
-0.5082215666770935,
-0.608844518661499,
-0.823669970035553,
0.10024327039718628,
0.17475254833698273,
-0.20540550351142883,
0.021037496626377106,
-0.5551432967185974,
-0.4606936275959015,
0.17168986797332764,
-0.37272459268569946,
-0.3177183270454407,
0.5553813576698303,
-0.6866632103919983,
-0.20574568212032318,
-0.46336543560028076,
-0.11947128176689148,
-0.15052196383476257,
0.25553378462791443,
0.171103373169899,
1.0586763620376587,
-0.11646371334791183,
0.15118391811847687,
-0.29680463671684265,
-0.15404012799263,
-0.33796462416648865,
0.4139562249183655,
0.023331215605139732,
-0.07595819979906082,
0.5594109892845154,
-0.06900566071271896,
-0.7478541135787964,
0.09157223254442215,
-0.23622754216194153,
0.10465514659881592,
-0.36147016286849976,
-1.0324674844741821,
0.6507330536842346,
0.08084380626678467,
-0.4262058436870575,
0.2416595071554184,
0.801392138004303,
0.14825579524040222,
-0.13977177441120148,
0.2877745032310486,
0.03050098568201065,
0.20012235641479492,
0.2890896797180176,
0.04534978047013283,
-0.3387586176395416,
0.7293914556503296,
-0.15404203534126282,
0.6505294442176819,
0.12518444657325745,
-0.5115634799003601,
0.48191919922828674,
0.48461729288101196,
0.5032957196235657,
0.7598135471343994,
-0.9156583547592163,
0.0043592373840510845,
0.0001886215031845495,
0.28729140758514404,
-0.2062302678823471,
-0.12867441773414612,
0.25766992568969727,
0.37709957361221313,
0.629797637462616,
0.47290992736816406,
0.1956370770931244,
-0.1768067628145218,
-0.19129037857055664,
0.44108274579048157,
0.7317856550216675,
-0.127413809299469,
-0.046814728528261185,
-0.459015429019928,
0.025806007906794548,
-0.3369274437427521,
0.43204018473625183,
0.046111200004816055,
-0.12954771518707275,
0.4159567952156067,
-0.3892684578895569,
-0.27656877040863037,
0.10114265978336334,
0.2507815957069397,
-0.10120340436697006,
-0.534259021282196,
-0.015548626892268658,
-0.17892256379127502,
0.4362100660800934,
1.0690206289291382,
0.50401371717453,
-0.2347349226474762,
-0.014823160134255886,
-0.0565316416323185,
-0.26922306418418884,
0.5016474723815918,
-0.24350883066654205,
-0.6693274974822998,
0.36455219984054565,
0.6285772323608398,
0.12829063832759857,
0.4997975826263428,
-0.8656861782073975,
-0.15768294036388397,
-0.22398781776428223,
-0.27853602170944214,
-0.5772210359573364,
0.6452158689498901,
-0.2765621244907379,
0.02294810302555561,
0.1638113558292389,
0.528115451335907,
0.44723713397979736,
0.29019010066986084,
-0.015958765521645546,
-0.304701030254364,
0.11696458607912064,
0.2696971595287323,
-0.0651121586561203,
0.6420288681983948,
-0.5638843178749084,
0.005150888580828905,
-0.1453532576560974,
0.038753751665353775,
0.5869984030723572,
0.5425571203231812,
-0.23495905101299286,
0.20037758350372314,
-0.23888039588928223,
-0.1369783878326416,
0.8806976675987244,
-0.44141021370887756,
0.110202357172966,
-0.04870763048529625,
0.18716982007026672,
-0.29606184363365173,
0.2185962051153183,
0.49839216470718384,
-0.01374929677695036,
-0.08554986119270325,
0.5991643071174622,
0.11888028681278229,
0.08633853495121002,
0.4986562132835388,
0.11298641562461853,
-1.2004673480987549,
-0.10699766129255295,
-0.24186575412750244,
0.1458982527256012,
-0.2379678189754486,
0.9319754838943481,
0.3159124553203583,
0.49769237637519836,
-0.3259810209274292,
0.1670367419719696,
-0.03291201591491699,
0.6474676132202148,
0.2347516268491745,
-0.2715283930301666,
-0.13285960257053375,
0.056660398840904236,
-0.832780659198761,
-0.10859391838312149,
0.05057302489876747,
0.6136265993118286,
0.0885879397392273,
0.45583575963974,
-0.5748245120048523,
0.03839963302016258,
0.016308089718222618,
0.2105596512556076,
-0.49582651257514954,
0.3592868149280548,
-0.13567322492599487
] |
234819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venipuncture | Venipuncture | In medicine, venipuncture or venepuncture is the process of obtaining intravenous access for the purpose of venous blood sampling (also called phlebotomy) or intravenous therapy. In healthcare, this procedure is performed by medical laboratory scientists, medical practitioners, some EMTs, paramedics, phlebotomists, dialysis technicians, and other nursing staff. In veterinary medicine, the procedure is performed by veterinarians and veterinary technicians.
It is essential to follow a standard procedure for the collection of blood specimens to get accurate laboratory results. Any error in collecting the blood or filling the test tubes may lead to erroneous laboratory results.
Venipuncture is one of the most routinely performed invasive procedures and is carried out for any of five reasons:
to obtain blood for diagnostic purposes;
to monitor levels of blood components;
to administer therapeutic treatments including medications, nutrition, or chemotherapy;
to remove blood due to excess levels of iron or erythrocytes (red blood cells); or
to collect blood for later uses, mainly transfusion either in the donor or in another person.
Blood analysis is an important diagnostic tool available to clinicians within healthcare.
Blood is most commonly obtained from the superficial veins of the upper limb. The median cubital vein, which lies within the cubital fossa anterior to the elbow, is close to the surface of the skin without many large nerves positioned nearby. Other veins that can be used in the cubital fossa for venipuncture include the cephalic, basilic, and median antebrachial veins.
Minute quantities of blood may be taken by fingerstick sampling and collected from infants by means of a heelprick or from scalp veins with a winged infusion needle.
Phlebotomy (incision into a vein) is also the treatment of certain diseases such as hemochromatosis and primary and secondary polycythemia.
Complications
A 1996 study of blood donors (a larger needle is used in blood donation than in routine venipuncture) found that 1 in 6,300 donors suffered a nerve injury.
Equipment
There are many ways in which blood can be drawn from a vein, and the method used depends on the person's age, the equipment available, and the type of tests required.
Most blood collection in the US, UK, Canada and Hong Kong is done with an evacuated tube system. Two common systems are Vacutainer (Becton, Dickinson and company) and Vacuette (Greiner Bio-One). The equipment consists of a plastic adapter, also known as a tube or needle holder/hub, a hypodermic needle and a vacuum tube. Under certain circumstances, a syringe may be used, often with a butterfly needle, which is a plastic catheter attached to a short needle. In the developing world, the evacuated tube system is the preferred method of drawing blood.
With evacuated or vacuum tubes
Greiner Bio-One manufactured the first ever plastic evacuated blood collection tube in 1985 under the VACUETTE brand name. Today, many companies sell vacuum tubes as the patent for this device is now in the public domain. These tubes are manufactured with a specific volume of gas removed from the sealed tube. When a needle from a hub or transfer device is inserted into the stopper, the tube's vacuum automatically pulls in the required volume of blood.
The basic Evacuated Tube System (ETS) consists of a needle, a tube holder, and the evacuated tubes. The needle is attached to the tube holder by the phlebotomist prior to collection, or may come from the manufacturer as one unit. The needle protrudes through the end of the tube holder, and has a needle on each end. After first cleaning the venipuncture site and applying a tourniquet, the phlebotomist uncaps the needle attached to the tube holder, inserts the needle into the vein, then slides evacuated tubes into the tube holder, where the tube's stopper is pierced by the back end of the needle. The vacuum in the tube then automatically draws the needed blood directly from the vein. Multiple vacuum tubes can be attached to and removed in turn from a single needle, allowing multiple samples to be obtained from a single procedure. This is possible due to the multiple sample sleeve, which is a flexible rubber fitting over the posterior end of the needle cannula which seals the needle until it is pushed out of the way. This keeps blood from freely draining out of the back of the needle inserted in the vein, as each test tube is removed and the next impaled. OSHA safety regulations require that needles or tube holders come equipped with a safety device to cover the needle after the procedure to prevent accidental needle stick injury.
Fittings and adapters used to fill evacuated tubes from butterfly needle kits and syringes are also available.
There are several needle gauges for a phlebotomist to choose from. The most commonly used are as follows: a 21g (green top) needle, a 22g (black top) needle, a 21g (green label) butterfly needle, a 23g (light blue label) butterfly needle, and a 25g (orange or dark blue label) butterfly needle (however this needle is only used in pediatrics or extreme cases as it is so small that it can often result in hemolyzing the blood sample). There are also a variety of tube and bottle sizes and volumes for different test requirements.
Additives and order of draw
The test tubes in which blood is collected may contain one or more of several additives. In general, tests requiring whole blood call for blood samples collected in test tubes containing some form of the anticoagulant EDTA. EDTA chelates calcium to prevent clotting. EDTA is preferred for hematology tests because it does minimum damage to cell morphology. Sodium citrate is the anticoagulant used in specimens collected for coagulation tests. The majority of chemistry and immunology tests are performed on serum, which is produced by clotting and then separating the blood specimen via centrifuge. These specimens are collected in either a non-additive tube or one containing a clotting activator. This clotting activator can interfere with some assays, and so a plain tube is recommended in these cases, but will delay testing. Tubes containing lithium heparin or sodium heparin are also commonly used for a variety of chemistry tests, as they do not require clotting and can be centrifuged immediately after collection. A combination of sodium fluoride and potassium oxalate is used for glucose tests, as these additives both prevent clotting and stop glycolosis, so that blood glucose levels are preserved after collection. Another specialty tube is an opaque amber colored tube used to collect blood for light sensitive analytes, such as bilirubin.
Test tubes are labeled with the additive they contain, but the stopper on each tube is color coded according to additive as well. While colors vary between manufacturers, stopper colors generally are associated with each additive as listed below. Because the additives from each tube can be left on the needle used to fill the tubes, they must be drawn in a specific order to ensure that cross contamination will not negatively affect testing of the samples if multiple tubes are to be drawn at once. The "order of draw" varies by collection method. Below in the order of draw generally required for the Evacuated Tube System (ETS) collection method are the most common tubes, listing additive and color:
In children
Use of lidocaine iontophoresis is effective for reducing pain and alleviating distress during venipuncture in children. A needle-free powder lignocaine delivery system has been shown to decrease the pain of venipuncture in children. Rapid dermal anesthesia can be achieved by local anesthetic infiltration, but it may evoke anxiety in children frightened by needles or distort the skin, making vascular access more difficult and increasing the risk of needle exposure to health care workers. Dermal anesthesia can also be achieved without needles by the topical application of local anesthetics or by lidocaine iontophoresis. By contrast, noninvasive dermal anesthesia can be established in 5–15 min without distorting underlying tissues by lidocaine iontophoresis, where a direct electric current facilitates dermal penetration of positively charged lidocaine molecules when placed under the positive electrode.
One study concluded that the iontophoretic administration of lidocaine was safe and effective in providing dermal anesthesia for venipuncture in children 6–17 years old. This technique may not be applicable to all children. Future studies may provide information on the minimum effective iontophoretic dose for dermal anesthesia in children and the comparison of the anesthetic efficacy and satisfaction of lidocaine iontophoresis with topical anesthetic creams and subcutaneous infiltration.
Non-pharmacological treatments for pain associated with venipuncture in children includes hypnosis and distraction. These treatments reduced self reported pain and when combined with cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) the reduction of pain was even greater. Other interventions have not been found to be effective and these are suggestion, blowing out air, and distraction with parent coaching did not differ from control for pain and distress.
With needle and syringe
Some health care workers prefer to use a syringe-needle technique for venipuncture. Sarstedt manufactures a blood-drawing system (S-Monovette) that uses this principle. This method can be preferred on the elderly, those with cancer, severe burns, obesity, or where the veins are unreliable or fragile. Because syringes are manually operated, the amount of suction applied may be easily controlled. This is particularly helpful when veins are small which may collapse under the suction of an evacuated tube. In children or other circumstances where the quantity of blood gained may be limited it can be helpful to know how much blood can be obtained before distributing it amongst the various additives that the laboratory will require. Another alternative is drawing blood from indwelling cannulae.
Blood cultures
There are times when a blood culture collection is required. The culture will determine if there are pathogens in the blood. Normally blood is sterile. When drawing blood from cultures use a sterile solution such as Betadine rather than alcohol. This is done using sterile gloves, while not wiping away the surgical solution, touching the puncture site, or in any way compromising the sterile process. It is vital that the procedure is performed in as sterile a manner as possible as the persistent presence of skin commensals in blood cultures could indicate endocarditis but they are most often found as contaminants.
It is encouraged to use an abrasive method of skin preparation. This removes the upper layers of dead skin cells along with their contaminating bacteria. Povidone-iodine has traditionally been used but in the UK a 2% chlorhexidine in 70% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol solution is preferred and time must be allowed for it to dry. The tops of any containers used when drawing a blood culture should also be disinfected using a similar solution. Some labs will actively discourage iodine use where iodine is thought to degrade the rubber stopper through which blood enters the bottle, thus allowing contaminates to enter the container.
The blood is collected into special transport bottles, which are like vacuum tubes but shaped differently. The blood culture bottle contains transport media to preserve any microorganisms present while they are being transported to the laboratory for cultures. Because it is unknown whether the pathogens are anaerobic (living without oxygen) or aerobic (living with oxygen), blood is collected to test for both. The aerobic bottle is filled first, and then the anaerobic bottle is filled. However, if the collection is performed using a syringe, the anaerobic bottle is filled first. If a butterfly collection kit is used, the aerobic bottle is filled first, so that any air in the tubing is released into the oxygen-containing bottle.
Specially designed blood culture collection bottles eliminate the need for either the syringe or butterfly collection method. These specially designed bottles have long necks that fit into the evacuated tubes holders that are use for regular venipuncture collection. These bottles also allow for collection of other blood specimens via evacuated tubes, to be collected without additional venipuncture.
The amount of blood that is collected is critical for the optimal recovery of microorganisms. Up to 10mL of blood is typical, but can vary according to the recommends of the manufacturer of the collection bottle. Collection from infants and children are 1 to 5 mL. If too little blood is collected, the ratio of blood-to-nutrient broth will inhibit the growth of microorganisms. If too much blood is collected, there is the risk of a hospital-induced anemia and the ratio of blood-to-nutrient broth will tilt in the opposite direction, which also is not conductive to optimal growth.
The bottles are then incubated in specialized units for 24 hours before a lab technician studies and/or tests it. This step allows the very small numbers of bacteria (potentially 1 or 2 organisms) to multiply to a level which is sufficient for identification +/-antibiotic resistance testing. Modern blood culture bottles have an indicator in the base which changes color in the presence of bacterial growth and can be read automatically by machine. (For this reason the barcoded stickers found on these bottles should not be removed as they are used by the laboratory's automated systems.)
Taking blood samples from animals
Blood samples from living laboratory animals may be collected using following methods:
Blood collection not requiring anesthesia:
Saphenous vein (rat, mice, guinea pig)
Dorsal pedal vein (rat, mice)
Blood collection requiring anesthesia (local/general anesthesia):
Tail vein (rat, mice)
Tail snip (mice)
Orbital sinus (rat, mice)
Jugular vein (rat, mice)
Temporary cannula (rat, mice)
Blood vessel cannulation (guinea pig, ferret)
Tarsal vein (guinea pig)
Marginal ear vein or artery (rabbit)
Terminal procedure:
Cardiac puncture (rat, mice, guinea pig, rabbit, ferret)
Orbital sinus (rat, mice)
Posterior vena cava (rat, mice)
The volume of the blood sample collection is very important in experimental animals. All nonterminal blood collection without replacement of fluids is limited up to 10% of total circulating blood volume in healthy, normal, adult animals on a single occasion and collection may be repeated after three to four weeks. In case repeated blood samples are required at short intervals, a maximum of 0.6 ml/kg/day or 1.0% of an animal's total blood volume can be removed every 24 hours. The estimated blood volume in adult animals is 55 to 70 ml/kg body weight. Care should be taken for older and obese animals. If blood collection volume exceeds more than 10% of total blood volume, fluid replacement may be required. Lactated Ringer's solution (LRS) is recommended as the best fluid replacement by National Institutes of Health (NIH). If the volume of blood collection exceeds more than 30% of the total circulatory blood volume, adequate care should be taken so that the animal does not suffer from hypovolemia.
Blood alcohol tests
It is generally not advisable to use isopropyl alcohol to cleanse the venipuncture site when obtaining a specimen for a blood alcohol test. This has been related largely to the potential legal implications associated with the use of alcohol-based cleaners that could theoretically impact analysis. Numerous police alcohol collection kits have been marketed that incorporate a sodium fluoride/potassium oxalate preservative and non-alcohol-based cleansing agents to ensure proper collection. Using soap and hot water or a povidone-iodine swab are advisable alternatives to isopropyl alcohol in this case.
See also
Arterial blood is taken from an artery instead of a vein
References
Articles containing video clips
Blood tests
Hematology | [
0.7294962406158447,
-0.5459479093551636,
0.12462985515594482,
0.30236512422561646,
0.3860975205898285,
0.34886452555656433,
0.12397952377796173,
0.4035559594631195,
0.004456184338778257,
-0.8530587553977966,
0.0018726136768236756,
0.5655046701431274,
-0.25210240483283997,
0.20472081005573273,
-0.08709780871868134,
-0.015309769660234451,
0.5702782869338989,
0.4383281171321869,
0.5186068415641785,
-0.2045568972826004,
-0.5132694244384766,
-0.17653954029083252,
0.2611311674118042,
-0.34825143218040466,
-0.06650406122207642,
-0.2232159674167633,
-0.35693615674972534,
-0.5572454333305359,
-0.29218268394470215,
-0.08068621158599854,
0.20417997241020203,
0.16382023692131042,
0.14428602159023285,
-0.6182753443717957,
0.19236895442008972,
-0.1929999142885208,
0.026617344468832016,
-0.5035256743431091,
-0.4990330934524536,
-0.06268851459026337,
-0.5406996607780457,
-0.17931212484836578,
0.25082409381866455,
-0.07944242656230927,
-0.07660319656133652,
-0.09678610414266586,
-1.0338701009750366,
0.5383414626121521,
-0.8026413321495056,
0.23074470460414886,
-0.15480157732963562,
-0.07325850427150726,
-0.10580486059188843,
1.0717511177062988,
-0.1688384860754013,
0.31613609194755554,
-0.4081801474094391,
-0.20079590380191803,
0.3878885507583618,
-0.6915267109870911,
0.5871220827102661,
0.2565738260746002,
0.48058223724365234,
0.14399473369121552,
0.1860148310661316,
-0.28379327058792114,
0.1362454742193222,
0.5074049830436707,
-0.17412307858467102,
-1.0627118349075317,
0.04318655654788017,
-0.13287442922592163,
0.10273575037717819,
0.19966726005077362,
-0.13863886892795563,
0.3544215261936188,
-0.0922326073050499,
-0.33937448263168335,
0.2637861371040344,
0.029257142916321754,
-0.28039517998695374,
0.15294863283634186,
-0.11224304884672165,
0.6992747783660889,
0.3249472677707672,
-0.25062212347984314,
-0.45493289828300476,
0.2931191623210907,
0.05099523067474365,
-0.015619444660842419,
0.191281259059906,
-0.1877107471227646,
0.3413277864456177,
-0.7555480003356934,
-0.31001409888267517,
0.036490511149168015,
0.25644543766975403,
-0.4436972439289093,
0.4504927396774292,
-0.13605432212352753,
-0.4532105028629303,
-0.6498249769210815,
0.037460051476955414,
-0.21799206733703613,
0.0387345552444458,
-0.2688071131706238,
-0.29359808564186096,
0.4375804364681244,
0.8029249310493469,
0.028981367126107216,
0.20395201444625854,
0.09372340142726898,
-0.030317137017846107,
0.0572584792971611,
-0.44159066677093506,
0.08474136888980865,
0.001089637284167111,
0.045746009796857834,
-0.7374506592750549,
-0.6220722794532776,
0.029555194079875946,
-0.01618368551135063,
0.6562133431434631,
-0.6216409802436829,
-0.2818118929862976,
0.0046920632012188435,
0.8864331245422363,
0.6810334324836731,
-0.36365148425102234,
0.3098692297935486,
0.36474546790122986,
0.8585551977157593,
-0.10745619982481003,
0.17964109778404236,
0.13171105086803436,
-0.5880327820777893,
-0.1630927175283432,
0.016131198033690453,
0.9427531361579895,
-0.23971863090991974,
-0.05275597795844078,
-0.0004870423290412873,
-0.5627558827400208,
0.32154303789138794,
0.7847641706466675,
-0.14373336732387543,
0.29452118277549744,
0.10448851436376572,
-0.3106481432914734,
-0.46281278133392334,
0.03143198788166046,
0.08443664759397507,
0.5341874957084656,
-0.0672324076294899,
0.19115646183490753,
0.3326282799243927,
0.5626407861709595,
-0.041831113398075104,
-0.15170952677726746,
0.10471563041210175,
0.40060660243034363,
0.5681208968162537,
-0.10856154561042786,
0.23036687076091766,
-0.010580282658338547,
-0.24085789918899536,
0.35329240560531616,
0.4559072256088257,
0.3894161581993103,
0.3346284329891205,
-0.06175956130027771,
0.20910713076591492,
0.33101919293403625,
-0.4430420398712158,
0.3008825480937958,
0.5932024121284485,
0.6076828837394714,
0.21764178574085236,
0.7136291861534119,
-0.35981297492980957,
-0.7620284557342529,
0.8515558242797852,
0.06715234369039536,
-0.26738783717155457,
-0.21593911945819855,
-0.2824631333351135,
0.5643265247344971,
0.17823104560375214,
-0.25845983624458313,
0.063264861702919,
-0.3381607234477997,
-0.2681286334991455,
0.00608360581099987,
-0.3217887580394745,
1.2761691808700562,
0.2965620458126068,
-0.055570654571056366,
0.9870903491973877,
-0.070161834359169,
-0.011850046925246716,
-0.09765423089265823,
0.49455803632736206,
0.3052029311656952,
-0.19195140898227692,
-1.010143518447876,
0.2946481704711914,
0.5591757297515869,
-0.6152558326721191,
0.2450474500656128,
0.2216324806213379,
0.6365631818771362,
-0.20700202882289886,
-0.07507948577404022,
-0.5946970582008362,
-0.09368817508220673,
0.05264594405889511,
-0.2892075777053833,
0.4041403532028198,
0.0006174146546982229,
-0.2462715208530426,
0.6188023686408997,
-0.2479901760816574,
0.020561061799526215,
0.20650453865528107,
0.15107111632823944,
1.0340217351913452,
-0.34876859188079834,
0.14806514978408813,
0.015197562985122204,
-0.5311865210533142,
-0.015099831856787205,
0.20360960066318512,
0.07881573587656021,
-0.28726428747177124,
-0.35991737246513367,
-0.03402072563767433,
0.8971386551856995,
-0.6025661826133728,
0.11846707761287689,
-0.25400570034980774,
-0.11755410581827164,
0.2135639488697052,
-0.10257729142904282,
0.2050238996744156,
0.40652167797088623,
-0.14611586928367615,
-0.2307467758655548,
0.2422390878200531,
0.24518486857414246,
-0.20688791573047638,
-0.046708136796951294,
0.850383996963501,
-0.47058823704719543,
-0.29191988706588745,
0.7830222845077515,
-0.23670977354049683,
0.5180008411407471,
0.683533251285553,
0.24767793715000153,
-0.2676315903663635,
-0.15935665369033813,
0.3386555016040802,
0.3086204528808594,
0.25339922308921814,
-0.10332626104354858,
-0.21012040972709656,
-0.9415047764778137,
0.2100325971841812,
0.3690294325351715,
0.500558078289032,
0.7279680967330933,
0.07994992285966873,
-0.9836633801460266,
0.12639470398426056,
-0.2930554747581482,
0.12832969427108765,
0.2144254893064499,
0.6132978200912476,
-0.18271863460540771,
-0.33811262249946594,
-0.19159625470638275,
0.43715715408325195,
0.025035331025719643,
-0.2780552804470062,
-0.23793701827526093,
-0.2922441065311432,
-0.13091854751110077,
0.11983141303062439,
-0.13977809250354767,
-0.21108512580394745,
-0.3767887353897095,
0.3080763518810272,
0.32016393542289734,
0.12591968476772308,
0.169229194521904,
0.04672950133681297,
-0.15260696411132812,
0.17545099556446075,
0.40056905150413513,
-0.19171220064163208,
-0.3968007266521454,
-0.23723459243774414,
-0.05843640863895416,
-0.21530351042747498,
0.09606384485960007,
-0.2707653343677521,
0.05559747666120529,
-0.08353535085916519,
-5.844010829925537,
0.19657422602176666,
-0.10931576043367386,
0.043035995215177536,
0.3842680752277374,
0.0322839729487896,
0.6823546886444092,
0.20434586703777313,
-0.4632754623889923,
-0.15275968611240387,
-0.14325793087482452,
0.543414831161499,
0.1823924332857132,
0.3821616768836975,
-0.008068570867180824,
0.27365633845329285,
-0.1955132782459259,
0.2311464250087738,
0.3687278628349304,
0.04153929650783539,
-0.37054163217544556,
-0.10462400317192078,
0.22561675310134888,
0.7827509641647339,
0.06617576628923416,
-0.2684006094932556,
-0.315733939409256,
0.5728704333305359,
-0.40250900387763977,
0.14379553496837616,
0.1366792917251587,
-0.3417232632637024,
0.4907413125038147,
-0.17169249057769775,
-0.28460294008255005,
-0.025711333379149437,
0.4928361475467682,
-0.4673518240451813,
0.20554852485656738,
-0.5248465538024902,
-0.7249161005020142,
0.5260421633720398,
-0.08855506777763367,
-0.14120003581047058,
0.09304308146238327,
-0.11961773782968521,
-0.023326003924012184,
0.012290203012526035,
0.41528454422950745,
0.6730923056602478,
0.2442631870508194,
-0.03798765689134598,
-0.23540730774402618,
-0.13338828086853027,
-0.04021718353033066,
0.0819077417254448,
-0.22631488740444183,
-0.1312311887741089,
-0.24891266226768494,
0.0941733792424202,
-0.2246214598417282,
-0.6468293070793152,
-0.37462902069091797,
-0.17653700709342957,
-0.22348922491073608,
-0.022030696272850037,
-0.7254173159599304,
-0.5272283554077148,
0.3882565498352051,
0.5965001583099365,
-0.25512486696243286,
0.9626487493515015,
-0.1646387130022049,
-0.9477015733718872,
0.20898054540157318,
-0.7934982776641846,
-0.21816949546337128,
0.12103955447673798,
-0.010824235156178474,
-0.15083223581314087,
-0.5924165844917297,
-0.09266511350870132,
-0.26849257946014404,
0.10444611310958862,
0.3520416021347046,
-0.027408618479967117,
-0.23812179267406464,
-0.3269733488559723,
-0.4222507178783417,
-0.46245262026786804,
0.6091270446777344,
-0.15985451638698578,
0.07495322078466415,
0.005349019542336464,
-0.47124773263931274,
0.9135599136352539,
-0.2232455164194107,
0.7269806861877441,
-0.06945981085300446,
0.050465021282434464,
0.6765579581260681,
0.16700370609760284,
-0.37101882696151733,
-0.5581608414649963,
0.0053103528916835785,
-0.26693642139434814,
-0.5716955661773682,
0.4415541887283325,
0.1829334944486618,
-0.22411635518074036,
-0.6178139448165894,
0.5894830822944641,
-0.19207580387592316,
-0.3082267940044403,
0.09641563892364502,
0.6314372420310974,
-0.2534846365451813,
-0.18359674513339996,
0.7672533392906189,
-0.2105984389781952,
0.763795793056488,
0.43055328726768494,
-0.17152488231658936,
-0.26857247948646545,
0.4339001178741455,
-0.2860734462738037,
0.1396012008190155,
0.27509623765945435,
0.19096025824546814,
0.16839149594306946,
0.238959401845932,
0.355591744184494,
0.0764826089143753,
-0.21988873183727264,
0.2053525149822235,
-0.7529019117355347,
-0.1804349720478058,
0.004678642842918634,
-0.4867687225341797,
0.217745840549469,
0.15212824940681458,
-0.5380336046218872,
-0.5537638068199158,
0.05705546960234642,
0.41279321908950806,
0.21288643777370453,
-0.21628117561340332,
-0.35584571957588196,
-0.20781750977039337,
0.6124151349067688,
-0.16078303754329681,
-0.5995343923568726,
0.038601458072662354,
-0.4724971055984497,
0.46668103337287903,
-0.2258932888507843,
0.47936567664146423,
-0.2232309877872467,
0.010457567870616913,
-0.05792587250471115,
-0.31790003180503845,
-0.19807589054107666,
-1.046797752380371,
-0.06916648894548416,
-0.7903053164482117,
-0.09591196477413177,
-0.6710488796234131,
-1.011315941810608,
-0.38472360372543335,
0.30394503474235535,
-0.5186964273452759,
-0.21635213494300842,
-0.23268432915210724,
0.13589885830879211,
0.3098905384540558,
0.08040817081928253,
-0.20820550620555878,
1.0131887197494507,
-0.275636225938797,
-0.4771294891834259,
0.15826059877872467,
-0.24929901957511902,
-0.1424754112958908,
-0.13358202576637268,
0.7589172720909119,
-0.20725493133068085,
-0.043347232043743134,
0.27780094742774963,
-0.7275193333625793,
0.30640000104904175,
-0.36796116828918457,
0.5038930177688599,
0.05523011088371277,
-0.05042661726474762,
-0.043046217411756516,
-0.25536054372787476,
-0.5791589021682739,
0.6575173139572144,
-0.39298391342163086,
0.1988992840051651,
0.45883241295814514,
0.20593036711215973,
-0.3058738112449646,
-0.012693542055785656,
-0.10970303416252136,
0.045843251049518585,
0.2594587802886963,
0.008519642986357212,
-0.6027587056159973,
0.5724812150001526,
-0.058129776269197464,
-0.04358536750078201,
0.04639091715216637,
0.79887855052948,
-0.47471243143081665,
0.5956072807312012,
-0.24506595730781555,
-0.29900145530700684,
-0.023221710696816444,
-0.3627834618091583,
0.5194322466850281,
0.01687510311603546,
-0.42735999822616577,
0.03215852007269859,
-0.15719357132911682,
0.1906176060438156,
0.33170726895332336,
-1.3416697978973389,
0.5925585031509399,
0.3329406678676605,
-0.3687010705471039,
-0.8346728682518005,
-0.28614065051078796,
0.16454581916332245,
-0.01105452235788107,
0.26332879066467285,
-0.006466695107519627,
0.24803069233894348,
-0.4001239836215973,
-0.19743551313877106,
0.45352810621261597,
0.5782511830329895,
-0.36746248602867126,
-0.32464107871055603,
-0.4352169334888458,
0.9121487140655518,
0.37105000019073486,
-0.6340481638908386,
-0.22180034220218658,
0.39491453766822815,
0.42323553562164307,
-0.2491375058889389,
-0.3016488552093506,
-0.3953312039375305,
-0.14407610893249512,
-0.12340235710144043,
0.09179440885782242,
-0.41000911593437195,
0.04542228579521179,
0.57452392578125,
0.16888755559921265,
-0.7966313362121582,
-0.26126962900161743,
-0.3148012161254883,
0.5807484984397888,
-0.400953471660614,
0.1201464831829071,
0.36277198791503906,
-0.1562543511390686,
-0.302300363779068,
-0.09589115530252457,
0.029950257390737534,
0.26854437589645386,
-0.010478402487933636,
-0.06899178773164749,
0.138762429356575,
0.19960986077785492,
-0.8126338124275208,
0.43298599123954773,
-0.17833325266838074,
-0.26364248991012573,
-0.261732816696167,
-0.16407570242881775,
0.21650782227516174,
-0.17777946591377258,
-0.22797328233718872,
0.40449145436286926,
0.06056349352002144,
-0.4132055640220642,
0.033018942922353745,
-0.24257604777812958,
-0.21287864446640015,
-0.1956505924463272,
0.35857459902763367,
0.4502568244934082,
0.13373111188411713,
0.3831333816051483,
0.8011582493782043,
-0.20360377430915833,
-0.5003785490989685,
-0.4230145514011383,
-0.11709253489971161,
-0.011281142942607403,
-1.0353972911834717,
0.6315916776657104,
0.20287513732910156,
-0.20264004170894623,
-0.5968688726425171,
0.09995199739933014,
0.023585138842463493,
0.7560834288597107,
-0.12070047855377197,
0.06836723536252975,
0.5333071947097778,
-0.0533439964056015,
-0.1794821172952652,
-0.008811290375888348,
-0.3038635849952698,
-0.767087459564209,
0.05200396105647087,
-0.1340918093919754,
-0.12882329523563385,
0.2688225507736206,
-0.23072724044322968,
-0.1335696578025818,
-0.09278874844312668,
0.20572111010551453,
-0.04430966079235077,
0.05039781704545021,
0.525111973285675,
1.0403536558151245,
0.12013477087020874,
0.07566078007221222,
0.061374083161354065,
-0.012258898466825485,
-0.30888378620147705,
-0.06728177517652512,
-0.5090819597244263,
-0.5304003357887268,
0.7610175013542175,
0.3543141186237335,
0.608371376991272,
0.4163258969783783,
0.27110522985458374,
-0.05920646712183952,
0.7973440289497375,
0.3573545813560486,
0.023222463205456734,
-0.19050347805023193,
-0.20643781125545502,
0.08549594134092331,
-0.2839955985546112,
-0.08539139479398727,
0.3051649332046509,
0.12576176226139069,
-0.29361605644226074,
0.24287049472332,
-0.4144017994403839,
-0.36280152201652527,
-0.37670180201530457,
-0.10484414547681808,
0.15097570419311523,
0.2984088063240051,
-0.26912596821784973,
0.6037428379058838,
-0.06266182661056519,
0.39491578936576843,
-0.5519008040428162,
0.04569632187485695,
-0.17105194926261902,
0.054282017052173615,
0.42826026678085327,
-0.8064136505126953,
-0.03467400744557381,
0.4264867901802063,
-0.31223586201667786,
0.12249653041362762,
0.6020559072494507,
-0.2716915011405945,
-0.29870086908340454,
-0.28540274500846863,
-0.034068603068590164,
-0.03388254716992378,
-0.5423384308815002,
0.016827920451760292,
-0.10210345685482025,
0.147788405418396,
-0.2922394871711731,
0.11794993281364441,
-0.019974565133452415,
-0.434115469455719,
-0.2980703115463257,
0.29654231667518616,
0.10164161026477814,
-0.28727254271507263,
-0.05171746760606766,
0.1269971877336502,
0.5943809151649475,
0.2432137280702591,
-0.298873633146286,
-0.2947250306606293,
0.5341504216194153,
0.47072267532348633,
-0.454470694065094,
-0.5163813829421997,
0.6703971028327942,
-0.309025377035141,
0.14276732504367828,
-0.41108596324920654,
0.008710360154509544,
0.8173798322677612,
0.17744676768779755,
-0.34146353602409363,
0.28071898221969604,
0.347289115190506,
-0.3750006854534149,
0.25544941425323486,
-0.17020471394062042,
0.09670498967170715,
-0.6017635464668274,
-0.11305161565542221,
0.21809040009975433,
0.25992393493652344,
0.2349991649389267,
-0.47219276428222656,
-0.1919419765472412,
0.3031883239746094,
0.2371470183134079,
-0.4662758708000183,
0.5291758179664612,
-0.6563225388526917,
0.4069039225578308,
-0.7918134927749634,
-0.006173485890030861,
-0.18362398445606232,
0.06722360849380493,
-0.12708143889904022,
-0.19029024243354797,
0.38051319122314453,
-0.19626110792160034,
0.46322011947631836,
-0.12152160704135895,
-0.05198616161942482,
0.36796456575393677,
0.029662203043699265,
-0.26864975690841675,
-0.1637447029352188,
-0.40225058794021606,
-0.7106920480728149,
0.18350209295749664,
0.04328150302171707,
-0.10402851551771164,
0.3878544569015503,
-0.26611945033073425,
-0.517490029335022,
-0.3380807340145111,
0.024317488074302673,
-0.14996589720249176,
-0.3366628587245941,
1.0085519552230835
] |
234823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrito%20%28disambiguation%29 | Burrito (disambiguation) | A burrito is a Mexican dish made from a flour tortilla wrapped around a choice of various fillings.
Burrito (little donkey) may also refer to:
Jorge Daniel Hernández (born 1989), Mexican footballer, nicknamed "Burrito"
Juan Manuel Martínez (born 1989), Argentine footballer, nicknamed "Burrito"
Ariel Ortega (born 1974), Argentine footballer, nicknamed "El Burrito"
Burrito, a character in the animated Disney short The Flying Gauchito
"Burrito", an episode of We Bare Bears
"Burrito", a song by Seether from the album Karma and Effect
"Burrito", one of the common names in Spanish for bettles in the genus Rhyephenes
"Burritos", a song by Sublime from the album Sublime (album)
See also
Lists of people by nickname | [
-0.036611158400774,
0.30792373418807983,
-0.3506796956062317,
0.3029690682888031,
0.23702511191368103,
0.13945189118385315,
-0.10041405260562897,
0.9407813549041748,
0.138423889875412,
0.004497152287513018,
0.26063764095306396,
0.18667855858802795,
0.15089447796344757,
0.21381795406341553,
-0.8361324667930603,
0.0748966708779335,
0.5840660929679871,
0.34488120675086975,
-0.18401192128658295,
0.20026688277721405,
-0.45484378933906555,
-0.7389422059059143,
-0.24925777316093445,
-0.33247777819633484,
-0.15661799907684326,
0.2982330322265625,
-0.1593029648065567,
-0.06387380510568619,
-0.02736765146255493,
0.02547064796090126,
0.07650257647037506,
0.2673099637031555,
0.3116999864578247,
-0.7805216312408447,
-0.0158065352588892,
0.036823127418756485,
0.08296095579862595,
-0.7967595458030701,
-0.1792038083076477,
-0.7621818780899048,
0.2304946631193161,
-0.20889461040496826,
0.4469909965991974,
0.3244839906692505,
-0.7039150595664978,
-0.4209367632865906,
-1.040112018585205,
0.37640058994293213,
-1.0035396814346313,
-0.4769655168056488,
-0.2743534743785858,
0.16120560467243195,
-0.2336999624967575,
0.26227620244026184,
-0.055228568613529205,
0.17653867602348328,
-0.7513940334320068,
-0.2000284641981125,
0.011814788915216923,
0.2668367028236389,
0.3126285672187805,
0.8791834115982056,
0.29535603523254395,
-0.504610538482666,
0.19846060872077942,
0.5928064584732056,
0.03358631208539009,
0.4010550081729889,
-0.34381169080734253,
0.012936664745211601,
-0.4688049256801605,
-0.11204363405704498,
-0.0005661307368427515,
-0.08718422800302505,
-0.16500163078308105,
-0.5664104223251343,
-0.31892716884613037,
0.4244407117366791,
-0.13731980323791504,
0.6862414479255676,
-0.6114895343780518,
0.04470148682594299,
1.06599760055542,
-0.6846355199813843,
1.0242339372634888,
0.30101048946380615,
-0.357671320438385,
0.12563040852546692,
-0.32493865489959717,
0.14077284932136536,
-0.24322062730789185,
-0.11254923790693283,
0.44344404339790344,
0.5220738053321838,
-0.47411853075027466,
-0.30305078625679016,
0.2399430274963379,
0.0003843741142190993,
-0.10791418701410294,
0.34925198554992676,
-0.05702342092990875,
0.06531407684087753,
0.8540001511573792,
0.103187695145607,
-0.18288485705852509,
-0.10357803106307983,
-0.44779929518699646,
-0.04335922747850418,
-0.08869992941617966,
-0.6090472340583801,
0.011870190501213074,
0.23170652985572815,
0.2639339566230774,
0.470538854598999,
-0.1970587819814682,
-0.01589750126004219,
0.3822054862976074,
0.3192053437232971,
-0.2778293490409851,
-0.5297752618789673,
-0.335635244846344,
0.6271371245384216,
-0.04121124744415283,
-0.17159631848335266,
0.5470175743103027,
0.3425493836402893,
0.3457350432872772,
0.1455942988395691,
-0.07030484080314636,
0.2607251703739166,
0.2965896725654602,
0.5617197751998901,
0.15142780542373657,
-0.06631003320217133,
-0.0721832811832428,
-0.6498693227767944,
-0.3218022584915161,
0.2665039598941803,
0.5223133563995361,
-0.018582480028271675,
-0.8008474111557007,
0.1837841123342514,
-0.7740917205810547,
0.34146955609321594,
-0.03462093695998192,
-0.13740703463554382,
0.044160373508930206,
-0.3614826500415802,
-0.17832665145397186,
-0.21709369122982025,
0.06949783116579056,
0.21071724593639374,
-0.2088462859392166,
0.16436631977558136,
-0.28999173641204834,
-0.09126854687929153,
-0.607111930847168,
-0.6789742112159729,
0.5392881035804749,
-0.18345914781093597,
-0.008633442223072052,
-0.001109263044781983,
-0.06430752575397491,
-0.18289250135421753,
-0.17955023050308228,
-0.25868281722068787,
0.22512944042682648,
0.6170190572738647,
-0.1832306832075119,
0.6906265020370483,
-0.31920453906059265,
-0.2227460891008377,
0.16797572374343872,
-0.3199687600135803,
-0.1283206194639206,
0.05703011900186539,
0.34422269463539124,
-0.05224272608757019,
0.2787652611732483,
0.5026569366455078,
-0.40382033586502075,
0.3455471694469452,
0.2534639239311218,
-0.38856568932533264,
-0.3644956946372986,
-0.2976667284965515,
0.1692902147769928,
0.18516673147678375,
-0.05670931935310364,
-0.10504337400197983,
-0.8012276887893677,
-0.0578831285238266,
-0.5621364712715149,
-0.3041457235813141,
0.8734176158905029,
0.16013389825820923,
-0.7246341705322266,
0.6269559264183044,
0.4492878317832947,
-0.23709335923194885,
-0.4495445787906647,
0.30390122532844543,
0.3587349057197571,
0.13684384524822235,
-0.7516828179359436,
0.6778647303581238,
0.25107818841934204,
0.565481424331665,
0.6605563759803772,
0.22411653399467468,
0.4318307936191559,
-0.39675483107566833,
0.33152908086776733,
-0.4195643663406372,
-0.2001398503780365,
-0.021831411868333817,
0.15622587502002716,
0.21863843500614166,
0.4506823420524597,
-0.38782551884651184,
0.6120222210884094,
-0.20743252336978912,
-0.3534823954105377,
0.3974330723285675,
-0.07902177423238754,
0.7380062341690063,
-0.018648089841008186,
-0.09947718679904938,
0.8865465521812439,
-0.5176927447319031,
0.42223888635635376,
-0.44839996099472046,
0.4666248857975006,
-0.3699066638946533,
-0.152779221534729,
-0.05182865634560585,
-0.061915140599012375,
-0.3582005798816681,
0.04648090898990631,
-0.1095813438296318,
-0.0438915379345417,
0.23100844025611877,
-0.3909079432487488,
0.028711479157209396,
0.8404725790023804,
0.050570297986269,
-0.6901476383209229,
0.46476438641548157,
0.11585956066846848,
-0.08879777789115906,
0.3543316721916199,
0.6254201531410217,
-0.02891920879483223,
-0.48159468173980713,
0.007790984120219946,
0.1812545359134674,
0.09687585383653641,
0.060722533613443375,
-0.20509684085845947,
0.08776335418224335,
-0.46420106291770935,
0.6667634844779968,
0.31109631061553955,
0.2584553062915802,
-0.1808474361896515,
-0.4352087080478668,
-0.10870277881622314,
-0.14477629959583282,
0.17550186812877655,
0.1487075388431549,
0.855866551399231,
-0.21548885107040405,
-0.6404501795768738,
-0.48119357228279114,
0.040140874683856964,
-0.6852031350135803,
0.10062327235937119,
0.4908764958381653,
-0.8389183878898621,
-0.5340296626091003,
-0.1778157353401184,
0.3576258718967438,
-0.005113392602652311,
-0.6327828764915466,
-0.4788486659526825,
-0.4077102541923523,
0.6562113761901855,
-0.7514313459396362,
-0.2782515287399292,
0.18011894822120667,
-0.26267823576927185,
0.6601150631904602,
-0.24790574610233307,
0.26654231548309326,
-0.1267421692609787,
-0.40776512026786804,
0.4461214542388916,
-0.15084567666053772,
1.0412930250167847,
-0.643502414226532,
-0.15047398209571838,
-0.3385692238807678,
-0.17231011390686035,
0.10904037207365036,
-0.14412233233451843,
-0.26456207036972046,
0.0829228088259697,
-0.283060222864151,
-5.8074870109558105,
0.3769242763519287,
-0.2814567983150482,
-0.26404279470443726,
0.40762919187545776,
0.3614416718482971,
0.13702215254306793,
0.06413933634757996,
0.13575810194015503,
0.41770225763320923,
-0.04030760005116463,
0.36094310879707336,
0.48261529207229614,
-0.05077971890568733,
0.3952404856681824,
-0.05495075136423111,
-0.3606584370136261,
0.07983497530221939,
0.05826174467802048,
-0.14944836497306824,
0.14782999455928802,
0.39518678188323975,
0.11726141721010208,
1.133365273475647,
-0.029464147984981537,
0.25228047370910645,
-0.16003532707691193,
0.18692339956760406,
-0.750569760799408,
-0.13363665342330933,
0.06836261600255966,
-0.08762065321207047,
0.19668757915496826,
-0.199345663189888,
-0.5187953114509583,
0.15659257769584656,
0.11211393028497696,
-0.025183355435729027,
0.040218278765678406,
0.10363858193159103,
-0.45116832852363586,
0.40715181827545166,
0.19670383632183075,
-0.5274068713188171,
0.6305131316184998,
-0.16281183063983917,
-0.030230218544602394,
-0.923412024974823,
-0.09025077521800995,
0.5134024024009705,
0.5647488832473755,
-0.20640413463115692,
0.3529799282550812,
0.26439693570137024,
0.44017618894577026,
0.07813989371061325,
0.6189267039299011,
-0.224995419383049,
-0.7064940333366394,
0.6669051647186279,
0.7765581011772156,
-0.01323036476969719,
-0.2339388132095337,
-0.4569869935512543,
0.03632095828652382,
-0.24558983743190765,
0.24132223427295685,
-0.2722094655036926,
0.8608901500701904,
0.08942864835262299,
-0.34074127674102783,
0.05680030956864357,
0.4754433035850525,
-0.8465423583984375,
0.36672744154930115,
-0.1907249093055725,
-0.8388156294822693,
0.0939420536160469,
-0.5070250630378723,
0.07988227158784866,
0.23699969053268433,
0.0215830709785223,
-0.3176054358482361,
-0.2903743088245392,
0.09413411468267441,
0.12187940627336502,
-0.645157516002655,
-0.03047293610870838,
-0.24688589572906494,
-0.04241436719894409,
0.9792568683624268,
0.2659032940864563,
0.3810027539730072,
-0.41554415225982666,
-0.05910003185272217,
0.9826903939247131,
-0.27058494091033936,
0.37056389451026917,
0.11142100393772125,
-0.05962446704506874,
0.6843263506889343,
-0.27164381742477417,
0.3638386130332947,
0.07196938991546631,
0.06894753128290176,
-0.47116512060165405,
0.031384892761707306,
0.5266650915145874,
0.33263346552848816,
-0.22472551465034485,
0.02011885493993759,
0.12757182121276855,
-0.6205588579177856,
-0.5225173830986023,
0.04009486362338066,
0.5089162588119507,
-0.379866361618042,
-0.11768077313899994,
0.24557338654994965,
-0.06312999874353409,
0.6254792213439941,
0.38102975487709045,
0.24823564291000366,
-0.28400173783302307,
-0.10808813571929932,
-0.6586695313453674,
0.5684816241264343,
0.1298888921737671,
0.5361171960830688,
0.06269386410713196,
-0.199595108628273,
-0.020912636071443558,
0.02021571807563305,
-0.3966173827648163,
0.09856642782688141,
0.03241555765271187,
-0.21060818433761597,
-0.2150842547416687,
-0.1747065633535385,
-0.5974285006523132,
-0.11272063851356506,
-0.6904895305633545,
-0.052500467747449875,
0.1832629293203354,
0.5435091853141785,
0.1919519305229187,
-0.8153688907623291,
-0.7067072987556458,
-0.569517970085144,
0.8168918490409851,
0.08798599988222122,
0.1907959282398224,
0.03405133634805679,
-0.31861260533332825,
-0.3079889118671417,
0.1384916603565216,
0.6439348459243774,
0.3973613977432251,
0.05566708371043205,
-0.26316037774086,
0.10355202853679657,
-0.684057354927063,
-0.8032011389732361,
0.3788028657436371,
-0.3045150339603424,
-0.011366779915988445,
-0.8381461501121521,
-0.2852446436882019,
-0.08322007209062576,
0.5514999032020569,
-0.4477350413799286,
-0.3032068908214569,
-0.3091157078742981,
0.08513011038303375,
0.5780144929885864,
-0.274181991815567,
0.18075436353683472,
0.236613929271698,
0.010212930850684643,
0.038706887513399124,
0.07116898149251938,
-0.2641318440437317,
0.34183451533317566,
0.4309254288673401,
0.3625909388065338,
-0.5660607218742371,
-0.3419172167778015,
0.24535267055034637,
-0.565017580986023,
0.09603903442621231,
-0.3444111943244934,
0.38296937942504883,
0.6515548229217529,
0.23201653361320496,
-0.3322620689868927,
-0.023293819278478622,
-0.208797886967659,
0.039003655314445496,
0.1801556944847107,
-0.4272419810295105,
-0.3282358944416046,
0.10652925819158554,
-0.12412611395120621,
0.6067614555358887,
0.2370517998933792,
-0.9270226955413818,
0.1448792666196823,
-0.0542047843337059,
-0.6457821130752563,
0.03014841116964817,
-0.2307715266942978,
-0.45335736870765686,
-0.1903451532125473,
0.33474624156951904,
0.42684364318847656,
-0.09816134721040726,
0.24849404394626617,
-0.11005721986293793,
-0.06514359265565872,
-0.18532343208789825,
0.36189523339271545,
-0.1150948777794838,
0.25114086270332336,
0.30505433678627014,
-0.4214738607406616,
0.7770411968231201,
-0.4181881546974182,
-0.9251675605773926,
0.4379153251647949,
-0.5332903265953064,
0.1665322333574295,
-0.19979773461818695,
-0.22854137420654297,
0.3333302140235901,
-0.11879122257232666,
0.4032537341117859,
0.39211657643318176,
0.24463967978954315,
0.11245134472846985,
0.62626051902771,
0.31589260697364807,
0.4556542932987213,
0.24455298483371735,
-0.05303973704576492,
-0.535234272480011,
0.30955472588539124,
0.6145074963569641,
-0.17930693924427032,
-0.69488126039505,
0.09438679367303848,
0.03221772983670235,
-0.6549484729766846,
-0.28092384338378906,
-0.1854446679353714,
0.5536459684371948,
-0.47128862142562866,
0.1104997992515564,
0.062166716903448105,
0.1274539828300476,
0.22571346163749695,
-0.3557495176792145,
-0.06298821419477463,
-0.24657733738422394,
0.11701531708240509,
0.22134700417518616,
-0.09609705209732056,
-0.19505877792835236,
0.07574786990880966,
0.47605040669441223,
-0.4705672562122345,
0.1245879977941513,
0.20880217850208282,
0.6770990490913391,
0.7295137643814087,
0.12880192697048187,
0.3715692460536957,
-0.23237957060337067,
-0.7297001481056213,
0.32987287640571594,
-0.21645697951316833,
-0.4800226390361786,
-0.05691440775990486,
-0.30912986397743225,
-0.08423247188329697,
-0.13522721827030182,
0.21269047260284424,
-0.31008824706077576,
-0.26085710525512695,
-0.30743151903152466,
-0.2186577469110489,
-0.5692669749259949,
0.5536841750144958,
0.2902560830116272,
0.35964569449424744,
0.3412129878997803,
0.3208671808242798,
-0.10211353749036789,
0.3199065923690796,
-0.345059335231781,
0.2619934678077698,
-0.6770673394203186,
0.38410481810569763,
-0.1264447718858719,
-0.22881169617176056,
0.07638489454984665,
-0.0654010996222496,
0.30297061800956726,
0.16441193222999573,
-0.19950386881828308,
-0.4474758803844452,
0.13578806817531586,
-0.12000193446874619,
-0.042203303426504135,
0.5366409420967102,
0.3724402189254761,
-0.09308111667633057,
0.430668443441391,
-0.25994107127189636,
-0.15931470692157745,
0.8858383893966675,
0.20963828265666962,
-0.27499911189079285,
0.36004361510276794,
0.23555435240268707,
-0.05839966610074043,
0.3823699951171875,
-0.7330291271209717,
-0.56727534532547,
-0.059862807393074036,
-0.056014835834503174,
0.5021610856056213,
0.4440545439720154,
-0.43913936614990234,
-0.7415962219238281,
-0.1268460899591446,
-0.027987301349639893,
-0.052089642733335495,
0.08846065402030945,
-0.19264934957027435,
0.8477210402488708,
0.3083927035331726,
0.059427689760923386,
-0.6068011522293091,
0.39606037735939026,
0.4290767014026642,
0.6681036949157715,
0.369427889585495,
0.16803449392318726,
0.2029626965522766,
0.1917499303817749,
-0.10776998847723007,
0.20893143117427826,
0.44357040524482727,
-0.8978082537651062,
0.5567997694015503,
0.15907423198223114,
-0.2746298313140869,
0.14210784435272217,
-0.16342271864414215,
-0.26635047793388367,
-0.21959184110164642,
0.13835975527763367,
0.020440291613340378,
-0.36723434925079346,
-0.265257865190506,
-0.19105111062526703,
-1.0119441747665405,
-0.08489266782999039,
-0.6050231456756592,
0.7264760732650757,
0.09040552377700806,
0.09298381954431534,
-0.4773436188697815,
0.43540966510772705,
0.12549988925457,
0.2357538640499115,
0.2346825897693634,
0.928905189037323,
-0.1882314383983612,
0.09807580709457397,
-0.37448614835739136,
-0.24066303670406342,
-0.45479267835617065,
0.21143963932991028,
-0.15592534840106964,
0.19933342933654785,
-0.5980098843574524,
0.20991010963916779,
-0.2706150710582733,
0.08563258498907089,
-0.0699700266122818,
-0.4169900417327881,
0.08870258927345276,
0.41445696353912354,
0.09436692297458649,
-0.2695964276790619,
0.03212025389075279,
0.5252165794372559,
0.03579048439860344,
-0.8031911849975586,
-0.16972965002059937,
0.3883652985095978,
0.18595966696739197,
-0.05702655389904976,
-0.44033029675483704,
0.06814935058355331,
-0.20174500346183777,
0.7028473019599915,
-0.7998725175857544,
0.11630787700414658,
0.1879848688840866,
-0.44774508476257324,
-0.06730917096138,
0.01799784041941166,
-0.19368690252304077,
-0.4611550569534302,
0.17300869524478912,
-0.3285479247570038,
-0.13601413369178772,
-0.8416623473167419,
0.30736058950424194,
-0.46006640791893005,
-0.042464349418878555,
0.2477913200855255,
0.06539773941040039,
-0.2747330963611603,
0.6364594101905823,
-0.04273520037531853,
-0.7630191445350647,
0.3232572078704834,
0.20145456492900848,
0.2499227076768875,
-0.41488251090049744,
0.09925802052021027,
0.05400091037154198,
-0.11391422152519226,
0.6614968180656433,
0.6657429933547974,
0.2068583369255066,
0.08502715826034546,
0.11965667456388474,
0.07772912085056305,
-0.13436268270015717,
-0.49141886830329895,
-1.1951717138290405,
-0.053774312138557434,
0.2868775427341461,
0.150143101811409,
-0.7062105536460876,
0.4378034174442291,
0.3564246594905853,
0.17984488606452942,
0.2549365162849426,
-0.14404703676700592,
0.09862938523292542,
0.010289880447089672,
0.09009237587451935,
-0.6948965787887573,
-0.1664266437292099,
0.3516286015510559
] |
234824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20design | Information design | Information design is the practice of presenting information in a way that fosters an efficient and effective understanding of the information. The term has come to be used for a specific area of graphic design related to displaying information effectively, rather than just attractively or for artistic expression. Information design is closely related to the field of data visualization and is often taught as part of graphic design courses. The broad applications of information design along with its close connections to other fields of design and communication practices have created some overlap in the definitions of communication design, data visualization, and information architecture.
According to Per Mollerup, information design is explanation design. It explains facts of the universe and leads to knowledge and informed action.
History
The term 'information design' emerged as a multidisciplinary area of study in the 1970s. Use of the term is said to have started with graphic designers and it was solidified with the publication of the Information Design Journal in 1979. Later, the related International Institute for Information Design (IIID) was set up in 1987 and Information Design Association (IDA) established in 1991.
In 1982, Edward Tufte produced a book on information design called The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.
The term information graphics tends to be used by those primarily concerned with diagramming and display of quantitative information, such as technical communicators and graphic designers.
In technical communication, information design refers to creating an information structure for a set of information aimed at specified audiences. It can be practised on different scales.
On a large scale, it implies choosing relevant content and dividing it into separate manuals by audience and purpose.
On a medium scale, it means organizing the content in each manual and making sure that overviews, concepts, examples, references, and definitions are included and that topics follow an organizing principle.
On a small or detailed scale, it includes logical development of topics, emphasis on what's important, clear writing, navigational clues, and even page design, choice of font, and use of white space.
There are many similarities between information design and information architecture. The title of information designer is sometimes used by graphic designers who specialize in creating websites. The skillset of the information designer, as the title is applied more globally, is closer to that of the information architect in the U.S. Similar skills for organization and structure are brought to bear in designing web sites and digital media, with additional constraints and functions that earn a designer the title information architect.
In computer science and information technology, 'information design' is sometimes a rough synonym for (but is not necessarily the same discipline as) information architecture, the design of information systems, databases, or data structures. This sense includes data modeling and process analysis.
Early examples
Information design is associated with the age of technology but it does have historical roots. Early instances of modern information design include these effective examples:
William Playfair's line, bar, pie, and area charts illustrating England's trade (1786 and 1801)
John Snow's spot maps, which pinpointed the source of a deadly cholera outbreak in 1850s London
Charles Joseph Minard's 1861 diagram depicting Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812
W.E.B. Du Bois's data visualization on the lives of Black Americans for the 1900 World's Fair
Otto Neurath's International Picture Language of the 1930s
Florence Nightingale's information graphic depicting army mortality rates
The Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon's army in the 1812-1813 period. Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two-dimensional surface (x and y), time, direction of movement, and temperature. This multivariate display on a two-dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Edward Tufte wrote in 1983 that: "It may well be the best statistical graphic ever drawn."
Applications
Information design can be used for broad audiences (such as signs in airports) or specific audiences (such as personalized telephone bills). The resulting work often seeks to improve a user's trust of a product (such as medicine packaging inserts, operational instructions for industrial machinery and information for emergencies). The example of signs also highlights a niche category known as wayfinding.
Governments and regulatory authorities have legislated about a number of information design issues, such as the minimum size of type in financial small print, the labelling of ingredients in processed food, and the testing of medicine labelling. Examples of this are the Truth in Lending Act in the USA, which introduced the Schumer box (a concise summary of charges for people applying for a credit card), and the Guideline on the Readability of the Labelling and Package Leaflet of Medicinal Products for Human Use (European Commission, Revision 1, 12 January 2009).
Professor Edward Tufte explained that users of information displays are executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons or determining causality. The design principle of the information graphic should support the analytical task, showing the comparison or causality.
Simplicity
Simplicity is a major concern in information design. The aim is clarity and understanding. Simplification of messages may imply quantitative reduction but is not restricted to that. Sometimes more information means more clarity. Also, simplicity is a highly subjective matter and should always be evaluated with the information user in mind. Simplicity can be easy when following five simple steps when it comes to information design:
Tell the truth,
Get to the point,
Pick the right tool for the job,
Highlight what is important,
Of course, keep it simple.
These steps will help an information designer narrow down results, as well as keeping their audience engaged.
See also
Cartography
Chief experience officer (CXO)
Content management
Epidemiology
Knowledge visualization
Plain language
Signage
Statistics
Technical communication
Technical illustration
Typography
Visual literacy
Wayfinding
Web indexing
References
External links
InformationDesign.org
International Institute for Information Design
Communication Research Institute: Defining information design
Information Design Journal
UK Information Design Association
Society for Technical Communication Information Design – Information Architecture (ID–IA) Special Interest Group (SIG)
Visualizing Information for Advocacy: An Introduction to Information Design Booklet on information design for non-profit and non-governmental organizations.
Applied linguistics
Design
Communication design
Graphic design
User interfaces
Educational psychology
it:infografica | [
0.651718020439148,
0.22812175750732422,
-0.09304064512252808,
0.4007937014102936,
0.17194603383541107,
-0.03375261276960373,
-0.18785664439201355,
0.35258227586746216,
-0.09314672648906708,
-1.2458224296569824,
-0.6767363548278809,
1.042426347732544,
-0.06531248241662979,
0.104794442653656,
-0.0665600374341011,
0.5143937468528748,
0.21451504528522491,
0.17498067021369934,
-0.014352337457239628,
-0.03917460888624191,
-0.703456699848175,
-0.42724019289016724,
-0.4840395748615265,
-0.1262204796075821,
0.7738906741142273,
-0.013285735622048378,
0.22717341780662537,
0.08124812692403793,
-0.1497849076986313,
-0.16741864383220673,
0.515167236328125,
-0.040519602596759796,
-0.4158620834350586,
-0.3254184126853943,
-0.3656606376171112,
-0.09110111743211746,
-0.2581867277622223,
-0.2633259892463684,
-0.4367261230945587,
-0.28752538561820984,
0.023554330691695213,
0.41236257553100586,
0.01753786765038967,
0.05381418392062187,
-0.42843660712242126,
-0.6371216177940369,
-1.9148337841033936,
0.28183531761169434,
-0.6659591197967529,
0.36121779680252075,
-0.6625600457191467,
0.014339933171868324,
-0.13846641778945923,
0.3878014385700226,
-0.2946956157684326,
0.5734782814979553,
-0.0005792075535282493,
-0.16188998520374298,
-0.06978768855333328,
-0.0744309276342392,
0.34280189871788025,
0.1296023726463318,
0.1837184876203537,
0.2373889535665512,
0.22917614877223969,
-0.3234703838825226,
0.021396907046437263,
-0.02451096661388874,
-0.42124438285827637,
-0.3132527768611908,
-0.3496687114238739,
-0.03866485133767128,
-0.3066588342189789,
0.15461160242557526,
-1.1785032749176025,
-0.01989024132490158,
0.14916422963142395,
-0.22669586539268494,
-0.3870824873447418,
0.05725903809070587,
-0.40223443508148193,
1.1360528469085693,
0.4176041781902313,
0.0664629265666008,
0.9174915552139282,
0.2543235719203949,
-0.5420548319816589,
0.677212119102478,
-0.4756493866443634,
0.5356671214103699,
0.47256433963775635,
-0.6410146355628967,
0.6085026860237122,
0.1656036227941513,
0.5111819505691528,
0.006630102172493935,
0.18691910803318024,
0.17081642150878906,
-0.20022991299629211,
0.5120044350624084,
0.3071655333042145,
0.006096292287111282,
0.29041531682014465,
-0.21264749765396118,
-0.09427222609519958,
-0.08240187913179398,
-0.08420763909816742,
-0.5903843641281128,
-0.23879055678844452,
0.15807856619358063,
-0.0495830774307251,
0.2286243885755539,
-0.3446217477321625,
0.07133962213993073,
-0.2088828682899475,
0.7303809523582458,
0.5578804612159729,
0.4384444057941437,
-0.6718143820762634,
0.1927180141210556,
0.23224079608917236,
0.41380175948143005,
0.08531010895967484,
-0.007178101688623428,
-0.01106905099004507,
-0.11044520884752274,
0.3123272955417633,
0.7587676644325256,
-0.6938307881355286,
-0.5966265201568604,
0.4589923620223999,
0.7563467025756836,
-0.2671707272529602,
-0.2863793671131134,
-0.41576510667800903,
0.28320926427841187,
0.4015023410320282,
0.46687325835227966,
0.12227626889944077,
-0.34025126695632935,
-0.5898789763450623,
-0.5819782614707947,
-0.34000521898269653,
-0.2218555510044098,
0.38014084100723267,
-0.21260589361190796,
0.8029807209968567,
-0.48869800567626953,
-0.29854509234428406,
0.06105443835258484,
0.13530322909355164,
0.12883850932121277,
-0.6501168012619019,
0.21356773376464844,
-0.16569025814533234,
0.5571133494377136,
0.2898207902908325,
0.12123393267393112,
-0.15183612704277039,
0.13543249666690826,
0.25437191128730774,
0.2284533828496933,
-0.5115243792533875,
0.17877407371997833,
-0.292283833026886,
-0.6364644765853882,
-0.16115058958530426,
0.8491078615188599,
0.8362493515014648,
0.1368599236011505,
-0.1880846917629242,
-0.1640051007270813,
0.0567697137594223,
-0.0035013630986213684,
0.45010098814964294,
0.29654446244239807,
0.12057285755872726,
0.27974361181259155,
0.3875606656074524,
0.03277391567826271,
-0.7580962181091309,
-0.2268243432044983,
0.20078182220458984,
-0.27734342217445374,
0.2226152867078781,
-0.26412710547447205,
0.3894311189651489,
-0.06478434056043625,
-0.10065560787916183,
0.07376300543546677,
-0.6433562636375427,
-0.5773956179618835,
0.08744367957115173,
-0.7979156970977783,
1.023417353630066,
-0.2605244219303131,
-0.2759290635585785,
1.1142007112503052,
-0.35054638981819153,
0.2911771237850189,
0.20949402451515198,
-0.06564803421497345,
0.07960493862628937,
-0.5422013401985168,
-0.3460049331188202,
0.026245178654789925,
0.4308667778968811,
0.09298472106456757,
-0.40843111276626587,
0.2111159712076187,
0.15659333765506744,
-0.0035754647105932236,
0.10093065351247787,
-0.30701977014541626,
0.52097088098526,
0.21293599903583527,
-0.49310851097106934,
0.9155752062797546,
-0.3798375725746155,
-0.004425157327204943,
1.1517826318740845,
-0.1770802140235901,
-0.5116041302680969,
0.7034690380096436,
-0.4954625070095062,
0.7957040667533875,
0.27620619535446167,
0.3064279854297638,
0.9938427805900574,
-0.594944417476654,
-0.12145125865936279,
-0.08216885477304459,
0.41177961230278015,
-0.19094115495681763,
-0.6284633278846741,
-0.021370435133576393,
0.05135177820920944,
-0.023625388741493225,
0.10200399160385132,
-0.23558230698108673,
-0.03348672389984131,
-0.3580113649368286,
-0.7295441627502441,
0.25594931840896606,
0.5424600839614868,
-0.042304519563913345,
-0.3831549882888794,
0.2350732982158661,
-0.15278632938861847,
0.06839209794998169,
0.029917752370238304,
0.3677808344364166,
0.7054272890090942,
-0.4004799723625183,
-0.5943120718002319,
-0.4942331314086914,
-0.2797170877456665,
0.04353043809533119,
0.015243339352309704,
0.04401319473981857,
-0.025318298488855362,
-0.31470078229904175,
0.4597173035144806,
0.060564812272787094,
0.07605733722448349,
-0.37426048517227173,
0.04629947617650032,
-0.15235160291194916,
-0.16061995923519135,
0.5704529285430908,
0.6463083624839783,
0.051043394953012466,
-0.010291866958141327,
-0.18868111073970795,
-0.015011920593678951,
-0.9675719738006592,
0.6904354691505432,
0.06020268797874451,
-0.3144850432872772,
-0.5822219252586365,
-0.0639934167265892,
0.27948975563049316,
0.4304637014865875,
-0.7444008588790894,
-0.1478545069694519,
-0.11084522306919098,
-0.020264429971575737,
-0.30042093992233276,
-0.3484567701816559,
-0.11044938117265701,
-0.34874463081359863,
0.43005794286727905,
-0.40394824743270874,
0.019735360518097878,
0.38235071301460266,
0.5567147731781006,
-0.40012744069099426,
0.1220986545085907,
-0.1041114553809166,
-0.4197532832622528,
-0.08295587450265884,
0.3882596790790558,
0.28934696316719055,
0.08881349861621857,
-0.011922791600227356,
-0.28719472885131836,
0.10328101366758347,
0.3481190502643585,
-5.65849494934082,
-0.469546377658844,
0.3372464179992676,
-0.1504053771495819,
-0.10504623502492905,
0.060952428728342056,
0.8977379202842712,
-0.16265995800495148,
0.4723927080631256,
-0.1587507724761963,
-0.38452306389808655,
0.3057956397533417,
0.10114182531833649,
0.755680501461029,
0.810238242149353,
0.6264795660972595,
0.6109631061553955,
-0.012255978770554066,
0.09689024835824966,
0.7707028388977051,
-0.263607919216156,
-0.23139458894729614,
-0.34666627645492554,
0.7625901103019714,
-0.12333803623914719,
-0.6311414837837219,
-0.7517496347427368,
0.16430410742759705,
-0.321200430393219,
0.17170734703540802,
0.5867145657539368,
-0.3937632143497467,
-0.2960818111896515,
-0.09763889759778976,
0.06127501651644707,
0.1931191086769104,
0.7542681097984314,
0.20805896818637848,
-0.10956431180238724,
-0.6278700232505798,
0.08427184075117111,
0.72166907787323,
-0.12057528644800186,
0.10994772613048553,
0.17512667179107666,
-0.026068372651934624,
-0.057366546243429184,
-0.34862008690834045,
-0.09997759759426117,
0.5097223520278931,
-0.45557117462158203,
0.4317585229873657,
0.6123400926589966,
-0.39925870299339294,
0.12642477452754974,
-0.2281145304441452,
0.7450412511825562,
-0.07763418555259705,
-0.35017311573028564,
0.1404666006565094,
0.6181254386901855,
-0.7783576250076294,
0.009238039143383503,
-0.6216186881065369,
-0.34513765573501587,
0.05055531486868858,
-0.8404442071914673,
-1.2303595542907715,
-0.07752671837806702,
0.09601035714149475,
-0.35533344745635986,
0.7118628621101379,
-0.04574360325932503,
-0.4617290794849396,
0.5633304715156555,
-0.5299405455589294,
0.2982465326786041,
-0.050041910260915756,
0.6607148051261902,
-0.02455746755003929,
-0.3235384523868561,
-0.5549273490905762,
-0.3819373846054077,
0.07376252859830856,
-0.16111236810684204,
-0.09132032841444016,
0.16053634881973267,
-0.10242243856191635,
-0.6729990839958191,
-0.6111630797386169,
0.8878521919250488,
0.024889176711440086,
0.04029099643230438,
0.3123840093612671,
0.1746595948934555,
-0.1197873130440712,
0.39145511388778687,
0.24751052260398865,
0.44008830189704895,
-0.19759321212768555,
0.4013940095901489,
-0.31881216168403625,
-0.4620867669582367,
-0.18056899309158325,
0.19653965532779694,
-0.012381096370518208,
-0.08235576748847961,
-0.29252687096595764,
0.9410573244094849,
-0.44468995928764343,
-0.34228941798210144,
0.49997279047966003,
-0.8237920999526978,
0.22851069271564484,
0.012458432465791702,
-0.019207758828997612,
-0.30391716957092285,
0.281146764755249,
0.2891967296600342,
-0.48317962884902954,
0.12749448418617249,
-0.2526686489582062,
0.11940804868936539,
0.35033395886421204,
0.2470429241657257,
-0.5159474015235901,
-0.06410712748765945,
0.12108154594898224,
-0.3846101462841034,
-0.27940839529037476,
0.6431068181991577,
0.32533830404281616,
0.040605150163173676,
-0.23877429962158203,
0.27648377418518066,
-0.41095292568206787,
0.13077221810817719,
0.2800902724266052,
-0.21839167177677155,
-0.7272796630859375,
0.21932028234004974,
0.0880144014954567,
0.5012854933738708,
-0.5048351287841797,
0.926331639289856,
0.08681883662939072,
-0.5771902203559875,
0.02093757502734661,
-0.22654783725738525,
0.310298889875412,
-0.6872529983520508,
-0.07657303661108017,
-0.18006841838359833,
0.021571610122919083,
0.4189361333847046,
-0.11549277603626251,
-0.03882431983947754,
-0.5762744545936584,
0.08638103306293488,
-0.41626453399658203,
0.06534789502620697,
0.29261401295661926,
-0.9716848134994507,
0.07434878498315811,
0.05215529352426529,
0.022316977381706238,
-0.7203346490859985,
0.03794422745704651,
0.3515508770942688,
0.41908666491508484,
0.3726254403591156,
-0.3085498809814453,
-0.7679938673973083,
-0.6082137823104858,
-0.11001969873905182,
0.012701837345957756,
0.04270215332508087,
0.2867794632911682,
-0.35074925422668457,
-0.13449932634830475,
0.17364180088043213,
-0.3962770998477936,
-0.20675788819789886,
0.27352645993232727,
0.39484453201293945,
-0.35519030690193176,
-0.13187342882156372,
0.21657666563987732,
-0.5787045955657959,
-0.6080569624900818,
0.07780696451663971,
-0.025447001680731773,
0.5261515974998474,
-0.22824475169181824,
0.11203774809837341,
-0.45171183347702026,
0.2637234628200531,
-0.2982894778251648,
-0.20775672793388367,
-0.7457795739173889,
-0.24579039216041565,
0.44211381673812866,
-0.7448296546936035,
0.29897570610046387,
-0.08965577930212021,
-0.5097314715385437,
0.18086986243724823,
-0.11662808805704117,
-0.28107330203056335,
0.08889689296483994,
-0.6759061217308044,
-0.08763629198074341,
-0.4865760803222656,
-0.06484058499336243,
-0.39239054918289185,
-0.09734037518501282,
0.07230789959430695,
-0.5585142374038696,
-0.2584865093231201,
0.1168622300028801,
0.45036551356315613,
-0.08201640099287033,
-0.5208896994590759,
0.4282711148262024,
-0.06761427223682404,
-0.061352480202913284,
0.4791838228702545,
-0.07230878621339798,
0.13310018181800842,
0.052681632339954376,
-0.0838676318526268,
-0.11350005120038986,
0.138498455286026,
0.40214815735816956,
-0.22639067471027374,
-0.15738104283809662,
-0.25651684403419495,
0.43285754323005676,
0.15612351894378662,
0.01824290305376053,
-0.009774375706911087,
0.7039347290992737,
-0.48220139741897583,
-0.46266666054725647,
0.35495924949645996,
0.20317475497722626,
0.06080121174454689,
-0.016606882214546204,
-0.8822545409202576,
-0.3642749786376953,
0.14400798082351685,
-0.6314810514450073,
-0.326005220413208,
-0.21896319091320038,
0.14522138237953186,
0.2699299454689026,
-0.14993758499622345,
-0.3569558262825012,
-0.0523526668548584,
0.2939808964729309,
0.10694956034421921,
-0.5143439173698425,
-0.44043615460395813,
0.1719379872083664,
0.8644108772277832,
0.20726606249809265,
-0.47642073035240173,
-0.07252486795186996,
-0.2482508420944214,
-0.05454651266336441,
0.19503889977931976,
-0.19597578048706055,
0.551300585269928,
0.5267128348350525,
0.6178040504455566,
-0.4477439820766449,
0.0685838982462883,
-0.5030659437179565,
0.08292721956968307,
-0.5339070558547974,
-0.008261355571448803,
-0.07292349636554718,
0.4459594190120697,
-0.278532475233078,
0.23329782485961914,
-0.28034839034080505,
0.573113203048706,
0.10882067680358887,
-0.5285175442695618,
-0.3419795334339142,
-0.38856351375579834,
0.2959173917770386,
-0.08978110551834106,
1.006137490272522,
-0.18094834685325623,
-0.05072140693664551,
0.36796268820762634,
0.37814927101135254,
-0.04831375926733017,
0.4549776017665863,
-0.13367989659309387,
0.26728445291519165,
0.12492267787456512,
-0.8831874132156372,
1.048332929611206,
0.5630748271942139,
0.0006287916912697256,
-0.38083040714263916,
-0.07399356365203857,
-0.31567275524139404,
0.0324619822204113,
-0.07448095083236694,
0.3724748492240906,
0.4849214553833008,
-0.5790268182754517,
-0.13361705839633942,
0.454667866230011,
-0.5015496611595154,
1.0052155256271362,
-0.05057625100016594,
-0.20718233287334442,
-0.1593972146511078,
0.4867302477359772,
0.07797674834728241,
-0.47268885374069214,
0.21275444328784943,
0.10594965517520905,
0.3071579039096832,
0.2172679454088211,
0.05828137323260307,
0.648682177066803,
0.31433025002479553,
0.21544304490089417,
0.35853326320648193,
-0.3206779956817627,
-0.32900211215019226,
0.1986132115125656,
-0.3580659031867981,
0.015188384801149368,
0.5390868186950684,
0.7374416589736938,
0.29030707478523254,
0.09036386758089066,
0.6658825278282166,
-0.39735540747642517,
0.33027440309524536,
0.682618260383606,
0.7452561259269714,
-0.7657256126403809,
0.31481191515922546,
0.03961983323097229,
-0.09852378815412521,
0.5615978837013245,
-0.1449056714773178,
-0.25333067774772644,
-0.38053926825523376,
0.5293984413146973,
-0.1861971616744995,
-0.31775352358818054,
-0.1619260311126709,
0.13434091210365295,
0.7189300060272217,
0.4074704647064209,
-0.3976384699344635,
-0.3143310844898224,
0.014222732745110989,
0.4619627892971039,
-0.51154625415802,
0.3882425129413605,
0.3540304899215698,
-0.06574572622776031,
0.6243773102760315,
-0.7433648109436035,
0.4431507885456085,
-0.31154879927635193,
0.021654019132256508,
0.41468724608421326,
0.10623247921466827,
-0.0633992999792099,
0.16209517419338226,
0.23441679775714874,
-0.03962351754307747,
0.20720669627189636,
-0.2902541160583496,
-0.06972943991422653,
0.02940729819238186,
-0.2165665179491043,
0.7948683500289917,
0.06698548048734665,
0.18478494882583618,
-0.3660108745098114,
-0.2215346395969391,
0.5327984690666199,
-0.12913140654563904,
0.02377372793853283,
0.4143570065498352,
0.06797502934932709,
1.0477646589279175,
0.006232300773262978,
-0.04867156594991684,
-0.6372920274734497,
0.19491127133369446,
-0.10180976241827011,
-0.24798311293125153,
-0.31743377447128296,
0.36895951628685,
-0.5027483701705933,
0.18792669475078583,
-0.5316269397735596,
0.2496969848871231,
0.3333114683628082,
-0.19531074166297913,
0.051596030592918396,
-0.04769269749522209,
-0.20280709862709045,
0.27191033959388733,
0.19446174800395966,
0.09471169114112854,
0.32414695620536804,
-0.056341707706451416,
0.15962906181812286,
0.2849193215370178,
0.24139752984046936,
0.08402974158525467,
-0.1306915134191513,
0.2307368665933609,
-0.15808430314064026,
0.6101519465446472,
-0.1664837896823883,
0.06680671125650406,
0.07184204459190369,
-0.05198199301958084,
-0.6834320425987244,
0.6192539930343628,
-0.39564216136932373,
0.07947547733783722,
-0.1804351955652237,
0.3763715624809265,
0.4606189429759979,
-0.32387471199035645,
-0.21738317608833313,
-0.10537362098693848,
0.1019975021481514,
-0.27012673020362854,
-1.5785795450210571,
0.23205646872520447,
-0.046133555471897125,
-0.06619270145893097,
-0.569951057434082,
0.11481107026338577,
0.40388283133506775,
-0.9949009418487549,
0.1723533421754837,
0.10116665810346603,
-0.5743863582611084,
0.2290448397397995,
-0.07337157428264618,
-0.8359278440475464,
-0.3488345742225647,
0.3728220462799072
] |
234827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridicule%20%28film%29 | Ridicule (film) | Ridicule () is a 1996 French period drama film directed by Patrice Leconte and starring Charles Berling, Jean Rochefort, Fanny Ardant and Judith Godrèche. Set in the 18th century at the decadent court of Versailles, where social status can rise and fall based on one's ability to mete out witty insults and avoid ridicule oneself, the film's plot examines the social injustices of late 18th-century France, in showing the corruption and callousness of the aristocrats.
Plot
In the Dombes, a swampy region north of Lyon, the Baron Grégoire Ponceludon de Malavoy is a minor aristocrat and engineer. He is one of the few aristocrats who care about the plight of the peasants. Horrified by the sickness and death caused by the mosquitoes that infest the swamps, he hopes to drain them; he goes to Versailles in the hope of obtaining the backing of King Louis XVI. Just before reaching Versailles, Ponceludon is robbed and beaten. He is found by the Marquis de Bellegarde, a minor noble and physician. As Ponceludon recuperates at the marquis' house, Bellegarde takes him under his wing, teaching him about wit (l'esprit), the primary way to make one's way at court. At first, Ponceludon's provincial background makes him a target at parties and gatherings, even though he proves himself a formidable adversary in verbal sparring.
At one such party, he catches L'abbé de Vilecourt cheating at a game of wits, with the help of his lover, Madame de Blayac, the beautiful and rich recent widow of Monsieur de Blayac, who was to have been Ponceludon's sponsor at court. Blayac repays his generosity in not exposing them by arranging for the certification of his lineage—thereby allowing his suit to proceed. Despite his success, Ponceludon begins to see that the court at Versailles is corrupt and hollow.
The only exception is Mathilde de Bellegarde, the doctor's daughter. She has agreed to marry Monsieur de Montaliéri, a rich, old aristocrat whose wife is dying. Her motivation is twofold: to support her science experiments and to help pay off her father's debts. Ponceludon begins to help her with her experiments. Montaliéri observes their growing attraction to each other. Later, Montaliéri tells Ponceludon that he should wait, as he is not likely to live very long, and Mathilde would be a rich widow. Even after Mathilde admits that she dreads her upcoming marriage, Ponceludon does not want her to end up the wife of a poor man.
One day, a deaf-mute named Paul runs through the woods wearing Mathilde’s diving suit and frightens Madame de Blayac. Blayac makes Bellegarde send him away. Bellegarde sends the boy to the Abbé de l'Épée, a pioneering educator of the deaf. Mathilde visits Madame de Blayac and unsuccessfully pleads for Paul. Madame de Blayac senses a rival for Ponceludon. Meanwhile Vilecourt is concerned that Ponceludon is becoming too successful, so Madame de Blayac promises to bring him down. Madame de Blayac traps Ponceludon at a dinner party (with her accomplice Montaliéri) where one too many guests has been invited. A contest of wit is used to settle who must make a humiliating departure. Distracted by Blayac, Ponceludon loses, and is convinced that his disgrace will force him to leave the court. However, he is reminded of why he set out in the first place when a village child dies from drinking contaminated water. During this time, Mathilde appears at court, breaking the terms of her engagement contract.
Vilecourt finally obtains an audience with the King, but blunders by accidentally blaspheming against God in an attempt to be witty, and Blayac turns her attention back to Ponceludon, convincing him to return to Versailles. He sleeps with her in exchange for her assistance; she arranges a meeting with the King. She maliciously has Bellegarde attend her in his capacity as physician when Ponceludon is still with her, ensuring that Mathilde learns of their relationship.
During a presentation at court of the Abbé de l'Épée's work with deaf people and development of sign language, the nobles ridicule the deaf mercilessly. However, some nobles change their minds when the deaf demonstrate their own form of wit: sign language puns. In response, de Bellegarde stands and asks how to sign "bravo," leading Ponceludon to rise and clap to show his support. Mathilde is touched, and they soon make up.
Ponceludon joins the King's entourage and, after showing off his engineering prowess by proposing an improvement to a cannon, secures a private meeting with the King to discuss his project. The embarrassed cannoneer then insults Ponceludon, forcing him into demanding a duel. Madame de Blayac fails to persuade him to avoid the duel. He kills the cannoneer and learns that the King cannot meet with someone who has killed one of his officers right after his death, although he is assured that it was right to uphold his honour.
Madame de Blayac is furious when she learns that Ponceludon has left her for Mathilde and plots her revenge. Ponceludon is invited to a costume ball "only for wits." Upon arriving at the ball with Mathilde, he is manoeuvered into dancing with Blayac and is tripped. His spectacular fall earns him the derisive nickname "Marquis des Antipodes" by Milletail. Ponceludon tears off his mask and condemns their decadence. He tells them that they class themselves with Voltaire because of their wit, but they have none of Voltaire's compassion. He vows to drain the swamp by himself and leaves the court with Mathilde. Madame de Blayac removes her mask and stands silently crying.
In 1794 in Dover, England, Bellegarde has fled from the French Revolution. On-screen text states that Grégoire and Mathilde Ponceludon successfully drained the Dombes and live in revolutionary France.
Cast
Charles Berling as Le Baron Grégoire Ponceludon de Malavoy
Jean Rochefort as Le Marquis de Bellegarde
Fanny Ardant as Madame de Blayac
Judith Godrèche as Mathilde de Bellegarde
Bernard Giraudeau as L'abbé de Vilecourt
Bernard Dhéran as Monsieur de Montaliéri
Carlo Brandt as Le Chevalier de Milletail
Jacques Mathou as Abbé de l'Epée
Urbain Cancelier as Louis XVI
Albert Delpy as Baron de Guéret
Bruno Zanardi as Paul
Marie Pillet as Charlotte
Awards
Won
César Award for Best Film
César Award for Best Director – Patrice Leconte
César Award for Best Costume Design – Christian Gasc
César Award for Best Art Direction – Ivan Maussion
BAFTA Award for Best Film not in the English Language
David di Donatello for Best Foreign Film
Nominations
César Award for Best Actor – Charles Berling
César Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Bernard Giraudeau, Jean Rochefort
César Award for Best Original Screenplay – Remi Waterhouse
César Award for Best Music – Antoine Duhamel
César Award for Best Cinematography – Thierry Arbogast
César Award for Best Sound – Dominique Hennequin, Jean Goudier
Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Cannes Film Festival – Palme d'Or
See also
List of submissions to the 69th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of French submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
List of films featuring the deaf and hard of hearing
References
External links
Ridicule at Virtual History
1996 films
French films
1990s French-language films
1996 drama films
Films directed by Patrice Leconte
French Revolution films
Films set in the 1780s
Films set in the 1790s
Films set in France
Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award winners
Best Film César Award winners
Best Film Lumières Award winners
Films whose director won the Best Director César Award
Films featuring a Best Actress Lumières Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Actor Lumières Award-winning performance
Cultural depictions of Louis XVI
1990s historical drama films
French historical drama films | [
-0.19195808470249176,
0.5002396106719971,
-0.09822387993335724,
-0.2724705934524536,
-0.28070181608200073,
0.19853925704956055,
0.6889185905456543,
0.01275113970041275,
-0.13205091655254364,
-0.08128434419631958,
-0.13701824843883514,
0.6752611398696899,
-0.552899956703186,
0.47741448879241943,
0.46663737297058105,
0.4144044518470764,
0.2906550467014313,
0.13001416623592377,
0.40624934434890747,
-0.33691295981407166,
-0.4059000611305237,
-0.471788614988327,
0.5464433431625366,
-0.545971691608429,
-0.2743280231952667,
0.4750787019729614,
0.4493890106678009,
0.6715725660324097,
-0.3219963610172272,
-0.03641054034233093,
0.3718077838420868,
0.22433018684387207,
0.4866272211074829,
-0.2879824638366699,
0.022780321538448334,
0.41817012429237366,
0.10512273013591766,
0.3169533312320709,
0.013167639262974262,
-0.3245618939399719,
0.21206218004226685,
-0.11768531799316406,
-0.028364403173327446,
-0.3713292181491852,
-0.4823650121688843,
-0.041253238916397095,
-0.8637304306030273,
0.4326702356338501,
-0.213602676987648,
-0.29680564999580383,
0.20538464188575745,
0.5764083862304688,
0.47024020552635193,
0.16498801112174988,
0.3266506791114807,
0.10884036868810654,
-0.6252333521842957,
-0.0799359679222107,
0.016180263832211494,
-0.3826588988304138,
-0.21079981327056885,
0.5304479598999023,
0.7324081063270569,
0.33236560225486755,
0.2392183244228363,
0.2949732542037964,
-0.21829736232757568,
-0.24275368452072144,
-0.5719873309135437,
-0.42010247707366943,
0.536292314529419,
-0.26600804924964905,
0.23922041058540344,
0.17049850523471832,
0.1461254358291626,
-0.662973165512085,
0.2729404866695404,
0.325230211019516,
0.05790175125002861,
0.08049927651882172,
0.293209433555603,
-0.3301001191139221,
0.49205178022384644,
0.2909349203109741,
0.20097702741622925,
0.16256079077720642,
0.6547624468803406,
0.7613883018493652,
-0.5791791081428528,
-0.28667739033699036,
-0.33776822686195374,
-0.4991264343261719,
0.15284228324890137,
-0.16412049531936646,
0.42844173312187195,
0.24690626561641693,
0.22309395670890808,
0.08409202098846436,
0.06659268587827682,
0.17519183456897736,
0.4182726740837097,
0.24885405600070953,
0.19454404711723328,
-0.0005646581994369626,
-0.5710889101028442,
-0.35661637783050537,
0.013007288798689842,
-0.3282545804977417,
-0.26103681325912476,
0.14947021007537842,
0.18079018592834473,
0.4780976474285126,
-0.7815257906913757,
-0.2626742720603943,
-0.4771477282047272,
0.17636355757713318,
0.013497039675712585,
-0.2957729399204254,
-0.09025439620018005,
0.4795618951320648,
-0.06445947289466858,
-0.13426348567008972,
0.03445190191268921,
0.4261891543865204,
-0.0767916664481163,
0.40017667412757874,
0.2585764229297638,
0.27671656012535095,
-0.09477929025888443,
0.5530565977096558,
0.41402667760849,
0.4119749367237091,
-0.39545053243637085,
-0.1995466649532318,
0.08739656955003738,
-0.6961931586265564,
0.3418923616409302,
-0.5701844692230225,
-0.13748010993003845,
0.1438950002193451,
-0.622742235660553,
-0.032886818051338196,
-0.6446484923362732,
-0.11077350378036499,
0.5063496828079224,
-0.44031640887260437,
-0.04466363042593002,
-0.16874165832996368,
0.21361711621284485,
-0.44283828139305115,
-0.10537290573120117,
0.26557493209838867,
0.09822992235422134,
-0.7230017185211182,
-0.5859083533287048,
0.17106018960475922,
0.553329348564148,
-0.2469242811203003,
0.05060413479804993,
0.44812291860580444,
0.7255237698554993,
0.3016938865184784,
-0.1768990010023117,
-0.1397884339094162,
0.3879350423812866,
-0.3062566816806793,
-0.0048715900629758835,
-0.2896609306335449,
0.2554275393486023,
-0.19382396340370178,
-0.5201385021209717,
0.34998396039009094,
0.5401782393455505,
-0.6037114262580872,
0.1551762819290161,
0.6068127155303955,
0.09982696175575256,
0.19115056097507477,
0.049062758684158325,
-0.019635358825325966,
-0.7951501607894897,
0.3784240186214447,
-0.26644447445869446,
0.19647198915481567,
0.4266720414161682,
0.1534900963306427,
0.6439908146858215,
0.04381873086094856,
-0.015156860463321209,
0.29927992820739746,
-1.0233291387557983,
-0.35828688740730286,
0.7459572553634644,
-0.28598782420158386,
1.3925068378448486,
0.36227691173553467,
-0.27846240997314453,
0.6225728392601013,
-0.069143146276474,
0.28198137879371643,
-0.7452459335327148,
-0.1538238525390625,
0.9424908757209778,
0.3518846929073334,
-0.6280438899993896,
-0.2508355677127838,
-0.18185804784297943,
0.16909071803092957,
-0.04435763135552406,
0.7198947668075562,
0.053161319345235825,
-0.5218243598937988,
0.5162864327430725,
-0.06818190962076187,
-0.22399471700191498,
-0.19574114680290222,
-0.4172050952911377,
-0.08210859447717667,
0.13689346611499786,
0.23125922679901123,
0.04503794386982918,
-0.11534969508647919,
-0.5614451169967651,
0.8563400506973267,
-0.48494380712509155,
0.4861363470554352,
0.25627297163009644,
0.2777059078216553,
0.26641514897346497,
-0.7085855007171631,
0.1586802899837494,
0.7795893549919128,
-0.25337404012680054,
-0.48643335700035095,
-0.5665923953056335,
0.30378708243370056,
-0.05067046731710434,
-0.35599076747894287,
0.30966633558273315,
0.06447518616914749,
0.6227760910987854,
0.667104959487915,
-0.18125660717487335,
0.012371321208775043,
0.10354698449373245,
-0.014081229455769062,
0.30994197726249695,
0.3022836148738861,
-0.19319213926792145,
0.3482353687286377,
0.03381004184484482,
0.4358176290988922,
-0.35127800703048706,
-0.6314406991004944,
0.23111501336097717,
0.07996491342782974,
0.38745540380477905,
0.14303231239318848,
0.1869666576385498,
-0.15150263905525208,
-0.6087691187858582,
-0.5625912547111511,
-0.17634142935276031,
0.699722945690155,
-0.11172784864902496,
0.14078165590763092,
-0.23207128047943115,
-0.3541443347930908,
-0.06139605492353439,
0.22732475399971008,
-0.10003439337015152,
-0.43147939443588257,
-0.22664758563041687,
0.6574344038963318,
0.2090371996164322,
0.7577589154243469,
-0.10939475893974304,
0.733331024646759,
-0.6032511591911316,
-0.23898382484912872,
-0.3075197637081146,
0.6399316787719727,
-0.12556420266628265,
-0.2213459610939026,
-0.0718708336353302,
-0.08664411306381226,
-0.043238308280706406,
-0.051830071955919266,
-0.4832133650779724,
-0.12683312594890594,
-0.2979375720024109,
-0.048158857971429825,
-0.10234630852937698,
-0.017843564972281456,
-0.6358838677406311,
-0.707887589931488,
0.13448739051818848,
0.163023442029953,
-0.04397430270910263,
0.384701669216156,
-0.28292030096054077,
0.5954696536064148,
-0.4300071895122528,
0.176784947514534,
0.8778929114341736,
-0.06757744401693344,
-0.01084777619689703,
0.22894002497196198,
-5.854232311248779,
0.04907006397843361,
0.45239830017089844,
0.5463552474975586,
0.3429209589958191,
0.08543028682470322,
0.2573684751987457,
-0.5180423855781555,
-0.3972157835960388,
0.23930147290229797,
-0.537852942943573,
0.20388005673885345,
0.11066225916147232,
0.4916791021823883,
0.23992089927196503,
-0.015611137263476849,
-0.07010415941476822,
-0.8842446208000183,
0.27115511894226074,
0.32410430908203125,
-0.1525724083185196,
0.4538804590702057,
-0.20136915147304535,
0.10162042081356049,
0.01712784543633461,
0.9115074276924133,
-0.22868329286575317,
0.6431442499160767,
-0.9858792424201965,
0.007890112698078156,
0.05965585261583328,
0.03710838034749031,
0.24882137775421143,
-0.2005554586648941,
-0.4324110448360443,
-0.29278358817100525,
0.19380971789360046,
-0.18541578948497772,
-0.3592396378517151,
-0.36500513553619385,
-0.5188546180725098,
0.1959453672170639,
-0.6908401846885681,
0.260293573141098,
0.5823796987533569,
-0.21353985369205475,
-0.7342660427093506,
-0.6201691627502441,
0.04829246178269386,
0.3849586844444275,
0.2067381590604782,
-0.2577500641345978,
-0.0655941516160965,
0.8145464658737183,
0.04402896761894226,
-0.47913113236427307,
0.3640342950820923,
-0.20823934674263,
-0.2755454480648041,
0.07313454151153564,
-0.011645527556538582,
0.21082916855812073,
-0.0847262516617775,
-0.044685233384370804,
0.11088737845420837,
-0.2180398553609848,
0.12305042892694473,
-0.23776128888130188,
-0.1881692111492157,
0.017654793336987495,
-0.05673225224018097,
0.35760173201560974,
0.33915331959724426,
-0.8334600925445557,
0.1470382958650589,
-0.16657374799251556,
-0.43821948766708374,
0.11471202224493027,
-0.24271264672279358,
0.15671882033348083,
-0.3295980989933014,
-0.3314919173717499,
0.08667092770338058,
0.0503489151597023,
0.06400613486766815,
-0.48002660274505615,
0.40132179856300354,
0.2996547222137451,
0.35002341866493225,
-0.3578326404094696,
0.413845956325531,
-0.449447900056839,
-0.4086880683898926,
0.4455423355102539,
-0.13500794768333435,
0.5133936405181885,
0.25377294421195984,
0.1057928055524826,
0.4251888692378998,
0.1292853057384491,
-0.052528880536556244,
-0.4989881217479706,
0.11488676816225052,
-0.6340625286102295,
0.5714495778083801,
-0.4624866545200348,
0.3026272654533386,
0.43289914727211,
-0.023179590702056885,
-0.3559947907924652,
0.04698093608021736,
-0.11102934926748276,
-0.10343930125236511,
0.23644334077835083,
0.41025006771087646,
-0.4296921193599701,
-0.19101528823375702,
0.46499189734458923,
0.4908618628978729,
0.201319620013237,
0.09879942983388901,
0.44414347410202026,
-0.5991736054420471,
0.05750346556305885,
-0.09028103202581406,
-0.2579388916492462,
-0.057022370398044586,
0.03395984694361687,
-0.12512920796871185,
-0.03487800061702728,
-0.30708515644073486,
-0.1899174153804779,
0.005472563672810793,
-0.03875552490353584,
1.2310452461242676,
-0.8594610095024109,
-0.20604979991912842,
0.04691340774297714,
0.3294805884361267,
0.010995008982717991,
0.42791271209716797,
-0.21438293159008026,
-0.5425886511802673,
0.384799987077713,
0.3187953233718872,
-0.06435958296060562,
0.24194888770580292,
-0.013091408647596836,
-0.109684057533741,
0.21111585199832916,
0.07158026844263077,
0.3565509617328644,
0.553513765335083,
-0.5877476334571838,
-0.07820115238428116,
0.28752461075782776,
0.2739919126033783,
0.3443252444267273,
-0.10305421054363251,
0.3458167314529419,
-0.06736015528440475,
0.07121787220239639,
-1.1574409008026123,
-0.20619957149028778,
0.011602075770497322,
-0.3896656334400177,
-0.47345706820487976,
-0.8912959098815918,
0.14041540026664734,
0.039245110005140305,
-0.3616010844707489,
-0.01079174317419529,
-0.23393087089061737,
0.38124752044677734,
-0.004786346573382616,
0.16619881987571716,
-0.17770682275295258,
-0.1423397958278656,
0.2002219408750534,
0.10919427871704102,
-0.14267849922180176,
-0.17148716747760773,
-0.4709281027317047,
0.5398527979850769,
0.48672887682914734,
-0.0021282238885760307,
-0.42455047369003296,
0.1901717633008957,
-0.5267635583877563,
-0.09445212036371231,
0.16333363950252533,
0.4164206385612488,
0.1832941621541977,
0.32372039556503296,
-0.660922110080719,
-0.8750883936882019,
-0.060461610555648804,
0.24049662053585052,
0.08231322467327118,
0.03565267100930214,
0.16720037162303925,
0.8336034417152405,
-0.16882500052452087,
0.21048583090305328,
0.11478189378976822,
-0.7720404267311096,
0.5317450165748596,
0.2508152723312378,
-0.5596844553947449,
0.38273531198501587,
-0.4621467888355255,
-0.5018048286437988,
0.23686376214027405,
0.25696220993995667,
-0.11651956290006638,
-0.4324930012226105,
0.4906494617462158,
-0.6378538012504578,
-0.48913469910621643,
0.10786854475736618,
-0.21074652671813965,
-0.49788451194763184,
-0.6988309025764465,
-0.12034624814987183,
-1.0828708410263062,
0.3596767783164978,
0.6208527684211731,
-0.7696904540061951,
0.3125964105129242,
-0.04698251932859421,
0.008595063351094723,
0.5601099729537964,
0.3572855591773987,
-0.10207464545965195,
-0.8710637092590332,
-0.694351851940155,
0.00905284471809864,
0.3671477437019348,
-0.2256811112165451,
0.12823128700256348,
0.5958189964294434,
0.5091739296913147,
0.04695547744631767,
-0.2601200044155121,
0.6533719301223755,
0.5249752998352051,
-0.09132344275712967,
-0.7343496680259705,
-0.4623892307281494,
0.1756872832775116,
-0.09394941478967667,
0.5165501832962036,
-0.7228831052780151,
-0.4221639335155487,
0.839362621307373,
-0.8592692613601685,
-0.023631127551198006,
0.1974215805530548,
0.1270437389612198,
0.36177513003349304,
-0.10834259539842606,
0.6471835970878601,
-0.320644348859787,
-0.007828781381249428,
-0.1634998619556427,
-0.28665366768836975,
0.5818119645118713,
-0.3049625754356384,
0.15232306718826294,
0.050717610865831375,
-0.5795774459838867,
-0.08471836894750595,
-0.07956673949956894,
0.7458699941635132,
-0.5638754367828369,
-0.024363670498132706,
-0.6377655863761902,
-0.20998816192150116,
0.13572412729263306,
-0.13472670316696167,
-0.2700677216053009,
0.4114164710044861,
-0.36681219935417175,
-0.5092214941978455,
0.236862450838089,
-0.48587706685066223,
0.3240060806274414,
-0.01939137652516365,
-0.3721493184566498,
0.2526571452617645,
-0.23486557602882385,
-0.24712181091308594,
-0.21765337884426117,
0.3634481728076935,
0.08395572751760483,
0.13657033443450928,
-0.6626284122467041,
0.4967121481895447,
-0.3760954737663269,
0.05374789237976074,
-0.4514352083206177,
0.11605396121740341,
0.19588293135166168,
-0.6415362358093262,
0.0710987001657486,
-0.18903778493404388,
0.41024160385131836,
-0.44372624158859253,
-0.33815819025039673,
0.2584429383277893,
0.19837237894535065,
-0.4257238805294037,
0.04383392632007599,
0.2576600909233093,
0.04786229133605957,
0.24528150260448456,
0.13671080768108368,
-0.1808905154466629,
-0.4463214576244354,
0.07596299052238464,
-0.18634508550167084,
-0.31952470541000366,
0.4190753698348999,
-0.32843953371047974,
-0.105915367603302,
0.4722444713115692,
-0.10947878658771515,
0.4283108115196228,
0.399191290140152,
-0.1828557848930359,
0.41179049015045166,
-0.4770668148994446,
-0.47115975618362427,
0.46534308791160583,
0.2151845395565033,
-0.4215298295021057,
0.53402179479599,
0.18198978900909424,
0.5262882113456726,
-0.13654395937919617,
0.2536807954311371,
0.15916424989700317,
-0.37952372431755066,
0.16054026782512665,
0.1829126477241516,
0.24224866926670074,
0.013554663397371769,
0.35043978691101074,
0.26130184531211853,
-0.02223105914890766,
0.13774168491363525,
0.6732063293457031,
-0.10660330951213837,
-0.4659086763858795,
0.6758620142936707,
0.133589968085289,
0.07104603946208954,
0.033412232995033264,
-0.16712498664855957,
0.47908931970596313,
-0.36202719807624817,
-0.3846718668937683,
-0.5694079399108887,
0.6109033823013306,
-0.04785073921084404,
0.47502949833869934,
0.02635851502418518,
-0.3382719159126282,
0.04387081786990166,
0.08281692117452621,
-0.010795499198138714,
-0.24451391398906708,
0.11592814326286316,
-0.016713008284568787,
0.4683092534542084,
-0.3518443703651428,
-0.020531976595520973,
-0.20846663415431976,
-0.47641947865486145,
-0.004603743087500334,
-0.5750817060470581,
0.38467246294021606,
-0.8212807774543762,
0.0335518941283226,
-0.020157398656010628,
0.18912480771541595,
-0.18681859970092773,
-0.4600318968296051,
0.6906672716140747,
-1.0725399255752563,
0.011770254001021385,
-0.6535317897796631,
-0.30153918266296387,
0.4613838195800781,
-0.7778813242912292,
-0.25965455174446106,
-0.06746027618646622,
0.5703907012939453,
-0.15277744829654694,
0.08773686736822128,
0.25267693400382996,
0.38681891560554504,
-0.3101857900619507,
0.30914148688316345,
-0.3294186592102051,
-0.14963336288928986,
-0.24044659733772278,
-0.2167310118675232,
-1.4163286685943604,
-0.19717450439929962,
0.3396162986755371,
-0.03760070353746414,
-0.48499032855033875,
0.3177756071090698,
-0.10068660974502563,
-0.24522101879119873,
0.03352811187505722,
-0.3434474766254425,
0.39262598752975464,
-0.4625738561153412,
0.06326835602521896,
-0.4917965531349182,
0.4361394941806793,
0.2837985157966614,
-0.0019608119037002325,
-0.20296505093574524,
0.03309023380279541,
-0.41073283553123474,
0.18695615231990814,
-0.17885123193264008,
-0.294513076543808,
0.5626866817474365,
0.12614233791828156,
0.295274019241333,
-0.42860841751098633,
-0.21874584257602692,
0.8328710794448853,
0.6805761456489563,
0.05698774382472038,
-0.24395018815994263,
0.15767861902713776,
-0.3008534908294678,
0.5495465993881226,
-0.2777816355228424,
-0.16811415553092957,
0.12173905968666077,
-0.16218116879463196,
-0.19864988327026367,
0.05392446368932724,
0.44125139713287354,
0.4153110086917877,
-0.17723636329174042,
-0.03824813291430473,
-0.5502821207046509,
-0.41274744272232056,
0.01919766515493393,
-0.015158182010054588,
-0.3033692240715027,
0.34609663486480713,
0.10491012781858444
] |
234828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling | Tickling | Tickling is the act of touching a part of a body in a way that causes involuntary twitching movements or laughter. The word evolved from the Middle English tikelen, perhaps frequentative of ticken, to touch lightly.
In 1897, psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin described a "tickle" as two different types of phenomena. One type is caused by very light movement across the skin. This type of tickle, called a knismesis, generally does not produce laughter and is sometimes accompanied by an itching sensation.
Physiology
Tickling results from a mild stimulation moving across the skin, and is associated with behaviors such as smiling, laughter, twitching, withdrawal and goose bumps.
The tickle can be divided into two separate categories of sensation, knismesis and gargalesis. Knismesis, also known as a "moving itch", is a mildly annoying sensation caused by a light movement on the skin, such as from a crawling insect. This may explain why it has evolved in many animals. For example, a dog exhibiting the scratch reflex is an example of knismesis. When stimulated in the saddle region, most dogs will exhibit a reflexive rhythmic twitching of their hind legs. This reflex can be brought on by actions such as scratching, brushing, stroking, or even tapping the sensitive area. Horses also exhibit a response to knismesis, as they can be observed twitching the panniculus carnosus muscle in response to insects landing on their sides. Gargalesis reactions refer to a laughter-provoking feeling caused by a harsher, deeper pressure, stroked across the skin in various regions of the body. These reactions are thought to be limited to humans and other primates, although some research has indicated that rats can also be tickled in this way. A German study also indicates that the gargalesis type of tickle triggers a defense mechanism for humans in the hypothalamus conveying submissiveness or fleeing from danger.
It appears that the tickle sensation involves signals from nerve fibres associated with both pain and touch. In 1939, Yngve Zotterman of the Karolinska Institute studied the knismesis type of tickle in cats, by measuring the action potentials generated in the nerve fibres while lightly stroking the skin with a piece of cotton wool. Zotterman found that the "tickling" sensation depended, in part, on the nerves that generate pain. Further studies have discovered that when the pain nerves are severed by surgeons, in an effort to reduce intractable pain, the tickle response is also diminished. However, in some patients that have lost pain sensation due to spinal cord injury, some aspects of the tickle response do remain. Tickle may also depend on nerve fibres associated with the sense of touch. When circulation is severed in a limb, the response to touch and tickle are lost prior to the loss of pain sensation.
It might be tempting to speculate that areas of the skin that are the most sensitive to touch would also be the most ticklish, but this does not seem to be the case. While the palm of the hand is far more sensitive to touch, most people find that the soles of their feet are the most ticklish. Other commonly ticklish areas include the belly, sides of the torso, underarms, ribs, midriff, neck, back of the knee, thighs, buttocks, and perineum.
Some evidence suggests that laughing associated with tickling is a nervous reaction that can be triggered; indeed, very ticklish people often start laughing before actually being tickled.
Social aspects
Charles Darwin theorized on the link between tickling and social relations, arguing that tickling provokes laughter through the anticipation of pleasure. If a stranger tickles a child without any preliminaries, catching the child by surprise, the likely result will be not laughter but withdrawal and displeasure. Darwin also noticed that for tickling to be effective, you must not know the precise point of stimulation in advance, and reasoned that this is why most people cannot effectively tickle themselves.
Darwin explained why we laugh when we are tickled by saying, "The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of the body. Laughter from being tickled [is manifestly a] reflex action; and likewise this is shown by the minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the body".
Tickling is defined by many child psychologists as an integral bonding activity between parent and children. In the parent–child concept, tickling establishes at an early age the pleasure associated with being touched by a parent with a trust-bond developed so that parents may touch a child, in an unpleasant way, should circumstances develop such as the need to treat a painful injury or prevent them from harm or danger. This tickling relationship continues throughout childhood and often into the early to mid teen years.
Another tickling social relationship is that which forms between siblings of relatively the same age. Many case studies have indicated that siblings often use tickling as an alternative to outright violence when attempting to either punish or intimidate one another. The sibling tickling relationship can occasionally develop into an anti-social situation, or tickle torture, where one sibling will tickle the other without mercy. The motivation behind tickle torture is often to portray the sense of domination the tickler has over the victim.
As with parents and siblings, tickling serves as a bonding mechanism between friends, and is classified by psychologists as part of the fifth and highest grade of social play which involves special intimacy or "cognitive interaction". This suggests that tickling works best when all the parties involved feel comfortable with the situation and one another. It can also serve as an outlet for sexual energy during adolescence, and a number of people have stated in a study that their private areas were ticklish.
While many people assume that other people enjoy tickling, a recent survey of 84 college students indicated that only 32% of respondents enjoy being tickled, with 32% giving neutral responses and 36% stating that they do not enjoy being tickled. The study also found a very high level of embarrassment and anxiety associated with tickling. However, in the same study the authors found that the facial indicators of happiness and amusement do not correlate, with some people who indicated that they do not enjoy being tickled actually smiling more often during tickling than those who indicated that they do enjoy being tickled, which suggests that there may be other factors at play (such as embarrassment and anxiety) in the case of those who indicated a dislike for tickling than the mere physical sensation experienced. It has also been suggested that people may enjoy tickling because it elicits laughter as well as the feeling of being tickled. Social psychologists find that mimicking expressions generally cause people to some degree experience that emotion.
Excessive tickling has been described as a primary sexual obsession and, under these circumstances, is sometimes considered a form of paraphilia. Tickling can also be a form of sexual harassment.
Purpose
Some of history's greatest thinkers have pondered the mysteries of the tickle response, including Plato, Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei and Charles Darwin. In The Assayer, Galileo philosophically examines tickling in the context of how we perceive reality:When touched upon the soles of the feet, for example, it feels in addition to the common sensation of touch a sensation on which we have imposed a special name, "tickling." This sensation belongs to us and not to the hand... A piece of paper or a feather drawn lightly over any part of our bodies performs intrinsically the same operations of moving and touching, but by touching the eye, the nose, or the upper lip it excites in us an almost intolerable titillation, even though elsewhere it is scarcely felt. This titillation belongs entirely to us and not to the feather; if the live and sensitive body were removed it would remain no more than a mere word.
Francis Bacon and Charles Darwin believed that humorous laughter requires a "light" frame of mind. But they differed on ticklish laughter: Darwin thought that the same light state of mind was required, whereas Bacon disagreed. When tickled, noted Bacon, "men even in a grieved state of mind, yet cannot sometimes forbear laughing."
One hypothesis, as mentioned above, is that tickling serves as a pleasant bonding experience between parent and child. However, this hypothesis does not adequately explain why many children and adults find tickling to be an unpleasant experience. Another view maintained is that tickling develops as a prenatal response and that the development of sensitive areas on the fetus helps to orient the fetus into favourable positions while in the womb.
It is unknown why certain people find areas of the body to be more ticklish than others; additionally, studies have shown that there is no significant difference in ticklishness among the genders.
In 1924, J. C. Gregory proposed that the most ticklish places on the body were also those areas that were the most vulnerable during hand-to-hand combat. He posited that ticklishness might confer an evolutionary advantage by enticing the individual to protect these areas. Consistent with this idea, University of Iowa psychiatrist Donald W. Black observed that most ticklish spots are found in the same places as the protective reflexes.
A third, hybrid hypothesis, has suggested that tickling encourages the development of combat skills. Most tickling is done by parents, siblings and friends and is often a type of rough-and-tumble play, during which time children often develop defensive and combat moves. Although people generally make movements to get away from, and report disliking, being tickled, laughter encourages the tickler to continue. If the facial expressions induced by tickle were less pleasant the tickler would be less likely to continue, thus diminishing the frequency of these combat lessons.
To understand how much of the tickle response is dependent on the interpersonal relationship of the parties involved, Christenfeld and Harris presented subjects with a "mechanical tickle machine". They found that the subjects laughed just as much when they believed they were being tickled by a machine as when they thought they were being tickled by a person. Harris goes on to suggest that the tickle response is reflex, similar to the startle reflex, that is contingent upon the element of surprise.
Self-tickling
The question as to why a person could not tickle themselves was raised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Knismesis may represent a vestige of the primitive grooming response, in effect; knismesis serves as a "non-self detector" and protects the subject against foreign objects. Perhaps due to the importance of knismesis in protection, this type of light touch is not dependent on the element of surprise and it is possible for one to induce self-knismesis, by light touching.
Gargalesis, on the other hand, produces an odd phenomenon: when a person touches "ticklish" parts on their own body no tickling sensation is experienced. It is thought that the tickling requires a certain amount of surprise, and because tickling oneself produces no unexpected motion on the skin, the response is not activated. In 1998, Blakemore and colleagues analyzed the "self-tickle" response by using MRI technology to investigate how the brain distinguishes between sensations we create for ourselves and sensations others create for us. When subjects used a joystick to control a "tickling robot", they could not make themselves laugh. This suggests that when a person tries to tickle himself or herself, the cerebellum sends to the somatosensory cortex precise information on the position of the tickling target and therefore what sensation to expect. Apparently an unknown cortical mechanism then decreases or inhibits the tickling sensation.
While the reasons for the inhibition of the tickling sensation during self-tickling remain unknown, research shows that the human brain is trained to know what sensation to expect when the body moves or performs an action. Another reason may be the lack of awareness of many sensations arising from self-movement, such as not paying attention to one's own vocal cords. When we try to tickle ourselves by grabbing our sides, the brain foresees this contact between body and hand and prepares itself for it. This removes the feeling of unease and panic, causing the body to not react to tickling in the same way it would if someone else supplied the stimulus.
However, some people with schizophrenia have the ability to tickle themselves. Non-pathological individuals high in schizotypical traits also have a greater self-tickling ability than people low in schizotypical traits. This is suggested to possibly correlate with a less pronounced ability of these people to track and attribute the results of their own actions.
As physical abuse
Although some consensual tickling can be a positive, playful experience, non-consensual tickling can be frightening, uncomfortable, and painful for the recipient. Heinz Heger, a man imprisoned in the Flossenbürg concentration camp during World War II, witnessed Nazi prison guards perform tickle torture on a fellow inmate. He describes this incident in his book The Men with the Pink Triangle: "The first game that the SS sergeant and his men played was to tickle their victim with goose feathers, on the soles of his feet, between his legs, in the armpits, and on other parts of his naked body. At first the prisoner forced himself to keep silent, while his eyes twitched in fear and torment from one SS man to the other. Then he could not restrain himself and finally he broke out in a high-pitched laughter that very soon turned into a cry of pain, while the tears ran down his face, and his body twisted against his chains. After this tickling torture, they let the lad hang there for a little, while a flood of tears ran down his cheeks and he cried and sobbed uncontrollably."
An article in the British Medical Journal describes a European method of tickle torture in which a goat was compelled to lick the victim's feet after they had been dipped in salt water. Once the goat had licked the salt off, the victim's feet would be dipped in the salt water again and the process would repeat itself. In ancient Japan, authority figures could administer punishments to those convicted of crimes that were beyond the criminal code. This was called shikei, which translates as ‘private punishment’. One such torture was kusuguri-zeme: "merciless tickling."
In his book Sibling Abuse, Vernon Wiehe published his research findings regarding 150 adults who were abused by their siblings during childhood. Several reported tickling as a type of physical abuse they experienced, and based on these reports it was revealed that abusive tickling is capable of provoking extreme physiological reactions in the victim, such as vomiting, incontinence (losing control of bladder), and loss of consciousness due to inability to breathe.
See also
Knismesis and gargalesis
Tickling fetishism
Further reading
"Different Types of Laughter Modulate Connectivity within Distinct Parts of the Laughter Perception Network." Dirk Wildgruber, Diana P. Szameitat, Thomas Ethofer, Carolin Brück, Kai Alter, Wolfgang Grodd, Benjamin Kreifelts.
References
External links
Telegraph (UK) Article on "robot tickling experiment"
Boston Globe Online – Why are some people not ticklish?
Article 'Is it possible for someone to be tickled to death?' from The Straight Dope | [
0.3735195994377136,
0.14237792789936066,
-0.47251081466674805,
0.027928289026021957,
-0.36174947023391724,
-0.18858525156974792,
0.38728493452072144,
0.5297091007232666,
-0.2635292112827301,
-0.2814452350139618,
-0.12284798175096512,
0.1649693101644516,
-0.21099334955215454,
0.10800869762897491,
-0.46902695298194885,
0.47381454706192017,
-0.07847904413938522,
0.6217029094696045,
0.41098564863204956,
-0.005455416161566973,
-0.4366798996925354,
-0.3493674099445343,
-0.30248934030532837,
-0.5059842467308044,
0.20988930761814117,
-0.23288623988628387,
0.43244388699531555,
0.35240423679351807,
0.24790173768997192,
-0.5449368357658386,
-0.09384825825691223,
0.5668906569480896,
0.10226915776729584,
-0.17530640959739685,
-0.2149946540594101,
-0.015699876472353935,
-0.2204078584909439,
-0.5928649306297302,
-0.18641306459903717,
-0.5938867330551147,
-0.21638253331184387,
0.09766992181539536,
0.13296784460544586,
0.08041908591985703,
-0.02536184713244438,
-0.9829726219177246,
-1.3165148496627808,
0.45458102226257324,
-0.25293853878974915,
0.23425251245498657,
-0.4262297451496124,
0.4422491490840912,
0.2281377911567688,
0.005278681870549917,
0.011178010143339634,
0.32684043049812317,
-0.5059307217597961,
0.3396478593349457,
0.033254820853471756,
-0.4631500542163849,
0.3580493927001953,
-0.00957549549639225,
0.3411794900894165,
-0.3106914162635803,
0.2401430904865265,
0.7281456589698792,
0.009533176198601723,
0.30325478315353394,
-0.017429742962121964,
-0.17217105627059937,
-0.29711923003196716,
-0.42815300822257996,
-0.32990762591362,
-0.21512041985988617,
0.11496608704328537,
-0.24947884678840637,
0.11598674207925797,
-0.2785619795322418,
0.3509356379508972,
0.5860967040061951,
-0.15080927312374115,
0.38283583521842957,
0.9394568800926208,
0.34718188643455505,
0.7778770327568054,
0.22454345226287842,
-0.308495432138443,
0.9349291324615479,
-0.17097684741020203,
0.02945747971534729,
0.3374653160572052,
0.0899466872215271,
0.29355841875076294,
-0.1465035080909729,
-0.2199525237083435,
-0.23903004825115204,
0.3803881108760834,
0.15047886967658997,
-0.13969002664089203,
0.2628869414329529,
0.12545163929462433,
0.0628523901104927,
0.2989365756511688,
-0.23956045508384705,
-0.06495708972215652,
-0.19030772149562836,
0.28398093581199646,
-0.5457754135131836,
0.3945405185222626,
-1.1391888856887817,
-0.042217910289764404,
0.020960329100489616,
-0.20586131513118744,
0.319333553314209,
-0.5227790474891663,
0.40219077467918396,
0.09415983408689499,
0.21607699990272522,
-0.5295672416687012,
-0.13267575204372406,
-0.1277979165315628,
0.15463241934776306,
0.2650319039821625,
-0.10191965103149414,
-0.12335614860057831,
0.46330004930496216,
0.31131869554519653,
0.19722534716129303,
0.08715520799160004,
0.6748051643371582,
0.43167635798454285,
1.027658224105835,
-0.17408014833927155,
-0.514879047870636,
0.003554437542334199,
0.048466429114341736,
0.35372647643089294,
0.39651617407798767,
0.32540270686149597,
0.3472138047218323,
-0.3702470362186432,
-0.5626116394996643,
-1.730658769607544,
0.15982253849506378,
0.16539768874645233,
-0.5579270720481873,
-0.29121243953704834,
-0.1202835887670517,
-0.2245962768793106,
0.1153315082192421,
-0.0009061634773388505,
0.11369921267032623,
-0.29013702273368835,
0.31888124346733093,
-0.2564120888710022,
-0.2977283298969269,
0.13655997812747955,
-0.7114248871803284,
0.4960027039051056,
0.18207037448883057,
-0.04184720292687416,
-0.1356886476278305,
-0.8852914571762085,
-0.4474552869796753,
-0.08501961082220078,
-0.14087307453155518,
0.06787224113941193,
0.4007381200790405,
-0.15778152644634247,
0.418941855430603,
-0.34714534878730774,
0.46364185214042664,
0.15362319350242615,
-0.4154590368270874,
0.06133032217621803,
0.0017429550644010305,
0.031650032848119736,
-0.15746408700942993,
0.19353069365024567,
0.18510153889656067,
-0.6593350768089294,
0.04971300810575485,
0.028833825141191483,
0.11246928572654724,
-0.21053734421730042,
0.04407954961061478,
0.1318657547235489,
-0.07054650783538818,
-0.6833769083023071,
-0.5006648302078247,
-0.5553614497184753,
-0.2667197287082672,
0.3894590139389038,
0.2740604281425476,
1.432702660560608,
-0.07359803467988968,
-0.5627066493034363,
0.5176413655281067,
0.16962651908397675,
0.02861843630671501,
-0.15552549064159393,
-0.1290876269340515,
0.004839636851102114,
0.2777784466743469,
-0.8169059157371521,
1.3032771348953247,
0.052790578454732895,
-0.08576858788728714,
0.3525266647338867,
0.4990421533584595,
0.35549530386924744,
-0.17129886150360107,
0.5199776887893677,
-0.9289759397506714,
-0.44229090213775635,
-0.0003541253972798586,
-0.39044907689094543,
0.8409631252288818,
-0.05398206040263176,
-0.442920446395874,
0.15937384963035583,
-0.09072497487068176,
-0.3429757058620453,
0.3412674069404602,
0.36570197343826294,
0.7417458295822144,
-0.21052055060863495,
0.3347705602645874,
0.1417822241783142,
-1.2871053218841553,
0.028505591675639153,
0.18133631348609924,
0.35480546951293945,
-0.30450439453125,
-1.1009200811386108,
0.20998884737491608,
0.5028104782104492,
-0.6549931764602661,
-0.14895088970661163,
-0.5101609230041504,
-0.03148733079433441,
0.4084359407424927,
0.02524781972169876,
0.399098664522171,
-0.02278880961239338,
0.08608698099851608,
-0.011473585851490498,
0.41500765085220337,
-0.741938591003418,
0.15179337561130524,
0.36172670125961304,
0.737420916557312,
-0.19839328527450562,
-0.15574322640895844,
0.2854062020778656,
-0.31999900937080383,
-0.1215473860502243,
-0.14191170036792755,
0.3030882179737091,
-0.06769540905952454,
0.1392696499824524,
-0.2916916012763977,
-0.08046220988035202,
0.3257732391357422,
-0.41538089513778687,
-0.2200908064842224,
-0.11765062063932419,
-0.5009560585021973,
0.12104389071464539,
0.1754739135503769,
0.7799269556999207,
0.11121891438961029,
-0.5053533911705017,
-1.3904809951782227,
0.18704946339130402,
-0.09093953669071198,
0.7706156969070435,
0.17429013550281525,
-0.0065886955708265305,
-0.25550922751426697,
-0.23882704973220825,
0.28846192359924316,
0.16925670206546783,
-0.07714676111936569,
-0.0964774638414383,
-0.7744889259338379,
0.1176961287856102,
0.007369238417595625,
-0.12191755324602127,
-0.24343781173229218,
-0.6020495891571045,
0.6381028294563293,
-0.02903280220925808,
0.48315173387527466,
-0.2769511342048645,
0.25116828083992004,
-0.14150510728359222,
0.6224073171615601,
0.3955651521682739,
-0.5934991836547852,
-0.4100048840045929,
-0.1484699696302414,
-0.6897364854812622,
-0.39898231625556946,
-0.3526833951473236,
0.04237959906458855,
-0.3647589683532715,
-0.24609805643558502,
-5.429679870605469,
0.06532909721136093,
-0.15785393118858337,
-0.09032910317182541,
-0.01730065606534481,
0.17568276822566986,
0.9109160304069519,
-0.32882726192474365,
-0.9489234089851379,
0.6157433390617371,
0.1040966808795929,
0.5178090929985046,
0.3848671317100525,
0.046626944094896317,
0.5782263278961182,
0.386435866355896,
-0.18774233758449554,
-0.7175073623657227,
0.2640797793865204,
0.32209163904190063,
-0.33504635095596313,
0.8705071210861206,
-0.2438824623823166,
0.6933532953262329,
-0.12842333316802979,
0.4064345359802246,
0.06805520504713058,
-0.36998653411865234,
-0.1949603110551834,
0.32003992795944214,
0.2014075517654419,
-0.1872270405292511,
0.18467490375041962,
0.06272482126951218,
-0.026111498475074768,
0.25238317251205444,
0.2986055314540863,
-0.005287766922265291,
0.08475856482982635,
0.4529595971107483,
-0.4608360826969147,
0.8901609182357788,
-0.2535494565963745,
0.4115673005580902,
0.7441554069519043,
-0.20821525156497955,
-0.5685073733329773,
-0.6633802056312561,
-0.34687888622283936,
0.1429419219493866,
0.17343950271606445,
-0.13564804196357727,
0.10843803733587265,
0.21756063401699066,
0.27038225531578064,
-0.22653765976428986,
0.44298815727233887,
-0.0180747602134943,
-0.23697061836719513,
-0.4812253713607788,
-0.15367001295089722,
-0.3139497935771942,
-0.11163683980703354,
-0.2028927206993103,
0.3220815360546112,
-0.07556475698947906,
-0.30053818225860596,
-0.4856535494327545,
0.7806882858276367,
0.05355431139469147,
0.1642642766237259,
-0.25600939989089966,
0.5006598234176636,
-0.9794690608978271,
0.34121134877204895,
-0.18426695466041565,
-0.6576240658760071,
0.1155216172337532,
0.37746697664260864,
-0.13549722731113434,
-0.3490382134914398,
-0.09083282947540283,
-0.6898761987686157,
0.4186609983444214,
-0.08251013606786728,
-0.6524912118911743,
-0.015495700761675835,
-0.1162615567445755,
-0.2198067605495453,
-0.5205573439598083,
1.1626365184783936,
0.18961910903453827,
-0.20208875834941864,
0.3455123007297516,
-0.2665610909461975,
0.6371861100196838,
0.16917230188846588,
0.3424674868583679,
0.30264347791671753,
-0.4038163721561432,
0.6435994505882263,
-0.28831085562705994,
0.17516668140888214,
-0.45092716813087463,
0.6094517111778259,
-0.07280366867780685,
-0.12391605973243713,
-0.03648139536380768,
0.8727088570594788,
-0.3772483766078949,
0.0017630016664043069,
0.005443458445370197,
-0.3700000047683716,
-0.06450825184583664,
0.559902548789978,
0.14218537509441376,
-0.012561536394059658,
0.6319190263748169,
0.19321706891059875,
0.2897791564464569,
0.46399986743927,
-0.015968093648552895,
-0.21715471148490906,
0.08238206803798676,
-0.05669116601347923,
-0.39231589436531067,
-0.052389755845069885,
-0.06477268040180206,
0.03947467729449272,
-0.3393474221229553,
0.6380073428153992,
0.16598835587501526,
0.09928053617477417,
0.0708392783999443,
-0.12188234180212021,
0.27994871139526367,
-0.49392780661582947,
-0.5287092328071594,
0.03676709905266762,
-0.7121443152427673,
0.188173308968544,
0.027857109904289246,
-0.43547818064689636,
0.4373212456703186,
0.7080722451210022,
-0.04165627434849739,
0.232474222779274,
-0.4165714979171753,
-0.6469205021858215,
0.5267283320426941,
-0.10274901241064072,
-0.1297777146100998,
-0.17425984144210815,
0.01699863374233246,
0.014494669623672962,
0.2822270095348358,
0.3805023729801178,
0.38148409128189087,
-0.16515322029590607,
0.08621212095022202,
-0.3158647418022156,
0.05362890660762787,
-1.0066742897033691,
0.2600192129611969,
-0.4084585905075073,
-0.6313026547431946,
-0.7254868745803833,
-0.19839951395988464,
-0.22365973889827728,
0.30518871545791626,
-0.13686224818229675,
-0.2817513644695282,
-0.4153061509132385,
0.10961110889911652,
0.10228517651557922,
-0.11281993240118027,
-0.6589393615722656,
0.38269782066345215,
-0.21271935105323792,
-0.2293168008327484,
0.1658225953578949,
-0.6273950934410095,
-0.20657134056091309,
-0.04464849457144737,
0.07284650206565857,
-0.044342923909425735,
0.2896638810634613,
0.22342421114444733,
0.2177119255065918,
-0.08572357147932053,
-0.37910908460617065,
0.07303234934806824,
0.5326827764511108,
0.3274427652359009,
-0.3559989631175995,
0.07330069690942764,
-0.4424409866333008,
-0.09974632412195206,
-0.13317425549030304,
-0.43874073028564453,
0.35528695583343506,
0.32186493277549744,
-1.0863384008407593,
0.13317863643169403,
0.09384219348430634,
-0.5649271011352539,
0.4582323133945465,
0.3088647723197937,
-0.3627263605594635,
0.6432133913040161,
-0.32995471358299255,
-0.3923790454864502,
-0.10954124480485916,
0.719973623752594,
-0.13891464471817017,
0.08022868633270264,
0.1884651631116867,
-0.6772010922431946,
0.07919277995824814,
-0.20614460110664368,
0.27438926696777344,
0.015040961094200611,
-0.7437220215797424,
-0.08754949271678925,
-0.41863590478897095,
-0.6739494800567627,
0.2889899015426636,
-0.6124064326286316,
0.81357342004776,
0.0262606181204319,
0.013161950744688511,
0.2726239264011383,
0.7513594031333923,
0.15380412340164185,
-0.7749694585800171,
-0.16698110103607178,
0.10671486705541611,
0.21634426712989807,
0.6615139245986938,
0.22225849330425262,
0.803374171257019,
0.9735720157623291,
-0.09736231714487076,
0.09811945259571075,
0.23935569822788239,
0.3921149969100952,
0.4230404198169708,
-1.2321721315383911,
-0.623064398765564,
-0.05262043699622154,
0.7226645350456238,
-0.5137119889259338,
-0.679807722568512,
0.04858876392245293,
0.26492148637771606,
0.07460655272006989,
0.007355016656219959,
0.30118241906166077,
0.30866700410842896,
0.028753256425261497,
0.06435875594615936,
0.13777612149715424,
0.005900752730667591,
0.3524550795555115,
0.11878713220357895,
-0.06579006463289261,
-0.2232346534729004,
0.2071334272623062,
0.20762918889522552,
-0.38838791847229004,
-0.02021782472729683,
0.29155129194259644,
0.7485871315002441,
0.14302939176559448,
-0.020540736615657806,
0.15912999212741852,
-0.22941051423549652,
-0.39798039197921753,
-0.29521849751472473,
-0.2924136221408844,
1.0639029741287231,
0.08638358116149902,
0.3560797870159149,
-0.6707969307899475,
0.06554023921489716,
-0.20845913887023926,
0.3320646286010742,
-0.720022976398468,
-0.3575153052806854,
-0.5197300314903259,
-0.26831892132759094,
0.1253046840429306,
0.16613388061523438,
0.4051420986652374,
0.440106064081192,
0.36628296971321106,
-0.01264253444969654,
-0.04603223875164986,
0.08862573653459549,
-0.14511629939079285,
-0.8544420003890991,
0.5275757312774658,
0.08075456321239471,
-0.6316442489624023,
0.37800928950309753,
-0.05132181942462921,
-0.1009812131524086,
-0.4646497964859009,
-0.0891716405749321,
-0.24027876555919647,
0.07827843725681305,
0.145290344953537,
-0.4486367106437683,
0.2497197538614273,
-0.24828879535198212,
-0.35649222135543823,
0.39091774821281433,
-0.027892813086509705,
0.08710453659296036,
0.5444908142089844,
-0.008824200369417667,
-0.3218253552913666,
0.9669483304023743,
-0.24991512298583984,
-0.022822387516498566,
0.06601114571094513,
0.19802658259868622,
0.39170247316360474,
0.7262968420982361,
0.2077905386686325,
0.37483394145965576,
-0.3742713928222656,
0.36612606048583984,
0.5539863705635071,
0.37206870317459106,
-0.4493239223957062,
0.7293419241905212,
-0.08111029863357544,
-0.8981505632400513,
0.6380277276039124,
0.12316443026065826,
-0.009237939491868019,
-0.032604217529296875,
0.043685466051101685,
-0.32378897070884705,
0.44678789377212524,
0.3161918520927429,
0.3526027798652649,
-0.17159026861190796,
-0.21644406020641327,
0.4160236418247223,
0.2352449893951416,
0.2224552184343338,
-0.5339649319648743,
0.5078473687171936,
-0.1853141039609909,
0.6784775257110596,
-0.41041988134384155,
-0.7636310458183289,
-0.9703719019889832,
-0.03296723589301109,
0.08892010897397995,
0.7384050488471985,
0.10037242621183395,
0.2970655560493469,
0.22799764573574066,
0.0607697032392025,
-0.06828506290912628,
-0.22368310391902924,
0.25920841097831726,
0.41246455907821655,
-0.06019631028175354,
-0.0376683734357357,
0.19523949921131134,
0.1668793112039566,
0.19685445725917816,
0.5797455906867981,
0.049225542694330215,
0.10664926469326019,
0.19493961334228516,
-0.2934010624885559,
0.2676337659358978,
-0.027761606499552727,
-0.01206278521567583,
0.3775341510772705,
0.2930229604244232,
-0.27347230911254883,
0.3572220504283905,
-0.27345383167266846,
-0.32742419838905334,
0.06004755571484566,
-0.06909484416246414,
0.6820083260536194,
-0.13676801323890686,
-0.40098875761032104,
-0.12726250290870667,
0.055147916078567505,
0.5704845190048218,
-0.21252094209194183,
-0.12704361975193024,
-0.05103401467204094,
0.5269865393638611,
-0.07666832953691483,
0.07029437273740768,
-1.0401008129119873,
0.866696298122406,
-0.7274649739265442,
-0.12465064227581024,
-0.8068538904190063,
0.2952651083469391,
0.3472076654434204,
-0.30928242206573486,
0.38419103622436523,
-0.3040921688079834,
-0.10899388790130615,
0.26928675174713135,
0.10101822018623352,
-0.7086276412010193,
-0.32452061772346497,
-0.19906271994113922,
0.3184252381324768,
-0.15395879745483398,
0.22821342945098877,
0.28000354766845703,
0.06432048976421356,
0.21493536233901978,
0.3083701431751251,
-0.22270147502422333,
0.06121057644486427,
0.017639942467212677,
-0.7238251566886902,
0.24355961382389069,
-0.3406502604484558,
0.047710537910461426,
-0.15517587959766388,
-0.46542641520500183,
0.5262080430984497,
0.8344054222106934,
0.7252987623214722,
-0.32672354578971863,
0.7232694029808044,
-0.36006537079811096,
0.03609586879611015,
-0.14830560982227325,
-2.878504991531372,
-0.13668963313102722,
-0.16183818876743317,
-0.2562329173088074,
-0.39302465319633484,
-0.14789098501205444,
0.12329107522964478,
-0.6192061901092529,
0.2690044939517975,
-0.3508370518684387,
0.3480127155780792,
0.40666040778160095,
0.16944904625415802,
-0.48914477229118347,
-0.41025641560554504,
0.5374557971954346
] |
234830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickle%20%28disambiguation%29 | Tickle (disambiguation) | Tickling is the act of touching a part of the body lightly so as to cause involuntary laughter or contraction of the muscles.
Tickle, tickles, or tickling may also refer to:
Tickle (surname), a list of people with the surname Tickle
Mr. Tickle, a book by Roger Hargreaves
Tickle the Doodat, a character from the Hooley Dooleys
Tickle.com, a former interpersonal media company providing self-discovery and social networking services
Trout tickling, a method of fishing by hand
Titanium tetrachloride, a chemical compound (TiCl4)
Tcl, a pronunciation of the name of the scripting language
Gudgudee, a 1997 Indian film that translates as Tickle
Tickle (TV series), a TV series named after Steven Ray Tickle
Tickled, a 2016 documentary by David Farrier
"Tickles" (song), a song by Swedish singer Elin Lanto
Tickling fetishism, a type of fetish involving light touching
Newfoundland
A tickle is a short narrow strait in Newfoundland English that refers to:
Tickles, Newfoundland and Labrador, a small settlement
Leading Tickles, a town in Newfoundland and Labrador
Tickle Bay, somewhere off the island of Newfoundland
See also
Tickell
List of tickles | [
0.30266237258911133,
-0.010966305620968342,
-0.6137809157371521,
-0.24780535697937012,
-0.6302636861801147,
-0.22415409982204437,
0.5430631041526794,
0.43080681562423706,
-0.3417138159275055,
-0.2611127495765686,
-0.063899926841259,
0.2856270670890808,
-0.335010290145874,
0.29833123087882996,
-0.46772605180740356,
0.46245840191841125,
-0.12057965248823166,
0.512330949306488,
0.1268911510705948,
0.07593011856079102,
-0.28074488043785095,
-0.16535288095474243,
-0.4987432062625885,
-0.48051607608795166,
0.32024186849594116,
-0.12620000541210175,
0.34014835953712463,
0.3921758234500885,
0.43347957730293274,
-0.5728141069412231,
-0.2601648271083832,
0.7428408861160278,
0.06723520159721375,
-0.04492165148258209,
0.025257883593440056,
0.047778256237506866,
-0.07421334087848663,
-0.5863012075424194,
-0.1125832051038742,
-0.6417670845985413,
-0.16042810678482056,
-0.106222964823246,
-0.0039040464907884598,
-0.026814265176653862,
-0.27549105882644653,
-0.8814941644668579,
-1.2899680137634277,
0.2738891541957855,
-0.5116509795188904,
0.3993016183376312,
-0.3125153183937073,
0.35183438658714294,
0.21354037523269653,
0.10141681879758835,
-0.1388404220342636,
0.18833254277706146,
-0.6569944620132446,
0.27563104033470154,
0.32657554745674133,
-0.357280969619751,
0.3635546863079071,
0.11678744107484818,
0.20624041557312012,
-0.28218144178390503,
0.3632977604866028,
0.922002375125885,
-0.06359010934829712,
0.3205989599227905,
-0.2700495719909668,
-0.1763468086719513,
-0.46525028347969055,
-0.3921511173248291,
-0.2696039080619812,
0.04850639030337334,
-0.01461069192737341,
-0.4365163743495941,
0.1308644562959671,
-0.3462742865085602,
0.45825186371803284,
0.39820295572280884,
-0.17671974003314972,
0.39009761810302734,
0.7889964580535889,
-0.06311099976301193,
0.7049515843391418,
0.4351486563682556,
-0.4841923415660858,
0.8944203853607178,
-0.20945991575717926,
-0.03724939376115799,
0.500137448310852,
0.056732457131147385,
0.2653239965438843,
-0.1003127470612526,
-0.2624657452106476,
-0.06994836777448654,
0.39721664786338806,
0.03475299850106239,
-0.029770858585834503,
-0.01839144341647625,
0.06247064843773842,
-0.0683581531047821,
0.34445005655288696,
-0.019674129784107208,
-0.09183023124933243,
-0.40054360032081604,
0.27385416626930237,
-0.4353543221950531,
0.369825541973114,
-1.0744354724884033,
-0.12590166926383972,
0.08386611938476562,
-0.33000117540359497,
0.1355047971010208,
-0.5261307954788208,
0.37309566140174866,
0.07303822785615921,
0.24494914710521698,
-0.5481970906257629,
-0.10223078727722168,
-0.18433324992656708,
0.12083631753921509,
0.3031420111656189,
-0.015410524792969227,
0.024956485256552696,
0.30005648732185364,
0.3716953694820404,
0.3553839921951294,
-0.1207236796617508,
0.8425238728523254,
0.28728702664375305,
1.051725149154663,
0.003250874811783433,
-0.3815356492996216,
0.027286985889077187,
-0.012023908086121082,
0.40894871950149536,
0.530676543712616,
0.2634024918079376,
0.08766105026006699,
-0.7455287575721741,
-0.3174664080142975,
-1.9123975038528442,
0.042700957506895065,
0.24417400360107422,
-0.47906336188316345,
-0.14803987741470337,
-0.15856966376304626,
-0.07782815396785736,
-0.04600176587700844,
-0.0104974415153265,
0.15157492458820343,
-0.21067439019680023,
0.5168337225914001,
-0.37662339210510254,
-0.3305719494819641,
0.22107526659965515,
-0.4793901741504669,
0.3308500647544861,
0.12891456484794617,
-0.3220737874507904,
-0.07149724662303925,
-0.6237093210220337,
-0.42079102993011475,
-0.0693003237247467,
-0.17625835537910461,
0.18966911733150482,
0.19616572558879852,
-0.06623458117246628,
0.4863955080509186,
-0.18267880380153656,
-0.08768976479768753,
0.17386579513549805,
-0.04889702424407005,
-0.030274679884314537,
0.06308939307928085,
0.1775084137916565,
-0.12851470708847046,
0.33373725414276123,
0.3928447663784027,
-0.5089331269264221,
0.2512889802455902,
0.2006855309009552,
0.014502092264592648,
-0.04081648960709572,
-0.07522036135196686,
0.28135132789611816,
0.03846041113138199,
-0.4150103032588959,
-0.3395523130893707,
-0.5289402604103088,
-0.2624151408672333,
0.13373985886573792,
0.09608662128448486,
1.466145634651184,
0.0003451797238085419,
-0.7185693979263306,
0.4781312048435211,
0.1544361710548401,
-0.057367630302906036,
0.09796091169118881,
-0.0038430250715464354,
-0.12182485312223434,
0.28102654218673706,
-0.9058266282081604,
1.56381094455719,
-0.13974381983280182,
0.11248226463794708,
0.2521107792854309,
0.6217654943466187,
0.36447373032569885,
-0.1530979722738266,
0.5677711963653564,
-1.1846081018447876,
-0.22101788222789764,
-0.06501059234142303,
-0.1525723785161972,
0.6954015493392944,
0.2242516577243805,
-0.6328126788139343,
0.15849818289279938,
-0.271497517824173,
-0.2064921259880066,
0.2863661050796509,
0.36704790592193604,
0.5434463024139404,
-0.12188270688056946,
0.22477197647094727,
0.07762773334980011,
-1.2459673881530762,
0.23476652801036835,
-0.034206610172986984,
0.5182834267616272,
-0.40632426738739014,
-0.9939345717430115,
0.10516839474439621,
0.2690088152885437,
-0.7716765999794006,
-0.04551311582326889,
-0.47166499495506287,
0.06401281803846359,
0.26810064911842346,
-0.11680887639522552,
0.2605338990688324,
0.07758386433124542,
-0.10503534227609634,
0.1145157441496849,
0.27948763966560364,
-0.4983026683330536,
0.2386486530303955,
0.2990296185016632,
0.6808213591575623,
-0.03301243856549263,
-0.19698375463485718,
0.2482365220785141,
-0.14763455092906952,
-0.1263064593076706,
-0.1055455207824707,
0.23145894706249237,
-0.21410062909126282,
0.14322206377983093,
-0.18095022439956665,
0.048165325075387955,
0.11045337468385696,
-0.2749612033367157,
-0.09472385048866272,
-0.1733972728252411,
-0.20683051645755768,
0.029107851907610893,
0.19273696839809418,
0.8040356040000916,
0.13875631988048553,
-0.7009570598602295,
-1.508377194404602,
0.11149931699037552,
-0.16614943742752075,
0.8759678602218628,
0.29249414801597595,
-0.20878107845783234,
-0.27603915333747864,
-0.024443620815873146,
0.1463564932346344,
0.3679681718349457,
-0.16628187894821167,
0.027258457615971565,
-0.7341071963310242,
0.3350449502468109,
-0.11554403603076935,
-0.04671070724725723,
-0.17384427785873413,
-0.4973444640636444,
0.5427829027175903,
-0.1113148033618927,
0.24867939949035645,
-0.10170954465866089,
0.1508747935295105,
-0.02351972833275795,
0.4460028409957886,
0.3012678921222687,
-0.6783621907234192,
-0.5410363078117371,
-0.330862432718277,
-0.4806864261627197,
-0.4975515604019165,
-0.4281254708766937,
-0.2625587582588196,
-0.1682332456111908,
-0.1778186410665512,
-5.421202182769775,
0.033515118062496185,
-0.23460224270820618,
-0.008307463489472866,
-0.11559165269136429,
0.2710922062397003,
0.9351748824119568,
-0.1731976419687271,
-0.7645686864852905,
0.6387158036231995,
0.30097001791000366,
0.2434716373682022,
0.4469088315963745,
-0.03894863650202751,
0.7043318152427673,
0.17327770590782166,
0.2067863792181015,
-0.6205934882164001,
0.010402466170489788,
0.15576055645942688,
-0.03942553326487541,
1.1046494245529175,
-0.061125610023736954,
0.6401782035827637,
-0.07607845216989517,
0.4599831700325012,
-0.002115874085575342,
-0.19612224400043488,
-0.6036250591278076,
0.20525845885276794,
0.17331422865390778,
-0.12083902955055237,
0.3177536427974701,
-0.12278349697589874,
-0.02130335010588169,
0.16749265789985657,
0.49963679909706116,
0.011750889010727406,
0.2529319226741791,
0.33354252576828003,
-0.5572220087051392,
0.9666733145713806,
-0.0806242898106575,
0.112711101770401,
0.5928281545639038,
-0.19897697865962982,
-0.6030561327934265,
-0.48291265964508057,
-0.26547351479530334,
0.3896728456020355,
-0.19547215104103088,
0.03766091912984848,
0.10798639059066772,
0.16367213428020477,
0.41115298867225647,
-0.05462154746055603,
0.6451221108436584,
-0.1275106519460678,
-0.25963860750198364,
-0.3204997777938843,
0.14456798136234283,
-0.18051445484161377,
-0.15294712781906128,
-0.3227408230304718,
0.3440130054950714,
-0.17303019762039185,
-0.298725426197052,
-0.4888775944709778,
0.9191845655441284,
0.1308235079050064,
-0.07446371018886566,
-0.3357566297054291,
0.6378738284111023,
-0.7292980551719666,
0.12872262299060822,
-0.26192691922187805,
-0.5540915727615356,
0.02883765660226345,
0.33063265681266785,
0.061835531145334244,
-0.2599828541278839,
-0.22824779152870178,
-0.6237612962722778,
0.3857359290122986,
-0.04813472554087639,
-0.384644478559494,
-0.2597329914569855,
-0.01972271129488945,
-0.28205013275146484,
-0.45893093943595886,
1.074213981628418,
0.35457494854927063,
-0.29307907819747925,
0.29602500796318054,
-0.48911601305007935,
0.6481950283050537,
0.06649688631296158,
0.024974912405014038,
0.5125313401222229,
-0.5541969537734985,
0.34678974747657776,
-0.519267737865448,
0.08889169245958328,
-0.4176417589187622,
0.5845467448234558,
-0.20060212910175323,
-0.48264163732528687,
-0.0759863555431366,
0.8986127972602844,
-0.2919154465198517,
0.31968557834625244,
0.1134372428059578,
-0.44589781761169434,
0.13594555854797363,
0.6668626070022583,
0.3003791272640228,
-0.17533020675182343,
0.4368616044521332,
0.270340234041214,
0.09989871829748154,
0.5018995404243469,
0.14830811321735382,
0.06862140446901321,
-0.21795931458473206,
0.03547025844454765,
-0.3475905656814575,
0.07889652252197266,
0.09675894677639008,
-0.1319994032382965,
-0.35643231868743896,
0.517153263092041,
0.21954043209552765,
0.007579978089779615,
-0.08347083628177643,
0.004995665978640318,
0.012597194872796535,
-0.4052444100379944,
-0.2651309072971344,
0.08456353843212128,
-0.7898513078689575,
0.18855679035186768,
-0.14215266704559326,
-0.2948397397994995,
0.3289359509944916,
0.826744794845581,
0.03959928825497627,
0.06886876374483109,
-0.5316244959831238,
-0.43796783685684204,
0.5682269334793091,
0.2917540371417999,
-0.2951565980911255,
0.05354335159063339,
-0.205469012260437,
-0.27626752853393555,
0.21532216668128967,
0.6300396919250488,
0.27122023701667786,
-0.2440612018108368,
-0.11077672243118286,
-0.5058000087738037,
-0.0468633808195591,
-1.0986605882644653,
0.27320656180381775,
-0.3295195698738098,
-0.810714066028595,
-0.733403742313385,
-0.41072630882263184,
-0.04712550342082977,
0.20739597082138062,
-0.2685241997241974,
-0.5278971791267395,
-0.44422388076782227,
0.15415555238723755,
0.22879557311534882,
0.02949102222919464,
-0.5361813306808472,
0.48950085043907166,
-0.16537977755069733,
-0.28932052850723267,
0.2692451775074005,
-0.6246131658554077,
-0.26049378514289856,
0.3805295526981354,
0.2729335129261017,
-0.07613984495401382,
0.049961257725954056,
0.17673660814762115,
0.006708832923322916,
0.07886829972267151,
-0.260483980178833,
0.03745358809828758,
0.6587804555892944,
0.12306927144527435,
-0.126860111951828,
0.19039669632911682,
-0.4200645387172699,
-0.07294561713933945,
-0.1452719271183014,
-0.38578617572784424,
0.23681412637233734,
0.23545503616333008,
-0.6904606223106384,
0.0752275213599205,
-0.07874908298254013,
-0.8724092245101929,
0.40303727984428406,
0.24706906080245972,
-0.4029403328895569,
0.5622543096542358,
-0.28938084840774536,
-0.6830868124961853,
-0.018909236416220665,
0.6825162172317505,
-0.0503661073744297,
-0.0059046512469649315,
0.15509387850761414,
-0.7645424604415894,
0.008598755113780499,
-0.33012139797210693,
0.34927600622177124,
0.007210223004221916,
-0.699353814125061,
0.09462793916463852,
-0.38660088181495667,
-0.3792237937450409,
0.12487984448671341,
-0.3545057475566864,
0.8649973273277283,
-0.03757481276988983,
-0.1582644134759903,
0.2844291925430298,
0.5545904040336609,
-0.05315706133842468,
-0.6411793828010559,
-0.030183972790837288,
-0.10778084397315979,
-0.017575422301888466,
0.6305449604988098,
0.09054974466562271,
0.903049647808075,
0.8498920798301697,
0.16429132223129272,
-0.12653039395809174,
0.23151437938213348,
0.220969095826149,
0.47866031527519226,
-1.3280532360076904,
-0.5361907482147217,
0.19901016354560852,
0.5618508458137512,
-0.47910580039024353,
-0.9865235686302185,
-0.06993157416582108,
0.4010557532310486,
0.11653146147727966,
-0.01969844102859497,
0.24153949320316315,
0.21900241076946259,
0.19959807395935059,
0.28322523832321167,
0.19341151416301727,
-0.31408563256263733,
0.14086219668388367,
-0.046736590564250946,
-0.07117827981710434,
-0.18350380659103394,
0.4086816608905792,
0.3259342610836029,
-0.7386758327484131,
0.13531790673732758,
0.21496233344078064,
0.4195883572101593,
0.29014983773231506,
-0.0829574391245842,
0.4197719097137451,
-0.14111463725566864,
-0.46500566601753235,
-0.03092019259929657,
-0.272172212600708,
0.9191506505012512,
-0.09837111085653305,
0.43994808197021484,
-0.5016870498657227,
0.06446942687034607,
0.10806223750114441,
0.26915863156318665,
-0.7313390374183655,
-0.448554128408432,
-0.30196475982666016,
-0.338011234998703,
-0.025031864643096924,
0.025022463873028755,
0.3745553195476532,
0.29613468050956726,
0.05365434288978577,
-0.27134332060813904,
0.02176985703408718,
-0.035135213285684586,
-0.14614436030387878,
-0.8380668759346008,
0.5683274269104004,
0.13778842985630035,
-0.6118766069412231,
0.3259579837322235,
-0.19775810837745667,
0.04463501274585724,
-0.4308135509490967,
0.04991363734006882,
-0.22835811972618103,
0.14448048174381256,
0.22775861620903015,
-0.26253294944763184,
0.4280455708503723,
0.04884713888168335,
-0.14148060977458954,
0.1723148226737976,
0.05106314271688461,
0.16499775648117065,
0.5088911056518555,
-0.13131430745124817,
-0.37373149394989014,
0.942172110080719,
-0.4050508439540863,
-0.248308002948761,
0.1809360235929489,
-0.1839701384305954,
0.3904559314250946,
0.5997663736343384,
0.3083161413669586,
0.6204147338867188,
-0.19023585319519043,
0.2311871349811554,
0.2600424289703369,
0.08706513047218323,
-0.5240511894226074,
0.9100918173789978,
0.11930800974369049,
-1.0794050693511963,
0.7543916702270508,
0.29732275009155273,
0.08785957098007202,
-0.0017868203576654196,
0.19217485189437866,
-0.1720622330904007,
0.3331906497478485,
0.3047223389148712,
0.20625659823417664,
0.10787563771009445,
0.004604581277817488,
0.27651771903038025,
0.25288429856300354,
0.3949485421180725,
-0.5221089720726013,
0.4481474757194519,
0.009382758289575577,
0.6303064227104187,
-0.3427806794643402,
-0.6699107885360718,
-1.023443579673767,
-0.1385437399148941,
0.3745266795158386,
0.4177268147468567,
0.1138591393828392,
0.31837567687034607,
0.031545769423246384,
0.07719357311725616,
-0.034745894372463226,
-0.42895326018333435,
0.48369958996772766,
0.5979318618774414,
0.005316853057593107,
-0.11358299851417542,
0.2468481808900833,
0.3048017919063568,
0.27715954184532166,
0.5244544744491577,
0.19117030501365662,
0.14664112031459808,
-0.23330141603946686,
-0.2545069456100464,
0.29395005106925964,
0.0018219068879261613,
0.0364798828959465,
0.22330868244171143,
0.2368157058954239,
-0.2657639682292938,
0.2839249074459076,
-0.22464577853679657,
-0.11066818237304688,
0.18629856407642365,
-0.19860024750232697,
0.5035254955291748,
0.07369722425937653,
-0.43805059790611267,
-0.09665738046169281,
0.20274734497070312,
0.718278706073761,
-0.02913614735007286,
-0.2533566653728485,
-0.08780710399150848,
0.4352644979953766,
-0.15356417000293732,
-0.06074417382478714,
-0.7781314849853516,
0.8095723390579224,
-0.5801317095756531,
0.05458514392375946,
-0.7237564325332642,
0.19873520731925964,
0.39755457639694214,
-0.30610984563827515,
0.09431291371583939,
0.06564471125602722,
0.07209467142820358,
-0.00926969014108181,
-0.2098567634820938,
-0.8429851531982422,
-0.3963143229484558,
-0.3552883565425873,
0.16904936730861664,
0.03380615636706352,
0.11474521458148956,
0.10884684324264526,
0.06203054264187813,
0.03425918519496918,
0.4795594811439514,
-0.15178917348384857,
0.039762191474437714,
0.17483845353126526,
-0.46820977330207825,
0.3866119980812073,
-0.2938404977321625,
0.0038598584942519665,
-0.1338232159614563,
-0.24013780057430267,
0.3327597975730896,
0.9284805655479431,
0.4808439612388611,
-0.35622575879096985,
0.9720576405525208,
-0.23935751616954803,
-0.03677002340555191,
-0.03487275540828705,
-3.151287794113159,
-0.06176478788256645,
-0.17439885437488556,
-0.15304584801197052,
-0.22816358506679535,
-0.05166107043623924,
0.41282910108566284,
-0.6329790353775024,
0.16342726349830627,
-0.23308859765529633,
0.30906161665916443,
0.34293246269226074,
0.038549210876226425,
-0.4234444499015808,
-0.34064069390296936,
0.6140251755714417
] |
234831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Mustang | Upper Mustang | Upper Mustang (formerly Kingdom of Lo) is an upper part (Northern area) of Mustang District, which is located in Nepal. The Upper Mustang was a restricted kingdom and demilitarized area until 1992 which makes it one of the most preserved regions in the world, with a majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetic languages. Tibetan culture has been preserved by the relative isolation of the region from the outside world. Life in Mustang revolves around tourism, animal husbandry and trade.
The Upper Mustang comprise the northern two-thirds of Mustang District of Gandaki Province, Nepal. It consists of three rural municipalities namely Lo Manthang, Dalome, and Baragung Muktichhetra.
The southern third (lower Mustang) of the district is called Thak and is the homeland of the Thakali, who speak the Thakali language, and whose culture combines Tibetan and Nepalese elements.
Mustang's status as a kingdom ended in 2008 when its suzerain Kingdom of Nepal became a republic. The influence of the outside world, especially China, is growing and contributing to rapid change in the lives of Mustang's people. Development works have increased in recent years.
History
Mustang was once an independent kingdom, although closely tied by language and culture to Tibet. From the 15th century to the 17th century, its strategic location granted Mustang control over the trade between the Himalayas and India. At the end of the 18th century the kingdom was annexed by Nepal and became a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal since 1795.
Kingdom of Lo Manthang supported Tibet and the Qing Empire during the Sino-Nepalese War.
Though still recognized by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on October 7, 2008, by order of the Government of Nepal. The last official and later unofficial king (raja or gyelpo) was Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (1930–2016), who traced his lineage directly back to Ame Pal, the warrior who founded this Buddhist kingdom in 1380. Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang, a walled city that has changed little in appearance since that time period.
In 2007, a shepherd in Mustang discovered a collection of 55 cave paintings depicting the life of the Buddha.
Climate
Upper Mustang has a trans-Himalayan climate which is cool and semi-arid with precipitation in the range of . It is in the rain shadow of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges.
The Day and Night Temperature in Upper Mustang according to the months is shown below:
Demographics
The population of the whole Mustang District in 2001 was 14,981, spread between three towns and approximately thirty smaller settlements. The inhabitants are either Thakalis, Gurung or, in traditional Mustang, primarily Tibetan.
Most of the population of Mustang lives near the Kali Gandaki River, above sea level. The tough conditions cause a large winter migration into lower regions of Nepal. The administrative center of Mustang District is at Jomsom ( south of Kagbeni) which has had an airport since 1962 and has become the main tourist entry point since Mustang was opened to western tourism in 1992.
Geography
The main hydrographic feature of Mustang is the Gandaki River. The river runs southward towards Nepal Terai, bisecting Mustang. Routes paralleling the river once served as a major trade route between Tibet and India, especially for salt. Part of the river valley in the southern Mustang District forms the Kali Gandaki Gorge, by some measures the deepest gorge in the world.
Traditional Mustang (the Lo Kingdom) is north–south at its longest, east–west at its widest and ranges from a low point of above sea level on the Kali Gandaki River just north of Kagbeni to at Khamjung Himal, a peak in southeast Mustang.
Transport
Upper Mustang is on an ancient trade route between Nepal and Tibet exploiting the lowest pass Kora La through the Himalaya west of Sikkim. This route remained in use until China's annexation of Tibet in 1950.
Mechanized access inside Nepal began with the opening of an airstrip at Jomsom at the approximate boundary between the southern Thak and northern Lo sections of the valley, which was in operation by the 1960s.
China eventually decided to revitalize trade and in 2001 completed a road from the international border to Lo Manthang. Across the TAR border is Zhongba County of Shigatse Prefecture. China National Highway 219 follows the valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo River some north of the border.
Meanwhile, road-building from the south was inhibited by difficulties along the Kali Gandaki Gorge to the south, but proceeded incrementally. In 2010, a gap remained but the road was completed before 2015 and is suitable for high clearance and four wheel drive vehicles. Currently, the easiest and only widely used road corridor, from Kathmandu to Lhasa—named Arniko Highway in Nepal and China National Highway 318 in the TAR—traverses a pass. This is some higher than Kora La.
Tourism
Foreign visitors have been allowed to the region since 1992, but tourism to Upper Mustang is regulated. Foreigners need to obtain a special permit to enter, costing US$50 per day per person. Most tourists travel by foot over largely the same trade route used in the 15th century. Over a thousand western trekkers now visit each year, with over 2,000 in 2008. August and October are the peak visiting months. On August 27, 2010, local youth leaders in Mustang threatened to bar tourists beginning October 1, 2010 due to the refusal of the Nepalese government to provide any of the $50 per day fee to the local economy. Visitation, however, continued uninterrupted beyond that date.
Mustang is rich in Buddhist culture, similar to the area of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It is an alternate way to experience the Tibetan culture and landscape to the tours provided by the Chinese government. The Tiji festival in Lo-Manthang is another popular destination for tourists in the area seeking to experience the native culture.
The first westerner in Mustang was Toni Hagen, Swiss explorer and geologist, who visited the Kingdom in 1952 during one of his travels across the Himalayas. French Michel Peissel is considered the first westerner to stay in Lo Manthang, during the first authorised exploration of Mustang in 1964.
See also
Jomsom Airport
Mustang Caves
Sonam Lhundrup
Tangbe
Lo Manthang Palace
References
Bibliography
Michel Peissel (1967). Mustang – A lost Tibetan Kingdom. Dutton, New York.
Clara Marullo (1995). The Last Forbidden Kingdom, Mustang: Land of Tibetan Buddhism. Photographs by Vanessa Schuurbeque. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Ltd., Rutland, Vermont. .
Peter Matthiessen (1996). East of Lo Monthang – In the Land of Mustang. Photography by Thomas Laird. Shambhala Publications, Berkeley, Cal.
Documentaries
Lost Treasures of Tibet, 2003-2-18.
Steve Chao: Mustang: A Kingdom on the Edge. Al Jazeera Correspondent, 2012-2-20.
The Last Lost Kingdom, a Feature Documentary by Larry Levene.
External links
Former monarchies of Asia
History of Nepal
Tibetan Buddhist places
Unification of Nepal
Hill stations in Nepal | [
-0.3603781759738922,
0.015284092165529728,
-0.28865599632263184,
0.16235804557800293,
0.17639726400375366,
0.5265266299247742,
0.05686119198799133,
0.03306743502616882,
-0.12639561295509338,
-0.29982325434684753,
-0.13170206546783447,
-0.30299875140190125,
-0.1925133764743805,
-0.15307733416557312,
-0.49861353635787964,
0.3472058176994324,
0.46077147126197815,
0.0201472919434309,
0.38183003664016724,
-0.25644180178642273,
0.062349893152713776,
-0.32279765605926514,
-0.20900745689868927,
0.7330101728439331,
0.4026007652282715,
0.03998497873544693,
0.3002330958843231,
0.02965225838124752,
0.4416486322879791,
0.21976584196090698,
-0.46859991550445557,
0.7830926775932312,
-0.12084630876779556,
-0.4388221800327301,
-0.23274800181388855,
0.13684315979480743,
-0.263361394405365,
-0.16688206791877747,
-0.12592068314552307,
-0.3924929201602936,
0.5669159293174744,
-0.021080009639263153,
-0.28403863310813904,
0.21440733969211578,
-0.0018301198724657297,
-0.5431200265884399,
-0.9644799828529358,
0.4300301671028137,
-0.53069007396698,
0.2607745826244354,
-0.6114421486854553,
0.3777976930141449,
-0.2155071496963501,
-0.18494565784931183,
0.4427731931209564,
-0.061981480568647385,
-0.36518269777297974,
0.3410438299179077,
0.2655963897705078,
-0.4013420045375824,
0.7018185257911682,
0.4428068697452545,
-0.5115273594856262,
-0.36090633273124695,
-0.009960300289094448,
0.1864481270313263,
0.0423089936375618,
0.11759528517723083,
0.07691318541765213,
-0.12482967972755432,
0.06823530793190002,
0.5627623796463013,
0.26196473836898804,
0.3412068784236908,
-0.32673099637031555,
-0.17954246699810028,
-0.49993085861206055,
0.29515984654426575,
0.03091672621667385,
0.08576924353837967,
-0.022867746651172638,
-0.10995259881019592,
0.5794589519500732,
0.00945296511054039,
0.45261046290397644,
0.008797231130301952,
-0.17815512418746948,
-0.12243034690618515,
-0.03279377520084381,
-0.03202526271343231,
-0.5293349623680115,
-0.2807319760322571,
0.3168492317199707,
0.22335465252399445,
0.028716331347823143,
-0.8028336763381958,
-0.03149737790226936,
-0.24689316749572754,
-0.10828226804733276,
-0.14263562858104706,
-0.216187983751297,
0.16662663221359253,
0.7876855731010437,
0.38006100058555603,
-0.696845293045044,
-0.21448589861392975,
0.07709381729364395,
0.5360350012779236,
-0.24015356600284576,
-0.2834525406360626,
-0.646636426448822,
0.18838398158550262,
-0.5543743371963501,
-0.05519840493798256,
-0.06402389705181122,
-0.25013139843940735,
-0.24083217978477478,
-0.16510093212127686,
-0.016611307859420776,
-0.033866383135318756,
0.46002641320228577,
0.974939227104187,
-0.01160566695034504,
0.80474454164505,
0.5556536316871643,
0.3058692216873169,
0.32234644889831543,
0.1868198961019516,
-0.6972830891609192,
0.7166804075241089,
0.18272727727890015,
0.7264664173126221,
-0.31282493472099304,
0.40769851207733154,
-0.2083074003458023,
-0.2890377640724182,
0.23095349967479706,
0.2968040704727173,
0.6241453886032104,
-0.5569661259651184,
-1.184505581855774,
0.160662442445755,
0.16918335855007172,
-0.08345900475978851,
-0.19410935044288635,
-0.17937099933624268,
-0.02285778895020485,
-0.23939624428749084,
-0.18251807987689972,
-0.8232634663581848,
0.3956284523010254,
-0.039353370666503906,
-0.6201680898666382,
-0.24534264206886292,
-0.5020336508750916,
0.6481454968452454,
0.39893704652786255,
0.13905034959316254,
0.28753048181533813,
0.08711197227239609,
0.1707266867160797,
-0.34161296486854553,
0.21956348419189453,
0.043255627155303955,
0.4145524501800537,
-0.08728248625993729,
0.6480501890182495,
-0.126764714717865,
-0.1525733917951584,
0.3718418478965759,
-0.5340031385421753,
0.2662501633167267,
0.05446757376194,
-0.13401858508586884,
-0.24421140551567078,
-0.2509998083114624,
-0.19967007637023926,
0.7745688557624817,
-0.13297894597053528,
-0.2279057651758194,
-0.7925406098365784,
0.5533883571624756,
-0.10703278332948685,
-0.0967182070016861,
-0.07731761038303375,
0.513713538646698,
0.456728458404541,
-0.13301891088485718,
0.06959845870733261,
0.1476176530122757,
0.09013085067272186,
-0.218917578458786,
0.41162481904029846,
0.04532904177904129,
1.0041887760162354,
0.19564540684223175,
-0.10251908004283905,
0.16219712793827057,
0.2723059356212616,
0.6351480484008789,
-0.404766708612442,
-0.2665567696094513,
1.1303329467773438,
-0.5024228096008301,
-0.11247271299362183,
0.453151136636734,
-0.5551157593727112,
0.6923394203186035,
0.7246218919754028,
0.04726383090019226,
0.23468542098999023,
0.3715994656085968,
-0.13457171618938446,
0.20008891820907593,
0.09717454016208649,
-0.18531657755374908,
-0.03370405733585358,
0.1512419581413269,
0.3490614593029022,
-0.46578049659729004,
0.43053171038627625,
-0.10412858426570892,
0.14332441985607147,
0.38068142533302307,
0.17027658224105835,
0.6302738189697266,
0.4456307888031006,
0.21152319014072418,
0.2825559675693512,
-0.125555619597435,
-0.3474545180797577,
-0.43829014897346497,
0.14370101690292358,
0.19213636219501495,
-0.349261075258255,
-0.8050270676612854,
-0.0014769996050745249,
-0.4417766332626343,
0.9104836583137512,
-0.5083410739898682,
-0.18871822953224182,
0.17992593348026276,
-0.35769492387771606,
-0.3784487247467041,
0.3157058358192444,
0.3025292158126831,
0.0006758530507795513,
0.4302823543548584,
-0.5134403109550476,
0.46961769461631775,
-0.19291186332702637,
0.3947314918041229,
0.05028408765792847,
-0.10220271348953247,
-0.24224753677845,
-0.45101895928382874,
0.10680503398180008,
0.1266939342021942,
0.6763218641281128,
-0.11770027875900269,
0.34803035855293274,
-0.45239773392677307,
-0.09127186983823776,
0.1532256156206131,
-0.3176672160625458,
0.04406075179576874,
-0.239479199051857,
-0.13083162903785706,
0.9931454062461853,
0.07575424760580063,
0.09569679945707321,
-0.37909525632858276,
0.10924671590328217,
0.011626864783465862,
0.1443425714969635,
-0.7468132972717285,
0.2718428373336792,
0.04192352294921875,
-0.5020602345466614,
-0.6384480595588684,
0.40813347697257996,
0.5791138410568237,
0.5300244688987732,
-0.07683117687702179,
-0.02801026962697506,
0.4133836030960083,
0.4147026538848877,
-0.21864505112171173,
0.14334139227867126,
0.07972389459609985,
0.5025676488876343,
0.47621288895606995,
-0.2932496666908264,
-0.20118513703346252,
0.09117884188890457,
0.033766940236091614,
-0.5885452628135681,
0.5243262648582458,
0.5722053647041321,
-0.7566412687301636,
-0.6589430570602417,
0.4588945209980011,
-0.1756451427936554,
0.15731842815876007,
-0.5062929391860962,
0.27089327573776245,
-0.6173557043075562,
-0.01501783449202776,
-5.798492908477783,
0.07955732941627502,
-0.6610122323036194,
-0.3023817837238312,
-0.5380263328552246,
-0.2722814381122589,
0.13409964740276337,
0.15514320135116577,
-0.12698012590408325,
0.29097244143486023,
-0.2786007523536682,
-0.45746588706970215,
0.068769171833992,
0.036499787122011185,
0.22210361063480377,
0.5589434504508972,
0.5471667647361755,
0.777279257774353,
-0.07913027703762054,
0.344094842672348,
-0.2378522753715515,
0.22007381916046143,
-0.006748213432729244,
0.4831679165363312,
0.14162784814834595,
0.19551913440227509,
0.021288244053721428,
-0.11461792141199112,
-0.7521576285362244,
-1.2792648077011108,
0.024269817396998405,
-0.19325539469718933,
0.0821952149271965,
0.020663397386670113,
-0.1105642169713974,
0.02394954487681389,
0.5053916573524475,
0.6629933714866638,
0.9640715718269348,
0.371692031621933,
-0.28655102849006653,
-0.09970066696405411,
0.0167534239590168,
-0.20175299048423767,
0.3359642028808594,
-0.3439882695674896,
-0.3528248965740204,
0.0559147372841835,
-0.2906545102596283,
0.8381734490394592,
0.08920885622501373,
-0.005551104433834553,
0.412240207195282,
-0.186720609664917,
0.23315735161304474,
0.16461513936519623,
0.15054214000701904,
0.46730512380599976,
-0.6826472282409668,
1.0419809818267822,
0.10061702877283096,
-0.11740393936634064,
-0.40607789158821106,
-0.7893024682998657,
0.12592537701129913,
-0.2326517105102539,
0.14293178915977478,
-0.313703715801239,
-0.039420630782842636,
0.051010020077228546,
-0.058383792638778687,
-0.21413128077983856,
0.23413307964801788,
-0.7115457057952881,
-0.45718324184417725,
-1.1233174800872803,
-0.2548903822898865,
0.19893349707126617,
-0.290160596370697,
0.8506597280502319,
-0.08518150448799133,
-0.15066850185394287,
0.2947218120098114,
0.05043764039874077,
-0.2305544763803482,
0.00010602302791085094,
-0.4596453607082367,
-0.2145465761423111,
0.13472305238246918,
0.21274039149284363,
0.6399934887886047,
-0.3630966246128082,
-0.03889315947890282,
0.47266632318496704,
0.04606027528643608,
0.059016816318035126,
0.6751145124435425,
-0.4716506600379944,
-0.05306059494614601,
-0.3396439850330353,
0.543753981590271,
-0.2804720997810364,
0.19923974573612213,
-0.05967576801776886,
-0.3908730745315552,
-0.33429646492004395,
0.057356853038072586,
0.15878243744373322,
0.9407849907875061,
-0.7660540342330933,
0.12547115981578827,
-0.3119392395019531,
0.014871355146169662,
-0.18190613389015198,
0.8133842945098877,
0.03412741795182228,
-0.4745803773403168,
0.18208950757980347,
-0.18862083554267883,
-0.08382503688335419,
-0.05028145760297775,
-0.3390316069126129,
-0.02406507171690464,
-0.26515552401542664,
-0.20071206986904144,
0.11528175324201584,
-0.18192927539348602,
0.2359732836484909,
-0.8734061121940613,
0.24609482288360596,
0.23977556824684143,
-0.6692007184028625,
0.015454892069101334,
-0.3826758563518524,
-0.26814576983451843,
-0.02739890106022358,
-0.17303913831710815,
-0.2750326693058014,
0.5870600342750549,
-0.01915990188717842,
-0.011540702544152737,
0.0768444761633873,
-0.16971853375434875,
0.25481343269348145,
0.7222382426261902,
0.14465802907943726,
-0.4629674255847931,
-0.587161123752594,
-0.331884503364563,
0.15086904168128967,
-0.11792899668216705,
-0.496957004070282,
0.15365856885910034,
-0.2503926753997803,
-0.08072883635759354,
-0.27880996465682983,
-0.399283230304718,
0.23749420046806335,
0.4654894471168518,
-0.11301860213279724,
0.39221861958503723,
-0.6091458797454834,
-0.18410633504390717,
0.17932046949863434,
-0.09821522980928421,
-0.3980161249637604,
-0.28695863485336304,
-0.4949307441711426,
-0.43461132049560547,
0.3090287446975708,
0.8362690806388855,
-0.4701680541038513,
-0.28843778371810913,
0.10821105539798737,
0.33261942863464355,
-0.11341828107833862,
-0.0961749404668808,
0.1387682557106018,
0.26355990767478943,
0.299460232257843,
-0.6645107269287109,
-0.3352540135383606,
-0.0804995521903038,
0.3716183006763458,
0.16954024136066437,
-0.01180189661681652,
-0.3455982506275177,
0.01447467040270567,
-0.25166088342666626,
-0.1234748512506485,
0.5217246413230896,
-0.5133699178695679,
-0.06970911473035812,
0.5862765312194824,
0.4260115921497345,
-0.5079089403152466,
-0.1541464775800705,
-0.17170454561710358,
-0.2643248438835144,
-0.07308949530124664,
-0.204289972782135,
-0.20134063065052032,
0.23820358514785767,
0.4288369119167328,
-0.005137340165674686,
-0.6747040152549744,
0.1500636637210846,
0.7694332003593445,
-0.9203675389289856,
0.33745846152305603,
-0.28819820284843445,
-1.129425048828125,
-0.08826201409101486,
0.4861656129360199,
-0.07399857044219971,
0.41679590940475464,
0.26780086755752563,
-0.28857192397117615,
-0.48478952050209045,
-0.5850361585617065,
-0.24124446511268616,
0.14743943512439728,
0.08642192929983139,
-0.3836780786514282,
-0.22888323664665222,
0.27989688515663147,
-0.0722498744726181,
-0.5293247103691101,
0.41572481393814087,
-0.40964841842651367,
-0.18409746885299683,
0.1956108957529068,
0.7120437026023865,
0.21664980053901672,
0.48713529109954834,
0.495025098323822,
-0.10892602056264877,
-0.024311017245054245,
0.13112559914588928,
0.6299823522567749,
0.1099013015627861,
0.6174958348274231,
-0.03866876661777496,
-0.9169616103172302,
0.164778932929039,
0.3604658246040344,
0.09931724518537521,
-0.26084789633750916,
-0.6048997044563293,
0.08511635661125183,
0.8403614163398743,
-0.3851100206375122,
-0.2748910188674927,
0.006594087462872267,
1.0645157098770142,
-0.798485279083252,
0.09119883924722672,
0.2872605323791504,
0.2896401882171631,
0.5710306167602539,
-0.2508743107318878,
-0.07865963876247406,
0.39682483673095703,
0.07086805999279022,
0.34545060992240906,
0.31914564967155457,
-0.5660488605499268,
-0.2642205059528351,
0.17797629535198212,
-0.6767048239707947,
0.3183930814266205,
-0.31522876024246216,
0.33065906167030334,
-0.43270912766456604,
0.019136853516101837,
0.5862529277801514,
-0.35748085379600525,
-0.3766583800315857,
-0.4821229875087738,
-0.6198484897613525,
-0.6815167665481567,
-0.4556087851524353,
0.47530555725097656,
-0.2747878432273865,
0.11756056547164917,
-0.4728134274482727,
0.03523007780313492,
0.40726274251937866,
-0.5136158466339111,
-0.2722594141960144,
-0.7729018330574036,
-0.12994512915611267,
-0.4256448745727539,
-0.1381886899471283,
0.5633611083030701,
0.11598632484674454,
0.05543788895010948,
0.4728085696697235,
-0.301433801651001,
-0.02806151658296585,
-0.5478799343109131,
0.15615323185920715,
0.04954688251018524,
-0.04790404811501503,
-0.28473103046417236,
0.3830292820930481,
0.14236505329608917,
-0.15461303293704987,
0.03708089143037796,
-0.02983682230114937,
0.6664676070213318,
-0.10919330269098282,
0.0669025182723999,
0.7065490484237671,
-0.7502678632736206,
0.23569117486476898,
0.44442665576934814,
-0.3222220838069916,
0.6596158146858215,
0.31463590264320374,
0.47339966893196106,
-0.1049252524971962,
0.5459199547767639,
0.4800123870372772,
0.13369473814964294,
0.7451050281524658,
-0.8470763564109802,
0.06782184541225433,
0.250745564699173,
0.3691173493862152,
-0.0010480197379365563,
-0.008140351623296738,
-0.40952932834625244,
0.332610547542572,
-0.10077320784330368,
-0.8846261501312256,
0.04601050913333893,
-0.4206813871860504,
0.12919604778289795,
0.09632095694541931,
0.3689716160297394,
0.6441637873649597,
-0.20225383341312408,
0.1659725457429886,
-0.03236643597483635,
-0.07852645963430405,
0.2032749354839325,
0.09334179013967514,
-0.17963500320911407,
0.44678279757499695,
-0.44281449913978577,
-0.262897789478302,
-0.02932652272284031,
-0.874057948589325,
0.1652120053768158,
0.3460284173488617,
0.33353573083877563,
0.2555477023124695,
0.11788792908191681,
0.39000046253204346,
0.40747320652008057,
-0.08085591346025467,
-0.056330349296331406,
0.2628532946109772,
-0.3099766671657562,
-0.02679210528731346,
-0.17081478238105774,
-0.6742092370986938,
-0.9245456457138062,
0.025565264746546745,
0.22141620516777039,
0.08061379939317703,
-0.03247293084859848,
0.04860188439488411,
-0.02072756364941597,
-0.0875181034207344,
-0.06629932671785355,
0.2665128707885742,
0.12855668365955353,
0.411742240190506,
-0.0500708632171154,
0.05188848078250885,
0.6544628739356995,
-0.7878003120422363,
0.4712595045566559,
-0.5718616247177124,
0.41225922107696533,
-0.05528435483574867,
-0.1625792235136032,
0.3253435790538788,
0.05778546631336212,
-0.33785974979400635,
-0.34154489636421204,
0.5009688138961792,
-0.21258515119552612,
-0.37928536534309387,
-0.23007072508335114,
0.5039663314819336,
0.5677827596664429,
0.10135679692029953,
0.5079541802406311,
0.31745779514312744,
0.29140812158584595,
0.024174431338906288,
-0.030663402751088142,
0.1369103193283081,
-0.5918604135513306,
-0.24412547051906586,
-0.32721036672592163,
0.05583944171667099,
-0.00809524767100811,
0.04996247962117195,
0.10705050081014633,
0.6927593350410461,
-0.02011367306113243,
0.09841720014810562,
0.20794110000133514,
0.10821602493524551,
0.03454902023077011,
0.13952654600143433,
-0.29774901270866394,
-0.4582115709781647,
-0.2416958063840866,
0.060462500900030136,
0.37206071615219116,
-0.3550805151462555,
-0.3128492832183838,
0.14439727365970612,
-0.7267666459083557,
0.5279810428619385,
-0.021256836131215096,
-0.8340599536895752,
-1.0533753633499146,
0.5575292706489563,
-0.5253182053565979,
-0.3396853506565094,
0.3886048495769501,
0.034429874271154404,
-0.1269824206829071,
-0.4915164113044739,
-0.36646679043769836,
-0.19652818143367767,
0.28619900345802307,
0.08610349148511887,
0.009618288837373257,
0.5821136236190796,
-0.5939778089523315,
-0.3495970666408539,
-0.810529887676239,
0.5415942072868347,
-0.24165304005146027,
0.2194206565618515,
0.8427430987358093,
0.0435614287853241,
-0.13129466772079468,
0.04680328443646431,
-0.34418320655822754,
-0.4476373493671417,
0.11144480854272842,
-0.3109547197818756
] |
234835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20development | Corporate development | Corporate development refers to the planning and execution of strategies to meet organizational objectives. The kinds of activities falling under corporate development may include management team recruitment, phasing in or out of markets or products, arranging strategic alliances, identifying and acquiring companies (M&A), securing corporate financing, divesting of assets or divisions, and management of intellectual property.
Process
Corporate strategy depends on the circumstances of a company and the area where development is desired. Corporate development is usually a process that takes place over an extended period of time and may be adjusted or refined as the project moves forward
Reshaping management
One of the manifestations of corporate development has to do with reshaping the management arm of the corporation. This may involve a process of phasing certain management positions out of the existing structure or creating new positions in an effort to strengthen the management team. As part of this type of approach, corporate development may also demand that one or more current managers are released from the company and replaced with people who possess skills required to move the company forward. When this is the case, the corporate development team will handle the functions of recruitment and evaluation of potential hires.
Growing the company
The process of corporate development can also be applied to the task of growing the company through mergers and acquisitions. In this scenario, the project development will involve identifying potential target companies for acquisitions or unions resulting in a new and more aggressive corporation. The team will consider all possible outcomes from any given potential merger or acquisition and attempt to project if the action is likely to result in positive growth or could possibly impair the company permanently.
Just as a management team may be revamped, corporate development may also be employed to change the current focus for clients. This may mean looking into the potential for breaking into new markets with existing products or developing complementary products that will allow this type of expansion. Corporate development strategy would monitor the trends associated with a corporation's products or services and helps the corporation establish strategies to find more customers. In addition, corporate development works to maximize the profits of a corporation by figuring out the appropriate pricing for a given good or service. A corporate development team also leads discussions with sales department heads regarding how to market corporate goods, organize marketing campaigns, analyze market research and incorporate any customer advice or complaints into marketing strategies in such cases; extensive industry specific business experience is often preferred which is why companies may hire an external firm to help them engage in such moves.
Depending on the status of the base market, corporate development may also look at shifting away from a shrinking consumer market while seeking market share in a different consumer market with newer products. For example, many typewriter manufacturers during the 1980s and 1990s slowly phased out their core business and began to focus more on computer parts and accessories as a way to continue operations.
Need for specialists
Particularly in larger companies, corporate development is provided as a charter for a particular executive or team. In these cases, the opportunities and initiatives are numerous enough to justify specialists, instead of being delegated to the office of the CEO and line of business executives. When focused on product or financial issues, corporate development executives often have MBA, CFA or CPA credentials. Advanced technical degrees (Ph.D., M.S.) are highly sought in corporate development executives so that they can understand and align strategic, technical, and tactical goals with financial targets. Teams contract and often hire a corporate development contributor from a legal or investment banking background due to the complex contractual and valuation issues associated with many transactions.
See also
Business development
References
Business terms
Business occupations | [
0.5536113381385803,
0.41012606024742126,
-0.4834230840206146,
0.12112673372030258,
0.16500283777713776,
0.15789134800434113,
0.11486344784498215,
0.42996272444725037,
-0.25448787212371826,
-0.6208720803260803,
-0.5314745903015137,
0.918634295463562,
0.14666123688220978,
0.034732695668935776,
-0.3124116063117981,
0.32696571946144104,
0.5495129823684692,
0.41445666551589966,
0.4983963072299957,
-0.21951903402805328,
-0.7812520861625671,
-0.2045264095067978,
-0.22600597143173218,
0.2003653645515442,
0.49407723546028137,
0.20217500627040863,
0.39886173605918884,
0.25365301966667175,
0.022037746384739876,
-0.1651969850063324,
0.22515469789505005,
-0.08128898590803146,
0.2504647374153137,
-0.09760262817144394,
-0.37371256947517395,
0.1865200251340866,
-0.09691162407398224,
-0.12206800282001495,
-0.7509443163871765,
-0.7350295186042786,
0.13014766573905945,
0.11297950148582458,
-0.0584733746945858,
0.024743657559156418,
-0.3032247722148895,
-0.7486350536346436,
-1.5399237871170044,
0.003924653399735689,
-0.6556553244590759,
0.19444802403450012,
-0.8227329254150391,
0.1353759467601776,
-0.36935535073280334,
-0.5949048399925232,
-0.2435711920261383,
0.9103994965553284,
0.09601714462041855,
-0.17163097858428955,
-0.2508489489555359,
-0.5430929660797119,
0.40303972363471985,
-0.2436619997024536,
0.15481404960155487,
0.2605150640010834,
0.19431711733341217,
-0.09448091685771942,
-0.006975098513066769,
0.20362034440040588,
-0.6643052101135254,
-0.4736495316028595,
-0.8886994123458862,
-0.28884923458099365,
-0.15863950550556183,
0.2494901865720749,
-1.0901609659194946,
-0.11969061195850372,
0.35044237971305847,
0.07989466190338135,
-0.24292567372322083,
-0.17306548357009888,
-0.049783702939748764,
0.5997678637504578,
0.39019250869750977,
0.03262513503432274,
0.3247412145137787,
0.46888965368270874,
0.022645218297839165,
0.48680511116981506,
-0.3087315857410431,
0.7777054905891418,
0.21008853614330292,
-0.4010198414325714,
0.5599463582038879,
0.02716381661593914,
0.2004982829093933,
0.01042833924293518,
0.16469453275203705,
0.054717883467674255,
-0.09887942671775818,
0.396639347076416,
-0.051666878163814545,
-0.06838145852088928,
0.11070405691862106,
0.16427914798259735,
-0.11389754712581635,
-0.16960756480693817,
0.26191282272338867,
-0.6721071600914001,
-0.379055917263031,
-0.574711799621582,
-0.5404722094535828,
0.0189647376537323,
-0.3751802444458008,
0.40267282724380493,
-0.20971792936325073,
0.8401004672050476,
0.0873059555888176,
0.4181549549102783,
-0.5452336072921753,
0.03446786850690842,
0.04335720092058182,
0.4972624182701111,
-0.2395586222410202,
-0.21813885867595673,
-0.34674927592277527,
-0.03607206791639328,
0.14561806619167328,
0.3928399085998535,
-0.34542116522789,
-0.5737112760543823,
-0.06696104258298874,
0.4762677550315857,
-0.6122081279754639,
0.06025465205311775,
-0.502332866191864,
-0.06958471238613129,
0.6713575720787048,
0.051065441220998764,
0.4234769344329834,
-0.057799458503723145,
-0.5262824892997742,
-0.448070764541626,
-0.2264956682920456,
-0.07577237486839294,
0.699732780456543,
-0.4120750427246094,
0.40333446860313416,
-0.4903435707092285,
-0.5264711380004883,
0.38081634044647217,
0.05913722887635231,
0.41172540187835693,
-0.584641695022583,
0.40893054008483887,
0.1761772483587265,
0.7155985832214355,
0.4960927665233612,
-0.4249250888824463,
-0.22739537060260773,
0.4263623356819153,
0.03521516174077988,
0.16133278608322144,
-0.141567200422287,
0.05234628915786743,
0.10336772352457047,
-0.5483050346374512,
0.2769779562950134,
0.17078179121017456,
0.2823149561882019,
0.01945457048714161,
-0.17327028512954712,
0.05861559510231018,
0.12679293751716614,
-0.04672257602214813,
0.3637566864490509,
-0.09859460592269897,
0.20414412021636963,
0.5252470970153809,
0.24979574978351593,
0.14226952195167542,
-0.5114455223083496,
0.04760909080505371,
0.21749132871627808,
-0.34637755155563354,
0.15081621706485748,
-0.33948516845703125,
0.429844468832016,
-0.15248222649097443,
0.04324144497513771,
0.08205623179674149,
-0.40953385829925537,
-0.4429953098297119,
0.41986802220344543,
-0.6646807193756104,
0.7684363126754761,
-0.33591189980506897,
-0.23823480308055878,
0.538932204246521,
-0.419228732585907,
-0.027500903233885765,
-0.02968086302280426,
-0.41336262226104736,
0.02532052807509899,
-0.23669905960559845,
-0.2103440910577774,
0.6711581349372864,
0.49254146218299866,
0.13039793074131012,
-0.43648576736450195,
0.4020424783229828,
0.11325613409280777,
-0.0013110633008182049,
0.27281177043914795,
-0.6418696641921997,
0.7281702756881714,
-0.12852342426776886,
-0.5088674426078796,
0.750019371509552,
-0.14965325593948364,
-0.044696126133203506,
0.9244153499603271,
-0.06922007352113724,
-0.35114786028862,
1.0575352907180786,
0.11399778723716736,
0.15721100568771362,
0.25344786047935486,
-0.2575206160545349,
0.4245823919773102,
-0.721862256526947,
0.12081834673881531,
0.3151284158229828,
0.19341620802879333,
-0.3394591212272644,
-0.2116689383983612,
0.14890886843204498,
-0.4526263475418091,
0.031957365572452545,
-0.3227406442165375,
-0.22950805723667145,
-0.046039894223213196,
-0.41576093435287476,
-0.7024461030960083,
0.3188166618347168,
0.32822638750076294,
0.2950132489204407,
-0.23861561715602875,
0.44976806640625,
-0.47966212034225464,
-0.02971596270799637,
-0.13036395609378815,
0.11040018498897552,
1.2096866369247437,
-0.7056148052215576,
-0.3080208897590637,
-0.6920528411865234,
-0.30400219559669495,
-0.0012703058309853077,
-0.19455793499946594,
-0.18005116283893585,
0.08402223885059357,
-0.005320379044860601,
0.12255717068910599,
0.27408793568611145,
0.4775087237358093,
-0.12204679101705551,
-0.3482345640659332,
-0.0662272498011589,
-0.20616260170936584,
0.1341673731803894,
0.19690987467765808,
-0.44234150648117065,
-0.3863472640514374,
-0.6605256199836731,
0.20664359629154205,
-0.848246693611145,
0.17385654151439667,
-0.0016211055917665362,
-0.45568719506263733,
-0.4933995306491852,
0.2862931489944458,
0.4553143382072449,
0.15713685750961304,
-0.4336860775947571,
-0.15027040243148804,
-0.04056212678551674,
-0.24393388628959656,
-0.4179728031158447,
0.008685484528541565,
-0.0687149167060852,
-0.2781212329864502,
0.07399909198284149,
-0.04376833140850067,
-0.26902374625205994,
0.3910023272037506,
0.09231336414813995,
-0.3683612644672394,
0.27691543102264404,
-0.1255876123905182,
-0.0520961694419384,
-0.0297661442309618,
-0.046853408217430115,
-0.0047805230133235455,
-0.1877160519361496,
0.1541365683078766,
-0.37789642810821533,
0.18427813053131104,
0.07711959630250931,
-5.744353294372559,
-0.5242192149162292,
0.03815338388085365,
-0.4104820489883423,
-0.1293506920337677,
-0.2577165961265564,
0.4629732370376587,
-0.24258865416049957,
0.13521897792816162,
-0.250375896692276,
-0.8930812478065491,
-0.2054356187582016,
-0.053853839635849,
0.34753522276878357,
0.3414343297481537,
0.4139344394207001,
0.930573582649231,
-0.0014806498074904084,
0.44875866174697876,
0.7407299280166626,
0.1786404550075531,
-0.2044879049062729,
-0.37422144412994385,
0.4100920855998993,
0.13213373720645905,
-0.21976493299007416,
-0.5257275104522705,
0.6450647711753845,
-0.7515200972557068,
0.10722747445106506,
0.10771859437227249,
0.018712643533945084,
-0.3251860439777374,
-0.12749844789505005,
0.021835848689079285,
0.24632816016674042,
0.21332287788391113,
0.09298229962587357,
0.11365049332380295,
-0.4554547667503357,
0.20477120578289032,
0.2960154712200165,
-0.2893347442150116,
0.18265362083911896,
0.30502739548683167,
0.03928171843290329,
-0.0865686759352684,
-0.37607383728027344,
-0.390860915184021,
0.5957943201065063,
-0.03078651987016201,
0.39029383659362793,
0.7559493780136108,
-0.5445679426193237,
0.16696368157863617,
-0.1532365083694458,
0.9376140832901001,
-0.3024744987487793,
-0.19057486951351166,
0.5414527058601379,
0.6909135580062866,
-0.58501136302948,
0.24365076422691345,
-0.5552270412445068,
-0.03973362222313881,
-0.28847911953926086,
-0.27173081040382385,
-0.9176076650619507,
-0.10480555146932602,
-0.16201207041740417,
-0.06327232718467712,
0.8345064520835876,
0.16683542728424072,
-0.5729746222496033,
0.060166455805301666,
-0.785466730594635,
0.30177173018455505,
0.12048245221376419,
0.5967968702316284,
0.060063764452934265,
-0.21312910318374634,
-0.10758356750011444,
-0.2776695787906647,
-0.14206427335739136,
-0.19892174005508423,
-0.024523023515939713,
0.42888423800468445,
0.8764877915382385,
-0.399465948343277,
-0.17854642868041992,
0.8245388269424438,
-0.14517290890216827,
0.5343923568725586,
0.5916682481765747,
0.6850596070289612,
0.021013503894209862,
0.0718323141336441,
-0.26667577028274536,
-0.061415791511535645,
-0.6888302564620972,
-0.009456110186874866,
-0.14867743849754333,
-0.3774687349796295,
-0.17547021806240082,
0.15459230542182922,
-0.2773202359676361,
-0.16882476210594177,
-0.0278285164386034,
0.6417418122291565,
-0.05488661304116249,
0.3374652564525604,
0.5333168506622314,
-0.620420515537262,
-0.09827028214931488,
0.08068248629570007,
0.21970993280410767,
-0.5534610152244568,
0.34662798047065735,
0.47197863459587097,
-0.326293408870697,
-0.07750140130519867,
-0.011208971962332726,
0.10193723440170288,
0.38931503891944885,
-0.3034728765487671,
-0.3002740442752838,
0.09991952031850815,
0.40333929657936096,
-0.07945314794778824,
0.004182770848274231,
0.7973341941833496,
0.5643429160118103,
-0.047811731696128845,
-0.17728492617607117,
0.3255331814289093,
-0.3348621428012848,
0.29326602816581726,
-0.005219160579144955,
-0.6984144449234009,
-0.34780916571617126,
0.47496718168258667,
0.42410406470298767,
0.8320527076721191,
-0.26055729389190674,
0.5164760947227478,
-0.03029421903192997,
-0.5671473741531372,
0.4380505681037903,
0.018724005669355392,
0.4262855350971222,
-0.006497599184513092,
-0.004894541576504707,
0.05686196684837341,
-0.41851314902305603,
0.17731112241744995,
-0.2867274284362793,
0.10839501768350601,
-0.11192436516284943,
0.21345362067222595,
-0.4135145843029022,
0.2235739529132843,
0.06544932723045349,
-1.1734092235565186,
0.07340380549430847,
0.4051239788532257,
0.23551838099956512,
-0.5680950880050659,
-0.3493819534778595,
-0.14443786442279816,
0.6150303483009338,
0.2898606061935425,
-0.2620946764945984,
-0.8629434108734131,
-0.9034982919692993,
0.09395834803581238,
-0.21929213404655457,
0.3473065495491028,
0.2691648006439209,
-0.1267961710691452,
0.04994283989071846,
0.22944849729537964,
-0.9282881617546082,
-0.40184712409973145,
-0.013854103162884712,
0.4200374484062195,
-0.17625613510608673,
-0.2971532642841339,
0.2595135569572449,
-0.5514084100723267,
-0.16848964989185333,
0.09698034822940826,
-0.07621466368436813,
0.6138260364532471,
0.5247302055358887,
0.5966655611991882,
-0.2218453586101532,
-0.06858746707439423,
0.04763823375105858,
-0.24246753752231598,
-0.7960999011993408,
0.08796107023954391,
0.3751697540283203,
-0.5418427586555481,
0.12196824699640274,
0.26361221075057983,
-0.31042441725730896,
-0.044387392699718475,
-0.02501336857676506,
-0.3241100013256073,
0.5439483523368835,
-0.43013569712638855,
-0.29956167936325073,
-0.5995416641235352,
-0.2588205635547638,
-0.37434518337249756,
-0.31311434507369995,
-0.02373671717941761,
-0.37572696805000305,
-0.6457494497299194,
-0.103765107691288,
0.7818588018417358,
-0.48286163806915283,
-0.4840506315231323,
0.18037207424640656,
-0.5645597577095032,
-0.0051126121543347836,
0.3128483295440674,
-0.0299840085208416,
-0.08214139938354492,
0.12973077595233917,
-0.21610628068447113,
-0.034993600100278854,
-0.07717059552669525,
0.25917959213256836,
-0.01900145784020424,
-0.3495108187198639,
-0.002355552976951003,
1.0126953125,
-0.020636824890971184,
-0.29923343658447266,
-0.5023510456085205,
0.9852252006530762,
-0.06276562064886093,
-0.5446854829788208,
0.13195036351680756,
0.2732687294483185,
-0.024942748248577118,
-0.02988435886800289,
-0.4005144536495209,
0.1609640121459961,
0.27298638224601746,
-0.028130920603871346,
-0.48213306069374084,
-0.07964887470006943,
0.4286555349826813,
-0.10750844329595566,
-0.2026423066854477,
-0.27326950430870056,
0.019214071333408356,
-0.05768042430281639,
0.021396761760115623,
-0.4559365212917328,
-0.47252747416496277,
-0.3951694965362549,
0.6042335033416748,
0.4785417914390564,
-0.9459331631660461,
0.1260754019021988,
-0.056696124374866486,
-0.3797469139099121,
0.10053784400224686,
0.02774430811405182,
0.3107281029224396,
0.5759577751159668,
0.9618260264396667,
0.04200160503387451,
0.499796986579895,
-0.3618997037410736,
-0.33335378766059875,
0.1234937533736229,
0.35505208373069763,
-0.06233781576156616,
0.41566789150238037,
-0.5328055620193481,
0.46099230647087097,
-0.898431658744812,
0.4644564986228943,
0.22876732051372528,
-0.5267401933670044,
-0.025766268372535706,
-0.5931410193443298,
0.12124309688806534,
-0.33325818181037903,
0.3942092955112457,
-0.7176008224487305,
-0.06314603984355927,
0.6343141794204712,
-0.05503351613879204,
-0.19433169066905975,
0.7212664484977722,
0.05046682059764862,
0.42696982622146606,
0.2921805679798126,
-0.7038187384605408,
0.6580762267112732,
0.45771512389183044,
-0.2093820869922638,
-0.854967474937439,
-0.20659570395946503,
-0.1888909935951233,
0.1131705567240715,
-0.334472119808197,
0.20156295597553253,
0.5414250493049622,
-0.4448360502719879,
0.0024385638535022736,
0.055099789053201675,
-0.5433481931686401,
0.6663554310798645,
0.11196357756853104,
-0.15475212037563324,
-0.2574530243873596,
0.5509647130966187,
-0.40437257289886475,
0.3527281582355499,
0.2831973731517792,
-0.0528792142868042,
-0.060460805892944336,
0.12212174385786057,
-0.039653945714235306,
0.3214541971683502,
0.2097775787115097,
0.038240328431129456,
0.33754342794418335,
-0.27117863297462463,
-0.08076721429824829,
0.375615656375885,
-0.3916809558868408,
0.07901613414287567,
0.300718754529953,
0.9490000605583191,
0.19435684382915497,
0.08740897476673126,
0.5215012431144714,
-0.1339101642370224,
0.19803927838802338,
0.38529518246650696,
0.30857518315315247,
-0.7252154350280762,
0.6347844004631042,
0.10163650661706924,
-0.23805585503578186,
0.4655126929283142,
-0.20597296953201294,
-0.043082889169454575,
-0.741023600101471,
0.3519463539123535,
0.6358224749565125,
0.4007333517074585,
-0.30792734026908875,
0.13720135390758514,
0.2875279486179352,
0.5316367149353027,
-0.35729584097862244,
0.47473931312561035,
0.0926610678434372,
0.39684832096099854,
-0.3964325785636902,
0.2242516726255417,
1.0421308279037476,
-0.12479499727487564,
0.5467535853385925,
-0.10164426267147064,
-0.032022807747125626,
0.009718338027596474,
-0.3752608597278595,
0.10681226849555969,
-0.03345382213592529,
-0.10788406431674957,
0.05027409642934799,
-0.07259312272071838,
0.1941668838262558,
-0.1912412792444229,
-0.014426263980567455,
-0.2210172861814499,
0.6087899804115295,
-0.2805638313293457,
0.5454733371734619,
-0.04851868376135826,
-0.24575956165790558,
-0.10928245633840561,
0.08378227055072784,
0.10932745039463043,
0.03327811509370804,
0.20176932215690613,
0.42473679780960083,
0.20237413048744202,
0.8214571475982666,
0.608681321144104,
-0.0292704738676548,
-0.14718493819236755,
0.13966459035873413,
-0.15224584937095642,
0.18877318501472473,
-0.10602106153964996,
0.021056504920125008,
-0.6634056568145752,
0.326097697019577,
-0.3327500820159912,
0.17807187139987946,
0.35898053646087646,
-0.104672871530056,
-0.46855786442756653,
0.5453699231147766,
-0.18933016061782837,
0.49496397376060486,
0.4723767042160034,
-0.05240890756249428,
0.08674616366624832,
-0.20119404792785645,
0.006924735382199287,
0.4387359619140625,
0.07044550031423569,
-0.0061199418269097805,
-0.29497331380844116,
0.05252475664019585,
0.0492071695625782,
0.11533981561660767,
-0.39891305565834045,
0.05620624125003815,
-0.09414850175380707,
-0.16516350209712982,
-0.39257389307022095,
0.5999839305877686,
-0.5492827296257019,
0.14073319733142853,
0.556972086429596,
0.5279557704925537,
0.48728007078170776,
-0.14506494998931885,
-0.012925931252539158,
-0.008908549323678017,
0.2756340801715851,
0.04614643007516861,
-2.264918088912964,
0.048463836312294006,
-0.13422781229019165,
0.001242804224602878,
-0.3555440902709961,
0.25547513365745544,
0.2699849307537079,
-0.436397910118103,
0.5150890350341797,
0.07815925031900406,
-0.11851702630519867,
0.11389143764972687,
-0.08950069546699524,
-0.7517691254615784,
-0.270321249961853,
0.1984703540802002
] |
234841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Brod | Max Brod | Max Brod (; 27 May 1884 – 20 December 1968) was a Czech German-speaking Jewish, later Israeli, author, composer, and journalist. Although he was a prolific writer in his own right, he is best remembered as the friend and biographer of writer Franz Kafka. Kafka named Brod as his literary executor, instructing Brod to burn his unpublished work upon his death. Brod refused and had Kafka's works published instead.
Biography
Max Brod was born in Prague, then part of the province of Bohemia in Austria-Hungary, now the capital of the Czech Republic. At the age of four, Brod was diagnosed with a severe spinal curvature and spent a year in corrective harness; despite this he would be a hunchback his entire life. A German-speaking Jew, he attended the Piarist school together with his lifelong friend Felix Weltsch, later attended the Stephans Gymnasium, then studied law at the German Charles-Ferdinand University (which at the time was divided into a German and a Czech language university; he attended the German-speaking institution) and graduated in 1907 to work in the civil service. From 1912, he was a pronounced Zionist (which he attributed to the influence of Martin Buber) and when Czechoslovakia became independent in 1918, he briefly served as vice-president of the Jüdischer Nationalrat. From 1924, already an established writer, he worked as a critic for the Prager Tagblatt.
In 1939, as the Nazis took over Prague, Brod and his wife Elsa Taussig fled to Mandatory Palestine. He settled in Tel Aviv, where he continued to write and worked as a dramaturg for Habimah, later the Israeli national theatre, for 30 years. For a period following the death of his wife in 1942, Brod published very few works. He became very close to a couple named Otto and Esther Hoffe, regularly taking vacations with the couple and employed Esther as a secretary for many years; it is often presumed that their relationship had a romantic dimension. He would later pass stewardship of the Kafka materials in his possession to Esther in his will. He was additionally supported by his close companion Felix Weltsch. Their friendship lasted 75 years, from the elementary school of the Piarists in Prague to Weltsch's death in 1964. Brod died on 20 December 1968 in Tel Aviv.
Literary career
Unlike Kafka, Brod rapidly became a prolific, successful published writer who eventually published 83 titles. His first novel and fourth book overall, Schloss Nornepygge (Nornepygge Castle), published in 1908 when he was only 24, was celebrated in Berlin literary circles as a masterpiece of expressionism. This and other works made Brod a well-known personality in German-language literature. In 1913, together with Weltsch, he published the work Anschauung und Begriff which made him better known in Berlin and also in Leipzig, where their publisher Kurt Wolff worked.
He promoted other writers and musicians. Among his protégés was Franz Werfel, whom he would later fall out with as Werfel abandoned Judaism for Christianity. He would also write at various times both for and against Karl Kraus, a convert from Judaism to Roman Catholicism. His critical endorsement would be crucial to the success of Jaroslav Hašek's The Good Soldier Svejk, and he played a crucial role in the diffusion of Leoš Janáček's operas.
Friendship with Kafka
Brod first met Kafka on 23 October 1902, when both young men were students at Charles University. Brod had given a lecture on Arthur Schopenhauer at the German students' hall. Kafka, one year older, addressed him after the lecture and accompanied him home. "He tended to participate in all the meetings, but up to then we had hardly considered each other," wrote Brod. The quiet Kafka "would have been... hard to notice... even his elegant, usually dark-blue, suits were inconspicuous and reserved like him. At that time, however, something seems to have attracted him to me, he was more open than usual, filling the endless walk home by disagreeing strongly with my all too rough formulations."
From then on, Brod and Kafka met frequently, often even daily, and remained close friends until Kafka's death. Kafka was a frequent guest in Brod's parents' house. There he met his future girlfriend and fiancée Felice Bauer, cousin of Brod's brother-in-law Max Friedmann. After graduating, Brod worked for some time at the post office. The relatively short working hours gave him time to begin a career as an art critic and freelance writer. For similar reasons, Kafka took a job at an insurance agency involved in workmen's accident insurance. Brod, Kafka and Brod's close friend Felix Weltsch constituted the so-called "enge Prager Kreis" or "close Prague circle".
During Kafka's lifetime, Brod tried repeatedly to reassure him of his writing talents, of which Kafka was chronically doubtful. Brod pushed Kafka to publish his work, and it is probably owing to Brod that he began to keep a diary. Brod tried, but failed, to arrange common literary projects. Notwithstanding their inability to write in tandem – which stemmed from clashing literary and personal philosophies – they were able to publish one chapter from an attempted travelogue in May 1912, for which Kafka wrote the introduction. It was published in the journal Herderblätter. Brod prodded his friend to complete the project several years later, but the effort was in vain. Even after Brod's 1913 marriage with Elsa Taussig, he and Kafka remained each other's closest friends and confidants, assisting each other in problems and life crises.
Publication of Kafka's work
On Kafka's death in 1924, Brod was the administrator of the estate. Although Kafka stipulated that all of his unpublished works were to be burned, Brod refused. He justified this move by stating that when Kafka personally told him to burn his unpublished work, Brod replied that he would outright refuse, and that "Franz should have appointed another executor if he had been absolutely and finally determined that his instructions should stand." Before even a line of Kafka's most celebrated works had been made public, Brod had already praised him as "the greatest poet of our time", ranking with Goethe or Tolstoy. As Kafka's works were posthumously published (The Trial arrived in 1925, followed by The Castle in 1926 and Amerika in 1927), this early positive assessment was bolstered by more general critical acclaim.
When Brod fled Prague in 1939, he took with him a suitcase of Kafka's papers, many of them unpublished notes, diaries, and sketches. Although some of these materials were later edited and published in 6 volumes of collected works, much of them remained unreleased, and integrated within Brod's literary estate. Upon his death, this trove of materials was passed to Esther Hoffe, who maintained most of them until her own death in 2007 (one original manuscript of The Trial was auctioned in 1988 for $2 million). Due to certain ambiguities regarding Brod's wishes, the proper disposition of the materials was being litigated. On one side was the National Library of Israel, which argued that Brod passed his literary estate (and Kafka's papers) to Esther as an executor of his actual intent to have the papers donated to the institution. On the other side were Esther's daughters, who claimed that Brod passed the papers to their mother as a pure inheritance which should be theirs. The sisters had announced their intention to sell the materials to the Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach, Germany, however the Supreme Court of Israel ruled in the National Library of Israel's favour.
Music
Brod's musical compositions are little known, even compared to his literary output. They include songs, works for piano and incidental music for his plays. He translated some of Bedřich Smetana's and Leoš Janáček's operas into German, and wrote the first book on Janáček (first published in Czech in 1924). He authored a study of Gustav Mahler, Beispiel einer deutsch-jüdischen Symbiose, in 1961. Brod had studied Orchestration under Alexander Uriah Boskovich.
Awards
In 1948, Brod was awarded the Bialik Prize for literature. In 1965, Brod was awarded the Honor Gift of the Heinrich Heine Society in Düsseldorf, Germany.
In 1965, he was awarded the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art and was the first Israeli citizen to be awarded it.
Published works
Schloß Nornepygge (Nornepygge Castle, 1908)
Weiberwirtschaft (Woman's Work, 1913)
Über die Schönheit häßlicher Bilder (On the Beauty of Ugly Pictures, 1913)
Die Höhe des Gefühls (The Height of Feeling, 1913)
Anschauung und Begriff: Grundzüge eines Systems der Begriffsbildung, 1913 (together with Felix Weltsch)
Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott (Tycho Brahe's Path to God 1915)
Heidentum, Christentum, Judentum: Ein Bekenntnisbuch (Paganism, Christianity, Judaism: A Credo, 1921)
Sternenhimmel: Musik- und Theatererlebnisse (1923, reissued as Prager Sternenhimmel)
Reubeni, Fürst der Juden (Reubeni, Prince of the Jews, 1925)
Zauberreich der Liebe (The Charmed Realm of Love, 1930)
Biografie von Heinrich Heine (Biography of Heinrich Heine, 1934) Subtitled The Artist in Revolt it was first published in English in 1956 in a revised version translated by Joseph Witriol
Die Frau, die nicht enttäuscht (The Woman Who Does Not Disappoint, 1934)
Novellen aus Böhmen (Novellas from Bohemia, 1936)
Rassentheorie und Judentum (Race Theory and Judaism, 1936)
Annerl (Annie, 1937)
Franz Kafka, eine Biographie (Franz Kafka, a Biography, 1937, later collected in Über Franz Kafka, 1974)
Franz Kafkas Glauben und Lehre (Franz Kafka's Thought and Teaching, 1948)
Die Musik Israels (The Music of Israel, Tel Aviv, 1951)
Beinahe ein Vorzugsschüler, oder pièce touchée: Roman eines unauffälligen Menschen (Almost a Gifted Pupil, 1952)
Die Frau, nach der man sich sehnt (The Woman For Whom One Longs, 1953)
Rebellische Herzen (Rebellious Hearts, 1957)
Verzweiflung und Erlösung im Werke Franz Kafkas (Despair and Redemption in the Works of Franz Kafka, 1959)
Beispiel einer deutsch-jüdischen Symbiose (An Example of German-Jewish Symbiosis, 1961)
Johannes Reuchlin und sein Kampf (Eine Historische Monographie, 1965)
Der Prager Kreis (The Prague Circle, 1966)
Die verkaufte Braut, translation of the Czech libretto of Prodaná nevěsta (The Bartered Bride, a comic opera by Bedřich Smetana), and numerous other translations of Czech opera libretti
Über Franz Kafka, (Fischer, Frankfurt am Main, 1974)
Selected filmography
The Woman One Longs For (1929)
See also
Exilliteratur
List of Bialik Prize recipients
References
Further reading
Kayser, Werner, Max Brod, Hans Christians, Hamburg, 1972 (in German)
Pazi, Margarita (Ed.): Max Brod 1884–1984. Untersuchungen zu Max Brods literarischen und philosophischen Schriften. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, 1987 (in German)
Lerperger, Renate, Max Brod. Talent nach vielen Seiten (exhibit catalog), Vienna, 1987 (in German)
Wessling, Berndt W. Max Brod: Ein Portrait. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart, Berlin, Cologne and Mainz, 1969. New edition: Max Brod: Ein Portrait zum 100. Geburtstag, Bleicher, Gerlingen, 1984 (in German)
Bärsch, Claus-Ekkehard, Max Brod im Kampf um das Judentum. Zum Leben und Werk eines deutsch-jüdischen Dichters aus Prag. Passagen Verlag, Wien, 1992.
Vassogne, Gaelle, Max Brod in Prag: Identität und Vermittlung, Niemeyer, Conditio Judaica 75, 2009 (in German).
The Modern Hebrew Poem Itself (2003),
Barbora Šrámková: Max Brod und die tschechische Kultur. Arco Verlag, Wuppertal 2010, Arco Wissenschaft Band 17; .
External links
Digitized works by Max Brod at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York
1884 births
1968 deaths
Writers from Prague
Musicians from Prague
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
Czechoslovak Jews
Czechoslovak emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Jewish writers
Israeli people of Czech-Jewish descent
20th-century Austrian novelists
20th-century classical composers
Austrian male writers
Austrian classical composers
Austrian translators
Austro-Hungarian writers
Czech Zionists
Czech writers in German
Exilliteratur writers
Franz Kafka scholars
Jewish classical composers
Austrian male novelists
Austrian biographers
Israeli biographers
Czech biographers
Male biographers
Charles University alumni
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Burials at Trumpeldor Cemetery
20th-century Austrian journalists
20th-century translators
Austrian Zionists | [
0.02946530655026436,
0.7393112182617188,
-0.4282776117324829,
-0.3842047154903412,
-0.23109126091003418,
0.6816717982292175,
0.24561284482479095,
-0.13569584488868713,
0.14478181302547455,
-0.029066815972328186,
-0.5759729743003845,
0.0540420338511467,
0.1927758902311325,
0.27329254150390625,
0.08885464817285538,
-0.48922815918922424,
-0.2241581529378891,
-0.4737303853034973,
-0.5545675158500671,
-0.029433801770210266,
-0.20541732013225555,
-0.25146928429603577,
0.6120639443397522,
0.5601370334625244,
-0.3196447789669037,
-0.05790180340409279,
0.017712702974677086,
-0.008752677589654922,
0.018637215718626976,
-0.002332067582756281,
-0.07662279903888702,
0.8839787840843201,
0.09493134170770645,
-0.08035966008901596,
-0.47076305747032166,
0.8772891759872437,
-0.33945202827453613,
-0.2636954188346863,
0.17635251581668854,
-0.000837620347738266,
0.07948695868253708,
0.4571276009082794,
0.12665528059005737,
-0.07685830444097519,
-0.09866467118263245,
-0.6505661010742188,
-1.6359636783599854,
0.6233798861503601,
-0.9842011332511902,
-0.33707132935523987,
-0.0872981920838356,
0.5239543318748474,
0.6901087164878845,
0.16108478605747223,
-0.26985907554626465,
-0.05726371705532074,
-0.9100898504257202,
-0.13585035502910614,
0.5626388788223267,
0.37513312697410583,
0.7127598524093628,
-0.003622127464041114,
0.7513413429260254,
-0.22443516552448273,
0.5852380990982056,
0.3064364194869995,
-0.03190004825592041,
0.12306607514619827,
0.1888037770986557,
-0.07003293186426163,
-0.6098275780677795,
0.20378272235393524,
0.06414449214935303,
-0.46333029866218567,
0.35585224628448486,
-0.5014106035232544,
0.568844199180603,
-0.3063410818576813,
-0.1984892338514328,
0.15338380634784698,
-0.2927684485912323,
-0.35178112983703613,
0.6643397212028503,
0.3425709307193756,
0.16743844747543335,
-0.5926056504249573,
-0.6403066515922546,
0.2690648138523102,
-0.8192161917686462,
-0.4949969947338104,
-0.34916478395462036,
-0.6923060417175293,
0.588700532913208,
0.2807961404323578,
-0.04058004915714264,
0.23573219776153564,
0.3177122473716736,
0.3791736364364624,
-0.3941049873828888,
-0.1496845781803131,
0.2326512187719345,
0.22263523936271667,
0.06443135440349579,
-0.1989317089319229,
-0.41223084926605225,
0.10163044184446335,
0.0858875960111618,
-0.07319014519453049,
0.38287854194641113,
0.12861047685146332,
-0.459526002407074,
-0.2645344138145447,
-0.5525347590446472,
0.21616226434707642,
-0.07993228733539581,
0.11455530673265457,
-0.12119085341691971,
-0.8443192839622498,
-0.5733354091644287,
0.20666496455669403,
-0.2862967550754547,
0.3058672845363617,
0.1141391471028328,
0.05010193958878517,
-0.6382805705070496,
-0.25774335861206055,
-0.22784309089183807,
0.3024785816669464,
0.0009942633332684636,
0.5402458310127258,
0.15603254735469818,
0.7419906258583069,
0.16891901195049286,
-0.2352282553911209,
-0.154257670044899,
0.04416701942682266,
0.4913811683654785,
-0.4423809349536896,
-0.46413055062294006,
0.457442969083786,
-0.15599997341632843,
-0.35452452301979065,
-0.45667216181755066,
-0.07372931391000748,
0.5769793391227722,
-0.3193241059780121,
0.050175294280052185,
-0.4173174202442169,
0.4255863428115845,
-0.4977095425128937,
0.09807971864938736,
-0.06761655956506729,
0.07789687812328339,
-0.4732184410095215,
-0.33805760741233826,
0.8841018676757812,
0.49113979935646057,
0.18240414559841156,
0.23640874028205872,
-0.08658219128847122,
0.4037664532661438,
-0.18592388927936554,
-0.026096250861883163,
-0.1414206326007843,
-0.0669349879026413,
-0.08715484291315079,
0.3743317723274231,
0.08513610810041428,
-0.31588542461395264,
0.2959146797657013,
-0.5380980968475342,
-0.04061475023627281,
0.27942898869514465,
-0.17530331015586853,
-0.4815012514591217,
0.7625511884689331,
0.48022112250328064,
0.0876806303858757,
-0.12676237523555756,
-0.35714006423950195,
-0.7948217988014221,
-0.19010154902935028,
-0.5278629660606384,
0.3489619791507721,
0.4065392017364502,
0.35544103384017944,
-0.16711491346359253,
-0.36221569776535034,
0.8012415170669556,
-0.29426008462905884,
-0.22157518565654755,
-1.0291448831558228,
0.2749898135662079,
0.06633328646421432,
1.063775658607483,
0.14245256781578064,
-0.3756604492664337,
0.05048604682087898,
0.1500423103570938,
0.2286161482334137,
-0.4873426854610443,
-0.3929073214530945,
-0.31390005350112915,
0.5680327415466309,
0.15129217505455017,
0.4977548122406006,
0.14989465475082397,
-0.29236602783203125,
0.04560479894280434,
0.15566271543502808,
0.6897668838500977,
-0.1977611780166626,
0.5962551832199097,
0.2452215552330017,
-0.28013452887535095,
-0.3891238570213318,
-0.46645650267601013,
0.010388445109128952,
0.015544570051133633,
-0.13627927005290985,
0.21919845044612885,
0.22716684639453888,
-0.2212582230567932,
0.3486514389514923,
0.24570535123348236,
0.597560465335846,
-0.15807709097862244,
0.15166430175304413,
-0.0642610639333725,
-0.776005208492279,
-0.06643280386924744,
0.18458116054534912,
0.1261119395494461,
-0.4654708802700043,
0.18746592104434967,
-0.08204220235347748,
0.06062335520982742,
-0.08783398568630219,
0.5892662405967712,
-0.5071797966957092,
0.04900054633617401,
0.30026015639305115,
0.13373486697673798,
0.005728592164814472,
-0.017925605177879333,
0.5224112868309021,
0.27132919430732727,
-0.3429572284221649,
-0.06941060721874237,
0.5107855796813965,
0.04076506197452545,
0.5734385251998901,
0.2147662341594696,
0.16264361143112183,
-0.5696249604225159,
-0.13742728531360626,
0.611797571182251,
-0.49024611711502075,
0.7540813088417053,
-0.01816779375076294,
0.6853013038635254,
-0.24810266494750977,
0.2881549596786499,
0.03405159339308739,
-0.2837637662887573,
-1.0181455612182617,
0.3249516487121582,
-0.383337140083313,
-0.012261792086064816,
-0.28359317779541016,
0.1080734059214592,
-0.19581647217273712,
-0.19114243984222412,
0.6327921748161316,
0.21948911249637604,
-0.2076263725757599,
-0.36457404494285583,
-0.3785514235496521,
-0.21688739955425262,
-0.19447287917137146,
0.26155027747154236,
0.9798405170440674,
-0.20602300763130188,
-0.2254965603351593,
-0.1291215568780899,
0.40836086869239807,
-0.2042325884103775,
-0.06478986144065857,
0.9944802522659302,
-0.20204241573810577,
-0.3386204242706299,
0.9632202982902527,
-0.1160023957490921,
0.4300815165042877,
0.0724034234881401,
0.7808400392532349,
-0.2498202919960022,
-1.1304000616073608,
-0.11218368262052536,
0.027730047702789307,
-0.6828941702842712,
0.38665905594825745,
-0.5264827013015747,
0.08982006460428238,
0.29346102476119995,
0.4151913821697235,
-0.7275196313858032,
0.4118760824203491,
-5.520410537719727,
0.2658834159374237,
-0.2631513476371765,
-0.4824451804161072,
-0.21879784762859344,
0.32438623905181885,
0.02060743048787117,
-0.41006481647491455,
-0.4678669571876526,
-0.7406811118125916,
-0.2643432021141052,
-0.444683700799942,
-0.6120875477790833,
1.0567389726638794,
0.44332030415534973,
0.17890016734600067,
-0.046562906354665756,
-0.21164557337760925,
-0.025861898437142372,
0.17557668685913086,
0.1373835653066635,
-0.3030101954936981,
0.08230802416801453,
0.4306858777999878,
0.17147524654865265,
-0.08165132254362106,
0.21490050852298737,
0.021059824153780937,
-1.1519629955291748,
-0.6087673902511597,
0.1860128790140152,
-0.4663887023925781,
-0.23061572015285492,
0.16441205143928528,
0.2304212749004364,
0.004210243932902813,
0.34569787979125977,
0.3649533689022064,
0.21850314736366272,
0.5383732318878174,
-0.2908106744289398,
0.1452074646949768,
-0.23673416674137115,
-0.14434997737407684,
0.0038338275626301765,
0.47075027227401733,
-0.4558200240135193,
0.236782506108284,
-0.5061772465705872,
0.5548153519630432,
0.6493468284606934,
-0.22465763986110687,
0.2647971510887146,
-0.08192058652639389,
-0.22624197602272034,
0.27884069085121155,
0.733535647392273,
-0.5833850502967834,
-0.5836511850357056,
-0.10002543777227402,
0.37436091899871826,
-0.2820086181163788,
-0.011804419569671154,
-0.11474356055259705,
0.15245313942432404,
-0.3028571307659149,
0.25947317481040955,
-0.4670981168746948,
0.19652600586414337,
-0.32622474431991577,
0.1897534877061844,
0.9158716797828674,
0.11068198829889297,
-1.1657404899597168,
-0.8410887122154236,
-0.34857675433158875,
-0.0412873737514019,
-0.10888635367155075,
-0.39349809288978577,
0.4859152138233185,
0.06772835552692413,
-0.601741373538971,
-0.6115617156028748,
0.320389062166214,
0.7862929701805115,
0.13554733991622925,
-0.09603572636842728,
0.2963455021381378,
-0.4976608455181122,
-0.4782455563545227,
0.08837562799453735,
-0.6407862305641174,
0.15641635656356812,
0.015218771994113922,
-0.09283214807510376,
0.1181817501783371,
-0.5218921303749084,
0.2522358000278473,
0.8413429856300354,
0.5541620254516602,
-1.0257909297943115,
-0.5633535981178284,
-0.04202316701412201,
-0.6242924332618713,
0.6239687204360962,
-0.17168062925338745,
-0.032970719039440155,
0.016730565577745438,
1.0146135091781616,
0.17634262144565582,
-0.29177114367485046,
0.5705268383026123,
-0.1492975354194641,
-0.6588664650917053,
0.5517590641975403,
-0.5969842076301575,
0.0804673582315445,
0.4669301509857178,
0.21276801824569702,
0.28908875584602356,
-0.351508766412735,
-0.13957072794437408,
0.24723954498767853,
-0.3176455795764923,
0.10946349799633026,
0.2845553755760193,
0.05791478604078293,
-0.47250819206237793,
-0.3706601858139038,
-0.11011199653148651,
-0.42883703112602234,
0.8462696671485901,
0.19717548787593842,
0.5516761541366577,
0.30513790249824524,
-0.19629301130771637,
-0.7671331763267517,
-0.3584257960319519,
-0.060373906046152115,
-0.11617520451545715,
0.1282060593366623,
-0.06755705177783966,
0.3144814372062683,
0.31903859972953796,
0.3909943699836731,
-0.059709612280130386,
-0.19151027500629425,
0.205555722117424,
-0.5879428386688232,
0.3701673448085785,
0.44929906725883484,
0.3367840349674225,
0.9988167881965637,
-0.10774484276771545,
-0.623737096786499,
0.44926947355270386,
-0.42357876896858215,
0.18371692299842834,
0.17973259091377258,
0.2800372242927551,
0.06504221260547638,
-0.05162345990538597,
-0.9390990734100342,
-0.22436708211898804,
0.1686987727880478,
0.19538520276546478,
-0.2509531080722809,
-0.13361917436122894,
-0.2633543014526367,
0.3351280093193054,
-0.11597198992967606,
-0.4002503752708435,
-0.6895778775215149,
0.28894808888435364,
-0.05682992562651634,
0.14309313893318176,
-0.1050809845328331,
-0.5792667269706726,
0.4231001138687134,
-0.09708277881145477,
-0.06445443630218506,
-0.18165519833564758,
-0.8464537262916565,
0.5172082185745239,
0.09835205227136612,
-0.1625031977891922,
-0.7400311231613159,
-0.2762730121612549,
-0.17322483658790588,
-0.21862103044986725,
0.08430122584104538,
-0.42857593297958374,
0.3617118299007416,
0.5354792475700378,
0.3749614953994751,
-0.34367939829826355,
0.321481853723526,
-0.16556866466999054,
-0.9573796391487122,
-0.40309298038482666,
0.1600378155708313,
-0.15133385360240936,
-0.24469374120235443,
-0.4334087371826172,
0.6713265180587769,
-1.3278833627700806,
0.26072457432746887,
0.4720931649208069,
-0.6429359912872314,
0.6986595988273621,
-0.6455950140953064,
-0.6920431852340698,
-0.1314426064491272,
0.3112587034702301,
-0.11435585469007492,
0.4146065413951874,
0.4408809542655945,
0.21582965552806854,
-1.0487291812896729,
-0.2661062479019165,
-0.15400438010692596,
0.012090693227946758,
-0.42371922731399536,
-0.3691336512565613,
-0.8626585602760315,
-0.24460537731647491,
0.09112589806318283,
0.19073893129825592,
0.41538962721824646,
-0.35196709632873535,
0.3067832887172699,
0.0336880125105381,
0.02847781777381897,
0.2789524495601654,
-0.031664296984672546,
-0.04861072823405266,
-0.13827067613601685,
0.11360394954681396,
-0.40462177991867065,
0.1806098371744156,
0.7757629156112671,
0.44407662749290466,
0.32001176476478577,
0.6578397154808044,
0.2645077705383301,
0.22133463621139526,
0.35309088230133057,
-0.1964503526687622,
-0.2699403762817383,
0.13010506331920624,
0.44564804434776306,
0.22908475995063782,
-1.1235100030899048,
-0.49802446365356445,
0.7006921172142029,
-0.4217742681503296,
-0.03600789234042168,
0.18175822496414185,
0.20507104694843292,
0.5048233866691589,
-0.039910897612571716,
0.23761118948459625,
0.24987123906612396,
0.05311545729637146,
0.04713379964232445,
0.22257374227046967,
0.24959279596805573,
0.07972482591867447,
-0.14358113706111908,
-0.1298270970582962,
-0.17224471271038055,
-0.29576465487480164,
-0.14612653851509094,
-0.018866000697016716,
-0.5521236658096313,
-0.07475151121616364,
0.17779581248760223,
-0.2436652034521103,
0.16117450594902039,
-0.4755060374736786,
-0.5518032312393188,
0.42973554134368896,
-0.020359521731734276,
-0.5329096913337708,
-0.6298097372055054,
-0.3135819435119629,
-0.4979587197303772,
-0.16463711857795715,
0.057868991047143936,
0.1899091899394989,
-0.7450114488601685,
0.25170594453811646,
-0.001961067086085677,
0.6461809873580933,
0.2534366250038147,
-0.25415006279945374,
-0.12314852327108383,
0.5619307160377502,
-0.37102484703063965,
-0.12579990923404694,
-0.2893744707107544,
0.5010757446289062,
0.5818637013435364,
0.023657426238059998,
0.7127889394760132,
0.576000452041626,
-0.08332671225070953,
-0.33420538902282715,
-0.27459847927093506,
0.33544015884399414,
0.5578931570053101,
-0.1427619606256485,
-0.0219718087464571,
0.8279116153717041,
-0.3736267685890198,
0.14057524502277374,
0.6512777209281921,
-0.6073410511016846,
-0.028019806370139122,
-0.3222081661224365,
0.2960113286972046,
0.13814137876033783,
1.1820743083953857,
-0.8163862824440002,
-0.2089294195175171,
0.4853189289569855,
0.4821162521839142,
-0.12759114801883698,
-0.49932733178138733,
0.6882150769233704,
0.30097684264183044,
-0.10011465847492218,
0.13353516161441803,
0.18178501725196838,
0.2357168346643448,
-0.558306872844696,
0.020095473155379295,
-0.28095316886901855,
-0.09244644641876221,
0.20722387731075287,
-0.06798747181892395,
0.7352524399757385,
-0.28585299849510193,
0.42091187834739685,
0.49786993861198425,
0.10802667587995529,
-0.0016743468586355448,
0.906573474407196,
-0.05032731592655182,
-0.23322232067584991,
0.36522620916366577,
0.3147583603858948,
0.2645273804664612,
-0.5419605374336243,
0.2832157015800476,
0.1493896096944809,
0.4535036087036133,
-0.03315900266170502,
0.09695214033126831,
0.11918149143457413,
-0.0643957108259201,
-0.20884886384010315,
1.2469037771224976,
-0.22971178591251373,
0.11663538962602615,
-0.14959816634655,
-0.014091000892221928,
-0.6847319602966309,
0.2377917617559433,
-0.02120041474699974,
0.13102392852306366,
-0.06253684312105179,
-0.4695790410041809,
0.33475711941719055,
0.2416059970855713,
-0.2499370127916336,
0.6544801592826843,
-0.4311779737472534,
0.379930317401886,
0.46261078119277954,
-0.06172912195324898,
0.12419436872005463,
-0.2874920070171356,
0.025063851848244667,
0.4626811742782593,
-0.5580703020095825,
0.26676613092422485,
-0.038826834410429,
0.12638041377067566,
-0.6261082887649536,
0.0292364452034235,
-0.9225305318832397,
0.13799157738685608,
0.49113908410072327,
-0.8818220496177673,
-0.1544276773929596,
-0.7001423835754395,
0.2985783517360687,
-0.13567426800727844,
-0.2336113452911377,
0.26273313164711,
0.16701474785804749,
0.20780928432941437,
-0.12255778163671494,
-0.3853456377983093,
0.15152712166309357,
-0.49039435386657715,
-0.20955735445022583,
-0.8778623938560486,
0.82972252368927,
0.11895553022623062,
0.07934442162513733,
-0.4789041578769684,
0.5750681161880493,
-0.08679856359958649,
0.006159123498946428,
0.18982037901878357,
-0.0548878014087677,
0.10939238220453262,
-0.33141031861305237,
0.5623914003372192,
0.13418567180633545,
0.20886294543743134,
-0.5806741118431091,
-0.14703583717346191,
0.6323683857917786,
0.6359171867370605,
-0.3276769518852234,
-0.12365780025720596,
0.14512966573238373,
-0.2771194279193878,
0.0777750164270401,
-0.07740645110607147,
-0.046771131455898285,
-0.21215984225273132,
-0.061351172626018524,
0.7556461691856384,
0.4685962200164795,
0.18402765691280365,
-0.7683497071266174,
0.7418978214263916,
-0.14157535135746002,
0.24426579475402832,
0.07221737504005432,
-0.05280442535877228,
-0.05226411670446396,
-0.703557550907135,
-0.015687568113207817,
-0.20027486979961395,
0.3607376515865326,
0.07187815010547638,
-0.28799301385879517,
0.7232418060302734,
-0.8866398334503174,
0.6017530560493469,
0.07130813598632812,
-0.3710061311721802,
0.005516026634722948,
0.5161218047142029,
-0.15403573215007782
] |
234842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorlton-cum-Hardy | Chorlton-cum-Hardy | Chorlton-cum-Hardy is a suburban area of Manchester, England, southwest of the city centre. Chorlton ward had a population of 14,138 at the 2011 census, and Chorlton Park 15,147.
By the 9th century, there was an Anglo-Saxon settlement here. In the Middle Ages, improved drainage methods led to population growth. In the late Victorian and Edwardian periods, its rural character made it popular among the middle class. The loss of its railway station, the conversion of larger houses into flats or bedsitters, and significant social housing development to the south of the area changed its character again in the 1970s. However, the existing Manchester Metrolink tram stop called Chorlton was built of the site of that former railway station and from Manchester, it is served by East Didsbury trams and Manchester Airport trams.
Historically, Chorlton was a village on Lancashire's southern border with Cheshire, and a township within the ancient parish of Manchester. It was incorporated into the city of Manchester in 1904. Chorlton borders Stretford, Sale, Didsbury, Withington, and Whalley Range. The River Mersey runs past Chorlton along its southern boundary. The area's eastern boundary has changed since the 19th century because of incorporation into the City of Manchester and division into wards.
History
Toponymy
Chorlton probably means Ceolfrith's farm or settlement from the Old English personal name and tūn, an enclosure, farmstead or village. Hardy is derived from a personal name, Hearda, and ēg, Anglian for island or dry ground in a well-watered land. It has alternatively been suggested that Hardy may mean "by the woods", in reference to the ancient forest of Arden Wood that grew on both sides of the River Mersey in the area. Chorlton was recorded as Chollirton in 1250, Chollerton from 1292 and as Chourton in 1572.
The ancient hamlets of Chorlton and Hardy, separated by the Chorlton Brook, together with Martledge and Barlow Moor, did not come under the combined name of Chorlton-cum-Hardy (cum is Latin for "with") until the 18th century; local historian Cliff Hayes reports that he can find no mention of Chorlton-cum-Hardy before 1700. The name was adopted by Victorian property developers who arrived in the wake of the coming of the railway in 1880, to distinguish this Chorlton from Chorlton-on-Medlock. The form Chorlton with Hardy was used to some extent from the early 19th century onwards and in the early years of the 20th.
Early history
The district was part of the kingdom of Northumbria from the 7th century, but settlement in the Mersey valley may well have been later. Thomas L. Ellwood suggested 610 AD as the date of founding the settlement, but John Lloyd in his 1972 history considered the period 610 to 900 AD more likely.
The area now known as Chorlton-cum-Hardy comprises the ancient settlements of Chorlton along with Hardy and Barlow to the south on the north side of the Mersey and Martledge, the area around the present-day public library, to the north of Chorlton and Hardy. Chorlton was part of the Withington manor. Hardy was little more than a farm and a few houses, but Barlow was home to the family of that name, who occupied the manor house of Barlow Hall for several hundred years. Barlow Hall was built on a defensive site on rising ground on the north bank of the Mersey. In 1567 the lord of the manor was Alexander Barlow, a staunch recusant who was imprisoned for his beliefs and died in 1584 leaving a son who held similar beliefs. Two of his sons entered the Order of Saint Benedict, one of them, Ambrose Barlow a missionary priest in the Leigh parish, was imprisoned several times and executed for his priesthood in 1641 at Lancaster. Two sons of the papist, Anthony Barlow were charged with treason in the Jacobite rising of 1715. The estate remained with the family until the death of Thomas Barlow in 1773, when it was sold to the Egertons of Tatton Hall. In 1666 Barlow Hall was one of the largest houses paying hearth tax in the Withington manor.
The estimated population in 1640 was 85; in 1714 it was 325. The 1801 census recorded 513 inhabitants, and the 1811 census 619: by 1851 it had increased to 761. The Tithe Commissioners' survey carried out in 1841 provides details of the size and tenure of every piece of land. The tithe map reveals the township had two major landowners: Wilbraham Egerton of Tatton owned 888 acres and George Lloyd 231, the rest was shared between 21 others. Most land was meadow and pasture while 490 acres was arable. Many small landowners owned orchards or market gardens. At this time the village consisted of its ancient halls and scattered farms centred on Chorlton Green and Beech Road and a few buildings on Barlow Moor Road.
Its public houses were the Bowling Green, built in 1693, and the Horse and Jockey, which was licensed in the early 19th century.
Marl had been dug in Martledge since at least 1598; the disused pits filled with water gave the area its common name of the Isles. The Chorlton Brick Company was established there in the early part of the 20th century and continued producing bricks for about forty years. Turf-cutting was a significant industry in Martledge, as well as in the White Moss and Jackson's Moss areas.
Suburban growth
Until the last quarter of the 19th century, Chorlton's population had increased slowly. When the railway reached neighbouring Stretford in 1849, upmarket villas were built on a flood-free area in Edge Lane and High Lane. Wilbraham Road was built in 1869 to connect the Egerton holdings across Withington from Edge Lane to Fallowfield. The Midland Railway built a line from Manchester Central through Chorlton station which opened on 1 January 1880. Over the following decade land close to the station was developed for residential and commercial purposes centred on the Barlow Moor Road/Wilbraham Road crossroads, northeast of the old village centre. Houses built in the 1880s attracted more affluent residents who worked in Manchester city centre to high quality homes in a more rural area.
Irish immigrants came to work in the expanding industries of Manchester, in small-scale horticulture and farming and domestic service. They brought Roman Catholicism, and by the first decade of the 20th century a church (St Augustine's) and convent school had been established on High Lane.
Further growth was aided by the arrival of Manchester Corporation's tramway before the First World War: a terminus was built on Barlow Moor Road a short distance south of the junction with High Lane. Chorltonville was developed as a garden suburb south of Chorlton Brook: the houses are mostly large and semi-detached and individual in design, standing on tree-lined roads. Alexandra Park Aerodrome (1917–24), was Manchester's first major airfield located east of the Midland Railway overbridge on Mauldeth Road West.
After the First World War came a period of residential development to the east of the new village on either side of Wilbraham Road and a council housing estate at Merseybank. The Ashby, a two-seater light car, was produced in Chorlton-cum-Hardy by Victor Ashby and Son from 1922 to 1924.
From the 1960s onwards a council estate at Nell Lane near Southern Cemetery and patchy redevelopment in other areas were completed. There has been immigration particularly from the Indian subcontinent and from Poland; the Polish community arrived in the 1950s and 1960s.
Governance
Civic history
The district was a township of the ancient parish of Manchester in the Salford Hundred of Lancashire. The abolition of Withington's manorial rights in the 1840s meant that local government began to be formalised. Chorlton became part of Chorlton Poor Law Union (named after Chorlton-on-Medlock), then Withington Urban District.
From 1876 to 1894 Chorlton was part of the district administered by the Withington Local Board, and from 1894 to 1904 part of Withington Urban District. It was absorbed into the City of Manchester in August 1904, together with the rest of the urban district. A separate Withington Committee of the city council existed from 1904 until 1914.
Boundary with Trafford
In 1987 the Local Government Boundary Commission for England revised the Manchester and Trafford boundary. The most notable differences for Chorlton-cum-Hardy were that Stretford Stadium was now actually in Stretford, and the Jackson's Boat pub in Sale. Other minor adjustments were made in the Turn Moss area.
Political representation
Since the 1970s both of the wards have been in the Manchester Withington parliamentary constituency. Until then Chorlton ward had been in the Manchester Moss Side parliamentary constituency. In the 2015 general election, the Labour Party's Jeff Smith won the seat with 57.3% of the vote unseating the incumbent Liberal Democrat candidate John Leech. Smith was reelected in the 2019 general election.
Most of Chorlton is divided into two wards, Chorlton and Chorlton Park, which includes the Mersey Bank and Nell Lane estates of south and south-east Chorlton. The remainder of the area is included in the Whalley Range ward. As of 2019, each of the three wards is represented by three Labour councillors.
Geography
The ancient township of Chorlton cum Hardy covered of low-lying, flat land on the north bank of the River Mersey. In medieval times the district formed part of the Manor of Withington, an area stretching from Longford Park to Debdale Park and south to the Mersey. The highest land is at the south-east end, where it reaches a little over OD. It is divided by the Chorlton Brook, which runs east to west to its confluence with the Mersey. Chorlton grew north of the brook; the hamlets of Barlow and Hardy were on the southern part, which stretches along the north bank of the Mersey for two miles (3.2 km). Because the county boundary was determined by the course of the Mersey, it traditionally did not exactly follow the river when it changed course: this happened occasionally in the period before improved flood control measures were introduced in the 1840s. The Manchester–Trafford boundary now follows the course of the river. Chorlton is surrounded by Stretford, Sale, Didsbury, Withington, and Whalley Range.
Chorlton's climate is generally temperate, with few extremes of temperature or weather. The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom. Annual rainfall and average amount of sunshine are both slightly below the average for the UK.
Between Chorlton Brook and the river, Chorlton Ees Nature Reserve occupies the site of Withington sewage works which closed in 1972. The derelict site was restored and has a network of trails through its grassland and woodland. In the 1970s, gravel was extracted from the Mersey floodplain at Barlow Hall Farm and used in the construction of the M60 motorway. The area around the flooded gravel pit was restored as Chorlton Water Park and is now a Local Nature Reserve.
Chorltonville, a garden village covering , was developed in 1911 south of Chorlton Brook and became the home of professional classes who moved into the area.
Demography
Population change
Economy
Chorlton Precinct, built in the 1970s and rebranded as "The Square" in 2009, has been the subject of redevelopment plans.
In 2010 Manchester City Council's South Manchester Regeneration Team issued an action plan for improvements to the "Chorlton District Centre" for the period 2010 to 2020. It proposes investment in the district aimed at creating "a strong, vibrant and successful centre that supports the local community and has the ability to exploit the economic potential of Metrolink".
Government and public sector employers in Chorlton include the Department for Work and Pensions, Manchester Mental Health and Social Care, and Manchester Social Services. The district centre has a library, three health centres, three dentists and a number of banks.
In 2014 insurance claim figures revealed that the M21 postcode, encompassing Chorlton-cum-Hardy, was the most burgled postcode in the UK with 45.2 claims per 1,000 people.
Landmarks
Manchester City Council designated Chorlton Green a conservation area in 1970 and Chorltonville in 1991.
Chorlton Library
Chorlton Library was built in 1914 to a design by Manchester City Council architect Henry Price. It was funded by a £5000 donation from steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, one of about 3000 Carnegie libraries around the world. The single-story flat-roofed building is constructed of red brick dressed with Portland stone, and is designed in the Edwardian Baroque style.
In 2013 Manchester Council announced plans to sell the library after its reorganisation of the provision of leisure and library services in Chorlton into a new £5.7 million "joint service centre" to be built on the site of Chorlton shopping precinct. Fears that the library would then be demolished were allayed when on 21 August 2013 it was designated a Grade II listed building following a campaign by local Liberal Democrat councillor Victor Chamberlain.
Southern Cemetery
Southern Cemetery originally occupied of land that cost Manchester Corporation £38,340 in 1872. Its cemetery buildings were designed by architect H J Paull and its layout is attributed to the city surveyor, James Gascoigne Lynde. The cemetery opened on 9 October 1879 and had mortuary chapels for Anglicans, Nonconformists, and Roman Catholics linked by an elliptical drive and a Jewish chapel at the west corner of the site. The original cemetery is registered by English Heritage in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens for its historic interest and the mortuary chapels and other structures are listed buildings. It is the largest municipal cemetery in the United Kingdom.
Transport
In the 19th century, public transport was provided by the railway through the southern suburbs of Manchester and horse buses from Chorlton Green towards Manchester city centre. In the early 20th century the electric tramway reached Chorlton. Mauldeth Road West's dual-carriageway had a central strip intended for use as a double-track for electric trams. Trams remained in service until January 1949. Passenger railway services ended in 1967 when Chorlton-cum-Hardy station closed.
Most bus services are operated by Stagecoach Manchester on high-frequency services into the city centre.
From 1992 conversion of the former railway line through Chorlton to a Metrolink line was planned, but failed to secure funding. Work started in 2010, and the line opened on 7 July 2011, providing residents with a rail journey into the city centre for the first time in 44 years. The tram stop is on the site of the old railway station. Services terminated one stop further south at St Werburgh's Road, on the site of the old Chorlton Junction signal box, but in 2013 services were extended to East Didsbury and in November 2014 to Manchester Airport
Religion
Since 1847 Chorlton has been in the Anglican Diocese of Manchester and Archdeaconry of Manchester; and since 1850, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salford. Between 1541 and 1847 it was in the Diocese of Chester and before that the Diocese of Lichfield and Coventry. In medieval times the parish church was the Collegiate Church in Manchester, dependent on which was the chapel of ease at Didsbury.
A timber-framed chapel dedicated to St Clement provided by the Barlow family in 1512 was used until 1779 when it was replaced by a brick chapel, probably on the same site. (Its Grade II listed gatehouse and bell turret remain at Chorlton Green.) Chorlton was designated a parish in 1839 and by 1860 the chapel was deemed inadequate for the expanding population. Lord Egerton provided land for a replacement but not all parishioners supported the proposal and the old chapel remained after the new church was completed in 1866. After the old chapel was demolished in 1949 St Clement's Church became the parish church.
In 1898 a new parish was established consisting of part of St Clement's parish and some others. The foundation stone of St Werburgh's Church was laid on 5 November 1899, its chancel and transepts dedicated in 1900, it was completed and opened on 1 June 1902 and consecrated 15 July 1902.
A Methodist chapel was built in about 1805 and replaced by a larger building in 1827. It moved to Manchester Road in 1873 when the neo-Gothic chapel was built. It has a memorial to those who lost their lives in the First World War in the grounds. Manley Park Methodist Church was established in a tin tabernacle in 1905. The present building opened in 1910. A smaller chapel was used by Welsh Methodists. A Congregational Chapel opened in 1883 was replaced in 1894 and became the United Reformed Church, the MacFadyen Memorial Church, but was demolished and its congregation meets in the church hall. Other denominations established churches: the Unitarians in Wilbraham Road in 1901; the Macpherson Memorial Primitive Methodist Church was built in 1896 and enlarged in 1908; the Baptist Maclaren Memorial Church in 1907; the Presbyterians in 1908; and the Emmanuel Free Church in 1909. The Unitarian and Baptist Chapels have been demolished, although their congregations are still in existence. The Congregationalists and Baptists have joined the United Reformed Church in the former Congregational church hall. Chorlton Evangelical Church (founded 1930) meets at Ivygreen Road; its present building was opened in 1951.
A Roman Catholic mission began in 1892 at St Peter's Chapel in Barlow Moor Road and another was established at St. Augustine's in High Lane. A new church was built in 1927 when the parish became St. John's. St Ambrose of Milan was founded in 1932 at Barlow Moor and new church opened in 1958. The architects were Reynolds & Stone. Its dedication to St Ambrose of Milan was chosen because St Ambrose Barlow's birthplace was in the parish.
The present-day population includes many Muslims, mostly of south Asian origin. There are mosques in Whalley Range and an Islamic high school for girls in Chorlton.
There are small numbers of Buddhists: one congregation uses the former Primitive Methodist Chapel and another, the Vairochana Buddhist Centre. The oldest, founded 1975, belongs to the Kagyu Ling school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Manchester Centre for Buddhist Meditation, High Lane, Chorlton, was used by the UK Samatha Association from the 1980s and established as such after its purchase by the Association. This centre supports local Buddhist meditation in the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
Education
Sir Nicholas Mosley of Hough End Hall who died in 1612, left £100, £5 a year for 20 years, to pay for a schoolmaster at Chorlton Chapel. The Wesleyan Methodists began a Sunday school and day school in about 1810, whereas the Anglican Sunday school did not begin until a later date. In 1845 the Rev. William Birley was responsible for building a Church School at Chorlton Green. When the building was found to be inadequate it was replaced by a new school on the site in 1879. A number of private schools existed in the late 19th century including C. C. Dadley's grammar school and Tom Mostyn's art school. In 1898 a school was under construction for the Roman Catholic parish of St Augustine and in 1901 a new church school was built at St Clement's Road and the old building was used for infants and juniors until this was no longer necessary. In 1904, when Chorlton was incorporated into Manchester, a municipal school was opened and moved to its permanent premises in Oswald Road in 1909.
The secondary schools in Chorlton are Loreto High School, CHS South and Chorlton High School. Chorlton High School, formerly Chorlton Grammar School, opened in 1925.
Sport and recreation
In the early 19th century bull-baiting, badger-baiting and cockfighting were popular but were outlawed by an Act of Parliament of 1835 and the last bull-baiting in Chorlton is recorded the same year. Prize-fighting, horse and foot racing, and wrestling took place on the meadows and led to disorder. If the forces of law and order appeared participants and spectators could escape across the Mersey into Cheshire and continue their sport. Horse races are said to have been held on land now part of Chorlton Park in the 16th century.
After the Second World War the Chorltonville owners' committee sold the recreation area and tennis courts which were absorbed into gardens of adjoining houses, and the rest became a football ground, now owned by West Didsbury & Chorlton A.F.C.
Broughton Park RUFC which was established in 1882 in Salford, moved to Hough End in 2004.
South West Manchester Cricket Club, one of the oldest in the Manchester area, are members of the Saddleworth & District Cricket League: the ground is at Ellesmere Road North, the old clubhouse is what was Hobson's Hall Farm. Chorlton-cum-Hardy Cricket Club is based at Hardy Lane.
An area of what is now Chorlton Park was used many centuries ago for horse racing. As a public park, it dates from 1928: there are gardens, many trees, and recreational facilities. The Recreation Ground, Beech Park, was opened in 1896, donated to the community by Lord Egerton.
Longford Park also is the home of Trafford Athletics Club. There is a synthetic six-lane track that is used heavily in the summer for regional competitions and British Milers' Club meets. Below the main stand is Longfords Gym, run in association with the Athletics Club. There is an 18-hole free to play disc golf course, community football pitches and all-weather tennis courts.
The first part of the Chorlton Cycleway has been delivered with Dutch-style junctions.
Culture
A number of poets and minor publishers of poetry were active in the late 20th century and a poetry group meets at Chorlton Library. There are three amateur dramatic societies that rehearse and perform in Chorlton.
The Beech Road Festival took place on Beech Road, Beech Road Park and Chorlton Green in June or July, with commercial and educational stalls, entertainments and live music and a tug-of-war competition. The festival first began in 1991, when two regulars from the Bowling Green Hotel came up with idea of hiring an articulated truck, a sound system and some generators for local acts Rattle 'n' Reel, Hectors House and Toss The Feathers to play on the August bank holiday Sunday on the rec (Beech Road Park), there was a good crowd and the first tug-of-war competition. Unfortunately, it has not taken place since 2011, when a combination of sunny weather and good social media marketing meant the event was attended by an unexpectedly large crowd estimated at 20,000 people, leading to a number of incidents which threatened to overstretch the modest police presence of eight officers at the event. As a result, The Association of Beech Road Traders – the organisation which ran the festival in order to raise money for nearby Beech Road Park – made the unanimous decision to cancel the festival indefinitely.
The Unity Festival takes place in Chorlton Park, encouraging racial and cultural unity and provides a platform for performances by dancers, musicians and singers. Chorlton Big Green Festival takes place in late March/April combining live music, dancing, food, real ale, cider, arts and crafts, workshops, cycling and films. It aims to encourage sustainable living and has a different theme each year.
The Chorlton Arts Festival in May generally features a programme of events over nine days; in 2020, it was shifted to online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Chorlton Book Festival takes place over two weeks in the autumn. Chorlton takes part in the Manchester Food & Drink Festival in early October, and in 2013 the inaugural Chorlton Coffee Festival was held in June.
Cinemas and dance halls
Several cinemas opened in the first half of the 20th century. The first was the Chorlton Pavilion bought by H. D. Moorhouse in 1909 followed by the Palais de Luxe in 1915. It closed in 1958. The Rivoli opened on Barlow Moor Road in 1936 and changed its name several times to the Essoldo, the Classic and the Shalimar before closing in the 1980s. Likewise, the Majestic on Manchester Road had several names, the Savoy, the ABC and the Gaumont. There are no remaining cinemas in Chorlton, with the nearest being situated in Manchester city centre, East Didsbury or at the nearby Trafford Centre.
The Chorlton Palais de Danse in Barlow Moor Road became a nightclub before the site was redeveloped.
Creative and performing arts
Until October 2009 Chorlton was the location for the Cosgrove Hall animation studios where the children's series Chorlton and the Wheelies, Jamie and the Magic Torch, The BFG, The Wind in the Willows, Cockleshell Bay, Lavender Castle, Danger Mouse and Count Duckula were created. The area is used by film crews for TV locations, such as The Second Coming, as it retains much of its original Victorian architecture. White Van Man used several Chorlton locations and was shown on BBC3 Television in 2010.
Chorlton Cum-Hardy was also the home to Bulman a British television crime drama series from 1985 to 1987 created by Murray Smith
Public services
Policing in Chorlton-cum-Hardy is the responsibility of the Greater Manchester Police (GMP); the suburb is in the GMP's South Manchester Division. Chorlton Police Station was situated on Barlow Moor Road, between Beech Road and the bus station, until it closed in October 2011. The first police station was established in Beech Road in 1885 by the Lancashire Constabulary and was replaced by the one, now closed, on Barlow Moor Road in the 1960s.
Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority.
In popular culture
In the final episode (number 7) of the first series of the BBC situation comedy The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin the character Martin Welbourne (a thinly-veiled alias of the supposedly deceased Reginald Perrin) explained his lack of any items of his family history by saying "they were all burned in a gas mains explosion in Chorlton-cum-Hardy".
The Cuckoo Waltz was also nominally set in Chorlton-cum-Hardy referenced in certain episodes The Cuckoo Waltz series starred Diane Keen, David Roper & Lewis Collins
Notable people
George Arthurs (1875–1944), librettist and songwriter
Sir Matt Busby, (1909–1994) lived at 214 Kings Road Chorlton-cum-Hardy for over 30 years. He was the manager of Manchester United F.C.
Quentin Crisp, author, raconteur and notable gay icon died in Chorlton in 1999, while visiting the UK on the eve of performing his one-man show, and was cremated at Southern Cemetery.
Alderman James Herbert Dawson, one of the promoters of the garden suburb at Chorltonville, was a long-serving councillor in Manchester and in Lytham St Annes.
Alcock and Brown, the first men to fly across the Atlantic Ocean, were long-term residents, and a house in Oswald Road is marked by a blue plaque in honour of Brown.
Sir Robert Mark, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, began his career with the Manchester City Police. He was born in Chorlton and was resident there until his move to Leicester in 1957.
George Best, footballer, spent ten years on and off lodging at Aycliffe Avenue.
Michael Kennedy (1926–2014), the music critic, author and journalist, was born in Chorlton.
The Bee Gees spent nearly eight years of their childhood living in 51, Keppel Road, Chorlton. In 1958, shortly after the birth of their brother Andy Gibb, who also became a major musical act, they moved to Australia. The street also lent its name to a Bee Gees documentary in 1997.
Damon Gough, professionally known as Badly Drawn Boy, indie songwriter and multi-instrumentalist.
Dr Aneez Esmail, Associate Vice President, University of Manchester. First British Pakistani to hold an executive position at a Russell Group University.
Margaret Lacey (1911–1988), actress, born in Chorlton-cum-Hardy
Charles Wheeler Locke M.B.E. (1908-1980), Chief Warden of Manchester in WW2, lived in Chorlton
Joe Mercer O.B.E. (1914-1990) lived at 71 St Werburghs Road, whilst he managed Manchester City
Other residents have included locally born actor Warren Clarke who lived at 8, Grindley Avenue, and Freddie Garrity (of Freddie and the Dreamers). Actress Doris Speed lived in Sibson Road, and for over twenty years she played Annie Walker, landlady of the Rovers Return in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street. Harry H. Corbett, of Steptoe and Son fame, started out in the Conservative Club's Dramatic Society. Harry Goodwin is known for his photographs of pop musicians and sports personalities. He was the resident photographer of the BBC Television programme Top of the Pops from its inception in 1964 until 1973. In 2007 Yoko Ono opened a permanent exhibit of Goodwin's photographs at Liverpool John Lennon Airport. This happened because Neil Pakey found some of Goodwin's photographs on display in a local barber's.
Brian Cosgrove, he and his business partner, Mark Hall founded the popular iconic animation studio Cosgrove Hall Films for Thames Television, a franchise holder of ITV, in this place.
See also
Listed buildings in Manchester-M21
Merseybank
Parks and open spaces in Chorlton-cum-Hardy
Notes
References
Bibliography
Burton, Nick (ed.) Chorlton cum Hardy and Stretford, 1905. (Old Ordnance Survey maps. Lancashire sheet 111.10.) Gateshead: Alan Godfrey (includes historical survey and extracts from Slater's directory, 1910)
Further reading
External links
Chorlton Civic Society
Original Chorltonville Brochure
Old photographs of Chorlton
Chorlton cum Hardy local history
Ward maps
Areas of Manchester
Irish diaspora in England
Manchester City Council Wards | [
-0.3209081292152405,
0.5692897439002991,
0.47941532731056213,
-0.8171902894973755,
-0.1503952592611313,
0.4206840693950653,
0.042223770171403885,
0.2753574252128601,
0.26319944858551025,
-0.04077233746647835,
-0.8106154203414917,
-0.07053215056657791,
-0.12581467628479004,
0.31332337856292725,
-0.6820188760757446,
0.09679637104272842,
-0.3643872141838074,
0.5395427346229553,
0.12152722477912903,
-0.5317041277885437,
0.24379077553749084,
-0.8868376016616821,
-0.5779061913490295,
0.5170155763626099,
0.17393968999385834,
-0.1285238415002823,
0.5783299207687378,
-0.5421605706214905,
-0.1665319949388504,
-0.15019090473651886,
0.12481154501438141,
0.5495151281356812,
-0.07796387374401093,
-0.8273652791976929,
0.3088975250720978,
-0.008759310469031334,
0.5527730584144592,
-0.19367104768753052,
-0.06607646495103836,
-0.6477810740470886,
-0.3492930233478546,
-0.10645768791437149,
0.08807139098644257,
-0.4086343050003052,
-0.20538730919361115,
-0.6351872682571411,
-1.2512290477752686,
0.22707216441631317,
-1.0370386838912964,
-0.5232224464416504,
-0.6615694165229797,
0.5196226835250854,
0.023365873843431473,
-0.2439395934343338,
0.905767560005188,
0.6089287996292114,
-0.31080004572868347,
-0.0852494165301323,
1.1407256126403809,
0.42378291487693787,
-0.01925012469291687,
0.1552814543247223,
-0.314623087644577,
-0.44534698128700256,
0.19440218806266785,
0.4021419286727905,
-0.17096540331840515,
0.7165194749832153,
-0.447492390871048,
-1.073364496231079,
-0.32463759183883667,
-0.5915712714195251,
0.5119410753250122,
0.8149902820587158,
-0.6020143032073975,
-0.0847853496670723,
-0.3928408622741699,
-0.020058713853359222,
0.3167670965194702,
0.2813582122325897,
-0.1288728266954422,
0.23232337832450867,
0.43529969453811646,
0.20530229806900024,
0.8314356803894043,
0.21516481041908264,
-0.6084586381912231,
0.09047965705394745,
-0.4018232226371765,
0.9430145621299744,
-0.6980616450309753,
0.2754049301147461,
-0.17911890149116516,
-0.007451050914824009,
0.00048319451161660254,
-0.07796286791563034,
0.2713167667388916,
-0.11349982023239136,
-0.10321330279111862,
0.4592997431755066,
-0.8686597347259521,
0.7679774761199951,
0.28048548102378845,
-0.19889713823795319,
-0.6994481682777405,
-0.08552335202693939,
-0.8564959168434143,
-0.6720708608627319,
0.8022667765617371,
-0.20569652318954468,
-0.7185131311416626,
0.2934885621070862,
-0.5019999146461487,
-0.06915035843849182,
-0.31229260563850403,
0.24803848564624786,
0.022792186588048935,
-0.45579537749290466,
-0.17907015979290009,
0.38008609414100647,
0.04539090394973755,
0.9526615142822266,
0.0481579415500164,
-0.014701136387884617,
-0.5341194868087769,
0.21719294786453247,
-0.1603190004825592,
0.7315825819969177,
0.04868308827280998,
0.657375693321228,
0.1480298936367035,
1.3475724458694458,
-0.20926786959171295,
-0.10737420618534088,
0.3908037841320038,
-1.028537392616272,
0.005086283199489117,
0.1459561288356781,
0.5570245385169983,
0.35946378111839294,
-0.6466811895370483,
0.350311815738678,
0.4203305244445801,
-0.11934076994657516,
0.06741110235452652,
-0.45007526874542236,
-0.40833017230033875,
-0.6279579997062683,
-0.13568523526191711,
-0.709075391292572,
0.7972939014434814,
0.25137147307395935,
-0.18406859040260315,
-0.5160930156707764,
-0.36299964785575867,
0.10444758832454681,
0.9366189241409302,
0.25272470712661743,
0.10286165028810501,
0.28552475571632385,
0.06589260697364807,
-0.06252823770046234,
0.7168227434158325,
-0.36027246713638306,
0.16718335449695587,
-0.006936030928045511,
0.6227487921714783,
-0.10203765332698822,
0.23901638388633728,
1.0152748823165894,
-1.2975389957427979,
-0.681412935256958,
1.1428519487380981,
0.03828324005007744,
0.21846145391464233,
-0.24332930147647858,
1.0088223218917847,
0.7187289595603943,
0.4261220395565033,
-0.5257992148399353,
-0.6381136178970337,
0.27949824929237366,
0.4788101017475128,
0.4552740156650543,
0.21995604038238525,
0.016888856887817383,
0.1340944468975067,
0.27610477805137634,
-0.19500626623630524,
-0.02812466211616993,
-0.055121660232543945,
-0.5284807085990906,
0.6876160502433777,
-0.15161441266536713,
0.9673885703086853,
0.24771805107593536,
0.22557353973388672,
-0.14731058478355408,
-0.2782163619995117,
0.9246548414230347,
-0.32988083362579346,
-0.5470126271247864,
0.5615381002426147,
-0.3810305893421173,
-0.2356472760438919,
-0.007537381257861853,
0.6464846730232239,
-0.2546707093715668,
-0.03190344199538231,
0.14566873013973236,
-0.3737127184867859,
-0.8323206305503845,
0.08793680369853973,
0.4301268756389618,
-0.0806257575750351,
-0.38869667053222656,
-0.4342637360095978,
0.07611063867807388,
0.3393480181694031,
-1.194109559059143,
0.08066067099571228,
0.592815637588501,
0.3126184642314911,
-0.15747159719467163,
-0.17026562988758087,
0.8853633403778076,
0.278592586517334,
0.06004932522773743,
-0.07913602888584137,
0.04848815128207207,
0.025144899263978004,
1.033321738243103,
-0.08138890564441681,
-0.37568676471710205,
-0.5475530028343201,
-0.7219233512878418,
-0.14959773421287537,
-1.1880165338516235,
0.13770024478435516,
-0.7763261198997498,
-0.1812765747308731,
0.5412766337394714,
-0.5905929207801819,
0.07149208337068558,
0.010246725752949715,
0.668334424495697,
-0.17498503625392914,
0.39192596077919006,
0.12030268460512161,
-0.23602445423603058,
0.07057815790176392,
0.5857707262039185,
0.22782199084758759,
0.14664196968078613,
0.16536688804626465,
-0.15569770336151123,
-0.2593192458152771,
0.8824898600578308,
0.5369778275489807,
0.489215612411499,
-0.583498477935791,
-0.1348888874053955,
-0.22683198750019073,
0.367581844329834,
-0.12488671392202377,
-0.5357204079627991,
-0.26479989290237427,
-0.3923324942588806,
0.6713858246803284,
-0.32815423607826233,
-0.18143020570278168,
-0.5878690481185913,
-0.21433188021183014,
0.5938746929168701,
-0.033421341329813004,
-0.0325658805668354,
0.009653262794017792,
-0.1377023458480835,
-0.4483084976673126,
-0.06802083551883698,
0.5916671752929688,
1.0359736680984497,
-0.2992512881755829,
-0.17199020087718964,
0.13628117740154266,
-0.09705324470996857,
0.35030683875083923,
-0.16197332739830017,
-0.4746944308280945,
-0.4621506333351135,
-0.30282115936279297,
0.2789754867553711,
-0.6154332160949707,
1.2581135034561157,
-0.4089112877845764,
0.3334624767303467,
-0.3672507405281067,
-0.6527040004730225,
0.5537495613098145,
-0.2669956386089325,
-0.16373631358146667,
0.3238808810710907,
-0.2928697466850281,
0.010922931134700775,
-0.2404196560382843,
-0.32906946539878845,
0.011775421909987926,
-0.5308892726898193,
-4.6626296043396,
0.8583164215087891,
-0.5405031442642212,
-0.1322454959154129,
0.49292826652526855,
0.20048099756240845,
0.1543339192867279,
-0.572410523891449,
-0.555612325668335,
0.33166247606277466,
-0.2535436153411865,
-0.4892446994781494,
-0.24159611761569977,
-0.03823770955204964,
1.246416449546814,
0.6323522925376892,
0.24890288710594177,
0.3696897029876709,
0.60064297914505,
-0.2642590403556824,
-0.1625508964061737,
0.1738821268081665,
-0.2615853250026703,
0.257149338722229,
0.46982067823410034,
0.04416947811841965,
-0.28155574202537537,
-0.04866344481706619,
-1.0995172262191772,
-0.6114768981933594,
0.5825721025466919,
0.2712295353412628,
-0.07385578751564026,
0.1079750657081604,
-0.36458253860473633,
0.7474925518035889,
0.2617054879665375,
0.003155187936499715,
0.6630145311355591,
-0.6532095074653625,
0.21494905650615692,
0.68393874168396,
-0.38862669467926025,
-0.6554539799690247,
0.9511277675628662,
-0.5996469259262085,
-1.0934314727783203,
0.2772333323955536,
-0.3077048659324646,
0.872563362121582,
-0.052191589027643204,
0.12046144157648087,
0.2683752775192261,
-0.00220182235352695,
-0.6399311423301697,
-0.16994532942771912,
1.1124107837677002,
-0.3918345868587494,
-0.5376047492027283,
0.5693507194519043,
0.4804823696613312,
-0.42350494861602783,
-0.39763930439949036,
0.16068777441978455,
-0.27021244168281555,
-0.6213998198509216,
0.13226036727428436,
-0.060350604355335236,
0.2902253270149231,
-0.029841242358088493,
-0.4402727484703064,
0.6300182342529297,
-0.08529020100831985,
-0.8214099407196045,
-0.6112679839134216,
-0.9858114123344421,
-0.6065146327018738,
0.03994914889335632,
0.08831890672445297,
0.5866345167160034,
0.321169376373291,
-0.9972455501556396,
0.11555316299200058,
0.7910141944885254,
-0.14167113602161407,
-0.612375020980835,
-0.6054514646530151,
0.020360367372632027,
-0.09734542667865753,
-0.887732982635498,
0.19366924464702606,
-1.0324937105178833,
0.23822279274463654,
-0.12979678809642792,
-0.4415760338306427,
0.27502569556236267,
-0.04728258028626442,
-0.006689139641821384,
-0.5755579471588135,
-0.06262189149856567,
0.16813687980175018,
-0.43956029415130615,
-0.246256485581398,
-0.047987211495637894,
-0.19387187063694,
-0.9304319024085999,
-0.09732659161090851,
0.6888219714164734,
0.644334614276886,
-0.32654809951782227,
0.3190043270587921,
0.30988800525665283,
-0.5037472248077393,
-0.40613073110580444,
0.3925376832485199,
0.1656738817691803,
-0.7211650013923645,
0.18612578511238098,
0.05079664662480354,
0.27202534675598145,
-0.06438913196325302,
-0.19845104217529297,
-0.11445066332817078,
0.27070289850234985,
-0.4576297700405121,
-0.3538784384727478,
0.8036792874336243,
0.5051047205924988,
-0.38439998030662537,
0.42840689420700073,
-0.033089779317379,
0.21668343245983124,
-0.6294659376144409,
-0.5071670413017273,
-0.7734461426734924,
-0.07709377259016037,
-0.5925005674362183,
-0.6183574795722961,
-0.129598930478096,
0.6469331979751587,
1.069061517715454,
0.4659348130226135,
0.009178929030895233,
0.40854185819625854,
0.06273910403251648,
0.48464876413345337,
0.3883713483810425,
0.23210956156253815,
-1.290090560913086,
-0.21457628905773163,
-0.3835698068141937,
-0.06424343585968018,
-0.7827936410903931,
-0.7527914047241211,
0.5394807457923889,
-0.18386942148208618,
0.12230344861745834,
0.658894956111908,
0.23931948840618134,
-0.6050944328308105,
-0.3285745084285736,
0.5271632671356201,
-0.6043946146965027,
0.1527632176876068,
0.3536241054534912,
-0.5344695448875427,
-0.08821707218885422,
-0.3805377781391144,
-0.6028473973274231,
0.2828046381473541,
0.16264811158180237,
-0.3020375370979309,
-0.5506905913352966,
-0.30566656589508057,
0.09469474107027054,
-0.04064125567674637,
-0.08362647891044617,
-0.013306739740073681,
-0.2355562001466751,
-0.24703745543956757,
0.12404332309961319,
-0.32238030433654785,
-0.05762505903840065,
0.2549755573272705,
0.5587288737297058,
-0.4499494731426239,
-0.9274478554725647,
-0.48822692036628723,
-0.13029417395591736,
-0.5892533659934998,
0.31889477372169495,
-0.5284640789031982,
0.5413561463356018,
0.5070728659629822,
0.21252603828907013,
-1.109843373298645,
0.4594537615776062,
-0.04453512281179428,
0.20899251103401184,
-0.8393405675888062,
-0.5065298080444336,
0.6844484210014343,
-0.43061956763267517,
0.9460001587867737,
0.8072335720062256,
-0.9691636562347412,
-0.06328898668289185,
0.42287155985832214,
-0.7222992777824402,
0.6884708404541016,
-0.5361210703849792,
-0.9381597638130188,
0.6923261284828186,
0.39745980501174927,
-0.6374962329864502,
-0.0748206377029419,
-0.13083864748477936,
-0.011782996356487274,
-0.44945186376571655,
-0.12833555042743683,
-0.384542316198349,
0.011440026573836803,
-0.34001538157463074,
-0.5599222779273987,
-0.6756898164749146,
0.09163025766611099,
0.2436472475528717,
-0.6691299080848694,
0.8773542046546936,
-0.1701933741569519,
-0.04350545257329941,
0.28019991517066956,
0.7648844122886658,
0.25801941752433777,
0.09344086050987244,
0.5325784087181091,
-0.3565713167190552,
-0.16652189195156097,
0.7645225524902344,
0.04435103014111519,
0.8522287011146545,
0.5873907208442688,
0.40817269682884216,
-0.5178789496421814,
-0.3257094919681549,
0.23284290730953217,
0.6885519027709961,
-0.1143268272280693,
-1.1561564207077026,
0.44247040152549744,
0.3350876569747925,
-0.5896032452583313,
0.09490759670734406,
-0.32025179266929626,
0.3813301622867584,
-0.20240533351898193,
-0.14475557208061218,
0.2516896426677704,
0.3447910249233246,
0.4475364685058594,
0.680842399597168,
-0.11619803309440613,
0.3798479437828064,
0.855578601360321,
0.29408955574035645,
-0.1472882777452469,
0.4803158640861511,
-0.25527673959732056,
0.6903877854347229,
-0.8128803372383118,
-0.6455127000808716,
0.0279945470392704,
-0.33365368843078613,
0.11598425358533859,
0.09301652759313583,
-0.17667602002620697,
0.6716817617416382,
-1.0591001510620117,
-0.10888928920030594,
-0.7496952414512634,
0.059663910418748856,
-0.16314439475536346,
0.5266927480697632,
-0.49581828713417053,
-0.20404885709285736,
-0.509732723236084,
0.10696840286254883,
0.10882429778575897,
-0.7317054271697998,
0.4307696521282196,
-0.5759961009025574,
-0.06988832354545593,
-0.17678728699684143,
-0.41154757142066956,
0.13307170569896698,
0.35381636023521423,
0.09511160850524902,
-0.04401199519634247,
0.11650127917528152,
-0.46847665309906006,
-1.083052396774292,
1.165969729423523,
-0.3759804368019104,
-0.46669402718544006,
-0.0036935738753527403,
0.41777700185775757,
-0.2441096156835556,
0.009024466387927532,
0.16085585951805115,
0.1480879932641983,
-0.3337235450744629,
0.5338050723075867,
0.39980411529541016,
1.4850780963897705,
-0.4435673654079437,
-0.43008142709732056,
0.30288469791412354,
-0.4183221459388733,
0.2770983874797821,
0.9711388349533081,
-0.1388913094997406,
-0.23354372382164001,
0.8927955031394958,
0.7361561059951782,
-0.21850867569446564,
1.0248323678970337,
-0.3496145009994507,
-0.3286302089691162,
-0.21196581423282623,
0.49426743388175964,
-0.14634042978286743,
-0.43887266516685486,
-0.7082049250602722,
0.7666662931442261,
-0.2249850630760193,
-0.6494258642196655,
0.2582203149795532,
0.10430561751127243,
-0.03561893850564957,
-0.05877074971795082,
-0.1878637671470642,
0.2978372871875763,
0.2047245055437088,
-0.08704031258821487,
-0.5106123685836792,
-0.443861186504364,
-0.08381731808185577,
0.14519621431827545,
0.07625972479581833,
-0.31266799569129944,
0.22422686219215393,
0.0035136076621711254,
-0.07620245963335037,
-0.15499326586723328,
0.22662384808063507,
-0.2637944519519806,
0.28677308559417725,
0.021304111927747726,
-0.9429012537002563,
0.6232263445854187,
0.09027206897735596,
0.2789151668548584,
0.10828039050102234,
-0.22637027502059937,
0.10231475532054901,
-0.4163788855075836,
0.38865867257118225,
-0.7186021208763123,
-0.38086065649986267,
0.7776457667350769,
0.2809455692768097,
0.5132083892822266,
0.1812477856874466,
0.02601655200123787,
0.5225768685340881,
-0.13432355225086212,
-0.04869476333260536,
0.742229700088501,
-0.03406573086977005,
-0.1015726625919342,
0.31012922525405884,
0.46539050340652466,
0.3109271824359894,
-0.4579429626464844,
0.9819483757019043,
-0.2802751660346985,
-0.2662219703197479,
0.005083849187940359,
-1.018873691558838,
-0.482984334230423,
0.21715646982192993,
0.0023560624103993177,
0.08563828468322754,
0.3556634187698364,
-0.7050953507423401,
0.1535920351743698,
-0.2669707238674164,
1.0989351272583008,
0.8200763463973999,
0.21447600424289703,
0.2546270489692688,
0.5950457453727722,
-0.25981178879737854,
0.17690862715244293,
-0.016154563054442406,
0.20932161808013916,
-0.8213462829589844,
-0.27186319231987,
-0.30943652987480164,
0.9662761092185974,
0.1864219456911087,
-0.004335824400186539,
0.12907558679580688,
0.5012922883033752,
-0.08464215695858002,
0.6062909364700317,
0.041528310626745224,
-0.06253709644079208,
-0.14249911904335022,
-0.7663243412971497,
0.6854977607727051,
0.09838958084583282,
0.7064794898033142,
0.27817675471305847,
0.1916818618774414,
-0.459850013256073,
0.060130488127470016,
0.06186385080218315,
-0.3267388343811035,
0.5968071222305298,
-0.021322041749954224,
0.4398178160190582,
-0.37111538648605347,
0.308228999376297,
-0.22240257263183594,
0.01636861078441143,
-0.009636362083256245,
1.0054014921188354,
0.05279931426048279,
0.21408753097057343,
-0.39670616388320923,
-0.7291936278343201,
0.4733869731426239,
0.34810781478881836,
0.6384963393211365,
0.6912062168121338,
-0.6387459635734558,
-0.301366925239563,
-0.5083054304122925,
0.33676689863204956,
0.22415199875831604,
0.08102606981992722,
0.2560468912124634,
-0.19135510921478271,
0.34413832426071167,
-0.3611131012439728,
-0.15560592710971832,
-1.0036007165908813,
0.16897009313106537,
0.534472644329071
] |
234844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tak%C3%A1cs%20Quartet | Takács Quartet | The Takács Quartet is a string quartet, founded in Budapest, Hungary, and now based in Boulder, Colorado, United States.
History
In 1975, four students at the Music Academy in Budapest, Gábor Takács-Nagy (first violin), Károly Schranz (second violin), Gábor Ormai (viola), and András Fejér (cello) formed The Takács Quartet. According to their own story, Takács-Nagy, Ormai and Fejér had been playing trios together for several months when they met Schranz during a pickup soccer game after classes. With the immediate addition of Károly to their group the trio became a quartet.
They first received international attention in 1977, winning the First Prize and the Critics' Prize at the International String Quartet Competition in Évian-les-Bains, France. After that the quartet won the Gold Medal at the 1979 Portsmouth and Bordeaux Competitions and First Prizes at the Budapest International String Quartet Competition in 1978 and the Bratislava Competition in 1981. The quartet made its first North American tour in 1982.
In 1983, the group decided it would be best for them and their families if they moved to the United States. A colleague offered them a position as quartet-in-residence at the University of Colorado at Boulder, and they accepted the job.
In 1993, Takács-Nagy left the group, and the British violinist Edward Dusinberre replaced him. In 1994, Ormai learned that he had incurable cancer, and was replaced by another British musician, violist Roger Tapping. Following these changes, the quartet embarked on a successful series of recordings: a cycle of all six Bartók quartets (dedicated to the memory of Ormai, who died in 1995) and a critically acclaimed complete Beethoven quartet cycle, as well as quartets by Smetana and Borodin.
In 2005, following the completion of the Beethoven cycle, Tapping retired from the group to spend more time with his family. He currently teaches chamber music at New England Conservatory. His replacement was Geraldine Walther, an American violist who had up until then been the principal violist of the San Francisco Symphony. The members of the quartet as well as the critics have remarked on how quickly she fitted into the ensemble.
Also in 2005, the quartet became associate artists at the South Bank Centre. In 2006, they released their first recording with Walther, Schubert's Rosamunde and Death and the Maiden quartets to critical acclaim. This was also their first recording with Hyperion Records, after switching from the Decca label.
Second violinist Károly Schranz retired from the quartet in April 2018 and was replaced by Colorado University faculty member Harumi Rhodes.
In the fall of 2019, violist Walther announced her retirement from the quartet. She was replaced in May 2020 by Korean-American violist Richard O'Neill.
Current members
Edward Dusinberre, first violin (since 1993)
Harumi Rhodes, second violin (since 2018)
Richard O'Neill, viola (since 2020)
András Fejér, cello (original member)
Past members
Gábor Takács-Nagy, first violin (1975–1993)
Gábor Ormai, viola (1975–1994)
Roger Tapping, viola (1994–2005)
Geraldine Walther, viola (2005–2020)
Károly Schranz, second violin (1975–2018)
Awards and recognition
Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance: Andrew Keener (producer), Simon Dominic Eadon (engineer) and the Takács Quartet for Beethoven: String Quartets ("Razumovsky" Op. 59, 1–3; "Harp" Op. 74) (2003)
The quartet "has been recording the complete Beethoven quartets, and their survey, now complete, stands as the most richly expressive modern account of this titanic cycle." (Alex Ross, writing in The New Yorker, February 6, 2006).
The Takács Quartet's interpretation of Bartók's six string quartets has been met with praise.
The Takács has been nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance for their recording of Brahms String Quartet, Op. 51, No. 2 on the Hyperion label.
In March 2010 the Quartet was honored for Excellence in Research and Creative Work by the Boulder Faculty Assembly at the University of Colorado at Boulder.
Selected discography
Bartók: The Six String Quartets (Decca 289 455 297-2) (1998). Gramophone Award Winner, Best Chamber Music Recording
Beethoven: The Early Quartets: Op. 18, Nos. 1–6 (Decca 000186402) (2004)
Beethoven: The Late Quartets: Op. 95; Op. 127; Op. 130; Op. 131; Op. 132; Op. 133; Op. 135 (Decca 000387502) (2005)
Beethoven: The three "Rasumovsky" Quartets, Op. 59; the "Harp" Quartet, Op. 74 (Decca 470 847-2 3 DH2) (2002). Grammy Award Winner, Best Chamber Music Recording & Gramophone Award Winner, Best Chamber Music Recording
Borodin: String Quartet No. 2 in D Major (Decca 452 239-2)
Brahms: String Quartets Op. 51, Nos. 1 and 2 (Decca 425 526-2) (2003)
Brahms: String Quartet, Op. 67; Piano Quintet Op. 34 with András Schiff (Decca 430 529-2)
Chausson: Concert for piano, violin and string quartet in D major, Op. 21 with Joshua Bell and Jean-Yves Thibaudet (Decca 000444702) (2005)
Dvořák: String Quartet Op. 96 "American"; String Quartet, Op. 105; Five Bagatelles (Decca 47430 077-2)
Dvořák: String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 51; Piano Quintet in A Major, Op. 81 with Andreas Haefliger (Decca 289 66197-2) (1999)
Haydn: String Quartets Op. 76, Nos. 1–3 (Decca 421 360-2)
Haydn: String Quartets Op. 76, Nos. 4–6 (Decca 425 467-2)
Haydn: String Quartets Op. 77, Nos. 1 and 2; String Quartet, Op. 103 (Decca 430 199-2)
Mozart: String Quintet in C Major, K. 515; String Quintet in G minor, K. 516; Adagio and Fugue in C minor, K. 546 with György Pauk (Decca 430 772-2) (1993)
Schubert: String Quartet in A minor, D. 804 Rosamunde; String Quartet in D minor D. 810 Death and the Maiden (Decca 436 843-2) (1993)
Schubert: String Quartet in A minor, D. 804 Rosamunde; String Quartet in D minor D. 810 Death and the Maiden (Hyperion CDA67585) (2006)
Schubert: String Quintet in C Major, D. 956 (with Miklós Perényi); Quartettsatz in C minor, D. 703 (Decca 436 324-2)
Schubert: String Quartet in G Major D. 887; Notturno with Andreas Haefliger, (Decca 452 854-2) (2003)
Smetana: String Quartet No. 1 in E minor "From My Life" (Decca 452 239-2) (2003)
Smetana: String Quartet No. 1 in E minor "From My Life" & Janáček, String Quartets No. 1 ("The Kreutzer Sonata") and No. 2 ("Intimate Letters"); Hypérion A67997 (2015)
References
Selected concert reviews
Review from Wigmore Hall by Tom Service, The Guardian, 30 November 1999.
Tom Service, review from Wigmore Hall, London, July 2001. The Guardian, 6 July 2001.
Rian Evans, review from Assembly Rooms, Bath. The Guardian, 13 November 2002.
Rian Evans, review from St George's, Bristol. The Guardian, 19 May 2004.
Tom Service, review from Wigmore Hall. The Guardian, 10 May 2005.
George Hall, review from Queen Elizabeth Hall. The Guardian, 15 November 2005.
Review from Queen Elizabeth Hall by Martin Kettle, The Guardian, 26 February 2007.
External links
Faculty biography at University of Colorado
Artist page at Hyperion Records
Artist page at Decca Music Group
NPR: Performance Today – Live in Studio 4A
Musical groups established in 1975
Musical groups from Colorado
Grammy Award winners
Hungarian string quartets
American string quartets
Decca Records artists
1975 establishments in Hungary | [
-0.3062642216682434,
0.41636422276496887,
-0.24268288910388947,
-0.31807568669319153,
-0.10538642853498459,
0.35478508472442627,
0.28068652749061584,
0.23651280999183655,
-0.14306549727916718,
-0.21004582941532135,
-0.5400681495666504,
-0.23629069328308105,
-0.6346755027770996,
0.40177789330482483,
-0.7558894157409668,
-0.2503283619880676,
1.0301768779754639,
0.0488923080265522,
-0.140329971909523,
-0.610700786113739,
0.3778778314590454,
-0.15583129227161407,
0.5398495197296143,
0.15716452896595,
-0.2215469777584076,
0.20623581111431122,
-0.3271328806877136,
0.432524710893631,
0.5597186088562012,
0.07915151864290237,
0.012067302130162716,
1.0526618957519531,
0.08010417968034744,
-0.8297196626663208,
0.02021932601928711,
0.2646949291229248,
0.2801033854484558,
-0.26726794242858887,
0.07622668147087097,
-0.24057894945144653,
0.6195346713066101,
-0.20336773991584778,
0.06324318051338196,
0.5863650441169739,
0.24446092545986176,
-0.8894692063331604,
-1.5389782190322876,
0.4231548309326172,
-0.6780003309249878,
-0.1421758383512497,
-0.15598300099372864,
-0.12739607691764832,
0.7090335488319397,
0.1526760309934616,
-0.24656397104263306,
-0.08737257122993469,
-0.6279669404029846,
-0.1763840913772583,
0.44424960017204285,
0.011606070213019848,
-0.7026392817497253,
0.46503397822380066,
0.4019184708595276,
-0.5540246367454529,
-0.1507861167192459,
-0.0752083957195282,
0.4033302962779999,
0.11360057443380356,
0.22960641980171204,
-0.035179413855075836,
-0.4501606523990631,
0.4682662785053253,
-0.5305849313735962,
-0.44517603516578674,
0.28341493010520935,
-0.370403528213501,
0.2898027002811432,
0.17012253403663635,
0.06434962153434753,
0.715588390827179,
0.5958272814750671,
0.712454080581665,
1.0633236169815063,
0.21870823204517365,
0.5597254633903503,
-0.020267317071557045,
-0.8691028356552124,
-0.2741377651691437,
-0.44036224484443665,
-0.12486850470304489,
-0.35556310415267944,
-0.9844602942466736,
0.528240978717804,
0.5229605436325073,
-0.41308531165122986,
0.1081060916185379,
0.24420972168445587,
0.2824336886405945,
0.173065647482872,
0.05798186734318733,
0.3297821879386902,
-0.02801378443837166,
-0.3314231038093567,
-0.1729993373155594,
-0.4324615001678467,
-0.17973048985004425,
-0.08800189197063446,
-0.14303454756736755,
0.04129774123430252,
-0.1580953299999237,
-0.6145751476287842,
-0.33501434326171875,
0.20256410539150238,
-0.1354767233133316,
0.09179313480854034,
0.38232800364494324,
-0.11378584802150726,
-0.2668471932411194,
-0.38706907629966736,
0.18647900223731995,
0.0051323906518518925,
1.1402854919433594,
0.026348857209086418,
0.6807363629341125,
-0.24102000892162323,
0.37614449858665466,
0.4647751748561859,
0.4950311779975891,
0.05599571391940117,
-0.08427987992763519,
-0.2823677957057953,
0.303124338388443,
0.7384325861930847,
0.072463259100914,
0.4181060194969177,
-0.08790015429258347,
0.1827552616596222,
-0.19245940446853638,
-0.23801051080226898,
0.7437623739242554,
-0.3809954524040222,
-0.16005118191242218,
-0.39075222611427307,
-0.35309532284736633,
0.8909987211227417,
0.1676436960697174,
-0.8314725756645203,
0.10145853459835052,
0.07947920262813568,
-0.26893898844718933,
0.190389022231102,
-0.24067962169647217,
-0.5933508276939392,
0.3827691376209259,
-0.4986730217933655,
0.2010609656572342,
0.29657191038131714,
0.003476540558040142,
0.5377680063247681,
-0.22480934858322144,
0.04393179342150688,
-0.24796056747436523,
-0.04025239497423172,
0.011900423094630241,
-0.4393600523471832,
-0.5099210739135742,
0.22322876751422882,
0.1662658005952835,
-0.4071824550628662,
0.36502018570899963,
-0.48556777834892273,
0.4108864367008209,
0.4271511733531952,
0.2358800619840622,
0.22017303109169006,
-0.2841343283653259,
0.4807928800582886,
0.13361474871635437,
-0.15533483028411865,
-0.0026049381121993065,
-0.7389847636222839,
-0.06005002185702324,
0.1414862722158432,
-0.7337990403175354,
0.6210804581642151,
0.5636330246925354,
0.09580975770950317,
0.20077058672904968,
0.171712726354599,
-0.6923219561576843,
-0.3081362247467041,
-0.525032103061676,
0.4261917173862457,
0.31192249059677124,
1.7792954444885254,
-0.039610736072063446,
-0.5018250942230225,
-0.0647052451968193,
0.17044508457183838,
0.675290584564209,
0.27695968747138977,
-0.3484603762626648,
0.4073430001735687,
-0.22077380120754242,
-0.04607517644762993,
0.029182570055127144,
-0.016336431726813316,
-0.6581520438194275,
0.2585773169994354,
0.36089664697647095,
0.2351202517747879,
-0.45429670810699463,
0.2581593990325928,
0.2784733474254608,
-0.16946379840373993,
-0.4697648882865906,
-0.18784131109714508,
0.3758883476257324,
0.11432850360870361,
0.14680419862270355,
1.189468502998352,
-0.2876546382904053,
0.19417084753513336,
0.21074412763118744,
-0.4186452329158783,
0.9365904927253723,
0.35623589158058167,
0.031117500737309456,
-0.13142724335193634,
0.5289252996444702,
0.3644360899925232,
-0.02177758701145649,
-0.06245678663253784,
-0.49558329582214355,
0.04309609532356262,
0.0018337839283049107,
-0.2061457484960556,
-0.3483967185020447,
0.6447752714157104,
-0.5748231410980225,
0.40028271079063416,
0.37644991278648376,
-0.8569472432136536,
0.5529473423957825,
0.3092804253101349,
-0.010100023820996284,
0.2979128360748291,
-0.023405099287629128,
-0.19003646075725555,
-0.09156415611505508,
-0.3220865726470947,
0.1965533345937729,
0.3033110201358795,
0.035402812063694,
-0.2169804871082306,
0.3738079071044922,
0.5739689469337463,
-0.7658591866493225,
0.2330269068479538,
-0.11825629323720932,
0.04784007370471954,
-0.2027827650308609,
0.6656167507171631,
-0.021042540669441223,
-0.43851932883262634,
-0.4922844469547272,
0.6573252081871033,
-0.7041237950325012,
0.7298456430435181,
-0.6300175786018372,
0.7829651832580566,
-0.242364302277565,
0.0377335287630558,
0.8093218207359314,
-0.7926239967346191,
0.22508613765239716,
-0.6662623286247253,
-0.15940448641777039,
-0.35631898045539856,
-0.6911474466323853,
0.3271336257457733,
0.32940372824668884,
0.11601241677999496,
-0.12106062471866608,
-0.4665389358997345,
0.4258052110671997,
0.14393727481365204,
-0.421367347240448,
0.27226588129997253,
-0.43655768036842346,
-0.052263371646404266,
-0.22201216220855713,
-0.2841798663139343,
0.11750105768442154,
-0.04959998279809952,
0.7076431512832642,
0.09262394160032272,
0.34829434752464294,
0.14813601970672607,
-0.08875812590122223,
-0.6571964621543884,
-0.008884034119546413,
-0.5216434001922607,
0.20289942622184753,
0.17049069702625275,
-0.23845702409744263,
-0.31096193194389343,
-0.011594017967581749,
-5.506667613983154,
0.1568247675895691,
-0.6525174975395203,
0.025512399151921272,
-0.1561003476381302,
0.10153844952583313,
0.771803081035614,
-1.0580312013626099,
0.0036265342496335506,
-0.1051369234919548,
-0.28223177790641785,
0.24538567662239075,
-0.6955476999282837,
0.8885930180549622,
-0.06577277183532715,
0.28259000182151794,
0.21779388189315796,
0.2880791127681732,
0.4715798497200012,
0.3577653765678406,
0.37812507152557373,
-0.5021452307701111,
-0.17357908189296722,
0.25818753242492676,
0.31196409463882446,
0.6591333150863647,
-0.6286625266075134,
0.5641374588012695,
-0.8585431575775146,
-0.25351274013519287,
-0.4263189136981964,
-0.4387095868587494,
-0.4808654189109802,
-0.5358325242996216,
-0.21074597537517548,
0.37589898705482483,
0.7395390868186951,
0.12367597967386246,
0.5738934278488159,
0.3292231261730194,
-0.08528097718954086,
0.23639416694641113,
0.3233392536640167,
0.03386066108942032,
0.029921608045697212,
0.09498614072799683,
-0.510954737663269,
-0.1805536299943924,
-0.33084651827812195,
0.9321851134300232,
0.1468687206506729,
-0.3468794524669647,
0.30305981636047363,
-0.16595132648944855,
-0.04900752380490303,
-0.3860032558441162,
0.0826743021607399,
0.3525499403476715,
0.7328382134437561,
0.7708422541618347,
0.3569197356700897,
-0.4370724856853485,
0.29235076904296875,
-0.819250226020813,
-0.503102719783783,
-0.08591032028198242,
0.008758589625358582,
0.8511666655540466,
0.29190075397491455,
0.42249739170074463,
0.06563882529735565,
0.4507068693637848,
-0.7057744860649109,
-1.059165120124817,
0.11409832537174225,
-0.8678920269012451,
-0.012160800397396088,
-0.28589874505996704,
-0.29729005694389343,
0.6017571687698364,
-0.33852171897888184,
0.15602801740169525,
-0.48777031898498535,
0.6073262095451355,
0.3169971704483032,
0.007893208414316177,
-0.3471527397632599,
0.32782721519470215,
-0.6516810059547424,
-0.44813501834869385,
0.17035827040672302,
-0.8851714134216309,
-0.31721416115760803,
0.6732312440872192,
0.06219346448779106,
0.45860183238983154,
0.5586845278739929,
0.40423324704170227,
0.14236800372600555,
-0.23888060450553894,
-0.056817226111888885,
-0.6942669153213501,
-0.11202623695135117,
-0.21405908465385437,
-0.29982295632362366,
-0.3383253812789917,
0.04787042364478111,
0.3539898097515106,
1.0255085229873657,
0.008777736686170101,
-0.12751753628253937,
-0.32214051485061646,
-0.391187846660614,
-0.9529805183410645,
0.10756488889455795,
-0.5427319407463074,
-0.15758630633354187,
0.39999115467071533,
-0.3314409554004669,
0.25106772780418396,
-0.08388303220272064,
0.059871505945920944,
0.5195555686950684,
-0.016991404816508293,
-0.9233651161193848,
-0.31041204929351807,
-0.5300971865653992,
-0.2802121937274933,
-0.6967942714691162,
-0.09321798384189606,
-0.025271302089095116,
0.3523535430431366,
-0.02174403704702854,
0.869284451007843,
0.09588327258825302,
-0.17404352128505707,
-0.7280299663543701,
-0.06827890127897263,
0.2502438426017761,
-0.10949884355068207,
0.30849382281303406,
-0.04880090430378914,
-0.6563800573348999,
-0.18305997550487518,
-0.0001380702160531655,
0.6358069777488708,
-0.3711289167404175,
-0.1872507780790329,
-0.9312161803245544,
0.32920148968696594,
-0.02810077555477619,
-0.19393034279346466,
0.6832425594329834,
-0.1285058706998825,
0.21300087869167328,
0.08902902901172638,
-0.20936651527881622,
0.36012735962867737,
0.15170015394687653,
-0.05996214598417282,
0.29650336503982544,
-0.34325700998306274,
-0.953364908695221,
-0.007349871564656496,
0.5630521774291992,
-0.654625415802002,
-0.1865595281124115,
-0.4617023169994354,
-0.5459470152854919,
0.521833062171936,
0.21481023728847504,
-0.8922346830368042,
0.0561324805021286,
-0.6673345565795898,
0.4625990092754364,
-0.4340980350971222,
0.3002171814441681,
0.10316938906908035,
-0.6359591484069824,
0.173485666513443,
0.17831748723983765,
0.22133606672286987,
-0.31828373670578003,
0.03886326029896736,
0.35849395394325256,
0.17538982629776,
-0.34701845049858093,
-0.5795102119445801,
0.12909522652626038,
-0.202161505818367,
0.19643869996070862,
-0.4433932900428772,
0.28462010622024536,
0.11737586557865143,
-0.11076012998819351,
-0.9756270051002502,
-0.06888283789157867,
0.38250887393951416,
-0.611422061920166,
-0.2404688000679016,
0.1800951361656189,
0.22155272960662842,
-0.175726518034935,
0.46253395080566406,
0.2878466248512268,
-0.7210637927055359,
0.16852298378944397,
0.017857566475868225,
-0.21268434822559357,
0.06460786610841751,
-0.1778508871793747,
-1.0765013694763184,
0.368974506855011,
-0.02946755290031433,
-0.32054439187049866,
0.17251139879226685,
0.32533082365989685,
-0.5318762063980103,
-0.4150405526161194,
-0.00891218800097704,
-0.6562967300415039,
-0.2226395308971405,
-0.655894935131073,
-0.43045681715011597,
-0.4620168209075928,
0.1843041032552719,
0.21474407613277435,
0.3234173059463501,
0.3248090147972107,
-0.7895026206970215,
-0.13744786381721497,
0.0980621799826622,
-0.15073421597480774,
-0.2364555448293686,
-0.40168270468711853,
0.3212031126022339,
-0.2088739275932312,
0.19985216856002808,
0.33670416474342346,
0.4000108242034912,
0.05898738652467728,
0.549606204032898,
0.38649752736091614,
-0.7078627943992615,
-0.25632134079933167,
-0.1451561450958252,
0.6508946418762207,
-0.07151752710342407,
-0.5301985144615173,
0.19539137184619904,
0.3676339089870453,
-0.3786190450191498,
-0.6264903545379639,
-0.4510074853897095,
0.9444369077682495,
-0.21967467665672302,
-0.08773528784513474,
-0.15001924335956573,
-0.0743948295712471,
0.15773192048072815,
0.047334760427474976,
-0.5657738447189331,
-0.6479048728942871,
-0.1580049842596054,
-0.05382317304611206,
0.33879682421684265,
-0.2796814739704132,
-0.7622222304344177,
-0.026509277522563934,
-0.3662995398044586,
-0.5317193269729614,
-0.0018926262855529785,
0.43508991599082947,
0.2609734535217285,
-0.16392864286899567,
0.11809659004211426,
-0.08373162150382996,
-0.5530810952186584,
-0.3953953981399536,
0.4380032420158386,
-0.18162424862384796,
0.3950088322162628,
0.06119386479258537,
0.07145816832780838,
0.3884485065937042,
-0.18892531096935272,
-0.6094509363174438,
-0.24823912978172302,
-0.24299505352973938,
0.08173555880784988,
-0.6737547516822815,
-0.07902663946151733,
0.07267137616872787,
0.413066565990448,
0.5864841938018799,
-0.017279889434576035,
0.6300451159477234,
0.1972016543149948,
0.033567897975444794,
-0.049272943288087845,
-0.3721366226673126,
0.4694523215293884,
0.30265676975250244,
-0.08342763036489487,
0.15921199321746826,
0.31350576877593994,
-0.44718873500823975,
-0.05175671726465225,
-0.27018406987190247,
0.18131116032600403,
0.09588208049535751,
-0.10644035786390305,
0.096641905605793,
0.906714677810669,
-0.9931427240371704,
0.40953975915908813,
0.330481618642807,
-0.3419090509414673,
0.36361855268478394,
-0.16965478658676147,
0.21525630354881287,
0.15139825642108917,
0.16839145123958588,
0.33518198132514954,
-0.3968746066093445,
0.7128930687904358,
-0.03990054875612259,
-0.13746894896030426,
0.20890448987483978,
0.2705206274986267,
0.16777342557907104,
-0.09943695366382599,
-0.24038460850715637,
0.03099214658141136,
-0.09698560833930969,
-0.21843598783016205,
-0.23026704788208008,
-0.5417208075523376,
-0.39932799339294434,
0.450778603553772,
0.4997970759868622,
0.5180350542068481,
-0.32039210200309753,
0.2776572108268738,
-0.15717875957489014,
0.26820963621139526,
0.13378562033176422,
0.045264579355716705,
0.04605633765459061,
-0.03902821987867355,
0.5169326663017273,
0.8727980256080627,
-0.22554172575473785,
-0.13870763778686523,
0.3879314363002777,
0.4220723807811737,
0.07596433907747269,
-0.087521031498909,
0.0861067920923233,
0.27837881445884705,
0.4403305947780609,
0.3630697727203369,
0.6937843561172485,
0.13627927005290985,
-0.44054338335990906,
0.04022865742444992,
0.5655370950698853,
-0.5129370093345642,
0.4088248312473297,
0.12672016024589539,
0.31592077016830444,
0.3583698868751526,
-0.25752511620521545,
0.35255277156829834,
0.37616831064224243,
0.30862244963645935,
0.32770007848739624,
0.49621471762657166,
0.009453631937503815,
0.6976233720779419,
-0.5399160981178284,
0.4429665207862854,
-0.4386351704597473,
0.26926717162132263,
0.2752019762992859,
0.052605923265218735,
-0.09645877033472061,
0.26524630188941956,
-0.41995611786842346,
-0.4046606421470642,
0.2706839442253113,
-0.3477080762386322,
0.3815452456474304,
-0.0066518778912723064,
0.07451771199703217,
-0.5826653242111206,
0.0015531900571659207,
0.7772930860519409,
-0.14962385594844818,
0.6474083065986633,
-0.0905122384428978,
-0.3838326930999756,
0.45972248911857605,
-0.0012746398570016026,
-0.2893427014350891,
0.15071311593055725,
-0.9605537056922913,
-0.10265779495239258,
-0.6754223704338074,
0.24112176895141602,
0.49707531929016113,
-0.06353673338890076,
-0.0995044931769371,
0.3430267870426178,
0.12665614485740662,
0.28103724122047424,
0.47063037753105164,
0.013556977733969688,
-0.4943709075450897,
-0.30415549874305725,
-0.34566086530685425,
-0.4801162779331207,
0.3981682360172272,
0.3410729467868805,
-0.37901511788368225,
0.0008081134874373674,
0.6686165928840637,
-0.09688451886177063,
-0.601606011390686,
0.4792957007884979,
-0.22679053246974945,
0.022155655547976494,
-0.182881698012352,
-0.0019455204019322991,
-0.5325714349746704,
-0.8205758929252625,
0.5836989283561707,
0.5195882320404053,
0.8725753426551819,
-0.3964771628379822,
0.10804401338100433,
-0.09459521621465683,
0.12265069037675858,
0.23867081105709076,
0.48793312907218933,
0.548974871635437,
-0.7869957089424133,
-0.5638505816459656,
-0.8397765159606934,
0.30503085255622864,
0.14820846915245056,
-0.5462525486946106,
-0.19428957998752594,
-0.5741605162620544,
0.0794682651758194,
-0.34610849618911743,
0.6731142997741699,
-0.35154274106025696,
0.1678839772939682,
-0.39502817392349243
] |
234849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBI | CBI | CBI may refer to:
Companies and groups
California Bureau of Investigation, a state police force
Center for the Promotion of Imports (Dutch: Centrum tot Bevordering van de Import uit ontwikkelingslanden, CBI), an agency of the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Central Bank of Iceland
Central Bank of India
Central Bank of Iran
Central Bank of Iraq
Central Bank of Ireland
Central Bureau of Investigation, a federal agency of India
Charles Babbage Institute, a research center at the University of Minnesota
Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, a large engineering and construction company
Commonwealth Builders, Inc., forerunner established in 1934 of the Washington Commonwealth Federation
Colorado Bureau of Investigation, a state police force
Confederation of British Industry, an organisation promoting United Kingdom businesses
Places and installations
Center for Biomedical Imaging, a research facility of Boston University Medical Center
Central Bukidnon Institute, a secondary school in the Philippines
China Burma India Theater, a theater of World War II
Community Boating, Inc, a non-profit community boating center on the Charles River in Boston, Massachusetts
Cosmic Background Imager, a radio telescope in the Chilean Andes
Radio
CBI (AM), radio station broadcast in Canada
CBI-FM, radio station broadcast in Canada
Other
Caribbean Basin Initiative, a United States economic recovery program
CBI (film series), a series of Malayalam films
Central bank#Independence, monetary theory
Citizenship by investment, a type of immigrant investor program
College Basketball Invitational, an American college basketball tournament
College Bowl, an American televised quiz tournament
Computer-based interlocking, a type of railway signal interlocking
Content-based instruction, a method of teaching a second-language teaching.
Challenge-based instruction, an alternate term for challenge-based instruction
Continuous bladder irrigation, see List of medical abbreviations: C | [
0.38993456959724426,
0.4047812521457672,
-0.5062527656555176,
0.05300693213939667,
0.1014152467250824,
0.09645453840494156,
-0.21396204829216003,
0.4072372317314148,
-0.5319929718971252,
0.02194899506866932,
-0.26864737272262573,
0.29607638716697693,
-0.11087121814489365,
0.5320879817008972,
0.12874722480773926,
0.18737387657165527,
0.7458065748214722,
0.43887752294540405,
0.031891513615846634,
-0.08946371078491211,
-0.3435022830963135,
-0.0684395283460617,
0.22179798781871796,
-0.11978070437908173,
-0.00006693768955301493,
0.1163887083530426,
0.39960533380508423,
-0.03299662470817566,
-0.44426611065864563,
-0.28734666109085083,
0.7712701559066772,
0.21549786627292633,
-0.015329647809267044,
-0.3414194881916046,
-0.14857050776481628,
-0.011936425231397152,
-0.4218845069408417,
-0.4250243604183197,
-0.23503634333610535,
-0.5480288863182068,
0.08165498822927475,
-0.08703906089067459,
-0.17816555500030518,
0.7542003989219666,
-0.52000892162323,
-0.5828390121459961,
-1.7827258110046387,
0.7574170827865601,
-0.1061401516199112,
0.36435791850090027,
0.09225129336118698,
0.20979145169258118,
0.09496436268091202,
-0.16357125341892242,
0.30116865038871765,
0.4123990535736084,
-0.6208269000053406,
-0.45469021797180176,
0.4535174071788788,
-0.5909264087677002,
0.844144880771637,
0.021710045635700226,
0.5398563146591187,
0.10076243430376053,
0.4896446168422699,
0.45021095871925354,
0.46445316076278687,
0.14859089255332947,
0.046119317412376404,
-0.17763309180736542,
-0.2625903785228729,
-0.3007586598396301,
0.004567984025925398,
0.048771265894174576,
-0.40012797713279724,
-0.06841537356376648,
0.1375775933265686,
-0.12247416377067566,
-0.3274303674697876,
-0.20622432231903076,
-0.08223963528871536,
0.7621936798095703,
0.3814263641834259,
-0.7178423404693604,
0.6831210851669312,
-0.34655335545539856,
-0.7779375910758972,
0.07876288145780563,
-0.15837134420871735,
0.7521031498908997,
0.13719400763511658,
0.44358378648757935,
0.6227944493293762,
0.15558597445487976,
-0.05828746035695076,
0.018824337050318718,
0.20781771838665009,
-0.3893381655216217,
0.5090387463569641,
0.5435001850128174,
-0.3184628188610077,
0.18076102435588837,
0.17776642739772797,
0.7141647338867188,
-0.05812210217118263,
0.12462183088064194,
0.06275694072246552,
-0.2959787845611572,
-0.6365358233451843,
-0.0944293960928917,
0.17816248536109924,
-0.3244066834449768,
0.045379314571619034,
0.21498419344425201,
0.06510638445615768,
0.09551167488098145,
0.1356622576713562,
-0.037406161427497864,
-0.31605061888694763,
0.16281890869140625,
-0.16315382719039917,
0.8297023177146912,
-0.45306628942489624,
-0.3705715537071228,
0.18017999827861786,
-0.07379961758852005,
0.46373629570007324,
0.3211270868778229,
-0.4114249050617218,
-0.10574911534786224,
0.1406119167804718,
0.5916792154312134,
-0.3058149516582489,
-0.11687690019607544,
-0.26867806911468506,
-0.45522773265838623,
-0.17464634776115417,
0.18639664351940155,
0.28492867946624756,
-0.12810355424880981,
-0.3912389874458313,
-0.5170885324478149,
-0.3061097264289856,
-0.46722593903541565,
0.05731342360377312,
-0.3935159742832184,
-0.12339065968990326,
0.038483671844005585,
-0.08325958251953125,
0.0082963015884161,
0.047763872891664505,
-0.011024936102330685,
-0.24741454422473907,
0.1731468290090561,
-0.2738533020019531,
-0.0007728651980869472,
0.3023619055747986,
-0.35308459401130676,
0.12640678882598877,
0.27288731932640076,
-0.3212863802909851,
0.14574210345745087,
-0.3160673677921295,
-0.306892454624176,
-0.46320387721061707,
0.15136806666851044,
0.41828930377960205,
0.1603279560804367,
-0.04999692365527153,
0.3541012108325958,
-0.32075703144073486,
0.15839000046253204,
0.3464043438434601,
0.07364381849765778,
0.21279768645763397,
0.0037330687046051025,
0.10740745067596436,
-0.14972245693206787,
0.27649980783462524,
0.4939740300178528,
-0.6081506609916687,
0.24010153114795685,
-0.1681346744298935,
-0.03125501051545143,
-0.37602925300598145,
-0.11973073333501816,
0.499272882938385,
-0.45121559500694275,
-0.17802593111991882,
-0.17779140174388885,
0.2569768726825714,
-0.07320601493120193,
-0.06729865074157715,
-0.4654728174209595,
1.0618778467178345,
-0.30534836649894714,
-0.41462910175323486,
1.0847033262252808,
-0.14328385889530182,
-0.10175771266222,
-0.2275104820728302,
0.08653798699378967,
0.8458478450775146,
-0.6673895716667175,
-0.6476098895072937,
0.5459809303283691,
0.627354085445404,
0.08381898701190948,
-0.009602623991668224,
-0.08074117451906204,
0.6492301821708679,
-0.5913826823234558,
0.3225253224372864,
-0.6581648588180542,
0.23270189762115479,
0.20493187010288239,
-0.272207111120224,
0.5869086384773254,
0.35923483967781067,
-0.024083267897367477,
0.9887003898620605,
-0.30665454268455505,
0.28906187415122986,
1.1659066677093506,
-0.24570822715759277,
0.30322030186653137,
0.21263419091701508,
0.20145189762115479,
0.4317857325077057,
-0.5191127061843872,
0.6476909518241882,
-0.5563220977783203,
0.11232104152441025,
-0.6755620241165161,
-0.5330644845962524,
0.14568746089935303,
-0.3930405378341675,
-0.10599222034215927,
0.034867171198129654,
0.08666227012872696,
-0.3972621560096741,
0.1672440469264984,
-0.6436666250228882,
0.1050456240773201,
0.38487207889556885,
-0.25397902727127075,
-0.11282230913639069,
-0.2704516351222992,
-0.002545049414038658,
0.28352734446525574,
0.2995574474334717,
0.7287206649780273,
0.2913840711116791,
-0.8308635354042053,
0.28443288803100586,
-0.21512340009212494,
0.3566785752773285,
0.14434583485126495,
0.029782144352793694,
-0.2772577702999115,
-0.5338022112846375,
-0.08787278831005096,
-0.0030085763428360224,
0.167427197098732,
0.05886268615722656,
-0.2238033562898636,
-0.16195639967918396,
-0.17344677448272705,
-0.03654252737760544,
0.026348020881414413,
0.28208407759666443,
0.2576141953468323,
-0.1251983791589737,
0.22862564027309418,
0.0962744876742363,
-0.046630993485450745,
0.07749980688095093,
0.8085220456123352,
-0.12170562148094177,
-0.19758106768131256,
0.0318060927093029,
-0.2854668200016022,
0.026562143117189407,
-0.5881112217903137,
-0.007569397334009409,
-0.41058167815208435,
-0.719380795955658,
-0.7909480929374695,
-0.39631763100624084,
-0.03286029398441315,
-0.2588249146938324,
-0.5118519067764282,
-0.04210507124662399,
0.19255627691745758,
0.20515084266662598,
-0.006957935635000467,
-0.37584707140922546,
0.345192015171051,
0.1787080615758896,
-0.6320927143096924,
0.01737409457564354,
0.7578354477882385,
-0.3998726010322571,
-0.02167969010770321,
0.3442836403846741,
0.09799837321043015,
-0.5012444853782654,
-0.41114577651023865,
-6.006807804107666,
0.08500191569328308,
-0.36947163939476013,
0.029751833528280258,
0.3809991478919983,
0.07474853843450546,
0.6080490946769714,
-0.3284956216812134,
0.6349988579750061,
0.0809243768453598,
0.1196504533290863,
0.12760397791862488,
0.11171524226665497,
-0.11151999235153198,
0.03962209075689316,
0.3178179860115051,
0.15441825985908508,
0.15275470912456512,
-0.26764169335365295,
0.41662681102752686,
-0.07616682350635529,
0.005793022457510233,
0.4334462285041809,
0.5258481502532959,
0.03310350328683853,
-0.20562386512756348,
-0.8440789580345154,
0.25413602590560913,
-0.36771348118782043,
0.05744647979736328,
0.029167119413614273,
-0.20878218114376068,
0.06541334837675095,
-0.10563916712999344,
-0.22004497051239014,
0.16428612172603607,
0.532192587852478,
0.08425036817789078,
-0.28158727288246155,
-0.3185354173183441,
-0.3425440490245819,
0.30741989612579346,
0.1503625065088272,
-0.4019673764705658,
0.3492000102996826,
-0.23907476663589478,
-0.46041035652160645,
-0.3052257001399994,
-0.5002027750015259,
0.5612139701843262,
-0.3280797600746155,
0.211161807179451,
0.23805993795394897,
0.4793734550476074,
-0.15797622501850128,
-0.4501180052757263,
0.2828488051891327,
-0.09499618411064148,
-0.19272898137569427,
0.17250359058380127,
0.14564624428749084,
-0.16369658708572388,
-0.050007615238428116,
-0.07261230051517487,
-0.20089717209339142,
-0.4211571216583252,
-0.5369986891746521,
-0.7627691030502319,
0.506144106388092,
-0.16573978960514069,
-0.05824493616819382,
0.23571884632110596,
-0.06278225034475327,
-0.8738741874694824,
0.07689864188432693,
-0.7363886833190918,
0.5255752801895142,
0.2268235832452774,
-0.0691656544804573,
0.6618519425392151,
0.05057325214147568,
0.5870866179466248,
0.11819206923246384,
-0.051721032708883286,
0.05075563117861748,
-0.23947227001190186,
0.19149914383888245,
0.6569838523864746,
-0.16576530039310455,
0.004881714470684528,
0.5112881064414978,
0.0980919823050499,
0.3364255428314209,
0.16831520199775696,
0.035733889788389206,
0.38162294030189514,
-0.08177304267883301,
0.5045452117919922,
0.1088898777961731,
-0.4316398501396179,
1.0066436529159546,
-0.38386401534080505,
-0.6457008123397827,
-0.9564768671989441,
-0.289330393075943,
-0.3544376790523529,
0.019915463402867317,
0.16909188032150269,
0.3854219913482666,
-0.15440501272678375,
-0.2643689811229706,
-0.2656402885913849,
-0.5002877116203308,
-0.18135324120521545,
0.3894929885864258,
0.3177987337112427,
-0.2839410901069641,
0.2637406587600708,
0.3759058117866516,
-0.1250256448984146,
-0.05913452059030533,
0.47044867277145386,
-0.03863249346613884,
0.24374964833259583,
-0.09669283032417297,
-0.4255366921424866,
-0.4278184473514557,
0.17280210554599762,
0.45679014921188354,
0.2434457242488861,
0.3341604471206665,
0.5689949989318848,
-0.18752866983413696,
0.08606981486082077,
0.09582564979791641,
0.06242344155907631,
-0.1426904797554016,
0.391400009393692,
-0.07205624133348465,
0.24495379626750946,
0.37460899353027344,
0.04910125955939293,
-0.07147195935249329,
-0.010194961912930012,
0.5783724188804626,
0.22308003902435303,
-0.5431169867515564,
0.2545938789844513,
-0.1788523644208908,
-0.15006868541240692,
-0.1417917013168335,
-0.11831051111221313,
0.2748408615589142,
0.1334926187992096,
-0.1013934314250946,
-0.3155886232852936,
0.6577357649803162,
0.43561455607414246,
-0.12036731094121933,
-0.5787481069564819,
0.48232167959213257,
-0.043817054480314255,
-0.7179923057556152,
-0.16336430609226227,
0.6850274801254272,
-0.1256445050239563,
-0.3430785536766052,
-0.4480154812335968,
0.14572970569133759,
1.0764236450195312,
0.12408563494682312,
-0.2815200090408325,
-0.7607407569885254,
-0.46281981468200684,
0.36064425110816956,
0.30184319615364075,
-0.10626322031021118,
-0.0865495428442955,
-0.07887866348028183,
0.19747836887836456,
0.15200044214725494,
-0.41117215156555176,
0.17377665638923645,
0.5890616774559021,
0.4081189036369324,
-0.35529911518096924,
0.250694215297699,
-0.2927998900413513,
-0.11309297382831573,
-0.14159967005252838,
0.5702633857727051,
-0.4356154203414917,
0.5667823553085327,
0.4594309628009796,
0.10399717092514038,
-0.3834332525730133,
0.004242901224642992,
0.543950617313385,
-0.5059446096420288,
-0.410312294960022,
0.334702730178833,
0.7349401712417603,
-0.5621162056922913,
0.05527402460575104,
0.07499849796295166,
0.08457044512033463,
-0.1520097702741623,
-0.1599738746881485,
-0.24419498443603516,
0.35612717270851135,
-0.45801302790641785,
-0.16606421768665314,
-0.08431866765022278,
0.4441232681274414,
-0.05795786529779434,
-0.24184037744998932,
0.02277173474431038,
-0.3720231354236603,
-0.10872019082307816,
-0.3154105246067047,
-0.22038882970809937,
-0.15801316499710083,
0.03850846365094185,
-0.07419506460428238,
-0.3543890416622162,
0.23569613695144653,
-0.11563596874475479,
-0.8169921040534973,
0.44500264525413513,
0.16748951375484467,
-0.4586792290210724,
-0.07498884201049805,
-0.09176857769489288,
0.2641378939151764,
-0.23743347823619843,
-0.13562317192554474,
-0.0891805961728096,
0.21282264590263367,
0.14529988169670105,
0.38762736320495605,
-0.677425742149353,
0.33927154541015625,
0.5296749472618103,
-0.6834895610809326,
-0.1822296530008316,
0.4049651026725769,
0.415851891040802,
-0.4917490482330322,
-0.2695103585720062,
0.48979395627975464,
-0.12726378440856934,
-0.4876849353313446,
-0.12088635563850403,
-0.07851190119981766,
0.4960823059082031,
-0.13277533650398254,
-0.05422075465321541,
-0.28067338466644287,
-0.052250444889068604,
0.17572791874408722,
-0.4680343568325043,
-0.5833743214607239,
-0.06394068151712418,
-0.11541710793972015,
-0.11818190664052963,
-0.28996995091438293,
-0.915626585483551,
-0.5694230198860168,
-0.003065266879275441,
-0.6876773834228516,
-0.05526331439614296,
-0.11658012866973877,
1.1902854442596436,
0.6388659477233887,
0.27183833718299866,
-0.26878273487091064,
0.04238495975732803,
-0.15916559100151062,
-0.08836404234170914,
-0.19658119976520538,
-0.1953423172235489,
0.11233843117952347,
-0.06368949264287949,
-0.4905502200126648,
0.6228495836257935,
-0.7338997721672058,
-0.11327843368053436,
0.43061012029647827,
-0.6141353845596313,
-0.2085576057434082,
-0.18129852414131165,
0.27718478441238403,
-0.4002636969089508,
0.5438697338104248,
-0.6059637665748596,
-0.13823136687278748,
0.03837967664003372,
0.6399387717247009,
0.162570521235466,
0.5017695426940918,
-0.7526047229766846,
0.02937222644686699,
-0.17844006419181824,
-0.5721132755279541,
0.07906149327754974,
0.24217672646045685,
-0.30169692635536194,
-0.18506956100463867,
-0.18824012577533722,
-0.6706633567810059,
-0.17325378954410553,
-0.6120105981826782,
0.2781572639942169,
0.39832988381385803,
-0.1953459233045578,
-0.10879237204790115,
0.2602197825908661,
-0.998680591583252,
-0.07268837839365005,
0.1511106938123703,
0.2245473712682724,
0.6749637722969055,
0.29813796281814575,
-0.026993367820978165,
-0.028348160907626152,
0.450476735830307,
0.11190053075551987,
0.21356771886348724,
0.08991800993680954,
0.3230910003185272,
0.41747984290122986,
-0.30842962861061096,
-0.39824002981185913,
-0.0012134835124015808,
0.1488230973482132,
-0.22841240465641022,
0.19927456974983215,
-0.3743572235107422,
-0.42775213718414307,
0.4606318771839142,
0.23702804744243622,
0.45442524552345276,
-0.2892308831214905,
0.05343710631132126,
-0.29733702540397644,
0.596934974193573,
0.8578006029129028,
-0.2740669548511505,
-0.26428088545799255,
0.7630817890167236,
-0.007669419050216675,
-0.14474979043006897,
0.14037857949733734,
0.21970003843307495,
0.0554317943751812,
-0.3018794655799866,
-0.26117637753486633,
0.011135025881230831,
0.059662435203790665,
-0.48297563195228577,
0.04184491187334061,
0.18320895731449127,
0.48272672295570374,
-0.11878327280282974,
0.34120094776153564,
-0.040174759924411774,
0.2626707851886749,
-0.0627731904387474,
-0.12619549036026,
0.23327146470546722,
0.2262117713689804,
0.1265956312417984,
-0.544247567653656,
0.28548020124435425,
0.5285400152206421,
-0.017186777666211128,
0.30960598587989807,
0.5480905175209045,
0.12113097310066223,
0.17368599772453308,
0.023407800123095512,
0.33159929513931274,
-0.012317788787186146,
-0.7416456937789917,
-0.10286888480186462,
0.1131337583065033,
-0.30509936809539795,
0.679052472114563,
-0.42767247557640076,
0.00690347608178854,
-0.08807003498077393,
-0.31940314173698425,
-0.4469594955444336,
0.5429510474205017,
0.25172463059425354,
-0.09030473232269287,
0.022026507183909416,
0.5477619171142578,
0.27327606081962585,
-0.27999401092529297,
-0.2733732759952545,
-0.09821437299251556,
-0.015786098316311836,
-0.1632585972547531,
-0.293876588344574,
-0.15197598934173584,
-0.35628682374954224,
0.3580855429172516,
-0.04761107265949249,
-0.07984422892332077,
0.32414740324020386,
-0.13751810789108276,
-0.35732415318489075,
0.13447783887386322,
-0.22149579226970673,
0.558393120765686,
0.9322705268859863,
-0.30601662397384644,
-0.19404666125774384,
-0.5421607494354248,
-0.03705396503210068,
-0.2455168217420578,
0.3757059574127197,
0.3845458924770355,
0.06504807621240616,
-0.16232231259346008,
0.8048055768013,
0.127663716673851,
-0.24708127975463867,
0.5350037217140198,
-0.44020703434944153,
-0.4481469690799713,
-0.4619443118572235,
0.5676329135894775,
0.051336951553821564,
-0.3187357187271118,
0.15422728657722473,
0.29839229583740234,
0.7026892304420471,
-0.022922497242689133,
0.3665463328361511,
-0.2188006490468979,
0.08412192016839981,
-0.7566150426864624,
-0.10807296633720398,
0.4275420904159546,
-0.2802376449108124,
-0.40988510847091675,
-0.11158888041973114,
0.32514718174934387,
0.10360002517700195,
-0.8758450746536255,
-0.22736744582653046,
0.4620770812034607,
0.12729841470718384,
-0.060679469257593155,
0.019150031730532646,
-0.6342445015907288,
0.15246085822582245,
-0.2998778522014618
] |
234850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Bureau%20of%20Investigation | Central Bureau of Investigation | The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is the premier investigating agency of India. It operates under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Government of India. Originally set up to investigate bribery and governmental corruption, in 1965 it received expanded jurisdiction to investigate breaches of central laws enforceable by the Government of India, multi-state organised crime, multi-agency or international cases. The agency has been known to investigate several economic crimes, special crimes, cases of corruption and other cases. CBI is exempted from the provisions of the Right to Information Act. CBI is India's officially designated single point of contact for liaison with the Interpol.
The CBI headquarter is located in CGO Complex, near Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in New Delhi.
History
Special Police Establishment
The Bureau of Investigation traces its origins to the Special Police Establishment (SPE), a Central Government Police force, which was set up in 1941 by the Government of India to investigate bribery and corruption in transactions with the War and Supply Department of India. It had its headquarters in Lahore. The Superintendent of the SPE was Qurban Ali Khan, who later opted for Pakistan during the Partition of India. The first legal adviser of the War Department was Rai Sahib Karam Chand Jain. After the end of the war, there was a continued need for a central governmental agency to investigate bribery and corruption by central-government employees. Sahib Karam Chand Jain remained its legal advisor when the department was transferred to the Home Department by the 1946 Delhi Special Police Establishment Act.
This is DSPE's scope was enlarged to cover all departments of the Government of India. Its jurisdiction extended to the Union Territories, and could be further extended to the states with the consent of the state governments involved. Sardar Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister of free India and head of the Home Department, desired to weed out corruption in erstwhile princely states such as Jodhpur, Rewa and Tonk. Patel directed Legal Advisor Karam Chand Jain to monitor criminal proceedings against the dewans and chief ministers of those states. The DSPE acquired its popular current name, Central Bureau of Investigation, through a Home Ministry resolution on 1 April 1963.
CBI takes shape
The CBI established a reputation as India's foremost investigative agency with the resources for complicated cases, and it was requested to assist the investigation of crimes such as murder, kidnapping and terrorism. The Supreme Court and a number of High Courts in the country also begin assigning such investigations to the CBI on the basis of petitions filed by aggrieved parties. In 1987, the CBI was divided into the following divisions: the Anti-Corruption Division, the Special Crimes Division, the Economic Offences Division, the Policy and International Police Cooperation Division, the Administration Division, the Directorate of Prosecution Division and the Central Forensic Science Laboratory Division.
D. P. Kohli
The founding director of the CBI was D. P. Kohli, who held the office from 1 April 1963 to 31 May 1968. Before this, Kohli was Inspector-general of police for the Special Police Establishment from 1955 to 1963 and held law-enforcement positions in Madhya Bharat (as chief of police), Uttar Pradesh and local central-government offices. For distinguished service, Kohli was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1967. Kohli saw in the Special Police Establishment the potential to growing into a National Investigative Agency. He nurtured the organisation during his long career as inspector general and director and laid the foundation on which the agency grew.
CBI directors (1963–present)
Organisation
The CBI is headed by a Director, an IPS officer with a rank of Director General of Police. The director is selected by a high-profile committee constituted under The Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act, 1946 as amended through The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, and has a two-year term (can be extended for another three years). Other ranks in the CBI which may be staffed by the IRS (Indian Revenue Service) officer and the IPS are Special Director, Additional Director, Joint Director, Deputy Inspector General of Police, Senior Superintendent of Police, Superintendent of Police, Additional Superintendent of Police, Deputy Superintendent of Police. Inspector, Sub-Inspector, Assistant Sub-Inspector, Head constable, Constable which are recruited through SSC or through deputation from Police, Income Tax Department and Customs Department.
Constitutional status
Gauhati High Court had given a verdict on 6 November 2013, that CBI is unconstitutional and does not hold a legal status. However, the Supreme Court of India stayed this verdict when challenged by the central government and next hearing on this is fixed on 6 December 2013. Some legal experts believe that the ultimate solution for Indian government is to formulate a law for CBI as sooner or later the Supreme Court may hold the constitution of CBI unconstitutional. As of 2021, CBI is not a statutory body, and it's not a constitutional body. It continues to derive its powers from Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946.
Demand for greater autonomy
Demanding independent investigations, the CBI said that although it deferred to the government's authority in non-corruption cases, the agency felt that sufficient financial and administrative powers were required by the director (including a minimum three-year tenure to ensure "functional autonomy"). "As such, it is necessary that the director, CBI, should be vested with ex-officio powers of the Secretary to the Government of India, reporting directly to the minister, without having to go through the DoPT", the agency said, adding that financial powers were not enough and it wanted a separate budget allocation. Some form of autonomy has been granted by the Supreme Court of India to CBI when it held that CBI can prosecute senior bureaucrats without central government's permission. Indian Supreme Court also held that Section 6A of DSPE Act is unconstitutional.
Appointment Committee and Selection committee
The CBI Director is appointed, for not less than a term of 2 years, by the Appointment Committee on recommendation of Selection Committee as mentioned in DSPE Act 1946 amended through the Lokpal & Lokayukta Act 2013 and CVC Act, 2003 respectively. The Appointment Committee consists of:
Prime MinisterChairperson
Leader of Opposition of Loksabha or the Leader of the single largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha, if the former is not present due to lack of mandated strength in the Lok Sabha - member
Chief Justice of India or a Supreme Court Judge recommended by the Chief Justicemember
When making recommendations, the committee considers the views of the outgoing director.
The Selection Committee constituted under Delhi Special Police Establishment Act 1946 nominates a certain number of names to the Appointment Committee, one among whom the Appointment Committee appoints as the CBI director. The Selection Committee consists of:
NDA government, on 25 November 2014, moved an amendment bill to do away with the requirement of quorum in high-profile committee while recommending the names, for the post of director CBI, to the central government by introducing the clause "no appointment of a (CBI) director shall be invalid merely by reason of any vacancy or absence of members in the panel". and to replace the LOP with leader of single largest opposition party or pre-election coalition as, , the LOP post in the Loksabha is vacant.
Infrastructure
CBI headquarters is a , 11-storey building in New Delhi, housing all branches of the agency. The building is equipped with a modern communications system, an advanced record-maintenance system, storage space, computerised access control and an additional facility for new technology. Interrogation rooms, cells, dormitories and conference halls are provided. The building has a staff cafeteria with a capacity of 500, gyms, a terrace garden, and bi-level basement parking for 470 vehicles. Advanced fire-control and power-backup systems are provided, in addition to a press briefing room and media lounge.
The CBI Academy in Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh (east of Delhi) began in 1996. It is about from the New Delhi railway station and about from Indira Gandhi International Airport. The campus, with fields and plantations, houses the administrative, academic, hostel and residential buildings. Before the academy was built a small training centre at Lok Nayak Bhawan, New Delhi, conducted short-term in-service courses. The CBI then relied on state police-training institutions and the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy in Hyderabad for basic training courses for deputy superintendents of police, sub-inspectors and constables.
The Academy accommodates the training needs of all CBI ranks. Facilities for specialised courses are also made available to the officials of the state police, central police organisations (CPOs), public-sector vigilance organisations, bank and government departments and the Indian Armed Forces.
Jurisdiction, powers and restrictions
The legal powers of investigation of the CBI are derived from the DSPE Act 1946, which confers powers, duties, privileges and liabilities on the Delhi Special Police Establishment (CBI) and officers of the Union Territories. The central government may extend to any area (except Union Territories) the powers and jurisdiction of the CBI for investigation, subject to the consent of the government of the concerned state. Members of the CBI at or above the rank of sub-inspector may be considered officers in charge of police stations. Under the act, the CBI can investigate only with notification by the central government.
Relationship with state police
The CBI was originally constituted under the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, to operate within the territory of Delhi. As policing and law is a subject that falls within state powers under the structure of Indian federalism, the CBI needs prior consent from other state governments in order to conduct investigations within their territory. This consent can be in the form of a 'general consent' under Section 6 of the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, which remains in operation for all investigations until it is revoked, or alternatively, a 'specific consent' authorising investigations in individual cases. Once consent is granted, the CBI can investigate economic, corruption, and special crimes (including national security, drugs and narcotics, etc.)
Most Indian states had granted general consent to the CBI to investigate crimes within their territory. However, as of 2020, several states have withdrawn their 'general consent' for the CBI to operate, and require a special consent to be granted on a case to case basis. In November 2018, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal governments withdrew general consents for the CBI to investigate, and accused the Central Government of using federal agencies to destabilise state politics. Andhra Pradesh restored general consent in 2019. In January 2019, Chhattisgarh also withdrew general consent to the CBI. In July 2020, Rajasthan withdrew general consent to the CBI. In October 2020, Maharashtra withdrew general consent to the CBI. In November 2020, Kerala, Jharkhand, and Punjab withdrew general consent to the CBI. Tripura and Mizoram had previously withdrawn general consent to the CBI as well. Altogether, as of November 2021, eight states require prior consent before the CBI can investigate crimes in their territory.
High Courts and the Supreme Court
The High Courts and the Supreme Court have the jurisdiction to order a CBI investigation into an offence alleged to have been committed in a state without the state's consent, according to a five-judge constitutional bench of the Supreme Court (in Civil Appeals 6249 and 6250 of 2001) on 17 Feb 2010. The bench ruled: The court clarified this is an extraordinary power which must be exercised sparingly, cautiously and only in exceptional situations.
The SC in CBI VS CBI case held that the power to remove/send on leave the director of CBI, vested in the selection committee, not with the central govt. SC says this verdict when CBI Director challenge the decision of central govt to send him on leave without his will.
Exemption from Right to Information (RTI)
CBI is exempted from the provisions of the Right to Information Act. This exemption was granted by the government on 9 June 2011 (with similar exemptions to the National Investigating Agency (NIA), the Directorate General of Income Tax Investigation and the National Intelligence Grid (Natgrid)) on the basis of national security. It was criticized by the Central Information Commission and RTI activists, who said the blanket exemption violated the letter and intent of the RTI Act. The exemption was upheld in Madras High Court.
Impact and success stories
Conviction rate
The CBI has a high conviction rate:
Major cases solved
Impact on the multiple high-profile cases, such as Bhanwari Devi murder case, Satyam scandal, Sister Abhaya murder case, and INX Media case.
Controversy and criticism
Corruption
In 2013, Judge of the Supreme Court of India (and later Chief Justice of India) R. M. Lodha criticized the CBI for being a "caged parrot speaking in its master's voice", due to its excessive political interference irrespective of which party happened to be in power.
Because of the CBI's political overtones, it has been exposed by former officials such as Joginder Singh and B. R. Lall (director and joint director, respectively) as engaging in nepotism, wrongful prosecution and corruption. In Lall's book, Who Owns CBI, he details how investigations are manipulated and derailed. Corruption within the organisation
has been revealed in information obtained under the RTI Act, and RTI activist Krishnanand Tripathi has alleged harassment from the CBI to save itself from exposure via RTI. The states that have withdrawn consent to the CBI have accused the CBI of being a tool used by the Union Government to unfairly target parties ideologically rival to them.
Political interference
Normally, cases assigned to the CBI are sensitive and of national importance. It is standard practice for state police departments to register cases under its jurisdiction; if necessary, the central government may transfer a case to the CBI. The agency has been criticised for its mishandling of several scams. It has also been criticized for dragging its feet investigating prominent politicians, such as P. V. Narasimha Rao, Jayalalithaa, Lalu Prasad Yadav, Mayawati and Mulayam Singh Yadav; this tactic leads to their acquittal or non-prosecution.
Bofors scandal
In January 2006 it was discovered that the CBI had quietly unfrozen bank accounts belonging to Italian businessman Ottavio Quattrocchi, one of those accused in the 1986 Bofors scandal which tainted the government of Rajiv Gandhi. The CBI was responsible for the inquiry into the Bofors case. Associates of then-prime minister Rajiv Gandhi were linked to alleged payoffs made during the mid-1980s by Swedish arms firm AB Bofors, with US million in kickbacks moved from Britain and Panama to secret Swiss banks. The 410 howitzers purchased in the US million arms sale were reported to be inferior to those offered by a French competitor.
The CBI, which unfroze in a London bank in accounts held by Bofors, accused Quattrocchi and his wife Maria in 2006 but facilitated his travel by asking Interpol to take him off its wanted list on 29 April 2009.
After communications from the CBI, Interpol withdrew the red corner notice on Quattrocchi.
Hawala scandal
A 1991 arrest of militants in Kashmir led to a raid on hawala brokers, revealing evidence of large-scale payments to national politicians. The Jain hawala case encompassed former Union ministers Ajit Kumar Panja and P. Shiv Shankar, former Uttar Pradesh governor Motilal Vora, Bharatiya Janata Party leader Yashwant Sinha. The 20 defendants were discharged by Special Judge V. B. Gupta in the 650-million case, heard in New Delhi.
The judge ruled that there was no prima facie evidence against the accused which could be converted into legal evidence. Those freed included Bharatiya Janata Party president L. K. Advani; former Union ministers V. C. Shukla, Arjun Singh, Madhavrao Scindia, N. D. Tiwari and R. K. Dhawan, and former Delhi chief minister Madan Lal Khurana. In 1997 a ruling by late Chief Justice of India J. S. Verma listed about two dozen guidelines which, if followed, would have ensured the independence of the investigating agency. Sixteen years later, successive governments circumvent the guidelines and treat the CBI as another wing of the government. Although the prosecution was prompted by a public-interest petition, the cases concluded with no convictions. In Vineet Narain & Othrs v Union of India AIR 1996 SC 3386, the Supreme Court ruled that the Central Vigilance Commission should have a supervisory role over the CBI.
Priyadarshini Mattoo murder case
In this case Santosh Kumar Singh, the alleged murderer of a 25-year-old law student, was acquitted for what the judge called "deliberate inaction" by the investigating team. The accused was the son of a high-ranking officer in the Indian Police Service, the reason for the CBI's involvement. The 1999 judgment noted that "the influence of the father of the accused has been there". Embarrassed by the judgment, CBI Director R. K. Raghavan appointed two special directors (P. C. Sharma and Gopal Achari) to study the judgement. The CBI appealed the verdict in Delhi High Court in 2000, and the court issued a warrant for the accused. The CBI applied for an early hearing in July 2006; in October the High Court found Singh guilty of rape and murder, sentencing him to death.
Sister Abhaya
This case concerns 27 March 1992 death of a nun who was found in a water well in the Saint Pius X convent hostel in Kottayam, Kerala. Five CBI investigations have failed to yield any suspects. The case was solved finally in December 2020 where the Main Accused were sent to life imprisonment by The Kerala High Court.
Sohrabuddin case
The CBI has been accused of supporting the ruling Congress Party against its opposition, the BJP. The CBI is investigating the Sohrabuddin case in Gujarat; Geeta Johri, also investigating the case, claimed that the CBI is pressuring her to falsely implicate former Gujarat minister Amit Shah.
Sant Singh Chatwal case
Sant Singh Chatwal was a suspect in CBI records for 14 years. The agency had filed two charge sheets, sent letters rogatory abroad and sent a team to the United States to imprison Chatwal and his wife from 2–5 February 1997. On 30 May 2007 and 10 August 2008 former CBI directors Vijay Shankar and Ashwani Kumar, respectively, signed no-challenge orders on the imprisonment. Later, it was decided not to appeal their release.
This closed a case of bank fraud in which Chatwal had been embroiled for over a decade. Along with four others, Chatwal was charged with being part of a "criminal conspiracy" to defraud the Bank of India's New York branch of . Four charges were filed by the CBI, with Chatwal named a defendant in two. The other two trials are still in progress. RTI applicant Krishnanand Tripathi was denied access to public information concerning the closed cases. The Central Information Commission later ordered the CBI to disclose the information; however, the CBI is exempt from the RTI Act (see above). Chatwal is a recipient of the Padma Bhushan.
Malankara Varghese murder case
This case concerns 5 December 2002 death of T. M. Varghese (also known as Malankara Varghese), a member of the Malankara Orthodox Church managing committee and a timber merchant. Varghese Thekkekara, a priest and manager of the Angamali diocese of the rival Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (part of the Syriac Orthodox Church), was charged with murder and conspiracy on 9 May 2010. Thekkekara was not arrested after he was charged, for which the CBI was criticised by the Kerala High Court and the media.
Bhopal gas tragedy
The CBI was publicly seen as ineffective in trying the 1984 Bhopal disaster case. Former CBI joint director B. R. Lall has said that he was asked to remain soft on extradition for Union Carbide CEO Warren Anderson and drop the charges (which included culpable homicide). Those accused received two-year sentences.
2G spectrum case
The UPA government has been accused of allocating 2G spectrum to corporations at very low prices through corrupt and illegal means. The Supreme Court cited the CBI many times for its tardiness in the investigations; only after the court began monitoring its investigations were high-profile arrests made.
Indian coal allocation scam
This is a political scandal concerning the Indian UPA government's allocation of the nation's coal deposits to private companies by the former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, which cost the government . CBI director Ranjit Sinha submitted an affidavit in the Supreme Court that the coal-scam status report prepared by the agency was shared with Congress Party law minister Ashwani Kumar "as desired by him" and with secretary-level officers from the prime minister's office (PMO) and the coal ministry before presenting it to the court.
2008 Noida double murder case
This is a double murder case of 14-year-old girl Aarushi Talwar and 45-year-old Hemraj Banjade from Noida, India. On 26 November 2013, Parents of girl named Rajesh and Nupur Talwar were sentenced to life imprisonment for the twin murders. In January 2014, the Talwars challenged the decision in the Allahabad High Court. The High Court's acquitted them of all charges on 12 October 2017 because of the lack of 'irresistible proof'. The Allahabad HC in its verdict said that there were loopholes in the evidence which found the parents not guilty. Court also said that CBI tampered evidences and tutored witnesses. Questions arose by nation on investigation and judgement given by CBI court.
See also
Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, anti-smuggling
Enforcement Directorate, anti economic crimes
Financial Intelligence Unit, anti money laundering
National Investigation Agency, anti terrorism
NIA Most Wanted
Narcotics Control Bureau, anti drug trafficking
List of Indian intelligence agencies
References
Further reading
Bhar, Sujit.
External links
1941 establishments in India
Government agencies established in 1941
Law enforcement agencies of India
Indian intelligence agencies | [
0.614513635635376,
0.37437766790390015,
-0.49561822414398193,
0.24599887430667877,
0.07590174674987793,
-0.27066200971603394,
0.14231199026107788,
0.5671593546867371,
-0.6025298237800598,
0.09228142350912094,
-0.4043041169643402,
0.22719112038612366,
-0.08999095112085342,
0.7992696762084961,
0.3775268495082855,
0.0012795455986633897,
0.6755161881446838,
0.4642171859741211,
0.4526995122432709,
-0.4066164493560791,
0.03085244819521904,
-0.2031351625919342,
-0.2253747284412384,
0.3630959987640381,
-0.20036959648132324,
0.35648730397224426,
0.42000436782836914,
0.25739040970802307,
-0.27949437499046326,
-0.3742499053478241,
0.49643445014953613,
-0.15409865975379944,
-0.030328404158353806,
-0.058712802827358246,
0.013602599501609802,
-0.241755872964859,
-0.4891056418418884,
-0.39932316541671753,
-0.7559281587600708,
-0.4759710133075714,
0.08610857278108597,
-0.19841468334197998,
-0.44280001521110535,
0.3039311170578003,
-0.3244055509567261,
-0.8679433465003967,
-1.061413049697876,
0.9239287972450256,
-0.28101861476898193,
0.6783179044723511,
0.07837997376918793,
0.5152976512908936,
0.00996642466634512,
-0.01981271803379059,
0.14962343871593475,
0.4922684133052826,
-0.5293879508972168,
-0.09789998829364777,
0.04841330274939537,
0.5799008011817932,
0.406253457069397,
-0.37685030698776245,
0.2083026021718979,
0.35439804196357727,
0.6875239610671997,
0.5325052738189697,
0.45383039116859436,
0.3639729619026184,
-0.051146674901247025,
0.27392974495887756,
-0.4288128912448883,
-0.013849174603819847,
0.046978533267974854,
0.6615583896636963,
-0.9677399396896362,
-0.6277788877487183,
0.3565483093261719,
-0.2409292608499527,
0.32330384850502014,
-0.1507735699415207,
-0.539304256439209,
0.6128928065299988,
0.14043137431144714,
-0.4593304991722107,
0.6830232739448547,
0.02205740287899971,
-0.8762481212615967,
-0.5928731560707092,
0.061214182525873184,
0.7062048316001892,
-0.0007225128938443959,
0.1521213948726654,
0.5190244317054749,
0.08208127319812775,
-0.20578816533088684,
-0.006015436258167028,
0.4791063964366913,
-0.41026416420936584,
0.2234552651643753,
-0.13814035058021545,
-0.18551522493362427,
0.203013077378273,
-0.013116259127855301,
0.7221663594245911,
0.43007946014404297,
-0.398540735244751,
-0.24944452941417694,
-0.5511000156402588,
-0.816504716873169,
-0.26369622349739075,
-0.33037421107292175,
-0.31664779782295227,
-0.2866637110710144,
-0.010289616882801056,
-0.427042156457901,
-0.00791340135037899,
0.8254879713058472,
-0.21847011148929596,
0.12867148220539093,
0.07693471759557724,
-0.2421313375234604,
0.28007495403289795,
0.2319459170103073,
0.08649343252182007,
-0.28583672642707825,
0.14847484230995178,
0.5852174162864685,
-0.14393913745880127,
0.16582748293876648,
0.18441703915596008,
-0.34970033168792725,
0.8135085105895996,
-0.37693625688552856,
-0.4765370488166809,
-0.37584105134010315,
-0.8161863088607788,
0.25263676047325134,
0.2708377242088318,
0.04511555656790733,
-0.1707599014043808,
-0.4864055812358856,
-0.2688864767551422,
-0.5422915816307068,
-0.19588884711265564,
0.04388124495744705,
-0.31104519963264465,
-0.41157421469688416,
-0.20399869978427887,
-0.32391536235809326,
-0.5428903698921204,
0.37739962339401245,
0.32599326968193054,
-0.4516482353210449,
-0.1567443162202835,
-0.23642843961715698,
0.4504927396774292,
0.3377969563007355,
-0.32116276025772095,
0.39388689398765564,
0.7720816135406494,
0.12232162803411484,
-0.31513670086860657,
0.023527201265096664,
-0.3124183416366577,
-0.6736234426498413,
-0.2037949562072754,
0.6032266616821289,
0.0061608292162418365,
0.3031676411628723,
0.35202518105506897,
-0.9532788991928101,
-0.40669697523117065,
0.15464742481708527,
-0.6452163457870483,
0.18764273822307587,
-0.4119999408721924,
0.06163876876235008,
0.052505090832710266,
0.15134470164775848,
0.2815987169742584,
-0.6378495693206787,
0.24168722331523895,
-0.5129903554916382,
0.12879133224487305,
-0.12644940614700317,
0.02902677096426487,
0.9229430556297302,
0.02297087572515011,
-0.4282394349575043,
0.054206397384405136,
0.4201795160770416,
0.11749208718538284,
0.10900953412055969,
-0.26312074065208435,
1.4793553352355957,
0.06493695080280304,
0.24224641919136047,
0.6546052694320679,
-0.023167258128523827,
0.011557967402040958,
-0.05986502394080162,
0.198110431432724,
0.6640485525131226,
-0.6549503803253174,
-0.6195863485336304,
0.9537246823310852,
0.20804542303085327,
0.19249072670936584,
0.37681832909584045,
0.32115432620048523,
0.4652336537837982,
-0.5718304514884949,
0.10828990489244461,
-0.9338116645812988,
0.32493096590042114,
0.4327337443828583,
-0.29794377088546753,
0.012472585774958134,
0.20655512809753418,
-0.516461193561554,
0.7964848279953003,
-0.6308882832527161,
0.024615081027150154,
1.6080702543258667,
-0.3126216232776642,
0.24109376966953278,
0.2692628502845764,
0.448047399520874,
0.23414865136146545,
-0.6938927173614502,
0.4588282108306885,
-0.6961308717727661,
0.269795686006546,
-0.19945785403251648,
-0.9659711122512817,
-0.27823030948638916,
-0.46976590156555176,
-0.337597131729126,
0.4533918499946594,
-0.2713693082332611,
0.2437981814146042,
0.2477196455001831,
-0.24658744037151337,
0.34218794107437134,
-0.023286186158657074,
-0.23589961230754852,
-0.44762852787971497,
-0.08534465730190277,
0.11493470519781113,
0.3842618763446808,
0.45679324865341187,
0.19661115109920502,
0.20453687012195587,
-1.0989394187927246,
0.4790835678577423,
-0.36254528164863586,
0.4716726243495941,
-0.020389312878251076,
-0.07310792803764343,
0.16684305667877197,
0.14346395432949066,
-0.12832629680633545,
-0.21251915395259857,
-0.11114624887704849,
-0.2922140061855316,
-0.26679179072380066,
-0.2501418888568878,
-0.15854351222515106,
0.3884483873844147,
0.11028361320495605,
0.44426169991493225,
0.0730651393532753,
0.2808096408843994,
-0.22513897716999054,
0.7071583271026611,
-0.571270763874054,
0.26582545042037964,
0.7262476086616516,
-0.4841926395893097,
-0.2623707950115204,
0.2166799008846283,
0.10283447057008743,
0.0937037393450737,
-0.15153224766254425,
-0.1440478414297104,
-0.20636603236198425,
-0.031421687453985214,
-0.792981743812561,
-0.15516215562820435,
0.25922784209251404,
-0.18260179460048676,
-0.03144222870469093,
0.0365448035299778,
0.0529775395989418,
-0.4175865054130554,
-0.23730267584323883,
-0.30031442642211914,
0.3146258294582367,
0.24785473942756653,
-1.2275394201278687,
-0.528080940246582,
0.7580640316009521,
-0.5891021490097046,
-0.539767324924469,
-0.10744018852710724,
-0.23847830295562744,
-0.23280395567417145,
-0.39089590311050415,
-5.360725402832031,
-0.06768728047609329,
-0.5651911497116089,
-0.2561170160770416,
0.12932322919368744,
0.23642422258853912,
0.5217037200927734,
-0.4163736402988434,
0.3843837082386017,
0.017291907221078873,
0.014741724357008934,
-0.14401720464229584,
0.651897668838501,
0.053218718618154526,
-0.2794204354286194,
0.2028535157442093,
0.10126885026693344,
0.04860275611281395,
-0.10494204610586166,
0.7208836078643799,
-0.131374791264534,
0.31852981448173523,
0.3330390453338623,
0.21467764675617218,
0.5051442980766296,
0.21237345039844513,
-0.6885830163955688,
0.23510803282260895,
-0.2727823257446289,
-0.24779242277145386,
0.31136929988861084,
-0.7760277390480042,
0.047414712607860565,
0.031543340533971786,
-0.6610121726989746,
-0.5267612338066101,
0.455538272857666,
0.14037172496318817,
-0.048915259540081024,
-0.12909910082817078,
-0.3539285957813263,
-0.41959697008132935,
0.13155491650104523,
-0.2899342477321625,
0.442978173494339,
-0.662929117679596,
-0.6411529183387756,
-0.42988306283950806,
-0.2943287193775177,
0.27845969796180725,
-0.46419477462768555,
0.1804807484149933,
-0.1325567215681076,
0.08405738323926926,
-0.09521570801734924,
-0.7089178562164307,
0.1085333600640297,
-0.14541490375995636,
-0.444936066865921,
0.0642496719956398,
0.37114691734313965,
-0.4281325042247772,
-0.15573875606060028,
-0.2850077152252197,
0.044861678034067154,
-0.17238229513168335,
-0.23567387461662292,
-0.8267931938171387,
0.14868833124637604,
0.16062931716442108,
0.006491356063634157,
0.6056442260742188,
0.0858447253704071,
-0.6290705800056458,
-0.46611353754997253,
-0.5611295104026794,
0.6000328660011292,
-0.10402785241603851,
0.18596872687339783,
0.4545765519142151,
-0.4564097821712494,
0.33655452728271484,
-0.10510244220495224,
0.04895937442779541,
-0.10595154017210007,
-0.28223946690559387,
0.25732338428497314,
0.43564438819885254,
0.05387967824935913,
-0.29562243819236755,
0.5540163516998291,
-0.4042339324951172,
0.45672476291656494,
0.6148587465286255,
-0.23065981268882751,
0.482528418302536,
0.475219190120697,
0.4521850645542145,
-0.4558694660663605,
-0.955055296421051,
0.9419028162956238,
0.23842467367649078,
-0.8380333185195923,
-0.9986230731010437,
-0.1719971001148224,
-0.6139461398124695,
0.21675066649913788,
0.2328585684299469,
0.21056437492370605,
-0.8054952621459961,
-0.2206331044435501,
-0.9342551231384277,
-0.31972524523735046,
-0.26633793115615845,
0.9213196635246277,
-0.06421176344156265,
-0.11175397038459778,
0.5157567262649536,
0.18882274627685547,
0.4924813210964203,
-0.2244887351989746,
0.3646620810031891,
-0.04440316930413246,
0.781511664390564,
-0.400814950466156,
-0.47403669357299805,
-0.11140463501214981,
-0.07852773368358612,
0.721969485282898,
-0.07836408913135529,
0.20175442099571228,
0.6117203235626221,
-0.09749555587768555,
0.12144121527671814,
0.20189760625362396,
0.3121764361858368,
-0.12290707230567932,
0.2907666563987732,
0.44236165285110474,
0.15445275604724884,
0.7670450806617737,
0.40849465131759644,
-0.22971966862678528,
0.3734029531478882,
0.6717287302017212,
-0.27770766615867615,
-0.4993340075016022,
-0.07015342265367508,
0.1316821426153183,
-0.3665910065174103,
-0.5702291131019592,
-0.5958445072174072,
0.013717446476221085,
-0.3571125864982605,
-0.10067057609558105,
-0.4367764890193939,
0.21379654109477997,
0.28038281202316284,
-0.07710140943527222,
-0.2550417184829712,
0.16206791996955872,
-0.5740530490875244,
-0.687562882900238,
-0.16879652440547943,
0.7728318572044373,
0.14555025100708008,
-0.5863067507743835,
-0.8653877973556519,
0.34940260648727417,
0.8976352214813232,
-0.3054492771625519,
0.10084891319274902,
-0.23896409571170807,
-0.3268495798110962,
0.1616302728652954,
0.5463734269142151,
0.3092562258243561,
0.6162499189376831,
-0.2946445643901825,
0.5202260613441467,
-0.30107006430625916,
-0.5125317573547363,
-0.169130340218544,
1.3191845417022705,
0.23948021233081818,
-0.3416701853275299,
0.32769545912742615,
-0.26370278000831604,
-0.14473986625671387,
0.43100497126579285,
0.546548068523407,
-0.032670143991708755,
0.1680096983909607,
0.402409166097641,
-0.17485655844211578,
-0.46503931283950806,
-0.05339730158448219,
-0.012255247682332993,
-0.5415850281715393,
-0.8033593893051147,
0.20608635246753693,
0.6745769381523132,
0.5342074036598206,
-0.11761500686407089,
0.6283777356147766,
-0.5694237351417542,
-0.03551075607538223,
0.750361979007721,
-0.509386420249939,
0.19077444076538086,
-0.369571328163147,
0.1080566942691803,
-0.1335601955652237,
0.21778516471385956,
-0.21853062510490417,
-0.2147243767976761,
0.5575861930847168,
-0.9180832505226135,
0.24339231848716736,
-0.02240859717130661,
-0.04079480841755867,
0.4364263117313385,
0.30976390838623047,
-0.06580669432878494,
-0.565130352973938,
0.4733753502368927,
0.39925605058670044,
-1.1933724880218506,
0.6462768316268921,
0.2227335423231125,
-0.3282918334007263,
0.2519742250442505,
0.28479620814323425,
-0.005108898039907217,
-0.28879818320274353,
-0.73016357421875,
0.299981951713562,
0.6347308158874512,
0.11212748289108276,
0.4037976861000061,
-0.42957764863967896,
0.3458292782306671,
0.6573950052261353,
-1.0134605169296265,
-0.1931101381778717,
0.2850007116794586,
0.7199755907058716,
-0.43468180298805237,
-0.5468788146972656,
0.46537843346595764,
0.5173001289367676,
-0.5478134155273438,
-0.4940031170845032,
-0.4420812427997589,
0.6476101875305176,
0.009430347941815853,
0.12125417590141296,
0.3356788754463196,
0.19656871259212494,
0.19843491911888123,
-0.3991290032863617,
-0.4668715000152588,
-0.08970239758491516,
0.1805618554353714,
0.2283209264278412,
-0.694717526435852,
-0.9922283291816711,
-0.2609999477863312,
0.5751393437385559,
-0.8438913226127625,
-0.012136937119066715,
-0.29304102063179016,
0.5511294603347778,
0.5892825722694397,
0.33920636773109436,
0.011805626563727856,
0.05810520797967911,
0.20700615644454956,
0.1126638874411583,
-0.3091237545013428,
0.6275893449783325,
0.36912786960601807,
0.2562328577041626,
-0.6229023337364197,
0.38654494285583496,
-0.8456550240516663,
0.22361068427562714,
0.440023809671402,
-0.10815128684043884,
-0.07187850028276443,
-0.2039540857076645,
-0.17236559092998505,
0.0398646704852581,
0.6329634189605713,
-0.19326646625995636,
-0.25099414587020874,
-0.041049424558877945,
1.3572160005569458,
-0.04938293248414993,
0.26891782879829407,
-0.35457298159599304,
0.42286553978919983,
-0.12040992826223373,
0.031168252229690552,
-0.15444666147232056,
0.568436861038208,
0.02540755458176136,
-0.11297939717769623,
-0.10499484837055206,
-0.24972255527973175,
0.20397834479808807,
0.17841076850891113,
0.251155823469162,
0.2301451861858368,
-0.8998532891273499,
-0.3426502048969269,
0.11031407862901688,
-0.6788368225097656,
0.331962525844574,
-0.005252405069768429,
-0.263982892036438,
0.2032257318496704,
0.617475688457489,
0.20259317755699158,
-0.07949533313512802,
0.6735738515853882,
-0.4460989832878113,
0.36503666639328003,
0.39314883947372437,
0.05300280451774597,
0.2195252776145935,
-0.30683162808418274,
-0.8318827152252197,
0.1692439764738083,
0.01101941429078579,
-0.6762280464172363,
0.192106693983078,
-0.35434988141059875,
0.03186174854636192,
0.08214283734560013,
0.5111695528030396,
0.5201587677001953,
-0.3332207202911377,
0.40046966075897217,
-0.49555543065071106,
0.9524552226066589,
1.2688117027282715,
-0.2218846082687378,
-0.6749542355537415,
0.5132755041122437,
-0.2756640613079071,
0.19105792045593262,
0.47428253293037415,
0.21283969283103943,
0.36188971996307373,
-0.4271564483642578,
-0.1192094087600708,
0.2992570996284485,
-0.13254103064537048,
-0.547088623046875,
-0.5360018014907837,
0.5069461464881897,
-0.06675232201814651,
0.6300128102302551,
0.31433048844337463,
0.2156602293252945,
0.5592314004898071,
-0.21846595406532288,
-0.3077719509601593,
-0.15632356703281403,
0.030058017000555992,
0.028728144243359566,
-0.3525042235851288,
-0.29351261258125305,
0.35294970870018005,
-0.5249183177947998,
-0.03374340757727623,
0.1577940136194229,
0.21181629598140717,
-0.2821725904941559,
0.043622445315122604,
0.4215936064720154,
-0.2281653732061386,
-1.2410190105438232,
-0.0141275180503726,
0.6393181681632996,
-0.5342438817024231,
0.6912512183189392,
0.39820608496665955,
-0.008768942207098007,
-0.102770134806633,
-0.038152921944856644,
-0.16172680258750916,
0.613725483417511,
0.20059876143932343,
0.14995068311691284,
0.13725869357585907,
0.47566545009613037,
0.8281874060630798,
-0.29498526453971863,
-0.24709080159664154,
0.34245559573173523,
-0.5016547441482544,
-0.03968292847275734,
-0.6512972116470337,
0.3766328692436218,
-0.06379858404397964,
-0.04017423093318939,
-0.07204466313123703,
-0.1509055495262146,
-0.161390483379364,
-0.5968447923660278,
-0.3735118806362152,
0.30358636379241943,
-0.29519712924957275,
0.0040404172614216805,
0.7501859664916992,
-0.7120556831359863,
-0.03753237426280975,
-0.4147021770477295,
0.017363790422677994,
-0.15390536189079285,
-0.20905263721942902,
0.566428542137146,
0.13343724608421326,
-0.3548409044742584,
0.7126814723014832,
0.049769170582294464,
-0.1939535290002823,
0.45709866285324097,
-0.42937955260276794,
-0.1354977786540985,
-0.9777418971061707,
0.17716185748577118,
0.20805619657039642,
-0.05529966205358505,
0.3071450889110565,
0.42383211851119995,
0.44996535778045654,
-0.48180443048477173,
0.12552258372306824,
0.024339284747838974,
0.30099111795425415,
-0.37972491979599,
-1.1028907299041748,
0.22475071251392365,
-0.7801934480667114,
-0.4884372651576996,
0.05986040458083153,
0.5490260124206543,
0.03826142102479935,
0.1449037492275238,
0.40814390778541565,
-0.303255558013916,
-0.07229830324649811,
-0.27992579340934753,
0.25686341524124146,
-0.7506750226020813,
0.5363704562187195,
0.007939537055790424
] |
234854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20rational%20functions | List of integrals of rational functions | The following is a list of integrals (antiderivative functions) of rational functions.
Any rational function can be integrated by partial fraction decomposition of the function into a sum of functions of the form:
, and
which can then be integrated term by term.
For other types of functions, see lists of integrals.
Miscellaneous integrands
Integrands of the form xm(a x + b)n
Many of the following antiderivatives have a term of the form ln |ax + b|. Because this is undefined when x = −b / a, the most general form of the antiderivative replaces the constant of integration with a locally constant function. However, it is conventional to omit this from the notation. For example,
is usually abbreviated as
where C is to be understood as notation for a locally constant function of x. This convention will be adhered to in the following.
(Cavalieri's quadrature formula)
Integrands of the form xm / (a x2 + b x + c)n
For
Integrands of the form xm (a + b xn)p
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Integrands of the form (A + B x) (a + b x)m (c + d x)n (e + f x)p
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m, n and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form by setting B to 0.
Integrands of the form xm (A + B xn) (a + b xn)p (c + d xn)q
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m, p and q toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form and by setting m and/or B to 0.
Integrands of the form (d + e x)m (a + b x + c x2)p when b2 − 4 a c = 0
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form when by setting m to 0.
Integrands of the form (d + e x)m (A + B x) (a + b x + c x2)p
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form and by setting m and/or B to 0.
Integrands of the form xm (a + b xn + c x2n)p when b2 − 4 a c = 0
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form when by setting m to 0.
Integrands of the form xm (A + B xn) (a + b xn + c x2n)p
The resulting integrands are of the same form as the original integrand, so these reduction formulas can be repeatedly applied to drive the exponents m and p toward 0.
These reduction formulas can be used for integrands having integer and/or fractional exponents.
Special cases of these reductions formulas can be used for integrands of the form and by setting m and/or B to 0.
References
Rational functions | [
-0.8393529057502747,
0.031804297119379044,
-0.12409624457359314,
-0.09961259365081787,
-0.34249308705329895,
0.13425785303115845,
0.058412786573171616,
-0.16134829819202423,
-0.1278403252363205,
-0.3561345040798187,
-0.4007274806499481,
0.5609191060066223,
-0.31221064925193787,
-0.03642905876040459,
0.4842502474784851,
0.5016598701477051,
0.39368247985839844,
0.4819152057170868,
-0.5231634974479675,
-0.4259389638900757,
0.29474806785583496,
0.5454061627388,
0.7560538053512573,
-0.7711976766586304,
0.031596262007951736,
-0.11817046254873276,
0.1984613686800003,
-0.15390188992023468,
-0.038969509303569794,
0.5625596642494202,
-0.20470818877220154,
1.0597285032272339,
-0.1098250076174736,
-0.2043130099773407,
-0.06437632441520691,
-0.43629053235054016,
0.5877255797386169,
0.30351772904396057,
0.037295542657375336,
-0.2455160915851593,
0.08472890406847,
-0.016916455700993538,
0.1272193044424057,
0.09731291979551315,
-0.13439705967903137,
-0.4717352092266083,
-1.4671379327774048,
-0.5574929118156433,
-0.4028680622577667,
-0.17484138906002045,
-0.11134140938520432,
0.132365420460701,
0.7097786664962769,
0.7192898392677307,
-0.49788039922714233,
0.6424922943115234,
-0.6727827191352844,
-0.5206199884414673,
0.5871249437332153,
0.039332687854766846,
0.0061775133945047855,
0.667725145816803,
-0.05885959044098854,
0.163397416472435,
0.47507718205451965,
1.3039219379425049,
-0.3361968994140625,
0.24851597845554352,
-0.6381036639213562,
-0.3221935033798218,
-0.19700707495212555,
-0.8418222665786743,
-0.09541531652212143,
0.45978212356567383,
-0.609430730342865,
-0.226963609457016,
0.008093368262052536,
-0.3213447034358978,
-0.1253442019224167,
-0.22272495925426483,
-0.36388325691223145,
0.6421571969985962,
1.1540026664733887,
-0.25525814294815063,
0.16798095405101776,
-0.17754776775836945,
-0.37855833768844604,
0.19113168120384216,
-0.5759890675544739,
0.6001071333885193,
0.40336599946022034,
-0.20965786278247833,
0.3923819661140442,
-0.05554315075278282,
0.4664786159992218,
0.3472100794315338,
0.30657660961151123,
-0.4336746037006378,
0.0036087112966924906,
0.4851798415184021,
-0.1453346461057663,
0.3180661201477051,
0.09019643068313599,
-1.0552003383636475,
-0.7641423940658569,
-0.623904287815094,
-0.3901113271713257,
-0.3299337327480316,
0.26741304993629456,
-0.29349151253700256,
-1.1655808687210083,
0.462780237197876,
0.7332680821418762,
-0.3762843608856201,
-0.6857626438140869,
0.37760335206985474,
-0.07180045545101166,
0.3726944029331207,
-0.07801242172718048,
0.26109039783477783,
0.09723091870546341,
0.7409981489181519,
-0.11761260777711868,
0.3701280355453491,
-0.446900874376297,
0.33127152919769287,
0.6134341955184937,
0.7350416779518127,
-0.14118453860282898,
0.10335439443588257,
0.34043675661087036,
0.7250574231147766,
0.5861067771911621,
-0.11720138788223267,
-0.14467640221118927,
-0.9067936539649963,
-0.2224518358707428,
-0.6106785535812378,
-0.4425227642059326,
0.18295907974243164,
-0.6357771158218384,
-0.5929161310195923,
-0.8673403263092041,
-0.38365039229393005,
0.5668708086013794,
-0.3906199038028717,
-0.313111275434494,
-0.29971644282341003,
0.30979806184768677,
-0.05034299194812775,
-0.08834265917539597,
0.15009135007858276,
-0.6365557909011841,
0.17932048439979553,
-0.3464694917201996,
0.33408012986183167,
0.658484160900116,
0.21309508383274078,
0.13003474473953247,
0.03590640425682068,
-0.011882771737873554,
-0.295714795589447,
-0.2723536193370819,
-0.44858843088150024,
0.49541351199150085,
-0.3676925301551819,
0.48157647252082825,
0.46888992190361023,
0.34356117248535156,
0.03717456012964249,
-0.5381154417991638,
-0.5066548585891724,
0.3329828381538391,
-0.11876460164785385,
-0.09501033276319504,
-0.4071025252342224,
0.5529629588127136,
-0.2124914675951004,
0.5295892357826233,
0.17861701548099518,
-1.1900520324707031,
-0.17997705936431885,
-0.03787750005722046,
-0.6585782766342163,
0.7080320119857788,
0.4017181098461151,
0.6354748606681824,
0.5814470052719116,
0.59737628698349,
0.015669727697968483,
-0.3553866446018219,
0.05248992145061493,
-0.16309043765068054,
-0.7470977306365967,
1.0000152587890625,
0.5594767928123474,
-0.8951275944709778,
-0.18565288186073303,
-0.0916752740740776,
0.4447381794452667,
-0.42687803506851196,
-0.10401085764169693,
0.4784773290157318,
0.924530029296875,
-0.4420207142829895,
1.2266278266906738,
-0.48183584213256836,
0.1431080400943756,
-0.4394724369049072,
0.9622156023979187,
0.41431793570518494,
0.02137051522731781,
0.5171349048614502,
-0.6436176896095276,
0.28385335206985474,
-0.5036975741386414,
-0.4294247627258301,
0.2587089538574219,
-0.04245319962501526,
-0.103996142745018,
1.067190170288086,
-0.07261267304420471,
0.15512773394584656,
0.3869608938694,
-0.29494988918304443,
0.6606903672218323,
0.47994449734687805,
0.36836302280426025,
0.2658346891403198,
-0.5391319394111633,
0.2420886605978012,
-0.0003673874889500439,
0.31591886281967163,
0.09631031006574631,
-0.1527784913778305,
0.3209993541240692,
0.25908905267715454,
-0.5173968076705933,
-0.250259131193161,
-0.7569442391395569,
0.13360828161239624,
0.6148200035095215,
-0.3026137351989746,
0.13030029833316803,
-0.2448045015335083,
-0.22561314702033997,
-0.758488655090332,
-0.256985068321228,
-0.18908412754535675,
-0.4931926727294922,
-0.0391073077917099,
0.14615443348884583,
0.0948866605758667,
-0.52007657289505,
-0.29947271943092346,
0.40033942461013794,
-0.08854489773511887,
0.07267110794782639,
0.45569485425949097,
0.8515509366989136,
-0.4705450236797333,
0.16283980011940002,
0.2831360101699829,
-0.16110271215438843,
-0.3224274516105652,
-0.07794144749641418,
-0.8130165934562683,
-0.38083940744400024,
0.5281781554222107,
0.3483225405216217,
0.25665807723999023,
-1.0080407857894897,
-0.659472644329071,
-0.8271645307540894,
-0.5781902074813843,
-0.5215302109718323,
-0.7159057855606079,
0.2588830888271332,
-1.4098849296569824,
-0.1143890842795372,
0.38748905062675476,
0.9819813966751099,
0.24805139005184174,
-0.1551809459924698,
-0.6969024538993835,
-0.14107413589954376,
0.15202979743480682,
-0.3637778162956238,
0.14397086203098297,
-0.19056010246276855,
-0.5869048833847046,
-0.03449280560016632,
-0.4624875783920288,
-0.16343650221824646,
0.3750344514846802,
0.45025935769081116,
0.026313072070479393,
0.24660368263721466,
-0.25027331709861755,
-0.34107857942581177,
-1.1428427696228027,
-0.18624481558799744,
-0.5506646037101746,
-0.08453195542097092,
0.013907325454056263,
-0.4136064052581787,
-0.4395633339881897,
0.6283467411994934,
-4.966861724853516,
-0.1647428423166275,
-0.7317543029785156,
0.2959759533405304,
-0.31498733162879944,
0.42580246925354004,
0.2007521241903305,
-0.20993752777576447,
-0.5788335204124451,
0.3013901710510254,
-0.19673384726047516,
-0.41135790944099426,
-0.4783378839492798,
1.2364349365234375,
0.5243510603904724,
0.07011126726865768,
0.07534690201282501,
0.299443781375885,
0.46244025230407715,
0.25525879859924316,
-0.20228786766529083,
-0.11035570502281189,
-0.4167497158050537,
0.2974197268486023,
0.38270464539527893,
0.6565630435943604,
-0.25017213821411133,
0.6641308665275574,
-0.2252555787563324,
-0.01647346094250679,
-0.18549078702926636,
-0.003061556024476886,
-0.307766854763031,
-0.6547980904579163,
-0.3549008369445801,
0.29447466135025024,
0.31711989641189575,
-0.5205538272857666,
0.32519516348838806,
-0.6937693357467651,
-0.5602210164070129,
1.009618878364563,
-0.21636845171451569,
0.22485128045082092,
0.17340314388275146,
-0.34112605452537537,
-0.3419405221939087,
0.23627497255802155,
0.10376441478729248,
0.8379899859428406,
-0.4950753450393677,
0.2057628035545349,
0.9548620581626892,
0.02875491790473461,
-0.14290711283683777,
-0.09443274140357971,
0.3041016757488251,
-0.3990618586540222,
-0.31018972396850586,
0.5862947106361389,
0.9841187596321106,
-0.7773726582527161,
0.5459884405136108,
-0.17313387989997864,
-0.5072515606880188,
-0.13061507046222687,
-0.6842744946479797,
-0.6418491005897522,
0.30797189474105835,
0.006328792776912451,
-0.5678157210350037,
0.2845327854156494,
-0.43702131509780884,
-0.3379760980606079,
0.06455671042203903,
-0.16278667747974396,
0.29734691977500916,
0.23082134127616882,
0.2934422492980957,
0.482414186000824,
-0.3087930977344513,
-0.5443719029426575,
-0.675849437713623,
0.25788620114326477,
-0.11930100619792938,
0.08267367631196976,
-0.4337271451950073,
-0.36518365144729614,
-0.8389094471931458,
-0.15656770765781403,
0.3209443986415863,
0.09895119071006775,
0.49976593255996704,
0.5498950481414795,
0.5101511478424072,
0.05441968888044357,
0.7810969948768616,
-0.31019920110702515,
0.5856188535690308,
-0.3548717796802521,
0.5778513550758362,
-0.30206745862960815,
0.34264057874679565,
0.15734413266181946,
-0.021138209849596024,
-0.20182861387729645,
-0.6538081169128418,
0.913528323173523,
0.22553320229053497,
-0.3706677556037903,
-0.24628667533397675,
-0.21639879047870636,
-0.36613309383392334,
-0.1245097741484642,
0.514256477355957,
0.14622679352760315,
-0.8785531520843506,
0.7473141551017761,
0.8043710589408875,
0.020086148753762245,
0.21276737749576569,
0.23491869866847992,
-0.028688741847872734,
-0.22293712198734283,
-0.2999229431152344,
-0.015349247492849827,
0.07356508076190948,
0.468004435300827,
-0.47650423645973206,
-0.3167937695980072,
-0.0483597107231617,
0.7419617176055908,
-0.3977752923965454,
0.030581485480070114,
0.3591536581516266,
-0.7211882472038269,
0.019952716305851936,
0.3504224121570587,
0.5994018316268921,
-0.49187323451042175,
1.0022573471069336,
0.33632200956344604,
-0.39577969908714294,
-0.5041625499725342,
0.24187536537647247,
0.29220879077911377,
0.0773787572979927,
-0.4860982298851013,
-0.44127219915390015,
0.6464146971702576,
-0.14859488606452942,
-0.8549572229385376,
0.8477649092674255,
-0.4310126006603241,
0.46083515882492065,
0.14505331218242645,
-0.3422970473766327,
0.34294593334198,
-0.10785665363073349,
-0.5931627750396729,
0.18862119317054749,
0.22401612997055054,
-0.801123857498169,
-0.12265150249004364,
0.19233836233615875,
-0.41215670108795166,
-0.7351877093315125,
-0.1703963279724121,
-0.3505305051803589,
0.7625088095664978,
0.14369846880435944,
0.35998907685279846,
-0.029155459254980087,
-0.299675315618515,
0.4113085865974426,
-0.18150946497917175,
0.14236260950565338,
0.691903829574585,
0.14446058869361877,
-0.34734243154525757,
0.3891022503376007,
-0.5822803378105164,
-0.2986600995063782,
0.5663493871688843,
0.8862608671188354,
0.18604175746440887,
-0.14233048260211945,
0.11154574155807495,
-0.4516008198261261,
-0.3931947946548462,
0.22745083272457123,
0.11704549938440323,
-0.004379717167466879,
-0.8226943016052246,
-0.7725476622581482,
-0.5384970903396606,
0.6269335746765137,
0.16994881629943848,
-0.018096761777997017,
-0.8624098896980286,
0.6835671663284302,
0.6119101643562317,
-0.3221488296985626,
0.6331866979598999,
0.12010729312896729,
-0.5306971669197083,
0.09625878185033798,
-0.19971893727779388,
-0.7208607196807861,
0.6659833788871765,
-0.3047996759414673,
-0.8130466938018799,
0.21433234214782715,
-0.37875989079475403,
-0.595708966255188,
0.29949477314949036,
0.8760752081871033,
-0.3572863042354584,
-0.40017440915107727,
-0.884585976600647,
0.3058282136917114,
-0.5454726219177246,
-0.10844793170690536,
0.21551832556724548,
-0.2423161417245865,
-0.10188589245080948,
0.14935950934886932,
-0.9605570435523987,
0.8406851887702942,
-0.1288125216960907,
-0.7099876999855042,
0.1404491364955902,
-0.37998834252357483,
0.05938341096043587,
0.05340047925710678,
-0.6757485866546631,
-0.885216236114502,
0.7384561896324158,
-0.9173700213432312,
-0.5309115648269653,
0.06727965921163559,
0.29337063431739807,
0.387056827545166,
-0.7196366786956787,
0.2832583785057068,
0.026287799701094627,
0.4506113827228546,
-0.6257502436637878,
-0.11851409822702408,
0.13979017734527588,
0.41890034079551697,
0.2056359052658081,
-0.6470354795455933,
-0.5885248184204102,
0.8269813060760498,
0.46699127554893494,
0.05833619832992554,
-0.14273785054683685,
0.4365291893482208,
0.45550209283828735,
-0.1109609603881836,
-0.14445924758911133,
-0.5285654664039612,
0.16592156887054443,
0.14906972646713257,
0.4779391884803772,
0.10351438820362091,
0.064750075340271,
0.9639230966567993,
0.13171344995498657,
0.04257193207740784,
-0.1826852262020111,
0.10228695720434189,
0.5669484734535217,
0.5387336015701294,
0.1815456598997116,
0.19982832670211792,
0.1191045343875885,
0.1623399704694748,
-0.23064671456813812,
0.12823766469955444,
0.0474514365196228,
-0.04285825416445732,
-0.6576390862464905,
0.5329977869987488,
-0.16864871978759766,
0.27143654227256775,
0.3746049106121063,
-0.21473416686058044,
0.6923434734344482,
-0.6342533826828003,
-0.26695623993873596,
-0.1594766229391098,
-0.13970424234867096,
0.10110440850257874,
0.46075230836868286,
0.06484340876340866,
0.17120036482810974,
-0.40217408537864685,
-0.5670574307441711,
-0.43270671367645264,
0.1436929702758789,
0.043881528079509735,
-0.2012007236480713,
0.0465918630361557,
0.49213165044784546,
0.7132797241210938,
-0.09507973492145538,
-0.29790228605270386,
-0.28862258791923523,
0.3789806365966797,
0.3613203763961792,
0.11966139823198318,
0.41869014501571655,
-0.10352043807506561,
-0.10127314180135727,
0.7675716876983643,
-0.30610957741737366,
0.6075458526611328,
0.5708656907081604,
-0.21061791479587555,
-0.5303985476493835,
0.24908135831356049,
-0.6488058567047119,
-1.0749306678771973,
0.22814178466796875,
-0.4610616862773895,
-0.18234580755233765,
0.16684255003929138,
0.5879902243614197,
0.8435994386672974,
0.6143440008163452,
-0.8142909407615662,
0.6114127039909363,
-0.3980221152305603,
-0.51600581407547,
0.2007664144039154,
-0.4288037121295929,
-0.36840566992759705,
0.4233808219432831,
1.110316514968872,
1.053663730621338,
-0.017013996839523315,
0.01521730050444603,
0.0431332029402256,
0.16881626844406128,
-0.30865004658699036,
0.16181184351444244,
-0.046854909509420395,
-0.027977442368865013,
0.24389632046222687,
0.358395516872406,
0.45030686259269714,
-0.010299830697476864,
0.21294760704040527,
0.3424229025840759,
0.4878181517124176,
-0.17914897203445435,
0.26680171489715576,
-0.14545992016792297,
0.07002442330121994,
0.48300403356552124,
-0.09928023815155029,
-0.25483816862106323,
0.16658858954906464,
0.45424383878707886,
0.26466694474220276,
0.026173895224928856,
-0.06504593044519424,
-0.04345900937914848,
0.10001000016927719,
0.5067203044891357,
-0.133022740483284,
0.2896345257759094,
0.22404715418815613,
-0.5980876684188843,
-0.08732738345861435,
0.1879541575908661,
-0.3277306854724884,
-0.11872885376214981,
0.2418130785226822,
0.5770930051803589,
-0.03152783215045929,
-0.7747860550880432,
0.06580812484025955,
-0.16092443466186523,
-0.1958664059638977,
-0.15207435190677643,
0.030051415786147118,
0.2710020840167999,
-0.0781044289469719,
-0.2322198450565338,
-0.15331755578517914,
-0.045973435044288635,
0.00006927143112989143,
0.5055484771728516,
-1.3281217813491821,
1.1747320890426636,
0.6170063018798828,
-0.8224238753318787,
0.13510634005069733,
0.2792827785015106,
0.4547383487224579,
0.20912842452526093,
-0.912375271320343,
0.06455852091312408,
-0.40335413813591003,
0.18874205648899078,
-0.18581508100032806,
0.4794252812862396,
0.2145906239748001,
0.1416597068309784,
0.25343987345695496,
0.36829784512519836,
-0.2551223039627075,
0.11623546481132507,
0.12086249142885208,
-0.2880083918571472,
-0.2155471295118332,
-0.13869944214820862,
-0.5373949408531189,
-0.2685611844062805,
0.1463918536901474,
0.5470888018608093,
-0.1893301010131836,
-0.40642860531806946,
0.22296260297298431,
0.10165765136480331,
0.18480396270751953,
0.19065451622009277,
-0.22921982407569885,
0.31461265683174133,
-0.22600157558918,
0.208161860704422,
0.22007818520069122,
-0.07594986259937286,
0.34282684326171875,
0.4487278163433075,
0.4679926633834839,
-0.53737872838974,
-0.8125985264778137,
0.47172266244888306,
-0.11029399931430817,
1.094072699546814,
-1.583069086074829,
0.3629497289657593,
-0.573599100112915,
-0.928970992565155,
-0.7518518567085266,
0.5597625970840454,
0.42701759934425354,
-0.014409489929676056,
-0.09264037758111954,
-0.14981424808502197,
-0.47631511092185974,
0.29378753900527954,
0.34449633955955505,
-0.5933283567428589,
-0.23610424995422363,
0.8793797492980957
] |
234855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20integrals | Lists of integrals | Integration is the basic operation in integral calculus. While differentiation has straightforward rules by which the derivative of a complicated function can be found by differentiating its simpler component functions, integration does not, so tables of known integrals are often useful. This page lists some of the most common antiderivatives.
Historical development of integrals
A compilation of a list of integrals (Integraltafeln) and techniques of integral calculus was published by the German mathematician (aka ) in 1810. These tables were republished in the United Kingdom in 1823. More extensive tables were compiled in 1858 by the Dutch mathematician David Bierens de Haan for his Tables d'intégrales définies, supplemented by Supplément aux tables d'intégrales définies in ca. 1864. A new edition was published in 1867 under the title Nouvelles tables d'intégrales définies. These tables, which contain mainly integrals of elementary functions, remained in use until the middle of the 20th century. They were then replaced by the much more extensive tables of Gradshteyn and Ryzhik. In Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, integrals originating from the book by Bierens de Haan are denoted by BI.
Not all closed-form expressions have closed-form antiderivatives; this study forms the subject of differential Galois theory, which was initially developed by Joseph Liouville in the 1830s and 1840s, leading to Liouville's theorem which classifies which expressions have closed form antiderivatives. A simple example of a function without a closed form antiderivative is , whose antiderivative is (up to constants) the error function.
Since 1968 there is the Risch algorithm for determining indefinite integrals that can be expressed in term of elementary functions, typically using a computer algebra system. Integrals that cannot be expressed using elementary functions can be manipulated symbolically using general functions such as the Meijer G-function.
Lists of integrals
More detail may be found on the following pages for the lists of integrals:
List of integrals of rational functions
List of integrals of irrational functions
List of integrals of trigonometric functions
List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
List of integrals of hyperbolic functions
List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions
List of integrals of exponential functions
List of integrals of logarithmic functions
List of integrals of Gaussian functions
Gradshteyn, Ryzhik, Geronimus, Tseytlin, Jeffrey, Zwillinger, and Moll's (GR) Table of Integrals, Series, and Products contains a large collection of results. An even larger, multivolume table is the Integrals and Series by Prudnikov, Brychkov, and Marichev (with volumes 1–3 listing integrals and series of elementary and special functions, volume 4–5 are tables of Laplace transforms). More compact collections can be found in e.g. Brychkov, Marichev, Prudnikov's Tables of Indefinite Integrals, or as chapters in Zwillinger's CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae or Bronshtein and Semendyayev's Guide Book to Mathematics, Handbook of Mathematics or Users' Guide to Mathematics, and other mathematical handbooks.
Other useful resources include Abramowitz and Stegun and the Bateman Manuscript Project. Both works contain many identities concerning specific integrals, which are organized with the most relevant topic instead of being collected into a separate table. Two volumes of the Bateman Manuscript are specific to integral transforms.
There are several web sites which have tables of integrals and integrals on demand. Wolfram Alpha can show results, and for some simpler expressions, also the intermediate steps of the integration. Wolfram Research also operates another online service, the Wolfram Mathematica Online Integrator.
Integrals of simple functions
C is used for an arbitrary constant of integration that can only be determined if something about the value of the integral at some point is known. Thus, each function has an infinite number of antiderivatives.
These formulas only state in another form the assertions in the table of derivatives.
Integrals with a singularity
When there is a singularity in the function being integrated such that the antiderivative becomes undefined or at some point (the singularity), then C does not need to be the same on both sides of the singularity. The forms below normally assume the Cauchy principal value around a singularity in the value of C but this is not in general necessary. For instance in
there is a singularity at 0 and the antiderivative becomes infinite there. If the integral above were to be used to compute a definite integral between −1 and 1, one would get the wrong answer 0. This however is the Cauchy principal value of the integral around the singularity. If the integration is done in the complex plane the result depends on the path around the origin, in this case the singularity contributes −i when using a path above the origin and i for a path below the origin. A function on the real line could use a completely different value of C on either side of the origin as in:
Rational functions
The following function has a non-integrable singularity at 0 for :
(Cavalieri's quadrature formula)
More generally,
Exponential functions
(if is a positive integer)
(if is a positive integer)
Logarithms
Trigonometric functions
(See Integral of the secant function. This result was a well-known conjecture in the 17th century.)
(See integral of secant cubed.)
Inverse trigonometric functions
Hyperbolic functions
Inverse hyperbolic functions
Products of functions proportional to their second derivatives
Absolute-value functions
Let be a continuous function, that has at most one zero. If has a zero, let be the unique antiderivative of that is zero at the root of ; otherwise, let be any antiderivative of . Then
where is the sign function, which takes the values −1, 0, 1 when is respectively negative, zero or positive.
This can be proved by computing the derivative of the right-hand side of the formula, taking into account that the condition on is here for insuring the continuity of the integral.
This gives the following formulas (where ), which are valid over any interval where is continuous (over larger intervals, the constant must be replaced by a piecewise constant function):
when is odd, and .
when for some integer .
when for some integer .
when for some integer .
when for some integer .
If the function does not have any continuous antiderivative which takes the value zero at the zeros of (this is the case for the sine and the cosine functions), then is an antiderivative of on every interval on which is not zero, but may be discontinuous at the points where . For having a continuous antiderivative, one has thus to add a well chosen step function. If we also use the fact that the absolute values of sine and cosine are periodic with period , then we get:
Special functions
, : Trigonometric integrals, : Exponential integral, : Logarithmic integral function, : Error function
Definite integrals lacking closed-form antiderivatives
There are some functions whose antiderivatives cannot be expressed in closed form. However, the values of the definite integrals of some of these functions over some common intervals can be calculated. A few useful integrals are given below.
(see also Gamma function)
for (the Gaussian integral)
for
for , is a positive integer and is the double factorial.
when
for ,
(see also Bernoulli number)
(see sinc function and the Dirichlet integral)
(if is a positive integer and !! is the double factorial).
(for integers with and , see also Binomial coefficient)
(for real, a non-negative integer, and an odd, positive integer; since the integrand is odd)
(for integers with and , see also Binomial coefficient)
(for integers with and , see also Binomial coefficient)
(where is the exponential function , and .)
(where is the Gamma function)
(for and , see Beta function)
(where is the modified Bessel function of the first kind)
(for , this is related to the probability density function of Student's t-distribution)
If the function has bounded variation on the interval , then the method of exhaustion provides a formula for the integral:
The "sophomore's dream":
attributed to Johann Bernoulli.
See also
Incomplete gamma function
Indefinite sum
List of limits
List of mathematical series
Symbolic integration
References
Further reading
(Several previous editions as well.)
. Second revised edition (Russian), volume 1–3, Fiziko-Matematicheskaya Literatura, 2003.
Yuri A. Brychkov (Ю. А. Брычков), Handbook of Special Functions: Derivatives, Integrals, Series and Other Formulas. Russian edition, Fiziko-Matematicheskaya Literatura, 2006. English edition, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2008, / 9781584889564.
Daniel Zwillinger. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae, 31st edition. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2002. . (Many earlier editions as well.)
, Integraltafeln oder Sammlung von Integralformeln (Duncker und Humblot, Berlin, 1810)
, Integral Tables Or A Collection of Integral Formulae (Baynes and son, London, 1823) [English translation of Integraltafeln]
David Bierens de Haan, Nouvelles Tables d'Intégrales définies (Engels, Leiden, 1862)
Benjamin O. Pierce A short table of integrals - revised edition (Ginn & co., Boston, 1899)
External links
Tables of integrals
Paul's Online Math Notes
A. Dieckmann, Table of Integrals (Elliptic Functions, Square Roots, Inverse Tangents and More Exotic Functions): Indefinite Integrals Definite Integrals
Math Major: A Table of Integrals
Derived integrals of exponential, logarithmic functions and special functions.
Rule-based Integration Precisely defined indefinite integration rules covering a wide class of integrands
Derivations
Victor Hugo Moll, The Integrals in Gradshteyn and Ryzhik
Online service
Integration examples for Wolfram Alpha
Open source programs
wxmaxima gui for Symbolic and numeric resolution of many mathematical problems
Videos
The Single Most Overpowered Integration Technique in Existence. YouTube Video by Flammable Maths on symmetries
Integrals | [
-0.43116557598114014,
0.13232550024986267,
0.32226884365081787,
-0.08794067054986954,
0.2341534048318863,
0.02948337234556675,
-0.2421289086341858,
-0.3888101577758789,
-0.21918028593063354,
-0.24617153406143188,
0.08459211140871048,
0.49941450357437134,
-0.3283340334892273,
-0.3442842364311218,
0.5685149431228638,
0.16251717507839203,
0.08849145472049713,
0.27646687626838684,
-0.47899994254112244,
-0.29506975412368774,
0.14733922481536865,
0.5081700682640076,
0.5734564661979675,
-0.7709177136421204,
0.005862249527126551,
-0.10162032395601273,
-0.09660319983959198,
-0.25485652685165405,
-0.39795735478401184,
0.3818480968475342,
-0.21621806919574738,
0.7137319445610046,
0.09493988752365112,
-0.3381533622741699,
-0.4982086420059204,
-0.4758777320384979,
0.3185344636440277,
0.16591040790081024,
0.04210283234715462,
-0.2836354970932007,
-0.20074774324893951,
-0.5821529626846313,
0.09136077761650085,
-0.2429201900959015,
-0.2290811836719513,
-0.5711679458618164,
-1.224210500717163,
-0.36693912744522095,
-0.6646327972412109,
0.14660601317882538,
-0.5853685140609741,
0.046837981790304184,
0.35895273089408875,
0.5893495082855225,
-0.37660861015319824,
0.7511162161827087,
-0.393023818731308,
-0.42970460653305054,
0.4435190260410309,
-0.3289242386817932,
0.44052138924598694,
0.7737273573875427,
0.1046435683965683,
0.1891436129808426,
0.6023750305175781,
0.9842084050178528,
-0.1289423257112503,
0.285079687833786,
-0.2545643746852875,
-0.32595139741897583,
0.05004004389047623,
-0.433735728263855,
-0.25893840193748474,
0.5198441743850708,
-0.31277716159820557,
-0.178012877702713,
-0.23097054660320282,
0.028260238468647003,
-0.10100565105676651,
-0.15492963790893555,
-0.490965873003006,
0.6501278281211853,
1.0223957300186157,
0.031788866966962814,
0.36069926619529724,
0.14515568315982819,
-0.2296002358198166,
0.26002854108810425,
-0.34661799669265747,
0.2764260768890381,
0.6424561738967896,
-0.3968798816204071,
0.3717038631439209,
0.14845389127731323,
0.3684471845626831,
0.2594616115093231,
0.23982031643390656,
-0.3750793933868408,
0.2653045058250427,
0.25602903962135315,
-0.30309292674064636,
0.30553704500198364,
0.12027891725301743,
-0.7059820890426636,
-0.37171122431755066,
-0.31851470470428467,
-0.4819267988204956,
0.14726679027080536,
0.4906861484050751,
-0.13967329263687134,
-1.1336917877197266,
0.09270981699228287,
0.3369826674461365,
-0.26257020235061646,
-0.6975323557853699,
0.2609717845916748,
0.09298955649137497,
0.5277069211006165,
-0.4054545760154724,
-0.07020356506109238,
0.224079892039299,
0.5698803663253784,
0.33098557591438293,
0.5269151926040649,
-0.26373225450515747,
0.16714376211166382,
0.6267932057380676,
0.7445992827415466,
-0.26614758372306824,
-0.23659716546535492,
0.10908506065607071,
0.6051872968673706,
0.43549439311027527,
0.011838200502097607,
0.05826680362224579,
-0.30650442838668823,
-0.4256921708583832,
-0.058787908405065536,
-0.20699754357337952,
0.5289234519004822,
-0.4293532073497772,
-0.17495641112327576,
-0.2624058127403259,
-0.4266466200351715,
0.043009158223867416,
-0.5656380653381348,
-0.33513757586479187,
-0.42024827003479004,
-0.07607018202543259,
0.2752158045768738,
0.03528213873505592,
0.44837573170661926,
-0.712836742401123,
0.02012421004474163,
-0.14985154569149017,
0.34973010420799255,
0.7360268235206604,
0.306460440158844,
0.04295672848820686,
-0.13953951001167297,
-0.045627620071172714,
-0.06358153373003006,
-0.22741790115833282,
-0.2852429151535034,
0.2708542048931122,
-0.7353907823562622,
0.6318393349647522,
0.061755381524562836,
0.22675511240959167,
-0.026542674750089645,
-0.2571571469306946,
-0.28932157158851624,
0.11236671358346939,
0.07673794031143188,
-0.21373127400875092,
-0.10170328617095947,
0.7150976061820984,
-0.11049240827560425,
0.559720516204834,
0.1344117522239685,
-0.8638810515403748,
-0.28482091426849365,
-0.29255104064941406,
-1.0294902324676514,
0.6361531615257263,
0.05248301103711128,
0.2987683415412903,
0.033051058650016785,
0.14651121199131012,
0.23729828000068665,
-0.300678551197052,
-0.20693275332450867,
-0.12348102778196335,
-0.8556827902793884,
1.079485535621643,
0.531662106513977,
-0.8924621939659119,
0.1859961450099945,
-0.3126714527606964,
0.1446457952260971,
-0.5467844009399414,
0.02178018167614937,
0.4365366995334625,
0.6134705543518066,
-0.5107505321502686,
0.6317318081855774,
-0.5501377582550049,
0.1375049501657486,
-0.3804090619087219,
0.534314751625061,
0.09478127956390381,
0.18634672462940216,
0.2091740369796753,
-0.3867054581642151,
0.07199359685182571,
-0.31688186526298523,
-0.8697338700294495,
0.02338266558945179,
-0.03716076910495758,
0.1298910528421402,
1.0387102365493774,
-0.09127537161111832,
0.09953316301107407,
0.2960588037967682,
-0.45122966170310974,
0.3620246350765228,
0.7454381585121155,
0.3922545909881592,
0.2457675188779831,
-0.8412672281265259,
0.02832387574017048,
-0.49670422077178955,
0.2568999230861664,
0.07827316969633102,
0.03217656910419464,
0.12573903799057007,
0.1146417111158371,
-0.22558048367500305,
-0.11589542776346207,
-0.4311041831970215,
0.2346520870923996,
0.45233044028282166,
-0.13957665860652924,
-0.14233262836933136,
0.4171041250228882,
-0.34468239545822144,
-0.6840378642082214,
-0.09106196463108063,
-0.10570373386144638,
-0.015074479393661022,
-0.24579232931137085,
0.3134506642818451,
0.11872340738773346,
-0.6022270321846008,
-0.2413429170846939,
0.41391727328300476,
-0.0027031274512410164,
0.36940744519233704,
0.25251054763793945,
0.8434418439865112,
-0.38870736956596375,
-0.10668143630027771,
0.00515653844922781,
-0.27470341324806213,
-0.1358439028263092,
-0.22808901965618134,
-0.9449806809425354,
-0.3444945514202118,
0.5835995674133301,
0.6099987030029297,
0.10035786777734756,
-0.5679112672805786,
-0.5107873678207397,
-0.6782417297363281,
-0.6317228674888611,
-0.7901504039764404,
-0.0648314505815506,
-0.11942265927791595,
-1.243003010749817,
-0.600071370601654,
0.20829777419567108,
0.6045917868614197,
0.20760777592658997,
-0.19923970103263855,
-0.42471837997436523,
-0.49048763513565063,
0.13728684186935425,
-0.2228163480758667,
-0.008037924766540527,
-0.134566992521286,
-0.4735196828842163,
0.143135666847229,
-0.5852395296096802,
-0.12863178551197052,
0.5884308218955994,
0.23262764513492584,
0.23647235333919525,
0.25223883986473083,
-0.17479576170444489,
-0.7034367918968201,
-0.845864474773407,
-0.44166335463523865,
-0.3018195927143097,
0.04642302542924881,
0.17276214063167572,
-0.6725785136222839,
0.00662276754155755,
0.45221269130706787,
-5.541939735412598,
-0.4605390131473541,
-0.6921326518058777,
0.11455504596233368,
-0.025357116013765335,
0.5626217722892761,
0.29479166865348816,
0.013135364279150963,
-0.24338293075561523,
0.09725987166166306,
-0.12881360948085785,
-0.1045302078127861,
-0.4084247946739197,
1.0966181755065918,
0.5193145275115967,
0.31540006399154663,
-0.013801133260130882,
0.34867072105407715,
0.35384324193000793,
0.6922056078910828,
0.010791724547743797,
-0.5793271660804749,
-0.29130053520202637,
0.2833014130592346,
-0.04449145868420601,
0.16364528238773346,
-0.5759477019309998,
0.8418372869491577,
-0.2587723731994629,
0.05660511553287506,
-0.5101871490478516,
-0.03240686655044556,
-0.4600980579853058,
-0.7475057244300842,
-0.6451988816261292,
0.02474844455718994,
0.41926008462905884,
-0.042346078902482986,
0.09283895790576935,
-0.23058851063251495,
-0.23090265691280365,
0.8093993663787842,
0.061072252690792084,
0.02028966322541237,
0.4313197135925293,
0.03889470174908638,
-0.19309262931346893,
0.014980006963014603,
0.04820845276117325,
0.6059659719467163,
-0.6795794367790222,
-0.040159039199352264,
1.0662602186203003,
0.05294697731733322,
-0.029410088434815407,
-0.4706652760505676,
0.21509690582752228,
-0.3144741356372833,
-0.3034782409667969,
0.6165362596511841,
0.5980214476585388,
-0.9260287880897522,
0.3517981171607971,
-0.36504286527633667,
-0.7048461437225342,
0.1277180314064026,
-0.7584617137908936,
-0.2804509401321411,
0.22771631181240082,
0.04331900551915169,
-0.6437705755233765,
-0.1693529486656189,
-0.6195476055145264,
-0.5821020603179932,
-0.15233540534973145,
-0.15358151495456696,
0.6765363812446594,
0.20887182652950287,
0.41131576895713806,
0.36174556612968445,
-0.37610724568367004,
-0.6258665919303894,
-0.3164215385913849,
-0.09708510339260101,
0.05247111618518829,
0.22270391881465912,
-0.5273874402046204,
-0.5673015117645264,
-0.6549020409584045,
-0.16902124881744385,
0.46783876419067383,
0.3279840648174286,
0.4795982241630554,
0.21963892877101898,
0.7704384922981262,
0.2256523221731186,
0.6235243678092957,
-0.018731145188212395,
0.26314666867256165,
-0.20833268761634827,
0.23486366868019104,
-0.07928211241960526,
0.33178481459617615,
-0.23049694299697876,
0.08373098075389862,
-0.10957873612642288,
-0.3281897008419037,
0.9371445775032043,
0.2678298056125641,
-0.297898530960083,
-0.35978102684020996,
-0.010137852281332016,
-0.260480135679245,
-0.15921704471111298,
0.019260717555880547,
0.3423118591308594,
-0.735892117023468,
0.4665069282054901,
0.681932270526886,
-0.29956361651420593,
-0.3358733057975769,
0.024509524926543236,
-0.22043055295944214,
0.04086492583155632,
-0.24015206098556519,
-0.628127932548523,
-0.02363729290664196,
0.4081118106842041,
-0.1953917294740677,
-0.20121511816978455,
0.28131797909736633,
0.49197614192962646,
-0.03524968400597572,
0.11931321769952774,
0.6760328412055969,
-0.9738067984580994,
0.04114864394068718,
0.4292912185192108,
0.019495444372296333,
-0.9148013591766357,
0.7118239402770996,
-0.06879974156618118,
-0.22717241942882538,
-0.08615247160196304,
0.17725245654582977,
0.43729132413864136,
-0.23646940290927887,
-0.3076237142086029,
-0.18804538249969482,
0.5632983446121216,
0.1235872432589531,
-0.8053168058395386,
0.7783142328262329,
-0.19576139748096466,
0.30499646067619324,
0.12301325798034668,
-0.162762850522995,
0.3522886633872986,
0.30481258034706116,
-0.3197445869445801,
0.10278457403182983,
0.35466018319129944,
-0.941800057888031,
-0.3025307357311249,
-0.0009267720743082464,
0.011749214492738247,
-0.6830475926399231,
-0.1783333271741867,
-0.3132670521736145,
0.5202120542526245,
0.16297554969787598,
-0.09153594076633453,
0.4781814515590668,
-0.490692138671875,
0.4603781998157501,
-0.15844471752643585,
0.31124347448349,
0.3100244998931885,
0.03507088124752045,
-0.2647622227668762,
0.5364869236946106,
-0.35382279753685,
0.06789237260818481,
1.0609190464019775,
0.8351064324378967,
0.08234874904155731,
0.13536538183689117,
0.22669072449207306,
-0.48096826672554016,
-0.3956649899482727,
0.3975573480129242,
-0.15191741287708282,
0.2142123132944107,
-0.7728433012962341,
-0.6985775828361511,
-0.03925695642828941,
0.5424664616584778,
0.6491566896438599,
-0.36902713775634766,
-0.7388473153114319,
-0.11203554272651672,
0.3263096213340759,
0.07728967070579529,
0.5231890082359314,
0.26329341530799866,
-0.6933700442314148,
-0.12806428968906403,
-0.18701320886611938,
-0.4984627962112427,
0.2675793766975403,
-0.1891438364982605,
-0.6597377061843872,
-0.2828115224838257,
-0.39050590991973877,
-0.2954401969909668,
0.33501631021499634,
0.7187613248825073,
-0.07349567115306854,
-0.06546173989772797,
-0.33889639377593994,
0.5172367691993713,
-0.15002264082431793,
-0.21965479850769043,
0.20363160967826843,
-0.16555729508399963,
-0.3376513421535492,
0.10321974009275436,
-0.6388679146766663,
0.5860803723335266,
-0.17595069110393524,
-0.4403418302536011,
-0.04711028188467026,
-0.6349530220031738,
-0.107332743704319,
0.2025168538093567,
-0.6823786497116089,
-0.5428205728530884,
0.12088081240653992,
-0.33779212832450867,
-0.5029308795928955,
-0.4355941712856293,
0.33242765069007874,
0.24046529829502106,
-0.4182775616645813,
0.17317065596580505,
0.03823176398873329,
0.4075204133987427,
-0.684985339641571,
0.010479725897312164,
0.3885723054409027,
0.09825602918863297,
0.24661462008953094,
-0.2819916009902954,
-0.22030580043792725,
0.6988032460212708,
0.7782474160194397,
-0.1234242171049118,
-0.4264144003391266,
0.44471701979637146,
0.6096377968788147,
-0.3378404974937439,
-0.3098348379135132,
-0.36273595690727234,
-0.07645032554864883,
0.23386237025260925,
0.4172793924808502,
-0.05617634207010269,
0.053288534283638,
0.8864337205886841,
-0.0043433792889118195,
-0.13435836136341095,
-0.23413874208927155,
-0.01608840748667717,
0.36121174693107605,
0.4380415081977844,
0.027126580476760864,
0.451923131942749,
0.40526914596557617,
0.3118385076522827,
0.1252085417509079,
-0.5278846621513367,
0.046362314373254776,
-0.2080671787261963,
-0.4688307046890259,
0.7822033762931824,
0.1405702531337738,
0.2959144711494446,
0.3883451223373413,
-0.0686676949262619,
0.7341330051422119,
-0.6319783329963684,
0.13908232748508453,
-0.032470691949129105,
-0.15781190991401672,
0.07748366892337799,
0.26871439814567566,
0.37768223881721497,
0.018283942714333534,
-0.5475866198539734,
-0.2733829915523529,
-0.15852263569831848,
0.037319034337997437,
0.054495491087436676,
-0.4950704574584961,
-0.13518525660037994,
0.20823028683662415,
0.3438357412815094,
-0.09782665967941284,
-0.6310012340545654,
0.04855196177959442,
0.6181262731552124,
0.05981261283159256,
0.1834871917963028,
0.49497830867767334,
-0.07286835461854935,
-0.1656637042760849,
0.7839809060096741,
-0.44255512952804565,
0.768787145614624,
0.34988829493522644,
-0.32026395201683044,
0.13262619078159332,
0.3708716332912445,
-0.8375727534294128,
-0.9355674386024475,
0.25872787833213806,
-0.2855617105960846,
0.04931628331542015,
-0.26744019985198975,
0.6578210592269897,
0.6443879008293152,
0.5664657950401306,
-0.29334861040115356,
0.21776548027992249,
-0.6788787841796875,
-0.6049904227256775,
0.1886327713727951,
-0.25396206974983215,
0.17191120982170105,
0.4454008638858795,
0.8474555611610413,
0.7319315671920776,
0.06443408876657486,
0.6391287446022034,
-0.0749778151512146,
0.031076842918992043,
0.06666502356529236,
0.23483161628246307,
-0.42586156725883484,
0.1886024922132492,
0.19623351097106934,
0.26452523469924927,
0.7647292613983154,
-0.2772548794746399,
0.04740598052740097,
0.3364301323890686,
0.39305609464645386,
0.11638427525758743,
0.9192094802856445,
0.0902673602104187,
0.16501502692699432,
1.1508090496063232,
-0.3758290410041809,
-0.37650179862976074,
-0.05057374760508537,
0.12251541018486023,
0.7576699256896973,
-0.11362192034721375,
0.18107722699642181,
0.039316389709711075,
-0.03044930286705494,
0.6982071399688721,
-0.30046334862709045,
0.21816879510879517,
-0.3738784193992615,
-0.6131095290184021,
-0.11805176734924316,
0.42511335015296936,
-0.2210465371608734,
-0.20157814025878906,
0.3457964062690735,
0.15600253641605377,
-0.12650488317012787,
-0.41814467310905457,
0.23171015083789825,
0.033954765647649765,
0.07449979335069656,
0.27252838015556335,
-0.040552426129579544,
0.24103035032749176,
-0.45282596349716187,
-0.33529579639434814,
-0.05410384386777878,
-0.08980125188827515,
0.3019601106643677,
0.5146761536598206,
-1.1844459772109985,
1.1439123153686523,
0.5690033435821533,
-0.29213136434555054,
-0.047423139214515686,
-0.13530242443084717,
0.41437700390815735,
-0.10110828280448914,
-0.6573556661605835,
0.2058008313179016,
-0.3278280794620514,
0.16879825294017792,
-0.06604167819023132,
0.3042774498462677,
0.23091398179531097,
0.26560983061790466,
0.198484405875206,
0.2682145833969116,
0.25298455357551575,
-0.2096465528011322,
0.06802698224782944,
-0.3482078015804291,
-0.04194829612970352,
0.007284281775355339,
-0.5652251839637756,
-0.31140801310539246,
0.5252043604850769,
0.2438599169254303,
-0.42886611819267273,
0.20047834515571594,
0.13970422744750977,
-0.030683178454637527,
-0.02866683527827263,
0.6131770610809326,
0.1885392963886261,
0.12400320172309875,
-0.12487401813268661,
0.4737490713596344,
0.2727120816707611,
0.0037677742075175047,
-0.046297620981931686,
0.05325699597597122,
0.6089908480644226,
-0.3159484267234802,
-0.5172082185745239,
0.8304560780525208,
-0.5406175851821899,
0.582452654838562,
-0.7537282109260559,
0.4941881000995636,
-0.7090327739715576,
-0.6226808428764343,
-0.9005355834960938,
0.3177686631679535,
0.17210566997528076,
-0.01833491213619709,
-0.2539888024330139,
-0.06573620438575745,
-0.2313268780708313,
0.1668512523174286,
0.08562928438186646,
-0.2057923525571823,
-0.22736237943172455,
0.550998330116272
] |
234857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawn | Yawn | A yawn is a reflex consisting of the simultaneous inhalation of air and the stretching of the eardrums, followed by an exhalation of breath. Many animal species, including birds and fish, experience yawning. The study of yawning is called chasmology.
Yawning (oscitation) most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, boredom, or even hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by the perception that others are yawning (for example, seeing a person yawning, or talking to someone on the phone who is yawning). This is a typical example of positive feedback. This "contagious" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, birds, and reptiles and can occur between members of different species. Approximately twenty psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.
During a yawn, the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts. This creates a rumbling noise perceived as coming from within the head; however, the noise is due to mechanical disturbance of the hearing apparatus and is not generated by the motion of air. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body including the arms, neck, shoulders and back.
Etymology
English yawn continues a number of Middle English forms,
yanen from Old English ġānian, and yenen, yonen from Old English frequentatives ġinian, ġionian, from a Germanic root *gīn-. The Germanic root has Indo-European cognates, from a root *g̑hēi-
found also with -n- suffix in Greek χαίνω "to yawn", and without the -n- in English gap (compare the figura etymologica in Norse ginnunga-gap), gum "palate" and gasp (via Old Norse), Latin hiō, hiatus, and Greek chasm, chaos.
The Latin term used in medicine is oscitatio (anglicized as oscitation), from the verb oscito "to open the mouth".
Pandiculation is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously.
Proposed causes
There are a number of theories that attempt to explain why humans and other animals yawn.
One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration; however, the frequency of yawning is not decreased by providing more oxygen or reducing carbon dioxide in the air.
Animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological "contagious" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it will be less alert than when fully awake and less prepared to spring into action. "Contagious" yawning could be an instinctual signal between group members to stay alert.
Nervousness, which often indicates the perception of an impending need for action, has also been suggested as a cause. Anecdotal evidence suggests that yawning helps increase a person's alertness. Paratroopers have been noted to yawn during the moments before they exit their aircraft and athletes often yawn just before intense exertions.
Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the SUNY Albany (US), proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning.
A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found that when a subject wearing earplugs yawns, the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment causes a breeze to be heard. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen; pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen; or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.
Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions. Excessive yawning is seen in immunosuppressed patients such as those with multiple sclerosis. A professor of clinical and forensic neuropsychology at Bournemouth University has demonstrated that cortisol levels rise during yawning.
Social function
With respect to a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. Theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to howling in a wolf pack. It signals fatigue among members of a group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.
Research by Garrett Norris (2013) involving monitoring the behaviour of students kept waiting in a reception area indicates a connection (supported by neuro-imaging research) between empathic ability and yawning. "We believe that contagious yawning indicates empathy. It indicates an appreciation of other peoples' behavioral and physiological state," says Norris.
The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, "One man's yawning makes another yawn", and the French proverbialized the idea to "Un bon bâilleur en fait bâiller sept" ("One good gaper makes seven others gape"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to "empathetically" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), reading or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn. The proximate cause for contagious yawning may lie with mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus from conspecific (same species) and occasionally interspecific organisms, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation, which lies at the root of much human learning, such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse.
A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to neurotypical children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos.
The relationship between yawn contagion and empathy is strongly supported by a 2011 behavioural study, conducted by Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi (University of Pisa, Italy). The study revealed that—among other variables such as nationality, gender, and sensory modality—only social bonding predicted the occurrence, frequency, and latency of yawn contagion. As with other measures of empathy, the rate of contagion was found to be greatest in response to kin, then friends, then acquaintances, and lastly strangers. Related individuals (r≥0.25) showed the greatest contagion, in terms of both occurrence of yawning and frequency of yawns. Strangers and acquaintances showed a longer delay in the yawn response (latency) compared to friends and kin. Hence, yawn contagion appears to be primarily driven by the emotional closeness between individuals. The social asymmetry in contagious yawning (with contagious yawning being more frequent between familiar subjects than between strangers) remains when only yawns that are heard, but not seen, are considered. This finding makes it unlikely that visual attentional biases are at the basis of the social asymmetry observed in contagious yawning.
Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's "contagiousness".
The Discovery Channel's show MythBusters also tested this concept. In their small-scale, informal study they concluded that yawning is contagious, although elsewhere the statistical significance of this finding has been disputed.
Gordon Gallup, who hypothesizes that yawning may be a means of keeping the brain cool, also hypothesizes that "contagious" yawning may be a survival instinct inherited from our evolutionary past. "During human evolutionary history, when we were subject to predation and attacks by other groups, if everybody yawns in response to seeing someone yawn the whole group becomes much more vigilant and much better at being able to detect danger."
A study by the University of London has suggested that the "contagiousness" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth.
Helt and Eigsti (2010) showed that dogs, like humans, develop a susceptibility to contagious yawning gradually, and that while dogs above seven months 'catch' yawns from humans, younger dogs are immune to contagion. The study also indicated that nearly half of the dogs responded to the human's yawn by becoming relaxed and sleepy, suggesting that the dogs copied not just the yawn, but also the physical state that yawns typically reflect.
Relation to empathy
In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.
Evidence for the occurrence of contagious yawning linked to empathy is rare outside of primates. It has been studied in Canidae species, such as the domestic dog and wolf. Domestic dogs have shown the ability to yawn contagiously in response to human yawns. Domestic dogs have demonstrated they are skilled at reading human communication behaviours. This ability makes it difficult to ascertain whether yawn contagion among domestic dogs is deeply rooted in their evolutionary history or is a result of domestication.
In a 2014 study, wolves were observed in an effort to answer this question. The results of the study showed that wolves are capable of yawn contagion. This study also found that the social bond strength between individuals affected the frequency of contagious yawning in wolves, supporting previous research which ties contagious yawning to emotional proximity.
Some evidence for contagious yawning has also been found in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), a species of social parrots. This indicates that contagious yawning may have evolved several times in different lineages. In budgerigars, contagious yawning does not seem to be related to social closeness.
In certain neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, the patient has an impaired ability to infer the mental states of others. In such cases, yawn contagion can be used to evaluate their ability to infer or empathize with others. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder which severely affects social and communicative development, including empathy. The results of various studies have showed a diminished susceptibility to contagious yawn compared to the control group of typically-developing children. Since atypical development of empathy is reported in autism spectrum disorder, results support the claim that contagious yawning and the capacity of empathy share common neural and cognitive mechanisms. Similarly, patients suffering neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, have shown an impaired ability to empathize with others. Contagious yawning is one means of evaluating such disorders. The Canadian psychiatrist Heinz Lehmann claimed that increases in yawning could predict recovery in schizophrenia. The impairment of contagious yawning can provide greater insight into its connection to the underlying causes of empathy.
There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes apparently not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not. By revising in critical way the literature for and against yawn contagion as an empathy-related phenomenon, a 2020 review has shown that the social and emotional relevance of the stimulus (based on who the yawner is) can be related to the levels of yawn contagion, as suggested by neurobiological, ethological and psychological findings. Therefore, the discussion over the issue remains open.
Non-human
In animals, yawning can serve as a warning signal. Charles Darwin's book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, mentions that baboons yawn to threaten their enemies, possibly by displaying large canine teeth. Similarly, Siamese fighting fish yawn only when they see a conspecific (same species) or their own mirror-image, and their yawn often accompanies aggressive attack. Guinea pigs also yawn in a display of dominance or anger, displaying their impressive incisor teeth. This is often accompanied by teeth chattering, purring and scent marking. Adelie penguins employ yawning as part of their courtship ritual. Penguin couples face off and the males engage in what is described as an "ecstatic display", opening their beaks and pointing their faces skyward. This trait has also been seen among emperor penguins. Researchers have been attempting to discover why these two different species share this trait, despite not sharing a habitat. Snakes yawn, both to realign their jaws after a meal and for respiratory reasons, as their trachea can be seen to expand when they do this. Dogs, and occasionally cats, often yawn after seeing people yawn and when they feel uncertain. Dogs demonstrate contagious yawning when exposed to human yawning. Dogs are very adept at reading human communication actions, so it is unclear if this phenomenon is rooted in evolutionary history or a result of domestication. Fish can also yawn, and they will increase this behavior when experiencing a lack of oxygen. Socially contagious yawning has been observed in budgerigars, and anecdotally when tired in other parrot species.
Culture
Some cultures lend yawning moral or spiritual significance. An open mouth has been associated with letting good immaterial things (such as the soul) escape or letting bad ones (evil spirits) enter, and yawning may have been thought to increase these risks. Covering the mouth when yawning may have been a way to prevent such transmission. Exorcists believe yawning can indicate that a demon or possessive spirit is leaving its human host during the course of an exorcism. Thus, covering one's mouth has been conceived as a protective measure against this.
Yawning has also been described as disrespectful (when done before others) or improper (when done alone). For example, in his commentary on Al-Bukhari's hadith collection, Ibn Hajar, an Islamic theologian, mentions that yawning, in addition to its risks of letting demons enter or take hold of one's body, is unbefitting for humans as it makes them look and sound like dogs by crooking men's upright posture and making them howl:
Superstitions regarding the act of yawning may have arisen from concerns over public health. Polydore Vergil (c. 1470–1555), in his De Rerum Inventoribus, writes that it was customary to make the Sign of the Cross over one's mouth, since "alike deadly plague was sometime in yawning, wherefore men used to fence themselves with the sign of the cross... which custom we retain at this day."
Yawning is often perceived as implying boredom, and yawning conspicuously in another's presence has historically been a faux pas. In 1663 Francis Hawkins advised, "In yawning howl not, and thou shouldst abstain as much as thou can to yawn, especially when thou speakest". George Washington said, "If You Cough, Sneeze, Sigh, or Yawn, do it not Loud but Privately; and Speak not in your Yawning, but put Your handkerchief or Hand before your face and turn aside." These customary beliefs persist in the modern age. One of Mason Cooley's aphorisms is "A yawn is more disconcerting than a contradiction." A loud yawn may even lead to penalties for contempt of court.
References
Further reading
Provine, Robert R. Curious Behavior: Yawning, Laughing, Hiccupping, and Beyond (Harvard University Press; 2012) 246 pages; examines the evolutionary context for humans.
External links
Yawn article in Scholarpedia.
A Real Yawner: Causes, Concerns and Communications of the Yawn, Mary Bridget Reilly, University of Cincinnati, 23 October 2003
Sleep
Sleep physiology
Reflexes
Articles containing video clips | [
0.4198048710823059,
0.4452070891857147,
-0.4279750883579254,
-0.6461005210876465,
-0.5303075313568115,
0.14840060472488403,
1.128096580505371,
0.25260016322135925,
-0.24918173253536224,
-0.25784704089164734,
-0.6094623804092407,
0.6681764721870422,
-0.2323671281337738,
0.3216271698474884,
-0.05671272799372673,
-0.17028279602527618,
0.46764758229255676,
0.2361367791891098,
0.21675220131874084,
-0.2811070680618286,
0.04239320382475853,
-0.41884151101112366,
0.14803385734558105,
0.05321574583649635,
0.45149242877960205,
-0.13318713009357452,
-0.059871379286050797,
-0.13704955577850342,
0.0946209579706192,
-0.16665762662887573,
-0.3859942853450775,
0.8808397054672241,
0.20361895859241486,
-0.39591482281684875,
0.24929335713386536,
0.6922844648361206,
-0.01607338897883892,
-0.36398845911026,
-0.4431346356868744,
-0.1902281790971756,
0.145368754863739,
0.029573291540145874,
0.5768965482711792,
-0.2719165086746216,
-0.5405241847038269,
-0.5292667150497437,
-1.294886827468872,
-0.19438540935516357,
-0.41824302077293396,
-0.3836902379989624,
0.005898861680179834,
0.10098537802696228,
0.02489752694964409,
0.10982302576303482,
-0.22027651965618134,
0.3514697551727295,
-0.7069170475006104,
-0.08820513635873795,
0.21316936612129211,
-0.09231321513652802,
0.6328713893890381,
-0.39730846881866455,
-0.20950105786323547,
-0.1845000684261322,
0.26016929745674133,
0.5061056613922119,
-0.29440227150917053,
0.25379881262779236,
-0.3507274389266968,
0.37133222818374634,
-0.8893145322799683,
0.04089689627289772,
-0.4722033143043518,
-0.14167837798595428,
-0.3190201222896576,
0.2703956663608551,
0.3361552953720093,
0.08743150532245636,
0.2460983395576477,
0.38093623518943787,
-0.050102200359106064,
0.5176450610160828,
0.4238836467266083,
0.11932136118412018,
0.026277825236320496,
-0.17044027149677277,
-0.5996471047401428,
0.7714844346046448,
-0.04928596690297127,
0.5391857624053955,
0.6206726431846619,
-0.23800751566886902,
-0.04196816310286522,
-0.13923726975917816,
-0.27039146423339844,
-0.06552544981241226,
0.631469190120697,
0.22078672051429749,
-0.25676363706588745,
-0.2683041989803314,
0.3563651442527771,
-0.32173821330070496,
0.7386146187782288,
0.03472600504755974,
0.4765249192714691,
-0.25130513310432434,
-0.3912503719329834,
-0.44183504581451416,
0.19411496818065643,
-0.11313865333795547,
-0.23198038339614868,
0.27264371514320374,
-0.17518718540668488,
-0.11041800677776337,
-0.6720337867736816,
-0.48338189721107483,
0.31331682205200195,
0.11490760743618011,
0.13974425196647644,
-0.46447622776031494,
-0.16517417132854462,
0.07635951787233353,
0.4467981159687042,
-0.27536049485206604,
-0.5993139743804932,
-0.2950608432292938,
0.14701542258262634,
0.20519711077213287,
-0.5643165707588196,
-0.0587853267788887,
-0.10633265972137451,
0.4879402220249176,
0.09437672048807144,
0.07362016290426254,
0.11562864482402802,
-0.026070475578308105,
0.6003144383430481,
-0.003326513571664691,
0.6589634418487549,
0.20643313229084015,
-0.6829565763473511,
-0.5191375017166138,
-1.3297947645187378,
-0.19702868163585663,
0.05714348331093788,
-0.4054633378982544,
-0.4130359888076782,
-0.1290988177061081,
-0.3376106321811676,
0.1323622614145279,
-0.40076500177383423,
0.02329372987151146,
-0.3937038481235504,
0.0692136213183403,
-0.5248687267303467,
-0.6192085146903992,
0.31085404753685,
-0.3666268587112427,
0.525476336479187,
0.16422177851200104,
0.32832545042037964,
0.0115152383223176,
-0.19799847900867462,
0.10198727995157242,
-0.2532014846801758,
-0.19901332259178162,
0.22841982543468475,
0.03893251344561577,
-0.550160825252533,
0.17273007333278656,
-0.07431858777999878,
0.18899975717067719,
0.32357802987098694,
-0.42290040850639343,
-0.04523231089115143,
-0.19435423612594604,
0.7609407901763916,
0.4236421287059784,
0.39177045226097107,
0.26689785718917847,
-0.5661836862564087,
0.25000131130218506,
0.33463969826698303,
0.03915593773126602,
0.7168874144554138,
-0.04864547401666641,
-0.1796632707118988,
-0.09394926577806473,
-0.1443636417388916,
0.0019573383033275604,
-0.2666044533252716,
-0.38289621472358704,
-0.004168705083429813,
0.020670605823397636,
0.3887147009372711,
-0.17129284143447876,
-0.3518868386745453,
0.8736504316329956,
-0.05161535367369652,
0.24846918880939484,
-0.020050574094057083,
-0.03436638414859772,
0.16100935637950897,
0.026951471343636513,
-0.8233067393302917,
0.9776421189308167,
0.3872111737728119,
0.5377243757247925,
-0.07519704103469849,
0.4023648202419281,
0.34293824434280396,
-0.4554569721221924,
0.15643364191055298,
-0.2637324929237366,
-0.048507921397686005,
0.1604083627462387,
-0.4922662079334259,
0.1430448740720749,
-0.18979910016059875,
-0.4654175043106079,
0.82729172706604,
0.22821219265460968,
-0.31104177236557007,
0.1296902447938919,
0.5575188398361206,
0.6695849299430847,
0.05299904942512512,
-0.019969342276453972,
-0.08400700986385345,
-0.942566454410553,
0.2948022782802582,
-0.3819788992404938,
0.079420305788517,
0.3426406979560852,
-0.015092667192220688,
-0.14747992157936096,
0.5545373558998108,
-0.5802649259567261,
0.3143903911113739,
-0.4701280891895294,
-0.0314549021422863,
-0.2003202587366104,
-0.11154237389564514,
0.5749534368515015,
0.2869448959827423,
-0.1128387600183487,
0.4327174127101898,
0.5575672388076782,
-0.4137383699417114,
0.39483675360679626,
0.6687288880348206,
0.6328105926513672,
0.32940882444381714,
-0.13717901706695557,
0.21067629754543304,
-0.5893524885177612,
-0.3070491850376129,
0.008358590304851532,
0.41774773597717285,
-0.16130787134170532,
0.19506077468395233,
-0.06718100607395172,
0.9320364594459534,
-0.012705161236226559,
-0.14586839079856873,
-0.19861368834972382,
-0.4513976275920868,
-0.05035371705889702,
-0.08425384014844894,
-0.13692593574523926,
0.7619989514350891,
0.18698640167713165,
-0.4315759539604187,
-0.30370450019836426,
-0.3420698642730713,
-0.4807944595813751,
0.493098646402359,
0.07705536484718323,
-0.8596163392066956,
-0.22866132855415344,
0.3475721776485443,
0.255140483379364,
0.015100851655006409,
-0.42721986770629883,
-0.3808726668357849,
-0.2046903371810913,
0.24206534028053284,
0.14159847795963287,
-0.12968966364860535,
-0.23757202923297882,
-0.18032263219356537,
0.22401131689548492,
0.40326446294784546,
0.09465771168470383,
0.1571030616760254,
-0.03554718941450119,
0.14149516820907593,
0.518614649772644,
0.45055049657821655,
-0.6033992171287537,
-0.04174753278493881,
0.09279768913984299,
-0.41836246848106384,
-0.6257298588752747,
-0.01938786916434765,
-0.23788705468177795,
-0.0520821213722229,
-0.35083702206611633,
-5.708734512329102,
0.2875462770462036,
0.2053663432598114,
-0.5480794310569763,
0.10603170096874237,
0.14793972671031952,
0.9965229034423828,
-0.09303807467222214,
-0.8571448922157288,
0.3194600045681,
-0.47942179441452026,
-0.4444424510002136,
0.19010280072689056,
0.1633015125989914,
0.03932663053274155,
-0.5688003897666931,
-0.1604325771331787,
-0.47656452655792236,
0.025890536606311798,
0.6450629234313965,
0.6617459654808044,
0.2914540767669678,
0.026921840384602547,
0.16885358095169067,
0.4027802348136902,
-0.44304075837135315,
0.26065006852149963,
-0.3806278705596924,
-0.37562090158462524,
0.2938460111618042,
0.13475237786769867,
0.07922469824552536,
-0.020427267998456955,
0.8969010710716248,
0.10451691597700119,
0.2597096860408783,
0.39220964908599854,
-0.24168866872787476,
0.7144044041633606,
0.4262334406375885,
-0.1413431316614151,
0.6150272488594055,
0.26379144191741943,
0.10634689033031464,
0.30664265155792236,
-0.16255807876586914,
-0.3018965721130371,
-0.49610665440559387,
-0.22493810951709747,
0.40105295181274414,
0.1501564383506775,
-0.08690546452999115,
-0.4936843514442444,
-0.0935744196176529,
0.29919102787971497,
0.4363507330417633,
0.29867056012153625,
-0.3861665725708008,
-0.20069383084774017,
0.0017283166525885463,
-0.18324509263038635,
-0.36119258403778076,
0.060277506709098816,
-0.5660653114318848,
0.3858153820037842,
-0.3368844985961914,
-0.5503604412078857,
-0.6402779817581177,
0.7818526029586792,
0.9126695394515991,
0.34066492319107056,
0.2945896089076996,
0.13681186735630035,
-0.8487110137939453,
0.2785801291465759,
-0.6900874376296997,
-0.4000864624977112,
-0.10634133964776993,
0.06673216074705124,
0.11139649897813797,
-0.0605173259973526,
0.14617955684661865,
-0.6259093284606934,
0.02012174017727375,
0.2347315549850464,
-0.2873649597167969,
-0.14172418415546417,
0.05685283616185188,
-0.13547387719154358,
-0.40907204151153564,
0.41088640689849854,
-0.10784155875444412,
-0.19504913687705994,
-0.28464698791503906,
-0.3929385840892792,
0.4520200788974762,
-0.07907184958457947,
0.49193674325942993,
1.0157052278518677,
-0.014070611447095871,
0.19967027008533478,
-0.6135627031326294,
-0.1450328528881073,
-0.3016180396080017,
0.19947253167629242,
0.2383647859096527,
-0.10021257400512695,
0.2982513904571533,
1.3161952495574951,
-0.007185470778495073,
0.24284899234771729,
0.13685396313667297,
-0.2901432514190674,
-0.0013048017863184214,
-0.04231923073530197,
-0.25211936235427856,
-0.5617609024047852,
0.20109893381595612,
0.29369109869003296,
-0.14555606245994568,
0.48725709319114685,
0.16834555566310883,
-0.6289480924606323,
-0.2145855873823166,
0.17348872125148773,
0.24939502775669098,
-0.2732343375682831,
-0.035307787358760834,
0.003229518188163638,
-0.09354359656572342,
0.16228976845741272,
-0.24395135045051575,
0.25188305974006653,
0.3981274962425232,
-0.03640242666006088,
-0.41825801134109497,
-0.3163454234600067,
-0.19017545878887177,
-0.0817432627081871,
-0.723682165145874,
0.3556419312953949,
0.11931579560041428,
0.30592840909957886,
0.1384541243314743,
1.077642798423767,
0.3451051712036133,
-0.6947507262229919,
-0.46688342094421387,
-0.49176084995269775,
0.3286900520324707,
0.36432239413261414,
-0.578849196434021,
-0.08196058124303818,
-0.3379386365413666,
-0.12904848158359528,
0.32500317692756653,
0.2758297920227051,
0.26468610763549805,
-0.1569061577320099,
-0.5715904831886292,
0.38235530257225037,
-0.5496872663497925,
-0.8291161060333252,
-0.10351501405239105,
-0.14593693614006042,
-0.38423892855644226,
-0.6259715557098389,
-0.1289801299571991,
-0.51119065284729,
0.380935937166214,
-0.07652386277914047,
-0.6631954908370972,
-0.07363520562648773,
-0.20543836057186127,
-0.03163280338048935,
0.2506093382835388,
-0.0704253688454628,
0.2459871917963028,
-0.09971494227647781,
-0.49691158533096313,
-0.09057429432868958,
-0.19040638208389282,
0.08868703246116638,
0.5120599269866943,
0.24850541353225708,
-0.04688570648431778,
-0.1145470142364502,
-0.015064367093145847,
-0.5162094235420227,
0.00496930256485939,
0.03362100198864937,
0.2391551434993744,
0.49251049757003784,
-0.449677973985672,
0.07899191230535507,
0.23701860010623932,
-0.33298102021217346,
0.1801651418209076,
-0.5700166821479797,
-0.1362522542476654,
0.11575116217136383,
0.09991646558046341,
-0.44319722056388855,
-0.33851346373558044,
0.5773333311080933,
-0.5097770690917969,
0.4223792254924774,
0.10614591836929321,
-0.5182600617408752,
0.5643388628959656,
-0.09716006368398666,
-0.31289637088775635,
-0.30590349435806274,
0.16700278222560883,
0.11724389344453812,
0.18477973341941833,
-0.01352581288665533,
-0.28644365072250366,
0.44098910689353943,
-0.49566537141799927,
0.40597736835479736,
-0.10395970940589905,
-0.40796586871147156,
0.08525774627923965,
-0.6131899952888489,
0.10609626770019531,
-0.3869697153568268,
0.07484916597604752,
1.0473010540008545,
-0.5228909254074097,
-0.7759323120117188,
0.05195387825369835,
0.2893023192882538,
0.10397475957870483,
-0.3989008963108063,
-0.39195773005485535,
-0.04932106286287308,
-0.24059779942035675,
-0.11467573791742325,
0.3352068066596985,
0.3812491297721863,
1.1896331310272217,
0.27168187499046326,
-0.0415126197040081,
-0.4933912754058838,
0.4380006790161133,
0.3017551302909851,
-0.7332779765129089,
-0.48718124628067017,
0.2608160376548767,
0.6854983568191528,
0.1620468646287918,
-0.8761876821517944,
0.33284494280815125,
0.001444689347408712,
0.45603710412979126,
-0.3800490200519562,
0.22420114278793335,
-0.41190987825393677,
0.3026588559150696,
0.6832667589187622,
-0.1122293621301651,
-0.640080988407135,
0.18713995814323425,
0.41413643956184387,
0.2470996081829071,
-0.6600632667541504,
0.3986339271068573,
0.05629917234182358,
-0.038727011531591415,
0.314704567193985,
-0.1784447878599167,
-0.0060506220906972885,
0.14378441870212555,
0.513685941696167,
0.8033373951911926,
-0.4860538840293884,
-0.2598313093185425,
-0.3796037435531616,
0.17084555327892303,
0.6972149610519409,
-0.44672608375549316,
-0.016880640760064125,
-0.5110953450202942,
0.08292034268379211,
-0.503472089767456,
0.12620864808559418,
-0.36356884241104126,
-0.5039001107215881,
-0.19267244637012482,
-0.5849542021751404,
-0.07897450029850006,
-0.14246807992458344,
0.5978832244873047,
0.03082357533276081,
0.3963232934474945,
0.46680647134780884,
0.814165472984314,
-0.4329526424407959,
-0.3618289530277252,
-0.5132990479469299,
0.3204886317253113,
0.3270774781703949,
-0.4668199121952057,
0.39701327681541443,
-0.25360164046287537,
-0.06910339742898941,
-0.7253154516220093,
0.15335841476917267,
-0.2487802356481552,
0.0255214162170887,
0.5208231210708618,
-0.02399480901658535,
0.6449565291404724,
0.057104405015707016,
-0.031928062438964844,
0.48027634620666504,
-0.4380483329296112,
-0.02388240210711956,
0.6263986229896545,
0.5594437718391418,
-0.6242089867591858,
0.7344184517860413,
-0.42506882548332214,
-0.8708591461181641,
0.2889691889286041,
-0.05601959675550461,
0.1402692049741745,
0.6590361595153809,
0.20488235354423523,
0.6129749417304993,
-0.35993772745132446,
0.27766481041908264,
0.3289378881454468,
-0.07348636537790298,
-0.8829047083854675,
0.03523747995495796,
-0.6940863728523254,
-1.203002691268921,
0.1582115739583969,
0.875751256942749,
0.8396602272987366,
0.29539743065834045,
0.4743514657020569,
-0.24317292869091034,
-0.04876727610826492,
0.47146520018577576,
1.1273304224014282,
0.011823469772934914,
-0.24583594501018524,
0.20610712468624115,
-0.17491604387760162,
0.6321706175804138,
0.06015027314424515,
0.5906752943992615,
-0.09677308797836304,
0.5892378091812134,
-0.25859394669532776,
-0.34589821100234985,
-0.3338989019393921,
-0.2974351942539215,
0.6952509880065918,
0.8370692133903503,
-0.14360108971595764,
0.5134809613227844,
-0.14752742648124695,
0.013672052882611752,
-0.04258766770362854,
0.07076726108789444,
-0.33234965801239014,
0.2031669169664383,
0.4651324152946472,
-0.627130925655365,
0.0662025436758995,
0.3906174898147583,
0.5150127410888672,
-0.1552124321460724,
0.2791989743709564,
-0.23680880665779114,
-0.3888915181159973,
-0.02630411647260189,
-0.10261863470077515,
-0.831871747970581,
-0.06815590709447861,
0.24459223449230194,
0.5453314185142517,
-0.11393709480762482,
0.048351556062698364,
0.10915935039520264,
-0.1307350993156433,
0.09760155528783798,
0.2610222101211548,
0.30960899591445923,
-0.21030358970165253,
0.3524121046066284,
-0.43694639205932617,
0.1242402195930481,
0.36520251631736755,
0.2622894048690796,
-0.1700587123632431,
0.34533846378326416,
0.2779396176338196,
-0.12870480120182037,
-0.3715857267379761,
-0.33788853883743286,
0.23271028697490692,
0.23377715051174164,
0.6441071629524231,
-0.8418040871620178,
0.44360411167144775,
0.1720430850982666,
-0.068672776222229,
-0.013659590855240822,
0.4986288547515869,
-0.08920697867870331,
-0.47141221165657043,
0.26802733540534973,
-0.5725280046463013,
0.15901154279708862,
-1.1265320777893066,
0.3059283494949341,
-0.0783185362815857,
-0.08620186150074005,
-0.2502509355545044,
0.08957923948764801,
-0.1540064513683319,
0.2549479603767395,
-0.35855332016944885,
-0.5117802023887634,
0.1476438343524933,
-0.536284863948822,
-0.06167197972536087,
-0.02677290514111519,
0.2847202718257904,
-0.5366384983062744,
-0.23011960089206696,
0.332023024559021,
0.7820243239402771,
0.49073803424835205,
-0.4761001467704773,
0.5558448433876038,
-0.4649896025657654,
-0.7887784242630005,
0.24654920399188995,
-0.8002452254295349,
-0.38806581497192383,
-0.4428514838218689,
-0.4467748701572418,
-0.13962408900260925,
0.09516434371471405,
0.4654980003833771,
-0.2756892740726471,
0.1855582445859909,
-0.26937130093574524,
-0.38374197483062744,
0.15072393417358398,
0.20955650508403778,
0.01094233337789774,
-0.17133387923240662,
0.29253721237182617
] |
234861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Joseph%20Sylvester | James Joseph Sylvester | James Joseph Sylvester (3 September 1814 – 15 March 1897) was an English mathematician. He made fundamental contributions to matrix theory, invariant theory, number theory, partition theory, and combinatorics. He played a leadership role in American mathematics in the later half of the 19th century as a professor at the Johns Hopkins University and as founder of the American Journal of Mathematics. At his death, he was a professor at Oxford University.
Biography
James Joseph was born in London on 3 September 1814, the son of Abraham Joseph, a Jewish merchant. James later adopted the surname Sylvester when his older brother did so upon emigration to the United States—a country which at that time required all immigrants to have a given name, a middle name, and a surname.
At the age of 14, Sylvester was a student of Augustus de Morgan at the University of London. His family withdrew him from the University after he was accused of stabbing a fellow student with a knife. Subsequently, he attended the Liverpool Royal Institution.
Sylvester began his study of mathematics at St John's College, Cambridge in 1831, where his tutor was John Hymers. Although his studies were interrupted for almost two years due to a prolonged illness, he nevertheless ranked second in Cambridge's famous mathematical examination, the tripos, for which he sat in 1837. However, Sylvester was not issued a degree, because graduates at that time were required to state their acceptance of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, and Sylvester could not do so because he was Jewish. For the same reason, he was unable to compete for a Fellowship or obtain a Smith's prize. In 1838, Sylvester became professor of natural philosophy at University College London and in 1839 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1841, he was awarded a BA and an MA by the University of Dublin (Trinity College). In the same year he moved to the United States to become a professor of mathematics at the University of Virginia, but left after less than four months. A student who had been reading a newspaper in one of Sylvester's lectures insulted him and Sylvester struck him with a sword stick. The student collapsed in shock and Sylvester believed (wrongly) that he had killed him. Sylvester resigned when he felt that the university authorities had not sufficiently disciplined the student. He moved to New York City and began friendships with the Harvard mathematician Benjamin Peirce (father of Charles Sanders Peirce) and the Princeton physicist Joseph Henry. However, he left in November 1843 after being denied appointment as Professor of Mathematics at Columbia College (now University), again for his Judaism, and returned to England.
On his return to England, he was hired in 1844 by the Equity and Law Life Assurance Society for which he developed successful actuarial models and served as de facto CEO, a position that required a law degree. As a result, he studied for the Bar, meeting a fellow British mathematician studying law, Arthur Cayley, with whom he made significant contributions to invariant theory and also matrix theory during a long collaboration. He did not obtain a position teaching university mathematics until 1855, when he was appointed professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, from which he retired in 1869, because the compulsory retirement age was 55. The Woolwich academy initially refused to pay Sylvester his full pension, and only relented after a prolonged public controversy, during which Sylvester took his case to the letters page of The Times.
One of Sylvester's lifelong passions was for poetry; he read and translated works from the original French, German, Italian, Latin and Greek, and many of his mathematical papers contain illustrative quotes from classical poetry. Following his early retirement, Sylvester published a book entitled The Laws of Verse in which he attempted to codify a set of laws for prosody in poetry.
In 1872, he finally received his B.A. and M.A. from Cambridge, having been denied the degrees due to his being a Jew.
In 1876 Sylvester again crossed the Atlantic Ocean to become the inaugural professor of mathematics at the new Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. His salary was $5,000 (quite generous for the time), which he demanded be paid in gold. After negotiation, agreement was reached on a salary that was not paid in gold.
In 1877, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.
In 1878 he founded the American Journal of Mathematics. The only other mathematical journal in the US at that time was the Analyst, which eventually became the Annals of Mathematics.
In 1883, he returned to England to take up the Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford University. He held this chair until his death, although in 1892 the University appointed a deputy professor to the same chair. He was on the governing body of Abingdon School.
Sylvester died at 5 Hertford Street, London on 15 March 1897. He is buried in Balls Pond Road Cemetery on Kingsbury Road in London.
Legacy
Sylvester invented a great number of mathematical terms such as "matrix" (in 1850), "graph" (combinatorics) and "discriminant". He coined the term "totient" for Euler's totient function φ(n). In discrete geometry he is remembered for Sylvester's problem and a result on the orchard problem, and in matrix theory he discovered
Sylvester's determinant identity, which generalizes the Desnanot–Jacobi identity. His collected scientific work fills four volumes. In 1880, the Royal Society of London awarded Sylvester the Copley Medal, its highest award for scientific achievement; in 1901, it instituted the Sylvester Medal in his memory, to encourage mathematical research after his death in Oxford.
Sylvester House, a portion of an undergraduate dormitory at Johns Hopkins University, is named in his honor. Several professorships there are named in his honor also.
Publications
See also
Catalecticant
Covariance and contravariance of vectors
Evectant
Inclusion–exclusion principle
Invariant of a binary form
Sylvester's construction
Sylvester pentahedron
Sylvester's problem
Clock and shift matrices
Umbral calculus
List of things named after James Joseph Sylvester
References
Sources
.
External links
Collected papers – from the University of Michigan Historical Math Collection
J. J. Sylvester home page
Selected Poetry of James Joseph Sylvester
1814 births
1897 deaths
19th-century American mathematicians
19th-century English mathematicians
Academics of University College London
Linear algebraists
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
British actuaries
Burials at Balls Pond Road Cemetery
English Jews
Combinatorialists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Jewish American scientists
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Number theorists
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Royal Medal winners
Savilian Professors of Geometry
Second Wranglers
De Morgan Medallists
Governors of Abingdon School
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Johns Hopkins University
19th-century British businesspeople | [
-0.4020175337791443,
0.47452065348625183,
-0.5078781843185425,
-0.13804900646209717,
0.032806843519210815,
0.9800102710723877,
0.9359880685806274,
0.19289590418338776,
-0.1431550830602646,
-0.3055264949798584,
-0.33326441049575806,
-0.3995426893234253,
-0.4919047951698303,
0.4492739140987396,
-0.1947341114282608,
0.21195416152477264,
-0.4243195652961731,
-0.48940539360046387,
-0.3415957987308502,
0.04149661213159561,
0.03732419013977051,
0.5059814453125,
0.1163090169429779,
0.0034513012506067753,
-0.5627340078353882,
0.017354849725961685,
-0.3839092254638672,
-0.32985880970954895,
0.13331669569015503,
-0.14599600434303284,
0.3341604769229889,
0.7093658447265625,
0.4875754117965698,
0.21982808411121368,
-0.4809552729129791,
0.006548991892486811,
-0.7900732159614563,
0.13338778913021088,
0.08891795575618744,
0.630736231803894,
-0.40258169174194336,
0.13327156007289886,
0.4839131534099579,
-0.09462610632181168,
-0.04905166104435921,
-0.4586268663406372,
-2.5784857273101807,
0.22809366881847382,
-0.2845817804336548,
-0.40399613976478577,
0.06092158704996109,
0.03394826501607895,
1.0230427980422974,
0.3962642550468445,
-0.3122551441192627,
0.3814164698123932,
-0.30863717198371887,
-0.30989688634872437,
0.26607534289360046,
-0.3128036558628082,
0.44099852442741394,
-0.035544201731681824,
0.5412596464157104,
-0.027040401473641396,
0.6499679684638977,
-0.029135502874851227,
-0.5914334654808044,
0.14532890915870667,
-0.5712824463844299,
-0.13906122744083405,
0.5258902311325073,
0.011961979791522026,
0.04532001167535782,
0.46878987550735474,
-0.04711953178048134,
-0.5407702922821045,
-0.3522191643714905,
0.42389777302742004,
-0.14545394480228424,
0.30662381649017334,
-0.24384987354278564,
-0.05465248227119446,
0.9438607096672058,
0.8867939710617065,
-0.051032550632953644,
0.3280230164527893,
-1.1068075895309448,
0.36345288157463074,
-0.722427248954773,
-0.055867619812488556,
-0.16252245008945465,
0.24771852791309357,
0.4094108045101166,
-0.2290501594543457,
0.003954343032091856,
0.7213279604911804,
-0.19075104594230652,
0.15832361578941345,
-0.368403822183609,
-0.3090890347957611,
-0.14251965284347534,
-0.3372514545917511,
0.0661868005990982,
-0.6979274749755859,
0.1568177491426468,
-0.09447519481182098,
-0.13639333844184875,
-0.18137675523757935,
0.6335434317588806,
-0.1868528127670288,
-1.0699706077575684,
0.05276578664779663,
0.37889552116394043,
0.3244175314903259,
0.07006403058767319,
0.5228156447410583,
0.0512813962996006,
-0.5274015665054321,
-0.4476105570793152,
0.060457441955804825,
-0.5161973834037781,
0.16290684044361115,
-0.43650731444358826,
0.4445344805717468,
-1.0176777839660645,
0.19397535920143127,
0.1907167285680771,
0.8599856495857239,
0.027881167829036713,
0.2983335852622986,
0.18963056802749634,
1.5039538145065308,
-0.030399829149246216,
-0.323832631111145,
-0.554832935333252,
0.08790240436792374,
-0.06358402222394943,
-0.33328917622566223,
-0.6471989750862122,
0.2611258029937744,
-0.010499435476958752,
-0.009622798301279545,
-0.5838733911514282,
0.3008524477481842,
0.01563377119600773,
0.20026737451553345,
-0.31141310930252075,
-0.029806114733219147,
-0.26094648241996765,
-0.31430256366729736,
-0.38277581334114075,
0.298721045255661,
-0.25240397453308105,
0.1542557179927826,
0.0351439006626606,
0.4251842200756073,
0.41344204545021057,
0.4339407980442047,
-0.2400660216808319,
0.30765530467033386,
-0.2777386009693146,
-0.35055625438690186,
-0.3700001537799835,
0.048194076865911484,
0.4827917218208313,
-0.5507641434669495,
0.8851797580718994,
-0.34346693754196167,
-0.004501830320805311,
0.2095489352941513,
-0.03950010612607002,
-0.4159473478794098,
0.5762796401977539,
0.3647471070289612,
-0.012332544662058353,
0.20207777619361877,
0.1101866215467453,
0.07028979808092117,
0.768942654132843,
-0.3425275981426239,
-0.986772358417511,
0.048412226140499115,
0.14768047630786896,
0.6019178032875061,
0.5165728330612183,
0.6641687750816345,
0.7974340319633484,
-0.06402047723531723,
0.5440068244934082,
-0.5403115153312683,
-0.8009830713272095,
-0.26863592863082886,
-0.4971557855606079,
-0.50577312707901,
0.9481496214866638,
0.5945577621459961,
-0.4693455398082733,
0.00024533411487936974,
0.20217928290367126,
1.2696038484573364,
-0.436116486787796,
-0.042170967906713486,
-0.24753700196743011,
-0.31596696376800537,
0.4667028486728668,
1.015146017074585,
-0.0035883416421711445,
-0.11539659649133682,
0.02040240913629532,
0.5895951390266418,
0.03640996292233467,
-0.928531289100647,
0.3052007853984833,
0.5360221266746521,
-0.481833815574646,
-0.43374326825141907,
-0.3625163733959198,
-0.5932924151420593,
0.8981102108955383,
-0.3761598765850067,
0.7661014795303345,
0.490966796875,
0.5254258513450623,
0.9660155177116394,
0.4858514070510864,
1.0694301128387451,
0.4348585307598114,
0.39902594685554504,
-0.08940313011407852,
-0.898862361907959,
-0.8098163604736328,
-0.1591825932264328,
0.6810827851295471,
-0.6947346925735474,
0.37388232350349426,
-0.11947957426309586,
0.07645582407712936,
-1.0465985536575317,
-0.03681696206331253,
-0.44843655824661255,
-0.001231339294463396,
0.9336032271385193,
-0.014100628904998302,
-0.015202097594738007,
0.06641551107168198,
0.2538023889064789,
-0.09477519243955612,
-0.5708379149436951,
0.11143454164266586,
0.3668826222419739,
-0.018683191388845444,
0.7885777354240417,
0.37271013855934143,
0.3369434177875519,
-0.408229798078537,
0.18331092596054077,
0.5106130838394165,
0.18732044100761414,
0.260068416595459,
0.3196817934513092,
0.13373179733753204,
0.10109814256429672,
0.12867607176303864,
-0.21558751165866852,
-0.45810291171073914,
-0.1135973334312439,
-0.25196290016174316,
-0.24672271311283112,
0.39993879199028015,
-0.44396311044692993,
0.568466305732727,
-0.8255946636199951,
-0.048839788883924484,
0.28626421093940735,
0.12295026332139969,
-0.6061033010482788,
-0.28986856341362,
-0.3974406123161316,
-0.5635694861412048,
-0.48254287242889404,
0.16643917560577393,
0.587240993976593,
-0.5887407660484314,
0.5651401877403259,
-0.1702757030725479,
0.04175246134400368,
-0.22200529277324677,
0.03712152689695358,
0.6039920449256897,
-0.5227592587471008,
-0.6172683238983154,
0.5694595575332642,
-0.6609815955162048,
0.07960060983896255,
-0.1925235092639923,
0.4589865803718567,
-0.3048725426197052,
-1.5092445611953735,
0.06767284125089645,
-0.391961008310318,
-1.0836107730865479,
0.36743760108947754,
0.3156864643096924,
0.1130005344748497,
0.4869137406349182,
0.1313188225030899,
-0.297775000333786,
0.007522634696215391,
-4.748377799987793,
-0.0030990606173872948,
-0.0026133982464671135,
-0.19129443168640137,
0.10507037490606308,
0.38784584403038025,
0.7052326798439026,
-0.33658522367477417,
-0.41659700870513916,
-0.46913397312164307,
0.9047400951385498,
-0.3477184474468231,
-0.27933311462402344,
0.4200887978076935,
1.1799275875091553,
0.4245207905769348,
0.6632097959518433,
0.09812875837087631,
0.6296443343162537,
0.3531171679496765,
-0.2210547924041748,
-0.48727449774742126,
0.0017279328312724829,
-0.16318297386169434,
-0.20066936314105988,
0.4636188745498657,
-0.02270391769707203,
0.06324905157089233,
-0.6890988945960999,
-0.3353274166584015,
-0.13974659144878387,
0.21151384711265564,
-0.8266143202781677,
-0.49531859159469604,
-0.06730729341506958,
-0.05285831540822983,
0.4413467049598694,
0.847176194190979,
0.4072325825691223,
0.3402734100818634,
0.340434193611145,
0.0746597871184349,
-0.8341374397277832,
0.304612934589386,
-0.037412699311971664,
-0.5712480545043945,
-0.8787053823471069,
0.5653083324432373,
-0.5051382780075073,
0.6839194893836975,
0.1393020898103714,
0.5868639349937439,
-0.2626420259475708,
-0.24146728217601776,
-0.724030613899231,
0.30398812890052795,
0.362476646900177,
-0.11643851548433304,
-1.392753005027771,
0.20752941071987152,
0.46049240231513977,
-0.7040550112724304,
0.5641565322875977,
-0.26858600974082947,
-0.18573005497455597,
-0.13710297644138336,
-0.32430338859558105,
-0.483675092458725,
0.09057027101516724,
-0.5934049487113953,
-0.19264395534992218,
0.946188747882843,
0.29773494601249695,
-0.8050258159637451,
-0.5248190760612488,
-0.02750030905008316,
-0.15636156499385834,
-0.2752283215522766,
-0.48071765899658203,
-0.055765654891729355,
0.16662997007369995,
-0.9982494711875916,
-0.1670328825712204,
1.468605399131775,
0.7057051062583923,
0.08551857620477676,
-0.6069049835205078,
-0.281706303358078,
-0.42045775055885315,
-0.6651569604873657,
-0.13177604973316193,
-0.2459597885608673,
0.10949242115020752,
0.5002892017364502,
0.49021226167678833,
0.22267451882362366,
0.3665531873703003,
-0.019748596474528313,
0.28550985455513,
0.21092243492603302,
-0.6675406098365784,
-0.08705385029315948,
-0.07410472631454468,
-0.4300313889980316,
0.27130553126335144,
0.1411752998828888,
-0.7753335237503052,
0.6606869697570801,
0.5660205483436584,
0.35811978578567505,
-0.052245281636714935,
0.06657876074314117,
-0.45193707942962646,
0.1853506714105606,
0.005133452825248241,
-0.2658737599849701,
0.11783308535814285,
0.3838454484939575,
0.6708597540855408,
0.2951032519340515,
-0.44586181640625,
0.18533457815647125,
-0.0868317261338234,
-0.14584849774837494,
-0.0015740249073132873,
-0.3454117178916931,
0.2319307178258896,
-0.22294767200946808,
-0.20342127978801727,
-0.3012392818927765,
0.03348342701792717,
1.2521281242370605,
0.05056333169341087,
0.5668199062347412,
-0.4441985785961151,
-0.21348826587200165,
-0.9935833811759949,
-0.32973966002464294,
0.22784341871738434,
-0.2952631413936615,
0.5714345574378967,
-0.3635934591293335,
-0.11366940289735794,
0.2555482089519501,
0.22124424576759338,
0.09449855983257294,
0.43521085381507874,
-0.34582456946372986,
-0.06120080128312111,
0.5871253609657288,
-0.25860702991485596,
-0.6354995369911194,
0.6328973174095154,
-0.5301634073257446,
0.11949299275875092,
0.42994704842567444,
-0.20710048079490662,
0.04090204834938049,
0.05395226553082466,
-0.12540441751480103,
-0.5841295123100281,
0.19828161597251892,
-1.2922452688217163,
-0.3720208406448364,
0.2455432415008545,
0.1459440439939499,
-0.61473548412323,
0.29096519947052,
-0.4407781660556793,
0.40874695777893066,
0.33191925287246704,
-0.422654926776886,
-0.08797870576381683,
-0.24084465205669403,
-0.32048556208610535,
0.40449297428131104,
0.29181820154190063,
0.038800474256277084,
-0.5584976077079773,
-0.5877829790115356,
0.3991086781024933,
0.16126661002635956,
-0.6945627927780151,
0.27694061398506165,
0.7680349349975586,
0.28826361894607544,
-0.07641177624464035,
-0.6152448654174805,
0.45697319507598877,
0.15775127708911896,
-0.3909515142440796,
-0.5893353223800659,
0.3168489336967468,
0.9262762069702148,
0.31132772564888,
-0.09800523519515991,
0.6926629543304443,
0.1209648996591568,
-0.4371045231819153,
-0.7853962182998657,
0.1616486757993698,
-0.041113607585430145,
-0.3284704387187958,
-0.2257053554058075,
0.1998170167207718,
-0.9824135303497314,
-0.5056542754173279,
0.07314164191484451,
-0.5020026564598083,
0.6236052513122559,
-0.08231666684150696,
-0.41511616110801697,
-0.4371945858001709,
0.5896010398864746,
-0.49986574053764343,
0.14411330223083496,
0.5894367694854736,
0.6338995695114136,
-0.6517539024353027,
-0.6495720148086548,
-0.9486563205718994,
0.13115011155605316,
-0.09677451848983765,
-0.6331050395965576,
0.46890777349472046,
-0.32287681102752686,
0.3562152683734894,
0.14308200776576996,
1.0361506938934326,
0.13904571533203125,
-0.42359787225723267,
-0.24797943234443665,
-0.21190759539604187,
0.19683131575584412,
-0.3623870015144348,
-0.42495644092559814,
0.2741384208202362,
0.34049710631370544,
-1.05292546749115,
-0.48385655879974365,
0.32151466608047485,
1.244054913520813,
0.15549011528491974,
-0.14185361564159393,
-0.0498003214597702,
-0.5540701746940613,
0.45741555094718933,
-0.13816231489181519,
-0.10077792406082153,
0.04862294718623161,
0.18056732416152954,
0.0370379313826561,
-0.6286566257476807,
0.11560150980949402,
0.5575626492500305,
0.4725450873374939,
0.06310825794935226,
0.2495352178812027,
0.6240671277046204,
0.06374402344226837,
-0.06926336884498596,
0.15898841619491577,
0.27108293771743774,
-0.18489882349967957,
0.10850818455219269,
0.17946265637874603,
0.295899361371994,
-0.19809500873088837,
0.9583683609962463,
0.3237453103065491,
-0.3830049932003021,
-1.0415842533111572,
-0.5230709910392761,
0.22757971286773682,
-0.4688701927661896,
0.26186054944992065,
0.4677656888961792,
-0.11883624643087387,
0.4918193519115448,
-0.10751518607139587,
-0.9857980608940125,
-0.19782327115535736,
0.20647898316383362,
-0.6830079555511475,
-0.6507809162139893,
-0.3296547830104828,
0.2771243155002594,
0.22069881856441498,
-0.025934208184480667,
-0.013883974403142929,
-1.3604844808578491,
0.1618206948041916,
-0.060098350048065186,
-0.09584870934486389,
-0.10984291881322861,
0.1345503032207489,
-0.5824583768844604,
0.7701556086540222,
-0.0030384741257876158,
-0.5548707246780396,
-0.4789555072784424,
0.5838667750358582,
0.6324371099472046,
-0.05126073956489563,
0.3154604434967041,
0.6445486545562744,
-0.3077901303768158,
0.20657731592655182,
-0.1696077585220337,
-0.38949066400527954,
0.6263560056686401,
-0.16478998959064484,
0.2331353724002838,
0.38162022829055786,
-0.9056292176246643,
-0.38576868176460266,
0.6972008347511292,
-0.7514374852180481,
-0.2850784361362457,
-0.10657554864883423,
-0.26776638627052307,
-0.14831794798374176,
0.8499012589454651,
-0.7301100492477417,
-0.5490643978118896,
0.47320714592933655,
0.1286436766386032,
0.03478633984923363,
-0.15130065381526947,
0.4003705382347107,
-0.06414481997489929,
-0.273400217294693,
-0.21257078647613525,
0.7772980332374573,
0.1799655705690384,
0.15773919224739075,
-0.22714130580425262,
-0.6977803111076355,
-0.6417755484580994,
-0.0547269769012928,
0.616098165512085,
1.1714731454849243,
-0.10753969848155975,
0.538048505783081,
-0.6452552080154419,
0.4168621897697449,
-0.16979382932186127,
0.15765629708766937,
-0.5074805021286011,
-0.14519096910953522,
0.5727936029434204,
0.5681610703468323,
0.19115859270095825,
-0.08445294946432114,
0.4284956157207489,
-0.10619928687810898,
0.7617236971855164,
-0.6645883321762085,
-0.029372939839959145,
-0.23724593222141266,
0.23996184766292572,
-0.19099543988704681,
0.9403899312019348,
-0.22604113817214966,
-0.5743622183799744,
-0.11037081480026245,
0.8136236071586609,
-0.3539126217365265,
-0.010950567200779915,
0.2194310426712036,
0.2908691167831421,
-0.524717390537262,
0.22527213394641876,
0.8280448317527771,
0.8560354113578796,
0.19891522824764252,
0.2222650796175003,
0.33396798372268677,
-0.3330494165420532,
-0.2612115442752838,
-0.5659356713294983,
0.2288542240858078,
0.3648158013820648,
-0.26110193133354187,
0.10590510070323944,
-0.2679865062236786,
-0.13475291430950165,
-0.058419156819581985,
-0.4448789060115814,
-0.6333549618721008,
0.44254618883132935,
-0.3424528241157532,
0.05778839439153671,
0.052396949380636215,
-1.0011682510375977,
0.8437603712081909,
-0.7288705110549927,
0.8073779344558716,
0.6640356779098511,
-0.597546398639679,
-0.34892675280570984,
-0.49732300639152527,
0.25599002838134766,
-0.18330255150794983,
-0.41219794750213623,
0.4212280213832855,
-0.2282048463821411,
0.7937284111976624,
-0.8338340520858765,
0.5492038726806641,
-0.18939003348350525,
0.5127280950546265,
-0.5057972073554993,
-0.041878797113895416,
-0.6311081647872925,
0.3029267191886902,
0.5401540994644165,
-0.38777804374694824,
-0.5163283944129944,
0.28699228167533875,
0.5235391855239868,
-0.1722692847251892,
-0.1610141545534134,
-0.620861828327179,
0.3443549871444702,
0.004262431990355253,
0.3573313355445862,
0.23726938664913177,
0.2835136950016022,
0.35261407494544983,
-0.02380811609327793,
-0.030250543728470802,
-0.4012913703918457,
-0.07062996178865433,
0.008571065962314606,
-0.940253734588623,
0.303337961435318,
0.566303551197052,
-0.04983826354146004,
-0.6687750816345215,
0.515016496181488,
0.5994832515716553,
-0.6639811992645264,
-0.0272931307554245,
-0.3738040626049042,
-0.26501619815826416,
-0.09612845629453659,
-0.3425454795360565,
-0.13933628797531128,
0.580102801322937,
0.10357505828142166,
-0.06441771239042282,
0.5076372623443604,
-0.8687562942504883,
0.6950854659080505,
0.22459936141967773,
0.03394327312707901,
-0.5335270166397095,
0.18730449676513672,
0.8135164976119995
] |
234865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis | Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis | Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis is a Landkreis (district) in the north of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from east clockwise) Main-Tauber-Kreis, Hohenlohe-Kreis, Heilbronn, Rhein-Neckar-Kreis, Odenwaldkreis (Hesse) and Landkreis Miltenberg (Bavaria). The district is part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region.
History
The district was created in 1973 by merging the previous districts Buchen and Mosbach. At first it was named Odenwaldkreis, however to avoid confusion with the neighboring district in Hesse with the same name it was renamed in 1974 to be Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis.
Geography
As the name already suggests the district is located in the Odenwald mountains, with the highest elevation at the Katzenbuckel (626 m) near Waldbrunn in the west of the district. The main river of the district is the Neckar.
Coat of arms
The district's coat of arms might be described thus: Per pale dexter bendy lozengy argent and azure, sinister gules a wheel spoked of six argent. The coat of arms shows the symbols of the two historical rulers of the district. On the dexter (armsbearer’s right, viewer’s left) side is the blue and white "bendy lozengy" (that is, slanted diamond shapes) of the Wittelsbach family as owners of the Electorate of the Palatinate; on the sinister (armsbearer’s left, viewer’s right) side is the Wheel of Mainz, a symbol of the old Electorate of Mainz.
Municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Karlsruhe (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
-0.15433166921138763,
0.887380838394165,
0.6505571007728577,
-0.7740719318389893,
-0.33914828300476074,
0.2574436366558075,
0.4993225634098053,
0.4322216510772705,
0.052182387560606,
-0.2741680443286896,
-0.41016408801078796,
-0.30910712480545044,
-0.13480880856513977,
0.09937474131584167,
-0.2083207219839096,
0.9157982468605042,
0.7781375646591187,
0.3841739594936371,
-0.3158004581928253,
-1.0172003507614136,
0.246714249253273,
0.024397237226366997,
0.32577821612358093,
0.1712184101343155,
-0.27649426460266113,
-0.7581140995025635,
0.6563701629638672,
0.3072376251220703,
0.17126108705997467,
-0.20726341009140015,
-0.31154218316078186,
0.8744581341743469,
-0.5470350980758667,
0.24467118084430695,
0.548123836517334,
0.27354997396469116,
-0.06468841433525085,
-1.1311057806015015,
0.5172876119613647,
-0.4762762784957886,
-0.29569724202156067,
0.2833207845687866,
-0.6674256324768066,
-0.7219932675361633,
0.46912646293640137,
-1.007931113243103,
-1.277058720588684,
0.6164724826812744,
-0.8406147360801697,
0.07400490343570709,
-0.44885072112083435,
0.5174572467803955,
0.4551704525947571,
0.47069382667541504,
-0.12253409624099731,
-0.007078022696077824,
-1.1953010559082031,
-0.30359286069869995,
0.5664294958114624,
0.9579676985740662,
0.8193350434303284,
0.36965212225914,
-0.48169487714767456,
0.0818386897444725,
0.6274642944335938,
0.34782496094703674,
-0.17571616172790527,
0.866070568561554,
-0.516610324382782,
-1.3293718099594116,
-1.0113004446029663,
-0.18991336226463318,
0.4443838894367218,
0.29843899607658386,
-0.07186980545520782,
-0.17997658252716064,
-0.8865516781806946,
-0.14701834321022034,
0.16412261128425598,
-0.5245438814163208,
-0.23828311264514923,
0.12637393176555634,
0.5405185222625732,
-0.014201232232153416,
0.24610692262649536,
0.2025589495897293,
-0.873608410358429,
-0.5283505320549011,
-0.5211280584335327,
0.625269889831543,
-0.23022644221782684,
0.00391326704993844,
-0.4249028265476227,
0.3515014052391052,
0.660755455493927,
-0.7498361468315125,
-0.2754223346710205,
-0.34571531414985657,
0.40433210134506226,
0.4645742177963257,
0.04093187674880028,
0.4759765565395355,
0.6558898091316223,
0.3951502740383148,
-0.6112167835235596,
0.0694083645939827,
-0.18479710817337036,
-0.729259729385376,
-0.6229703426361084,
0.23043760657310486,
-1.0501785278320312,
0.5482821464538574,
-0.35730302333831787,
-0.1528637707233429,
0.12171284109354019,
-0.19758076965808868,
0.5834981203079224,
-0.26899683475494385,
0.26356226205825806,
0.2597659230232239,
-0.009771205484867096,
0.8416650295257568,
-0.42539334297180176,
0.46823975443840027,
0.0920894518494606,
0.000963006925303489,
-0.6100283265113831,
1.0937309265136719,
-0.6301294565200806,
0.5646885633468628,
0.34255996346473694,
0.4683852791786194,
-0.24250724911689758,
-0.11429992318153381,
0.2941770553588867,
-0.6437833309173584,
0.86150723695755,
0.010143452323973179,
0.6536872386932373,
0.07919565588235855,
-0.8676276803016663,
-0.3531671166419983,
-0.5555195808410645,
-0.006624019239097834,
0.15894122421741486,
-0.4906240999698639,
-0.33040663599967957,
-0.7937940955162048,
-0.11083275079727173,
-0.39441412687301636,
0.7174902558326721,
-0.08347314596176147,
-0.42811504006385803,
0.43640366196632385,
-1.018064022064209,
0.603498101234436,
0.6445451974868774,
-0.09875676035881042,
0.7087908983230591,
0.4622044265270233,
1.0969512462615967,
-0.7048357129096985,
0.20333851873874664,
0.13937342166900635,
0.825790524482727,
-0.07276798784732819,
0.30712246894836426,
0.11172056943178177,
-0.31260842084884644,
-0.011786174960434437,
-1.209143877029419,
-0.10676981508731842,
0.01260895375162363,
-0.06391716003417969,
0.622003436088562,
0.04960664361715317,
0.21163199841976166,
0.45385581254959106,
-0.3288431763648987,
-0.30146583914756775,
-0.9925879240036011,
0.17945578694343567,
0.4697508215904236,
0.6485558748245239,
0.17128607630729675,
0.38720956444740295,
-0.34635236859321594,
-0.022592587396502495,
0.23330114781856537,
0.34626489877700806,
-0.22845163941383362,
-1.182002067565918,
1.1382029056549072,
0.022502150386571884,
1.2177246809005737,
0.10433148592710495,
-0.2899901866912842,
-0.18733762204647064,
-0.70017009973526,
0.09114285558462143,
-0.5727919340133667,
-0.5859222412109375,
0.14237378537654877,
0.20305100083351135,
-0.3706284761428833,
0.04871596768498421,
-1.0124446153640747,
-0.3853544592857361,
-0.30778101086616516,
0.22186703979969025,
0.22213329374790192,
-0.060785163193941116,
0.7166647911071777,
0.5587558150291443,
0.4481997787952423,
-0.25083786249160767,
-0.10233932733535767,
-0.11670396476984024,
-0.6408433318138123,
-0.10865011066198349,
-0.12167596071958542,
0.6234632134437561,
-0.2858254909515381,
0.5918236374855042,
-0.5703958868980408,
0.6173898577690125,
0.2491128295660019,
0.5225992202758789,
-0.4405187964439392,
-0.8515477776527405,
0.554660439491272,
0.2525958716869354,
0.37149134278297424,
-0.03210853412747383,
0.17330749332904816,
-0.4454284906387329,
-0.3343956172466278,
-0.4440475404262543,
0.4083726406097412,
-0.9737065434455872,
0.4823608696460724,
0.04930416867136955,
-0.6417917013168335,
-0.01219608262181282,
0.4701886475086212,
0.7130252718925476,
-0.27921438217163086,
0.37710040807724,
-0.5204527378082275,
-0.2811509072780609,
0.4527433216571808,
0.20845243334770203,
0.2914170026779175,
-1.1139392852783203,
0.013629443943500519,
-0.005459196399897337,
0.27670997381210327,
0.3165832459926605,
0.29243573546409607,
0.5085100531578064,
-0.25051096081733704,
0.3182387948036194,
0.33323779702186584,
-0.23944877088069916,
-1.2274327278137207,
0.3515225648880005,
0.11357130110263824,
-0.11755014210939407,
-0.43118664622306824,
-0.0994633212685585,
-0.186568021774292,
-0.1546405404806137,
-0.6648415327072144,
0.32171323895454407,
-0.1822143942117691,
-0.34141990542411804,
-0.6648064255714417,
0.3899216949939728,
-0.7976760864257812,
-0.021090997382998466,
0.3147933781147003,
1.0095126628875732,
0.4418856203556061,
-0.609929621219635,
-0.5245694518089294,
0.37818530201911926,
1.2371084690093994,
0.11484771221876144,
-0.5715601444244385,
0.5592797994613647,
0.06881337612867355,
0.15270838141441345,
-0.5553268790245056,
0.2327202707529068,
0.12823103368282318,
0.44975823163986206,
-0.09453712403774261,
0.16269350051879883,
0.3948998749256134,
-0.16039235889911652,
-0.59818434715271,
0.7399190664291382,
0.020999660715460777,
-0.004492457490414381,
-0.6231654286384583,
-0.6791738271713257,
-0.6815040111541748,
0.45625168085098267,
-4.071124076843262,
-0.5747401714324951,
-0.23862460255622864,
-0.30041149258613586,
-0.6696525812149048,
0.3844914734363556,
0.2435622215270996,
-0.46905210614204407,
-0.7229019403457642,
-0.015122724696993828,
0.43198809027671814,
-0.8793914318084717,
0.25369858741760254,
0.28182053565979004,
0.9581022262573242,
0.14784248173236847,
0.1391829550266266,
0.14170046150684357,
-0.040939632803201675,
-0.3960437774658203,
-0.22339048981666565,
-0.10114610195159912,
0.6235769987106323,
0.2998831570148468,
0.7875168323516846,
0.17445634305477142,
0.42363715171813965,
-0.11545508354902267,
-0.648430585861206,
-1.0897300243377686,
0.9358286261558533,
-0.0989283099770546,
0.2556224763393402,
0.5339952111244202,
-0.333386093378067,
-0.10945213586091995,
0.8548713326454163,
0.7476571798324585,
0.34705042839050293,
-0.7296875715255737,
0.027414489537477493,
1.0206834077835083,
-0.2659735083580017,
-0.011625253595411777,
0.5150579214096069,
-0.44248759746551514,
-0.5306544303894043,
0.22756719589233398,
-0.45237964391708374,
1.518598198890686,
0.12202385812997818,
-0.519140362739563,
0.4569050371646881,
0.053487665951251984,
-0.3045424222946167,
-0.04666086658835411,
0.49955201148986816,
-0.3025483191013336,
-0.41449153423309326,
0.6198202967643738,
0.3962939381599426,
-0.3729214370250702,
0.11033985763788223,
-0.46019938588142395,
-0.27791693806648254,
-0.19237294793128967,
-0.21295759081840515,
-0.10878004133701324,
0.13035070896148682,
0.17128553986549377,
-0.4494697153568268,
0.5325524806976318,
-0.2574893534183502,
-0.5731529593467712,
-0.17632782459259033,
-1.1506067514419556,
-0.4726892411708832,
-0.728830873966217,
0.1647798717021942,
0.027838055044412613,
0.41146406531333923,
-0.4431653320789337,
0.39528343081474304,
0.6311624050140381,
0.5015571713447571,
-0.10254662483930588,
-0.6242631077766418,
0.13098208606243134,
0.544807493686676,
-0.185042604804039,
-0.02501588687300682,
-0.5598716139793396,
0.3784073293209076,
0.4405202567577362,
-1.3258616924285889,
1.11003839969635,
0.02116975747048855,
-0.784758985042572,
0.23195601999759674,
-0.3457215428352356,
1.358215093612671,
-0.48992419242858887,
0.1549667865037918,
0.1368897706270218,
-0.20032599568367004,
-0.33632323145866394,
0.4618428945541382,
0.042415015399456024,
0.17666000127792358,
0.133246511220932,
0.01679089479148388,
-0.04584901034832001,
0.05321432277560234,
-1.6541155576705933,
0.4929531514644623,
-1.1914293766021729,
-0.9106971025466919,
1.3449753522872925,
0.04865448176860809,
-0.1853683739900589,
0.48285695910453796,
-0.1524033397436142,
0.42953115701675415,
-0.7045000791549683,
-0.25814035534858704,
0.4091227650642395,
0.400045782327652,
-0.24008366465568542,
-0.30430716276168823,
0.807576596736908,
-0.0809454619884491,
-0.29184484481811523,
-0.28562405705451965,
-0.5756497979164124,
-0.17969071865081787,
-0.14213542640209198,
0.46997886896133423,
0.2659390866756439,
-0.31612610816955566,
0.2064298689365387,
1.3360503911972046,
0.30112504959106445,
-0.371334969997406,
0.5773189663887024,
-0.0653584823012352,
0.12621891498565674,
0.0639776811003685,
0.12036179006099701,
-0.9884746670722961,
0.45587581396102905,
-0.6267945766448975,
-0.49937665462493896,
0.24240104854106903,
-0.6354731917381287,
-0.38763079047203064,
0.48957559466362,
0.25572288036346436,
0.4520571529865265,
0.44979655742645264,
-0.6178057789802551,
0.15958338975906372,
-0.11977405101060867,
-0.6269016265869141,
0.6382474899291992,
0.9793750047683716,
-0.06673180311918259,
-0.7355459332466125,
-0.049750689417123795,
-0.7569718360900879,
0.3583124876022339,
-0.15834558010101318,
-0.0932556539773941,
-0.6292994618415833,
0.4361025094985962,
-0.30237966775894165,
-0.41753554344177246,
-0.17788565158843994,
0.2295336276292801,
-0.039221104234457016,
-0.21011850237846375,
-0.33223891258239746,
0.03478222340345383,
-0.14457572996616364,
1.0557693243026733,
0.17282426357269287,
-0.18591395020484924,
-0.4414883255958557,
0.37726521492004395,
-0.9541029930114746,
-0.3608146607875824,
0.8800289630889893,
-0.536084771156311,
0.26141121983528137,
-0.05252118781208992,
-0.368061363697052,
-1.4761033058166504,
0.2698395550251007,
-0.5047922134399414,
-0.012828300707042217,
-0.4610886871814728,
0.34376955032348633,
0.8187033534049988,
0.03783979266881943,
1.0567693710327148,
-0.20579896867275238,
-0.597604513168335,
0.8457584381103516,
0.6589881777763367,
-0.3202475607395172,
0.9399032592773438,
-0.6143935322761536,
-0.8551169633865356,
-0.08359809219837189,
0.9550886750221252,
-0.7898589968681335,
0.36809447407722473,
-0.013100486248731613,
-0.6506448984146118,
-0.7661587595939636,
0.23102550208568573,
-0.7300916314125061,
-0.40458133816719055,
-0.4644683301448822,
0.02991081401705742,
-0.6711838841438293,
-0.11800795048475266,
0.1759943813085556,
-0.7882640957832336,
1.2992643117904663,
-0.6813879013061523,
0.3696171045303345,
0.23987598717212677,
0.7306846380233765,
-0.6068990230560303,
-0.574267566204071,
-0.3347911834716797,
-0.20211593806743622,
0.7577105760574341,
0.31392940878868103,
1.0386258363723755,
0.7494922876358032,
0.8260170817375183,
0.4409871995449066,
-0.33848637342453003,
0.27189990878105164,
0.050783418118953705,
0.7552211880683899,
-0.22723868489265442,
-0.6885865926742554,
0.2737656831741333,
-0.07167313992977142,
-0.10703857243061066,
-0.5660765767097473,
-0.4006730914115906,
1.3405705690383911,
-0.31757426261901855,
-0.3446000814437866,
0.8160900473594666,
0.2222171574831009,
0.057063400745391846,
-0.25932198762893677,
0.3084684908390045,
0.3945847749710083,
-0.2793145775794983,
-0.04243055358529091,
-0.10762735456228256,
-0.4681830108165741,
0.4459000825881958,
0.06395760923624039,
0.22295641899108887,
-1.0460532903671265,
-0.28088250756263733,
-0.20034395158290863,
-0.6273185014724731,
-0.41002357006073,
-0.05840052664279938,
-0.10163301974534988,
-0.8380318284034729,
0.12730400264263153,
-0.2747260630130768,
-0.9174497127532959,
-0.08718268573284149,
0.35777583718299866,
-0.8522228002548218,
0.3797134757041931,
-0.7565966844558716,
-0.7003617286682129,
0.4572109878063202,
-0.940115213394165,
0.5568921566009521,
-0.09110075980424881,
-0.4024602770805359,
-0.6256310939788818,
0.46009179949760437,
0.416151225566864,
-0.04529431462287903,
-0.09617036581039429,
0.35965216159820557,
-0.4150024950504303,
0.5587210655212402,
-0.7538840174674988,
0.41913458704948425,
-0.007455715909600258,
0.1346673220396042,
0.5106801390647888,
0.44945257902145386,
-0.49852249026298523,
-0.5295653939247131,
-0.2922344207763672,
-0.005107710603624582,
-0.019548291340470314,
-0.4778635799884796,
-0.027285536751151085,
1.4378924369812012,
-0.22691543400287628,
1.0485738515853882,
0.8740463852882385,
0.15522244572639465,
0.2899168133735657,
0.42960402369499207,
0.0744752362370491,
-0.47370555996894836,
0.9486246705055237,
0.9785124063491821,
-0.2063755840063095,
0.9538084864616394,
0.09171038120985031,
-0.20409540832042694,
0.35363656282424927,
-0.08228001743555069,
-0.09422377496957779,
0.24105088412761688,
-0.5962231755256653,
0.7657741904258728,
-0.8347189426422119,
-0.17029663920402527,
0.06239541247487068,
-0.40365898609161377,
-0.2795180380344391,
-0.00204209191724658,
-0.3476932942867279,
1.2432061433792114,
-0.19488610327243805,
0.1656036078929901,
0.3290594816207886,
0.5350630283355713,
-0.35482990741729736,
-0.25598347187042236,
0.6866343021392822,
-0.6020189523696899,
0.6928112506866455,
0.06674063205718994,
0.00031882108305580914,
-0.3231765329837799,
-0.07874178141355515,
0.46287840604782104,
0.231693297624588,
-0.11187729239463806,
-0.6306266188621521,
0.5903828740119934,
-0.05086848512291908,
-0.45373836159706116,
-0.4352562725543976,
0.2661878764629364,
-0.9183273315429688,
-0.5521794557571411,
0.04299059137701988,
-0.00651180325075984,
-0.2688939869403839,
-0.3014298677444458,
0.09726399928331375,
-0.5933945775032043,
0.459494411945343,
-0.4645545780658722,
0.681020200252533,
-0.37342193722724915,
0.5464316606521606,
-0.3962031602859497,
-0.029494771733880043,
0.597577691078186,
-0.3760879933834076,
0.31875622272491455,
-0.26459598541259766,
-0.6476262211799622,
-0.10833270847797394,
0.19182705879211426,
0.08906545490026474,
-0.35479506850242615,
0.9919662475585938,
-0.32983168959617615,
0.14372719824314117,
-0.24979177117347717,
-0.19717958569526672,
-0.10559210926294327,
-0.7400886416435242,
-0.173055961728096,
-0.7385106086730957,
1.0644214153289795,
0.24591998755931854,
-0.5600149035453796,
-0.1585143506526947,
0.4851016700267792,
-0.08650413900613785,
0.10347579419612885,
-0.2941780984401703,
0.3124465346336365,
-0.13812215626239777,
0.17468905448913574,
-0.33543723821640015,
0.9150471687316895,
0.38094615936279297,
0.33857354521751404,
-0.0453173965215683,
1.1062939167022705,
-0.20252923667430878,
-0.12605512142181396,
0.8976221084594727,
-0.5019190311431885,
-0.2411467432975769,
0.2759738564491272,
0.6410350203514099,
-0.1780790239572525,
0.5332329869270325,
0.17398571968078613,
-0.004064658656716347,
-0.2697496712207794,
-0.2989969849586487,
-0.0355125330388546,
-0.12341254949569702,
0.3324468731880188,
0.08428455889225006,
-0.058969173580408096,
-0.49478769302368164,
-0.028972992673516273,
-0.544374406337738,
0.7176810503005981,
0.10572510212659836,
0.793268084526062,
0.026336437091231346,
-0.29841989278793335,
-0.49566876888275146,
-0.356863796710968,
1.0626178979873657,
0.22294315695762634,
0.4250747561454773,
0.6083436012268066,
-0.8109567165374756,
-0.6010177731513977,
-0.308159202337265,
0.09952547401189804,
0.10368714481592178,
-0.47169655561447144,
0.6466269493103027,
-0.6495335102081299,
-0.4684475064277649,
0.4368775188922882,
-0.16536127030849457,
-0.573934018611908,
0.32081592082977295,
-0.1863214373588562
] |
234869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring | Boring | Boring may refer to:
Something that causes boredom
Engineering and science
Boring (earth), drilling a hole, tunnel, or well in the earth
Tunnel boring machine, a machine used in boring tunnels
Boring (manufacturing), enlarging a hole that has already been drilled
Drilling, a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section
Boring, a mechanism of bioerosion
Places
Boring, Maryland, U.S.
Boring, Oregon, U.S.
Boring Lava Field
Boring, Tennessee, U.S.
Other uses
Boring (surname)
"Boring" (The Young Ones), an episode of The Young Ones
"Boring (It's Too Late)", a song by Medina from Forever
See also
Bore (disambiguation)
Bored (disambiguation)
Boredom (disambiguation)
Boreing (disambiguation)
Drilling (disambiguation)
Earth-boring dung beetle, a family of beetles that excavate burrows in which to lay their eggs
The Boring Company, designer of boring equipment
David Boring, a graphic novel | [
0.8979500532150269,
0.6352390646934509,
-0.12348411232233047,
0.3554091155529022,
0.5293180346488953,
0.4491465389728546,
-0.08059956878423691,
0.3608802855014801,
-0.49200239777565,
-0.5820289254188538,
-0.3026127815246582,
0.4926776885986328,
0.13546985387802124,
0.42830994725227356,
-0.6039213538169861,
0.6660333275794983,
0.26621416211128235,
-0.1343076527118683,
-0.32005125284194946,
-0.2189757376909256,
-0.46679216623306274,
-0.25045591592788696,
0.5468543171882629,
-0.26161476969718933,
-0.558509349822998,
-0.1281375288963318,
0.09212402254343033,
0.547853946685791,
-0.507569432258606,
0.012059544213116169,
-0.08391362428665161,
0.03862076252698898,
-0.013878928497433662,
-0.5797312259674072,
-0.08959101885557175,
-0.2800372540950775,
0.13464386761188507,
-0.23574861884117126,
0.10129144787788391,
-0.6499281525611877,
0.5844868421554565,
0.49669671058654785,
0.21987545490264893,
0.0002308973198523745,
-0.4264897108078003,
-0.2740821838378906,
-1.5105910301208496,
0.021167227998375893,
-0.5896591544151306,
-0.15430355072021484,
0.07285093516111374,
0.6429871320724487,
0.17091238498687744,
0.522226095199585,
0.15792319178581238,
0.6889086365699768,
-0.002850079908967018,
-0.198759526014328,
0.22956129908561707,
-0.1940620392560959,
0.6293348073959351,
0.13691596686840057,
-0.7430532574653625,
0.3136793375015259,
0.08164265751838684,
0.4530033767223358,
-0.12105421721935272,
-0.5888803601264954,
-0.09647446125745773,
-0.2930050194263458,
-0.17809906601905823,
-0.5371389985084534,
0.049579523503780365,
0.07887328416109085,
-0.25866955518722534,
-0.06153135746717453,
-0.07080195844173431,
-0.22015982866287231,
-0.004891832824796438,
0.042586736381053925,
0.20468218624591827,
0.25967609882354736,
0.5516112446784973,
-0.23668649792671204,
0.19239526987075806,
0.1632152944803238,
-0.3866598904132843,
0.5667502880096436,
0.29010120034217834,
0.540988028049469,
0.38169607520103455,
-0.5031193494796753,
0.2682294547557831,
0.19618235528469086,
-0.10708826035261154,
-0.2788720428943634,
0.33455532789230347,
0.10537994652986526,
0.1445980966091156,
0.29289212822914124,
-0.25677424669265747,
-0.036575328558683395,
0.596613347530365,
0.3282148540019989,
0.16013765335083008,
-0.009768270887434483,
0.16667574644088745,
-0.25464311242103577,
-0.19327357411384583,
0.16717150807380676,
0.0019776879344135523,
0.3874257504940033,
0.0263378843665123,
0.10825914889574051,
-0.4046837389469147,
-0.2321614921092987,
0.001412633922882378,
-0.3221054673194885,
-0.0757635161280632,
-0.0890834704041481,
-0.5252844095230103,
0.2952863872051239,
0.17761841416358948,
-0.07025797665119171,
-0.029749343171715736,
0.6478462219238281,
0.8186771273612976,
0.6330431699752808,
-0.29880401492118835,
-0.3396070897579193,
0.4265589714050293,
0.9480651617050171,
0.10975894331932068,
-0.12514619529247284,
0.17630289494991302,
-0.6276242733001709,
0.29945412278175354,
-0.17415139079093933,
0.13198532164096832,
0.31524723768234253,
-0.8229530453681946,
-0.3864571452140808,
-0.6023657917976379,
-0.35583409667015076,
0.09708348661661148,
-0.5451469421386719,
0.1980888545513153,
-0.3591226637363434,
-0.21060769259929657,
0.6158497929573059,
0.08342144638299942,
0.3558676838874817,
-0.6891388893127441,
-0.19804729521274567,
-0.6953333020210266,
-0.1422143280506134,
-0.03593267872929573,
-0.34091147780418396,
-0.04101516678929329,
0.06882759183645248,
-0.2931601107120514,
0.4679853320121765,
-0.8116170167922974,
-0.1486721932888031,
0.1210007593035698,
-0.0776747390627861,
0.44376271963119507,
0.2898496389389038,
-0.14248405396938324,
0.31642207503318787,
-0.6040211319923401,
0.2425447404384613,
0.38677501678466797,
-0.44080257415771484,
-0.18567655980587006,
0.0078110406175255775,
0.905717134475708,
0.2353803664445877,
0.7722623944282532,
0.012242631055414677,
-0.3880144953727722,
-0.1687551587820053,
0.3131053149700165,
0.10065270215272903,
0.2158089131116867,
-0.48231422901153564,
0.3904634118080139,
-0.02102930285036564,
-0.20719465613365173,
-0.3286643624305725,
-0.5987952351570129,
-0.5945990681648254,
0.4456689655780792,
-0.8676949143409729,
1.0036135911941528,
-0.018862027674913406,
-0.38789132237434387,
1.4160518646240234,
-0.48970839381217957,
0.41019877791404724,
-0.23187850415706635,
0.2966960072517395,
0.13701923191547394,
-0.24627573788166046,
-0.7937095165252686,
0.2976255714893341,
0.6743882298469543,
-0.04189719259738922,
0.12192468345165253,
0.048948146402835846,
0.9805145263671875,
-0.5652933120727539,
0.13028956949710846,
-0.7350303530693054,
-0.0055146850645542145,
-0.02032412402331829,
-0.7836437225341797,
0.16454382240772247,
-0.18920519948005676,
-0.5325716137886047,
0.7801271080970764,
-0.2693886160850525,
0.398613840341568,
0.29473936557769775,
-0.03382464125752449,
0.3983360826969147,
-0.3030673563480377,
-0.034820958971977234,
0.4258224368095398,
-0.8531161546707153,
-0.009336424991488457,
0.10195674747228622,
0.25568050146102905,
-0.37394553422927856,
0.11574631929397583,
0.404628723859787,
0.12114584445953369,
-0.5702195763587952,
0.36787161231040955,
0.17542381584644318,
-0.4937492311000824,
0.08018616586923599,
-0.1349801868200302,
0.07933127880096436,
0.1459362506866455,
0.10922069102525711,
-0.21693973243236542,
0.13861070573329926,
-0.49603742361068726,
0.19820374250411987,
0.19523420929908752,
0.5292477607727051,
0.16291427612304688,
-0.07454885542392731,
-0.19236333668231964,
-0.08113172650337219,
-0.3910573720932007,
-0.02275879681110382,
-0.3241531252861023,
0.051619753241539,
-0.22292985022068024,
-0.1569395661354065,
0.03300787881016731,
-0.015199885703623295,
0.2352808713912964,
0.040008462965488434,
-0.43802639842033386,
-0.7562434077262878,
0.27836117148399353,
0.752886176109314,
0.42830783128738403,
0.7911794185638428,
-0.33299198746681213,
-0.03339742124080658,
0.006053260527551174,
-0.07678106427192688,
0.2665920555591583,
0.03158821538090706,
-0.45364904403686523,
-0.3632888197898865,
0.08386737108230591,
0.41667407751083374,
0.5701848864555359,
-0.3416551649570465,
-0.5651084780693054,
-0.03185809403657913,
0.3988686203956604,
-0.0028414539992809296,
-0.013217343017458916,
0.20589454472064972,
-0.3825231194496155,
0.5489031076431274,
-0.10834220051765442,
0.2993585467338562,
0.5196481943130493,
0.32942652702331543,
-0.08204302191734314,
-0.3702584207057953,
0.58409184217453,
-0.6500898599624634,
-0.07079466432332993,
0.47396576404571533,
-0.6384865641593933,
-0.43151625990867615,
-0.03890986740589142,
-0.5716926455497742,
-0.2092219442129135,
-0.46524402499198914,
-5.949297904968262,
-0.09116309881210327,
-0.2501591444015503,
-0.12209559231996536,
-0.11745356768369675,
0.19535157084465027,
0.5166399478912354,
0.12419436126947403,
-0.42894572019577026,
-0.27717170119285583,
0.32178452610969543,
0.06750479340553284,
0.42513301968574524,
0.15375344455242157,
0.6018332242965698,
0.3212132155895233,
0.4026692807674408,
-0.13351082801818848,
-0.11156335473060608,
0.1541915386915207,
0.30892786383628845,
0.11808420717716217,
0.23882265388965607,
0.19660983979701996,
0.4464605450630188,
0.163922980427742,
-0.744642436504364,
0.56169593334198,
-0.06508394330739975,
0.2486427128314972,
0.49956661462783813,
-0.15366244316101074,
0.11635080724954605,
0.11079016327857971,
-0.09135621041059494,
0.20789389312267303,
0.29231616854667664,
0.11426711082458496,
0.5301266312599182,
0.3147052526473999,
-0.26601046323776245,
0.6098557710647583,
-0.5955355763435364,
-0.38017019629478455,
0.21348313987255096,
-0.6978623867034912,
0.10547032207250595,
-0.07537480443716049,
-0.12956425547599792,
0.4406431317329407,
-0.08252937346696854,
0.1843675673007965,
0.8746055960655212,
0.1789073646068573,
-0.2206171154975891,
-0.3398492634296417,
0.29349833726882935,
0.272041916847229,
-0.8051331639289856,
-0.17733345925807953,
0.011838985607028008,
-0.45826077461242676,
-0.14832988381385803,
-0.6683530807495117,
-0.3799480199813843,
-0.7342097759246826,
-0.6101852059364319,
-0.2662018835544586,
0.1932840347290039,
0.5457770228385925,
-0.14294323325157166,
0.3921991288661957,
0.4765278100967407,
-0.7638027667999268,
0.16562356054782867,
-0.005194304510951042,
-0.4329155683517456,
-0.38720056414604187,
0.19446222484111786,
0.15035681426525116,
0.052199043333530426,
-0.6140653491020203,
0.12340448051691055,
0.18614442646503448,
-0.03190579265356064,
-0.5391170978546143,
-0.0252002514898777,
-0.2842358648777008,
-0.4152488112449646,
-0.2566003203392029,
0.7839453816413879,
0.032401423901319504,
0.47734910249710083,
-0.4001845419406891,
0.6792865991592407,
0.3804439604282379,
0.5857502222061157,
-0.09770173579454422,
0.6997254490852356,
-0.18952375650405884,
0.4378916025161743,
-0.22398321330547333,
0.17431066930294037,
-0.2936675250530243,
0.031748950481414795,
-0.6108025908470154,
-0.006134912371635437,
0.2539142966270447,
0.8445586562156677,
-0.006309482268989086,
-0.251895546913147,
0.20535992085933685,
-0.6198548674583435,
0.384926438331604,
-0.3350185453891754,
-0.28580018877983093,
-0.7005690932273865,
0.06437909603118896,
0.4475821256637573,
-0.23679371178150177,
0.01140052080154419,
-0.025292441248893738,
0.2581678628921509,
-0.09360190480947495,
0.5006551742553711,
-0.004016360733658075,
0.5052064061164856,
0.5382919311523438,
0.27846917510032654,
0.08884468674659729,
-0.01481675636023283,
0.703187882900238,
-0.32047000527381897,
-0.2001623809337616,
-0.15012694895267487,
0.30033108592033386,
-0.3876328468322754,
0.37618762254714966,
-0.10607172548770905,
-0.030913934111595154,
0.36393287777900696,
-0.4909059703350067,
0.044678084552288055,
0.3166833221912384,
0.8669655919075012,
0.6205441355705261,
-0.5142110586166382,
0.3122563362121582,
0.20848840475082397,
0.32269951701164246,
-0.6200750470161438,
-0.4405513405799866,
0.3445449769496918,
-0.19134433567523956,
0.1283632069826126,
-0.34271323680877686,
-0.7729387879371643,
0.3237614929676056,
-0.2110651582479477,
-0.6295307278633118,
0.5275542736053467,
-0.16589196026325226,
-0.5466692447662354,
-0.11901025474071503,
-0.3622245490550995,
0.4610895812511444,
-0.17947357892990112,
-0.09452173113822937,
-0.46523910760879517,
0.3510740101337433,
0.45572641491889954,
0.1966761350631714,
-0.4499436020851135,
-0.5799700617790222,
-0.17331533133983612,
0.264629989862442,
0.1104869395494461,
0.0153384143486619,
-0.036293476819992065,
-0.38668885827064514,
0.15449202060699463,
-0.4228638708591461,
0.5315017700195312,
0.19682475924491882,
-0.23904000222682953,
-0.6861140727996826,
0.40279337763786316,
0.3132920265197754,
-0.16766521334648132,
-0.19168877601623535,
-0.2079535573720932,
-0.3990485966205597,
0.6401438117027283,
0.23467868566513062,
0.09059236943721771,
-0.16029953956604004,
0.36128535866737366,
0.3379719853401184,
-0.7805107235908508,
-0.48870623111724854,
0.08599741011857986,
-0.04424840211868286,
-0.780918538570404,
0.05806778371334076,
0.2707671523094177,
-0.4762488305568695,
0.37635961174964905,
-0.3904480040073395,
-0.18916134536266327,
0.032262060791254044,
-0.471928209066391,
0.10960905998945236,
-0.09793278574943542,
0.2855372428894043,
-0.6020649075508118,
-0.42243844270706177,
0.3831867575645447,
0.35587191581726074,
-0.12341918051242828,
-0.37092235684394836,
0.37279269099235535,
0.13413600623607635,
-0.5293983817100525,
0.1451585441827774,
-0.46397268772125244,
0.11674115806818008,
0.051243238151073456,
-0.8504107594490051,
0.49325767159461975,
-0.27383261919021606,
-0.19886514544487,
-0.01215148251503706,
-0.04782826453447342,
-0.23137544095516205,
0.21815037727355957,
0.2846430540084839,
0.18263225257396698,
-0.01826922968029976,
-0.06518042087554932,
-0.20576772093772888,
0.017722835764288902,
0.6550508737564087,
-0.09934969246387482,
0.07769089937210083,
-0.3363801836967468,
0.35691314935684204,
0.060851942747831345,
-0.5459287166595459,
-0.7766052484512329,
0.2639855444431305,
0.6853066086769104,
-0.38186994194984436,
0.027345428243279457,
-0.15908096730709076,
-0.01238675694912672,
-0.06393582373857498,
-0.12799420952796936,
0.053160227835178375,
0.5850982666015625,
0.5875822305679321,
-0.22996021807193756,
-0.1878497451543808,
-0.6622292399406433,
-0.3653664290904999,
0.6293711066246033,
-0.053844500333070755,
-0.12898874282836914,
-0.2408386915922165,
0.03396931663155556,
-0.5548728108406067,
0.12093230336904526,
0.26408666372299194,
0.3893008530139923,
0.1442098468542099,
0.4153319001197815,
-0.09417451918125153,
-0.119359090924263,
-0.22008275985717773,
0.22457583248615265,
-0.10012595355510712,
-0.3754054009914398,
-0.16689172387123108,
0.02699524722993374,
-0.216737300157547,
0.4199605882167816,
-0.03592408448457718,
0.49285435676574707,
0.08718934655189514,
-0.7727652788162231,
-0.12015267461538315,
-0.26066628098487854,
0.002058469457551837,
-0.04271746799349785,
0.338711142539978,
-0.36393752694129944,
0.17634893953800201,
0.023960258811712265,
0.10128674656152725,
0.31796616315841675,
0.13654369115829468,
-0.40566113591194153,
0.43112054467201233,
0.2947121858596802,
-0.7910522818565369,
0.768139123916626,
-0.10505092889070511,
-0.1252245455980301,
0.026685675606131554,
0.16381800174713135,
-0.3339715600013733,
0.37050890922546387,
-0.05619087070226669,
-0.1310519129037857,
0.7759811282157898,
-0.0442521870136261,
-0.5916266441345215,
0.39592331647872925,
-0.6140833497047424,
0.1591329425573349,
0.28596970438957214,
-0.06379414349794388,
0.09238795936107635,
0.9041942358016968,
-0.32393771409988403,
-0.2858741283416748,
0.33333805203437805,
-0.43859243392944336,
-0.06853289902210236,
0.5618494749069214,
0.20349596440792084,
0.5195597410202026,
0.09723900258541107,
0.03802066296339035,
0.17978928983211517,
-0.22930945456027985,
-0.5086840987205505,
-0.22011761367321014,
-0.7348087430000305,
-0.5918019413948059,
0.4804501235485077,
0.35141536593437195,
0.12413966655731201,
-0.12160027027130127,
0.4185267984867096,
0.03238711878657341,
0.5609872937202454,
0.24173136055469513,
0.3233434557914734,
-0.36154064536094666,
0.2523307800292969,
-0.2513274550437927,
-0.10187260806560516,
0.2558659315109253,
-0.11349984258413315,
-0.27431344985961914,
-0.768353283405304,
0.18407303094863892,
0.3596399128437042,
-0.1844453513622284,
0.17724409699440002,
0.16350775957107544,
0.03984859958291054,
0.0640830397605896,
-0.7320330142974854,
-0.21807244420051575,
-0.2489863634109497,
0.09985577315092087,
-0.2656170129776001,
-0.21672123670578003,
0.268771767616272,
0.26075223088264465,
0.35956814885139465,
-0.46891844272613525,
0.2574799954891205,
-0.258027046918869,
-0.6223671436309814,
0.573034405708313,
0.5971359610557556,
0.03331420570611954,
-0.3857392370700836,
-0.20338524878025055,
0.28668466210365295,
-0.08718385547399521,
-0.25974637269973755,
0.1256844699382782,
0.16262297332286835,
0.32832804322242737,
0.2900780141353607,
-0.28317058086395264,
-0.21538609266281128,
-0.06317097693681717,
-0.4330895245075226,
-0.38553178310394287,
-0.042422980070114136,
-0.20916377007961273,
-0.7197170853614807,
0.0035016550682485104,
0.36582711338996887,
0.1556718647480011,
0.27989712357521057,
-0.05032668262720108,
0.1008225530385971,
0.42026928067207336,
0.01831825263798237,
-0.9080442190170288,
0.07629083096981049,
-0.04544153809547424,
0.6634778380393982,
-0.8594603538513184,
0.4805658161640167,
0.44862473011016846,
0.058439821004867554,
0.1752985566854477,
-0.027060093358159065,
0.2331439107656479,
-0.3913891017436981,
0.018089445307850838,
-0.21860872209072113,
-0.03693678602576256,
-0.6671316027641296,
0.14177297055721283,
-0.4343642294406891,
0.2262410819530487,
0.29977768659591675,
0.1232096403837204,
-0.9576290845870972,
0.24261252582073212,
-0.2458871454000473,
0.025984717532992363,
0.4495363235473633,
-0.677788257598877,
-0.13095824420452118,
-0.6574570536613464,
0.665062665939331,
0.059746745973825455,
-0.2950712740421295,
0.15481770038604736,
0.6463331580162048,
0.29228222370147705,
-0.5647649765014648,
0.11611130833625793,
-0.12580084800720215,
-0.503699779510498,
-0.07644710689783096,
-0.6056258082389832,
0.659529447555542,
0.08205543458461761,
-0.10345875471830368,
-0.3748585283756256,
0.7935641407966614,
0.20759890973567963,
-0.24724732339382172,
0.18602968752384186,
-0.09456388652324677,
0.3864242732524872,
-0.249001145362854,
0.2005518674850464,
-0.1408800184726715,
0.040169570595026016,
0.36770710349082947
] |
234870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20irrational%20functions | List of integrals of irrational functions | The following is a list of integrals (antiderivative functions) of irrational functions. For a complete list of integral functions, see lists of integrals. Throughout this article the constant of integration is omitted for brevity.
Integrals involving r =
Integrals involving s =
Assume x2 > a2 (for x2 < a2, see next section):
Here , where the positive value of is to be taken.
Integrals involving u =
Integrals involving R =
Assume (ax2 + bx + c) cannot be reduced to the following expression (px + q)2 for some p and q.
Integrals involving S =
References
Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds., Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables 1972, Dover: New York. (See chapter 3.)
(Several previous editions as well.)
Irrational functions | [
-0.9348854422569275,
-0.02226359210908413,
-0.23690678179264069,
-0.21325737237930298,
-0.3788793087005615,
0.21390829980373383,
0.277752548456192,
-0.11610407382249832,
-0.2320653647184372,
-0.33865416049957275,
-0.5290012359619141,
0.5165724158287048,
-0.5306922793388367,
-0.09425300359725952,
0.3307326138019562,
0.5054640769958496,
0.4165360629558563,
0.3962111175060272,
-0.5448852181434631,
-0.3530760407447815,
0.26597514748573303,
0.4262324571609497,
0.6885256767272949,
-0.7231239080429077,
-0.016167888417840004,
-0.10592479258775711,
0.10640082508325577,
-0.2470351606607437,
-0.044178858399391174,
0.4678117334842682,
-0.22606393694877625,
1.1239749193191528,
0.06795167922973633,
-0.38765180110931396,
0.16638675332069397,
-0.36503493785858154,
0.6664240956306458,
0.3984244763851166,
-0.006544992793351412,
-0.17858919501304626,
0.08186302334070206,
0.04444534704089165,
0.1942903697490692,
0.06081843003630638,
-0.028811877593398094,
-0.6099846959114075,
-1.5108860731124878,
-0.5951887965202332,
-0.4227718114852905,
-0.19702523946762085,
-0.297046959400177,
0.059819936752319336,
0.8586059808731079,
0.7610303163528442,
-0.4742966294288635,
0.6021345257759094,
-0.7683717012405396,
-0.5093152523040771,
0.6887013912200928,
0.18487805128097534,
-0.008171508088707924,
0.574461817741394,
0.03436773270368576,
0.06363313645124435,
0.4871869385242462,
1.4965025186538696,
-0.3350987434387207,
0.3512795865535736,
-0.6933010816574097,
-0.26945260167121887,
-0.25183457136154175,
-0.8453753590583801,
-0.16503208875656128,
0.5606117844581604,
-0.6067036390304565,
-0.2944497764110565,
0.11519230902194977,
-0.27770304679870605,
-0.22116048634052277,
-0.22416339814662933,
-0.268257737159729,
0.42444655299186707,
1.2527053356170654,
-0.2672306299209595,
-0.045796338468790054,
-0.09803400933742523,
-0.3184828758239746,
0.18481136858463287,
-0.5035786032676697,
0.45375126600265503,
0.49699461460113525,
-0.28372350335121155,
0.31858307123184204,
-0.10721013695001602,
0.3171035945415497,
0.2819516658782959,
0.25665557384490967,
-0.31313276290893555,
0.15651264786720276,
0.5111098885536194,
-0.10853356868028641,
0.3619827330112457,
0.04799759015440941,
-0.9833695292472839,
-0.7280623316764832,
-0.616497278213501,
-0.3405597507953644,
-0.40093374252319336,
0.3819372057914734,
-0.38454583287239075,
-1.1898207664489746,
0.6334406137466431,
0.8543390035629272,
-0.41212594509124756,
-0.7029771208763123,
0.346275269985199,
0.014263913035392761,
0.4899800717830658,
-0.0787428468465805,
0.18346937000751495,
0.1803923100233078,
0.7716898322105408,
-0.1801380217075348,
0.5202397108078003,
-0.5420811772346497,
0.4238669276237488,
0.6949600577354431,
0.7871018648147583,
-0.05512603744864464,
0.12043531239032745,
0.24652099609375,
0.6041612029075623,
0.4845929741859436,
-0.11965221166610718,
-0.09346719831228256,
-0.9801658391952515,
-0.27393195033073425,
-0.6483205556869507,
-0.37477344274520874,
0.24309435486793518,
-0.5782825350761414,
-0.6581458449363708,
-0.9999313950538635,
-0.3833469748497009,
0.4228964149951935,
-0.43372657895088196,
-0.3225204646587372,
-0.2253003716468811,
0.3263396620750427,
0.1798315793275833,
0.06352084875106812,
0.10485447943210602,
-0.5528937578201294,
0.2563667893409729,
-0.5267970561981201,
0.10734891891479492,
0.5763890743255615,
0.12381362915039062,
0.23565858602523804,
0.1691022515296936,
0.10499408841133118,
-0.23680990934371948,
-0.21434378623962402,
-0.388351172208786,
0.3561753034591675,
-0.3051116168498993,
0.5500109791755676,
0.3233959972858429,
0.2951534390449524,
-0.01792135275900364,
-0.4597678482532501,
-0.5248180627822876,
0.3669882118701935,
-0.052522677928209305,
0.057682450860738754,
-0.38555869460105896,
0.5502917170524597,
-0.17004112899303436,
0.41933923959732056,
0.1198047325015068,
-1.2922965288162231,
-0.20717528462409973,
-0.017072567716240883,
-0.6735276579856873,
0.7996031641960144,
0.5254060626029968,
0.4154687821865082,
0.5779238939285278,
0.5896231532096863,
-0.030571753159165382,
-0.31633567810058594,
0.1143191009759903,
-0.04855388030409813,
-0.6138274669647217,
1.0099855661392212,
0.44342127442359924,
-0.7969698309898376,
-0.2806738615036011,
0.04184022545814514,
0.3389208912849426,
-0.3968838155269623,
-0.22214999794960022,
0.34812653064727783,
1.089746117591858,
-0.35898685455322266,
1.2819762229919434,
-0.7362495064735413,
0.32568415999412537,
-0.3031391501426697,
0.9246829152107239,
0.4356767237186432,
-0.04740206524729729,
0.4672122597694397,
-0.5133606791496277,
0.2861950993537903,
-0.3573746085166931,
-0.3404998779296875,
0.261753112077713,
-0.21304570138454437,
-0.023089367896318436,
1.045595407485962,
-0.10201720148324966,
0.09885284304618835,
0.3605412542819977,
-0.2479211688041687,
0.7383012771606445,
0.40872758626937866,
0.276303231716156,
0.14925001561641693,
-0.7147631049156189,
0.28813356161117554,
0.01873384788632393,
0.25105392932891846,
0.07855553179979324,
-0.1504201740026474,
0.31333017349243164,
0.34055984020233154,
-0.5839660167694092,
-0.05007021874189377,
-0.9937628507614136,
0.09152853488922119,
0.5016000866889954,
-0.38043445348739624,
0.17654134333133698,
-0.29272282123565674,
-0.25765901803970337,
-0.6536439061164856,
-0.271164208650589,
-0.28134793043136597,
-0.517521858215332,
-0.03142986074090004,
0.1458752453327179,
0.29539525508880615,
-0.46253225207328796,
-0.23398134112358093,
0.3597221076488495,
-0.1671152561903,
0.03365939483046532,
0.6464619636535645,
0.68629390001297,
-0.46682992577552795,
0.15468129515647888,
0.4285135865211487,
-0.19796939194202423,
-0.24803569912910461,
0.03579464554786682,
-0.9262529015541077,
-0.2767094671726227,
0.5730711221694946,
0.16828593611717224,
0.4036675691604614,
-1.0421732664108276,
-0.713493287563324,
-0.9685003161430359,
-0.6190159320831299,
-0.4856676161289215,
-0.789399266242981,
0.3518403470516205,
-1.512730360031128,
-0.08030369132757187,
0.373229056596756,
0.9423946142196655,
0.06527399271726608,
-0.09063488990068436,
-0.7548470497131348,
-0.0785185918211937,
0.1165940910577774,
-0.23509499430656433,
0.1808830350637436,
-0.0285358726978302,
-0.49370527267456055,
-0.0008060720283538103,
-0.46960651874542236,
-0.13333316147327423,
0.3130631744861603,
0.47106000781059265,
-0.1696375608444214,
0.307806134223938,
-0.3413904309272766,
-0.22999261319637299,
-1.0684715509414673,
-0.1122949942946434,
-0.3926493525505066,
-0.20869717001914978,
-0.10437015444040298,
-0.4964827299118042,
-0.46646687388420105,
0.5514757633209229,
-4.803405284881592,
-0.1907700151205063,
-0.8856748938560486,
0.3007003366947174,
-0.4235685169696808,
0.4085119068622589,
0.19128625094890594,
-0.2619611620903015,
-0.5263122320175171,
0.40737631916999817,
0.009684511460363865,
-0.6317395567893982,
-0.5546795725822449,
1.1955569982528687,
0.4515720009803772,
0.11494371294975281,
0.12885957956314087,
0.21158473193645477,
0.47169938683509827,
0.3235735297203064,
-0.05745919048786163,
0.07864411920309067,
-0.38528868556022644,
0.2267138510942459,
0.35517460107803345,
0.7636656761169434,
-0.14798137545585632,
0.6905179023742676,
-0.3107241988182068,
-0.07158999145030975,
-0.11235299706459045,
-0.04933890327811241,
-0.3569604456424713,
-0.6724680066108704,
-0.4972176253795624,
0.2750737965106964,
0.3754996359348297,
-0.7349934577941895,
0.24434411525726318,
-0.5905701518058777,
-0.49177199602127075,
0.9718608260154724,
-0.10195795446634293,
0.36821264028549194,
0.3827173709869385,
-0.19351010024547577,
-0.2882326543331146,
-0.004956280346959829,
0.08443403989076614,
0.8152771592140198,
-0.29370710253715515,
0.1974838376045227,
0.8497714996337891,
0.20390401780605316,
-0.17038342356681824,
-0.06454909592866898,
0.1967090219259262,
-0.49038875102996826,
-0.13559943437576294,
0.7172849178314209,
1.07787024974823,
-0.6234601736068726,
0.5407773852348328,
-0.11992570757865906,
-0.3996880352497101,
-0.3944231867790222,
-0.6415719389915466,
-0.6160057783126831,
0.2996178865432739,
0.021811112761497498,
-0.5072787404060364,
0.3452962636947632,
-0.3410194218158722,
-0.36581456661224365,
0.0426885224878788,
-0.044745221734046936,
0.26225778460502625,
0.3168501853942871,
0.24236193299293518,
0.28031519055366516,
-0.37849465012550354,
-0.5377742648124695,
-0.6921270489692688,
0.2958248257637024,
-0.026355208829045296,
0.11964036524295807,
-0.5560296177864075,
-0.14118458330631256,
-0.8360382318496704,
0.006487244740128517,
0.38008517026901245,
0.15868428349494934,
0.4779348075389862,
0.46017295122146606,
0.5776405930519104,
0.07840751111507416,
0.8998538851737976,
-0.359944611787796,
0.6507891416549683,
-0.30479246377944946,
0.26275843381881714,
-0.44598814845085144,
0.21036849915981293,
0.005152676720172167,
-0.11105183511972427,
-0.14019741117954254,
-0.6440454125404358,
0.9721019864082336,
0.32095208764076233,
-0.4698013961315155,
-0.19545775651931763,
-0.3061460852622986,
-0.38214418292045593,
-0.48976263403892517,
0.4450315833091736,
0.04825838282704353,
-0.5972862839698792,
0.8526316285133362,
0.8818825483322144,
0.1503167599439621,
0.052553899586200714,
0.25926291942596436,
-0.007511221803724766,
-0.35253843665122986,
-0.48923996090888977,
-0.0024526105262339115,
0.03971598669886589,
0.5292065143585205,
-0.40877988934516907,
-0.25502365827560425,
-0.03530002757906914,
0.8052769899368286,
-0.4362780749797821,
0.029086440801620483,
0.2666568458080292,
-0.740046501159668,
-0.010775242000818253,
0.18241995573043823,
0.5499078631401062,
-0.41977575421333313,
0.9999707341194153,
0.30799469351768494,
-0.3730965852737427,
-0.3744080662727356,
0.08487635850906372,
0.3866226077079773,
0.24592135846614838,
-0.6271506547927856,
-0.5400608777999878,
0.6977251768112183,
-0.04949154704809189,
-0.9263247847557068,
0.9931223392486572,
-0.3845368027687073,
0.5820109844207764,
0.380089670419693,
-0.3557007312774658,
0.41686514019966125,
-0.20956967771053314,
-0.576718270778656,
0.2744537591934204,
0.19349610805511475,
-0.7941281199455261,
-0.24334649741649628,
0.25613707304000854,
-0.5645619630813599,
-0.7083978056907654,
-0.21105439960956573,
-0.38129252195358276,
0.8102054595947266,
0.31737783551216125,
0.4234522581100464,
0.013409002684056759,
-0.20401227474212646,
0.5179970264434814,
-0.22955036163330078,
0.06882663816213608,
0.7358359098434448,
0.09273114055395126,
-0.44141650199890137,
0.29855334758758545,
-0.6181857585906982,
-0.4046532213687897,
0.5393453240394592,
0.9734126329421997,
0.11849477887153625,
-0.08875921368598938,
-0.030635900795459747,
-0.38955068588256836,
-0.5003534555435181,
0.08504585921764374,
0.09354668855667114,
-0.1364416778087616,
-0.9148305654525757,
-0.754541277885437,
-0.5643579959869385,
0.5236507654190063,
0.15773651003837585,
-0.15571331977844238,
-0.8585740923881531,
0.6376184821128845,
0.5044745206832886,
-0.3581539988517761,
0.5010236501693726,
0.1889251321554184,
-0.5217389464378357,
0.2020537555217743,
-0.284179151058197,
-0.775168240070343,
0.8778703808784485,
-0.2576344311237335,
-0.8566709756851196,
0.02435442991554737,
-0.3965482711791992,
-0.6564627885818481,
0.4278292655944824,
0.6628036499023438,
-0.3744812309741974,
-0.4376029074192047,
-0.8433688282966614,
0.3126039505004883,
-0.6015332341194153,
-0.165746808052063,
0.20362673699855804,
-0.23537501692771912,
-0.13301514089107513,
0.016190746799111366,
-1.0572669506072998,
0.8984013795852661,
-0.22383208572864532,
-0.7328311800956726,
0.21602849662303925,
-0.3195874094963074,
0.0913546234369278,
-0.07389673590660095,
-0.6405119299888611,
-0.8003355860710144,
0.8362435102462769,
-0.8745523691177368,
-0.21079900860786438,
0.06150263547897339,
0.22146838903427124,
0.31298476457595825,
-0.6617485880851746,
0.24772021174430847,
-0.06871327012777328,
0.5264233946800232,
-0.689624011516571,
-0.1051989421248436,
0.2984699308872223,
0.35138848423957825,
0.2705180048942566,
-0.5845921635627747,
-0.7422341704368591,
0.7692801356315613,
0.41737207770347595,
0.054579250514507294,
-0.14290151000022888,
0.5383949875831604,
0.4285981357097626,
-0.07313667237758636,
-0.10371407866477966,
-0.5369241237640381,
0.22835801541805267,
0.1640680581331253,
0.55492103099823,
0.12430482357740402,
0.0835408866405487,
0.9315049648284912,
0.1495392620563507,
-0.23662199079990387,
-0.2303716540336609,
0.1989993005990982,
0.6405942440032959,
0.39486587047576904,
0.283253937959671,
0.12904135882854462,
0.17258861660957336,
-0.07101855427026749,
-0.14559242129325867,
0.30351722240448,
0.15784484148025513,
0.0899072140455246,
-0.6340238451957703,
0.5866521596908569,
-0.1907365918159485,
0.21171274781227112,
0.17730943858623505,
-0.25905120372772217,
0.714288055896759,
-0.638086199760437,
-0.3187408149242401,
-0.12113028764724731,
-0.10475178807973862,
0.19456824660301208,
0.4807274043560028,
0.13771462440490723,
0.1287878155708313,
-0.3989039659500122,
-0.584291398525238,
-0.42824113368988037,
0.05661268159747124,
-0.026804156601428986,
-0.14146225154399872,
-0.05583011731505394,
0.3181482255458832,
0.6723719239234924,
-0.22460898756980896,
-0.33278071880340576,
-0.2855222225189209,
0.30968451499938965,
0.3032827377319336,
0.1703387051820755,
0.40481650829315186,
-0.07841034233570099,
-0.027092162519693375,
0.7971204519271851,
-0.4045276939868927,
0.5614334344863892,
0.55415278673172,
-0.1270446479320526,
-0.6437613368034363,
0.37172362208366394,
-0.5109780430793762,
-1.099605917930603,
0.20959317684173584,
-0.33489635586738586,
-0.011954647488892078,
0.4279685318470001,
0.5093972682952881,
0.7399763464927673,
0.6170276403427124,
-0.8589198589324951,
0.7373993396759033,
-0.47015419602394104,
-0.5287228226661682,
0.21069149672985077,
-0.6047013401985168,
-0.42749056220054626,
0.45289146900177,
1.3206521272659302,
1.0095983743667603,
0.06950420141220093,
0.04532337933778763,
-0.02710389904677868,
0.2245846837759018,
-0.30445244908332825,
0.08911460638046265,
-0.01693539507687092,
0.001888879924081266,
0.21860654652118683,
0.439358115196228,
0.26470765471458435,
-0.028273113071918488,
0.2952532172203064,
0.33754318952560425,
0.31243395805358887,
-0.28534743189811707,
0.4087958037853241,
-0.15290237963199615,
0.1417054682970047,
0.2942318320274353,
-0.11934319883584976,
-0.2180345058441162,
0.18291877210140228,
0.47378721833229065,
0.15274280309677124,
0.018346447497606277,
-0.05121598020195961,
-0.031572673469781876,
0.22700953483581543,
0.48061123490333557,
-0.0034617814235389233,
0.10562779754400253,
0.35711148381233215,
-0.5312652587890625,
-0.14681148529052734,
0.19070135056972504,
-0.2560562193393707,
-0.08590560406446457,
0.12245745211839676,
0.712291419506073,
-0.08890046924352646,
-0.7259383797645569,
0.13758793473243713,
-0.14808183908462524,
-0.10461606830358505,
-0.18179962038993835,
-0.07578958570957184,
0.36228296160697937,
-0.02531697042286396,
-0.3231307864189148,
-0.2712872326374054,
-0.13555510342121124,
-0.05617339909076691,
0.5524573922157288,
-1.291168451309204,
1.180402398109436,
0.6104490160942078,
-0.7654065489768982,
0.1922963410615921,
0.17428012192249298,
0.5711036324501038,
0.2385178953409195,
-0.8178941011428833,
0.100961834192276,
-0.5386693477630615,
0.11774983257055283,
-0.31602242588996887,
0.3757675886154175,
0.2335261106491089,
0.1998285949230194,
0.3031720519065857,
0.490069180727005,
-0.16717305779457092,
0.08590062707662582,
0.09325816482305527,
-0.38560742139816284,
-0.2659687101840973,
-0.3185245096683502,
-0.5354145169258118,
-0.24183911085128784,
0.15321029722690582,
0.42855125665664673,
-0.24822092056274414,
-0.45425400137901306,
0.3518258035182953,
-0.00018432021897751838,
0.26060426235198975,
0.2758159041404724,
-0.39030641317367554,
0.23217105865478516,
-0.218120738863945,
0.05835327133536339,
0.2404925525188446,
-0.23648761212825775,
0.7874425649642944,
0.4888770282268524,
0.5429567694664001,
-0.4084022641181946,
-0.6474072933197021,
0.5474229454994202,
-0.13706685602664948,
1.3690526485443115,
-1.6199699640274048,
0.45881178975105286,
-0.7357034087181091,
-1.0197229385375977,
-0.7111369371414185,
0.44670116901397705,
0.3394811451435089,
0.032478783279657364,
0.04670588672161102,
-0.169753298163414,
-0.42703378200531006,
0.2879345118999481,
0.45783284306526184,
-0.6846832036972046,
-0.2590496242046356,
0.9037203192710876
] |
234872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnborough | Farnborough | Farnborough may refer to:
Australia
Farnborough, Queensland, a locality in the Shire of Livingstone
United Kingdom
Farnborough, Hampshire, a town in the Rushmoor district of Hampshire, England
Farnborough (Main) railway station, a railway station in the town of Farnborough, Hampshire
Farnborough North railway station, a railway station in the town of Farnborough, Hampshire
Farnborough, Berkshire, a small village
Farnborough, London, a settlement in the London Borough of Bromley
Farnborough, Warwickshire, a village and civil parish in the English county of Warwickshire
Farnborough Rural District, a rural district in Warwickshire, England, from 1894 to 1932
See also
Farnborough Airport, at Farnborough, Hampshire, formerly the Royal Aircraft Establishment
Farnborough Airshow, a seven-day international trade fair held biennially in Hampshire
Farnborough College of Technology
Farnborough F.C., an English football team in Farnborough, Hampshire
Royal Aircraft Establishment, during its time at Farnborough airfield
Saint Michael's Abbey, Farnborough, a Benedictine abbey in Farnborough, Hampshire
Sixth Form College, Farnborough
Farmborough, a village in Somerset, England
Fahnbulleh, a surname pronounced similarly | [
-0.38237372040748596,
-0.14424535632133484,
0.12262869626283646,
-0.5002801418304443,
-0.5269725322723389,
-0.09008447080850601,
-0.2696181833744049,
0.6338629722595215,
-0.16430217027664185,
-0.09197057038545609,
-0.7669334411621094,
0.3110641539096832,
-0.31329602003097534,
1.0032100677490234,
-0.23514004051685333,
0.39971327781677246,
-0.04106687381863594,
0.0766533762216568,
-0.11678560823202133,
-0.5834687948226929,
-0.17094789445400238,
-0.059757672250270844,
0.6607932448387146,
0.3190510869026184,
0.7172133922576904,
-0.6578353643417358,
0.3254011273384094,
0.18509703874588013,
-0.09397674351930618,
0.7195156216621399,
0.023424988612532616,
0.7879266142845154,
-0.15209312736988068,
0.06469327211380005,
-0.24241501092910767,
-0.23754987120628357,
0.7510676383972168,
-0.3456874191761017,
-0.26267120242118835,
-0.5846431255340576,
-0.19275815784931183,
-0.07705435156822205,
0.37882083654403687,
0.015518728643655777,
0.3002036213874817,
0.09416033327579498,
-1.444981336593628,
0.17910701036453247,
-0.14757852256298065,
-0.2801629304885864,
-0.44127970933914185,
-0.20002961158752441,
0.6435167789459229,
0.24750728905200958,
0.41317880153656006,
0.16651885211467743,
-0.2432963103055954,
-0.12612466514110565,
0.5435886979103088,
-0.5024508833885193,
0.9784637093544006,
0.5227897763252258,
-0.13064737617969513,
0.8287805318832397,
0.437692254781723,
0.08235706388950348,
0.19449254870414734,
0.3946983814239502,
-0.3443009555339813,
-0.28790125250816345,
-0.40791475772857666,
-0.42414313554763794,
-0.21906086802482605,
0.5728043913841248,
-0.19136907160282135,
0.04386384040117264,
-0.2646116316318512,
-0.18933455646038055,
-0.13153201341629028,
0.13133278489112854,
0.5079027414321899,
-0.5560257434844971,
0.8943578600883484,
-0.3189943730831146,
0.5604065656661987,
0.024207863956689835,
-1.3250569105148315,
0.16320055723190308,
-0.5722581744194031,
0.799192488193512,
0.22535470128059387,
-0.59278804063797,
0.10799071192741394,
0.4123023748397827,
0.16021586954593658,
-0.8609761595726013,
0.3375023901462555,
0.0848185271024704,
-0.11105673760175705,
0.08282800018787384,
-0.6439433693885803,
-0.09075745940208435,
0.5265178680419922,
-0.05121517926454544,
-0.2508847713470459,
-0.2589876353740692,
-0.2230789065361023,
-0.047407541424036026,
0.3293074071407318,
0.34327232837677,
-0.7938395142555237,
0.2918316125869751,
-0.10269365459680557,
0.07202514261007309,
-0.6972838640213013,
-0.5676005482673645,
0.1709592342376709,
-0.7640029788017273,
-0.05025168135762215,
-0.13404755294322968,
0.36080896854400635,
0.7072513699531555,
-0.1722930371761322,
-0.19460006058216095,
-0.4766414165496826,
0.08767278492450714,
0.7639551758766174,
0.5438624024391174,
-0.5651034116744995,
0.5277753472328186,
0.13825884461402893,
1.0075058937072754,
-0.541214644908905,
0.16281190514564514,
-0.09608640521764755,
-0.2705426514148712,
-0.4509541094303131,
-0.10852466523647308,
0.3227371871471405,
0.20873905718326569,
-0.364355206489563,
0.23061329126358032,
-0.8629270195960999,
0.10088152438402176,
0.3831186294555664,
-0.37904733419418335,
-0.19676485657691956,
-0.5786749124526978,
-0.20937849581241608,
-0.6167038679122925,
-0.26854801177978516,
0.3487994372844696,
-0.35405319929122925,
-0.22833898663520813,
-0.33263859152793884,
-0.2786811292171478,
0.6727870106697083,
-0.4848748743534088,
0.527068555355072,
0.1002451702952385,
-0.3445203900337219,
0.0940285250544548,
0.12532296776771545,
0.15342146158218384,
0.30315256118774414,
-0.025812044739723206,
0.29557421803474426,
0.32286834716796875,
-0.0634218379855156,
-0.23091624677181244,
-0.5673500895500183,
0.6149044632911682,
0.5357568860054016,
-0.21854759752750397,
-0.34243080019950867,
-0.16870254278182983,
1.5067042112350464,
0.149276465177536,
0.05797749385237694,
0.0006258537760004401,
-0.4243329167366028,
-0.048302095383405685,
0.1238425225019455,
-0.16409160196781158,
0.23814591765403748,
0.113718181848526,
-0.15690667927265167,
-0.08860350400209427,
-0.2742258906364441,
0.16506773233413696,
-0.14453060925006866,
-0.7500811815261841,
0.3352891206741333,
-1.0672223567962646,
0.47858524322509766,
0.3292209208011627,
0.07307993620634079,
1.052524209022522,
-0.18765951693058014,
0.7840072512626648,
0.015832005068659782,
-0.21440298855304718,
0.8024770617485046,
-0.19417911767959595,
-0.3748203217983246,
0.08944913744926453,
0.5546202063560486,
0.6419783234596252,
0.05362602323293686,
0.7190560698509216,
-0.11349991708993912,
0.04974709078669548,
-0.014595702290534973,
0.4309886395931244,
0.31233590841293335,
-0.6825964450836182,
-0.3576233685016632,
0.14118075370788574,
0.10337451845407486,
-0.6837990880012512,
0.2873637080192566,
0.7521194815635681,
-0.30718299746513367,
-0.12429670244455338,
0.2769748568534851,
0.4502013623714447,
0.14865760505199432,
0.3561934530735016,
-0.1897408664226532,
-0.7482494711875916,
0.8583613634109497,
0.12760527431964874,
0.2776067554950714,
-0.3100179135799408,
0.2713158428668976,
-0.2036200314760208,
0.01958458498120308,
-0.4131988286972046,
0.0999920517206192,
-0.28742995858192444,
0.06325153261423111,
0.12628024816513062,
-0.051019102334976196,
0.708283543586731,
0.12783364951610565,
0.23062846064567566,
0.4314924478530884,
0.18897424638271332,
-0.20342732965946198,
-0.03862212598323822,
0.597686231136322,
0.21682344377040863,
0.18610024452209473,
0.18132294714450836,
0.21500393748283386,
-0.1734863817691803,
-0.42305776476860046,
0.09699753671884537,
0.7020229697227478,
0.07725805044174194,
-0.14765289425849915,
-0.035161375999450684,
-0.0184596199542284,
0.6851797103881836,
-0.5704296231269836,
-0.5629363059997559,
-0.2908359169960022,
-0.5478770732879639,
0.7350916862487793,
0.6423585414886475,
-0.07960247993469238,
0.5462855100631714,
-0.6497482061386108,
0.32706114649772644,
-0.42653027176856995,
-0.453965961933136,
-0.08216886222362518,
0.3527698516845703,
-0.2289315164089203,
-0.021904688328504562,
-0.11859796196222305,
0.7372843027114868,
0.1039898693561554,
-0.9063801169395447,
-0.018452879041433334,
0.25894707441329956,
0.31093916296958923,
-0.06289434432983398,
-0.375788152217865,
0.2062072455883026,
-0.1715569794178009,
-0.14304979145526886,
-0.28560560941696167,
0.4470583498477936,
-0.31787827610969543,
0.2007843255996704,
0.06387101858854294,
0.19832997024059296,
-0.06636177748441696,
-1.0879855155944824,
-0.4578740894794464,
0.3725150227546692,
-0.23975281417369843,
-0.35800856351852417,
0.08720512688159943,
-0.003276889445260167,
-0.6364138126373291,
-1.1239008903503418,
-5.39069938659668,
0.5295809507369995,
-0.15769743919372559,
-0.6127638220787048,
-0.028386415913701057,
0.008304806426167488,
0.06148165091872215,
-0.5593268871307373,
-0.0172960814088583,
-0.20494680106639862,
0.5513052940368652,
0.07211081683635712,
0.11573702841997147,
0.5733062028884888,
0.6261858940124512,
0.5091202259063721,
0.4275365471839905,
-0.15961377322673798,
-0.027454381808638573,
-0.1531604677438736,
-0.15895943343639374,
0.048205308616161346,
0.5516092777252197,
0.7414878010749817,
0.512039303779602,
0.8877156376838684,
-0.1144580990076065,
-0.00912567600607872,
-0.21886658668518066,
-0.5515873432159424,
0.8334475159645081,
0.4359017610549927,
0.17576277256011963,
0.2177659422159195,
0.22504176199436188,
0.23246502876281738,
0.4044763445854187,
0.2818249464035034,
0.44792699813842773,
-0.03628366068005562,
0.17656733095645905,
0.8570744395256042,
-0.1719702184200287,
-0.43461862206459045,
0.232838436961174,
-0.3470727205276489,
-0.7074162364006042,
0.5960506200790405,
0.0647764727473259,
0.46186789870262146,
0.2571151554584503,
0.5559157729148865,
-0.03338330611586571,
0.24842029809951782,
0.23802420496940613,
-0.5341181755065918,
0.2577950656414032,
-0.5197936296463013,
-0.7330718040466309,
0.23081792891025543,
0.1906307190656662,
0.06684208661317825,
-0.4535275995731354,
-0.23996755480766296,
-0.6568278670310974,
-0.00923172477632761,
-0.4887625575065613,
0.4542189836502075,
0.40637221932411194,
-0.062268711626529694,
-0.24750103056430817,
-0.3075214624404907,
0.16200919449329376,
-0.6607648730278015,
0.033092085272073746,
-0.6578417420387268,
-0.5884920358657837,
0.5418998599052429,
0.046893488615751266,
0.14992883801460266,
0.3688141405582428,
-0.3132454752922058,
-0.1662973165512085,
-0.035168323665857315,
-0.13914567232131958,
-0.9326311349868774,
-0.45411089062690735,
0.11808103322982788,
-0.2624320089817047,
-0.7816137671470642,
0.226466104388237,
-0.254578560590744,
0.5498758554458618,
-0.09840884804725647,
-0.3103395402431488,
0.29982104897499084,
-0.21360519528388977,
0.03027321957051754,
0.6976128220558167,
-0.17608022689819336,
0.3675752878189087,
-0.23841433227062225,
-0.30182743072509766,
-0.19986492395401,
-0.20278556644916534,
-0.14135143160820007,
0.15054476261138916,
0.29397374391555786,
0.6968554854393005,
-0.5370899438858032,
0.6821553707122803,
0.19305609166622162,
-1.236460566520691,
-0.504615843296051,
-0.04192362353205681,
-0.34537556767463684,
-0.7353784441947937,
0.27049341797828674,
0.17760132253170013,
0.22391533851623535,
0.2878374457359314,
-0.4435155987739563,
-0.8970130681991577,
0.3047555685043335,
-0.3945409059524536,
0.6188126802444458,
0.4284089207649231,
0.5304825901985168,
-0.15315642952919006,
0.48373591899871826,
0.5087233185768127,
-0.17503683269023895,
-0.17290370166301727,
-0.29586294293403625,
-0.16195324063301086,
-0.11093791574239731,
-0.6555426120758057,
-0.1863078474998474,
0.6054328083992004,
0.11732695996761322,
0.19289566576480865,
-0.13759373128414154,
0.16545823216438293,
0.09757736325263977,
0.30987003445625305,
0.42736563086509705,
0.23731090128421783,
-0.12766046822071075,
-0.32993221282958984,
-0.20883242785930634,
-0.4021724462509155,
-0.10885880887508392,
-0.4260479509830475,
-0.3290542662143707,
-0.31037700176239014,
-0.6141970157623291,
0.23925217986106873,
0.24451102316379547,
-0.3041004240512848,
-0.5256926417350769,
0.18126258254051208,
-0.054860424250364304,
-0.2929793894290924,
0.004773218184709549,
0.2796878516674042,
-0.47071611881256104,
0.1269759088754654,
-0.22477643191814423,
-0.2010822743177414,
0.15760423243045807,
0.36533409357070923,
-0.8509353995323181,
-0.32388532161712646,
0.11505377292633057,
0.2978174388408661,
0.13131083548069,
-0.15092501044273376,
-0.19200283288955688,
-0.018069371581077576,
0.31155672669410706,
-0.11944624036550522,
0.34318944811820984,
-0.1982145458459854,
0.3923617899417877,
0.3539251685142517,
-0.32202133536338806,
-0.3257046043872833,
0.2523171603679657,
0.25687161087989807,
-0.5133272409439087,
0.2650650143623352,
-0.018037576228380203,
0.04294993728399277,
0.33441299200057983,
0.3082953095436096,
-0.7057142853736877,
0.1416335105895996,
0.28642943501472473,
-0.29093292355537415,
-0.5855970978736877,
-0.08703272044658661,
0.21027369797229767,
-0.4259636104106903,
-0.25797873735427856,
0.13844218850135803,
-0.4445606768131256,
0.712145984172821,
-0.6946878433227539,
-0.6381999850273132,
0.41711127758026123,
-0.2567383646965027,
-0.5207683444023132,
0.32536327838897705,
0.6813803911209106,
-0.46447765827178955,
0.21276605129241943,
0.2053769826889038,
0.06992211937904358,
-0.279704213142395,
-0.42891594767570496,
-0.19249029457569122,
-0.5511531233787537,
-0.38554906845092773,
0.03581463173031807,
-1.173661708831787,
0.5456033945083618,
0.3405190706253052,
-1.3021773099899292,
0.48312613368034363,
-0.47830280661582947,
-0.17099374532699585,
0.0862496867775917,
-0.16477270424365997,
0.23984895646572113,
0.41642236709594727,
0.19264967739582062,
-0.1986842155456543,
-0.9668076634407043,
0.00007762753375573084,
0.40329888463020325,
0.7251711487770081,
0.6462196111679077,
0.2416110336780548,
-0.1528078317642212,
-0.44143491983413696,
0.0009765404392965138,
0.5862049460411072,
-0.348556250333786,
-0.6467851996421814,
0.3281458020210266,
-0.42665696144104004,
0.02088060788810253,
-0.5790541172027588,
0.2644154131412506,
0.06550784409046173,
-0.4041407108306885,
-0.5864530205726624,
0.719029426574707,
0.051993194967508316,
0.8543037176132202,
0.15408946573734283,
0.16974487900733948,
-0.2015080749988556,
0.5327500700950623,
0.47926944494247437,
0.3327678143978119,
-0.3309081196784973,
-0.38396507501602173,
-0.10213005542755127,
-0.580321192741394,
0.42533713579177856,
0.5944967269897461,
0.6374919414520264,
-0.13113480806350708,
0.6983593106269836,
-0.09919341653585434,
0.06213921681046486,
-0.5409409403800964,
0.05533069372177124,
-0.2596019506454468,
-0.836428701877594,
-0.6878941059112549,
0.35548511147499084,
-1.367582082748413,
0.3383808434009552,
-0.9345889687538147,
-0.19720739126205444,
-0.031813621520996094,
-0.9225409030914307,
0.024741584435105324,
0.04304429143667221,
-0.5163788199424744,
-0.6346551179885864,
0.2129390835762024,
-0.46358805894851685,
0.05464251711964607,
-0.06069381907582283,
0.09552622586488724,
-0.5043012499809265,
-0.17490386962890625,
-1.334350347518921,
0.26706889271736145,
-0.4462653398513794,
-1.0389689207077026,
0.34960633516311646,
0.0795539915561676,
0.3031211495399475,
-0.23024830222129822,
-0.30870628356933594,
0.1524483561515808,
0.508762538433075,
-0.37984949350357056,
0.08628857135772705,
1.2997245788574219,
-0.08721030503511429,
0.3649093210697174,
0.5413827300071716,
-0.32953253388404846,
0.5192671418190002,
0.34239476919174194,
-0.13989052176475525,
0.06636136770248413,
0.48940256237983704,
0.37711697816848755,
-0.48983317613601685,
0.7112588286399841,
-0.15558992326259613,
0.04838826507329941,
0.20585082471370697,
0.3871496915817261,
0.20670463144779205,
0.19614917039871216,
-0.40715691447257996,
0.8105548024177551,
-0.8367643356323242,
-0.6854571104049683,
-0.37454307079315186,
-0.20059873163700104,
-0.4953579604625702,
0.4251215159893036,
0.3584517538547516,
1.025094747543335,
-0.32785242795944214,
-0.28251099586486816,
-0.07210572808980942,
0.0056828767992556095,
0.35577988624572754,
0.3893303871154785,
0.17187607288360596,
-0.22328589856624603,
-0.09732100367546082,
-0.2219109684228897,
-0.0386638306081295,
-0.29261916875839233,
0.3348343074321747,
0.08639875799417496,
0.49002113938331604,
-0.41785407066345215,
-0.5674992203712463,
-0.09083855152130127,
-0.0786820501089096,
0.2754267156124115,
0.1644696444272995,
0.07133479416370392,
0.439454585313797,
-0.3860090374946594,
-0.05979173257946968,
-0.5181289911270142,
0.1454283446073532,
0.2363715022802353,
0.5517879724502563,
0.3179609775543213,
0.003919695038348436,
-0.47431814670562744,
-0.40613943338394165,
0.4425772428512573,
0.5486512780189514,
0.5184551477432251,
0.17207756638526917,
-0.10603725910186768,
-0.4257822334766388,
-0.1381852775812149,
-0.25745338201522827,
-0.6886702179908752,
0.6015452146530151,
-0.785877525806427,
-0.2888118624687195,
0.07164127379655838,
-0.43653589487075806,
-0.5209622383117676,
0.1492888331413269,
-0.12926208972930908,
-0.8082422614097595,
0.5235962867736816,
-0.579961895942688,
-0.9674828052520752,
0.633518636226654,
0.060770440846681595,
0.36365315318107605,
0.1134389191865921,
0.304988831281662,
0.36732539534568787,
-0.0959785133600235,
0.5700796842575073,
-0.2129925638437271,
0.3231106102466583,
-0.045715924352407455,
0.3942059278488159,
-0.6971901059150696,
0.959461510181427,
0.7283554077148438,
-0.08729300647974014,
-0.10572598874568939,
0.6461840271949768,
0.053720470517873764,
-0.2008223533630371,
0.1614823043346405,
0.07682470232248306,
0.15445007383823395,
0.31612879037857056,
-0.11302489787340164,
-0.2294151484966278,
-0.04036547988653183,
0.06180810183286667,
0.37519410252571106,
-0.6890271902084351,
-0.03783155232667923,
0.2537432312965393,
-0.3464355766773224,
0.8920520544052124,
0.23422574996948242,
-0.3809663653373718,
-0.8639983534812927,
0.11924022436141968,
-0.04585988447070122,
0.2728498876094818,
-0.020123174414038658,
0.4945703148841858,
0.42482754588127136,
0.2526106536388397,
-0.14058075845241547,
0.20312242209911346,
0.2961462736129761,
0.06572365015745163,
0.5588639974594116,
0.38742178678512573,
0.006168036721646786,
-0.30858314037323,
-0.9092003107070923,
1.0019147396087646,
0.2867697775363922,
0.27901503443717957,
0.4871610403060913,
0.14096876978874207,
0.3498466908931732,
-0.6669961810112,
-0.08753647655248642,
-0.16308073699474335,
0.009046705439686775,
-0.10668773949146271
] |
234873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBM | TBM | TBM may refer to:
Technology business management, a methodology for managing IT departments
Socata TBM, a family of single engine turboprop aircraft
Tactical ballistic missile
Theatre ballistic missile
Grumman TBM Avenger, a torpedo bomber
Tracheobronchomalacia, a condition affecting the trachea
Transferable belief model, a mathematical theory on uncertainty
Tunnel boring machine, used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross section
Transports Bordeaux Métropole, a French public transport system
Trailing bit manipulation, a type of bit manipulation instruction set
Tuberculomucin Weleminsky, a treatment for tuberculosis
Music and entertainment:
The Birthday Massacre, a Canadian synth-rock band
The Beautiful Music, a Canadian indie record label
Three Blind Mice, a Japanese record label
Techno Body Music, genre similar to Electronic body music but inspired by techno and trance | [
0.5615758895874023,
0.4404276907444,
-0.7994136214256287,
0.4878515899181366,
0.44234201312065125,
0.26257404685020447,
0.19721949100494385,
-0.012484692968428135,
0.06738632917404175,
-0.19713027775287628,
-0.29187753796577454,
0.4251806139945984,
-0.4254646599292755,
0.29349255561828613,
-0.15500867366790771,
0.5160139799118042,
0.4533233046531677,
0.1857515424489975,
-0.1624627709388733,
0.131620854139328,
-0.2874992787837982,
-0.26192793250083923,
0.5706155896186829,
-0.4966701865196228,
-0.2607136368751526,
0.03259417414665222,
0.2527109384536743,
0.2984897494316101,
-0.4141314923763275,
0.33016544580459595,
0.30026787519454956,
0.006077236495912075,
0.04479621723294258,
-0.29252371191978455,
0.2853708267211914,
0.3218872547149658,
-0.18115858733654022,
-0.16639092564582825,
-0.2914328873157501,
-1.1816531419754028,
0.40882059931755066,
0.016240159049630165,
0.34430620074272156,
-0.2147938311100006,
-0.8550167083740234,
-0.0376753956079483,
-1.8451528549194336,
0.5426119565963745,
-0.4640820324420929,
0.21429717540740967,
0.2388026863336563,
0.4005129337310791,
0.0392574742436409,
0.5203816890716553,
-0.013497937470674515,
0.5599125623703003,
-0.28107360005378723,
-0.5218853950500488,
0.33279114961624146,
-0.6191046237945557,
0.5319404602050781,
-0.008056413382291794,
-0.3153079152107239,
0.5299199819564819,
0.056579168885946274,
0.19493603706359863,
-0.08995093405246735,
0.08526875078678131,
-0.9647681713104248,
-0.34701913595199585,
-0.022175980731844902,
-0.3057474195957184,
0.20173415541648865,
0.22356270253658295,
-0.5230492949485779,
-0.06992337852716446,
-0.06502337753772736,
-0.36324378848075867,
0.12051218003034592,
-0.03489074483513832,
0.0389191098511219,
0.6222726702690125,
0.45848169922828674,
0.014176936820149422,
0.1225605458021164,
-0.07389304041862488,
-0.3111434578895569,
0.7613233923912048,
-0.6015815138816833,
0.19025497138500214,
0.3710804581642151,
-0.5377978682518005,
0.5826724767684937,
0.1168987974524498,
-0.17519579827785492,
0.09293362498283386,
0.27990901470184326,
-0.1578671932220459,
0.18502600491046906,
0.16040317714214325,
0.26494312286376953,
-0.21085791289806366,
0.17015567421913147,
0.09889956563711166,
-0.32881462574005127,
-0.029692817479372025,
-0.13259053230285645,
-0.3674413561820984,
-0.2080625295639038,
-0.27882105112075806,
-0.6518281698226929,
0.005552208982408047,
-0.12513959407806396,
0.16156308352947235,
-0.6061046719551086,
-0.06893333047628403,
0.09315410256385803,
-0.17996151745319366,
0.08969302475452423,
-0.12109606713056564,
0.14806722104549408,
0.17201313376426697,
-0.5201734900474548,
-0.4535660743713379,
0.03665867820382118,
0.3477339744567871,
0.6954123973846436,
0.33622273802757263,
-0.3147736191749573,
0.1924760937690735,
0.41650038957595825,
0.8982617259025574,
-0.4931715428829193,
0.07070908695459366,
-0.01571100391447544,
-0.43035584688186646,
0.09057758003473282,
-0.23183147609233856,
0.33058613538742065,
0.1935683637857437,
-0.8948301672935486,
-0.5963099598884583,
-0.8125758767127991,
-0.024353623390197754,
0.34574952721595764,
-0.3653438687324524,
0.15284684300422668,
0.3577490746974945,
-0.015793588012456894,
0.0685127004981041,
-0.011424240656197071,
-0.049352142959833145,
-0.5580213069915771,
0.08922483026981354,
0.3403467833995819,
-0.32759934663772583,
0.3719574511051178,
-0.6085794568061829,
0.016896555200219154,
0.1441412717103958,
0.01628945954144001,
0.35770028829574585,
-0.7548106908798218,
-0.009822706691920757,
-0.19121016561985016,
-0.24339048564434052,
0.1364305317401886,
0.46232807636260986,
-0.07929681986570358,
0.20683592557907104,
-0.414486825466156,
-0.12936823070049286,
0.3859798312187195,
-0.15103547275066376,
0.18239153921604156,
0.6875940561294556,
0.7496901154518127,
-0.0253791194409132,
0.7528753280639648,
-0.1060829907655716,
-0.7066936492919922,
0.2658245861530304,
0.3811711072921753,
-0.20941798388957977,
0.2806718945503235,
-0.4879235029220581,
0.4542633891105652,
0.01827576756477356,
-0.16717568039894104,
-0.296284943819046,
-1.0919910669326782,
-0.10071826726198196,
0.6362874507904053,
-0.5850371718406677,
1.3722678422927856,
-0.14733317494392395,
-0.38088348507881165,
0.8592422604560852,
-0.07791305333375931,
0.2712506055831909,
-0.11044713109731674,
0.2990166246891022,
0.48017725348472595,
-0.7056559324264526,
-0.24335579574108124,
0.3013864755630493,
0.38322362303733826,
-0.26045864820480347,
-0.46788647770881653,
0.11613204330205917,
0.8399004340171814,
-0.9916186332702637,
0.143667072057724,
-0.711993932723999,
0.5238868594169617,
-0.3243534564971924,
-0.7239218950271606,
0.3545854985713959,
-0.3868098258972168,
-0.26295986771583557,
0.10098564624786377,
-0.362815797328949,
-0.3718676269054413,
0.5694606304168701,
-0.15501686930656433,
0.7322275638580322,
-0.06100205332040787,
-0.29953184723854065,
0.6882922649383545,
-0.6911670565605164,
0.03317299112677574,
0.10928469151258469,
-0.22067812085151672,
-0.2127712070941925,
-0.06607099622488022,
0.345927894115448,
0.07502561807632446,
-0.19211815297603607,
0.33718568086624146,
-0.08119859546422958,
-0.36534422636032104,
0.3919544517993927,
-0.7468425631523132,
0.21318727731704712,
0.3577163517475128,
-0.5504816174507141,
-0.47843262553215027,
0.1150926873087883,
-0.27957239747047424,
0.008489478379487991,
-0.3499603867530823,
0.6612158417701721,
0.09167563170194626,
-0.2936812937259674,
0.27568110823631287,
0.07575587183237076,
0.3592187762260437,
0.36724305152893066,
-0.6078684329986572,
-0.4073326289653778,
-0.9265557527542114,
0.23151622712612152,
-0.00556963449344039,
0.09734444320201874,
0.018128298223018646,
-0.31144121289253235,
-0.18848568201065063,
-0.5792468190193176,
0.48022913932800293,
0.6517578363418579,
0.5923912525177002,
-0.14395593106746674,
-0.41531696915626526,
-0.16963057219982147,
-0.36786630749702454,
-0.412851482629776,
0.45103001594543457,
0.40499570965766907,
-0.40138548612594604,
-0.2190939486026764,
-0.2453741580247879,
0.6510692834854126,
0.36126524209976196,
-0.7695558071136475,
0.06190396472811699,
0.5128621459007263,
0.22026430070400238,
0.017740905284881592,
0.19598105549812317,
0.18657828867435455,
-0.6128027439117432,
-0.04939856380224228,
-0.35256725549697876,
0.18465055525302887,
0.033340319991111755,
0.11393982172012329,
-0.004335876554250717,
-0.3049212694168091,
0.2516646683216095,
-0.19144225120544434,
-0.20651847124099731,
0.6381569504737854,
-0.5806066989898682,
-0.019761407747864723,
0.37295106053352356,
-0.27287212014198303,
-0.06136277690529823,
0.31101393699645996,
-5.8046722412109375,
-0.08861143887042999,
-0.02596893347799778,
-0.3496498465538025,
0.46366310119628906,
0.17130738496780396,
0.43660077452659607,
0.06527941673994064,
-0.6400497555732727,
-0.23465140163898468,
0.3373894691467285,
0.48110273480415344,
0.3988608121871948,
0.3439010679721832,
0.39870235323905945,
-0.07553964853286743,
0.12668150663375854,
-0.10782221704721451,
0.3535982370376587,
0.054602477699518204,
0.8291264176368713,
0.02039276994764805,
-0.07014535367488861,
0.8255352973937988,
-0.2771059572696686,
0.017937159165740013,
-0.7834318280220032,
0.638835072517395,
-0.5380561947822571,
0.0050575463101267815,
0.2918494939804077,
-0.21254701912403107,
-0.10293273627758026,
-0.233623206615448,
-0.11295899003744125,
-0.016341404989361763,
0.5789506435394287,
-0.16944141685962677,
0.05822912976145744,
-0.30470189452171326,
-0.17607590556144714,
0.4373956024646759,
-0.08218643814325333,
-0.14611917734146118,
0.19941508769989014,
-0.17902164161205292,
0.21329796314239502,
0.13415011763572693,
-0.03980761393904686,
0.44131726026535034,
-0.14596794545650482,
0.19328342378139496,
0.47516506910324097,
0.5711687803268433,
0.07950305193662643,
-0.4329521954059601,
0.0638141930103302,
-0.033768586814403534,
-0.03306072577834129,
0.3796178996562958,
0.20369327068328857,
-0.07388819754123688,
-0.12645545601844788,
-0.5765184164047241,
-0.08992041647434235,
-0.2616736590862274,
0.027788259088993073,
-0.3460472524166107,
0.09984946995973587,
0.3225732147693634,
-0.14712415635585785,
0.3846678137779236,
-0.034379661083221436,
-1.083782434463501,
0.3871653079986572,
-0.3694559335708618,
0.2883329689502716,
0.29017284512519836,
0.5232002139091492,
-0.02802770584821701,
-0.3904294967651367,
-0.23189297318458557,
-0.37509897351264954,
-0.5135724544525146,
0.11250993609428406,
-0.7929039001464844,
-0.3040887415409088,
0.6142101883888245,
-0.33388373255729675,
0.08719370514154434,
0.7967348098754883,
-0.17332538962364197,
0.40588533878326416,
0.4856502115726471,
0.29601016640663147,
0.39245474338531494,
-0.4002395272254944,
0.46044784784317017,
0.5306755304336548,
-0.07513849437236786,
0.13322488963603973,
0.01962876506149769,
0.20997805893421173,
-0.3546304404735565,
-0.06419093161821365,
-0.9247550964355469,
-0.4550378918647766,
0.16286601126194,
0.28518202900886536,
-0.05077590048313141,
-0.08518677949905396,
0.5490004420280457,
-0.11096233129501343,
-0.4010483920574188,
-0.015263214707374573,
-0.1957273632287979,
-0.28374049067497253,
0.6327291131019592,
0.5854028463363647,
-0.10901612788438797,
-0.11684821546077728,
0.4740554094314575,
-0.477439284324646,
-0.13812480866909027,
0.13022127747535706,
-0.06231042370200157,
0.28955185413360596,
0.3089347183704376,
0.040623489767313004,
-0.15916989743709564,
0.10357755422592163,
0.39844006299972534,
0.4214262068271637,
-0.03133134916424751,
0.03592226654291153,
-0.5998219847679138,
-0.374916672706604,
0.4911044239997864,
-0.3875732719898224,
-0.3816721737384796,
0.2761263847351074,
-0.09699317812919617,
-0.0705508291721344,
-0.08575927466154099,
0.4286815822124481,
0.5314927697181702,
0.22252711653709412,
0.21837730705738068,
0.4220065474510193,
0.510193943977356,
-0.06695660203695297,
-0.35052067041397095,
0.3197113573551178,
-0.7810311317443848,
-0.15030740201473236,
0.15466244518756866,
0.27291297912597656,
-0.07789614051580429,
0.2613009512424469,
-0.47839292883872986,
0.4174257814884186,
0.238071009516716,
-1.4108177423477173,
-0.3147934675216675,
-0.002723301062360406,
0.2934366762638092,
-0.034454405307769775,
-0.7773873209953308,
-0.21661879122257233,
0.1582249253988266,
-0.27442535758018494,
-0.43718552589416504,
-0.5377973914146423,
-0.03686102479696274,
0.3032585680484772,
0.10878288000822067,
0.10123641043901443,
0.05659615993499756,
-0.061348382383584976,
0.034125249832868576,
-0.05880403891205788,
0.042942553758621216,
0.052553437650203705,
0.5371241569519043,
0.4012709856033325,
-0.19478006660938263,
0.115414097905159,
0.38163331151008606,
-0.5703240036964417,
-0.5937260985374451,
-0.33058613538742065,
0.17905068397521973,
0.8171663284301758,
0.20760388672351837,
-0.038468919694423676,
-0.03791092708706856,
-0.038481704890728,
0.7267720103263855,
0.021584447473287582,
-0.35756418108940125,
0.6434674263000488,
0.4538595676422119,
-0.18861079216003418,
0.27302324771881104,
0.22734174132347107,
-0.1791515350341797,
0.3139714002609253,
-0.28966984152793884,
0.23193083703517914,
0.1473361700773239,
-0.5330520868301392,
-0.2887815535068512,
0.22103577852249146,
0.36253902316093445,
-0.6645479202270508,
-0.47998344898223877,
0.24967046082019806,
-0.32941874861717224,
-0.5054125189781189,
-0.20802046358585358,
-0.06400386244058609,
0.10040111839771271,
-0.2501099705696106,
-0.21016502380371094,
-0.5685909986495972,
-0.13464045524597168,
0.2251540571451187,
-1.067836880683899,
0.39548230171203613,
-0.09009519964456558,
-0.5759037137031555,
0.03754362091422081,
-0.29967832565307617,
-0.19961833953857422,
-0.31268075108528137,
-0.2960813641548157,
0.4343668222427368,
0.09378170967102051,
0.11845021694898605,
-0.4031985104084015,
0.23697246611118317,
0.35350659489631653,
0.15709979832172394,
-0.21149268746376038,
-0.13624951243400574,
0.8429232835769653,
0.9104206562042236,
-0.638522207736969,
-0.6615710258483887,
0.33738356828689575,
0.44068700075149536,
0.06776358932256699,
-0.6811496019363403,
-0.06346631795167923,
0.5425227284431458,
-0.10742416232824326,
-0.10794711112976074,
-0.6500577926635742,
0.4305480718612671,
0.5421390533447266,
-0.385005384683609,
0.25810152292251587,
-0.5486806035041809,
-0.051872916519641876,
0.15028521418571472,
0.3548089861869812,
-0.2991214394569397,
-0.010720543563365936,
0.35505154728889465,
-0.8577575087547302,
0.14208149909973145,
0.3909864127635956,
0.654524028301239,
0.554656445980072,
0.4252101480960846,
-0.16094496846199036,
0.04216473177075386,
-0.5398937463760376,
-0.04495659098029137,
0.24948690831661224,
0.015897605568170547,
0.13667389750480652,
0.08102859556674957,
-0.4457367956638336,
0.5868948101997375,
-0.5259699821472168,
0.5819829702377319,
-0.21357963979244232,
-0.2519376575946808,
-0.21516866981983185,
-0.19603946805000305,
0.01449295412749052,
-0.15437041223049164,
0.2970235049724579,
-0.4474671483039856,
0.18122661113739014,
-0.20617255568504333,
-0.202612966299057,
0.31898385286331177,
0.027609776705503464,
-0.9335879683494568,
0.18543556332588196,
0.546169638633728,
-1.1491447687149048,
0.43821272253990173,
0.3686161935329437,
-0.034131407737731934,
-0.5980276465415955,
0.18654130399227142,
-0.4052301347255707,
0.36603307723999023,
-0.49323099851608276,
-0.21387337148189545,
0.9545265436172485,
0.28636959195137024,
0.12920041382312775,
-0.006140207871794701,
-0.5875735282897949,
0.21294370293617249,
0.6307486891746521,
0.20937593281269073,
0.21737241744995117,
0.5050004124641418,
-0.3444344699382782,
-0.19879770278930664,
0.021533126011490822,
-0.17586010694503784,
-0.6347088813781738,
0.35405969619750977,
0.6623825430870056,
0.7403548359870911,
0.1657482236623764,
-0.2732599973678589,
0.7306700348854065,
-0.4099429249763489,
-0.24493186175823212,
0.3300169110298157,
-0.666026771068573,
-0.15329857170581818,
0.44324368238449097,
0.43086785078048706,
-0.14540041983127594,
-0.25319644808769226,
0.04759737476706505,
-0.23250113427639008,
0.6477190256118774,
0.6210773587226868,
0.16076211631298065,
-0.21871055662631989,
0.33832818269729614,
-0.052046842873096466,
0.1897982358932495,
-0.0752062276005745,
-0.01165475882589817,
0.1815807968378067,
-0.350458025932312,
0.33597680926322937,
-0.19397921860218048,
0.2731366753578186,
-0.14118506014347076,
-0.18907658755779266,
0.07350914925336838,
0.16664615273475647,
-0.1040102168917656,
-0.10236509144306183,
0.17659038305282593,
0.07075168192386627,
-0.6888018846511841,
0.5509957671165466,
0.05632512643933296,
0.19161152839660645,
0.4384751319885254,
-0.392360657453537,
0.030883420258760452,
-0.14964526891708374,
-0.3026390075683594,
0.4678700566291809,
0.5277536511421204,
-0.037683479487895966,
-0.06912485510110855,
-0.3653816282749176,
-0.1397472470998764,
0.0476418100297451,
-0.27977991104125977,
0.3881547749042511,
0.1172751933336258,
-0.05738463252782822,
0.10751264542341232,
0.23129798471927643,
0.2341054081916809,
0.320759117603302,
-0.46844929456710815,
-0.3828958570957184,
0.24981562793254852,
0.18999026715755463,
-0.1420261114835739,
-0.24065843224525452,
0.41037890315055847,
-0.40228143334388733,
0.5108274221420288,
-0.30137091875076294,
0.25301477313041687,
0.2481909990310669,
0.011573679745197296,
-0.8487057685852051,
-0.1746174693107605,
0.05494031682610512,
0.657440721988678,
-0.8359559774398804,
0.22611255943775177,
0.9278066754341125,
0.03479086235165596,
0.056914590299129486,
0.43385472893714905,
0.1225481629371643,
-0.044174473732709885,
0.04086285084486008,
-0.39341652393341064,
-0.12445036321878433,
-0.46786612272262573,
0.1851663887500763,
-0.41988709568977356,
0.7684969305992126,
0.05282558128237724,
-0.5802964568138123,
-0.5067957043647766,
0.4517405927181244,
-0.13024485111236572,
-0.4957978427410126,
0.5612801909446716,
-0.45349159836769104,
0.5288875102996826,
-0.3456598222255707,
0.25231310725212097,
-0.37194058299064636,
-0.5138934254646301,
0.4019024074077606,
0.49181514978408813,
-0.05730648338794708,
-0.06619158387184143,
0.1678718626499176,
-0.2253866344690323,
-0.1358620822429657,
-0.023854155093431473,
-0.8845365047454834,
0.164541095495224,
-0.09217105060815811,
-0.5131545662879944,
-0.3577393889427185,
0.2139711081981659,
0.2944532036781311,
-0.545116126537323,
-0.05146536976099014,
-0.40050479769706726,
0.205012246966362,
-0.3149297833442688,
0.09834229201078415,
-0.4297337532043457,
-0.1818220317363739,
0.2992299795150757
] |
234876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraine%20%28book%29 | Migraine (book) | Migraine is the first book written by Oliver Sacks, a well-known New York City-based neurologist and author. The full title of the first edition was Migraine - Evolution of a Common Disorder. The book was written in 1967, mostly over a nine-day period, and first published in 1970. A revised and updated version was published in 1990. (In the 1990 revised edition, the last chapter Migraine Aura and Hallucinatory Constants was written in collaboration with Ralph M. Siegel.)
Summary
As with Sacks's other writings, Migraine is a comprehensive review of the subject aimed at the lay population and uses numerous case histories. Sacks describes the nature of and treatments for migraine in general and several various subtypes, particularly examining the visual aura feature that is common to many sufferers, along with the pre-migraine signs & symptoms. The particular focus of the book, however, is on the neuropsychological aspects of migraine.
Contents
The book is divided into five sections:
The Experience of Migraine
The Occurrence of Migraine
The Basis of Migraine
Therapeutic Approaches to Migraine
Migraine as a Universal
Inspiration for writing the book
In an interview with Neil deGrasse Tyson about the possible merits of altered states of consciousness by means of psychoactive substance, Sacks revealed that in 1967 he had a revelation when he was under the influence of an undisclosed psychoactive substance while reading a book written in the 19th century about headaches and migraines. This book was written by Edward Liveing, an early and important contributor in theories of migraine pathogenesis. As he was reading the book he had an awakening and thought to himself, "Who shall be the Edward Liveing of our time? And there was a very disingenuous clamor of names that came to me, followed by a very loud inner voice which said, 'You Silly Bugger! You're the man!'"
See also
International Classification of Headache Disorders
Management of chronic headaches
References
1970 non-fiction books
1992 non-fiction books
Books by Oliver Sacks
Migraine
Books about diseases | [
-0.011448060162365437,
0.7936835885047913,
-0.26639899611473083,
-0.26659488677978516,
0.004403845872730017,
0.26705825328826904,
0.7281386852264404,
-0.22067032754421234,
-0.09155919402837753,
-0.3644697666168213,
-0.2485727071762085,
0.23061887919902802,
-0.6452210545539856,
-0.19053664803504944,
0.07568725198507309,
0.4140174686908722,
0.2910686135292053,
0.3548358678817749,
-0.4547906816005707,
-0.5457357168197632,
-0.2400389164686203,
-0.27954864501953125,
0.10459911078214645,
-0.08511633425951004,
0.40696588158607483,
-0.009197304025292397,
0.019416524097323418,
-0.23478178679943085,
-0.07084694504737854,
0.14568163454532623,
0.10946743935346603,
0.7696558833122253,
0.03880256041884422,
-0.40737685561180115,
-0.0606708899140358,
0.47144728899002075,
-0.32020190358161926,
-0.30719369649887085,
-0.2178860753774643,
-0.0898967906832695,
0.4955199062824249,
0.5644366145133972,
-0.035336270928382874,
0.26848122477531433,
-0.027189018204808235,
0.056139614433050156,
-1.7173525094985962,
-0.1600647270679474,
-0.849420964717865,
-0.1514114886522293,
0.014914976432919502,
0.7151860594749451,
0.8789049386978149,
0.23763230443000793,
-0.14154350757598877,
0.7060086131095886,
-1.0181185007095337,
0.17870527505874634,
0.009106767363846302,
-0.27756625413894653,
0.5384404063224792,
0.25498655438423157,
0.2748008966445923,
0.08865620195865631,
-0.4275165796279907,
0.20025454461574554,
0.020035339519381523,
1.116926908493042,
0.33514270186424255,
0.11869881302118301,
-0.3294122815132141,
-0.7402504682540894,
0.39760175347328186,
0.17672528326511383,
-0.05786660313606262,
0.3513983190059662,
0.49775415658950806,
-0.1803901642560959,
-0.17170827090740204,
0.2168767899274826,
-0.25264444947242737,
0.4502289295196533,
0.8833642601966858,
-0.38155397772789,
0.055370938032865524,
-0.06786054372787476,
-0.5088515877723694,
0.262806236743927,
0.4023081064224243,
0.12529999017715454,
0.11658047139644623,
-0.24152794480323792,
0.07916790246963501,
0.40408000349998474,
0.8799340724945068,
-0.49948564171791077,
0.31903526186943054,
0.03531414642930031,
-0.369491308927536,
0.4732773005962372,
0.4742639660835266,
0.3958478271961212,
0.47346675395965576,
-0.003549876157194376,
-0.09088083356618881,
-0.24805282056331635,
0.10729246586561203,
-0.6461785435676575,
0.283246248960495,
-0.19736748933792114,
-0.3297923505306244,
0.14178593456745148,
-0.3592745363712311,
-0.525874674320221,
-0.421732634305954,
0.4313465356826782,
0.26210257411003113,
-0.3115331828594208,
-0.6558414101600647,
-0.20481859147548676,
0.1452970951795578,
0.7004000544548035,
0.12417566031217575,
0.08467940986156464,
0.06591509282588959,
-0.06892094016075134,
0.044205643236637115,
0.18324266374111176,
-0.18267935514450073,
0.6054503321647644,
-0.26516440510749817,
0.404415488243103,
-0.12323059886693954,
-0.6139231324195862,
-0.01719994843006134,
-0.1964942067861557,
0.2234821766614914,
0.4835366904735565,
-0.11856637895107269,
0.6754147410392761,
-0.2701144516468048,
-0.4901290833950043,
-1.4026877880096436,
-0.2314014881849289,
0.04524795711040497,
-0.32441461086273193,
0.0017397324554622173,
-0.10650717467069626,
0.034613851457834244,
-0.06046877056360245,
-0.09604080021381378,
0.28818947076797485,
-0.2517528831958771,
0.22728335857391357,
0.01439567282795906,
0.406714528799057,
0.23405207693576813,
0.1504168063402176,
0.6111651659011841,
-0.13401542603969574,
0.6815989017486572,
0.46525058150291443,
-0.09980814903974533,
0.13757163286209106,
-0.47331300377845764,
-0.024384474381804466,
0.563161313533783,
0.04134909808635712,
0.40880337357521057,
-0.2995980679988861,
-0.2215939462184906,
-0.18348385393619537,
0.02376433275640011,
-0.32932180166244507,
0.30306628346443176,
0.6036752462387085,
1.1917089223861694,
0.4226061701774597,
0.01999635621905327,
-0.2793354392051697,
-0.3748653829097748,
0.03787316381931305,
0.2914109528064728,
-1.0102630853652954,
0.6866360902786255,
0.016319140791893005,
0.6070950031280518,
0.28003376722335815,
0.2658941447734833,
0.041087180376052856,
-0.7571452856063843,
-0.31594914197921753,
0.7527713775634766,
0.04556966945528984,
1.3915681838989258,
0.329586386680603,
-0.5940327644348145,
1.2400681972503662,
0.3661036193370819,
0.694135308265686,
0.05598750710487366,
0.023546596989035606,
0.4708999693393707,
0.2015126347541809,
-0.6089613437652588,
0.336460143327713,
-0.20252220332622528,
0.10484768450260162,
-0.4898313879966736,
0.5615494847297668,
0.5305236577987671,
-0.6286747455596924,
0.1672394871711731,
-0.30552563071250916,
-0.15699315071105957,
0.06528110802173615,
-0.10086066275835037,
0.16043169796466827,
-0.3184203505516052,
-0.30636492371559143,
0.5413474440574646,
-0.1868789792060852,
-0.09679553657770157,
0.48624905943870544,
-0.1701800376176834,
0.6025359630584717,
0.1339390128850937,
-0.21349389851093292,
0.3586271107196808,
-1.0525054931640625,
0.03621840849518776,
0.06955964118242264,
0.16208268702030182,
-0.393167644739151,
0.11205603927373886,
-0.04446064680814743,
0.028405437245965004,
-0.27420109510421753,
-0.1155923381447792,
-0.18329845368862152,
0.2888816297054291,
-0.3871970772743225,
-0.07600648701190948,
0.2242325395345688,
-0.14604642987251282,
-0.3448162376880646,
-0.07103712111711502,
0.35813963413238525,
-0.16592808067798615,
-0.12456844747066498,
0.12877099215984344,
0.6543294191360474,
0.3585505783557892,
0.2995002269744873,
0.1019812822341919,
-0.01008229423314333,
-0.3581741750240326,
0.312008798122406,
0.48804327845573425,
0.16027790307998657,
-0.4592076241970062,
0.33703726530075073,
0.26241329312324524,
0.07410912960767746,
-0.3542780578136444,
-0.8748525381088257,
-0.15991948544979095,
-1.0383261442184448,
0.19084714353084564,
0.3379937410354614,
0.0009125903598032892,
-0.42519208788871765,
-0.5129286646842957,
-0.15228389203548431,
0.09595679491758347,
-0.40228602290153503,
0.040631238371133804,
0.38420557975769043,
-0.5587480664253235,
-0.18827515840530396,
0.3198791742324829,
0.9827181100845337,
0.744524359703064,
-0.16204017400741577,
0.01988653652369976,
-0.9096992015838623,
0.3707583546638489,
-0.4395054280757904,
-0.2892675995826721,
0.2841443121433258,
0.01645078882575035,
0.223026841878891,
0.03973817080259323,
-0.4197777211666107,
0.19701404869556427,
0.41873157024383545,
0.28376504778862,
0.312782883644104,
-0.19476006925106049,
0.30781254172325134,
-0.09634421020746231,
0.07347877323627472,
-0.2612002193927765,
0.4330905079841614,
0.5224458575248718,
0.09483721107244492,
-0.3504919111728668,
0.1524660736322403,
-5.771494388580322,
0.06854230910539627,
0.09952128678560257,
-0.2486582249403,
-0.269479364156723,
0.36532852053642273,
0.5685287714004517,
-0.3508332371711731,
-0.08535434305667877,
-0.14811313152313232,
-0.6180217266082764,
0.2839507460594177,
-0.07044155895709991,
0.15256105363368988,
0.10972614586353302,
0.24745748937129974,
-0.35383930802345276,
-0.16996382176876068,
-0.018384169787168503,
0.43966642022132874,
0.06272731721401215,
0.21676282584667206,
-0.27304306626319885,
0.4042263329029083,
0.1763399988412857,
0.9744265675544739,
0.0699959471821785,
0.5654311776161194,
-0.3905668556690216,
0.5319783687591553,
0.41864320635795593,
-0.6306124925613403,
-0.18337367475032806,
-0.5736910700798035,
-0.4431603252887726,
-0.2866654098033905,
0.3335559070110321,
0.22626356780529022,
-0.03336618095636368,
-0.2277083396911621,
-0.3773740530014038,
-0.09117704629898071,
0.3936043381690979,
-0.039483118802309036,
0.7879654169082642,
0.3086734414100647,
-0.7622404098510742,
-0.22608165442943573,
-0.34723275899887085,
0.8192585110664368,
0.26678457856178284,
-0.22863443195819855,
-0.05976035073399544,
0.5629985928535461,
0.26991820335388184,
-0.2465125024318695,
0.47490981221199036,
-0.3298383951187134,
-0.2564672827720642,
-0.011279983446002007,
0.17297784984111786,
-0.03513236716389656,
-0.23461885750293732,
-0.36011359095573425,
0.41852226853370667,
-0.4878004193305969,
-0.36125925183296204,
-0.41505786776542664,
0.048964403569698334,
0.48372599482536316,
0.029344676062464714,
0.27695998549461365,
0.22922411561012268,
-1.1259140968322754,
-0.3108389675617218,
-0.22406139969825745,
-0.44991862773895264,
0.08202934265136719,
0.023107042536139488,
0.048158079385757446,
-0.4644624888896942,
-0.28978273272514343,
-0.38874658942222595,
-0.02407863736152649,
0.2528235912322998,
-0.12119496613740921,
-0.7993339896202087,
0.5175312161445618,
-0.7525562644004822,
0.03299359977245331,
0.14244140684604645,
0.18184791505336761,
-0.027938198298215866,
0.6553418636322021,
0.0895606130361557,
0.5149584412574768,
-0.14461743831634521,
0.5014365315437317,
0.877627968788147,
-0.22375977039337158,
0.20779410004615784,
-0.3415168821811676,
0.7526228427886963,
-0.6521204113960266,
-0.342498779296875,
-0.20374219119548798,
-0.6016508340835571,
0.2949301302433014,
0.8182551264762878,
-0.4131283760070801,
-0.27624765038490295,
0.03304647281765938,
0.0319911427795887,
-0.40959855914115906,
0.6190280318260193,
-0.10147986561059952,
0.34623900055885315,
0.22159013152122498,
0.25791990756988525,
-0.1912107914686203,
-0.13140569627285004,
0.12244005501270294,
-0.029034355655312538,
-0.767679750919342,
-0.1861359030008316,
0.2665000259876251,
0.38470083475112915,
-0.4455001950263977,
0.22589129209518433,
0.49735990166664124,
-0.16954538226127625,
-0.17856445908546448,
0.30288833379745483,
0.2722317576408386,
-0.16736482083797455,
-0.8240751624107361,
-0.5759243369102478,
-0.26035088300704956,
-0.04183075949549675,
0.2026209682226181,
0.6382486820220947,
-0.03252024948596954,
-0.18412582576274872,
0.2076755315065384,
-0.14575494825839996,
0.27427446842193604,
-0.33161240816116333,
-0.0027763010002672672,
-0.1908569037914276,
0.3431621193885803,
-0.12409856915473938,
-0.20828399062156677,
0.20516839623451233,
-0.30776873230934143,
-0.7724705338478088,
0.7131152153015137,
0.3164728283882141,
0.612929105758667,
-0.5902846455574036,
0.04110710695385933,
0.1088465079665184,
-0.7435459494590759,
-0.9133513569831848,
-0.6496183276176453,
0.24646399915218353,
0.02293369174003601,
0.10845975577831268,
-0.7261913418769836,
-0.5291417241096497,
0.4010772109031677,
0.44321247935295105,
0.16506169736385345,
-0.1641772836446762,
0.05156412720680237,
0.16398189961910248,
0.31939154863357544,
0.13675545156002045,
0.1395479142665863,
0.043145351111888885,
0.2420102059841156,
-0.19636231660842896,
-0.6572475433349609,
-0.15324963629245758,
0.3141395151615143,
0.5092447400093079,
-0.022629009559750557,
-0.026062224060297012,
-0.3560272455215454,
-0.9187538027763367,
0.020725514739751816,
-0.12869717180728912,
0.37495970726013184,
0.24479001760482788,
0.06525803357362747,
-0.12040814012289047,
-0.46947604417800903,
-0.05308811366558075,
-0.045446425676345825,
-0.11044243723154068,
-0.18625792860984802,
0.16890019178390503,
0.2445722371339798,
-0.2936861515045166,
0.3954857289791107,
0.3615287244319916,
-1.1619151830673218,
-0.05716058611869812,
0.08114498108625412,
-0.6363229751586914,
0.9437544941902161,
0.06837062537670135,
0.006052862387150526,
-0.23299507796764374,
0.12350533902645111,
-0.24451301991939545,
-0.07091134786605835,
-0.3410050868988037,
-0.2843233048915863,
-0.39343950152397156,
0.03343221917748451,
-0.17621032893657684,
-0.055217012763023376,
-0.49588361382484436,
-0.47014304995536804,
-0.3621996343135834,
0.31005337834358215,
0.14022234082221985,
-0.6222736239433289,
0.4699157774448395,
-0.20181547105312347,
-0.23357972502708435,
0.002735802438110113,
-0.03663536161184311,
0.25369927287101746,
-0.3897675573825836,
-0.1451086699962616,
0.3674190640449524,
0.10745854675769806,
0.31000521779060364,
0.5707811117172241,
0.18941240012645721,
0.627748429775238,
-0.07817410677671432,
-0.21957281231880188,
0.396080881357193,
-0.04168017581105232,
0.03432159125804901,
-0.48807770013809204,
-0.32333269715309143,
0.27388709783554077,
-0.10502417385578156,
-0.08442703634500504,
-0.04902150109410286,
-0.5086347460746765,
0.8083928823471069,
-0.06215617433190346,
-0.3676280677318573,
-0.07066603749990463,
-0.2824062705039978,
-0.1288992017507553,
0.25277310609817505,
0.41194841265678406,
-0.4642282724380493,
0.3124855160713196,
0.2829279899597168,
0.10599952191114426,
-0.20509615540504456,
-0.32089051604270935,
0.244130477309227,
-0.5170656442642212,
-0.11061757802963257,
-0.5435841083526611,
0.060302264988422394,
0.20739418268203735,
0.07531637698411942,
0.2876144051551819,
-0.2524756193161011,
-0.2777349650859833,
0.06570667773485184,
-0.08678501844406128,
0.05647307634353638,
-0.00780852884054184,
-0.18143151700496674,
-0.9025363922119141,
0.4596088230609894,
-0.2374388873577118,
-0.041455965489149094,
-0.19344383478164673,
0.09333835542201996,
0.10310164839029312,
-0.12794850766658783,
0.2735384404659271,
-0.29344746470451355,
0.05245008319616318,
0.4638076722621918,
0.3196645975112915,
0.043314602226018906,
-0.1261584460735321,
-0.2552296817302704,
-0.3437088429927826,
-0.3192407190799713,
0.5959523916244507,
-0.012434263713657856,
-0.5133394598960876,
0.25322437286376953,
-0.06525983661413193,
0.33362627029418945,
-0.11518384516239166,
-0.4564872980117798,
0.1353004276752472,
0.05312063544988632,
-0.5714017748832703,
-0.29053813219070435,
0.5669798254966736,
-0.576971173286438,
-0.08820847421884537,
0.10585935413837433,
-0.43410372734069824,
0.25054046511650085,
0.5191783308982849,
0.22185909748077393,
0.27877670526504517,
0.5331509113311768,
-0.17137819528579712,
-0.861314058303833,
0.5603042244911194,
-0.47748687863349915,
0.1800011545419693,
-0.07012402266263962,
-0.01970875822007656,
0.6816244125366211,
0.2514663636684418,
-0.31227800250053406,
0.4985686242580414,
0.3758368492126465,
-0.19182023406028748,
0.3039638102054596,
-0.7286264896392822,
-0.6810686588287354,
-0.15730096399784088,
0.12035875767469406,
0.15921351313591003,
-0.06917525082826614,
0.3184095025062561,
-0.3679761588573456,
0.07847557961940765,
0.26561641693115234,
0.6248779296875,
0.35782313346862793,
0.05057217925786972,
0.10242815315723419,
1.0224465131759644,
0.08692824095487595,
-0.6171453595161438,
0.058682914823293686,
-0.2580415606498718,
0.0678761675953865,
-0.45620426535606384,
-0.4878914952278137,
-0.6810663938522339,
-0.5000447630882263,
-0.3535151481628418,
0.0848279595375061,
0.7057989239692688,
0.46727079153060913,
0.051456741988658905,
0.5032017827033997,
-0.31378090381622314,
-0.12027942389249802,
0.0018139401217922568,
-0.04814600944519043,
-0.34422922134399414,
-0.09855157881975174,
0.8158552050590515,
-0.08405829221010208,
-0.10604038834571838,
-0.22350166738033295,
0.010878236964344978,
0.40727829933166504,
0.06795363873243332,
-0.1603376716375351,
-0.3736197054386139,
-0.4381040334701538,
0.09240555018186569,
0.5497225522994995,
-0.05173274874687195,
0.11456327140331268,
0.03297438099980354,
0.27396056056022644,
-0.009505962952971458,
0.15840156376361847,
-0.5563041567802429,
-0.7319508194923401,
0.0727587416768074,
0.06152800843119621,
-0.08139035850763321,
-0.36700931191444397,
1.0444411039352417,
-0.25525298714637756,
-0.012756053358316422,
-0.3501567840576172,
-0.5808303952217102,
0.2566717863082886,
0.2108973115682602,
-0.6076110005378723,
0.6299960613250732,
-0.34351539611816406,
0.15857453644275665,
-0.9745809435844421,
0.33326488733291626,
-0.4333128333091736,
0.7887212634086609,
-0.32127365469932556,
0.2250509411096573,
0.2720067799091339,
-0.1939963847398758,
0.07909182459115982,
-0.46400928497314453,
0.19510279595851898,
-0.37192395329475403,
0.23585374653339386,
0.540987491607666,
-0.02313392236828804,
0.7444436550140381,
-0.3877398371696472,
-0.24881477653980255,
-0.08814931660890579,
-0.38017576932907104,
0.23482567071914673,
-0.035521987825632095,
0.0016958217602223158,
-0.260578453540802,
-0.21924085915088654,
-0.18162944912910461,
0.04949161410331726,
-0.3197876513004303,
0.7700894474983215,
0.40637144446372986,
-0.274423211812973,
-0.36949947476387024,
-0.013145115226507187,
-0.45400843024253845,
-0.3684106469154358,
0.6124176979064941,
-1.0785112380981445,
0.05060066655278206,
-0.28968045115470886,
-0.7275745272636414,
0.15831401944160461,
0.6203656792640686,
0.03940083831548691,
-0.17331336438655853,
-0.5648998022079468,
-0.5165649056434631,
-0.4573242962360382,
0.5501168966293335,
-0.4894421100616455,
-0.14283771812915802,
0.2347271591424942,
0.003912328276783228
] |
234878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20von%20Schmoller | Gustav von Schmoller | Gustav Friedrich (after 1908: von) Schmoller (; 24 June 1838 – 27 June 1917) was the leader of the "younger" German historical school of economics.
He was a leading Sozialpolitiker (more derisively, Kathedersozialist, "Socialist of the Chair"), and a founder and long-time chairman of the Verein für Socialpolitik, the German Economic Association, which continues to exist.
The appellation "Kathedersozialist" was given to Schmoller and other members of the Verein by their enemies. Schmoller disavowed the "socialist" label, instead tracing his thought to the heterodox liberalism represented by Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui, Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi, John Stuart Mill, Johann Heinrich von Thünen, Bruno Hildebrand, Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie, Lorenz von Stein, and Émile de Laveleye and radicals such as Frederic Harrison and Edward Spencer Beesly. His goal was to reconcile the Prussian monarchy and bureaucracy "with the idea of the Liberal state and complemented by the best elements of parliamentarianism" to carry out social reform.
Life
Schmoller was born in Heilbronn. His father was a Württemberg civil servant. Young Schmoller studied (a combination of economics, law, history, and civil administration) at the University of Tübingen (1857–61). In 1861, he obtained an appointment at the . During his academic career, he held appointments as a professor at the universities of Halle (1864–72), Strasbourg (1872–82), and Berlin (1882–1913). After 1899, he represented the University of Berlin in the Prussian House of Lords.
Schmoller's influence on academic policy, economic, social and fiscal reform, and economics as an academic discipline for the time between 1875 and 1910 can hardly be overstated. He was an outspoken proponent of the assertion of German naval power and the expansion of the German overseas empire.
Work
As an outspoken leader of the "younger" historical school, Schmoller opposed what he saw as the axiomatic-deductive approach of classical economics and, later, the Austrian school—indeed, Schmoller coined the term to suggest provincialism in an unfavorable review of the 1883 book Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics (Untersuchungen über die Methode der Socialwissenschaften und der politischen Oekonomie insbesondere) by Carl Menger, which attacked the methods of the historical school. This led to the controversy known as the Methodenstreit. Schmoller's primarily inductive approach, requesting careful study, comparative in time and space, of economic performance and phenomena generally, his focus on the evolution of economic processes and institutions, and his insistence on the cultural specificity of economics and the centrality of values in shaping economic exchanges stand in stark contrast to some classical and most neoclassical economists, so that he and his school fell out of the mainstream of economics by the 1930s, being replaced in Germany by the successor Freiburg school.
However, it is often overlooked that Schmoller's primary preoccupation in his lifetime was not with economic method but with economic and social policy to address the challenges posed by rapid industrialization and urbanization. That is, Schmoller was first and foremost a social reformer. As such, Schmoller's influence extended throughout Europe, to the Progressive movement in the United States, and to social reformers in Meiji Japan. His most prominent non-German students and followers included William J. Ashley, W.E.B. Du Bois, Richard T. Ely, Noburu Kanai, Albion W. Small, and E.R.A. Seligman.
Since the 1980s, Schmoller's work has been re-evaluated and found relevant to some branches of heterodox economics, as well as development economics, behavioral economics, evolutionary economics, and neo-institutional economics. He has long had an influence within the subfield of economic history and the discipline of sociology.
Works by Schmoller
His works, the majority of which deal with economic history and policy, include:
Der französiche Handelsvertrag und seine Gegner (The French trade treaty and its opponents, 1862)
Zur geschichte der deutschen Kleingewerbe im 19. Jahrhundert (History of German Small Businesses in the 19th Century, 1870)
Strassburg zur Zeit der Zunftkämpfe (Strassburg During the Guild Fights, 1875)
Zur Litteraturgeschichte der Staats- und Sozialwissenschaften (1888)
Umrisse und Untersuchungen zur Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs-, und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1898)
Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirthschaftslehre (Layout of General Economics, 1900–1904)
Ueber einige Grundfragen der Sozialpolitik (About a few Questions of Social Politics, 1904)
After 1881, Schmoller was editor of the Jahrbuch für Gesetzebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirthschaft im deutschen Reich. From 1878 to 1903, he edited a series of monographs entitled Staats- und sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen. He was also an editor and major contributor to Acta Borussica, an extensive collection of Prussian historical sources undertaken by the Berlin Academy of Science upon Schmoller's and Sybel's instigation.
One of the reasons why Schmoller is not more widely known today is that most of his books and articles were not translated, as during his time Anglo-American economists generally read German, which was the dominant scholarly language of the time. German having fallen out of favor, the untranslated texts are now inaccessible to readers without knowledge of German. Two exceptions are:
The Mercantile System and Its Historical Significance, New York: Macmillan, 2nd ed. 1910. This is a chapter from Schmoller's much larger work Studien über die wirtschaftliche Politik Friedrichs des Grossen which was published in 1884. The chapter was translated by William J. Ashley and published in 1897 under the English title above. online edition
"The Idea of Justice in Political Economy." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 4 (1894): 697–737. in JSTOR
His magnum opus is
Grundriss der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1900–1904.
Important recent books on Schmoller in English
(1994), ed. Gustav Schmoller and the Problems of Today. History of Economic Ideas, vol.s I/1993/3, II/1994/1.
Backhaus, Jürgen G. (1997), ed. Essays in Social Security and Taxation. Gustav von Schmoller and Adolph Wagner Reconsidered. Marburg: Metropolis.
Balabkins, Nicholas W. (1988). Not by theory alone...: The Economics of Gustav von Schmoller and Its Legacy to America. Berlin: Duncker u. Humblot.
Grimmer-Solem, Erik (2003). The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 1864–1894. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Koslowski, Peter, ed. The Theory of Ethical Economy in the Historical School. Wilhelm Roscher, Lorenz v. Stein, Gustav Schmoller, Wilhelm Dilthey and Contemporary Thought. Berlin etc.: Springer.
Shionoya, Yuichi (2001), ed. The German Historical School: The Historical and Ethical Approach to Economics. London etc.: Routledge.
See also
Methodenstreit
Werturteilsstreit
Notes
References
Clark, David S. Encyclopedia of Law and Society American and Global Perspectives . Minneapolis: Sage Publications, Inc, 2007.
Grimmer-Solem, Erik. The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 1864–1894. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (Wesleyan University Press, 1997).
Richter, Rudolf. "Bridging Old and New Institutional Economics: Gustav Schmoller, the Leader of the Younger German Historical School, Seen With Neoinstitutionalists' Eyes," Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (JITE) / Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft Vol. 152, No. 4 (December 1996), pp. 567–592 (in JSTOR).
Shionoya, Yuichi. The Soul of The German Historical School: Methodological Essays on Schmoller, Weber and Schumpeter New York: Springer, 2005.
Veblen, Thorstein. "Gustav Schmoller's Economics," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 16 no. 1 (Nov. 1901): 69–93 (in JSTOR).
External links
Short biography
'A Leftist Criticism of Gustav Schmoller's "On Class Conflict in General"' (1915)
1838 births
1917 deaths
German economists
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Members of the Prussian House of Lords
People from Heilbronn
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
Prussian politicians
University of Tübingen alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg faculty
University of Strasbourg faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
19th-century German writers
20th-century German non-fiction writers
19th-century economists
20th-century economists
Historical school economists
19th-century German male writers
20th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers | [
-0.329802006483078,
0.528020441532135,
-0.13370373845100403,
0.350168377161026,
-0.20064620673656464,
0.7152713537216187,
0.0484934076666832,
-0.19968928396701813,
-0.14200347661972046,
-0.6283250451087952,
-0.09296713024377823,
0.15396980941295624,
0.1359459012746811,
0.3897438049316406,
0.30043280124664307,
-0.12127863615751266,
0.03561446815729141,
-0.2977984845638275,
-0.8979431390762329,
-0.09450482577085495,
-0.3036859929561615,
-0.20054765045642853,
0.5773541927337646,
0.3523767590522766,
-0.14152556657791138,
-0.4313090443611145,
0.5410194993019104,
-0.21544285118579865,
0.33259543776512146,
0.2672482430934906,
0.16653023660182953,
0.6162641644477844,
0.13754166662693024,
0.37554866075515747,
-0.8158290386199951,
0.30582958459854126,
-0.06656835973262787,
-0.12403470277786255,
0.23585635423660278,
0.12175668776035309,
-0.3684242367744446,
0.4546850025653839,
0.13091695308685303,
0.2509976923465729,
-0.04969142749905586,
-0.5333826541900635,
-2.207773208618164,
0.1066448912024498,
-0.7824679017066956,
-0.6816167831420898,
-0.006255838554352522,
0.36227983236312866,
0.8144993185997009,
0.5465120077133179,
-0.32294410467147827,
0.0911199077963829,
-1.0676007270812988,
-0.39176690578460693,
0.29679635167121887,
-0.23978780210018158,
0.808452308177948,
0.1638183444738388,
0.3865807354450226,
0.31266871094703674,
0.5508273243904114,
0.03803406283259392,
-0.44326668977737427,
0.5739326477050781,
-0.39597344398498535,
0.05344890430569649,
-0.5934038758277893,
-0.19029857218265533,
-0.01097712479531765,
-0.3545420467853546,
0.5770235657691956,
-0.5170316100120544,
-0.16885818541049957,
0.3179967999458313,
0.07387574762105942,
-0.2319592982530594,
-0.018691806122660637,
-0.22647100687026978,
0.6447359323501587,
0.20553696155548096,
0.2869417369365692,
0.0903632864356041,
0.0484539195895195,
0.19039931893348694,
-0.6936184167861938,
-0.22310326993465424,
0.028564902022480965,
-0.1508549302816391,
0.5351086854934692,
-0.004834273364394903,
-0.1573229879140854,
0.22168990969657898,
0.3291880488395691,
0.38121098279953003,
-0.5554296970367432,
0.09016918390989304,
0.4538182318210602,
0.20035211741924286,
0.47851893305778503,
-0.10850054025650024,
-0.13138335943222046,
-0.11364302039146423,
0.22315514087677002,
-0.010074352845549583,
-0.35924842953681946,
0.16045509278774261,
-1.2266231775283813,
0.350142240524292,
-0.21580809354782104,
0.06579655408859253,
0.13956381380558014,
0.1638844609260559,
-0.3213420808315277,
-1.0049355030059814,
-0.3064793348312378,
0.10756579041481018,
-0.0728168860077858,
0.26279696822166443,
-0.005300125107169151,
0.36333414912223816,
-0.35400891304016113,
-0.07088960707187653,
-0.2627013027667999,
0.5270524024963379,
-0.11861906200647354,
0.1039654016494751,
0.729583203792572,
0.9253817200660706,
-0.03387404978275299,
-0.28488942980766296,
-0.3056543171405792,
-0.11047103255987167,
0.8551260232925415,
-0.31687289476394653,
-0.3607346713542938,
0.6068949699401855,
-0.36620596051216125,
-0.5488183498382568,
0.06365200132131577,
0.04480702057480812,
0.23327144980430603,
-0.4498630166053772,
0.4617709517478943,
-0.4170766770839691,
0.03586497902870178,
-0.2604086101055145,
-0.10788632929325104,
-0.4558390974998474,
-0.3527291417121887,
-0.12335027754306793,
0.13673940300941467,
0.6087749004364014,
0.09246166050434113,
-0.269923597574234,
-0.1720452457666397,
0.32282552123069763,
0.3834713399410248,
-0.30595025420188904,
-0.3985694944858551,
0.14027096331119537,
0.7949810028076172,
-0.7347739338874817,
0.42417266964912415,
-0.003143690060824156,
-0.5269553065299988,
0.2772536873817444,
-0.6468414068222046,
0.10181378573179245,
0.25403106212615967,
-0.30570539832115173,
0.49654778838157654,
0.5900616645812988,
-0.193555548787117,
-0.005290015134960413,
0.29445669054985046,
-0.09277962148189545,
-0.6990887522697449,
-0.25070634484291077,
0.2801588177680969,
0.2907690703868866,
0.311890184879303,
0.07948778569698334,
-0.07627832144498825,
-0.2274187058210373,
0.48749086260795593,
-0.7025299668312073,
-0.5631192922592163,
-0.9307848811149597,
0.6967403888702393,
-0.19877183437347412,
0.9340697526931763,
0.4883568286895752,
-0.22079512476921082,
0.37472909688949585,
-0.3545866012573242,
0.3309977054595947,
-0.3016135096549988,
-0.7664457559585571,
-0.6282334923744202,
0.5087989568710327,
-0.12265510112047195,
0.25234729051589966,
-0.1394432783126831,
-0.3129386305809021,
-0.06182897090911865,
0.29302549362182617,
0.36570367217063904,
-0.466495543718338,
0.1923528015613556,
0.10974517464637756,
-0.24075722694396973,
-0.1370520442724228,
-0.5432062745094299,
0.40192711353302,
-0.030614584684371948,
-0.0788133442401886,
0.40678849816322327,
0.031517475843429565,
0.14587873220443726,
0.8329727053642273,
0.3296278119087219,
0.1967320442199707,
0.6422224640846252,
-0.009021461941301823,
-0.12595579028129578,
-0.4887630045413971,
0.21892225742340088,
0.17327260971069336,
0.679282009601593,
-0.3876429796218872,
0.6503328680992126,
-0.1914411336183548,
-0.6823017597198486,
-0.1831514984369278,
-0.12240269780158997,
-0.5426868200302124,
0.39598342776298523,
0.1516065150499344,
-0.18096062541007996,
0.2918536961078644,
0.20475369691848755,
0.5368521213531494,
-0.18755359947681427,
0.415467768907547,
-1.1713824272155762,
0.47869256138801575,
-0.004676119890064001,
1.0338600873947144,
0.2986619472503662,
-0.44288337230682373,
-1.3486874103546143,
-0.2802793085575104,
0.2610509395599365,
0.45659297704696655,
0.3720541298389435,
0.43248048424720764,
0.45942434668540955,
-0.09550679475069046,
0.025861747562885284,
0.0587770976126194,
-0.09369780868291855,
-0.15794242918491364,
0.2328796684741974,
-0.44156166911125183,
-0.014369512908160686,
-0.06516658514738083,
0.46422865986824036,
-0.48044827580451965,
-0.6155141592025757,
0.5143297910690308,
-0.05881882831454277,
-1.50430428981781,
-0.35409003496170044,
0.16372191905975342,
-0.5817576050758362,
-0.20754186809062958,
0.10554695129394531,
1.302184820175171,
-0.07241632044315338,
-0.316548228263855,
-0.2195371687412262,
0.13676413893699646,
0.15603682398796082,
0.2706621289253235,
0.8425478339195251,
-0.15031005442142487,
-0.007349914405494928,
0.6844222545623779,
-0.9544079303741455,
-0.22471290826797485,
0.07861258834600449,
0.7685121893882751,
-0.34737706184387207,
-0.45573967695236206,
0.5684797167778015,
-0.30595919489860535,
-0.7264251708984375,
0.37230193614959717,
0.059824880212545395,
-0.011210713535547256,
0.3343626856803894,
0.3666195571422577,
-0.19341887533664703,
0.2753117084503174,
-5.3963303565979,
-0.09964848309755325,
0.01284159068018198,
-0.5493826270103455,
0.28469547629356384,
0.35791417956352234,
0.3007810711860657,
-0.04054220765829086,
-0.3454325795173645,
-0.31344905495643616,
0.36833345890045166,
-0.6134266257286072,
-0.11242818832397461,
0.48209652304649353,
0.19924244284629822,
0.30809736251831055,
0.44743674993515015,
-0.12434659898281097,
-0.058200687170028687,
0.011305440217256546,
-0.021763626486063004,
-0.09212300181388855,
-0.10106906294822693,
0.7140395045280457,
0.38371285796165466,
0.2655360996723175,
0.10111111402511597,
-0.19903680682182312,
-1.0074234008789062,
-0.49999281764030457,
0.03654082864522934,
-0.44814053177833557,
-0.1262950897216797,
0.10216644406318665,
0.44664257764816284,
-0.15022745728492737,
0.63630610704422,
0.9610580801963806,
-0.4684390127658844,
0.6632453799247742,
-0.04452434554696083,
0.6253659129142761,
-0.628289520740509,
0.09446948766708374,
0.12065869569778442,
-0.11639503389596939,
-0.5449548363685608,
0.6065718531608582,
-0.969153642654419,
0.5206044316291809,
0.5739889144897461,
-0.27015551924705505,
0.002559191780164838,
-0.29295814037323,
0.17966580390930176,
0.3488404154777527,
0.02065129764378071,
0.2901463210582733,
-0.8363746404647827,
0.18886947631835938,
0.13009963929653168,
0.0380370169878006,
0.22897154092788696,
0.10093124210834503,
-0.26169779896736145,
-0.4594744145870209,
-0.032481011003255844,
-0.2732379734516144,
0.08653324842453003,
-0.1745302975177765,
-0.1805696338415146,
1.0917338132858276,
0.3471377491950989,
-0.9292547106742859,
-0.1712801307439804,
-0.3861009478569031,
-0.24906973540782928,
-0.36323490738868713,
-0.4016583561897278,
0.27969613671302795,
0.6682584881782532,
-0.9313198328018188,
-0.1321675032377243,
0.7480375170707703,
0.6382849216461182,
0.4274568259716034,
-0.37806177139282227,
0.14904773235321045,
-0.43825799226760864,
0.4150158762931824,
-0.7819139361381531,
-0.36034342646598816,
0.12765628099441528,
-0.07572377473115921,
-0.16144658625125885,
0.5392017960548401,
-0.5307915210723877,
-0.10911613702774048,
0.14406560361385345,
0.7959099411964417,
-0.08389326184988022,
-0.12781646847724915,
-0.18097111582756042,
-0.09706301242113113,
0.5078647136688232,
-0.12708674371242523,
0.21408507227897644,
0.5962186455726624,
0.6680756211280823,
0.33497023582458496,
0.16314353048801422,
0.6150197982788086,
-0.4429965317249298,
-0.43193405866622925,
0.4587085545063019,
-0.6189637780189514,
-0.6555079817771912,
0.045232754200696945,
0.22463202476501465,
0.19620779156684875,
-0.4683167636394501,
-0.3881172835826874,
-0.21928568184375763,
-0.3753441870212555,
-0.3974991738796234,
-0.3094017505645752,
0.17691802978515625,
-0.1518332064151764,
-0.2548620402812958,
0.22658570110797882,
-0.24017147719860077,
0.7844384908676147,
-0.21459081768989563,
0.06891422718763351,
0.14637424051761627,
-0.1295214742422104,
-0.2549094557762146,
-0.4806288778781891,
0.0190571378916502,
-0.5216696858406067,
0.2411540448665619,
0.23331451416015625,
0.045836471021175385,
-0.014359669759869576,
0.5615187883377075,
0.08110792189836502,
-0.17206352949142456,
0.16484713554382324,
-0.278728723526001,
0.3435456454753876,
-0.10058940947055817,
0.052229247987270355,
0.5850847363471985,
0.29781872034072876,
-0.4839690923690796,
0.010123676620423794,
-0.18035010993480682,
0.16774602234363556,
-0.12322599440813065,
-0.2623773217201233,
0.13232387602329254,
-0.1949043869972229,
-1.1423490047454834,
-0.7373338341712952,
0.184193953871727,
0.5031851530075073,
-0.7141397595405579,
-0.05208788812160492,
0.0739334300160408,
0.5324495434761047,
0.21899674832820892,
-0.5671581029891968,
-0.731431782245636,
-0.07142917066812515,
0.0832652896642685,
-0.16583430767059326,
0.3246760964393616,
-0.17409498989582062,
0.24145786464214325,
-0.3218404948711395,
-0.04428837075829506,
-0.1651294082403183,
-0.3075335621833801,
0.6581622958183289,
0.3097210228443146,
-0.12561620771884918,
-0.27617910504341125,
-0.06216335669159889,
-0.6552239060401917,
-0.043431274592876434,
0.08637230843305588,
-0.269398033618927,
0.591144859790802,
0.812063992023468,
0.27191361784935,
-0.6959996223449707,
0.06871847808361053,
-0.42648622393608093,
-0.7028313875198364,
-0.4930463433265686,
0.08803994953632355,
0.2599627673625946,
0.29061561822891235,
-0.1431540548801422,
0.1708238422870636,
-1.0368261337280273,
-0.2721479833126068,
-0.23485848307609558,
-0.25210633873939514,
0.9041623473167419,
-0.8907332420349121,
-0.6930550932884216,
-0.5634681582450867,
0.6061211228370667,
-0.20782949030399323,
-0.11978290975093842,
0.8666805028915405,
-0.08616692572832108,
-0.9236674308776855,
-0.0011938719544559717,
-0.16027788817882538,
0.21066081523895264,
-0.8161766529083252,
-0.3192208409309387,
-0.5406075716018677,
0.08278315514326096,
-0.05798208341002464,
0.041306838393211365,
0.6728305220603943,
-0.18982931971549988,
-0.014101287350058556,
-0.12271210551261902,
0.1974121779203415,
0.16639265418052673,
-0.0982493981719017,
-0.21886900067329407,
0.08717659115791321,
0.6675171852111816,
-0.7617719769477844,
-0.20510491728782654,
0.12333623319864273,
0.7413157224655151,
0.5689999461174011,
-0.15773791074752808,
0.6120710968971252,
-0.26307806372642517,
0.5971636176109314,
0.009424678981304169,
-0.29419881105422974,
0.2532918155193329,
-0.02297680638730526,
-0.05611612647771835,
-0.7865574955940247,
-0.23699991405010223,
0.4013649821281433,
-0.33915820717811584,
-0.05175679922103882,
-0.006930516101419926,
0.10651493817567825,
0.2247018814086914,
-0.6522915959358215,
0.7674110531806946,
0.21736778318881989,
0.08483016490936279,
0.3158315122127533,
0.4625348746776581,
-0.04458027705550194,
-0.36473071575164795,
0.24343305826187134,
-0.5863769054412842,
0.2274482101202011,
-0.6922675371170044,
-0.569685161113739,
0.012290230952203274,
0.22692686319351196,
0.26073819398880005,
0.2109920084476471,
-0.35652831196784973,
-0.02228761464357376,
-0.5320694446563721,
-1.0906158685684204,
-0.36334991455078125,
0.27549901604652405,
-0.9725409150123596,
-0.3556457757949829,
-0.872737467288971,
-0.5081197023391724,
-0.07553711533546448,
-0.8026501536369324,
0.36711999773979187,
-0.43093419075012207,
0.10543818771839142,
-0.4404231607913971,
0.29840925335884094,
-0.2861500084400177,
0.4797520637512207,
-0.02870843932032585,
0.00760691100731492,
-0.3827945590019226,
0.05349648371338844,
-0.04759687930345535,
0.38215503096580505,
0.08589553833007812,
0.42103275656700134,
0.6293961405754089,
0.35033732652664185,
-0.23544561862945557,
0.17896901071071625,
-0.2544138431549072,
-0.058613330125808716,
0.364268958568573,
-0.046489957720041275,
-0.030227169394493103,
0.5844248533248901,
-0.5092554688453674,
0.16425330936908722,
0.5504626035690308,
-0.11671572923660278,
0.09030633419752121,
-0.04979321360588074,
0.016662973910570145,
0.3298564851284027,
0.8806688785552979,
-0.6263440251350403,
-0.13137583434581757,
0.44111496210098267,
0.009038479067385197,
0.11047536134719849,
-0.4327852129936218,
0.05690876021981239,
0.22881978750228882,
0.8532208800315857,
-0.3244646489620209,
0.8913350105285645,
-0.14159883558750153,
0.16953563690185547,
0.2659873962402344,
-0.8084800839424133,
-0.20341622829437256,
0.16025586426258087,
0.33800581097602844,
1.0894042253494263,
-0.005432928446680307,
-0.008888178505003452,
-0.1607455015182495,
-0.02334965392947197,
-0.0025242632254958153,
0.4077174663543701,
-0.02975456230342388,
0.3674335181713104,
0.516895055770874,
0.07878877222537994,
-0.0006567350937984884,
-0.6898179650306702,
-0.19285351037979126,
0.15590818226337433,
0.21466515958309174,
-0.05969924479722977,
-0.20234739780426025,
0.32598474621772766,
0.2479938566684723,
-0.004863171838223934,
0.4026409685611725,
-0.2844846844673157,
-0.20649245381355286,
0.18237678706645966,
-0.06467248499393463,
-0.5503155589103699,
-0.21332722902297974,
-0.2957927882671356,
0.08764718472957611,
-0.7436017990112305,
0.2745547592639923,
0.2840750515460968,
0.3181585371494293,
-0.13535617291927338,
0.8321766257286072,
-0.004781957250088453,
0.4716120958328247,
0.7512006163597107,
-0.5170848965644836,
-0.15644577145576477,
0.04029764607548714,
0.2667355537414551,
-0.13300171494483948,
-0.2616104185581207,
-0.03506723791360855,
-0.0809517353773117,
0.21440012753009796,
-0.32507431507110596,
0.1659780889749527,
-0.45994746685028076,
0.09376630187034607,
0.46413859724998474,
-0.801862895488739,
0.22953549027442932,
-0.7835221886634827,
0.5793255567550659,
0.16877229511737823,
-0.3627896010875702,
-0.586325466632843,
0.057415205985307693,
-0.36562198400497437,
-0.041672587394714355,
-0.20276373624801636,
0.1503782421350479,
-0.23631292581558228,
0.15873906016349792,
-0.38567209243774414,
0.8466588854789734,
0.3052513301372528,
-0.14716097712516785,
-0.42450571060180664,
0.8035074472427368,
-0.40285810828208923,
-0.10636013001203537,
0.7638987898826599,
-0.12212768197059631,
-0.22966748476028442,
-0.20250876247882843,
0.33978182077407837,
-0.5018922090530396,
0.2405683547258377,
-0.1422242373228073,
-0.22090110182762146,
0.47446972131729126,
0.00904436968266964,
0.4900238513946533,
0.09143531322479248,
0.44382762908935547,
-0.5574643611907959,
0.01769140549004078,
-0.5447461605072021,
0.17535649240016937,
-0.30264368653297424,
0.3720952272415161,
0.5872524976730347,
0.36078402400016785,
0.239315003156662,
-0.7219722270965576,
0.4078335165977478,
0.16980157792568207,
0.6820636987686157,
0.06978638470172882,
0.39962390065193176,
0.9380934238433838,
-0.3261018395423889,
0.1148744747042656,
0.3662987947463989,
0.4466809332370758,
0.2549435496330261,
0.10091414302587509,
0.3984924554824829,
-0.8566252589225769,
0.36627301573753357,
-0.14893074333667755,
-0.11734830588102341,
-0.7723420262336731,
0.6800632476806641,
-0.4094674587249756
] |
234879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDF | MDF | MDF may refer to:
Computing
Master Database File, a Microsoft SQL Server file type
MES Development Framework, a .NET framework for building Manufacturing execution system applications
Message Development Framework, a collection of models, methods and tools used by Health Level 7 v3.0 methodology
Media Descriptor File, a proprietary disc image file format developed for Alcohol 120%
Measurement Data Format, one of the data formats defined by the Association for Standardisation of Automation and Measuring Systems (ASAM)
Multiple Domain Facility; see Logical partition
Medicine
Map-dot-fingerprint dystrophy, a genetic disease affecting the cornea
Mean Diastolic Filling of the heart
Myocardial depressant factor, a low-molecular-weight peptide released from the pancreas into the blood in mammals during various shock states
Organizations
Hungarian Democratic Forum (Hungarian: Magyar Demokrata Fórum), a political party
Maraland Democratic Front, a political party in Mizoram, WALES
Maryland Defense Force, the state defense force of Maryland
Moscow House of Photography
Myotonic Dystrophy Foundation, a U.S. non-profit organization related to myotonic dystrophy
Telecommunication
Main distribution frame, a distribution frame where cables are cross-connected in telephony
Multidelay block frequency domain adaptive filter
Other uses
Made cut did not finish, a golf term
Market development funds
Maryland Deathfest
Moksha language
Medium-density fibreboard, a type of particle board made of small particles of wood | [
0.2560808062553406,
0.22653481364250183,
-0.23057959973812103,
0.05209150165319443,
0.023495158180594444,
-0.16760660707950592,
-0.37257274985313416,
-0.1401287317276001,
-0.3055020272731781,
-0.38579946756362915,
-0.5893535017967224,
0.3243843615055084,
-0.496010959148407,
0.3413536548614502,
0.20065177977085114,
0.4128459393978119,
0.28649935126304626,
0.3642870783805847,
0.12059109658002853,
-0.5925533771514893,
-0.19934247434139252,
-0.47068139910697937,
-0.24063201248645782,
-0.22180728614330292,
0.0561072900891304,
-0.08336707949638367,
0.28566622734069824,
-0.243130162358284,
-0.10484358668327332,
0.17553666234016418,
0.553288996219635,
-0.15652473270893097,
0.06855321675539017,
0.03023732826113701,
-0.2046559602022171,
0.049575261771678925,
-0.1941882222890854,
0.4877312183380127,
0.23187854886054993,
-0.8654890060424805,
0.09524903446435928,
-0.4561690092086792,
0.25491461157798767,
0.564407229423523,
-0.4491637349128723,
-0.3070521354675293,
-1.814160704612732,
0.22267836332321167,
-0.3221922218799591,
0.02461281232535839,
-0.34504249691963196,
0.8074895143508911,
-0.1941053420305252,
0.11530672758817673,
0.2237572818994522,
0.4939368665218353,
-0.5427414774894714,
-0.34755778312683105,
0.6634825468063354,
-0.182024747133255,
0.8522046804428101,
-0.35450300574302673,
0.021666591987013817,
0.06460346281528473,
0.177710622549057,
0.10298401117324829,
-0.24979516863822937,
0.4138927161693573,
-0.7811320424079895,
-0.3869665861129761,
-0.10749101638793945,
0.061730850487947464,
0.017764002084732056,
0.045832838863134384,
-0.3475015163421631,
0.3778277039527893,
-0.026663221418857574,
-0.46323564648628235,
-0.11094476282596588,
0.12909342348575592,
-0.15242432057857513,
0.6699573993682861,
0.23221057653427124,
-0.1339847445487976,
0.18394657969474792,
-0.05267368257045746,
-0.33291393518447876,
0.6213241815567017,
-0.27768680453300476,
0.4229268431663513,
0.19700142741203308,
0.2518821358680725,
0.3719851076602936,
0.0036819905508309603,
0.1551862359046936,
0.1992211788892746,
-0.28834810853004456,
-0.005078782327473164,
0.5001770257949829,
0.4569981098175049,
-0.19640623033046722,
0.08270204067230225,
-0.16761630773544312,
-0.08047086000442505,
-0.6020300984382629,
0.07112366706132889,
-0.7123661637306213,
-0.6162640452384949,
-0.22221650183200836,
-0.3084878921508789,
-0.13716590404510498,
0.17729973793029785,
-0.4972761571407318,
-0.5186231732368469,
-0.05000215396285057,
-0.03625253960490227,
0.26227831840515137,
-0.12304659932851791,
-0.1467120498418808,
0.3191991448402405,
0.07312371581792831,
1.144814133644104,
-0.12835144996643066,
-0.27356138825416565,
-0.018470523878932,
-0.10195490717887878,
0.501932680606842,
0.7436547875404358,
-0.4102725386619568,
-0.29360511898994446,
0.2545981705188751,
0.8572253584861755,
0.3495096266269684,
0.5610237121582031,
-0.16122180223464966,
-0.38058385252952576,
0.3600437343120575,
-0.30681848526000977,
-0.09425445646047592,
-0.49612805247306824,
-0.6832767724990845,
-0.7177637815475464,
-0.7913373708724976,
0.045442257076501846,
0.15678922832012177,
0.12010651081800461,
0.3059021830558777,
-0.2936459183692932,
-0.06677103787660599,
-0.02013901248574257,
0.02787456475198269,
0.4727083742618561,
-0.4978594183921814,
0.03755056858062744,
0.06912001222372055,
0.6818878054618835,
0.24033533036708832,
-0.26394665241241455,
-0.024692464619874954,
-0.021343175321817398,
0.023112475872039795,
0.40045952796936035,
-0.7129135131835938,
-0.10312379151582718,
0.3709677755832672,
-0.5658097267150879,
0.46531447768211365,
0.08293083310127258,
-0.03877319023013115,
0.22260236740112305,
-0.2048526555299759,
-0.22702232003211975,
-0.15556839108467102,
0.05445699021220207,
0.13391205668449402,
0.25585469603538513,
0.3391616642475128,
0.10144231468439102,
0.9770506620407104,
0.1281309425830841,
-0.618421196937561,
0.16616976261138916,
0.32884979248046875,
-0.424748957157135,
0.573573112487793,
0.24438214302062988,
0.8898018002510071,
-0.06250523775815964,
0.1278281956911087,
-0.08466901630163193,
-0.7940909266471863,
-0.6197978854179382,
0.06548171490430832,
-0.3486746847629547,
1.3343209028244019,
-0.18222516775131226,
-0.709537923336029,
0.8757902383804321,
-0.4145590364933014,
0.40908491611480713,
0.3118022382259369,
0.13990920782089233,
0.5250709652900696,
-0.8151710033416748,
-0.18039895594120026,
0.5193483829498291,
0.3497209846973419,
-0.10128385573625565,
-0.726997435092926,
0.030617456883192062,
0.704534649848938,
-0.13289371132850647,
0.13847249746322632,
-0.5002489686012268,
0.479359894990921,
0.2797437906265259,
-0.3346850872039795,
0.6059196591377258,
-0.44737592339515686,
-0.11658331751823425,
0.9080473780632019,
-0.5085813999176025,
-0.548782229423523,
1.0607669353485107,
-0.5281769037246704,
0.6544037461280823,
0.09284830093383789,
0.2231355607509613,
0.9462611079216003,
-0.19886308908462524,
0.009420010261237621,
0.048982493579387665,
-0.058898333460092545,
-0.5338963270187378,
-0.1432437151670456,
0.38369446992874146,
0.33147740364074707,
0.07769355177879333,
0.23360690474510193,
0.3556090295314789,
0.498608261346817,
0.28643977642059326,
-0.6685076355934143,
-0.4864211976528168,
0.20739877223968506,
-0.13149620592594147,
-0.27816468477249146,
0.18284104764461517,
-0.27378547191619873,
0.10175710916519165,
0.208609938621521,
0.5128862261772156,
0.28718891739845276,
-0.2651780843734741,
0.34313860535621643,
0.20612870156764984,
-0.14700137078762054,
-0.11632119119167328,
-0.642285943031311,
0.28870493173599243,
-0.5282011032104492,
0.11348682641983032,
-0.4134787321090698,
0.11026453971862793,
0.25143125653266907,
-0.6622488498687744,
-0.2725599706172943,
0.009646398015320301,
0.6564411520957947,
0.5971753597259521,
0.24296043813228607,
-0.24062716960906982,
-0.24162565171718597,
-0.4878391921520233,
-0.6263153553009033,
-0.44472914934158325,
0.41294583678245544,
-0.09047875553369522,
-0.6067203283309937,
-0.46664363145828247,
0.40693163871765137,
0.10059782862663269,
0.4996396601200104,
-0.21830932796001434,
0.04830532521009445,
-0.1594296246767044,
0.008717196993529797,
-0.37691372632980347,
-0.26263055205345154,
-0.4488217830657959,
-0.0959029272198677,
0.4787069261074066,
0.09994008392095566,
0.07924238592386246,
0.32452625036239624,
0.6109815835952759,
-0.08751192688941956,
0.2739523649215698,
0.24131323397159576,
0.18168433010578156,
-0.1934834122657776,
0.27925020456314087,
-0.21652741730213165,
-0.4334633946418762,
0.001203975873067975,
-0.31903913617134094,
-0.4234524369239807,
0.45855140686035156,
-5.714519023895264,
0.25078511238098145,
-0.03984075412154198,
0.16135388612747192,
-0.16118919849395752,
-0.06900487840175629,
0.45233961939811707,
-0.13034933805465698,
0.10074208676815033,
-0.3883872330188751,
-0.3388557732105255,
0.03720652684569359,
0.0005428664735518396,
0.15881431102752686,
0.022991351783275604,
0.558491051197052,
0.47482672333717346,
0.29023516178131104,
0.24031475186347961,
0.5086002349853516,
0.10706876963376999,
0.17676909267902374,
-0.3322927951812744,
0.030276164412498474,
0.20399923622608185,
0.23656514286994934,
-0.7259107232093811,
0.1662284880876541,
-0.24533721804618835,
-0.12598584592342377,
0.35043787956237793,
-0.32169923186302185,
-0.24242037534713745,
-0.3197675347328186,
-0.19528421759605408,
0.2139965146780014,
0.3167404234409332,
0.3111690282821655,
0.13595393300056458,
-0.7466099262237549,
0.1162259504199028,
-0.05265282467007637,
-0.30649352073669434,
-0.35103821754455566,
0.29891014099121094,
-0.4330209195613861,
-0.14663520455360413,
0.18556992709636688,
-0.11321382969617844,
0.17418202757835388,
-0.71225506067276,
-0.17601130902767181,
0.10832568258047104,
0.060778263956308365,
-0.06980715692043304,
-0.22748899459838867,
0.1461200714111328,
0.3049728274345398,
-0.3660431206226349,
0.4927543103694916,
0.48413926362991333,
-0.8895015120506287,
0.2396385222673416,
-0.8114948272705078,
-0.3778880834579468,
0.043719515204429626,
-0.33224961161613464,
-0.6165850162506104,
0.34346723556518555,
0.772781491279602,
0.13415250182151794,
0.7223101258277893,
0.22488026320934296,
-0.7328135371208191,
0.2726987600326538,
-0.8609210848808289,
0.1063322052359581,
-0.17474518716335297,
-0.12055212259292603,
0.23860198259353638,
-0.20402683317661285,
-0.3131583631038666,
-0.4869132936000824,
-0.07467560470104218,
-0.4126921594142914,
-0.3557319939136505,
0.02152971178293228,
0.2049991488456726,
0.027162907645106316,
-0.0718216747045517,
0.4188583493232727,
-0.4869501292705536,
0.4226440489292145,
0.43055668473243713,
0.2973770201206207,
0.004081269260495901,
0.570051908493042,
0.11600486189126968,
0.34496206045150757,
-0.5007891654968262,
0.6158894300460815,
-0.2983468174934387,
-0.14930486679077148,
-0.777935266494751,
0.0905558243393898,
-0.3058527112007141,
-0.38914796710014343,
0.202621728181839,
0.9421529769897461,
0.4680328071117401,
-0.3590588867664337,
0.5468027591705322,
-0.4889666438102722,
-0.5364939570426941,
0.5098142027854919,
0.08252111822366714,
-0.21584489941596985,
0.1590951681137085,
0.6878119707107544,
-0.35888874530792236,
0.13536573946475983,
0.524084210395813,
0.15648126602172852,
-0.4861208498477936,
-0.3072323501110077,
-0.266278475522995,
0.2394317090511322,
0.09914342314004898,
-0.09829714149236679,
-0.2899247705936432,
0.6195132732391357,
0.43203115463256836,
-0.09493809938430786,
-0.06033749505877495,
-0.09016290307044983,
-0.5584416389465332,
-0.012696596793830395,
0.2692265212535858,
-0.13333316147327423,
-0.5572644472122192,
0.6802917718887329,
-0.14231707155704498,
-0.09028234332799911,
0.04235393926501274,
0.22783179581165314,
0.4453056752681732,
-0.34645792841911316,
0.17309658229351044,
0.3141306936740875,
-0.10859759151935577,
0.1413724422454834,
-0.09412112832069397,
0.046823546290397644,
-0.24564559757709503,
-0.38276904821395874,
0.19394344091415405,
0.1610575169324875,
0.0735817402601242,
0.26232320070266724,
-0.6171154379844666,
0.3293176293373108,
0.11672066152095795,
-1.2507569789886475,
-0.32161182165145874,
0.10537886619567871,
0.5280014276504517,
-0.4720129668712616,
-0.0007010746630840003,
-0.008252114057540894,
0.5571606755256653,
-0.3436444103717804,
-0.39934849739074707,
-0.5341500639915466,
-0.6265934705734253,
0.25757959485054016,
0.22008182108402252,
0.2088809758424759,
0.36945822834968567,
0.4033789038658142,
0.2934296131134033,
0.028081880882382393,
-0.8636347055435181,
-0.036751728504896164,
0.4957227408885956,
0.5294119715690613,
0.2602993845939636,
-0.21876278519630432,
0.6586961150169373,
-0.700627326965332,
-0.19745665788650513,
-0.15340782701969147,
-0.07750733196735382,
0.7066577076911926,
0.5161690711975098,
0.07567992061376572,
-0.6111471056938171,
0.051339041441679,
0.5847753286361694,
0.029213132336735725,
-0.7954418063163757,
-0.02369607239961624,
1.0935781002044678,
-0.565136194229126,
0.59759122133255,
-0.2885773777961731,
-0.24564729630947113,
0.05402184650301933,
-0.5325812697410583,
-0.1474776417016983,
0.11644430458545685,
-0.14380693435668945,
-0.06348443031311035,
-0.06515887379646301,
-0.16465187072753906,
-0.13499680161476135,
0.3937166631221771,
-0.034626591950654984,
0.06017540767788887,
0.01252333726733923,
-0.09881917387247086,
-0.24119679629802704,
-0.30232691764831543,
0.14622128009796143,
0.42921870946884155,
-0.2774166166782379,
-0.004914035554975271,
0.10322923958301544,
-0.663347601890564,
-0.08142485469579697,
0.2776966989040375,
0.059934861958026886,
-0.16249267756938934,
0.08945461362600327,
0.09746386855840683,
-0.31736889481544495,
-0.6174734830856323,
0.14177262783050537,
0.6429749131202698,
-0.03183261305093765,
-0.36640381813049316,
0.39137089252471924,
0.6071451902389526,
-0.30429619550704956,
-0.5166714787483215,
0.052843671292066574,
0.22453555464744568,
0.18185028433799744,
-0.49697577953338623,
-0.5689505934715271,
0.17079217731952667,
0.24845831096172333,
-0.4578595757484436,
-0.1838330179452896,
-0.31209293007850647,
1.0477911233901978,
0.3825410306453705,
0.20996499061584473,
-0.8170188665390015,
-0.3116641640663147,
0.3440810441970825,
0.14921049773693085,
0.2647896707057953,
-0.08891534805297852,
0.10524847358465195,
0.3721103072166443,
-0.1323596090078354,
0.06080038100481033,
0.061988841742277145,
0.7404024600982666,
-0.373517781496048,
-0.14760790765285492,
0.07047080248594284,
0.35370874404907227,
1.3404185771942139,
0.4637167453765869,
-0.05870499089360237,
0.028862815350294113,
-0.5329316854476929,
0.027808943763375282,
0.3085612952709198,
-0.35112977027893066,
-0.4487607777118683,
0.5368505716323853,
-0.2793480455875397,
0.03285707160830498,
-0.35753846168518066,
0.1341121792793274,
0.5997828841209412,
-0.07776141166687012,
-0.49489495158195496,
-0.2260555922985077,
0.26013484597206116,
-0.3532910645008087,
-0.17609941959381104,
-0.5073251724243164,
0.24410377442836761,
-0.1941252201795578,
-0.12261246144771576,
0.0051912241615355015,
-0.2762565016746521,
-0.9063882827758789,
1.0606188774108887,
0.22901654243469238,
-0.7664716839790344,
0.9585664868354797,
0.10001780837774277,
0.15694302320480347,
0.03213019296526909,
0.14834578335285187,
-0.5981974005699158,
0.10952592641115189,
-0.2782224714756012,
0.2406541407108307,
0.34700995683670044,
-0.3114888370037079,
-0.18439140915870667,
-0.14216358959674835,
-0.005576409865170717,
0.2536868453025818,
0.05568721517920494,
0.4230164587497711,
0.22672337293624878,
0.7940666675567627,
-0.05628544092178345,
-0.5598911643028259,
0.15389753878116608,
-0.26488709449768066,
-0.7212584018707275,
0.3322811722755432,
0.027205994352698326,
0.5235656499862671,
-0.06951611489057541,
-0.6077417731285095,
0.3625498116016388,
0.11595764756202698,
0.03422018513083458,
0.07992570847272873,
0.05648023262619972,
-0.4438306987285614,
0.3589380979537964,
0.13356436789035797,
0.7476181387901306,
0.017467832192778587,
0.19454748928546906,
-0.6363909840583801,
0.5555108785629272,
-0.2167525291442871,
0.2925646901130676,
-0.05462288856506348,
0.1683335155248642,
0.1504082977771759,
0.1101931557059288,
0.18480359017848969,
0.04321390017867088,
-0.5337309837341309,
-0.197559654712677,
0.2367740273475647,
-0.3175661265850067,
-0.11873765289783478,
-0.3371995687484741,
0.23414158821105957,
0.13478584587574005,
0.38557755947113037,
-0.11359142512083054,
-0.18199396133422852,
0.37264055013656616,
0.19486019015312195,
-0.2184729427099228,
0.05071939155459404,
-0.3480736017227173,
-0.4865998923778534,
0.40739157795906067,
-0.2198372632265091,
0.569197952747345,
0.17709074914455414,
-0.287761926651001,
-0.10762068629264832,
0.6216751337051392,
-0.4257047474384308,
0.09076716005802155,
-0.11489789932966232,
-0.2049698531627655,
0.21590067446231842,
-0.6864967942237854,
0.05178191512823105,
-0.2608509957790375,
0.2067250907421112,
0.06889250874519348,
0.5249093174934387,
0.0069205076433718204,
-0.026179494336247444,
-0.5294939875602722,
-0.0667131245136261,
-0.05324680730700493,
0.34184500575065613,
0.1275678277015686,
-0.42439183592796326,
1.271987795829773,
0.28558549284935,
-0.07347127050161362,
-0.4454158544540405,
0.05282385274767876,
-0.13492445647716522,
0.18688267469406128,
-0.7735631465911865,
-0.03705478459596634,
-0.2882927358150482,
0.06584044545888901,
-0.5518276691436768,
0.34130600094795227,
0.6849178075790405,
-0.21329247951507568,
-0.2780972123146057,
0.12221723794937134,
-0.20049719512462616,
0.8561304807662964,
0.24364127218723297,
-0.1924494504928589,
0.14508385956287384,
0.2408735454082489,
-0.07690957188606262,
0.37363147735595703,
0.6433350443840027,
0.19688495993614197,
0.024536125361919403,
-0.10926559567451477,
0.41450420022010803,
0.04169841110706329,
-0.09413021057844162,
0.21391364932060242,
-0.08588498830795288,
0.375505268573761,
-0.5342347621917725,
0.9285533428192139,
-0.728683352470398,
0.17972630262374878,
0.26392728090286255,
-0.041461165994405746,
-0.390015572309494,
-0.2568344473838806,
-0.5205180644989014,
-0.6648468971252441,
-0.12953461706638336,
-0.11276080459356308,
-1.7783054113388062,
-0.13048426806926727,
-0.09941574931144714,
-0.7820267081260681,
-0.5651811361312866,
0.4981589913368225,
0.37656575441360474,
-0.3663157522678375,
0.044248562306165695,
-0.07273176312446594,
-0.39191731810569763,
1.0727365016937256,
0.023745162412524223,
-0.7946451902389526,
-0.3415355980396271,
0.41037479043006897
] |
234880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loriini | Loriini | Loriini is a tribe of small to medium-sized arboreal parrots characterized by their specialized brush-tipped tongues for feeding on nectar of various blossoms and soft fruits, preferably berries. The species form a monophyletic group within the parrot family Psittacidae. The group consist of the lories and lorikeets. Traditionally, they were considered a separate subfamily (Loriinae) from the other subfamily (Psittacinae) based on the specialized characteristics, but recent molecular and morphological studies show that the group is positioned in the middle of various other groups. They are widely distributed throughout the Australasian region, including south-eastern Asia, Polynesia, Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste and Australia, and the majority have very brightly coloured plumage.
Etymology
The word "lory" comes from the Malay lūri, a name used for a number of species of colourful parrots. The name was used by the Dutch writer Johan Nieuhof in 1682 in a book describing his travels in the East Indies. The spelling "laurey" was used by English naturalist Eleazar Albin in 1731 for a species of parrot from Brazil, and then in 1751 the English naturalist George Edwards used the spelling "lory" when introducing names for five species of parrot from the East Indies in the fourth volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Edwards credited Nieuhof for the name.
The usage of the terms "lory" and "lorikeet" is subjective, like the usage of "parrot" and "parakeet". Species with longer tapering tails are generally referred to as "lorikeets", while species with short blunt tails are generally referred to as "lories".
Taxonomy
Traditionally, lories and lorikeets have either been classified as the subfamily, Loriinae, or as a family on their own, Loriidae, but they are currently classified as a tribe. Neither traditional view is confirmed by molecular studies. Those studies show that the lories and lorikeets form a single group, closely related to the budgerigar and the fig parrots (Cyclopsitta and Psittaculirostris).
A comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study of the Loriini published in 2020 led to major changes in the generic boundaries. The reorganisation involved the resurrection of four genera: Charminetta, Hypocharmosyna, Charmosynopsis and Glossoptilus, as well as the erection of three entirely new genera: Synorhacma, Charmosynoides and Saudareos. One genus disappeared, as the collared lory, which had previously been placed in the monotypic genus Phigys, was found to be embedded in the genus Vini. The extinct New Caledonian lorikeet, although not sampled, was assumed to be a member of the genus Vini on plumage and biogeographic grounds. The tribe Loriini now contains 61 species divided into 19 genera.
Genera
Morphology
Lories and lorikeets have specialized brush-tipped tongues for feeding on nectar and soft fruits. They can feed from the flowers of about 5,000 species of plants and use their specialized tongues to take the nectar. The tip of their tongues have tufts of papillae (extremely fine hairs), which collect nectar and pollen.
The multi-coloured rainbow lorikeet was one of the species of parrots appearing in the first edition of The Parrots of the World and also in John Gould's lithographs of the Birds of Australia. Then and now, lories and lorikeets are described as some of the most beautiful species of parrot.
Diet
In the wild, rainbow lorikeets feed mainly on pollen and nectar, and possess a tongue adapted especially for their particular diet. Many fruit orchard owners consider them a pest, as they often fly in groups and strip trees containing fresh fruit. They are also frequent visitors at bird feeders that supply lorikeet-friendly treats, such as store-bought nectar, sunflower seeds, and fruits such as apples, grapes and pears. Occasionally they have been observed feeding on meat.
Conservation
The ultramarine lorikeet is endangered. It is now one of the 50 rarest birds in the world. The blue lorikeet is classified as vulnerable. The introduction of European rats to the small island habitats of these birds is a major cause of their endangerment. Various conservation efforts have been made to relocate some of these birds to locations free of predation and habitat destruction.
In literature
A "Lory" famously appears in Chapter III of Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Alice argues with the Lory about its age.
Gallery
References
External links
ARKive - images and movies of the blue lorikeet/tahitian lory (Vini peruviana)
Taxa named by Prideaux John Selby | [
-0.20125223696231842,
-0.10954409837722778,
-0.2827305495738983,
0.27596959471702576,
-0.11658725887537003,
1.0277577638626099,
0.5059333443641663,
0.12949198484420776,
-0.7681143283843994,
0.14207737147808075,
-0.17489992082118988,
0.14946146309375763,
-0.3226800262928009,
0.042987119406461716,
-0.5674299001693726,
0.4421888291835785,
0.4477243721485138,
0.46129539608955383,
0.3351173400878906,
-0.42509621381759644,
-0.3944645822048187,
-0.5896947383880615,
0.4550253450870514,
-0.6278085112571716,
0.5431385040283203,
0.5026900768280029,
-0.1720951944589615,
1.041676640510559,
0.39835652709007263,
0.02690109796822071,
0.10911176353693008,
0.5999311804771423,
0.5236204266548157,
-0.2977150082588196,
0.11063412576913834,
0.22770307958126068,
0.010831995867192745,
-0.5282611846923828,
-0.16336099803447723,
-0.814483642578125,
0.6162109375,
-0.19221925735473633,
-0.16471005976200104,
0.21313250064849854,
-0.6053617000579834,
-0.3356117606163025,
-1.264742374420166,
0.35015642642974854,
-0.24727608263492584,
0.2701634466648102,
-0.47077807784080505,
0.1993975192308426,
0.4638242721557617,
-0.2676599621772766,
0.14870978891849518,
0.44489404559135437,
-0.9356285929679871,
0.09228192269802094,
-0.07418360561132431,
-0.539939820766449,
-0.32324251532554626,
-0.033172816038131714,
0.24592959880828857,
-0.09325023740530014,
-0.09317456185817719,
0.5964945554733276,
0.42991024255752563,
0.008943558670580387,
-0.4917481243610382,
0.28141698241233826,
0.2792116701602936,
-0.430441290140152,
-0.15121060609817505,
0.6087678670883179,
-0.5213863253593445,
-0.5838817954063416,
-0.33537033200263977,
0.2796759009361267,
0.8274922966957092,
0.6217566132545471,
0.22628304362297058,
0.7657977938652039,
0.8901097774505615,
-0.03785504773259163,
0.07306740432977676,
0.2682904005050659,
-0.2741120457649231,
-0.024679409340023994,
-0.18896888196468353,
-0.3282354772090912,
-0.6561030745506287,
-0.2757149040699005,
0.3520682752132416,
0.633694589138031,
-0.35410845279693604,
-0.7247402667999268,
-0.5534243583679199,
-0.29824262857437134,
0.213390052318573,
0.17120733857154846,
-0.40132176876068115,
0.09398189932107925,
0.2725221514701843,
0.16295701265335083,
-0.8606550693511963,
-0.24459539353847504,
-0.5222801566123962,
-0.17980068922042847,
-0.6463688015937805,
0.040030911564826965,
-0.8487588167190552,
-0.05492278188467026,
0.25714170932769775,
0.1215861365199089,
0.29557904601097107,
0.734818696975708,
0.1907227784395218,
-0.36847469210624695,
-0.3065471053123474,
-0.2396448701620102,
0.7627520561218262,
0.3172370195388794,
0.12443731725215912,
0.15936867892742157,
0.07662877440452576,
0.0509604848921299,
0.464627742767334,
0.36088070273399353,
-0.37497127056121826,
0.34552115201950073,
0.24191732704639435,
0.6891953945159912,
-0.3272560238838196,
0.13245050609111786,
0.3484976589679718,
-0.7092130780220032,
-0.21557903289794922,
0.1620669960975647,
1.0169448852539062,
0.6738141179084778,
-0.6442356109619141,
0.2432585507631302,
-0.533733069896698,
-0.6878523826599121,
0.27887237071990967,
0.008655402809381485,
-0.03699732571840286,
-0.000696266652084887,
-0.8120953440666199,
-0.7185290455818176,
-0.21327780187129974,
0.049730055034160614,
-0.10530250519514084,
0.0891595408320427,
-0.30451586842536926,
-0.4117926359176636,
0.7493349313735962,
-0.44247865676879883,
0.8443253040313721,
-0.34007903933525085,
-0.30429476499557495,
0.17682063579559326,
-0.6470297574996948,
-0.11530431360006332,
0.08212533593177795,
0.2928141951560974,
-0.1168048158288002,
0.9026313424110413,
0.08893178403377533,
0.3857261836528778,
-0.0012902446324005723,
0.24343499541282654,
0.06924261897802353,
0.21273602545261383,
0.15324853360652924,
-0.6710451245307922,
-0.18215544521808624,
0.1816171407699585,
0.5424497127532959,
0.018471894785761833,
-0.8007118701934814,
0.54198157787323,
-0.4317304790019989,
-0.11318445950746536,
-0.6454737186431885,
0.537071168422699,
0.08768436312675476,
0.37291350960731506,
-0.016240887343883514,
-0.386060506105423,
-0.3578101098537445,
0.048629481345415115,
-0.07267072051763535,
-0.1804807037115097,
0.18739783763885498,
0.1787126511335373,
-0.12771712243556976,
0.6721051931381226,
-0.14972679316997528,
0.4726085662841797,
-0.3833360970020294,
-0.17969143390655518,
0.2342831790447235,
-0.07124244421720505,
-1.4184876680374146,
0.14111678302288055,
-0.2937949001789093,
0.35835203528404236,
0.3185955882072449,
-0.00891393143683672,
-0.3089436888694763,
-0.04738722741603851,
-0.14042502641677856,
0.21712379157543182,
0.03331104665994644,
-0.10689005255699158,
-0.6452456116676331,
0.5748212933540344,
0.43226203322410583,
-0.7062970995903015,
0.7172237634658813,
-0.25341686606407166,
0.21309004724025726,
0.38773417472839355,
-0.020267320796847343,
0.768943727016449,
0.9624958038330078,
-0.26810482144355774,
0.668428897857666,
-0.2416578084230423,
0.06243543326854706,
-0.416421502828598,
0.12573134899139404,
-0.6448712944984436,
-0.5268641114234924,
0.025854475796222687,
0.08060845732688904,
-0.955756425857544,
0.6410145163536072,
-0.48021161556243896,
-0.005394785664975643,
-0.1510947346687317,
-0.13249929249286652,
0.48221468925476074,
0.840935230255127,
-0.852920651435852,
-0.23952315747737885,
0.26479876041412354,
-0.48051145672798157,
-0.02279927209019661,
0.07739659398794174,
1.1625735759735107,
0.2319686859846115,
-0.25507140159606934,
-0.1562429964542389,
0.39810073375701904,
0.16505080461502075,
0.5217421054840088,
0.20556481182575226,
0.17657826840877533,
-0.1608206182718277,
0.42349302768707275,
-0.2897476255893707,
-0.12062875181436539,
-0.15775828063488007,
-0.31150728464126587,
0.12341433763504028,
-0.4480583667755127,
0.9982298612594604,
0.47544145584106445,
0.1787804365158081,
-0.36531805992126465,
-0.4917023777961731,
0.06156746298074722,
-0.639020562171936,
-0.9020931720733643,
-0.41336312890052795,
0.07637026160955429,
-0.6066110730171204,
-0.5508986711502075,
0.141664519906044,
0.46937867999076843,
0.316221684217453,
-0.21214324235916138,
-0.5560681819915771,
-0.07632309198379517,
0.45374101400375366,
-0.766447901725769,
-0.04574718326330185,
-0.9009739756584167,
-0.02729802578687668,
-0.1338079273700714,
-0.3706308901309967,
0.5240477919578552,
-1.1437840461730957,
-0.054563965648412704,
0.20845240354537964,
0.975188672542572,
0.5533940196037292,
-0.713251531124115,
-0.4608651399612427,
-0.09088010340929031,
0.42596179246902466,
-0.20146359503269196,
0.03164784237742424,
0.08072932809591293,
0.47929754853248596,
0.07042229175567627,
-5.532501697540283,
-0.10109695792198181,
0.021483246237039566,
0.025139324367046356,
0.5097312927246094,
0.6309323310852051,
0.5393767356872559,
-0.5593370199203491,
0.25786739587783813,
0.5227847099304199,
0.23429621756076813,
0.38326936960220337,
-0.3072764277458191,
-0.36654147505760193,
0.19578854739665985,
-0.00013250501069705933,
-0.7158589959144592,
-0.06783048808574677,
0.2562561631202698,
-0.13355936110019684,
-0.07545041292905807,
0.1728794127702713,
0.2860220968723297,
0.3230731785297394,
0.044905830174684525,
-0.11887097358703613,
0.40567195415496826,
-1.0650585889816284,
-0.4865088164806366,
-0.09686873108148575,
-0.5926902294158936,
0.19319337606430054,
-0.10345577448606491,
0.08213640749454498,
-0.3116128444671631,
0.009947366081178188,
0.7669204473495483,
0.5124533176422119,
0.07179431617259979,
0.23879463970661163,
-0.49332189559936523,
-0.3696497976779938,
0.510559618473053,
-0.4184497594833374,
0.34760427474975586,
0.1744220107793808,
-0.2660585343837738,
-0.7848084568977356,
0.01699368841946125,
0.8233150243759155,
0.041783083230257034,
-0.196912482380867,
0.5640553832054138,
0.7170645594596863,
0.6108946204185486,
-0.10198716819286346,
0.7291309237480164,
0.03700210526585579,
-0.07499951124191284,
0.43023696541786194,
0.6101749539375305,
-0.21926608681678772,
-0.3578171133995056,
-0.6868121027946472,
0.18633154034614563,
0.2651219964027405,
-0.42804083228111267,
0.43070268630981445,
0.2046203911304474,
-0.2255236655473709,
-0.34630051255226135,
-0.5457074642181396,
-0.5734232068061829,
-1.0524723529815674,
0.6937929391860962,
-0.7876625061035156,
-0.31988024711608887,
-0.020201753824949265,
-0.4460262358188629,
0.4053729176521301,
0.384333997964859,
-0.5051276683807373,
-0.21145927906036377,
0.04231259971857071,
0.37441325187683105,
-1.1477534770965576,
-0.4410984218120575,
-0.48087435960769653,
0.02451680786907673,
0.07026228308677673,
0.20255213975906372,
-0.27114230394363403,
0.23187126219272614,
-0.11974798887968063,
0.8285179734230042,
0.7604034543037415,
0.2736474275588989,
0.41347500681877136,
0.2910301387310028,
0.001918008434586227,
0.4099283814430237,
0.09338690340518951,
-0.18479515612125397,
0.23578064143657684,
0.4723542630672455,
-0.6579510569572449,
-0.07236971706151962,
0.0771409198641777,
0.7994840145111084,
-0.013319212943315506,
0.3593723475933075,
-0.6233729124069214,
-0.4777427911758423,
-0.13427987694740295,
0.07709845900535583,
-0.18459564447402954,
0.06395907700061798,
0.4210641384124756,
0.4914049208164215,
0.021907823160290718,
-0.1397189199924469,
-0.2203071415424347,
-0.3167009949684143,
0.5377846360206604,
-0.03292343392968178,
-0.11629680544137955,
-0.2972795069217682,
0.4053495526313782,
-0.46636533737182617,
-0.45653393864631653,
-0.053184978663921356,
-0.8376697897911072,
-0.3573620915412903,
-0.5098350644111633,
-0.08841971307992935,
0.43337374925613403,
0.3719215989112854,
-0.0892176553606987,
0.16842107474803925,
-0.5013492703437805,
-0.47220468521118164,
-0.288990318775177,
-0.7851516604423523,
0.40056225657463074,
0.5700013637542725,
0.3122574985027313,
-0.10978958010673523,
-0.6121780276298523,
0.002411584835499525,
1.1248886585235596,
0.6180188059806824,
-0.17187950015068054,
0.3542669117450714,
-0.1030479297041893,
-0.03045366145670414,
-0.09372107684612274,
0.6747152209281921,
0.19619028270244598,
-0.211632639169693,
0.06161690503358841,
-0.4051877558231354,
-0.1755562275648117,
-0.4736095070838928,
0.02032851241528988,
0.27573949098587036,
-0.3837726414203644,
-0.575713038444519,
-0.2831812798976898,
-0.2907252907752991,
0.12667272984981537,
0.4022996127605438,
0.0004854665894526988,
-0.5424356460571289,
0.13933128118515015,
0.09295602142810822,
-0.38168027997016907,
-0.009814339689910412,
0.4398391842842102,
-0.48559921979904175,
0.12939131259918213,
-0.38039150834083557,
-0.11361799389123917,
0.4926190674304962,
0.11588265746831894,
0.7432961463928223,
-0.6452326774597168,
0.31941619515419006,
-0.6819508671760559,
-0.3439551591873169,
0.1590813547372818,
0.4631139636039734,
0.358392596244812,
0.174796923995018,
-0.2590131461620331,
-0.26588305830955505,
0.0738956481218338,
-0.5331019163131714,
0.7904842495918274,
-0.21920669078826904,
-0.7079781889915466,
-0.5905325412750244,
-0.10362137854099274,
0.001909357262775302,
0.044534094631671906,
0.21520771086215973,
-0.4537331163883209,
0.740269660949707,
-0.1136823445558548,
-0.4721945524215698,
-0.3621901869773865,
0.04245665669441223,
-0.39109185338020325,
0.030435800552368164,
0.6014413237571716,
-0.27764177322387695,
0.0836973637342453,
-0.34181690216064453,
0.010482731275260448,
-0.3614141047000885,
-0.16401508450508118,
0.043299563229084015,
-0.4039574861526489,
0.4716552793979645,
-0.6525471210479736,
-0.3972882032394409,
0.3134657144546509,
0.06731795519590378,
-0.40037089586257935,
0.32431066036224365,
-0.5815471410751343,
-0.4619114398956299,
-0.6627680659294128,
0.035753414034843445,
-0.31335365772247314,
-0.7218487858772278,
0.07076755166053772,
-0.3845667839050293,
-0.16012513637542725,
0.20004989206790924,
0.48295706510543823,
0.08981422334909439,
0.8703805208206177,
-0.006959203165024519,
-0.2520807981491089,
-0.28981226682662964,
0.18440461158752441,
-0.33956125378608704,
-0.4152489900588989,
-0.5049824118614197,
-0.23142951726913452,
0.4144042730331421,
0.24799548089504242,
0.13475649058818817,
0.05441983416676521,
0.8668810725212097,
0.0432797335088253,
0.023942716419696808,
-0.06374561786651611,
-0.008884373120963573,
0.2005462795495987,
-0.12153945118188858,
-0.0413430817425251,
-0.49319785833358765,
-0.010606443509459496,
-0.20228376984596252,
0.28836867213249207,
-0.9629985690116882,
-0.08505865186452866,
0.5403826832771301,
-0.3051326870918274,
0.399422287940979,
0.22969476878643036,
-0.13264396786689758,
-0.034560658037662506,
0.19728372991085052,
0.3322224020957947,
0.11931632459163666,
-0.4301333427429199,
-0.08039558678865433,
0.05526610463857651,
-0.4816419184207916,
-0.10324817895889282,
-0.2809790372848511,
0.25681188702583313,
0.17558029294013977,
-0.417942613363266,
-0.4433399736881256,
-0.01752312295138836,
-0.15036380290985107,
-0.049168072640895844,
-0.6713199615478516,
0.4101678431034088,
0.03945931792259216,
0.4375285506248474,
0.316451758146286,
-0.017819048836827278,
0.11206339299678802,
0.3053177297115326,
-0.6081791520118713,
0.6374038457870483,
-0.5303376317024231,
0.3699610233306885,
0.48252198100090027,
-0.2878415584564209,
0.21149657666683197,
-0.004542969167232513,
0.04633263871073723,
0.15533548593521118,
-0.30149245262145996,
-0.13114693760871887,
0.40132439136505127,
0.10927058011293411,
0.1329638957977295,
0.02150762639939785,
0.3063980042934418,
0.6806448101997375,
0.24389657378196716,
-0.3839569091796875,
0.5204029083251953,
0.7477700710296631,
0.8290679454803467,
0.1258436143398285,
0.32744845747947693,
0.33667489886283875,
-0.25998198986053467,
0.0500175878405571,
-0.38157427310943604,
-0.15787123143672943,
0.2525176703929901,
0.5576562881469727,
0.5667747855186462,
0.22365348041057587,
-0.27359214425086975,
-0.20761285722255707,
-0.14478588104248047,
-0.5877640247344971,
-0.29566171765327454,
-0.47042515873908997,
-0.2663293182849884,
1.0686275959014893,
1.3033372163772583,
0.7742266058921814,
0.2103806883096695,
-0.1422554850578308,
0.15112720429897308,
0.17108285427093506,
0.22605068981647491,
0.44844260811805725,
0.32437583804130554,
0.08030412346124649,
0.043208036571741104,
0.41255655884742737,
0.2386455237865448,
-0.286342591047287,
0.6970123052597046,
0.1818440854549408,
-0.006414190866053104,
-0.14125066995620728,
0.28482311964035034,
-0.055857233703136444,
-0.0817556381225586,
0.0007226999732665718,
-0.10141818970441818,
0.1235961988568306,
-0.6590949296951294,
0.024740979075431824,
-0.5709221363067627,
-0.005839231424033642,
-0.15726742148399353,
-0.20152801275253296,
0.10649055242538452,
0.1455584615468979,
-0.32918840646743774,
0.009976520203053951,
0.24424463510513306,
0.45021578669548035,
0.01914854906499386,
0.1672440767288208,
-0.09638559818267822,
0.048010144382715225,
-0.3921561539173126,
-0.1967383772134781,
0.4082258641719818,
-0.48591193556785583,
0.7399371862411499,
0.18745547533035278,
0.2908715307712555,
0.05982198193669319,
-0.11235537379980087,
0.11526951193809509,
0.06243601813912392,
-0.5926504731178284,
0.318528950214386,
0.06576597690582275,
-0.005383639130741358,
-0.03114801086485386,
0.0955161526799202,
0.5233086347579956,
0.30567318201065063,
-0.16603006422519684,
-0.01944609358906746,
0.11879696696996689,
-0.04124528542160988,
-0.18082256615161896,
0.1761956512928009,
0.1577955037355423,
-0.41683897376060486,
-0.03890753909945488,
-0.9965685606002808,
0.06406036019325256,
0.6371877789497375,
0.37389835715293884,
0.2094290554523468,
-0.11756765097379684,
0.04165898635983467,
-0.23825190961360931,
0.3959573805332184,
-0.07266134023666382,
0.09032856673002243,
-0.2967351973056793,
-0.21695229411125183,
-0.469323992729187,
0.4828322231769562,
0.49452733993530273,
0.2954199016094208,
-0.3734739422798157,
0.10673078894615173,
-0.13602572679519653,
-1.161942481994629,
0.27225565910339355,
0.09554804116487503,
0.3224400579929352,
-0.06703517585992813,
0.16755184531211853,
-0.2214987725019455,
-0.28131821751594543,
0.09294876456260681,
0.5374371409416199,
0.5054450035095215,
-0.3060169816017151,
0.011462582275271416,
0.16672278940677643,
0.6508753895759583,
-0.2013268917798996,
0.14838522672653198,
0.3005515933036804,
-0.2632223963737488,
-0.7520713210105896,
-0.9940574169158936,
-0.153074249625206,
-0.17926527559757233,
-0.22519038617610931,
0.11595746129751205,
-0.611861526966095,
-0.2999304234981537,
0.4776311218738556,
0.06825526058673859,
0.12565580010414124,
-0.14667637646198273,
0.3099346160888672
] |
234883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HST | HST | HST may refer to:
Science and technology
Harvard–MIT Program of Health Sciences and Technology
The history of science and technology
High-speed telegraphy, a radiosport
High-Speed Transfer, a USRobotics modem protocol
Highstand systems tract, in the sequence stratigraphy branch of geology
The Hubble Space Telescope
Transportation
Helsinki City Transport (Swedish: )
Heritage Shunters Trust, an English rail preservation society
InterCity 125 or High Speed Train, UK
High Street (Glasgow) railway station, Scotland, station code
Other uses
Half-Square or Half Square Triangle a block in quilting
Harmonized sales tax, in Canada
Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time (UTC−10)
Hegemonic stability theory, in international relations
Helicopter support team, in the United States Marine Corps
High Sierra Trail, in California, United States
Holden Street Theatres, Adelaide, Australia
Homestead Air Reserve Base, Florida, US, IATA code
Hospital Santo Tomas, in Panama City, Panama
Harry S. Truman, President of the United States
Hunter S. Thompson, American journalist and author | [
0.4572324752807617,
0.2345762997865677,
0.3413655757904053,
0.4965447783470154,
0.3504803776741028,
0.09512359648942947,
0.0797865092754364,
0.21186506748199463,
-0.09221113473176956,
-0.4398747980594635,
-0.691123902797699,
0.39444032311439514,
0.1023549735546112,
0.23159559071063995,
0.02329903654754162,
0.14937913417816162,
0.4387219250202179,
0.18964475393295288,
-0.5468436479568481,
-0.14750531315803528,
-0.33161020278930664,
0.005348557606339455,
0.5321263074874878,
-0.4132212996482849,
0.05719524621963501,
-0.022091707214713097,
-0.1835644394159317,
-0.1990664154291153,
0.029040521010756493,
0.4079030752182007,
0.23146896064281464,
0.24982401728630066,
-0.371861070394516,
0.31271129846572876,
0.10011765360832214,
-0.18057315051555634,
-0.12700331211090088,
-0.1514998972415924,
0.009772269055247307,
-0.7003031373023987,
0.212322399020195,
-0.25995224714279175,
0.1353590041399002,
-0.1072620376944542,
-0.6983097791671753,
-0.06881862878799438,
-1.715354561805725,
0.3978033661842346,
-0.6460188627243042,
0.30655619502067566,
0.08705063909292221,
0.3615264892578125,
0.14679166674613953,
0.4149360656738281,
-0.04051198065280914,
0.5183068513870239,
-0.20578983426094055,
-0.24311503767967224,
0.52727872133255,
-0.5281485319137573,
0.6018412709236145,
0.0018912842497229576,
-0.44040611386299133,
0.6125788688659668,
0.3241927921772003,
-0.6849398612976074,
-0.014938692562282085,
-0.2819652855396271,
-0.24582013487815857,
-0.4287245273590088,
0.351607084274292,
-0.46462664008140564,
0.04067439213395119,
0.1972784698009491,
-0.29370543360710144,
-0.14897866547107697,
-0.475270539522171,
-0.05770944431424141,
-0.24117887020111084,
-0.21645449101924896,
-0.31843122839927673,
0.20651733875274658,
0.3108096420764923,
0.12378819286823273,
0.5847389101982117,
0.2767448127269745,
-0.4454708993434906,
0.35545119643211365,
-0.6959667801856995,
0.7469871640205383,
0.4365006983280182,
-0.185214102268219,
0.5131861567497253,
-0.2677801251411438,
0.16017469763755798,
0.24449920654296875,
-0.11546863615512848,
-0.5207101702690125,
0.27592235803604126,
-0.2215992659330368,
-0.33729153871536255,
0.026050450280308723,
0.09442616254091263,
-0.16769768297672272,
-0.23183020949363708,
0.0784597098827362,
-0.10379201918840408,
-0.022981660440564156,
0.04529101401567459,
-0.6065381169319153,
-0.20235182344913483,
-0.46148890256881714,
0.06591116636991501,
0.6963748931884766,
-0.142213836312294,
-0.12245211750268936,
0.25815242528915405,
-0.15172304213047028,
-0.09352508932352066,
-0.04517873004078865,
-0.14277030527591705,
0.5037567615509033,
-0.0287636648863554,
-0.20077165961265564,
0.32478249073028564,
0.42669835686683655,
0.767244279384613,
0.35019710659980774,
-0.5394598245620728,
-0.3465571403503418,
0.12246077507734299,
0.5906293988227844,
-0.22701327502727509,
0.11339180916547775,
-0.15473422408103943,
0.12098629027605057,
-0.024609003216028214,
-0.39534738659858704,
0.2983015477657318,
0.7572915554046631,
-0.46294817328453064,
-0.42795535922050476,
-0.16962352395057678,
-0.21555645763874054,
0.21834366023540497,
-0.08215896040201187,
-0.2792876064777374,
-0.35689932107925415,
-0.14863541722297668,
0.08557670563459396,
-0.16479749977588654,
0.09490278363227844,
-0.3237251937389374,
0.17793436348438263,
0.08850662410259247,
0.31232738494873047,
0.3103215992450714,
0.21161124110221863,
-0.3415736258029938,
0.07693731039762497,
-0.35270795226097107,
0.19579783082008362,
-0.2948584258556366,
0.04792339354753494,
0.18788737058639526,
-0.16868546605110168,
0.20588330924510956,
0.5334717035293579,
-0.4028601050376892,
-0.24839206039905548,
-0.05271115154027939,
-0.20521803200244904,
0.2363610863685608,
0.1648092418909073,
-0.3428737223148346,
0.31816786527633667,
0.39973247051239014,
0.15369845926761627,
0.2613338232040405,
0.18255187571048737,
-0.7088215947151184,
0.27558428049087524,
0.36150655150413513,
-0.03609124571084976,
0.35858580470085144,
-0.3143560588359833,
0.24659298360347748,
0.10166645795106888,
-0.4371342957019806,
-0.275915265083313,
-0.3895634412765503,
-0.4688013792037964,
0.21498069167137146,
-0.9933569431304932,
0.9539152383804321,
-0.15898099541664124,
-0.06382837891578674,
0.9171282052993774,
-0.09142965823411942,
0.24214504659175873,
-0.2730274498462677,
-0.009690877050161362,
0.5183068513870239,
-0.6462476253509521,
-0.27584108710289,
0.4506241977214813,
0.2797333896160126,
-0.14171677827835083,
-0.1592084765434265,
-0.5536562204360962,
0.21175909042358398,
-0.7791030406951904,
0.3991605341434479,
-0.07274074107408524,
0.27846211194992065,
-0.3955310583114624,
-0.3864206075668335,
0.32933831214904785,
-0.12697969377040863,
-0.236273393034935,
0.7668139338493347,
-0.12053202837705612,
0.29625195264816284,
0.3635554909706116,
-0.3033243715763092,
0.4000602662563324,
0.0625682845711708,
0.5634898543357849,
0.5865142941474915,
-0.44271114468574524,
-0.14502765238285065,
-0.43019935488700867,
-0.125515416264534,
-0.07324390858411789,
0.1414530724287033,
0.4360966384410858,
-0.011212105862796307,
-0.03979673236608505,
0.015491131693124771,
-0.31055891513824463,
-0.5211513042449951,
0.5795517563819885,
-0.39734211564064026,
0.1566586047410965,
0.33236706256866455,
-0.25786516070365906,
-0.07932598888874054,
-0.04530445858836174,
-0.24890834093093872,
-0.03795599937438965,
-0.2517329156398773,
0.43131333589553833,
-0.105534128844738,
-0.05809500440955162,
-0.24911528825759888,
-0.16876883804798126,
0.5230320692062378,
0.08482750505208969,
-0.2893824279308319,
-0.09969022125005722,
-0.36794617772102356,
-0.2633054554462433,
-0.25420448184013367,
-0.04508761316537857,
-0.16160078346729279,
-0.8549975752830505,
-0.5494396686553955,
-0.8047363758087158,
0.9139484167098999,
0.28843453526496887,
0.30228325724601746,
0.1165512427687645,
-0.030007362365722656,
-0.1368536651134491,
-0.5120325088500977,
-1.0729804039001465,
0.6017604470252991,
0.2942858040332794,
0.05130038037896156,
0.15517914295196533,
-0.08738909661769867,
0.3320901095867157,
0.3404812216758728,
-0.42317572236061096,
-0.11845435947179794,
0.2636513113975525,
-0.20273660123348236,
-0.23103214800357819,
0.1179429441690445,
-0.05120127275586128,
0.0669296383857727,
0.017182502895593643,
-0.0727464035153389,
-0.1113906130194664,
0.5651216506958008,
0.6108102798461914,
0.34838762879371643,
-0.18333907425403595,
-0.032027799636125565,
-0.0563276931643486,
-0.3508516550064087,
0.4737066924571991,
-0.11220505088567734,
0.22987040877342224,
0.46003761887550354,
0.006250946316868067,
-0.22400549054145813,
-0.34858107566833496,
-6.167903900146484,
-0.30196672677993774,
-0.031093010678887367,
-0.41505202651023865,
0.28590667247772217,
0.08640948683023453,
0.9861332178115845,
0.03654862940311432,
-0.09996693581342697,
-0.3036295771598816,
0.2479282170534134,
0.2800433039665222,
0.09969723224639893,
0.086497001349926,
0.47975239157676697,
0.13671347498893738,
0.07144585251808167,
-0.01760081574320793,
0.10147135704755783,
-0.09327840805053711,
-0.1580156683921814,
-0.0037513028364628553,
0.24904362857341766,
0.8870773911476135,
-0.1326025277376175,
-0.16612206399440765,
-0.7958154082298279,
0.24358297884464264,
-0.3036540150642395,
0.0677231028676033,
0.2807738184928894,
-0.17422765493392944,
0.18896454572677612,
0.25595104694366455,
0.12288819253444672,
-0.18131114542484283,
0.5864154100418091,
0.15245960652828217,
0.20041115581989288,
-0.22627821564674377,
0.0961383506655693,
0.7462957501411438,
0.050939157605171204,
-0.5100135803222656,
-0.2195458859205246,
-0.2830756604671478,
0.15213929116725922,
0.32610660791397095,
-0.17919810116291046,
0.5581696033477783,
-0.2681795358657837,
0.7119737863540649,
0.35285237431526184,
-0.3019670248031616,
-0.15423955023288727,
-0.21593627333641052,
0.22442162036895752,
0.5681797862052917,
0.016652271151542664,
0.07212214171886444,
-0.05075693503022194,
-0.16116569936275482,
0.19435913860797882,
-0.9338701963424683,
-0.316816508769989,
0.015885142609477043,
-0.6542239785194397,
-0.11916597187519073,
0.09595891088247299,
0.1519450843334198,
-0.5130618214607239,
0.1273355931043625,
0.06297595798969269,
-0.8589149117469788,
-0.06284575909376144,
-0.6664506793022156,
0.27767014503479004,
0.43745559453964233,
0.09233167767524719,
0.3084361255168915,
-0.11148945242166519,
-0.06444583088159561,
-0.13324810564517975,
-0.17115014791488647,
0.2812681496143341,
-0.38594838976860046,
-0.26759451627731323,
-0.03293084353208542,
0.08670665323734283,
-0.3381372392177582,
0.6921870112419128,
-0.32268276810646057,
0.12850137054920197,
0.34295031428337097,
0.6482425332069397,
0.18378528952598572,
-0.29477739334106445,
0.3175192177295685,
0.13525605201721191,
-0.4192849099636078,
0.4193006157875061,
-0.18614763021469116,
0.21333934366703033,
-0.3478315472602844,
-0.6365589499473572,
-0.06537922471761703,
-0.332375168800354,
0.42086169123649597,
0.3839995265007019,
-0.08531038463115692,
-0.2028973400592804,
0.2781800627708435,
-0.29898980259895325,
-0.38302093744277954,
-0.03954329341650009,
-0.04859413206577301,
-0.71775221824646,
0.16594098508358002,
0.4857995808124542,
-0.1510627418756485,
0.19765271246433258,
0.21039922535419464,
-0.3572198450565338,
-0.044057805091142654,
0.21043020486831665,
-0.27856940031051636,
-0.036340050399303436,
0.3767766058444977,
0.3377821147441864,
-0.12539297342300415,
0.20140214264392853,
0.3629206418991089,
0.5904291272163391,
0.14240464568138123,
-0.0427798330783844,
0.09178060293197632,
-0.26462361216545105,
0.44910281896591187,
-0.13546326756477356,
-0.1732485294342041,
0.4323974549770355,
-0.12374000251293182,
-0.25594639778137207,
0.2874135673046112,
0.8417101502418518,
0.3944720923900604,
-0.3931729793548584,
-0.029480386525392532,
0.4036332368850708,
-0.12307000905275345,
0.058323707431554794,
-0.20787788927555084,
0.03078289143741131,
-0.08839914947748184,
0.040797967463731766,
0.09390256553888321,
-0.0807889774441719,
-0.06293857097625732,
-0.16637186706066132,
-0.25978466868400574,
0.1339634507894516,
0.22267261147499084,
-1.3682937622070312,
0.0386718288064003,
0.4439491033554077,
-0.044655393809080124,
-0.33724719285964966,
-0.5338029861450195,
-0.19081079959869385,
0.09445447474718094,
0.08565753698348999,
-0.606856107711792,
-0.47898006439208984,
-0.3756520450115204,
0.017357956618070602,
0.2718045711517334,
0.3480930030345917,
0.01848309487104416,
0.15076591074466705,
0.14157019555568695,
0.3724449574947357,
0.19865372776985168,
-0.00874935183674097,
0.6227179169654846,
0.02522287331521511,
-0.5751014947891235,
0.27950412034988403,
0.4610389173030853,
-0.05480755493044853,
0.24567930400371552,
0.19765277206897736,
-0.1630164235830307,
0.43937912583351135,
0.3633943796157837,
0.2819870710372925,
-0.45402994751930237,
0.25008702278137207,
0.4935998022556305,
0.12949343025684357,
-0.21551825106143951,
0.41221243143081665,
0.5441028475761414,
-0.2638470232486725,
0.17960476875305176,
0.04008207470178604,
-0.13442689180374146,
0.18389752507209778,
0.017443278804421425,
0.225378155708313,
-0.17282366752624512,
-0.6955294609069824,
-0.3687170147895813,
0.32178711891174316,
0.3681459426879883,
-0.26460888981819153,
-0.17157234251499176,
-0.00012622318172361702,
-0.1334071159362793,
-0.4766422212123871,
-0.40379753708839417,
0.23923459649085999,
0.4028904139995575,
-0.4856874644756317,
-0.06196872517466545,
-0.08374352008104324,
-0.11975529789924622,
0.11113307625055313,
-0.9779842495918274,
0.33725884556770325,
-0.18274258077144623,
-0.30332109332084656,
-0.05914372205734253,
-0.2628762423992157,
0.2318321019411087,
-0.024305136874318123,
-0.12699316442012787,
-0.10515405237674713,
0.005454818718135357,
0.2889135777950287,
-0.2678626477718353,
0.11759393662214279,
0.13024693727493286,
-0.011852245777845383,
-0.506852924823761,
-0.2160567343235016,
0.8249640464782715,
0.7164483666419983,
-0.37795931100845337,
-0.34075048565864563,
0.1759062558412552,
0.2530269920825958,
-0.48733609914779663,
-0.465661883354187,
-0.22456787526607513,
0.22194665670394897,
-0.19530028104782104,
-0.10783668607473373,
-0.5338298678398132,
0.2024097889661789,
0.1700548231601715,
-0.6497204303741455,
-0.3607788681983948,
-0.5286751389503479,
-0.25253283977508545,
0.22654268145561218,
0.31894248723983765,
-0.46959835290908813,
-0.46396756172180176,
-0.1394374817609787,
-0.20964139699935913,
0.3047415018081665,
-0.12135238945484161,
0.7330858111381531,
0.10371795296669006,
0.3658936619758606,
-0.36784470081329346,
-0.021796278655529022,
-0.1863274723291397,
-0.005279777105897665,
0.2003258615732193,
-0.14182278513908386,
-0.06941244751214981,
0.14100633561611176,
-0.316118448972702,
0.20810583233833313,
-0.532293975353241,
0.4434693455696106,
-0.1235676109790802,
-0.38218703866004944,
0.11001190543174744,
-0.39092063903808594,
-0.21722038090229034,
-0.4635133445262909,
0.051669955253601074,
-0.4850432276725769,
-0.2565491795539856,
0.0735083669424057,
0.17066070437431335,
-0.11918702721595764,
0.12138670682907104,
-0.8694833517074585,
0.3617524802684784,
0.4476627707481384,
-0.9340348839759827,
0.5438533425331116,
0.38647645711898804,
-0.010978484526276588,
-0.13100162148475647,
0.3984543979167938,
-0.45435208082199097,
0.30074161291122437,
-0.22448451817035675,
0.17311275005340576,
0.8888407945632935,
0.1687421351671219,
-0.19678601622581482,
0.21746982634067535,
-0.2224625051021576,
0.321275532245636,
0.3869013786315918,
0.19316276907920837,
0.48940330743789673,
0.42224541306495667,
-0.5145091414451599,
-0.20307953655719757,
0.4168991446495056,
0.21726547181606293,
-0.40411514043807983,
0.01012625452131033,
1.0373159646987915,
0.5547270774841309,
0.3067883849143982,
-0.22316476702690125,
0.6753249764442444,
0.11179336160421371,
-0.13423433899879456,
-0.20860634744167328,
-0.42429831624031067,
-0.3117492198944092,
0.5704411268234253,
0.7781545519828796,
0.00739792175590992,
-0.030843297019600868,
0.2733740508556366,
-0.27724966406822205,
0.21022434532642365,
0.24954800307750702,
0.07503882795572281,
0.015120657160878181,
-0.011342296376824379,
0.4580312669277191,
-0.13570503890514374,
0.028495974838733673,
0.10893935710191727,
0.1281740963459015,
-0.4148331880569458,
0.0911577045917511,
-0.24462731182575226,
0.2708192467689514,
-0.5408848524093628,
0.09009900689125061,
0.1985355019569397,
0.5256919860839844,
-0.22877956926822662,
0.012776865623891354,
-0.35156625509262085,
0.26811179518699646,
-0.4624256491661072,
0.16389963030815125,
-0.05218786373734474,
-0.034933943301439285,
0.7779633402824402,
-0.6274572014808655,
0.5214792490005493,
0.02507678233087063,
-0.04540396109223366,
0.294381320476532,
0.541422426700592,
0.25132712721824646,
0.024530328810214996,
-0.6187861561775208,
-0.20612981915473938,
0.02080966904759407,
-0.743223249912262,
0.12404241412878036,
-0.09938372671604156,
-0.06872843205928802,
0.009513437747955322,
-0.6184855699539185,
0.31928426027297974,
0.2637138366699219,
-0.4609125554561615,
0.20443342626094818,
-0.0190428514033556,
-0.3704170286655426,
-0.012877015396952629,
-0.42723092436790466,
0.26501572132110596,
0.06694742292165756,
0.4954240918159485,
-0.256488561630249,
-0.011361628770828247,
0.24529315531253815,
-0.28442320227622986,
-0.770343005657196,
-0.1936957836151123,
0.029497910290956497,
0.24866287410259247,
-0.3004107177257538,
0.24067671597003937,
0.8258834481239319,
-0.14943917095661163,
0.18367430567741394,
0.2536061108112335,
-0.37688103318214417,
0.20293502509593964,
0.3933038115501404,
0.3048586845397949,
0.25974997878074646,
0.03490787371993065,
-0.09010707587003708,
-0.2353835254907608,
0.6351121664047241,
0.15125514566898346,
-0.12491822987794876,
-0.3500173091888428,
0.3736751675605774,
0.38864606618881226,
-0.3577443063259125,
0.5801593065261841,
-0.14051713049411774,
0.15197961032390594,
-0.49075740575790405,
0.4457854926586151,
-0.38045674562454224,
-0.5615918636322021,
-0.5915790796279907,
0.09664473682641983,
0.15153491497039795,
-0.4704468250274658,
0.2923465967178345,
-0.06520995497703552,
-0.2931332290172577,
0.18311266601085663,
-0.6362899541854858,
0.19263456761837006,
0.03618011251091957,
-0.20363588631153107,
-0.5611259937286377,
0.1509869247674942,
0.4018562436103821,
-0.6821335554122925,
0.2769226133823395,
0.047918859869241714,
0.19121573865413666,
-0.347788006067276,
0.2306407392024994,
-0.3456410765647888,
0.2753365933895111,
0.05044792219996452
] |
234884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TenDRA%20Distribution%20Format | TenDRA Distribution Format | The abstract machine TDF (originally the Ten15 Distribution Format, but more recently redefined as the TenDRA Distribution Format) evolved at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment in the UK as a successor to Ten15. Its design allowed support for the C programming language. TDF is the basis for the Architecture Neutral Distribution Format.
External links
A Guide to the TDF Specification, Issue 4.0 (retrieved on 24 October 2007)
Executable file formats
History of computing in the United Kingdom
Malvern, Worcestershire
Science and technology in Worcestershire | [
0.1902329921722412,
-0.41979461908340454,
0.5161793231964111,
-0.1064281240105629,
-0.8347068428993225,
-0.05880379304289818,
-0.30880725383758545,
-0.505864143371582,
-0.3342534303665161,
-0.07331330329179764,
-0.5928089022636414,
0.23044253885746002,
-0.3035392165184021,
0.2960245609283447,
-0.06492164731025696,
0.48796364665031433,
0.4179309010505676,
0.13410325348377228,
-0.14242160320281982,
-0.1151355728507042,
-0.1897435039281845,
-0.21025432646274567,
-0.028000278398394585,
-0.7365129590034485,
0.1397114098072052,
-0.07603634893894196,
0.4655464291572571,
0.1582924872636795,
-0.1936832219362259,
0.39116740226745605,
0.19857142865657806,
0.5257269144058228,
0.24236883223056793,
0.08730980008840561,
0.3227606415748596,
-0.20490309596061707,
0.1313321739435196,
0.18534505367279053,
-0.11559473723173141,
-0.4256632328033447,
0.06195538118481636,
-0.5110577344894409,
0.1148064061999321,
0.255318820476532,
-0.328930139541626,
-0.4236721098423004,
-1.780036449432373,
0.3980262875556946,
-0.39533114433288574,
0.13712091743946075,
-0.729779839515686,
-0.00045275859883986413,
0.20407013595104218,
0.5406026244163513,
0.010700919665396214,
0.3907870054244995,
-0.16001594066619873,
-0.025196850299835205,
0.5663962960243225,
-0.21280036866664886,
0.5904874801635742,
-0.5043352842330933,
0.13750146329402924,
0.5871173143386841,
-0.39031729102134705,
0.0779314637184143,
-0.15194173157215118,
0.5019156336784363,
-0.4648198187351227,
-0.6475622057914734,
-0.1802380084991455,
-0.12531112134456635,
-0.03425660356879234,
0.35857582092285156,
-0.48162248730659485,
0.030044041574001312,
-0.41838669776916504,
-0.07664422690868378,
-0.22445878386497498,
0.09817114472389221,
-0.187296524643898,
0.5105906128883362,
-0.018264060840010643,
-0.5764026641845703,
0.7467931509017944,
-0.18663659691810608,
-0.022487875074148178,
-0.09487151354551315,
-0.5732103586196899,
0.7873749136924744,
0.20528680086135864,
-0.31930011510849,
0.5729470252990723,
0.20752732455730438,
0.2883998453617096,
-0.30153921246528625,
-0.20230263471603394,
-0.0193430557847023,
0.15612958371639252,
0.10221008956432343,
0.09906384348869324,
0.15777206420898438,
0.5345621705055237,
-0.37903228402137756,
-0.4175966680049896,
-0.3793642222881317,
-0.5107386112213135,
-1.2550504207611084,
-0.09809309244155884,
0.11382347345352173,
-0.6270133256912231,
-0.154119610786438,
0.03917917609214783,
-0.20848433673381805,
-0.18436355888843536,
0.6359451413154602,
0.2760455310344696,
-0.3528532385826111,
0.1535688191652298,
0.9034014344215393,
-0.04830857738852501,
0.7829327583312988,
-0.04937836155295372,
0.04473785310983658,
-0.2342173159122467,
0.09303516149520874,
0.6268104314804077,
0.6650725603103638,
-0.8632248640060425,
0.3278934359550476,
-0.2523178458213806,
0.7281372547149658,
0.24965861439704895,
0.0525912381708622,
-0.48046356439590454,
-0.5350478291511536,
0.5120939612388611,
-0.3710121214389801,
0.007561341393738985,
-0.06599896401166916,
-0.12258421629667282,
-0.2683173418045044,
-0.5296850800514221,
-0.5317647457122803,
0.3204234838485718,
0.30770373344421387,
-0.18539144098758698,
-0.7184951901435852,
-0.5884161591529846,
-0.2119237780570984,
0.051030900329351425,
-0.4905534088611603,
0.8096222281455994,
-0.08184652030467987,
-0.4062393307685852,
-0.05729963630437851,
0.13476906716823578,
0.19748039543628693,
0.44283556938171387,
0.040304940193891525,
0.16126196086406708,
0.13283005356788635,
-0.47468358278274536,
0.06613034754991531,
0.27369484305381775,
-0.30594372749328613,
0.4695990979671478,
0.5218555331230164,
-0.14113764464855194,
-0.21307089924812317,
-0.20194460451602936,
-0.12363771349191666,
0.25264060497283936,
0.22068864107131958,
0.3106875419616699,
0.4736529290676117,
0.3984343111515045,
0.05586188659071922,
0.4002971947193146,
-0.14452895522117615,
-0.5248034000396729,
0.23110386729240417,
0.5919137597084045,
-0.12711592018604279,
0.09166690707206726,
0.19407089054584503,
0.45891302824020386,
-0.09575407207012177,
0.1378246545791626,
-0.026088284328579903,
-0.9732233285903931,
-0.2606349587440491,
0.07945992052555084,
-0.5293239951133728,
1.0235021114349365,
-0.13135504722595215,
0.05520735681056976,
0.7771365642547607,
0.21419167518615723,
0.6771153807640076,
-0.11176382750272751,
-0.34146592020988464,
0.766569197177887,
0.11163675040006638,
0.10474489629268646,
0.10075243562459946,
-0.2001306414604187,
0.160849928855896,
0.02160738781094551,
0.07046365737915039,
0.23064060509204865,
-0.5491485595703125,
0.21162743866443634,
-0.1685739904642105,
0.05887075886130333,
-0.023586539551615715,
-0.40866488218307495,
0.16131359338760376,
-0.14098365604877472,
-0.1598164290189743,
0.19378171861171722,
0.020028693601489067,
-0.524669349193573,
0.5314911603927612,
-0.4033293128013611,
0.6759442090988159,
0.6793975234031677,
0.44006896018981934,
0.8782936334609985,
-0.22201648354530334,
0.16958004236221313,
-0.09531305730342865,
0.2508384883403778,
-0.16952908039093018,
-0.2332121878862381,
-0.045640863478183746,
0.5524240732192993,
-0.05927496775984764,
0.12526333332061768,
-0.6232299208641052,
0.3094647228717804,
0.45235463976860046,
0.011614764109253883,
-0.24312441051006317,
0.13549083471298218,
-0.12446010112762451,
0.2057459056377411,
0.0000843191082822159,
0.26522722840309143,
0.19518549740314484,
0.4711197018623352,
0.39079537987709045,
0.06320919096469879,
-0.5672910809516907,
-0.5644646286964417,
0.5179527997970581,
0.5104842782020569,
-0.17254716157913208,
0.18710128962993622,
0.07398762553930283,
-0.3623502850532532,
0.30105316638946533,
-0.025900863111019135,
-0.4698173999786377,
-0.22787392139434814,
-1.1353715658187866,
-0.10663196444511414,
-0.10260997712612152,
0.6404319405555725,
0.1684456169605255,
0.5458981394767761,
-0.0060377055779099464,
-0.36845096945762634,
-0.4098529517650604,
-0.9254261255264282,
-1.4940963983535767,
0.7300124764442444,
0.2253502458333969,
-0.5224436521530151,
-0.6723266839981079,
0.15623566508293152,
0.1103263795375824,
0.8623952865600586,
-0.18329493701457977,
-0.2775613069534302,
-0.06514167785644531,
0.17764797806739807,
0.1818426251411438,
0.11332982033491135,
0.1744244545698166,
-0.2817719280719757,
0.6338008046150208,
-0.46096545457839966,
0.27999696135520935,
-0.2330116182565689,
0.7103848457336426,
0.31186598539352417,
-0.28534626960754395,
0.5043354034423828,
-0.040336813777685165,
-0.49695590138435364,
-0.1819029152393341,
0.11268061399459839,
-0.025769157335162163,
-0.40114447474479675,
-0.04565991088747978,
-0.31812185049057007,
0.03545384109020233,
-5.714755058288574,
0.19302262365818024,
-0.5751912593841553,
-0.2652890086174011,
-0.14924417436122894,
0.43555036187171936,
0.7957519888877869,
-0.11890627443790436,
-0.11116060614585876,
-0.7436310648918152,
-0.28247201442718506,
-0.1794707030057907,
-0.18636170029640198,
0.21685944497585297,
0.4930347204208374,
0.3864743709564209,
0.4270489811897278,
0.14359411597251892,
0.8324252367019653,
0.3170616030693054,
-0.2116364687681198,
-0.27000361680984497,
0.30743640661239624,
0.35137391090393066,
-0.031981468200683594,
0.4801143407821655,
-0.8555896878242493,
0.3135296106338501,
-0.3622250258922577,
-0.24873192608356476,
0.24692712724208832,
-0.4422413110733032,
-0.5757054686546326,
0.040780626237392426,
-0.37276050448417664,
0.15543347597122192,
0.8169603943824768,
0.17963211238384247,
0.4814799129962921,
-0.415458083152771,
0.47797513008117676,
0.4856870472431183,
0.34951263666152954,
0.10450191050767899,
0.6499902606010437,
0.5211831331253052,
-0.4727016091346741,
0.25958070158958435,
-0.26080042123794556,
0.3778926432132721,
-0.05327897146344185,
0.16506142914295197,
0.2376111000776291,
-0.10122997313737869,
-0.374769926071167,
-0.1300203502178192,
0.4415704309940338,
0.23796238005161285,
-0.35736218094825745,
0.06353277713060379,
0.40419819951057434,
-0.5394841432571411,
-0.04510505124926567,
-0.6756510138511658,
-0.6678115129470825,
-0.07675906270742416,
-0.5300129055976868,
-0.22606903314590454,
0.44533413648605347,
0.25772732496261597,
-0.514157772064209,
0.2546713054180145,
-0.05613690987229347,
-0.8369967341423035,
0.31808799505233765,
-0.5999366044998169,
0.8703980445861816,
0.14437533915042877,
-0.22270172834396362,
0.046800535172224045,
-0.3129272758960724,
-0.6447638869285583,
-0.006771745625883341,
0.3309517502784729,
-0.505280077457428,
-0.4118814170360565,
-0.34841710329055786,
-0.08270657807588577,
-0.2135755866765976,
-0.1388721466064453,
0.4245343804359436,
-0.453995019197464,
0.05893797054886818,
0.15488161146640778,
0.5034859776496887,
0.3110480308532715,
0.6189695000648499,
0.03169636055827141,
0.04080939292907715,
-0.16089245676994324,
0.41288623213768005,
-0.2363431304693222,
-0.28910860419273376,
-0.8814825415611267,
-0.2412976175546646,
0.04452064633369446,
-0.920682966709137,
0.4024641811847687,
0.6934418678283691,
0.09484066069126129,
-0.05410655960440636,
0.421342134475708,
0.08105221390724182,
-0.5089402198791504,
0.29438143968582153,
0.11010069400072098,
-0.403498113155365,
-0.30732017755508423,
0.2834584414958954,
0.04662223532795906,
-0.18845537304878235,
0.33627185225486755,
-0.45181983709335327,
-0.016060074791312218,
-0.1940860003232956,
-0.38405194878578186,
-0.27862101793289185,
0.10394774377346039,
-0.09267865121364594,
0.023147573694586754,
0.6687144637107849,
0.30579185485839844,
-0.07815298438072205,
-0.2256341129541397,
-0.05501307174563408,
-0.8608433604240417,
-0.3830554783344269,
0.2910159230232239,
0.3147408664226532,
-0.49456438422203064,
0.21640147268772125,
0.059015486389398575,
-0.1540728360414505,
0.19344647228717804,
0.6668003797531128,
0.13582126796245575,
0.24275609850883484,
-0.4128555953502655,
-0.10843021422624588,
0.06067705526947975,
0.010792060755193233,
-0.6585574150085449,
0.17179392278194427,
-0.6038240790367126,
-0.08301348239183426,
-0.01071854867041111,
-0.2837686836719513,
-0.1857130229473114,
0.32325631380081177,
-0.48100754618644714,
0.011332529596984386,
0.12262135744094849,
-0.7811428308486938,
-0.2252897173166275,
0.30618196725845337,
-0.2080410271883011,
-0.14169806241989136,
-0.17432355880737305,
0.12143143266439438,
0.1666170209646225,
-0.5808385014533997,
-0.503831684589386,
-0.3697150647640228,
-0.2858845591545105,
0.006582377012819052,
0.8514218330383301,
0.6096567511558533,
0.1300370991230011,
0.11489133536815643,
0.722581148147583,
-0.16091075539588928,
0.3467472493648529,
-0.8579002618789673,
0.9681880474090576,
0.13737456500530243,
-0.13105954229831696,
-0.21925711631774902,
0.10527598857879639,
-0.22506295144557953,
-0.14065170288085938,
0.1550731062889099,
0.3554985523223877,
0.3060974180698395,
0.011004539206624031,
-0.5928841233253479,
-0.6762343645095825,
0.22187580168247223,
0.47566211223602295,
-0.20593629777431488,
-0.6148244142532349,
0.34443166851997375,
1.0412976741790771,
-0.259531170129776,
0.5149517059326172,
0.38990142941474915,
-0.46330082416534424,
0.4097740650177002,
0.09345585107803345,
-0.270518034696579,
-0.19652384519577026,
-0.022744163870811462,
-0.5052232146263123,
-0.7857764363288879,
-0.11051210016012192,
-0.19010819494724274,
-0.2967226803302765,
-0.24916230142116547,
-0.39893263578414917,
0.16137509047985077,
-0.5785848498344421,
0.11178354173898697,
-0.39546793699264526,
-0.44194719195365906,
0.30739450454711914,
-0.47114044427871704,
0.26941415667533875,
0.15580737590789795,
-0.8945974111557007,
0.2837248742580414,
0.034080471843481064,
-0.03157205134630203,
-0.14444589614868164,
0.15890800952911377,
0.35019317269325256,
-0.3129618763923645,
-0.29930028319358826,
-1.0543873310089111,
0.23946380615234375,
-0.12566211819648743,
0.3160322606563568,
0.32759180665016174,
0.6789325475692749,
0.2847994267940521,
-0.405131459236145,
-0.3876586854457855,
0.15566103160381317,
0.713155210018158,
-0.7571116089820862,
-0.5571935772895813,
0.46450942754745483,
0.061356447637081146,
-0.47921472787857056,
-0.680053174495697,
0.07261490076780319,
1.119761347770691,
0.11959491670131683,
0.06808459013700485,
-0.6510078310966492,
0.01104736328125,
0.42963725328445435,
-0.2672840356826782,
0.22531402111053467,
-0.5396524667739868,
-0.008437864482402802,
0.19387786090373993,
0.6109098792076111,
-0.2969268262386322,
-0.5130708813667297,
0.4316669702529907,
-0.6188207864761353,
-0.13010799884796143,
-0.2605035901069641,
0.6998820900917053,
0.7667897343635559,
0.4659482538700104,
-0.2787829339504242,
0.34219634532928467,
0.3315125107765198,
0.06998398154973984,
-0.23615796864032745,
-0.343593567609787,
-0.08874223381280899,
0.718730628490448,
-0.1081763431429863,
0.5699426531791687,
-0.42396605014801025,
-0.012149007990956306,
0.40075913071632385,
-0.10626085102558136,
-0.02528693526983261,
-0.5787818431854248,
0.4430060386657715,
-0.13975538313388824,
0.3573092222213745,
-0.48845744132995605,
0.22189633548259735,
0.26727861166000366,
0.22356268763542175,
-0.34752199053764343,
-0.36693769693374634,
-0.19230210781097412,
0.5189134478569031,
0.527686357498169,
-0.5549737215042114,
0.33203643560409546,
-0.08136732876300812,
0.28859466314315796,
-0.05617280304431915,
0.09340939670801163,
0.07500509917736053,
0.031392402946949005,
-0.259619802236557,
0.24554678797721863,
0.47559449076652527,
-0.11271494626998901,
-0.22628526389598846,
0.27582523226737976,
0.16383610665798187,
0.784465491771698,
0.32392939925193787,
-0.07235275208950043,
0.2165374755859375,
0.21117861568927765,
0.22268283367156982,
-0.6491767764091492,
0.3951624631881714,
0.20031756162643433,
-0.09896194189786911,
0.3530575633049011,
-0.19181309640407562,
0.3198719024658203,
0.2667418420314789,
-0.5832610726356506,
0.46148958802223206,
-0.5889667868614197,
-0.166545107960701,
0.07175133377313614,
0.14916080236434937,
0.18202780187129974,
0.17253321409225464,
0.11988519132137299,
1.0612815618515015,
0.020889511331915855,
-0.3994097113609314,
-0.5689889192581177,
-0.06570323556661606,
-0.25875115394592285,
0.1691897064447403,
0.6187129616737366,
0.23338639736175537,
-0.006488996557891369,
-0.0657920241355896,
0.30841171741485596,
0.5780755877494812,
-0.02038981020450592,
-0.3156224489212036,
0.07530371099710464,
-0.8094029426574707,
0.309806764125824,
-0.2142963409423828,
-0.2311716079711914,
0.33187004923820496,
-0.7008096575737,
-0.06797625869512558,
-0.5582238435745239,
-0.15681873261928558,
0.3805648684501648,
-0.9607735276222229,
0.40432772040367126,
0.3517221510410309,
0.381900817155838,
0.7687349915504456,
0.2703481912612915,
0.7208454608917236,
0.0074487426318228245,
-0.24215911328792572,
0.47407418489456177,
0.21493251621723175,
-0.03920716792345047,
0.6382251381874084,
-0.3826276957988739,
-0.2828674912452698,
0.48482421040534973,
-0.634581446647644,
0.20588995516300201,
-0.4263570308685303,
-0.2427336722612381,
0.15801773965358734,
0.07393930852413177,
0.3626464903354645,
0.2547892928123474,
-0.6350436806678772,
-0.37604454159736633,
-0.17195643484592438,
-0.10615991801023483,
0.7096250653266907,
-0.2174280285835266,
0.5883954167366028,
0.5085434317588806,
0.2339145392179489,
-0.6326167583465576,
0.1134498193860054,
0.3483789563179016,
-0.008633825927972794,
-0.17581549286842346,
0.4128749370574951,
-0.05789479985833168,
0.09504899382591248,
-0.026698743924498558,
0.48142209649086,
0.6981446743011475,
-0.5196411609649658,
-0.09071991592645645,
0.1354856640100479,
-0.6118814945220947,
-0.05927634611725807,
0.573756992816925,
-0.5216854214668274,
0.0579770989716053,
-0.1143602803349495,
-0.4413289725780487,
-0.3548024594783783,
0.08719682693481445,
0.2630271017551422,
-0.5839827060699463,
-0.2692638337612152,
0.3590877950191498,
0.3310151994228363,
-0.3410193920135498,
0.8304300308227539,
-0.1194196566939354,
-0.18842990696430206,
-0.3526670038700104,
0.03338600695133209,
-0.5957121253013611,
-0.16902130842208862,
-0.4989791214466095,
0.6693863868713379,
0.27789026498794556,
-0.07733819633722305,
0.019865527749061584,
-0.4602166414260864,
-0.35847991704940796,
0.14635050296783447,
-0.17248274385929108,
0.7610543370246887,
0.1573992371559143,
-0.40291187167167664,
-0.8714614510536194,
0.8131414651870728,
0.5109040141105652,
-0.5570924878120422,
0.15506355464458466,
-0.23210075497627258,
-0.2785198986530304,
0.024900851771235466,
-0.13424032926559448,
-0.02750687301158905,
0.06765693426132202,
0.34288376569747925
] |
234886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports%20Night | Sports Night | Sports Night is an American television series about a fictional sports news show also called Sports Night. It focuses on the friendships, pitfalls and ethical issues the creative talent of the program face while trying to produce a good show under constant network pressure. Created by Aaron Sorkin, the half-hour prime time comedy-drama aired on ABC for two seasons, from 1998 to 2000.
The show stars Robert Guillaume as managing editor Isaac Jaffe, Felicity Huffman as executive producer Dana Whitaker, Peter Krause as anchor Casey McCall, Josh Charles as anchor Dan Rydell, Sabrina Lloyd as senior associate producer Natalie Hurley, and Joshua Malina as associate producer Jeremy Goodwin. Regular guest stars included William H. Macy as ratings expert Sam Donovan and Brenda Strong as Sally Sasser, the producer of West Coast Update (a sister show on the same network as Sports Night) and professional and romantic rival of Dana. Other notable guest stars included Paula Marshall and several who later appeared on Sorkin's The West Wing including Janel Moloney, Teri Polo, Ted McGinley, Lisa Edelstein, Clark Gregg, Nina Siemaszko, John De Lancie, Timothy Davis-Reed, Cress Williams, Nadia Dajani, and Spencer Garrett. In addition, Malina and Huffman also appeared in The West Wing.
TV Guide ranked it #10 on their 2013 list of 60 shows that were "Cancelled Too Soon".
Overview
The show is said to be a semi-fictional account of the ESPN SportsCenter team of Keith Olbermann and Dan Patrick, with Rydell representing Olbermann and McCall representing Patrick. Patrick has confirmed this on his syndicated radio program The Dan Patrick Show. It has also been said that many of the storylines for McCall were inspired by Craig Kilborn, who was an anchor on SportsCenter during the mid 1990s.
The fictional Sports Night is a sports news program in the style of SportsCenter. The show broadcasts live from 11 pm to midnight and is rebroadcast through the next morning; it may broadcast at other times for special events, such as the NFL Draft. The program debuted in 1996 and airs from Rockefeller Center in New York City on the fictional Continental Sports Channel (CSC), a unit of Continental Corp, owned and run by Luther Sachs. Continental Corp owns cable networks around the United States; when the company is offered for sale, bidders include Time Warner, Disney (which, incidentally, owns a majority of ESPN in reality), and News Corporation.
Both the fictional show and the network have competitive and financial difficulties. The network, according to Continental Corp's CFO, has an annual deficit up to $120 million. Although Sports Night does better than CNN/SI, Dana Whitaker says that Sports Night is "in third place. We are getting our asses kicked by ESPN and Fox". Natalie Hurley replies, "Every show on this network is in third place. It's a third-place network." When Sports Night is asked to interview Michael Jordan about his new perfume, the retired basketball star's publicity team demands final cut privilege—something it would not ask Fox or ESPN—because it believes that Sports Night is more desperate for ratings.
Although the first season of Sports Night is a sitcom, it often is portrayed as more of a comedy-drama representative of some of Sorkin's later work on The West Wing. Sorkin intended for the series' humor to be drier and more realistic than typical sitcoms. He initially wanted the show to be recorded without a laugh track, but ABC network executives insisted on including one. The volume of the laugh track faded as Season One continued and was abandoned at the beginning of Season Two.
The dialogue is often delivered at a rapid-fire pace and intentionally exposes many aspects of communication that go beyond the words that are spoken. The show also frequently employed a technique known as "Walk and Talk", where the characters are walking from one location to the next while in conversation. This is another characteristic of Sorkin's shows as "walk and talks" are used quite frequently in The West Wing and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip. A number of similar themes, elements and actors carried over from Sports Night to The West Wing and later Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip.
The show's main focus is the relationships between the characters. These include an off-again on-again flirtation and romance between Dana and Casey, the partnership of Natalie and Jeremy, and Dan's ongoing problems with relationships in general. The character of Isaac Jaffe hovers over his staff as a benevolent but uncompromising father figure.
The show is mostly set in the studio and station offices. However, in the second season Anthony's, a local sports bar and restaurant, was introduced as another location for scenes out of the work environment.
Guillaume suffered a stroke midway through the first season and this event was worked into his character and the season's story arc.
Sports Night struggled to find an audience and ABC cancelled it after two seasons. Although it had the opportunity to move to several different networks, including HBO, Showtime and USA, Sorkin decided to let the show pass so that he could focus on The West Wing.
Cast
Josh Charles – Daniel "Dan" Rydell, Co-Anchor. A graduate of Dartmouth College, he has known Casey for 10 years as of the show's first season and they have worked together for five years. Before Sports Night they co-hosted a sports show in Dallas.
Peter Krause – Casey McCall, Co-Anchor. He turned down an offer from NBC to replace David Letterman in 1993. Casey divorced Lisa, his college girlfriend, after 10 years of marriage just before the show's first season.
Felicity Huffman – Dana Whitaker, Executive Producer. She has been friends with Casey since college and there is romantic tension between the two of them.
Joshua Malina – Jeremy Goodwin, Associate Producer & Research Analyst who has an on-again off-again relationship with Natalie.
Sabrina Lloyd – Natalie Hurley, Senior Associate Producer who has an on-again off-again relationship with Jeremy.
Robert Guillaume – Isaac Jaffe, Managing Editor. A Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist who began with the Atlanta Journal and ended his career as London bureau chief for CNN. A lifelong sports fan who attended the Giants-Dodgers game that decided the 1951 National League pennant, he agreed to come out of retirement when Continental Corp began a sports cable channel.
Supporting cast
Kayla Blake – Kim, Associate Producer
Greg Baker – Elliott, Associate Producer
Jeff Mooring – Dave, Director
Ron Ostrow – Will, Technician
Timothy Davis-Reed – Chris, Technician
William H. Macy – Sam Donovan, CSC Ratings Advisor (season 2)
Teri Polo – Rebecca Wells, Market Analyst for Continental Corp.
Brenda Strong – Sally Sasser, Executive Producer of West Coast Update
Robert Mailhouse – J.J., Network Advisor
Ted McGinley – Gordon Gage (season 1)
Jayne Brook – Abby Jacobs (season 2)
Paula Marshall – Jenny (season 2)
Megan Ward – Pixley (season 2)
Clark Gregg – Calvin Trager (season 2)
Episodes
On November 5, 2002, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 for the first time.
A special 10th Anniversary Edition Sports Night DVD set was released on September 30, 2008 from Shout! Factory with new bonus features including all-new interviews with creator Aaron Sorkin and cast & crew, featurettes and commentaries. Also included is a commemorative 36-page booklet.
In March 2010, Shout! Factory released Sports Night: Season One on DVD with just 16 episodes.
Season 1: 1998–1999
Season 2: 1999–2000
Additional airings
After its cancellation, the rerun rights to the show were briefly picked up by Comedy Central.
In 2004, ABC1, a British offshoot of ABC, began broadcasting Season 1 of Sports Night in the United Kingdom for the first time. The second season aired in January 2006.
It was also aired briefly in Latin America on Sony Entertainment Television. The Spanish version of this channel ran the show in Spain.
Australia's Channel 7 aired the show on late night television from 1999 to 2001 and was later repeated in the mornings in 2002.
Australia's Foxtel cable network aired Sports Night on The Comedy Channel in 2005.
The show was aired in Turkey on DiziMax in 2006.
The show aired in Italy on Raidue (from 2006 to 2008) and Rai4 (July 2009).
The show was available on Netflix. The Netflix airings did not retain the entire original soundtrack.
Reruns of Sports Night aired semi-regularly on FXX since the network's inception in September 2013 to 2015.
All episodes of the show previously were available on Hulu in the US.
Awards
American Cinema Editors (ACE)
1999: Best Edited Half-Hour Series for Television (Janet Ashikaga for "Small Town", nominated)
Art Directors Guild (ADG)
1998: Excellent Production Design – Television Series (Thomas Azzari, nominated)
Casting Society of America (CSA)
1998: Best Casting – Comedy Episodic (nominated)
1998: Best Casting – Comedy Pilot (nominated)
1999: Best Casting – Comedy Episodic (nominated)
Directors Guild of America (DGA)
1998: Outstanding Directorial Achievement – Comedy Series (Thomas Schlamme for "Pilot", won)
1999: Outstanding Directorial Achievement- Comedy Series (Schlamme for "Small Town", nominated)
Emmy Awards
1999: Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Thomas Schlamme for "Pilot", won)
1999: Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing for a Series (for "Small Town", won)
1999: Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series (Aaron Sorkin for "The Apology", nominated)
2000: Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi-Camera Series (for "Cut Man", won)
2000: Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series (nominated)
2000: Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Schlamme for "Quo Vadimus", nominated)
2000: Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series (William H. Macy for playing "Sam Donovan", nominated)
2000: Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing for a Series (for "The Cut Man Cometh", nominated)
Golden Globe Awards
1999: Best Actress – Musical or Comedy Series (Felicity Huffman for playing "Dana Whitaker", nominated)
Humanitas Prize
1999: Television series – 30 minutes. won
Image Awards
1998: Outstanding Actor – Comedy Series (Robert Guillaume for playing "Isaac Jaffe", nominated)
1999: Outstanding Actor – Comedy Series (Guillaume, nominated)
2000: Outstanding Actor – Comedy Series (Guillaume, nominated)
Producers Guild of America (PGA)
1999: Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic (nominated)
Satellite Awards
2000: Best Actor – Musical or Comedy Series (Robert Guillaume for playing "Isaac Jaffe", nominated)
Screen Actors Guild (SAG)
1999: Outstanding Cast – Comedy Series (nominated)
Television Critics Association Awards (TCA)
1999: Program of the Year (nominated)
1999: Outstanding Achievement in Comedy (won)
1999: Outstanding New Program (nominated)
References
External links
Episode Guide – TKTV
First season interview with Aaron Sorkin
1990s American comedy-drama television series
1998 American television series debuts
2000 American television series endings
2000s American comedy-drama television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American sports television series
English-language television shows
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television series about show business
Television series about television
Television series by ABC Studios
Television series created by Aaron Sorkin
Television shows set in Manhattan
Television series by Imagine Entertainment | [
0.33323752880096436,
-0.250480055809021,
0.0783342570066452,
0.01569981873035431,
-0.21102093160152435,
-0.9014812111854553,
0.3122120201587677,
0.6746933460235596,
0.07083595544099808,
-0.15693773329257965,
-0.7400357723236084,
0.6698246002197266,
-0.2770015001296997,
0.034942034631967545,
-0.19079403579235077,
0.027110569179058075,
-0.038547854870557785,
0.49482306838035583,
0.07508821040391922,
-0.7874020934104919,
-0.3707950711250305,
-0.22233450412750244,
-0.1707540601491928,
-0.11799569427967072,
-0.2457956224679947,
0.2572709918022156,
-0.023947836831212044,
0.22675274312496185,
0.1790817528963089,
0.28452470898628235,
0.2161569446325302,
0.20318950712680817,
-0.24617870151996613,
0.13932079076766968,
-0.4322560727596283,
-0.012873566709458828,
-0.08079272508621216,
-0.13186772167682648,
-0.10979967564344406,
0.22216404974460602,
-0.29669079184532166,
-0.34567686915397644,
0.3609277009963989,
0.3896969258785248,
-0.15138393640518188,
0.11840283125638962,
-1.5783272981643677,
0.1103905513882637,
-0.7534262537956238,
0.2153109908103943,
0.0009285832638852298,
0.3590928614139557,
0.5210322737693787,
0.9344375729560852,
-0.2954166829586029,
0.8809755444526672,
0.03616169095039368,
0.04852638021111488,
-0.09853025525808334,
-0.20898103713989258,
0.24289052188396454,
-0.022645173594355583,
-0.09025426208972931,
-0.1575455218553543,
0.15316781401634216,
0.1456829309463501,
-0.3471679985523224,
0.44208574295043945,
0.19689227640628815,
-0.10436787456274033,
-0.34172332286834717,
-0.4569943845272064,
-0.23371705412864685,
0.00519919116050005,
0.30022403597831726,
0.3647969961166382,
0.5964021682739258,
-0.3030036389827728,
0.09792006015777588,
-0.28268250823020935,
0.10835342854261398,
0.15474393963813782,
0.9072179198265076,
0.7358716726303101,
-0.20729680359363556,
-0.17454148828983307,
-0.39126768708229065,
-0.15029636025428772,
0.013750169426202774,
0.8290612697601318,
-0.6829771399497986,
-0.11191438138484955,
0.9123130440711975,
-0.2571873068809509,
-0.19383738934993744,
0.3584672808647156,
-0.0774405226111412,
0.05065270513296127,
0.3914373517036438,
0.14828012883663177,
-0.3600863218307495,
-0.3890976309776306,
0.31941622495651245,
0.06874042749404907,
-0.07418965548276901,
-0.14684341847896576,
-0.30061474442481995,
-0.5049710273742676,
0.4948452115058899,
0.07681487500667572,
-0.820576012134552,
0.4544689655303955,
0.3248780071735382,
-0.07601957023143768,
-0.2085508555173874,
0.10269598662853241,
-0.05327652394771576,
-0.3468237519264221,
-0.739034116268158,
0.04363393411040306,
-0.33008962869644165,
0.22236745059490204,
-0.09132377058267593,
0.14744919538497925,
-0.1001277044415474,
0.5624476075172424,
0.738889217376709,
0.4450572431087494,
-0.04514535516500473,
-0.050180584192276,
0.12384194135665894,
0.7100138664245605,
-0.08155981451272964,
0.20640037953853607,
-0.23742562532424927,
-0.0615667961537838,
0.4481298625469208,
-0.07300471514463425,
-0.07837457954883575,
0.2420884519815445,
-0.2609638273715973,
-0.549644947052002,
-1.382285714149475,
-0.2010454386472702,
0.3336066007614136,
-0.32535767555236816,
0.2874426543712616,
0.059299588203430176,
0.07568417489528656,
-0.22926074266433716,
-0.10351194441318512,
-0.3300449550151825,
-0.15869134664535522,
-0.07906176894903183,
0.0013849657261744142,
0.08330488204956055,
0.25155502557754517,
-0.36233681440353394,
0.31593888998031616,
0.3343300521373749,
0.23929376900196075,
-0.07954200357198715,
-0.39731284976005554,
-0.20250879228115082,
-0.07992714643478394,
-0.11434444040060043,
0.025332670658826828,
-0.209886834025383,
0.27326908707618713,
0.12420082092285156,
-0.429135262966156,
0.24465586245059967,
0.23578384518623352,
-0.05140341445803642,
-0.17207729816436768,
0.030562084168195724,
0.23779185116291046,
-0.2744981050491333,
0.655595600605011,
0.24204254150390625,
-0.5155492424964905,
-0.3711824417114258,
0.341101735830307,
-0.1332591027021408,
0.47981464862823486,
-0.3824896514415741,
0.4377894997596741,
-0.13642074167728424,
0.11577063798904419,
0.12798945605754852,
-0.4374602138996124,
-0.10499146580696106,
-0.09697537124156952,
-0.2661146819591522,
0.8576117157936096,
-0.520587146282196,
-0.21385164558887482,
0.8828495740890503,
-0.100947305560112,
0.016910050064325333,
0.045792970806360245,
0.21183936297893524,
0.13029418885707855,
-0.00404712650924921,
-0.43266111612319946,
0.9931087493896484,
0.41587692499160767,
-0.5469704270362854,
-0.18901830911636353,
0.38143685460090637,
0.2898879945278168,
-0.39983758330345154,
0.5142335295677185,
0.28035643696784973,
0.04212591052055359,
0.2691735625267029,
-0.7602229118347168,
0.6705137491226196,
-0.26504430174827576,
-0.5086532235145569,
0.8107454180717468,
0.03722508251667023,
0.023089179769158363,
0.19665247201919556,
-0.1883823573589325,
0.21590088307857513,
-0.17535105347633362,
0.30267462134361267,
0.8945829272270203,
-0.9492911696434021,
0.1317625492811203,
0.6173123717308044,
0.28834816813468933,
-0.7092878818511963,
-0.2528311312198639,
-0.2275005728006363,
0.3977522552013397,
-0.18410168588161469,
0.05512566119432449,
-0.26675283908843994,
0.17205964028835297,
0.143013134598732,
0.07392586022615433,
0.20585930347442627,
0.06601347774267197,
-0.04877278953790665,
-0.35400447249412537,
0.5002051591873169,
-0.5021781921386719,
-0.1816718429327011,
0.4696004092693329,
0.12396304309368134,
0.38657671213150024,
-0.06958167254924774,
-0.3386200964450836,
0.16606508195400238,
-0.14959010481834412,
-0.192653089761734,
0.3016292154788971,
-0.4352057874202728,
0.6515782475471497,
-0.11772062629461288,
0.23215095698833466,
0.08518102020025253,
-0.16924630105495453,
-0.8465840220451355,
-0.42443975806236267,
-0.06596650183200836,
-0.3203687369823456,
0.2795272171497345,
0.465392142534256,
0.18634410202503204,
-0.06592939794063568,
-1.1571472883224487,
-0.17680394649505615,
-0.823896050453186,
-0.3841593563556671,
0.21059036254882812,
0.023865286260843277,
-0.17920717597007751,
-0.12327104061841965,
0.21778123080730438,
0.8062670230865479,
0.21606343984603882,
-0.565127432346344,
-0.2875104248523712,
0.03926604986190796,
-0.09219967573881149,
-0.30527928471565247,
-0.21644556522369385,
0.17760273814201355,
0.07322264462709427,
0.01308764424175024,
0.08666789531707764,
0.6517309546470642,
0.030832018703222275,
0.23716683685779572,
0.3105391561985016,
-0.5500811338424683,
-0.16339758038520813,
-0.37204891443252563,
0.49401554465293884,
0.1602880209684372,
-0.40115416049957275,
0.21445830166339874,
-0.5121591687202454,
-0.36041805148124695,
-0.12871971726417542,
-5.91031551361084,
0.037478335201740265,
-0.05057424679398537,
-0.041916318237781525,
-0.0447847880423069,
-0.2146262377500534,
0.7862929105758667,
-0.16053223609924316,
-0.4306088089942932,
0.24450555443763733,
-0.08597581833600998,
-0.18955740332603455,
-0.1595914214849472,
0.47614213824272156,
0.35307151079177856,
0.08185422420501709,
0.11665256321430206,
0.34061187505722046,
0.18371589481830597,
0.4904378354549408,
-0.0009013238595798612,
0.4158952236175537,
-0.17184162139892578,
0.36046379804611206,
0.0820150300860405,
0.6276850700378418,
-0.5121130347251892,
0.15871641039848328,
-0.28203660249710083,
0.05302407965064049,
0.5441374778747559,
0.027294503524899483,
-0.7261227965354919,
0.2907434105873108,
0.4709356427192688,
0.43287011981010437,
0.6437925696372986,
-0.4000301659107208,
0.1671207696199417,
-0.11169063299894333,
-0.17646482586860657,
0.30645230412483215,
-0.1354423314332962,
0.059339530766010284,
0.7105090022087097,
0.08972045034170151,
-0.22554612159729004,
-0.2393038421869278,
-0.46560510993003845,
0.27115294337272644,
-0.15979008376598358,
0.2768140733242035,
0.02597769908607006,
0.4441732168197632,
0.029170885682106018,
0.0030746376141905785,
0.0037037483416497707,
-0.20840026438236237,
-0.09864399582147598,
-0.09479937702417374,
0.22269409894943237,
0.05269818380475044,
0.4216662645339966,
-0.5404848456382751,
-0.06931189447641373,
-0.1534905880689621,
-0.4964296519756317,
-0.4628659784793854,
0.3432978391647339,
0.13308732211589813,
0.011998694390058517,
0.001540572033263743,
0.1639634221792221,
-0.8368774652481079,
-0.20936743915081024,
0.038747407495975494,
-0.24591241776943207,
0.10352355986833572,
0.2963668406009674,
-0.20742550492286682,
-0.040818680077791214,
-0.23979946970939636,
-0.2920662760734558,
0.05537314713001251,
-0.5401896238327026,
-0.7251526713371277,
-0.025610489770770073,
0.2756321430206299,
-0.27490100264549255,
-0.23611733317375183,
0.6993947625160217,
-0.03198271244764328,
0.6440324783325195,
0.2690666913986206,
0.09107338637113571,
0.7403249144554138,
-0.0023196579422801733,
0.026937367394566536,
0.6242335438728333,
-0.09606919437646866,
0.08992380648851395,
-0.49484291672706604,
0.44975921511650085,
-0.6376368999481201,
-0.21145625412464142,
-0.5700562000274658,
0.5656082034111023,
0.12935350835323334,
0.7645711302757263,
-0.4690442681312561,
0.15939325094223022,
0.37927067279815674,
-1.292204737663269,
-0.45624619722366333,
0.7575058937072754,
0.2275855541229248,
-0.21593140065670013,
0.31466615200042725,
0.08252105116844177,
0.3600969910621643,
-0.0727120116353035,
-0.13027997314929962,
-0.18287871778011322,
-0.305975079536438,
-0.5566904544830322,
-0.09645520150661469,
-0.01268766913563013,
-0.38666436076164246,
0.278933584690094,
0.08369558304548264,
-0.11380235850811005,
0.7017824053764343,
0.46347323060035706,
0.4729153513908386,
-0.014937491156160831,
-0.3650243878364563,
-0.16157039999961853,
-0.01815134659409523,
-0.1776580959558487,
-0.46675804257392883,
0.189534530043602,
-0.01077952515333891,
-0.09052203595638275,
0.5419723391532898,
0.31581056118011475,
0.5512791872024536,
0.03201427683234215,
-0.13217072188854218,
-0.3500205874443054,
0.5345492959022522,
-0.09757513552904129,
-0.5812538862228394,
0.38897159695625305,
0.029316872358322144,
0.15250243246555328,
0.679841160774231,
0.3366302251815796,
0.42338767647743225,
-0.5150174498558044,
-0.3608417212963104,
0.25321900844573975,
-0.817823052406311,
-1.1064685583114624,
-0.05619680881500244,
0.25541457533836365,
-0.2312423288822174,
-0.5369575023651123,
-0.40137261152267456,
-0.30278587341308594,
0.4724634289741516,
-0.012826807796955109,
0.05098392441868782,
-0.25250187516212463,
-0.36905863881111145,
0.09012194722890854,
0.1212424784898758,
-0.17063447833061218,
0.05239707604050636,
0.22461844980716705,
-0.25633808970451355,
0.3070928454399109,
-0.1716146320104599,
-0.9155742526054382,
0.206247016787529,
0.1930381804704666,
-0.0756208747625351,
-0.49709227681159973,
0.5779246687889099,
-0.03428328037261963,
0.3068014681339264,
0.5966872572898865,
0.4142592251300812,
0.28857994079589844,
-0.27482345700263977,
0.2884601354598999,
-0.160868838429451,
0.04984118416905403,
0.2110762745141983,
-0.09984011203050613,
-0.6618427634239197,
0.14087748527526855,
0.257874459028244,
-0.8158405423164368,
0.3774033784866333,
0.19223643839359283,
-0.5551254749298096,
0.23810642957687378,
-0.001604754594154656,
-0.34424716234207153,
0.14545638859272003,
-0.22443798184394836,
0.007790615316480398,
0.010883670300245285,
-0.1362614780664444,
-0.3264268934726715,
0.03755907714366913,
-0.3710474967956543,
-0.2738438844680786,
-0.1756529062986374,
-0.24905775487422943,
0.06193903461098671,
0.05235743522644043,
-0.35007837414741516,
-0.17431588470935822,
-0.5548915863037109,
-0.1464458405971527,
0.6302155256271362,
-0.3509368300437927,
0.3543384075164795,
-0.10266748070716858,
0.2294943928718567,
0.1505492925643921,
0.24895484745502472,
0.41262105107307434,
-0.3874349296092987,
-0.21932217478752136,
-0.36952462792396545,
0.4631977677345276,
0.07061123847961426,
0.026777857914566994,
0.19523949921131134,
0.0019239198882132769,
-0.038089364767074585,
-0.22495593130588531,
0.6044227480888367,
-0.10978665202856064,
0.4359591603279114,
0.1574539691209793,
-0.5222499370574951,
0.06901460886001587,
0.38757169246673584,
-0.3204445540904999,
-0.6625561118125916,
0.05497054383158684,
0.6226496696472168,
-0.7711548209190369,
0.02228325419127941,
0.059714820235967636,
-0.25936615467071533,
-0.06437986344099045,
0.35407644510269165,
-0.36865168809890747,
-0.9370984435081482,
0.4028816521167755,
-0.005868040025234222,
0.3207637369632721,
0.36515578627586365,
0.04765104502439499,
-0.33845341205596924,
0.1528111845254898,
0.15360970795154572,
-0.1656772345304489,
0.24007660150527954,
0.7507924437522888,
0.13611701130867004,
-0.023532986640930176,
-0.2225882112979889,
-0.6827571988105774,
0.169892355799675,
0.48596274852752686,
0.3155544102191925,
-0.5020455121994019,
-0.21797873079776764,
-0.2836419641971588,
0.14352947473526,
-0.7719364166259766,
0.13189375400543213,
0.5899191498756409,
-0.4371137320995331,
0.14910179376602173,
-0.06812599301338196,
0.07457489520311356,
0.17971394956111908,
0.04090733081102371,
-0.2648903727531433,
-0.05061880499124527,
0.5794062614440918,
-0.18068109452724457,
0.29136034846305847,
-0.11882290244102478,
-0.7456323504447937,
0.4430520236492157,
-0.11149685084819794,
-0.4359847903251648,
0.6432121396064758,
-0.20345450937747955,
-0.3553977310657501,
0.0248557198792696,
0.19923384487628937,
0.060835737735033035,
0.1925821453332901,
-0.24144062399864197,
0.2718343734741211,
0.8488627672195435,
-0.3377542197704315,
0.3729686439037323,
0.5150302648544312,
-0.11999975144863129,
0.22971442341804504,
0.039142508059740067,
0.26498666405677795,
-0.040441639721393585,
0.6453187465667725,
0.15753063559532166,
-0.38175368309020996,
0.09092261642217636,
-0.33829545974731445,
0.20022043585777283,
0.8426108360290527,
0.004297000356018543,
0.2554062604904175,
-0.29193785786628723,
-0.18536314368247986,
0.6069307923316956,
-0.20660102367401123,
-0.7243286371231079,
-0.09409566223621368,
-0.4392845928668976,
-0.28408247232437134,
0.023048318922519684,
0.472971647977829,
-0.2548193335533142,
0.3381054103374481,
0.05072712525725365,
-0.21388407051563263,
0.03324159234762192,
0.15247128903865814,
-0.015574270859360695,
-0.3040449619293213,
-0.411063551902771,
0.020032240077853203,
0.11402984708547592,
0.03777262941002846,
-0.29002895951271057,
0.5584723353385925,
-0.3374880850315094,
-0.03296095132827759,
-0.40820199251174927,
-0.06075341999530792,
-0.9178687334060669,
-0.10404754430055618,
-0.3106231391429901,
0.07488305866718292,
0.25071319937705994,
-0.021515846252441406,
0.2367161214351654,
0.09746730327606201,
-0.295344740152359,
0.3782864511013031,
0.2817573547363281,
-0.1772216111421585,
0.1858786642551422,
-0.27378445863723755,
0.13066531717777252,
-0.08357372879981995,
-0.1426624059677124,
0.4127257168292999,
0.4922921061515808,
0.0260951928794384,
-0.1661607176065445,
-0.2208634465932846,
0.2196282595396042,
-0.46149858832359314,
-0.04004345089197159,
0.3293817341327667,
-0.14230363070964813,
-0.2922990322113037,
0.556325376033783,
-0.2134862244129181,
-0.15368077158927917,
0.25823619961738586,
-0.4874047040939331,
-0.17702537775039673,
-0.15614421665668488,
-0.19105371832847595,
-0.00027956158737652004,
-0.3831130564212799,
0.6974945068359375,
0.046193838119506836,
0.4563389718532562,
-0.05002448707818985,
-0.2652907073497772,
-0.18928374350070953,
-0.22790759801864624,
-0.8044403195381165,
0.1446828991174698,
-0.2997457683086395,
-0.44232863187789917,
-0.8761776685714722,
0.8314564824104309,
0.33340632915496826,
-0.5681949257850647,
-0.02829023078083992,
0.3917098045349121,
0.1470084935426712,
0.507429301738739,
0.9104490876197815,
-0.5560362339019775,
0.1379287838935852,
-0.2662629783153534,
0.16538134217262268,
0.09787832200527191,
0.07644146680831909,
0.314020037651062,
-0.2613789737224579,
-0.045392006635665894,
0.25386539101600647,
-0.034427959471940994,
0.2841922342777252,
0.01054112147539854,
-0.37029993534088135,
-0.06441976130008698,
-0.6655707955360413,
0.24706439673900604,
-0.48870569467544556,
-0.011398564092814922,
0.4356953799724579,
0.350257009267807,
1.0930289030075073,
-0.15838871896266937,
0.552701473236084,
-0.19295699894428253,
-0.028838524594902992,
-0.23423230648040771,
-1.880184531211853,
-0.09188840538263321,
-0.1753598153591156,
-0.4334239959716797,
-0.18357308208942413,
0.22333016991615295,
-0.20130909979343414,
-0.0031908443197607994,
0.5758814215660095,
-0.08488939702510834,
-0.1861380785703659,
0.28145265579223633,
0.4693650007247925,
-0.5715646147727966,
0.8035720586776733,
0.38979050517082214
] |
234887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed%20memory | Distributed memory | In computer science, distributed memory refers to a multiprocessor computer system in which each processor has its own private memory. Computational tasks can only operate on local data, and if remote data are required, the computational task must communicate with one or more remote processors. In contrast, a shared memory multiprocessor offers a single memory space used by all processors. Processors do not have to be aware where data resides, except that there may be performance penalties, and that race conditions are to be avoided.
In a distributed memory system there is typically a processor, a memory, and some form of interconnection that allows programs on each processor to interact with each other. The interconnect can be organised with point to point links or separate hardware can provide a switching network. The network topology is a key factor in determining how the multiprocessor machine scales. The links between nodes can be implemented using some standard network protocol (for example Ethernet), using bespoke network links (used in for example the transputer), or using dual-ported memories.
Programming distributed memory machines
The key issue in programming distributed memory systems is how to distribute the data over the memories. Depending on the problem solved, the data can be distributed statically, or it can be moved through the nodes. Data can be moved on demand, or data can be pushed to the new nodes in advance.
As an example, if a problem can be described as a pipeline where data x is processed subsequently through functions f, g, h, etc. (the result is h(g(f(x)))), then this can be expressed as a distributed memory problem where the data is transmitted first to the node that performs f that passes the result onto the second node that computes g, and finally to the third node that computes h. This is also known as systolic computation.
Data can be kept statically in nodes if most computations happen locally, and only changes on edges have to be reported to other nodes. An example of this is simulation where data is modeled using a grid, and each node simulates a small part of the larger grid. On every iteration, nodes inform all neighboring nodes of the new edge data.
Distributed shared memory
Similarly, in distributed shared memory each node of a cluster has access to a large shared memory in addition to each node's limited non-shared private memory.
Shared memory vs. distributed memory vs. distributed shared memory
The advantage of (distributed) shared memory is that it offers a unified address space in which all data can be found.
The advantage of distributed memory is that it excludes race conditions, and that it forces the programmer to think about data distribution.
The advantage of distributed (shared) memory is that it is easier to design a machine that scales with the algorithm
Distributed shared memory hides the mechanism of communication, it does not hide the latency of communication.
See also
Memory virtualization
Distributed cache
Parallel computing
Distributed computing architecture | [
0.1825455278158188,
0.1096307709813118,
-0.4681870639324188,
0.2347174882888794,
-0.05789731815457344,
0.18687182664871216,
-0.24802438914775848,
0.42154809832572937,
-0.48156997561454773,
-0.3814891576766968,
-0.37758851051330566,
0.09454351663589478,
-0.5960200428962708,
0.5649029612541199,
-0.13613000512123108,
0.020663220435380936,
-0.06912154704332352,
0.22267287969589233,
-0.2833792567253113,
0.18351654708385468,
-0.290594220161438,
0.22099857032299042,
-0.08470962196588516,
0.41503846645355225,
-0.28476980328559875,
0.07354424148797989,
0.5639488697052002,
-0.025299714878201485,
0.24366696178913116,
0.008746485225856304,
-0.12896713614463806,
0.36389628052711487,
0.4224822223186493,
0.15325620770454407,
0.33366090059280396,
-0.38227638602256775,
-0.1938997507095337,
0.17703142762184143,
-0.026045894250273705,
-0.866419792175293,
0.38225674629211426,
-0.08642313629388809,
-0.12108644098043442,
0.13351251184940338,
-0.1566239595413208,
-0.5995251536369324,
-1.5439224243164062,
0.34520256519317627,
-0.42852887511253357,
-0.4041122794151306,
-0.7355983853340149,
0.1949562132358551,
0.39234447479248047,
0.49683067202568054,
-0.08134770393371582,
0.743617594242096,
-0.3898899257183075,
-0.11231684684753418,
0.38905757665634155,
0.2982095777988434,
0.33388784527778625,
-0.41903752088546753,
-0.057910140603780746,
0.3871745467185974,
-0.00638019060716033,
-0.38778844475746155,
0.1851099282503128,
-0.018281813710927963,
-0.43015334010124207,
-0.7627038955688477,
-0.5072912573814392,
-0.3148884177207947,
-0.10902939736843109,
0.500450611114502,
-0.4744907319545746,
-0.259251207113266,
0.3085925579071045,
-0.4311549663543701,
-0.3408401608467102,
0.1453249752521515,
-0.7575666904449463,
0.9023929238319397,
0.0988088995218277,
0.17632195353507996,
0.7341487407684326,
-0.3191758096218109,
-0.6552627682685852,
0.4054107069969177,
-0.36028221249580383,
0.8491985201835632,
0.09481827169656754,
0.139328733086586,
0.18052327632904053,
-0.11112862825393677,
-0.14512284100055695,
0.02878708764910698,
-0.017293086275458336,
0.18245117366313934,
0.3915849030017853,
0.6378938555717468,
-0.16272065043449402,
-0.08035726100206375,
0.4684072732925415,
-0.2577872574329376,
-0.15365241467952728,
-0.31623390316963196,
-0.12790481746196747,
-0.6049236059188843,
0.009695149026811123,
-0.5971040725708008,
-0.28469282388687134,
0.3912852704524994,
-0.23249419033527374,
-0.02277415804564953,
-0.642708420753479,
0.04796755313873291,
0.1194257140159607,
-0.3377733528614044,
-0.424339234828949,
-0.12134312093257904,
-0.03153819963335991,
1.0687658786773682,
-0.07671274989843369,
-0.088189996778965,
-0.35907235741615295,
0.2384401112794876,
0.594934344291687,
0.18490900099277496,
-0.7974028587341309,
-0.14012537896633148,
0.2586183249950409,
0.9538311958312988,
-0.07389354705810547,
0.4733196198940277,
-0.2871547043323517,
-0.1491766721010208,
0.4456508755683899,
0.13376277685165405,
0.3901210427284241,
-0.5022813081741333,
-0.65587317943573,
-0.4761004149913788,
-0.5891483426094055,
0.034531887620687485,
0.6728475093841553,
0.11177641153335571,
0.21973341703414917,
-0.39595311880111694,
-0.3540140390396118,
-0.2892065942287445,
0.04254332557320595,
0.5431265830993652,
0.06907357275485992,
-0.22120404243469238,
-0.38212481141090393,
0.27905169129371643,
0.25969192385673523,
-0.23175957798957825,
-0.009593858383595943,
0.2747644782066345,
-0.014825653284788132,
0.23374734818935394,
-0.9522653818130493,
-0.2695264220237732,
-0.4028097689151764,
-0.4573363661766052,
0.6872299909591675,
0.46178680658340454,
0.24729572236537933,
0.20706982910633087,
-0.21582449972629547,
-0.004631140735000372,
0.07858191430568695,
-0.2090921252965927,
0.052394647151231766,
0.265175998210907,
0.08326815068721771,
0.43643391132354736,
0.9554029107093811,
-0.12880872189998627,
-0.6730088591575623,
0.23885759711265564,
0.5925133228302002,
0.00976212602108717,
0.07598786056041718,
-0.2942110002040863,
0.43207821249961853,
-0.14266711473464966,
-0.313308447599411,
0.2180200070142746,
-0.9348104596138,
-0.27584517002105713,
-0.09777503460645676,
-0.7879635691642761,
1.2805676460266113,
0.09112498164176941,
-0.8121851086616516,
0.6754587292671204,
-0.3519468605518341,
0.2452765852212906,
-0.28299853205680847,
-0.26570138335227966,
0.17773166298866272,
-0.8387260437011719,
-0.7473767399787903,
0.40182578563690186,
0.13113678991794586,
-0.0300322063267231,
-0.4220401644706726,
0.29514336585998535,
0.4317311644554138,
-0.25527870655059814,
0.12372065335512161,
-0.17083223164081573,
0.509433388710022,
0.15103042125701904,
-0.6819343566894531,
0.6463912129402161,
0.15772628784179688,
-0.3128140866756439,
0.7896640300750732,
-0.5124421119689941,
0.146999791264534,
0.9428049921989441,
-0.22458666563034058,
0.8170540928840637,
0.3187544345855713,
0.3402174413204193,
1.0571506023406982,
-0.22017817199230194,
0.38750365376472473,
0.06011224165558815,
0.0007427327800542116,
-0.6108189821243286,
-0.36225390434265137,
0.44155019521713257,
0.2814175486564636,
-0.3507973849773407,
-0.12779764831066132,
-0.05865560472011566,
-0.512677013874054,
0.4158446490764618,
-0.34695732593536377,
-0.25769850611686707,
0.1551041454076767,
-0.270103394985199,
-0.5930364727973938,
-0.37512636184692383,
0.02189982868731022,
0.04866896942257881,
-0.061568014323711395,
0.6220780611038208,
0.46541160345077515,
-1.0575248003005981,
-0.28075093030929565,
0.06555314362049103,
0.03386212885379791,
0.020736508071422577,
-0.24201229214668274,
0.08369822055101395,
-0.4298331141471863,
0.17207711935043335,
-0.36447086930274963,
-0.17718884348869324,
0.011562267318367958,
-0.9961862564086914,
-0.29293695092201233,
0.3713446259498596,
0.10977631062269211,
0.16593003273010254,
0.5065957307815552,
-0.8550266623497009,
-0.24896474182605743,
-0.7752506732940674,
-0.5664602518081665,
-1.1669728755950928,
0.05657527968287468,
0.23088650405406952,
-0.45001596212387085,
-0.536376416683197,
0.0339462086558342,
0.24514804780483246,
0.3411901593208313,
-0.42244797945022583,
-0.19319353997707367,
-0.16166231036186218,
-0.23632119596004486,
-0.03122360073029995,
-0.019818946719169617,
-0.3765701949596405,
-0.04173877835273743,
0.2023191601037979,
-0.13063758611679077,
0.23905916512012482,
0.09281589090824127,
1.4193990230560303,
-0.07907469570636749,
-0.06098548695445061,
0.4942881762981415,
-0.5194657444953918,
-0.4194124639034271,
-0.06441784650087357,
-0.42660605907440186,
-0.17966166138648987,
-0.43130025267601013,
-0.6215884685516357,
-0.0032604606822133064,
-0.18677665293216705,
-5.376428604125977,
0.015233530662953854,
-0.4947436451911926,
-0.35056400299072266,
0.25520244240760803,
-0.1593203842639923,
0.5299046635627747,
-0.0552632100880146,
-0.41623684763908386,
0.07893635332584381,
-0.10611893236637115,
-0.24683886766433716,
0.07125841826200485,
0.544554591178894,
0.9915974736213684,
0.4197161793708801,
0.9758569002151489,
-0.15180586278438568,
0.41953930258750916,
0.0773407593369484,
0.027004344388842583,
-0.03365004435181618,
-0.4087631404399872,
0.32557910680770874,
-0.3206288516521454,
0.19584111869335175,
-0.2116323560476303,
-0.00911451131105423,
-0.5766122937202454,
0.019883830100297928,
0.02117892913520336,
-0.5861409306526184,
-0.39998921751976013,
-0.29595035314559937,
-0.32138270139694214,
0.382431298494339,
0.2999008297920227,
0.5256442427635193,
0.3450053632259369,
-0.10720464587211609,
0.4090900719165802,
0.4034317135810852,
0.29635897278785706,
-0.09412051737308502,
0.3014299273490906,
0.01994016021490097,
-0.6402501463890076,
-0.40055006742477417,
-0.07765235006809235,
0.5282501578330994,
-0.4203183352947235,
0.04223233461380005,
0.7296130061149597,
-0.11202547699213028,
0.037276338785886765,
-0.45974135398864746,
0.6290141344070435,
0.08071576803922653,
-0.22591575980186462,
0.30984413623809814,
0.417121559381485,
-0.8904139399528503,
0.37914156913757324,
-0.9429749250411987,
-0.5396372079849243,
0.2702183425426483,
-0.6054569482803345,
-0.5056442618370056,
0.5193116068840027,
0.5062331557273865,
-0.23473362624645233,
0.42863309383392334,
-0.24817578494548798,
-0.4885728061199188,
0.018427256494760513,
-0.5668460130691528,
0.28608718514442444,
-0.13679707050323486,
-0.057950522750616074,
0.14767543971538544,
0.026886198669672012,
-0.20215335488319397,
-0.8128726482391357,
-0.01617630198597908,
0.18568317592144012,
-0.2235395759344101,
-0.2846527099609375,
0.04556161165237427,
-0.551447331905365,
0.029281379655003548,
0.4326556622982025,
-0.06687087565660477,
0.6219120621681213,
0.4920494258403778,
0.648885190486908,
-0.20491859316825867,
0.16163356602191925,
0.31385400891304016,
0.01414675172418356,
-0.5242816805839539,
0.19985917210578918,
-0.2434685379266739,
-0.5783983469009399,
-0.832219123840332,
0.1197531670331955,
0.1549588441848755,
-0.4944714605808258,
0.19134271144866943,
0.5999638438224792,
0.3407787084579468,
-0.30676591396331787,
0.8469536304473877,
-0.1803443878889084,
-0.7764301300048828,
-0.0413079634308815,
0.11239515244960785,
-0.5995294451713562,
0.482622355222702,
0.24209226667881012,
-0.1852230429649353,
0.05477609857916832,
0.16206683218479156,
0.1322891116142273,
0.12941202521324158,
0.3070811331272125,
-0.8813979029655457,
0.10918675363063812,
0.032113343477249146,
0.1850959211587906,
-0.4937507212162018,
1.130124807357788,
0.5172818303108215,
0.38901960849761963,
-0.056170426309108734,
-0.45005106925964355,
-0.5912903547286987,
-0.04233948513865471,
0.279859721660614,
-0.1317977011203766,
-0.854726254940033,
0.22954152524471283,
0.09969795495271683,
0.09475488215684891,
0.26784151792526245,
0.29275980591773987,
0.4280881881713867,
-0.22546666860580444,
-0.06034935265779495,
0.2233739197254181,
0.08172021061182022,
0.036407552659511566,
-0.49975162744522095,
-0.014195544645190239,
0.28294727206230164,
-0.23294150829315186,
-0.039272818714380264,
-0.019062014296650887,
0.09332296252250671,
0.34976571798324585,
-0.28547143936157227,
0.2543376088142395,
-0.09568985551595688,
-1.253342628479004,
0.14540857076644897,
-0.16450631618499756,
0.1558474451303482,
-0.20831359922885895,
-0.35599201917648315,
0.040894944220781326,
0.6908321976661682,
-0.1725553572177887,
-0.6605175733566284,
0.006910485215485096,
0.158119797706604,
0.47102898359298706,
0.17358030378818512,
1.1658289432525635,
0.12385343015193939,
-0.07805600762367249,
-0.059984561055898666,
-0.3195570409297943,
-0.3472418785095215,
-0.5541124939918518,
0.6332016587257385,
0.3204444944858551,
-0.0364866629242897,
-0.08727016299962997,
0.43874606490135193,
-0.5840848684310913,
-0.6440458297729492,
0.1376456469297409,
0.31051576137542725,
0.8532874584197998,
0.1953769028186798,
0.1793583333492279,
-0.5193634033203125,
0.3696403205394745,
0.37478283047676086,
-0.513144850730896,
-0.6812179088592529,
-0.0009637310286052525,
0.9762839674949646,
-0.610152542591095,
0.5208933353424072,
0.27295416593551636,
-0.2667416036128998,
0.08265631645917892,
-0.07316563278436661,
-0.18866470456123352,
-0.16596098244190216,
-0.44910094141960144,
0.30730223655700684,
-0.41302528977394104,
0.07191783934831619,
-0.03839947283267975,
0.1331835687160492,
0.4856123626232147,
-0.18847866356372833,
0.06750600039958954,
0.19316907227039337,
-0.10896347463130951,
0.2639772295951843,
-0.08691783994436264,
0.17389997839927673,
-0.581095278263092,
0.44229018688201904,
0.18866199254989624,
-0.5081927180290222,
-0.0009357439703308046,
0.16800817847251892,
-0.16648536920547485,
-0.597037136554718,
0.11977584660053253,
-0.35138455033302307,
0.008689034730196,
-0.37125450372695923,
0.109420046210289,
0.27486681938171387,
-0.08262212574481964,
-0.5197029113769531,
0.2037852704524994,
1.1357674598693848,
-0.0932234525680542,
-0.1107335165143013,
-0.09754903614521027,
-0.023084819316864014,
0.25882023572921753,
-0.6794962286949158,
-0.8095598816871643,
0.04871433600783348,
0.6837052702903748,
-0.5216365456581116,
-0.5190489888191223,
0.058766912668943405,
1.1978036165237427,
0.4542037844657898,
-0.63754802942276,
-0.5522374510765076,
0.40026792883872986,
0.47534269094467163,
0.015003260225057602,
-0.8335885405540466,
-0.22116106748580933,
-0.4254789352416992,
0.7235782146453857,
0.15299364924430847,
0.17980988323688507,
0.126596137881279,
0.3950710892677307,
-0.38835200667381287,
0.2710082232952118,
-0.1024494394659996,
-0.016487697139382362,
0.6049824953079224,
0.6981084942817688,
-0.03575573489069939,
0.07995989918708801,
-0.43539494276046753,
0.3063499331474304,
-0.3707389831542969,
-0.060956813395023346,
-0.31371182203292847,
0.6246787905693054,
-0.3333936631679535,
0.5174989104270935,
-0.41133272647857666,
0.2217109054327011,
-0.035267073661088943,
-0.3163444399833679,
-0.026074271649122238,
-0.7761404514312744,
0.2828170359134674,
0.394675076007843,
0.27501922845840454,
-0.5576696395874023,
-0.2157861888408661,
0.44753479957580566,
0.14661967754364014,
-0.324786514043808,
0.22187145054340363,
-0.46087151765823364,
0.7623332738876343,
0.2966347336769104,
-1.1862828731536865,
0.9106320738792419,
-0.08704742044210434,
0.40309610962867737,
-0.0030752895399928093,
-0.39125001430511475,
-0.09899433702230453,
0.1477104127407074,
-0.5836855173110962,
0.42259278893470764,
0.5123181939125061,
-0.40666288137435913,
0.1691223680973053,
0.532058596611023,
-0.09353433549404144,
0.6364770531654358,
-0.23201510310173035,
0.44835999608039856,
-0.47096073627471924,
0.4096900522708893,
-0.10679081827402115,
0.06347456574440002,
0.6575642228126526,
-0.32925260066986084,
-0.4890400171279907,
0.0686083659529686,
-0.18995317816734314,
0.5322107672691345,
-0.22627407312393188,
-0.5064301490783691,
0.35769566893577576,
-0.02192807011306286,
-0.05052994191646576,
-0.12121189385652542,
-0.3134292960166931,
-0.5934109091758728,
0.7348431944847107,
0.7180361151695251,
0.5023425221443176,
-0.28049328923225403,
0.5497786998748779,
-0.507914662361145,
0.06793243438005447,
0.8414822220802307,
0.6723659634590149,
0.020190026611089706,
0.04646037146449089,
0.0477178655564785,
-0.010508428327739239,
0.5501531958580017,
0.6788394451141357,
0.08254437893629074,
-0.40122780203819275,
0.9846674203872681,
-0.10274392366409302,
0.3375208079814911,
-0.3636789321899414,
0.37463468313217163,
0.7646840810775757,
-0.04764670133590698,
-0.10834800451993942,
0.23817847669124603,
-0.27485212683677673,
0.1326165497303009,
-0.9521480798721313,
0.11222394555807114,
0.1902969628572464,
-0.22438813745975494,
0.7306420207023621,
-0.442038893699646,
0.3180218040943146,
0.06689029186964035,
-0.4445244073867798,
0.10637282580137253,
0.5696398615837097,
-0.025885870680212975,
-0.08476419001817703,
0.4026310443878174,
-0.29767686128616333,
0.19303391873836517,
-0.7642238140106201,
0.469560831785202,
0.29677075147628784,
0.02848592773079872,
0.18251939117908478,
0.4607144594192505,
-0.09176139533519745,
0.4467032551765442,
-0.6501067280769348,
-0.031059693545103073,
-0.15955914556980133,
0.1224062368273735,
0.36800456047058105,
-0.5453065633773804,
1.077440857887268,
0.43833020329475403,
0.22584779560565948,
0.18468403816223145,
-0.037270743399858475,
-0.010448433458805084,
0.8741748929023743,
-0.48374462127685547,
0.023356912657618523,
-0.16263630986213684,
-0.0543682686984539,
-1.1746336221694946,
0.8497299551963806,
0.9798128604888916,
-0.48177385330200195,
-0.0926690548658371,
-0.2205333560705185,
0.017804302275180817,
0.4631307125091553,
0.7877472639083862,
-0.6662918925285339,
-0.11895103752613068,
-0.16011016070842743,
-0.0009026320767588913,
-0.011008128523826599,
0.7494098544120789,
0.028204791247844696,
-0.23605316877365112,
-0.22183114290237427,
0.7591482400894165,
0.017854636535048485,
-0.6048405766487122,
0.3356657326221466,
-0.07697461545467377,
0.36776769161224365,
-0.2672669291496277,
0.5351765751838684,
0.02132035233080387,
-0.1134946420788765,
0.0660838782787323,
0.5443044304847717,
0.46441856026649475,
-0.3770674467086792,
-0.19863055646419525,
-0.4171232581138611,
-0.2959448993206024,
-0.2625885307788849,
-1.3835523128509521,
0.049680206924676895,
-0.08509625494480133,
-0.4981308877468109,
-0.9336518049240112,
0.5783170461654663,
0.2117624282836914,
-0.33767542243003845,
-0.056499041616916656,
-0.05431040748953819,
-0.356292188167572,
0.9732666611671448,
0.11505503952503204,
-0.4770074188709259,
-0.6421200633049011,
0.67881840467453
] |
234889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%20%28disambiguation%29 | Texas (disambiguation) | Texas is a state of the United States.
Texas may also refer to:
Places
United States
Republic of Texas, a 1836–1846 sovereign nation in North America
Texas, Alabama, an unincorporated community
Texas, Georgia, an unincorporated community
Texas, Kentucky, an unincorporated community
Texas, Mississippi, an unincorporated community
Texas, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
Texas, New York, a hamlet
Texas, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Texas, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Texas, Wisconsin, a town
Texas City, Illinois, an unincorporated community
Texas City, Texas, a municipality
Texas County (disambiguation)
Texas Township (disambiguation)
Texas Canyon, a canyon in Cochise County, Arizona
Texas District, a district of the Lutheran Church
Texas Valley, a valley in Georgia
Texas Avenue, a section of Texas State Highway 6 in the College Station-Bryan metropolitan area
Elsewhere
Texas, a refugee camp and now permanent settlement in Calbuco, Chile
Texas, Queensland, a town in Australia
35352 Texas, an asteroid
Arts and entertainment
Texas (novel), by James A. Michener
Film and television
Texas (2005 film), an Italian movie
Texas (1941 film), a Western starring William Holden and Glenn Ford
"Texas" (SpongeBob SquarePants), episode 18 (2000) of the animated TV series
James A. Michener's Texas, a 1994 TV movie based on the eponymous novel; starring Benjamin Bratt, Patrick Duffy
Texas (TV series), a 1980s American television program
Texas John Slaughter (TV series), based on Texas John Slaughter (John Horton Slaughter)
Military
USS Texas, the name of a number of ships of the United States Navy
CSS Texas, a twin-screw ironclad ram of the Confederate Navy
Music
Texas (band), a Scottish rock band
Texas (musical), produced annually in Canyon, Texas, US
Texas (PlayRadioPlay! album), 2008
Texas (Lasse Stefanz album), 2010
"Texas (When I Die)", a song by Ed Bruce
"Texas", a song by Big Black from the EP Bulldozer
"Texas", a single by Charlie Daniels from the album Nightrider
"Texas", a song by George Strait from the album Somewhere Down in Texas
"Texas" (Chris Rea song), a 1990 single from the album Water Sign
"Texas", a song by Chris Rea from the 1983 album The Road to Hell
"Texas", a song by The Highwaymen from the album Highwayman 2
"Texas, Qld 4385", a song by Lee Kernaghan from the 2002 album Electric Rodeo
"Texas", a song by Allan Holdsworth from the 2000 album The Sixteen Men of Tain
Transportation
The Texas (locomotive), a steam locomotive involved in the American Civil War Great Locomotive Chase
2-10-4 or Texas-type, a class of locomotive
Texas (steamboat), a structure or section of a steamboat or ship
People
Hasinai, Tejas or Texas, a Native American people after whom the state was named
Alger "Texas" Alexander (1900–1954), American blues singer
Einar "Texas" Ljungberg (1880–1974), Swedish socialist leader
John Horton Slaughter (Texas John Slaughter, 1841–1922), American Old West lawman, poker player, cowboy and rancher
Texas Jack Vermillion (1842–1911), American Old West gunfighter
Texas Battle (born 1980), American actor
Texas Gladden (1895–1967), American folk singer
Texas Ruby, stage name of pioneering country music female vocalist Ruby Agnes Owens (1908–1963)
Texas Terri, punk rock singer and songwriter born Terri Laird in 1955
T. Texas Tyler, stage name of American country music singer and songwriter David Luke Myrick (1916–1972)
Alexis Texas (born 1985), American pornographic actress
Other uses
University of Texas at Austin, a research university
Texas transfer, a contract bridge bidding convention
Texas Homecare, a former chain of DIY stores in the UK
See also
Tex (disambiguation)
Texan (disambiguation)
Lists of people by nickname | [
0.031203249469399452,
0.2507278025150299,
0.050981588661670685,
-0.014894561842083931,
0.32781317830085754,
-0.19857022166252136,
0.6239741444587708,
0.5375051498413086,
-0.10835456848144531,
0.2846337854862213,
0.031207967549562454,
0.40953540802001953,
-0.34581154584884644,
0.6405504941940308,
-0.7127957940101624,
0.7199057340621948,
0.574192464351654,
0.6411611437797546,
0.4822613596916199,
-0.16877350211143494,
-0.3144350051879883,
-0.06979591399431229,
0.18859998881816864,
-0.45839735865592957,
-0.015053250826895237,
-0.21909944713115692,
-0.09399453550577164,
-0.02089933678507805,
-0.2202763706445694,
0.4525141417980194,
-0.08696358650922775,
0.6449681520462036,
-0.038026660680770874,
0.16887842118740082,
-0.35267412662506104,
0.4572363793849945,
0.22068366408348083,
-0.5628654956817627,
0.27069273591041565,
-0.5806324481964111,
-0.15918555855751038,
-0.30028587579727173,
0.24814404547214508,
0.06380999833345413,
0.12392588704824448,
-0.3239324390888214,
-1.5375640392303467,
0.20402520895004272,
-0.2500790059566498,
0.2854154706001282,
-0.7367339134216309,
0.32237914204597473,
-0.8697922229766846,
0.5898982882499695,
0.08587396144866943,
0.06357056647539139,
-0.8882569670677185,
-0.47404196858406067,
0.15041066706180573,
0.2507984936237335,
0.4391556680202484,
0.491412490606308,
0.1273135244846344,
0.37941864132881165,
-0.3882904350757599,
0.03352349251508713,
-0.43372270464897156,
0.35817500948905945,
0.010572305880486965,
-0.13381564617156982,
-0.08342531323432922,
0.25232452154159546,
0.048778045922517776,
-0.258562296628952,
-0.25702863931655884,
0.11879879236221313,
0.08618568629026413,
-0.10487493127584457,
0.22292251884937286,
0.09006692469120026,
0.2147047072649002,
0.37477636337280273,
0.6582381129264832,
-0.41035547852516174,
0.3179350793361664,
-0.04841727763414383,
-0.8893783688545227,
-0.47057682275772095,
0.1628750115633011,
0.6143348813056946,
-0.40328553318977356,
1.045975685119629,
0.3311260938644409,
0.1605285406112671,
-0.5493829846382141,
-0.7849448323249817,
0.4319421648979187,
-0.1798015981912613,
0.09049876779317856,
0.3919559717178345,
-0.1766861379146576,
-0.055167701095342636,
0.8042306303977966,
0.187416672706604,
-0.039437007158994675,
-0.2803448438644409,
-0.1204717606306076,
0.5381059050559998,
0.06136994808912277,
-0.3979603052139282,
-0.5190505385398865,
0.20018835365772247,
0.03318769484758377,
0.23565156757831573,
-0.2647115886211395,
0.05294887349009514,
0.6243603825569153,
0.10271624475717545,
0.4782297611236572,
-0.7272180318832397,
0.043659500777721405,
0.511659562587738,
-0.11996433883905411,
-0.06199650838971138,
0.22624380886554718,
0.12863034009933472,
0.27317002415657043,
0.11286426335573196,
-0.29286304116249084,
0.3406233787536621,
0.149509996175766,
0.25095003843307495,
0.23901227116584778,
0.029574062675237656,
0.1714879721403122,
-0.25793585181236267,
0.17020809650421143,
-0.02524755336344242,
0.40092161297798157,
0.21078668534755707,
-0.8146178722381592,
-0.1454673707485199,
-1.0908735990524292,
-0.006413993891328573,
-0.16251227259635925,
-0.43081578612327576,
0.07784923166036606,
0.12265557050704956,
-0.510934591293335,
0.7255301475524902,
0.13923360407352448,
0.5944253206253052,
-0.3654164671897888,
0.7741541266441345,
-0.1348636895418167,
0.2383703887462616,
0.09817589819431305,
-0.4919620156288147,
0.01921386457979679,
0.2925022840499878,
-0.12221800535917282,
0.04071081057190895,
0.6947776675224304,
-0.5596285462379456,
0.12504513561725616,
-0.27805668115615845,
-0.2989983856678009,
0.4369625747203827,
-0.1728462278842926,
0.147475928068161,
-0.5667946934700012,
-0.43786436319351196,
0.37932994961738586,
0.1207914724946022,
0.06703486293554306,
0.10398655384778976,
0.08055844902992249,
0.41007405519485474,
-0.03964438661932945,
0.39372244477272034,
-0.6858674883842468,
0.4569847285747528,
0.07027097791433334,
0.24411459267139435,
-0.3752547800540924,
0.1305348426103592,
0.2679761052131653,
-0.2737405598163605,
-0.3356333374977112,
-0.4557514190673828,
0.13821019232273102,
-0.5648425817489624,
0.23367004096508026,
-0.5076726078987122,
0.6107281446456909,
0.06976185739040375,
-0.6507284045219421,
0.41742196679115295,
-0.08757636696100235,
0.1389358788728714,
0.10656674206256866,
-0.22230274975299835,
0.20369333028793335,
0.11283142864704132,
-0.22263044118881226,
1.2389864921569824,
0.36310911178588867,
-0.02779339626431465,
0.185225710272789,
0.4529433250427246,
0.4066339135169983,
-0.5555151104927063,
-0.0421237014234066,
0.16387978196144104,
0.19048582017421722,
0.19292204082012177,
-0.034359704703092575,
-0.45981112122535706,
0.418174147605896,
-0.42003706097602844,
0.3599342107772827,
0.20788057148456573,
0.13186724483966827,
-0.24900846183300018,
-0.32794618606567383,
0.36301031708717346,
-0.15475840866565704,
0.5726252794265747,
0.049003683030605316,
-0.6772840023040771,
-0.08015920966863632,
-0.3582890033721924,
0.4208414852619171,
-0.7769725918769836,
0.28569361567497253,
-0.38074663281440735,
0.0067813158966600895,
0.29411768913269043,
0.3101091980934143,
-0.08804524689912796,
-0.24616792798042297,
0.07441361993551254,
-0.3919162154197693,
0.05597860366106033,
0.06624926626682281,
-0.07981191575527191,
-0.17597737908363342,
-0.05127807334065437,
-0.4171135127544403,
-0.6290714740753174,
0.398782879114151,
0.068900465965271,
0.3953987956047058,
-0.07879205048084259,
0.22372892498970032,
0.16227594017982483,
-0.0511571504175663,
-0.04812268167734146,
-0.4525216817855835,
-0.18342605233192444,
-0.5421878695487976,
0.5304975509643555,
0.057289864867925644,
-0.19034147262573242,
0.32309916615486145,
-0.37683141231536865,
-0.8268475532531738,
-0.3092033565044403,
-0.44048410654067993,
0.05637801066040993,
0.1251417100429535,
-0.011713171377778053,
0.08431262522935867,
-0.8443272113800049,
-0.1350252777338028,
0.5514065027236938,
0.15944847464561462,
-0.028429275378584862,
-1.0333259105682373,
-0.011737016029655933,
-0.09772394597530365,
0.3981742858886719,
0.1340791881084442,
-0.8728959560394287,
-0.3392600417137146,
-1.0275282859802246,
0.6484807133674622,
-0.7533238530158997,
0.03882065787911415,
-0.012602708302438259,
0.17628727853298187,
0.09115061908960342,
0.13155391812324524,
-0.02572028525173664,
0.10332381725311279,
-0.15681374073028564,
0.1128786951303482,
0.3845871686935425,
0.09659699350595474,
-0.6154001355171204,
-1.21353280544281,
0.2376168966293335,
0.12626002728939056,
-0.49666887521743774,
0.19255082309246063,
-0.39735355973243713,
-0.5482703447341919,
0.30299893021583557,
-5.911303997039795,
0.268094927072525,
-0.6401057839393616,
-0.3989602029323578,
0.12151287496089935,
-0.2758197784423828,
0.09025733172893524,
0.0674838200211525,
-0.001020164811052382,
-0.10218914598226547,
0.789300262928009,
0.07179217785596848,
-0.14617833495140076,
0.5222778916358948,
0.08193933963775635,
-0.23204196989536285,
0.3076823651790619,
-0.12127933651208878,
0.19808517396450043,
0.5401809811592102,
-0.11790362745523453,
0.11994373798370361,
0.2323688119649887,
0.187848299741745,
-0.015660209581255913,
0.7760605812072754,
-0.08535865694284439,
0.016924703493714333,
-0.3559971749782562,
-0.1311497688293457,
-0.41142505407333374,
0.39451083540916443,
-0.025645092129707336,
-0.27210569381713867,
-0.17657707631587982,
0.0861348882317543,
-0.1568799763917923,
-0.014525246806442738,
-0.1830475628376007,
-0.41487279534339905,
-0.1891365349292755,
0.439309298992157,
-0.15563562512397766,
0.14026960730552673,
0.012626906856894493,
-0.3419899046421051,
-0.330031156539917,
-0.13740956783294678,
-0.1815735101699829,
0.6086257696151733,
-0.37261298298835754,
0.039612457156181335,
0.3842940926551819,
0.18924769759178162,
-0.09463857114315033,
-0.4134710431098938,
0.6067382097244263,
-0.377111554145813,
-0.40207716822624207,
0.6625611782073975,
0.46604910492897034,
-0.6353647112846375,
-0.044582679867744446,
-0.2740533947944641,
-0.28321847319602966,
-0.25962212681770325,
-0.5149945020675659,
-0.16130198538303375,
0.5269723534584045,
0.1469183713197708,
-0.3119843006134033,
0.21932564675807953,
-0.06666357815265656,
-0.8120890855789185,
-0.1670992225408554,
-0.12188959866762161,
-0.627554714679718,
-0.3911688029766083,
0.02696705423295498,
0.12001320719718933,
-0.04192546755075455,
0.623810887336731,
0.2929876446723938,
0.2424992471933365,
0.06201014667749405,
-0.2788671553134918,
-0.45643821358680725,
0.8809508681297302,
0.007700563408434391,
-0.38623395562171936,
-0.07626821100711823,
0.024209927767515182,
0.8736392259597778,
-0.1275063157081604,
-0.35568147897720337,
0.3936326205730438,
0.47173064947128296,
-0.1457008272409439,
-0.027422601357102394,
-0.21086645126342773,
0.792563259601593,
-0.162092924118042,
-0.2074262648820877,
-0.2038855254650116,
-0.4120687246322632,
-0.05472102016210556,
0.25898104906082153,
0.6982202529907227,
0.17777714133262634,
-0.35370033979415894,
-0.5055670738220215,
0.19524873793125153,
-0.57774817943573,
-0.23562097549438477,
0.2929971516132355,
0.16276878118515015,
-0.2749636173248291,
-0.37199530005455017,
0.318938672542572,
0.3034000098705292,
0.029522914439439774,
0.4130546450614929,
0.2731645703315735,
-0.11995624750852585,
-0.490431547164917,
-0.25678136944770813,
0.31362876296043396,
0.32861921191215515,
0.012969070114195347,
0.07655417919158936,
-0.17599958181381226,
0.2237291932106018,
0.7243908047676086,
0.10532084107398987,
-0.09992756694555283,
-0.19891250133514404,
0.23787644505500793,
0.5576361417770386,
-0.037240270525217056,
-0.7726024985313416,
0.3984355032444,
-0.5314871668815613,
-0.19314032793045044,
0.4647188186645508,
0.14810580015182495,
-0.05145392566919327,
0.2979489862918854,
-0.20410892367362976,
-0.5554261207580566,
0.8555172681808472,
0.10369841754436493,
-0.15740132331848145,
-0.01720859669148922,
-0.13928274810314178,
0.014413552358746529,
-0.1103234589099884,
0.7853569388389587,
0.07885193824768066,
0.5662680268287659,
-0.3775325119495392,
0.01185994315892458,
-0.5029285550117493,
-0.48669663071632385,
0.06952928751707077,
0.2396889477968216,
-0.3992961645126343,
-0.3307163119316101,
0.21224725246429443,
-0.0194590762257576,
0.7064412832260132,
-0.3566444516181946,
-0.6330899596214294,
-0.051241111010313034,
0.044613923877477646,
0.5560564994812012,
-0.4426291584968567,
0.14473888278007507,
0.3745841085910797,
-0.034696780145168304,
0.18619026243686676,
0.3708578944206238,
-0.520853579044342,
-0.7795896530151367,
0.18545866012573242,
0.06276064366102219,
-0.5908954739570618,
-0.14696799218654633,
-0.07026223093271255,
0.11754365265369415,
0.06921333819627762,
0.09521935135126114,
-0.1381014734506607,
0.27839821577072144,
0.36042025685310364,
-0.16021636128425598,
-0.12033740431070328,
-0.04921659082174301,
0.10392534732818604,
0.013157603330910206,
-0.22170311212539673,
0.42115193605422974,
0.32657957077026367,
0.12170486152172089,
0.11101560294628143,
0.46652230620384216,
-0.4372803270816803,
0.3986782431602478,
-0.12033113092184067,
-0.8890395760536194,
0.3204306364059448,
0.23987844586372375,
-0.4592759907245636,
-0.07907162606716156,
0.5551978349685669,
0.03397732600569725,
-0.21860182285308838,
0.6501359939575195,
0.12435299903154373,
-0.4726027250289917,
-0.269063264131546,
0.15390191972255707,
-0.18330314755439758,
0.2680973708629608,
-0.10812167078256607,
-0.23073790967464447,
0.4062265157699585,
0.09694542735815048,
-0.2701496183872223,
0.7798073291778564,
-0.3186188340187073,
-0.21973122656345367,
-0.34257781505584717,
0.2577923536300659,
0.37117013335227966,
-0.44094663858413696,
0.0872289165854454,
-0.020131899043917656,
0.1703491061925888,
-0.25770437717437744,
0.309652715921402,
0.26082244515419006,
1.1037592887878418,
0.14231981337070465,
-0.20573961734771729,
-0.6636596322059631,
-0.44347161054611206,
-0.1009044274687767,
-0.08282258361577988,
-0.23659273982048035,
0.39541158080101013,
-0.01411223504692316,
-0.31592240929603577,
-0.6987127065658569,
0.4206721782684326,
0.8075169324874878,
-0.01236727274954319,
0.23018746078014374,
0.1727936714887619,
0.15434086322784424,
0.29089316725730896,
-0.04227442666888237,
-0.2719087302684784,
-0.2763023376464844,
0.11727802455425262,
0.09379705786705017,
-0.5594620704650879,
-0.3330322504043579,
0.18868812918663025,
0.6652004718780518,
-0.4390418827533722,
-0.11134694516658783,
-0.18320387601852417,
-0.04342465475201607,
0.4194636940956116,
0.06556036323308945,
0.11146415770053864,
0.07616475224494934,
-0.4584796726703644,
-0.18653269112110138,
0.7156236171722412,
-0.09616438299417496,
-0.4268262982368469,
-0.0003502031322568655,
-0.303910493850708,
0.1142144501209259,
0.10129363089799881,
0.11360003054141998,
-0.4327228367328644,
-0.5584209561347961,
-0.6125851273536682,
-0.029219260439276695,
-0.2796058654785156,
0.4676816463470459,
-0.4606088399887085,
-0.1558983027935028,
-0.1710086613893509,
0.3269113302230835,
0.7963737845420837,
0.12295591086149216,
0.2650321424007416,
-0.7812393307685852,
0.8072531819343567,
-0.1491546332836151,
-0.4203586280345917,
0.21451610326766968,
-0.6791796088218689,
-0.12445289641618729,
-0.4109859764575958,
-0.08927449584007263,
-0.12106112390756607,
0.3970848619937897,
0.09845210611820221,
0.5500970482826233,
0.5695180892944336,
0.01634710095822811,
0.02620893344283104,
0.6722655296325684,
-0.05662306025624275,
-0.36942607164382935,
0.2770596742630005,
-0.030350729823112488,
-0.24395225942134857,
0.20516441762447357,
0.5449598431587219,
-0.05313749238848686,
0.7562928795814514,
0.2109365165233612,
-0.2608727812767029,
0.5554021000862122,
0.21834035217761993,
0.24117399752140045,
-0.25708144903182983,
-0.15000885725021362,
0.11909818649291992,
-0.24008160829544067,
-0.1836172491312027,
0.356121689081192,
-0.12120819091796875,
-0.701095700263977,
0.7011104226112366,
0.11483334004878998,
-0.25668472051620483,
0.10548251867294312,
0.4549279510974884,
-0.18067699670791626,
0.1521640419960022,
0.027525993064045906,
-0.11084530502557755,
-0.12195663154125214,
-0.6496046781539917,
0.3109684884548187,
0.23277394473552704,
0.5063955783843994,
-0.48099878430366516,
0.40876305103302,
-0.0692078247666359,
-0.14990928769111633,
-0.1811733841896057,
-0.56819748878479,
-0.9632906317710876,
0.04709741473197937,
0.04232708364725113,
0.4194372594356537,
0.35434430837631226,
-0.15077513456344604,
-0.298863023519516,
0.1944962441921234,
0.2114570140838623,
-0.8112567067146301,
0.4593825042247772,
0.17216385900974274,
-0.16032496094703674,
0.2633778750896454,
0.3542577028274536,
0.2416241317987442,
0.5950990319252014,
0.10175193846225739,
0.6048615574836731,
0.09488240629434586,
-0.3525765538215637,
0.048218149691820145,
-0.2435438632965088,
-0.019599422812461853,
-0.45714104175567627,
0.10932862013578415,
0.2575203478336334,
-0.19022153317928314,
0.13333626091480255,
-0.19673466682434082,
0.19248390197753906,
-0.3211456537246704,
-0.4421637952327728,
-0.06362741440534592,
0.19495141506195068,
0.1735006421804428,
-0.25406503677368164,
-0.45547014474868774,
0.7947177290916443,
0.6441493630409241,
-0.29740604758262634,
0.8672371506690979,
-0.15397612750530243,
0.17324280738830566,
-0.024170923978090286,
-0.39262551069259644,
0.3497684597969055,
-0.3332752585411072,
0.4087373912334442,
-0.5258542895317078,
0.45218920707702637,
-0.09183776378631592,
-0.07463996857404709,
-0.20802715420722961,
0.12043515592813492,
0.2117297649383545,
-0.04761307314038277,
0.44927898049354553,
-0.3974049687385559,
-0.14294341206550598,
-0.5610296130180359,
0.24864834547042847,
-0.06795145571231842,
-0.17880858480930328,
0.556119441986084,
-0.3061288595199585,
-0.005249578505754471,
0.07692732661962509,
0.38390108942985535,
-0.4429149925708771,
0.3503206968307495,
0.5431944131851196,
-0.40946418046951294,
-0.024160543456673622,
0.05748322978615761,
-0.4853222370147705,
-0.13907913863658905,
0.26127251982688904,
0.5415599942207336,
-0.21530142426490784,
0.0692392960190773,
0.02228708751499653,
0.26301124691963196,
-0.07626023888587952,
-0.48016366362571716,
-1.4910633563995361,
-0.6622928977012634,
-0.418835312128067,
-0.45489245653152466,
-0.5649769902229309,
0.42805635929107666,
-0.4261842966079712,
0.059974320232868195,
-0.06273217499256134,
-0.0771658793091774,
0.3422397971153259,
-0.017949998378753662,
0.5247867107391357,
-0.22285225987434387,
0.4331645667552948,
0.18131917715072632
] |
234891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarra%20River | Yarra River | The Yarra River or historically, the Yarra Yarra River, (Kulin languages: Berrern, Birr-arrung, Bay-ray-rung, Birarang, Birrarung, and Wongete) is a perennial river in south-central Victoria, Australia.
The lower stretches of the Yarra are where Victoria's state capital Melbourne was established in 1835, and today metropolitan Greater Melbourne dominates and influences the landscape of its lower reaches. From its source in the Yarra Ranges, it flows west through the Yarra Valley which opens out into plains as it winds its way through Greater Melbourne before emptying into Hobsons Bay in northernmost Port Phillip Bay.
The river has been a major food source and meeting place for Indigenous Australians for thousands of years. Shortly after the arrival of European settlers, land clearing forced the remaining Wurundjeri people into neighbouring territories and away from the river. Originally called Birrarung by the Wurundjeri, the current name was mistranslated from another Wurundjeri term in the Boonwurrung language; Yarro-yarro, meaning "ever-flowing".
The river was utilised primarily for agriculture by early European settlers. The landscape of the river has changed dramatically since 1835. The course has been progressively disrupted and the river widened in places. The first of many crossings of the Yarra River to facilitate transport was built in Princes Bridge. Beginning with the Victorian gold rush it was extensively mined, creating the Pound Bend Tunnel in Warrandyte, and the Big and Little Peninsula Tunnels above Warburton. Widening and dams, like the Upper Yarra Reservoir have helped protect Melbourne from major flooding. The catchment's upper reaches are also affected by logging. Industrialisation ultimately led to the destruction of the marshlands at the confluence of the Yarra and Maribyrnong Rivers in the area around Coode Island in West Melbourne.
Today, the Yarra mouth including Swanson and Appleton docks are used for container shipping by the Port of Melbourne, which is the busiest on the continent. The city reach which is inaccessible to larger watercrafts, has seen increased use for both transport and recreational boating (including kayaking, canoeing, rowing and swimming). In recent years however recreational use of the river is threatened by high levels of pollution in its lower stretches. The upper reaches remain relatively healthy.
The annual Moomba festival celebrates the Yarra River's increasing cultural significance to Melbourne.
Etymology
The river was called Birrarung by the Wurundjeri people who occupied the Yarra Valley and much of Central Victoria prior to European colonisation. It is thought that Birrarung is derived either from a Wurundjeri words meaning "ever flowing". or 'river of mists'.
Upon European arrival it was given the name 'Yarra Yarra' by John Helder Wedge of the Port Phillip Association in 1835, in the mistaken belief that this was the name for the river in the Boonwurrung language. However it is believed that 'Yarra' means "waterfall", "flow", or refers to running or falling water, descriptive of any river or creek in the area, not just the Yarra. The name Yarra Yarra is said to mean "ever flowing river", but most likely refers to the Yarra Yarra falls which were later dynamited. Of their contact with local Wurunderi people in 1835, John Wedge wrote:
Geology and formation
Sometime before 6000 BC, (after the end of the most recent Ice Age about 8000 BC) the Yarra river was probably joined with other tributaries such as rivers now called the Patterson, Kororoit, Werribee, Little, and drained directly into Bass Strait through what is now called the Rip. Between 8000 BC and 6000 BC, the basin flooded forming Port Phillip Bay and moving the "mouth" of the Yarra over 50 km inland.
A dry period combined with sand bar formation may have dried the bay out as recently as between 800 BC and 1000 AD extending the Yarra to Bass Strait during this period.
History
The area surrounding the Yarra River was first inhabited by the Boonwurrung and Wurundjeri peoples of the Kulin nation. The area has been occupied by various indigenous clans for at least 30,000 years. The river, known to the Wurundjeri people as Birrarung, was an important resource for the Wurundjeri people and several sites along the river and its tributaries were important meeting places where corroborees were held between Indigenous communities. The river's resources were utilised sustainably by the Wurundjeri until the arrival of European colonists in the early-mid-19th century.
European discovery and colonisation
The first Europeans to sail up the river was a surveying party led by Charles Grimes, Acting Surveyor General of New South Wales, who in 1803 sailed upstream to Dights Falls, where they could no longer continue due to the nature of the terrain. European explorers would not enter the river for another 30 years until, in 1835, the area that is now central and northern Melbourne was explored by John Batman, a leading member of the Port Phillip Association, who negotiated a transaction for 600,000 acres (2,400 km2) of land from eight Wurundjeri elders. He selected a site on the northern bank of the Yarra River, declaring that "this will be the place for a village". The document, commonly called Batman's Treaty, was declared void by the Governor of New South Wales, Richard Bourke.
The Port Phillip settlement, that would become Melbourne, was established along the lower banks of the Yarra in 1835. The new settlement's main port was sited just downstream of Yarra Falls west of modern-day Queen's Bridge, the place where saltwater met freshwater. Ships would use one side of the falls while the other side provided fresh drinking water for the town and a convenient sewer. In the city's early days the Yarra was one of two major ports, the other being Sandridge (now Port Melbourne), but the Yarra was preferred due to the direct access to the town's main streets and was the location of Customs House (now the Immigration Museum). Early industries grew along the banks of the river, rapidly degrading the water quality. Industries then began using the river and tributaries such as Merri Creek as landfill and for harmful chemical dumps for substances like grease and oils.
The disposal of sewerage in Melbourne was very basic in the early days. The majority of waste from homes and industries flowed into street channels and on to local rivers and creeks which became open sewers. The first City Baths were opened in 1860. The objective was to stop people bathing in the Yarra River, which by the 1850s had become quite polluted and the cause of an epidemic of typhoid fever, which hit the city resulting in many deaths. However, people continued to swim and drink the water until Melbourne's fresh water was sourced from elsewhere.
The first permanent crossing over the river was Princes Bridge, which first opened as a wooden trestle bridge in 1844. The current bridge was constructed in 1888. In the early days, the river would frequently flood. While this was not considered a problem in the floodplains near Yarra Glen and Coldstream, the floodings caused much trouble further downstream in settlements such as Warrandyte, Templestowe, Bulleen, Heidelberg and Ivanhoe. The Upper Yarra Dam was later constructed to alleviate the flooding, protecting settlements along the river, yet depriving the river banks of soil and silt deposits and causing other problems such as erosion and salinity.
Victorian Gold Rush
Gold was first discovered in Victoria near the Yarra River in Warrandyte. The find was made by Louis Michel in 1851 at a tributary of the river, Anderson's Creek and marked the start of the Victorian gold rush. The approximate location of the site is marked by a cairn on Fourth Hill in the Warrandyte State Park. The river was drained and diverted in various areas throughout the gold rush to aid gold miners. An example of this is the tunnel at Pound Bend in Warrandyte. The river was partially dammed at Pound Bend near Normans Reserve at its eastern entrance and near Bob's wetlands at its western exit. Miners then blasted a 145m long tunnel through solid rock. The river was then fully dammed at the entrance and exit to the tunnel and water was diverted through 145m and out the other side leaving a 3.85 km of riverbed around Pound Bend exposed to the sun and the miners picks. Other diversions include The Island cutting in Warrandyte and the Little Peninsula Tunnel and Big Peninsula Tunnel near McMahons Creek.
The Gold Rush saw increased development in Melbourne and "tent cities" of new migrants lined the Yarra during the early years of the gold rush. In the 1840s a weir was built at Dights Falls to power a flour mill and to give some control over the river downstream from there. From the earliest years of settlement, the mid and upper reaches of the Yarra began to be used for recreation. The river was selected as the site for the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1846 and the course of the river was modified slightly for the creation of a feature lake. Further upstream, the Cremorne Gardens were established in 1853.
Industrialisation
Sections of the river mouth and the area around the former West Melbourne Swamp were widened in the late 19th century, to make way for docks, harbours, bridges and other infrastructure. The increasing industrialisation of the river and the growth of the shipping industry saw the need for major infrastructure works which dramatically changed the course of the river in its lower reaches. The creation of new shipping channels to cope with the growing use of the Yarra by cargo ships was first tabled in the 1870s.
The first major change came with the cutting of the Coode Canal between 1880 and 1886. This major infrastructure project created an island which was known as Coode Island, named after the British consultant engineer engaged to design the works, Sir John Coode. This also included widening and deepening, and in some cases, vast areas of land were excavated, such as Victoria Dock, in order to give ease of access for cargo and later container ships. Abattoirs, smelters and even mortuaries were to use the river as a means of waste disposal in its lower reaches. This industrialisation also led to a steady deterioration in water quality during the 19th century and into the 20th. In 1891, the great flood caused the Yarra to swell to in width.
Initially known as "West Melbourne Dock", over of material was excavated and a new dock was eventually opened in 1892, the material that was removed was subsequently used to fill in part of the West Melbourne Swamp, it took 6 days for water from the Yarra River to fill the dock. The dock was later renamed Victoria Dock. In 1910, the main channel was widened and deepened (). In 1916, the central pier at Victoria Dock was completed which provided 6 additional shipping berths and cargo sheds and creating a distinctive landmark for Melbourne ports. By 1942, 650m of the old course of the Yarra River at Coode Island had been filled in, by the 1950s it had been completely filled and land parcels were allocated including a site for the new Fish Markets.
In 1957, the Upper Yarra Reservoir was constructed, primarily to alleviate flooding downstream. This reduced the river's flow to around 50%, where it sits today. Swanson Dock was constructed between 1966 and 1972 equipped for modern container shipping. Shipping activity at Victoria Dock during this time had gone into steep decline and it was almost disused by the mid-1970s. In February 1972, the CBD was flooded as the natural watercourse of Elizabeth Street became a raging torrent. This was due mostly to previous storm water drainage works which utilised Elizabeth street as a watercourse during times of intense rain creating flash floods. Prior to settlements, the area now occupied by Elizabeth street was a gully off the river.
Recent history
By the 1960s there was a growing awareness of the neglect of the Yarra amongst some residents of Melbourne, spawning various community groups and "friends of..." organisations to protect the remnants of the river's ecology. Through the 1970s and 1980s, many desirable developments alongside the river began, such as the Victorian Arts Centre, as its lower courses progressively became gentrified. Growing high density residential development in the lower reaches in the early 1990s coincided with minor government programs such as the installation of litter traps. The riverside apartment complex Como Centre at South Yarra and the larger urban renewal of the formerly industrial Southbank precinct were both built during the late 1990s. During this era it was also commonplace for the winner of the Australian Open to bathe in the Yarra River as a post victory celebration. On the southern side of the river near exists a number of university and private school rowing clubs who use the river for recreational sports.
Around 2000, the river became a focus of major government projects. Projects were proposed to connect Flinders Street station with the river and early proposals were for the Melbourne Museum to be situated on the south bank of the river; however the Crown Melbourne and Melbourne Convention & Exhibition Centre were built in its place. The Melbourne Docklands urban renewal project began in 2000, comprising mixed use residential and commercial land and recreational boating moors along the river at the disused Victoria Dock and on the south bank of the Yarra. Federation Square was proposed to connect the spine of Melbourne to the Yarra at Federation Wharf and a neighbouring park, Birrarung Marr was also built along the north bank, creating renewed interest in connecting city workers to the river. New ferry services and water taxis sprang up along the city reach, servicing as far up river as South Yarra and out to Hobsons Bay.
In 2008, dredging began to deepen the mouth of the Yarra to enable large container ships to reach the Port of Melbourne. The project was controversial and strict regulations were enacted. It was feared that dredging would disturb heavy metals and other toxic sediments mostly deposited during Melbourne's industrial era. The project was completed in November 2009.
Pollution and environmental issues
The Yarra River was an important resource for the Wurundjeri people for around 40,000 years. The river's resources were utilised sustainably by the Wurundjeri until European settlement in the early-mid-19th century. Early industry located along the river contributed great amounts of pollution such as dangerous chemicals, grease, oil and heavy metals. Through the mid-20th century, industry was slowly relocated away from the river and since then the major pollutants have come from storm water runoff, sewerage and lasting effects of previous pollution. Gold mining cleared small areas of land of vegetation and for periods of time, drained sections of the river, however when compared to land clearing and industrial pollutants, the effects of gold mining on the river were quite low.
Heavy metals deposited into the river throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries settled to the bottom of the river bed, particularly in the lower reaches through the city and Port Melbourne, and due to the increased artificial depth of the river through here, heavy metals have not been carried further, although some have been deposited out into Port Phillip. Oils and grease remain today in several tributaries in the lower reaches such as Merri Creek and Moonee Ponds Creek.
Pollution
Levels of bacteria, particularly E. coli and substances like grease, oils and heavy metals in the Yarra River and its tributaries are a major problem.
High levels of E. coli, some up to 200 times the safe limit in its tributaries, are caused primarily by poorly maintained septic systems.
Up to 350,000 cigarette butts enter the Yarra catchment storm water runoff every day, these serve as just a small representation of the rubbish and litter that are disposed of in storm water runoff areas that eventually make their way into the river and consequently, the sea.
Some industrial companies continue to use the Yarra as a dumping ground. For example, in recent years paper company Amcor has been fined several times by EPA Victoria for polluting the Yarra and environs. In 2007 it was fined 5,000 for discharging paper pulp into the Yarra from its Alphington plant and in 2008 the company was convicted for releasing oil into the Yarra from its Alphington plant and fined A$80,000.
Several programs are being implemented to minimise beach and river pollution, mostly organised by community groups, EPA Victoria and local councils.
In 2015, a facility for washing down cars and chemical containers illegally leaked toxic chemicals and herbicides into Yarra River, killing trees and endangering public safety. The facility was situated inside Warrandyte State PArk, from where the spillover until June 2015 flowed into the river and downstream towards Melbourne.
Lack of flooding
Due to damming and the lack of natural flooding, much of the surrounding vegetation is lacking in the silt and soil deposits that would otherwise be provided by the floods. The construction of the Upper Yarra Reservoir in 1957 reduced the river's flow by around 50%. This has ultimately led to a lack of healthy understory and saplings, or a lack of saplings completely, which contributes to problems such as reduced habitat, erosion and salinity, issues that ironically affect surrounding agriculture.
Water colour
The Yarra River is colloquially known as "the upside down river", for its golden hue. The muddy brown colour is caused by the easily eroded clay soils of its catchment area. The water was clear at the time of the first European settlements, but intensive land clearing and development since the mid-19th century has resulted in the presence of microscopic clay particles. The particles are kept suspended by the turbulence in some parts of the middle and lower sections of the river. When the river water combines with marine salts as it enters Port Phillip, the suspended particles clump together and sink. The presence of clay particles is not a major factor in the pollution of the river.
Environmental advocacy
The Yarra Riverkeeper Association is the largest advocacy group dedicated to protecting the Yarra River and its environs for current and future generations. They are part of the global Waterkeeper Alliance movement and have been involved in forums and discussions pushing for policies to ensure that "the voice" of the river is heard. The Yarra Riverkeeper Association or YRKA for short view the Yarra River as Melbourne's greatest natural asset and educate that its preservation and restoration is vital in helping Melbourne become a sustainable city. Since its establishment in 2004, YRKA has delivered hundreds of presentations and lectures, been in over 200 media appearances and provide on-water inspection tours to over 200 community leaders, business leaders, and politicians. It has had successful campaigns in pushing for great environmental flows and in 2010 the Riverkeeper Ian Penrose was awarded the 2010 Melbourne Award for contribution to the environment.
Geography
The Yarra River has a detailed and complex geological history, see "Geology". It was utilised and managed sustainably by the Wurundjeri for around 40,000 years, however since the European settlement and use of the river in the mid-19th century, its geography has changed substantially reflecting the unsustainable use of the river and surrounding resources. The river is fed by a number of small unnamed creeks and streams in the Yarra Ranges as well as 49 named tributaries, most of which are creeks. The river's lower reaches travel through central Melbourne. It is approximately in length, with a mean annual flow of , which is roughly 50% its original flow prior to damming. It is the most westerly snow fed river in Australia. The total catchment area is approximately .
Tributaries and geographic features
The Yarra's major tributaries are the Maribyrnong River, Moonee Ponds Creek, Merri Creek, Darebin Creek, Plenty River, Mullum Mullum Creek and Olinda Creek. The river hosts many geographical features such as; bends, rapids, lakes, islands, floodplains, billabongs and wetlands. Most features have been named after translated Wurundjeri phrases or have European, particularly British, origins. Some of the river's more prominent features include; Coode Island and Fishermans Bend, Victoria Harbour, Herring Island, Yarra Bend, Dights Falls, Upper Yarra Dam and Reservoir and many river flats and billabongs.
Settlements
Greater Melbourne – 4.64 million
Melbourne City Centre – 20,500
South Yarra – 18,000
Richmond – 22,500
Hawthorn – 20,000
Fairfield – 5,000
Heidelberg – 5,300
Bulleen – 10,500
Templestowe – 16,500
Eltham – 17,600
Warrandyte – 10,000
Yarra Glen – 2,600
Healesville – 6,500
Woori Yallock – 2,800
Launching Place – 2,600
Yarra Junction – 1,700
Warburton – 2,300
McMahons Creek – 282
Marine ecology
The river is home to several species of fish. In the lower reaches of the Yarra mainly Southern black bream and jellyfish and in the upper reaches smaller quantities of European perch (redfin), Macquarie Perch, Brown Trout, Murray Cod and Freshwater Catfish. However almost all of the fish are contaminated with heavy metals including arsenic and not fit for human consumption. Dolphins have been known to venture upstream as far as South Yarra, and serve as an example of the increased salinity of the river's lower reaches. Platypus are rarely seen as far downstream as Fairfield.
Course
Upper reaches
The river's source is a series of swamps in the upper reaches of the Yarra Ranges National Park, directly to the west of the Mount Baw Baw plateau, a thickly forested subalpine park, which is entirely closed-off to all except the employees of Melbourne Water. The park features extensive stands of mountain ash, a very tall eucalypt, tree ferns, as well as patches of remnant rainforest.
The Upper Yarra Dam, one of a number of dams in the Yarra Catchment that supply a large part of Melbourne's water, is the furthest upstream point on the river visible to the general public (though the dam itself is closed off). The first settlement the still-young river passes through is the small town of Reefton, but most of the river is surrounded by hills covered temperate forest until the timber and resort town of Warburton. The Woods Point Rd follows the river through this section.
Downstream of Warburton, the Yarra Valley gradually opens out and farms begin to appear, including beef and dairy farms, and by the town of Woori Yallock and the river's turn north, increasingly large areas are covered by vineyards, forming the Yarra Valley wine region. At Healesville, the river turns west again and the stream bed becomes increasingly silty, reducing the clarity of the water, and by the commuter town of Yarra Glen it begins to take on the brownish colour that the lower reaches are known for.
Middle reaches
The river enters Melbourne's suburbs proper at Chirnside Park, but virtually all the river's length is surrounded by parkland, much retaining (or having been replanted with) extensive native vegetation. A bicycle and walking trail known as the Main Yarra Trail begins at Warrandyte and becomes the Yarra River Trail, and in the lower reaches, the Capital City Trail. The river is used extensively for kayaking at Templestowe, and canoes can often be seen throughout the suburban section. Whilst the water is not particularly clear, its quality is sufficient for edible fish to swim within it. Some small hobby farms are located in the floodplain area of the river, surprisingly close to central Melbourne and almost completely surrounded by suburbs.
Heidelberg formed the home of the Heidelberg School, widely considered the first European painters to accurately capture the Australian landscape and its distinctive features. The walking trail features placards displaying some of their paintings at the settings they were actually painted; some features depicted remain clearly recognisable today.
Lower reaches
Below Dights Falls at Yarra Bend Park in inner Melbourne, the river becomes increasingly estuarine as it passes along the southern side of the central business district. This area forms the venue for the annual "Moomba" festival, which notably features an annual water skiing competition which attracts a huge crowd. The lower stretch of the river from Docklands to the Melbourne Cricket Ground was part of the final path of the Queen's Baton Relay of the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Many of Melbourne's private schools, located close to the river, train their rowing crews on it.
The lower reaches feature a number of boat cruises, using especially low-roof boats to go under the many bridges across this section of the Yarra. Herring Island is a small island at South Yarra which has a punt which takes people on to the park. The area in front of old Customs House is a former turning basin for ships. It is the point which was once known as "Freshwater Place" and once had a set of cascades which prevented both salt water and larger ships from going further upstream. This series of rocks, originally used to cross the river, and referred to as the "Yarra Falls" was removed using explosives and divers in 1883.
The final section passes through the Port of Melbourne and under the Bolte Bridge and the West Gate Bridge. The current course dates back to 1886 when a canal devised by British engineer Sir John Coode was cut from west of Flinders Street to below its junction with the Maribyrnong. The resulting island between the new and old courses of the river was named Coode Island, and is now part of the mainland with the former course to the north filled in. The river flows into Port Phillip, the site being extensively altered as part of the Port of Melbourne, Australia's busiest seaport.
Crossings
Since the first permanent crossing was built over the river in 1844, there are now over 60 places where pedestrians, cars and other vehicles can cross the river. As the river is never wider than around 350m and is on average only around 50m wide, most of the crossings are located in the suburbs of Greater Melbourne. While there are fewer crossings towards the mouth of the river, most notably the West Gate, Bolte and Princes Bridges, and the Burnley and Domain Tunnels. Small historical bridges can be found further downstream including the Banksia Street, Fitzsimons Lane and Warrandyte Bridges. Beyond Warburton there are very few crossings available. Some of the more prominent and historical crossings include;
West Gate Bridge – 1978
Bolte Bridge – 1999
Sandridge Bridge – 1888
Princes Bridge – 1844, 1850, 1888
CityLink Tunnels – 1997
Morell Bridge – 1899
Johnston Street Bridge – 1858
Warrandyte Bridge – 1861, 1952
Parklands
Several reserves have been set aside adjoining the Yarra, mostly to preserve the natural environment or for recreation, many of these are managed and operated by Parks Victoria, the state government agency responsible for the management of Victoria's national parks and other reserves. The largest and most notable of these parklands include: the Royal Botanic Gardens, Birrarung Marr, Yarra Bend Park, Westerfolds Park, Warrandyte State Park and the Yarra Ranges National Park.
Major parks
Some of the larger parklands adjoining the river include, from downstream to upstream:
Birrarung Marr
Royal Botanic Gardens
Yarra Bend Park
Westerfolds Park
Warrandyte State Park
Yarra Ranges National Park
Golf courses
There are 14 golf courses adjoining the river, these include, from downstream to upstream:
Burnley Golf Course (9)
Studley Park Golf Course (9)
Yarra Bend Public Golf Course (18)
Latrobe Golf Course (18)
Green Acres Golf Club (18)
Kew Golf Club (18)
Ivanhoe Public Golf Course (18)
Freeway Public Golf Course (18)
Yarra Valley Country Club (9)
Bulleen Driving Range
Rosanna Golf Club (18)
The Heritage Golf and Country Club
Henly Course (18)
St. John Course (18)
Warburton Golf Club (18)
Popular culture
The Yarra is considered an important part of Melbourne's culture and a symbol of the city, and as a result, it has been the source of artistic and cultural expression.
The Yarra has been captured in many famous paintings including some by the Heidelberg School.
The annual Moomba festival celebrates the Yarra River's increasing cultural significance to Melbourne.
The river has featured in songs by the Whirling Furphies, titled "My Brown Yarra", and the Coodabeen Champions, titled "By the Banks of the Yarra".
A poem entitled "Yara Yara" was written by Greek poet Nikos Kavvadias in 1951.
A song entitled The Yarra Song was written by Billy Bragg and included on the Australian edition of his 2002 album, England, Half English.
Recreational use
Throughout its length, the waters of the Yarra River and its banks are used for; boating, rowing, water skiing, kayaking, canoeing, swimming, fishing, cycling, running and walking, amongst other things. In the rivers upper reaches, fishing is most popular. Upstream of Launching Place the river becomes quite narrow and recreational use is limited. In the middle reaches, canoeing and kayaking is popular, there are a few rapids of easy to medium difficulty depending on the water level.
Swimming is also popular in the middle reaches throughout winter, particularly around Warrandyte. Around this area there are submerged mining shafts which can cause undertows that suck swimmers under the surface and into these shafts. In the period 2004–08, 3 people died in this manner in Warrandyte alone. Swimming is safer downstream, but not advisable below Dights Falls due to the high levels of pollution and high boating traffic. The Yarra River once held the world's largest swimming event, the Race to Prince's Bridge. The 3 Mile course ran in the lower reaches, from Twickenham Ferry (now MacRobertson Bridge) to Princes Bridge. The race often attracted greater than 500 competitors and large numbers of onlookers seeking to experience the spectacle.
In the lower reaches, the river is mostly used for rowing, there are several rowing sheds along the city stretch east of the Princes Bridge and many private schools have rowing clubs with sheds and berths on the river. At certain times of the year, particularly during the Moomba Festival, this stretch of the river is occupied by water skiing courses and jumps. The banks of the Yarra River are popular for cycling, running and walking where most paths are sealed and in good condition. Two major off-road, sealed trails, the Yarra River Trail and Capital City Trail follow the river on its course through the city, while part of the Bayside Trail also connects with the river.
The river is also popular for boating, in the residential suburb of Toorak some of the larger mansions have private boat moorings, whilst newer developments in Melbourne Docklands have larger marinas as does Pier 31 at Fisherman's Bend and Newport and Williamstown at the river's mouth. Boating is difficult beyond Hawthorn and impossible past Dights Falls. It is mostly concentrated in central Melbourne where cruises go up and down the river and ferries operate.
Navigation
The river can be used by any member of the public provided they abide by the rules of Parks Victoria who administer the river upstream of Bolte Bridge and the Port of Melbourne Corporation who administer the area downstream of Bolte Bridge. There is a maximum speed limit of for all boats operating on the river. Sections of the river are occasionally closed for public events such as Moomba, New Year's Eve and Rowing events.
The river is navigable by most boats from its entrance in Hobsons Bay to Dights Falls, a stretch of , and is subject to tidal variations and submerged objects. There are four bridges on the Yarra River with limited height clearances at high tide:
Charles Grimes Bridge –
Spencer Street Bridge – (can be less than at extreme high tides – once a month)
Kings Bridge –
Queens Bridge –
See also
Crossings of the Yarra River
Geography of the Yarra River
Geology of Victoria
Lakes and Reservoirs in Melbourne
Parklands adjoining the Yarra River
Brushy Creek (Melbourne)
Yarra Ranges National Park
Yarra Valley
References
Further reading
Rivers of Victoria (Australia)
Port Phillip and Western Port catchment
Rivers of Port Phillip (region)
Port of Melbourne
Landmarks in Melbourne | [
0.10784601420164108,
0.12403803318738937,
-0.45705488324165344,
-0.4249130189418793,
-0.18795208632946014,
0.7624424695968628,
1.3451465368270874,
0.20399370789527893,
-0.39146366715431213,
-0.3780366778373718,
-0.1914108246564865,
0.60051429271698,
-0.5692733526229858,
0.7052507996559143,
0.027887964621186256,
0.631393313407898,
0.35364311933517456,
0.3225972354412079,
0.5958244800567627,
-0.3032243549823761,
-0.15323640406131744,
0.14360730350017548,
0.8211705088615417,
0.1468898504972458,
0.9255579710006714,
-0.18692316114902496,
0.6217774152755737,
0.8747721314430237,
0.0653965100646019,
-0.26428163051605225,
0.12550926208496094,
0.4233429431915283,
0.180386021733284,
-0.4113842248916626,
-0.05938180536031723,
0.2359229177236557,
-0.4267471432685852,
0.00964419823139906,
-0.7495124340057373,
-0.34095174074172974,
-0.05931359902024269,
-0.07413880527019501,
-0.41824933886528015,
0.05042911320924759,
0.2553803622722626,
0.10101669281721115,
-1.4757463932037354,
-0.7095426917076111,
-0.19019663333892822,
-0.4303816556930542,
-0.4019894003868103,
1.1140437126159668,
0.25826311111450195,
-0.7549238801002502,
0.4068771302700043,
0.22191423177719116,
-0.4688936173915863,
0.38174793124198914,
-0.3154897391796112,
-0.4139796197414398,
0.04780343919992447,
0.5940482020378113,
-0.09677057713270187,
0.2811477780342102,
0.1368686705827713,
0.4058462679386139,
0.2156272679567337,
0.038390178233385086,
-0.08121529966592789,
0.23433899879455566,
-0.011794580146670341,
-0.043023038655519485,
0.04750536382198334,
0.04821828752756119,
-0.7149614095687866,
0.3220055103302002,
-0.6991111040115356,
0.4941110610961914,
-0.035913411527872086,
0.07479850947856903,
-0.07133202999830246,
0.3556225299835205,
0.359328031539917,
0.14044949412345886,
0.4466213285923004,
-0.19536952674388885,
-0.389692097902298,
0.2054295539855957,
-0.49022969603538513,
0.3878083825111389,
-0.8813250064849854,
-0.21743763983249664,
0.09807971119880676,
-0.2484428584575653,
-0.27136602997779846,
-0.6830185055732727,
-0.05519678816199303,
0.30619102716445923,
-0.5542440414428711,
-0.09542146325111389,
-0.5424265265464783,
-0.55952388048172,
0.47786498069763184,
0.8446514010429382,
-0.39649102091789246,
-0.05877238139510155,
-0.3319651782512665,
0.14607003331184387,
-0.43069300055503845,
0.1560869961977005,
0.10374674946069717,
-0.48962461948394775,
0.07956438511610031,
-0.5742691159248352,
0.0040002926252782345,
0.0445508174598217,
0.21493197977542877,
-0.07035402208566666,
-0.15328577160835266,
-0.08315644413232803,
1.0612276792526245,
0.05211291462182999,
0.08523290604352951,
0.313733845949173,
-0.31940290331840515,
-0.2878003418445587,
0.5602596402168274,
-0.47984156012535095,
-0.304996132850647,
0.14017033576965332,
0.13847649097442627,
0.9837420582771301,
0.11706867814064026,
-0.3084236681461334,
-0.25405773520469666,
-0.22952580451965332,
-0.6981240510940552,
0.09539461880922318,
0.3775194585323334,
0.06127333641052246,
-0.3054186701774597,
0.2415551394224167,
-0.14041072130203247,
-0.8748829364776611,
-0.05172828584909439,
0.40577682852745056,
0.18736407160758972,
-1.0835884809494019,
0.10898017138242722,
-0.5469960570335388,
-0.08372741937637329,
0.020526224747300148,
-0.7148333191871643,
0.10517481714487076,
-0.023533638566732407,
0.14980548620224,
0.6033287644386292,
-0.2858138978481293,
0.09904593229293823,
0.22943639755249023,
-0.05089164152741432,
1.0389081239700317,
0.593426525592804,
-0.4297349750995636,
0.14849106967449188,
-0.4290047585964203,
-0.3653477728366852,
0.3645293116569519,
0.07074515521526337,
-0.3099961578845978,
-0.14580316841602325,
-0.25296515226364136,
0.742469847202301,
-0.3717711269855499,
-0.30391472578048706,
-0.5899918079376221,
0.5714644193649292,
0.47177886962890625,
0.21092568337917328,
-0.5496851801872253,
-0.4058694541454315,
0.665403425693512,
-0.8188319206237793,
0.2985386848449707,
0.3729262351989746,
0.29801252484321594,
-0.006198007147759199,
0.1206221655011177,
-0.07609431445598602,
-0.5245686769485474,
0.5326098799705505,
-0.5857406258583069,
0.04866931959986687,
-0.049929626286029816,
-0.05187468230724335,
0.06924816220998764,
-0.09970435500144958,
0.9387059807777405,
0.3318111300468445,
0.46664053201675415,
0.4920467138290405,
0.08638568967580795,
-0.12382647395133972,
-0.632792055606842,
-1.0103777647018433,
-0.25077903270721436,
0.41706401109695435,
0.12299065291881561,
0.1255539059638977,
0.34516987204551697,
-0.2546328008174896,
-0.55673748254776,
-0.23078419268131256,
-0.6601712703704834,
0.5476745367050171,
0.3539060354232788,
0.08187726140022278,
0.04813122749328613,
-0.36794784665107727,
-0.07284241169691086,
0.8537841439247131,
0.18190298974514008,
-0.18909983336925507,
-0.20954629778862,
-0.6043878793716431,
0.92344731092453,
0.2526611089706421,
0.20161674916744232,
0.008361291140317917,
-0.9186979532241821,
0.40700989961624146,
-0.10238727182149887,
0.4331037998199463,
-0.6173446774482727,
0.028395729139447212,
-0.4147074818611145,
0.13887277245521545,
-0.29183247685432434,
0.4509165287017822,
-0.011729095131158829,
0.47453024983406067,
0.21045050024986267,
-0.5923299789428711,
0.9227153062820435,
0.09317018836736679,
-0.013370133005082607,
0.28205782175064087,
-0.20946532487869263,
-0.975951611995697,
0.5062171220779419,
0.4198600947856903,
0.24710291624069214,
0.15413647890090942,
0.9670089483261108,
-0.3348711133003235,
-0.4883994162082672,
-0.5764119625091553,
-0.47669166326522827,
0.4636210501194,
0.36083266139030457,
0.029928648844361305,
-0.26576653122901917,
-0.37598276138305664,
-0.3072722554206848,
0.25271111726760864,
-0.05787087604403496,
-0.07453282177448273,
-0.5145164728164673,
-0.02125914953649044,
0.3423297703266144,
0.22700084745883942,
0.28915509581565857,
-0.5523838996887207,
0.1959444135427475,
0.3654904365539551,
0.06320276111364365,
0.39629682898521423,
-0.5693821907043457,
-0.6157771944999695,
-0.7977442741394043,
0.013075604103505611,
1.030293345451355,
-0.28986743092536926,
-0.5501049160957336,
-0.47756755352020264,
0.3371634781360626,
-0.09876888990402222,
0.972140908241272,
0.022615117952227592,
0.31635409593582153,
-0.6397978067398071,
-0.739511251449585,
0.019233662635087967,
0.10175678879022598,
-0.3278104066848755,
-0.4324481785297394,
0.17177315056324005,
0.5507519245147705,
0.6336617469787598,
-0.759097695350647,
-0.4519203305244446,
0.27431297302246094,
-0.24238336086273193,
0.06900022178888321,
-0.416853129863739,
0.13615670800209045,
-0.6621496677398682,
-0.4745129942893982,
-5.294130802154541,
0.009896502830088139,
-0.701298177242279,
-0.7870076894760132,
0.7260631918907166,
-0.03152735158801079,
0.21327216923236847,
-0.05311237648129463,
0.27110710740089417,
-0.05634179711341858,
0.07158070802688599,
0.1672951579093933,
0.4613668918609619,
0.10343578457832336,
0.27889248728752136,
-0.46048489212989807,
0.051657043397426605,
-0.07356252521276474,
-0.03667532652616501,
-0.07408317178487778,
0.020402515307068825,
0.21105387806892395,
-0.23845931887626648,
0.05079204589128494,
0.22254613041877747,
0.6532055139541626,
-0.05980170518159866,
-0.9794219136238098,
-0.8138659596443176,
-0.3263729214668274,
0.08509602397680283,
-0.3852716386318207,
-0.5013342499732971,
0.5582723617553711,
0.01880761608481407,
-0.5539095997810364,
0.518612802028656,
0.21760126948356628,
1.0129972696304321,
0.019447652623057365,
0.016169413924217224,
0.20460283756256104,
0.2863994538784027,
-0.08362086117267609,
-0.03927326202392578,
-0.5407586097717285,
-0.6355289816856384,
-0.6403671503067017,
-0.19838164746761322,
0.9234720468521118,
-0.1495744287967682,
0.46187499165534973,
0.4684319794178009,
-0.22208434343338013,
0.33401334285736084,
0.26763781905174255,
0.5747771859169006,
-0.3165586590766907,
-0.17057254910469055,
0.7853957414627075,
0.436018168926239,
-0.505191445350647,
0.5125847458839417,
-0.0723920613527298,
-0.7721250653266907,
-0.5139302015304565,
0.042218565940856934,
0.8447434902191162,
0.5577130913734436,
0.2808819115161896,
-0.1377147138118744,
-0.1944228708744049,
-0.2594186067581177,
-0.6600654721260071,
0.41663727164268494,
0.08757554739713669,
-0.6017029285430908,
0.8123642206192017,
0.4316476285457611,
-0.5173640251159668,
-0.20599843561649323,
-0.3125268816947937,
0.5616001486778259,
0.3818480372428894,
0.11372868716716766,
-0.5600866079330444,
-0.018684647977352142,
0.0146482540294528,
0.11718441545963287,
-0.6397563815116882,
0.2704925239086151,
-0.549862802028656,
1.0146406888961792,
-0.01883591338992119,
-0.27722281217575073,
0.4714291989803314,
0.010674741119146347,
0.3790118098258972,
0.6747959852218628,
0.17562733590602875,
0.5877932906150818,
-0.7745110988616943,
-0.45425814390182495,
-0.4910694658756256,
-0.03985539823770523,
-0.0987720787525177,
0.17337071895599365,
-0.31049972772598267,
0.8286765217781067,
-0.5306317210197449,
0.02249075472354889,
-0.2909313440322876,
-0.26033270359039307,
0.010606972500681877,
0.34883299469947815,
-0.3439474403858185,
-0.9171889424324036,
0.2979224622249603,
0.20034220814704895,
0.5033199191093445,
0.06741299480199814,
0.2745963931083679,
-0.2975301742553711,
0.516798734664917,
0.23548653721809387,
0.8895362019538879,
0.4403979480266571,
0.30035296082496643,
-0.7191025018692017,
-0.001246813335455954,
0.5890609622001648,
-1.0320689678192139,
-0.018973734229803085,
-0.5666887760162354,
-0.2367827445268631,
-0.3762647807598114,
-0.7459062337875366,
-0.6139461398124695,
0.11030489951372147,
0.007461887318640947,
0.35024142265319824,
0.14487114548683167,
-0.5287805795669556,
-0.09673932939767838,
-0.08779601007699966,
0.4068243205547333,
-0.5652042627334595,
-0.00868954323232174,
-0.43635159730911255,
-0.10576652735471725,
-0.5768625736236572,
-0.7073678374290466,
-0.5198419094085693,
-0.3872624337673187,
-0.40365710854530334,
-0.4812341034412384,
-0.1323511302471161,
0.24855239689350128,
0.0495658814907074,
-0.18801915645599365,
0.10894925892353058,
-0.171379953622818,
-0.9009845852851868,
0.3063153326511383,
-0.08959246426820755,
0.12152477353811264,
-0.39890792965888977,
-0.3142484724521637,
0.09285042434930801,
1.1238678693771362,
0.33423495292663574,
-0.13838663697242737,
0.16993698477745056,
0.17440801858901978,
-0.004913073033094406,
0.6198855638504028,
-0.43717125058174133,
0.18936669826507568,
0.3712027966976166,
0.3003042936325073,
-0.37326139211654663,
-0.19812101125717163,
-0.5539045333862305,
0.4760230481624603,
0.012673567980527878,
-0.33770471811294556,
-0.6598510146141052,
0.5455031991004944,
-0.5183926224708557,
0.6322091817855835,
0.42426401376724243,
0.6510841846466064,
0.4271920323371887,
-0.3245692849159241,
-0.3618192672729492,
-0.016061145812273026,
-0.09404552727937698,
0.1691323071718216,
-0.32808470726013184,
-0.16045089066028595,
-0.04513870179653168,
0.12246155738830566,
-0.9080281257629395,
-0.07035209238529205,
0.45540863275527954,
-0.5811249017715454,
0.1457352489233017,
-0.15467695891857147,
-0.781035840511322,
-0.09973371773958206,
0.4342362582683563,
-0.6630256175994873,
0.18847070634365082,
0.6966733932495117,
-0.26288387179374695,
0.38354572653770447,
0.2243393510580063,
0.470896452665329,
0.00822960864752531,
-0.3095463514328003,
-0.7933835387229919,
-0.6302653551101685,
-0.04954075068235397,
-0.02879597805440426,
-0.6951208114624023,
0.5877877473831177,
0.4322175979614258,
-0.6723965406417847,
0.43730682134628296,
0.006866734474897385,
0.08070746809244156,
-0.6092900037765503,
0.36672744154930115,
0.9051580429077148,
0.2723782956600189,
-0.08761163800954819,
-0.09104898571968079,
-0.19093681871891022,
0.3032994270324707,
0.07085588574409485,
0.19652555882930756,
1.370485544204712,
-0.21276475489139557,
-0.3415830135345459,
-0.2814151346683502,
0.17722076177597046,
-0.4094131886959076,
-0.5922835469245911,
-0.5708878040313721,
-0.13721369206905365,
1.0899683237075806,
-0.10310456156730652,
0.0934496745467186,
-0.01922096684575081,
0.3773212432861328,
-0.1524313986301422,
0.2858920097351074,
0.052300404757261276,
-0.09957555681467056,
0.5295956134796143,
0.223385289311409,
0.03443185240030289,
0.22330737113952637,
0.4256432354450226,
0.5618935227394104,
-0.30309224128723145,
-0.26458439230918884,
-0.8177717924118042,
0.4901125729084015,
-0.3254464566707611,
0.37448370456695557,
-0.020874686539173126,
0.3764723539352417,
0.282712459564209,
0.16124309599399567,
0.34256985783576965,
-0.2846497595310211,
-0.7853918671607971,
0.3497921824455261,
-0.36927667260169983,
-0.337907075881958,
-0.07074014842510223,
-0.4097863435745239,
-0.6602060198783875,
0.1990845650434494,
0.18917272984981537,
-0.08794490247964859,
0.29597729444503784,
-0.6317819952964783,
-0.44486090540885925,
-0.1353265792131424,
-0.3340190649032593,
-0.17956359684467316,
0.35514700412750244,
-0.19768184423446655,
-0.1682182401418686,
0.12343442440032959,
0.5493240356445312,
-0.26554861664772034,
0.10948268324136734,
-0.5304750204086304,
0.21790212392807007,
0.2884974479675293,
0.012896821834146976,
0.10688610374927521,
-0.14187052845954895,
0.03542127460241318,
-0.3752627968788147,
0.20272059738636017,
0.2883971631526947,
0.4988816976547241,
0.5593664050102234,
0.43019914627075195,
0.9191327095031738,
-0.876852810382843,
0.36013075709342957,
0.7916208505630493,
-0.19572865962982178,
1.096725344657898,
0.2527715265750885,
-0.030662110075354576,
-0.056950006633996964,
0.015331067144870758,
0.7495919466018677,
-0.07141964137554169,
0.6970071196556091,
-0.11552625149488449,
-0.1206088736653328,
0.7019550800323486,
0.5534359216690063,
0.2226410210132599,
-0.4728928208351135,
-0.12317309528589249,
0.27210307121276855,
-0.656336784362793,
-0.453403115272522,
0.21093812584877014,
-0.6069991588592529,
-0.5878182649612427,
0.1287456452846527,
0.9828923940658569,
0.34252047538757324,
-0.16300785541534424,
0.39499205350875854,
0.5055018663406372,
-0.2464676946401596,
0.42552563548088074,
-0.19187523424625397,
-0.5757365226745605,
-0.17691785097122192,
-0.09297848492860794,
0.3161003589630127,
0.2568694055080414,
-0.32461225986480713,
0.37569859623908997,
0.07682381570339203,
0.262838751077652,
0.3106820583343506,
-0.6816036701202393,
-0.1563875824213028,
0.222624272108078,
0.5706692934036255,
0.777140736579895,
-0.6758735775947571,
-0.4616214632987976,
-0.8045998215675354,
-0.006905576214194298,
-0.4914429783821106,
-0.5013585090637207,
0.016361769288778305,
0.057412486523389816,
0.1908015012741089,
-0.6552046537399292,
-0.08600671589374542,
0.18764224648475647,
0.2175970822572708,
0.16934238374233246,
0.6071255803108215,
0.20622481405735016,
0.6768714189529419,
0.5004249811172485,
0.763698399066925,
-0.36057084798812866,
-0.6511200666427612,
-0.02886054292321205,
-0.06554137915372849,
0.20790991187095642,
0.4462330639362335,
-0.8316316604614258,
-0.384957492351532,
0.18739543855190277,
0.2208847850561142,
-0.41142430901527405,
0.14907515048980713,
-0.46430179476737976,
-0.49957549571990967,
-0.4676071107387543,
1.3728420734405518,
0.15275931358337402,
-0.19640344381332397,
0.761364221572876,
0.13580861687660217,
0.05610131844878197,
0.48199889063835144,
-0.5891231894493103,
0.6820172071456909,
-0.537278413772583,
0.22077643871307373,
-0.2092641443014145,
0.3918728530406952,
0.12386295944452286,
-0.006165451370179653,
-0.04324490949511528,
0.44443783164024353,
-0.007856319658458233,
0.2127300500869751,
0.6409544944763184,
-0.33526790142059326,
0.13798020780086517,
-0.17854565382003784,
0.1515405923128128,
-0.08416678756475449,
-0.13798430562019348,
0.059277329593896866,
0.2251938134431839,
-0.057472825050354004,
-0.18433935940265656,
0.052662141621112823,
-0.5238061547279358,
-0.1853303611278534,
0.6014411449432373,
-0.5431450605392456,
-0.983330249786377,
0.7061550617218018,
-0.4689299762248993,
-0.33679959177970886,
0.5219095945358276,
0.2844551205635071,
0.2407984435558319,
0.5607485771179199,
0.11555548757314682,
-0.45769253373146057,
0.44791409373283386,
-0.3548594117164612,
-0.09996828436851501,
-0.2218051254749298,
-0.03146017715334892,
-0.5457575917243958,
-0.7006093859672546,
-0.01620928943157196,
0.14620046317577362,
0.37019550800323486,
-0.6003237366676331,
0.1989067643880844,
0.1564042568206787,
-0.48281434178352356,
-0.011375244706869125,
-0.441885769367218,
-0.2959509789943695,
-0.2010241448879242
] |
234892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument%20from%20fallacy | Argument from fallacy | Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false. It is also called argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam), the fallacy fallacy, the fallacist's fallacy, and the bad reasons fallacy.
Form
It has the general argument form:
If P, then Q.
P is a fallacious argument.
Therefore, Q is false.
Thus, it is a special case of denying the antecedent where the antecedent, rather than being a proposition that is false, is an entire argument that is fallacious. A fallacious argument, just as with a false antecedent, can still have a consequent that happens to be true. The fallacy is in concluding the consequent of a fallacious argument has to be false.
That the argument is fallacious only means that the argument cannot succeed in proving its consequent. But showing how one argument in a complex thesis is fallaciously reasoned does not necessarily invalidate its conclusion if that conclusion is not dependent on the fallacy.
Examples
Tom: All cats are animals. Ginger is an animal. Therefore, Ginger is a cat.
Ben: You have just fallaciously affirmed the consequent. You are incorrect. Therefore, Ginger is not a cat.
Tom: I speak English. Therefore, I am English.
Ben: Americans and Canadians, among others, speak English too. By assuming that speaking English and being English always go together, you have just committed the package-deal fallacy. You are incorrect. Therefore, you are not English.
Both of Ben's rebuttals are arguments from fallacy. Ginger may or may not be a cat, and Tom may or may not be English. The fact that Tom's argument was fallacious is not, in itself, a proof that his conclusion is false.
Joe: Ben's argument that Ginger is not a cat is fallacious. Therefore, Ginger absolutely must be a cat.
That one can invoke the argument from fallacy against a position does not prove one's own position either, as this would also be an argument from fallacy, as is the case in Joe's argument.
Further
Argumentum ad logicam can be used as an ad hominem appeal: by impugning the opponent's credibility or good faith, it can be used to sway the audience by undermining the speaker rather than by addressing the speaker's argument.
William Lycan identifies the fallacy fallacy as the fallacy "of imputing fallaciousness to a view with which one disagrees but without doing anything to show that the view rests on any error of reasoning". Unlike ordinary fallacy fallacies, which reason from an argument's fallaciousness to its conclusion's falsehood, the kind of argument Lycan has in mind treats another argument's fallaciousness as obvious without first demonstrating that any fallacy at all is present. Thus in some contexts it may be a form of begging the question, and it is also a special case of ad lapidem.
See also
Argument from ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)
Argumentation theory
Genetic fallacy
Logical fallacies
Reductio ad absurdum
Straw man
Vacuous truth
References
Further reading
Fallacy Fallacy – The Fallacy Files
David Hackett Fischer, Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought Harper & Row, 1970, pp. 305–306.
Fallacy Fallacy at Existential Comics.
Propositional fallacies
Relevance fallacies | [
-0.30829161405563354,
0.6168187260627747,
-0.6299727559089661,
0.2010791152715683,
-0.21321986615657806,
-0.014279806986451149,
0.5463425517082214,
-0.20634937286376953,
0.4181106388568878,
-0.03485840559005737,
-0.5561140775680542,
0.6654933094978333,
0.16430288553237915,
0.5089225172996521,
-0.38832610845565796,
-0.007099210750311613,
0.43817955255508423,
0.21604199707508087,
0.3708605170249939,
-0.1630706936120987,
0.01868322119116783,
0.35896337032318115,
-0.3199678659439087,
-0.36834999918937683,
0.1688515543937683,
-0.5114666223526001,
0.25552400946617126,
0.04315778240561485,
-0.14017429947853088,
0.04923189803957939,
0.014107927680015564,
0.6936509013175964,
-0.1799716055393219,
-0.3415640592575073,
0.04653869569301605,
-0.0024699766654521227,
0.4654707908630371,
-0.12744933366775513,
-0.004230077378451824,
-0.3301484286785126,
0.5128213763237,
0.06170414388179779,
0.15303879976272583,
0.23608343303203583,
-0.20491774380207062,
-0.16032463312149048,
-1.5727155208587646,
-0.36028558015823364,
-0.6718453168869019,
-0.6429380178451538,
-0.4430179297924042,
0.017085092142224312,
0.1099730134010315,
0.6260378956794739,
-0.49209094047546387,
0.07876355201005936,
-0.6353231072425842,
-0.5878049731254578,
0.4465295374393463,
-0.12358347326517105,
0.40545380115509033,
0.2350391447544098,
0.18353162705898285,
0.09786183387041092,
0.1423438936471939,
0.26964154839515686,
-0.13634872436523438,
0.3166581690311432,
-0.7116724848747253,
-0.3328778147697449,
-0.4086243510246277,
-0.37902283668518066,
-0.46196597814559937,
0.08964398503303528,
-0.4679218828678131,
0.11406385898590088,
-0.15994766354560852,
-0.1976902186870575,
-0.08295360952615738,
-0.4109424650669098,
-0.1883772760629654,
0.3426876366138458,
0.14009171724319458,
-0.45752617716789246,
0.8474255204200745,
-0.0555218830704689,
0.1701243370771408,
0.6971783638000488,
-0.4855993390083313,
0.5180365443229675,
0.1887565702199936,
0.18428364396095276,
0.01096982043236494,
0.1040884405374527,
0.03188949078321457,
0.34218668937683105,
0.6937292218208313,
0.1765904575586319,
0.20851372182369232,
0.1735117882490158,
0.056374888867139816,
-0.2532767057418823,
0.725736677646637,
-0.20327293872833252,
-0.09353145956993103,
-0.1862458437681198,
-0.04277602583169937,
-0.3391422629356384,
-0.10976622253656387,
-0.23908519744873047,
-0.28577932715415955,
0.6665682196617126,
-0.40260791778564453,
-0.0803011804819107,
-1.236358880996704,
-0.17283354699611664,
0.37072518467903137,
0.348451167345047,
-0.03674189746379852,
0.04600654914975166,
0.03483593463897705,
0.4178946912288666,
-0.170193612575531,
0.23732107877731323,
0.17975230515003204,
0.24557408690452576,
0.18917764723300934,
0.8801752924919128,
-0.4314621388912201,
0.1963057667016983,
-0.11319956928491592,
0.8067565560340881,
0.16723091900348663,
0.23540161550045013,
-0.12992191314697266,
-0.023728281259536743,
0.5207900404930115,
-0.03499357029795647,
0.12221205979585648,
-0.06611793488264084,
-0.60102379322052,
-0.5730794072151184,
-0.7218535542488098,
0.37393441796302795,
0.46209123730659485,
0.062090810388326645,
0.006949302274733782,
0.005423084367066622,
0.053538478910923004,
0.07627411931753159,
-0.05010489001870155,
-0.08972401916980743,
-0.7538297176361084,
0.22050760686397552,
0.006844659801572561,
0.378182977437973,
0.8722912073135376,
-0.2790285050868988,
-0.5045560598373413,
0.8050258755683899,
0.011734469793736935,
-0.32665765285491943,
-0.24309547245502472,
-0.3681393265724182,
0.03193528577685356,
-0.6544905304908752,
0.22602716088294983,
0.4720940887928009,
-0.12172873318195343,
0.17905102670192719,
-0.5273562669754028,
-0.26694899797439575,
0.15713056921958923,
-0.4941633939743042,
0.15652330219745636,
-0.07496342062950134,
0.43689730763435364,
0.24226915836334229,
0.7940263152122498,
-0.2650619149208069,
-0.5153579711914062,
0.3979361951351166,
0.33451226353645325,
0.06360726058483124,
0.5618679523468018,
0.015528563410043716,
0.21849209070205688,
-0.454527348279953,
-0.24725551903247833,
-0.4810320734977722,
-0.3098476231098175,
-0.30429011583328247,
0.36178719997406006,
-0.7450620532035828,
1.0853601694107056,
0.233274906873703,
-0.4345290958881378,
0.9999012351036072,
0.0985461175441742,
0.49592721462249756,
0.20403055846691132,
-0.04367981106042862,
0.14939077198505402,
0.3613987863063812,
-0.44185590744018555,
1.3360811471939087,
0.17843163013458252,
0.120524100959301,
-0.4176112711429596,
0.6782516241073608,
0.41281625628471375,
0.5558982491493225,
-0.29753053188323975,
-0.4357631802558899,
-0.3502363860607147,
0.0009146648808382452,
-0.17041617631912231,
-0.06671371310949326,
0.2071637511253357,
-0.36158621311187744,
0.6686148643493652,
-0.26724180579185486,
0.3727562129497528,
0.519356369972229,
-0.029708022251725197,
0.7172587513923645,
0.205943763256073,
0.571711003780365,
0.32885831594467163,
-0.766213059425354,
-0.13289420306682587,
0.18437954783439636,
0.5223044753074646,
-0.22880876064300537,
0.001617538626305759,
-0.15780669450759888,
0.024914955720305443,
-0.21888026595115662,
0.16326500475406647,
0.003453893354162574,
0.07938389480113983,
0.2593163847923279,
-0.2555043399333954,
0.6778519749641418,
-0.3090689480304718,
0.049374207854270935,
-0.34269896149635315,
0.4832167327404022,
-0.39961978793144226,
0.355131596326828,
0.05892933905124664,
0.09859240800142288,
0.19996953010559082,
-0.5304850339889526,
0.15209075808525085,
0.3831235468387604,
-0.23458851873874664,
-0.024776900187134743,
-0.03236957639455795,
0.056233007460832596,
-0.05955948680639267,
0.3877023756504059,
0.2442132830619812,
-0.07365201413631439,
-0.31690898537635803,
-0.4526999592781067,
-0.2700933814048767,
-0.06747446954250336,
-0.17383398115634918,
0.07789012044668198,
0.30809345841407776,
-0.7144694328308105,
-0.8253966569900513,
-0.26844221353530884,
-0.6112768054008484,
-0.11332529038190842,
0.06451952457427979,
0.5246893763542175,
-0.9594417810440063,
-0.14273355901241302,
0.36950719356536865,
0.5017516016960144,
0.11646953225135803,
-0.28140223026275635,
-0.0863909050822258,
-0.11799844354391098,
0.3647433817386627,
-0.2724800407886505,
-0.03030107542872429,
0.003029064042493701,
-0.2935580611228943,
0.07864619046449661,
0.10880205780267715,
-0.37971702218055725,
0.43640604615211487,
0.6364172101020813,
0.1296439915895462,
-0.22919298708438873,
0.1525018960237503,
-0.012367574498057365,
-0.48805785179138184,
0.20494188368320465,
-0.5316648483276367,
0.058237627148628235,
-0.1699211150407791,
-0.07403858006000519,
-0.23481281101703644,
0.6519412994384766,
-5.665703296661377,
-0.03391680121421814,
-0.4377153217792511,
-0.10695792734622955,
-0.20021075010299683,
0.22681006789207458,
0.5541717410087585,
-0.4925380051136017,
-0.6697115302085876,
0.11693460494279861,
0.28210657835006714,
0.08210096508264542,
0.13597054779529572,
0.843421995639801,
0.737371027469635,
-0.7229021787643433,
0.24477024376392365,
-0.28065818548202515,
0.39195919036865234,
0.6014165878295898,
-0.22608892619609833,
0.001836323062889278,
0.0829722210764885,
0.05091604217886925,
-0.2049456685781479,
0.4675661027431488,
-0.04407494515180588,
0.5045719146728516,
-0.1931072473526001,
0.06621913611888885,
0.1262189894914627,
-0.06845442205667496,
-0.15086543560028076,
-0.268703818321228,
-0.26018646359443665,
0.5913592576980591,
0.7160557508468628,
0.06796709448099136,
-0.061052463948726654,
0.36753907799720764,
-0.09403014183044434,
0.13285137712955475,
0.4773276448249817,
0.6443874835968018,
0.5429793000221252,
-0.11492759734392166,
-0.041712138801813126,
0.12376006692647934,
-0.5024549961090088,
0.6987289786338806,
-0.5743227005004883,
0.16574712097644806,
0.5999541282653809,
0.15753470361232758,
-0.1332816183567047,
-0.21645411849021912,
0.6750558614730835,
-0.5452102422714233,
-0.3392958641052246,
0.3114810287952423,
0.2649347186088562,
-0.7123950123786926,
0.5621727108955383,
-0.33418670296669006,
-0.2798207104206085,
-0.6716874837875366,
-0.34876248240470886,
-0.1657961905002594,
0.5652549862861633,
0.17641346156597137,
-0.5160062313079834,
0.15926513075828552,
0.432830810546875,
-0.944901704788208,
0.1808265745639801,
-0.10184893012046814,
-0.17740431427955627,
0.06258009374141693,
0.5954064726829529,
-0.02850480005145073,
-0.15197420120239258,
-0.381108820438385,
-0.6552924513816833,
-0.010449549183249474,
0.360552042722702,
-0.03545087203383446,
0.3333496153354645,
0.7939411401748657,
-0.2083723247051239,
-0.0696348175406456,
0.22720862925052643,
0.3835205137729645,
0.12180986255407333,
0.3670779764652252,
0.009270638227462769,
1.2026129961013794,
0.32634437084198,
0.06181011348962784,
0.5951750874519348,
-0.11299733817577362,
0.14594583213329315,
-0.49133679270744324,
0.35924282670021057,
-0.43998992443084717,
-0.5173518657684326,
-0.10530729591846466,
-0.5990949869155884,
0.5464913845062256,
0.5460401773452759,
-0.19491882622241974,
0.1259079873561859,
0.2005058228969574,
-0.13270476460456848,
-0.06987302750349045,
-0.061988942325115204,
0.3349771201610565,
-0.6035929918289185,
0.21299807727336884,
-0.07659627497196198,
0.3020552396774292,
0.15068159997463226,
0.014540661126375198,
-0.47207537293434143,
-0.4076160192489624,
-0.666904628276825,
-0.5861104130744934,
-0.01716199330985546,
0.1792302429676056,
-0.35700279474258423,
-0.04329349473118782,
-0.23064254224300385,
0.46425238251686096,
0.15769805014133453,
0.12675327062606812,
0.10694967955350876,
-0.7841443419456482,
0.17234617471694946,
0.5018919110298157,
-0.22078551352024078,
-0.8393536806106567,
0.6886091828346252,
-0.37589210271835327,
-0.18448086082935333,
0.0009707597200758755,
0.4215334951877594,
-0.22719843685626984,
-0.32652556896209717,
-0.17330381274223328,
-0.4564719498157501,
0.8703287243843079,
-0.34265637397766113,
-0.6786113977432251,
0.7424471974372864,
-0.7900331616401672,
0.304898202419281,
0.48081526160240173,
-0.15020304918289185,
0.39716482162475586,
0.1408131718635559,
-0.6321681141853333,
-0.19394627213478088,
0.04647837206721306,
-1.1632877588272095,
-0.6919861435890198,
0.19889815151691437,
-0.311046302318573,
-1.0922092199325562,
-0.01547116320580244,
-0.6714884042739868,
0.43713217973709106,
-0.45768335461616516,
-0.4713660478591919,
-0.16481350362300873,
-0.21827298402786255,
0.8088231086730957,
0.1683202087879181,
0.1810423582792282,
0.2080211490392685,
-0.07649028301239014,
-0.6568392515182495,
-0.023967109620571136,
-0.300123393535614,
-0.30317580699920654,
0.3708781898021698,
0.5944827795028687,
-0.4492710828781128,
0.23715277016162872,
0.2085445076227188,
-0.35730674862861633,
-0.3373807966709137,
0.19758398830890656,
0.10531935095787048,
0.33314645290374756,
-0.14548498392105103,
-0.0796181932091713,
-0.2588818371295929,
0.1428331732749939,
0.2175222933292389,
-0.24628658592700958,
-0.4853498637676239,
0.1822493076324463,
0.1390053927898407,
-0.4792402982711792,
0.1502445936203003,
0.5229660868644714,
-0.869605541229248,
0.556196928024292,
0.018476467579603195,
-0.12521271407604218,
0.5548667311668396,
-0.21658967435359955,
-0.644140362739563,
-0.24275268614292145,
0.1790110468864441,
-0.037250980734825134,
-0.4498615264892578,
0.590593159198761,
-0.28945890069007874,
-0.03867607191205025,
0.1873464733362198,
0.3419222831726074,
-0.7371305227279663,
-0.13698652386665344,
-0.10214235633611679,
-0.5983507037162781,
0.1479896754026413,
-0.12315090000629425,
-0.3793116807937622,
0.9707077145576477,
-0.31437379121780396,
-0.361285924911499,
-0.42193594574928284,
0.08941932767629623,
0.09926870465278625,
-0.17560045421123505,
-0.38543015718460083,
-0.32010453939437866,
0.43671247363090515,
-0.8238790035247803,
-0.8396058082580566,
0.2529340386390686,
0.6815692782402039,
0.3243120610713959,
-0.384611040353775,
-0.13831238448619843,
-0.17639070749282837,
0.48570698499679565,
-0.18320679664611816,
-0.44930461049079895,
0.3000962734222412,
0.3574502170085907,
0.34282904863357544,
-0.8519989848136902,
0.09161233901977539,
0.25065603852272034,
0.10224483907222748,
-0.17907916009426117,
-0.4546163082122803,
-0.03223717212677002,
0.374441921710968,
0.25514325499534607,
-0.4692822992801666,
-0.03397000581026077,
-0.013922641985118389,
-0.06381628662347794,
0.03977513313293457,
0.2927977740764618,
0.05872488394379616,
0.1364108920097351,
-0.5675855278968811,
0.15504790842533112,
-0.9108569025993347,
0.14836959540843964,
0.324319988489151,
0.08670477569103241,
-0.03651413321495056,
-0.2681414484977722,
-0.17812073230743408,
-0.321859210729599,
0.3628386855125427,
0.19652317464351654,
-0.35770872235298157,
-0.29707884788513184,
-0.9334108829498291,
-0.017274733632802963,
-0.09031215310096741,
0.6783931851387024,
0.1493106335401535,
-0.21496835350990295,
-0.15561804175376892,
-1.34260094165802,
0.1500929445028305,
-0.08301188051700592,
0.1696878969669342,
-0.09255596250295639,
0.2626344561576843,
0.06363648921251297,
0.43527752161026,
-0.6530593037605286,
-0.35174840688705444,
-0.5999535322189331,
0.411759614944458,
0.21688738465309143,
-0.8332585692405701,
0.5713271498680115,
0.263994961977005,
-0.2596859931945801,
-0.16972465813159943,
0.4204413592815399,
-0.03532865270972252,
0.06097136810421944,
0.42352694272994995,
0.17769625782966614,
0.6681048274040222,
0.12786659598350525,
-0.3225257098674774,
0.4920450448989868,
-0.6114766001701355,
0.5529352426528931,
0.401822954416275,
0.042512379586696625,
-0.44587239623069763,
0.7082545757293701,
-0.7750176191329956,
-0.4303496181964874,
0.5360028147697449,
-0.021218696609139442,
-0.21053965389728546,
0.1550702005624771,
-0.292746901512146,
0.587900698184967,
0.26768311858177185,
-0.2959151864051819,
0.1375514566898346,
-0.48950159549713135,
-0.36061570048332214,
0.5222253203392029,
-1.0476170778274536,
-0.18030251562595367,
0.1631947159767151,
0.7922376990318298,
-0.08523111045360565,
0.01030826848000288,
0.15175043046474457,
-0.6526876091957092,
0.154685840010643,
0.41369324922561646,
0.6671104431152344,
-0.539954423904419,
0.5611711144447327,
0.24355070292949677,
-0.05287930369377136,
0.8946093916893005,
-0.8477137684822083,
0.5035398602485657,
-0.49474620819091797,
0.020328596234321594,
-0.3018738925457001,
-0.25474488735198975,
-0.10669247806072235,
0.06656085699796677,
0.6092458963394165,
-0.13888968527317047,
-0.1139509379863739,
0.6230594515800476,
-0.3560861051082611,
0.6982598900794983,
0.29237687587738037,
-0.08726830780506134,
0.4632253050804138,
-0.09415698796510696,
0.16904917359352112,
0.1011386439204216,
0.8012151122093201,
0.4770984649658203,
-0.431351900100708,
0.07571330666542053,
0.30185776948928833,
0.11880818754434586,
0.011629162356257439,
-0.020496254786849022,
-0.13969725370407104,
-0.49094462394714355,
0.031147681176662445,
-0.07581102848052979,
0.052910007536411285,
-0.02340603992342949,
0.41762465238571167,
-0.3410952389240265,
-0.10567054152488708,
-0.11725828051567078,
-0.12239448726177216,
-0.2580004632472992,
0.5372574329376221,
-0.4789479970932007,
0.2277803272008896,
-0.2545074224472046,
0.42674562335014343,
-0.024085599929094315,
-0.10621585696935654,
-0.23911817371845245,
0.20358015596866608,
-0.06504452973604202,
0.32962456345558167,
-0.5089603066444397,
0.024531211704015732,
-0.14157220721244812,
0.6313081383705139,
-1.1881873607635498,
0.1139817014336586,
0.013117880560457706,
-0.13628217577934265,
-0.46508491039276123,
0.41721951961517334,
-0.14987096190452576,
-0.4664815366268158,
0.7109163403511047,
-0.23123671114444733,
0.4882342517375946,
-0.17783451080322266,
-0.2559249997138977,
-0.12269851565361023,
0.23605547845363617,
-0.1893506795167923,
-0.21753597259521484,
-0.291718453168869,
0.39567282795906067,
0.017804760485887527,
-0.2018522322177887,
0.13128241896629333,
-0.05262809619307518,
-0.033270709216594696,
-0.09374592453241348,
0.5053012371063232,
0.13188545405864716,
-0.46833354234695435,
0.534173846244812,
0.26655250787734985,
0.26148006319999695,
-0.597703754901886,
0.22066174447536469,
-0.32930442690849304,
-0.1383393257856369,
0.7525349259376526,
-1.5957244634628296,
0.46890318393707275,
-0.34527674317359924,
-0.3252909183502197,
0.15881693363189697,
0.286778062582016,
0.48039671778678894,
-0.06767730414867401,
-0.03699727728962898,
-0.1917562186717987,
-0.6503158211708069,
0.2770787179470062,
0.214070126414299,
-0.24880188703536987,
-0.2741785943508148,
0.5892190337181091
] |
234901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrist | Wrist | In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the radius and the carpus and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints. This region also includes the carpal tunnel, the anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the flexor retinaculum, and the extensor retinaculum.
As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist.
Structure
The distal radioulnar joint is a pivot joint located between the bones of the forearm, the radius and ulna. Formed by the head of the ulna and the ulnar notch of the radius, this joint is separated from the radiocarpal joint by an articular disk lying between the radius and the styloid process of the ulna. The capsule of the joint is lax and extends from the inferior sacciform recess to the ulnar shaft. Together with the proximal radioulnar joint, the distal radioulnar joint permits pronation and supination.
The radiocarpal joint or wrist joint is an ellipsoid joint formed by the radius and the articular disc proximally and the proximal row of carpal bones distally. The carpal bones on the ulnar side only make intermittent contact with the proximal side — the triquetrum only makes contact during ulnar abduction. The capsule, lax and un-branched, is thin on the dorsal side and can contain synovial folds. The capsule is continuous with the midcarpal joint and strengthened by numerous ligaments, including the palmar and dorsal radiocarpal ligaments, and the ulnar and radial collateral ligaments.
The parts forming the radiocarpal joint are the lower end of the radius and under surface of the articular disk above; and the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetral bones below. The articular surface of the radius and the undersurface of the articular disk form together with a transversely elliptical concave surface, the receiving cavity. The superior articular surfaces of the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum form a smooth convex surface, the condyle, which is received into the concavity.
Carpal bones of the hand:
Proximal: A=Scaphoid, B=Lunate, C=Triquetrum, D=Pisiform
Distal: E=Trapezium, F=Trapezoid, G=Capitate, H=Hamate
In the hand proper a total of 13 bones form part of the wrist: eight carpal bones—scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate— and five metacarpal bones—the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth metacarpal bones.
The midcarpal joint is the S-shaped joint space separating the proximal and distal rows of carpal bones. The intercarpal joints, between the bones of each row, are strengthened by the radiate carpal and pisohamate ligaments and the palmar, interosseous, and dorsal intercarpal ligaments. Some degree of mobility is possible between the bones of the proximal row while the bones of the distal row are connected to each other and to the metacarpal bones —at the carpometacarpal joints— by strong ligaments —the pisometacarpal and palmar and dorsal carpometacarpal ligament— that makes a functional entity of these bones. Additionally, the joints between the bases of the metacarpal bones —the intermetacarpal articulations— are strengthened by dorsal, interosseous, and palmar intermetacarpal ligaments.
The earliest carpal bones to ossify are capitate bone and hamate bone in the first six months of an infant life.
Articulations
The radiocarpal, intercarpal, midcarpal, carpometacarpal, and intermetacarpal joints often intercommunicate through a common synovial cavity.
Articular Surfaces
It has two articular surfaces named, proximal and distal articular surfaces respectively. The proximal articular surface is made up of the lower end of the radius and a triangular articular disc of the inferior radio-ulnar joint. On the other hand, the distal articular surface is made up of proximal surfaces of the scaphoid, triquetral and lunate bones.
Function
Movement
The extrinsic hand muscles are located in the forearm where their bellies form the proximal fleshy roundness. When contracted, most of the tendons of these muscles are prevented from standing up like taut bowstrings around the wrist by passing under the flexor retinaculum on the palmar side and the extensor retinaculum on the dorsal side. On the palmar side the carpal bones form the carpal tunnel, through which some of the flexor tendons pass in tendon sheaths that enable them to slide back and forth through the narrow passageway (see carpal tunnel syndrome).
Starting from the mid-position of the hand, the movements permitted in the wrist proper are (muscles in order of importance):
Marginal movements: radial deviation (abduction, movement towards the thumb) and ulnar deviation (adduction, movement towards the little finger). These movements take place about a dorsopalmar axis (back to front) at the radiocarpal and midcarpal joints passing through the capitate bone.
Radial abduction (up to 20°): extensor carpi radialis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, flexor pollicis longus
Ulnar adduction (up to 30°): extensor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi
Movements in the plane of the hand: flexion (palmar flexion, tilting towards the palm) and extension (dorsiflexion, tilting towards the back of the hand). These movements take place through a transverse axis passing through the capitate bone. Palmar flexion is the most powerful of these movements because the flexors, especially the finger flexors, are considerably stronger than the extensors.
Extension (up to 60°): extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor indicis, extensor pollicis longus, extensor digiti minimi, extensor carpi ulnaris
Palmar flexion (up to 70°): flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, abductor pollicis longus
Intermediate or combined movements
However, movements at the wrist can not be properly described without including movements in the distal radioulnar joint in which the rotary actions of supination and pronation occur and this joint is therefore normally regarded as part of the wrist.
Clinical significance
Wrist pain has a number of causes, including carpal tunnel syndrome, ganglion cyst, tendinitis, and osteoarthritis. Tests such as Phalen's test involve palmarflexion at the wrist.
The hand may deviate at the wrist in some conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis.
Ossification of the bones around the wrist is one indicator used in taking a bone age.
A wrist fracture usually means a fracture of the distal radius.
History
Etymology
The English word "wrist" is etymologically derived from the ancient German word wristiz from which are derived modern German rist ("instep", "wrist") and modern Swedish vrist ("instep", "ankle"). The base writh- and its variants are associated with Old English words "wreath", "wrest", and "writhe". The wr- sound of this base seems originally to have been symbolic of the action of twisting.
See also
Brunelli procedure, related to instability in the wrist, caused by a torn scapholunate ligament.
Knuckle-walking, a kind of quadrupedal locomotion involving wrist bone specialization
Wristlocks use movement extremes of the wrist for martial applications.
Glossary of bowling § Wrist, a measure of wrist position in bowling ball deliveries
Additional images
References
Sources
External links
Wrist
Upper limb anatomy | [
0.39624714851379395,
0.061511266976594925,
0.08562815934419632,
0.2535265386104584,
-0.09139800816774368,
0.3910514712333679,
-0.07675573229789734,
0.2049683928489685,
-0.37828320264816284,
-0.6137977242469788,
0.3570718467235565,
0.6333878040313721,
0.2602173984050751,
0.06788139045238495,
-0.22226233780384064,
0.40306347608566284,
0.2140420526266098,
-0.1703040599822998,
-0.1445285975933075,
-0.033820994198322296,
-0.05754029378294945,
-0.25841206312179565,
0.5359291434288025,
-0.22209078073501587,
0.048323456197977066,
0.2438233196735382,
-0.02304714173078537,
0.2144647240638733,
0.06842601299285889,
-0.023042265325784683,
-0.11975348740816116,
0.2588495910167694,
-0.4434976279735565,
-0.8545274138450623,
-0.4553617835044861,
-0.8047285079956055,
-0.12082556635141373,
-0.2624686360359192,
-0.07767403870820999,
-0.8168526887893677,
-0.14592500030994415,
-0.24051861464977264,
0.32533279061317444,
0.5292595624923706,
-0.4713977575302124,
-0.522057831287384,
-0.57517009973526,
0.6980979442596436,
-0.24706719815731049,
0.8563169240951538,
-0.14776869118213654,
0.3111344277858734,
0.09840808808803558,
0.1506575345993042,
0.1974765509366989,
0.24099163711071014,
-0.553504228591919,
-0.05849304795265198,
-0.2463984191417694,
-0.3550398051738739,
0.3487412929534912,
0.6596952080726624,
0.2793276309967041,
0.6098868250846863,
0.08681972324848175,
0.3752582371234894,
0.1260603815317154,
0.1674755960702896,
-0.47590819001197815,
-0.20510415732860565,
0.033162835985422134,
0.014561435207724571,
-0.7620130181312561,
0.49748533964157104,
-0.0013239062391221523,
-0.33143511414527893,
-0.40597566962242126,
-0.13958986103534698,
0.21248023211956024,
0.25337257981300354,
0.4233410656452179,
0.5973381996154785,
0.4693652391433716,
-0.05523902177810669,
-0.1215272769331932,
-0.11550763994455338,
-0.8457348942756653,
0.02363167144358158,
-0.3316193222999573,
0.12874555587768555,
0.48653772473335266,
0.14240801334381104,
0.3728327751159668,
0.2403782308101654,
-0.11617637425661087,
-0.1471213549375534,
0.29191648960113525,
0.06804890930652618,
0.07736878097057343,
0.0725214034318924,
0.49301931262016296,
-0.511371374130249,
0.5543025732040405,
-0.62397301197052,
0.2517864406108856,
0.16722287237644196,
-0.07428322732448578,
-0.22926311194896698,
-0.1469685435295105,
0.20464763045310974,
-0.7466510534286499,
-0.10308361053466797,
0.14214658737182617,
-0.2755248546600342,
-0.23753021657466888,
-0.2855432331562042,
0.49786457419395447,
-0.3951084613800049,
-0.05794062837958336,
-0.8525062799453735,
-0.3051773011684418,
0.2609420716762543,
0.25637051463127136,
-0.22473777830600739,
0.2720786929130554,
-0.47781628370285034,
0.35883358120918274,
0.16142132878303528,
-0.3459606468677521,
-0.381441593170166,
0.8789331316947937,
1.1801072359085083,
-0.05364670976996422,
-0.4580353796482086,
-0.09538080543279648,
-0.29830634593963623,
0.10798419266939163,
0.26553717255592346,
0.1504838913679123,
0.1513797491788864,
-0.8102650046348572,
-0.582218587398529,
-0.8293467164039612,
-0.5259425640106201,
0.11130207777023315,
-0.5311739444732666,
-0.0047784773632884026,
-0.07723443955183029,
-0.22861666977405548,
-0.08840901404619217,
-0.036145083606243134,
-0.24655848741531372,
0.3703354299068451,
0.36584025621414185,
0.1445644348859787,
-0.5297045111656189,
0.42759329080581665,
0.30925604701042175,
-0.32691624760627747,
-0.20733757317066193,
0.4351552128791809,
-0.0900326743721962,
-0.49534642696380615,
-0.015529117546975613,
0.1255262792110443,
0.2960018515586853,
0.19867265224456787,
0.1898139864206314,
0.05859582498669624,
0.30969303846359253,
-0.03697019815444946,
-0.10055390745401382,
0.09422344714403152,
0.11038324981927872,
-0.6855778098106384,
-0.053896114230155945,
-0.47663554549217224,
0.0088950889185071,
0.3499181568622589,
0.3961474299430847,
-0.39247167110443115,
0.2899291515350342,
0.18539971113204956,
0.1196068525314331,
-0.20988312363624573,
-0.31634530425071716,
0.30624863505363464,
0.18217028677463531,
-0.8631763458251953,
0.1411338597536087,
-0.43440255522727966,
-0.43161314725875854,
-0.049092311412096024,
0.021097421646118164,
0.9002958536148071,
-0.2931128442287445,
-1.0612668991088867,
1.4187800884246826,
-0.16911065578460693,
0.8255243301391602,
-0.8317886590957642,
-0.13755907118320465,
0.39535459876060486,
-0.18881508708000183,
-0.517445981502533,
0.14675171673297882,
0.7032304406166077,
0.31495293974876404,
0.5138010382652283,
0.09997768700122833,
0.46239450573921204,
-0.426571786403656,
-0.6685002446174622,
-0.8130592703819275,
-0.12371163815259933,
0.151779904961586,
-0.026059724390506744,
-0.1761348992586136,
-0.34281736612319946,
0.1660752296447754,
0.6761988997459412,
-0.17552758753299713,
0.5483900904655457,
0.2644047439098358,
-0.13674162328243256,
0.7197225689888,
-0.07362380623817444,
0.5411403179168701,
-0.14829464256763458,
-0.8454404473304749,
-0.09156263619661331,
-0.7404945492744446,
0.47244173288345337,
-0.16938750445842743,
0.02730896882712841,
0.05661923065781593,
0.12143512070178986,
-0.16960076987743378,
0.37684476375579834,
-0.8790107369422913,
0.4550521969795227,
0.2836138904094696,
-0.7443012595176697,
0.24070630967617035,
0.5457881689071655,
-0.11011754721403122,
-0.16641351580619812,
0.3286750614643097,
-0.15081216394901276,
0.11640875041484833,
-0.0734926238656044,
0.7246705889701843,
0.21356487274169922,
-0.05400795862078667,
0.16367021203041077,
-0.12786026298999786,
0.5170409679412842,
0.3259260654449463,
0.2233903408050537,
0.20177750289440155,
-0.30984801054000854,
-0.02931826561689377,
0.5155189037322998,
-0.36923661828041077,
-0.6114902496337891,
-0.24854466319084167,
-0.4417983591556549,
-0.46513035893440247,
0.46250566840171814,
0.4687422215938568,
0.18301275372505188,
0.16877885162830353,
-0.6930454969406128,
0.3671324849128723,
-0.11048697680234909,
-0.249225914478302,
0.17341914772987366,
-0.3683152198791504,
-0.4507206082344055,
-0.3041917383670807,
-0.10188576579093933,
-0.01060602068901062,
1.2110387086868286,
-0.7126125693321228,
0.5571609139442444,
-0.517152726650238,
0.2415148764848709,
0.10920174419879913,
-0.5459133386611938,
-0.44168761372566223,
-0.10103069990873337,
0.3372276723384857,
0.061160847544670105,
0.14134857058525085,
0.06247822195291519,
0.10030844807624817,
0.3229694068431854,
0.007941163145005703,
0.4430300295352936,
-1.0533615350723267,
-0.1930646151304245,
0.2016783058643341,
0.18068119883537292,
-0.7897698879241943,
0.22325320541858673,
-0.1061272993683815,
-0.07823628187179565,
0.04135355353355408,
-5.64461612701416,
-0.2663763761520386,
-0.4220062792301178,
-0.5274476408958435,
-0.20296302437782288,
0.7248544096946716,
0.8840954303741455,
-0.24681918323040009,
-0.421067476272583,
-0.5667000412940979,
0.33202362060546875,
0.11703228205442429,
0.39838236570358276,
-0.10521367937326431,
0.17641213536262512,
0.4830358028411865,
-0.1760871410369873,
-0.2983570992946625,
-0.40389543771743774,
0.5226136445999146,
0.12868505716323853,
-0.2859419286251068,
-0.11243167519569397,
0.05616627633571625,
-0.10044480115175247,
-0.47558364272117615,
-0.42707639932632446,
-0.31096526980400085,
-0.263255774974823,
-0.0890016034245491,
-0.07918743044137955,
0.2159748077392578,
0.12254329025745392,
-0.14883865416049957,
0.5488376021385193,
-0.34748363494873047,
0.688854455947876,
-0.398560106754303,
0.4963052570819855,
-0.31844252347946167,
-0.46851593255996704,
0.4303395450115204,
0.605045735836029,
-0.24000336229801178,
0.5732225179672241,
-0.22533664107322693,
-0.1588771641254425,
-0.14594519138336182,
-0.23269037902355194,
0.5042552351951599,
0.15428254008293152,
-0.21636466681957245,
0.15408267080783844,
-0.28673988580703735,
0.06439868360757828,
-0.20096048712730408,
0.6281629800796509,
-0.05573073402047157,
-0.6859872341156006,
-0.10013211518526077,
0.20418524742126465,
-0.5711532235145569,
-0.0341469869017601,
-0.5673804879188538,
-0.2594943940639496,
0.16741487383842468,
-0.6498591303825378,
-0.2920742928981781,
0.9903814196586609,
0.5126121640205383,
0.05146836116909981,
0.09799554198980331,
-0.3034956455230713,
-0.5070110559463501,
0.3733595609664917,
-0.6246806383132935,
-0.3799785077571869,
-0.07647496461868286,
-0.1621059626340866,
-0.21004469692707062,
-0.1491071879863739,
-0.3988323211669922,
-0.830085277557373,
0.16647058725357056,
0.28260132670402527,
-0.36564552783966064,
-0.04776992276310921,
-0.39834994077682495,
-0.06960499286651611,
0.5510839223861694,
0.4481154978275299,
-0.0015881522558629513,
0.08739139884710312,
0.08663883060216904,
-1.0605998039245605,
-0.32791101932525635,
-0.15004543960094452,
-0.055677637457847595,
0.3795934021472931,
-0.12772586941719055,
1.0539100170135498,
-0.17893336713314056,
-0.05376303568482399,
-0.04571155086159706,
-0.4026854336261749,
0.10535287857055664,
-0.19631636142730713,
0.39892348647117615,
0.7533522844314575,
-0.00111890968400985,
-0.27345409989356995,
-0.057628192007541656,
-0.029436610639095306,
0.14638176560401917,
0.12235251814126968,
-0.6835387945175171,
-0.7377704381942749,
0.4644187390804291,
0.6535765528678894,
-0.45512962341308594,
0.004848151933401823,
0.16185182332992554,
-0.3347899913787842,
-0.48579007387161255,
-0.349917471408844,
-0.38759052753448486,
0.17316147685050964,
-0.21754060685634613,
0.23222026228904724,
0.32576465606689453,
-0.028222905471920967,
0.4717268943786621,
0.15547537803649902,
0.7117275595664978,
-0.36598554253578186,
0.7932263612747192,
-0.2559926509857178,
-0.3405781686306,
0.055750735104084015,
-0.715843141078949,
0.1321125626564026,
-0.08384101092815399,
-0.01093109417706728,
-0.15360821783542633,
0.7454550266265869,
0.6473109722137451,
-0.4256782829761505,
0.5457466244697571,
-0.5689271092414856,
1.1184720993041992,
0.2518771290779114,
0.20694835484027863,
-0.17035739123821259,
0.20093399286270142,
0.09630832076072693,
0.11590638011693954,
-0.06366048753261566,
0.2805415093898773,
0.4450750946998596,
-0.18455827236175537,
0.07931646704673767,
0.21901412308216095,
-0.5310729742050171,
-0.18218450248241425,
0.133290097117424,
-0.16077262163162231,
-0.7325530648231506,
-0.3619077801704407,
-0.14874055981636047,
0.005105781834572554,
-0.07999414950609207,
-0.3143104016780853,
0.2735295295715332,
-0.04932491108775139,
-0.3212828040122986,
-0.20140863955020905,
-0.5283946394920349,
0.30110403895378113,
-0.27470606565475464,
-0.008578930050134659,
0.21894410252571106,
0.16931000351905823,
0.712660014629364,
0.361896276473999,
0.4298359751701355,
-0.35144171118736267,
-0.33726704120635986,
-0.29226499795913696,
-0.11142847687005997,
0.3093591034412384,
0.9539571404457092,
0.23246560990810394,
0.044754814356565475,
0.22028282284736633,
0.07757925242185593,
0.5962937474250793,
-0.04300167039036751,
1.029138207435608,
-0.49405011534690857,
-0.07000145316123962,
0.18408823013305664,
0.5867434740066528,
-0.36992672085762024,
0.30298885703086853,
0.5451581478118896,
0.47530001401901245,
0.6750516891479492,
-0.3549667000770569,
-0.22090789675712585,
0.06683829426765442,
-0.5234535932540894,
-0.5388804078102112,
-0.0007584031554870307,
0.3916175663471222,
-0.46206265687942505,
0.23402772843837738,
0.39070630073547363,
-0.5471690893173218,
-0.42779263854026794,
-0.3128196597099304,
0.6468831300735474,
0.26679885387420654,
-0.17126576602458954,
-0.2299342304468155,
-0.1452605128288269,
0.3243871331214905,
-0.18871472775936127,
-0.3633452355861664,
0.5569356083869934,
0.15306583046913147,
0.09746535867452621,
-0.424938827753067,
0.1976979821920395,
-0.4404842257499695,
-0.24155037105083466,
-0.02536017820239067,
-0.7004242539405823,
-0.36201319098472595,
-0.12481039762496948,
0.0431227870285511,
1.0043036937713623,
1.0142995119094849,
-0.21810214221477509,
-0.09733901917934418,
0.1172601506114006,
-0.36499547958374023,
0.9044938087463379,
-0.9594898223876953,
-0.15093638002872467,
0.4106537103652954,
0.3977706730365753,
-0.33159196376800537,
-0.47684136033058167,
-0.4757193326950073,
0.22890499234199524,
0.6273208856582642,
-0.039388928562402725,
-0.268618643283844,
-0.06267552822828293,
0.04051302745938301,
0.5811036229133606,
-0.11217299848794937,
-0.5215792059898376,
-0.07346612215042114,
-0.3660087585449219,
0.34131303429603577,
-0.21618929505348206,
-0.7393637299537659,
0.7020925283432007,
-0.2979830205440521,
0.7041993141174316,
0.16144007444381714,
0.2541324496269226,
-0.19802133738994598,
-0.0570371150970459,
-0.03701707348227501,
0.012089629657566547,
0.31129857897758484,
0.05840270593762398,
-0.2764115035533905,
-0.36400851607322693,
0.037926431745290756,
0.3926636576652527,
-0.4962489902973175,
0.0031345291063189507,
0.2188843935728073,
0.30000749230384827,
0.13844619691371918,
0.027163121849298477,
-0.05811736732721329,
-0.10250721126794815,
-0.5058915615081787,
0.1763383001089096,
0.4583762586116791,
0.47600382566452026,
0.6464105248451233,
0.23142968118190765,
0.66867995262146,
-0.4456649422645569,
0.3490842282772064,
-1.0153707265853882,
0.24268904328346252,
0.45344850420951843,
-0.5567306876182556,
-0.06702138483524323,
-0.0439903661608696,
0.4623708426952362,
-0.05699886381626129,
0.0024042772129178047,
0.05181572213768959,
0.057989608496427536,
-0.006300031673163176,
-0.04159488156437874,
-0.08682969212532043,
-0.12183602154254913,
-0.5750234723091125,
0.5919672250747681,
0.35115954279899597,
-0.2253604233264923,
0.5395309329032898,
0.10392414778470993,
-0.3386656641960144,
0.5366455912590027,
-0.3706526458263397,
-0.6117493510246277,
0.4930225610733032,
-0.01071640383452177,
-0.06111660227179527,
-0.42874428629875183,
0.5399653315544128,
0.8717209100723267,
-0.05682067573070526,
0.015035218559205532,
0.21798372268676758,
-0.24519838392734528,
-0.08748062700033188,
-0.04615567624568939,
0.03751984238624573,
-0.13947197794914246,
0.7273529171943665,
0.6981518268585205,
0.9085521697998047,
0.07609331607818604,
0.3488050103187561,
0.22616000473499298,
-0.01509617455303669,
0.011478022672235966,
0.040876563638448715,
0.4007571041584015,
-0.43855372071266174,
0.746632993221283,
-1.0892621278762817,
0.7907360792160034,
-0.15390340983867645,
0.47580888867378235,
0.11031938344240189,
0.00724856648594141,
-0.07552231103181839,
-0.5721489191055298,
0.26174649596214294,
-0.6376867294311523,
0.7317912578582764,
0.7331969738006592,
-0.428231418132782,
-0.3199138641357422,
0.3499683141708374,
0.33533361554145813,
-0.2764902114868164,
-0.3991996943950653,
-0.1871739625930786,
-0.15849712491035461,
0.6927268505096436,
-1.0139931440353394,
0.3600994944572449,
-0.058873966336250305,
-0.10091745108366013,
0.7129665017127991,
0.5796923637390137,
0.03460584580898285,
-0.13111117482185364,
-0.22208712995052338,
-0.7609542012214661,
-0.6773787140846252,
-0.8326281309127808,
-0.06379728019237518,
0.3904861509799957,
0.19368235766887665,
-0.36967772245407104,
0.4558846354484558,
-0.21145643293857574,
0.6814558506011963,
-0.4407469928264618,
0.5476053357124329,
-0.6722478270530701,
-0.2928031384944916,
-0.4464709460735321,
-0.7830789685249329,
0.5813408493995667,
0.44407761096954346,
-0.1436910331249237,
-0.521533727645874,
0.2085755616426468,
-0.1072772741317749,
-0.12117757648229599,
-0.48158761858940125,
0.48893824219703674,
0.2920561730861664,
0.2885226607322693,
-0.5216909050941467,
0.49783191084861755,
0.44358718395233154,
0.1507873833179474,
-0.0048874313943088055,
0.2306101769208908,
-0.6066531538963318,
-0.24824728071689606,
0.6228107213973999,
-0.8915340900421143,
-0.16508640348911285,
-0.4902067184448242,
0.03877800703048706,
-0.31842750310897827,
0.08182278275489807,
0.42073696851730347,
-0.2269013375043869,
-0.19566243886947632,
-0.07603833824396133,
0.4883039891719818,
-0.5493171215057373,
0.1896010786294937,
-0.4300149083137512,
0.264564573764801,
-0.12246959656476974,
0.4273267686367035,
-0.46218183636665344,
0.15011602640151978,
0.27284711599349976,
0.45077401399612427,
0.08338245004415512,
-0.27814731001853943,
-0.009731137193739414,
-0.05252941697835922,
-0.4875691831111908,
0.22891317307949066,
0.19391311705112457,
0.023048678413033485,
-0.6643426418304443,
-0.48575741052627563,
-0.6122280955314636,
0.09592986106872559,
0.20718298852443695,
-0.28585129976272583,
1.0320169925689697,
-0.17508932948112488,
-0.4087195098400116,
-0.05526604503393173,
-0.12283395230770111,
-0.5672464966773987,
-0.177298441529274,
0.3096688687801361
] |
234906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20trigonometric%20functions | List of integrals of trigonometric functions | The following is a list of integrals (antiderivative functions) of trigonometric functions. For antiderivatives involving both exponential and trigonometric functions, see List of integrals of exponential functions. For a complete list of antiderivative functions, see Lists of integrals. For the special antiderivatives involving trigonometric functions, see Trigonometric integral.
Generally, if the function is any trigonometric function, and is its derivative,
In all formulas the constant a is assumed to be nonzero, and C denotes the constant of integration.
Integrands involving only sine
Integrands involving only cosine
Integrands involving only tangent
Integrands involving only secant
See Integral of the secant function.
Integrands involving only cosecant
Integrands involving only cotangent
Integrands involving both sine and cosine
An integral that is a rational function of the sine and cosine can be evaluated using Bioche's rules.
Integrands involving both sine and tangent
Integrand involving both cosine and tangent
Integrand involving both sine and cotangent
Integrand involving both cosine and cotangent
Integrand involving both secant and tangent
Integrand involving both cosecant and cotangent
Integrals in a quarter period
Integrals with symmetric limits
Integral over a full circle
See also
Trigonometric integral
Trigonometric functions
Trigonometry | [
-0.8419973850250244,
0.2967258393764496,
-0.13160350918769836,
-0.047534868121147156,
-0.38378214836120605,
0.29610228538513184,
0.13141359388828278,
-0.11876311153173447,
-0.2271931916475296,
-0.4876803755760193,
-0.492336630821228,
0.47506988048553467,
-0.33484774827957153,
0.11770413815975189,
0.6052959561347961,
0.6796308755874634,
0.2988828420639038,
0.4125480651855469,
-0.5386171340942383,
-0.48640164732933044,
0.315726637840271,
0.14409522712230682,
0.7037102580070496,
-0.770144522190094,
-0.005930246319621801,
-0.1973751038312912,
-0.010078276507556438,
-0.13787154853343964,
-0.1510416865348816,
0.45954081416130066,
-0.07067982107400894,
1.0201178789138794,
-0.09425298869609833,
-0.244949609041214,
0.0487041249871254,
-0.5339268445968628,
0.45206698775291443,
0.3102847933769226,
0.1975022256374359,
-0.45405587553977966,
0.010254924185574055,
-0.28382134437561035,
0.2900971472263336,
-0.07712148874998093,
0.053359031677246094,
-0.5029618144035339,
-1.5099446773529053,
-0.6731573939323425,
-0.630370557308197,
-0.11202554404735565,
0.04104446619749069,
0.12480702996253967,
0.8596554398536682,
0.7943698167800903,
-0.4506528675556183,
0.7928224802017212,
-0.775355875492096,
-0.19187261164188385,
0.5648626089096069,
0.1523984670639038,
-0.009605626575648785,
0.4637305736541748,
0.030225180089473724,
-0.0563751645386219,
0.6602979898452759,
1.2256373167037964,
-0.14638136327266693,
0.14599569141864777,
-0.7613825798034668,
-0.07232258468866348,
-0.26206347346305847,
-0.7414109110832214,
-0.0018110871315002441,
0.6271040439605713,
-0.5714396238327026,
-0.09366656839847565,
0.03368113934993744,
-0.24691371619701385,
-0.18627163767814636,
-0.2403051257133484,
-0.3381410837173462,
0.6091868877410889,
1.0004477500915527,
-0.3086555004119873,
-0.14855578541755676,
-0.20488733053207397,
-0.5418837666511536,
0.05582810938358307,
-0.5925648212432861,
0.6519010066986084,
0.36720094084739685,
-0.23652641475200653,
0.34353625774383545,
-0.10478740185499191,
0.2904341518878937,
0.13223791122436523,
0.17893937230110168,
-0.4258216917514801,
0.02964141219854355,
0.5509262084960938,
0.08373670279979706,
0.2666879892349243,
0.4618114233016968,
-0.7184661030769348,
-0.732336163520813,
-0.6141440272331238,
-0.5223678946495056,
-0.40444105863571167,
0.35656893253326416,
-0.39443835616111755,
-1.0163371562957764,
0.5396654009819031,
0.7531195878982544,
-0.48960763216018677,
-0.6661620140075684,
0.23335540294647217,
0.02436481975018978,
0.3569716215133667,
-0.05683116242289543,
0.09149403125047684,
-0.236240416765213,
0.7526126503944397,
-0.010075170546770096,
0.3469693660736084,
-0.46135056018829346,
0.4701066017150879,
0.6733699440956116,
0.7558878064155579,
-0.0918680727481842,
0.02047259919345379,
0.14169636368751526,
0.8156560063362122,
0.4385160505771637,
-0.27592551708221436,
-0.06479495763778687,
-0.9935363531112671,
-0.20189838111400604,
-0.5193719267845154,
-0.286418080329895,
0.286459356546402,
-0.5836474299430847,
-0.3761120140552521,
-1.0806987285614014,
-0.4478032886981964,
0.4317854642868042,
-0.5031571388244629,
-0.31945258378982544,
-0.4087110757827759,
0.38587644696235657,
0.15862706303596497,
0.10824090987443924,
-0.020545268431305885,
-0.5814765095710754,
0.1947890818119049,
-0.4705762267112732,
0.21590805053710938,
0.43376028537750244,
0.12383616715669632,
0.17333637177944183,
0.22580480575561523,
0.10291056334972382,
-0.2172122448682785,
-0.2304617017507553,
-0.3794049620628357,
0.2160653918981552,
-0.43120813369750977,
0.7257711887359619,
0.4538708031177521,
0.18165473639965057,
-0.02165883779525757,
-0.4558437764644623,
-0.5367616415023804,
0.23558425903320312,
-0.08294183015823364,
-0.03344641625881195,
-0.15773724019527435,
0.6947794556617737,
0.07572474330663681,
0.5369653701782227,
-0.10880018770694733,
-1.142897129058838,
-0.10873427987098694,
0.14491546154022217,
-0.5230420231819153,
0.7207542061805725,
0.3276393711566925,
0.5437489151954651,
0.5824899077415466,
0.5602163672447205,
0.10309547185897827,
-0.3859672248363495,
-0.03336246684193611,
0.01784767024219036,
-0.639024555683136,
0.9641201496124268,
0.5903827548027039,
-0.7555611729621887,
-0.35914376378059387,
-0.10256090015172958,
0.41995203495025635,
-0.6264910101890564,
-0.10862644016742706,
0.5278840065002441,
0.8733806014060974,
-0.590763509273529,
1.2220934629440308,
-0.5082998275756836,
0.27042120695114136,
-0.41662994027137756,
0.7544339895248413,
0.541873037815094,
-0.06474483758211136,
0.3518698513507843,
-0.7378270030021667,
0.327668696641922,
-0.48942843079566956,
-0.4133896231651306,
0.1391831934452057,
-0.24833464622497559,
-0.03852614760398865,
0.9737880229949951,
0.05683961138129234,
0.07138609141111374,
0.35017696022987366,
-0.33060842752456665,
0.7273923754692078,
0.3889103829860687,
0.32097867131233215,
0.1861352175474167,
-0.653136670589447,
0.2922254502773285,
0.19806942343711853,
0.28790491819381714,
0.14066269993782043,
-0.08291465044021606,
0.0202476903796196,
0.2907738983631134,
-0.4852936267852783,
0.07608398795127869,
-0.6987064480781555,
0.13860385119915009,
0.5323260426521301,
-0.420465886592865,
0.13146108388900757,
-0.19879630208015442,
-0.13704945147037506,
-0.5289961695671082,
-0.3206166625022888,
-0.05950158089399338,
-0.6118302345275879,
0.2702219486236572,
0.15157637000083923,
0.2535087466239929,
-0.4519563615322113,
-0.13590297102928162,
0.24897904694080353,
0.08823511749505997,
0.054857660084962845,
0.41226261854171753,
0.7392432689666748,
-0.41715189814567566,
0.00033101809094659984,
0.41085919737815857,
-0.10444290935993195,
-0.43767157196998596,
-0.14661644399166107,
-0.7810824513435364,
-0.23132599890232086,
0.42353740334510803,
0.15473468601703644,
0.1913071870803833,
-0.7449321746826172,
-0.6939591765403748,
-1.0888254642486572,
-0.4657015800476074,
-0.33618220686912537,
-0.5775317549705505,
0.30567118525505066,
-1.6040925979614258,
-0.17985175549983978,
0.45752638578414917,
0.9335963726043701,
0.11694072932004929,
-0.06529635936021805,
-0.6303414106369019,
-0.03983345627784729,
0.20387998223304749,
-0.12697622179985046,
0.10141481459140778,
-0.34902653098106384,
-0.6432971954345703,
0.1070675477385521,
-0.40135657787323,
0.0039468733593821526,
0.26866868138313293,
0.4038073718547821,
0.08071990311145782,
0.03736713528633118,
-0.23374037444591522,
-0.46680840849876404,
-0.9439740180969238,
-0.18979600071907043,
-0.3836378753185272,
-0.0941024199128151,
-0.17939326167106628,
-0.4920199513435364,
-0.35808709263801575,
0.46470120549201965,
-4.9256911277771,
-0.11166082322597504,
-0.6579168438911438,
0.22408157587051392,
-0.37452882528305054,
0.3977976143360138,
0.44109222292900085,
0.0075399065390229225,
-0.5196510553359985,
0.19878874719142914,
-0.2205570936203003,
-0.4739658236503601,
-0.3329050540924072,
1.0129075050354004,
0.5837825536727905,
0.20177927613258362,
0.37796247005462646,
0.17009730637073517,
0.4521525502204895,
0.45803916454315186,
-0.003228641813620925,
-0.07004288583993912,
-0.3404751420021057,
0.3589038848876953,
0.4535367786884308,
0.4634550213813782,
-0.15101632475852966,
0.7934206128120422,
-0.40896928310394287,
0.05042262747883797,
-0.02240586280822754,
0.09050945937633514,
-0.348478764295578,
-0.5932517647743225,
-0.3623514771461487,
0.09018806368112564,
0.38739439845085144,
-0.33952072262763977,
0.3413260877132416,
-0.6506243944168091,
-0.5184751749038696,
1.1446418762207031,
-0.18618838489055634,
0.24375690519809723,
0.4591222405433655,
-0.21531838178634644,
-0.2892618775367737,
0.14291079342365265,
0.1827813982963562,
1.0289194583892822,
-0.41685983538627625,
0.1314627081155777,
0.9653570055961609,
0.12768937647342682,
-0.37275266647338867,
-0.33462950587272644,
0.2810158133506775,
-0.35186833143234253,
-0.31972381472587585,
0.6391851305961609,
0.9688348770141602,
-0.7417675852775574,
0.47165316343307495,
-0.3634277880191803,
-0.33507174253463745,
-0.4337666928768158,
-0.7139954566955566,
-0.5013228058815002,
0.1637292057275772,
0.1051502674818039,
-0.44613540172576904,
0.4202860891819,
-0.5057547092437744,
-0.23653750121593475,
0.13625206053256989,
-0.2653362452983856,
0.3291718661785126,
0.3111044466495514,
0.4196207821369171,
0.5087580680847168,
-0.5358144044876099,
-0.6394479870796204,
-0.652813196182251,
0.3708682656288147,
-0.12193946540355682,
-0.012829143553972244,
-0.6845341324806213,
-0.563947856426239,
-0.6315738558769226,
-0.3996676504611969,
0.36069124937057495,
-0.017231343314051628,
0.4691467583179474,
0.5226408243179321,
0.3190057873725891,
0.12715719640254974,
0.8968783020973206,
-0.32295554876327515,
0.7167423963546753,
-0.11335455626249313,
0.49614444375038147,
-0.2732483148574829,
0.4227636456489563,
0.0696835070848465,
-0.0266614630818367,
-0.42451372742652893,
-0.5017454624176025,
0.8466472029685974,
0.16798336803913116,
-0.5434756875038147,
-0.23465295135974884,
-0.24774952232837677,
-0.5136140584945679,
-0.1376885026693344,
0.24957647919654846,
0.17760932445526123,
-0.7215985655784607,
0.776607096195221,
0.7698767781257629,
0.0651048868894577,
0.2207256406545639,
0.14218653738498688,
-0.033066850155591965,
-0.3505554795265198,
-0.30054789781570435,
-0.12063644081354141,
0.02271592989563942,
0.5105226039886475,
-0.3894365429878235,
-0.14829781651496887,
0.04187287017703056,
0.6184931397438049,
-0.3791142404079437,
0.02784803882241249,
0.3179832696914673,
-0.8086326122283936,
-0.13171763718128204,
0.27045026421546936,
0.4333837032318115,
-0.4675762951374054,
1.0672987699508667,
0.46317222714424133,
-0.6203272938728333,
-0.4822918772697449,
0.2742266058921814,
0.5483081340789795,
0.09320590645074844,
-0.6653724312782288,
-0.41466066241264343,
0.6623269319534302,
-0.22612302005290985,
-0.8756514191627502,
0.731391429901123,
-0.39211151003837585,
0.5393278002738953,
0.36343955993652344,
-0.24713239073753357,
0.5218515992164612,
-0.07567375153303146,
-0.4343677759170532,
0.3455565571784973,
0.3251773416996002,
-0.6638535261154175,
-0.25934135913848877,
0.13432641327381134,
-0.45897582173347473,
-0.5813086032867432,
-0.11249251663684845,
-0.4688865542411804,
0.8260027170181274,
0.18977466225624084,
0.45739543437957764,
-0.2445804923772812,
-0.10130059719085693,
0.26153308153152466,
-0.0825532078742981,
0.294950395822525,
0.5304132103919983,
0.14958199858665466,
-0.28079336881637573,
0.21435557305812836,
-0.5372865796089172,
-0.2557356655597687,
0.6744935512542725,
0.7098459005355835,
0.24353952705860138,
-0.22695374488830566,
0.0018668386619538069,
-0.6479501128196716,
-0.3079865276813507,
0.36319077014923096,
0.1654878407716751,
-0.1681751161813736,
-0.8375189304351807,
-0.7730372548103333,
-0.47585082054138184,
0.3397876024246216,
0.3500029146671295,
-0.1371556520462036,
-0.6538489460945129,
0.7707902789115906,
0.6023200154304504,
-0.3541160821914673,
0.6666812300682068,
0.060439806431531906,
-0.6106385588645935,
0.4188768267631531,
-0.17975768446922302,
-0.8018062114715576,
0.4789761006832123,
-0.25303468108177185,
-0.6959304213523865,
-0.006107337772846222,
-0.39948591589927673,
-0.5977381467819214,
0.10168632119894028,
0.8752942681312561,
-0.10417477041482925,
-0.31021741032600403,
-0.9407728910446167,
0.43107131123542786,
-0.5389574766159058,
-0.09419096261262894,
0.19294027984142303,
-0.24985671043395996,
0.05755472555756569,
0.1557137370109558,
-0.8511231541633606,
0.7136710286140442,
-0.21048524975776672,
-0.7034016847610474,
0.09102914482355118,
-0.38322243094444275,
-0.12029372900724411,
-0.08593480288982391,
-0.4479663074016571,
-0.95106041431427,
0.5498760342597961,
-0.9263739585876465,
-0.4316447675228119,
0.12676674127578735,
0.33130744099617004,
0.2537705600261688,
-0.7243480086326599,
0.1772966831922531,
-0.1024675965309143,
0.6453806757926941,
-0.6236757636070251,
-0.3634586036205292,
0.06722040474414825,
0.32294005155563354,
0.014981436543166637,
-0.8773984313011169,
-0.8690640926361084,
0.707863450050354,
0.34655964374542236,
-0.0036585042253136635,
-0.22434955835342407,
0.43317681550979614,
0.44898951053619385,
-0.007283628452569246,
-0.1341780573129654,
-0.5557807087898254,
0.22069038450717926,
0.16899996995925903,
0.5474448204040527,
0.20222529768943787,
0.0026762299239635468,
0.8135163187980652,
0.011222844012081623,
-0.1283624768257141,
-0.12066682428121567,
0.054223380982875824,
0.4401646554470062,
0.5417947173118591,
0.260415643453598,
0.22057928144931793,
0.15363197028636932,
0.21225780248641968,
-0.3589368462562561,
0.23640401661396027,
0.004001340363174677,
0.20212964713573456,
-0.37960854172706604,
0.800902783870697,
-0.026413550600409508,
0.1792714148759842,
0.49760186672210693,
-0.22330249845981598,
0.6335515975952148,
-0.6266247630119324,
-0.20775023102760315,
-0.3792284429073334,
0.1779276430606842,
0.16103221476078033,
0.3996712565422058,
0.2489582747220993,
0.08302917331457138,
-0.13264402747154236,
-0.5097887516021729,
-0.4771089553833008,
0.28313958644866943,
0.12527722120285034,
-0.25147849321365356,
0.15153685212135315,
0.4283948540687561,
0.8399050235748291,
-0.1051737368106842,
-0.3472152650356293,
-0.22937573492527008,
0.4390929639339447,
0.3641345500946045,
0.03246288746595383,
0.472821444272995,
-0.0702185407280922,
-0.2201240211725235,
0.8390797972679138,
-0.1063765287399292,
0.5784651041030884,
0.595986545085907,
-0.31079667806625366,
-0.7655737996101379,
0.31716683506965637,
-0.5945088863372803,
-1.2334994077682495,
0.30432793498039246,
-0.3781575560569763,
-0.24716877937316895,
0.3440699279308319,
0.3841663599014282,
0.7558125257492065,
0.5213960409164429,
-1.0494951009750366,
0.5204081535339355,
-0.5479434728622437,
-0.4960000216960907,
0.22105303406715393,
-0.2558281719684601,
-0.376656711101532,
0.49358516931533813,
1.0230191946029663,
1.0087521076202393,
0.040001098066568375,
0.08247539401054382,
-0.023940518498420715,
0.20791715383529663,
-0.5734580755233765,
0.19771882891654968,
0.04923040047287941,
-0.2327653467655182,
0.07946980744600296,
0.523432195186615,
0.3409590721130371,
0.019086787477135658,
0.2522415816783905,
0.3113771378993988,
0.6704285144805908,
-0.14874519407749176,
0.2607962489128113,
-0.36080002784729004,
0.06119786202907562,
0.39427903294563293,
-0.1473892629146576,
-0.3305090367794037,
0.08223816007375717,
0.29254186153411865,
0.20914562046527863,
-0.0957813411951065,
-0.08720114827156067,
0.09562744945287704,
0.24618029594421387,
0.5518845915794373,
-0.11879514157772064,
0.030237026512622833,
0.16533128917217255,
-0.5172111392021179,
-0.033543702214956284,
0.11533359438180923,
-0.1127224788069725,
-0.23084071278572083,
0.30767571926116943,
0.7101704478263855,
-0.18544749915599823,
-0.8073357939720154,
0.14053070545196533,
-0.015331832692027092,
-0.0884137973189354,
0.008427669294178486,
0.2529170513153076,
0.19069090485572815,
0.08516918122768402,
-0.27119675278663635,
-0.09854903072118759,
-0.2225848287343979,
-0.12406367063522339,
0.5398713946342468,
-1.259334683418274,
1.1406320333480835,
0.6488983631134033,
-0.7542704939842224,
0.17957261204719543,
0.13422678411006927,
0.4807145595550537,
0.1889563798904419,
-0.7878276109695435,
-0.030070757493376732,
-0.2991635203361511,
0.4771735668182373,
-0.32784295082092285,
0.28040194511413574,
-0.008514385670423508,
0.043019119650125504,
0.2984209358692169,
0.49818530678749084,
-0.33531174063682556,
0.0871611014008522,
0.07847234606742859,
-0.3956369459629059,
-0.18565000593662262,
-0.3851516842842102,
-0.46428829431533813,
-0.31436043977737427,
0.0846470296382904,
0.4836973249912262,
-0.1198546513915062,
-0.6165316104888916,
0.09689733386039734,
0.12890677154064178,
0.4285142123699188,
0.24236814677715302,
-0.1830066293478012,
0.5856342315673828,
-0.3444482088088989,
0.2753557860851288,
0.2808435559272766,
-0.04028252139687538,
0.40910670161247253,
0.6958735585212708,
0.6091503500938416,
-0.5144946575164795,
-0.8540015816688538,
0.3403882682323456,
-0.1731371134519577,
1.226608395576477,
-1.9980608224868774,
0.40575847029685974,
-0.6469181776046753,
-0.7427956461906433,
-0.7374092936515808,
0.6411749124526978,
0.46191203594207764,
0.2120211273431778,
-0.06535371392965317,
-0.33211854100227356,
-0.3311038017272949,
-0.07801809161901474,
0.18830658495426178,
-0.6574581861495972,
-0.0401470810174942,
0.8705398440361023
] |
234907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.C.%20United | D.C. United | D.C. United is an American professional soccer club based in Washington, D.C. The club competes as a member of the Eastern Conference in Major League Soccer (MLS), the top level of professional American soccer. The franchise began to play in 1996 as one of the ten charter clubs of the league. The club was one of the most successful clubs in the early years of MLS, winning eight of its thirteen titles between 1996 and 1998 under then-head coach Bruce Arena. United holds the joint MLS record for most Supporters' Shields, has four MLS Cups, and been crowned U.S. Open Cup champions three times. It is also the first club to win both the MLS Supporters' Shield and MLS Cup consecutively.
On the international stage, D.C. United has competed in both the CONCACAF Champions League and its predecessor, the CONCACAF Champions' Cup. The club won the 1998 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, making them one of only two MLS teams to ever win a CONCACAF tournament. Subsequently, United won the now-defunct Copa Interamericana in 1998 against Vasco da Gama of Brazil. This is the only intercontinental title won by an MLS club.
The team's home field from 1996 to 2017 was the 45,596-seat Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, owned by the District of Columbia. The team moved into the new Audi Field, a soccer-specific stadium with a capacity of 20,000 at Buzzard Point just a few blocks from Nationals Park in July 2018. The team is owned by the consortium D.C. United Holdings. The team's head coach is Hernán Losada.
Nick Rimando, Jaime Moreno, Marco Etcheverry, Alecko Eskandarian, Raul Diaz Arce and Eddie Pope are among the team's most successful stars. D.C. United's fan base includes four supporters' clubs. The club's official nickname is the "Black-and-Red" and home uniforms are black and white with accents of red. The team's name alludes to the "United" appellation commonly found in the names of soccer teams in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
History
Before the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the United States Soccer Federation fulfilled its promise to FIFA by aiding in the foundation of a new professional league. On June 15, 1994, Major League Soccer selected Washington, D.C. out of twenty-two applicants to host one of the first seven teams, with three more added before the league's launch. The team's name was chosen as a reflection of the names of European clubs, such as Manchester United or Leeds United.
On April 6, 1996, D.C. United played in the league's inaugural match against the San Jose Clash in Spartan Stadium in San Jose, California. In the league's early years, D.C. was the most successful of all the teams in MLS. In their first year, coach Bruce Arena led the team to the first "double" in modern U.S. soccer history by beating the Los Angeles Galaxy in the first MLS Cup and the Rochester Raging Rhinos of the USL First Division in the 1996 U.S. Open Cup. D.C. repeated its MLS Cup victory in 1997 against the Colorado Rapids, in front of a home crowd at RFK Stadium. The team also experienced early success in CONCACAF competitions, winning both the Champions' Cup and the Interamerican Cup in 1998. The team was led by its “magic triangle” of Jaime Moreno, Marco Etcheverry, and Raul Diaz Arce.
In October 1998, Arena left D.C. United to coach the U.S. men's national team. Arena's departure marked the beginning of a downturn in the team's fortunes. While the club again won the MLS Cup in 1999 under coach Thomas Rongen, lackluster results in 2000 and 2001 led to Rongen's departure and his replacement by Ray Hudson in 2002. The team did not, however, fare much better under Hudson, and Piotr Nowak replaced him before the start of the 2004 season. The club's first season under Nowak was marred by injuries in the early going, and some players were known to have complained about Nowak's methods. Nevertheless, a strong finish, assisted in large measure by the late-season acquisition of Argentine midfielder Christian Gómez, who helped to propel United into the playoffs as the second seed. There they advanced past the New England Revolution on penalty kicks in what has been called one of the best games in MLS history. United then defeated the Kansas City Wizards to win their fourth MLS Cup. United's attendance record at RFK Stadium is 54,282, in a match against the Tampa Bay Mutiny in 2001.
On November 18, 2003, MLS made sports history by signing Freddy Adu, a 14-year-old soccer prodigy and on January 16, 2004, he was officially selected by United with the first pick in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft. When Adu entered United's regular-season opener as a second-half substitute on April 3, 2004, he became the youngest player in any professional sport in the United States since 1887. On December 11, 2006, D.C. United traded Adu and goalkeeper Nick Rimando to Real Salt Lake in exchange for a major allocation, goalkeeper Jay Nolly, and future considerations.
In 2005, the club again made MLS history by becoming the first United States-based team to participate in Copa Sudamericana, entering in the Round of sixteen. Since 2006, United has played well against international competition, beating Scottish champions Celtic F.C. and drawing Real Madrid in Seattle. In addition, the 2006 MLS All-Star Team, which included eight United players and was managed by United's manager Piotr Nowak, defeated English champions Chelsea. In 2006 and 2007, United became the first club in league history to win the MLS Supporters' Shield consecutively.
Since winning back-to-back Shields in 2006 and 2007, the club failed to qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs five years in a row. During this stretch, United's lone major title came in 2008, when they won the U.S. Open Cup. In league play during the 2008 and 2009 campaigns, United faltered at the tail-end of each season, ultimately causing them to miss out on the playoffs. They had a poor 2010 MLS season, winning only six matches, drawing four, and losing 20. In 2011, United again failed to qualify for the playoffs in the second to last week of the campaign. In 2012, United returned to the playoffs for the first time in five years, clinching a berth in the second-to-last week of the season.
D.C. United tallied a total of only three wins in the 2013 season, setting a record for fewest wins in league history. Despite the team's poor showing in league play, D.C. United defeated Real Salt Lake in the U.S. Open Cup final. This qualified the team to participate in the 2014–15 CONCACAF Champions League. In 2014, D.C. United executed a historic turnaround by clinching first place in the Eastern Conference, which also earned the team its second consecutive Champions League berth.
In 2015, D.C. United qualified for the 2015 MLS playoffs. D.C. United won the first round of the playoffs, beating the New England Revolution at home, but lost in the second round to the New York Red Bulls, ending their run. In December 2015, D.C. United revealed their new team logo. D.C. United qualified for the MLS playoffs again in 2016, but were knocked out early by the Montreal Impact in the first round. In 2017, D.C. United missed the playoffs and finished last in the eastern conference. D.C. United's 2017 season was its last season in RFK Stadium.
Ben Olsen was the head coach until 2020. He was replaced by Hernán Losada, the club's first Latin American coach.
On June 8, 2021, D.C. United announced they will be fielding a women's side to compete in the new USL W League beginning in 2022.
Colors and badge
The team's colors and original logo were announced on October 17, 1995, along with those of the other ten original teams during a presentation in New York City. Black and white are D.C. United's primary colors, though the team's nickname is the "Black-and-Red." Red is used to accent the home jersey, while white is the main color of the team's road uniform. The three stripes along the shoulder – in white at home and black on the road – do not represent the three jurisdictions of the Washington Metropolitan Area (Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Virginia); rather, they represent the fact that the team's uniforms are made by Adidas. United's shirt sponsor is Reston, Virginia defense company Leidos. In 2011, the team introduced a predominantly red third uniform with black accents to be worn four or more times in the season. The team has also previously used white road uniforms with red stripes; white and red are the colors of the flag of Washington, D.C., and the stripes are also reminiscent of those used on the flag.
The team's original shield was implemented in 1996, consisting of the team's name, D.C. United, above a black bald eagle facing right on a red field, clawing three soccer balls overlaid on three white stars. The three stars and balls were intended to represent the region's three jurisdictions. The bird, associated with the federal government based in Washington, D.C., symbolizes many of the attributes of the team, including speed and power. The logo was redesigned before the 1998 season. This second logo design reoriented the eagle facing left and removed the three stars below it, whose metaphor was retained by three raised wing feathers. At the center of the eagle is a single gold-colored star and a soccer ball, which represents the team's victory in Major League Soccer's inaugural cup in 1996. The logo can also be adorned with four silver stars above it, representing the MLS Cups the team has won.
On December 10, 2015, D.C. United unveiled an updated logo designed by Peter Horridge, featuring a D.C. flag-inspired design across the eagle, an updated wordmark, and more dynamic wings.
Sponsorship
Leidos was announced as the main jersey sponsor on February 24, 2014, for a multi-year agreement, replacing the previous sponsor
Volkswagen Group of America. Other sponsors include Adidas, Chipotle Mexican Grill, GEICO, Verizon Wireless, and Papa John's Pizza.
Stadium
Audi Field
Audi Field is a soccer-specific stadium at Buzzard Point in Southwest, Washington, D.C., and has a capacity of 20,000. It hosted its first game against Vancouver Whitecaps FC on July 14, 2018. The stadium's naming rights are owned by Audi, who signed a 12-year contract in February 2017. It was designed by Populous and Marshall Moya Design.
Plans for a new stadium dated back to July 2006, when D.C. United proposed building a new stadium along the Anacostia River near Anacostia Park, but disputes with the city government forced the team to consider other sites.
The tentative deal for the stadium was announced on July 25, 2013, which would see a 20,000–25,000-seat stadium built on the site, costing $300 million. It was signed into law on December 30, 2014. Groundbreaking began on February 27, 2017, and the ribbon cutting was on July 9, 2018.
RFK Stadium (1996–2017)
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium (RFK) was home to D.C. United, from the club's inaugural season in 1996, until the end of the 2017 season. The D.C. United Training Complex is located north of the stadium, and is where the Reserve Division team plays.
RFK was built in 1961 as a dual-use stadium for baseball and American football. Before 1996, it occasionally hosted soccer matches, including the 1980 Soccer Bowl, the 1993 Supercoppa Italiana, and five matches during the 1994 FIFA World Cup. When the Washington Nationals baseball team shared the field from 2005 to 2007, there were criticisms about the playing surface and the field's dimensions.
Other stadiums
Several regional university stadiums have been used by the team for Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup matches, including Klöckner Stadium in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1996, and George Mason Stadium in Fairfax, Virginia, in 2010. Similarly, the team has also used the Maryland SoccerPlex in Germantown, Maryland, for multiple early-round games in U.S. Open Cup and CONCACAF Champions' Cup since it opened in 2001. On April 14, 2018, D.C. United played an MLS game against Columbus Crew SC at the Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis, Maryland, while Audi Field was being constructed. Exhibition games, as well as occasional regular season matches, have also been played in nearby FedExField in Landover, Maryland; the latter have generally been played as part of doubleheaders featuring friendlies between national teams or foreign clubs.
Club culture
Supporters and mascot
D.C. United has three major supporters groups; La Barra Brava, the Screaming Eagles and the District Ultras. All three groups occupy the safe standing sections together at the north end of Audi Field. La Barra Brava, Spanish for "The Brave Fans", was founded in 1995 by Latino fans in the Washington, D.C. area, mostly Bolivian immigrants in support of original United players Marco Etcheverry and Jaime Moreno. They seek to bring a South American style to home games. All three clubs host public tailgates before home matches, and are known for singing during games.
D.C. United's mascot is Talon, an anthropomorphic bald eagle.
Rivalries
D.C. United's primary rival is the New York Red Bulls. The two teams compete annually for the Atlantic Cup, a competition instituted by the two clubs. The cup is awarded to the team that gets the most points across the teams' meetings throughout the season. D.C. United also has a burgeoning rivalry with the Philadelphia Union as the two teams represent two cities separated by only 120 miles. D.C. United is also unique among MLS teams for its rivalry with the Charleston Battery of the United Soccer Leagues, as they compete every time they face one another for the Coffee Pot Cup, a trophy established by the two sides' supporters.
Ownership
When the league was founded in 1995, billionaire investor George Soros was the primary financial backer and director of Washington Soccer L.P., the group that owned the operating rights to D.C. United. Kevin Payne, former President of Soccer USA Partners and current CEO of D.C. United, was instrumental in organizing this ownership group. By 1998 the group was looking for new investors. On February 15, 2001, it agreed to sell the team to Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG), founded by Colorado billionaire Philip Anschutz, with AEG exercising its option to become the sole investor-operator on January 8, 2002. AEG, who also own Major League Soccer's Los Angeles Galaxy and Houston Dynamo, ran the team until 2007.
In May 2007, United entered into an initial one-year strategic partnership with the Brazilian club Atlético Mineiro. The partnership's goal is to enhance the sporting and commercial success of the respective clubs by sharing expertise and experience and creating new opportunities for the clubs in both areas.
On January 8, 2007, the operating rights to D.C. United were sold to D.C. United Holdings, a newly formed group venture that included real estate developer Victor MacFarlane, founder of MacFarlane Partners, and William H.C. Chang, chairman of Westlake International Group. Other investors included D.C. United president Kevin Payne and Blue Devil Development, headed by former Duke basketball players Brian Davis and Christian Laettner. In April 2009, Victor MacFarlane sold his share of the team to his partner William Chang after two stadium proposals had fallen through. In October 2009, Chang also bought out Davis and Laettner to fully control the team. Chang is also one of the primary investors of Major League Baseball's San Francisco Giants. In July 2012, Erick Thohir and Jason Levien, minority owners of the Philadelphia 76ers National Basketball Association franchise, joined Chang as partners. Thohir and Levin stated their primary goals are to make United a global brand and build a soccer-specific stadium for the club.
On June 4, 2021, NFL running back Mark Ingram Jr. joined DC United's ownership group as an investor.
Broadcasting
Television
Rights to D.C. United matches not covered by one of MLS' national television partners (ESPN, Fox Sports, and Univision) are held by NBC Sports Washington. Spanish-language coverage airs on TeleXitos affiliate WZDC-DT2 (channel 44.2). Dave Johnson is the English-language commentator, and WZDC sports anchor Moises Linares is the Spanish-language commentator.
NBCSW previously held television rights from the team's inception in 1996 through 2015, dating back to its time as Comcast SportsNet and Home Team Sports. In the previous three-year deal, which was not completed until five games into the 2013 season, it was to show a minimum of 16 matches per season. The team became frustrated that late-season and playoff matches were often relegated to the network's secondary CSN Plus channel or not televised at all due to scheduling conflicts with the Washington Capitals and Washington Wizards, leading them to conclude a new deal with Sinclair Broadcast Group for the 2016 season. Sinclair's local cable channel WJLA 24/7 News served two stints as D.C. United's television partner, covering the 2016 through 2018 seasons as well as 2020.
For the 2019 season, D.C. United sold their local rights to subscription over-the-top service FloSports rather than a television broadcaster. The team signed a $12 million contract for four years, marking the first time it collected a substantial rights fee for its local games. The deal was controversial, as fans and the media balked at the high subscription price and criticized the team for shutting out casual fans and public viewings. Technical issues marred early broadcasts, and FloSports promised additional soccer broadcasts and shoulder programming to justify its subscription fee that largely never materialized. D.C. United canceled the contract before the final match of the 2019 regular season, opting to stream the remaining game on its website for free.
Radio
Radio rights are held by iHeartMedia for the 2022 season. Coverage airs on WWDC-HD2 and its analog translator W284CQ (104.7 FM, Washington). The broadcast is an audio simulcast of the English-language television commentary; both the English and Spanish television audio are also available on iHeartRadio.
D.C. United's first radio partner was WMET (1160 AM), which picked up coverage in 2003. For the 2009 season, games moved to WTOP (1050 AM), but the station did not renew its deal and the team went the next four seasons without English-language radio. Tony Limarzi was the commentator.
WACA (1540 AM) broadcast commentary in Spanish from the team's founding through the 2009 season. In 2010, coverage moved to WDCN-LP (87.7 FM) through the end of the 2012 season.
Coverage in both languages returned for the 2014 season, as D.C. United entered into a four-year deal with CBS Radio, including English commentary on WJFK-FM (106.7 FM) or WJFK (1580 AM) and Spanish on WLZL-HD2 (107.9 FM-HD2). The contract with CBS Radio expired after the 2017 season.
Players
Roster
Pre-contract
D.C. United Academy
The D.C. United Academy is the youth and development program for D.C. United. The program consists of four levels: the under-23 and under-20 teams, as well as the Academy (U-18/17 & U-16/15) and Pre-Academy teams (U-14, U-13). While the U-23 team plays in the fourth tier, USL Premier Development League, the U-20 team plays in the Super-20 League. The Academy and Pre-Academy teams play in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy leagues.
Notable players to have graduated from the D.C United Academy include Bill Hamid, who has been called up by the U.S. national team, and Andy Najar, who has been capped for Honduras.
Team management
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background:#000; color:#fff; border:2px solid #E4002B;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Front office
|-
|-
! style="background:#000; color:#fff; border:2px solid #E4002B;" scope="col" colspan="2"|Coaching staff
|-
Head coaching history
Honors
Record
Seasons
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the D.C. United. For the full season-by-season history, see List of D.C. United seasons.
1. Avg. Attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top Goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
Player records
Statistics below show the all-time regular-season club leaders. Bold indicates active D.C. United players.
All-Time regular-season record: 314–313–167 (Through 2020 season)
Team MVP
MLS All-Time Best XI
Four players who were with D.C. United during the 1990s were chosen in 2005 as members of the MLS All-Time Best XI:
DF: Jeff Agoos: D.C. United (1996–2000)
DF: Eddie Pope: D.C. United (1996–2002)
MF: Marco Etcheverry: D.C. United (1996–2003)
FW: Jaime Moreno: D.C. United (1996–2002, 2004–10)
Hall of Tradition
In 2003, D.C. United introduced the "Hall of Tradition" (formerly "Tradition of Excellence"), an honor bestowed upon players, coaches & front office staff deemed by United to have been crucial to the team's success. People are listed in the order in which they joined the club.
Affiliations
Loudoun United FC – USL Championship
D.C. United U-23
D.C. United Academy
References
General
MLS statistics sourced to:
U.S. Open Cup statistics sourced to:
CONCACAF statistics sourced to:
Top scorers sourced to:
Notes
External links
Association football clubs established in 1995
Soccer clubs in Washington, D.C.
1995 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Major League Soccer teams
U.S. Open Cup winners | [
0.17245300114154816,
-0.4251764416694641,
-0.08042287826538086,
-0.03539394959807396,
-0.18226966261863708,
-0.10710153728723526,
-0.13427196443080902,
-0.06238052248954773,
-0.3776055574417114,
-0.9970081448554993,
-0.04876865819096565,
0.037903402000665665,
-0.5867798328399658,
0.2855667471885681,
0.9578065872192383,
0.3031401038169861,
0.47057560086250305,
0.8390026688575745,
0.700187087059021,
-1.0929901599884033,
-0.3244679868221283,
0.2997004985809326,
0.3737316429615021,
-0.34100085496902466,
0.19868944585323334,
-0.4602912962436676,
-0.28144383430480957,
-0.07643585652112961,
-0.22134040296077728,
0.024132248014211655,
0.31352725625038147,
-0.24725604057312012,
-0.03906902298331261,
-0.21857379376888275,
-0.09826958179473877,
-0.046910610049963,
0.13253174722194672,
-0.15008069574832916,
-0.5257641673088074,
-0.47794753313064575,
-0.6845401525497437,
-0.23653598129749298,
0.2286979705095291,
-0.14624986052513123,
0.3352434039115906,
-0.04575584828853607,
-1.4793416261672974,
-0.04026304930448532,
-0.3666563630104065,
-0.4226861894130707,
-0.1482784003019333,
-0.013744533993303776,
0.0654505118727684,
-0.18927866220474243,
0.15523338317871094,
0.22932755947113037,
-0.34470677375793457,
0.32994478940963745,
-0.3869324028491974,
-0.7329110503196716,
0.6745564937591553,
0.4102866053581238,
-0.0440136156976223,
-0.31765761971473694,
-0.1226942166686058,
0.26030367612838745,
0.16335809230804443,
0.2871146500110626,
-0.21504145860671997,
-0.6358045935630798,
-0.25224414467811584,
0.12287379056215286,
-0.4150206744670868,
0.5126623511314392,
0.20992279052734375,
0.07116740942001343,
0.5131889581680298,
-0.1726372390985489,
0.4749301075935364,
-0.15452729165554047,
0.033942561596632004,
0.19203276932239532,
0.6684632897377014,
-0.15965187549591064,
0.3583217263221741,
0.25441980361938477,
-0.16651256382465363,
-1.0559278726577759,
0.21479570865631104,
0.9618921279907227,
-0.4105950593948364,
-0.41206809878349304,
0.445508748292923,
-0.11353718489408493,
-0.30936533212661743,
-0.007891819812357426,
0.268744558095932,
0.40510785579681396,
0.05033658817410469,
-0.6853683590888977,
-0.6727243661880493,
0.08225318044424057,
-0.2600921094417572,
-0.6302193999290466,
-0.45053791999816895,
0.2637370526790619,
-0.09552375972270966,
-0.11638224869966507,
-0.18668006360530853,
-0.5466029644012451,
-0.26299846172332764,
0.2716277241706848,
0.24434992671012878,
0.019819574430584908,
-0.37893587350845337,
0.18574945628643036,
0.6766356825828552,
0.30146950483322144,
-0.21674427390098572,
0.20823679864406586,
0.04770016297698021,
0.6072672009468079,
-0.13857197761535645,
0.07125739753246307,
-0.12304029613733292,
0.05662435665726662,
0.5536113381385803,
-0.16488055884838104,
0.0690600574016571,
-0.7603474259376526,
0.009521435014903545,
0.9763221740722656,
-0.6273941397666931,
0.3476651906967163,
0.9065019488334656,
-0.6617453098297119,
0.27996525168418884,
0.2559545040130615,
0.23533709347248077,
-0.1023004874587059,
-0.8333748579025269,
0.2840963304042816,
-0.9573963284492493,
-0.1607973426580429,
0.3960437476634979,
-0.0924057886004448,
0.00033615840948186815,
0.4172040522098541,
0.47835198044776917,
0.8537972569465637,
0.2786756455898285,
0.06237417832016945,
0.19551439583301544,
0.3884103298187256,
-0.8135726451873779,
0.5996573567390442,
0.4613383114337921,
-0.6688739657402039,
0.31278347969055176,
0.812518835067749,
0.3503788113594055,
0.17385856807231903,
-0.016938773915171623,
0.2904578745365143,
-0.09949544072151184,
-0.8252117037773132,
-0.05816591531038284,
-0.01709558442234993,
0.02355663664638996,
-0.2490381896495819,
-0.1307406723499298,
-0.3348035514354706,
0.10416867583990097,
-0.2855274975299835,
0.33471161127090454,
0.7623991370201111,
-0.4245617389678955,
0.3309234380722046,
0.2473323941230774,
0.06636877357959747,
-0.5999593734741211,
0.18157389760017395,
0.3314759135246277,
-0.10082823038101196,
0.1905859261751175,
-0.6839248538017273,
0.7449604868888855,
-0.1371907889842987,
0.30345451831817627,
0.4271128475666046,
0.14556778967380524,
0.39864757657051086,
0.11829937994480133,
-0.5451293587684631,
-0.10119307041168213,
0.28503480553627014,
-0.6347794532775879,
0.636706531047821,
-0.6130035519599915,
-0.6597623825073242,
0.40175583958625793,
-0.059362053871154785,
0.13520285487174988,
-0.6561230421066284,
-0.3800157904624939,
1.0998715162277222,
-0.20726695656776428,
0.36067697405815125,
0.1721242219209671,
0.39380761981010437,
0.6262062788009644,
0.08685378730297089,
-0.07767032086849213,
0.48835429549217224,
0.45293399691581726,
-0.7426753640174866,
-0.03861246630549431,
-0.054781824350357056,
0.44630706310272217,
-0.2627052962779999,
0.24596597254276276,
0.31623417139053345,
0.4553309381008148,
0.6719378232955933,
-0.3533681631088257,
1.3485875129699707,
-0.40244218707084656,
0.47818100452423096,
0.10689368844032288,
-0.3879792392253876,
0.01836058497428894,
0.08504049479961395,
-0.9265282154083252,
-0.05273189768195152,
-0.22826486825942993,
-0.46445173025131226,
-0.1996467560529709,
-0.4924565851688385,
0.2252311110496521,
-0.18125736713409424,
0.2068616896867752,
-0.41615304350852966,
-0.07966715842485428,
0.06966910511255264,
0.17883704602718353,
-0.12236284464597702,
0.6984900236129761,
0.2777602970600128,
-0.2012457549571991,
-0.2619248926639557,
0.15182888507843018,
0.18753215670585632,
0.10141342133283615,
0.0008700646576471627,
0.8586829900741577,
0.3510444760322571,
0.11998806893825531,
-0.07137114554643631,
-0.429247111082077,
0.3136691153049469,
-0.1186029464006424,
0.2526213228702545,
0.49906572699546814,
0.23010534048080444,
-0.38741621375083923,
-0.6175838112831116,
-0.6712514758110046,
-0.788811981678009,
-0.013241813518106937,
-0.419735312461853,
0.08048133552074432,
0.09029287099838257,
0.26213735342025757,
-0.7369677424430847,
-0.5035541653633118,
0.4126763641834259,
0.0037960545159876347,
0.35315001010894775,
-0.34270498156547546,
-0.42343100905418396,
0.9682902097702026,
-0.16796940565109253,
0.9419322609901428,
-0.20051227509975433,
-0.3066490590572357,
-0.03989168629050255,
0.05351075157523155,
-0.1695004105567932,
-0.033039696514606476,
-0.8273435831069946,
-0.2348039150238037,
-0.2897548973560333,
0.052122022956609726,
0.3606547713279724,
-0.37118253111839294,
-0.7038697004318237,
0.05920688062906265,
0.7099876999855042,
0.22586025297641754,
-0.2034812718629837,
0.06703770905733109,
0.6174452900886536,
-0.1036231592297554,
-0.6074162721633911,
0.2055569589138031,
-0.8178437352180481,
-0.20739324390888214,
0.1174219474196434,
-5.5893168449401855,
0.5738146305084229,
0.18732915818691254,
0.5796877145767212,
0.3942548334598541,
-0.5402928590774536,
0.18074652552604675,
-0.6102193593978882,
-0.2334376871585846,
0.06581535935401917,
0.01032046228647232,
-0.4315812587738037,
-0.10357145965099335,
-0.18246589601039886,
0.4426088333129883,
0.4414553940296173,
0.729618489742279,
0.09885621070861816,
0.0041169459000229836,
0.6713075637817383,
-0.3450286388397217,
0.35056284070014954,
-0.022809132933616638,
0.3993385136127472,
0.509549617767334,
0.24414731562137604,
-0.4007866680622101,
-0.6172260046005249,
-0.8926469683647156,
-0.42937153577804565,
-0.23458749055862427,
0.14085638523101807,
0.4530966281890869,
-0.04999425262212753,
-0.17776332795619965,
-0.3163135349750519,
0.5760936737060547,
0.17953309416770935,
0.06229666620492935,
-0.995167076587677,
-0.061349377036094666,
0.7739570140838623,
-0.5639243721961975,
-0.0007675035740248859,
0.14028173685073853,
0.3514050543308258,
-0.6056139469146729,
-0.2232702225446701,
-0.527249813079834,
0.7194491028785706,
0.1556587815284729,
-0.0689714103937149,
0.8646969199180603,
0.16150835156440735,
0.1351923942565918,
-0.01064787432551384,
0.3421889543533325,
-0.062385473400354385,
0.3695443272590637,
0.34527114033699036,
0.3032768666744232,
-0.4132612943649292,
-0.03960876539349556,
-0.13702392578125,
-0.5376485586166382,
-0.5671079158782959,
0.39364925026893616,
0.008671161718666553,
0.043441254645586014,
0.2836266756057739,
-0.1370362490415573,
0.19881507754325867,
0.44096851348876953,
-0.5486159324645996,
0.016142042353749275,
0.00838147010654211,
-0.3267022967338562,
0.05691332370042801,
0.6976587772369385,
-0.38863667845726013,
0.12028168886899948,
0.0859348475933075,
0.42378267645835876,
0.24072475731372833,
-0.13855262100696564,
0.05751578137278557,
0.4657730162143707,
0.5032473206520081,
-0.03592788428068161,
-0.09951115399599075,
0.6910105347633362,
-0.23123320937156677,
0.4054393470287323,
0.5137894749641418,
-0.3330446183681488,
0.19135209918022156,
0.836726188659668,
-0.23754547536373138,
-0.526654839515686,
-0.7605564594268799,
0.5353264808654785,
-0.40905478596687317,
-0.9815062880516052,
-0.3908776342868805,
-0.2892538011074066,
-0.276767373085022,
-0.7046689391136169,
0.14124703407287598,
0.24292410910129547,
0.17956581711769104,
0.7286975383758545,
-0.42729121446609497,
-0.4191918969154358,
0.09829255193471909,
0.7116925716400146,
0.35215234756469727,
-0.02336222678422928,
0.08641784638166428,
0.28767964243888855,
-0.7169646620750427,
0.0479087308049202,
0.4920738637447357,
-0.1957247406244278,
-0.3268188238143921,
-0.2512013912200928,
0.18398559093475342,
-0.06048646941781044,
0.5912809371948242,
-0.48082274198532104,
-0.46551451086997986,
0.09683898836374283,
-0.7039585709571838,
0.5121462941169739,
-0.20752331614494324,
-0.0046811411157250404,
-0.41645681858062744,
-0.42611196637153625,
0.16710731387138367,
-0.32832130789756775,
-0.3353762626647949,
-0.0417541079223156,
0.4933176636695862,
0.2814634442329407,
0.5760194063186646,
0.08209963142871857,
0.11386588215827942,
-0.0036926744505763054,
0.22824926674365997,
-0.0036933047231286764,
0.27507585287094116,
0.506280779838562,
-0.4566551446914673,
1.0726720094680786,
-0.42310386896133423,
0.20629864931106567,
-0.15201519429683685,
0.2554835081100464,
-0.03488760441541672,
0.09330473840236664,
-0.9676382541656494,
0.5906451344490051,
-0.0514611192047596,
-0.4266212582588196,
-0.31301629543304443,
0.3949533998966217,
-0.2902911305427551,
-0.17379415035247803,
-0.6417884230613708,
-0.40552812814712524,
0.4796948730945587,
-0.28623726963996887,
-0.16099075973033905,
-0.3734743297100067,
-0.14958126842975616,
0.5886498093605042,
0.1667853593826294,
0.32353267073631287,
-0.16136763989925385,
-0.002785968594253063,
-0.3127078115940094,
-0.1381901353597641,
-0.2493990957736969,
-0.2147778570652008,
0.5531512498855591,
0.5225728154182434,
-0.6922682523727417,
-0.3653610646724701,
-0.5351302623748779,
-0.28536075353622437,
0.22360315918922424,
0.3449137210845947,
0.4888175129890442,
0.6533371806144714,
-0.021435314789414406,
0.004038219340145588,
-0.31101179122924805,
0.17476481199264526,
1.1054831743240356,
0.2378213107585907,
-0.5933017134666443,
0.2440546303987503,
0.11034215986728668,
-0.5511053800582886,
0.14164109528064728,
0.2789700925350189,
-0.12939605116844177,
0.5316120982170105,
0.05281767249107361,
-0.18827006220817566,
0.19800937175750732,
0.0140420813113451,
-0.7674274444580078,
-0.4563610851764679,
-0.3834184408187866,
0.032928936183452606,
0.029878422617912292,
0.3048393130302429,
-0.2948724329471588,
0.31321948766708374,
-0.1020173579454422,
0.16809450089931488,
-0.568646252155304,
-0.2747509479522705,
-0.16166085004806519,
0.5077236890792847,
0.2757969796657562,
-0.13624581694602966,
-0.5513038635253906,
-0.2939300239086151,
-0.6019225716590881,
-0.4510629177093506,
0.5857093930244446,
0.4711625576019287,
0.48801225423812866,
0.5188107490539551,
-0.003252381691709161,
-0.1326708048582077,
0.18926137685775757,
0.34555602073669434,
-0.5447558164596558,
-0.2338450700044632,
0.2808306813240051,
-0.675769567489624,
-0.7522924542427063,
-0.005415364168584347,
0.0817735567688942,
0.061405643820762634,
-0.1612018197774887,
-0.2079230546951294,
0.34003302454948425,
0.06957820802927017,
-0.056181930005550385,
-0.45234227180480957,
-0.7206169366836548,
0.621835470199585,
-0.6531067490577698,
-0.03407904505729675,
0.23948563635349274,
0.2659282088279724,
-0.19818317890167236,
-0.4110913872718811,
-0.5879731774330139,
-0.3465299904346466,
1.0381724834442139,
0.18009699881076813,
0.03463491424918175,
-0.2882538139820099,
-0.270698606967926,
0.010519360192120075,
0.2554936707019806,
-0.6564638614654541,
0.13485746085643768,
0.6236744523048401,
0.8842203617095947,
-0.012540782801806927,
-0.2719665765762329,
0.3882054090499878,
0.013584489934146404,
0.4931028485298157,
0.2139669954776764,
0.041036222130060196,
0.22395820915699005,
-0.21007481217384338,
-0.30533963441848755,
0.45091569423675537,
-0.5086292624473572,
-0.5350688695907593,
0.44488340616226196,
-0.6324242353439331,
0.014660430140793324,
0.4434117078781128,
0.30144554376602173,
-0.12519094347953796,
-0.4434497356414795,
-0.5091068744659424,
-0.013098177500069141,
-0.004557294771075249,
-0.04874284192919731,
0.056967638432979584,
-0.5211310982704163,
-0.5228124260902405,
0.4482880234718323,
0.47148582339286804,
0.20558984577655792,
1.0796655416488647,
0.05744943395256996,
0.09334508329629898,
-0.28659385442733765,
-0.3715200424194336,
-0.6561665534973145,
-0.25933408737182617,
-0.038174085319042206,
0.6764910817146301,
0.16224104166030884,
-0.41766557097435,
0.3324495851993561,
0.06441940367221832,
-0.6893756985664368,
-0.3433985710144043,
-0.03244861960411072,
0.06963331997394562,
-0.5386358499526978,
0.45150965452194214,
0.4116016626358032,
-0.08840113878250122,
0.2867167890071869,
-0.05532130226492882,
-0.1427210569381714,
0.3301432430744171,
0.09534229338169098,
0.5010085701942444,
-0.6294909715652466,
-0.9487759470939636,
0.578988790512085,
0.4232330620288849,
-0.11891385167837143,
0.4801061451435089,
-0.2827073931694031,
-0.11437863856554031,
0.629494309425354,
0.6143606305122375,
0.33257248997688293,
0.7389622926712036,
-0.1729511171579361,
0.2443617582321167,
-0.06858261674642563,
0.5002549290657043,
0.1332816630601883,
0.07810001075267792,
-0.12815263867378235,
0.5070922374725342,
0.46892210841178894,
0.3367369472980499,
-0.043666817247867584,
-0.25985774397850037,
-0.21955418586730957,
-0.0810176432132721,
0.06888536363840103,
-0.6710399389266968,
-0.4850063920021057,
-0.007239925675094128,
0.3754923939704895,
0.3612940311431885,
0.14848321676254272,
-0.09997932612895966,
-0.4105174243450165,
-0.1071910634636879,
0.12266931682825089,
-0.24112723767757416,
0.7543848156929016,
0.07966870814561844,
0.344535231590271,
-0.2649850845336914,
-0.3400011956691742,
-0.044024497270584106,
-0.1729486733675003,
0.3489057421684265,
0.0999075174331665,
-0.14126361906528473,
0.2982199192047119,
-0.34111613035202026,
0.08273472636938095,
-0.7049700021743774,
-0.327828049659729,
0.21020089089870453,
-0.4711275100708008,
-0.7127675414085388,
0.6905560493469238,
-0.37788084149360657,
-0.12780973315238953,
0.07329072803258896,
0.08236271142959595,
-0.43878328800201416,
-0.1810688078403473,
0.2213377058506012,
0.6864607930183411,
0.023571539670228958,
0.7893753051757812,
0.6635000109672546,
0.19965721666812897,
0.8877676725387573,
0.13434480130672455,
-0.07911141961812973,
0.16227839887142181,
0.34376466274261475,
-0.07142693549394608,
-0.3567672371864319,
0.2761639654636383,
-0.2675236165523529,
0.4344426393508911,
-0.2956499755382538,
-0.09625712782144547,
-0.27998408675193787,
0.7799574732780457,
-0.3875185251235962,
0.12178333848714828,
1.030838131904602,
-0.31670254468917847,
0.025185871869325638,
-0.7438951730728149,
0.30889925360679626,
-0.13495415449142456,
0.5612595081329346,
0.4690566956996918,
-0.2759712040424347,
0.25632503628730774,
-0.3928860127925873,
-0.08255751430988312,
-0.35290515422821045,
0.4593985676765442,
-0.05692572891712189,
-0.3495424687862396,
-0.5602463483810425,
0.3457237482070923,
-0.33962389826774597,
-0.4346047043800354,
-0.41320884227752686,
-0.38891690969467163,
-0.027356106787919998,
-0.006035890430212021,
-0.18439510464668274,
-0.43786367774009705,
0.4639466106891632,
-0.1590438187122345,
-1.233234167098999,
-0.24994760751724243,
0.20402806997299194,
-0.06590475887060165,
-0.4999377131462097,
-0.5528607368469238,
0.45648661255836487,
-0.24446186423301697,
-0.0149537343531847,
-0.4933284819126129,
-0.049388282001018524,
0.06645525246858597,
-0.36613595485687256,
-0.09187663346529007,
-0.2685926556587219,
0.3507482707500458
] |
234908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilliput%20and%20Blefuscu | Lilliput and Blefuscu | Lilliput and Blefuscu are two fictional island nations that appear in the first part of the 1726 novel Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. The two islands are neighbours in the South Indian Ocean, separated by a channel wide. Both are inhabited by tiny people who are about one-twelfth the height of ordinary human beings. Both are empires, i.e. realms ruled by an emperor. The capital of Lilliput is Mildendo. In some pictures, the islands are arranged like an egg, as a reference to their egg-dominated histories and cultures.
Location
Swift gives the location of Lilliput and Blefuscu in Part I of Gulliver's Travels, both in the text and with a map, though neither correspond to real-world geography, even as it was known in Swift's time. The text states that Gulliver's ship (the Antelope) was bound for the East Indies when it was caught in "a violent storm to the northwest of Van Diemen's Land" (Tasmania). He gives the latitude as 30°2'S, though the longitude is unspecified. Likewise, the map depicts Lilliput and Blefuscu south of "Hogs Island" (Simeulue), off northwest Sumatra, and northwest of Van Diemen's Land, though the map is considerably foreshortened; Van Diemen's Land is shown south of the Sunda Strait, some 10° (700 miles) east of Hogs Island, whereas Tasmania is actually some 40° (2,500 miles) east of that meridian. Neither the text nor the map make reference to New Holland (Western Australia), which had been discovered in 1644, some 80 years before publication, and was well-documented in the maps of Swift's time. While Australia's Cocos (Keeling) Islands are in roughly the right map location south-west of Sumatra, have two inhabited islands, and would have been known of in Swift's day, they are at entirely the wrong latitude.
Because the area indicated by Swift is actually occupied by Australia, and on the basis of other textual evidence, some authors have concluded that Swift intended to place Lilliput in the Pacific Ocean, to the northeast, not northwest, of Van Diemen's Land. However, none of the sea routes to the East Indies, Gulliver's stated destination, required ships to round Van Diemen's Land; the northern routes, via India or Ceylon, avoided Australia altogether, while the southern (Brouwer) route, taking advantage of the Roaring Forties, turned northeast in mid-ocean precisely to avoid New Holland, though the number of shipwrecks on that coast from the period attests to the dangers of overshooting the turning point. Swift was sceptical about the reliability of the travel literature of his day, and it is suggested that the unlikely geographic descriptions parody many of these works (described by Percy Adams as "travel lies").
Geography
Lilliput is said to extend 5,000 blustrugs, or 12 miles in circumference. Blefuscu is located northeast of Lilliput, across an 800-yard (730 m) channel. The only cities mentioned by Swift are Mildendo, the capital of Lilliput, and Blefuscu, capital of Blefuscu. However, the map showing Lilliput's position depicts the islands as considerably larger, approaching the size of Van Diemen's Land.
History and politics
Lilliput is said to be ruled by an Emperor, Golbasto Momarem Evlame Gurdilo Shefin Mully Ully Gue. He is assisted by a first minister (who carries a white staff) and several other officials (who bring articles of impeachment against Gulliver on grounds of treason): the galbet or high admiral, Skyresh Bolgolam; the lord high treasurer, Flimnap; the general, Limnoc; the chamberlain, Lalcom; and the grand justiciary, Balmuff. Blefuscu is also ruled by an Emperor, who is not named.
Both nations follow the teachings of a prophet, Lustrog, as recorded in their scripture, known as the Blundecral ("which is their Alcoran or Bible, we don't really know"). Sectarian divisions exist in the debate between "Little-Endians" and "Big-Endians" (see below).
Satirical interpretations
Lilliput and Blefuscu were intended as, and understood to be, satirical portraits of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of France, respectively, as they were in the early 18th century. Only the internal politics of Lilliput are described in detail; these are parodies of British politics, in which the great central issues of the day are belittled and reduced to unimportance.
For instance, the two major political parties of the day were the Whigs and the Tories. The Tories are parodied as the Tramecksan or "High-Heels" (due to their adhesion to the high church party of the Church of England, and their exalted views of royal supremacy), while the Whigs are represented as the Slamecksan or "Low-Heels" (the Whigs inclined toward low church views, and believed in parliamentary supremacy). These issues, generally considered to be of fundamental importance to the constitution of Great Britain, are reduced by Swift to a difference in fashions.
The Emperor of Lilliput is described as a partisan of the Low-Heels, just as King George I employed only Whigs in his administration; the Emperor's heir is described as having "one of his heels higher than the other", which describes the encouragement by the Prince of Wales (the future George II) of the political opposition during his father's life.
The novel further describes an intra-Lilliputian quarrel over the practice of breaking eggs. Traditionally, Lilliputians broke boiled eggs on the larger end; a few generations ago, an Emperor of Lilliput, the Present Emperor's great-grandfather, had decreed that all eggs be broken on the smaller end after his son cut himself breaking the egg on the larger end. The differences between Big-Endians (those who broke their eggs at the larger end) and Little-Endians had given rise to "six rebellions ... wherein one Emperor lost his life, and another his crown". The Lilliputian religion says an egg should be broken on the convenient end, which is now interpreted by the Lilliputians as the smaller end. The Big-Endians gained favour in Blefuscu.
The Big-Endian/Little-Endian controversy reflects, in a much simplified form, British quarrels over religion. Less than 200 years previously, England had been a Catholic (Big-Endian) country; but a series of reforms beginning in the 1530s under King Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547), Edward VI (1547–1553), and Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) had converted most of the country to Protestantism (Little-Endianism), in the episcopalian form of the Church of England. At the same time, revolution and reform in Scotland (1560) had also converted that country to Presbyterian Protestantism, which led to fresh difficulties when England and Scotland were united under one ruler, James I (1603–1625).
Religiously inspired revolts and rebellions followed, in which, indeed, one king, Charles I (1625–49) lost his life, and his son James II lost his crown and fled to France (1685–1688). Some of these conflicts were between Protestants and Catholics; others were between different branches of Protestantism. Swift does not clearly distinguish between these different kinds of religious strife.
Swift has his Lilliputian informant blame the "civil commotions" on the propaganda of the Emperor of Blefuscu, i.e. the King of France; this primarily reflects the encouragement given by King Louis XIV of France to James II in pursuit of his policies to advance the toleration of Catholicism in Great Britain. He adds that "when (the commotions) were quelled, the (Big-Endian) exiles always fled for refuge to that empire" (Blefuscu/France). This partially reflects the exile of King Charles II on the Continent (in France, Germany, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Dutch Republic) from 1651 to 1660, but more particularly the exile of the Catholic King James II from 1688–1701. James II was dead by the time Swift wrote Gulliver's Travels, but his heir James Francis Edward Stuart, also Catholic, maintained his pretensions to the British throne from a court in France (primarily at Saint-Germain-en-Laye) until 1717, and both Jameses were regarded as a serious threat to the stability of the British monarchy until the end of the reign of George II. The court of the Pretender attracted those Jacobites, and their Tory sympathizers, whose political activity precluded them staying safely in Great Britain; notable among them was Swift's friend, the Anglican Bishop of Rochester Francis Atterbury, who was exiled to France in 1722.
Swift's Lilliputian claims that the machinations of "Big-Endian exiles" at the court of the Emperor of Blefuscu have brought about a continuous war between Lilliput and Blefuscu for "six and thirty moons" (Lilliputians calculate time in "moons", not years; their time-scale, while not one-twelfth the size of normal humans, appears to be somewhat faster, since the emperor was stated to be "past his prime" before he was thirty.) This is an allusion to the wars fought under King William III and Queen Anne against France under Louis XIV, the War of the Grand Alliance (1689–97) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713). In both cases, the claims of the exiled House of Stuart were marginal to other causes of war, but were an important propaganda point in Great Britain itself, as both James II and James Francis Edward were accused of allying with foreigners to force Catholicism on the British people.
In the novel, Gulliver washes up on the shore of Lilliput and is captured by the inhabitants while asleep. He offers his services to the Emperor of Lilliput in his war against Blefuscu, and succeeds in capturing the (one-twelfth sized) Blefuscudian fleet. Despite a triumphant welcome, he soon finds himself at odds with the Emperor of Lilliput, as he declines to conquer the rest of Blefuscu for him and to force the Blefuscudians to adopt Little-Endianism.
Gulliver's position reflects the decision of the Tory government to withdraw from the War of the Spanish Succession. Britain's allies considered the important objects of the war to have been met, and that the Whigs' larger claims were excessive. The withdrawal was seen by the Whigs as a betrayal of British interests. Swift (a Tory) is here engaged in an apology.
Gulliver is, after further adventures, condemned as a traitor by the Council of Lilliput, and condemned to be blinded; he escapes his punishment by fleeing to Blefuscu. This condemnation parallels that issued to the chief ministers of the Tory government that had made peace with France, Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, who was impeached and imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1715 to 1717; and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, who, after his political fall, received vague threats of capital punishment and fled to France in 1715, where he remained until 1723.
Post-Swift descriptions
Early works
In 1728, John Arbuthnot wrote An account of the state of learning in the empire of Lilliput: Together with the history and character of Bullum the Emperor's Library-Keeper; this purported to be transcribed from a treatise by Gulliver on the empire of Lilliput alluded to in chapter 4 of Gulliver's Travels. Arbuthnot used this work to satirise Richard Bentley, master of Trinity College, Cambridge but also described the early history of Lilliput and Blefuscu. At one time (Gulliver is told), Blefuscu was a commonwealth and had its own language and an extensive literature. Lilliput, meanwhile, was divided among several petty kingdoms. The first emperor of Blefuscu attacked and subdued Lilliput, but later the Lilliputians won their independence and set up their own emperor.
20th-century works
It has been pointed out that the long and vicious war which started after a disagreement about which was the best end to break an egg is an example of the narcissism of small differences, a term Sigmund Freud coined in the early 1900s.
In 1946 T. H. White wrote Mistress Masham's Repose, which describes the adventures of a girl, Maria, who discovers a group of Lilliputians on a tiny forgotten island in the lake of a ruinous estate in Northamptonshire.
A modernised Lilliput is the setting of a 1958 sequel children's novel, Castaways in Lilliput, by Henry Winterfeld. This book provides more geographical detail: other cities in addition to Mildendo include Plips (a major city and cathedral town), Wiggywack (a suburb of Mildendo and seat of the Island Council), Tottenham (on the west coast), and Allenbeck (at the mouth of a river on the west coast).
Winterfeld also provides further details of Lilliputian history. The Emperor of Gulliver's time, Mully Ully Gue, is said to have reigned 1657–1746. (This contradicts Swift's account, in which the Emperor is only 28 years old and has reigned about seven years when Gulliver arrives in 1699.) His descendant, Alice, is the reigning Queen in the 1950s when three Australian children visit the island. The monetary system has apparently also been changed, the sprug of Swift's novel replaced by the onze, equal to ten dimelings or 100 bims. Technology has kept pace with the outside world, so the Lilliputians have trains, automobiles, helicopters, telephones, and telegraphs.
Winterfeld describes the flag of Lilliput as having blue and white stripes with a golden crown on a red field. These symbols are also painted on the police helicopters.
Language
Swift presents a number of Lilliputian words and phrases, and further states that the official languages of Lilliput and Blefuscu are about as far apart as typical European languages. Arbuthnot explains further that Blefuscu originally had its own language and an extensive literature, but during the period when it occupied Lilliput, the Blefuscudian language was much altered by contact with Lilliputian. Blefuscudian remained an old language of scholarship. In T. H. White's sequel, Mistress Masham's Repose, the protagonist Maria studies the Lilliputian language from a book owned by her professor friend. This is a rare copy of Gulliver's 1735 treatise: A General Description of the Empire of Lilliput, from its first Erection, through a long Series of Princes; with a Particular Account of their Wars and Politicks, Laws, Learning, & Religion, their Plants and Animals, their peculiar Manners and Customs, with other Matters very curious and useful, to which is added a Brief Vocabulary of their Language, with its English Correspondencies. In Winterfeld's sequel, English has become the official language, due to a decision of the Council of the Island in 1751.
Other references
Lilliput is reputedly named after the townland of Lilliput on the shores of Lough Ennell near Dysart, just a few miles from Mullingar, in County Westmeath, Ireland. Swift was a regular visitor to the Rochfort family at Gaulstown House. It is said that it was when Dean Swift looked across the expanse of Lough Ennell one day and saw the tiny human figures on the opposite shore of the lake that he conceived the idea of the Lilliputians featured in Gulliver's Travels. In fact, the townland known as Nure from ancient times and renamed Lileput or Lilliput shortly after the publication of Gulliver's Travels in honour of Swift's association with the area. Lilliput House has stood in the locality since the Eighteenth Century.
Lilliput and Blefuscu were the names used for Britain and France, respectively, in a series of semi-fictional transcripts (with mutated names of people and places) of debates in the British Parliament. This series was written by William Guthrie, Samuel Johnson, and John Hawkesworth, and was printed in Edward Cave's periodical The Gentleman's Magazine from 1738 to 1746.
The word lilliputian has become an adjective meaning "very small in size", or "petty or trivial". When used as a noun, it means either "a tiny person" or "a person with a narrow outlook, who minds the petty and trivial things."
The use of the terms "Big-Endian" and "Little-Endian" in the story is the source of the computing term endianness.
Neela Mahendra, the love interest in Salman Rushdie's novel Fury, is an "Indo-Lilly", a member of the Indian Diaspora from the politically unstable country of Lilliput-and-Blefuscu.
Several craters on Mars' moon Phobos are named after Lilliputians. Perhaps inspired by Johannes Kepler (and quoting Kepler's third law), Swift's satire Gulliver's Travels refers to two moons in Part 3, Chapter 3 (the "Voyage to Laputa"), in which the astronomers of Laputa are described as having discovered two satellites of Mars orbiting at distances of 3 and 5 Martian diameters, and periods of 10 and 21.5 hours, respectively.
Lilliput is mentioned throughout the 2005 Malplaquet trilogy of children's novels by Andrew Dalton. Taking much of their initial inspiration from T. H. White's Mistress Masham's Repose, the books describe the adventures of a large colony of Lilliputians living secretly in the enormous and mysterious grounds of an English country house (Stowe House in Buckinghamshire). Their longed-for return to their ancestral homeland is one of the major themes of the stories.
In the Gabby cartoon shorts, it is the main and only major location mentioned.
In the game EarthBound, the second Your Sanctuary location is titled Lilliput Steps.
See also
The Borrowers
Notes
References
Fictional elements introduced in 1726
Fictional Asian countries
Fictional islands
Gulliver's Travels locations
Fictional dwarves
Fictional empires
Fictional works set in the Indian Ocean
Fictional island countries | [
-0.31113913655281067,
-0.08833769708871841,
0.031205112114548683,
0.11805673688650131,
0.12477950006723404,
0.3381279408931732,
0.19698235392570496,
0.9388105869293213,
-0.6099596619606018,
0.15337809920310974,
-0.4628377854824066,
-0.43911969661712646,
-0.6539192199707031,
0.5408880710601807,
0.2944487929344177,
0.2324988692998886,
0.10922034829854965,
0.5977960824966431,
0.03163949027657509,
-0.3443446159362793,
0.09118213504552841,
0.20176514983177185,
0.36558300256729126,
-0.44389599561691284,
0.7205475568771362,
-0.1330990195274353,
0.5945246815681458,
0.24036432802677155,
0.08902239054441452,
0.020537052303552628,
-0.11797167360782623,
0.8609831929206848,
-0.09180433303117752,
-0.25776371359825134,
0.07579265534877777,
-0.10689962655305862,
-0.3377133309841156,
-0.4247131943702698,
-0.38018798828125,
-0.6278995275497437,
0.2507427930831909,
0.13450966775417328,
0.3071712553501129,
0.37579795718193054,
0.015478942543268204,
-0.11623119562864304,
-1.2118111848831177,
0.6562752723693848,
-0.5862063765525818,
0.2779971659183502,
-0.02068513259291649,
0.5449849963188171,
0.24924559891223907,
0.26209357380867004,
-0.5526808500289917,
0.8623918294906616,
-0.39117568731307983,
-0.2834198772907257,
0.2087552547454834,
0.39731311798095703,
0.8994764685630798,
0.19830971956253052,
0.32272547483444214,
0.14515437185764313,
0.13970087468624115,
0.31294679641723633,
-0.4295831024646759,
0.33248353004455566,
0.21135877072811127,
-0.7852586507797241,
0.2811424136161804,
0.3516276776790619,
-0.3645857572555542,
0.33611544966697693,
-0.21456855535507202,
-0.03096751496195793,
-0.2636016011238098,
0.5572443008422852,
0.904394268989563,
0.05482565984129906,
-0.08486955612897873,
0.24548588693141937,
0.712847888469696,
-0.15140384435653687,
-0.1916261613368988,
0.2715880274772644,
0.08009040355682373,
0.12985455989837646,
-0.4405820667743683,
0.3178809881210327,
-0.06345158070325851,
-0.6903945207595825,
0.21161174774169922,
-0.0010975295444950461,
0.06046419218182564,
-0.988551676273346,
0.1917588859796524,
-0.20420977473258972,
-0.6042238473892212,
-0.199575737118721,
-0.5678980350494385,
1.0444362163543701,
0.4256367087364197,
0.17543645203113556,
-0.4890057444572449,
0.19733236730098724,
-0.12231490015983582,
-0.23106372356414795,
0.1199871078133583,
0.33580777049064636,
-0.08739019930362701,
0.06245631352066994,
0.11737247556447983,
0.4062860608100891,
0.02512277103960514,
-0.09957987070083618,
0.207917720079422,
-1.1118711233139038,
-0.28776758909225464,
0.0248319860547781,
0.4044974744319916,
0.17289675772190094,
0.33659422397613525,
-0.9928132891654968,
0.29111531376838684,
-0.12742529809474945,
0.022438347339630127,
-0.21209336817264557,
-0.5760836601257324,
0.2788046896457672,
0.21242083609104156,
0.3222254514694214,
-0.34262335300445557,
-0.5370560884475708,
0.2479052096605301,
-0.42807719111442566,
0.0006069829687476158,
-0.009664610028266907,
0.05144582688808441,
0.45070740580558777,
-0.45829519629478455,
0.3623793423175812,
-1.1053032875061035,
0.0024910280480980873,
0.8712739944458008,
-0.12165132910013199,
-0.06384193897247314,
-0.8846237063407898,
-0.5762996077537537,
-0.5053736567497253,
-0.4946603775024414,
-0.06864168494939804,
0.13278399407863617,
-0.028035668656229973,
-0.1862097829580307,
-0.13508020341396332,
0.603474497795105,
0.4017412066459656,
0.34476691484451294,
-0.24832049012184143,
-0.07667295634746552,
0.4531099796295166,
0.2328163981437683,
-0.528087317943573,
-0.5309779644012451,
-0.14282335340976715,
0.8396996855735779,
0.4327270984649658,
0.21457844972610474,
0.14095690846443176,
-0.5120022296905518,
0.2564106583595276,
1.0279313325881958,
-0.28707629442214966,
0.006219598464667797,
0.14602211117744446,
1.1982990503311157,
0.005946775898337364,
0.10963462293148041,
-0.4622061252593994,
-0.7367373704910278,
0.5084725618362427,
0.03900212049484253,
-0.3978162109851837,
-0.14739727973937988,
0.25806307792663574,
0.5509870648384094,
0.12173200398683548,
-0.0613727830350399,
0.28071683645248413,
-0.22188806533813477,
-1.0100834369659424,
0.17787203192710876,
0.2565384805202484,
0.8104437589645386,
0.1604103446006775,
-0.7636931538581848,
0.868800938129425,
0.29284268617630005,
0.25227031111717224,
-1.2837998867034912,
0.31102001667022705,
0.099134661257267,
0.43034836649894714,
-0.30685415863990784,
0.3686639070510864,
-0.37910568714141846,
0.08241661638021469,
0.6529439091682434,
0.17450135946273804,
0.2385687530040741,
-0.15362673997879028,
0.7007806897163391,
0.14477872848510742,
-0.7787804007530212,
-0.8036021590232849,
-0.2720893919467926,
0.45067453384399414,
0.22621338069438934,
-0.15004219114780426,
0.16925831139087677,
0.13847848773002625,
-0.2589801847934723,
0.0036527954507619143,
0.6330298185348511,
0.5724766850471497,
-0.11872781068086624,
0.2826470136642456,
0.07080867886543274,
-0.5125646591186523,
-0.08242959529161453,
0.055859800428152084,
0.09538166970014572,
-0.3887019753456116,
-0.6766710877418518,
-0.0681125596165657,
0.050868794322013855,
-0.5407832264900208,
0.7334511876106262,
-0.01111395563930273,
-0.252271831035614,
-0.17967483401298523,
-0.6563467383384705,
0.39617982506752014,
0.2605188488960266,
0.03099995292723179,
0.18245306611061096,
-0.011431996710598469,
0.05711158737540245,
-0.41664832830429077,
0.08356670290231705,
0.6539586186408997,
-0.48227494955062866,
0.44790565967559814,
0.6753995418548584,
-0.05740617960691452,
0.25271594524383545,
0.2531520426273346,
0.5110019445419312,
0.02672545053064823,
-0.78628009557724,
0.47076940536499023,
-0.03630585968494415,
0.6191922426223755,
-0.009459936060011387,
-0.8114620447158813,
-0.25082075595855713,
-0.6147372126579285,
0.32265999913215637,
0.16689717769622803,
0.24296271800994873,
-0.19698798656463623,
-0.7208892703056335,
0.17169499397277832,
0.3910241723060608,
-0.0036188955418765545,
0.5280211567878723,
-0.43045052886009216,
-0.5324454307556152,
-0.17204749584197998,
-0.09757106006145477,
0.5902314186096191,
-0.1688525527715683,
-0.3860360383987427,
-0.5251207947731018,
-0.6442378163337708,
0.08075891435146332,
-0.3331500291824341,
0.27151599526405334,
0.03598809987306595,
0.11943542957305908,
-0.31760507822036743,
-0.514911949634552,
0.025008434429764748,
-1.0320180654525757,
0.29713448882102966,
-0.016433993354439735,
0.06622244417667389,
-0.04029235988855362,
-0.371520459651947,
-0.6557681560516357,
0.27702221274375916,
-0.6477345824241638,
-0.4291073679924011,
0.547882616519928,
0.11558850854635239,
-0.29249656200408936,
-0.022290172055363655,
-5.590000629425049,
0.43220335245132446,
-0.028976140543818474,
-0.2445838451385498,
0.14642679691314697,
0.053878508508205414,
0.6073005199432373,
-0.11306305229663849,
-0.18339629471302032,
0.16367191076278687,
-0.08697222173213959,
-0.40969592332839966,
-0.6297668814659119,
0.1377716064453125,
0.4681745767593384,
0.7754716277122498,
0.22056466341018677,
0.08039939403533936,
-0.8403685092926025,
0.5407630205154419,
-0.7861585021018982,
0.10184480249881744,
0.396817684173584,
0.188490092754364,
0.4947763681411743,
0.45222800970077515,
-0.02511252649128437,
-0.19850076735019684,
-0.5471092462539673,
0.4921732246875763,
0.18700090050697327,
0.2210855931043625,
0.3150688707828522,
-0.4689495265483856,
0.22305071353912354,
-0.0493512898683548,
1.0216889381408691,
0.21393543481826782,
1.1689079999923706,
-0.29722997546195984,
-0.8703745603561401,
0.5685582160949707,
0.013708173297345638,
-0.16109998524188995,
0.2619748115539551,
-0.07075939327478409,
-0.6834298968315125,
0.7627692222595215,
-0.42210903763771057,
0.7611817121505737,
0.740920901298523,
-0.21033473312854767,
-0.5041633248329163,
0.04525222256779671,
0.37645241618156433,
-0.2769404351711273,
0.17055372893810272,
0.029678519815206528,
-0.8427030444145203,
-0.19127005338668823,
0.9366039037704468,
0.011758605018258095,
-0.5344710946083069,
0.33092445135116577,
0.5709308385848999,
-0.6170096397399902,
-0.6632968783378601,
0.18944188952445984,
0.342649906873703,
-0.22104300558567047,
0.23734654486179352,
-0.3170274794101715,
-0.35432103276252747,
-0.9372299909591675,
-0.36003321409225464,
-0.4900265634059906,
-0.601930558681488,
-0.287706196308136,
0.2238425463438034,
0.20786230266094208,
-0.08210409432649612,
-0.1377861201763153,
-0.7895002961158752,
0.6867152452468872,
0.2908322215080261,
-1.1497269868850708,
-0.3159484267234802,
0.3491065502166748,
-0.9411101937294006,
-0.6808674931526184,
0.1200503259897232,
-0.37080690264701843,
0.3447187542915344,
0.21903599798679352,
-0.3433395326137543,
0.24447676539421082,
-0.22496891021728516,
-0.2717128098011017,
0.46980008482933044,
0.02409609593451023,
0.5661482810974121,
0.13042643666267395,
0.24462854862213135,
-0.22944806516170502,
0.057902928441762924,
0.24731385707855225,
-0.4999985992908478,
0.25050583481788635,
0.2587348222732544,
0.07117107510566711,
-0.15461274981498718,
0.23984625935554504,
0.11276153475046158,
0.037549346685409546,
0.11057720333337784,
-0.08363644778728485,
0.17360033094882965,
0.2899761199951172,
0.8110978603363037,
0.14951162040233612,
-0.22613172233104706,
-0.20798440277576447,
-0.6676544547080994,
0.06469030678272247,
-0.34618446230888367,
0.38045385479927063,
-0.20437894761562347,
-0.14710573852062225,
-0.07143715023994446,
0.2696804702281952,
0.41381970047950745,
-0.45573779940605164,
0.2736319899559021,
-0.6747147440910339,
0.2831208407878876,
-0.7046269178390503,
-0.6668850779533386,
-0.284526526927948,
-0.17132233083248138,
-0.25260400772094727,
-0.2359616905450821,
-0.33914074301719666,
0.24627187848091125,
0.264087975025177,
0.17757117748260498,
-0.15155494213104248,
0.26008692383766174,
-0.34654343128204346,
-0.17522069811820984,
0.13330455124378204,
0.06863711774349213,
0.31793853640556335,
0.17535074055194855,
-0.3691331446170807,
0.06689275801181793,
-0.24477478861808777,
0.2325851172208786,
0.26343947649002075,
0.09687931090593338,
-0.14907041192054749,
0.24274757504463196,
-0.15098196268081665,
-0.6715678572654724,
-0.1186101958155632,
-0.2673189043998718,
0.11907444149255753,
0.1120201125741005,
-0.5177671313285828,
-0.3474651277065277,
0.24929377436637878,
0.3474000096321106,
-0.374124675989151,
-0.36801159381866455,
0.16992373764514923,
0.10214603692293167,
0.04392511397600174,
-0.534572422504425,
0.3418554365634918,
0.19951464235782623,
-0.37443721294403076,
-0.7563464045524597,
-0.28772372007369995,
-0.0682797059416771,
0.04775208979845047,
0.46904492378234863,
-0.40262672305107117,
0.144033744931221,
-0.26995906233787537,
-0.03583270683884621,
-0.5415832996368408,
-0.24041858315467834,
0.7441555261611938,
0.3713613450527191,
0.5050864219665527,
-0.8841591477394104,
-0.22913017868995667,
-0.2264052778482437,
0.9319055080413818,
0.18384884297847748,
0.1094173789024353,
-0.2724611759185791,
0.22604462504386902,
-0.2776722311973572,
-0.14961984753608704,
0.2626028060913086,
-0.7291257977485657,
0.2528113126754761,
-0.20402272045612335,
-0.6250338554382324,
0.72409987449646,
-0.8201863765716553,
-0.3578553795814514,
0.3260957598686218,
0.5706800818443298,
-0.2122974395751953,
0.1736067235469818,
0.007833831943571568,
-0.583469033241272,
-0.21120935678482056,
-0.3777228891849518,
-0.3149186372756958,
-0.40416285395622253,
-0.29981762170791626,
-0.6422526836395264,
-0.5066317915916443,
0.23388971388339996,
0.12781181931495667,
-0.07362137734889984,
0.6707944869995117,
-0.6124856472015381,
0.3084293603897095,
-0.24222469329833984,
0.22623449563980103,
0.41217857599258423,
-0.03985576704144478,
0.580105185508728,
0.041890304535627365,
-0.14745865762233734,
0.45268306136131287,
0.3781289756298065,
0.4816691279411316,
0.5233479738235474,
0.3924741744995117,
-0.0988219678401947,
0.15462814271450043,
0.23745504021644592,
-0.2524326741695404,
-0.5576038360595703,
-0.42815977334976196,
-0.3419424593448639,
-0.23638348281383514,
-0.3929874002933502,
-0.3674580156803131,
0.123798668384552,
0.40573590993881226,
0.011160997673869133,
0.31471583247184753,
0.2934419512748718,
0.056485023349523544,
0.05345061793923378,
0.22142069041728973,
0.41331538558006287,
-0.404452383518219,
0.4059129059314728,
0.11672350019216537,
-0.26225054264068604,
-0.09467128664255142,
-0.12943439185619354,
0.05132143199443817,
-0.05954699590802193,
0.15772683918476105,
-0.11663340777158737,
0.16914105415344238,
-0.5522171854972839,
-0.1770140826702118,
-0.12741078436374664,
0.775862991809845,
-0.517541229724884,
0.3616832196712494,
-0.26702651381492615,
-0.9258677363395691,
0.9811239838600159,
-0.15371522307395935,
-0.4631878733634949,
-0.13456280529499054,
-0.4413166046142578,
-0.2848767936229706,
0.07380065321922302,
0.2603148818016052,
0.22106441855430603,
-0.08291546255350113,
0.3705626428127289,
-0.29316622018814087,
-0.09631317853927612,
0.5136779546737671,
0.2167760133743286,
-0.47790366411209106,
0.07699336111545563,
-0.06208806857466698,
-0.2893959879875183,
-0.7610630393028259,
-0.040408309549093246,
0.038436468690633774,
-0.6545077562332153,
0.4170517921447754,
-0.10191167145967484,
-0.19595906138420105,
0.1369384080171585,
-0.5237708687782288,
-0.19087094068527222,
0.4062238335609436,
0.3877062499523163,
-0.3768024444580078,
0.3613431453704834,
-0.2285717874765396,
-0.3394862413406372,
0.3899501860141754,
-0.6701827645301819,
0.3725059926509857,
0.7204268574714661,
0.21003422141075134,
-0.104153573513031,
0.2828678786754608,
-0.25866615772247314,
-0.4103696048259735,
-0.07357513904571533,
-0.01219149213284254,
0.01812099851667881,
-0.028513725847005844,
0.674940824508667,
0.2699011564254761,
-0.27075135707855225,
-0.5901954174041748,
0.32370126247406006,
-0.472629189491272,
-0.570266842842102,
0.19513051211833954,
-0.6594640016555786,
-0.4308670461177826,
0.513621985912323,
0.037423182278871536,
0.5227152705192566,
0.11325813084840775,
-0.37751105427742004,
-0.1012892797589302,
0.1281166523694992,
0.36609551310539246,
0.41147705912590027,
0.14263641834259033,
0.1064884141087532,
0.7008150815963745,
0.6487786173820496,
0.7565641403198242,
-0.27304255962371826,
0.594372570514679,
-0.0235139112919569,
0.3358515501022339,
-0.3175971806049347,
-0.9476915597915649,
-0.28592586517333984,
-0.005350124556571245,
0.021548308432102203,
0.19528883695602417,
-0.30813539028167725,
0.2796720564365387,
-0.10383148491382599,
0.46100249886512756,
0.000760265626013279,
0.3316018879413605,
0.20360757410526276,
0.9073267579078674,
0.5533347129821777,
0.1777462214231491,
0.11897167563438416,
-0.007803680375218391,
0.4286210238933563,
-0.1448938399553299,
0.8135025501251221,
0.43720752000808716,
-0.021839113906025887,
-0.6522848010063171,
0.4394960403442383,
0.7091065645217896,
-0.4223640561103821,
0.08396781980991364,
-0.18735606968402863,
0.5416099429130554,
-0.28081056475639343,
-0.08460461348295212,
-0.02402222715318203,
0.034364935010671616,
-0.43905848264694214,
-0.2382460981607437,
0.09476842731237411,
-0.5233591198921204,
-0.5394096374511719,
-0.2357987016439438,
1.0559871196746826,
0.0628298744559288,
0.0915382131934166,
0.2180090844631195,
-0.22915741801261902,
0.39239421486854553,
0.011669469997286797,
-0.06798283010721207,
0.31511205434799194,
-0.22897230088710785,
0.3466697931289673,
-0.48825621604919434,
0.09575219452381134,
0.35892435908317566,
-0.10078123956918716,
0.03928516432642937,
0.23615588247776031,
0.4310850501060486,
0.10669442266225815,
0.1698276549577713,
0.31640520691871643,
0.07608357816934586,
-0.19466787576675415,
0.001586760743521154,
0.4250639081001282,
-0.7986496090888977,
0.1802815943956375,
-0.7132383584976196,
0.2639971375465393,
-0.6011698842048645,
-0.11837898194789886,
-0.6741585731506348,
0.2264178991317749,
0.12091145664453506,
-0.2705928683280945,
0.04235102981328964,
-0.013827378861606121,
0.08748738467693329,
-0.8961089253425598,
-0.05088438466191292,
0.4387878179550171,
-0.023625478148460388,
-0.14230884611606598,
-0.04730873554944992,
-0.05791059136390686,
0.16746875643730164,
0.16055116057395935,
0.3171394467353821,
-0.2165321260690689,
0.21804985404014587,
0.01648505963385105,
-0.6631432175636292,
0.40488165616989136,
0.2740258574485779,
0.16261917352676392,
-0.4346175491809845,
-0.4118710458278656,
0.21308456361293793,
-0.20558862388134003,
0.19980038702487946,
-0.28054454922676086,
0.44185665249824524,
0.5860816240310669
] |
234918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biconical%20antenna | Biconical antenna | In radio systems, a biconical antenna is a broad-bandwidth antenna made of two roughly conical conductive objects, nearly touching at their points.
Biconical antennas are broadband dipole antennas, typically exhibiting a bandwidth of three octaves or more. A common subtype is the bowtie antenna, essentially a two-dimensional version of the biconial design which is often used for short-range UHF television reception. These are also sometimes referred to as butterfly antennas.
Properties
The biconical antenna has a broad bandwidth because it is an example of a traveling wave structure; the analysis for a theoretical infinite antenna resembles that of a transmission line. For an infinite antenna, the characteristic impedance at the point of connection is a function of the cone angle only and is independent of the frequency.
Practical antennas have finite length and a definite resonant frequency. A simple conical monopole antenna is a wire approximation of the solid biconical antenna and has increased bandwidth (over a simple monopole).
Applications
Biconical (or "bicon") antennas are often used in electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing either for immunity testing, or emissions testing.
Advantages and drawbacks
While the bicon is very broadband, it exhibits poor transmitting efficiency at frequencies at the low end of its range, resulting in low field strengths when compared to the input power. Log periodic dipole arrays, Yagi-Uda antennas, and reverberation chambers have shown to achieve much higher field strengths for the power input than a simple biconical antenna in an anechoic chamber.
However, when the goal is to fully characterize a modulated or impulse signal, rather than merely measuring peak and average spectrum energy content, a reverberation chamber is a poor choice for a test environment.
See also
Discone antenna
Antenna
Radio
Television
Electromagnetic reverberation chamber
Electromagnetic compatibility
Bicone
Double cone
References
External links
Antenna-Theory.com Bow Tie Antenna Page
UHF Discone Antenna
The Discone Antenna
Home made video
Com-Power Corporation Biconical Antennaa - Broadband antenna suitable for EMC testing.
Radio frequency antenna types | [
0.24596157670021057,
0.02532614767551422,
0.1395578384399414,
0.17871235311031342,
-0.507108747959137,
-0.08084862679243088,
0.18612200021743774,
-0.03963128477334976,
-0.4888343811035156,
-0.4073963463306427,
-0.5042093992233276,
0.34748202562332153,
-0.6565320491790771,
0.18201886117458344,
-0.5539945960044861,
0.6569926142692566,
0.6176123023033142,
0.3032759428024292,
-0.4984143078327179,
-0.15093016624450684,
0.4687318503856659,
0.16850358247756958,
0.2898547649383545,
-0.3557470440864563,
0.507565438747406,
-0.0010610013268887997,
-0.015008445829153061,
0.1302831470966339,
0.28519436717033386,
0.3344492018222809,
0.24425926804542542,
0.5381811857223511,
0.035216525197029114,
-0.17270898818969727,
0.4410817325115204,
0.4089367389678955,
0.5568704605102539,
0.06681857258081436,
-0.2985229194164276,
-0.48271530866622925,
0.4638625383377075,
0.038477592170238495,
0.08816715329885483,
0.5294216871261597,
-0.4715885519981384,
-0.6971226930618286,
-1.0345125198364258,
0.6791369915008545,
-0.3454960584640503,
0.16804470121860504,
-0.7937577366828918,
-0.20828048884868622,
0.3499450385570526,
0.8674523234367371,
-0.09174802154302597,
0.644776463508606,
-0.2326352447271347,
-0.08652673661708832,
0.1529526263475418,
-0.3200332820415497,
-0.02738340012729168,
0.032273758202791214,
-0.3921718895435333,
0.022119814530014992,
0.24037766456604004,
0.21526198089122772,
-0.28655970096588135,
-0.20844757556915283,
-0.34057870507240295,
-0.02195044793188572,
-0.15997231006622314,
-0.13508209586143494,
0.06994462758302689,
0.15710200369358063,
-0.27923282980918884,
-0.029926519840955734,
0.07949476689100266,
-0.11288394778966904,
0.11241471022367477,
-0.08392972499132156,
-0.3015778362751007,
0.20853735506534576,
-0.12232912331819534,
-0.5004055500030518,
0.13061368465423584,
-0.18924617767333984,
-0.9960431456565857,
0.6078591346740723,
-0.6548834443092346,
0.263994038105011,
0.2504473626613617,
-0.5787521600723267,
0.36508995294570923,
0.7204312086105347,
0.565744161605835,
-0.11948226392269135,
-0.008448989130556583,
0.06848251074552536,
-0.006600904278457165,
0.43489429354667664,
0.30393677949905396,
0.04746893793344498,
0.7665730714797974,
-0.08383826166391373,
-0.3028894066810608,
-0.5269212126731873,
-0.7881965041160583,
-0.6399272084236145,
-0.287641704082489,
0.11197791248559952,
-0.8719041347503662,
0.05216888338327408,
0.3569771349430084,
-0.1948971003293991,
-0.8244897127151489,
0.20989668369293213,
0.42512601613998413,
0.23301826417446136,
-0.03623359277844429,
-0.011413316242396832,
0.1962505429983139,
1.0822982788085938,
-0.49757087230682373,
-0.5209975242614746,
-0.1988222450017929,
0.02058308757841587,
0.5173292756080627,
0.9722245931625366,
-0.977918267250061,
-0.1659739911556244,
-0.17975740134716034,
0.9515116810798645,
0.03281603008508682,
0.5346930623054504,
-0.23956570029258728,
-0.9508225321769714,
0.20484107732772827,
-0.3300010561943054,
0.3765626549720764,
0.2854304909706116,
-0.5118522644042969,
-0.19199828803539276,
-0.3960830867290497,
-0.6435027718544006,
0.18040908873081207,
-0.22300881147384644,
-0.10651903599500656,
-0.38715633749961853,
-0.23527660965919495,
-0.2832369804382324,
-0.4003450572490692,
-0.23692695796489716,
-0.09402898699045181,
0.05340149998664856,
-0.2749609351158142,
-0.40136533975601196,
0.39463314414024353,
0.21344424784183502,
-0.1561414897441864,
0.04027260094881058,
0.10708335787057877,
-0.16372230648994446,
-0.38178515434265137,
0.153534933924675,
-0.03129159286618233,
0.021809224039316177,
0.6566869020462036,
0.5502837896347046,
0.32997483015060425,
0.4325336217880249,
0.28582608699798584,
-0.31091514229774475,
0.07260937243700027,
0.4975801706314087,
-0.06464848667383194,
-0.21093884110450745,
0.45247313380241394,
-0.01909574493765831,
0.3086767792701721,
-0.14022737741470337,
-0.5249382257461548,
0.09243613481521606,
0.38548949360847473,
-0.16329962015151978,
0.025866597890853882,
0.20751628279685974,
0.2242547869682312,
0.03977540135383606,
-0.10362540185451508,
-0.025224460288882256,
-0.01557812001556158,
-0.41354891657829285,
-0.6292032599449158,
-0.762649655342102,
0.841296911239624,
0.02103334479033947,
-0.6546316146850586,
0.3719595968723297,
0.03728596121072769,
-0.16206516325473785,
-0.03623318299651146,
-0.10292849689722061,
0.5516974925994873,
0.03832617029547691,
-0.266007661819458,
0.5683856010437012,
0.8035169839859009,
0.3819178640842438,
0.211044579744339,
0.06114886701107025,
0.477982759475708,
-0.5975230932235718,
0.33695387840270996,
-0.31479546427726746,
-0.1917228400707245,
-0.34050264954566956,
-0.638744056224823,
0.4984123110771179,
-0.1368836760520935,
-0.23954078555107117,
0.6086181998252869,
0.12447526305913925,
-0.38199493288993835,
0.6594294309616089,
-0.18288324773311615,
0.674611508846283,
0.25151994824409485,
0.09180261939764023,
0.6801482439041138,
-0.03482358902692795,
0.1687597781419754,
-0.18977676331996918,
0.42955952882766724,
-0.3549497723579407,
-0.4111810028553009,
0.1435302197933197,
0.4994661509990692,
-0.13612371683120728,
0.7054524421691895,
-0.4174525737762451,
-0.152321457862854,
0.33908775448799133,
-0.6540994644165039,
-0.0449027344584465,
0.31642624735832214,
-0.39845505356788635,
-0.22501179575920105,
0.13009293377399445,
0.6391037702560425,
0.22850552201271057,
0.4993092119693756,
-0.03181834891438484,
0.26407235860824585,
-1.1461840867996216,
0.06681355834007263,
0.07941330969333649,
-0.11569589376449585,
-0.10383806377649307,
0.4404236376285553,
0.011786364018917084,
-0.22860503196716309,
0.06746100634336472,
0.1942567676305771,
-0.8326573967933655,
-0.7974749803543091,
-0.3697175681591034,
-0.10617321729660034,
0.24193251132965088,
0.594438910484314,
0.22327189147472382,
0.5849004983901978,
0.18934206664562225,
-0.2897268235683441,
0.01634209044277668,
-0.5621674656867981,
-0.4737716615200043,
0.07858315110206604,
0.3845159411430359,
-0.5656527280807495,
-0.7756980657577515,
0.4889056980609894,
0.48875582218170166,
0.4849112033843994,
-0.18155735731124878,
-0.7336246371269226,
-0.04978872835636139,
0.1719048023223877,
-0.05029807239770889,
-0.21215304732322693,
-0.6632655262947083,
-0.7583423256874084,
0.365127295255661,
-0.31952279806137085,
0.3484899699687958,
0.07128259539604187,
1.072278618812561,
0.13784080743789673,
-0.7354943752288818,
0.4739114046096802,
-0.6640344858169556,
-0.4043644666671753,
-0.22633658349514008,
-0.47027137875556946,
-0.024485040456056595,
-0.3521401882171631,
-0.005676401313394308,
0.2823165953159332,
-0.0043246992863714695,
-5.64010763168335,
0.4137861132621765,
-0.17052987217903137,
-0.4529680609703064,
0.21196457743644714,
0.1324838101863861,
0.04065024107694626,
-0.10663273930549622,
-0.059142209589481354,
0.37829309701919556,
-0.7890850305557251,
0.04783879593014717,
-0.18268199265003204,
0.599753201007843,
0.9924782514572144,
0.07395993173122406,
0.2503829896450043,
-0.4873659908771515,
0.47467339038848877,
-0.014901706017553806,
0.3433023989200592,
0.16134949028491974,
0.6757785081863403,
0.12656643986701965,
0.15123136341571808,
-0.1876075118780136,
-0.2796318233013153,
0.2593410313129425,
0.05963673070073128,
-0.3222614526748657,
0.35533857345581055,
-0.2173348367214203,
-0.2338268756866455,
-0.23264651000499725,
0.33425530791282654,
0.35933905839920044,
0.5148164629936218,
-0.024287011474370956,
0.38035428524017334,
0.10266229510307312,
0.5699740648269653,
1.0027328729629517,
0.48301148414611816,
0.2183002531528473,
0.7776700258255005,
-0.1936398595571518,
-0.38248971104621887,
-0.20036883652210236,
-0.16195140779018402,
0.8462530970573425,
0.15421976149082184,
0.6873947381973267,
0.5040289163589478,
-0.10169832408428192,
-0.18583406507968903,
-0.11446057260036469,
0.4471782445907593,
-0.22904115915298462,
-1.1300885677337646,
-0.02059851586818695,
0.26259124279022217,
-0.18114905059337616,
-0.4854857623577118,
-0.8066428303718567,
-0.24749428033828735,
-0.03580151125788689,
-0.850504457950592,
-0.34174567461013794,
0.6732814908027649,
0.24870066344738007,
-0.2583218812942505,
0.17548614740371704,
0.12937569618225098,
-0.45919927954673767,
0.9048718810081482,
-0.4993310868740082,
0.46331292390823364,
0.2057054191827774,
0.05372203513979912,
0.32499656081199646,
-0.4828040599822998,
-0.037484053522348404,
-0.4914601147174835,
0.41699865460395813,
-0.0729517862200737,
-0.193481907248497,
-0.453646719455719,
-0.07370209693908691,
-0.39861947298049927,
-0.18895114958286285,
0.9390279054641724,
-0.008270607329905033,
0.1345403641462326,
0.1001138910651207,
0.4175199568271637,
0.10701291263103485,
-0.21770527958869934,
0.2541019916534424,
1.0180609226226807,
0.10546115040779114,
0.3173820376396179,
-0.34409376978874207,
0.05691944807767868,
-0.1805167943239212,
-0.04123111069202423,
-0.42416873574256897,
-0.7838718891143799,
0.1455439180135727,
0.5317265391349792,
0.12338954210281372,
0.10926992446184158,
0.5014175176620483,
-0.8224977850914001,
0.032164208590984344,
0.047317732125520706,
0.21880671381950378,
-0.49942028522491455,
0.5350958704948425,
0.35342270135879517,
-0.46972569823265076,
0.3044087886810303,
-0.15403901040554047,
0.21574905514717102,
-0.15950626134872437,
-0.4635043740272522,
-0.15389136970043182,
-0.584842324256897,
-0.10496043413877487,
-0.3882649838924408,
-0.023305600509047508,
0.5139296650886536,
0.4039965569972992,
-0.2186889350414276,
-0.19680382311344147,
-0.19697809219360352,
-0.42145591974258423,
-0.40342092514038086,
0.26037710905075073,
0.022316845133900642,
-0.6583712697029114,
0.4684264659881592,
-0.04515647143125534,
0.025592554360628128,
0.00545852817595005,
0.4172213673591614,
0.4914286732673645,
-0.6099354028701782,
-0.22087474167346954,
-0.0005082442075945437,
0.37047669291496277,
-0.10813356190919876,
-0.37636417150497437,
-0.1814344972372055,
-0.449007511138916,
0.13814976811408997,
0.6161375641822815,
0.17588922381401062,
-0.0009748568409122527,
0.1427101343870163,
-0.5621519684791565,
0.056621529161930084,
0.41644251346588135,
-0.8782019019126892,
0.005292254500091076,
-0.3555649220943451,
0.1767570525407791,
-0.9934872984886169,
0.021576905623078346,
-0.07347484678030014,
0.2331598699092865,
-0.1637834757566452,
-0.22025704383850098,
-0.2546866238117218,
-0.32938051223754883,
0.051028087735176086,
0.4122192859649658,
0.7585915327072144,
0.18132376670837402,
0.10752786695957184,
-0.2374962717294693,
-0.10447327047586441,
0.0209696926176548,
-0.48356571793556213,
1.025057077407837,
0.3745207190513611,
-0.5485650300979614,
-0.4937370717525482,
-0.058128535747528076,
-0.5389115810394287,
-0.46112093329429626,
0.4208221435546875,
0.271091103553772,
0.20435312390327454,
-0.07845384627580643,
-0.31589066982269287,
-0.431890606880188,
-0.04343542829155922,
0.3993580937385559,
-0.32645177841186523,
-0.8736439347267151,
-0.32404738664627075,
0.4794585108757019,
-0.7748697996139526,
0.4308094382286072,
-0.2977544367313385,
-0.4380030632019043,
0.3271716237068176,
-0.33415937423706055,
-0.29549098014831543,
0.14790160953998566,
-0.44794246554374695,
-0.35774657130241394,
-0.23856458067893982,
0.3389851748943329,
-0.35308927297592163,
0.09028812497854233,
-0.058168187737464905,
0.1659780889749527,
-0.16936247050762177,
-0.22910958528518677,
0.24435600638389587,
-0.1671247035264969,
0.20006559789180756,
-0.17236489057540894,
-0.22720009088516235,
0.68243807554245,
-0.4201512634754181,
-0.26267778873443604,
0.5781429409980774,
-0.27860409021377563,
-0.16345734894275665,
-0.2873009145259857,
-0.23347212374210358,
-0.22150149941444397,
-0.005167840979993343,
-0.06899084150791168,
-0.9096996188163757,
0.2061740756034851,
-0.41837960481643677,
0.3839356303215027,
0.6897898316383362,
0.7112988829612732,
0.13265179097652435,
0.2334597259759903,
-0.4651809334754944,
0.4053652584552765,
0.6996501088142395,
-0.5411958694458008,
-1.055890679359436,
-0.1783483326435089,
0.1638231873512268,
-0.25567030906677246,
-1.000359058380127,
-0.22823050618171692,
0.951687753200531,
0.4460413455963135,
-0.14603301882743835,
-0.3442976176738739,
0.08369393646717072,
0.4257536828517914,
-0.29160621762275696,
-0.2949988543987274,
-0.6975513100624084,
0.18658457696437836,
0.31710129976272583,
0.16543032228946686,
-0.07382698357105255,
-0.0810142382979393,
0.2851443886756897,
-0.15545253455638885,
0.35601797699928284,
-0.1540004014968872,
0.864789605140686,
0.14374735951423645,
0.26828327775001526,
0.3919824957847595,
0.10107168555259705,
-0.009736545383930206,
0.0732196643948555,
-0.3701466917991638,
-0.3133106827735901,
-0.289480984210968,
0.22706204652786255,
-0.20481862127780914,
0.23045848309993744,
0.04800930246710777,
0.2546057105064392,
0.2421507090330124,
-0.3937560021877289,
-0.13358931243419647,
-0.5879958271980286,
-0.3254414498806,
-0.13753366470336914,
0.6358909606933594,
0.10245572775602341,
0.20805826783180237,
0.1553741842508316,
0.28765416145324707,
0.07538187503814697,
-0.010617918334901333,
-0.8045238852500916,
0.21983163058757782,
0.1669781655073166,
-1.6191201210021973,
0.6272717118263245,
-0.0981837809085846,
0.5734684467315674,
-0.5531662106513977,
-0.03538668528199196,
-0.23856863379478455,
-0.1816270649433136,
0.2684815526008606,
-0.0369066521525383,
0.4830113351345062,
-0.03974702209234238,
0.21271869540214539,
0.7680909037590027,
-0.007785129360854626,
0.454935759305954,
0.3696620762348175,
0.06030907854437828,
-0.31189072132110596,
0.1496131420135498,
0.10917104780673981,
-0.5873903036117554,
0.2510351538658142,
0.03868939355015755,
-0.2821156084537506,
-0.01727662794291973,
0.04571007192134857,
0.7449038028717041,
0.4338134229183197,
-0.2854364514350891,
0.3850480914115906,
-0.3318961262702942,
-0.3757574260234833,
-0.08515980839729309,
-0.17238910496234894,
-0.8109745383262634,
0.8184906840324402,
-0.155883327126503,
0.852989137172699,
-0.106289342045784,
0.09271326661109924,
-0.18811234831809998,
0.3597393035888672,
0.3258736729621887,
0.4956997036933899,
-0.1112663596868515,
0.15423280000686646,
0.3278835415840149,
0.1744919717311859,
0.654893159866333,
-0.40941861271858215,
-0.32381272315979004,
-0.06038448587059975,
0.7215328812599182,
-0.3410356342792511,
-0.166969433426857,
-0.04556441679596901,
-0.03357687592506409,
0.7265938520431519,
-0.16041319072246552,
-0.4832046627998352,
0.08364816009998322,
-0.2876257002353668,
0.013901779428124428,
-0.5486524105072021,
0.12605948746204376,
0.3505702018737793,
0.4299163818359375,
0.8614664077758789,
-0.29898494482040405,
0.52561354637146,
-0.34070277214050293,
-0.14348775148391724,
0.05287545174360275,
0.4604196846485138,
-0.08329842239618301,
-0.3608529269695282,
0.0014959630789235234,
0.5995205640792847,
-0.4349581301212311,
-0.7922825813293457,
-0.5757065415382385,
-0.1724015772342682,
0.017739659175276756,
0.10063426941633224,
0.49145063757896423,
-0.1252133846282959,
0.5807087421417236,
-0.6161949038505554,
-0.3517903983592987,
-0.47858935594558716,
0.156538724899292,
0.32174983620643616,
0.3087283968925476,
0.5517945289611816,
0.33134493231773376,
-0.08877887576818466,
0.11015694588422775,
0.47036853432655334,
0.4791426956653595,
-0.12247932702302933,
-0.44808056950569153,
0.5138092041015625,
0.503374457359314,
0.3222930431365967,
-0.46390193700790405,
-0.1738167703151703,
0.33983030915260315,
-0.5663232803344727,
0.0005667298682965338,
0.16549818217754364,
0.20108537375926971,
0.23838986456394196,
0.4185273349285126,
-0.7017241716384888,
0.11884927749633789,
-0.3334046006202698,
-0.1456112563610077,
-0.5079929828643799,
-0.12852025032043457,
0.4361497163772583,
-0.16431887447834015,
-0.41141968965530396,
0.7348112463951111,
-0.04397806525230408,
-0.6196761727333069,
0.11361990869045258,
0.09835027903318405,
0.33996716141700745,
-0.27537375688552856,
0.04091291129589081,
-0.18862269818782806,
-0.4897349774837494,
-0.42682892084121704,
0.4571148455142975,
0.5688900351524353,
-0.43680304288864136,
0.24621020257472992,
-0.30316102504730225,
-0.6764219999313354,
-0.04176453500986099,
-0.40306201577186584,
0.4797113835811615,
0.07109549641609192,
-0.11643898487091064,
-0.4972846508026123,
0.5292423963546753,
0.018224099650979042,
-0.8153477311134338,
-0.013862179592251778,
-0.5299541354179382,
-0.6335352063179016,
0.06866174936294556,
0.36472636461257935,
-0.3375019133090973,
-0.15054532885551453,
0.7076991200447083
] |
234920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20Free%20or%20Die | Live Free or Die | "Live Free or Die" is the official motto of the U.S. state of New Hampshire, adopted by the state in 1945. It is possibly the best-known of all state mottos, partly because it conveys an assertive independence historically found in American political philosophy and partly because of its contrast to the milder sentiments found in other state mottos.
The phrase was adopted from a toast written by General John Stark, New Hampshire's most famous soldier of the American Revolutionary War, on July 31, 1809. Poor health forced Stark to decline an invitation to an anniversary reunion of the Battle of Bennington. Instead, he sent his toast by letter:
Live free or die: Death is not the worst of evils.
By the time Stark wrote this, Vivre Libre ou Mourir ("Live free or die") was already a popular motto of the French Revolution. The English romantic poet William Wordsworth also adopted this Revolutionary motto when he composed the line, "We must be free or die, who speak the tongue that Shakespeare spoke."
A possible source of such mottoes is Patrick Henry's famed March 23, 1775, speech to the House of Burgesses (the legislative body of the Virginia colony), which contained the following phrase: "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"
The motto was enacted at the same time as the New Hampshire state emblem, on which it appears.
Legal battle
In 1971, the New Hampshire state legislature mandated that the phrase appear on all non-commercial license plates, replacing "Scenic."
In 1977, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case of Wooley v. Maynard, 430 U.S. 705, that the state of New Hampshire could not prosecute motorists who chose to hide part or all of the motto. That ruling came about because George Maynard, a Jehovah's Witness (albeit a disfellowshiped member), covered up "or die" from his plate. "By religious training and belief, I believe my 'government' – Jehovah's Kingdom – offers everlasting life. It would be contrary to that belief to give up my life for the state, even if it meant living in bondage." Pursuant to these beliefs, the Maynards began early in 1974 to cover up the motto on their license plates.
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in his favor and likened Maynard's refusal to accept the state motto with the Jehovah's Witness children refusing to salute the American flag in public school in the 1943 decision West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette.
Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote for the majority in Maynard:
We begin with the proposition that the right of freedom of thought protected by the First Amendment against state action includes both the right to speak freely and the right to refrain from speaking at all.
Here, as in Barnette, we are faced with a state measure which forces an individual, as part of his daily life indeed constantly while his automobile is in public view to be an instrument for fostering public adherence to an ideological point of view he finds unacceptable.
The fact that most individuals agree with the thrust of New Hampshire's motto is not the test; most Americans also find the flag salute acceptable.
The Supreme Court concluded that the state's interests paled in comparison to individuals' free expression rights.
In 1987, when New Hampshire introduced new plates with a screened design that had the slogan lightly written on the bottom, some residents complained that the slogan was not prominent enough. One resident cut out the slogan from an older plate and bolted it on the new plate, and was prosecuted for it. The courts ruled in the driver's favor, presumably basing it on the decision in Maynard.
Similar uses
Many mottos and slogans around the world and throughout history have contrasted freedom and death. Some examples:
The phrase "Vivre Libre ou Mourir" ("live free or die") was used in the French Revolution. It was the subtitle of the journal by Camille Desmoulins, titled Le Vieux Cordelier, written during the winter of 1793–4.
A medal struck at Matthew Boulton's Soho Mint, as tokens of exchange for the Paris firm of Monneron Freres, 1791–92, has on its obverse the motto Vivre libres ou mourir ("Live free or die" in French).
During the Siege of Barcelona (25 August 1713 – 11 September 1714) the Barcelona defenders and the Maulets used black flags with the motto "Live free or die", in Catalan "Viurem lliures o morirem". Now it is used as a symbol of Catalan independentism.
The phrase "Antes morrer livres que em Paz sujeitos" (English: Rather die free than in peace be subjugated) is contained in a 1582 letter reply to King Philip II of Spain from the Portuguese governor of the Azores, Ciprião de Figueiredo. It has been adopted as the Azores motto and is present in the autonomous region's Coat-of-Arms.
The Declaration of Arbroath of 1320, the document in which the Scottish nobility appealed to Pope John XXII to recognise Scotland's independence from England, contains the oft-cited line, "It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honours that we are fighting, but for freedom – for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself."
On January 1, 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaimed Haiti, then a French slave colony, to be free and independent. Dessalines is said to have torn the white section from the French tricolor flag while shouting, "Vivre libre ou mourir!", which means "live free or die."
The first Convention of the Delegates of the Scottish Friends of the People in Edinburgh on 11–13 December 1792 used the phrase "live free or die" and referred to it as a "French oath".
"Свобода или смърт" (Svoboda ili smart – "Freedom or death") was the motto of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee during the struggle for national independence in the 19th century. The motto is displayed on most revolutionary flags during the April uprising of 1876.
National mottos
"Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος" (Eleutheria i thanatos – "Freedom or death") is the national motto of Greece and comes from the motto of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830).
"Մահ կամ Ազատություն" ("Mah kam Azatutiun" – "Freedom or death") was the motto of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation during the movement for Armenia's independence.
"Libertad o Muerte" – "Liberty or Death" is the national motto of Uruguay. "Libertad o con gloria morir" ("Thou liberty or die in glory") is part of the National Anthem of Uruguay.
"Independência, ou morte!" – "Independence or death", was the national motto of the Brazilian Empire.
"Ya istiklal ya ölüm" – "Independence or death", was the motto of the Turkish resistance during the Turkish National Movement and the Turkish Liberation War.
"Eala Frya Fresena" – "Rise up, Free Frisians", according to Tilemann Dothias Wiarda (1777) spoken at the Upstalsboom in Aurich in Later Middle Ages. Since the middle of the 19th century Frisian nationalists tend to answer it with "Lewwer duad üs Slaav", or "Better dead than a slave."
"Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, ou la mort" – "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death" was the early motto of the French Revolution. Later versions dropped "ou la mort". The full motto is still displayed above the entrance of the Hotel de Ville in Troyes.
The Romanian national anthem, Deșteaptă-te, române!, contains the line "„Viața-n libertate ori moarte!" strigă toți", meaning Life in freedom or death!' shout all".
"Ӏожалла я маршо" ("Jozhalla ya marsho") – "Death or Freedom", The national anthem and slogan of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, 1991–1996.
"Bolje grob nego rob, Bolje rat nego pakt" – "Better the grave than a slave, better a war than the pact" was the motto of Yugoslav demonstrators during the Yugoslav coup d'état of 1941, which started when the Yugoslav government signed a pact with the Axis powers.
"Воля України або смерть" – "Volya Ukrayiny abo smert" – "Freedom of Ukraine or death" was a motto of Ukrainian rebels of Kholodny Yar republic during Ukrainian War of Independence and later one of the mottos adopted by the protesters of Euromaidan.
Other uses
The motto is one of the 101 reasons cited by the Free State Project, a libertarian organization, for the choice of New Hampshire as their destination.
"Live Free or Die" is popular among Unix users, a group which also cherishes its independence. The popularity dates to the 1980s, when Armando Stettner of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) had a set of Unix license plates printed up and given away at a USENIX conference. They were modeled on the license plates in New Hampshire, where DEC's Unix Engineering Group was headquartered. Stettner lived in New Hampshire at the time and used the vanity license plate UNIX. When DEC came out with its own Unix version, Ultrix, they printed up Ultrix plates that were distributed at trade shows.
In popular culture
Books
Live Free or Die is the title of a 1990 novel by New Hampshire writer Ernest Hebert.
Live Free Or Die is the first book in John Ringo's Troy Rising science fiction series.
"Live Free Or Die: America (and the World) on the Brink" is the title of a 2020 book by Sean Hannity.
TV
"Live Free or Die" is the title of the sixth episode of the sixth season of the TV show The Sopranos. It concerns a captain in the New Jersey mafia who hides in New Hampshire after being outed as a homosexual.
"Live Free or Die" is the title of the first episode of the fifth season of Breaking Bad.
Live Free or Die is the title of a National Geographic Channel show that premiered on September 30, 2014.
Film
Live Free or Die, a 2000 documentary about abortion
Live Free or Die, a 2006 comedy movie
Live Free or Die Hard, a 2007 movie, the fourth in the Die Hard series
Music
Live Free or Die, a 2004 album by Vancouver punk group D.O.A.
Bill Morrissey wrote a song titled "Live Free or Die" about the irony of a prisoner serving time in New Hampshire's jails and hand-stamping license plates with the state motto. It was covered by Hayes Carll on his 2002 album Flowers and Liquor.
"Vivre Libre ou Mourir" ("Live Free or Die") by Bérurier Noir, a French punk rock band
See also
Join, or Die
Battle of Warns ("Better to be dead than a slave")
Liberty or death, for uses of a similar motto
References
External links
Boston Globe article about the use of the motto in popular culture
Political catchphrases
Mottos
State mottos of the United States
Symbols of New Hampshire
Liberty symbols | [
1.0294036865234375,
0.22537218034267426,
-0.29245856404304504,
0.08181571960449219,
-0.16929540038108826,
0.10719634592533112,
0.6740538477897644,
0.4618716239929199,
-0.2115359753370285,
-0.2398471236228943,
-0.6128085255622864,
0.1387888491153717,
-0.3464629650115967,
0.630331814289093,
0.00849511381238699,
0.06185692548751831,
-0.30031803250312805,
0.9303904175758362,
0.13384747505187988,
-0.38440969586372375,
-0.2860356271266937,
0.09672179818153381,
0.26882481575012207,
-0.5992960929870605,
-0.02486959472298622,
-0.252270370721817,
0.5311540365219116,
-0.4901263415813446,
-0.34925442934036255,
0.2617007791996002,
0.3513954281806946,
-0.22488853335380554,
0.03637545928359032,
-0.037005867809057236,
0.42615005373954773,
0.35864004492759705,
-0.16492252051830292,
0.18761059641838074,
0.20202714204788208,
-0.525678277015686,
-0.23436740040779114,
-0.11096794903278351,
0.25845491886138916,
0.2888002097606659,
0.03501022607088089,
-0.6308725476264954,
-0.8912253379821777,
-0.3047994375228882,
-0.26706525683403015,
0.03341939300298691,
-0.08606292307376862,
0.30735906958580017,
-0.5077298879623413,
0.29906925559043884,
0.26581111550331116,
0.23695041239261627,
-0.3798869848251343,
-0.2163180261850357,
-0.6201860904693604,
-0.46576380729675293,
0.2696107029914856,
0.08677755296230316,
0.13797302544116974,
0.28259050846099854,
0.3459441363811493,
-0.14381444454193115,
-0.22992783784866333,
0.5006884336471558,
-0.337066650390625,
-0.7665936946868896,
-0.6696298122406006,
-0.5447540283203125,
-0.05205346271395683,
0.28866007924079895,
-0.08314590901136398,
-0.4517275393009186,
0.03921052813529968,
0.411512166261673,
0.3863656222820282,
0.1856382191181183,
0.3791949450969696,
-0.23767074942588806,
0.2596539556980133,
0.6166152954101562,
0.18690010905265808,
0.016442881897091866,
-0.2946239113807678,
-0.16316549479961395,
0.08681093156337738,
1.2830599546432495,
-0.14478635787963867,
0.049347199499607086,
0.8283058404922485,
0.24989020824432373,
-0.016138454899191856,
0.14164039492607117,
0.2900461256504059,
0.21190516650676727,
-0.33947885036468506,
0.09338878840208054,
0.2265426069498062,
-0.1796596199274063,
0.3259309232234955,
-0.24279266595840454,
-0.29637980461120605,
-0.2778928875923157,
-0.621164858341217,
-0.7012429237365723,
0.6653289794921875,
-0.27150091528892517,
0.20800597965717316,
0.24648497998714447,
0.25390344858169556,
0.08644469082355499,
-0.49900856614112854,
0.7018629312515259,
0.41020891070365906,
-0.4737040400505066,
0.3176203966140747,
0.3029676377773285,
-0.33367955684661865,
0.5313991904258728,
-0.33605673909187317,
-0.10248219966888428,
0.6995004415512085,
0.11630237847566605,
0.1915629804134369,
0.22789466381072998,
-0.5716176629066467,
0.06629708409309387,
0.46259093284606934,
0.8327512145042419,
-0.31695806980133057,
-0.25638681650161743,
-0.42793190479278564,
0.17372854053974152,
0.658166766166687,
-0.49298352003097534,
0.4751702845096588,
-0.03825545310974121,
-0.5863430500030518,
-0.27488839626312256,
-1.108586072921753,
0.2563241124153137,
0.918347954750061,
-0.3930066227912903,
-0.41752395033836365,
-0.11468967795372009,
-0.08392650634050369,
-0.06355954706668854,
0.17128781974315643,
-0.6232605576515198,
0.6640709042549133,
0.16985689103603363,
-0.5652063488960266,
0.11287812143564224,
0.029276756569743156,
-0.32809877395629883,
0.2827491760253906,
0.6651848554611206,
0.08542635291814804,
-0.29671093821525574,
0.09035862982273102,
0.18344555795192719,
-0.19220522046089172,
0.4112963080406189,
0.06978166103363037,
0.30478984117507935,
-0.3538684844970703,
-0.6283543705940247,
-0.5788657665252686,
-0.24697472155094147,
0.7833262085914612,
-0.6166805624961853,
0.09256201982498169,
-0.13272549211978912,
0.1898442655801773,
0.5088105201721191,
0.2682628035545349,
-0.3154241144657135,
-0.330562949180603,
-0.03632943704724312,
0.23461797833442688,
0.20903271436691284,
0.1059110015630722,
-0.7402552366256714,
0.40435919165611267,
-0.3230518102645874,
-0.09667541086673737,
0.5392488241195679,
-0.6787382960319519,
0.007077166810631752,
0.5909305810928345,
-0.7757279276847839,
0.19450469315052032,
-0.6464555263519287,
-0.3880396783351898,
0.5096065402030945,
-0.34127065539360046,
0.3900788426399231,
-0.21583899855613708,
-0.006260099355131388,
0.20159530639648438,
-0.3066060543060303,
-0.8820717334747314,
1.3873140811920166,
0.4477119445800781,
0.13216015696525574,
0.36626192927360535,
0.40756773948669434,
0.5737935304641724,
0.18459714949131012,
0.22506560385227203,
0.28707781434059143,
-0.1646621823310852,
-0.630362331867218,
-0.37154513597488403,
-0.11591622978448868,
0.1584806889295578,
-0.29912322759628296,
0.5866022706031799,
-0.053805336356163025,
-0.041015904396772385,
-0.08086629211902618,
0.3816780149936676,
-0.003985798452049494,
0.08710034936666489,
0.12733952701091766,
0.12921634316444397,
-0.7014657855033875,
0.5140644907951355,
-0.006709229666739702,
-0.29532483220100403,
0.3219934105873108,
0.10570351034402847,
-0.14535371959209442,
-0.21141597628593445,
-0.6279518008232117,
0.41377002000808716,
-0.334648072719574,
0.5251995325088501,
-0.29616090655326843,
0.03300866857171059,
-0.2048826366662979,
-0.6224638223648071,
0.19055700302124023,
-0.047199804335832596,
-0.0320928692817688,
-0.3324355483055115,
-0.11457189917564392,
0.860231876373291,
0.24745456874370575,
0.5637193918228149,
-0.139227956533432,
-0.16129983961582184,
0.03811490908265114,
-0.3901170790195465,
0.02651687152683735,
-0.2676442861557007,
-0.29821833968162537,
-0.30491867661476135,
-0.09803526103496552,
0.3375081717967987,
0.25443288683891296,
-0.1247677430510521,
-0.8781946897506714,
-0.7516759037971497,
-0.01332144346088171,
-0.24202881753444672,
0.5041335225105286,
0.20360103249549866,
0.365408331155777,
-0.502001941204071,
-0.7210706472396851,
0.04290591552853584,
0.34421420097351074,
0.6186472773551941,
0.25443771481513977,
-0.6448786854743958,
-0.15931925177574158,
0.2475404590368271,
0.42813244462013245,
0.23977625370025635,
-0.6303974986076355,
-0.01736561395227909,
-0.22616253793239594,
0.28243115544319153,
-0.23434552550315857,
-0.29980605840682983,
0.21341659128665924,
-0.1618824154138565,
0.24888353049755096,
0.14356911182403564,
-0.3452439606189728,
0.17635692656040192,
-0.3081945478916168,
0.1828346997499466,
-0.21453121304512024,
0.344687283039093,
0.26801639795303345,
0.34716954827308655,
-0.06414691358804703,
-0.013003743253648281,
-0.28569164872169495,
0.9691591858863831,
-0.14585110545158386,
0.2229156494140625,
-0.09219588339328766,
-5.752636432647705,
0.3460635244846344,
-0.3263765573501587,
-0.019715474918484688,
0.1843142807483673,
-0.2040708065032959,
0.8245238065719604,
-0.1310664564371109,
-0.5321060419082642,
-0.6637632846832275,
-0.03788173943758011,
0.26928049325942993,
0.31808382272720337,
0.19850106537342072,
0.15049788355827332,
0.23427551984786987,
0.7577623128890991,
-0.09793894737958908,
-0.12630623579025269,
0.27689602971076965,
-0.0003974201390519738,
0.03481674939393997,
-0.013478623703122139,
0.5311399102210999,
0.2431451827287674,
0.5771423578262329,
-0.08603125065565109,
0.024853602051734924,
-0.13277854025363922,
-0.07366517186164856,
-0.017459537833929062,
-0.2787145674228668,
0.18797829747200012,
-0.8246745467185974,
0.036585550755262375,
-0.07201644033193588,
0.04242486134171486,
0.42880359292030334,
0.09240535646677017,
-0.11289466917514801,
-0.2062181681394577,
0.05627136304974556,
-0.6657752990722656,
0.021577658131718636,
0.46495094895362854,
-0.22856876254081726,
-0.2319583147764206,
0.0745932087302208,
-0.3571168780326843,
0.17927022278308868,
0.07529018819332123,
0.0611104853451252,
0.7074481844902039,
0.2000335305929184,
0.07350494712591171,
-0.17543843388557434,
-0.05765072628855705,
0.2049892693758011,
0.19171935319900513,
-0.18823370337486267,
0.29623571038246155,
-0.39966168999671936,
0.1299615204334259,
0.04974416270852089,
-0.0017912938492372632,
-0.5972772836685181,
-0.2816418707370758,
-0.691989004611969,
0.15046198666095734,
0.47365912795066833,
-0.07694549113512039,
0.2795659899711609,
-0.003765542060136795,
-0.9836077690124512,
-0.1418914943933487,
-0.10403560847043991,
-0.25543856620788574,
-0.08027172088623047,
0.12408631294965744,
0.013806921429932117,
-0.0923658162355423,
-0.4544978737831116,
-0.10009870678186417,
0.5206918120384216,
-0.410690039396286,
-0.6262814998626709,
0.08404535055160522,
0.9320017695426941,
-0.26598992943763733,
0.18243034183979034,
0.37947484850883484,
0.07656831294298172,
-0.16758280992507935,
0.10643167048692703,
0.48451700806617737,
0.23678608238697052,
0.23252105712890625,
-0.5008254647254944,
-0.02621752768754959,
0.5976882576942444,
0.022222815081477165,
-0.12473997473716736,
-0.14471600949764252,
-1.1712229251861572,
-0.22777196764945984,
0.34928327798843384,
-0.08028353005647659,
0.6347296237945557,
0.4814761281013489,
0.2464410960674286,
-0.21390849351882935,
-0.1453382819890976,
-0.18839479982852936,
0.4867399334907532,
-0.13026517629623413,
-0.6504575610160828,
0.017338749021291733,
0.27732229232788086,
0.8403310775756836,
-0.18163026869297028,
-0.023094728589057922,
0.30797624588012695,
-0.2521244287490845,
-0.5107892751693726,
-0.3655357360839844,
0.2441488802433014,
0.20275500416755676,
0.08762338757514954,
-0.21226422488689423,
-0.1782752424478531,
-0.45036736130714417,
0.117304727435112,
0.029749134555459023,
-0.190572589635849,
-0.19594816863536835,
0.17018897831439972,
-0.205503448843956,
0.016003679484128952,
-0.09390857070684433,
-0.5447224378585815,
-0.20679953694343567,
-0.06742887198925018,
0.6792559027671814,
-0.04020930826663971,
0.2871880829334259,
0.5955772399902344,
0.1912360042333603,
-0.007155964151024818,
-0.20313546061515808,
0.3206764757633209,
0.09913063049316406,
-0.163639098405838,
0.4438960552215576,
-0.8801665902137756,
-0.03941464051604271,
-0.3450124263763428,
0.19525736570358276,
0.18045495450496674,
0.4929358661174774,
-0.49439606070518494,
-0.14726337790489197,
-0.2746243178844452,
-1.2951449155807495,
-0.11759835481643677,
0.1573246717453003,
0.5251556038856506,
0.6915143728256226,
-0.06663189083337784,
-0.510572075843811,
0.29502198100090027,
0.08185430616140366,
0.06583459675312042,
-0.26464635133743286,
-0.11745307594537735,
-0.11967026442289352,
-0.1643078625202179,
-0.34960314631462097,
-0.29725104570388794,
0.07920056581497192,
-0.23465046286582947,
0.19454053044319153,
-0.3587104082107544,
-0.10668987035751343,
-0.3618300259113312,
0.033819179981946945,
-1.0640475749969482,
0.3167468309402466,
-0.004245436750352383,
-0.3492978811264038,
0.03801374137401581,
-0.26375916600227356,
0.3149658441543579,
0.6969913244247437,
-0.3426547944545746,
-0.7876622080802917,
-0.5186617374420166,
-0.3944457173347473,
0.7015451192855835,
0.4444151818752289,
-0.5879376530647278,
0.6162882447242737,
0.5643971562385559,
-0.9520341753959656,
-0.03162180259823799,
-0.09109673649072647,
-0.4401746094226837,
0.02780384197831154,
0.24739235639572144,
-0.009894906543195248,
0.216050386428833,
-0.6372237801551819,
-0.9655925631523132,
-0.17590944468975067,
0.7945263981819153,
-0.4470096826553345,
-0.30354034900665283,
-0.001203934894874692,
-0.39986205101013184,
-0.3062099814414978,
-0.3973560333251953,
0.5780839323997498,
0.26961183547973633,
-0.3946947753429413,
0.4704187214374542,
-0.17936085164546967,
1.1038248538970947,
-0.012364445254206657,
-0.25830045342445374,
0.48927515745162964,
-0.2738040089607239,
-0.7288222312927246,
-0.15395596623420715,
0.023689713329076767,
0.44595593214035034,
-0.25157392024993896,
-0.031253308057785034,
-0.2639857232570648,
-0.01739337481558323,
-0.781304657459259,
-0.1406720131635666,
-0.37603577971458435,
0.7068990468978882,
-0.1838110238313675,
-1.0585306882858276,
-0.3222006857395172,
0.8916667103767395,
0.08729175478219986,
0.08011455833911896,
-0.5300353765487671,
0.29069751501083374,
-0.32780611515045166,
0.3565867245197296,
-0.04166311025619507,
-0.393415629863739,
0.49133262038230896,
-0.7330626249313354,
0.019159631803631783,
0.26862362027168274,
0.571732759475708,
-0.21068525314331055,
0.2385387420654297,
0.19680380821228027,
-0.7624381184577942,
0.4710506200790405,
0.3512997031211853,
0.03641962260007858,
0.2681414783000946,
0.045546986162662506,
-0.15379232168197632,
-0.3709384500980377,
0.11100725084543228,
0.1656470149755478,
0.048059504479169846,
0.7777634859085083,
0.00043658263166435063,
0.5188358426094055,
-0.15604054927825928,
-0.22834767401218414,
-0.3222372829914093,
-0.07426761090755463,
-0.03586147725582123,
0.05704352632164955,
-0.041755810379981995,
-0.3442589342594147,
0.6011466383934021,
-1.1318295001983643,
0.8111413717269897,
0.025959106162190437,
-0.28687039017677307,
-0.35352352261543274,
-0.5603049993515015,
0.14430579543113708,
-0.05511573329567909,
0.20811842381954193,
-0.19248326122760773,
0.3854846954345703,
-0.24123576283454895,
-0.5008260011672974,
0.3192732334136963,
-0.5519676804542542,
-0.3583381772041321,
0.34587451815605164,
0.11839177459478378,
-0.009839840233325958,
0.4125521779060364,
-0.07166571915149689,
0.11465959250926971,
0.06967146694660187,
-0.30400916934013367,
0.27362579107284546,
0.12814436852931976,
0.3848061263561249,
0.3377133905887604,
0.3412624001502991,
0.02655356377363205,
-0.1240224614739418,
0.432527095079422,
-0.7108525037765503,
-0.3068023920059204,
0.1033712774515152,
0.04488750547170639,
-0.2875477969646454,
0.7211313843727112,
0.026779670268297195,
-0.495831698179245,
-0.03781775385141373,
-0.17950491607189178,
-0.14354586601257324,
0.5851294994354248,
-0.07100698351860046,
0.29108333587646484,
-0.010984842665493488,
-0.4681910276412964,
0.549884557723999,
-0.45282667875289917,
-0.30131950974464417,
0.0661948025226593,
-0.719413161277771,
-0.2985308766365051,
0.6055475473403931,
0.758301317691803,
0.07402323931455612,
-0.1308550387620926,
-0.42261210083961487,
-0.040442999452352524,
0.23197591304779053,
-0.8360278010368347,
0.2486555427312851,
0.2679183781147003,
0.3372790217399597,
0.8365721106529236,
-0.3418349027633667,
-0.5216253995895386,
-0.37962576746940613,
0.6151880621910095,
-0.659546434879303,
0.19829946756362915,
-0.06326742470264435,
-0.4214736819267273,
-0.8415868878364563,
-0.19929833710193634,
0.06257898360490799,
0.2770208418369293,
-0.28317713737487793,
0.5000887513160706,
0.0032633424270898104,
0.09519342333078384,
0.27453890442848206,
0.0056968131102621555,
0.7064430117607117,
0.6053383946418762,
0.18529227375984192,
0.02357371151447296,
0.16812764108181,
0.3358677327632904,
0.4985027015209198,
0.23050977289676666,
0.3065342605113983,
0.2542000710964203,
-0.41614922881126404,
-0.4168323874473572,
-0.13252462446689606,
-0.21212376654148102,
-0.43684518337249756,
0.2307918518781662,
-0.09379839897155762,
-0.3963082730770111,
-0.19949597120285034,
-0.06606922298669815,
-0.2545301020145416,
0.173756942152977,
-0.1192978098988533,
-0.22511433064937592,
-0.192426860332489,
0.09742457419633865,
-0.17770768702030182,
0.18585890531539917,
0.8354442715644836,
0.10559839010238647,
0.4789315164089203,
0.45414555072784424,
0.18587782979011536,
-0.14791765809059143,
-0.11414448171854019,
-0.3761671185493469,
0.13230767846107483,
-0.45840567350387573,
0.3148294687271118,
-0.6104973554611206,
0.6334676742553711,
0.48938819766044617,
-0.34854525327682495,
-0.11331697553396225,
0.7564471364021301,
-0.3488968014717102,
0.4600886404514313,
1.234498143196106,
-0.4678490459918976,
-0.0010415210854262114,
-0.4534522294998169,
0.33404892683029175,
-0.4268855154514313,
-0.10795221477746964,
0.4315268397331238,
-0.2836645543575287,
-0.05720575898885727,
0.25969478487968445,
0.13045644760131836,
-0.36265987157821655,
0.08434493094682693,
-0.2817276418209076,
0.08750149607658386,
0.13830003142356873,
0.0471406914293766,
-0.7259572744369507,
0.11106209456920624,
0.6592689156532288,
0.6057497262954712,
-0.827751636505127,
-0.3374263048171997,
-0.08627334982156754,
0.14885953068733215,
0.7863277196884155,
-0.16108597815036774,
-1.0832574367523193,
0.010399000719189644,
0.32148411870002747,
-0.13223297894001007,
0.3529241681098938,
0.4626080393791199,
0.23171000182628632,
0.1734069138765335,
0.3932414650917053,
-0.07796595245599747,
0.505633533000946,
0.1083463802933693,
-0.12950487434864044,
0.04535948857665062,
0.3933083117008209,
0.3116448223590851
] |
234921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20payment | Mobile payment | Mobile payment (also referred to as mobile money, mobile money transfer, and mobile wallet) generally refer to payment services operated under financial regulation and performed from or via a mobile device. Instead of paying with cash, cheque, or credit cards, a consumer can use a mobile to pay for a wide range of services and digital or hard goods. Although the concept of using non-coin-based currency systems has a long history, it is only in the 21st century that the technology to support such systems has become widely available.
Mobile payment is being adopted all over the world in different ways. The first patent exclusively defined "Mobile Payment System" was filed in 2000.
In developing countries mobile payment solutions have been deployed as a means of extending financial services to the community known as the "unbanked" or "underbanked", which is estimated to be as much as 50% of the world's adult population, according to Financial Access' 2009 Report "Half the World is Unbanked". These payment networks are often used for micropayments. The use of mobile payments in developing countries has attracted public and private funding by organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, United States Agency for International Development and Mercy Corps.
Mobile payments are becoming a key instrument for payment service providers (PSPs) and other market participants, in order to achieve new growth opportunities, according to the European Payments Council (EPC). The EPC states that "new technology solutions provide a direct improvement to the operations efficiency, ultimately resulting in cost savings and in an increase in business volume".
Models
There are four primary models for mobile payments:
Bank-centric model
Operator-centric model
Collaborative model
Independent service provider (ISP) model
In bank- or operator-centric models, a bank or the operator is the central node of the model, manages the transactions and distributes the property rights. In collaborative model, the financial intermediaries and telephonic operators collaborate in the managing tasks and share cooperatively the proprietary rights. In ISP model, a third party of confidence operates as an independent and “neutral” intermediary between financial
agents and operators. Apple Pay or PayPal are the ISP the most frequently associated to this model in these last months.
There can also be combinations of two models.
Operator/bank co-operation, emerging in Haiti.
Financial institutions and credit card companies as well as Internet companies such as Google and a number of mobile communication companies, such as mobile network operators and major telecommunications infrastructure such as w-HA from Orange and smartphone multinationals such as Ericsson and BlackBerry have implemented mobile payment solutions.
Mobile wallets
A mobile wallet is an app that contains the user's debit and credit card information, letting them pay for goods and services digitally with their mobile devices. Notable mobile wallets include:
Alipay
Apple Pay
BHIM
Cloud QuickPass
Google Pay
Gyft
LG Pay
Mi Pay
Line Pay
Samsung Pay
Venmo
WeChat Pay
Touch 'n Go eWallet
PhonePe
Paytm
Amazon Pay
Credit card
A simple mobile web payment system can also include a credit card payment flow allowing a consumer to enter their card details to make purchases. This process is familiar but any entry of details on a mobile phone is known to reduce the success rate (conversion) of payments.
In addition, if the payment vendor can automatically and securely identify customers then card details can be recalled for future purchases turning credit card payments into simple single click-to-buy giving higher conversion rates for additional purchases.
However, there are concerns regarding information and payment privacy when cards are used during online transactions. If a website is not secure, for example, then personal credit card info can leak online.
Carrier billing
The consumer uses the mobile billing option during checkout at an e-commerce site—such as an online gaming site—to make a payment. After two-factor authentication involving the consumer's mobile number and a PIN or one-time password (often abbreviated as OTP), the consumer's mobile account is charged for the purchase. It is a true alternative payment method that does not require the use of credit/debit cards or pre-registration at an online payment solution such as PayPal, thus bypassing banks and credit card companies altogether. This type of mobile payment method, which is prevalent in Asia, provides the following benefits:
Security – two-factor authentication and a risk management engine prevents fraud.
Convenience – no pre-registration and no new mobile software is required.
Easy – It is just another option during the checkout process.
Fast – most transactions are completed in less than 10 seconds.
Proven – 70% of all digital content purchased online in some parts of Asia uses the direct mobile billing method
Remote payment by SMS and credit card tokenization
Even as the volume of Premium SMS transactions have flattened, many cloud-based payment systems continue to use SMS for presentment, authorization, and authentication, while the payment itself is processed through existing payment networks such as credit and debit card networks. These solutions combine the ubiquity of the SMS channel, with the security and reliability of existing payment infrastructure. Since SMS lacks end-to-end encryption, such solutions employ a higher-level security strategies known as 'tokenization' and 'target removal' whereby payment occurs without transmitting any sensitive account details, username, password, or PIN.
To date, point-of-sales mobile payment solutions have not relied on SMS-based authentication as a payment mechanism, but remote payments such as bill payments, seat upgrades on flights, and membership or subscription renewals are commonplace.
In comparison to premium short code programs which often exist in isolation, relationship marketing and payment systems are often integrated with CRM, ERP, marketing-automation platforms, and reservation systems. Many of the problems inherent with premium SMS have been addressed by solution providers. Remembering keywords is not required since sessions are initiated by the enterprise to establish a transaction specific context. Reply messages are linked to the proper session and authenticated either synchronously through a very short expiry period (every reply is assumed to be to the last message sent) or by tracking session according to varying reply addresses and/or reply options.
Direct operator billing
Direct operator billing, also known as mobile content billing, WAP billing, and carrier billing,
requires integration with the mobile network operator. It provides certain benefits:
Mobile network operators already have a billing relationship with consumers, the payment will be added to their bill.
Provides instantaneous payment
Protects payment details and consumer identity
Better conversion rates
Reduced customer support costs for merchants
Alternative monetization option in countries where credit card usage is low
One of the drawbacks is that the payout rate will often be much lower than with other mobile payments options. Examples from a popular provider:
92% with PayPal
85 to 86% with credit card
45 to 91.7% with operator billing in the US, UK and some smaller European countries, but usually around 60%
More recently, direct operator billing is being deployed in an in-app environment, where mobile application developers are taking advantage of the one-click payment option that direct operator billing provides for monetising mobile applications. This is a logical alternative to credit card and Premium SMS billing.
In 2012, Ericsson and Western Union partnered to expand the direct operator billing market, making it possible for mobile operators to include Western Union mobile money transfers as part of their mobile financial service offerings. Given the international reach of both companies, the partnership is meant to accelerate the interconnection between the m-commerce market and the existing financial world.
Contactless near-field communication
Near-field communication (NFC) is used mostly in paying for purchases made in physical stores or transportation services. A consumer using a special mobile phone equipped with a smartcard waves his/her phone near a reader module. Most transactions do not require authentication, but some require authentication using PIN, before transaction is completed. The payment could be deducted from a pre-paid account or charged to a mobile or bank account directly.
Mobile payment method via NFC faces significant challenges for wide and fast adoption, due to lack of supporting infrastructure, complex ecosystem of stakeholders, and standards. Some phone manufacturers and banks, however, are enthusiastic. Ericsson and Aconite are examples of businesses that make it possible for banks to create consumer mobile payment applications that take advantage of NFC technology.
NFC vendors in Japan are closely related to mass-transit networks, like the Mobile Suica used since 28 January 2006 on the JR East rail network. The mobile wallet Osaifu-Keitai system, used since 2004 for Mobile Suica and many others including Edy and nanaco, has become the de facto standard method for mobile payments in Japan. Its core technology, Mobile FeliCa IC, is partially owned by Sony, NTT DoCoMo and JR East. Mobile FeliCa utilize Sony's FeliCa technology, which itself is the de facto standard for contactless smart cards in the country. NFC was used in transports for the first time in the world by China Unicom and Yucheng Transportation Card in the tramways and bus of Chongqing on 19 January 2009, in those of Nice on 21 May 2010, then in Seoul after its introduction in Korea by the discount retailer Homeplus in March 2010 and it was tested then adopted or added to the existing systems in Tokyo from May 2010 to end of 2012. After an experimentation in the metro of Rennes in 2007, the NFC standard was implemented for the first time in a metro network, by China Unicom in Beijing on 31 December 2010.
Other NFC vendors mostly in Europe use contactless payment over mobile phones to pay for on- and off-street parking in specially demarcated areas. Parking wardens may enforce the parking by license plate, transponder tags, or barcode stickers.
In Europe, the first experimentations of mobile payment took place in Germany during 6 months, from May 2005, with a deferred payment at the end of each month on the tramways and bus of Hanau with the Nokia 3220 using the NFC standard of Philips and Sony.
In France, the immediate contactless payment was experimented during 6 months, from October 2005, in some Cofinoga shops (Galeries Lafayette, Monoprix) and Vinci parkings of Caen with a Samsung NFC smartphone provided by Orange in collaboration with Philips Semiconductors (for the first time, thanks to "Fly Tag", the system allowed to receive as well audiovisual informations, like bus timetables or cinema trailers from the concerned services). From 19 November 2007 to 2009, this experimentation was extended in Caen to more services and three additional mobile phone operators (Bouygues Telecom, SFR and NRJ Mobile) and in Strasbourg and on 5 November 2007, Orange and the transport societies SNCF and Keolis associated themselves for a 2 months experimentation on smartphones in the metro, bus and TER trains in Rennes. After a test conducted from October 2005 to November 2006 with 27 users, on 21 May 2010, the transport authority of Nice Régie Lignes d'Azur was the first public transport provider in Europe to add definitely to its own offer a contactless payment on its tramways and bus network either with a NFC bank card or smartphone application notably on Samsung Player One (with the same mobile phone operators than in Caen and Strasbourg), as well as the validation aboard with them of the transport titles and the loading of these titles onto the smartphone, in addition to the season tickets contactless card. This service was as well experimented then respectively implemented for NFC smartphones on 18 and 25 June 2013 in the tramways and bus of Caen and Strasbourg. In Paris transport network, after a 4 months testing from November 2006 with Bouygues Telecom and 43 persons and finally with users from July 2018, the contactless mobile payment and direct validation on the turnstile readers with a smartphone was adopted on 25 September 2019Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: in collaboration with the societies Orange, Samsung, Wizway Solutions, Worldline and Conduent.
First conceptualized in the early 2010s, the technology has seen as well commercial use in this century in Scandinavia and Estonia. End users benefit from the convenience of being able to pay for parking from the comfort of their car with their mobile phone, and parking operators are not obliged to invest in either existing or new street-based parking infrastructures. Parking wardens maintain order in these systems by license plate, transponder tags or barcode stickers or they read a digital display in the same way as they read a pay and display receipt.
Other vendors use a combination of both NFC and a barcode on the mobile device for mobile payment, because many mobile devices in the market do not yet support NFC.
Others
QR code payments
QR code is a square two-dimensional bar code. QR codes have been in use since 1994. Originally used to track products in warehouses, QR codes were designed to replace the older one-dimensional bar codes. The older bar codes just represent numbers, which can be looked up in a database and translated into something meaningful. QR, or "quick response", bar codes were designed to contain the meaningful information directly in the bar code.
QR codes can be of two main categories:
The QR code is presented on the mobile device of the person paying and scanned by a POS or another mobile device of the payee
The QR code is presented by the payee, in a static or one time generated fashion and it is scanned by the person executing the payment
Mobile self-checkout allows for one to scan a QR code or barcode of a product inside a brick-and-mortar establishment in order to purchase the product on the spot. This theoretically eliminates or reduces the incidence of long checkout lines, even at self-checkout kiosks.
Cloud-based mobile payments
Google, PayPal, GlobalPay and GoPago use a cloud-based approach to in-store mobile payment. The cloud based approach places the mobile payment provider in the middle of the transaction, which involves two separate steps. First, a cloud-linked payment method is selected and payment is authorized via NFC or an alternative method. During this step, the payment provider automatically covers the cost of the purchase with issuer linked funds. Second, in a separate transaction, the payment provider charges the purchaser's selected, cloud-linked account in a card-not-present environment to recoup its losses on the first transaction.
Audio signal-based payments
The audio channel of the mobile phone is another wireless interface that is used to make payments. Several companies have created technology to use the acoustic features of cell phones to support mobile payments and other applications that are not chip-based. The technologies like near sound data transfer (NSDT), data over voice and NFC 2.0 produce audio signatures that the microphone of the cell phone can pick up to enable electronic transactions.
Direct carrier/bank co-operation
In the T-Cash model, the mobile phone and the phone carrier is the front-end interface to the consumers. The consumer can purchase goods, transfer money to a peer, cash out, and cash in. A 'mini wallet' account can be opened as simply as entering *700# on the mobile phone, presumably by depositing money at a participating local merchant and the mobile phone number. Presumably, other transactions are similarly accomplished by entering special codes and the phone number of the other party on the consumer's mobile phone.
Magnetic secure transmission
In magnetic secure transmission (MST), a smartphone emits a magnetic signal that resembles the one created by swiping a magnetic credit card through a traditional credit card terminal. No changes to the terminal or a new terminal are required.
Bank transfer systems
Swish is the name of a system established in Sweden. It was established through a collaboration from major banks in 2012 and has been very successful, with 66 percent of the population as users in 2017. It is mainly used for peer-to-peer payments between private people, but is also used by church collect, street vendors and small businesses. A person's account is tied to his or her phone number and the connection between the phone number and the actual bank account number is registered in the internet bank. The electronic identification system mobile BankID, issued by several Swedish banks, is used to verify the payment. Users with a simple phone or without the app can still receive money if the phone number is registered in the internet bank. Like many other mobile payment system, its main obstacle is getting people to register and download the app, but it has managed to reach a critical mass and it has become part of everyday life for many Swedes.
Swedish payments company Trustly also enables mobile bank transfers, but is used mainly for business-to-consumer transactions that occur solely online. If an e-tailer integrates with Trustly, its customers can pay directly from their bank account. As opposed to Swish, users don't need to register a Trustly account or download software to pay with it.
The Danish MobilePay and Norwegian Vipps are also popular in their countries. They use direct and instant bank transfers, but also for users not connected to a participating bank, credit card billing.
In India, a new direct bank transfer system has emerged called as Unified Payments Interface. This system enables users to transfer money to other users and businesses in real-time directly from their bank accounts. Users download UPI supporting app from app stores on their Android or iOS device, link and verify their mobile number with the bank account by sending one outgoing SMS to app provider, create a virtual payment address (VPA) which auto generates a QR code and then set a banking PIN by generating OTP for secure transactions. VPA and QR codes are to ensure easy to use & privacy which can help in peer-to-peer (P2P) transactions without giving any user details. Fund transfer can then be initiated to other users or businesses. Settlement of funds happen in real-time, i.e. money is debited from payer's bank account and credited in recipient's bank account in real-time. UPI service works 24x7, including weekends and holidays. This is slowly becoming a very popular service in India and is processing monthly payments worth approximately $10 billion as in October 2018.
In Poland, Blik - mobile payment system created in February 2015 by the Polish Payment Standard (PSP) company. To pay with Blik, you need a smartphone, a personal account and a mobile application of one of the banks that cooperate with it. The principle of operation is to generate a 6-digit code in the bank's mobile application. The Blik code is used only to connect the parties to the transaction. It is an identifier that associates the user and a specific bank at a given moment. For two minutes, it points to a specific mobile application to which - through a string of numbers - a request to accept a transaction in a specific store or ATM is sent.
Blik allows you to pay in online and stationary stores. By the Blik, we can also make transfers to the phone or withdraw money from ATMs.
Mobile payment service provider model
There are four potential mobile payment models:Operator-centric model: The mobile operator acts independently to deploy mobile payment service. The operator could provide an independent mobile wallet from the user mobile account (airtime). A large deployment of the operator-centric model is severely challenged by the lack of connection to existing payment networks. Mobile network operator should handle the interfacing with the banking network to provide advanced mobile payment service in banked and under banked environment. Pilot projects using this model have been launched in emerging countries, but they did not cover most of the mobile payment service use cases. Payments were limited to remittance and airtime top up.Bank-centric model: A bank deploys mobile payment applications or devices to customers and ensures merchants have the required point-of-sale (POS) acceptance capability. Mobile network operator are used as a simple carrier, they bring their experience to provide quality of service (QOS) assurance.Collaboration model: This model involves collaboration among banks, mobile operators and a trusted third party.Peer-to-peer model'': The mobile payment service provider acts independently from financial institutions and mobile network operators to provide mobile payment.
See also
Contactless payment
Cryptocurrency wallet
Diem (digital currency)
Digital wallets
Electronic money
Financial cryptography
Mobile ticketing
Point of sale
Point-of-sale malware
SMS banking
Universal credit card
References
Financial technology
ja:非接触型決済 | [
-0.016986746340990067,
0.16206805408000946,
0.49017035961151123,
0.3303266763687134,
0.43143799901008606,
0.3119503855705261,
-0.2378723919391632,
0.22699478268623352,
-0.2709796130657196,
-0.4611605107784271,
-0.5939586162567139,
0.4323525130748749,
-0.1336858570575714,
-0.10701856762170792,
0.1301807165145874,
-0.2980708181858063,
0.3910852074623108,
0.3293674886226654,
-0.17995098233222961,
-0.23178531229496002,
-0.8696576356887817,
0.2588227689266205,
0.47259724140167236,
-0.6173917651176453,
-0.03953596204519272,
-0.08044570684432983,
0.14226707816123962,
0.3372855484485626,
-0.5078434944152832,
-0.11761964112520218,
0.4578498303890228,
0.3155076801776886,
-0.2369738072156906,
0.15516459941864014,
-0.08375740051269531,
-0.3781602084636688,
-0.435271680355072,
-0.011461573652923107,
-0.7213671207427979,
-0.762154221534729,
-0.45816853642463684,
-0.004063965752720833,
-0.17796629667282104,
0.3853156268596649,
0.07401654124259949,
-0.3471873104572296,
-1.2733807563781738,
-0.05616620182991028,
-0.9996786117553711,
0.13547034561634064,
-0.43802410364151,
0.5186620950698853,
-0.18567053973674774,
0.4858616292476654,
0.7256031632423401,
0.31090569496154785,
-0.6380485892295837,
-0.18437542021274567,
-0.002056199824437499,
-0.42857626080513,
0.6520286798477173,
-0.15055803954601288,
-0.05058727413415909,
0.05106209218502045,
0.2096939980983734,
-0.5433902144432068,
0.07405949383974075,
0.2418256253004074,
-0.29262539744377136,
-0.605918824672699,
0.266797810792923,
-0.4965902268886566,
-0.021973934024572372,
0.12333807349205017,
-0.13876596093177795,
0.14754515886306763,
0.0014262633631005883,
0.24788610637187958,
0.014850331470370293,
0.16958418488502502,
-0.11206232756376266,
0.7256549000740051,
0.5077233910560608,
0.0662023276090622,
0.4049501121044159,
-0.28406888246536255,
-0.18094323575496674,
0.44917601346969604,
0.03648233786225319,
0.6623139977455139,
0.44787076115608215,
0.17283695936203003,
0.6490682363510132,
0.3173397183418274,
0.27351629734039307,
-0.22273729741573334,
-0.22741512954235077,
0.005110787693411112,
0.40627771615982056,
0.365025132894516,
0.2911985218524933,
-0.24444396793842316,
0.12222844362258911,
-0.18995867669582367,
0.14378517866134644,
-0.05803597345948219,
-0.2218807339668274,
-0.5794847011566162,
0.28438371419906616,
-0.16183137893676758,
-0.39475366473197937,
-0.24984942376613617,
0.07808636873960495,
0.2572370171546936,
-0.29883089661598206,
0.06459753960371017,
-0.16264036297798157,
-0.15859222412109375,
-0.5074005126953125,
-0.19491736590862274,
0.7170818448066711,
0.1814609169960022,
-0.05935968831181526,
-0.5925567746162415,
0.4807680547237396,
0.13284532725811005,
0.47636711597442627,
0.6499968767166138,
-0.11324077844619751,
0.12979662418365479,
0.31488028168678284,
0.8726866245269775,
-0.028774484992027283,
0.37272512912750244,
-0.0643298551440239,
-0.19836488366127014,
0.6084812879562378,
-0.4032560884952545,
0.7178916335105896,
-0.4419812560081482,
-0.7861781120300293,
-0.19949381053447723,
-0.4782857298851013,
-0.27219709753990173,
0.03199811652302742,
0.15541616082191467,
0.27029678225517273,
-0.5548431277275085,
-0.5871427059173584,
-0.34177520871162415,
-0.52729731798172,
-0.1676761358976364,
0.22590002417564392,
0.16447244584560394,
-0.1171831488609314,
0.47995543479919434,
0.4944281280040741,
-0.07731354236602783,
-0.1685563176870346,
-0.43212011456489563,
0.17100878059864044,
0.28254878520965576,
-0.4367527663707733,
0.026701919734477997,
-0.08512668311595917,
0.09822532534599304,
0.34491366147994995,
0.5120726227760315,
0.6905850768089294,
0.08187619596719742,
-0.04892587661743164,
0.17697766423225403,
0.3534342348575592,
-0.09844474494457245,
0.1645851582288742,
0.09937714785337448,
0.14280587434768677,
0.3116108775138855,
0.33791106939315796,
0.1551019847393036,
-0.6125668287277222,
0.3290233612060547,
0.6046780347824097,
-0.17187698185443878,
0.09581425040960312,
-0.48596081137657166,
0.5682228207588196,
-0.1793776899576187,
-0.41758763790130615,
-0.3002799451351166,
-0.7408491373062134,
-0.6447713375091553,
0.2887001633644104,
-0.3319780230522156,
0.7564329504966736,
-0.600274920463562,
-0.39627137780189514,
0.7505847811698914,
-0.00798672717064619,
-0.10421743988990784,
-0.009160696528851986,
0.1793399155139923,
0.26147595047950745,
-0.18441744148731232,
-0.8186312317848206,
0.03353450819849968,
0.21656997501850128,
-0.20270270109176636,
-0.03775995597243309,
0.10093508660793304,
0.6349899172782898,
-0.7119379043579102,
0.133480504155159,
-0.5195366740226746,
0.1389307975769043,
-0.06647469103336334,
-0.6959672570228577,
0.22646768391132355,
-0.3936227262020111,
0.03076411597430706,
0.9512875080108643,
-0.27050381898880005,
0.2446891814470291,
1.1298902034759521,
-0.21655794978141785,
0.7541040778160095,
-0.11217843741178513,
0.3244834244251251,
0.620444655418396,
-0.26412591338157654,
0.06513641774654388,
-0.1318672150373459,
-0.07967369258403778,
-0.5886664390563965,
0.07609878480434418,
0.22130794823169708,
0.13306204974651337,
-0.5084739327430725,
-0.3508796989917755,
-0.13819728791713715,
-0.31011900305747986,
0.31228241324424744,
-0.702680230140686,
-0.4832998216152191,
0.2721107304096222,
-0.04213203117251396,
-0.7552472352981567,
-0.23200881481170654,
0.11929880082607269,
-0.17195287346839905,
-0.18709208071231842,
0.15680944919586182,
-0.2764316499233246,
-0.33389848470687866,
0.18543848395347595,
-0.05868938937783241,
-0.05006920546293259,
0.47835206985473633,
-0.19330143928527832,
-0.28452885150909424,
0.1621514856815338,
0.26358115673065186,
-0.026161544024944305,
0.19957661628723145,
-0.47967055439949036,
-0.6947260499000549,
-0.21197277307510376,
0.21919196844100952,
-0.22016826272010803,
0.7788036465644836,
0.7533484101295471,
-0.3459835648536682,
-0.7277080416679382,
0.022137414664030075,
-0.2814716696739197,
-0.41164061427116394,
0.7697292566299438,
-0.006967129651457071,
-0.06672836095094681,
-0.4397108554840088,
0.11586342006921768,
0.49436265230178833,
0.8786272406578064,
-0.8389135599136353,
0.09073899686336517,
-0.28388550877571106,
0.1850736141204834,
-0.10353781282901764,
-0.30126702785491943,
-0.20157957077026367,
-0.27201753854751587,
0.3042939007282257,
-0.2059442549943924,
0.5016944408416748,
0.9688715934753418,
0.4498840272426605,
0.26913154125213623,
0.35501304268836975,
0.3750366270542145,
-0.18228210508823395,
-0.26711055636405945,
-0.15292617678642273,
-0.08430279791355133,
-0.16170744597911835,
-0.016077499836683273,
-0.6489183306694031,
-0.07965870946645737,
-0.3189038038253784,
-5.819629192352295,
0.033715102821588516,
-0.7714076042175293,
-0.39183080196380615,
0.004874350968748331,
0.02055997960269451,
0.9825795292854309,
-0.04354828596115112,
-0.03996266797184944,
0.02835944853723049,
-0.3608291745185852,
0.399184912443161,
0.24388135969638824,
-0.31874310970306396,
0.2896334230899811,
0.5763415098190308,
0.41186100244522095,
0.09301856905221939,
0.11218833923339844,
-0.3655087351799011,
-0.1415209174156189,
-0.4815756678581238,
0.14947430789470673,
0.669575572013855,
-0.46200206875801086,
0.18138273060321808,
0.10522685945034027,
-0.20760510861873627,
-0.1522020846605301,
0.07657947391271591,
-0.07373816519975662,
-0.30897995829582214,
-0.13389159739017487,
-0.4949149191379547,
0.27324193716049194,
0.010949065908789635,
0.8128926157951355,
0.4719334840774536,
0.06905970722436905,
-0.6267146468162537,
0.4090949296951294,
0.5178089737892151,
0.22958944737911224,
-0.07213950902223587,
1.0242156982421875,
-0.6646164059638977,
-0.14091446995735168,
0.15878748893737793,
-0.7236300110816956,
0.6246009469032288,
0.14689140021800995,
0.10196845978498459,
0.29218271374702454,
-0.09656748175621033,
0.17371609807014465,
0.04110291600227356,
-0.037314027547836304,
-0.4966789186000824,
-0.43513795733451843,
0.6564509272575378,
-0.050576187670230865,
-0.3834899663925171,
-0.2583470940589905,
-0.6399170756340027,
-0.13109195232391357,
0.14496029913425446,
-0.69858717918396,
-0.6200969219207764,
0.7186414003372192,
0.3958221971988678,
-0.28644055128097534,
0.42574626207351685,
0.45630088448524475,
-0.36975714564323425,
0.23134376108646393,
-0.6030753254890442,
0.3479740619659424,
0.2111780047416687,
-0.31108561158180237,
-0.04875216633081436,
-0.060079142451286316,
-0.08627106249332428,
-0.17870481312274933,
-0.06323245167732239,
-0.11011994630098343,
-0.3410644829273224,
-0.7893670797348022,
-0.07150611281394958,
-0.2774829566478729,
-0.19317355751991272,
1.1052448749542236,
-0.24373191595077515,
0.25565192103385925,
0.3335283100605011,
0.3866943120956421,
-0.10523442924022675,
0.042400650680065155,
0.46468839049339294,
-0.12633958458900452,
-0.21113303303718567,
0.3552977442741394,
0.10465849936008453,
-0.14898106455802917,
-0.7176933288574219,
-0.06908680498600006,
-0.14350467920303345,
-0.4505980610847473,
0.27170342206954956,
0.43678170442581177,
-0.059296563267707825,
-0.37059587240219116,
0.10803718864917755,
-0.6767631769180298,
-0.6082912087440491,
-0.4794369339942932,
0.3383077085018158,
-0.5941926836967468,
0.10177487879991531,
0.4503268003463745,
-0.3250504732131958,
-0.37794673442840576,
0.17086029052734375,
0.4995708465576172,
-0.5422846674919128,
-0.20448888838291168,
-0.4339927136898041,
-0.15391914546489716,
0.22136181592941284,
0.37921789288520813,
-0.20353072881698608,
0.7167449593544006,
0.4748799800872803,
0.1622348576784134,
-0.010921097360551357,
-0.18808862566947937,
-0.1047205775976181,
-0.10986939817667007,
0.007035910151898861,
0.23270797729492188,
-0.6836043000221252,
0.18998365104198456,
-0.1812368631362915,
0.36200588941574097,
0.17127712070941925,
0.9978869557380676,
-0.16798990964889526,
-0.5747705698013306,
0.12335518002510071,
0.08683691173791885,
0.1302514225244522,
-0.26644134521484375,
-0.757087230682373,
0.16303890943527222,
-0.35057440400123596,
0.14778576791286469,
-0.019357506185770035,
0.11891509592533112,
0.15524673461914062,
0.0343744270503521,
-0.3418653607368469,
0.10459501296281815,
-0.1321793645620346,
-0.5253798365592957,
0.07227633893489838,
-0.37640923261642456,
0.4554789662361145,
-0.7648966908454895,
-0.022921454161405563,
0.056577567011117935,
0.7520250678062439,
0.13428640365600586,
-0.4508637487888336,
-0.44632649421691895,
-0.6454353332519531,
0.2541358172893524,
0.04438876360654831,
0.14983093738555908,
0.3095417618751526,
-0.025281675159931183,
-0.16841500997543335,
-0.03591684252023697,
-0.62381511926651,
-0.21641501784324646,
0.08146260678768158,
0.7920740246772766,
0.13939152657985687,
0.27635252475738525,
0.1456451714038849,
-0.05702698975801468,
-0.2850671708583832,
0.05597643181681633,
0.5411126613616943,
0.19201578199863434,
0.03959871456027031,
0.2987200915813446,
-0.5484692454338074,
0.12793566286563873,
0.6945056319236755,
-0.358489453792572,
-0.44034603238105774,
0.19825708866119385,
0.3502900004386902,
-0.7801364660263062,
0.00563746178522706,
0.07346335798501968,
-0.34355005621910095,
0.2219439446926117,
-0.23067091405391693,
-0.3518652617931366,
0.25008952617645264,
-0.4529491066932678,
-0.18392406404018402,
-0.082980215549469,
0.5438055992126465,
-0.5308344960212708,
0.38953569531440735,
0.13515014946460724,
-0.14234484732151031,
-0.5432922840118408,
-0.07725059241056442,
0.38173148036003113,
0.3546433746814728,
-0.8810648322105408,
0.12188448756933212,
-0.24031715095043182,
0.6417797207832336,
0.4422588348388672,
-0.45815783739089966,
-0.003429714823141694,
0.14786192774772644,
-0.3705483675003052,
-0.39991116523742676,
-0.0554121695458889,
0.030142681673169136,
0.23679833114147186,
0.20203225314617157,
0.16800889372825623,
0.010941263288259506,
-0.41105273365974426,
0.42589372396469116,
-0.09694334119558334,
0.6449775099754333,
0.03341713920235634,
-0.5135177969932556,
-0.2620762586593628,
0.3772391676902771,
0.5798665285110474,
-0.532105565071106,
-0.9520438313484192,
0.7892844080924988,
0.5527746677398682,
-0.209368497133255,
-0.5823596715927124,
0.20863503217697144,
0.4414949119091034,
-0.2900743782520294,
0.0224152784794569,
-0.4829922020435333,
0.32901838421821594,
0.4441172480583191,
-0.11320248246192932,
-0.3354479968547821,
-0.11410626024007797,
-0.2057453840970993,
1.1747270822525024,
-0.0015196902677416801,
0.05527781322598457,
-0.2748401165008545,
0.1625523865222931,
-0.11720573157072067,
0.4826279580593109,
-0.07153983414173126,
0.7840961217880249,
0.35782644152641296,
0.3623308837413788,
-0.07277229428291321,
0.5481462478637695,
-0.6053770184516907,
0.24741056561470032,
0.23427434265613556,
-0.5303691029548645,
-0.10010781139135361,
0.2468997687101364,
-0.19138304889202118,
0.7480741143226624,
-0.5392386317253113,
0.41024744510650635,
-0.1720077246427536,
-0.27867892384529114,
-0.4125407934188843,
-0.016357524320483208,
0.5477878451347351,
-0.2615618407726288,
0.6396951675415039,
-0.16631700098514557,
0.12503495812416077,
0.4166252911090851,
-0.18589213490486145,
-0.14687374234199524,
0.031556613743305206,
-0.05855992063879967,
0.7815807461738586,
0.10253885388374329,
-0.8377330899238586,
0.29461827874183655,
0.09235067665576935,
0.18295623362064362,
-0.5971683859825134,
0.31734466552734375,
-0.43435755372047424,
0.17663387954235077,
-0.4303131103515625,
0.23146109282970428,
0.4884052276611328,
0.2961599826812744,
-0.25614622235298157,
0.4588223695755005,
-0.35067126154899597,
-0.12742109596729279,
0.32584866881370544,
0.14184249937534332,
0.270464152097702,
0.171476349234581,
-0.1733212172985077,
0.48508983850479126,
0.1386144906282425,
-0.18803942203521729,
-0.23896561563014984,
0.35595273971557617,
0.0688730850815773,
0.8103727102279663,
-0.08535389602184296,
0.3312918245792389,
0.24050559103488922,
0.0964977964758873,
-0.19024866819381714,
-0.23708988726139069,
-0.11916790902614594,
-0.7590289115905762,
0.8645093441009521,
0.5310290455818176,
-0.09259338676929474,
-0.5487362146377563,
0.32990118861198425,
-0.13291092216968536,
0.9639523029327393,
0.19881843030452728,
0.5292593836784363,
-0.1845591515302658,
0.266464501619339,
0.37580934166908264,
-0.011772901751101017,
-0.104991614818573,
0.01781180500984192,
-0.3155583441257477,
-0.7351500988006592,
0.12118830531835556,
-0.2546285092830658,
0.08020401746034622,
-0.056179601699113846,
-0.1480131894350052,
0.9136064648628235,
0.4529070556163788,
-0.23726023733615875,
0.05423408001661301,
-0.19796328246593475,
0.5793988108634949,
-0.7922055125236511,
0.3713521361351013,
0.2498149275779724,
0.06905782222747803,
1.3623467683792114,
-0.1959390491247177,
0.6233614087104797,
-0.07493322342634201,
-0.061733443289995193,
0.042290881276130676,
0.38960182666778564,
0.10208835452795029,
0.032302867621183395,
-0.07168055325746536,
-0.5615816116333008,
-0.01625417359173298,
-0.5118373036384583,
-0.2649754285812378,
-0.45182737708091736,
-0.2926437258720398,
0.2923617660999298,
0.10779252648353577,
-0.29864999651908875,
-0.2703225612640381,
-0.7088750004768372,
0.1900711953639984,
-0.2414722740650177,
-0.12948676943778992,
-0.1115746796131134,
-0.031024102121591568,
0.6242078542709351,
0.13320785760879517,
0.02709181420505047,
-0.16869287192821503,
0.2845909893512726,
0.5290728807449341,
-0.4891349673271179,
-0.35357651114463806,
0.5879883766174316,
-0.15347754955291748,
0.10361924767494202,
-0.7381173968315125,
0.21864652633666992,
0.9057672619819641,
-0.0024978958535939455,
-0.13178333640098572,
-0.16015112400054932,
0.36965706944465637,
0.45661336183547974,
0.5323827862739563,
-0.5321968793869019,
-0.012180713005363941,
-0.38609760999679565,
0.124052494764328,
-0.45584210753440857,
0.2933434545993805,
-0.10377608239650726,
0.43790102005004883,
-0.14883282780647278,
0.10178210586309433,
0.2798915207386017,
-0.1760474592447281,
0.409685879945755,
-0.27434730529785156,
0.059962037950754166,
-0.40586864948272705,
0.20179665088653564,
-0.18994297087192535,
0.3450172543525696,
-0.2915405333042145,
-0.07355797290802002,
0.071575827896595,
-0.37619638442993164,
-0.024439092725515366,
-0.06301961839199066,
-0.1213255375623703,
-0.0819583535194397,
-0.33235836029052734,
-0.21656717360019684,
-0.3753550052642822,
-0.47334128618240356,
-1.1211780309677124,
0.12790463864803314,
0.004716440569609404,
-0.794447124004364,
0.5400514602661133,
0.01487529557198286,
-0.021514393389225006,
0.2856464684009552,
-0.20876440405845642,
-0.4635355770587921,
-0.8562261462211609,
0.5872776508331299
] |
234924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohrdorf%2C%20Bavaria | Rohrdorf, Bavaria | Rohrdorf () is a municipality in the district of Rosenheim in Upper Bavaria, Germany. It is located in the Inn valley.
History
Rohrdorf was first mentioned in 788 in the notitia arnonis.
Evidence of prehistoric settlement in the village has been found.
During World War II, a subcamp of Dachau concentration camp was located here.
Twin towns
Rosate, Italy
Schattendorf, Austria
Tarnowo Podgórne, Poland
References
Rosenheim (district)
Populated places on the Inn (river) | [
-0.22297915816307068,
0.9246270656585693,
0.5231668949127197,
-0.4997105300426483,
-0.09094750881195068,
0.7058746218681335,
0.8211898803710938,
0.21651208400726318,
0.11471303552389145,
-0.5618380308151245,
-0.5605751276016235,
-0.5331286787986755,
0.21671316027641296,
0.4032938480377197,
-0.2094457596540451,
0.41604602336883545,
0.6085869669914246,
0.3714965283870697,
-0.004700906109064817,
-0.44419634342193604,
0.2524959444999695,
-0.6034184098243713,
0.04208458214998245,
0.5006682872772217,
-0.3206669092178345,
-0.14490003883838654,
0.20944207906723022,
0.03767615929245949,
0.014010747894644737,
-0.31232020258903503,
-0.282812237739563,
0.5674784779548645,
-0.12647894024848938,
-0.03276057541370392,
0.4581664204597473,
0.35673320293426514,
-0.011439329013228416,
-0.03961098939180374,
0.6855324506759644,
-0.12934154272079468,
-0.24567833542823792,
0.8200079202651978,
0.1689062863588333,
-0.5132014155387878,
0.16206499934196472,
-1.0675485134124756,
-1.346183180809021,
-0.10776855051517487,
-0.8857868909835815,
-0.07106892764568329,
-0.3823060393333435,
0.20884805917739868,
0.30204761028289795,
0.30062174797058105,
0.16195148229599,
0.16468040645122528,
-1.2842111587524414,
0.5896399617195129,
0.7859991788864136,
0.4146571755409241,
0.1431291103363037,
0.5072936415672302,
-0.5745675563812256,
-0.3023887276649475,
-0.03831489756703377,
0.12806467711925507,
-0.0072189499624073505,
0.19066691398620605,
0.15006376802921295,
-1.1850837469100952,
-0.9375075101852417,
-0.6024114489555359,
0.07070402055978775,
-0.06312970817089081,
0.04759993031620979,
-0.4445607364177704,
-0.722600519657135,
-0.26159700751304626,
-0.0799170657992363,
-0.6939066052436829,
0.20309941470623016,
-0.23984624445438385,
0.8718558549880981,
0.22880491614341736,
0.2956383228302002,
0.21194955706596375,
-0.5303986072540283,
-0.3500362038612366,
-0.36228638887405396,
0.3811435401439667,
-0.21799764037132263,
-0.08677321672439575,
-0.4920642375946045,
0.12866857647895813,
0.27113690972328186,
-0.23932597041130066,
-0.09256186336278915,
-0.10224355012178421,
0.28793099522590637,
0.6017270684242249,
-0.17496560513973236,
-0.033039744943380356,
1.09965181350708,
0.09313103556632996,
0.04111321642994881,
-0.045132827013731,
-0.46498245000839233,
-0.08668576180934906,
-0.1933159977197647,
-1.0739630460739136,
-0.6519771814346313,
0.7355844378471375,
-0.04430242255330086,
-0.4450506567955017,
-0.4944329857826233,
0.02280832827091217,
0.39626243710517883,
-0.11471512913703918,
-0.2462320476770401,
0.16600756347179413,
0.32424452900886536,
0.930838406085968,
-0.40457484126091003,
0.3174073398113251,
-0.1736002117395401,
0.2977754771709442,
-0.6596153974533081,
0.953201174736023,
-0.6627721190452576,
0.6717965006828308,
0.45751821994781494,
1.0162885189056396,
-0.3495890200138092,
-0.3767743706703186,
0.12198089808225632,
0.2496902346611023,
0.720377504825592,
-0.17275939881801605,
0.8081773519515991,
-0.015118143521249294,
-0.7311805486679077,
-0.3159087598323822,
-1.6397743225097656,
0.08233465254306793,
0.1083865761756897,
-0.13797585666179657,
-0.14053206145763397,
-0.7344931960105896,
0.5101534724235535,
-0.30942049622535706,
0.1233159601688385,
0.19442109763622284,
-0.47822415828704834,
0.08020449429750443,
-0.5282561182975769,
0.46490150690078735,
0.8123998641967773,
-0.11112206429243088,
0.16249047219753265,
0.3774184584617615,
0.877070963382721,
-0.9744930863380432,
0.31484508514404297,
-0.3934454619884491,
0.4442923367023468,
0.05458233132958412,
0.1825939118862152,
-0.10060706734657288,
-0.18850408494472504,
0.2577661871910095,
-0.931207537651062,
0.006193797569721937,
0.0062152668833732605,
-0.388450026512146,
0.5481624007225037,
-0.4932732880115509,
0.15005218982696533,
0.4824599623680115,
0.1300772726535797,
-0.058638330549001694,
-0.66493159532547,
0.5453333854675293,
-0.09779037535190582,
0.31076908111572266,
0.30171847343444824,
0.4090474545955658,
-0.4044862985610962,
-0.12425897270441055,
0.4541010856628418,
-0.27419576048851013,
0.21814551949501038,
-1.194774866104126,
1.0935112237930298,
0.21111862361431122,
1.400901436805725,
0.029742486774921417,
-0.2997353971004486,
-1.2542872428894043,
-0.43360623717308044,
0.48360902070999146,
-0.5732133388519287,
-0.7517757415771484,
0.42919015884399414,
-0.1008734405040741,
-0.5942519307136536,
1.354262351989746,
-0.4936792552471161,
-0.32551807165145874,
-0.18783888220787048,
0.5070087313652039,
0.3240518569946289,
0.16028347611427307,
-0.2080857902765274,
0.34177881479263306,
0.39570820331573486,
-0.718133270740509,
-0.5373231768608093,
-0.027686871588230133,
-0.4835672974586487,
-0.3453327715396881,
0.5231313109397888,
0.716948390007019,
0.018557466566562653,
0.6009273529052734,
-0.05770157650113106,
0.7330494523048401,
0.5386990904808044,
0.648097813129425,
-0.2132442146539688,
-1.0406910181045532,
0.772267758846283,
0.8316351175308228,
0.3444189429283142,
0.3333781063556671,
0.07319559156894684,
-0.32947444915771484,
0.03538200631737709,
-0.2987341582775116,
0.1636621057987213,
-0.6382049918174744,
0.22307443618774414,
-0.048810992389917374,
-0.23552531003952026,
-0.07578631490468979,
0.04794042184948921,
1.0948184728622437,
-0.1985989362001419,
0.11395817250013351,
-0.18914920091629028,
-0.853147566318512,
0.1916026622056961,
0.06923995167016983,
0.5041750073432922,
-0.5761527419090271,
-0.17775870859622955,
-0.37660059332847595,
-0.1951933652162552,
0.3312191963195801,
-0.2163354903459549,
0.49132058024406433,
0.23899224400520325,
-0.21084731817245483,
0.6530860066413879,
-0.36205819249153137,
-0.3987855911254883,
-0.21254698932170868,
0.06728845089673996,
-0.2637719213962555,
-0.12738068401813507,
0.12011664360761642,
-0.4883705973625183,
-0.4526863098144531,
-0.738998532295227,
-1.8892831802368164,
0.29924866557121277,
0.06931738555431366,
-0.6841086149215698,
0.45429909229278564,
-0.4556906819343567,
0.3996066153049469,
0.48796072602272034,
0.5099306702613831,
0.009934347122907639,
-0.22832639515399933,
-0.23171797394752502,
0.4694681763648987,
0.7965238690376282,
-0.2091055065393448,
-0.1025434359908104,
0.29470953345298767,
-0.1825854331254959,
0.23339582979679108,
-0.490050345659256,
0.36950868368148804,
0.3861568868160248,
-0.1858418583869934,
-0.468453049659729,
-0.3439587354660034,
0.38930967450141907,
0.03828340023756027,
-0.34454345703125,
0.35583925247192383,
-0.3411930799484253,
0.45432382822036743,
-1.1553853750228882,
-0.4894692897796631,
-0.5612303018569946,
-0.3656242787837982,
-3.74458384513855,
-0.18580520153045654,
-0.5707128643989563,
-0.10247226059436798,
-0.15672391653060913,
0.19989077746868134,
0.20583376288414001,
-0.12782049179077148,
-0.29595622420310974,
0.48030415177345276,
0.08352641016244888,
-0.9503084421157837,
-0.22050334513187408,
1.0281789302825928,
0.6161090135574341,
0.395016610622406,
0.04258880764245987,
0.1341935396194458,
-0.3626696467399597,
-0.6867420077323914,
0.4056214988231659,
0.3110053539276123,
0.3333677053451538,
0.2635611295700073,
0.24507807195186615,
0.45368319749832153,
0.36285677552223206,
-0.05661848932504654,
-0.8736797571182251,
-0.7168157696723938,
0.7011029124259949,
-0.052946921437978745,
-0.43498989939689636,
-0.03064388409256935,
-0.5995565056800842,
0.43077021837234497,
0.382572740316391,
0.3907509744167328,
0.9550189971923828,
-0.45853713154792786,
0.2689843773841858,
1.0590794086456299,
-0.17517302930355072,
0.09052108973264694,
0.785940408706665,
-0.17754754424095154,
-0.9596262574195862,
0.001383328577503562,
-0.3731091022491455,
1.275017261505127,
0.016972946003079414,
-0.3554399311542511,
1.4684453010559082,
0.23119449615478516,
0.4184224307537079,
-0.4991582930088043,
0.26435622572898865,
0.17734432220458984,
0.39705690741539,
1.110938549041748,
0.2776835560798645,
-0.1601649969816208,
0.2578677535057068,
-0.29418694972991943,
-0.1623774617910385,
-0.4607253968715668,
0.35809651017189026,
0.00039210414979606867,
0.21306362748146057,
0.13702987134456635,
0.015762727707624435,
0.7331148982048035,
-0.04956744238734245,
-0.3472355902194977,
-0.5613219141960144,
-0.8929185271263123,
-0.8030723929405212,
-0.621995747089386,
-0.2811272442340851,
-0.2950134873390198,
0.5572123527526855,
-0.6934274435043335,
0.29930487275123596,
0.6687377691268921,
0.11562050879001617,
0.13256129622459412,
-0.6116923093795776,
0.12200143933296204,
0.31110504269599915,
-0.45381271839141846,
0.25337812304496765,
-0.2731967568397522,
0.14993172883987427,
0.12095422297716141,
-0.763468325138092,
0.8766543865203857,
0.7173852920532227,
-0.9448993802070618,
-0.6575061678886414,
-0.34953853487968445,
0.07464214414358139,
-0.2385219782590866,
0.6195502877235413,
0.00625557079911232,
-0.9110747575759888,
-0.4943050742149353,
0.4629446864128113,
0.5285735130310059,
0.4135808050632477,
-0.06852562725543976,
-0.11053541302680969,
-0.10133758187294006,
-0.41408538818359375,
-0.8922461867332458,
0.5873681306838989,
-0.5838636159896851,
-0.7437202334403992,
1.0879993438720703,
0.09622153639793396,
0.27743664383888245,
0.4185373783111572,
-0.3767572343349457,
0.7826239466667175,
-0.8026524186134338,
-0.6768919825553894,
0.3525041341781616,
0.37960582971572876,
0.109433613717556,
-0.010461114346981049,
0.5995854735374451,
-0.44761011004447937,
0.03499864414334297,
-0.8475261926651001,
-0.8082767724990845,
0.03764193132519722,
-0.2767297625541687,
0.15929196774959564,
0.053434472531080246,
0.12830032408237457,
0.4957873225212097,
1.3439911603927612,
0.4824790060520172,
-0.46093881130218506,
0.33309870958328247,
-0.6757391095161438,
0.27905330061912537,
0.698412299156189,
0.12712982296943665,
-0.7527735233306885,
0.6960857510566711,
-0.8317246437072754,
-0.45318201184272766,
0.4938466250896454,
-0.7051372528076172,
0.3452157974243164,
0.4639723002910614,
0.17895744740962982,
0.7473127245903015,
0.1821291148662567,
-0.03737408667802811,
0.15431873500347137,
-0.25609585642814636,
-0.8049522638320923,
0.7888538241386414,
0.5566156506538391,
-0.050684042274951935,
-0.6034027338027954,
-0.047525037080049515,
-0.8438299894332886,
0.6799261569976807,
0.5224205255508423,
-0.5380316376686096,
-0.6969876885414124,
0.1736868917942047,
-0.05544452741742134,
-0.5052589178085327,
-0.4436209797859192,
0.17537513375282288,
0.01890629716217518,
-0.6015583872795105,
-0.2829553782939911,
0.012959374114871025,
-0.5567313432693481,
0.2697177529335022,
-0.002455455018207431,
-0.44544413685798645,
-0.28083938360214233,
0.16147086024284363,
-0.39290520548820496,
-0.47100135684013367,
0.31284981966018677,
-0.37586453557014465,
0.058235958218574524,
-0.22881841659545898,
0.014084497466683388,
-1.6516727209091187,
0.43490204215049744,
-0.7846813201904297,
-0.48017075657844543,
-0.4635249972343445,
0.35261788964271545,
0.554175615310669,
-0.3630380630493164,
1.1731306314468384,
0.11787806451320648,
-0.6906353235244751,
0.5803635716438293,
1.2738018035888672,
0.035059139132499695,
0.8632799983024597,
-0.8610784411430359,
-0.6255404353141785,
0.15917830169200897,
0.6759058833122253,
-0.42419159412384033,
0.2633516788482666,
-0.1575772613286972,
-0.22272387146949768,
-1.3102459907531738,
-0.012949037365615368,
-0.7716896533966064,
-0.44864770770072937,
-0.3479140102863312,
-0.17858462035655975,
-1.1343859434127808,
-0.15469007194042206,
-0.08861235529184341,
-0.3124902844429016,
0.9143500328063965,
-0.526106595993042,
0.2432854324579239,
0.11960199475288391,
1.0136585235595703,
-0.18551422655582428,
0.0345812551677227,
0.018982207402586937,
-0.20059029757976532,
0.49360376596450806,
0.20463839173316956,
0.1251097470521927,
0.3213490843772888,
0.47602328658103943,
0.8402107954025269,
-0.265329509973526,
0.17216160893440247,
-0.1912483125925064,
0.5249072313308716,
-0.3591901957988739,
-0.8078495860099792,
0.40108805894851685,
0.21513338387012482,
0.22189664840698242,
-0.8463703989982605,
-0.16064026951789856,
0.7832130789756775,
0.042755015194416046,
-0.25957047939300537,
1.0783764123916626,
0.7077571153640747,
0.38559362292289734,
-0.01189145166426897,
0.1397523283958435,
0.3216010332107544,
0.1283053457736969,
0.095839723944664,
0.09177467226982117,
0.04766426607966423,
-0.3375183641910553,
0.6092855334281921,
0.011021779850125313,
-0.6594698429107666,
-0.23966644704341888,
-0.24487651884555817,
0.026888689026236534,
-0.24803473055362701,
0.4328085780143738,
-0.8164637088775635,
-0.8126347064971924,
-0.11665002256631851,
-0.5796334743499756,
0.8274689316749573,
0.6016004085540771,
0.3843953609466553,
-0.3503929376602173,
0.050884731113910675,
-0.31303924322128296,
-0.780128538608551,
0.008850310929119587,
-0.6249613165855408,
0.3730334937572479,
-0.33666855096817017,
-0.19401414692401886,
-0.34921327233314514,
0.1350509077310562,
0.7849984765052795,
-0.0515526607632637,
0.2280990332365036,
-0.05294322222471237,
-0.5087034106254578,
-0.021365471184253693,
-0.583662211894989,
0.23322172462940216,
0.11407341063022614,
-0.12835045158863068,
0.6837350726127625,
0.47976499795913696,
-0.6997314691543579,
-0.017405221238732338,
-0.3327646553516388,
0.2855490446090698,
0.2566596269607544,
-1.0212595462799072,
-0.07783131301403046,
1.2140525579452515,
-0.17828944325447083,
1.2611011266708374,
0.4169568717479706,
-0.20804347097873688,
-0.4363316595554352,
0.37918829917907715,
0.26939547061920166,
-0.20066851377487183,
1.3303533792495728,
0.87000972032547,
0.15328316390514374,
0.8555955290794373,
0.2746894657611847,
-0.034554529935121536,
0.5237512588500977,
0.09837232530117035,
-0.29820311069488525,
0.25709018111228943,
-0.5592973828315735,
0.16753247380256653,
-0.747864842414856,
-0.31340280175209045,
-0.16130957007408142,
-0.33815324306488037,
-0.04150434583425522,
-0.41271084547042847,
0.03500981256365776,
1.1649259328842163,
-0.1589256078004837,
-0.2839776873588562,
0.10679293423891068,
0.48240888118743896,
-0.5109577178955078,
-0.23485007882118225,
0.49177131056785583,
-0.32789161801338196,
0.036382317543029785,
-0.20197096467018127,
0.06111564859747887,
-0.38670504093170166,
-0.02243465930223465,
0.6267483234405518,
0.44696393609046936,
-0.48962023854255676,
-0.047181129455566406,
-0.8616588115692139,
0.4857963025569916,
-1.082016944885254,
0.009897228330373764,
0.020983366295695305,
-0.6140430569648743,
-0.5331794619560242,
-0.27015048265457153,
0.04000033810734749,
-0.22382356226444244,
0.36480629444122314,
0.07214093953371048,
-0.07241105288267136,
0.32901811599731445,
-0.46793249249458313,
0.7629508972167969,
-0.4240429997444153,
0.2671980559825897,
-0.21576422452926636,
-0.2348661571741104,
0.6523164510726929,
-0.04658324271440506,
0.29331761598587036,
-0.6441303491592407,
0.35980185866355896,
0.2205798625946045,
0.16080394387245178,
0.13026584684848785,
-0.29781031608581543,
1.014039158821106,
-0.5841850638389587,
0.30224981904029846,
0.048440299928188324,
-0.060950614511966705,
0.206837996840477,
-0.5712736248970032,
-0.1390397846698761,
-0.6697310209274292,
0.48339322209358215,
0.28990060091018677,
0.05688532814383507,
0.3145025074481964,
0.5603387355804443,
-0.3432595133781433,
0.2227332592010498,
-0.13645005226135254,
0.17528191208839417,
-0.755035936832428,
0.23203453421592712,
-0.5349978804588318,
0.6585153341293335,
0.4604167938232422,
0.2933442294597626,
0.08829635381698608,
0.761996865272522,
-0.09858904778957367,
0.044834963977336884,
0.6899236440658569,
-0.08753620088100433,
-0.03911368548870087,
0.5735588073730469,
0.7877979874610901,
-0.008571053855121136,
0.31387194991111755,
-0.1853216141462326,
0.1732243150472641,
0.06369077414274216,
0.11185995489358902,
-0.45760390162467957,
0.36868834495544434,
0.22092336416244507,
-0.14750517904758453,
0.038346949964761734,
-0.5230661630630493,
0.013909701257944107,
-0.4071979522705078,
0.250347375869751,
0.21843236684799194,
0.8389745354652405,
0.29071590304374695,
-0.29569289088249207,
-0.87954181432724,
-0.28387004137039185,
0.5923880338668823,
0.33409711718559265,
-3.8066956996917725,
0.6602746248245239,
-0.9912335276603699,
-0.736895740032196,
-0.06908749043941498,
0.352403461933136,
-0.26326099038124084,
-0.48866742849349976,
0.19209131598472595,
-0.33708131313323975,
-0.05724773183465004,
0.7221024036407471,
-0.4729132354259491,
-0.8044857382774353,
0.7772063612937927,
-0.24635224044322968
] |
234930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Standard%20Serial%20Number | International Standard Serial Number | An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication, such as a magazine. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title. ISSNs are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature.
The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) international standard in 1971 and published as ISO 3297 in 1975. ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for maintaining the standard.
When a serial with the same content is published in more than one media type, a different ISSN is assigned to each media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media. The ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN (p-ISSN) and electronic ISSN (e-ISSN), respectively. Consequently, as defined in ISO 3297:2007, every serial in the ISSN system is also assigned a linking ISSN (ISSN-L), typically the same as the ISSN assigned to the serial in its first published medium, which links together all ISSNs assigned to the serial in every medium.
Code format
The format of the ISSN is an eight-digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers. As an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the general form of the ISSN code (also named "ISSN structure" or "ISSN syntax") can be expressed as follows:
where N is in the set {0,1,2,...,9}, a digit character, and C is in {0,1,2,...,9,X};
or by a Perl Compatible Regular Expressions (PCRE) regular expression:
.
For example, the ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, that is C=5. To calculate the check digit, the following algorithm may be used:
The sum of the first seven digits of the ISSN is calculated and multiplied by its position in the number, counting from the right, that is, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2, respectively:
The modulus 11 of this sum is then calculated; the remainder is determined after dividing the sum by 11:
If there is no remainder the check digit is 0, otherwise the remainder value is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit:
5 is the check digit, C.
For calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10 (like a Roman ten).
To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, counting from the right (if the check digit is X, then add 10 to the sum). The modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, based on the above algorithm.
In EANs
ISSNs can be encoded in EAN-13 bar codes with a 977 "country code" (compare the 978 country code ("bookland") for ISBNs), followed by the 7 main digits of the ISSN (the check digit is not included), followed by 2 publisher-defined digits, followed by the EAN check digit (which need not match the ISSN check digit).
Code assignment, maintenance and look-up
ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an intergovernmental organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government.
Linking ISSN
ISSN-L is a unique identifier for all versions of the serial containing the same content across different media. As defined by ISO 3297:2007, the "linking ISSN (ISSN-L)" provides a mechanism for collocation or linking among the different media versions of the same continuing resource. The ISSN-L is one of a serial's existing ISSNs, so does not change the use or assignment of "ordinary" ISSNs; it is based on the ISSN of the first published medium version of the publication. If the print and online versions of the publication are published at the same time, the ISSN of the print version is chosen as the basis of the ISSN-L.
With ISSN-L is possible to designate one single ISSN for all those media versions of the title. The use of ISSN-L facilitates search, retrieval and delivery across all media versions for services like OpenURL, library catalogues, search engines or knowledge bases.
Register
The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, the ISDS Register (International Serials Data System), otherwise known as the ISSN Register. the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. The Register is not freely available for interrogation on the web, but is available by subscription.
The print version of a serial typically will include the ISSN code as part of the publication information.
Most serial websites contain ISSN code information.
Derivative lists of publications will often contain ISSN codes; these can be found through on-line searches with the ISSN code itself or serial title.
WorldCat permits searching its catalog by ISSN, by entering "issn:" before the code in the query field. One can also go directly to an ISSN's record by appending it to "", e.g. https://www.worldcat.org/ISSN/1021-9749. This does not query the ISSN Register itself, but rather shows whether any Worldcat library holds an item with the given ISSN.
Comparison with other identifiers
ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books. An ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an anonymous identifier associated with a serial title, containing no information as to the publisher or its location. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change.
Extensions
Since the ISSN applies to an entire serial a new identifier, other identifiers have been built on top of it to allow references to specific volumes, articles, or other identifiable components (like the table of contents): the Publisher Item Identifier (PII) and the Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI).
Media versus content
Separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media (except reproduction microforms). Thus, the print and electronic media versions of a serial need separate ISSNs, and CD-ROM versions and web versions require different ISSNs. However, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats (e.g. PDF and HTML) of the same online serial.
This "media-oriented identification" of serials made sense in the 1970s. In the 1990s and onward, with personal computers, better screens, and the Web, it makes sense to consider only content, independent of media. This "content-oriented identification" of serials was a repressed demand during a decade, but no ISSN update or initiative occurred. A natural extension for ISSN, the unique-identification of the articles in the serials, was the main demand application. An alternative serials' contents model arrived with the indecs Content Model and its application, the digital object identifier (DOI), an ISSN-independent initiative, consolidated in the 2000s.
Only later, in 2007, ISSN-L was defined in the new ISSN standard (ISO 3297:2007) as an "ISSN designated by the ISSN Network to enable collocation or versions of a continuing resource linking among the different media".
Use in URNs
An ISSN can be encoded as a uniform resource name (URN) by prefixing it with "". For example, Rail could be referred to as "". URN namespaces are case-sensitive, and the ISSN namespace is all caps. If the checksum digit is "X" then it is always encoded in uppercase in a URN.
Problems
The URNs are content-oriented, but ISSN is media-oriented:
ISSN is not unique when the concept is "a journal is a set of contents, generally copyrighted content": the same journal (same contents and same copyrights) may have two or more ISSN codes. A URN needs to point to "unique content" (a "unique journal" as a "set of contents" reference).
Example: Nature has an ISSN for print, 0028-0836, and another for the same content on the Web, 1476-4687; only the oldest (0028-0836) is used as a unique identifier. As the ISSN is not unique, the U.S. National Library of Medicine needed to create, prior to 2007, the NLM Unique ID (JID).
ISSN does not offer resolution mechanisms like a digital object identifier (DOI) or a URN does, so the DOI is used as a URN for articles, with (for historical reasons) no need for an ISSN's existence.
Example: the DOI name "10.1038/nature13777" can be represented as an HTTP string by https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13777, and is redirected (resolved) to the current article's page; but there is no ISSN online service, like http://dx.issn.org/, to resolve the ISSN of the journal (in this sample 1476-4687).
A unique URN for serials simplifies the search, recovery and delivery of data for various services including, in particular, search systems and knowledge databases. ISSN-L (see Linking ISSN above) was created to fill this gap.
Media category labels
The two standard categories of media in which serials are most available are print and electronic. In metadata contexts (e.g., JATS), these may have standard labels.
Print ISSN
p-ISSN is a standard label for "Print ISSN", the ISSN for the print media (paper) version of a serial. Usually it is the "default media" and so the "default ISSN".
Electronic ISSN
e-ISSN (or eISSN) is a standard label for "Electronic ISSN", the ISSN for the electronic media (online) version of a serial.
ROAD
(est. 2013), produced by the ISSN International Centre and UNESCO
See also
CODEN
WorldCat—an ISSN-resolve service
References
External links
ISSN International Centre
ISSN Portal
List of 63800 ISSN numbers and titles
.
.
.
Checksum algorithms
ISO standards
Library science
Serial numbers
Unique identifiers | [
0.10395070165395737,
0.37787386775016785,
0.11999896168708801,
0.2490038424730301,
-0.12284861505031586,
-0.021171631291508675,
-0.27206191420555115,
0.3166070878505707,
-0.6358031034469604,
0.19354909658432007,
-0.3960777819156647,
0.08493045717477798,
-0.1576332300901413,
0.6329330205917358,
0.25382187962532043,
0.1770833432674408,
0.07375558465719223,
0.7077460885047913,
-0.47739875316619873,
-0.26070284843444824,
-0.3247561454772949,
0.1056109294295311,
0.2581653594970703,
-0.7139751315116882,
0.09563855826854706,
-0.12442750483751297,
-0.14424265921115875,
-0.1454888880252838,
-0.3124283254146576,
-0.1621362268924713,
0.34044143557548523,
0.10485189408063889,
0.18660952150821686,
0.4798049330711365,
0.5842077732086182,
0.003169257426634431,
-0.0603414922952652,
-0.18688243627548218,
-0.16776689887046814,
-0.9563050270080566,
-0.1255684494972229,
-0.46607527136802673,
0.009553885087370872,
0.0662284567952156,
-0.2812028229236603,
-0.9194163680076599,
-1.2880158424377441,
0.3108622431755066,
-0.3198705017566681,
0.3566027283668518,
-0.37349793314933777,
0.5442680716514587,
0.20117953419685364,
0.4638952612876892,
0.2653522491455078,
0.5647047758102417,
-0.44071292877197266,
-0.24265149235725403,
0.2395322471857071,
-0.5251052379608154,
0.8511624932289124,
-0.6033095121383667,
0.16962163150310516,
0.26327791810035706,
0.6138147711753845,
0.6198439002037048,
0.15247571468353271,
0.21405039727687836,
-0.6091039180755615,
-0.23884546756744385,
-0.5829379558563232,
-0.6996058821678162,
-0.11694202572107315,
0.25698086619377136,
-0.37676745653152466,
-0.3187480866909027,
-0.03789779543876648,
-0.41970404982566833,
-0.36869028210639954,
0.47903579473495483,
-0.14324456453323364,
0.6467270255088806,
0.3344763517379761,
0.0715714693069458,
0.5028596520423889,
0.1708299070596695,
-0.9913254976272583,
0.06144944950938225,
0.054914671927690506,
0.20590056478977203,
0.22660963237285614,
0.05482781305909157,
0.8063206672668457,
0.12524107098579407,
-0.18979863822460175,
0.033397454768419266,
-0.3725033402442932,
-0.26393643021583557,
-0.01594698615372181,
0.299379825592041,
0.5025742053985596,
-0.13099148869514465,
0.5466789603233337,
-0.3973417282104492,
-0.8966178297996521,
-0.23049429059028625,
-0.26220014691352844,
-0.19717302918434143,
0.8752522468566895,
-0.18451066315174103,
-0.6490530371665955,
-0.3618137538433075,
-0.4649430513381958,
-0.2054063230752945,
-0.26883241534233093,
0.21755287051200867,
0.23964886367321014,
-0.09459889680147171,
-0.03522690385580063,
-0.06344445049762726,
-0.33329567313194275,
0.024576935917139053,
0.26432114839553833,
0.08099900931119919,
0.2969605028629303,
0.25403907895088196,
0.029268410056829453,
0.5677603483200073,
-0.6459857821464539,
0.3019416928291321,
-0.6444105505943298,
0.9787390232086182,
-0.18656517565250397,
-0.15641513466835022,
-0.23062460124492645,
-0.06655923277139664,
-0.08922606706619263,
0.4236273765563965,
0.2945577800273895,
-0.1832556426525116,
-0.5856305360794067,
-0.5507992506027222,
-0.17578066885471344,
-0.43135520815849304,
-0.12327884137630463,
-0.31130024790763855,
-0.010471859015524387,
-0.38872504234313965,
-0.2837468385696411,
-0.40968453884124756,
0.04636232554912567,
-0.775213360786438,
-0.12980856001377106,
0.27077364921569824,
-0.07728193700313568,
-0.2285967618227005,
0.4386090636253357,
0.20377613604068756,
0.011286244727671146,
-0.2708960175514221,
-0.11638782173395157,
0.017845528200268745,
-0.7810655832290649,
0.473603218793869,
-0.05252538621425629,
-0.25461336970329285,
0.4552030563354492,
0.4580307602882385,
0.30482515692710876,
-0.14995244145393372,
-0.1447296291589737,
-0.2527507543563843,
0.3073212206363678,
-0.030482079833745956,
-0.6796818971633911,
0.4518696665763855,
0.712081253528595,
0.21203236281871796,
0.7623797655105591,
-0.3260273337364197,
-0.7725328803062439,
0.49859094619750977,
-0.05784504488110542,
0.6209535598754883,
0.08997491747140884,
-0.15289363265037537,
0.17970365285873413,
-0.06570101529359818,
-0.42305517196655273,
0.2432645559310913,
-0.2728040814399719,
-0.04926347732543945,
-0.12985967099666595,
-0.7212170958518982,
0.7056868076324463,
-0.39772456884384155,
0.08085919916629791,
1.1197980642318726,
-0.8376600742340088,
0.39417174458503723,
0.12566818296909332,
0.30354878306388855,
0.6781497001647949,
0.06685955077409744,
-0.29618576169013977,
0.357820063829422,
0.25438740849494934,
0.5418400168418884,
-0.22781157493591309,
0.20327697694301605,
0.7143861055374146,
-0.602573573589325,
0.54230797290802,
-0.5175150036811829,
0.22532422840595245,
-0.06856673955917358,
-0.4134054183959961,
0.3688635528087616,
-0.3464767336845398,
0.0014678300358355045,
1.3580200672149658,
-0.501150369644165,
-0.27007636427879333,
0.5312270522117615,
-0.26242849230766296,
0.24562326073646545,
0.1758086085319519,
0.5686943531036377,
0.5522090196609497,
-0.7869280576705933,
0.6678735017776489,
-0.6078028678894043,
0.5362753868103027,
-0.0037551529239863157,
-0.3362710773944855,
-0.12410521507263184,
-0.1484227031469345,
-0.3223112225532532,
0.6317857503890991,
-0.5549594759941101,
0.1763407289981842,
0.48313552141189575,
-0.12186729907989502,
0.10584909468889236,
0.6293321847915649,
-0.17244493961334229,
-0.12289056181907654,
-0.17494064569473267,
0.05108373984694481,
0.3910284638404846,
0.45100855827331543,
0.03582293167710304,
0.23988810181617737,
0.19312115013599396,
-0.13253578543663025,
-0.15204133093357086,
-0.015610945411026478,
0.4194253981113434,
0.3923882246017456,
-0.03921995684504509,
-0.11424204707145691,
-0.23634953796863556,
0.11470065265893936,
-0.20844238996505737,
-0.3913213014602661,
-0.14417383074760437,
-0.36082759499549866,
-0.6754571199417114,
0.27792856097221375,
0.3944733440876007,
0.3057991862297058,
0.6689314842224121,
-0.6047754883766174,
-0.028682410717010498,
-0.5716949105262756,
-0.18195436894893646,
0.48779645562171936,
0.4563016891479492,
-0.6225710511207581,
-0.18881061673164368,
-0.2456761598587036,
-0.38858669996261597,
0.5289075374603271,
-0.99405437707901,
0.1192093938589096,
-0.7083972692489624,
-0.36561936140060425,
-0.3621402978897095,
0.10198952257633209,
-0.7435906529426575,
-0.7059723138809204,
0.1112431064248085,
-0.016649330034852028,
0.3427816927433014,
0.9265096783638,
0.07214578986167908,
0.3277231454849243,
0.11341690272092819,
0.3624648153781891,
-0.34054094552993774,
-0.4256000220775604,
0.20943549275398254,
-0.3501981496810913,
-0.1930360347032547,
-0.35406336188316345,
0.01228385791182518,
0.1789238601922989,
0.4361913800239563,
-5.586572170257568,
0.7270238995552063,
-0.7516509294509888,
-0.3403627574443817,
-0.6482288837432861,
0.3516969382762909,
1.1414408683776855,
0.19077050685882568,
-0.47706931829452515,
-0.4075448215007782,
-0.20229828357696533,
0.02338056080043316,
0.3462464213371277,
0.36727410554885864,
-0.10096924006938934,
0.592725932598114,
0.3664265275001526,
0.11657598614692688,
-0.08267869800329208,
0.3683781921863556,
0.14288467168807983,
-0.34996989369392395,
0.25160229206085205,
0.18894413113594055,
0.5271304249763489,
0.35114786028862,
-0.3219612240791321,
-0.061098452657461166,
-0.3307076394557953,
0.5344770550727844,
0.2973349094390869,
-0.3671330213546753,
-0.21381939947605133,
-0.6912947297096252,
-0.1628517061471939,
-0.37704211473464966,
0.9816828370094299,
0.19170355796813965,
-0.1299927830696106,
-0.13539177179336548,
-0.04000677168369293,
0.4818585216999054,
0.472935289144516,
-0.05448351427912712,
0.7584702372550964,
-0.08770168572664261,
-0.2511902153491974,
-0.005888461135327816,
-0.6912766695022583,
0.3483154773712158,
-0.46058234572410583,
0.36268988251686096,
0.06290808320045471,
-0.13227470219135284,
-0.015276184305548668,
0.2405196577310562,
0.2599615752696991,
-0.2638872563838959,
-0.613407552242279,
-0.736708402633667,
0.11037369072437286,
-0.41384509205818176,
-0.2247304618358612,
-0.3939599394798279,
-0.7713392376899719,
-0.4246561825275421,
-0.748084545135498,
-0.5527783036231995,
0.28779137134552,
0.4787423610687256,
-0.4160673916339874,
0.2364707887172699,
0.24417813122272491,
-0.40557774901390076,
-0.08368733525276184,
-0.6511470675468445,
0.5347658395767212,
0.6134771108627319,
-0.5153861045837402,
-0.15698406100273132,
-0.13186179101467133,
-0.16916462779045105,
-1.114290714263916,
0.5076136589050293,
-0.010435952804982662,
-0.5656333565711975,
0.03213651478290558,
0.17633673548698425,
0.07181431353092194,
-0.10275643318891525,
0.9758924841880798,
0.062479011714458466,
-0.01899106055498123,
0.08098957687616348,
0.267943799495697,
-0.3418169319629669,
0.28485044836997986,
0.13930051028728485,
0.38539278507232666,
-0.42065972089767456,
0.23637863993644714,
-0.302051305770874,
-0.27392059564590454,
-1.2831783294677734,
-0.4683094620704651,
-0.1543342024087906,
-0.7686014175415039,
-0.03267310932278633,
0.7008588910102844,
-0.3226822316646576,
-0.6248510479927063,
0.10448487848043442,
-0.5787014961242676,
-0.8543297648429871,
-0.03087509796023369,
-0.4995398223400116,
0.041278425604104996,
0.6300082802772522,
0.12630225718021393,
-0.3435022234916687,
-0.07582144439220428,
0.7926573753356934,
-0.1355361044406891,
-0.29132241010665894,
-0.35590696334838867,
0.05128122866153717,
-0.35475075244903564,
0.15362975001335144,
0.07058688253164291,
-0.4958861172199249,
0.04262764751911163,
0.5509724020957947,
-0.35519227385520935,
-0.12161284685134888,
-0.19663016498088837,
0.19184672832489014,
-0.5600652098655701,
0.1482905000448227,
0.034595392644405365,
-0.632904052734375,
0.43280982971191406,
-0.3141441345214844,
0.012831931933760643,
-0.06198980659246445,
0.7613029479980469,
0.2293805629014969,
-0.03141436725854874,
-0.04396973177790642,
-0.4355667233467102,
0.5323953032493591,
0.1864292025566101,
-0.5732935667037964,
0.4063725173473358,
0.3125343918800354,
-0.22459225356578827,
0.31478771567344666,
0.46994486451148987,
0.7797338366508484,
-0.27777424454689026,
-0.1350719928741455,
0.04363267496228218,
0.12872819602489471,
-0.19258971512317657,
-0.4745885133743286,
0.6403921246528625,
-0.08147495239973068,
-0.3479820489883423,
0.2487802803516388,
-0.0754891186952591,
1.1484293937683105,
-0.20462797582149506,
-0.16754668951034546,
-0.3411129415035248,
-0.36497336626052856,
0.0877995565533638,
0.5293670892715454,
0.006254774518311024,
0.302882581949234,
0.08425404131412506,
0.586993932723999,
0.5466316342353821,
-0.819155216217041,
-0.448643296957016,
0.7144425511360168,
0.3432193398475647,
0.2887341380119324,
0.3447895050048828,
0.09406055510044098,
-0.19510017335414886,
-0.4407550096511841,
0.2618464529514313,
-0.29299283027648926,
0.3795599639415741,
-0.42160356044769287,
-0.4928761422634125,
-0.8569096922874451,
-0.3228628933429718,
0.660908043384552,
0.0435711070895195,
-0.20578652620315552,
0.31794047355651855,
0.5365369319915771,
-0.7417234778404236,
-0.1742931306362152,
-0.27124136686325073,
-0.29456648230552673,
0.5952672958374023,
-0.7230230569839478,
-0.34052133560180664,
0.42558783292770386,
-0.4033888876438141,
-0.608525812625885,
-0.13112962245941162,
0.2908172607421875,
-0.24345645308494568,
0.49180224537849426,
0.05266445875167847,
-0.1585509479045868,
-0.0421648845076561,
-0.4044932425022125,
0.3437391519546509,
0.43231043219566345,
0.22009901702404022,
-0.13656100630760193,
0.16191953420639038,
0.4765825569629669,
0.4657014310359955,
-0.07512571662664413,
0.2484712153673172,
-0.12489284574985504,
-0.25100013613700867,
-0.49682414531707764,
0.10262458771467209,
-0.2244388461112976,
-0.19253858923912048,
-0.03382589668035507,
-0.567954421043396,
-0.3168830871582031,
-0.011595639400184155,
0.47455108165740967,
0.12264421582221985,
0.6111249923706055,
0.07232778519392014,
-0.313747763633728,
-0.23028230667114258,
0.3060995936393738,
0.5713222622871399,
-0.5796939730644226,
-0.6143853068351746,
0.08615121245384216,
-0.10114559531211853,
-0.2161276787519455,
-1.177725076675415,
-0.31129157543182373,
0.9233754277229309,
0.3995303511619568,
0.34619206190109253,
0.10982078313827515,
-0.18568456172943115,
0.2297353297472,
-0.0006034813122823834,
-0.1455279439687729,
-0.2389795482158661,
0.3963637351989746,
0.5315629839897156,
0.5768694281578064,
-0.596771240234375,
0.3399845063686371,
0.4356258511543274,
-0.37748703360557556,
-0.18892332911491394,
0.07609643042087555,
1.2034262418746948,
0.5574899315834045,
0.333534300327301,
-0.023114686831831932,
0.21986161172389984,
-0.002426601480692625,
-0.2786816954612732,
-0.01903083547949791,
0.04538016393780708,
0.057423125952482224,
0.5626131892204285,
-0.22463613748550415,
0.25051572918891907,
-0.24053692817687988,
0.4975622594356537,
0.24317343533039093,
-0.5061489343643188,
0.09600488096475601,
-0.4842109680175781,
0.2843063175678253,
-0.39473167061805725,
0.7508699893951416,
-0.31892019510269165,
-0.1346275508403778,
0.3137577474117279,
0.6670781373977661,
0.22344256937503815,
0.07455934584140778,
-0.33715173602104187,
0.9627806544303894,
0.5264593362808228,
-1.1097112894058228,
0.30347785353660583,
0.01614810898900032,
-0.1750698983669281,
-0.1667771190404892,
0.09765814989805222,
-0.285494327545166,
-0.028910456225275993,
-0.35734304785728455,
0.36231303215026855,
0.5673643350601196,
0.1409834623336792,
-0.40466514229774475,
0.4674288332462311,
-0.3068103492259979,
-0.25274214148521423,
-0.18771593272686005,
0.27588874101638794,
0.0019214681815356016,
0.42586860060691833,
-0.075966015458107,
-0.7143316864967346,
0.17561624944210052,
-0.3175358474254608,
-0.2030077874660492,
-0.20602940022945404,
-0.06762008368968964,
0.7953864336013794,
0.00351265212520957,
-0.18298839032649994,
0.03491940721869469,
-0.7185958027839661,
-0.6575782299041748,
0.039871733635663986,
-0.3902779221534729,
-0.3608638346195221,
0.9320248365402222,
0.7946041226387024,
0.6017313599586487,
-0.10020234435796738,
-0.024568287655711174,
-0.06317169219255447,
0.4584544599056244,
-0.1576899141073227,
0.24541644752025604,
0.22649189829826355,
0.048935987055301666,
0.32632970809936523,
0.3459506630897522,
0.28943052887916565,
0.001037113950587809,
-0.0893295630812645,
-0.3329344093799591,
-0.20637661218643188,
-0.5355203151702881,
0.22064873576164246,
-0.414264053106308,
-0.4092138707637787,
0.830631673336029,
0.3694751560688019,
-0.055241551250219345,
-0.02310381457209587,
0.2370591014623642,
0.4024498760700226,
-0.5964101552963257,
0.4438645541667938,
-0.18095903098583221,
0.22241051495075226,
0.17423498630523682,
-0.19860883057117462,
0.16571980714797974,
-0.13365024328231812,
0.10986590385437012,
0.32875335216522217,
0.5581322908401489,
-0.47678497433662415,
-0.05341542884707451,
-0.5418174266815186,
-0.17907166481018066,
0.0072914231568574905,
-0.6396284103393555,
0.18012329936027527,
-0.16722145676612854,
-0.07269719988107681,
-0.008499040268361568,
0.019376549869775772,
0.3752090632915497,
0.11780697107315063,
-0.610109269618988,
0.08181769400835037,
-0.39481860399246216,
-0.1323920637369156,
0.04122983291745186,
-0.1778111606836319,
0.8153056502342224,
0.43928349018096924,
0.22792387008666992,
-0.41429492831230164,
-0.6601572036743164,
0.37039992213249207,
-0.4848704934120178,
-0.45375630259513855,
0.853645384311676,
0.14210504293441772,
0.45993053913116455,
-0.5441821217536926,
0.07630287855863571,
0.743148922920227,
-0.1068672463297844,
0.3299151360988617,
0.43845340609550476,
-0.34907785058021545,
0.2660079896450043,
0.11385075747966766,
-0.43447017669677734,
0.13896463811397552,
-0.5249947905540466,
-0.18150992691516876,
0.24042272567749023,
0.1338798701763153,
-0.17553143203258514,
-0.5766097903251648,
0.13197997212409973,
0.6207468509674072,
0.0679038017988205,
-0.0062548378482460976,
0.31446361541748047,
-0.8052462935447693,
0.20654843747615814,
-0.2714139223098755,
0.35501787066459656,
-0.7059059143066406,
0.3083481192588806,
0.2440752387046814,
0.4997153580188751,
-0.1335393190383911,
0.04874473065137863,
0.5204671025276184,
0.17413505911827087,
-0.1913895457983017,
0.2497044801712036,
0.2153056114912033,
0.3137321472167969,
-0.94297856092453,
-0.2656978964805603,
-0.5379475951194763,
0.12272880971431732,
0.4693569242954254,
-0.45827293395996094,
0.7922025322914124,
-0.054353002458810806,
0.045789510011672974,
-0.04123160243034363,
0.12664927542209625,
-0.5163758993148804,
0.5680662989616394,
0.7576219439506531
] |
234931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine-et-Oise | Seine-et-Oise | Seine-et-Oise () was the former department of France encompassing the western, northern, and southern parts of the metropolitan area of Paris. Its prefecture (capital) was Versailles and its number was 78. Seine-et-Oise was disbanded in 1968 as part of the reorganization of the departments of the Paris metropolitan area.
General characteristics
Seine-et-Oise was created on 4 March 1790. Its name comes from the two main rivers (Seine River and Oise River) flowing through it.
At its deletion in 1968, Seine-et-Oise consisted of 688 suburban and rural communes completely surrounding the Seine department, although it was at its narrowest just east of Seine between that department and the Seine-et-Marne department, which still exists today. It had an area of 5,658 km² (2,184 sq. miles). The division of Seine-et-Oise into arrondissements changed many times. At its dissolution it had ten arrondissements: Argenteuil, Étampes, Mantes, Montmorency, Palaiseau, Pontoise, Le Raincy, Rambouillet, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and Versailles.
Division
At the first French census in 1801, Seine-et-Oise had 421,535 inhabitants. With the growth of the Paris suburbs, the population of Seine-et-Oise increased markedly, and by 1968 it had reached 2,943,350 inhabitants. It was judged that Seine-et-Oise, along with several other departments in the Paris metropolitan area, was now too large and ungovernable. On 1 January 1968, it was split into three smaller departments: Yvelines, Val-d'Oise, and Essonne. A small part of Seine-et-Oise was also merged with parts of the Seine department (also disbanded on the same date) to create the three new departments of Hauts-de-Seine, Val-de-Marne, and Seine-Saint-Denis.
In detail, the splitting up of the Seine-et-Oise department was carried out thus: 262 communes in the central part of the department became the Yvelines department, with Versailles as the prefecture. The official number 78, which was used for Seine-et-Oise, was given to the new Yvelines department, which is the largest of the three (40% of the area of Seine-et-Oise). There were 198 communes in the south of Seine-et-Oise (32% of the area of Seine-et-Oise) that became part of the Essonne department, and the official number 91 was assigned to this department, a number that had been previously used for the Alger department in French Algeria). There were 184 communes in the north of Seine-et-Oise (22% of the area of Seine-et-Oise) that became part of the Val-d'Oise department, and the official number 95 was assigned to this department, a number that had never been used.
Of the remaining 6% of Seine-et-Oise, 18 communes were grouped with 29 communes of the Seine department to create the Val-de-Marne department, 16 communes of Seine-et-Oise were grouped with 24 communes of the Seine department to create the Seine-Saint-Denis department, and the last 9 communes of Seine-et-Oise were grouped with 27 communes of the Seine department to create the Hauts-de-Seine department .
Thus, Yvelines, Val-d'Oise, and Essonne together are smaller than the former Seine-et-Oise department (5,658 km² for the Seine-et-Oise department vs. 5,334 km² for the threesdepartment ).
Grande couronne
The three departments of Yvelines, Essonne, and Val-d'Oise, plus the Seine-et-Marne department, are altogether known in France as the grande couronne (i.e. "large ring", as opposed to the "small ring" of the suburbs closer to Paris).
Population
At the 1999 French census, the population of the former department of Seine-et-Oise was 4,554,426 inhabitants, its highest figure ever, as people relocated more and more from the center to the distant suburbs of the metropolitan area of Paris. Of the new departments created in 1968 from Seine-et-Oise, Yvelines was the most populous in 1999 with 1,354,304 residents. Seine-Saint-Denis and Hauts-de-Seine are more populous than Yvelines, but only a small part of their territory is made up of the former Seine-et-Oise.
See also
Former departments of France
Former departments of France in France
States and territories established in 1790
States and territories disestablished in 1968
1790 establishments in France
1968 disestablishments in France | [
-0.4759380519390106,
-0.19020265340805054,
0.2540358006954193,
-0.46509480476379395,
-0.5757538676261902,
0.9170923233032227,
0.1864689290523529,
0.5231186151504517,
-0.3554708957672119,
-0.7794283032417297,
-0.19649548828601837,
0.4157460033893585,
0.03155108168721199,
-0.32391074299812317,
0.3082268536090851,
0.1381622701883316,
0.5192263126373291,
0.1958785057067871,
0.4682120680809021,
-0.8975471258163452,
-0.2636374831199646,
0.09311439096927643,
0.403859943151474,
-0.012951340526342392,
0.6532517671585083,
-0.6730659604072571,
-0.008532287552952766,
0.25084570050239563,
0.7933248281478882,
-0.04869253933429718,
0.4012452960014343,
0.6885064244270325,
-0.67867112159729,
-0.48073387145996094,
-0.6343386173248291,
0.07877569645643234,
-0.04514070972800255,
-0.10959810018539429,
-0.4409831762313843,
0.05231761187314987,
-0.41382262110710144,
0.18829020857810974,
0.30727413296699524,
0.05144704133272171,
0.17711392045021057,
-0.2710620164871216,
-1.2561343908309937,
0.6430057287216187,
-0.4232983887195587,
0.48650193214416504,
-0.4221107065677643,
0.0974239706993103,
0.20046721398830414,
0.3747442662715912,
-0.5973066091537476,
0.19015583395957947,
-1.3286923170089722,
-0.33087849617004395,
0.334638386964798,
-0.08211028575897217,
0.4786163568496704,
0.5188416838645935,
-0.14229446649551392,
0.30096757411956787,
-0.08938207477331161,
0.5084854364395142,
0.10971690714359283,
0.00972682237625122,
-0.07822856307029724,
-0.1418704390525818,
0.23323792219161987,
0.08355158567428589,
0.12996859848499298,
0.315350741147995,
-0.8399302363395691,
-0.4065382778644562,
-0.3011869788169861,
-0.3494679927825928,
-0.10173492133617401,
0.7360291481018066,
0.32852527499198914,
0.005419052671641111,
0.6611794233322144,
-0.28372082114219666,
0.6228135228157043,
0.5474823713302612,
-0.809933602809906,
-0.048238806426525116,
-0.3421679437160492,
0.33181333541870117,
-0.035228826105594635,
-0.32232245802879333,
-0.28995391726493835,
-0.7938979864120483,
0.2012346088886261,
0.15115231275558472,
0.26698192954063416,
0.24831871688365936,
-0.026919297873973846,
0.3254472613334656,
-0.5762441158294678,
0.4200163185596466,
0.2997015714645386,
0.1339457482099533,
-0.5249431133270264,
-0.4698069095611572,
0.11170222610235214,
-0.411370187997818,
-0.15088428556919098,
0.25906461477279663,
-0.6699892282485962,
0.3718782365322113,
-0.04136259853839874,
-0.2994939386844635,
0.37549999356269836,
0.4863177537918091,
0.4050501883029938,
0.016276877373456955,
0.5145792961120605,
0.1257610321044922,
0.3011932373046875,
0.19357018172740936,
0.31832996010780334,
0.2533358037471771,
-0.10133923590183258,
0.05972951650619507,
0.6347354650497437,
0.04830534756183624,
-0.48663732409477234,
0.18737801909446716,
0.20022395253181458,
0.8458131551742554,
-0.5143253803253174,
0.2531384229660034,
-0.14469510316848755,
-0.72553950548172,
0.0983128622174263,
0.6187058687210083,
0.3187260925769806,
0.002400546334683895,
-0.9950815439224243,
0.12004588544368744,
-0.5730382204055786,
0.06901728361845016,
0.0628257617354393,
-0.3993222713470459,
0.14424242079257965,
-0.3734324276447296,
0.0031796840485185385,
-0.46643146872520447,
0.22833910584449768,
0.2725180685520172,
-0.028098847717046738,
0.14548435807228088,
-0.6329096555709839,
-0.3095507025718689,
0.7620825171470642,
0.4369407296180725,
0.9693276882171631,
0.12552393972873688,
0.36245372891426086,
0.38668572902679443,
0.9526335000991821,
0.23576846718788147,
0.4301249384880066,
-0.4946794807910919,
-0.5793232917785645,
0.24097907543182373,
0.07300420850515366,
0.28494083881378174,
-0.5926102995872498,
-0.19585593044757843,
0.5518994331359863,
-0.36323970556259155,
-0.021839145570993423,
0.40006956458091736,
0.6947705745697021,
0.48360034823417664,
0.3945198655128479,
-0.3501989245414734,
-0.5210277438163757,
0.8016347289085388,
0.5723816156387329,
-0.2496439814567566,
0.5493026971817017,
0.5725018382072449,
0.5778592824935913,
-0.33309316635131836,
-0.14145545661449432,
0.4640689194202423,
0.03613025322556496,
-0.7709318995475769,
0.037730973213911057,
-0.8989601731300354,
0.9282721281051636,
0.04323262348771095,
0.3287851810455322,
0.49152159690856934,
-0.24570129811763763,
0.7215122580528259,
-0.4823150336742401,
-0.16707268357276917,
0.8777589797973633,
-0.012718982063233852,
-0.45618540048599243,
0.12103410065174103,
-0.07184704393148422,
-0.15273718535900116,
-0.15299257636070251,
0.8412326574325562,
0.5371881723403931,
-0.018751230090856552,
0.7689070701599121,
0.17442244291305542,
-0.04325679689645767,
-0.027882933616638184,
-0.34667930006980896,
-0.26312917470932007,
-0.08695905655622482,
0.06739553064107895,
-0.050885602831840515,
0.001451245741918683,
0.1609693020582199,
0.20880761742591858,
-0.2244405746459961,
0.23932614922523499,
0.853029727935791,
0.08530042320489883,
-0.7126457095146179,
-0.6379450559616089,
-0.31085890531539917,
0.30548062920570374,
-0.2512751519680023,
-0.32604625821113586,
-0.33149802684783936,
-0.005089257378131151,
0.02323690429329872,
-0.43276986479759216,
0.09267719835042953,
-0.48891258239746094,
0.5939268469810486,
-0.06495503336191177,
0.12499130517244339,
0.5495344996452332,
0.07446811348199844,
-0.031613197177648544,
0.5331742763519287,
0.37576940655708313,
-0.2359035760164261,
-0.3270304501056671,
-0.3645438551902771,
0.09894078969955444,
0.24719148874282837,
-0.346273809671402,
0.0965915098786354,
-0.548946738243103,
0.7864664793014526,
0.2678172290325165,
0.4931100308895111,
0.11426272988319397,
0.19289731979370117,
-0.20853842794895172,
0.18702757358551025,
0.47051432728767395,
0.14754661917686462,
0.1542133092880249,
-0.3936173915863037,
-0.8051630258560181,
0.5512958765029907,
0.5844773054122925,
-0.008914816193282604,
0.16714546084403992,
-0.12062166631221771,
-0.24796077609062195,
-0.24200062453746796,
0.18385010957717896,
-0.31084558367729187,
0.13119158148765564,
-0.47024741768836975,
0.1613469123840332,
0.05701475962996483,
1.0830721855163574,
-0.2730066478252411,
-0.8794052004814148,
-0.294472873210907,
-0.49165433645248413,
0.46993595361709595,
-0.749047577381134,
-0.4208816885948181,
0.26472070813179016,
0.38139867782592773,
-0.8174269795417786,
-0.5219413638114929,
0.02563794143497944,
-0.12379417568445206,
-0.7122825980186462,
-0.3576151728630066,
0.3547353446483612,
0.00035732935066334903,
-0.4272206127643585,
-0.701034426689148,
0.37666070461273193,
0.057577334344387054,
0.12889321148395538,
0.3668367266654968,
-0.367022305727005,
0.11384865641593933,
0.49946391582489014,
-5.419482707977295,
-0.28476524353027344,
0.539614200592041,
0.5146586298942566,
-0.73725825548172,
-0.058296088129282,
0.20257338881492615,
-0.30989477038383484,
-0.20377787947654724,
-0.3100239038467407,
-0.12825080752372742,
0.0003142441564705223,
-0.24777890741825104,
0.3161434531211853,
0.3219795525074005,
0.26212194561958313,
0.20581628382205963,
0.028999650850892067,
0.0707242339849472,
-0.1971861720085144,
-0.9604933261871338,
0.2784111201763153,
0.7819369435310364,
0.19369612634181976,
0.6029459834098816,
-0.2740449011325836,
0.10841940343379974,
-0.2901157736778259,
-0.7026386260986328,
-0.5837473273277283,
-0.01562834158539772,
-0.13838127255439758,
0.9386826753616333,
0.04075242578983307,
0.31926214694976807,
-0.4711626172065735,
0.6737295985221863,
0.4554652273654938,
0.11652673035860062,
-0.3882366418838501,
-0.13162845373153687,
1.002977967262268,
-0.47140923142433167,
0.48870012164115906,
-0.2334005981683731,
-0.4671790897846222,
-0.09516797214746475,
-0.05153784900903702,
0.16630135476589203,
0.8264613747596741,
-0.064823679625988,
-0.23462140560150146,
-0.08143439888954163,
-0.16680064797401428,
0.08500722795724869,
-0.2330741435289383,
0.5722716450691223,
-0.18724563717842102,
-0.2798399329185486,
0.25912657380104065,
1.0160356760025024,
-0.12903845310211182,
-0.5141550898551941,
-0.7832568883895874,
0.23445819318294525,
-0.11734344065189362,
-0.9557909965515137,
0.6178321838378906,
0.06693025678396225,
0.02993808686733246,
0.15838918089866638,
0.5587810277938843,
-0.3355606496334076,
-0.6635938286781311,
-0.3201417028903961,
-0.08628439158201218,
-0.5570465326309204,
-0.13386237621307373,
0.45005297660827637,
0.014426454901695251,
-0.2825157642364502,
0.06247573345899582,
0.035402171313762665,
0.8279560804367065,
-0.1331310272216797,
-0.4011313319206238,
0.09511667490005493,
0.2254810333251953,
-0.01648775115609169,
-0.14404799044132233,
0.1441068947315216,
-0.49309471249580383,
0.8308100700378418,
0.30518046021461487,
-0.8724299073219299,
0.5724804997444153,
0.20065073668956757,
-0.08506855368614197,
0.2427261471748352,
-0.5278477668762207,
0.7039753794670105,
0.21966731548309326,
-0.15856531262397766,
0.32408589124679565,
-0.03257570043206215,
-0.30774998664855957,
-0.051606226712465286,
0.23714210093021393,
0.5033854842185974,
0.11419494450092316,
-0.01129953097552061,
-0.044962480664253235,
-0.591974139213562,
-0.516647458076477,
0.5445259809494019,
-1.0275282859802246,
-0.6223593354225159,
0.2958921194076538,
0.38773050904273987,
0.020481424406170845,
0.024311644956469536,
0.6546967029571533,
-0.2858559191226959,
0.39820656180381775,
-0.07494774460792542,
-0.11415726691484451,
0.3365834653377533,
0.5830737352371216,
-0.6579554080963135,
0.876526951789856,
-0.011809091083705425,
-0.18559956550598145,
-0.21223366260528564,
-0.4977521598339081,
0.5668792724609375,
-0.18308117985725403,
-0.13983426988124847,
-0.27755826711654663,
0.09456519782543182,
0.14896906912326813,
0.43994954228401184,
-0.009546035900712013,
-0.28367018699645996,
0.5752109289169312,
0.38099950551986694,
0.7287828922271729,
-0.22923661768436432,
-0.1392935812473297,
-0.3759530186653137,
0.47385209798812866,
-0.5192098617553711,
-0.16458508372306824,
-0.011565045453608036,
0.031027771532535553,
-0.44813352823257446,
-0.5209771394729614,
0.09335634857416153,
0.6216267943382263,
-0.006294129882007837,
-0.5270119309425354,
-0.2915022373199463,
-1.2177379131317139,
-0.553521990776062,
0.5559513568878174,
0.5871430039405823,
-0.5913225412368774,
-0.11143667250871658,
-0.5520550608634949,
-0.16139239072799683,
0.17695485055446625,
0.10743951797485352,
-0.4312095046043396,
-0.046682849526405334,
-0.24988330900669098,
-0.3314899802207947,
-0.12589362263679504,
-0.026945367455482483,
0.3912033438682556,
-0.4197651743888855,
-0.5994082093238831,
0.7130001187324524,
-0.5039756298065186,
-0.12287834286689758,
0.5577359199523926,
0.4940740764141083,
-0.5159181952476501,
-0.44597598910331726,
0.08047272264957428,
-0.12051071226596832,
-0.10821350663900375,
0.1861623078584671,
0.15040741860866547,
-0.6066720485687256,
0.6938604116439819,
-0.48064664006233215,
-0.42318809032440186,
-0.25441816449165344,
-0.5686019062995911,
-0.23907926678657532,
-0.30320078134536743,
-0.16359175741672516,
0.4084773063659668,
0.3445865213871002,
0.6933550238609314,
-0.442358136177063,
-0.21352429687976837,
0.4470702111721039,
0.37247851490974426,
-0.703018307685852,
-0.13463036715984344,
-0.609868049621582,
-0.47314688563346863,
0.22701379656791687,
0.7423707246780396,
-0.7899537682533264,
0.26293933391571045,
0.28527525067329407,
-0.04076140373945236,
-0.2083936482667923,
0.0590282566845417,
-0.3610801696777344,
-0.5522930026054382,
-0.3613186180591583,
0.11450718343257904,
-0.15938284993171692,
1.060364842414856,
0.42881080508232117,
-0.2989949584007263,
0.8129206895828247,
-0.4726254940032959,
-0.2236008644104004,
0.0951874628663063,
0.2413761466741562,
0.1377260982990265,
-0.11162380129098892,
-0.20574642717838287,
0.32646945118904114,
-0.1368650645017624,
0.17436254024505615,
0.40642908215522766,
0.5362765789031982,
0.8017399311065674,
0.09789565205574036,
0.059010203927755356,
-0.258866548538208,
-0.03154335916042328,
0.11314785480499268,
-0.8892086744308472,
-0.4697355329990387,
-0.006033898796886206,
-0.2377876490354538,
-0.08485986292362213,
-0.7323146462440491,
-0.36555713415145874,
0.17098833620548248,
-0.04010955989360809,
-0.5024206638336182,
0.48937687277793884,
0.03236854448914528,
0.4378039240837097,
-0.3444037139415741,
-0.632706880569458,
-0.0984148234128952,
0.4151219427585602,
0.571551501750946,
-0.234218567609787,
-0.18904957175254822,
0.3385080099105835,
-0.01914115436375141,
-0.22478100657463074,
-0.17352722585201263,
-0.10477268695831299,
-0.062405314296483994,
0.3137331008911133,
0.8299283385276794,
0.16354984045028687,
-0.023402784019708633,
-0.24035346508026123,
0.9010834693908691,
-0.9428853392601013,
-1.0523663759231567,
-0.20807300508022308,
0.2740005552768707,
0.017855901271104813,
0.4009506404399872,
-0.41987213492393494,
0.07271233946084976,
0.18270383775234222,
-0.5884218811988831,
0.35914990305900574,
0.7123538255691528,
-0.6266216039657593,
0.24169857800006866,
-0.16835705935955048,
-0.12645259499549866,
0.16681617498397827,
-0.5412083268165588,
0.5009773969650269,
0.15204304456710815,
0.46297165751457214,
-1.0533143281936646,
-0.1253226399421692,
0.2657388150691986,
-0.5089784860610962,
0.23828580975532532,
0.3232617676258087,
0.1220913976430893,
-0.33943700790405273,
0.31816306710243225,
0.17673011124134064,
0.31847256422042847,
0.2892811596393585,
-0.28711384534835815,
0.7322157025337219,
-0.2454594075679779,
0.8595490455627441,
0.343260258436203,
-1.183189868927002,
0.354641318321228,
0.20813468098640442,
-0.23524750769138336,
-0.4023666977882385,
0.20219023525714874,
0.29017671942710876,
0.02788962610065937,
0.7605503797531128,
-0.051535218954086304,
-0.03301837667822838,
-0.09058744460344315,
-0.08670107275247574,
0.38808003067970276,
0.4356071650981903,
-1.2010079622268677,
0.5764305591583252,
-0.537188708782196,
-0.1036921963095665,
-0.4296695291996002,
-0.5026021599769592,
-0.036215271800756454,
0.23586376011371613,
0.6231123805046082,
0.853443443775177,
-0.27194106578826904,
-0.24723702669143677,
0.339802622795105,
0.3477518558502197,
0.07102733850479126,
-0.19203445315361023,
0.5016926527023315,
-0.33998236060142517,
0.033870965242385864,
0.14874185621738434,
0.16695231199264526,
-0.08897644281387329,
-0.3580166697502136,
0.3248257040977478,
-0.18281328678131104,
-0.37257665395736694,
-0.03723641484975815,
0.21506093442440033,
-0.25589898228645325,
-0.4128114879131317,
0.20622681081295013,
-0.4589202105998993,
-0.910958468914032,
-0.021022377535700798,
0.02467137947678566,
-0.24452531337738037,
-0.8648784160614014,
-0.026437588036060333,
0.05855811759829521,
-0.08194808661937714,
0.2412940412759781,
-0.7337756156921387,
0.14825165271759033,
0.5154007077217102,
0.07356195896863937,
0.21147331595420837,
-0.12773749232292175,
-0.4542914927005768,
-0.1123870238661766,
-0.25154441595077515,
-0.037975624203681946,
-0.426356703042984,
-0.36891910433769226,
-0.2010701298713684,
0.16672101616859436,
0.02374734729528427,
-0.2006317377090454,
-0.2121860384941101,
-0.35092493891716003,
-0.6477863192558289,
0.22854509949684143,
-0.42226770520210266,
0.08088184148073196,
-0.19417692720890045,
-0.33507978916168213,
0.9194542765617371,
0.8852355480194092,
-0.8866703510284424,
0.8054004311561584,
0.41763851046562195,
-0.6641085147857666,
-0.11430904269218445,
0.5918523073196411,
0.9854664206504822,
0.015342715196311474,
-0.1621769815683365,
-0.7155616283416748,
0.09190353006124496,
0.09590160101652145,
-0.07664971053600311,
-0.14670920372009277,
0.53570157289505,
0.13712570071220398,
-0.34101012349128723,
0.37315329909324646,
0.029265958815813065,
-0.22113877534866333,
-0.7132470607757568,
-0.1827118843793869,
-0.036571912467479706,
-0.25213176012039185,
0.24456365406513214,
-0.18168477714061737,
-0.6026991009712219,
-0.448196142911911,
-0.039328716695308685,
0.19591334462165833,
0.648110032081604,
0.11568161845207214,
0.47842052578926086,
-0.8835351467132568,
-0.14187107980251312,
-0.3648375868797302,
0.3485940098762512,
0.006716516334563494,
0.5155816078186035,
0.11498194187879562,
-0.011921563185751438,
-0.21473011374473572,
0.13293267786502838,
0.2890463173389435,
0.36850497126579285,
-0.3198038339614868,
-0.1604073941707611,
-0.3566693961620331,
-0.33756551146507263,
-1.0799713134765625,
0.015593315474689007,
0.16554467380046844,
0.1003861203789711,
0.598554253578186,
-0.09691763669252396,
-0.21307331323623657,
-0.22533345222473145,
0.8844109177589417,
-0.8464481234550476,
0.127434641122818,
0.30007556080818176
] |
234933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speyer | Speyer | Speyer (, older spelling Speier, known as Spire in French and formerly as Spires in English) is a city in Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany with approximately 50,000 inhabitants. Located on the left bank of the river Rhine, Speyer lies south of Ludwigshafen and Mannheim, and south-west of Heidelberg. Founded by the Romans, it is one of Germany's oldest cities.
Speyer Cathedral, a number of other churches, and the Altpörtel (old gate) dominate the Speyer landscape. In the cathedral, beneath the high altar, are the tombs of eight Holy Roman Emperors and German kings.
The city is famous for the 1529 Protestation at Speyer.
History
The first known names were Noviomagus and Civitas Nemetum, after the Teutonic tribe, Nemetes, settled in the area. The name Spira is first recorded in the 7th century, taken from villa Spira, a Frankish settlement situated outside of Civitas Nemetum.
Timeline
In 10 BC, the first Roman military camp is established (situated between the town hall and the episcopal palace).
In AD 150, the town appears as Noviomagus on the world map of the Greek geographer Ptolemy.
In 346, a bishop for the town is mentioned for the first time.
4th century, Civitas Nemetum appears on the Peutinger Map.
5th century, Civitas Nemetum is destroyed.
7th century, the town is re-established, and named Spira after a nearby Frankish settlement.
In 1030, emperor Conrad II starts the construction of Speyer Cathedral, today one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Also in the 11th century, the first city wall is built.
In 1076, emperor Henry IV embarks from Speyer, his favourite town, for Canossa.
In 1084, establishment of the first Jewish community in Speyer.
In 1096, as Count Emicho's Crusader army rages across the Rhineland slaughtering Jewish communities, Speyer's Bishop John, with the local leader Yekutiel ben Moses, manages to secure the community's members inside the episcopal palace and later leads them to even stronger fortifications outside the town. It was ruled that anyone harming a Jew would have his hands chopped off.
In 1294, the bishop loses most of his previous rights, and from now on Speyer is a Free Imperial Town of the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1349, the Jewish community of Speyer is wiped out.
Between 1527 and 1689, Speyer is the seat of the Imperial Chamber Court.
In 1526, at the Diet of Speyer (1526) interim toleration of Lutheran teaching and worship is decreed.
In 1529, at the Diet of Speyer (1529) the Lutheran states of the empire protest against the anti-Reformation resolutions (19 April 1529 Protestation at Speyer, hence the term Protestantism).
In 1635, Marshal of France Urbain de Maillé-Brézé, together with Jacques Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force, conquers Heidelberg and Speyer at the head of the Army of Germany.
In 1689, the town is heavily damaged by French troops.
Between 1792 and 1814, Speyer is under French jurisdiction after the Battle of Speyer.
In 1816, Speyer becomes the seat of administration of the Palatinate and of the government of the Rhine District of Bavaria (later called the Bavarian Palatinate), and remains so until the end of World War II.
Between 1883 and 1904, the Memorial Church is built in remembrance of the Protestation of 1529.
In 1947, the State Academy of Administrative Science is founded (later renamed German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer).
In 1990, Speyer celebrates its 2000th anniversary.
Main sights
Cathedral
Altpörtel – Old Town Gate
Gedächtniskirche – Memorial church
Dreifaltigkeitskirche – Trinity church
Jewish courtyard – remnants of medieval synagogue and intact mikve
Technikmuseum Speyer – Transportation Museum
Historical Museum of the Palatinate
Transportation
Speyer lies on the Schifferstadt-Wörth railway and offers hourly connections to Mannheim and Karlsruhe.
Mayors
Since 1923 the mayor was a Lord Mayor.
Twin towns – sister cities
Speyer is twinned with:
Spalding, United Kingdom, since 1956
Chartres, France, since 1959
Kursk, Russia, since 1989
Ravenna, Italy, since 1989
Gniezno, Poland, since 1992
Yavne, Israel, since 1998
Rusizi District, Rwanda, since 1982/2001
Ningde, China, since 2013
Notable people
Born before 1900
Samuel of Speyer (after 1096–death unknown), Exeget of Torah and Midrash
Judah ben Samuel of Regensburg (1140–1217), scribe and philosopher
Julian of Speyer (before 1225– ~ 1250), medieval choir master, composer and poet from the Order of the Franciscans
Gabriel Biel (~ 1415–1495), scholastic philosopher
Dietrich Gresemund (1477–1512), author
Georg von Speyer (1500–1540), conquistador
Egon VIII of Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg (1588–1635), Reichsgraf of Fürstenberg-Heiligenberg
Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), German physician, alchemist, precursor of chemistry, scholar and adventurer
Moritz Georg Weidmann (1658–1693), publisher and bookseller
Adolf von Dalberg (1678–1737), Prince of Fulda
Simha of Speyer (13th century) German rabbi and tosafist. He was one of the leading signatories of the Takkanot Shum.
Philipp Hieronymus Brinckmann (1709–1760), landscape and historical painters as well as copper cutters
Johann Martin Bernatz (1802–1878), landscape painter
Anselm Feuerbach (1829–1880), German painter
Carl Jakob Adolf Christian Gerhardt (1832–1902), German physician
Henry Villard (1835–1900), German-American journalist
Hermann von Stengel (1837–1919), Bavarian Administrative Officer
Wilhelm Meyer (philologist) (1845–1917), classical philologist, mediavist and librarian
Karl Heinrich Emil Becker (1879–1940), general of the artillery, ballist and defense scientist
Hans Purrmann (1880–1966), painter, graphic artist, art writer and collector
Hermann Detzner (1882–1970), leader of the German Schutztruppe in German New Guinea
Karl-Adolf Hollidt (1891–1985), Army officer (Generaloberst) and war criminal
George Waldbott (1898–1982), German-American physician
Born after 1900
George John Dasch (1903–1992), WWII spy who foiled terrorist attacks in the U.S. by Nazi Germany
Jakob Brendel (1907–1964), wrestler
Karl Haas (1913–2005), German-American music educator and radio presenter
Helmut Bantz (1921–2004), gymnast
Alfred Cahn (1922–2016), German musician and composer
Edgar E. Stern (born 1926), clinical social worker and author of The Peppermint Train: Journey to a German-Jewish Childhood
Gabriel Kney (born 1929), Canadian organ builder
Karl Hochreither (1933–2018), German organist and musicologist
Volker Straus (1936–2002) German tonmeister
Jürgen Brecht (born 1940), fencer
Wolf Frobenius (1940–2011), musicologist
Gerhard Vollmer (born 1943), physicist and philosopher
Jürgen Creutzmann (born 1945), politician (FDP)
Hans-Joachim Lang (born 1951), journalist, Germanist, historian and honorary professor
Axel Schimpf (born 1952), Vice Admiral of the German Navy
Eberhard Bosslet (born 1953), artist
Kay Friedmann (born 1963), footballer
Markus Kranz (born 1969), football player
Christoph Bechmann (born 1971), German field-hockey player
Anke Vondung (born 1972), opera singer
Ralf Schmitt (born 1977), football player
Simone Weiler (born 1978), swimmer
Jochen Kühner (born 1980), rower
Martin Kühner (born 1980), rower
Matthias Langkamp (born 1984), football player
Christian Reif (born 1984), long jumper
David McCray (born 1986), basketball player
Florian Krebs (born 1988), football player
Sebastian Langkamp (born 1988), footballer
Lars Stindl (born 1988), German footballer
Elias Harris (born 1989), German international basketball player
Jonas Marz (born 1989), footballer
Gianluca Korte (born 1990), footballer
Raffael Korte (born 1990), footballer
See also
Technikmuseum Speyer
German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer
Speyer line
History of the Jews in Speyer
Shapiro
Notes
External links
speyer.de the town website (partly in English)
museum.speyer.de Historical Museum of the Palatinate
dom-speyer.de website of Speyer Cathedral
Explore the ShUM Sites of Speyer, Worms and Mainz in the UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
Model Map of Medieval Speyer
Speyer, its cathedral and the library of its chapter
Technical (Transport) Museum
www.speyer.de: living history in past times
www.speyer-tour.de: Guided tours through Speyer
City overview and photos
1792 disestablishments
History of the Palatinate (region)
States and territories established in 1294
Palatinate (region) | [
-0.3018230199813843,
0.39334625005722046,
0.8474016189575195,
-0.39515963196754456,
0.02673236094415188,
0.6258533000946045,
0.6466261148452759,
0.20514805614948273,
-0.39978235960006714,
-0.04271640628576279,
-0.41643866896629333,
0.049805060029029846,
0.4228096604347229,
0.4339211583137512,
-0.06718980520963669,
0.03716473653912544,
0.602364718914032,
0.08635888993740082,
-0.24025984108448029,
-0.41866928339004517,
0.10780343413352966,
-0.33389198780059814,
0.9688273072242737,
-0.06474907696247101,
-0.4313768446445465,
-0.2288670688867569,
0.16228218376636505,
0.08812839537858963,
-0.12818928062915802,
-0.022281520068645477,
-0.3905670642852783,
0.7711148262023926,
-0.7754848599433899,
-0.008287717588245869,
-0.23926937580108643,
0.815380334854126,
0.39503490924835205,
-0.4221574664115906,
-0.1499406099319458,
-0.6296541094779968,
0.1459214985370636,
-0.1694871187210083,
0.37131571769714355,
-0.27856001257896423,
-0.7248183488845825,
-0.566829264163971,
-1.1824853420257568,
0.5011735558509827,
-0.8502588868141174,
0.24482598900794983,
-0.9703894257545471,
0.16128265857696533,
0.28240886330604553,
0.2079763114452362,
-0.11749681085348129,
-0.10024464875459671,
-1.0196067094802856,
0.14766043424606323,
0.7252290844917297,
-0.06770401448011398,
0.38843438029289246,
-0.1193951964378357,
-0.34949633479118347,
0.1721239686012268,
0.3348104953765869,
0.15985696017742157,
0.004221434239298105,
0.12786196172237396,
0.46354392170906067,
-0.916999340057373,
-0.24705348908901215,
-0.4316192865371704,
-0.4023357033729553,
0.1813587248325348,
0.31898078322410583,
0.06223417818546295,
-0.6193084716796875,
-0.09907255321741104,
-0.015297331847250462,
-0.09287288039922714,
-0.20579864084720612,
-0.12428195774555206,
1.2835533618927002,
-0.6940180063247681,
0.7679098844528198,
-0.13477593660354614,
-0.03733042627573013,
0.17321614921092987,
-0.7922936677932739,
-0.14341506361961365,
0.09013151377439499,
-0.6671526432037354,
-0.03712797537446022,
0.2505485415458679,
0.02245720662176609,
-0.6820275783538818,
0.26930513978004456,
0.31948205828666687,
-0.10108564049005508,
0.6557461023330688,
0.21921074390411377,
0.3072640895843506,
0.6635223627090454,
0.04692131653428078,
0.10422574728727341,
0.22339484095573425,
-0.25312790274620056,
-0.005576974246650934,
-0.34661269187927246,
-0.10640950500965118,
-0.6061991453170776,
0.033469587564468384,
0.3330889940261841,
0.3715212941169739,
-0.33742839097976685,
-0.08559944480657578,
0.75136399269104,
-0.1595204919576645,
-0.16594338417053223,
-0.35004425048828125,
0.6780080795288086,
0.6937962174415588,
0.19909219443798065,
-0.02825331501662731,
-0.22351625561714172,
-0.29725944995880127,
-0.022469641640782356,
0.8382825255393982,
-0.6635565757751465,
0.3377951979637146,
0.3133412003517151,
0.5746902823448181,
0.25717270374298096,
0.08729835599660873,
0.14603398740291595,
-0.19437956809997559,
0.12973780930042267,
-0.09356363862752914,
0.39127305150032043,
0.1908160299062729,
-0.4707745909690857,
0.045585256069898605,
-0.5962725877761841,
-0.30615338683128357,
-0.23372431099414825,
-0.5278446078300476,
-0.5062861442565918,
-0.7324852347373962,
0.38057002425193787,
-0.23785187304019928,
-0.2759607434272766,
0.4816725552082062,
-0.25575780868530273,
0.021899279206991196,
-0.25376346707344055,
0.04635186865925789,
0.8655140995979309,
-0.04045145958662033,
0.760330855846405,
0.006892106495797634,
0.25304079055786133,
-0.19006229937076569,
0.2551897466182709,
0.07618805766105652,
0.47723522782325745,
0.009507125243544579,
0.4642428755760193,
0.07154736667871475,
0.10995015501976013,
-0.11640682071447372,
-0.7345045208930969,
0.3454270660877228,
0.3050803542137146,
0.39585909247398376,
0.009168612770736217,
-0.19663433730602264,
0.5828766822814941,
0.38719016313552856,
-0.10505653917789459,
-0.19957591593265533,
-0.6494355201721191,
0.36627140641212463,
-0.02890242636203766,
0.2439829409122467,
0.09796901792287827,
0.06871722638607025,
0.038032423704862595,
0.2832476794719696,
0.11171719431877136,
-0.18196702003479004,
-0.10210403054952621,
-0.6965535283088684,
0.09372389316558838,
-0.23573502898216248,
0.4949089586734772,
0.047922950237989426,
-0.08801086246967316,
-0.13830694556236267,
0.011424449272453785,
0.23887160420417786,
-0.38803523778915405,
-0.9384949803352356,
0.2827500104904175,
0.09149093180894852,
-0.48101434111595154,
-0.08512192219495773,
-0.01856265589594841,
-0.17057710886001587,
-0.058999184519052505,
0.45576146245002747,
0.3204955458641052,
-0.35043153166770935,
-0.05059836804866791,
0.10457542538642883,
-0.5885976552963257,
-0.9061525464057922,
-1.2019208669662476,
0.01471274346113205,
-0.026750773191452026,
-0.34230464696884155,
0.4494205713272095,
0.10253100097179413,
-0.33642950654029846,
0.5678786039352417,
-0.033743325620889664,
0.16424879431724548,
0.2593330144882202,
-0.1423848569393158,
-0.2129507064819336,
-0.8235113024711609,
0.3718017041683197,
0.4041565954685211,
0.35517799854278564,
-0.23615407943725586,
0.3440687358379364,
-0.03640033304691315,
0.02489948458969593,
-0.02819703333079815,
0.5478543639183044,
-0.990058183670044,
0.4625716805458069,
0.27136921882629395,
-0.3551788926124573,
0.46458226442337036,
0.5465419292449951,
1.239206314086914,
0.09843366593122482,
0.48766571283340454,
-0.732779860496521,
-0.2876763641834259,
0.08438308537006378,
0.28064438700675964,
-0.1241486668586731,
-0.056009650230407715,
0.5837547183036804,
-0.2020522803068161,
0.5664821863174438,
0.5384856462478638,
0.11693184077739716,
0.8028495907783508,
-0.47836217284202576,
-0.23498471081256866,
0.24548211693763733,
0.35511136054992676,
-0.45533713698387146,
0.22339093685150146,
0.2259933054447174,
-0.9128554463386536,
0.31627094745635986,
0.5024721622467041,
-0.3701748549938202,
-0.13288895785808563,
-0.5494853854179382,
0.6674012541770935,
-0.03374924883246422,
-0.6685915589332581,
-0.686373233795166,
0.05520876124501228,
-0.8630298972129822,
0.14415189623832703,
0.1926073580980301,
0.740343451499939,
-0.021144293248653412,
-0.7340527176856995,
-0.031169923022389412,
-0.01531908381730318,
0.08206627517938614,
0.05827684327960014,
-0.12365633994340897,
-0.12677322328090668,
-0.4516984522342682,
-0.14751383662223816,
-0.06750241667032242,
0.3510158061981201,
-0.36772382259368896,
-0.20599514245986938,
0.5323947668075562,
-0.259922593832016,
0.3231736123561859,
-0.37985220551490784,
-0.902706503868103,
0.02100563235580921,
-0.4950176477432251,
0.10811298340559006,
-0.31712645292282104,
-0.18369357287883759,
0.017158545553684235,
-0.5077220797538757,
-5.359062671661377,
-0.5700666904449463,
0.04768193140625954,
-0.8550456762313843,
0.00450783921405673,
0.28507083654403687,
-0.0009219237836077809,
-0.30796706676483154,
-0.09979601949453354,
0.19104717671871185,
0.697727382183075,
0.043314918875694275,
0.08304169028997421,
0.7860537767410278,
0.9926626682281494,
0.296394944190979,
0.168181374669075,
0.289038747549057,
-0.0035411107819527388,
-0.4119866192340851,
0.08834897726774216,
0.071966253221035,
0.5919222831726074,
1.1310627460479736,
0.08812256902456284,
0.3463785648345947,
0.03095381334424019,
-0.21360088884830475,
-0.7692385315895081,
-0.903852641582489,
0.04702235385775566,
-0.1919180303812027,
0.19916829466819763,
0.3989468514919281,
0.34898582100868225,
0.37324604392051697,
0.499647319316864,
0.15880654752254486,
0.5747777819633484,
-0.45853129029273987,
0.3755340576171875,
0.5795690417289734,
-0.2090671807527542,
-0.47697964310646057,
0.3671628534793854,
-0.46281370520591736,
-0.47841107845306396,
0.4844726622104645,
-0.6908928751945496,
1.0638560056686401,
0.4426630139350891,
-0.7059634327888489,
0.33949556946754456,
0.17627543210983276,
-0.05172589048743248,
-0.02496194839477539,
0.4894792437553406,
0.6279650330543518,
-0.45942288637161255,
0.5022422671318054,
-0.05353230610489845,
0.09418143332004547,
-0.4034593999385834,
0.08403871953487396,
-0.5571657419204712,
-0.3150646984577179,
-0.32220888137817383,
0.7229500412940979,
0.4181644022464752,
-0.18937858939170837,
-0.21271950006484985,
0.00959828682243824,
-0.1622396558523178,
-0.8326120376586914,
-0.49388107657432556,
-0.7913869023323059,
-0.5585051774978638,
-0.2749553918838501,
-0.24011480808258057,
0.4439701735973358,
-0.1758589893579483,
-0.07466087490320206,
0.2191118746995926,
0.1925661563873291,
0.7214710116386414,
0.019988836720585823,
-0.4049278795719147,
0.02717018686234951,
0.6522455215454102,
-0.7390255928039551,
0.4665239155292511,
-0.710100531578064,
0.7525774240493774,
-0.12027150392532349,
-0.732149600982666,
1.0127180814743042,
-0.28512346744537354,
-0.13166402280330658,
0.38166752457618713,
0.20496390759944916,
0.6254172325134277,
-0.21326537430286407,
0.07096743583679199,
0.2518279552459717,
-0.00465340306982398,
0.14894285798072815,
0.03648240491747856,
0.5685487389564514,
0.9813368916511536,
-0.24518878757953644,
0.13290517032146454,
0.4178873300552368,
-0.3300000727176666,
-0.5513814091682434,
0.2976364195346832,
-0.6614820957183838,
-1.4084211587905884,
0.9423478245735168,
-0.13507884740829468,
0.17140159010887146,
0.24558548629283905,
-0.12751802802085876,
-0.05268321931362152,
-0.0031719335820525885,
-1.068877100944519,
0.023708011955022812,
-0.6225584149360657,
0.3690737187862396,
-0.08445239812135696,
0.5471583008766174,
-0.30663344264030457,
-0.1026814877986908,
0.12718439102172852,
-0.26448947191238403,
0.03773186355829239,
-0.03511916846036911,
-0.1468101441860199,
-0.7502381801605225,
-0.3727855980396271,
0.04259941354393959,
0.9536029696464539,
0.1995214968919754,
0.19878682494163513,
0.621858537197113,
0.3523257374763489,
0.12746217846870422,
0.2443193644285202,
0.0072153653018176556,
-0.6914571523666382,
0.22574660181999207,
-0.3101540207862854,
0.49398699402809143,
0.24205282330513,
-0.0920402929186821,
-0.3471006453037262,
0.33684855699539185,
-0.014596151188015938,
0.8044463992118835,
0.5575554370880127,
0.40288034081459045,
-0.21607719361782074,
-0.3686220645904541,
-0.5634749531745911,
-0.08970656991004944,
0.6253045201301575,
-0.09733874350786209,
-0.1695045679807663,
0.20181548595428467,
-0.47492554783821106,
0.22186799347400665,
0.4529991149902344,
-0.22953593730926514,
-0.6089788675308228,
0.09515497088432312,
-0.1718784123659134,
-0.05995166301727295,
-0.22309300303459167,
0.10672445595264435,
0.00604895269498229,
-0.4296586215496063,
0.11188075691461563,
-0.2159493863582611,
-0.3124869763851166,
0.5438018441200256,
0.33209994435310364,
-0.2309170961380005,
-0.4361951947212219,
-0.5476024150848389,
-0.2418355494737625,
-0.5231597423553467,
0.8149580359458923,
-0.40121757984161377,
-0.24656455218791962,
0.22826069593429565,
0.06674687564373016,
-1.4216121435165405,
-0.14059725403785706,
-0.21530510485172272,
-0.19700585305690765,
-0.16897472739219666,
-0.1048966497182846,
0.024781186133623123,
-0.5535101890563965,
0.0685395747423172,
0.45665237307548523,
-0.4462759494781494,
0.22767199575901031,
-0.006189580075442791,
-0.2810271978378296,
0.16203343868255615,
-0.7280660271644592,
-0.21633927524089813,
0.2371302843093872,
0.7965409755706787,
-0.33436113595962524,
0.04638716205954552,
0.058278895914554596,
-0.7605609893798828,
-0.7428490519523621,
-0.19945527613162994,
-0.3951108455657959,
-0.11049399524927139,
0.2971142530441284,
-0.18925634026527405,
-0.7325689792633057,
-0.5280458331108093,
-0.030077014118433,
-0.46373963356018066,
-0.006572422571480274,
-0.3335896134376526,
0.5670692324638367,
-0.020863790065050125,
0.2783482074737549,
0.036260370165109634,
0.2514573633670807,
-0.17314226925373077,
-0.04780683293938637,
0.02831018902361393,
0.3234477639198303,
0.33138975501060486,
0.19318367540836334,
0.47413182258605957,
0.3345046043395996,
0.3164171874523163,
-0.20192447304725647,
-0.014596185646951199,
0.5537744760513306,
-0.2663141191005707,
-0.811294674873352,
0.809781551361084,
0.0465029813349247,
0.4673965573310852,
-0.8509480357170105,
-0.09174727648496628,
0.40782225131988525,
-0.7729833126068115,
0.19690096378326416,
0.2023538500070572,
0.32537996768951416,
0.13507112860679626,
-0.15272462368011475,
-0.2704896330833435,
0.8746623396873474,
0.3125584125518799,
-0.4702520966529846,
-0.2674964368343353,
-0.05009591579437256,
-0.49779728055000305,
0.3175204396247864,
-0.7033808827400208,
-0.306662917137146,
0.0814412459731102,
-0.14041204750537872,
-0.7281093597412109,
0.08579223603010178,
0.4933793544769287,
-0.2907833158969879,
-0.07522093504667282,
0.00045914272777736187,
0.03001469373703003,
-0.45607250928878784,
0.04069046676158905,
-0.3578873872756958,
-0.5940560102462769,
-0.3160991966724396,
-0.6623528003692627,
-0.41656428575515747,
-0.12873385846614838,
-1.0149734020233154,
0.7277418375015259,
0.03235239535570145,
-0.6453214883804321,
-0.11645366996526718,
0.4556182622909546,
0.23276813328266144,
0.01584739051759243,
0.42157217860221863,
0.6115199327468872,
-1.0455559492111206,
0.47971540689468384,
-0.586617648601532,
-0.2015635073184967,
0.4702754020690918,
-1.3637988567352295,
-0.13957102596759796,
0.05141698569059372,
-0.4252030551433563,
-0.1857665479183197,
-0.28039759397506714,
-0.056548111140728,
0.023891568183898926,
0.2744922935962677,
-0.19747008383274078,
0.8088274598121643,
0.026117514818906784,
0.39708736538887024,
0.640156626701355,
-0.0651615783572197,
-0.010557720437645912,
0.6200993061065674,
0.16456688940525055,
-0.5902583003044128,
0.7635014653205872,
0.03269500285387039,
-0.13320520520210266,
1.1132923364639282,
0.4646950960159302,
0.005852508824318647,
-0.3906705975532532,
0.036228153854608536,
0.1082422211766243,
0.39485958218574524,
-0.41875287890434265,
0.8330560326576233,
-0.8667629957199097,
-0.6015230417251587,
0.04857974499464035,
-0.07610440999269485,
-0.31096553802490234,
-0.21960331499576569,
0.32100993394851685,
0.8944947719573975,
0.041227541863918304,
0.18328949809074402,
0.5213109850883484,
0.11057285964488983,
0.21991203725337982,
0.005165344104170799,
0.3963285982608795,
-0.31550878286361694,
0.5410400629043579,
-0.4413815438747406,
0.10108359158039093,
-0.3073395788669586,
0.20674285292625427,
-0.2438371628522873,
0.023044392466545105,
-0.2501758635044098,
-0.1185491532087326,
0.651698887348175,
0.33194127678871155,
-0.6546605229377747,
0.26724880933761597,
0.010534561239182949,
-0.15816813707351685,
-0.7722800374031067,
-0.17223556339740753,
-0.025800636038184166,
-0.4884859025478363,
0.3238759934902191,
0.34452998638153076,
0.5045941472053528,
-0.08517574518918991,
-0.09999728202819824,
0.13983763754367828,
0.14725443720817566,
0.3502553105354309,
0.03274570405483246,
0.04908447340130806,
0.4835357666015625,
-0.8506600856781006,
-0.11273636668920517,
-0.15889208018779755,
0.6367711424827576,
-0.1991502195596695,
-0.3442152440547943,
0.32207605242729187,
-0.4610469341278076,
-0.33602631092071533,
-0.1541227102279663,
-0.08769865334033966,
-0.029238110408186913,
-0.22172921895980835,
-0.3705217242240906,
-0.5095817446708679,
-0.34331467747688293,
0.08363823592662811,
0.07812066376209259,
0.268115371465683,
0.16586950421333313,
0.47198253870010376,
0.15831899642944336,
0.2913283407688141,
0.17551065981388092,
-0.1010962650179863,
0.26462817192077637,
0.28477513790130615,
-0.006161299534142017,
-0.6065189838409424,
0.6135737895965576,
0.6228894591331482,
0.049071747809648514,
0.01978079043328762,
0.42192548513412476,
-0.4299538731575012,
-0.26685625314712524,
0.3995555639266968,
-0.019796272739768028,
0.2507632374763489,
-0.12514911592006683,
0.396013468503952,
-0.1392846405506134,
0.579814612865448,
0.4466016888618469,
0.3345147371292114,
0.18189193308353424,
0.231402188539505,
0.010840153321623802,
-0.43879765272140503,
0.37890690565109253,
-0.313869833946228,
0.16978687047958374,
-0.1924097239971161,
0.6790173053741455,
-0.8506120443344116,
-0.0381549596786499,
0.21940313279628754,
0.10012108832597733,
-0.15858592092990875,
-0.2563769519329071,
-0.05465880036354065,
0.6288967132568359,
0.0813312903046608,
0.20893394947052002,
0.33554425835609436,
1.0179872512817383,
-0.7810515761375427,
-0.40053433179855347,
-0.4913015067577362,
0.014261960051953793,
0.24397343397140503,
-0.4920608699321747,
0.18928614258766174,
-0.12177731841802597,
0.046798259019851685,
-0.27999329566955566,
0.10783199965953827,
-0.2028879076242447,
0.6616891622543335,
-0.3952111303806305
] |
234935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ministry%20of%20Silly%20Walks | The Ministry of Silly Walks | "The Ministry of Silly Walks" is a sketch from the Monty Python comedy troupe's television show Monty Python's Flying Circus, series 2, episode 1, which is entitled "Face the Press". The episode first aired on 15 September 1970. A shortened version of the sketch was performed for Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl.
A satire on bureaucratic inefficiency, the sketch involves John Cleese as a bowler-hatted civil servant in a fictitious British government ministry responsible for developing silly walks through grants. Cleese, throughout the sketch, walks in a variety of silly ways. It is these various silly walks, more than the dialogue, that have earned the sketch its popularity. Cleese has cited the physical comedy of Max Wall, probably in character as Professor Wallofski, as important to its conception.
Ben Beaumont-Thomas in The Guardian writes, "Cleese is utterly deadpan as he takes the stereotypical bowler-hatted political drone and ruthlessly skewers him. All the self-importance, bureaucratic inefficiency and laughable circuitousness of Whitehall is summed up in one balletic extension of his slender leg."
Sketch
The sketch as originally depicted in the series begins with John Cleese playing Mr. Teabag, a civil servant who, after purchasing The Times from the newsagent in the previous sketch, walks through the streets of London (at the crossing of Thorpebank Road and Dunraven Road) in a very peculiar manner. He eventually arrives at his place of business: The Ministry of Silly Walks, on the northern end of Whitehall. In the hallway, he passes other employees all exhibiting their own silly walks before arriving at his office (the Hollywood Bowl performance omits this preamble). Once there, he finds Mr Putey (Michael Palin) waiting for him and apologizes for the delay, explaining that his walk has become particularly silly of late and it takes longer for him to reach his destination.
Putey explains that he has a silly walk he wishes to develop with grant money. He demonstrates his walk which, to Teabag, isn't particularly silly ("The right leg isn't silly at all, and the left leg merely does a forward aerial half-turn every alternate step."). He tells Putey that he does not believe the ministry can help him, as Putey's walk is not silly enough and funding is short. The government, he explains (whilst walking around his office in increasingly silly ways), is supposed to give equally to Defence, Social Security, Health, Housing, Education, and Silly Walks, but recently spent less on Silly Walks than on national defence. After a visit by his secretary Mrs. Two-Lumps, Mr. Teabag shows Mr Putey a film on silly walks. (The segment is a parody of early 20th-century cinema, with Michael Palin dressed up as Little Tich; this film is also shown as part of the Hollywood Bowl performance of the sketch.) After tossing the projector offstage, Teabag offers Putey a grant that will allow him to work on the Anglo-French Silly Walk, La Marche Futile (a parody of Concorde's Anglo-French development), which is then demonstrated by a man (Terry Jones) dressed in a mixture of stereotypical English and French outfits, with a sped-up version of "La Marseillaise" playing.
Mrs. Two-Lumps, presumably the minister's secretary, makes a brief appearance, bringing in coffee with full silly walk. As she enters, the cups fall all over the tray, completely spilling their contents. The minister looks at the tray, says "Thank you, lovely" and she exits again, taking the tray with her, complete with upended cups. In the Hollywood Bowl version, Carol Cleveland plays Mrs. Two-Lumps, and spills some of the coffee on Cleese during the sketch.
As the years went by amid repeated requests to do the sketch, Cleese found it increasingly difficult to perform these walks. He would say, when told about a new Python tour, "I'm not doing silly walks." Accordingly, the sketch was not performed during Monty Python Live (Mostly), the troupe's 2014 reunion show. It was replaced by "The Silly Walks Song", which was performed by a group of (younger) dancers who mimicked Cleese's original walks while wearing bowler hats and carrying briefcases.
Reception
In 2005, the sketch was chosen in a poll taken by Channel 4 in Britain as the 15th greatest comedy sketch of all time (and one of five Monty Python sketches in the top 50).
Mobile game
In 2014, an official video game adaption of the sketch was released for Android and iOS. It features Cleese, as the minister of silly walks, leaving his office and walking through London. It takes the form of an endless runner game, except with an appropriately absurd walking animation. The game includes voice acting from John Cleese.
References in popular culture
In 2000, an episode of Mission Hill, "Andy and Kevin Make a Friend (or One Bang for Two Brothers)", referenced the sketch when one of the characters attempts to impress a girl by showing how he does a "great silly walk" from the Ministry of Silly Walks.
A reference is made to the Silly Walk in an episode of the WB's Gilmore Girls when Rory says "Please, don't walk away like that", and Dean responds with "Sorry, I'd do a silly walk, but I'm not feeling very John Cleese right now."
In the video game Goldeneye 007, an image of a man doing John Cleese's silly walk can be seen on one of the computer monitors in the game.
In an issue of The Simpsons Bongo Comic, when the British invade Springfield, it shows John Cleese doing the goosestep and labels him as "the Minister of Silly Walks".
On an episode of The Chaser's War On Everything, Andrew Hansen and Chris Taylor do a sketch called "The Chaser's British Comedy Sketch", filled with various Monty Python cliches, which climaxes with Andrew screaming "I'm going to do something so totally bizarre it will be imitated verbatim by comedy nerds for decades to come!" He then does a silly walk, doing imitations of Pepperpots, until a 16-ton weight falls on his head.
In November 2007, as the Eurostar duration between Brussels and London was reduced to 1 hour and 51 minutes, the "Ministry of Silly Walks" appeared in an ad campaign in Belgium. The adverts were all on building corners, showing two workers carrying a large glass pane walking towards the corner on one side. Walking towards them on the other side, a John Cleese look-alike performs a Silly Walk. The tagline read "Warning! London is just around the corner!".
In the Season 6 episode of Futurama entitled "All the Presidents Heads", Dr. Zoidberg performs a silly walk.
In the 25th anniversary reunion episode of I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again, John Cleese consents to appear on the show on condition that he be allowed to do the Silly Walk; the other cast members are dubious about the comedic impact of doing the Walk on radio, but they ultimately give in after Cleese puts on a show of hurt feelings. Near the end of the show, Cleese presents the Silly Walk, rendered on radio as a series of loud, slow footsteps.
In the video game Destroy All Humans! 2, if you read a hippie's mind in the Albion level, one of the thoughts is, "I hope I can get a job at the Ministry of Silly Walks" (This video game is known for spoofing popular culture of the decade in which it is set).
In a standup comedy routine in Blue Collar Comedy Tour: One For the Road, Larry the Cable Guy, referring to strange people who go to Wal-Mart in the middle of the night, says that it "turns into Monty Python's Ministry of Silly Walks."
In Improv Everywhere's 2010 MP3 experiment, participants were asked to walk in a silly manner. After the silly walk session was finished, 'Mark (the omnipotent voice from above)' stated: "Excellent silly walks. Those belong in the Ministry hall of fame".
A segment in The Beano comic book featured Minnie the Minx as the "Minnie-ster of Silly Walks".
In the Fawlty Towers episode "The Germans", Basil (John Cleese), after grandly announcing, "I'll do the funny walk", performs a goose step, reminiscent of a silly walk.
In the second issue of Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill's comic book The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century, the "Minister" can be seen performing the silly walk in the background in London, passing the League of Extraordinary Gentlemen.
In the Czech city of Brno, a Silly Walk City March is held annually since 2012.
The small town of Ørje, Norway found a way to spice up one of its crosswalks—pedestrians wishing to cross must do so using a silly walk. The town's mayor didn't seem to mind the silliness. "Clearly, one should listen to the authorities, but this kind of fun should be allowed", the mayor said. "You cannot just be square, right?"
The 4 July 2016 issue of The New Yorker features a parody of the silly walk on its cover, a reference to Brexit, in which several men in the likeness of John Cleese's character do the silly walk off the edge of a cliff.
The 22 January 2017 episode of Zondag met Lubach mentions Minister Jetta Klijnsma being a disabled politician from the Ministry of Silly Walks, so U.S. President Donald Trump can make fun of her.
In the video game West of Loathing, there is an option for "stupid walking", which allows the player to "walk in silly ways". The entire game can be completed this way.
In the video game Payday 2, the safe house butler Aldstone, voiced by John Cleese, has a rare chance of walking this way for a few seconds.
On 28 October 2019, while celebrating the Ohi Day, a group of participants to the national military parade performed a silly walk as an anti-military demonstration in Nea Filadelfeia, Greece.
The LaTeX package Sillypage was developed by Phelype H. Oleinik and Paulo R. M. Cereda to use the Cleese walk silhouettes as page numbers in a document.
COVID-19 pandemic
Unofficial signs stating that certain sidewalks are under the jurisdiction of The Ministry of Silly Walks have been placed along sidewalks worldwide, including the United States, Canada, and England as a way to allow pedestrians to laugh in a stressful time.
In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a family in Yorkshire street in Metro Detroit put up signs, which designated the sidewalk in front of their house as "The Jurisdiction of The Ministry of Silly Walks" and encouraged people to do a silly walk. Silly walks were recorded via their doorbell cam, and posted to the Instagram account yorkshire.silly.walks.
Inspired by the signs in Yorkshire, on 8 May 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia, a resident of North Vancouver placed signs along Jones Avenue which stated, "You have now entered the jurisdiction of Ministry of Silly Walks. Commence silly walking immediately." The resident, a Monty Python fan, stated, “It's just a stretch of 50 feet where you can just kind of be silly and let loose. I think we’re all under quite a bit more stress these days and just to have a split second or a moment to have a chuckle, I think could turn some people’s day around.” The signs were not popular among the entire community and removed by municipal workers on 15 May 2020, but replaced shortly after. Videos of residents walking silly are posted to the Instagram account jonesave.sillywalks.
Also inspired by Yorkshire, a resident in Needham, Massachusetts placed signs along the sidewalk to establish the Needham Ministry of Silly Walks. Videos are posted to the Instagram account needhamministryofsillywalks.
See also
Gait (human)
Gait analysis
References
Fictional elements introduced in 1970
1970 in British television
Monty Python sketches
Bureaucracy in fiction | [
0.6745631098747253,
0.40352192521095276,
0.20951908826828003,
0.04267403483390808,
-0.2227228432893753,
-0.18359944224357605,
0.3007362186908722,
0.09464233368635178,
-0.45630261301994324,
-0.12615187466144562,
-0.39275920391082764,
0.42675191164016724,
-0.23257651925086975,
-0.2623550593852997,
-0.19002112746238708,
-0.021307488903403282,
-0.047328606247901917,
0.10876325517892838,
0.023948900401592255,
-0.46921637654304504,
0.13470064103603363,
-0.04969032481312752,
0.028004702180624008,
-0.6836690306663513,
-0.11877158284187317,
0.12705080211162567,
0.5671857595443726,
0.27657657861709595,
-0.17834718525409698,
0.12567771971225739,
0.06507018953561783,
-0.19016088545322418,
0.423345148563385,
0.12712983787059784,
0.16166560351848602,
-0.17020699381828308,
-0.006853559985756874,
-0.06432987749576569,
-0.2954699993133545,
-0.5820572376251221,
0.2906654179096222,
-0.08687667548656464,
-0.3196599781513214,
-0.1759851723909378,
-0.18795302510261536,
-0.43526890873908997,
-0.5757009387016296,
0.1166887879371643,
-0.8508509397506714,
-0.20858584344387054,
-0.5011904239654541,
0.6952619552612305,
0.30897507071495056,
0.3455672860145569,
0.15251880884170532,
0.42551955580711365,
-0.4826681911945343,
-0.12606696784496307,
-0.14504307508468628,
-0.40994930267333984,
0.14130625128746033,
0.3323816955089569,
0.1421348601579666,
0.06478362530469894,
0.30957573652267456,
0.12180551141500473,
-0.0028565756510943174,
0.8369026184082031,
0.08983010798692703,
-0.6733840703964233,
-0.029896480962634087,
-0.544934868812561,
-0.028078515082597733,
0.5183687806129456,
0.3661598563194275,
-0.035504359751939774,
0.4042496085166931,
-0.13579680025577545,
0.031898632645606995,
0.08629942685365677,
-0.24125656485557556,
0.04334745183587074,
0.06112638860940933,
0.07490884512662888,
0.0738317221403122,
0.024073535576462746,
0.04482791945338249,
0.20171140134334564,
-0.5600763559341431,
0.3873026967048645,
-0.33659979701042175,
-0.012388874776661396,
-0.35274165868759155,
-0.14848345518112183,
0.12785643339157104,
-0.44225165247917175,
-0.16888216137886047,
-0.13740158081054688,
0.3718281090259552,
0.07173264026641846,
0.14738506078720093,
0.27508625388145447,
0.09314445406198502,
0.04387617111206055,
-0.3434752821922302,
-0.18173366785049438,
0.4474338889122009,
-0.7810214161872864,
0.013930993154644966,
0.09240208566188812,
-0.5794543027877808,
0.0001973292528418824,
-0.2250954806804657,
-0.4785165786743164,
-0.26322680711746216,
0.6583452820777893,
0.054488569498062134,
-0.47691309452056885,
-0.4632115662097931,
0.6338577270507812,
0.1699678897857666,
0.41258174180984497,
0.40868327021598816,
-0.17155738174915314,
-0.04921567067503929,
-0.23726694285869598,
0.0936184674501419,
0.3038834035396576,
-0.18966621160507202,
0.3255264461040497,
-0.15269792079925537,
0.8711958527565002,
-0.19563192129135132,
-0.5618603229522705,
-0.025100257247686386,
-0.2507031559944153,
0.5153127312660217,
0.15574553608894348,
0.3749368190765381,
0.5487792491912842,
-0.1696142554283142,
0.0787135660648346,
-0.4150795638561249,
-0.10085184127092361,
0.2778424322605133,
-0.3766380250453949,
-0.6596434712409973,
-0.48316490650177,
-0.3167816400527954,
-0.3717177212238312,
-0.07019121944904327,
-0.15688738226890564,
0.6207151412963867,
-0.05068868026137352,
-0.04639117047190666,
0.5220578908920288,
0.6873155832290649,
-0.09981567412614822,
0.16861003637313843,
0.3624919056892395,
0.5412980318069458,
0.1554415374994278,
-0.5054207444190979,
0.0496506430208683,
-0.14697591960430145,
0.2934473156929016,
0.07727312296628952,
-0.3393529951572418,
0.7160610556602478,
-0.37793251872062683,
-0.6918904185295105,
0.19781391322612762,
0.28495049476623535,
-0.44675374031066895,
0.09650781005620956,
0.6922149062156677,
0.8778206706047058,
0.2861083745956421,
0.18347325921058655,
0.047613345086574554,
-0.47401201725006104,
-0.23443959653377533,
0.12291058897972107,
-0.4826212525367737,
0.8734069466590881,
-0.19940467178821564,
0.6285050511360168,
-0.04963910952210426,
-0.2050134837627411,
0.08912112563848495,
-0.9734906554222107,
-0.3391607701778412,
0.7394239902496338,
-0.6382872462272644,
0.9748247265815735,
0.3472021222114563,
-0.11339160054922104,
0.2685032784938812,
-0.14864957332611084,
0.6633435487747192,
-0.48378992080688477,
0.3955841660499573,
0.7219086289405823,
0.3756616711616516,
-0.6963756084442139,
0.2134915441274643,
-0.22361552715301514,
0.10087785124778748,
0.26074814796447754,
0.6383348703384399,
0.2492745965719223,
-0.32493263483047485,
-0.10415513813495636,
-0.33172091841697693,
-0.28884437680244446,
-0.14939166605472565,
0.10113412886857986,
-0.08807782828807831,
-0.21264305710792542,
-0.4332304894924164,
0.35575762391090393,
0.28754445910453796,
-0.308474600315094,
0.4882687032222748,
-0.12202321738004684,
0.5994670391082764,
0.1369159072637558,
0.3992721438407898,
0.1998557299375534,
-1.1463078260421753,
-0.2683844566345215,
0.7046822905540466,
0.3527853786945343,
-0.6832767724990845,
-0.346452534198761,
0.10426831245422363,
0.5807923674583435,
-0.7940210103988647,
0.10765441507101059,
-0.5587875247001648,
0.1219937652349472,
0.1190701499581337,
-0.23467715084552765,
0.3791945278644562,
-0.30300167202949524,
0.15852144360542297,
-0.10549484938383102,
0.6025588512420654,
-0.5317974090576172,
-0.08921933174133301,
0.6482298374176025,
0.705214262008667,
0.284193754196167,
-0.11176372319459915,
-0.14384213089942932,
0.4919084906578064,
-0.565559446811676,
-0.24851489067077637,
0.5149936676025391,
0.4403547942638397,
-0.1987728476524353,
0.21076789498329163,
0.28913256525993347,
0.9300649762153625,
-0.43807756900787354,
-0.3444652855396271,
-0.5007761120796204,
-0.2516486346721649,
-0.24661166965961456,
0.11642181873321533,
0.6169396638870239,
-0.4609811007976532,
-1.0848441123962402,
0.08261439949274063,
0.3140890598297119,
-0.15569844841957092,
0.2783712148666382,
0.10736832022666931,
0.16602259874343872,
-0.46457839012145996,
-0.19785286486148834,
0.8115901947021484,
0.7585895657539368,
-0.18524372577667236,
0.09512627869844437,
-0.0633239671587944,
-0.05368620157241821,
-0.4644346535205841,
0.005117460619658232,
0.2072710245847702,
0.22532594203948975,
0.7054573893547058,
-0.08109570294618607,
-0.060457903891801834,
0.051680032163858414,
-0.1170555129647255,
0.07408548146486282,
-0.24640223383903503,
0.43697431683540344,
0.259250283241272,
-0.06824605911970139,
0.3893088102340698,
-0.6089566946029663,
-0.36151450872421265,
0.2471926212310791,
-0.6535651683807373,
-0.3315809965133667,
-0.1611223965883255,
-5.8634233474731445,
-0.07593774795532227,
0.19666703045368195,
-0.39257073402404785,
0.09064891934394836,
0.010740557685494423,
0.7231398224830627,
-1.0591520071029663,
-0.46731939911842346,
-0.05087614804506302,
-0.4304257333278656,
-0.4280049502849579,
-0.013534867204725742,
0.38330522179603577,
0.5609737634658813,
0.1256512850522995,
0.2432342767715454,
-0.6257625818252563,
0.6356953382492065,
-0.12192680686712265,
0.3535931706428528,
0.021688619628548622,
0.26525285840034485,
0.22329960763454437,
0.43340960144996643,
0.6099476218223572,
-0.48128098249435425,
0.2375488579273224,
-0.2919725477695465,
0.38748571276664734,
0.6172186136245728,
-0.16297636926174164,
0.11871551722288132,
-0.045088138431310654,
-0.47243812680244446,
-0.4079490900039673,
1.0732152462005615,
-0.5366999506950378,
0.1483779400587082,
-0.5126810073852539,
-0.5700930953025818,
0.25231102108955383,
0.10842683911323547,
0.42929452657699585,
0.3376902937889099,
0.31558042764663696,
-0.39596235752105713,
-0.4391028583049774,
-0.21546010673046112,
0.41614964604377747,
0.705254852771759,
0.14183391630649567,
0.02776472270488739,
0.31731030344963074,
-0.22963207960128784,
-0.2490929812192917,
0.04116902872920036,
-0.02976258099079132,
-0.8172476887702942,
-0.15317191183567047,
0.5381662249565125,
-0.5349493026733398,
-0.4357367753982544,
-0.3747836649417877,
0.6947256922721863,
-0.32969680428504944,
-0.4330330491065979,
-0.1893748939037323,
0.5996842384338379,
-0.1528141349554062,
-0.4935017228126526,
0.054314468055963516,
-0.03366164118051529,
-0.9941000938415527,
0.2153887301683426,
0.05735541507601738,
-0.48819035291671753,
0.21535445749759674,
0.35738107562065125,
-0.21652258932590485,
-0.004880812484771013,
-0.04130226746201515,
-0.1147204041481018,
-0.1543201506137848,
-0.1692933738231659,
-0.980318546295166,
-0.2762897312641144,
0.11956723779439926,
-0.2124963104724884,
-0.19503113627433777,
0.6666783690452576,
-0.3344723582267761,
-0.2553764879703522,
0.16649127006530762,
0.28848591446876526,
0.7096865177154541,
0.005028261803090572,
0.352845698595047,
0.19157586991786957,
-0.22370359301567078,
-0.2831041216850281,
0.16372129321098328,
0.3538779020309448,
-0.592689037322998,
-0.4031551778316498,
-0.2045668065547943,
-0.28463733196258545,
0.29103782773017883,
0.2843513488769531,
-0.1950863152742386,
-0.18875059485435486,
-0.04543706029653549,
-0.37966975569725037,
-0.3177889287471771,
0.2414005845785141,
0.3084093928337097,
-0.352935254573822,
0.17412054538726807,
0.6263300180435181,
0.20913660526275635,
-0.025394560769200325,
0.04877374321222305,
-0.451952189207077,
0.10182409733533859,
-0.7669676542282104,
0.9153676629066467,
0.2995104193687439,
0.14268112182617188,
0.19909502565860748,
-0.0032946965657174587,
0.05100660026073456,
-0.056291304528713226,
-0.01192647498100996,
-0.36969342827796936,
0.3313350975513458,
-0.42009037733078003,
-0.3466992676258087,
0.12285364419221878,
0.15308687090873718,
-0.21468991041183472,
0.07315535098314285,
-0.37822043895721436,
0.2934388220310211,
0.6587961316108704,
0.2042161226272583,
-0.044804077595472336,
-0.15188372135162354,
0.15263010561466217,
-0.175583615899086,
0.2491864711046219,
0.37357833981513977,
0.013158046640455723,
0.5478385090827942,
-0.8898385763168335,
0.08011730015277863,
0.16488532721996307,
-0.064188651740551,
0.10861474275588989,
0.09652606397867203,
0.09527931362390518,
0.01857670769095421,
-0.500815212726593,
-1.1793098449707031,
-0.14505767822265625,
0.10294348746538162,
0.009425181895494461,
-0.19091345369815826,
-0.8273411989212036,
0.20461837947368622,
0.1377064287662506,
0.17554759979248047,
-0.0251060351729393,
-0.5834968686103821,
0.14136162400245667,
0.6347290277481079,
0.28997886180877686,
0.005259257275611162,
0.11822745949029922,
0.27021321654319763,
0.3455362021923065,
-0.3962080478668213,
-0.31757500767707825,
0.22396627068519592,
-0.0620558001101017,
0.2648446261882782,
-0.4266885817050934,
-0.11443890631198883,
0.05638701841235161,
-0.17683374881744385,
0.06593162566423416,
0.18393349647521973,
0.6109869480133057,
0.7993242740631104,
-0.06375594437122345,
-0.6772708892822266,
-0.40238550305366516,
-0.05683198943734169,
0.41976308822631836,
-0.10120893269777298,
-0.5139598846435547,
-0.04143216088414192,
-0.09703890234231949,
-0.15593795478343964,
0.004236074164509773,
0.5888769626617432,
-0.48856839537620544,
-0.04189836606383324,
0.12034499645233154,
0.008162089623510838,
0.6805704832077026,
-0.13257865607738495,
-0.6650885343551636,
-0.6744187474250793,
0.027290523052215576,
-0.43179646134376526,
-0.27887362241744995,
-0.37660568952560425,
-0.5404435396194458,
0.009266099892556667,
-0.02612944506108761,
-0.021485410630702972,
-0.20245136320590973,
-1.2859150171279907,
0.2686215043067932,
-0.5310473442077637,
0.13612964749336243,
0.21706481277942657,
-1.3959639072418213,
0.2576700448989868,
-0.6312370896339417,
0.014550755731761456,
0.3657248914241791,
0.37609240412712097,
0.48401540517807007,
-0.6427861452102661,
-0.3168013095855713,
-0.15598663687705994,
0.8048208951950073,
0.5960766673088074,
0.30460062623023987,
0.2602771818637848,
0.3499755859375,
-0.029229456558823586,
-0.3343692719936371,
0.38410046696662903,
0.6867030262947083,
0.51081782579422,
-0.7546049356460571,
-0.45330023765563965,
0.18723164498806,
0.4486253261566162,
0.31025218963623047,
-0.567959725856781,
0.11821526288986206,
0.21342872083187103,
-0.6332800388336182,
-0.5560480356216431,
0.3559088408946991,
0.21382196247577667,
-0.04599793255329132,
0.05539574474096298,
0.5361704230308533,
-0.6599346399307251,
-0.4052359461784363,
0.29927897453308105,
0.027394721284508705,
0.580700159072876,
-0.07884085178375244,
0.1794401854276657,
0.36246901750564575,
-0.5650662183761597,
-0.2533023953437805,
0.08824101090431213,
-0.028215041384100914,
0.1845579892396927,
-0.1389114409685135,
-0.2529006004333496,
-0.569290816783905,
-0.17833712697029114,
0.05753913149237633,
-0.21753469109535217,
0.4828125834465027,
-0.34530481696128845,
-0.4872674345970154,
0.799630880355835,
-0.7370941638946533,
0.09306028485298157,
0.2844921946525574,
0.17645826935768127,
0.341389924287796,
-0.3600774109363556,
0.019618935883045197,
-0.48982515931129456,
-0.12771770358085632,
-0.0020712141413241625,
0.04030453786253929,
0.11794345080852509,
-0.4442715346813202,
-0.2941417694091797,
-0.45337820053100586,
-0.11272423714399338,
0.2847452461719513,
0.17277531325817108,
-0.5456013679504395,
-0.026572568342089653,
-0.09070345759391785,
-0.1525212526321411,
-0.7001519799232483,
-0.293558806180954,
0.28973355889320374,
0.048411112278699875,
0.17770451307296753,
0.13698123395442963,
0.5424345135688782,
-0.41668370366096497,
-0.2462252527475357,
0.17616024613380432,
-0.8188886046409607,
-0.2279186248779297,
0.24584780633449554,
-0.2639122009277344,
0.05048030614852905,
0.3101140558719635,
-0.420265257358551,
-0.5295180082321167,
0.09478742629289627,
-0.04429972544312477,
-0.47303494811058044,
0.6835322976112366,
-0.28597450256347656,
0.7493936419487,
0.46169784665107727,
-0.2311064451932907,
0.06299586594104767,
0.14665661752223969,
-0.335835337638855,
0.4884076416492462,
-0.10047350823879242,
0.48873576521873474,
0.35902026295661926,
0.20714421570301056,
-0.005045585334300995,
-0.36551371216773987,
0.22282366454601288,
-0.20890213549137115,
-0.027984412387013435,
0.49174514412879944,
0.5429966449737549,
0.30799558758735657,
0.5706707835197449,
0.27594229578971863,
0.5727879405021667,
-0.03817375749349594,
-0.42995503544807434,
0.9471920132637024,
-0.24549633264541626,
-0.2818611264228821,
-0.5519375801086426,
-0.05778265744447708,
0.2921063005924225,
0.3916972577571869,
0.2528185546398163,
-0.33496880531311035,
0.20650066435337067,
0.3812609314918518,
0.1992921382188797,
0.02895171009004116,
0.24492257833480835,
0.1042339950799942,
0.6033596992492676,
0.13015583157539368,
0.203849658370018,
0.020511750131845474,
-0.49266985058784485,
-0.6499754786491394,
-0.35244056582450867,
0.4095340967178345,
0.10357137024402618,
0.1404014229774475,
0.12393690645694733,
-0.010672352276742458,
-0.06389231234788895,
-0.3558926582336426,
-0.3710878789424896,
0.1559368073940277,
0.33865806460380554,
0.11579002439975739,
-0.03575887158513069,
-0.7747525572776794,
-0.4080311059951782,
-0.21293219923973083,
-0.8578683137893677,
-0.307267427444458,
0.2623401880264282,
-0.2708055078983307,
-0.3023926615715027,
0.004145082086324692,
0.5813213586807251,
0.2865424156188965,
0.061315737664699554,
0.49057623744010925,
0.41516080498695374,
-0.16776005923748016,
0.09149390459060669,
-0.32393595576286316,
0.31154584884643555,
-0.17567899823188782,
-0.20526598393917084,
-1.0560672283172607,
0.3626070022583008,
-0.023449458181858063,
0.43794775009155273,
0.11675364524126053,
0.32218340039253235,
-0.18830305337905884,
0.23745588958263397,
-0.16434045135974884,
-0.4499483108520508,
-0.033445805311203,
-0.4672442078590393,
-0.43970221281051636,
-0.0409320630133152,
-0.14007268846035004,
0.5804917812347412,
-0.08072163164615631,
-0.40231063961982727,
0.4342753291130066,
-0.2919860780239105,
-0.04283895343542099,
0.31182917952537537,
0.2274712473154068,
-0.27812880277633667,
-0.3580739498138428,
-0.3912598192691803,
-0.08685921132564545,
-0.32640382647514343,
0.3847539722919464,
1.3109691143035889,
0.4495583772659302,
-0.0998598262667656,
0.7744434475898743,
-0.13999289274215698,
0.5588015913963318,
0.5950976610183716,
-0.1841130256652832,
0.008742926642298698,
0.2366083860397339,
0.25671249628067017,
-0.5764017105102539,
0.38493600487709045,
0.6649431586265564,
-0.06027667596936226,
-0.0770750492811203,
-0.9544010162353516,
0.07034896314144135,
-0.35961249470710754,
0.28989166021347046,
0.21137571334838867,
0.013924287632107735,
0.47317537665367126
] |
234938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolfing | Rolfing | Rolfing () is a form of alternative medicine originally developed by Ida Rolf (1896–1979) as Structural Integration.
Rolfing is marketed with unproven claims of various health benefits. It is based on Rolf's ideas about how the human body's "energy field" can benefit when aligned with the Earth's gravitational field.
Rolfing is typically delivered as a series of ten hands-on physical manipulation sessions sometimes called "the recipe". Practitioners combine superficial and deep manual therapy with movement prompts. The process is sometimes painful. The safety of Rolfing has not been confirmed.
The principles of Rolfing contradict established medical knowledge, and there is no good evidence Rolfing is effective for the treatment of any health condition. It is recognized as a pseudoscience and has been characterized as quackery.
Conceptual basis
Science writer Edzard Ernst offers this definition: "Rolfing is a system of bodywork invented by Ida Pauline Rolf (1896–1979) employing deep manipulation of the body's soft tissue allegedly to realign and balance the body's myofascial structures."
Rolfing is based on the unproven belief that such alignment results in improved movement, breathing, pain reduction, stress reduction, and even emotional changes.
Rolf described the body as organized around an axis perpendicular to the earth, pulled downward by gravity, and she believed the function of the body was optimal when it was aligned with that pull. In her view, gravity tends to shorten fascia, leading to disorder of the body's arrangement around its axis and creating imbalance, inefficiency in movement, and pain. Rolfers aim to lengthen the fascia in order to restore the body's arrangement around its axis and facilitate improved movement. Rolf also discussed this in terms of "energy" and said:
Rolfers make a life study of relating bodies and their fields to the earth and its gravity field, and we so organize the body that the gravity field can reinforce the body's energy field. This is our primary concept.
The manipulation is sometimes referred to as a type of bodywork, or as a type of massage. Some osteopaths were influenced by Rolf, and some of her students became teachers of massage, including one of the founders of myofascial release.
Rolf claimed to have found an association between emotions and the soft tissue, writing "although rolfing is not primarily a psychotherapeutic approach to the problems of humans", it does constitute an "approach to the personality through the myofascial collagen components of the physical body". She claimed Rolfing could balance the mental and emotional aspects of subjects, and that "the amazing psychological changes that appeared in Rolfed individuals were completely unexpected". Rolfers suggest their manipulations can cause the release of painful repressed memories. Rolfers also hold that by manipulating the body they can bring about changes in personality; for example, teaching somebody to walk with confidence will make them a more confident person. The connection between physical structure and psychology has not been proven by scientific studies.
Technique
Rolfers posit that they manipulate the body's fascial layers. Rolfing also uses a combination of active and passive movement retraining.
Rolfing is typically performed in a progression of 10 sessions, sometimes called "the recipe". The first three sessions of the protocol focus on superficial tissues, the next four focus on deeper tissues and specifically the pelvis, and the final sessions address the whole body.
A session typically lasts between 60 and 90 minutes. The recipient wears undergarments. Positions for the work include lying on a table, sitting, and standing.
Rolfing treatments are sometimes painful. For adults, there may be moments of intense sensation during a treatment or soreness afterward. However, the technique can be done gently enough for children and the elderly. Rolf believed fascia tightens as a protective mechanism, and therefore thought an aggressive approach could be counter-productive.
Effectiveness and reception
Because of its dependence on vitalistic concepts and its unevidenced propositions about the connection between physical manipulation and psychology, Rolfing is classified as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery.
Writing for Science-Based Medicine, lawyer Jann Bellamy writes that in the United States of America the public is inadequately protected from bodywork practices such as Rolfing because of the lack of independent oversight; instead regulation is carried out within a "closed loop" system by such bodies as the National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork.In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published a review of 17 alternative therapies, including Rolfing, which concluded no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly, in 2017, the Australian government named Rolfing as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, to ensure the best use of insurance funds. Proponents of Rolfing claim it can be used to alleviate pain. However, Rolfing's focus on appropriate "alignment" of structures of the body does not reflect modern science about pain.
The American Cancer Society says the deep soft tissue manipulations such as those used in Rolfing are a concern if practiced on people with cancer near tumor sites.
In 2010 The New York Times reported that Rolfing was enjoying a "resurgence" following an endorsement from Mehmet Oz on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
History
Ida Rolf began working on clients in New York City in the 1940s with the premise that the human structure could be organized "in relation to gravity". She developed structural integration with one of her sons and by the 1950s she was teaching her work across the United States. In the mid-1960s she began teaching at Esalen Institute, where she gathered a loyal following of students and practitioners. Esalen was the epicenter of the Human Potential Movement, allowing Rolf to exchange ideas with many of their leaders, including Fritz Perls. Rolf incorporated a number of ideas from other areas including osteopathic manipulation, cranial osteopathy, hatha yoga, and the general semantics of Alfred Korzybski. In 1971 she founded the Rolf Institute of Structural Integration. The school has been based in Boulder, Colorado, since 1972, and as of 2010 included five institutes worldwide.
The Field of Structural Integration
Since Rolf's death, the field of Structural Integration has branched into various schools. Of these schools, the Rolf Institute is the only one with the use of the trademarked terms "Rolfing" and "Certified Rolfer". Other programs of Structural Integration certify "Practitioners of the Rolf Method of Structural Integration" including the Guild for Structural Integration, Hellerwork Structural Integration, Aston Patterning, SOMA, KMI, and a dozen other Structural Integration programs. A professional membership organization exists called the International Association of Structural Integration, which has certified practitioners by exam since 2007.
In some states such as New Hampshire and Nevada, there is a separate license for SI.
Internationally, some countries have a Board of Health that regulates bodywork while others don't. Four Canadian provinces require licensure for bodywork practitioners. Switzerland has separate licensure for complementary therapies including Structural Integration.
See also
Pierre Bernard (yogi) – an influence on Rolf
References
Further reading
External links
Rolf Institute website
Alternative medical treatments
Manual therapy
Massage therapy
Pseudoscience
Somatics | [
0.1629207581281662,
0.2062358558177948,
-0.21078161895275116,
-0.2357366681098938,
-0.08063822239637375,
0.3626927435398102,
0.16886043548583984,
-0.5064579248428345,
0.08562138676643372,
-0.11278585344552994,
0.12087790668010712,
0.7948969006538391,
-0.1409681737422943,
-0.2949783205986023,
-0.4278363883495331,
0.2587238550186157,
0.38309362530708313,
-0.2363465279340744,
-0.35409167408943176,
-0.19074012339115143,
-0.34797754883766174,
-0.3313917815685272,
0.2724462151527405,
0.04402405396103859,
-0.03555377572774887,
0.2303747981786728,
0.4739927053451538,
0.03786139562726021,
0.005115944892168045,
0.1122303381562233,
0.8809065818786621,
0.7301799654960632,
0.2413311004638672,
-0.053388290107250214,
-0.08495646715164185,
0.5091690421104431,
-0.03613321855664253,
-0.3223939836025238,
-0.2783313989639282,
0.1217537671327591,
-0.12928614020347595,
0.22273476421833038,
0.29936859011650085,
0.5847696661949158,
0.4115329384803772,
-0.40425384044647217,
-2.180860996246338,
0.578826904296875,
-0.8011230826377869,
-0.47605520486831665,
-1.0286870002746582,
0.20038403570652008,
0.40568938851356506,
0.3165973126888275,
0.02409498579800129,
0.5491794347763062,
-0.4727934002876282,
-0.2984667122364044,
-0.27792540192604065,
-0.4238664209842682,
-0.13326376676559448,
0.3553486466407776,
0.2554330825805664,
0.38172611594200134,
0.08435217291116714,
-0.0718497708439827,
-0.1085348129272461,
0.4925300180912018,
-0.20833870768547058,
-0.7206278443336487,
-0.47443750500679016,
0.33662480115890503,
-0.0630737766623497,
0.21333274245262146,
-0.14174066483974457,
-0.1308230310678482,
0.29643628001213074,
0.03849872574210167,
0.2702549993991852,
-0.7087962031364441,
-0.028149481862783432,
0.23257103562355042,
-0.04347439110279083,
-0.06925278902053833,
0.22580362856388092,
-0.2939431965351105,
-0.264495849609375,
0.6559393405914307,
-0.14091579616069794,
-0.2583993971347809,
0.08670242875814438,
-0.4814937710762024,
0.5615983605384827,
0.03144046291708946,
-0.11525300145149231,
0.21739888191223145,
0.1528378427028656,
0.027497144415974617,
0.07787046581506729,
-0.027718184515833855,
0.07091391086578369,
-0.019421761855483055,
0.4365147352218628,
-0.16578389704227448,
0.35388273000717163,
-0.17862141132354736,
0.19169087707996368,
-0.20804451406002045,
-0.394125759601593,
-0.19077500700950623,
-1.2536473274230957,
0.3619172275066376,
0.13103686273097992,
-0.2902548909187317,
0.0679657980799675,
0.8124343752861023,
0.13693371415138245,
0.26778653264045715,
-0.7819961905479431,
-0.3309296667575836,
-0.1586238592863083,
1.2028865814208984,
-0.4366791844367981,
0.23752368986606598,
-0.371425062417984,
-0.25331592559814453,
0.39747658371925354,
0.6070151329040527,
-1.0680303573608398,
0.30498644709587097,
0.2814701795578003,
0.224094957113266,
-0.19895116984844208,
0.1002882793545723,
-0.005076505709439516,
-0.25783076882362366,
0.44533488154411316,
0.051442377269268036,
0.28919148445129395,
0.37192079424858093,
-0.5372573733329773,
-0.137766495347023,
-0.4058387279510498,
0.15206345915794373,
0.6199344992637634,
-0.10006675869226456,
0.6455203890800476,
-0.20692965388298035,
-0.09479270875453949,
-0.4156446158885956,
-0.22153805196285248,
0.28538617491722107,
-0.027648041024804115,
-0.33575496077537537,
0.37109050154685974,
0.9910921454429626,
0.6083741784095764,
-0.5778909921646118,
0.030831661075353622,
0.016137048602104187,
0.438890278339386,
-0.2205534279346466,
-0.5229038000106812,
-0.14519035816192627,
0.45745033025741577,
-0.854912519454956,
-0.32382693886756897,
0.4346486032009125,
0.5720730423927307,
0.3731263279914856,
-0.2617902457714081,
-0.3126800060272217,
0.005264348816126585,
-0.5872529745101929,
0.4921124577522278,
0.28343793749809265,
0.018432853743433952,
0.09841785579919815,
0.37710392475128174,
0.11679711937904358,
-0.7316548228263855,
0.10664642602205276,
0.02043960988521576,
-0.4411007761955261,
0.4652993083000183,
-0.041544266045093536,
0.9958113431930542,
0.47260814905166626,
0.06292243301868439,
0.2529261112213135,
-0.7305529713630676,
-0.4657512605190277,
0.8166170716285706,
-0.041618797928094864,
1.5191553831100464,
0.1584286093711853,
-0.0708271861076355,
0.8131598234176636,
0.042715661227703094,
-0.0016997304046526551,
-0.3118848204612732,
-0.23056624829769135,
0.07495622336864471,
0.3762020468711853,
-0.37186646461486816,
0.7314171195030212,
0.33908772468566895,
-0.3838452696800232,
0.016872882843017578,
0.18666188418865204,
0.22839203476905823,
-0.4297204911708832,
-0.1877080500125885,
-0.0238018985837698,
0.3529120683670044,
-0.1531486213207245,
-0.3575407862663269,
0.7798377871513367,
0.010809611529111862,
-0.350487619638443,
0.4532686471939087,
-0.10020579397678375,
-0.5174998641014099,
0.35829275846481323,
0.7170939445495605,
1.1041523218154907,
0.5474746227264404,
-0.07420342415571213,
0.03225456550717354,
0.2963491380214691,
0.2103918194770813,
0.441236674785614,
0.6634509563446045,
-0.18478675186634064,
0.30927520990371704,
-0.07864338904619217,
-0.0760553777217865,
-0.20671740174293518,
0.1116117388010025,
-0.5386317372322083,
-0.09142252802848816,
0.27040284872055054,
-0.7584667801856995,
0.1076570674777031,
0.20514987409114838,
-0.04088834300637245,
-0.6887433528900146,
0.15883171558380127,
-0.18529517948627472,
-0.011573859490454197,
0.017372338101267815,
0.48432430624961853,
0.3078087866306305,
-0.30861005187034607,
0.11201781779527664,
0.037988726049661636,
0.08139783889055252,
-0.2513129711151123,
0.44269099831581116,
-0.24181367456912994,
-0.05823894217610359,
0.6340025663375854,
0.3248901963233948,
-0.5898573994636536,
0.09644435346126556,
-0.6681215763092041,
-0.23264922201633453,
-0.5340679883956909,
0.33409011363983154,
-0.2947763204574585,
0.6196638345718384,
-0.20955310761928558,
-0.8906933069229126,
-0.25362786650657654,
-0.965857744216919,
-1.022748589515686,
0.38155949115753174,
0.22108213603496552,
-0.40310049057006836,
-0.20012430846691132,
0.053833767771720886,
0.5971640944480896,
0.1262931078672409,
-0.5015260577201843,
-0.5558348894119263,
-0.12656661868095398,
-0.4266018867492676,
0.10033932328224182,
0.2558066248893738,
-0.0033385467249900103,
0.007858039811253548,
1.2933964729309082,
-0.01816796511411667,
-0.47266051173210144,
-0.1711878925561905,
0.4537045955657959,
-0.37828847765922546,
0.4690566658973694,
0.3971388041973114,
0.2657410800457001,
0.015047388151288033,
-0.12894316017627716,
0.4894002079963684,
-0.15316113829612732,
-0.29283690452575684,
-0.20798154175281525,
-0.34093573689460754,
-0.19362440705299377,
-5.674688339233398,
-0.33365949988365173,
0.317271888256073,
-0.35636305809020996,
0.29725033044815063,
0.4034273624420166,
0.5409539341926575,
-0.16479872167110443,
0.6521349549293518,
0.12009191513061523,
-0.41452133655548096,
-0.05731818452477455,
0.3013207018375397,
0.26590001583099365,
0.08967743068933487,
0.29774484038352966,
-0.17813141644001007,
-0.13494326174259186,
0.7747095823287964,
0.3513590395450592,
0.5703915357589722,
-0.3694991171360016,
-0.5842032432556152,
0.9256313443183899,
-0.53501296043396,
0.5091595649719238,
-0.6448426246643066,
1.0012556314468384,
-0.37000688910484314,
-0.15245980024337769,
0.4490123987197876,
-0.3318985104560852,
-0.07895302772521973,
0.13371852040290833,
-0.04915853217244148,
0.20290662348270416,
0.5695662498474121,
0.4061744511127472,
0.06813313812017441,
-0.3521137833595276,
-0.197530597448349,
0.4035510718822479,
0.11733601242303848,
-0.0944201648235321,
0.4093913733959198,
0.33764201402664185,
0.13940997421741486,
0.30137839913368225,
-0.28698718547821045,
0.6901794075965881,
0.45156025886535645,
0.005577992182224989,
0.045952703803777695,
0.20482157170772552,
-0.12709464132785797,
-0.23008911311626434,
0.28185132145881653,
0.019713792949914932,
0.009784800931811333,
0.6040351986885071,
0.15083295106887817,
-0.37113696336746216,
-0.06181895360350609,
-0.7973730564117432,
-0.34399712085723877,
0.2651425004005432,
-0.17307446897029877,
-0.247775137424469,
0.17103464901447296,
-0.29039284586906433,
-0.18823017179965973,
1.193113088607788,
0.1820192188024521,
-0.6585927605628967,
0.21951620280742645,
-0.23339857161045074,
0.18047837913036346,
-0.23655851185321808,
0.1714654266834259,
-0.17966119945049286,
-0.33851251006126404,
-0.984035313129425,
-0.39242473244667053,
-0.0022668251767754555,
0.6731261610984802,
-0.12289001047611237,
-0.5620962381362915,
0.08428045362234116,
-0.5356802344322205,
-0.15413810312747955,
0.2600080370903015,
-0.4355320632457733,
0.24378304183483124,
0.41355210542678833,
0.4866134226322174,
1.0732136964797974,
-0.31985920667648315,
0.1847354918718338,
0.8713182806968689,
0.16321922838687897,
0.36723780632019043,
-0.25589627027511597,
-0.3668745458126068,
-0.10481534153223038,
0.06205694004893303,
0.09879903495311737,
-0.33764439821243286,
-0.30711740255355835,
0.3515496551990509,
-0.5153518319129944,
-0.20473381876945496,
0.8700923323631287,
-0.5272405743598938,
0.14047734439373016,
0.22714589536190033,
-0.03932874649763107,
-0.8584201335906982,
-0.36857476830482483,
0.6379430890083313,
0.14471124112606049,
-0.3098047971725464,
-0.2201896756887436,
-0.14429865777492523,
0.23325926065444946,
0.4811893701553345,
-0.3365744352340698,
0.11032184958457947,
0.20541463792324066,
-0.3852498531341553,
0.6649618148803711,
0.5355709195137024,
0.29670530557632446,
-0.029958005994558334,
-0.3623664081096649,
0.048921868205070496,
-0.5540298819541931,
-0.48341938853263855,
1.2153947353363037,
-0.3712046444416046,
-0.0247320719063282,
0.02116853930056095,
-0.3655070662498474,
-0.13312166929244995,
0.06417499482631683,
0.12591888010501862,
-0.18575704097747803,
-0.17872264981269836,
-0.3680207431316376,
-0.36152905225753784,
0.36205774545669556,
0.13621746003627777,
0.1541244238615036,
-0.025220083072781563,
0.1923825442790985,
0.2164435237646103,
-0.03688780590891838,
0.4112941026687622,
-0.09920863807201385,
0.16735926270484924,
-0.3938397169113159,
-0.47766411304473877,
0.038621820509433746,
-1.1219233274459839,
-0.37533101439476013,
-0.75194251537323,
-0.03680158033967018,
-0.33167949318885803,
-0.6289466619491577,
-0.10923316329717636,
-0.009527236223220825,
-0.4703725576400757,
-0.4201482832431793,
-0.6639819741249084,
-0.21595734357833862,
0.30663788318634033,
-0.24688848853111267,
-0.26044750213623047,
-0.06957223266363144,
-0.6171852946281433,
-0.31468144059181213,
0.1991279423236847,
0.1493622213602066,
-0.23323886096477509,
0.3780299723148346,
0.8312143087387085,
-0.7411405444145203,
-0.2584241032600403,
-0.35529452562332153,
-0.6613717079162598,
0.042934615164995193,
0.23712857067584991,
0.6153607368469238,
0.4414653778076172,
0.2552809715270996,
-0.04778323695063591,
-0.17010141909122467,
-0.5359916687011719,
-0.052253641188144684,
-0.12045154720544815,
0.03445920720696449,
-0.20156684517860413,
0.48315271735191345,
0.4611738920211792,
0.22386811673641205,
0.4520232081413269,
-0.5567799210548401,
-0.3671841025352478,
-0.21804764866828918,
-0.8037244081497192,
0.056966934353113174,
-0.4834875464439392,
-0.32771939039230347,
-0.20296186208724976,
0.07922156155109406,
-0.48540186882019043,
0.3621882498264313,
0.03932754695415497,
-0.6033778786659241,
-0.3219835162162781,
0.305719792842865,
0.42257407307624817,
-0.5309804081916809,
0.055405620485544205,
-0.34311729669570923,
-0.22990268468856812,
-0.22141212224960327,
0.4033927917480469,
-0.2723325788974762,
0.3069518208503723,
0.2092355489730835,
-0.7806510925292969,
-0.4474821388721466,
-0.3167433738708496,
0.5497293472290039,
-0.3664131462574005,
0.10880366712808609,
-0.35281988978385925,
0.6636828184127808,
0.20834356546401978,
0.180344820022583,
0.21817097067832947,
0.7364712357521057,
-0.14136327803134918,
0.2510240375995636,
-0.09312264621257782,
0.7146063446998596,
0.09388186782598495,
-0.8098259568214417,
-0.16925393044948578,
-0.05817115306854248,
0.10813829302787781,
-0.025176186114549637,
-0.32201865315437317,
-0.25132131576538086,
0.5198380947113037,
-0.07076255977153778,
-0.06896179914474487,
-0.3038167953491211,
0.0624772273004055,
-0.007124763913452625,
0.06226721405982971,
0.20874877274036407,
-0.1759546399116516,
-0.11827977001667023,
0.018413972109556198,
-0.01331873144954443,
0.04446585848927498,
-0.28355368971824646,
0.3222394287586212,
-0.12583765387535095,
0.11265132576227188,
-1.0921953916549683,
0.2871190011501312,
0.8786793351173401,
-0.22186940908432007,
0.22661350667476654,
0.16402195394039154,
-0.5650879740715027,
0.2588436007499695,
0.1681079864501953,
-0.3348826766014099,
-0.0033390638418495655,
0.29700595140457153,
-0.2774502635002136,
-0.463741272687912,
-0.4199163019657135,
0.17901530861854553,
-0.6390746235847473,
-0.41505512595176697,
-0.3501395881175995,
-0.2598552107810974,
-0.17826037108898163,
-0.37732893228530884,
0.04688527435064316,
-0.47271135449409485,
-0.11635725945234299,
-0.04701504483819008,
0.4716491997241974,
-0.6027666330337524,
-0.684101402759552,
-0.18617041409015656,
0.12191769480705261,
0.24668453633785248,
-0.5637933611869812,
0.1339428722858429,
0.038992784917354584,
-0.08290471881628036,
-0.5377904176712036,
-0.18454623222351074,
0.031160591170191765,
0.29401543736457825,
-0.27382710576057434,
-0.39239633083343506,
1.0513759851455688,
-0.5102072954177856,
0.041730474680662155,
-0.08207923918962479,
0.07089459896087646,
0.4940321445465088,
0.4727979898452759,
-0.14958065748214722,
0.2943124771118164,
0.5009713768959045,
-0.5407432913780212,
-0.039967071264982224,
0.07943399995565414,
0.6158788800239563,
0.43612924218177795,
-0.5239107012748718,
0.7101958394050598,
0.14386172592639923,
0.21029967069625854,
0.5466015338897705,
0.7682355046272278,
0.2469283938407898,
-0.22449547052383423,
0.7126038074493408,
-0.5389737486839294,
-0.14694158732891083,
0.22900891304016113,
0.301247775554657,
0.28614816069602966,
-0.11337702721357346,
0.35563117265701294,
-0.046800605952739716,
0.014227044768631458,
0.2563478648662567,
0.3994506299495697,
-0.12164250016212463,
-0.07706311345100403,
0.3937002122402191,
-0.04095040634274483,
0.12549468874931335,
-0.4964262545108795,
0.014401172287762165,
0.12111175060272217,
0.49544456601142883,
-0.39529913663864136,
-0.5384418964385986,
-0.20829254388809204,
0.047004081308841705,
-0.4659108519554138,
0.14743982255458832,
-0.2140779048204422,
0.055120356380939484,
-0.3218993842601776,
0.2543022334575653,
-1.1473121643066406,
0.46239951252937317,
0.6664641499519348,
0.2925478219985962,
-0.16341985762119293,
-0.2633827328681946,
0.5072922706604004,
-0.018600117415189743,
0.17109976708889008,
0.6771851778030396,
0.16128189861774445,
0.3368977904319763,
0.19440098106861115,
-0.042426612228155136,
-0.15594565868377686,
0.0933910459280014,
-0.2122730314731598,
-0.27073389291763306,
-0.7587844133377075,
0.12219159305095673,
0.29855579137802124,
0.14692901074886322,
-0.04996778443455696,
0.04220229759812355,
-0.3858024477958679,
0.4506162703037262,
0.17554961144924164,
-0.1482711285352707,
0.14482879638671875,
0.45771127939224243,
0.22726726531982422,
0.2083667367696762,
0.1527150273323059,
-0.6586815118789673,
0.4209679067134857,
0.11891350895166397,
0.08545130491256714,
0.03367038071155548,
0.25815698504447937,
-0.20873188972473145,
0.391508549451828,
-0.25375452637672424,
0.24409814178943634,
0.34650087356567383,
0.1628359854221344,
0.006896215956658125,
0.11538262665271759,
0.5375295281410217,
0.2937934100627899,
0.3309907615184784,
-0.297396183013916,
-0.15862920880317688,
0.14328713715076447,
-0.04456309974193573,
0.3236927390098572,
-0.22701703011989594,
-0.25857001543045044,
-0.9438878893852234,
0.44319987297058105,
0.10936538130044937,
0.10195530951023102,
-0.6017273664474487,
0.3688381612300873,
-0.2886309027671814,
0.30542588233947754,
-0.9353508353233337,
-0.06897520273923874,
0.21932266652584076,
0.11982382833957672,
-0.010843208059668541,
0.096748486161232,
0.05387071520090103,
-0.08412862569093704,
0.218427374958992,
-0.3040730953216553,
-0.3357275426387787,
-0.025310439988970757,
-0.9914571642875671,
-0.039423711597919464,
0.356493204832077,
0.018567007035017014,
-0.32921120524406433,
-0.05543912574648857,
-0.2743990123271942,
-0.7306321263313293,
-0.43102046847343445,
-0.5026974081993103,
0.08460032194852829,
0.1117316484451294,
-0.23372694849967957,
-0.549426794052124,
-0.2672185003757477,
-0.024805761873722076
] |
234944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20De%20la%20Gardie | Jacob De la Gardie | Field Marshal and Count Jacob Pontusson De la Gardie (Reval, 20 June 1583 – Stockholm, 22 August 1652) was a statesman and a soldier of the Swedish Empire, and a Marshal from 1620 onward.
He was Privy Councilor from 1613 onward, Governor of Swedish Estonia in 1619–1622, Governor-General of Livonia in 1622–1628 (conquered by the Swedish Empire in 1621, and referred to as Swedish Livonia in 1629–1721), and Lord High Constable from 1620. He introduced reforms based on the then novel Dutch military doctrine into the Swedish army. He commanded the Swedish forces in Russia and against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He also served as one of the five regents jointly ruling Sweden during the minority of Queen Christina.
Biography
Antoine Marie Jacob De la Gardie was born in Reval (today Tallinn), Estonia (then part of the Swedish Empire), as a son of Pontus De la Gardie and Sofia Johansdotter Gyllenhielm, the illegitimate daughter of King John III of Sweden. His mother died giving birth, and his father perished two years later in Narva. From his age two onward, Jacob was raised in the Vääksy () manor, Kangasala, Finland (then part of Sweden proper) by his grandmother Karin Hansdotter (Finnish: Kaarina Hannuntytär), the mistress of King John III.
As a young adult, De la Gardie was held prisoner in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth for four years, together with Carl Gyllenhielm. After being released, De la Gardie took part of the Dutch Revolt as a volunteer. In 1606–1608, De la Gardie served under the Dutch general Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange. Impressed with the Dutch way of waging war, De la Gardie began introducing Dutch methods into the Swedish army upon his return to the service of Sweden.
Prelude to Jacob de La Gardie Campaign
The Tsardom of Russia had been experiencing the Time of Troubles (1598–1613) since the death of Tsar Feodor I in 1598, causing widespread political instability and a violent succession crisis for the title of Tsar of Russia by usurpers known as the False Dmitris. In 1605, the Polish-Muscovite War started when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth unofficially invaded Russia in support of False Dmitry I against the unpopular crowned tsar Boris Godunov, seeking to exploit the country's weakness for their own gain. Godunov died in June 1605 and was replaced by False Dmitry I, whose popularity among the Russian populace declined rapidly during his reign, and the Polish withdrew when he was eventually murdered during an uprising in Moscow in May 1606.
Despite this, Russia's instability continued to the near-total breakdown of order, prompting the Polish to invade again in 1607 in support of the new usurper, False Dmitry II. In 1609, the Tsar of Russia at the time, Vasili IV, approached King Charles IX of Sweden to form a military alliance against False Dmitry II and the Polish occupiers. The two signed the Treaty of Viborg (Vyborg; Finnish: Viipuri), in which Russia ceded Kexholm County and the strategic Korela Fortress to Sweden in exchange for military support. This Russia's alliance formed in 1609 with Sweden, the main rival of Poland, led to King Sigismund III of Poland officially declaring war on Russia in response.
Execution of the campaign
In 1608–1613, De la Gardie as Sweden's Chief Commander in Finland also commanded the Swedish war efforts in Russia. Thus, in accordance with the Swedish-Russian military alliance formed in 1609, he together with Evert Horn now took charge of providing an auxiliary corps to support the Russian forces commanded by Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky.
Although officially the Swedish-Russian alliance was not ratified before July 1609, already in the early spring of 1609 Sweden gathered for this mission to the city of Vyborg (Finnish: Viipuri) in Finland (then part of Sweden) c. 5,000 soldiers, consisting mainly of Finns. A Swedish offensive heading towards Moscow – via Novgorod – began from Vyborg on 11 March 1609. The operation became known as De la Gardie campaign. It was a joint military campaign by the Tsardom of Russia and Sweden during the Polish-Russian War (1605-1618), a.k.a. Polish–Muscovite War or the Dimitriads, lasting officially from April 1609 to 4 June 1610.
A combined Russo-Swedish army of about 10,000 soldiers set out from Novgorod in April 1609 and marched towards Moscow, defeating rebel forces and relieving the Siege of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra on their way. The De la Gardie campaign was successful against False Dmitry II, dispersing his court in Tushino, a former village and town to the north of Moscow, where Dmitry II maintained an alternative court, challenging the authority of Vasili IV. On 12 March 1610, the Russo-Swedish army broke the rebel siege of Moscow and conquered the city.
In June 1610, De la Gardie and Prince Dmitry Shuisky – an uncle and rival of Skopin-Shuisky (who was poisoned at the behest of his uncle) – departed from Moscow, in order to lift the Polish-Lithuanian Siege of Smolensk. The campaign ended with most of De la Gardie's forces defecting to the Polish hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski at the Battle of Klushino, causing a defeat to De la Gardie's alliance on 4 June 1610. After this, De la Gardie's remaining army returned to Vyborg during that summer.
Ingrian War (1610–1617)
Not long thereafter, the Ingrian War in 1610–1617 between Sweden and Russia was initiated, during which De la Gardie played a significant role militarily. A new army was rapidly being formed for Jacob De la Gardie, again stationed in Vyborg. It this time included four foreign mercenary fighting units, in addition to Finns and Swedes (seven cavalry and two infantry units arrived from Stockholm to Turku on 25 January 1611).
De la Gardie also claimed that Sweden should take advantage of the ongoing turmoil in Russia, later known as the Times of Trouble, and try to place Charles Philip, younger brother of the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, on the Russian throne. After some negotiating, these plans were abandoned due to lack of engagement from Gustavus Adolphus, and due to uncertainty on the Russian side.
In 1617, De la Gardie became the chief Swedish negotiator at the Treaty of Stolbovo that ended the Ingrian War, whereby the Swedish Empire was able to secure important territorial concessions from Russia, effectively closing off Russia from access to the Baltic Sea.
From July 1619 to 1622, De la Gardie was Governor of the Swedish Estonia. In 1626, he purchased an estate with a medieval castle in Haapsalu, in modern-day Estonia. His time as governor of Estonia was followed by a time as Governor-General of Livonia in 1622–1628 (conquered by the Swedish Empire in 1621, and referred to as Swedish Livonia in 1629–1721).
After 1621, De la Gardie took part in the Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625) against his mother's half-brother, King Sigismund III of Poland (a former king of Sweden), in Livonia, but he was recalled after serving as commander in chief between 1626 and 1628. De la Gardie was an advocate of peace with Poland and acted as one of the Swedish negotiators at the Truce of Stuhmsdorf in 1635.
Member of the Privy Council
De la Gardie became a member of the Swedish Privy Council in 1613. In 1620, he became Lord High Constable and, as such, he was later one of the five regents ruling Sweden during Queen Christina's minority (1632–44). His pacifist and pro-French and pro-Polish attitudes often put him at odds with Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who led Sweden's war effort in the Thirty Years' War after the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632.
As De la Gardie supported many of Oxenstierna's other policies, eventually the two leaders reconciled after Oxenstierna's return to Sweden in 1636. Although the Marshal's Office came under criticism that year, De la Gardie continued to operate effectively, making large profits from leasing royal revenues and from loans to the crown.
Family life
In 1618, De la Gardie married Ebba Brahe, the love of young Gustavus Adolphus. The couple had 14 children, the most famous among them being Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, Maria Sofia De la Gardie,
Axel Julius De la Gardie and Countess Christina Catharine De la Gardie (1632–1704), who married Gustaf Otto Stenbock and was mother of Magnus Stenbock.
Death and legacy
Count Jacob De la Gardie died in Stockholm in 1652 and is buried in the Veckholm Church in Uppsala County, Sweden.
The town of Jakobstad in Finland is named after him. A shopping mall in Old Tallinn is named De la Gardie in honor of him. During the Ingrian War, the Finnish soldiers nicknamed their commander Laiska-Jaakko ("Lazy Jacob"), due to the unusually lengthy six-year occupation of Novgorod. This name is still widely remembered in Finland. The siege was thus recorded in a folk verse: Lähti suvi, lähti talvi, vaan ei lähde Laiska-Jaakko. ("The summer left, the winter left, but Lazy Jacob does not leave.")
References
External links
Läckö Castle (The castle of Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie) at Statens fastighetsverk
Jacob De la Gardie (1583-1652) Image at heninen.net
Jaakkima - Lahdenpohja at heninen.net
1583 births
1652 deaths
Politicians from Tallinn
Swedish people of French descent
Governors-General of Sweden
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
16th-century Finnish nobility
17th-century Swedish nobility
Estonian nobility
Field marshals of Sweden
Lord Marshals of the Riksdag of the Estates
16th-century Swedish nobility
17th-century Swedish politicians
Russian people of the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Jacob | [
-0.6581636071205139,
0.4670458436012268,
0.1648963838815689,
-0.08604513853788376,
-0.5381919145584106,
0.8119165897369385,
1.0744929313659668,
-0.711650550365448,
-0.3658531606197357,
-0.7524564862251282,
-0.05125349014997482,
0.32400354743003845,
-0.4173845052719116,
0.24304558336734772,
-0.2502056658267975,
0.09412885457277298,
0.24967938661575317,
-0.17487913370132446,
-0.3009416162967682,
-0.37233033776283264,
-0.13810908794403076,
-0.2609274387359619,
0.2661460041999817,
0.2931855022907257,
0.3114050328731537,
0.028249194845557213,
0.7419136166572571,
0.4856888949871063,
0.34254688024520874,
0.14167015254497528,
-0.06260814517736435,
0.5415099263191223,
-0.03613235801458359,
-0.5824658274650574,
-0.9344986081123352,
0.23993077874183655,
-0.5409365892410278,
-0.4961486756801605,
0.05712425708770752,
0.12796464562416077,
-0.10861179977655411,
0.1945752054452896,
-0.651348352432251,
0.0432920828461647,
-0.17522777616977692,
-0.4002285599708557,
-1.3244550228118896,
0.4762926399707794,
-0.844059944152832,
-0.4998936057090759,
0.11678767949342728,
0.07422927021980286,
-0.07618729025125504,
0.33092689514160156,
-0.41156888008117676,
0.09929964691400528,
-0.9532635807991028,
-0.30673107504844666,
-0.0835244357585907,
-0.21386770904064178,
0.27378329634666443,
0.3027260899543762,
0.3725920617580414,
0.19637121260166168,
0.021130729466676712,
-0.1640481799840927,
0.0817975327372551,
0.2212105393409729,
0.33961305022239685,
-0.1004500538110733,
-0.020669402554631233,
0.49811291694641113,
0.34073856472969055,
0.24807259440422058,
-0.02654595486819744,
-0.6651668548583984,
0.21919508278369904,
0.3279952108860016,
0.2971566319465637,
-0.33455750346183777,
-0.025524688884615898,
-0.9621559381484985,
0.7990866899490356,
-0.17386040091514587,
0.12156030535697937,
0.28122302889823914,
-0.22063477337360382,
-0.16806870698928833,
-0.6901092529296875,
-0.07581938058137894,
-0.15397988259792328,
-0.28600963950157166,
0.19192883372306824,
0.14688383042812347,
0.2745874226093292,
0.2718347907066345,
0.23816369473934174,
0.4054014980792999,
-0.20058616995811462,
-0.012741482816636562,
0.20868735015392303,
0.576396644115448,
0.014602838084101677,
0.30019035935401917,
0.056325435638427734,
0.06869296729564667,
-0.0057219029404222965,
-0.2976747751235962,
-0.33275580406188965,
0.03602363169193268,
-0.3746674060821533,
0.3082256615161896,
-0.2837279438972473,
0.00772500317543745,
0.2590942978858948,
0.216472327709198,
0.25799521803855896,
-0.492853045463562,
-0.09270574152469635,
0.08555347472429276,
-0.005101033020764589,
0.757077693939209,
-0.06754662841558456,
0.16837485134601593,
-0.13258245587348938,
-0.24266961216926575,
0.06832817196846008,
-0.17184047400951385,
-0.5059379935264587,
0.3202432692050934,
0.6986149549484253,
0.566480278968811,
-0.5635247826576233,
0.05669788271188736,
-0.587751030921936,
-0.008446008898317814,
0.25586289167404175,
0.32883405685424805,
-0.649721086025238,
0.13124030828475952,
-0.8465928435325623,
-0.47337037324905396,
-0.001764084561727941,
-0.054176025092601776,
-0.14221853017807007,
0.031300656497478485,
0.467268168926239,
-0.35924214124679565,
-0.046063680201768875,
-0.2568499743938446,
-0.31571802496910095,
0.15122537314891815,
-0.14055249094963074,
-0.3084007203578949,
-0.07349633425474167,
0.6233072876930237,
0.024432307109236717,
0.003472668118774891,
0.43258431553840637,
0.4096093475818634,
0.19815512001514435,
0.24864600598812103,
0.059218987822532654,
0.28235286474227905,
0.46822765469551086,
-0.4039864242076874,
0.05763399228453636,
0.07475066930055618,
-0.20191720128059387,
-0.2848118245601654,
-0.2685682773590088,
-0.21904143691062927,
0.33801066875457764,
0.03242276981472969,
0.3823237121105194,
1.184013843536377,
0.23126758635044098,
-0.4194498062133789,
0.20598456263542175,
-0.13415449857711792,
-0.4690406024456024,
0.009704231284558773,
0.5196791291236877,
0.03536229953169823,
0.9188879132270813,
0.6168314218521118,
0.511963963508606,
-0.39858824014663696,
0.49354052543640137,
-0.49421316385269165,
-0.20013177394866943,
-0.7661391496658325,
0.2359551638364792,
-0.33759525418281555,
1.1806608438491821,
0.22943460941314697,
-0.612990140914917,
0.5843563079833984,
0.14608149230480194,
0.809962809085846,
-0.10545672476291656,
-0.3700626492500305,
0.4975759983062744,
0.1148570254445076,
0.44493672251701355,
0.17868982255458832,
-0.100868359208107,
-0.00908677652478218,
0.017099786549806595,
0.8163036108016968,
0.6915774345397949,
-0.8134450316429138,
-0.12502159178256989,
0.3787395656108856,
-0.04189139977097511,
-0.14512617886066437,
-0.0982409417629242,
-0.25374090671539307,
0.1894698143005371,
-0.001202849787659943,
0.5655591487884521,
-0.1705542802810669,
-0.4274599254131317,
0.969809889793396,
0.15547767281532288,
0.5322505831718445,
0.21339035034179688,
0.6383726596832275,
-0.2146831899881363,
-0.9482372999191284,
0.07964858412742615,
0.22304129600524902,
0.17458273470401764,
-0.12961524724960327,
0.40781068801879883,
-0.14839591085910797,
-0.19197440147399902,
-0.10927846282720566,
0.04540693014860153,
-0.4216501712799072,
-0.1582217514514923,
0.4162384867668152,
0.3044230043888092,
0.49524036049842834,
0.2977503538131714,
0.7057293653488159,
-0.29289430379867554,
0.3320053219795227,
-0.2507281005382538,
-0.6118433475494385,
-0.2802703082561493,
0.16569218039512634,
0.057631757110357285,
0.21140387654304504,
-0.07007533311843872,
-0.5775209069252014,
0.3828490674495697,
-0.1906648725271225,
-0.5000676512718201,
0.47199785709381104,
0.03658294305205345,
-0.11611330509185791,
-0.0554548054933548,
0.23132067918777466,
0.6157253980636597,
-0.3662050664424896,
0.10405535995960236,
-0.006443582475185394,
0.21740056574344635,
0.16701099276542664,
-0.01782270334661007,
-0.572611391544342,
0.055890001356601715,
-0.16688425838947296,
0.0853380635380745,
-0.8319231867790222,
-0.2127983272075653,
0.19613346457481384,
-0.557692289352417,
-0.20135194063186646,
-0.3017667233943939,
1.1018872261047363,
-0.30842164158821106,
-0.09107626974582672,
0.019807342439889908,
-0.3542907238006592,
0.0404033362865448,
-0.047274235635995865,
0.09816192835569382,
0.5878780484199524,
0.3650287687778473,
0.4969343841075897,
-0.5066015124320984,
0.06958132237195969,
-0.2060735523700714,
-0.011170298792421818,
-0.632921040058136,
-0.5171889066696167,
0.34484148025512695,
0.021692002192139626,
-0.509289026260376,
0.19609566032886505,
0.16086414456367493,
0.32514670491218567,
0.47794005274772644,
-0.4208471179008484,
-0.24200142920017242,
0.3548832833766937,
-5.850850582122803,
-0.25428831577301025,
0.1829334944486618,
0.005625108256936073,
-0.19627392292022705,
0.15428462624549866,
0.6648436784744263,
0.02714511938393116,
0.08397102355957031,
-0.19524596631526947,
0.49344363808631897,
-0.3688448965549469,
0.05095682293176651,
0.582461416721344,
0.4105473458766937,
0.09363311529159546,
0.20281174778938293,
-0.11161521077156067,
0.13881994783878326,
-0.07065198570489883,
0.07499586790800095,
-0.14383475482463837,
-0.18702442944049835,
0.14658351242542267,
0.2540113627910614,
-0.1652791053056717,
0.05517023056745529,
-0.08364275842905045,
-1.1080477237701416,
-0.17500421404838562,
0.033674586564302444,
0.0972544401884079,
-0.013947326689958572,
0.13598084449768066,
0.043880853801965714,
-0.2564128041267395,
0.32538264989852905,
0.9018186926841736,
-0.5467061996459961,
0.14497961103916168,
0.33977288007736206,
0.27624884247779846,
-0.16569411754608154,
0.2836090624332428,
0.4011484384536743,
-0.3650935888290405,
-0.5819728970527649,
0.9352542757987976,
-0.32321542501449585,
0.388710081577301,
0.576450765132904,
-0.1387692093849182,
-0.2837936282157898,
-0.031098660081624985,
0.11153682321310043,
0.029971040785312653,
0.25891968607902527,
0.0011934685753658414,
-0.4418490529060364,
0.7621243596076965,
0.3966847062110901,
-0.21610482037067413,
0.4570026099681854,
-0.36229637265205383,
0.38892143964767456,
0.0023681786842644215,
0.17859961092472076,
-0.645703911781311,
0.22267746925354004,
-0.3371383249759674,
0.3015877902507782,
0.7899867296218872,
-0.4632115662097931,
-0.9082949757575989,
0.08090668171644211,
-0.19935274124145508,
-0.3540442883968353,
0.21556808054447174,
0.0577155202627182,
0.08902906626462936,
-0.20554259419441223,
-0.3537251651287079,
-0.001093423692509532,
0.1964023858308792,
0.4141533374786377,
-0.2673446834087372,
-0.26664602756500244,
0.3375735282897949,
-0.16993995010852814,
0.1145278662443161,
-0.017181001603603363,
-0.5292472243309021,
-0.009361331351101398,
-0.03263223543763161,
-0.2883366048336029,
0.015201904810965061,
-0.44538578391075134,
-0.08696377277374268,
0.31119516491889954,
-0.06323224306106567,
-0.395487904548645,
0.04988471791148186,
0.19937008619308472,
-0.3324349820613861,
0.3769221901893616,
0.3931289613246918,
0.1490456610918045,
0.35722070932388306,
0.8870211839675903,
0.6740784645080566,
0.007741089910268784,
0.21396194398403168,
-0.0792250856757164,
-0.9080368876457214,
0.3797260820865631,
-0.6493548154830933,
0.19213920831680298,
0.404568076133728,
0.44396570324897766,
-0.15235351026058197,
-0.8039506077766418,
0.1721872091293335,
-0.19187192618846893,
-0.34957587718963623,
0.389457643032074,
-0.07637624442577362,
-0.24405156075954437,
-0.022209234535694122,
0.05199100822210312,
-0.1861249804496765,
0.09612668305635452,
0.3730277419090271,
-0.4371394217014313,
-0.09885074943304062,
0.17336629331111908,
-0.8625552654266357,
-0.2451215535402298,
-0.250378280878067,
0.19847732782363892,
-0.1372690200805664,
0.02996777929365635,
-0.49287715554237366,
-0.031051376834511757,
0.1567603349685669,
-0.3039650619029999,
0.034164946526288986,
0.3467298746109009,
-0.016754833981394768,
-0.07733738422393799,
0.5573267936706543,
-0.2856616675853729,
0.3147854208946228,
0.502691924571991,
-0.22885842621326447,
-0.5750526785850525,
0.0779639407992363,
0.051110416650772095,
0.12862128019332886,
-0.16359645128250122,
-0.28602713346481323,
0.11752962321043015,
-0.06423822790384293,
-1.15283203125,
-0.2745966911315918,
0.019681906327605247,
0.020415175706148148,
-0.5152904987335205,
-0.4353344142436981,
-0.2002490907907486,
0.5133530497550964,
0.37189850211143494,
-0.8862667083740234,
-0.5385162830352783,
-0.2767940163612366,
-0.17673815786838531,
0.05191183090209961,
0.10502289980649948,
0.2733020484447479,
-0.22522523999214172,
-0.1567244678735733,
0.14847801625728607,
0.6355987191200256,
-0.1259247362613678,
0.4838491380214691,
0.15098360180854797,
-0.003274098038673401,
-0.3063946068286896,
-0.1161893680691719,
0.34740445017814636,
-0.49277928471565247,
-0.12865504622459412,
-0.05237969383597374,
0.18818461894989014,
-0.014548623003065586,
0.18252764642238617,
-0.11967124044895172,
0.06463611125946045,
0.3469446003437042,
0.11935079842805862,
-0.2796213924884796,
0.011094729416072369,
0.2421465516090393,
-0.08042779564857483,
-0.09046213328838348,
0.22533586621284485,
-0.9240686297416687,
0.2953392565250397,
-0.029657838866114616,
-0.09766730666160583,
0.324731707572937,
-0.9631407856941223,
-0.7452670335769653,
-0.2869415879249573,
0.31598347425460815,
-0.4356071352958679,
0.08759421855211258,
0.5107431411743164,
0.1693519949913025,
-0.6147599220275879,
-0.3166627585887909,
-0.6815491318702698,
-0.40200504660606384,
-0.8574919700622559,
-0.006533627398312092,
-0.7339675426483154,
0.4843558073043823,
0.4514932334423065,
0.2893579304218292,
0.9799073338508606,
-0.04886426404118538,
-0.02656439319252968,
0.23804393410682678,
-0.1305236518383026,
0.6732860207557678,
-0.37633055448532104,
-0.2553429901599884,
0.29920250177383423,
0.19723565876483917,
-0.10725365579128265,
0.35730937123298645,
0.5801424384117126,
0.8595033884048462,
0.5694999098777771,
-0.19017192721366882,
-0.05007939040660858,
-0.06802060455083847,
-0.24450765550136566,
-0.2753168046474457,
0.20860134065151215,
-0.03328446298837662,
-0.13364557921886444,
-0.17176003754138947,
-0.5048559904098511,
0.26677924394607544,
1.1552999019622803,
-0.10588152706623077,
0.14199747145175934,
0.67958003282547,
0.08181298524141312,
0.22984328866004944,
-0.44727206230163574,
0.49001026153564453,
0.1616346687078476,
-0.09205176681280136,
-0.16736441850662231,
-0.20675714313983917,
-0.7239809632301331,
-0.5508255958557129,
0.043382465839385986,
-0.07613874226808548,
-0.12712736427783966,
-0.7671887278556824,
0.09262578934431076,
0.7974782586097717,
-0.285250723361969,
-0.14333966374397278,
-0.002161131938919425,
-0.16490159928798676,
0.717863142490387,
-0.34054893255233765,
-0.9176023006439209,
0.021051349118351936,
-0.23750783503055573,
-0.6109638214111328,
-0.2493915855884552,
-0.7465249300003052,
-0.2585127651691437,
-0.031679943203926086,
-0.3087821304798126,
0.265429824590683,
-0.1004294604063034,
0.14994676411151886,
-0.05617194250226021,
0.3677012324333191,
-0.27858251333236694,
0.15704427659511566,
-0.4893170893192291,
0.7036930918693542,
-0.11280722916126251,
0.17384381592273712,
-0.3437356948852539,
0.22723959386348724,
0.19272929430007935,
-0.4293721318244934,
-0.0017300964100286365,
0.4949897825717926,
-0.11136890202760696,
-0.24605675041675568,
0.028083624318242073,
-0.03754013031721115,
0.2043115198612213,
-0.03214643895626068,
-0.2495230883359909,
-0.11350828409194946,
-0.5701399445533752,
0.05533575639128685,
0.3779577910900116,
-0.5101272463798523,
-0.20395854115486145,
-0.045895740389823914,
0.2546081244945526,
0.05075042322278023,
0.24132098257541656,
-0.4043353199958801,
0.30113840103149414,
0.8560672998428345,
0.16352450847625732,
-0.34241610765457153,
-0.11339127272367477,
0.3096160590648651,
-0.29788222908973694,
0.06209607422351837,
-1.1595872640609741,
0.6938723921775818,
-0.004897963255643845,
0.5301762223243713,
0.1449316442012787,
-0.2943043112754822,
0.35083529353141785,
-0.02023269422352314,
0.12027338892221451,
0.8084031939506531,
-0.5126140117645264,
0.15218937397003174,
0.17989812791347504,
-0.18256616592407227,
0.16878263652324677,
0.38461029529571533,
0.1654670387506485,
0.2626154124736786,
0.22819213569164276,
-0.3163337707519531,
0.37811872363090515,
-0.8432543873786926,
0.14674143493175507,
0.5196800827980042,
0.2005760818719864,
-0.1622994989156723,
-0.6762038469314575,
0.029403595253825188,
0.19989167153835297,
-1.1789605617523193,
0.49040883779525757,
-0.2546313405036926,
0.03440457209944725,
0.03823799267411232,
0.19415703415870667,
0.11276885122060776,
0.4300576150417328,
0.19344604015350342,
-0.3454999625682831,
-0.4557334780693054,
0.008070539683103561,
0.6184785962104797,
-0.11861352622509003,
0.003796943696215749,
0.760761022567749,
-0.04948052763938904,
0.289834201335907,
-0.235283762216568,
-0.46479740738868713,
0.23003266751766205,
-0.03967324644327164,
-0.45744991302490234,
-0.23356421291828156,
-0.30615952610969543,
-0.30789461731910706,
0.10048118978738785,
0.47630661725997925,
-0.9097478985786438,
0.23073983192443848,
-0.44946303963661194,
0.06183221936225891,
-0.13482868671417236,
-0.3999353051185608,
-0.001235904754139483,
-0.1558758169412613,
0.7127569913864136,
0.30324867367744446,
-0.5860422253608704,
-0.19938717782497406,
-0.1112767681479454,
-0.21312423050403595,
-0.15099583566188812,
-0.0927366092801094,
0.4485200345516205,
0.3136768639087677,
-0.18195801973342896,
-0.2489342987537384,
0.33479321002960205,
0.11441036313772202,
-0.5828186273574829,
-0.4987243711948395,
0.3371298909187317,
-0.2267705202102661,
-0.3836013674736023,
0.4998827278614044,
-0.4557144045829773,
0.19482886791229248,
-0.8024763464927673,
0.24055765569210052,
0.06966538727283478,
0.34903484582901,
-0.1897033154964447,
-0.015342148952186108,
-0.2585769295692444,
0.19429294764995575,
-0.09949895739555359,
0.024353932589292526,
0.5907705426216125,
0.20422452688217163,
-0.1359468400478363,
-0.5278208255767822,
0.08070444315671921,
-0.5573861598968506,
-0.29127782583236694,
0.8899974822998047,
0.4192623198032379,
0.2633351981639862,
-0.242964968085289,
0.0354609414935112,
-0.3045363426208496,
0.3297899663448334,
0.09404177218675613,
0.26402080059051514,
0.1686232089996338,
-0.16214251518249512,
0.0806918740272522,
0.11030509322881699,
0.5020644664764404,
0.3502587080001831,
0.06525489687919617,
0.4222349226474762,
-0.230063334107399,
0.43563902378082275,
0.17354661226272583,
-0.6524896025657654,
-0.6372449994087219,
-0.06813395768404007,
-0.24635206162929535
] |
234945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20Workers%27%20Republican%20Party | Scottish Workers' Republican Party | The Scottish Workers Republican Party (SWRP) was formed by the Scottish Marxist activist John Maclean (1879–1923) in 1923. It advocated the political doctrine of communism, whilst also supporting Scottish independence. This dual communist-nationalist doctrine was heavily influenced by the thinking of James Connolly who similarly believed in socialism and independence for Ireland and had set up his Irish Socialist Republican Party in 1896.
MacLean argued that the break-up of the British state and empire would aid the cause of worldwide socialism and thus he supported the idea of an independent Scotland. This inherent nationalism alienated the SWRP from the mainstream British left though. The SWRP carried on its political activity for some time after the death of MacLean in 1923 but never made any real impact politically.
An organisation which resurrected the name Scottish Workers Republican Party was formed in 1974 as a split from the Scottish Republican Socialist Clubs (forerunner of the Scottish Republican Socialist Party). In 1976 most of the members of the SWRP joined Jim Sillars' Scottish Labour Party and this SWRP Mark II party also became defunct.
External links
SWRP Manifesto, 1925
SWRP Manifesto 1974
Workers Republican Party, Scottish
Workers Republican Party, Scottish
Scottish republicanism
Republican parties in the United Kingdom
1920s establishments in Scotland | [
-0.2895972430706024,
-0.2335304468870163,
0.3812520205974579,
-0.9461459517478943,
-0.5075684189796448,
0.08293240517377853,
-0.07542860507965088,
0.2811729907989502,
-0.769398033618927,
-0.08348245173692703,
-0.2696121037006378,
-0.17463546991348267,
-0.32082390785217285,
0.7467293739318848,
0.3296375274658203,
0.9300838708877563,
0.21019813418388367,
0.24836185574531555,
-0.047438643872737885,
0.08390868455171585,
-0.24537712335586548,
0.44557398557662964,
0.8301302194595337,
-0.0854407325387001,
-0.022655358538031578,
0.1562800407409668,
0.702277421951294,
0.059867363423109055,
0.10325448960065842,
-0.03644026443362236,
0.005892775487154722,
0.3815431296825409,
0.23582817614078522,
-0.3942870497703552,
-0.3833928108215332,
-0.34964466094970703,
-0.12594692409038544,
0.011082989163696766,
-0.09785958379507065,
-0.5171310305595398,
-0.5058603286743164,
-0.35771071910858154,
0.0922299176454544,
0.28561800718307495,
0.49530133605003357,
-0.32253116369247437,
-1.1470999717712402,
0.39801180362701416,
-0.20246197283267975,
0.21506835520267487,
-0.4576711654663086,
0.5480908155441284,
0.4482958912849426,
-0.020981118083000183,
-0.19554319977760315,
0.4562452435493469,
-1.1035435199737549,
-0.18256911635398865,
-0.3864683210849762,
-0.6844918131828308,
-0.16365070641040802,
0.5514076948165894,
0.2040102481842041,
0.3112724721431732,
0.44715335965156555,
0.46091628074645996,
0.06469075381755829,
0.6041055917739868,
-0.4418012499809265,
-0.4794680178165436,
0.2228824645280838,
0.1890079379081726,
-0.1485998034477234,
0.016314169391989708,
0.45563629269599915,
-0.4412764012813568,
-0.09568891674280167,
0.05594247952103615,
-0.6670690178871155,
0.046866532415151596,
-0.0064870878122746944,
0.29560354351997375,
0.8859293460845947,
0.50087970495224,
0.4876132309436798,
0.12100615352392197,
-0.6085970401763916,
-0.15288902819156647,
0.3835294246673584,
1.009124517440796,
-0.06282370537519455,
-0.4479047358036041,
0.7665203809738159,
-0.37493541836738586,
-0.17447759211063385,
0.29457128047943115,
0.4939051568508148,
0.7508591413497925,
-0.2709769606590271,
-0.3686765730381012,
0.4722803831100464,
0.5090758204460144,
0.22978274524211884,
-0.8566195964813232,
-0.9913240671157837,
0.6631661653518677,
-0.502285897731781,
-0.293385773897171,
-0.14523665606975555,
-0.14985883235931396,
-0.567125678062439,
-0.08641646802425385,
0.1352221816778183,
0.3493351638317108,
0.6729288101196289,
0.33854910731315613,
-0.036322951316833496,
-1.0214170217514038,
0.28700804710388184,
-0.3943885266780853,
-0.4775350093841553,
0.385491281747818,
-0.681450366973877,
0.9885183572769165,
0.3182033896446228,
0.6478736996650696,
0.39768242835998535,
0.6473351120948792,
-0.2140842080116272,
-0.20795315504074097,
0.7688259482383728,
0.6805073022842407,
-0.2056509554386139,
-0.42821645736694336,
-0.3624033033847809,
0.24567516148090363,
0.7878130078315735,
-0.046117570251226425,
0.20469443500041962,
0.8953839540481567,
-0.471780002117157,
0.33881691098213196,
0.2490019053220749,
-0.35033607482910156,
0.2480251044034958,
-0.1517176777124405,
-0.1928023397922516,
-0.7204951643943787,
-0.8142297863960266,
-0.884227454662323,
0.5303969979286194,
-0.5055591464042664,
0.286433607339859,
0.1631244719028473,
0.1276039481163025,
0.754216194152832,
0.5387692451477051,
-0.7657551169395447,
0.7580967545509338,
0.15268339216709137,
-0.08694484829902649,
0.3440361022949219,
-0.09827452898025513,
0.21879088878631592,
0.5617361068725586,
-0.1637064516544342,
-0.13424617052078247,
-0.4565906524658203,
0.15322455763816833,
-0.006202463060617447,
0.17313946783542633,
0.16883371770381927,
0.6568883657455444,
0.12938791513442993,
0.1703241765499115,
-0.5399568676948547,
0.19545294344425201,
0.7435064315795898,
0.2188987284898758,
-0.5701290965080261,
-0.6962659358978271,
-0.055800661444664,
-0.23219607770442963,
0.028970753774046898,
0.4502744674682617,
0.28566813468933105,
0.178395077586174,
-0.43597134947776794,
-0.760718584060669,
-0.03235476091504097,
-0.38481929898262024,
-0.39106500148773193,
0.3915001153945923,
-0.7689237594604492,
1.536792278289795,
-0.1346416026353836,
0.1140495017170906,
0.45919308066368103,
0.0002961418649647385,
0.9139881730079651,
-0.08054368197917938,
-0.15539680421352386,
-0.22368305921554565,
-0.10126642137765884,
-0.7270835041999817,
0.5132952928543091,
-0.21820741891860962,
0.5975093245506287,
0.19603610038757324,
0.38712501525878906,
0.30742347240448,
-0.6792533993721008,
0.20072638988494873,
0.1035202220082283,
-0.05430172383785248,
-0.4018535614013672,
-0.01070437766611576,
-0.12016183882951736,
0.22612759470939636,
0.9669426083564758,
1.2925059795379639,
-0.13907399773597717,
0.1801695078611374,
0.6045752763748169,
0.320218950510025,
0.23139464855194092,
0.2024146318435669,
0.3769721984863281,
-0.2221173644065857,
0.05564136058092117,
0.1203712746500969,
-0.6118938326835632,
-0.09201927483081818,
-0.3280597925186157,
0.10143843293190002,
-0.6196286082267761,
-0.7268645167350769,
-0.0490032397210598,
-0.23523420095443726,
-0.1743418127298355,
0.5822184085845947,
0.40299034118652344,
-0.4936768710613251,
0.44809848070144653,
-0.4720627963542938,
0.45466557145118713,
-0.5525891184806824,
0.2534768879413605,
0.6286301016807556,
0.3604482114315033,
0.18902809917926788,
0.5870035290718079,
-0.15565407276153564,
-0.2966161072254181,
0.39990946650505066,
0.10319775342941284,
0.14618225395679474,
-0.7503933310508728,
0.02197325974702835,
0.262721449136734,
0.0811796486377716,
-0.2865931987762451,
0.20951277017593384,
0.4585603177547455,
0.01121213473379612,
-0.034966904670000076,
-1.1133761405944824,
-0.6739550828933716,
0.22102732956409454,
0.37020522356033325,
0.7254622578620911,
-0.03142697736620903,
-0.54485023021698,
0.4223783612251282,
0.13966214656829834,
-0.07850165665149689,
-0.10364419221878052,
0.05298292264342308,
-0.5741564035415649,
-0.6063493490219116,
-0.42680492997169495,
0.14295409619808197,
0.4892422556877136,
-0.6730270981788635,
-0.18804433941841125,
0.9201706647872925,
-0.03510529547929764,
0.6400453448295593,
0.2362285554409027,
-0.8420995473861694,
-0.10061482340097427,
-0.35086172819137573,
-0.39078575372695923,
-0.550575315952301,
0.24294883012771606,
0.5025006532669067,
-0.05500452592968941,
0.4930606186389923,
0.6444302201271057,
0.00923856534063816,
-0.6928122043609619,
0.49376094341278076,
-0.4940904378890991,
-0.30896756052970886,
0.7238315939903259,
-0.41425254940986633,
-0.2368287742137909,
-0.3399598300457001,
-5.017110347747803,
0.306598961353302,
-0.35014504194259644,
-0.1579068899154663,
0.5599127411842346,
0.10060200095176697,
0.6545974612236023,
-0.6147916316986084,
0.07596554607152939,
-0.3524673879146576,
-0.37803834676742554,
-0.041875045746564865,
-0.05230483040213585,
-0.09736312925815582,
0.1154613271355629,
-0.06198916211724281,
0.2680196464061737,
0.0915379673242569,
0.37626510858535767,
-0.6788966655731201,
-0.1182703897356987,
-0.4447445869445801,
-0.6688377261161804,
1.1183178424835205,
0.6393051743507385,
1.3761636018753052,
0.3140528202056885,
-0.2607070803642273,
-0.3809952735900879,
-0.1525018811225891,
-0.1220991313457489,
0.2515144646167755,
0.05586279183626175,
-0.3851618468761444,
0.029660753905773163,
-0.7850052118301392,
0.8616419434547424,
0.39441943168640137,
0.2974649965763092,
-0.6164831519126892,
-0.3722696304321289,
0.6989277005195618,
-0.47940951585769653,
-0.30821043252944946,
0.49511638283729553,
-0.6975277066230774,
-0.37939760088920593,
0.10739296674728394,
-0.6652446985244751,
0.5022314786911011,
-0.27042895555496216,
-0.24751289188861847,
0.48693105578422546,
-0.5202298760414124,
-0.03779739886522293,
0.4099920094013214,
-0.5380655527114868,
-0.010470958426594734,
-0.2430812120437622,
0.31095436215400696,
0.471723347902298,
-0.10720328241586685,
0.3768615424633026,
-0.6246610283851624,
-0.5832642912864685,
-0.09981077164411545,
-0.7246398329734802,
0.07185224443674088,
0.5995116233825684,
0.03699951991438866,
-0.3753405809402466,
0.5184947848320007,
-0.5619628429412842,
-0.8943681120872498,
-0.315667062997818,
-0.39362040162086487,
-0.49223792552948,
-0.08569230139255524,
0.24274294078350067,
-0.011864450760185719,
-0.2869383692741394,
-0.03195343166589737,
-0.2967384457588196,
1.0905741453170776,
-0.10360012948513031,
0.07757490128278732,
-0.09811032563447952,
0.07896831631660461,
-0.7454783320426941,
-0.2581613063812256,
0.057070542126894,
-0.17284739017486572,
0.3653736114501953,
0.49743080139160156,
0.2967602610588074,
0.08962850272655487,
0.22041477262973785,
-0.22207361459732056,
-0.06406093388795853,
-0.39955249428749084,
0.1622966229915619,
-0.16505427658557892,
-0.5088117122650146,
-0.5412194728851318,
-0.5152035355567932,
0.2907746732234955,
-0.7172521948814392,
0.6584199070930481,
0.43337270617485046,
0.18519599735736847,
0.21080228686332703,
-0.6114975810050964,
-0.9472185373306274,
0.4304760694503784,
0.11870948225259781,
-0.1320279985666275,
-0.7501208782196045,
0.08090629428625107,
0.33405858278274536,
0.75757896900177,
-0.018741188570857048,
-0.002768405480310321,
-0.42414671182632446,
0.20273897051811218,
-0.12367542833089828,
-0.4599635601043701,
0.5947710871696472,
-0.10645542293787003,
0.5031594038009644,
-0.1252082735300064,
0.26644468307495117,
-0.30224570631980896,
-0.17635110020637512,
-0.08957811444997787,
0.2551785409450531,
0.07537409663200378,
-0.7928882241249084,
0.4814467430114746,
0.18648764491081238,
0.5514445304870605,
-0.5234001278877258,
0.28879663348197937,
0.20881414413452148,
-0.18458600342273712,
0.38211026787757874,
0.41460734605789185,
0.16339129209518433,
0.45010751485824585,
-0.708790123462677,
0.7707589864730835,
-0.2785318195819855,
0.32495033740997314,
0.7657821178436279,
-0.10039099305868149,
0.3228294253349304,
-0.24838951230049133,
-0.24923217296600342,
0.005016961134970188,
0.2856394350528717,
-0.48985755443573,
-0.5647591352462769,
-0.04062628373503685,
-0.9191135168075562,
-0.07728245109319687,
0.8174285292625427,
-0.5390040278434753,
-0.32089346647262573,
-0.1839449405670166,
0.10487402230501175,
0.9991247653961182,
-0.6048720479011536,
0.20259441435337067,
-0.2168494462966919,
-0.6338137984275818,
0.057514652609825134,
-0.25787073373794556,
-0.15152817964553833,
-0.03693149611353874,
-0.4871084690093994,
-0.2089497447013855,
0.01464065071195364,
0.4551328122615814,
-0.22598421573638916,
0.9667308330535889,
0.3679170310497284,
-0.7574067711830139,
-0.7225685715675354,
-0.41277989745140076,
0.3077326714992523,
0.5327276587486267,
0.4891640841960907,
0.5145576596260071,
0.3367783725261688,
-0.0043381438590586185,
-0.7204211950302124,
-0.41623249650001526,
-0.4658774733543396,
0.6164469718933105,
-0.25988078117370605,
-0.7454380393028259,
0.579439640045166,
0.30805307626724243,
0.036823488771915436,
-0.4513320326805115,
-0.11076926440000534,
-0.5623030662536621,
0.42864060401916504,
-0.21288982033729553,
-1.0868457555770874,
0.2937012016773224,
-0.27448800206184387,
-0.3911907970905304,
-0.3031826913356781,
0.30477482080459595,
-0.733428418636322,
-0.16045086085796356,
0.6338352560997009,
-0.46594199538230896,
-0.468976765871048,
-0.30561938881874084,
-0.36366522312164307,
-0.41540753841400146,
-0.47307664155960083,
0.34713172912597656,
-0.0688479021191597,
0.24016311764717102,
0.16972921788692474,
-0.4127458930015564,
0.5888541340827942,
-0.5310283303260803,
-0.575741171836853,
-0.30765876173973083,
0.12700875103473663,
-0.37860798835754395,
0.001599762006662786,
0.48260971903800964,
-0.03610284999012947,
0.08668019622564316,
0.15026256442070007,
0.4615553617477417,
-0.1765698343515396,
1.009121298789978,
0.3266496956348419,
-0.907703697681427,
-0.14459997415542603,
-0.4036906659603119,
0.7111775875091553,
-0.6243172287940979,
-0.3035412132740021,
-0.11352228373289108,
0.9348140954971313,
0.2723903954029083,
-1.0624223947525024,
-0.6749877333641052,
0.23996351659297943,
-0.36928921937942505,
-0.11333420127630234,
-0.527998685836792,
0.07657326757907867,
-0.798302948474884,
0.12180093675851822,
0.26837852597236633,
-0.7098773121833801,
0.17358238995075226,
0.4367908537387848,
0.4935995638370514,
0.24952135980129242,
-1.2917803525924683,
0.31548091769218445,
-0.15469910204410553,
-0.14986510574817657,
-0.6124884486198425,
0.04741022363305092,
0.2616420090198517,
0.15610603988170624,
-0.19366398453712463,
0.05826321989297867,
-0.7681000232696533,
0.16563910245895386,
-0.06824299693107605,
-0.6208814382553101,
-0.00912762526422739,
0.7117851972579956,
0.226805180311203,
0.18940724432468414,
-1.2100058794021606,
-0.3796786069869995,
-0.48809993267059326,
-1.1605578660964966,
-0.12682275474071503,
-0.2298153042793274,
-0.19693602621555328,
-0.08800553530454636,
0.02625965140759945,
-0.503256618976593,
-0.10553951561450958,
-0.8314202427864075,
-0.3279857933521271,
-0.7882950901985168,
0.5395122766494751,
-0.6253806948661804,
0.3068716526031494,
-0.0618218258023262,
0.056343238800764084,
-0.5669763684272766,
0.29275715351104736,
-0.31308886408805847,
-0.5251423120498657,
-0.06291898339986801,
-0.2130422592163086,
0.13274149596691132,
-0.1968056559562683,
-0.04514298588037491,
0.31390973925590515,
-0.9536426067352295,
0.005437478888779879,
0.9329581260681152,
-0.8943879008293152,
0.1881050318479538,
0.3677351772785187,
0.2543676793575287,
0.45007580518722534,
0.3802024722099304,
0.2824898362159729,
0.4228527843952179,
0.411761075258255,
-0.08703923225402832,
0.38570716977119446,
0.4737141728401184,
0.3853458762168884,
-0.5234119892120361,
0.35506847500801086,
-0.3460226356983185,
0.8438894748687744,
-0.6325632929801941,
-0.10204511880874634,
0.6706137657165527,
-0.589978814125061,
-0.22152698040008545,
0.7653254270553589,
0.004593824967741966,
-0.03685438632965088,
0.05322222039103508,
-0.31924691796302795,
0.32586780190467834,
0.22646380960941315,
0.3205716907978058,
-0.21210403740406036,
0.6381227374076843,
0.4337528645992279,
1.0003286600112915,
-0.20495250821113586,
-0.16596290469169617,
0.08515014499425888,
0.35162729024887085,
-0.000981754856184125,
0.010102246887981892,
-0.11750543862581253,
0.11032834649085999,
-0.032032858580350876,
0.13316936790943146,
0.40278634428977966,
0.45140737295150757,
-0.28074172139167786,
-0.3252260982990265,
0.22211728990077972,
0.6122481226921082,
-0.33852940797805786,
0.19987118244171143,
0.5111681818962097,
1.0937198400497437,
-0.1795673817396164,
-0.7746894955635071,
-0.26890698075294495,
-0.0022141439840197563,
-0.34476238489151,
0.9839748740196228,
0.3394671380519867,
0.391836941242218,
0.31637316942214966,
-0.28446871042251587,
0.8203828930854797,
-0.4465978145599365,
-0.18129052221775055,
0.05373173579573631,
-0.2454867660999298,
-0.21663998067378998,
-0.2671695649623871,
-0.13351759314537048,
-0.400360643863678,
0.2948399782180786,
-0.5355570912361145,
-0.026565035805106163,
-0.23208649456501007,
-0.23896180093288422,
-0.3474368751049042,
-0.24452947080135345,
0.3204982876777649,
0.9803687334060669,
0.4146837890148163,
-0.2012634575366974,
0.34210649132728577,
0.5940585136413574,
0.5112698078155518,
0.47228145599365234,
0.8002870082855225,
-0.5417550206184387,
-0.02748074010014534,
-0.0760783702135086,
0.4716666042804718,
0.18348543345928192,
0.8524295091629028,
0.15251785516738892,
1.102824091911316,
-0.7826282978057861,
0.24838750064373016,
1.6674792766571045,
-0.8503761291503906,
-0.1719023734331131,
-0.4170033037662506,
-0.07088720798492432,
-0.3705996572971344,
0.44531503319740295,
0.1404131054878235,
-0.560368001461029,
-0.9709084630012512,
0.20757415890693665,
0.5467411279678345,
-0.013576707802712917,
-0.03548857197165489,
-0.04550905525684357,
-0.1956537961959839,
-0.08338622003793716,
-0.17816393077373505,
-0.6778075098991394,
0.5336613655090332,
-0.3179949223995209,
-0.19577617943286896,
0.00624474510550499,
0.00523238442838192,
0.27648812532424927,
-0.2502109110355377,
0.44143781065940857,
-0.11139645427465439,
0.5206311345100403,
0.1940537542104721,
0.03442728519439697,
-0.20776233077049255,
-1.0010870695114136,
0.4185718595981598,
0.04891718178987503,
-0.2714200019836426,
-0.1025736853480339,
-0.46561717987060547,
0.8465439677238464,
-0.010375645011663437,
0.07216685265302658,
-0.8898099064826965,
-0.3297177255153656,
0.05464885011315346
] |
234948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yojimbo%20%28disambiguation%29 | Yojimbo (disambiguation) | Yojimbo is a 1961 film directed by Akira Kurosawa and starring Toshiro Mifune.
Yojimbo may also refer to:
Yojimbo (software), an information organizer for Mac OS X
Yojimbo (Final Fantasy), a character in Final Fantasy X
See also
Usagi Yojimbo, a comic book
Yo-Jin-Bo, a visual novel about three yojinbo | [
-0.6215980648994446,
0.7027279138565063,
-0.41811037063598633,
-0.18547342717647552,
-0.5604684948921204,
-0.09468400478363037,
0.42077890038490295,
-0.18297643959522247,
-0.49226993322372437,
-0.06759996712207794,
0.12836919724941254,
0.5352142453193665,
-0.4666276276111603,
0.2841029763221741,
-0.2360655814409256,
-0.06195211410522461,
0.328269898891449,
0.2801230251789093,
-0.18366187810897827,
-0.41500404477119446,
-0.5117555260658264,
-0.6680534482002258,
0.12291677296161652,
-0.37498703598976135,
-0.21318568289279938,
0.07002671808004379,
0.6791958808898926,
0.6152265667915344,
0.07061458379030228,
-0.17010122537612915,
-0.18043525516986847,
-0.10181687027215958,
0.570301353931427,
0.06600946933031082,
0.06548166275024414,
0.19338074326515198,
-0.36681997776031494,
0.448746919631958,
0.19977456331253052,
-0.000657499476801604,
0.670634925365448,
0.2154386043548584,
0.2691490352153778,
-0.0396859347820282,
-0.14712588489055634,
-0.3223939538002014,
-1.8770543336868286,
0.36421042680740356,
-0.6683429479598999,
-0.5298767685890198,
0.036660462617874146,
0.4033195674419403,
0.1344360113143921,
0.16024518013000488,
-0.2949555516242981,
0.8596839904785156,
-0.1665865033864975,
0.04417193681001663,
-0.4268839657306671,
-0.1236947774887085,
0.16430047154426575,
-0.08200371265411377,
0.4747406542301178,
-0.16135305166244507,
-0.2474321573972702,
0.6042467355728149,
0.14405983686447144,
0.3141024112701416,
-0.15063245594501495,
-0.27192479372024536,
-0.07260586321353912,
0.3039015531539917,
0.22278310358524323,
-0.18692749738693237,
-0.05141226947307587,
-1.0794813632965088,
0.17275239527225494,
0.04364337399601936,
-0.1521468311548233,
-0.3396688401699066,
-0.2604246437549591,
-0.2388949692249298,
0.6861771941184998,
0.006005357019603252,
0.15765181183815002,
-0.2052164375782013,
-0.16549193859100342,
0.523575484752655,
-0.5364802479743958,
0.2723607122898102,
-0.5673627853393555,
-0.36123791337013245,
-0.05408596247434616,
0.183862566947937,
-0.22310185432434082,
-0.14140814542770386,
-0.6040636897087097,
0.49388715624809265,
0.29918184876441956,
-0.10952327400445938,
0.30944693088531494,
-0.1775125116109848,
0.5661523342132568,
0.18574011325836182,
-0.5913613438606262,
-0.5563341379165649,
0.28992050886154175,
-0.4292014241218567,
-0.16564244031906128,
-0.4657723605632782,
-0.3102012872695923,
0.07194450497627258,
-0.5493006110191345,
-0.26819077134132385,
0.20178675651550293,
0.10016544908285141,
-0.09777021408081055,
-0.04433503746986389,
-0.3116644024848938,
0.26265668869018555,
0.13325418531894684,
0.49216651916503906,
-0.2090352475643158,
0.3541750907897949,
0.001537419855594635,
0.6147086024284363,
-0.07466273754835129,
0.33375218510627747,
-0.5024691224098206,
0.3630075752735138,
0.3469550907611847,
0.5307402014732361,
-0.1741221845149994,
-0.12193822860717773,
0.3452199101448059,
-0.5142241716384888,
0.5391291975975037,
-0.08115686476230621,
-0.5899817943572998,
-0.7368345856666565,
-0.4539906680583954,
0.3669310510158539,
-1.6462054252624512,
0.1925792545080185,
0.4420161545276642,
-0.030705193057656288,
0.030426641926169395,
-0.42380645871162415,
-0.35099145770072937,
-0.39728227257728577,
0.20199233293533325,
0.527116596698761,
0.03692902624607086,
-0.03770904615521431,
0.017781006172299385,
0.6962368488311768,
0.17976875603199005,
-0.3544729948043823,
-0.14681605994701385,
-0.11133641749620438,
-0.25674012303352356,
-0.19804514944553375,
-0.3472028374671936,
-0.4509388208389282,
-0.35775527358055115,
-0.4129968285560608,
0.80085289478302,
0.15463654696941376,
-0.1812383085489273,
0.2930995225906372,
-0.3099365532398224,
-0.517603874206543,
0.17056570947170258,
0.06594137102365494,
-0.13736920058727264,
0.03591061756014824,
0.508161187171936,
0.6087533831596375,
0.09854578971862793,
-0.36051031947135925,
-0.6056088209152222,
0.008133121766149998,
-0.11152142286300659,
-0.03114754520356655,
0.45392656326293945,
0.5153735280036926,
0.31940123438835144,
0.5205706357955933,
0.3347073197364807,
0.31758537888526917,
0.00464801536872983,
-0.07340078800916672,
0.39032772183418274,
-0.576461911201477,
0.8470279574394226,
0.8725012540817261,
-1.0269181728363037,
0.21062342822551727,
0.29538649320602417,
0.4791582524776459,
-0.40086156129837036,
0.2778147757053375,
0.3493482172489166,
0.2527526319026947,
0.19613949954509735,
0.292768657207489,
-0.21375535428524017,
0.5677608251571655,
0.23001492023468018,
0.6635260581970215,
-0.2572527825832367,
-0.19762785732746124,
-0.040342655032873154,
-0.06070908159017563,
0.1366044133901596,
0.3014688491821289,
-0.15923185646533966,
-0.1890087127685547,
0.08409927785396576,
-0.6595016121864319,
0.10840890556573868,
0.16816477477550507,
-0.6733414530754089,
0.21562068164348602,
0.27981534600257874,
1.4665296077728271,
0.49213120341300964,
0.19599853456020355,
0.04621440917253494,
-0.551289975643158,
0.38341259956359863,
0.5383764505386353,
0.23303455114364624,
-0.019802337512373924,
0.05144466459751129,
0.050902124494314194,
0.7625151872634888,
-0.5482757091522217,
0.3087661862373352,
0.17380234599113464,
0.4913873076438904,
0.061220601201057434,
-0.16838154196739197,
-0.2633688449859619,
0.6761829853057861,
-0.13855844736099243,
0.19125129282474518,
0.35002440214157104,
-0.5208125710487366,
0.3914180099964142,
0.08557779341936111,
0.31080058217048645,
0.11576363444328308,
0.0559704564511776,
-0.13166429102420807,
0.14519387483596802,
0.05772319436073303,
-0.6042665839195251,
0.0856681615114212,
-0.016150299459695816,
-0.18034036457538605,
-0.20833219587802887,
0.13121409714221954,
-0.2279238998889923,
-0.3729016184806824,
-0.285182923078537,
0.11422453820705414,
0.09291618317365646,
-0.22737403213977814,
-0.02408522181212902,
-0.2775088846683502,
-0.06926540285348892,
-0.5049020051956177,
-0.29177233576774597,
0.20633924007415771,
0.15231475234031677,
-0.07487881928682327,
0.2544401288032532,
-0.8440715670585632,
-0.15243281424045563,
0.28761038184165955,
0.17182256281375885,
-0.35147014260292053,
-0.5959791541099548,
-0.25130993127822876,
-0.37305012345314026,
-0.3472261130809784,
-0.8945186138153076,
-0.8057167530059814,
-0.1383567750453949,
-0.3448547422885895,
0.6236894130706787,
-0.3263968229293823,
-0.8217687010765076,
-0.4587673544883728,
0.3092682659626007,
-0.07811248302459717,
-0.04450243338942528,
0.3625510632991791,
0.06900259852409363,
-0.3468174934387207,
-0.267758309841156,
0.03547297790646553,
-0.19003348052501678,
0.25326693058013916,
0.20328927040100098,
-0.10412850230932236,
0.059953439980745316,
-5.667735576629639,
0.14120206236839294,
0.029131175950169563,
0.5242452621459961,
0.07967007160186768,
-0.14602498710155487,
0.28510332107543945,
0.027469970285892487,
0.34895679354667664,
-0.5271157622337341,
-0.19475939869880676,
0.06276324391365051,
0.074776791036129,
0.6144130825996399,
-0.046395447105169296,
0.119461290538311,
0.2246733158826828,
-0.467334121465683,
0.16846589744091034,
0.24703103303909302,
-0.119101382791996,
-0.13250388205051422,
-0.27348142862319946,
0.5050852298736572,
0.03536294773221016,
0.9280125498771667,
-0.6784316897392273,
0.011438166722655296,
-0.7212432026863098,
-0.08064576238393784,
-0.3555586338043213,
-0.14308595657348633,
-0.12595807015895844,
-0.5654854774475098,
-0.3271335959434509,
0.39369529485702515,
0.7272313237190247,
0.41191262006759644,
0.19814060628414154,
0.051623906940221786,
-0.0068097952753305435,
-0.1681554913520813,
-0.5496209859848022,
0.039525944739580154,
0.8927310109138489,
-0.1858254224061966,
-0.6869937181472778,
-0.8798888325691223,
-0.19389595091342926,
0.26194289326667786,
0.4740600287914276,
0.038907911628484726,
0.10307903587818146,
0.05367125943303108,
0.736660361289978,
0.03652917966246605,
0.37506645917892456,
-0.12361748516559601,
-0.022528711706399918,
-0.13439153134822845,
0.5481409430503845,
0.13819195330142975,
-0.3542284071445465,
-0.45761924982070923,
0.07278881967067719,
0.009587000124156475,
0.22391337156295776,
-0.17910081148147583,
0.4260118007659912,
0.057707738131284714,
-0.22564710676670074,
0.5876554846763611,
0.3187772333621979,
-0.9632402062416077,
-0.04026570916175842,
0.20086339116096497,
-0.4496336579322815,
-0.02152617648243904,
-0.7154238820075989,
0.41241320967674255,
-0.3909617066383362,
-0.1175997331738472,
-0.25541552901268005,
0.29634833335876465,
0.00435068691149354,
0.05786880850791931,
0.3885438144207001,
0.8153947591781616,
-0.17086230218410492,
0.4218583405017853,
0.6574439406394958,
-0.013315756805241108,
-0.32695671916007996,
0.5053210854530334,
0.5295364856719971,
0.03624967485666275,
0.13710303604602814,
0.11272833496332169,
0.6461659669876099,
-0.4921116828918457,
-0.03926904499530792,
-0.6200230121612549,
-0.21854321658611298,
-0.5867270231246948,
0.02050034888088703,
-0.629499614238739,
0.3368391692638397,
0.3064620792865753,
0.06351563334465027,
0.3556091785430908,
-0.17228825390338898,
-0.18499788641929626,
-0.2818286716938019,
0.3906721770763397,
0.9234231114387512,
-0.15578965842723846,
0.03904107213020325,
0.049669306725263596,
0.2591852843761444,
0.15282391011714935,
-0.005203168373554945,
0.815506100654602,
-0.44777798652648926,
-0.5249737501144409,
-0.013697187416255474,
-0.2212347537279129,
-0.23195722699165344,
0.9734383225440979,
0.020447619259357452,
0.018029948696494102,
-0.026227502152323723,
0.42091110348701477,
0.053944703191518784,
0.1220724955201149,
0.6993670463562012,
-0.7884683609008789,
-0.6649150252342224,
-0.1439496874809265,
0.24463780224323273,
-0.25396767258644104,
0.4493619203567505,
-0.4238031804561615,
0.05793065205216408,
0.6647416949272156,
-0.26390087604522705,
0.07950976490974426,
-0.5131183862686157,
-0.3173493444919586,
0.08146533370018005,
0.2897561490535736,
0.14777523279190063,
-0.8342600464820862,
0.3530835807323456,
-0.7884215712547302,
-0.47705787420272827,
0.39194783568382263,
-0.1115204319357872,
-0.020921388640999794,
-0.06948858499526978,
-0.01735610142350197,
0.24263209104537964,
-0.34117236733436584,
-0.5416693687438965,
0.14411254227161407,
-0.18879500031471252,
-0.34967830777168274,
0.12431322783231735,
-0.6610000729560852,
-0.08319593966007233,
0.44519105553627014,
-0.01808834820985794,
0.04067283868789673,
-0.35945528745651245,
0.45875415205955505,
0.549172043800354,
0.35297510027885437,
0.20238564908504486,
0.11102598905563354,
0.10048162937164307,
-0.07114392518997192,
-0.26186612248420715,
-0.45177483558654785,
-0.18076838552951813,
0.2536342442035675,
0.08857043087482452,
-0.45470619201660156,
-0.38318443298339844,
-0.27706465125083923,
-0.48856186866760254,
-0.16065943241119385,
-0.06535687297582626,
0.5508469939231873,
0.6139479875564575,
0.3201289772987366,
-0.292758971452713,
-0.6194658279418945,
0.3524823784828186,
0.3497675955295563,
0.1812223494052887,
0.095869280397892,
-0.49210038781166077,
0.5947571992874146,
-0.6466687917709351,
0.18301917612552643,
0.6048661470413208,
-1.0507155656814575,
-0.08652352541685104,
0.3308793604373932,
-0.5369049310684204,
0.0447426363825798,
-0.35030773282051086,
-0.6557260155677795,
-0.1505541354417801,
-0.7297037839889526,
0.06244446709752083,
0.508373498916626,
0.2468707412481308,
-0.052474748343229294,
-0.011596549302339554,
-0.391483873128891,
-0.21618252992630005,
-0.2068013995885849,
-0.6279734969139099,
-0.10251756757497787,
-0.38509777188301086,
0.37210002541542053,
-0.028168631717562675,
-0.2945510149002075,
-0.09572888165712357,
-0.10249658674001694,
-0.22134087979793549,
0.016795000061392784,
-0.17198745906352997,
0.1371317058801651,
-0.4202764630317688,
-0.26846763491630554,
-0.06569553166627884,
0.048358578234910965,
0.03422682359814644,
0.33305320143699646,
0.9386373162269592,
0.9276134371757507,
0.3474336266517639,
0.553033173084259,
0.22349365055561066,
0.9340512752532959,
-0.034380216151475906,
-0.48944076895713806,
-0.16050250828266144,
0.42070242762565613,
-0.26263800263404846,
-0.24697743356227875,
-0.7954246401786804,
0.17111720144748688,
0.7000979781150818,
-0.4772282540798187,
-0.2787381410598755,
0.33223626017570496,
-0.3181326687335968,
0.01638530008494854,
0.028706395998597145,
0.6050150394439697,
-0.190596342086792,
-0.3148632347583771,
-0.41601666808128357,
0.48457127809524536,
-0.022458499297499657,
0.1661059856414795,
0.44572705030441284,
-0.011166416108608246,
-0.25075510144233704,
0.018597537651658058,
-0.30846408009529114,
1.0163447856903076,
-0.19223420321941376,
0.2934783399105072,
-0.6058168411254883,
-0.04828357696533203,
-0.35063228011131287,
-0.6324830651283264,
0.13585849106311798,
0.5751726031303406,
-0.1177857518196106,
-0.6101804375648499,
-0.713992714881897,
-0.2200150489807129,
0.2771700918674469,
-0.02411247417330742,
-0.07519034296274185,
0.1687173843383789,
-0.8747649192810059,
0.5210736989974976,
0.01476475689560175,
-0.5451951026916504,
-0.2322985678911209,
-0.19072385132312775,
0.053302355110645294,
0.20011651515960693,
-0.8100062608718872,
-0.31520867347717285,
0.001220421981997788,
0.2308221161365509,
0.22761255502700806,
0.40248656272888184,
0.04646113142371178,
-0.06031341478228569,
0.2613721787929535,
0.006338256411254406,
-0.8184577822685242,
0.5284295082092285,
-0.08700112253427505,
-0.7192812561988831,
-0.016052981838583946,
0.6941840052604675,
0.10516754537820816,
0.5108040571212769,
0.4408404231071472,
-0.09344705194234848,
-0.4103564918041229,
0.014106127433478832,
0.24877779185771942,
-0.30266478657722473,
-0.10568787902593613,
-0.19203443825244904,
0.34374719858169556,
0.12732432782649994,
0.03192953020334244,
0.19175560772418976,
0.20539121329784393,
0.10993515700101852,
0.5524519085884094,
-0.7107359170913696,
-0.2835293710231781,
0.3144204318523407,
0.25211137533187866,
0.11713889241218567,
0.8117625117301941,
-0.09764818847179413,
0.3339008390903473,
0.1502489447593689,
0.43490734696388245,
0.6698585748672485,
-0.9368621706962585,
-0.17247061431407928,
0.3308072090148926,
-0.40675070881843567,
0.004658909514546394,
-0.3310251533985138,
0.16783621907234192,
0.3885323405265808,
0.5276273488998413,
0.6964321136474609,
-0.2129080891609192,
-0.42020389437675476,
1.1540017127990723,
0.18356198072433472,
0.058248333632946014,
-0.27511292695999146,
0.35956788063049316,
-0.10102696716785431,
-0.530798614025116,
0.4414059519767761,
0.21949291229248047,
0.34130582213401794,
0.06309845298528671,
0.5223045945167542,
-0.401350736618042,
0.07553072273731232,
-0.32965606451034546,
0.861338198184967,
-0.5010062456130981,
-0.077749103307724,
0.08094985038042068,
0.08283431828022003,
0.4075499176979065,
0.6907203793525696,
-0.17470437288284302,
0.13014091551303864,
-0.32421648502349854,
0.15568573772907257,
-0.16115541756153107,
0.5971777439117432,
-0.6194397807121277,
-0.3792460560798645,
0.5722952485084534,
0.2321723997592926,
0.30124515295028687,
0.2857765853404999,
-0.1690821349620819,
-0.3313450813293457,
0.10365825146436691,
-0.61543208360672,
-0.3931189477443695,
0.7327260375022888,
-0.24835312366485596,
-0.5267695784568787,
-0.5195804834365845,
0.6374213695526123,
0.24381539225578308,
0.34372851252555847,
0.35858121514320374,
0.012058951891958714,
-0.0019913578871637583,
0.5237880349159241,
-0.11205463111400604,
0.047633230686187744,
-0.7819395661354065,
0.2551136612892151,
-0.7732911705970764,
-0.0942944884300232,
0.2762952446937561,
0.3165278732776642,
-0.39113011956214905,
0.052622441202402115,
0.0075606489554047585,
0.15486592054367065,
0.5475910902023315,
-0.5392090082168579,
0.17785312235355377,
0.11106692254543304,
-0.22630611062049866,
-0.8667588233947754,
-0.006048605311661959,
0.7535185813903809,
-0.0005782039370387793,
0.055655818432569504,
0.48936429619789124,
-0.6762629747390747,
-0.14194968342781067,
0.18103554844856262,
0.10648934543132782,
0.3132697343826294,
0.20045627653598785,
-0.056928351521492004,
-0.31640899181365967,
-0.20776167511940002,
0.9021177291870117,
1.2043989896774292,
0.1462966799736023,
-0.6918836236000061,
0.23686794936656952,
0.06885693967342377,
0.15153305232524872,
-0.1484513133764267,
-1.2444238662719727,
-0.5695539116859436,
0.03472328186035156,
-0.18281157314777374,
-0.1455850601196289,
-0.023501522839069366,
0.24769510328769684,
-0.583262026309967,
0.17496782541275024,
-0.36714601516723633,
-0.04033719748258591,
0.4065706133842468,
0.23229674994945526,
-0.20753014087677002,
0.47649404406547546,
-0.04372527822852135
] |
234949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquette%20Mountain | Marquette Mountain | Marquette Mountain Resort is a small mountain and ski resort in Marquette, Michigan, the major city in the state's Upper Peninsula. The resort offers winter sports seasonally as well as mountain biking, volleyball, and hiking in the spring, summer, and fall.
The hill has a summit elevation of above sea level, over 300 acres and a vertical drop of . The recipient of lake effect snow from nearby Lake Superior, Marquette Mountain Resort receives an average of of snowfall annually. It has three chairlifts and a rope tow and is equipped with LED lighting for night skiing. The shore of the lake's Marquette Bay is just two miles (3 km) to the northeast. Ten miles (16 km) to the south is the extensive runway of the county's Sawyer International Airport. The resort's parking lot is adjacent to highway M-553.
History
Popular from the start, the ski area opened in late 1957. It was originally known as Cliffs Ridge, as it operated on land leased from the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company of Cleveland, Ohio. The first chairlift, a Riblet double, was installed on the skier's right side of Rocket Run in the fall of 1972. Previously, there were 2 T-bars (the original Constam on the skier's left of Rocket and a newer Hall Ski-Lift on the skier's left of Snowfield) and several rope tows. The ski area was renamed "Marquette Mountain" in 1982. In summer of 2020, expansion of the mountain bike trails began.
The National Ski Hall of Fame is in Ishpeming, about twelve miles (20 km) west of Marquette.
References
External links
Map of location at southwest corner of city
Trail maps from MarquetteMountain.com
Article on Marquette Mountain, by Freida Waara from SKI Magazine
Marquette Mountain at Weather.com
Marquette Mountain Racing Team
Cleveland-Cliffs, Inc.
DH Race club - hundreds of photos of the mountain
Photo – from Milwaukee Sentinel – March 14, 1959
Sports venues in Michigan
Ski areas and resorts in Michigan
Mountains of Michigan
1957 establishments in Michigan
Tourist attractions in Marquette County, Michigan
Buildings and structures in Marquette, Michigan
Landforms of Marquette County, Michigan | [
-0.3249776363372803,
0.6827833652496338,
0.16350573301315308,
-0.31088778376579285,
0.7222008109092712,
0.2237577885389328,
1.1128358840942383,
0.23532935976982117,
-0.036002226173877716,
-0.4352706968784332,
-0.2108549326658249,
0.4388331174850464,
0.3031504452228546,
0.2804294526576996,
-0.13104113936424255,
-0.14022459089756012,
0.3494311571121216,
0.3973366916179657,
0.1892896443605423,
-0.6885465383529663,
0.19664616882801056,
-0.33335229754447937,
0.38852766156196594,
0.3621223270893097,
-0.15477332472801208,
0.1299581378698349,
0.49557557702064514,
0.11648435890674591,
-0.02206125296652317,
0.22570709884166718,
-0.5043269991874695,
0.19644400477409363,
-0.2883041203022003,
-0.397022008895874,
0.11050970107316971,
0.11795206367969513,
0.32925960421562195,
-0.7158007621765137,
-0.08557895570993423,
0.10344548523426056,
0.17928925156593323,
0.13654783368110657,
0.07666987925767899,
0.7303016781806946,
0.2127694934606552,
0.9186676740646362,
-1.1662191152572632,
-0.14098744094371796,
-0.36725425720214844,
-0.41026216745376587,
-1.0224896669387817,
0.4273192584514618,
0.2567876875400543,
0.5568593144416809,
0.39449045062065125,
0.3310374915599823,
-0.3815919756889343,
0.3468567430973053,
0.537394642829895,
-0.5199866890907288,
-0.17370185256004333,
0.6000248789787292,
-0.13451993465423584,
-0.18755874037742615,
-0.9298213720321655,
-0.39091697335243225,
0.28702062368392944,
0.24629975855350494,
-0.3020856976509094,
-0.1024017408490181,
0.28839147090911865,
-0.254408597946167,
0.08191525936126709,
0.13704417645931244,
0.3426745533943176,
0.23086178302764893,
-0.3007519245147705,
-0.19296126067638397,
-0.2720721364021301,
-0.2355344146490097,
-0.3760594129562378,
0.0886690691113472,
0.5942367911338806,
0.7372822761535645,
-0.23318052291870117,
0.27369946241378784,
-0.36171555519104004,
-0.18011122941970825,
-0.4462664723396301,
0.629055917263031,
-0.9223316311836243,
-0.3088107705116272,
0.26907241344451904,
0.08833093196153641,
0.41262954473495483,
0.03141942247748375,
0.3083893358707428,
0.39285212755203247,
0.5416337251663208,
0.35569193959236145,
0.06122957542538643,
-0.09530739486217499,
0.5546051263809204,
0.33176136016845703,
-0.8057432174682617,
-0.6494106650352478,
-0.4512331485748291,
0.0656772181391716,
-0.02467302605509758,
-0.3354113698005676,
-0.7872163653373718,
-0.044683437794446945,
-0.31186583638191223,
-0.07045536488294601,
0.24720755219459534,
0.5196096897125244,
0.28613969683647156,
-1.0289320945739746,
-0.5902178287506104,
-0.4131573736667633,
0.8411964178085327,
0.4826059341430664,
-0.20910032093524933,
-0.05254046991467476,
-0.1951330155134201,
0.015582430176436901,
0.5653735995292664,
0.2672543227672577,
0.0811297595500946,
-0.3180077075958252,
-0.4262225925922394,
0.17978209257125854,
0.21072106063365936,
-0.05544617772102356,
-0.1978508085012436,
-0.4119120240211487,
0.31967735290527344,
-0.1118992492556572,
0.3127603530883789,
0.2986408472061157,
-0.9337344765663147,
-0.3289015591144562,
-0.3810180723667145,
-0.38352730870246887,
0.3876844048500061,
-0.2934090495109558,
0.2309420257806778,
-0.09761979430913925,
0.458343505859375,
-0.15595725178718567,
-0.07995816320180893,
0.1536395400762558,
-0.1417384296655655,
0.06098160147666931,
-0.04153723642230034,
0.7048614025115967,
0.8390513062477112,
0.023976029828190804,
0.3860003352165222,
-0.040224816650152206,
0.1421348601579666,
0.19334395229816437,
-0.02480132319033146,
0.2852804660797119,
0.33481135964393616,
-0.03739256039261818,
0.5965057611465454,
-0.5638040900230408,
0.043976545333862305,
0.5561205744743347,
0.09673818200826645,
0.13873066008090973,
0.42231395840644836,
-0.1106983944773674,
-0.8977974653244019,
-0.2554439306259155,
0.4354519844055176,
0.35053229331970215,
0.15111412107944489,
-0.3065203130245209,
-0.580403745174408,
0.050631288439035416,
0.4451148509979248,
-0.03755344823002815,
0.1712561547756195,
-0.232720285654068,
0.37242960929870605,
-0.3785250782966614,
-0.08476059883832932,
-0.4810806214809418,
-0.18999281525611877,
-0.693732500076294,
0.8001063466072083,
-0.7008354067802429,
0.9828420877456665,
0.12628601491451263,
-0.5344899892807007,
0.6396760940551758,
-0.17246121168136597,
0.16761022806167603,
0.040484700351953506,
-0.16452635824680328,
0.3266669511795044,
-0.2581055164337158,
-1.232122540473938,
0.2360677570104599,
-0.03497737646102905,
-0.24247460067272186,
0.01629396714270115,
0.03040839359164238,
0.38998913764953613,
-0.7302331924438477,
0.4378870129585266,
0.566673994064331,
-0.16660787165164948,
0.0635390654206276,
-0.22307729721069336,
-0.009073865599930286,
0.0050539299845695496,
-0.5354355573654175,
0.8588765263557434,
0.4293898046016693,
0.2208850085735321,
0.22180619835853577,
-0.6496357321739197,
0.3853934109210968,
0.2131308764219284,
0.2466716170310974,
0.26004093885421753,
0.10593343526124954,
0.08087043464183807,
-0.06898327171802521,
0.03788062185049057,
-0.38672417402267456,
0.5022042989730835,
0.10250785201787949,
0.3655252456665039,
-0.4530247449874878,
0.29398804903030396,
-0.06050040200352669,
-0.14112015068531036,
0.01885964721441269,
-0.6456416249275208,
0.1676618456840515,
0.34244951605796814,
-0.16329002380371094,
0.547398567199707,
0.2175450176000595,
-0.2312709093093872,
-0.6176708936691284,
-0.008629167452454567,
0.09392549842596054,
0.4209762215614319,
0.2726556062698364,
0.3116148114204407,
-0.014155078679323196,
0.13148564100265503,
0.03185287117958069,
0.40367716550827026,
0.1463416963815689,
0.5981162190437317,
0.12459667026996613,
-0.501186728477478,
0.4168924391269684,
0.05158918350934982,
-0.3180830478668213,
-0.259691447019577,
-0.6272083520889282,
0.10430334508419037,
0.5353981256484985,
-0.16892510652542114,
-0.4662902057170868,
-0.08478958159685135,
0.09538652747869492,
0.518894612789154,
0.461222767829895,
-0.5061072111129761,
0.01339513435959816,
-0.510771632194519,
0.2088998258113861,
0.38117608428001404,
0.5283175110816956,
0.20521752536296844,
0.031184624880552292,
-0.05910269543528557,
-0.24149326980113983,
0.4389953911304474,
-0.48895931243896484,
-0.9003915190696716,
0.15092332661151886,
0.1394486427307129,
0.09579898416996002,
0.2591801881790161,
0.01518166996538639,
-0.011743410490453243,
0.2523525059223175,
0.14871852099895477,
-0.42091885209083557,
0.5521950721740723,
-0.27268335223197937,
-0.00580156035721302,
-0.009884810075163841,
-0.6095048189163208,
-0.31422385573387146,
-0.05893021449446678,
0.20181293785572052,
-0.10659921169281006,
-0.7453450560569763,
-5.55550479888916,
0.2886076867580414,
-0.6351907253265381,
-0.45436540246009827,
-0.1436947137117386,
-0.5689800977706909,
-0.09245941787958145,
-0.24016761779785156,
-0.3822193741798401,
0.1927717924118042,
0.3360292613506317,
-0.3653309941291809,
0.08427132666110992,
0.37304824590682983,
0.10520291328430176,
0.20898324251174927,
1.1430537700653076,
-0.8595117926597595,
0.3436097502708435,
-0.20496083796024323,
0.3262266218662262,
0.09906493872404099,
-0.07009276747703552,
-0.2074633687734604,
0.12876033782958984,
0.8109951019287109,
-0.6560852527618408,
-0.2470148652791977,
-0.513156533241272,
-0.21178464591503143,
-0.2508869171142578,
-0.02852477878332138,
-0.13431695103645325,
-0.037034209817647934,
0.42060884833335876,
-0.09279540926218033,
0.597096860408783,
0.20156224071979523,
0.723560631275177,
-0.17365972697734833,
0.4601622521877289,
0.19428692758083344,
-0.14901992678642273,
-0.11262787878513336,
0.9169387817382812,
-0.5231418609619141,
-0.8255825638771057,
-0.034813396632671356,
-0.06437981128692627,
0.5749479532241821,
-0.05741208791732788,
0.16252565383911133,
0.7986682057380676,
0.5124733448028564,
0.4764805734157562,
-0.33806243538856506,
0.3099287748336792,
0.1524854153394699,
-0.2024199664592743,
0.4383307993412018,
-0.2488790899515152,
-0.4859713912010193,
0.4896126985549927,
-0.8257935047149658,
-0.0070721800439059734,
-0.10153375566005707,
-0.00693108793348074,
0.5463482141494751,
-0.22532594203948975,
0.15422090888023376,
0.07550743222236633,
0.38095441460609436,
-0.15429902076721191,
-1.1579627990722656,
0.008535931818187237,
-0.2496490180492401,
-0.39619746804237366,
0.0695229321718216,
-0.3790905177593231,
-0.0261320061981678,
-0.1673324555158615,
0.37583956122398376,
-0.07499122619628906,
0.07373988628387451,
0.027580145746469498,
-0.34887805581092834,
-0.36178818345069885,
0.6041793823242188,
-0.2837332487106323,
-0.3944355845451355,
0.47975605726242065,
0.2488217055797577,
0.39797526597976685,
0.11251244693994522,
0.04711659997701645,
0.053675681352615356,
0.5231733322143555,
-0.017838086932897568,
0.38088861107826233,
-0.14204345643520355,
0.2849796414375305,
-0.01705874502658844,
0.25141650438308716,
-0.0343889556825161,
-0.5229606032371521,
-0.22348976135253906,
-0.0726415365934372,
0.15471205115318298,
1.232042908668518,
-0.0954650416970253,
-0.723762571811676,
-0.3073206841945648,
-0.50527423620224,
-0.13885368406772614,
0.42706212401390076,
-0.27338963747024536,
-0.5673279762268066,
0.31469985842704773,
0.5095052719116211,
0.15513412654399872,
-0.047796882688999176,
0.1692907065153122,
0.08455806225538254,
-0.3201278746128082,
-0.29586249589920044,
-0.15773512423038483,
0.6167172789573669,
0.27903667092323303,
-0.4196266233921051,
0.16160349547863007,
0.032413847744464874,
0.3220290243625641,
0.3063591718673706,
0.5321134328842163,
-0.2136346399784088,
0.020540717989206314,
-0.24690262973308563,
-0.9118683934211731,
0.19119954109191895,
-0.15917278826236725,
0.4229474663734436,
0.241977721452713,
-0.3985561430454254,
0.6039937138557434,
0.06794930249452591,
0.7465029954910278,
-0.5142186880111694,
0.12704376876354218,
-0.7042254209518433,
0.4034178853034973,
-0.7857426404953003,
-0.4686397314071655,
0.05807384103536606,
-0.27175915241241455,
-0.12702146172523499,
-0.05427607148885727,
-0.49746617674827576,
0.48182499408721924,
0.011462290771305561,
0.3589056730270386,
1.142269492149353,
-0.4132930338382721,
-0.461403489112854,
0.3076503872871399,
-0.5758844017982483,
0.12773172557353973,
-0.23601499199867249,
-0.5134392976760864,
-0.7616926431655884,
0.533769428730011,
0.7874001264572144,
-0.4936869442462921,
-0.7923091053962708,
-0.4473724365234375,
0.21338440477848053,
-0.22500914335250854,
-0.2340002804994583,
0.5012491345405579,
0.11724803596735,
-0.15057510137557983,
-0.02026453986763954,
-0.42572158575057983,
-0.4935927391052246,
0.14884310960769653,
0.31578272581100464,
-1.0414245128631592,
-0.45353785157203674,
0.12180718034505844,
0.4301563799381256,
0.12549914419651031,
0.2454981505870819,
-0.37611329555511475,
0.4110734760761261,
0.23885565996170044,
0.338690847158432,
-0.681105375289917,
0.473198264837265,
0.3025551736354828,
-0.6814544796943665,
-0.5058532953262329,
-0.2819385826587677,
0.042146749794483185,
-0.9919533133506775,
0.9368507266044617,
0.4210192561149597,
-0.5222343802452087,
0.5139338374137878,
0.28825750946998596,
-0.3816963732242584,
0.19227570295333862,
-0.6145665645599365,
-0.8293281197547913,
0.6816570162773132,
0.25066667795181274,
0.10342458635568619,
0.007939524948596954,
-0.0008370739524252713,
0.26184821128845215,
-0.5314958691596985,
-0.24173042178153992,
-0.26531529426574707,
0.15135616064071655,
-0.7430862784385681,
-0.44673871994018555,
-0.473771870136261,
0.39295876026153564,
0.7271620631217957,
0.4047393500804901,
0.10589839518070221,
-0.6919393539428711,
-0.18152888119220734,
0.12176969647407532,
-0.3171980679035187,
-0.04444271698594093,
0.4316284954547882,
-0.03445108234882355,
0.08352626115083694,
0.22569310665130615,
0.42866024374961853,
0.20509633421897888,
0.331788033246994,
1.4755511283874512,
-0.035429663956165314,
-0.7627236247062683,
0.14782068133354187,
0.39071178436279297,
0.13257116079330444,
-0.6530569195747375,
-0.6789705157279968,
0.6031284928321838,
0.34116166830062866,
-0.2814914584159851,
-0.3865393102169037,
-0.28364625573158264,
1.0253909826278687,
-0.5855181813240051,
-0.08752145618200302,
0.4370197355747223,
-0.2082146853208542,
-0.15330718457698822,
-0.043276820331811905,
-0.0863410234451294,
-0.13830630481243134,
0.17654232680797577,
-0.008223499171435833,
-0.23867744207382202,
-0.3483019173145294,
-0.5589039325714111,
-0.046540550887584686,
-0.546274721622467,
0.5709378719329834,
-0.38298124074935913,
0.22617553174495697,
0.21816475689411163,
-0.769770622253418,
0.4793694019317627,
-0.03806161507964134,
-0.507239580154419,
-0.13290391862392426,
-0.3221181333065033,
-0.6301009654998779,
-0.036348115652799606,
-0.1614440530538559,
-0.25036221742630005,
0.452159583568573,
-0.5660696625709534,
-0.021841958165168762,
0.24325986206531525,
-0.42589426040649414,
0.39574283361434937,
-0.549530565738678,
-0.13985846936702728,
0.024024762213230133,
-0.9234344363212585,
-0.19748333096504211,
-0.05789584293961525,
0.8533964157104492,
0.44277167320251465,
-0.28466513752937317,
0.49129989743232727,
-0.11995623260736465,
0.7874858975410461,
0.1252305805683136,
-0.8194313645362854,
0.375156044960022,
-0.3318786323070526,
-0.6707003116607666,
-0.5957298874855042,
0.09782437235116959,
-0.2670280933380127,
0.11423830687999725,
-0.03676587715744972,
0.4003366231918335,
0.6623426079750061,
-0.3806445300579071,
0.5237388014793396,
0.4624005854129791,
-0.3916606605052948,
-0.1724931001663208,
0.14814020693302155,
-0.5241854190826416,
0.38990914821624756,
0.31733694672584534,
0.09102845937013626,
0.33342379331588745,
1.1981160640716553,
-0.6085559129714966,
-0.09435164928436279,
0.45010626316070557,
0.6849804520606995,
0.17461299896240234,
-0.7075085043907166,
-0.23535387217998505,
0.5903174877166748,
-0.2130446881055832,
-0.4044857323169708,
-0.4649294316768646,
-0.5671563744544983,
-0.9166730046272278,
0.19264118373394012,
0.14235183596611023,
0.2412182092666626,
-0.537799596786499,
-0.30239659547805786,
-0.08453366905450821,
-0.08353310823440552,
0.01411780808120966,
0.09579870849847794,
-0.006483248434960842,
0.21125401556491852,
0.2513171136379242,
-0.43156468868255615,
-0.5032702684402466,
0.33729463815689087,
-0.3662940561771393,
0.03486787527799606,
-0.06635870784521103,
-0.5020612478256226,
-0.34888923168182373,
0.5483952760696411,
-0.16247689723968506,
-0.16538389027118683,
0.3518736958503723,
-0.2195916473865509,
-0.004897425416857004,
-0.19862601161003113,
-0.003131964709609747,
-0.4753183424472809,
0.1415642499923706,
0.3861561119556427,
-0.1384734809398651,
0.6979606747627258,
-0.03748545050621033,
-0.3214793801307678,
0.04638637229800224,
0.803410530090332,
-0.3284357190132141,
0.42017287015914917,
0.25211799144744873,
0.1826643943786621,
-0.3139150142669678,
0.2956717908382416,
-0.556740939617157,
0.4507906436920166,
-0.06310403347015381,
-0.30966615676879883,
0.1338406354188919,
0.5976303219795227,
-0.050619497895240784,
-0.06850014626979828,
0.06583705544471741,
-0.3810419738292694,
-0.2903505265712738,
0.028271019458770752,
0.14498047530651093,
-0.15060347318649292,
-0.2734031081199646,
0.8446094393730164,
0.06763190776109695,
0.6565943360328674,
-0.16184920072555542,
-0.1813024878501892,
0.1436503827571869,
0.23627308011054993,
-0.07178691029548645,
0.34115487337112427,
-0.14256148040294647,
-0.675424337387085,
-0.36823007464408875,
0.2527833580970764,
-0.21448954939842224,
0.043181613087654114,
-0.0931926891207695,
0.46225157380104065,
0.2351505607366562,
0.7836929559707642,
0.8301132917404175,
-0.4200475811958313,
-0.5397434830665588,
-0.7524959444999695,
-0.11452891677618027,
-0.7345695495605469,
0.8270963430404663,
0.62473464012146,
0.5118774771690369,
-0.205362007021904,
-0.19273558259010315,
-0.3700490891933441,
-0.4904281497001648,
0.23423530161380768,
0.3962383270263672,
-0.8976216316223145,
-0.5171438455581665,
0.6550226211547852,
-0.30359023809432983,
-0.7705105543136597,
0.42470890283584595,
0.6848198175430298,
0.5708414316177368,
-0.5646507740020752,
0.026989279314875603,
-0.6883488893508911,
0.14738087356090546,
0.29832953214645386,
0.005398720037192106,
-0.22169214487075806,
-0.34725573658943176,
-0.8117764592170715,
-0.13677947223186493,
0.17923018336296082,
-0.06404951214790344,
-0.4145323932170868,
0.20353195071220398,
-0.21424274146556854,
0.016013745218515396,
0.1826058179140091,
0.49609464406967163,
-0.24962471425533295,
0.2192000299692154,
-0.2754336893558502
] |
234952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Aboriginal%20Day | National Aboriginal Day | National Aboriginal Day (informally National Indigenous Peoples Day) is a day recognizing and celebrating the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis Indigenous peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated annually on 21 June. This date was chosen as the statutory holiday for many reasons, including its cultural significance as the Summer solstice, and the fact that it is a day on which many Indigenous peoples and communities traditionally celebrate their heritage. A proposal to rename the day National Indigenous Peoples Day was made in 2017. The bill to make that change (C-369) was still being debated by parliament when the legislature was dissolved. The federal Crown has begun referring to the day as National Indigenous Peoples Day, regardless.
This day has been celebrated as a statutory territorial holiday in the Northwest Territories since 2001 and in Yukon since 2017. It is not however, currently considered a statutory holiday across the rest of the country.
History
The day came about after a series of calls for such a celebration.
It was first self-declared Indian Day in 1945, by Jules Sioui and chiefs from across Turtle Island (North America).
In 1982, the National Indian Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations) called for the creation of a National Aboriginal Solidarity Day to be celebrated on 21 June. Slightly more than a decade later in 1995, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples recommended that a National First Peoples Day be designated. Also in that same year, a national conference of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people chaired by Elijah Harper, titled The Sacred Assembly, called for a national holiday to celebrate the contributions of Aboriginal peoples to Canada. 21 June often coincides with the summer solstice.
National Indigenous Peoples Day is now the first of a series of Celebrate Canada days, followed by the National Holiday of Quebec on 24 June, Canadian Multiculturalism Day on 27 June, and concluding with Canada Day on 1 July.
In 2001, members of the 14th Legislative Assembly passed the National Aboriginal Day Act making the Northwest Territories the first jurisdiction in Canada to recognise this day as a formal statutory holiday.
On 21 June 2017, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau released a statement pledging to rename the event National Indigenous Peoples Day. Assembly of First Nations National Chief Perry Bellegarde supported the proposed change, called it an "important step," citing the terminology used in the landmark United Nations' Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples." The private member's bill that would have effected the change in name (Bill C-369) reached first reading in the Senate, but died on the order paper when parliament was dissolved on 11 September 2019. The federal Crown still began using the name National Indigenous People's Day in publications.
See also
Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)
Treaty Day (Nova Scotia)
International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples
References
External links
Government of Canada website
DAAIR
Indigenous culture in Canada
National holidays
Public holidays in Canada
Recurring events established in 1996
June observances
Indigenous peoples days
Summer events in Canada | [
0.8356093168258667,
0.24329425394535065,
-0.3204245865345001,
-0.0830862820148468,
-0.3599950969219208,
0.15759772062301636,
1.153672695159912,
0.861047089099884,
-0.3013944625854492,
-0.6378687024116516,
-0.3409903943538666,
-0.2601231336593628,
0.3602977991104126,
0.5962745547294617,
-0.24327273666858673,
0.9282224774360657,
-0.13742655515670776,
0.6479333639144897,
-0.11974067240953445,
-0.18790438771247864,
-0.575309157371521,
-0.6643592119216919,
0.4982840120792389,
0.28095149993896484,
0.3972713351249695,
0.3562716245651245,
0.9740754961967468,
0.1611330509185791,
-0.5384013652801514,
-0.018118882551789284,
-0.45469164848327637,
0.14135926961898804,
0.5580390691757202,
0.2991923987865448,
0.5127720832824707,
0.06663445383310318,
-0.23325952887535095,
-0.6870274543762207,
-0.304730087518692,
-0.22753070294857025,
0.39913198351860046,
-0.699381411075592,
0.21773017942905426,
0.2964424192905426,
-0.2521373927593231,
0.0003926278150174767,
-1.1796504259109497,
0.13372750580310822,
-0.394184947013855,
0.09088779985904694,
-0.7171016931533813,
-0.09770182520151138,
0.18105432391166687,
0.14357711374759674,
0.14359250664710999,
0.31296277046203613,
-0.3994861841201782,
-0.11553788185119629,
-0.29235073924064636,
-0.41622573137283325,
0.0056542279198765755,
0.3948531150817871,
-0.1435556262731552,
0.006111103110015392,
0.4011094868183136,
0.1723453253507614,
-0.10078735649585724,
0.5409991145133972,
0.09730226546525955,
-0.114731565117836,
-0.3846539258956909,
-0.19174161553382874,
-0.2776268422603607,
0.7961989045143127,
-0.014712516218423843,
-0.18354038894176483,
0.5343190431594849,
-0.07232141494750977,
0.29336920380592346,
0.22631308436393738,
0.1529514491558075,
-0.1535491645336151,
0.588697612285614,
0.18006950616836548,
0.510204553604126,
0.22701722383499146,
-0.41795384883880615,
-0.2598276138305664,
-0.5139542818069458,
0.19413277506828308,
-0.5418436527252197,
-0.22656096518039703,
0.6003385782241821,
-0.5537886619567871,
-0.09746262431144714,
0.3882495164871216,
-0.11878309398889542,
-0.19893251359462738,
0.3956673741340637,
-0.1257256269454956,
-0.07334058731794357,
-0.6258634924888611,
0.5150350332260132,
0.3870444595813751,
-0.6121920943260193,
-0.36617380380630493,
-0.16234023869037628,
-0.6879608631134033,
0.2728382647037506,
-0.6918917298316956,
-0.4358850419521332,
0.18957887589931488,
0.1856425255537033,
0.3021349012851715,
0.2905186116695404,
0.050517890602350235,
0.18792930245399475,
-0.5158678293228149,
-0.5841986536979675,
-0.04946208745241165,
0.01681823842227459,
-0.06701723486185074,
-0.11840129643678665,
-0.04646952450275421,
-0.4698171615600586,
0.5861655473709106,
0.5325219631195068,
0.055240124464035034,
-0.5292495489120483,
-0.09557946771383286,
0.052140988409519196,
0.31916099786758423,
-0.14474843442440033,
-0.531522274017334,
0.2283225655555725,
-0.4368651509284973,
-0.2094021588563919,
-0.48920053243637085,
0.6141176819801331,
0.10627487301826477,
-0.5901554822921753,
-0.48306551575660706,
-0.4266223609447479,
-0.2605935037136078,
0.7650922536849976,
0.10735104978084564,
-0.29315030574798584,
-0.2392570823431015,
0.02883315458893776,
-0.22672292590141296,
0.08390868455171585,
-0.4962511360645294,
-0.031229062005877495,
0.0664934515953064,
-0.33655500411987305,
0.1337987780570984,
0.05422130599617958,
0.15677888691425323,
0.3396175503730774,
0.5627858638763428,
0.34521546959877014,
0.32398003339767456,
0.2217557728290558,
-0.26489683985710144,
0.1458970010280609,
0.13883797824382782,
-0.18372145295143127,
0.21676017343997955,
0.1897781640291214,
-0.3919738233089447,
0.32912972569465637,
0.10347697883844376,
0.1384851336479187,
-0.4581592082977295,
-0.5701144337654114,
-0.500234842300415,
0.010992421768605709,
-0.18790213763713837,
0.016186941415071487,
0.0097532132640481,
-0.4998076558113098,
-0.12507259845733643,
0.43613600730895996,
0.3303329348564148,
-0.046613406389951706,
-0.3453648090362549,
-0.25508296489715576,
0.06796005368232727,
0.25278955698013306,
0.41545048356056213,
-0.24733714759349823,
-0.40449896454811096,
0.41100457310676575,
-1.3597822189331055,
0.6422561407089233,
-0.08807477355003357,
-0.3025248944759369,
1.2748206853866577,
-0.28606265783309937,
0.30894091725349426,
-0.04126671701669693,
0.040803126990795135,
0.1780671626329422,
-0.22445592284202576,
-1.0814335346221924,
0.6432754993438721,
-0.24144509434700012,
-0.009084817953407764,
0.6475204825401306,
-0.04220229387283325,
-0.0974876657128334,
-0.5139428973197937,
0.5492509603500366,
0.8704269528388977,
-0.3972134590148926,
-0.15931758284568787,
0.240936279296875,
0.26638513803482056,
-0.8101963400840759,
-0.08158038556575775,
0.35529330372810364,
-0.19942888617515564,
0.09769807010889053,
0.42446932196617126,
-0.04874664917588234,
0.06349484622478485,
-0.027121564373373985,
-0.08936282247304916,
0.6157644391059875,
-0.543067455291748,
0.4541473090648651,
0.22401116788387299,
0.6789474487304688,
-0.10096944123506546,
0.06862322241067886,
-0.4449719786643982,
0.5954752564430237,
-0.386402428150177,
0.48634883761405945,
0.2737758457660675,
-0.4655451476573944,
-0.013095591217279434,
-0.05925167351961136,
0.18111954629421234,
-0.0715051144361496,
0.03743695095181465,
-0.4475955665111542,
-0.03566257283091545,
-0.11558373272418976,
-0.07693377882242203,
0.4883439838886261,
0.26400983333587646,
0.3317781984806061,
0.12184762209653854,
0.09453757107257843,
0.18096856772899628,
0.10392405837774277,
-0.7661570310592651,
0.17647506296634674,
0.0681084468960762,
-0.23616930842399597,
-0.2109595537185669,
-0.1837437003850937,
0.5076530575752258,
-0.12418847531080246,
-0.9043192863464355,
-0.03709842637181282,
0.3953232765197754,
-0.47113052010536194,
0.6733310222625732,
0.9089481830596924,
0.3234579861164093,
-0.2395542562007904,
-0.26502183079719543,
0.1711128056049347,
-0.3395516574382782,
-0.03625514730811119,
0.6097444891929626,
-0.5995798707008362,
-0.6886171698570251,
-0.269240140914917,
0.4288766384124756,
-0.34114834666252136,
-0.1765228658914566,
-0.2352740466594696,
0.1570432186126709,
0.04764420911669731,
-0.3491356074810028,
-0.6948119401931763,
0.45602574944496155,
0.06282294541597366,
0.2156820148229599,
0.31058865785598755,
-0.2402087152004242,
0.5750681757926941,
-0.16329848766326904,
0.09800659120082855,
0.15933844447135925,
0.6855506896972656,
-0.23447369039058685,
0.2838519215583801,
-0.20293770730495453,
0.11807367950677872,
-0.005630489904433489,
0.3415549099445343,
0.16456733644008636,
-0.1547650843858719,
-0.5582188367843628,
-5.749298095703125,
-0.26207220554351807,
-0.11271768808364868,
-0.130136638879776,
-0.18903528153896332,
-0.05391239374876022,
1.3096935749053955,
0.25599125027656555,
0.2219921499490738,
-0.009924557991325855,
-0.011718645691871643,
-0.016713840886950493,
-0.056577108800411224,
0.6929560899734497,
0.6327211260795593,
0.10429206490516663,
0.3210039734840393,
-0.1292799711227417,
0.4441603720188141,
0.3379214406013489,
0.5293987393379211,
0.38981887698173523,
0.19453439116477966,
0.1418035328388214,
0.2328401803970337,
0.1760995090007782,
-0.4005794823169708,
0.10202787816524506,
-0.49183785915374756,
-0.2576294243335724,
0.4877835512161255,
0.02735268883407116,
0.411072701215744,
-0.669021487236023,
-0.26899513602256775,
-0.14955706894397736,
-0.13343171775341034,
0.1597272902727127,
0.45046350359916687,
-0.45643094182014465,
-0.04211047664284706,
-0.012097345665097237,
0.46618548035621643,
0.24541935324668884,
0.40467795729637146,
0.16079282760620117,
-0.1938762366771698,
-0.19457073509693146,
-0.2691236138343811,
0.3009254038333893,
-0.04630531370639801,
0.705112636089325,
0.43704426288604736,
-0.31792595982551575,
-0.1657111644744873,
-0.0026298812590539455,
0.21366579830646515,
-0.4722839891910553,
-0.6968780755996704,
0.23777182400226593,
0.9237608313560486,
0.21388308703899384,
0.5956382155418396,
-0.5911343097686768,
-0.8870932459831238,
-0.48360002040863037,
-0.6177377700805664,
-0.4710484743118286,
0.45334237813949585,
-0.004467984661459923,
-0.3151029646396637,
-0.020925238728523254,
-1.0630598068237305,
-0.9021303653717041,
0.06207631900906563,
-0.4836808443069458,
-0.2303328961133957,
1.0827590227127075,
0.024092676118016243,
-0.45107904076576233,
-0.2351791113615036,
-0.14052794873714447,
-0.17713584005832672,
0.3691980838775635,
-0.27767807245254517,
0.5405642986297607,
-0.0067614782601594925,
0.1681559532880783,
-0.24763143062591553,
-0.20908015966415405,
0.3248131275177002,
0.21310557425022125,
0.2666942775249481,
0.1596272736787796,
0.38862377405166626,
-0.28248995542526245,
0.4948314428329468,
-0.08601481467485428,
0.19455170631408691,
-0.30614200234413147,
0.06541569530963898,
-0.015720559284090996,
0.31334593892097473,
-1.0078496932983398,
-0.7636322975158691,
-0.5257158875465393,
-0.2431018352508545,
-0.031220193952322006,
0.6473568081855774,
-0.009036731906235218,
-0.505010724067688,
-0.11899434030056,
-0.2486308366060257,
-0.11099915206432343,
-0.1300768256187439,
0.055502522736787796,
-0.24411824345588684,
0.15840743482112885,
0.698886513710022,
0.6294344663619995,
0.13444671034812927,
0.18371401727199554,
-0.313220351934433,
0.4223359525203705,
0.40417298674583435,
-0.04879632964730263,
0.30262506008148193,
-0.13603055477142334,
-0.15358354151248932,
-0.010791270062327385,
0.6701441407203674,
0.14493264257907867,
0.1837013214826584,
0.03458506613969803,
-0.21453826129436493,
0.39095044136047363,
-0.02851676195859909,
-0.38892367482185364,
0.22425226867198944,
-0.29692062735557556,
0.1612379401922226,
-0.05502678081393242,
0.2430734783411026,
0.7181305289268494,
0.07105634361505508,
0.4161156415939331,
-0.10319656878709793,
-0.3825857937335968,
-0.15474370121955872,
0.9799264669418335,
0.08302927017211914,
-0.2795780599117279,
0.5696696043014526,
-0.6618324518203735,
0.09519062936306,
-0.13217021524906158,
0.5525107383728027,
-0.1431957334280014,
0.06647051870822906,
-0.5360381603240967,
-0.018218370154500008,
-1.01497483253479,
-0.7320070266723633,
-0.06249379366636276,
-0.12110492587089539,
-0.5423309206962585,
-1.0464195013046265,
-0.18832086026668549,
0.09961507469415665,
0.5105097889900208,
0.5606608986854553,
-0.29144206643104553,
-0.611616849899292,
0.25707802176475525,
0.3753678798675537,
-0.6378235220909119,
-0.04537840560078621,
0.20787614583969116,
-0.12573984265327454,
-0.32574462890625,
-0.08092515915632248,
-0.3417094945907593,
-0.5778458714485168,
0.2654549479484558,
0.185455784201622,
-0.4675399363040924,
0.030990762636065483,
0.4278535842895508,
-0.047753866761922836,
0.10822487622499466,
0.5131387114524841,
0.19744844734668732,
-0.11939473450183868,
-0.14020033180713654,
-0.14655201137065887,
-0.24958425760269165,
0.13577908277511597,
0.13914306461811066,
-0.39723581075668335,
-0.12839947640895844,
0.3073076903820038,
-0.016295701265335083,
-0.9520025849342346,
0.2580970823764801,
-0.14339037239551544,
-0.5111782550811768,
0.011711716651916504,
-0.28143101930618286,
-0.6199434995651245,
0.14823082089424133,
-0.14417821168899536,
0.1710038036108017,
0.38035398721694946,
0.31512928009033203,
-0.03386474400758743,
0.09399783611297607,
-0.11578276008367538,
-0.15357565879821777,
0.010460011661052704,
-0.2167254090309143,
0.24431468546390533,
0.2885400354862213,
-0.0710410550236702,
-0.24617122113704681,
-0.2640874981880188,
0.4613230228424072,
0.44942188262939453,
-0.49465858936309814,
-0.17130176723003387,
-0.2728327214717865,
0.04069814831018448,
-0.4601244032382965,
-0.06913053244352341,
0.13615211844444275,
-0.45520222187042236,
0.008765856735408306,
-0.208237886428833,
0.2774801552295685,
0.2566557228565216,
0.6185981035232544,
0.09793928265571594,
0.8125513792037964,
0.2631879150867462,
-1.2711607217788696,
-0.7180404663085938,
0.03127528727054596,
0.30806246399879456,
0.14284421503543854,
-0.4803776741027832,
0.59042888879776,
-0.09204190969467163,
-0.7050372958183289,
-0.25562843680381775,
-0.6574161648750305,
0.15333016216754913,
-0.16458594799041748,
-0.6994584798812866,
0.06907979398965836,
-0.07542166858911514,
-0.3309502601623535,
0.5935304760932922,
-0.462530255317688,
-0.8250954747200012,
0.20288927853107452,
0.2413567304611206,
0.131601944565773,
-0.2530977129936218,
-0.16575998067855835,
-0.15696924924850464,
-0.001157086226157844,
-0.27290263772010803,
-0.23336882889270782,
0.27925533056259155,
0.7969538569450378,
0.18846909701824188,
-0.6666339039802551,
-0.04977263882756233,
-0.04780274257063866,
0.2725221514701843,
-0.696868896484375,
-0.04360170289874077,
0.26143980026245117,
0.10832619667053223,
-0.0003875642141792923,
0.3747546076774597,
-1.1968916654586792,
0.06024269759654999,
0.4123196005821228,
-0.26237085461616516,
-0.2525441646575928,
-0.4783911108970642,
0.2545248568058014,
-0.010624137707054615,
-0.08042478561401367,
-0.6662169098854065,
-0.11019139736890793,
0.6599814891815186,
0.4241446554660797,
0.1563090682029724,
0.18623921275138855,
-0.6369665265083313,
0.5656580328941345,
0.19591540098190308,
-0.5123752355575562,
-0.14789578318595886,
0.3137848973274231,
0.22982257604599,
-0.160178542137146,
0.0202511977404356,
0.39310166239738464,
0.26183369755744934,
0.1100546345114708,
0.5620899200439453,
0.5758216381072998,
-0.5002802610397339,
0.06295020878314972,
0.16723112761974335,
-0.8130872845649719,
0.8510252833366394,
0.16151081025600433,
-0.09049321711063385,
0.29474008083343506,
0.7468596696853638,
0.6189167499542236,
0.3095633387565613,
0.595522940158844,
-0.15788088738918304,
-0.12777794897556305,
0.36455750465393066,
0.3473306894302368,
-0.08587653934955597,
0.4027477204799652,
0.0794447511434555,
0.14248241484165192,
-0.54160475730896,
-0.11055701971054077,
0.023112203925848007,
-0.10584846138954163,
-0.3957497477531433,
0.6503002643585205,
0.716046929359436,
0.05543778836727142,
-0.4206131398677826,
-0.1846926361322403,
0.6721582412719727,
0.28896456956863403,
-0.07272462546825409,
0.22901396453380585,
0.6390678286552429,
-0.04668130353093147,
0.30875441431999207,
-0.37231412529945374,
-0.25316283106803894,
-0.6004601120948792,
0.02468348853290081,
-0.13834573328495026,
-0.0035008450504392385,
-0.49505165219306946,
0.3995407819747925,
0.2620227634906769,
-0.2709750831127167,
0.09409474581480026,
-0.10058847069740295,
0.15454620122909546,
-0.34773874282836914,
-0.37322166562080383,
0.6135676503181458,
-0.24553270637989044,
0.0021984102204442024,
0.5267533659934998,
0.4235142469406128,
0.06736332923173904,
-0.8818669319152832,
0.13410185277462006,
0.03492708131670952,
-0.10428723692893982,
0.1268669217824936,
0.22227196395397186,
0.15102066099643707,
-0.046453800052404404,
0.16454117000102997,
0.2738935351371765,
-0.018575765192508698,
-0.5173867344856262,
0.06954335421323776,
-0.3105018734931946,
-0.4195020794868469,
0.858200192451477,
-0.833286702632904,
0.14753101766109467,
0.17227941751480103,
-0.047662507742643356,
-0.19002912938594818,
-0.3971114158630371,
-0.42890167236328125,
-0.02670060656964779,
-0.5927173495292664,
0.3516131639480591,
0.025367146357893944,
0.04601274058222771,
0.0891624316573143,
0.058191392570734024,
0.19469553232192993,
-0.010317070409655571,
0.13737140595912933,
0.3061213493347168,
-0.08798136562108994,
-0.27578005194664,
-0.40939104557037354,
0.8409097194671631,
0.2952728569507599,
0.24668475985527039,
-0.2103159874677658,
0.30833256244659424,
-0.32225218415260315,
-0.40014001727104187,
0.934711754322052,
-0.2768927216529846,
-0.11427903920412064,
-0.4862925410270691,
0.25361108779907227,
-0.2860161364078522,
0.48770734667778015,
0.20976465940475464,
-0.6330341696739197,
-0.8085927367210388,
0.3917207419872284,
0.2723877727985382,
-0.048678092658519745,
0.3847023546695709,
-0.28574326634407043,
-0.3827822506427765,
-0.5738401412963867,
0.3881031572818756,
-0.5062905550003052,
-0.22926396131515503,
0.40786516666412354,
1.0063766241073608,
0.48108169436454773,
-0.43034690618515015,
0.13300365209579468,
-0.5615523457527161,
0.46819227933883667,
-0.27053454518318176,
0.08767004311084747,
-0.0159028097987175,
-0.03397955745458603,
-0.021609127521514893,
-1.1113097667694092,
-0.3667214810848236,
-0.08803003281354904,
0.030544795095920563,
0.16664767265319824,
-0.19389557838439941,
-0.22810055315494537,
-0.23951034247875214,
0.5262464284896851,
-0.28460055589675903,
0.035206086933612823,
0.6678236722946167
] |
234953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispatch%20table | Dispatch table | In computer science, a dispatch table is a table of pointers or memory addresses to functions or methods. Use of such a table is a common technique when implementing late binding in object-oriented programming.
Perl implementation
The following shows one way to implement a dispatch table in Perl, using a hash to store references to code (also known as function pointers).
# Define the table using one anonymous code-ref and one named code-ref
my %dispatch = (
"-h" => sub { return "hello\n"; },
"-g" => \&say_goodbye
);
sub say_goodbye {
return "goodbye\n";
}
# Fetch the code ref from the table, and invoke it
my $sub = $dispatch{$ARGV[0]};
print $sub ? $sub->() : "unknown argument\n";
Running this Perl program as perl greet -h will produce "hello", and running it as perl greet -g will produce "goodbye".
JavaScript implementation
Following is a demo of implementing dispatch table in JavaScript:
var thingsWeCanDo = {
doThisThing : function() { /* behavior */ },
doThatThing : function() { /* behavior */ },
doThisOtherThing : function() { /* behavior */ },
default : function() { /* behavior */ }
};
var doSomething = function(doWhat) {
var thingToDo = thingsWeCanDo.hasOwnProperty(doWhat) ? doWhat : "default"
thingsWeCanDo[thingToDo]();
}
Virtual method tables
In object-oriented programming languages that support virtual methods, the compiler will automatically create a dispatch table for each object of a class containing virtual methods. This table is called a virtual method table or vtable, and every call to a virtual method is dispatched through the vtable.
See also
Branch table
References
Diomidis Spinellis (2003). Code Reading: The Open Source Perspective. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Method (computer programming)
Articles with example Perl code | [
-0.34497392177581787,
0.30966997146606445,
-0.19316214323043823,
0.7430213689804077,
0.05297320708632469,
0.2490893006324768,
-0.5402008891105652,
0.011160473339259624,
-0.12680913507938385,
-0.4635816514492035,
-0.326408326625824,
0.15713249146938324,
-0.25468766689300537,
-0.1474047750234604,
-0.5131410360336304,
0.06041458249092102,
0.15348497033119202,
0.11932492256164551,
-0.13081830739974976,
-0.38311588764190674,
-0.04774852469563484,
0.26242774724960327,
-0.3225160837173462,
-0.9097710251808167,
0.6354271173477173,
0.10696752369403839,
-0.34385862946510315,
0.010182300582528114,
-0.7552230954170227,
-0.05079375207424164,
-0.2371843159198761,
-0.080074742436409,
0.2195153534412384,
0.08227214962244034,
-0.24039889872074127,
-0.09407789260149002,
-0.013361528515815735,
-0.09362031519412994,
-0.3126583397388458,
-0.6927733421325684,
-0.1857675313949585,
-0.1617177128791809,
0.48880743980407715,
0.517690122127533,
0.05097447708249092,
-0.0369754321873188,
-1.5698426961898804,
-0.08279040455818176,
-0.7872214317321777,
0.14027154445648193,
-0.873046338558197,
0.4402102530002594,
0.1433323323726654,
0.8283836245536804,
-0.5664485692977905,
0.024497803300619125,
-0.17712871730327606,
-0.6872767806053162,
0.36182689666748047,
-0.2376629114151001,
0.6802225708961487,
-0.09522753208875656,
0.41064950823783875,
0.23191367089748383,
0.30553972721099854,
0.1046818271279335,
-0.11764858663082123,
0.08340193331241608,
-0.3883407711982727,
-0.25976917147636414,
-0.21291236579418182,
-0.5001327395439148,
-0.30958762764930725,
0.7340799570083618,
-0.37888282537460327,
-0.2704432010650635,
-0.10334034264087677,
0.0030179377645254135,
-0.41735610365867615,
0.21852315962314606,
-0.554926335811615,
0.7837072014808655,
1.055822730064392,
-0.027476176619529724,
0.627703845500946,
-0.16964198648929596,
-0.6745831370353699,
0.21794511377811432,
-0.42526477575302124,
0.3472052216529846,
0.3964442014694214,
-0.05263255909085274,
-0.06915710121393204,
0.24440018832683563,
-0.496601402759552,
-0.13146230578422546,
-0.030141357332468033,
-0.10183379054069519,
0.17316211760044098,
0.5080454349517822,
-0.41974061727523804,
-0.24146896600723267,
0.5820839405059814,
-0.21885354816913605,
-0.4211169183254242,
-0.3317175805568695,
-0.10883376747369766,
-0.5140712261199951,
0.4193687438964844,
0.3927784860134125,
-0.8279746174812317,
0.10042763501405716,
0.04059574007987976,
0.044580962508916855,
-0.39890745282173157,
0.06546732038259506,
0.19913601875305176,
0.21266131103038788,
-0.13226501643657684,
-0.5364317893981934,
0.5124511122703552,
0.724666178226471,
0.7756175994873047,
-0.17892436683177948,
0.13625064492225647,
0.1685204952955246,
0.5648602247238159,
1.2270731925964355,
-0.06287068128585815,
0.04318754002451897,
0.08591703325510025,
0.7444024682044983,
0.33486902713775635,
-0.003775898599997163,
-0.6007785201072693,
-0.010974680073559284,
0.062466710805892944,
0.2977147400379181,
0.09829249978065491,
0.04103607311844826,
-0.10752565413713455,
-0.7862907648086548,
0.1508171558380127,
-0.3392554521560669,
0.6980026364326477,
-0.45849114656448364,
0.20357966423034668,
-0.5897452235221863,
-0.5561566352844238,
0.2577897906303406,
-0.06187921762466431,
0.2948402166366577,
-0.2238892912864685,
-0.05039709061384201,
-0.40211740136146545,
0.1389816701412201,
0.15498170256614685,
-0.31872349977493286,
-0.34421467781066895,
0.24958078563213348,
0.24246832728385925,
0.3245220482349396,
-0.9741714596748352,
-0.32925307750701904,
0.055537980049848557,
-0.18690255284309387,
0.7211812138557434,
0.08174362033605576,
0.1402747482061386,
0.3552228808403015,
-0.58038729429245,
-0.12316481024026871,
-0.23122262954711914,
0.13323625922203064,
-0.1683524250984192,
0.2677566707134247,
0.5489540100097656,
-0.16258373856544495,
1.2715715169906616,
-0.2254045009613037,
-0.6014304757118225,
-0.11916438490152359,
0.35290324687957764,
-0.3865271806716919,
0.030411839485168457,
0.05460750311613083,
0.47179144620895386,
-0.511867105960846,
-0.24489673972129822,
-0.271902859210968,
-0.7643011212348938,
-0.4131157696247101,
-0.2390918880701065,
-0.3966238796710968,
1.2496685981750488,
-0.3657089173793793,
-0.5984788537025452,
0.839602530002594,
-0.32800599932670593,
0.4653570353984833,
0.0953369289636612,
0.28380700945854187,
0.7107023000717163,
-0.19070695340633392,
-0.1668342798948288,
-0.013707329519093037,
0.41441839933395386,
0.3733798563480377,
-0.8880223631858826,
0.62540602684021,
-0.042862698435783386,
0.2844460606575012,
0.22482509911060333,
0.038330450654029846,
0.240692600607872,
-0.059504538774490356,
-0.46491357684135437,
0.057429853826761246,
-0.10595404356718063,
-0.25241708755493164,
0.9888831377029419,
-0.06663228571414948,
-0.10650379955768585,
0.516179084777832,
-0.5783334374427795,
0.5353049039840698,
0.6487985253334045,
0.9845799207687378,
0.8115405440330505,
-0.6794114112854004,
0.4799060821533203,
-0.03946630656719208,
0.24230830371379852,
-0.3832617402076721,
-0.5381635427474976,
0.4009247422218323,
0.3936903178691864,
-0.028701715171337128,
0.2688278555870056,
-0.11265186965465546,
0.16753317415714264,
0.3559688925743103,
-0.17586204409599304,
-0.2206796109676361,
0.32836252450942993,
-0.6140972375869751,
-0.6972893476486206,
-0.10233520716428757,
-0.08032868057489395,
-0.19795380532741547,
0.08308108150959015,
0.8357537984848022,
0.5416089296340942,
-0.7352970838546753,
-0.2769075036048889,
0.15054330229759216,
0.23490312695503235,
0.01944931037724018,
0.1699993908405304,
0.5273900032043457,
-0.6067202687263489,
0.2175290286540985,
-0.048943255096673965,
-0.4435065984725952,
-0.16084563732147217,
-0.539478600025177,
-0.08065453171730042,
-0.2815404534339905,
0.28829649090766907,
0.7983514666557312,
0.4296146333217621,
-0.392568439245224,
-0.5028186440467834,
0.04775242134928703,
-0.8605207204818726,
-1.127750039100647,
0.11160112172365189,
0.19168639183044434,
-0.8428073525428772,
-0.7977954745292664,
-0.3587936758995056,
0.4120492935180664,
0.5235951542854309,
-0.31439244747161865,
-0.03712961822748184,
-0.7659654021263123,
-0.013681727461516857,
-0.2327815294265747,
-0.2567751109600067,
-0.15876170992851257,
-0.4531487226486206,
0.46372222900390625,
-0.408929705619812,
0.1798631101846695,
0.8194634318351746,
0.5656949877738953,
0.00958368368446827,
0.17700235545635223,
0.024017415940761566,
-0.5868130922317505,
-0.3976379632949829,
0.1818428337574005,
-0.3025948703289032,
-0.2635948061943054,
-0.3988918960094452,
-0.3410341441631317,
-0.11767811328172684,
0.7424826622009277,
-5.491656303405762,
-0.07788285613059998,
-0.5850520730018616,
-0.26951152086257935,
0.21002987027168274,
0.5368027091026306,
0.4299311935901642,
-0.1763020157814026,
0.276079922914505,
0.29350996017456055,
0.006595923565328121,
0.013656040653586388,
0.20215696096420288,
0.4242929518222809,
0.5840333104133606,
0.13815203309059143,
0.04461725056171417,
-0.35340383648872375,
0.26230353116989136,
0.17432990670204163,
-0.09897782653570175,
-0.599491536617279,
0.20822587609291077,
0.6661843657493591,
-0.09855147451162338,
-0.07062757760286331,
-0.38000407814979553,
0.11376230418682098,
-0.14231577515602112,
0.04038139432668686,
0.22055041790008545,
-0.3997126817703247,
-0.19592773914337158,
-0.6530880928039551,
-0.6012111902236938,
0.14020201563835144,
0.42961904406547546,
0.142245352268219,
-0.10752960294485092,
-0.409725159406662,
-0.07104437053203583,
0.6795192956924438,
0.14435698091983795,
-0.5886276960372925,
0.532110869884491,
0.236662358045578,
-0.2828447222709656,
-0.22123974561691284,
0.11689295619726181,
0.32402271032333374,
-0.7460678219795227,
0.33614152669906616,
0.11091309040784836,
-0.3334219753742218,
0.24290044605731964,
-0.2740504741668701,
0.5020378232002258,
-0.15141785144805908,
-0.4395870864391327,
0.21078576147556305,
0.6455351710319519,
-1.0152130126953125,
0.12749160826206207,
-0.6467544436454773,
-0.6933261752128601,
0.14823861420154572,
-0.392849862575531,
0.14560045301914215,
0.3540078103542328,
0.27922481298446655,
-0.5514837503433228,
0.10616488754749298,
0.05979697406291962,
-1.2808045148849487,
0.3812137544155121,
-0.5612587928771973,
0.2361385077238083,
0.12082144618034363,
0.23875659704208374,
-0.2729160189628601,
-0.043039798736572266,
-0.3509002923965454,
-0.5965880751609802,
0.1775210052728653,
0.15705764293670654,
-0.21696238219738007,
-0.20426391065120697,
-0.33728769421577454,
-0.10258843004703522,
-0.11622916907072067,
0.7182210087776184,
-0.17975905537605286,
0.6210806965827942,
0.3518769145011902,
0.3425945043563843,
0.34193259477615356,
0.7303115725517273,
0.11338204890489578,
0.03629317507147789,
-0.054232265800237656,
0.2758430242538452,
0.4063475728034973,
0.14467684924602509,
-0.5653360486030579,
0.08364702761173248,
-0.09331345558166504,
-1.0009276866912842,
0.5567850470542908,
0.4680187404155731,
0.14518128335475922,
-0.6024062037467957,
0.43720558285713196,
-0.7184756398200989,
-0.8082149624824524,
-0.07004214078187943,
0.46451547741889954,
-0.5111834406852722,
0.19357451796531677,
0.46570470929145813,
-0.39344969391822815,
-0.33563604950904846,
-0.010802622884511948,
-0.20790360867977142,
0.4297853410243988,
-0.537283718585968,
-1.0354145765304565,
0.17250214517116547,
0.17917922139167786,
0.47577327489852905,
-0.2813015282154083,
0.6587368845939636,
0.6667400598526001,
-0.15329071879386902,
0.11730877310037613,
0.01931675150990486,
-0.8424065113067627,
0.24887630343437195,
0.6745775938034058,
-0.11464685201644897,
-0.5802525877952576,
0.49042755365371704,
-0.48062872886657715,
-0.318059504032135,
-0.17842085659503937,
0.49239400029182434,
0.2787650227546692,
-0.3628292679786682,
0.09151558578014374,
-0.07944729924201965,
0.675841212272644,
-0.4030452072620392,
-0.5472128391265869,
0.09863440692424774,
0.3056239187717438,
0.19092535972595215,
-0.1303080916404724,
0.0708523839712143,
0.3464929163455963,
0.048325322568416595,
-0.7289791703224182,
0.07283230125904083,
0.13844628632068634,
-0.748838484287262,
-0.758827269077301,
-0.6750092506408691,
-0.022937657311558723,
-0.4717133343219757,
0.327970415353775,
0.03391270712018013,
0.3178115487098694,
-0.4516032338142395,
-0.1992834061384201,
0.37464502453804016,
0.010625312104821205,
0.5050562620162964,
0.17595037817955017,
0.4720161557197571,
0.6147302985191345,
0.23573945462703705,
-0.04283712059259415,
0.45757609605789185,
-0.3711547553539276,
0.2797073721885681,
0.4799292981624603,
0.7716086506843567,
-0.16239415109157562,
0.22828082740306854,
0.7425006628036499,
-0.6045179963111877,
-0.9529241323471069,
-0.15248526632785797,
-0.38025060296058655,
0.3182501792907715,
0.11431550979614258,
-0.2188008427619934,
-0.2575424015522003,
0.48620253801345825,
0.4523809552192688,
-0.22105520963668823,
-0.9279398918151855,
-0.028648100793361664,
0.34732186794281006,
-0.21411669254302979,
0.3325052559375763,
-0.03801819309592247,
-0.6324144601821899,
0.14058922231197357,
-0.19693537056446075,
-0.2897798418998718,
0.43668675422668457,
0.06230180338025093,
-0.06711705774068832,
-0.2163279801607132,
-0.1484113186597824,
-0.381923645734787,
0.11087563633918762,
0.4423186779022217,
0.014521847479045391,
0.06676243990659714,
-0.22015342116355896,
0.24971212446689606,
0.03889761120080948,
-0.044340115040540695,
0.3561059534549713,
-0.15665674209594727,
-0.051191288977861404,
0.24981863796710968,
-0.5837996602058411,
0.7816219329833984,
-0.2059672772884369,
-0.24054263532161713,
-0.4400203824043274,
0.3452610671520233,
0.1487109661102295,
0.311615914106369,
-0.7450301647186279,
-0.583110511302948,
0.3481782078742981,
-0.04914519935846329,
0.08364447206258774,
-0.11117164045572281,
0.7296428680419922,
0.2117011696100235,
-0.3942883610725403,
0.3052455186843872,
-0.2569725811481476,
0.10214725881814957,
-0.835781991481781,
-0.47602903842926025,
0.12678569555282593,
0.6500959992408752,
0.13851965963840485,
-0.0196690671145916,
-0.028661107644438744,
0.5873606204986572,
0.2193732112646103,
-0.22510239481925964,
-0.5417845249176025,
-0.13715773820877075,
0.7156473994255066,
0.21325062215328217,
-0.7648711800575256,
-0.2521098256111145,
0.2948070764541626,
0.3094112277030945,
0.5081099271774292,
-0.07132826000452042,
0.5629526972770691,
0.4614143967628479,
-0.6266924142837524,
0.24994181096553802,
-0.10927524417638779,
0.1598026007413864,
0.425406813621521,
0.7156209349632263,
-0.35633936524391174,
0.32780513167381287,
-0.35966047644615173,
0.5283963084220886,
0.2694757580757141,
-0.21847759187221527,
-0.2379787713289261,
0.14516325294971466,
-0.39788880944252014,
0.5276285409927368,
-0.5283446907997131,
0.444308876991272,
0.14347241818904877,
-0.1499258577823639,
0.4405055642127991,
-0.6904293298721313,
0.848799467086792,
0.1117594912648201,
0.32488158345222473,
-0.32107073068618774,
-0.029868116602301598,
0.1812223345041275,
0.44265323877334595,
-0.16654136776924133,
-0.00784753356128931,
-0.5915651917457581,
0.5100071430206299,
0.3443135917186737,
-0.7739382982254028,
0.18181993067264557,
0.07590709626674652,
0.0695759579539299,
-0.47901037335395813,
-0.8169360160827637,
0.39503273367881775,
0.19154725968837738,
-0.1637449711561203,
0.6578419208526611,
-0.060877520591020584,
-0.06035816669464111,
-0.5359321236610413,
0.16621840000152588,
-0.27819356322288513,
0.18033583462238312,
-0.1620452105998993,
-0.16927513480186462,
-0.005455825477838516,
0.5716760754585266,
-0.18596269190311432,
-0.5420016646385193,
0.3916175365447998,
0.17644986510276794,
0.016423948109149933,
-0.27206167578697205,
-0.14813600480556488,
0.73128342628479,
0.2439364194869995,
0.0782725065946579,
-0.07510298490524292,
-0.3485034108161926,
-0.17360419034957886,
0.05122152343392372,
-0.27297186851501465,
0.033211372792720795,
0.4817172586917877,
0.6285122036933899,
0.9325768947601318,
0.1156577318906784,
-0.25853344798088074,
-0.41308748722076416,
0.447566419839859,
0.3192392885684967,
0.5489462018013,
-0.13616587221622467,
0.36542829871177673,
-0.05469881370663643,
0.2967671751976013,
0.6161526441574097,
-0.12305464595556259,
-0.08768375217914581,
-0.22243830561637878,
0.09036900103092194,
-0.057270754128694534,
0.1498313695192337,
0.17042718827724457,
-0.005000163335353136,
0.5118329524993896,
-0.09978634864091873,
-0.20549096167087555,
-0.15828071534633636,
0.30102983117103577,
0.6151875257492065,
-0.7587571740150452,
0.4797079861164093,
0.20978949964046478,
-0.516271710395813,
0.7444045543670654,
-0.6458495259284973,
0.25611481070518494,
-0.39858371019363403,
-0.49541017413139343,
0.6778700947761536,
0.7542237639427185,
-0.15780490636825562,
0.23417824506759644,
0.35716527700424194,
-0.37608909606933594,
-0.23596513271331787,
-1.366146445274353,
0.13833384215831757,
-0.12335319072008133,
0.0937243103981018,
0.021468443796038628,
0.17973466217517853,
0.1266460120677948,
-0.23341847956180573,
-0.44443008303642273,
0.4766591191291809,
-0.05659797415137291,
0.3846598267555237,
0.4783744215965271,
-0.45771992206573486,
1.2149298191070557,
0.6433718204498291,
-0.17451155185699463,
-0.5090301036834717,
-0.2318338304758072,
0.2789824903011322,
-0.06436590105295181,
-0.771866500377655,
0.48062142729759216,
-0.19304786622524261,
-0.17164479196071625,
-0.261638879776001,
0.012596472166478634,
0.8601844310760498,
-0.5189120173454285,
0.10908278077840805,
0.008353899233043194,
0.007680755108594894,
0.13008105754852295,
0.3377563953399658,
-0.4403369724750519,
0.13846251368522644,
-0.17622125148773193,
-0.8057361841201782,
0.5456334352493286,
0.6409054398536682,
-0.09038706123828888,
-0.6411993503570557,
0.0361204668879509,
0.4793427288532257,
-0.07320116460323334,
-0.2677616477012634,
0.09303727746009827,
-0.008703470230102539,
0.24375653266906738,
-0.5232698321342468,
0.03425392881035805,
-0.04559895023703575,
0.1535644680261612,
0.0376058891415596,
0.17331136763095856,
0.7081578373908997,
-0.4167066812515259,
-0.3634253740310669,
0.462881475687027,
-0.2102811634540558,
0.12312907725572586,
-0.19248268008232117,
0.4488283395767212,
-0.1451929211616516,
-0.9719796180725098,
-0.8151413798332214,
0.7158998250961304,
0.3621516227722168,
-0.35028520226478577,
-0.019345609471201897,
-0.45876431465148926,
-0.14486798644065857,
0.6098785996437073,
0.40940797328948975,
-0.5993129014968872,
-0.4237414002418518,
0.37378567457199097
] |
234954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20school | Middle school | A middle school (also known as intermediate school, junior high school, or lower secondary school) is an educational stage which exists in some countries, providing education between primary school and secondary school. The concept, regulation and classification of middle schools, as well as the ages covered, vary between and sometimes within countries.
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, middle school includes grades 6, 7, and 8, consisting of students from ages 11 to 14.
Algeria
In Algeria, a middle school includes 4 grades: 6, 7, 8, and 9, consisting of students from ages 11–15.
Argentina
The of secondary education (ages 11–14) is roughly equivalent to middle school.
Australia
No regions of Australia have segregated middle schools, as students go directly from primary school (for years K/preparatory–6) to secondary school (years 7–12, usually referred to as high school).
As an alternative to the middle school model, some secondary schools classify their grades as "middle school" (years 5,6,7,8 where primary and secondary campuses share facilities or 7,8,9 in a secondary campus) or "junior high school" (years 7, 8, 9, and 10) and "senior high school" (years 11 and 12). Some have three levels, "junior" (years 7 and 8), "intermediate" (years 9 and 10), and "senior" (years 11 and 12). Some schools run a specialised year 9 program segregated from the other secondary year levels.
In 1996 and 1997, a national conference met to develop what became known as the National Middle Schooling Project, which aimed to develop a common Australian view of
early adolescent needs
guiding principles for educators
appropriate strategies to foster positive adolescent learning.
The first middle school established in Australia was The Armidale School, in Armidale (approximately north of Sydney, SSW of Brisbane and approximately due west of Coffs Harbour on the coast). Other schools have since followed this trend.
The Northern Territory has introduced a three tier system featuring Middle Schools for years 7–9 (approximate age 13–15) and high school year 10–12 (approximate age 16–18).
Many schools across Queensland have introduced a Middle School tier within their schools. The middle schools cover years 5 to 8.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, middle school is not separated as in other countries. Generally, schools are from class 1 to class 10. It means lower primary (1–5), upper primary (6–10). Class 6–8 is thought of as middle school. Grades 1,2,3,4 and 5 are said to be primary school while all the classes from 6 to 10 are considered high school (as middle school and high school are not considered separate) while 11–12 (inclusive) is called college.
1–5 is known as primary (Part of Primary School)
6–8 is known as lower secondary (Part of High School)
9–10 is known as secondary (part of High School)
11–12 is known as higher secondary also known as college.
Bolivia
Middle schools in Bolivia have been abolished since 1994. Students aged 11–15 attend the last years of elementary education or the first years of secondary education.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
In Bosnia and Herzegovina "middle school" refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of "middle" school.
Brazil
In Brazil, middle school is a mandatory stage that precedes High School () called "Ensino Fundamental II" consisting of grades 6 to 9, ages 11 to 14.
Canada
In Canada, the terms "Middle School" and "Junior High School" are both used, depending on which grades the school caters to. Junior high schools tend to include only grades 7, 8, and sometimes 9 (some older schools with the name 'carved in concrete' still use "Junior High" as part of their name, although grade nine is now missing), whereas middle schools are usually grades 6–8 or only grades 7–8 or 6–7 (i.e. around ages 11–14), varying from area to area and also according to population vs. building capacity.
Another common model is grades 5–8. Alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools typically include grades 7–9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from elementary school to secondary school, meaning the elementary school covers to the end of grade 8.
In Ontario, the term "Middle School" and "Senior Public School" (sometimes just grades 7 and 8) are used, with the latter being used particularly in the Old Toronto and Scarborough sections of Toronto plus in Mississauga, Brampton, and Kitchener-Waterloo. In many smaller Ontario cities and in some parts of larger cities, most elementary schools serve junior kindergarten to grade 8 meaning there are no separate Middle Schools buildings, while in some cities (such as Hamilton) specific schools do serve the intermediate grades (i.e. Grades 6–8 or Grades 7–8) but are still called "Elementary" or "Public" schools with no recognition of the grades they serve in their name.
Quebec uses a grade system that is different from those of the other provinces. In Quebec, there is no Middle school section. The Secondary level has five grades starting after Elementary Grade 6. These are called Secondary I to Secondary V.
Chile
Chile does not have middle schools, they instead have educacion basica that teaches basic education like elementary school, and educacion media, which is middle education like middle school or high school. Educacion basica is from 1st grade to 6th grade, and educacion media from 7th grade to 12th grade. Communities do not consider the 7th and 8th grades being part of educacion media despite the government rendering it, communities treat the grades as middle school.
China
In the People's Republic of China, primary school covers grades 1–6 and secondary school covers grades 7–12. Secondary schools are further divided into two stages, junior high school ( or , grades 7–9) and senior high school ( or ), grades 10–12). The Chinese junior high school is roughly equivalent to an American middle school, and provides the last 3 years of the nine-year compulsory education required for all Chinese citizens. The senior high school is optional but considered as critical preparation for tertiary education.
The admissions for most students to enrol in senior secondary schools from the junior stage are on the basis of the scores that they get in "Senior High School Entrance Exam", which are held by local governments. Other students may bypass the exam, based on their distinctive talents, like athletics, leadership merits or excellent coursework performance in junior stage.
Colombia
Secondary education is divided into basic secondary (grades 6 to 9) and mid-secondary (grades 10 and 11). The students in basic secondary, roughly equivalent to middle school, are 11 or 12 to 15 or 16 years old.
Croatia
In Croatia "middle school" refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–5 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of "middle" school.
Cuba
(basic secondary, seventh through ninth grades) is the approximate equivalent of middle school in Cuba.
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic after completing the nine-year elementary school (compulsory school attendance) a student may apply for high school or grammar school.
Students have the opportunity to enroll in high school from Grade 6 or (less commonly) Grade 8 of elementary school, spending eight or six years respectively at high school that otherwise takes four years. Thus they can spend five years in elementary school, followed by eight in high school. The first four years of the eight-year study program at high school are comparable with junior high school. Gymnasium focuses on a more advanced academic approach to education. All other types of high schools except gymnasiums and conservatories (e.g. lyceums) accept only students that finished Grade 9.
Ecuador
The 4th and last level of (ages 12–14) is roughly equivalent to middle school.
Egypt
In Egypt, middle school precedes high school. It is called the preparatory stage and consists of three phases: first preparatory in which students study more subjects than primary with different branches. For instance, algebra and geometry are taught instead of "mathematics." In the second preparatory phase, students study science, geography, the history of Egypt starting with pharaonic history, including Coptic history, Islamic history, and concluding with modern history. The students are taught two languages, Arabic and English. Middle school (preparatory stage) lasts for three years.
France
(2006)In France, the equivalent period to middle school is collège, which lasts four years from the ("sixth," the equivalent of the Canadian and American Grade 6) to the ("third," the equivalent of the Canadian and American Grade 9), accommodating pupils aged between 11 and 14. Upon completion of the latter, students are awarded a if they obtain a certain number of points on a series of tests in various subjects (French, history/ geography, mathematics, science/physics/chemistry), but also on a series of skills completed during the last year and on oral examinations (e.g. about cross-subjects themes they work on the latest years, the fourth year of collège). They can then enter high school (called ), which lasts three years from the to the until the , and during which they can choose a general or a professional field of study.
Georgia
In Georgia, the equivalent period to middle school covers ages 12 to 15, from the 7th grade to the 10th and guarantees basic educational degree certificate.
Gibraltar
There are four middle schools in Gibraltar, following the English model of middle-deemed-primary schools accommodating pupils aged between 9 and 12 (National Curriculum Years 4 to 7). The schools were opened in 1972 when the government introduced comprehensive education in the territory.
Greece
In Greece, the equivalent period to middle school is called (), which caters to children between the ages 12 and 15, i.e. 7th, 8th, and 9th grade.
India
In India, Middle School is classified as Upper Primary (Class 6–8). Each state has its own State Board. Each has its own standards, which might be different from the Central Boards. In some institutions, providing education for 5th to 10th is known as a secondary school.
The levels of education in India are:
Pre-Primary – Nursery to KG
Primary (Lower Primary) – Classes I to V
Middle School (Upper Primary) – Classes VI to VIII
High school – Classes IX to X
Higher Secondary (PUC or Plus Two) – Classes XI to XII
Indonesia
In Indonesia, middle school () covers ages 12 to 15 or grade 7 to grade 9.
Although compulsory education ends at junior high, most pursue higher education. There are around 22,000 middle schools in Indonesia with a balanced ownership between public and private sector.
Iran
Iran calls Middle School Guidance School, which caters to children between the ages 12 and 15, i.e. 6th, 7th and 8th grade.
Israel
In most of the cities in Israel, middle school (Hebrew: ) covers ages 12 to 15. From the 7th grade to the 9th.
Italy
In Italy the equivalent is the formerly and commonly called lower middle school (), often shortened to middle school (). When the , the equivalent of high school, was formerly called higher middle school (), commonly called Superiori. The Middle School lasts three years from the student age of 11 to age 14. Since 2009, after Gelmini reform, the middle school was renamed (junior secondary school).
Jamaica
Middle school in Jamaica is called "Junior High School." It is from grade 7–9 but this idea is becoming rare now so these grades are considered lower secondary.
(They also have a primary school (grades 1–6)
Japan
Junior high schools () are for children aged twelve through fifteen years old.
Kosovo
In Kosovo "middle school" refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of "middle" school.
Kuwait
In Kuwait, middle school is from grade 6–9 and from age 11–14.
Lebanon
In Lebanon, middle school or intermediate school consists of grades 7, 8, and 9. At the end of 9th grade, the student is given the National diploma examination.
North Macedonia
In North Macedonia middle school refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of middle school.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, the middle school equivalent is called lower secondary school which consists of students from age 13 to 15 (Form 1–3). Usually, these lower secondary schools are combined with upper secondary schools to form a single secondary school which is also known as high school. Students at the end of their lower secondary studies are required to sit for an examination called PT3 (Form 3. 7 subjects for non-Muslim students and 8 subjects for Muslim students) in order to determine their field of studies for upper secondary (Form 4–5).
Mexico
In Mexico, the middle school system is called and usually comprises three years, grades 7–9 (ages: 7 12–13, 8 13–14, 9: 14–15). It is completed after (Elementary School, up to grade 6: ages 6–12) and before (High School, grades 10–12 ages 15–18).
Montenegro
In Montenegro middle school refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of "middle" school.
New Zealand
In New Zealand middle schools are known as "intermediate schools." They generally cover years 7 and 8 (formerly known as Forms 1 to 2). Students are generally aged between 10 and 13. There are full primary schools which also contain year 7 and 8 with students continuing to secondary school at year 9 (formerly known as Form 3). Some secondary schools also include years 7 and 8.
After 2000 there was an increased interest in middle schooling (for years 7–10) with at least seven schools offering education to this age group opening around the country in Auckland, Cambridge, Hamilton, Christchurch and Upper Hutt.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, middle school is called Secondary School and is from Grade 6- 10. This covers both the traditional middle and high school. Although for private schools it may be different
Peru
There aren't middle schools in Peru. Students aged 12 to 16 attend the five years of (secondary school.)
Philippines
Since the implementation of the K–12 education system, middle school education in the Philippines is called "Junior High School." It lasts for 4 years from Grades 7 to 10 for students age 12 to 16. Some schools, such as Miriam College in Loyola Heights as well as Lourdes School of Quezon City in Sta. Mesa Heights, have their Middle Schools from Grades 6 to 8. It is preceded by a 6-year elementary school and followed by a 2-year "senior high school" program.
Before that, there were no official middle school programs implemented and the equivalent years was simply called "High School" which ranged from First Year to Fourth Year.
Poland
Middle school in Poland, called , was first introduced in 1932. The education was intended for pupils of at least 12 years of age and lasted four years. Middle schools were part of the educational system until the reform of 1947, except during World War II.
The middle schools were reinstated in Poland in 1999 now lasting three years after six years of primary school. Pupils entering are usually 13 years old. Middle school is compulsory for all students, and it is also the final stage of mandatory education. In the final year students take a standardized test to evaluate their academic skills. Higher scorers in the test are allowed first pick of school if they want to continue their education, which is encouraged.
Starting with the school year 2017/18, middle schools are scheduled to be disbanded and primary schools to be extended to lasting eight years, as it was before 1999.
Portugal
In Portugal, the middle school is known as 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education (). It comprises the 5th till 9th year of compulsory education, for children between ten and fifteen years old. After the education reform of 1986, the former preparatory school
1st cycle () – former primary education
"1st year" (6–7 years old)
"2nd year" (7–8 years old)
"3rd year" (8–9 years old)
"4th year" (9–10 years old)
2nd cycle () – former preparatory education
"5th year" (10–11 years old)
"6th year" (11–12 years old)
3rd cycle ()
"7th year" (12–13 years old)
"8th year" (13–14 years old)
"9th year" (14–15 years old)
High School ()
"10th year" (15–16 years old)
"11th year" (16–17 years old)
"12th year" (17–18 years old)
Romania
Middle school in Romania, or gymnasium (), includes grades 5 to 8 and the students usually share the building with the students of primary school but in different wings/floors. Primary school lessons are taught by a handful of teachers: most are covered by one of them, and more specific areas such as foreign languages, religion or gym may have dedicated teachers. The transition to middle school changes that to a one teacher per course model where the students usually remain in the same classroom while the teachers rotate between courses. At the end of the eighth grade (usually corresponding to age 14 or 15), students take a written exam that counts for 80% (before, it used to be 50%) of the average needed to enroll in high school. Students then go to high school or vocational school, depending on their final grade. Since 2020, all four years of upper secondary education, up to the twelfth grade, are compulsory. The education process is done in numbered semesters, the first semester lasting 15 weeks between September and December and the second semester lasting 20 weeks between January and June.
Russia
Middle school in Russia covers grades 5 to 9, and is a natural continuation of primary school activities (almost always they are in the same building with both primary and high school, usually located in different wings/floors). Primary school lessons are taught by a handful of teachers: most are covered by one of them, and more specific areas such as English or gym may have dedicated teachers. The transition to middle school changes that to a one teacher per course model, where teachers stay in their classrooms and pupils change rooms during breaks. Examples of courses include mathematics (split from grade 7 into algebra, geometry and physics), visual arts, Russian language, foreign language, history, literature, geography, biology, computer science, chemistry (from grade 8), social theory (in grade 9). The education process is done in numbered quarters, with the first quarter covering September and October, second quarter November and December, third quarter going from mid January to mid March, fourth quarter covering April and May. There are one week long holidays between quarters 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4, somewhat longer holidays between quarters 2 and 3 to allow for New Year festivities, and a three-month break between the years. At the end of middle school most people stay in school for two more years and get a certificate allowing them to pursue university, but some switch to vocational-technical schools.
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, middle school includes grade 7 through 9, consisting of students from ages 12 to 15.
Serbia
In Serbia middle school refers to the second half of primary (elementary) education for ages between 11 and 15 and lasts 4 years (grades 5 through 8), following the first half of primary school (grades 1 through 5, ages 7 to 11). Middle schools are not considered separate from elementary school in Serbia but rather an extension of it and are usually held in the same school building, but in opposite shifts or in a different part of the school building. Middle school is the transitional period from primary education to secondary education (high school) where children are transitioned from having very generalized subjects and a main teacher for most of them with only a handful of other teachers for specialized subjects like English, music and gym to a more serious curriculum with a course load that better mirrors high school. Middle school is the first time children have separate teachers for each subject and are introduced to courses like history, geography, biology and a second foreign language, and later physics and chemistry. Both elementary and middle school are compulsory in Serbia, after which almost all students take the state-issued universal entrance exam to qualify for high school, be it a Gymnasium, a specialized high school for fields like Economics or Medicine, or a Vocational school (trade school).
Singapore
In Singapore, middle school is usually referred to as secondary school. Students start secondary school after completing primary school at the age of 13, and to 16 (four years if they are taking the Special, Express or Normal Technical courses), or 17 (five years if they are taking the Normal Academic courses). Students from the Special and Express courses take the GCE 'O' Levels after four years at the end of secondary education, and students from the Normal (Academic and Technical) courses take the GCE 'N' Level examinations after four years, and the Normal Academic students has the option to continue for the O Levels. Selected excelling students also have the option to change classes which then affect the years they study. After completing secondary school, students move on to pre-tertiary education (i.e. in institutes such as junior colleges, polytechnics, ITE).
Slovenia
In Slovenia "middle school" refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3–4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). "Gymnasiums" are the most prestigious type of "middle" school.
Somalia
In Somalia, middle school identified as intermediate school is the four years between secondary school and primary school. Pupils start middle school from form as referred to in Somalia or year 5 and finish it at year 8. Students start middle school from the age of 11 and finish it when they are 14–15. Subjects, which middle school pupils take are: Somali, Arabic, English, Religion, Science, Geography, History, Math, Textiles, Art and Design, Physical Education (PE) (Football) and sometimes Music. In some middle schools, it is obligatory to study Italian.
South Korea
In South Korea, a middle school is called a (Hangul: ; Hanja: ) which includes grades 7 through 9 (referred to as: middle school 1st–3rd grades; approx. age 13–15).
Spain
In Spain, education is compulsory for children and teenagers between 6 and 16 years. Basic education is divided into (first grade through sixth grade), which is the Spanish equivalent of elementary school; and or ESO (seventh through tenth grade), roughly the Spanish equivalent of middle school and (partially) high school. The usual ages in ESO are 12 to 15 years old, but they can range between 11 and 16 depending on the birth date (a student who was born late in the year may start ESO at 11 if he or she will turn 12 before January 1, and a student who was born early in the year may finish ESO after turning 16).
After ESO, students can continue their pre-university education attending to (eleventh and twelfth grade) or choose a (an improved type of vocational school).
Taiwan
Junior high schools (three years from 7th to 9th grade) in Taiwan were originally called primary middle school. However, in August 1968, they were renamed nationals' middle school often translated junior high) when they became free of charge and compulsory. Private middle school nowadays are still called primary middle school. Taiwanese students older than twelve normally attend junior high school. Accompanied with the switch from junior high to middle school was the cancellation of entrance examination needed to enter middle school.
Tunisia and Morocco
In Tunisia and Morocco, a middle school includes grades 7 through 9, consisting of students from ages 12 to 15.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
In England and Wales, local education authorities introduced middle schools in the 1960s and 1970s. The notion of Middle Schools was mooted by the Plowden Report of 1967 which proposed a change to a three-tier model including First schools for children aged between 4 and 7, Middle Schools for 7–11 year-olds, and then upper or high schools for 11–16 year-olds. Some authorities introduced Middle Schools for ideological reasons, in line with the report, while others did so for more pragmatic reasons relating to the raising of the school leaving age in compulsory education to 16, or to introduce a comprehensive system.
Different authorities introduced different age-range schools, although in the main, three models were used:
4–6 First schools, followed by 7–11 "middle schools," as suggested by Plowden
5–9 First schools, followed by 9–13 "middle schools"
5–10 First schools followed by 10–13 "middle schools," or intermediate schools
In many areas "primary school" rather than first school was used to denote the first tier.
In addition, some schools were provided as combined schools catering for pupils in the 5–12 age range as a combined first and middle school.
Around 2000 middle and combined schools were in place in the early 1980s. However, that number began to fall in the later 1980s with the introduction of the National Curriculum. The new curriculum's splits in Key Stages at age 11 encouraged the majority of local education authorities to return to a two-tier system of Primary (sometimes split into Infant schools and Junior schools) and Secondary schools. There are now fewer than 150 middle schools still operational in the United Kingdom, meaning that approximately 90% of middle schools have closed or reverted to primary school status since 1980. The system of 8–12 middle schools has fallen into complete disuse.
Under current legislation, all middle schools must be deemed either primary or secondary. Thus, schools which have more primary year groups than KS3 or KS4 are termed "deemed primaries" or "middles-deemed-primaries," while those with more secondary-aged pupils, or with pupils in Y11 are termed "deemed secondaries" or "middles-deemed-secondaries." For statistical purposes, such schools are often included under primary and secondary categories "as deemed". Notably, most schools also follow teaching patterns in line with their deemed status, with most deemed-primary schools offering a primary-style curriculum taught by one class teacher, and most deemed-secondary schools adopting a more specialist-centred approach. Legally all-through schools are also considered middle schools (deemed secondary), although they are rarely referred to as such.
Some middle schools still exist in various areas of England. They are supported by the National Middle Schools' Forum. See List of middle schools in England.
Scotland
In Scotland, a similar system to the English one was trialled in Grangemouth middle schools, Falkirk between 1975 and 1987. The label of "junior high school" is used for some through schools in Orkney and Shetland which cater for pupils from 5 up to the age of 14, at which point they transfer to a nearby secondary school.
Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, in the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon District Council area in County Armagh, the Dickson Plan operates, whereby pupils attend a primary school from ages 4–10, a junior high school from 11–14, and a senior high school or grammar school from 14–19.
United States
In the United States, Elementary school often includes kindergarten through fourth, fifth, or sixth grade; less commonly, some elementary schools extend as far as 8th grade Middle schools and junior high schools are schools that span varying combinations of grades 5 to 8, such as 5–8, 6–8 (most commonly), and 7–8, and sometimes 7–9. Historically, local public control (and private alternatives) over education has allowed for some variation in the organisation of schools. Basic subjects are taught and pupils often remain in one or two classrooms throughout the school day, except for physical education, library, music, art, and computer classes. In 2003, there were about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States.
The range defined by either is often based on demographic factors, such as an increase or decrease in the relative numbers of younger or older students, with the aim of maintaining stable school populations. At this time, pupils are given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, which includes math, social studies, science, and language arts. Also, pupils are able to choose some of their class subjects (electives). Usually, starting in sixth grade, grades become part of a pupil's official transcript.
The junior high school concept was introduced in 1909, in Columbus, Ohio. Junior high schools were created for "bridging the gap between the elementary and the high school", an emphasis credited to Charles W. Eliot. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, most American elementary schools had grades 1 through 8, and this organization still exists, where some concepts of middle school organization have been adapted to the intermediate grades. As time passed, the junior high school concept increased quickly as new school districts proliferated, or systems modernized buildings and curricula. This expansion continued through the 1960s. Jon Wiles, author of Developing Successful K–8 Schools: A Principal's Guide, said that "a major problem" for the original model was "the inclusion of the ninth grade", because of the lack of instructional flexibility, due to the requirement of having to earn high school credits in the ninth grade and that "the fully adolescent ninth grader in junior high school did not seem to belong with the students experiencing the onset of puberty".
The new middle school model began to appear in the mid-1960s. Wiles said, "At first, it was difficult to determine the difference between a junior high school and a middle school, but as the middle school became established, the differences became more pronounced". Middle school is in between elementary school and high school, and has 6th- to 8th-graders. Junior high schools prepare seventh, eighth, and, in some districts, ninth grade students for high school.
The faculty is organised into academic departments that operate more or less independently of one another.
The middle school format has now replaced the junior high format by a ratio of about ten to one in the United States, but some school districts incorporated both systems.
Uruguay
In Uruguay, the public middle school consists of two stages, one mandatory called "Basic Cycle" or "First Cycle". This consists of three years, ages 12–13, 13–14 and 14–15 (equivalent to American 7th, 8th, and 9th grades), and one optional called "Second Cycle", ages 15–16, 16–17 and 17–18 (equivalent to American 10th, 11th, and 12th grades). The Second Cycle is divided into 4 options in the Uruguayan 5th grade: "Human Sciences", "Biology", "Scientific" and "Arts", and 7 options in the 6th and last grade: "Law" or "Economy" (if Human Sciences course taken in 5th), "Medicine" or "Agronomy" (if Biological course taken in 5th), "Architecture" or "Engineering" (if Scientific course taken in 5th) and "Arts" (if Arts course taken in 5th).
Both these stages are commonly known as "Liceo" (Spanish for "high school").
Venezuela
In Venezuela, middle schools (, ages 12–15) are from 7th grade to 9th grade.
In some institutions called "Technical Schools" there is an extra grade, for those who want to graduate as "Middle technician" in a certain area. This education would allow them to be hired at a higher level, or get introduced more easily into a college career.
Vietnam
Secondary school, or Junior High school, includes grade 6 to 9. After finishing grade 9, students have to take the national graduating test, which includes sections on Mathematics, Literature and English. The maximum score for each test is 10, with the first two subjects (called the Core Subjects) multiplied by two for a total possible score of 50. Reward points from a vocational course could also be added to the final score.
Some public schools use graduating exam scores and student transcripts to make their decisions. Many other public and private schools require students who apply for those schools to take their entrance exams. The administration team student transcripts and exam scores to decide whether students are qualified based on their admissions criteria.
See also
QuickSmart
Virtual reality in primary education
Notes
References
Specific citations
External links
Canada: Provincial Systems of Education
Association for Middle Level Education formerly National Middle School Association.
National Middle Schools' Forum (UK)
Australian Middle School Program
School types
Educational stages
Pedagogy
High schools and secondary schools
School terminology
Adolescence | [
0.5138708353042603,
-0.056822311133146286,
-0.14076223969459534,
0.23621243238449097,
0.39006307721138,
0.06745553016662598,
0.28301817178726196,
0.5002671480178833,
-0.05375714972615242,
-0.5585101246833801,
-0.39986422657966614,
0.22309018671512604,
0.4842435419559479,
0.12921303510665894,
-0.3340893089771271,
-0.2502835988998413,
0.7790310382843018,
0.23606720566749573,
0.057828620076179504,
-0.355444073677063,
-0.5841109752655029,
0.1661812961101532,
0.15372930467128754,
-0.008707424625754356,
0.27750226855278015,
0.1669032871723175,
0.33894723653793335,
0.36582162976264954,
-0.04211748018860817,
-0.3256528973579407,
0.3210797607898712,
-0.24510407447814941,
0.6292557120323181,
0.07746689766645432,
-0.030088549479842186,
0.06189599633216858,
0.48530906438827515,
-0.628591001033783,
0.052168600261211395,
-1.0459184646606445,
-0.14861507713794708,
0.11674608290195465,
0.2172720730304718,
0.2619284391403198,
-0.3335607945919037,
-0.4007181227207184,
-1.3477058410644531,
0.14752383530139923,
-0.6676405668258667,
-0.010084861889481544,
-0.5876400470733643,
0.5001199841499329,
0.4794854521751404,
0.2480318546295166,
-0.15339349210262299,
-0.012758414261043072,
-0.05782100930809975,
0.06763491779565811,
0.2777157127857208,
-0.11777506023645401,
0.9482612609863281,
0.36068782210350037,
0.09515044093132019,
0.36031442880630493,
0.2600891888141632,
-0.38288623094558716,
-0.3202214241027832,
-0.13690370321273804,
-0.468471884727478,
-0.48786136507987976,
-0.2409200817346573,
-0.48843443393707275,
-0.2587426006793976,
-0.026066794991493225,
-0.5146856307983398,
-0.14490444958209991,
0.3882317841053009,
-0.15454836189746857,
-0.36145851016044617,
-0.39867112040519714,
-0.5463546514511108,
-0.08172216266393661,
0.22314897179603577,
0.0006680903024971485,
0.5653671026229858,
0.5462744832038879,
-0.1764879822731018,
0.1670757383108139,
-0.3332737982273102,
0.12497124075889587,
-0.25603097677230835,
-0.09992659837007523,
0.20027823746204376,
0.24202676117420197,
-0.007809384260326624,
-0.1655525267124176,
0.4044002294540405,
-0.02135753631591797,
0.4609385132789612,
0.0026892703026533127,
-0.022402523085474968,
-0.05597977340221405,
0.47727641463279724,
0.20551663637161255,
-0.33529046177864075,
-0.29768621921539307,
0.279862642288208,
-0.38068944215774536,
0.12112951278686523,
-0.4169920086860657,
-0.26095345616340637,
0.09194473922252655,
-0.23859600722789764,
0.307497501373291,
-0.2546946406364441,
0.0942583754658699,
-0.33493611216545105,
0.369744211435318,
-0.7119382619857788,
-0.09939592331647873,
-0.3443039059638977,
0.12644685804843903,
0.031017214059829712,
-0.02000277303159237,
-0.05416930094361305,
0.5921100974082947,
-0.030063368380069733,
0.6390762329101562,
-0.42556241154670715,
0.07689250260591507,
0.3573538362979889,
0.11917243897914886,
0.11957493424415588,
0.0031219900120049715,
-0.3041836619377136,
-0.45093321800231934,
0.3609124720096588,
-0.3521973490715027,
0.3825591504573822,
0.38893789052963257,
-0.6306999921798706,
-0.23604926466941833,
0.13189856708049774,
-0.4938197433948517,
0.047398410737514496,
-0.5351717472076416,
-0.11391416937112808,
-0.09567060321569443,
-0.42875930666923523,
0.1670122891664505,
0.14310625195503235,
0.3599928617477417,
-0.6637914180755615,
-0.13723213970661163,
0.11941725760698318,
0.3703393340110779,
0.14207716286182404,
-0.3304954171180725,
-0.16559991240501404,
0.2093217372894287,
-0.23741935193538666,
0.29504117369651794,
-0.031206494197249413,
-0.02710246667265892,
0.3293825387954712,
-0.2744986116886139,
0.05644209682941437,
0.2885321378707886,
-0.3727821409702301,
0.5635870099067688,
-0.042415037751197815,
0.2372153252363205,
-0.14985550940036774,
-0.5657335519790649,
-0.8408392667770386,
-0.3290812075138092,
0.5402600765228271,
0.01940600946545601,
0.9059823155403137,
-0.6705850958824158,
-0.5207353830337524,
0.31382742524147034,
0.3809219002723694,
0.3545689880847931,
-0.3495170772075653,
-0.5371517539024353,
-0.10215054452419281,
-0.09785661101341248,
-0.3117341697216034,
-0.1297358125448227,
-0.33673569560050964,
-0.6766368746757507,
-0.13422875106334686,
-0.5045158863067627,
0.6324616074562073,
-0.5227771997451782,
-0.2921102046966553,
1.1384978294372559,
-0.6033480167388916,
0.28525981307029724,
-0.07472850382328033,
-0.019419847056269646,
0.29925107955932617,
-0.24293485283851624,
-0.38100722432136536,
0.5260180830955505,
0.40831711888313293,
0.5936195850372314,
0.08530838787555695,
-0.38009145855903625,
0.22221964597702026,
-0.38812360167503357,
0.13999642431735992,
0.3868646025657654,
0.13644814491271973,
0.06461862474679947,
-0.3746643662452698,
0.19211119413375854,
0.15260502696037292,
-0.09689075499773026,
0.6933767199516296,
-0.7648906111717224,
-0.03591771796345711,
0.20668838918209076,
-0.11034814268350601,
-0.08706437796354294,
0.3875877559185028,
0.1600905954837799,
0.3502523601055145,
-0.3932957053184509,
0.1868252456188202,
-0.05507257953286171,
0.6798827648162842,
0.06935832649469376,
-0.2104460746049881,
0.12020739912986755,
-0.6064446568489075,
-0.18009330332279205,
0.29249307513237,
-0.337071031332016,
-0.44434601068496704,
-0.08247280865907669,
-0.26618891954421997,
0.07446376979351044,
0.8375152349472046,
0.33151745796203613,
-0.14273464679718018,
0.3304373621940613,
-0.4090579152107239,
0.2265714854001999,
-0.027918741106987,
0.0658184364438057,
0.08678548783063889,
-0.5397038459777832,
-0.14203043282032013,
-0.4279618561267853,
-0.1039464920759201,
0.23076282441616058,
0.39512330293655396,
-0.11188364028930664,
-0.2800969183444977,
0.28706738352775574,
0.2522035241127014,
0.45107901096343994,
-0.31923380494117737,
0.135310098528862,
-0.5437853932380676,
-0.48269355297088623,
0.19479164481163025,
0.1817496418952942,
0.26364073157310486,
0.28261300921440125,
-0.053842298686504364,
-0.33946260809898376,
-0.6234464645385742,
-0.7407007217407227,
0.47163790464401245,
0.07155752927064896,
-0.18003790080547333,
-0.3814447522163391,
0.14102189242839813,
0.6049330830574036,
0.03717142343521118,
-0.4074481725692749,
-0.17410285770893097,
-0.022705521434545517,
0.2780611515045166,
0.17090949416160583,
0.015425913967192173,
-0.2486763596534729,
-0.17291027307510376,
0.5121289491653442,
-0.13428173959255219,
0.07472002506256104,
0.7228450179100037,
0.04425836727023125,
-0.300607830286026,
-0.3276613652706146,
0.4336394667625427,
-0.31563735008239746,
0.11458275467157364,
0.45444682240486145,
-0.147709921002388,
0.4533914625644684,
0.01800398714840412,
0.028689390048384666,
-0.14534005522727966,
0.25142064690589905,
-6.140143871307373,
-0.20272769033908844,
-0.5336405634880066,
-0.4132556617259979,
0.3112606108188629,
-0.5778905749320984,
0.11835724115371704,
-0.3701498210430145,
-0.18468327820301056,
0.17175771296024323,
-0.3440837860107422,
0.0246456116437912,
0.2557121515274048,
0.4565068185329437,
0.07126013934612274,
-0.024431949481368065,
-0.07059899717569351,
0.33640146255493164,
-0.17671653628349304,
0.43033599853515625,
0.020221682265400887,
-0.08603445440530777,
0.07293566316366196,
0.7606232166290283,
0.006331579759716988,
-0.1772948056459427,
-0.19406306743621826,
0.1407347470521927,
-0.6295042634010315,
-0.5311993360519409,
0.46815022826194763,
0.10498040169477463,
0.2391456514596939,
0.051963165402412415,
0.18179094791412354,
0.1860748678445816,
0.6360204219818115,
0.4161410927772522,
0.26100707054138184,
0.0647379606962204,
0.12828904390335083,
0.2525973916053772,
-0.07037307322025299,
-0.3056056797504425,
0.09515631943941116,
-0.2348940074443817,
0.08827468752861023,
-0.13513408601284027,
-0.6021219491958618,
0.7132829427719116,
-0.007589394226670265,
0.14960233867168427,
0.13803188502788544,
0.023273292928934097,
-0.163486510515213,
-0.09915579110383987,
0.049089107662439346,
-0.012618843466043472,
-0.08261361718177795,
-0.021252252161502838,
0.11583703011274338,
-0.1298854798078537,
-0.1871740221977234,
-0.9074185490608215,
-0.3635340631008148,
-0.39364930987358093,
-0.5489827394485474,
0.02549366094172001,
0.014515316113829613,
0.6420522928237915,
0.010012345388531685,
-0.41095981001853943,
0.3609897792339325,
-0.8885138630867004,
0.014149223454296589,
-0.6679713726043701,
0.012480865232646465,
0.039216138422489166,
0.025563912466168404,
-0.16020795702934265,
0.5307607650756836,
0.25731340050697327,
0.2386716604232788,
0.38482868671417236,
0.4573676884174347,
-0.17049822211265564,
-0.07848099619150162,
0.4116349220275879,
0.12065836042165756,
-0.008741410449147224,
1.0509220361709595,
0.19625476002693176,
0.2507973909378052,
-0.09818316996097565,
0.45338982343673706,
0.2107684165239334,
-0.02338048443198204,
-0.18114852905273438,
0.10206279903650284,
-0.8818926215171814,
0.6640250086784363,
-0.07700134813785553,
-0.12625491619110107,
0.09430219978094101,
-0.04548052325844765,
-0.27484330534935,
-0.015469069592654705,
0.604154109954834,
0.7408682107925415,
-0.23227038979530334,
0.0030263280496001244,
-0.050935667008161545,
-0.7972410321235657,
-0.2083386778831482,
-0.2709040343761444,
-0.5536600947380066,
-0.7874079346656799,
0.26019543409347534,
-0.3369012176990509,
0.2667097747325897,
-0.402018278837204,
-0.06572315096855164,
0.20960432291030884,
-0.004482761956751347,
-0.10888422280550003,
-0.371766060590744,
-0.0791696161031723,
0.5796970725059509,
0.30109456181526184,
0.09532701224088669,
0.9932115077972412,
0.5252822637557983,
-0.29875901341438293,
-0.3830069303512573,
-0.10723409056663513,
-0.3150418996810913,
0.11476091295480728,
0.20570802688598633,
0.15614184737205505,
-0.5199393033981323,
0.0812174379825592,
0.00872057769447565,
0.17357087135314941,
-0.1122899278998375,
0.9123265147209167,
0.3649555444717407,
-0.27013275027275085,
-0.09735631197690964,
-0.11829880625009537,
0.07442788779735565,
0.3089095652103424,
-0.11782174557447433,
0.2535906434059143,
0.44829046726226807,
0.009882166050374508,
-0.1482931524515152,
-0.22237233817577362,
-0.28934329748153687,
-0.08605483174324036,
-0.3072358965873718,
0.2775392234325409,
-0.37619608640670776,
-0.9190517067909241,
-0.04881497472524643,
0.14833714067935944,
0.6055620908737183,
-0.7110019326210022,
-0.11478569358587265,
-0.28811195492744446,
0.33882462978363037,
0.5102525949478149,
-0.5992009043693542,
-0.17807529866695404,
-0.396269291639328,
0.42140039801597595,
-0.015660539269447327,
-0.02925260365009308,
-0.04815245047211647,
0.1733328402042389,
-0.5354968309402466,
0.15541179478168488,
-0.932676374912262,
-0.09350050240755081,
0.17558807134628296,
-0.20779186487197876,
-0.03177204728126526,
-0.4454186260700226,
0.2247028350830078,
-0.5079548954963684,
-0.26208943128585815,
0.44919681549072266,
-0.6291311383247375,
0.45509883761405945,
0.43897974491119385,
0.1453743427991867,
-0.7002977132797241,
-0.1814085841178894,
0.5839864611625671,
-0.16906003654003143,
-0.029728690162301064,
-0.1112927719950676,
0.03712407499551773,
-0.5354199409484863,
-0.06960787624120712,
0.394052118062973,
-0.4522603452205658,
0.3730298578739166,
-0.1415727436542511,
0.14870412647724152,
-0.002213515341281891,
-0.7486658692359924,
-0.4796634912490845,
0.033116891980171204,
0.0757494568824768,
-0.48202452063560486,
-0.2464665323495865,
0.15952810645103455,
-0.23906497657299042,
0.019741082563996315,
-0.1344410479068756,
0.6368441581726074,
-0.11995135992765427,
-0.6284182071685791,
-0.237585186958313,
-0.2897476255893707,
0.253501296043396,
0.06078988313674927,
-0.7190951704978943,
0.36753198504447937,
0.09908874332904816,
0.1549583375453949,
0.15400288999080658,
0.09937940537929535,
-0.22397978603839874,
0.1711544692516327,
-0.44531846046447754,
-0.19518537819385529,
-0.22911305725574493,
0.08165545016527176,
-0.052829064428806305,
0.07717889547348022,
0.7111451029777527,
0.18116173148155212,
-0.1560579389333725,
0.12183989584445953,
0.1525217443704605,
0.3463134765625,
-0.46119144558906555,
-0.5842668414115906,
0.5033941268920898,
0.3870936334133148,
-0.4814974367618561,
-0.023999197408556938,
-0.30265432596206665,
0.11694991588592529,
-0.17062099277973175,
-0.5478410720825195,
0.21237798035144806,
0.17811278998851776,
0.7052798271179199,
-0.19270524382591248,
-0.35791757702827454,
0.03728781268000603,
-0.19045837223529816,
0.2241525650024414,
-0.13225184381008148,
-0.3840491771697998,
0.36346670985221863,
-0.053635742515325546,
-0.658378541469574,
0.4651680886745453,
-0.4001638889312744,
0.4382018446922302,
-0.026746241375803947,
0.8386908769607544,
-0.2897038757801056,
-0.24119070172309875,
-0.5186788439750671,
0.09068239480257034,
0.1888139545917511,
-0.08441200852394104,
-0.07130732387304306,
0.14628435671329498,
-0.6976948976516724,
0.2176385074853897,
-0.5550076365470886,
0.04529091715812683,
0.3708771765232086,
-0.49079543352127075,
0.3607671856880188,
-0.16772818565368652,
-0.2191753387451172,
-0.450101763010025,
0.6377511620521545,
-0.5488457679748535,
0.07915457338094711,
0.4523431956768036,
0.3768472373485565,
0.13018588721752167,
-0.03896214812994003,
0.3243940770626068,
0.5770516395568848,
-0.1227489709854126,
-0.7424110174179077,
0.31115278601646423,
0.10632526874542236,
-0.16502107679843903,
-0.20559479296207428,
0.29055342078208923,
0.07358598709106445,
0.09744187444448471,
-0.016294073313474655,
0.7503014206886292,
0.39972344040870667,
0.013621852733194828,
-0.049726758152246475,
0.13977743685245514,
-0.08122863620519638,
0.4700016379356384,
-0.1664266139268875,
0.2877417206764221,
0.383246511220932,
0.639120876789093,
-0.028290696442127228,
0.17868313193321228,
0.23829936981201172,
0.2765074670314789,
-0.7563568949699402,
0.12831734120845795,
0.11136449873447418,
0.34838876128196716,
0.45469507575035095,
0.19108489155769348,
0.4315493404865265,
-0.07903561741113663,
-0.40059342980384827,
0.017016686499118805,
-0.8289949297904968,
0.22898216545581818,
0.3483249247074127,
0.8760027885437012,
0.03971865400671959,
-0.07053292542695999,
0.46059709787368774,
0.08858901262283325,
0.3411700129508972,
0.5328865647315979,
0.5608090758323669,
-0.37320011854171753,
-0.02924899198114872,
0.2507224678993225,
-0.30159351229667664,
0.41092509031295776,
-0.02812402881681919,
-0.21361273527145386,
-0.2840510904788971,
0.21440845727920532,
-0.19625802338123322,
0.14071477949619293,
-0.13075360655784607,
-0.11367863416671753,
0.34728187322616577,
0.7618057131767273,
-0.5704137086868286,
0.0982670933008194,
-0.4313308894634247,
0.32529839873313904,
-0.6102762222290039,
-0.04519530385732651,
0.11027972400188446,
0.07678266614675522,
0.527781069278717,
0.047930896282196045,
-0.03608128800988197,
0.3503398895263672,
-0.12819193303585052,
-0.1131364107131958,
0.6386674046516418,
0.20797649025917053,
0.08112092316150665,
-0.13938459753990173,
-0.4238288700580597,
-0.5671350955963135,
-0.33428236842155457,
-0.3526490032672882,
-0.1862030029296875,
0.27060097455978394,
0.0761304497718811,
-0.7687193751335144,
0.6253045201301575,
-0.03447382152080536,
-0.20455646514892578,
0.21623457968235016,
-0.09033351391553879,
-0.5075794458389282,
0.17982058227062225,
0.028887592256069183,
0.6508041024208069,
0.036621760576963425,
0.3174399435520172,
-0.3836483955383301,
0.05432047322392464,
-0.13800057768821716,
-0.16185936331748962,
-0.49268466234207153,
0.022184645757079124,
0.15401148796081543,
0.30092886090278625,
-0.24185781180858612,
0.45951494574546814,
1.0865647792816162,
0.055101584643125534,
0.2640010416507721,
0.3871764838695526,
0.323244571685791,
0.74471116065979,
-0.03365517407655716,
-0.21159517765045166,
-0.010258068330585957,
-0.38672134280204773,
0.12879839539527893,
0.2820742428302765,
0.40216949582099915,
-0.052042197436094284,
-0.024238841608166695,
0.10533379763364792,
-0.3903729021549225,
0.5328599214553833,
-0.28043273091316223,
0.641585111618042,
-0.24899335205554962,
-0.04556592181324959,
-0.07532349228858948,
0.8776037693023682,
-0.15757538378238678,
-0.2955690324306488,
0.3328329920768738,
-0.16608507931232452,
0.7034427523612976,
-0.4251367747783661,
-0.25406667590141296,
0.011873430572450161,
0.3699548542499542,
0.21819563210010529,
-0.19874992966651917,
-0.24147561192512512,
-0.05583363026380539,
0.09903872758150101,
-0.4306629002094269,
-0.25697264075279236,
0.14238768815994263,
-0.22847647964954376,
0.04344714805483818,
0.3336942791938782,
-0.43057385087013245,
-0.08334054797887802,
-0.14442060887813568,
-0.6393052935600281,
-0.1641334593296051,
0.3910251557826996
] |
234960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20exponential%20functions | List of integrals of exponential functions | The following is a list of integrals of exponential functions. For a complete list of integral functions, please see the list of integrals.
Indefinite integral
Indefinite integrals are antiderivative functions. A constant (the constant of integration) may be added to the right hand side of any of these formulas, but has been suppressed here in the interest of brevity.
Integrals of polynomials
Integrals involving only exponential functions
Integrals involving the error function
In the following formulas, is the error function and is the exponential integral.
Other integrals
where
(Note that the value of the expression is independent of the value of , which is why it does not appear in the integral.)
where
and is the upper incomplete gamma function.
when , , and
when , , and
the below formulae was proved by Toyesh
(if is a positive integer)
(if is a positive integer)
Definite integrals
The last expression is the logarithmic mean.
(the Gaussian integral)
(see Integral of a Gaussian function)
(the operator is the Double factorial)
( is the modified Bessel function of the first kind)
where is the Polylogarithm.
where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant which equals the value of a number of definite integrals.
Finally, a well known result,
(For integer m, n)
where is the Kronecker delta.
See also
Gradshteyn and Ryzhik
Further reading
Toyesh Prakash Sharma, https://www.isroset.org/pdf_paper_view.php?paper_id=2214&7-ISROSET-IJSRMSS-05130.pdf
External links
Wolfram Mathematica Online Integrator
Exponentials
Exponential functions | [
-0.8312270045280457,
-0.013803103938698769,
-0.11838286370038986,
-0.025217315182089806,
-0.5228663086891174,
-0.18619443476200104,
-0.02248920500278473,
-0.09326384216547012,
-0.47190314531326294,
-0.2588634192943573,
-0.2959100306034088,
0.6837263107299805,
-0.45804136991500854,
0.11325430124998093,
0.4718650281429291,
0.4134453535079956,
0.30219578742980957,
0.5627334117889404,
-0.33749282360076904,
-0.5566065311431885,
0.44828110933303833,
0.5181055068969727,
0.9768139123916626,
-0.43579545617103577,
-0.29189756512641907,
-0.3205653429031372,
-0.20653922855854034,
-0.14733682572841644,
-0.28771325945854187,
0.3356141149997711,
-0.24775707721710205,
0.9246971011161804,
0.010215404443442822,
-0.19941723346710205,
0.2503025531768799,
-0.41831493377685547,
0.4103412926197052,
0.1758982390165329,
0.09648603200912476,
-0.12655241787433624,
0.05256127938628197,
-0.11776089668273926,
0.36714959144592285,
0.1988539844751358,
0.07625723630189896,
-0.8760807514190674,
-1.5032302141189575,
-0.6274550557136536,
-0.5225667953491211,
0.08880788832902908,
-0.060589633882045746,
0.2151164412498474,
0.8235230445861816,
0.7040536999702454,
-0.320218026638031,
1.0688668489456177,
-0.5660242438316345,
-0.2907849848270416,
0.7555732727050781,
0.32935023307800293,
0.11790325492620468,
0.02008906379342079,
-0.3298211097717285,
0.1640094518661499,
0.6538029909133911,
1.2459067106246948,
-0.12964580953121185,
0.35503777861595154,
-0.7553869485855103,
-0.012320258654654026,
-0.36242419481277466,
-0.8399273157119751,
0.24491499364376068,
0.3304172158241272,
-0.45380720496177673,
-0.3872746527194977,
0.08690431714057922,
-0.2570398151874542,
0.08201511949300766,
-0.2558731436729431,
-0.16943612694740295,
0.6749750971794128,
0.7266703248023987,
-0.3609541356563568,
-0.005121310241520405,
0.35862377285957336,
-0.4003174901008606,
-0.0855664536356926,
-0.4895305633544922,
0.5375106334686279,
0.15485969185829163,
-0.4360056519508362,
0.2622049152851105,
0.24200475215911865,
0.2760767936706543,
0.21070002019405365,
-0.0010137815261259675,
-0.4414650499820709,
-0.02686019241809845,
0.657380998134613,
0.25147271156311035,
0.3789224624633789,
0.17399457097053528,
-0.8513122797012329,
-0.5495139956474304,
-0.5149377584457397,
-0.6289733648300171,
-0.2701708674430847,
0.3177241384983063,
-0.9289916753768921,
-1.1368329524993896,
0.6483647227287292,
0.141647607088089,
-0.468170166015625,
-0.45218393206596375,
0.8170394897460938,
0.25202974677085876,
0.059514738619327545,
-0.040474724024534225,
0.17763540148735046,
-0.15973633527755737,
1.1394927501678467,
0.0857342854142189,
0.5586437582969666,
-0.6012672781944275,
0.3923168480396271,
0.697717010974884,
0.6114872097969055,
0.5465259552001953,
0.3003428280353546,
0.2856918275356293,
0.8367369771003723,
0.28866732120513916,
-0.3708895146846771,
-0.02994709089398384,
-0.9424914121627808,
-0.09016145020723343,
-0.1129925325512886,
-0.549672544002533,
0.19646324217319489,
-0.5360886454582214,
-0.8092976212501526,
-1.3400086164474487,
-0.36452656984329224,
0.6437187790870667,
-0.22916732728481293,
-0.85772705078125,
-0.4244610071182251,
0.1023196205496788,
0.10735920071601868,
0.028951220214366913,
0.05634349584579468,
-0.5117884874343872,
0.21783307194709778,
-0.3003993630409241,
0.42965272068977356,
0.2661854326725006,
-0.10353243350982666,
0.44748544692993164,
0.1697196364402771,
-0.07820333540439606,
-0.26410019397735596,
-0.23015519976615906,
-0.2173200249671936,
-0.002507739933207631,
-0.5330508947372437,
1.0096009969711304,
0.5361324548721313,
0.09780844300985336,
-0.1980533003807068,
-0.6984838247299194,
-0.3479677736759186,
0.2769389748573303,
-0.14898118376731873,
-0.18646350502967834,
-0.21757464110851288,
0.7149420976638794,
0.0939868912100792,
0.2799106240272522,
-0.05168820172548294,
-1.3192743062973022,
-0.15917830169200897,
-0.04653337225317955,
-0.7996628880500793,
0.41063228249549866,
0.3457002341747284,
0.8163836002349854,
0.6125348210334778,
0.3189462423324585,
0.17554393410682678,
-0.31935131549835205,
0.1452227532863617,
-0.0684029683470726,
-0.7935391068458557,
1.2956680059432983,
0.5983136892318726,
-0.4760199785232544,
-0.1637250781059265,
-0.11359027773141861,
0.35730814933776855,
-0.4577775001525879,
-0.14739570021629333,
0.42300644516944885,
0.6547912359237671,
-0.8362812995910645,
1.4758516550064087,
-0.2727133631706238,
0.26475435495376587,
-0.1832871288061142,
0.8740260004997253,
0.6608211398124695,
0.26720061898231506,
0.6633533239364624,
-0.6928241848945618,
0.22838596999645233,
-0.3632986545562744,
-0.3489934504032135,
0.20857948064804077,
0.032306570559740067,
-0.2512107789516449,
0.7441834211349487,
-0.0349305123090744,
0.26275408267974854,
0.4709201157093048,
0.24687688052654266,
0.8684265613555908,
0.6945916414260864,
0.3602994382381439,
0.06290731579065323,
-0.5217095017433167,
0.4609542191028595,
-0.2121148556470871,
0.3045032024383545,
0.43600600957870483,
-0.3075873553752899,
0.19990003108978271,
-0.06443354487419128,
-0.6544617414474487,
-0.09850818663835526,
-0.7088320255279541,
0.41156819462776184,
0.5244489908218384,
-0.21214379370212555,
0.285328209400177,
-0.07670673727989197,
-0.28940650820732117,
-0.4431774616241455,
-0.41745081543922424,
-0.5262154340744019,
-0.6900196671485901,
0.22488078474998474,
0.20227102935314178,
0.448737770318985,
-0.4621972441673279,
0.03923339024186134,
0.4250945746898651,
-0.2650780975818634,
0.19895580410957336,
0.20653487741947174,
0.8163606524467468,
-0.32892441749572754,
-0.05516164004802704,
0.4567502737045288,
-0.16666528582572937,
-0.41659829020500183,
0.11513373255729675,
-0.7037811875343323,
-0.5422065258026123,
0.5183194279670715,
-0.07672823220491409,
0.5117241740226746,
-0.8349483013153076,
-0.6126329898834229,
-1.5563594102859497,
-0.22290140390396118,
-0.5013027191162109,
-0.5069478154182434,
0.19008740782737732,
-1.5188289880752563,
-0.027742959558963776,
0.5694613456726074,
1.0568058490753174,
0.12120087444782257,
-0.18534517288208008,
-0.7025632858276367,
-0.10910385102033615,
0.19586536288261414,
0.02522898092865944,
0.21559353172779083,
-0.42611587047576904,
-0.7528340816497803,
-0.24610008299350739,
-0.5821428894996643,
-0.01789208874106407,
0.1862492561340332,
0.3106715679168701,
0.12773194909095764,
0.09165492653846741,
-0.04791108891367912,
-0.07334145158529282,
-0.8976773619651794,
-0.33401456475257874,
-0.6913419365882874,
-0.22645212709903717,
0.040209922939538956,
-0.4076080620288849,
0.09954535961151123,
0.5165924429893494,
-4.452112674713135,
0.056145865470170975,
-0.9151417016983032,
-0.0001591977634234354,
-0.2890060544013977,
0.1841234564781189,
0.17702320218086243,
-0.235003262758255,
-0.739681601524353,
0.4587920606136322,
-0.09874698519706726,
-0.09097862243652344,
-0.2117297202348709,
1.2163320779800415,
0.4628314673900604,
0.03255271539092064,
0.5108916759490967,
0.2978041172027588,
0.48249882459640503,
0.20003899931907654,
-0.12488914281129837,
-0.032757073640823364,
-0.43830081820487976,
0.3704317510128021,
0.3764098286628723,
0.5135000944137573,
-0.14367267489433289,
0.5536311864852905,
-0.2874920666217804,
-0.07807272672653198,
-0.16929486393928528,
-0.019749337807297707,
-0.14960436522960663,
-0.7816288471221924,
-0.17309902608394623,
0.554658055305481,
0.5157430768013,
-0.14371007680892944,
0.4268379211425781,
-0.3418007493019104,
-0.4877220392227173,
1.0586705207824707,
-0.3046111762523651,
0.17130115628242493,
0.30715304613113403,
-0.30433592200279236,
-0.23764966428279877,
0.271060049533844,
0.0951552540063858,
0.9943637251853943,
-0.5460589528083801,
-0.08858546614646912,
1.213199496269226,
0.12627951800823212,
-0.21173427999019623,
-0.34763213992118835,
0.07653964310884476,
-0.07769187539815903,
-0.16003914177417755,
0.38675975799560547,
1.0807654857635498,
-0.7963154911994934,
0.4254688322544098,
-0.4200786054134369,
-0.15663357079029083,
-0.33525723218917847,
-0.31056737899780273,
-0.7768808007240295,
0.2552560567855835,
0.23045726120471954,
-0.32346662878990173,
0.526488184928894,
-0.29748907685279846,
-0.3905336260795593,
-0.1333417445421219,
-0.14008258283138275,
0.07140648365020752,
0.28449732065200806,
-0.09257734566926956,
0.3100370466709137,
-0.4922267496585846,
-0.5890974998474121,
-1.0569301843643188,
0.299590140581131,
0.10014206171035767,
-0.16030293703079224,
-0.5251169800758362,
-0.6697028875350952,
-0.8154869079589844,
-0.2743315100669861,
-0.3849870562553406,
-0.019031811505556107,
0.3934140205383301,
0.6039174795150757,
0.4440467059612274,
0.18879221379756927,
0.7345995306968689,
-0.4737851321697235,
0.45057904720306396,
-0.2883649170398712,
0.5843648314476013,
-0.286136656999588,
0.1477583348751068,
-0.15035812556743622,
-0.25920772552490234,
-0.18066254258155823,
-0.37179237604141235,
0.6618390679359436,
-0.13120530545711517,
-0.41885629296302795,
-0.21174371242523193,
-0.2703637182712555,
-0.5302200317382812,
-0.384129136800766,
0.6853675246238708,
-0.0024206440430134535,
-0.8606082201004028,
1.0259339809417725,
0.8491170406341553,
-0.049053091555833817,
0.22398395836353302,
0.07494299113750458,
-0.19731780886650085,
-0.37578126788139343,
-0.226118266582489,
0.012600839138031006,
0.2648618817329407,
0.5096777081489563,
-0.5922876596450806,
-0.4701300859451294,
0.03202741593122482,
0.5238608121871948,
-0.6222880482673645,
0.12478286772966385,
0.08228828758001328,
-0.838627815246582,
-0.18227389454841614,
0.3857019543647766,
0.2537720501422882,
-0.3962050676345825,
0.9509776830673218,
0.3486091196537018,
-0.2034032791852951,
-0.41821184754371643,
0.09685612469911575,
0.6904594302177429,
-0.029098093509674072,
-0.5921555757522583,
-0.8791479468345642,
0.5001403093338013,
-0.39445334672927856,
-0.9201129078865051,
0.590050995349884,
-0.8149811029434204,
0.4100213348865509,
0.3905337154865265,
-0.21612437069416046,
0.15254466235637665,
-0.15059709548950195,
-0.5455219149589539,
0.4939826726913452,
0.3629010319709778,
-0.7750352621078491,
-0.12531758844852448,
0.03799677640199661,
-0.26136213541030884,
-0.7342500686645508,
0.22866296768188477,
-0.4709259569644928,
0.842449963092804,
-0.1406702697277069,
0.3404726982116699,
-0.5187092423439026,
-0.399452269077301,
0.5765410661697388,
-0.1406266987323761,
0.09967143833637238,
0.47783878445625305,
0.15779541432857513,
-0.1511203497648239,
0.5435498356819153,
-0.6074100732803345,
0.22162066400051117,
0.5383046269416809,
0.9464115500450134,
0.04827951267361641,
-0.13781698048114777,
0.05956081300973892,
-0.7710447907447815,
-0.3509733974933624,
0.22274702787399292,
0.5245475172996521,
-0.07216400653123856,
-0.9320783019065857,
-0.7128608822822571,
-0.8048797249794006,
0.1433534026145935,
0.054354045540094376,
0.013942636549472809,
-0.8559642434120178,
0.6215819716453552,
0.6767246723175049,
-0.1783355474472046,
0.6892536282539368,
0.09696881473064423,
-0.47521641850471497,
-0.05880125239491463,
0.0934777781367302,
-0.7114710211753845,
0.7480564713478088,
-0.32193270325660706,
-0.9874982833862305,
0.07632468640804291,
-0.27697598934173584,
-0.4064004719257355,
0.1278146356344223,
0.960551917552948,
-0.16903486847877502,
-0.10746460407972336,
-0.8587208390235901,
0.5424273610115051,
-0.5694208145141602,
-0.3601219356060028,
0.1151488870382309,
-0.4709053933620453,
-0.22893556952476501,
0.09503789246082306,
-0.8891531825065613,
1.045056939125061,
-0.5862906575202942,
-0.8349930644035339,
0.12745384871959686,
-0.09757507592439651,
-0.13805247843265533,
-0.1908804178237915,
-0.5188369750976562,
-0.9052500128746033,
0.824817955493927,
-0.5050277709960938,
-0.39647766947746277,
0.07716739922761917,
0.6617246270179749,
0.07318024337291718,
-0.7826470732688904,
0.1217205673456192,
0.11472981423139572,
0.47495225071907043,
-0.4975597858428955,
-0.40751180052757263,
-0.04525335505604744,
0.1853506863117218,
-0.16884545981884003,
-0.5428629517555237,
-0.6737839579582214,
0.915155291557312,
-0.06591150909662247,
-0.04496235400438309,
-0.19904428720474243,
0.36127564311027527,
0.08206270635128021,
-0.3454023003578186,
0.00781919714063406,
-0.7336686253547668,
0.3179434835910797,
0.5743681788444519,
0.6142820715904236,
0.10649606585502625,
0.015722710639238358,
0.6409530639648438,
0.40516364574432373,
-0.0317101925611496,
-0.2730574309825897,
-0.30261045694351196,
0.576592206954956,
0.5073621869087219,
0.14667625725269318,
0.3435015380382538,
0.06599599123001099,
0.16106458008289337,
-0.32681018114089966,
0.8716341257095337,
0.144020676612854,
0.4379782974720001,
-0.4477052688598633,
0.6570770144462585,
-0.062485743314027786,
0.09054343402385712,
0.0354931466281414,
-0.20508798956871033,
0.7067196369171143,
-0.6197499632835388,
-0.2303418219089508,
-0.2620687186717987,
-0.21365143358707428,
0.5578469634056091,
0.5297008156776428,
0.1823796182870865,
0.03204186633229256,
-0.6096102595329285,
-0.5616017580032349,
-0.31682923436164856,
0.49680373072624207,
0.11757072061300278,
0.02656511776149273,
0.37133410573005676,
0.4212445914745331,
0.6977753639221191,
-0.0658375471830368,
-0.5017499327659607,
-0.10024289041757584,
0.3473148047924042,
0.9597878456115723,
0.14802347123622894,
0.4878588318824768,
0.03133970499038696,
-0.13981223106384277,
0.42982086539268494,
-0.19914309680461884,
0.6400602459907532,
0.3820061683654785,
-0.3723534047603607,
-0.6797413229942322,
0.46860167384147644,
-0.7868189215660095,
-1.141998052597046,
0.23639139533042908,
-0.21232564747333527,
-0.5225517153739929,
0.27542489767074585,
0.7298550605773926,
1.051877737045288,
0.8132570385932922,
-0.9041216969490051,
0.6328281164169312,
-0.6591454744338989,
-0.2825767695903778,
0.09510267525911331,
-0.4496198892593384,
-0.45075345039367676,
0.614050567150116,
1.213051438331604,
1.1083799600601196,
0.04959725961089134,
0.06355155259370804,
0.12518049776554108,
0.12283667176961899,
-0.388330340385437,
0.2301962524652481,
0.038766294717788696,
-0.1099093034863472,
0.3581259846687317,
0.5644845962524414,
0.19231700897216797,
0.1024211198091507,
0.27208104729652405,
-0.09217258542776108,
0.3530237674713135,
-0.2625535726547241,
0.264404833316803,
-0.6740122437477112,
0.13922402262687683,
0.46578213572502136,
0.018528802320361137,
-0.35250207781791687,
0.19739891588687897,
0.10638745874166489,
0.22740033268928528,
0.3539620637893677,
-0.17879657447338104,
0.23040761053562164,
0.44695818424224854,
0.44170325994491577,
-0.03065481223165989,
-0.2898389399051666,
0.1886739730834961,
-0.33972033858299255,
-0.5606975555419922,
0.007609363179653883,
-0.10057590156793594,
0.09144555032253265,
0.11941257864236832,
0.9039697051048279,
-0.039945561438798904,
-0.6828045845031738,
0.1751234084367752,
-0.10046126693487167,
-0.45875266194343567,
0.04998279735445976,
0.436419814825058,
-0.06680361926555634,
0.20733605325222015,
-0.21102367341518402,
-0.054001517593860626,
-0.132939413189888,
-0.1638532131910324,
0.4427809417247772,
-1.0565612316131592,
0.941726803779602,
0.669159471988678,
-0.6100956797599792,
0.17062292993068695,
0.3551819920539856,
0.3397485017776489,
0.23645733296871185,
-0.6510628461837769,
0.4109508991241455,
-0.6818286776542664,
0.6530271172523499,
-0.2971024215221405,
0.4886690378189087,
0.23434603214263916,
0.027420340105891228,
0.03355016931891441,
0.4965344965457916,
-0.1447407603263855,
0.3803730905056,
0.0989166796207428,
-0.5251697301864624,
-0.28885871171951294,
-0.33791384100914,
-0.6730602979660034,
-0.34483855962753296,
0.4738246500492096,
0.38582947850227356,
-0.27829092741012573,
-0.48768165707588196,
0.24911095201969147,
0.0027569797821342945,
0.01087742205709219,
-0.05608512833714485,
-0.31157824397087097,
0.4910106956958771,
-0.13349704444408417,
-0.16119630634784698,
0.18951445817947388,
-0.036552008241415024,
0.3752288818359375,
0.5868464708328247,
0.6059753894805908,
-0.3810720443725586,
-0.81866854429245,
0.48593151569366455,
0.15527553856372833,
1.4073498249053955,
-2.900224447250366,
0.17605946958065033,
-0.38000959157943726,
-0.7867014408111572,
-0.38236621022224426,
0.326144278049469,
0.4621768295764923,
0.03381337225437164,
0.08436065167188644,
-0.20136140286922455,
-0.3687402904033661,
0.2331036478281021,
0.21830213069915771,
-0.7517821788787842,
0.19855591654777527,
0.44699016213417053
] |
234961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmy%20parrot | Pygmy parrot | Pygmy parrots are the smallest members of the parrot order. The six species of pygmy parrots are all in the genus Micropsitta, which is the only genus in the Micropsittini tribe.
Pygmy parrots are native to the forests of New Guinea and nearby islands. They are tiny birds, fast-moving, and mostly green with bright highlights. A pygmy parrot spends a good deal of time climbing through foliage, using its large feet and beak, and stiffened tail feathers. At a little over long, the buff-faced pygmy parrot is the smallest parrot species.
Pygmy parrots are also among the few species in the order (other examples include Pyrilia and Nannopsittaca species) that have never been successfully kept, let alone bred, in captivity. All attempts to do so have resulted in the quick deaths of the little birds. Stress and dietary deficiencies are probably to blame. Pygmy parrots are among the few birds that feed on fungi and lichens, which play a major role in their diet. Their precise dietary needs are poorly understood.
Description
Pygmy parrots are the smallest parrots and range is size from about . They have long toes and long, curved claws. The shafts of their tail feathers are stiff and form projections at the end of the tail. The cere is prominent. The external appearance of the adult males and adult females differ to varying extents in different species. Juveniles are duller.
Taxonomy
The genus was defined by French naturalist René-Primevère Lesson in 1831. The name Micropsitta is derived from the Greek mikros meaning small and psitta for parrot.
The pygmy parrots consist of six species and several subspecies:
Genus: Micropsitta Lesson 1831 (pygmy parrots)
M. bruijnii (Salvadori 1875), Red-breasted pygmy parrot
M. b. bruijnii (Salvadori 1875)
M. b. buruensis Arndt 1999
M. b. necopinata Hartert 1925
M. b. pileata Mayr 1940
M. b. rosea Mayr 1940
M. finschii (Ramsay, EP 1881), Finsch's pygmy parrot
M. f. aolae (Ogilvie-Grant 1888)
M. f. finschii (Ramsay, EP 1881)
M. f. nanina (Tristram 1891)
M. f. tristrami (Rothschild & Hartert 1902)
M. f. viridifrons (Rothschild & Hartert 1899)
M. geelvinkiana (Schlegel 1871), Geelvink pygmy parrot
M. g. geelvinkiana (Schlegel 1871)
M. g. misoriensis (Salvadori 1876)
M. keiensis (Salvadori 1876), Yellow-capped pygmy parrot
M. k. chloroxantha Oberholser 1917
M. k. keiensis (Salvadori 1876)
M. k. viridipectus (Rothschild 1911)
M. meeki Rothschild & Hartert 1914, Meek's pygmy parrot
M. m. meeki Rothschild & Hartert 1914
M. m. proxima Rothschild & Hartert 1924
M. pusio (Sclater, PL 1866), Buff-faced pygmy parrot
M. p. beccarii (Salvadori 1876)
M. p. harterti Mayr 1940
M. p. pusio (Sclater, PL 1866)
M. p. stresemanni Hartert 1926
References
External links
Psittaculinae | [
-0.14475850760936737,
0.419520765542984,
-0.721989095211029,
0.00225309981033206,
-0.23585742712020874,
0.5208677053451538,
0.6527804136276245,
0.5386982560157776,
-0.6698487997055054,
0.2200578898191452,
-0.07196628302335739,
-0.0966765284538269,
-0.33471158146858215,
0.10821617394685745,
-0.05068199709057808,
0.7035045623779297,
0.4869564473628998,
0.6517337560653687,
0.1254788041114807,
-0.623874306678772,
-0.08163843303918839,
-0.8141399025917053,
0.17012017965316772,
-0.7577048540115356,
0.35648515820503235,
0.0467400886118412,
0.5919321775436401,
0.8694232702255249,
0.5944650769233704,
0.04680117592215538,
-0.13317033648490906,
0.9436989426612854,
0.6023097038269043,
0.18855802714824677,
0.4813408851623535,
-0.3369177579879761,
-0.34235259890556335,
-0.217567577958107,
0.3247036039829254,
-0.7663849592208862,
0.33687642216682434,
-0.13731011748313904,
0.05411490052938461,
0.5917732119560242,
-0.46576565504074097,
-0.41975387930870056,
-1.3352947235107422,
0.01323558110743761,
-0.12543997168540955,
0.34155356884002686,
-0.22312717139720917,
0.240776926279068,
0.6691185235977173,
0.46947044134140015,
0.26472407579421997,
0.194308802485466,
-0.9606211185455322,
-0.07531049847602844,
0.13858447968959808,
0.04070943966507912,
-0.23207706212997437,
0.048727847635746,
-0.5786677002906799,
-0.15567108988761902,
0.14551910758018494,
0.42624738812446594,
0.15350718796253204,
0.798945963382721,
-0.37243473529815674,
0.4166533648967743,
-0.30625689029693604,
-1.0993435382843018,
0.6286947131156921,
0.7050238847732544,
-0.7360395193099976,
0.044288527220487595,
0.0677318125963211,
-0.0018690349534153938,
0.7603400349617004,
-0.03534568101167679,
0.5782042741775513,
0.78387850522995,
0.4276195168495178,
-0.10997995734214783,
-0.1072978675365448,
0.0914032906293869,
-0.38731732964515686,
-0.5841527581214905,
-0.4250962436199188,
0.45778748393058777,
-0.27022162079811096,
0.3678278923034668,
0.25248241424560547,
0.40251410007476807,
-0.5699429512023926,
-0.5150436758995056,
-0.3370805084705353,
-0.14450961351394653,
0.5586910247802734,
0.18327780067920685,
0.1617375612258911,
0.5888522267341614,
0.16768468916416168,
0.29513657093048096,
-0.15461231768131256,
-0.43304944038391113,
-0.33881592750549316,
-0.4274657368659973,
-0.3341231048107147,
-0.21287427842617035,
-1.2384607791900635,
0.11688607931137085,
-0.21091009676456451,
-0.037009939551353455,
-0.10508910566568375,
0.9166325926780701,
0.13090911507606506,
-0.6423875689506531,
-0.21089299023151398,
-0.5741756558418274,
0.4477546811103821,
0.4413721561431885,
-0.3162529170513153,
0.10831081122159958,
0.11507320404052734,
0.593178927898407,
0.7591966390609741,
0.5888124704360962,
-0.014183923602104187,
0.275967538356781,
0.3942554295063019,
1.0784213542938232,
-0.5184085965156555,
-0.3302207589149475,
0.3774254322052002,
-0.3602205812931061,
0.4141497313976288,
0.2936267852783203,
0.5735070705413818,
0.13479766249656677,
-0.5775694251060486,
-0.19353049993515015,
-1.0353928804397583,
0.013539771549403667,
0.06570053100585938,
0.41685089468955994,
-0.27172350883483887,
-0.5188896656036377,
-0.6017394065856934,
-0.6188874244689941,
-0.30996254086494446,
-0.3079286515712738,
0.04992397129535675,
0.17704373598098755,
-0.3533019721508026,
-0.5206007361412048,
0.15983493626117706,
-0.6302464604377747,
0.7058155536651611,
-0.18458367884159088,
-0.24072444438934326,
-0.3337940275669098,
-0.4887769818305969,
-0.3741758465766907,
0.3830844759941101,
-0.05767223984003067,
0.4066424071788788,
0.4314521849155426,
-0.40704718232154846,
0.30935004353523254,
-0.2079870104789734,
0.25697195529937744,
-0.17388230562210083,
-0.09335852414369583,
0.06800096482038498,
-0.4476063549518585,
-0.1727077215909958,
0.46870046854019165,
0.3392287790775299,
-0.31803035736083984,
-0.7821440696716309,
0.5610021948814392,
0.3661195933818817,
-0.5503407716751099,
0.4399438500404358,
0.06749394536018372,
0.3060745298862457,
0.4439964294433594,
-0.03152932971715927,
-0.6530601978302002,
-0.48517507314682007,
0.1934264898300171,
0.5414255857467651,
0.19637024402618408,
0.8821998834609985,
0.23778900504112244,
-0.17604923248291016,
-0.11925385147333145,
0.22396357357501984,
0.7546506524085999,
0.05953982472419739,
-0.26351094245910645,
0.2819140553474426,
0.3783561587333679,
-1.6771864891052246,
0.8618857264518738,
-0.009358635172247887,
0.4641505777835846,
0.5527671575546265,
0.2936229407787323,
0.02057134173810482,
-0.15715083479881287,
0.10400170832872391,
-0.3303084969520569,
-0.13897430896759033,
-0.12360664457082748,
0.0052721151150763035,
0.12186338007450104,
-0.09704406559467316,
-0.5236197710037231,
0.5253355503082275,
-0.06892435997724533,
-0.2156631201505661,
0.7080202698707581,
-0.11753595620393753,
0.9417198896408081,
0.6181312799453735,
-0.27097317576408386,
0.5259901285171509,
-0.4617179334163666,
-0.44583067297935486,
-0.004459396004676819,
0.36024394631385803,
-0.10639310628175735,
-0.17072232067584991,
-0.21855467557907104,
-0.4109504222869873,
-1.156201958656311,
0.38648226857185364,
-0.25939348340034485,
0.1909950077533722,
-0.41804471611976624,
-0.4873255491256714,
0.2554352283477783,
0.31333816051483154,
-0.43407952785491943,
0.07518595457077026,
0.5378283858299255,
-1.160298466682434,
0.15430580079555511,
0.2116381675004959,
1.0290496349334717,
0.30955371260643005,
-0.39534303545951843,
-0.0819924920797348,
0.10460186004638672,
-0.022090444341301918,
-0.26662710309028625,
0.04673796147108078,
-0.18242989480495453,
-0.5764642357826233,
0.39304840564727783,
0.11111786216497421,
0.09165504574775696,
-0.8355817794799805,
-0.9961967468261719,
-0.351052463054657,
-0.3745476305484772,
0.2952245771884918,
0.3555973172187805,
0.40402621030807495,
-0.5855104327201843,
-0.7327930331230164,
-1.0106364488601685,
-0.11739327758550644,
-0.5627214312553406,
-0.026301585137844086,
-0.3697301149368286,
-0.3915351629257202,
-0.13523483276367188,
0.6302964687347412,
0.9625967144966125,
0.7778974771499634,
-0.33429935574531555,
-0.5016995072364807,
0.03554314002394676,
0.9900083541870117,
-0.6862991452217102,
-0.16604483127593994,
-0.887672483921051,
-0.0665997639298439,
0.024777589365839958,
-0.18043509125709534,
0.426188588142395,
-0.7343540787696838,
0.15455706417560577,
-0.2206832766532898,
0.4865383505821228,
0.32698526978492737,
-0.4456935226917267,
-0.32895246148109436,
0.2554655373096466,
-0.012533655390143394,
-0.35877054929733276,
-0.142267107963562,
-0.030944282189011574,
0.02833414077758789,
0.13920794427394867,
-5.011642932891846,
0.11206062883138657,
-0.08750308305025101,
-0.4478778541088104,
-0.22510190308094025,
0.541316032409668,
0.4903034269809723,
-0.6282656788825989,
-0.49766701459884644,
0.0895087942481041,
0.2621409595012665,
0.15934713184833527,
0.04993004724383354,
0.1782330423593521,
0.8559274673461914,
0.38035839796066284,
-0.02320915088057518,
0.28176456689834595,
0.49651288986206055,
0.03865646570920944,
0.208635613322258,
0.5015439987182617,
0.007965718396008015,
-0.6455106735229492,
0.227657750248909,
0.13762614130973816,
0.02972879819571972,
-0.43725529313087463,
-0.8075423240661621,
0.009765016846358776,
-0.44678688049316406,
0.10969193279743195,
-0.30171212553977966,
-0.05711493641138077,
-0.403632253408432,
-0.019267123192548752,
0.5674135088920593,
0.4912826418876648,
-0.030590612441301346,
-0.14898797869682312,
-0.5167548060417175,
-0.08536408096551895,
0.48451298475265503,
0.5239625573158264,
0.6273249983787537,
0.38058871030807495,
-0.36070388555526733,
-0.7952263355255127,
-0.3723834156990051,
0.7669885754585266,
-0.0846937820315361,
-0.19824081659317017,
0.5547343492507935,
0.5812469124794006,
0.15459056198596954,
0.06072612479329109,
0.340242862701416,
0.32142606377601624,
-0.6104068160057068,
0.08053933084011078,
0.5216493606567383,
-0.291739821434021,
0.17098693549633026,
-1.0663801431655884,
0.33407288789749146,
-0.02157890982925892,
-0.6364352107048035,
-0.1791425198316574,
0.6114072203636169,
-0.19851908087730408,
-0.11808247119188309,
-0.28666070103645325,
-0.4511224627494812,
-0.806294858455658,
0.7563006281852722,
-0.44392329454421997,
-0.659542441368103,
-0.07585196942090988,
-0.23114778101444244,
-0.09195522964000702,
0.5381932258605957,
-0.4933601915836334,
-0.45956307649612427,
0.1536596268415451,
-0.017609044909477234,
-1.1003249883651733,
-0.6425397396087646,
0.08715857565402985,
-0.025891659781336784,
-0.15219956636428833,
0.3632220923900604,
-0.1433659791946411,
0.07125150412321091,
0.09818436205387115,
0.5121197700500488,
0.6799773573875427,
0.8288670778274536,
0.09886246919631958,
0.37106871604919434,
-0.12967391312122345,
0.4761877954006195,
0.04723447933793068,
-0.1978219896554947,
0.08435310423374176,
0.007802989333868027,
-0.4668315052986145,
-0.038569532334804535,
0.6922671794891357,
0.6230485439300537,
-0.07557329535484314,
0.5992017388343811,
-0.7822239398956299,
0.09789539128541946,
-0.42128509283065796,
0.5607683062553406,
-0.3037254512310028,
-0.07188110798597336,
0.5562344193458557,
0.6005590558052063,
0.09574426710605621,
-0.014993864111602306,
0.16228239238262177,
-0.20258814096450806,
-0.3619186282157898,
-0.14404048025608063,
0.05270988121628761,
0.10167502611875534,
0.02503279782831669,
-0.8616302609443665,
-0.44343268871307373,
-0.10117850452661514,
-0.011011849157512188,
0.02627691812813282,
-0.33711734414100647,
-0.16521193087100983,
0.13507726788520813,
-0.07168730348348618,
0.013968848623335361,
0.6560032963752747,
-0.7194549441337585,
-0.3366677165031433,
-0.24011437594890594,
-0.5964707136154175,
0.6302847862243652,
0.6500318050384521,
0.40947458148002625,
0.25874438881874084,
-0.4792749881744385,
0.10969793796539307,
1.2595702409744263,
-0.152165949344635,
-0.8864167928695679,
0.3286263048648834,
-0.16318917274475098,
-0.08071929216384888,
-0.034066103398799896,
0.019200297072529793,
0.6008669137954712,
-0.37196967005729675,
-0.5714356899261475,
0.14589257538318634,
-0.37651050090789795,
-0.45514732599258423,
-0.22537003457546234,
0.825037956237793,
-0.4802859127521515,
-0.36274296045303345,
-0.2679893672466278,
-0.13650383055210114,
0.6329526901245117,
0.5160593390464783,
-0.04584108665585518,
-0.6109281182289124,
-0.047565948218107224,
0.6340411901473999,
-0.4759542644023895,
0.19239674508571625,
0.5995808243751526,
-0.41332677006721497,
-0.04260561615228653,
-0.4713165760040283,
0.2009638100862503,
0.32898908853530884,
0.15941251814365387,
0.41594114899635315,
0.008589363656938076,
0.43473559617996216,
-0.1666530966758728,
-0.3597528338432312,
-0.047841042280197144,
0.6329314708709717,
0.6010020971298218,
0.4216133952140808,
0.08234351873397827,
-0.2635141909122467,
0.10769982635974884,
0.2414991408586502,
0.4140796959400177,
0.12008322030305862,
-1.091638207435608,
-0.0019338822457939386,
0.428195595741272,
-0.22150646150112152,
0.8262091875076294,
0.6582526564598083,
-0.21511799097061157,
0.6999170184135437,
-0.3833543360233307,
-0.8634633421897888,
0.10784883052110672,
0.27229902148246765,
-0.6091052293777466,
-0.026043735444545746,
0.5957918167114258,
-0.4983656704425812,
0.2454821914434433,
0.36826008558273315,
0.12861715257167816,
-0.34716010093688965,
-0.026810212060809135,
0.1969815045595169,
-0.46878230571746826,
-0.15299385786056519,
-0.5758876800537109,
-0.6589797139167786,
0.6574094295501709,
-0.04206110164523125,
0.06984381377696991,
0.8369627594947815,
-1.139760136604309,
-0.5877993702888489,
-0.3247082829475403,
-0.048357266932725906,
-0.3393239378929138,
-0.7134444117546082,
-0.19761234521865845,
-0.21751873195171356,
-0.08853079378604889,
0.06780742108821869,
0.6860055327415466,
0.266969233751297,
1.0486392974853516,
0.16406455636024475,
-0.533187210559845,
-0.610897958278656,
-0.16613134741783142,
0.4888004958629608,
-0.7081655859947205,
-0.989775538444519,
-0.3181140720844269,
0.2704196572303772,
-0.09212218970060349,
-0.16216488182544708,
-0.2237710952758789,
0.8753411173820496,
0.21303510665893555,
-0.46147555112838745,
-0.037450920790433884,
0.3022020757198334,
-0.062446899712085724,
0.4478452503681183,
-0.3766707479953766,
-0.5627965331077576,
0.19878582656383514,
0.502341628074646,
-0.059304360300302505,
-0.8724744915962219,
0.09983312338590622,
0.3219617009162903,
-0.27798739075660706,
-0.22607028484344482,
0.21486122906208038,
0.3234465420246124,
-0.32759976387023926,
0.3410841226577759,
0.24533742666244507,
-0.23295050859451294,
-1.1316736936569214,
-0.12125523388385773,
0.30637362599372864,
0.3878755271434784,
0.012715409509837627,
0.5630037188529968,
-0.3383028507232666,
0.0451052226126194,
-0.26217207312583923,
-0.8350169062614441,
-0.4086948335170746,
-0.7428880333900452,
-0.2022802084684372,
-0.3619638681411743,
0.14538925886154175,
-0.17844542860984802,
0.2354869842529297,
0.7115117907524109,
0.044052060693502426,
0.3317224681377411,
0.06732666492462158,
-0.3428538143634796,
0.48265090584754944,
-1.0542360544204712,
0.8359987735748291,
0.3066220283508301,
-0.09397690743207932,
1.2075166702270508,
0.2085878849029541,
-0.3011320233345032,
-0.26273849606513977,
0.16881506145000458,
-0.29201868176460266,
-0.030231118202209473,
0.16539764404296875,
0.05410786345601082,
0.22827443480491638,
0.020588327199220657,
0.04748481884598732,
0.3884098529815674,
-0.3240654766559601,
0.6130856871604919,
0.9846130013465881,
0.5275813937187195,
-0.053626857697963715,
0.7919537425041199,
0.6398127675056458,
-0.5938100218772888,
0.4227350950241089,
-0.7857273817062378,
-0.42966005206108093,
1.096627116203308,
0.040177758783102036,
0.9412053823471069,
-0.06899178773164749,
-0.2464718222618103,
0.15399911999702454,
0.07470478862524033,
0.16451236605644226,
-0.15879175066947937,
-0.15882359445095062,
-0.46457934379577637,
0.984691858291626,
1.1030628681182861,
0.03841903805732727,
-0.33982178568840027,
0.13126444816589355,
-0.368023544549942,
0.11458538472652435,
-0.45832547545433044,
0.33332744240760803,
0.4942062199115753,
0.1732715517282486,
0.04352368041872978,
0.23293477296829224,
0.6887363195419312,
-0.03682389855384827,
0.008699397556483746,
0.4241306781768799,
-0.1253126859664917,
-0.17911842465400696,
-0.3133290112018585,
-0.6755579710006714,
-0.13466982543468475,
0.07148843258619308,
-0.847380518913269,
0.6190662384033203,
-0.0662369355559349,
0.5053948760032654,
-0.39960306882858276,
0.020897040143609047,
-0.31759777665138245,
0.2684870660305023,
0.40158891677856445,
0.46939751505851746,
0.042954590171575546,
0.39958080649375916,
0.3248017728328705,
-0.028833920136094093,
-0.25453031063079834,
0.32195091247558594,
0.07220915704965591,
-0.1369355022907257,
-0.5087780952453613,
-0.6233090758323669,
0.14129133522510529,
-0.8279739618301392,
0.6330503821372986,
0.09864109009504318,
-0.35604825615882874,
-0.12757384777069092,
0.028347451239824295,
0.15583759546279907,
-0.46384724974632263,
-0.24282445013523102,
0.25511404871940613,
-0.07281819730997086,
-0.7818531394004822,
-0.5660747289657593,
-0.09059170633554459,
0.8012987971305847,
0.09287585318088531,
-0.573885977268219,
-0.18576014041900635,
-0.015173754654824734,
-0.16127900779247284,
0.33055126667022705,
0.05385519564151764,
0.3414859473705292,
-0.6329619884490967,
0.12956169247627258,
-1.4828840494155884,
0.6552820205688477,
0.29772454500198364,
0.2691783010959625,
0.1467723846435547,
0.31625938415527344,
-0.1272546797990799,
0.0854567438364029,
0.5263848900794983,
-0.5527216196060181,
-0.3169727921485901,
-0.40236860513687134,
0.0839049220085144,
-1.4557225704193115,
0.42941898107528687,
0.5084162950515747,
-0.13462193310260773,
-0.7023089528083801,
0.35118407011032104,
-0.10013731569051743,
-0.7293063998222351,
0.06623885780572891,
0.06206498295068741,
0.585128128528595,
-0.27104929089546204,
-0.1973058581352234,
-0.5127602815628052,
-0.08273478597402573,
0.7509366869926453,
0.6444587707519531,
0.040883664041757584,
0.22866754233837128,
-0.3592516779899597,
-0.5497258901596069,
0.6355674266815186,
-0.04114256799221039,
-1.2594351768493652,
-0.2280133068561554,
0.13709048926830292,
-0.9010878801345825,
-1.0924931764602661,
-0.14173594117164612,
0.6539244651794434,
0.12969541549682617,
-0.034175217151641846,
-0.5800333619117737,
-0.14525935053825378,
0.5760713219642639,
0.27838394045829773,
0.13037502765655518,
0.3021598756313324,
0.12756256759166718
] |
234962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20integrals%20of%20inverse%20hyperbolic%20functions | List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions | The following is a list of indefinite integrals (antiderivatives) of expressions involving the inverse hyperbolic functions. For a complete list of integral formulas, see lists of integrals.
In all formulas the constant is assumed to be nonzero, and denotes the constant of integration.
For each inverse hyperbolic integration formula below there is a corresponding formula in the list of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions.
Inverse hyperbolic sine integration formulas
Inverse hyperbolic cosine integration formulas
Inverse hyperbolic tangent integration formulas
Inverse hyperbolic cotangent integration formulas
Inverse hyperbolic secant integration formulas
Inverse hyperbolic cosecant integration formulas
Area functions
Integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions | [
-0.6130805611610413,
0.1462598443031311,
-0.0798635333776474,
-0.18901142477989197,
-0.513024628162384,
0.31631508469581604,
0.1178920716047287,
0.2708083391189575,
-0.05132861062884331,
-0.21288137137889862,
-0.3976139426231384,
0.5975266098976135,
-0.3468807637691498,
-0.16906051337718964,
0.40720224380493164,
0.7220865488052368,
0.1387229859828949,
0.3986603319644928,
-0.7466690540313721,
-0.6028523445129395,
0.5496736168861389,
0.16730037331581116,
0.5836553573608398,
-0.6939895153045654,
-0.14888888597488403,
-0.09975790977478027,
0.2432183027267456,
-0.08999048918485641,
-0.41626203060150146,
0.29756903648376465,
-0.28123292326927185,
0.929180383682251,
-0.19234874844551086,
-0.22833386063575745,
0.13744141161441803,
-0.12349709868431091,
0.5897255539894104,
0.4338871240615845,
0.27255502343177795,
-0.27213332056999207,
0.2435232251882553,
-0.2803737223148346,
0.23141637444496155,
-0.22520402073860168,
-0.05663955956697464,
-0.6794975996017456,
-1.4114736318588257,
-0.3928983509540558,
-0.6724662184715271,
-0.22654250264167786,
-0.12276159971952438,
0.2461717277765274,
0.7795705795288086,
0.8296240568161011,
-0.26059556007385254,
0.6998342871665955,
-0.6639546155929565,
-0.45649421215057373,
0.6713687181472778,
0.11377278715372086,
0.0708501785993576,
0.5497928857803345,
0.04020368307828903,
0.08648218214511871,
0.448496550321579,
1.3518579006195068,
-0.48121222853660583,
0.3203534781932831,
-0.9395868182182312,
-0.1838919222354889,
-0.12834124267101288,
-0.8322737216949463,
-0.12063951790332794,
0.4601597785949707,
-0.3339286148548126,
-0.2805252969264984,
0.03609573468565941,
-0.13816693425178528,
-0.2560911178588867,
-0.10187526047229767,
-0.10518410801887512,
0.2872966229915619,
1.0130822658538818,
-0.37399619817733765,
-0.0862332433462143,
-0.0827731043100357,
-0.4302600622177124,
0.24867413938045502,
-0.5523949265480042,
0.45678314566612244,
0.29092392325401306,
-0.2672288119792938,
0.26543712615966797,
0.1715754270553589,
0.5541505813598633,
0.569028377532959,
-0.014934707432985306,
-0.38435256481170654,
0.06585808098316193,
0.5742440223693848,
0.2596953213214874,
0.2703624367713928,
0.13099396228790283,
-0.5959095358848572,
-0.9095664620399475,
-0.7553205490112305,
-0.4467387795448303,
-0.2954987585544586,
0.3176288902759552,
-0.15923751890659332,
-1.1046652793884277,
0.878100574016571,
0.750743567943573,
-0.3954983651638031,
-0.6110438704490662,
0.37913262844085693,
-0.11981308460235596,
0.31513574719429016,
-0.22362537682056427,
0.5420358180999756,
0.16422511637210846,
0.8975858092308044,
0.043920986354351044,
0.3300603926181793,
-0.34428054094314575,
0.6020316481590271,
0.7239329814910889,
0.6290409564971924,
-0.14043749868869781,
-0.09943210333585739,
0.27863630652427673,
0.853257417678833,
0.34982776641845703,
-0.01998605765402317,
-0.10600092262029648,
-1.1401704549789429,
0.038231395184993744,
-0.5226860046386719,
-0.13798777759075165,
0.2927691340446472,
-0.6727970242500305,
-0.49816879630088806,
-1.162676215171814,
-0.5440380573272705,
0.5195252895355225,
-0.3907412588596344,
-0.5831403136253357,
-0.11448709666728973,
0.43598970770835876,
0.18552540242671967,
0.07531192153692245,
-0.3284740746021271,
-0.5324888229370117,
0.19015899300575256,
-0.3832646906375885,
0.0054631782695651054,
0.5134566426277161,
-0.03364253789186478,
0.4559861123561859,
0.12912321090698242,
0.2327539175748825,
-0.12700186669826508,
-0.30979540944099426,
-0.20963074266910553,
0.2484530359506607,
-0.41143369674682617,
0.5373438596725464,
0.15602408349514008,
0.14896230399608612,
-0.121433325111866,
-0.6291133165359497,
-0.4978831112384796,
0.08481962978839874,
-0.1771884262561798,
-0.012156467884778976,
-0.1538647562265396,
0.5191295742988586,
-0.0732082799077034,
0.4457339942455292,
-0.032545823603868484,
-1.144953966140747,
0.028686365112662315,
0.19623079895973206,
-0.5864510536193848,
0.519798219203949,
0.4425170123577118,
0.5141452550888062,
0.3630032241344452,
0.4607035219669342,
0.2813323736190796,
-0.599315881729126,
-0.09769002348184586,
0.04382036626338959,
-0.7406582832336426,
1.017422080039978,
0.5951060056686401,
-1.003259301185608,
-0.05557934567332268,
-0.19843441247940063,
0.5519982576370239,
-0.5488515496253967,
-0.16986821591854095,
0.7263890504837036,
0.9189150929450989,
-0.5813899636268616,
0.9690436720848083,
-0.49357905983924866,
0.3571052551269531,
-0.1818733811378479,
1.1501712799072266,
0.6683194041252136,
0.037496767938137054,
0.30988606810569763,
-0.41176459193229675,
0.07263083755970001,
-0.271456241607666,
-0.10354889929294586,
0.12667512893676758,
-0.37206345796585083,
-0.040487661957740784,
1.242955207824707,
-0.11986708641052246,
0.18945097923278809,
0.4843570291996002,
-0.19810716807842255,
0.6444138288497925,
0.20706351101398468,
0.45890012383461,
0.32606950402259827,
-0.6629877686500549,
0.2515380084514618,
0.4037012457847595,
0.2758539021015167,
0.10682279616594315,
-0.24112698435783386,
0.2584311068058014,
0.2727113366127014,
-0.6677140593528748,
-0.16678033769130707,
-0.7226260900497437,
0.15226581692695618,
0.5106436014175415,
-0.473945289850235,
0.32947447896003723,
-0.22085776925086975,
-0.2636496126651764,
-0.7380741238594055,
-0.09565367549657822,
-0.4080106019973755,
-0.6099735498428345,
0.2804567813873291,
0.2152121663093567,
0.24060525000095367,
-0.6309587955474854,
-0.03882553055882454,
0.2825559675693512,
-0.1292804777622223,
-0.061974722892045975,
0.4793078303337097,
0.7045778632164001,
-0.33108723163604736,
0.19813086092472076,
0.4524364173412323,
-0.26027417182922363,
-0.3845592141151428,
0.09238888323307037,
-0.6371726989746094,
-0.2252383828163147,
0.32243719696998596,
0.26537761092185974,
0.32858625054359436,
-0.7827954888343811,
-0.6822850704193115,
-0.6136870384216309,
-0.6429866552352905,
-0.14682306349277496,
-0.9798190593719482,
0.3290923833847046,
-1.7380353212356567,
0.17332592606544495,
0.4492556154727936,
0.8084361553192139,
0.15150383114814758,
-0.11353857815265656,
-0.6335984468460083,
-0.11867579817771912,
0.108413927257061,
-0.23201555013656616,
-0.1491726040840149,
-0.4391096830368042,
-0.5031195282936096,
-0.21336616575717926,
-0.5520390272140503,
-0.15150251984596252,
0.048314113169908524,
0.31438738107681274,
0.05818599835038185,
0.011343716643750668,
-0.06929850578308105,
-0.2116391658782959,
-0.7074974179267883,
-0.02219235524535179,
-0.42903798818588257,
-0.23234380781650543,
-0.117844358086586,
-0.5126338005065918,
-0.4905155599117279,
0.4399338960647583,
-5.0892333984375,
0.04885094240307808,
-0.8312938809394836,
0.2656436264514923,
-0.2988203167915344,
0.3680823743343353,
0.34778425097465515,
-0.11371362209320068,
-0.4657396674156189,
0.3457868993282318,
0.06626969575881958,
-0.4863198399543762,
-0.2858729958534241,
0.8691965937614441,
0.3754092752933502,
0.2065853625535965,
0.12724557518959045,
0.14508694410324097,
0.5581042170524597,
0.325795978307724,
-0.09589583426713943,
0.16847099363803864,
-0.3027675747871399,
0.1421189308166504,
0.5573081374168396,
0.6446860432624817,
-0.15327410399913788,
0.5424527525901794,
-0.3851390779018402,
-0.21239939332008362,
-0.0744597464799881,
0.1792713701725006,
-0.13056449592113495,
-0.6575965285301208,
-0.2756081521511078,
0.1834356188774109,
0.5268159508705139,
-0.5088036060333252,
0.544110894203186,
-0.6880640387535095,
-0.39081814885139465,
0.940180778503418,
-0.2870256304740906,
0.09359975159168243,
0.42620301246643066,
-0.35007575154304504,
-0.14951351284980774,
0.022766143083572388,
0.1221776008605957,
0.8857698440551758,
-0.43429097533226013,
-0.024155836552381516,
0.8680923581123352,
0.40819868445396423,
-0.2487759292125702,
-0.3331100642681122,
0.04598665609955788,
-0.1710098385810852,
-0.17846348881721497,
0.5710693001747131,
0.9085475206375122,
-0.7048376202583313,
0.08088191598653793,
-0.4758010506629944,
-0.3730761706829071,
-0.31461918354034424,
-0.41892027854919434,
-0.6119951605796814,
0.17891709506511688,
0.043925024569034576,
-0.4347133934497833,
0.42346063256263733,
-0.29868173599243164,
-0.3697771728038788,
0.29625511169433594,
-0.15751107037067413,
0.11741242557764053,
0.25311416387557983,
-0.16273652017116547,
0.10492069274187088,
-0.7343536019325256,
-0.29207107424736023,
-0.7513831853866577,
0.5036001205444336,
0.12360873073339462,
0.11902234703302383,
-0.45007655024528503,
-0.35149946808815,
-0.5792102217674255,
0.10479087382555008,
0.5214034914970398,
-0.15242493152618408,
0.2548484206199646,
0.5993437767028809,
0.19948330521583557,
0.13491025567054749,
0.9279040694236755,
-0.2822933495044708,
0.7677618265151978,
-0.23935382068157196,
0.650275707244873,
-0.32628223299980164,
0.20277580618858337,
-0.11378315836191177,
-0.07847576588392258,
-0.20620954036712646,
-0.5971358418464661,
0.8102943897247314,
0.3664363920688629,
-0.3818226456642151,
-0.09493201971054077,
-0.26588520407676697,
-0.5571310520172119,
-0.39486026763916016,
0.21950358152389526,
0.08321492373943329,
-0.526271641254425,
0.7997896075248718,
0.6896897554397583,
-0.12834054231643677,
0.067162424325943,
0.09694521129131317,
0.13514073193073273,
-0.2122178077697754,
-0.5547295212745667,
0.05339086800813675,
-0.047110382467508316,
0.6591089963912964,
-0.37594228982925415,
0.04989893361926079,
-0.0726657435297966,
0.506242573261261,
-0.5201493501663208,
0.09311218559741974,
0.23481178283691406,
-0.6955646276473999,
-0.3587104380130768,
0.11557810008525848,
0.5908437967300415,
-0.4530577063560486,
1.040650725364685,
0.3356814980506897,
-0.5263785123825073,
-0.2899746894836426,
0.11551535129547119,
0.6467402577400208,
0.1872350126504898,
-0.5472275614738464,
-0.7066830396652222,
0.687027633190155,
-0.08284902572631836,
-0.9232785105705261,
0.6022510528564453,
-0.278241902589798,
0.5940424799919128,
0.46575623750686646,
-0.24991661310195923,
0.5249100923538208,
-0.16721893846988678,
-0.35671332478523254,
0.48100602626800537,
0.12109830975532532,
-0.6277652382850647,
-0.06051123887300491,
0.061793252825737,
-0.46933427453041077,
-0.5239030122756958,
-0.023216303437948227,
-0.7273868918418884,
0.7590914964675903,
0.03214230760931969,
0.4257732331752777,
-0.2132449895143509,
0.025071976706385612,
0.3722134828567505,
0.0943555012345314,
0.11531510949134827,
0.5038851499557495,
0.3776104152202606,
-0.3458428680896759,
0.12188558280467987,
-0.6916831731796265,
0.10059869289398193,
0.4798811674118042,
0.8503679633140564,
0.012233489193022251,
-0.025148313492536545,
-0.12397275865077972,
-0.5040377378463745,
-0.4687260389328003,
0.2704721689224243,
0.23979389667510986,
0.04323850944638252,
-0.7275965809822083,
-0.7093639969825745,
-0.6368699073791504,
0.37427783012390137,
0.27170512080192566,
0.02691471204161644,
-0.5991363525390625,
0.5631841421127319,
0.641135036945343,
-0.3995213508605957,
0.6352559328079224,
-0.11848358809947968,
-0.5848014950752258,
0.13977953791618347,
-0.0823604017496109,
-0.7305637001991272,
0.5270673036575317,
-0.41950640082359314,
-0.9429810643196106,
0.10560182482004166,
-0.033523913472890854,
-0.6258554458618164,
0.13414423167705536,
0.6814628839492798,
-0.20761819183826447,
-0.3732204735279083,
-0.46090102195739746,
0.34873175621032715,
-0.6521422863006592,
-0.07880755513906479,
0.09731659293174744,
-0.22401876747608185,
-0.05143164470791817,
-0.11788029223680496,
-1.03854238986969,
0.7219621539115906,
-0.40889972448349,
-0.5229014754295349,
0.2943313419818878,
-0.058947302401065826,
0.21575899422168732,
-0.31291359663009644,
-0.5566695928573608,
-0.7433424592018127,
0.6782215237617493,
-0.7527503967285156,
-0.32920342683792114,
0.34694427251815796,
0.22821098566055298,
0.20994631946086884,
-0.8945801854133606,
0.24705208837985992,
-0.03012758493423462,
0.6022437810897827,
-0.655379593372345,
-0.5818329453468323,
0.12377475947141647,
0.47458988428115845,
0.045086026191711426,
-0.5862496495246887,
-0.9968115091323853,
0.8529186248779297,
0.09888685494661331,
-0.3741747736930847,
-0.12934637069702148,
0.3491692841053009,
0.3069315254688263,
0.04393311217427254,
0.048263464123010635,
-0.5114587545394897,
0.2027440369129181,
0.11209972947835922,
0.4064905345439911,
0.17160563170909882,
-0.06808765977621078,
0.8995349407196045,
0.2685609757900238,
-0.14128415286540985,
-0.20973679423332214,
0.31342488527297974,
0.47678300738334656,
0.22604207694530487,
0.2086002230644226,
0.19407771527767181,
-0.04660961404442787,
0.17702218890190125,
-0.3124104142189026,
0.10236642509698868,
0.1505800485610962,
0.15070833265781403,
-0.40070149302482605,
0.800156831741333,
-0.24342332780361176,
-0.005085845477879047,
0.4143568277359009,
-0.19159530103206635,
0.4034739136695862,
-0.5286651253700256,
-0.04246455058455467,
-0.31892630457878113,
0.08271360397338867,
0.09972289949655533,
0.6787918210029602,
0.07735446840524673,
0.02155660279095173,
-0.4673071801662445,
-0.7863752245903015,
-0.6210447549819946,
0.21163684129714966,
0.05130724981427193,
-0.21715617179870605,
-0.006089681293815374,
0.298263818025589,
0.7906737327575684,
-0.27913615107536316,
-0.4262246787548065,
-0.2707885801792145,
0.281825989484787,
0.3066883385181427,
0.12652115523815155,
0.568500816822052,
0.10697605460882187,
-0.08902546763420105,
0.45363733172416687,
-0.23966215550899506,
0.42533180117607117,
0.6363703608512878,
0.05294402688741684,
-0.8141582608222961,
0.6042149662971497,
-0.4283401370048523,
-1.126698613166809,
0.30825021862983704,
-0.026735298335552216,
-0.1062067523598671,
0.2776360809803009,
0.5225004553794861,
0.6675522327423096,
0.42622432112693787,
-1.0140647888183594,
0.19137385487556458,
-0.4062897861003876,
-0.03231218084692955,
0.33063340187072754,
-0.5623064637184143,
-0.18162842094898224,
0.5640921592712402,
0.8080844879150391,
1.139957070350647,
-0.18336741626262665,
-0.16562525928020477,
0.2666364312171936,
0.23699834942817688,
-0.4605538249015808,
0.29714879393577576,
0.39533814787864685,
-0.12137245386838913,
0.27579203248023987,
0.4753742814064026,
0.01366178784519434,
0.05415822193026543,
0.10745444893836975,
0.26832813024520874,
0.3027850389480591,
-0.5378372073173523,
0.2144513875246048,
0.18022307753562927,
0.08527430146932602,
0.33271145820617676,
-0.28535279631614685,
-0.38573285937309265,
0.023204460740089417,
0.08624471724033356,
0.13410407304763794,
-0.10934858024120331,
-0.07508639991283417,
0.04286772757768631,
0.0911174938082695,
0.4627434313297272,
-0.0704394280910492,
-0.05894731357693672,
0.25368544459342957,
-0.6311983466148376,
0.18447069823741913,
0.22051763534545898,
-0.380403071641922,
-0.2167113870382309,
0.26792973279953003,
0.670886218547821,
-0.11848680675029755,
-0.6988168358802795,
0.04520072042942047,
-0.03383079916238785,
0.014559128321707249,
-0.08261222392320633,
0.46418046951293945,
0.07438290864229202,
-0.0869910791516304,
-0.38759613037109375,
-0.20727519690990448,
-0.10065195709466934,
-0.12490452826023102,
0.3055846393108368,
-1.2918117046356201,
1.141221046447754,
0.6360003352165222,
-0.7969247102737427,
0.2318708300590515,
0.2102515548467636,
0.6482114195823669,
0.1806786060333252,
-0.7676829695701599,
0.05921662226319313,
-0.33365598320961,
0.41877418756484985,
-0.6637377142906189,
0.31599316000938416,
-0.03247787803411484,
0.21554812788963318,
0.14334267377853394,
0.5604735016822815,
-0.25005409121513367,
-0.005153775215148926,
0.19636495411396027,
-0.5755769610404968,
-0.1732916384935379,
-0.2503598928451538,
-0.40316709876060486,
-0.2099841684103012,
0.14423342049121857,
0.3425874710083008,
-0.20293092727661133,
-0.47010502219200134,
0.22635358572006226,
0.023411955684423447,
0.5179694890975952,
0.1646294742822647,
-0.19763880968093872,
0.3952064514160156,
0.04493292048573494,
0.18631048500537872,
-0.1544618308544159,
-0.17572510242462158,
0.29949843883514404,
0.6266829967498779,
0.6830884218215942,
-0.5564038753509521,
-0.7234505414962769,
0.044348083436489105,
-0.25058513879776,
1.2532730102539062,
-1.398336410522461,
0.39372068643569946,
-0.49470919370651245,
-0.8422335982322693,
-0.6096200942993164,
0.44234994053840637,
0.30049535632133484,
0.29561445116996765,
0.24495521187782288,
-0.14831016957759857,
-0.37305256724357605,
0.13313166797161102,
0.36913231015205383,
-0.7673578858375549,
0.15563035011291504,
0.5899003744125366
] |
234964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20%C3%85land | History of Åland | Åland (or the Åland Islands) has a rich history. Humans first reached the archipelago in the Neolithic period ca. 4000BC.
Geology and prehistory
Paleolithic period
Around 18,000BC, during the Weichselian glaciation, a thick cover of ice stretched over Scandinavia, which eventually receded from the islands around 9000BC. Around 8000BC the highest peaks of the then submerged archipelago rose from the Baltic Sea. The sea levels would alternate in the Baltic Sea, but a land bridge to Åland never formed, indicating the first humans came by boat or over the ice.
Due to the forebulge effect after the icecaps melted, the area around Åland is still rising several millimeters per year, marginally expanding the archipelago's surface.
Neolithic period
Artifacts of human remains, pottery and animal bones were found dating as far back as the Middle Neolithic (ca. 4000BC). These are the oldest findings, denoting human presence on the isles by then. Their cultures were Scandinavian, firstly the Pitted Ware culture and later joined by the Comb Ceramic culture.
Chronology until 1809
12th century: Åland Islands might have been occupied by Eric the Saint, other sources claim Åland was already an integral part of Sweden.
1324: Finland (including the islands) constituted a duchy.
1300–1600: Kastelholm Castle was a focal point for a number of battles and raids.
1324: Peace of Nöteborg. Finland and the islands incorporated in Sweden.
1397–1523: Union of Kalmar: Danish ascendency.
1581: Finland a Grand Duchy.
1634: Swedish Constitution. The islands formed part of the Government of Åbo (Finland)
1714: The Islands are conquered by Peter the Great.
1714–1721: Åland was attacked and devastated by Peter the Great's forces; most of the population then fled to Sweden.
1721: Peace of Nystad. Finland (except Vyborg) is restored to Sweden.
1743: Peace of Åbo: part of Finland is ceded to Russia.
1808: Finnish War between Sweden and Russia.
1809 September – Treaty of Fredrikshamn: Finland and the islands are ceded to Russia.
Continuing malaria outbreaks
As the result of abundant Anopheles claviger mosquitoes, malaria was endemic in Åland for at least 150 years, with severe outbreaks being recorded in the 18th century, and in 1853 and 1862.
Chronology up to 1919
c. 1835: Fortress of Bomarsund begins construction.
1853: Severe malaria outbreak.
1854 – Battle of Bomarsund: as part of the Crimean War the Anglo-French invasion of Åland takes place. The coalition force attacks and destroys the fortress of Bomarsund. The British prime minister Palmerston had protested against this fortification some twenty years prior, without effect.
1856 – Treaty of Paris: The peace convention forbids the fortification of the Islands.
March 1856: By the Åland Convention, concluded between the United Kingdom, France and Russia, it was decided the isles were demilitarized.
1862: Another severe malaria outbreak occurs.
1877: A telegraph cable is in use from Mariehamn to Nystad.
1892: The first telephone is installed in Mariehamn.
1906: A Russian garrison is established in the Islands. Some attention went to the earlier Treaty of Paris when Russia, under pretext of stopping the smuggling of arms into Finland, placed considerable naval and military forces on the islands.
1907: Russia requests France and Great Britain to cancel the Convention's agreement.
1907: Secret Treaty of Björkö (Russia and Germany), which gives Russia a free hand to install military forces on the Islands.
1914: Outbreak of World War I: Russia fortifies the Islands.
1916: The islands are remilitarised by Russia and used as a submarine base during World War I.
1917 – Russian Revolution: Finland declares independence. The Islanders demand reunification with Sweden via a referendum (25–29 December).
1918: The Soviet Government, Sweden and Germany recognise Finland's independence Sweden, and Germany. Bolshevik forces, however, land on the Islands as part of the Russian Revolution. The isles are later invaded by Sweden (February) and eventually occupied by Germany (March-October).
1918: The islanders internationally plead to reunite with Sweden.
1919: Sweden brings the question before the Paris Peace Conference on March 18th, but the islands remain part of Finland.
1921: The Åland Convention re-establishes the demilitarised status of the islands.
See also
History of Finland
References
External links
Aland | [
-0.21681299805641174,
0.3838231563568115,
-0.12772700190544128,
-0.058857981115579605,
-0.55963534116745,
0.15117241442203522,
0.2743893265724182,
0.5709384679794312,
-0.4091041684150696,
-0.17757219076156616,
0.038168199360370636,
-0.543457567691803,
-0.4309822916984558,
0.6350062489509583,
-0.6670252084732056,
0.5768056511878967,
0.6060235500335693,
0.33680859208106995,
-0.396943598985672,
-0.09903761744499207,
0.24594533443450928,
0.45236682891845703,
0.6640819907188416,
0.7374036908149719,
0.43682757019996643,
-0.8240625262260437,
0.2510567903518677,
0.2481081336736679,
0.5438278317451477,
-0.6447367668151855,
-0.15184563398361206,
0.7649559378623962,
-0.4574005603790283,
-0.5458847880363464,
-0.6888868808746338,
0.27137085795402527,
-0.353529691696167,
-0.13804101943969727,
-0.11605485528707504,
-0.013267343863844872,
-0.2488100379705429,
0.06969063729047775,
0.06004602462053299,
0.11617951840162277,
0.36061662435531616,
-0.3784526288509369,
-1.2705700397491455,
0.7105367183685303,
-0.6255340576171875,
-0.007741312496364117,
-0.365462064743042,
-0.5777888894081116,
0.20049655437469482,
0.42188000679016113,
0.0907042995095253,
0.34213462471961975,
-1.326417088508606,
0.07995905727148056,
0.2523193359375,
1.1341511011123657,
0.9970980286598206,
0.7087447047233582,
-0.5360172390937805,
-0.3124445676803589,
0.028574109077453613,
0.02159855142235756,
0.07790515571832657,
0.47277772426605225,
-0.016292495653033257,
-0.6857355237007141,
-0.6705747246742249,
-0.17985650897026062,
-0.11290954798460007,
-0.5049872398376465,
0.22632239758968353,
-0.42402106523513794,
0.38248807191848755,
-0.46021777391433716,
-0.001152158947661519,
-0.844387948513031,
-0.062217824161052704,
0.3374943435192108,
0.39990514516830444,
0.23343096673488617,
1.0635321140289307,
-0.21803876757621765,
-0.7999946475028992,
-0.5460361242294312,
-0.39517462253570557,
0.2993974983692169,
0.5233451128005981,
0.25831782817840576,
0.456553190946579,
0.2852187156677246,
0.20909923315048218,
0.03427921235561371,
-0.2757638990879059,
0.6329571604728699,
0.4813793897628784,
0.8744394779205322,
-0.12766097486019135,
0.9984455108642578,
0.5332188010215759,
0.15107347071170807,
-0.08222068846225739,
0.3427927792072296,
-0.17354431748390198,
0.37699463963508606,
-0.851140022277832,
0.20763196051120758,
-0.06935197114944458,
0.37708014249801636,
-0.094352126121521,
0.5156194567680359,
-0.6151957511901855,
0.13324934244155884,
-0.055382441729307175,
-0.6903119087219238,
0.3445541262626648,
0.6457991600036621,
0.09306856244802475,
1.3630225658416748,
-1.04781174659729,
0.6737564206123352,
-0.5536835789680481,
0.07591722160577774,
-0.14575061202049255,
0.2089785784482956,
-0.1887548565864563,
0.7579596638679504,
0.33669155836105347,
1.1207951307296753,
-0.2679654359817505,
0.3816432058811188,
0.26365798711776733,
0.0025183549150824547,
0.0070749795995652676,
0.2880014479160309,
0.340650349855423,
-0.354253888130188,
-1.728725790977478,
-0.5815457105636597,
-0.5730376243591309,
0.29847946763038635,
-0.09810939431190491,
0.0005340124480426311,
-0.01039913296699524,
-0.10846208781003952,
0.014507708139717579,
0.12275505810976028,
0.5230585932731628,
-0.686385989189148,
-0.7031521797180176,
0.20717144012451172,
-0.6955916881561279,
0.4685516655445099,
0.19441157579421997,
0.21243147552013397,
0.7707309722900391,
0.6778449416160583,
0.1350475698709488,
0.16892369091510773,
0.351877361536026,
-0.3574564754962921,
0.4179748296737671,
-0.4118412733078003,
-0.013015775941312313,
0.7427286505699158,
0.08444614708423615,
-0.5714958310127258,
-1.2263389825820923,
0.595849871635437,
0.03617941215634346,
-0.06669934093952179,
-0.3112589120864868,
-0.031178731471300125,
0.009281066246330738,
-0.05625225603580475,
0.1659919172525406,
-0.10041924566030502,
-0.9739406704902649,
-0.5170811414718628,
0.35611483454704285,
0.13890449702739716,
0.3926975727081299,
0.8959434628486633,
-0.2304387092590332,
0.30289602279663086,
0.33235397934913635,
0.2903769612312317,
0.01991543173789978,
-0.7811530828475952,
0.3759569823741913,
0.2704709768295288,
1.1513798236846924,
-0.029131151735782623,
-0.04105588421225548,
-0.2598980963230133,
-0.030163099989295006,
0.6572588682174683,
-0.7801511287689209,
-0.377591997385025,
0.3893844187259674,
-0.0249551460146904,
0.06859653443098068,
0.23661622405052185,
0.35516512393951416,
0.23266257345676422,
0.2326652556657791,
0.5288830995559692,
-0.7378286719322205,
0.33957746624946594,
1.0253089666366577,
0.141434907913208,
-0.315682053565979,
0.6729711294174194,
-0.36206337809562683,
0.40694689750671387,
-0.0957363098859787,
-0.26379477977752686,
0.5738461017608643,
0.46861299872398376,
-0.09235125780105591,
0.7235063314437866,
0.13093291223049164,
1.5050406455993652,
0.4238464832305908,
0.8902727961540222,
-0.00991816446185112,
-0.2643359899520874,
0.41217726469039917,
-0.46584832668304443,
-0.04216538369655609,
-0.6345921158790588,
0.19875743985176086,
-0.4724169671535492,
0.1252547949552536,
-0.34652426838874817,
-0.09213900566101074,
-0.14682874083518982,
0.6584245562553406,
0.06674693524837494,
-0.4828639328479767,
0.14831948280334473,
0.27473580837249756,
0.7299964427947998,
-0.17797207832336426,
-0.9182387590408325,
0.12110348045825958,
-0.18375065922737122,
0.16201134026050568,
-0.742645263671875,
-0.30186325311660767,
-0.47380074858665466,
0.33091965317726135,
-0.20935173332691193,
-0.0587235726416111,
-0.745449423789978,
-0.15391892194747925,
-0.2267063409090042,
-0.7389875650405884,
-0.6090409755706787,
-0.43520689010620117,
-0.06150050461292267,
0.11701176315546036,
-0.7836165428161621,
-0.20793576538562775,
-0.2768433690071106,
0.7031784057617188,
-0.06936220824718475,
-0.1214936226606369,
-0.5735194683074951,
-0.1877887099981308,
-0.12367241829633713,
-0.03681356459856033,
-0.3197484016418457,
-0.42783915996551514,
-0.3611958920955658,
-0.3507826328277588,
0.38280004262924194,
-0.24555274844169617,
0.9229695200920105,
-0.9692159295082092,
-0.9344123601913452,
-0.6123682260513306,
0.22493773698806763,
0.5501115322113037,
-0.197437584400177,
-0.2388678342103958,
0.223850280046463,
0.06879228353500366,
-0.9448636174201965,
-0.964876115322113,
0.16021546721458435,
0.7491098642349243,
0.4023768901824951,
0.0006986850057728589,
0.07992324233055115,
0.2199154645204544,
-1.019505500793457,
-0.8368459939956665,
0.3128187358379364,
-0.7179896831512451,
-0.14468352496623993,
0.24651455879211426,
-0.2953408360481262,
-0.4455135464668274,
-0.5638124942779541,
-4.16825532913208,
-0.11370421946048737,
-0.07813498377799988,
-0.15501850843429565,
-0.16314059495925903,
0.16670003533363342,
0.892190158367157,
-0.17477086186408997,
0.15917280316352844,
-0.22595009207725525,
0.4164012670516968,
-0.2147374302148819,
0.005901234224438667,
1.5619956254959106,
0.7413635849952698,
0.5764088034629822,
0.7038726210594177,
-0.036652207374572754,
-0.6280790567398071,
-0.5868751406669617,
-0.71974116563797,
-0.24419239163398743,
-0.44781091809272766,
0.7304766178131104,
0.2950894832611084,
1.060312271118164,
0.8806281685829163,
0.05857468396425247,
-0.28677815198898315,
0.09835320711135864,
-0.43321889638900757,
-0.36074939370155334,
0.9171398282051086,
-0.09197095036506653,
-0.7581685185432434,
-0.06290288269519806,
0.5169214606285095,
1.1924012899398804,
0.7115086913108826,
-0.4262329041957855,
0.222058966755867,
0.8281760811805725,
0.05266205593943596,
0.1425275057554245,
0.5289727449417114,
-1.297571063041687,
-0.7000362277030945,
0.5387319326400757,
-0.6805317401885986,
1.5200483798980713,
0.1385374516248703,
-0.21552693843841553,
0.43235060572624207,
-0.10142519325017929,
0.1454460620880127,
-0.5932245850563049,
0.23506492376327515,
-0.12557683885097504,
-0.19131918251514435,
0.6848803162574768,
0.1151353269815445,
0.4233207404613495,
0.3189356327056885,
-0.6576724052429199,
0.03667789697647095,
-0.29834339022636414,
-0.40466099977493286,
-0.056111421436071396,
0.27706262469291687,
0.0710097998380661,
-0.22401951253414154,
0.19850200414657593,
-0.16788531839847565,
-0.6941023468971252,
0.14086998999118805,
-0.5805109739303589,
-0.7960060238838196,
-0.027044668793678284,
0.25999656319618225,
1.0698050260543823,
0.030437979847192764,
-0.2502881586551666,
-0.14369013905525208,
1.1221733093261719,
-0.36339789628982544,
-0.5083896517753601,
-0.34498289227485657,
-0.03631417453289032,
-0.4567827582359314,
-0.6150203347206116,
0.3414509892463684,
-0.2688015401363373,
0.05255107209086418,
0.9220200777053833,
-0.5332401990890503,
0.768095076084137,
-0.6230546236038208,
-0.7262985110282898,
0.8778783082962036,
-0.08188699930906296,
1.2595300674438477,
0.20922885835170746,
0.2780836224555969,
-0.1696791648864746,
-0.4542670249938965,
-0.538502037525177,
-0.16292838752269745,
0.13636216521263123,
0.11614133417606354,
0.24599240720272064,
0.0856538638472557,
-0.5596837401390076,
0.14534495770931244,
-0.5158441662788391,
0.5608953833580017,
-0.7768673300743103,
0.249185249209404,
1.0198415517807007,
0.2757119834423065,
-0.651229977607727,
0.27043071389198303,
0.30726656317710876,
0.30485624074935913,
0.49166324734687805,
-0.1691402941942215,
-0.4421738386154175,
0.09576811641454697,
0.18751481175422668,
-0.44123151898384094,
0.79220050573349,
-0.3763771951198578,
-0.2532104551792145,
0.7447590231895447,
-0.06478410214185715,
-0.3956123888492584,
-0.20932206511497498,
0.06972087919712067,
-0.5133920311927795,
-0.6951565146446228,
-0.14094622433185577,
0.45897629857063293,
-0.21126596629619598,
-0.1241222470998764,
0.6449968218803406,
-0.5741822719573975,
0.1797400414943695,
0.3564213812351227,
-0.43528857827186584,
-0.48121410608291626,
-0.413371741771698,
-1.6688809394836426,
-0.7880743145942688,
0.01343307364732027,
-0.29168444871902466,
-0.3370591700077057,
-0.2898733615875244,
0.4746532142162323,
0.36808228492736816,
-1.021628737449646,
-0.4398198127746582,
-0.11467072367668152,
-0.7894384860992432,
-0.7878710627555847,
0.575202465057373,
0.49112972617149353,
-0.49319902062416077,
-0.8155518770217896,
-0.4512503445148468,
-0.3951609432697296,
1.088649868965149,
0.002534649334847927,
-0.7261158227920532,
-0.17197079956531525,
-0.281520813703537,
0.49537548422813416,
-0.21173442900180817,
0.2406458854675293,
0.3276157081127167,
-0.8674927353858948,
-0.7067179083824158,
-0.0012255669571459293,
-0.07631181925535202,
-0.04169220104813576,
0.8244463801383972,
0.5277529954910278,
-0.39631912112236023,
-0.4472897946834564,
0.10470335185527802,
-0.2756078541278839,
-0.33558720350265503,
0.0973982885479927,
-0.3503440022468567,
0.055972930043935776,
0.3244810700416565,
-0.3340095281600952,
-0.8810644745826721,
0.23721462488174438,
-0.8132469058036804,
-0.021342294290661812,
-0.1576729565858841,
0.3719218075275421,
1.2000796794891357,
0.06490220874547958,
0.40235790610313416,
-0.12941591441631317,
-0.47455090284347534,
0.9107353091239929,
0.4894714653491974,
-0.7635601162910461,
0.684154748916626,
-0.32224220037460327,
-0.38802284002304077,
-0.07208455353975296,
0.7536979913711548,
-0.5690630674362183,
0.4168259799480438,
0.7495743036270142,
-0.40865954756736755,
-0.25462961196899414,
-0.4612134099006653,
-1.0563905239105225,
-0.48183155059814453,
0.12106449156999588,
-0.30173417925834656,
-1.2189728021621704,
-0.23306572437286377,
0.40114691853523254,
-0.500396192073822,
0.607043981552124,
-0.052324775606393814,
0.341301292181015,
-0.06311400234699249,
0.26180487871170044,
-0.018525363877415657,
-0.5209502577781677,
0.31904950737953186,
0.08065959811210632,
0.37570613622665405,
0.270616352558136,
0.9254024028778076,
1.614498257637024,
1.225683569908142,
0.3942953050136566,
0.31895050406455994,
-0.36798417568206787,
-0.37355169653892517,
-0.1469116508960724,
0.40934252738952637,
-0.5022708773612976,
-0.07211575657129288,
-0.9218958020210266,
-0.19355687499046326,
-0.4095553457736969,
-0.7240892648696899,
1.0743467807769775,
-0.27065154910087585,
0.07642275094985962,
0.6669397354125977,
0.2907038927078247,
-0.012675383128225803,
-0.086008220911026,
0.13447241485118866,
-0.3921154737472534,
0.2817061245441437,
0.5675026774406433,
0.060024064034223557,
0.1256157010793686,
0.07599503546953201,
0.9685047268867493,
-0.26025885343551636,
-0.9448443055152893,
-0.6910338401794434,
0.6359580755233765,
-0.5508838295936584,
-0.6261810660362244,
0.1092088371515274,
0.49036750197410583,
-0.3713255524635315,
0.2373814582824707,
-0.20097827911376953,
-0.5928994417190552,
0.3686516582965851,
-0.04384081810712814,
-0.9457359313964844,
-0.13875888288021088,
-0.5669234991073608,
-0.7854864597320557,
-0.0988350585103035,
-0.1960902363061905,
0.23444820940494537,
-0.054746583104133606,
-0.5067635178565979,
-0.16214118897914886,
0.824533998966217,
0.39994582533836365,
0.32463616132736206,
-0.46410322189331055,
0.17461366951465607,
-0.12753500044345856,
0.4164428114891052,
-0.7470839619636536,
0.5348642468452454,
0.09046410024166107,
-0.156577005982399,
0.31204095482826233,
0.9001779556274414,
-0.5730741620063782,
0.5255113840103149,
-0.32060006260871887,
0.22823789715766907,
0.030569929629564285,
-0.01884503662586212,
-0.3169264495372772,
0.8640922904014587,
-0.8759344816207886,
-0.6620190739631653,
0.7308094501495361,
-0.5891051292419434,
0.24176903069019318,
0.7693891525268555,
0.14351823925971985,
-0.2893948554992676,
-0.1168983057141304,
0.6702715754508972,
0.13912899792194366,
1.093010663986206,
0.15319839119911194,
0.12549753487110138,
-0.1393182873725891,
-0.05135636776685715,
-0.5960784554481506,
-0.13301150500774384,
-1.3973848819732666,
0.6474428772926331,
-0.6740609407424927,
0.15646764636039734,
0.3344880938529968,
-1.3080796003341675,
0.14856453239917755,
0.6609120965003967,
-0.45100024342536926,
0.7497425079345703,
-0.034841131418943405,
-0.4630063474178314,
-0.48716503381729126,
0.10342784225940704,
-0.7077885866165161,
-0.2875780761241913,
0.4762715697288513,
-0.8003907203674316,
0.40643244981765747,
0.17197774350643158,
0.44771328568458557,
-1.0379011631011963,
0.022829214110970497,
0.028987890109419823,
0.11192136257886887,
-0.10600872337818146,
-0.8764857053756714,
-0.24642862379550934,
-0.13165578246116638,
-0.5694839954376221,
0.044768426567316055,
0.6486095786094666,
-0.5240541100502014,
-0.4234732985496521,
0.5084938406944275,
0.329521119594574,
0.45085012912750244,
-0.17876893281936646,
0.0533222034573555,
-0.6797353625297546,
0.4563952386379242,
-0.11100517213344574,
0.39850905537605286,
0.8190696835517883,
0.009808599017560482,
-0.26448726654052734,
0.07656971365213394,
0.046278681606054306,
0.038286350667476654,
-0.01667819358408451,
-0.1330716460943222,
-0.8019644021987915,
-0.2668987214565277,
-0.16967348754405975,
0.17819799482822418,
0.38985222578048706,
0.3411133885383606,
-0.3177631199359894,
0.16583384573459625,
-0.6418856978416443,
0.371321439743042,
0.6118935346603394,
-0.8276559114456177,
-0.0237797349691391,
-1.1605327129364014,
0.5305945873260498,
0.8630585670471191,
-1.2007360458374023,
-0.2734905183315277,
0.6864871382713318,
-0.3063648045063019,
0.3122338652610779,
-0.46506282687187195,
0.7532963752746582,
0.1112557202577591,
-0.14902140200138092,
0.17331421375274658,
0.9128277897834778,
0.5125059485435486,
0.1524321585893631,
-0.3240613639354706,
0.12027335166931152,
0.013937342911958694,
-0.48385924100875854,
1.0252524614334106,
-0.13446049392223358,
-0.23986224830150604,
0.5064505934715271,
-0.04928024858236313,
-0.09544556587934494,
0.13504770398139954,
0.5758286714553833,
0.48232752084732056,
-0.08167965710163116,
0.14907686412334442,
0.43694135546684265,
-0.9182692170143127,
0.7696731686592102,
-0.43186694383621216,
0.20149758458137512,
-0.2499910145998001,
-0.38550448417663574,
0.00171771424356848,
0.18451672792434692,
0.23005066812038422,
0.29370641708374023,
0.34963470697402954,
-0.26072731614112854,
-0.2900887429714203,
0.017483463510870934,
-0.44572338461875916,
-0.2038072794675827,
0.4048721492290497,
0.536163330078125,
-0.2079358547925949,
-0.8321731686592102,
-0.5171139240264893,
0.809145987033844,
0.12647810578346252,
-0.6439639925956726,
0.688869297504425,
0.03139733523130417,
-0.5538657903671265,
-0.1553560346364975,
-0.31645631790161133,
-0.6606153845787048,
-0.06867760419845581,
0.0500161238014698
] |
234966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%20of%20three | Rule of three | Rule of three or Rule of Thirds may refer to:
Science and technology
Rule of three (aeronautics), a rule of descent in aviation
Rule of three (C++ programming), a rule of thumb about class method definitions
Rule of three (computer programming), a rule of thumb about code refactoring
Rule of three (hematology), a rule of thumb to check if blood count results are correct
Rule of three (mathematics), a method in arithmetic
Rule of three (medicinal chemistry), a rule of thumb for lead-like compounds
Rule of three (statistics), for calculating a confidence limit when no events have been observed
Arts and entertainment
Rule of Three, a podcast by [Jason Hazeley and Joel Morris#Podcast|Jason Hazeley and Joel Morris]]
Rule of Three, a series of one-act plays by Agatha Christie
The Bellman's Rule of Three in The Hunting of the Snark, a poem by Lewis Carroll
The Rule of Thirds, a 2008 album by Death In June
Other
Rule of threes (survival), the priorities in order to survive
Rule of Three (Wicca), a religious tenet
Rule of three (writing), a principle of writing, and of rhetoric
Rule of thirds, a rule of thumb for composing visual images
Rule of thirds (diving), a rule of thumb for divers
Rule of thirds (military), a rule of thumb in military planning
See also
Three-sigma rule, for a normal distribution in statistics
Triumvirate, a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals | [
-0.17701420187950134,
0.24051247537136078,
-0.31255462765693665,
-0.1528603881597519,
-0.31373050808906555,
-0.059496767818927765,
0.47027894854545593,
-0.504252016544342,
-0.08824557811021805,
-0.31522709131240845,
0.014277972280979156,
0.7088024020195007,
-0.46109285950660706,
0.33201688528060913,
-0.2530260980129242,
0.7428481578826904,
0.6145197153091431,
0.1696382611989975,
-0.15347595512866974,
-0.12564827501773834,
-0.29000523686408997,
0.3645038306713104,
0.19927245378494263,
-0.5129398703575134,
0.17468224465847015,
0.4599802792072296,
0.009133398532867432,
0.09627008438110352,
0.36427170038223267,
0.2500065863132477,
0.35892254114151,
0.8866161108016968,
-0.2050839513540268,
-0.02035575918853283,
0.10102181881666183,
-0.3725907802581787,
0.13800370693206787,
-0.13023990392684937,
-0.015409665182232857,
-0.6910650134086609,
-0.009694795124232769,
-0.46765318512916565,
0.36327242851257324,
0.02640560083091259,
-0.20066137611865997,
0.45831289887428284,
-1.9159915447235107,
0.20258958637714386,
-0.9611188769340515,
0.3067062199115753,
-0.15944340825080872,
0.2294260859489441,
-0.21092988550662994,
0.5742645263671875,
-0.09929174929857254,
0.21703281998634338,
-0.5446026921272278,
0.3106584846973419,
0.05264907702803612,
-0.34489941596984863,
0.40124621987342834,
0.18917958438396454,
0.2255299687385559,
0.40365108847618103,
0.20589874684810638,
-0.1606508493423462,
-0.25115567445755005,
0.4981026351451874,
-0.4781148135662079,
0.02821640856564045,
-0.057748910039663315,
-0.054024528712034225,
-0.44614583253860474,
0.07775662839412689,
-0.34567561745643616,
-0.0566180981695652,
-0.26040682196617126,
-0.39608705043792725,
0.32250168919563293,
-0.174967423081398,
0.03188514709472656,
0.4015316963195801,
0.7891581654548645,
0.062498293817043304,
-0.020942550152540207,
-0.1527882069349289,
-0.30331432819366455,
0.08079081028699875,
-0.16716718673706055,
0.6187642216682434,
0.029114754870533943,
-0.7593279480934143,
0.6350701451301575,
-0.24811618030071259,
-0.09006091207265854,
-0.068250373005867,
0.4293297529220581,
-0.850685179233551,
0.4785631597042084,
0.15822936594486237,
-0.13341708481311798,
-0.7435494065284729,
0.3629981279373169,
-0.33180996775627136,
-0.593862771987915,
0.06033581867814064,
-0.5472568869590759,
-0.5335757732391357,
-0.22111183404922485,
0.35422179102897644,
-0.857510507106781,
0.43118706345558167,
0.10288061946630478,
-0.04854987934231758,
-0.9042662978172302,
-0.13797669112682343,
-0.2084949016571045,
0.28891339898109436,
0.062279559671878815,
0.2814018428325653,
0.3269258141517639,
0.29871925711631775,
0.213747039437294,
0.09616968780755997,
0.36282458901405334,
-0.04522670805454254,
0.6427593231201172,
-0.03139066696166992,
0.10827349871397018,
-0.4459397792816162,
0.10148348659276962,
0.3234744369983673,
0.08353684842586517,
-0.15764673054218292,
-0.6331866979598999,
-0.5057671070098877,
-0.05478040501475334,
0.2506701648235321,
-0.21296192705631256,
0.08132398128509521,
-0.3384561538696289,
-0.03901541233062744,
-0.008131480775773525,
-0.17882981896400452,
0.8068764805793762,
-0.45754867792129517,
-0.1230972409248352,
0.3157978057861328,
-0.25164511799812317,
0.12287020683288574,
-0.15728668868541718,
0.2694009244441986,
0.04758714139461517,
-0.1840333491563797,
-0.16068239510059357,
0.17794571816921234,
0.41289570927619934,
-0.08216050267219543,
0.04590495675802231,
-0.282428115606308,
0.015821153298020363,
-0.03409356623888016,
0.050229866057634354,
0.29598960280418396,
0.3522128462791443,
-0.05707915127277374,
0.15964385867118835,
0.4648406207561493,
-0.43971651792526245,
0.4697781801223755,
-0.11407872289419174,
0.10738180577754974,
0.12337487190961838,
-0.11108922213315964,
-0.3296619951725006,
-0.234718456864357,
-0.035503942519426346,
0.10088265687227249,
0.8564505577087402,
-0.41291919350624084,
-0.4813191890716553,
-0.5206944346427917,
0.25167587399482727,
-0.185730442404747,
0.0982469990849495,
-0.3256312906742096,
0.3819746971130371,
-0.14583292603492737,
-0.16674545407295227,
-0.09742216020822525,
-0.2687569558620453,
0.1392699033021927,
0.5438973307609558,
-0.34641045331954956,
1.2312781810760498,
-0.5229604244232178,
-0.006835672538727522,
1.0760406255722046,
0.20999176800251007,
0.03273449465632439,
-0.008851343765854836,
-0.1880539208650589,
0.5844374299049377,
0.20455241203308105,
-0.01604674756526947,
0.4383908212184906,
0.014936872757971287,
0.28466302156448364,
-0.4673265516757965,
0.04236301779747009,
0.18126718699932098,
-0.038390226662158966,
-0.2101978063583374,
-0.08015376329421997,
0.31179875135421753,
-0.225568026304245,
-0.8371766209602356,
0.5065877437591553,
0.20027302205562592,
0.20352864265441895,
0.4049479067325592,
-0.37276139855384827,
-0.6263669729232788,
-0.12519609928131104,
0.11650469154119492,
0.3742191791534424,
0.33118104934692383,
-0.03780300170183182,
0.2640228867530823,
-0.7749291658401489,
0.19302667677402496,
-0.26277655363082886,
0.4930964410305023,
0.2169802188873291,
0.022285571321845055,
-0.07052243500947952,
-0.23846948146820068,
-0.11104021221399307,
0.4510502815246582,
-1.0597013235092163,
0.167292058467865,
-0.13068902492523193,
-0.448564350605011,
0.22661428153514862,
0.2617083787918091,
0.04321662336587906,
0.03978908434510231,
0.06473129987716675,
-0.08376027643680573,
0.313254714012146,
0.23545801639556885,
0.46667540073394775,
0.3487478792667389,
-0.061101507395505905,
0.4840443730354309,
0.1872016042470932,
0.2931402623653412,
0.34201908111572266,
0.0742098018527031,
0.01215804647654295,
-0.6900804042816162,
-0.07380865514278412,
0.40015852451324463,
-0.3733063340187073,
-0.1551639586687088,
-0.27761876583099365,
-0.6468097567558289,
-0.5614806413650513,
0.7129784226417542,
0.5410521030426025,
0.729082465171814,
-0.20754432678222656,
-0.3969877362251282,
0.047975122928619385,
-0.6734361052513123,
-1.2258208990097046,
0.7083508372306824,
-0.13653938472270966,
-0.7499416470527649,
-0.26675593852996826,
-0.12088733911514282,
0.20215024054050446,
0.5676679015159607,
-0.22776414453983307,
-0.09694360196590424,
-0.20814064145088196,
0.5068467855453491,
-0.3180159330368042,
0.30671626329421997,
-0.18379627168178558,
-0.04942810535430908,
0.5927286148071289,
-0.1446121335029602,
-0.9689284563064575,
0.307388573884964,
0.1696929782629013,
-0.6955682635307312,
0.2441464215517044,
0.1259126514196396,
-0.07802832871675491,
0.006330632138997316,
0.3560260534286499,
0.47572100162506104,
0.1600913405418396,
0.3988828957080841,
-0.2013760209083557,
-0.034345611929893494,
0.8388589024543762,
-5.939733505249023,
-0.46353664994239807,
-0.37164974212646484,
-0.2268572449684143,
0.2916211187839508,
0.1542281210422516,
0.590346097946167,
-0.13989855349063873,
-0.17606855928897858,
-0.2268056869506836,
0.2350781410932541,
-0.00715064350515604,
0.045162420719861984,
0.4933937191963196,
0.26387691497802734,
0.06506156176328659,
-0.7442438006401062,
-0.04756077006459236,
-0.15185382962226868,
1.2555383443832397,
0.33940979838371277,
0.13915811479091644,
0.14147616922855377,
0.37138864398002625,
-0.10277674347162247,
0.08997651934623718,
-0.23789073526859283,
0.2593555748462677,
-0.14020691812038422,
0.0447068065404892,
0.05870343744754791,
0.23260171711444855,
-0.3807719349861145,
-0.6555851101875305,
-0.2154972106218338,
-0.5377446413040161,
0.7786017656326294,
0.11939024925231934,
0.22870954871177673,
-0.21636921167373657,
-0.07542793452739716,
0.5795929431915283,
0.20568466186523438,
0.24087175726890564,
0.5206786394119263,
-0.004941344261169434,
-0.053232792764902115,
0.5661807060241699,
0.13806045055389404,
0.7267953753471375,
-0.4012244939804077,
0.3270095884799957,
-0.19723041355609894,
-0.12944486737251282,
-0.028494521975517273,
-0.13236933946609497,
-0.18054258823394775,
0.042573362588882446,
-0.12888334691524506,
0.5050297975540161,
-0.08997208625078201,
-0.2825546860694885,
0.44687435030937195,
0.12605924904346466,
-0.15114663541316986,
-0.7907941341400146,
-0.43899378180503845,
0.039126984775066376,
0.11774379760026932,
0.18032492697238922,
-0.04070301353931427,
-0.017796769738197327,
0.045725177973508835,
-0.965569019317627,
0.2751144766807556,
-0.34998488426208496,
0.2904653549194336,
-0.2267564833164215,
0.6453237533569336,
0.8767477869987488,
-0.39412614703178406,
-0.6180412769317627,
-0.2357466220855713,
0.14674371480941772,
0.4524550437927246,
-0.3417212963104248,
-0.2709166407585144,
0.48900148272514343,
-0.08669070154428482,
-0.019510570913553238,
0.21493327617645264,
-0.05623815581202507,
0.6807336211204529,
0.5585578680038452,
0.37253472208976746,
0.13642434775829315,
0.09909109026193619,
0.002166429068893194,
0.5021518468856812,
-0.03391461446881294,
0.6465540528297424,
-0.12085451185703278,
0.5009554028511047,
-0.6414446234703064,
-0.34390753507614136,
-0.31041839718818665,
-0.10213568806648254,
0.5913745760917664,
0.23213255405426025,
-0.22978851199150085,
-0.38369065523147583,
0.3086646795272827,
0.16108231246471405,
-0.09346096217632294,
0.5374028086662292,
-0.6151587963104248,
-0.4918159544467926,
0.21294943988323212,
0.3062742352485657,
0.11917612701654434,
-0.3303077518939972,
0.33215126395225525,
-0.1893913298845291,
-0.26140764355659485,
-0.17437610030174255,
-0.15774153172969818,
0.05835113301873207,
-0.7303968667984009,
0.21137090027332306,
0.13954922556877136,
-0.10632006078958511,
0.14696823060512543,
-0.16390633583068848,
0.2503029704093933,
0.10129940509796143,
-0.47530409693717957,
-0.472663015127182,
0.7408731579780579,
-0.44226619601249695,
-0.6035107374191284,
0.300801545381546,
-0.2363303154706955,
-0.642835259437561,
-0.13554620742797852,
0.2970786988735199,
0.0911523699760437,
-0.12894859910011292,
0.0733613669872284,
-0.07888903468847275,
0.3759700357913971,
0.03477241098880768,
-0.09406675398349762,
0.7712850570678711,
-0.8282228112220764,
-0.4334888458251953,
-0.04262195900082588,
-0.15300792455673218,
0.6210700273513794,
0.21934941411018372,
-0.5923574566841125,
-0.16111236810684204,
-0.08260947465896606,
-1.4170509576797485,
-0.7575768828392029,
0.28228992223739624,
0.1638142615556717,
-0.5452340245246887,
-0.04867436736822128,
-0.21923816204071045,
0.16784663498401642,
0.22052228450775146,
-0.1814577579498291,
-0.0024988262448459864,
-0.1869746744632721,
-0.1441471427679062,
0.3465414345264435,
-0.2564743757247925,
-0.0020702898036688566,
-0.49371325969696045,
-0.012735873460769653,
-0.020906100049614906,
-0.19181543588638306,
-0.12228891253471375,
0.48342883586883545,
0.22276031970977783,
-0.01238065492361784,
0.27137264609336853,
0.07761486619710922,
-0.4335351586341858,
-0.5132405161857605,
0.52008056640625,
-0.06629952788352966,
0.37856706976890564,
-0.18459364771842957,
-0.4095853567123413,
-0.13106022775173187,
-0.09797759354114532,
0.9497851729393005,
0.15327061712741852,
-0.20861859619617462,
-0.012942738831043243,
0.10575505346059799,
-0.34529709815979004,
-0.30912888050079346,
0.9925491809844971,
-0.5714473128318787,
0.5880264043807983,
-0.20683442056179047,
-0.14365607500076294,
0.1661994755268097,
-0.06972911208868027,
-0.5813713073730469,
-0.13478626310825348,
-0.350692480802536,
-0.2189074605703354,
-0.11974442005157471,
-0.08590056002140045,
-0.794171154499054,
-0.27881962060928345,
-0.4619070291519165,
0.47044530510902405,
-0.008361611515283585,
-0.2647009789943695,
0.1789298951625824,
-0.08105969429016113,
-0.2637185752391815,
0.4728550612926483,
-0.32883453369140625,
0.8389704823493958,
0.024251239374279976,
-0.23741954565048218,
0.45008108019828796,
-0.40539076924324036,
0.3291553556919098,
-0.5455451011657715,
-0.2125851809978485,
-0.5679931640625,
0.20833854377269745,
-0.3533279597759247,
-0.15567077696323395,
0.060676537454128265,
0.7558662295341492,
0.29816699028015137,
-0.468001127243042,
0.135695219039917,
-0.3230742812156677,
0.6962616443634033,
-0.5975667834281921,
-0.2809954881668091,
-0.02817191742360592,
0.45736977458000183,
0.12280645221471786,
0.12678951025009155,
-0.3067260980606079,
0.31271982192993164,
-0.08265307545661926,
0.4838358163833618,
-0.5531690716743469,
-0.04898865520954132,
0.6569250822067261,
0.03381744399666786,
-0.1057053878903389,
-0.34858065843582153,
-0.23490837216377258,
0.029976079240441322,
-0.03331341966986656,
-0.2896057367324829,
-0.804657518863678,
0.11039969325065613,
-0.5723679065704346,
0.5089249610900879,
-0.5660902261734009,
-0.06005652993917465,
-0.04141075909137726,
0.019758937880396843,
-0.08363808691501617,
-0.11981002241373062,
-0.20635120570659637,
-0.002865409478545189,
0.09294919669628143,
-0.3725014925003052,
-0.11324454843997955,
-0.1623920053243637,
-0.3968084156513214,
0.2975938618183136,
-0.7210935354232788,
0.02312348037958145,
0.13151057064533234,
-0.49638012051582336,
0.24156244099140167,
-0.3570907413959503,
-0.010524630546569824,
-0.7604944109916687,
0.11175963282585144,
-0.11129721999168396,
-0.21526454389095306,
-0.06041250005364418,
0.5080081820487976,
0.14296039938926697,
0.08824070543050766,
0.11885933578014374,
0.3375914990901947,
0.2173481434583664,
-0.2699189782142639,
-0.08075100183486938,
0.015276085585355759,
0.021736925467848778,
-0.5762735605239868,
-0.09395252913236618,
0.21663308143615723,
0.3376811444759369,
-0.09583470225334167,
0.07279060035943985,
0.6187684535980225,
-0.20553706586360931,
0.12640336155891418,
0.44181028008461,
-0.1175193339586258,
0.5513730645179749,
0.597895622253418,
0.49988898634910583,
0.03485538065433502,
0.7819101810455322,
-0.41207095980644226,
-0.7801787257194519,
0.5623787045478821,
-0.048960551619529724,
-0.003002283861860633,
0.04067234322428703,
0.20563703775405884,
0.5814065337181091,
0.5705939531326294,
-0.13659587502479553,
0.4126361906528473,
-0.259424090385437,
-0.5831730961799622,
-0.014907111413776875,
-0.26421305537223816,
0.338954359292984,
-0.06124505400657654,
0.7024320363998413,
0.42135268449783325,
0.1830490231513977,
-0.1790865957736969,
-0.21557164192199707,
0.5848901867866516,
-0.08867181092500687,
0.23172679543495178,
-0.5685157775878906,
0.6956401467323303,
0.206163689494133,
0.18616367876529694,
0.1784578412771225,
-0.025325028225779533,
0.11766308546066284,
0.35427606105804443,
0.22930240631103516,
-0.026827003806829453,
-0.16793304681777954,
0.11657850444316864,
0.08363409340381622,
0.4403567910194397,
0.29445257782936096,
0.19347621500492096,
-0.06849200278520584,
0.11927220970392227,
0.34287503361701965,
0.1614413559436798,
-0.3734542429447174,
0.039370354264974594,
-0.3808106482028961,
0.22165526449680328,
-0.42254123091697693,
0.26763132214546204,
-0.10427426546812057,
-0.3788100481033325,
0.12672416865825653,
0.34664610028266907,
0.335092157125473,
0.21385467052459717,
-0.3243565261363983,
-0.5876209735870361,
-0.35234972834587097,
-0.7457824945449829,
-0.4034571945667267,
-0.26547953486442566,
0.3068053722381592,
0.2273116111755371,
-0.14540839195251465,
0.25252699851989746,
-0.20523422956466675,
-0.019897710531949997,
-0.281004399061203,
-0.18269796669483185,
-0.33567726612091064,
-0.05298939719796181,
0.6332386136054993,
1.0030038356781006,
0.2628629803657532,
0.3432225286960602,
-0.26746654510498047,
-0.08320450037717819,
0.1836382895708084,
-0.5207687020301819,
-0.5317997932434082,
0.48436039686203003,
-0.08039943128824234,
0.4103477895259857,
-0.4966256320476532,
0.2968018054962158,
0.4187741279602051,
-0.4947810471057892,
-0.226309671998024,
0.3280251622200012,
-0.19913385808467865,
0.10794481635093689,
0.439436137676239,
-0.012645797803997993,
0.5755739212036133,
-0.45572927594184875,
-0.11716509610414505,
0.6317936778068542,
0.02922220341861248,
0.45537644624710083,
-0.8884917497634888,
0.02235119417309761,
-0.06826577335596085,
0.02157665230333805,
-0.84247887134552,
0.6931980848312378,
-0.5727149248123169,
-0.42521679401397705,
-0.5374926328659058,
0.14752815663814545,
-0.5320682525634766,
-0.23323814570903778,
0.025443965569138527,
-0.34763890504837036,
-0.1255221664905548,
0.1655334085226059,
-0.12866751849651337,
0.2252049297094345,
-0.2784617841243744,
0.11353752762079239,
-0.08055780082941055,
0.5838767290115356,
-0.3426651060581207,
-0.5551667213439941,
0.4372583031654358,
0.5403398871421814,
0.08265195041894913,
-0.2171243578195572,
-0.07670281827449799,
-0.21809017658233643,
-0.38571596145629883,
-0.238826185464859,
0.14268632233142853,
-0.19618263840675354,
0.39935174584388733,
0.4021401107311249
] |
234968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Coronado%20%28PF-38%29 | USS Coronado (PF-38) | USS Coronado (PG-146/PF-38), a , was the first ship of the United States Navy named for Coronado, California, a city adjacent to Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego. After World War II service in the U.S. Navy, she served in the Soviet Navy as EK-8 and later in the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force as Sugi (PF-5) and Sugi (PF-285).
Construction and commissioning
Originally classified as a patrol gunboat, PG-146, Coronado was reclassified as a patrol frigate on 15 April 1943. She was laid down by the Consolidated Steel Corporation of Wilmington, California, under a Maritime Commission contract (MC Type T. S2-S2-AQ1) on 6 May 1943. She was launched on 17 June 1943, sponsored by Mrs. J. R. Crutchfield, and commissioned on 17 November 1943 with United States Coast Guard Lieutenant Commander Ned Weckesser Sprow in command.
Service history
U.S. Navy, World War II, 1944–1945
Coronado sailed from San Diego, California, on 8 February 1944, for convoy escort duty to Nouméa, New Caledonia, and Cairns, Australia, en route to New Guinea, arriving there on 25 March. After escorting troop and cargo transports to Manus to support the landings there, she returned to the New Guinea area for the operations in the western part of that island, taking part in the landings on Biak from 28 May to 17 June, at Cape Sansapor from 15 to 18 August, and on Morotai on 15 September.
Coronado sailed from Humboldt Bay on 10 October 1944, to join in the Leyte operation, and served on escort and patrol duty between Leyte and New Guinea until 15 December 1944. She arrived at Boston, Massachusetts, on 24 January 1945 for an overhaul of her main engines and boilers and various modifications, followed by refresher training in Casco Bay, Maine. On 28 March 1945, Escort Division 25, consisting of Coronado and her sister ships (the flagship), , , , and , departed Casco Bay bound for Seattle, Washington, via the Panama Canal, arriving at Seattle on 26 April 1945. She was moored at the Lake Union Lumber Company Pier there from 30 April to 16 May 1945, undergoing voyage repairs and further alterations by Pacific Electric contractors. In late May and early June 1945, she underwent tests and loaded ammunition.
The six patrol frigates of Escort Division 25 got underway for Kodiak in the Territory of Alaska on 7 June 1945. Ogden had to return to Seattle for repairs, but Coronado and the other four frigates arrived at Womens Bay, Kodiak, on 11 June 1945. On 13 June 1945, 43 of her men transferred ashore for reassignment, and later that day Coronado, Long Beach, Belfast, Glendale, San Pedro, and their sister ships , , , and got underway from Kodiak for Cold Bay, Alaska, where they arrived on 14 June 1945 to participate in Project Hula, a secret program for the transfer of U.S. Navy ships to the Soviet Navy in anticipation of the Soviet Union joining the war against Japan.
On 16 June 1945, Coronados ships doctor and two of her deck officers transferred ashore for reassignment and, after she passed a material inspection on 17 June, two Soviet Navy officers and 48 Soviet sailors reported aboard for training on 18 June 1945. On 25 June, she received four more Soviet officers – one of them designated to serve as her commanding officer after her transfer to the Soviet Navy – and 45 more Soviet sailors for training, and by 1 July 1945, her entire Soviet crew of 12 officers and 178 enlisted men was aboard. Most of her American crew transferred off the ship at the same time, leaving her with a nucleus American crew of four officers and 44 enlisted men to decommission her.
Training of Coronados new Soviet Navy crew began on 26 June 1945, and she put to sea with them aboard for the first time on 28 June. Soviet crewmen conducted gunnery practice that day, and the Americans aboard demonstrated fueling, towing at sea, and use of her sonar equipment on 29 June 1945. On 30 June, the Soviet crew took complete control of the operation of the ship. Long days of training continued every day until completed on 8 July 1945. Three days of fueling and provisioning Coronado followed in preparation for her formal transfer to the Soviet Navy.
Soviet Navy, 1945–1949
Coronado was decommissioned 12 July 1945, at Cold Bay, and transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease immediately along with nine of her sister ships, the first group of 10 patrol frigates transferred to the Soviet Navy. Commissioned into the Soviet Navy immediately, she was designated as a storozhevoi korabl ("escort ship") and renamed EK-8 in Soviet service. On 15 July 1945, EK-8 departed Cold Bay in company with her nine sister ships – EK-1 (ex-Charlottesville), EK-2 (ex-Long Beach), EK-3 (ex-Belfast), EK-4 (ex-Machias), EK-5 (ex-San Pedro), EK-6 (ex-Glendale), EK-7 (ex-Sandusky), EK-9 (ex-Allentown), and EK-10 (ex-Ogden) – bound for Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the Soviet Union. EK-8 served as a patrol vessel in the Soviet Far East.
In February 1946, the United States began negotiations with the Soviet Union for the return of ships loaned to the Soviet Navy for use during World War II. On 8 May 1947, United States Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal informed the United States Department of State that the United States Department of the Navy wanted 480 of the 585 combatant ships it had transferred to the Soviet Union for World War II use returned, EK-8 among them. Negotiations for the return of the ships was protracted, but the Soviet Union finally returned EK-8 to the United States at Yokosuka, Japan, on 16 October 1949.
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, 1953–1971
Returning to her original name, Coronado was placed in reserve at Yokosuka until 14 January 1953, when she became one of the first ships the United States loaned to Japan under the Mutual Defense Assistance Program to serve in the Japanese Safety Security Force as . She simultaneously was assigned to the 2nd Fleet, which was created that day, along with her sister ship Matsu (ex-, similarly lent to Japan. Sugi and Matsu were assigned to the Yokosuka District Force. On 1 April 1953, the 2nd Fleet became part of the newly created 1st Fleet Group. The 2nd Fleet later was renamed the 2nd Escort Corps.
In 1954, the Safety Security Force became the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). On 10 May 1957, the 2nd Escort Corps was abolished and its ships became part of the new 1st Training Corps, under which Sugi participated in the 1st Training Corps's first two oceanic traning voyages.Sugi was redesignated PF-285 on 1 September 1957 and was transferred to the Kure District Force on 10 December 1964.
The JMSDF decommissioned Sugi on 31 March 1969 and returned her to U.S. custody on 9 July 1971. The United States subsequently allocated her to Japan for use as a target ship, and a JMSDF escort ship sank her as a target in the Pacific Ocean south of Nojimazaki on 10 August 1971.
Awards
The U.S. Navy awarded Coronado four battle stars for her World War II service, for the Bismarck Archipelago operation, the Hollandia operation, the Western New Guinea operation, and the Leyte Gulf operation.
References
External links
hazegray.org: USS Coronado PF-38
Tacoma-class frigates
Ships built in Los Angeles
1943 ships
World War II frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States
United States Navy California-related ships
Tacoma-class frigates of the Soviet Navy
World War II frigates of the Soviet Union
Tacoma-class frigates of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
Ships transferred under Project Hula
Maritime incidents in 1971
Ships sunk as targets
Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean | [
-0.3544345200061798,
0.09784294664859772,
0.02143094129860401,
0.47641727328300476,
-0.1943362057209015,
0.3430402874946594,
0.07054433226585388,
0.09895799309015274,
-0.4767233729362488,
0.15154507756233215,
0.20449349284172058,
0.2994598150253296,
-0.05882690101861954,
0.12105897814035416,
0.2891904413700104,
-0.10925647616386414,
0.5010332465171814,
0.8988738656044006,
-0.27992066740989685,
-0.5772315859794617,
-0.2209247648715973,
-0.49845853447914124,
-0.2186564803123474,
0.2468264400959015,
0.4021247923374176,
0.436513215303421,
0.06080786511301994,
0.1843295395374298,
0.6864156126976013,
0.5757547616958618,
0.232377290725708,
0.9239632487297058,
0.4013710618019104,
-0.27933967113494873,
-0.142420694231987,
-0.22636516392230988,
-0.20896972715854645,
-0.06739402562379837,
0.1052887812256813,
-0.012604912742972374,
-0.5468317270278931,
-0.2787095308303833,
0.3171229362487793,
-0.1462779939174652,
0.01849651150405407,
0.09590013325214386,
-1.6897084712982178,
0.3115682303905487,
0.4469766914844513,
0.10042158514261246,
-0.4243405759334564,
-0.16496247053146362,
-0.3285958468914032,
0.31114262342453003,
0.22849620878696442,
1.1532188653945923,
-0.8910117149353027,
0.30612462759017944,
-0.5582139492034912,
-0.5435436964035034,
0.06964384019374847,
0.38681188225746155,
0.8346143364906311,
0.1691311001777649,
0.28100231289863586,
0.28641703724861145,
-0.1974373161792755,
0.7251172661781311,
0.09211364388465881,
-0.3892388343811035,
0.24602124094963074,
-0.2923772633075714,
-0.11590603739023209,
0.2713857591152191,
-0.4809287190437317,
0.11721653491258621,
-0.22740696370601654,
-0.30156460404396057,
-0.18564055860042572,
0.8462048768997192,
0.27291473746299744,
0.3745626211166382,
0.7527338266372681,
0.2654973566532135,
0.13277395069599152,
0.22124426066875458,
-0.6125131845474243,
-0.0757286325097084,
-0.2536948621273041,
0.7964233756065369,
-0.6485241651535034,
-0.22543637454509735,
0.14853397011756897,
0.35713323950767517,
0.30103799700737,
0.27698513865470886,
-0.34393227100372314,
0.33358749747276306,
0.042725205421447754,
0.27297431230545044,
-0.08931892365217209,
0.3410385847091675,
0.7604349851608276,
0.03765733912587166,
-0.8370006084442139,
-0.036223724484443665,
-0.031086644157767296,
-0.38123393058776855,
-0.3820463716983795,
-0.07192912697792053,
-0.23428677022457123,
0.02005888521671295,
0.1512415111064911,
0.14890722930431366,
-0.3642643094062805,
0.6337365508079529,
0.40329310297966003,
-0.7724008560180664,
0.29483938217163086,
-0.277505099773407,
0.40218156576156616,
1.0332828760147095,
-0.8517484068870544,
-0.20567885041236877,
0.36390331387519836,
0.5541092753410339,
0.6422651410102844,
0.3237958550453186,
-0.8828633427619934,
0.20535331964492798,
0.3247682452201843,
0.532263457775116,
-0.47966471314430237,
0.23899021744728088,
-0.22087275981903076,
-0.622937798500061,
-0.09432322531938553,
0.8087930679321289,
0.019541459158062935,
0.543984055519104,
-1.2199560403823853,
-0.1371757835149765,
-0.507280170917511,
-0.22398622334003448,
0.9906548261642456,
0.21153947710990906,
0.45314502716064453,
-0.13574713468551636,
-0.6368634700775146,
-0.391173779964447,
0.48624685406684875,
-0.5755066871643066,
0.2863456904888153,
-0.03478240594267845,
-0.24020041525363922,
0.4703112840652466,
0.11615188419818878,
-0.10758265107870102,
0.523562490940094,
0.5927785038948059,
-0.090619295835495,
0.046217113733291626,
-0.10994869470596313,
0.6018509268760681,
-0.06144417077302933,
0.2533780634403229,
0.4661347270011902,
-0.07916814088821411,
0.2931797206401825,
-0.29340842366218567,
-0.15660859644412994,
-0.5329715013504028,
0.2912803590297699,
-0.21038572490215302,
0.10738399624824524,
-0.028325051069259644,
0.24928292632102966,
0.09357000887393951,
0.017752371728420258,
-0.29402753710746765,
-0.5113467574119568,
0.38827210664749146,
-0.08321985602378845,
-0.1345972865819931,
-0.32738196849823,
-0.3914504945278168,
0.08658076077699661,
-0.015395155176520348,
0.38160422444343567,
0.12732139229774475,
-0.5821750164031982,
0.01750761829316616,
0.11389686167240143,
0.02984539419412613,
1.159432053565979,
0.13273657858371735,
-0.4725969433784485,
-0.018383029848337173,
0.45026957988739014,
0.6756815314292908,
0.17900390923023224,
-0.2513998746871948,
0.6953901052474976,
-0.16147516667842865,
-1.1402230262756348,
0.2316971868276596,
-0.018678857013583183,
0.5128639936447144,
0.3464266061782837,
0.7471087574958801,
-0.11999257653951645,
-0.2973968982696533,
0.19608741998672485,
0.37716343998908997,
-0.28699877858161926,
0.04948437586426735,
-0.09701896458864212,
-0.7006618976593018,
0.5463792085647583,
-0.6605446338653564,
0.12950411438941956,
-0.06450171023607254,
0.01186779048293829,
-0.43980979919433594,
-0.08727812021970749,
0.5365822315216064,
-0.0865597352385521,
0.30764487385749817,
0.10173463076353073,
-0.1255982220172882,
0.4296053647994995,
0.06867358833551407,
-0.31265130639076233,
-0.8125088810920715,
0.5001591444015503,
0.18506819009780884,
-0.026067465543746948,
-0.6269741058349609,
0.5569683313369751,
-0.21475887298583984,
0.07421966642141342,
0.32563522458076477,
-0.7365794777870178,
0.26118311285972595,
0.1077619194984436,
-0.6566120386123657,
0.031732331961393356,
-0.45236441493034363,
0.5515804886817932,
-0.2961026728153229,
0.3411076068878174,
0.701906681060791,
-0.25477853417396545,
-0.46079221367836,
-0.461012601852417,
-0.052379060536623,
-0.605205774307251,
-0.0651833638548851,
0.17881791293621063,
-0.20164044201374054,
-0.08260897547006607,
0.5974754691123962,
0.2677856385707855,
0.6689780950546265,
0.28194257616996765,
-0.6359822750091553,
-0.4713309705257416,
0.012447665445506573,
-0.20960068702697754,
-0.1199922040104866,
0.15482260286808014,
-0.33716079592704773,
0.587263822555542,
-0.9586543440818787,
0.06759216636419296,
0.10725847631692886,
-0.6925941109657288,
0.5347326397895813,
-0.2896963953971863,
-0.6521822214126587,
0.7038524150848389,
0.6241475343704224,
-0.47549372911453247,
-0.6885420680046082,
-0.29214683175086975,
-0.37794533371925354,
0.12255115807056427,
-0.2610412538051605,
-0.6307608485221863,
-0.5665991306304932,
0.08131389319896698,
-0.6989878416061401,
-0.37055519223213196,
0.6940517425537109,
0.05958103388547897,
0.33815115690231323,
0.014574330300092697,
-0.10713290423154831,
0.3812754452228546,
-0.32254263758659363,
-0.5988990068435669,
-0.24543122947216034,
-0.4637993276119232,
0.060797300189733505,
-0.0020404395181685686,
-0.10302209854125977,
-0.3115427792072296,
0.3787095844745636,
-5.396007537841797,
0.15419791638851166,
-0.3741471469402313,
0.07762619107961655,
-0.10555523633956909,
0.35515809059143066,
0.344570130109787,
-0.3035425841808319,
0.4625450372695923,
-0.5026383996009827,
0.511199414730072,
0.30236226320266724,
-0.1266443133354187,
0.30922871828079224,
0.34770897030830383,
0.5168729424476624,
0.4166170358657837,
-0.23698772490024567,
0.3936471939086914,
-0.4814048111438751,
0.04000267758965492,
-0.041564926505088806,
0.10453019291162491,
0.00014387440751306713,
0.20814797282218933,
0.2706093192100525,
-0.7214205861091614,
-0.173053577542305,
-0.8000130653381348,
0.34840822219848633,
0.15227562189102173,
-0.32034337520599365,
-0.45050424337387085,
0.3426118493080139,
-0.5606276988983154,
-0.5396998524665833,
1.1122456789016724,
-0.3100265562534332,
-0.1956034004688263,
-0.39742642641067505,
-0.5190385580062866,
-0.10926708579063416,
-0.20773303508758545,
0.17487195134162903,
0.40504762530326843,
-0.038133230060338974,
-0.09497391432523727,
-0.11128579080104828,
0.8653094172477722,
0.9434127807617188,
0.27629271149635315,
0.06806262582540512,
0.4997498095035553,
0.2568099796772003,
0.4514526426792145,
-0.14040112495422363,
-0.21489466726779938,
-0.03543223440647125,
-0.7929779291152954,
-0.08987022191286087,
0.42133957147598267,
-0.27669239044189453,
0.006157374940812588,
-0.7711987495422363,
0.13216514885425568,
-0.01562007237225771,
-0.04112764075398445,
-0.39793410897254944,
0.45496806502342224,
-0.38806748390197754,
-0.1441713571548462,
1.2900652885437012,
-0.3831230700016022,
-1.0468991994857788,
0.2610086500644684,
-0.8689394593238831,
-0.5564723014831543,
0.09239546954631805,
-0.44505375623703003,
0.029372364282608032,
0.23069316148757935,
-0.07468806952238083,
-0.6571483612060547,
0.5577506422996521,
0.08230763673782349,
0.06142463907599449,
-0.38198837637901306,
0.10357305407524109,
-0.02192995324730873,
0.40718337893486023,
0.5655986666679382,
-0.1925874501466751,
0.7409775853157043,
0.47857457399368286,
-0.03898685425519943,
-0.04804500192403793,
-0.061569251120090485,
0.6109972596168518,
0.3115832805633545,
-0.6561514139175415,
0.7793234586715698,
-0.6856701374053955,
-0.19635847210884094,
0.030650639906525612,
-0.5415253639221191,
-0.38666579127311707,
-0.2764735817909241,
-0.04539060220122337,
0.3680850565433502,
-0.05165884271264076,
-0.2389189898967743,
-0.4295060634613037,
0.22812597453594208,
-0.3517369329929352,
0.9006690382957458,
0.301283597946167,
0.058826956897974014,
0.8793989419937134,
1.1630266904830933,
0.2198951691389084,
0.2085643708705902,
0.798652172088623,
-0.31859225034713745,
-0.4219639003276825,
0.20739597082138062,
-0.9024404287338257,
0.26149782538414,
-0.13024678826332092,
-0.3189792037010193,
0.005099747329950333,
0.11766595393419266,
0.454051673412323,
0.06851407140493393,
-0.07035744190216064,
-0.05270955711603165,
-0.30125921964645386,
-0.3700169324874878,
-0.3801802396774292,
0.8898479342460632,
0.255331814289093,
-0.6223418116569519,
0.13160337507724762,
-0.5923584699630737,
-0.035658933222293854,
0.7209254503250122,
0.3822510242462158,
0.011184688657522202,
-0.5340260863304138,
-0.13817474246025085,
0.4817292094230652,
-0.22601081430912018,
-0.5763068199157715,
-0.3179813325405121,
-0.7013584971427917,
-0.1941554695367813,
-0.35828450322151184,
0.11543583869934082,
0.024380303919315338,
-0.3046172261238098,
0.2708837389945984,
0.294519305229187,
-0.055443741381168365,
-0.8447102308273315,
-0.6383734941482544,
0.2138056755065918,
-0.2053489238023758,
-0.022362545132637024,
-0.7103752493858337,
-0.15897434949874878,
0.5799490809440613,
0.2509145140647888,
-0.6995006203651428,
-0.6848374605178833,
0.1586391180753708,
0.45756983757019043,
-0.03429707512259483,
-0.42768898606300354,
-0.5510478019714355,
-0.18761655688285828,
0.13116781413555145,
-0.23187032341957092,
-0.5322844982147217,
-0.03160538151860237,
0.46862733364105225,
0.23454736173152924,
-0.3430134952068329,
-0.9290326237678528,
0.013068006373941898,
-0.3327571153640747,
0.4031776189804077,
-0.18137226998806,
-0.2433319091796875,
0.46744805574417114,
0.41973721981048584,
-1.2889128923416138,
0.3166314959526062,
-0.16260714828968048,
0.27468153834342957,
0.7581166625022888,
-0.6592119336128235,
-0.47593772411346436,
0.44672486186027527,
-0.5926958322525024,
0.34560686349868774,
-0.14188283681869507,
-0.5233011245727539,
0.09004521369934082,
0.08299466222524643,
-0.3181235194206238,
0.24727578461170197,
-0.10110484063625336,
-1.089547872543335,
0.01916041411459446,
0.7944000959396362,
-0.06961824744939804,
0.12543994188308716,
-0.2141275852918625,
0.23642221093177795,
-0.38586848974227905,
-0.5995170474052429,
-0.09320655465126038,
-0.03855433687567711,
0.1444556564092636,
-0.5789348483085632,
-0.5132278203964233,
0.9470929503440857,
-0.3806461691856384,
-0.7965015769004822,
0.7211874723434448,
-0.27794528007507324,
-0.7826983332633972,
-0.25792238116264343,
-0.19027255475521088,
0.10089311748743057,
0.32180410623550415,
-0.23361198604106903,
0.10370929539203644,
0.015166088938713074,
0.2869690954685211,
0.5843943357467651,
0.6001716256141663,
0.5545167326927185,
0.03414546698331833,
-0.4363095760345459,
-0.17696771025657654,
-0.11881271749734879,
0.3314061164855957,
-0.5471233129501343,
-0.26237013936042786,
0.2268970012664795,
0.1855618953704834,
-1.057961106300354,
-0.5509116649627686,
-0.28261640667915344,
1.4437470436096191,
-0.6401029825210571,
-0.3914119303226471,
-0.2416667342185974,
-0.12780511379241943,
-0.024635668843984604,
-0.2712642252445221,
0.353515625,
-1.165198802947998,
0.29627087712287903,
0.5925698280334473,
0.4473766088485718,
-0.3093564212322235,
-0.2410401552915573,
0.2921598553657532,
-0.07639148831367493,
0.09215527772903442,
0.2741791903972626,
0.500822901725769,
0.4266510307788849,
-0.2759874165058136,
0.295430451631546,
0.16675829887390137,
0.022082580253481865,
0.7576616406440735,
-0.2623380422592163,
-0.31133365631103516,
0.6540565490722656,
-0.06343494355678558,
-0.16095106303691864,
-0.5011531114578247,
-0.46596989035606384,
-0.26206180453300476,
-0.26899585127830505,
-0.23270638287067413,
0.4777214527130127,
0.4865560829639435,
0.1649898886680603,
-0.3765102028846741,
-0.4475218951702118,
0.16735754907131195,
0.1578138768672943,
-0.052438341081142426,
0.12112528085708618,
-0.4571521580219269,
0.6363823413848877,
-0.7257831692695618,
0.6669782400131226,
-0.2775477170944214,
0.03606698662042618,
0.04360315576195717,
-0.007151841185986996,
0.650052547454834,
-0.02281472273170948,
-0.43342211842536926,
-0.29272451996803284,
-0.033211831003427505,
-0.9516503810882568,
-0.194991797208786,
0.4075143039226532,
-0.6760759353637695,
0.30044177174568176,
0.5622852444648743,
-0.349151074886322,
-0.10663944482803345,
0.061506517231464386,
0.19146347045898438,
-0.11737701296806335,
0.5573100447654724,
0.6831827759742737,
-0.12007633596658707,
0.7140835523605347,
-0.6995369791984558,
-0.3514339029788971,
0.17607086896896362,
0.6081305742263794,
0.2872839868068695,
-1.2220568656921387,
-0.4088951051235199,
0.4172745943069458,
-0.17946559190750122,
0.3757621645927429,
0.32465431094169617,
-0.4702349305152893,
-0.5329640507698059,
0.3464704155921936,
-0.008709881454706192,
0.41091591119766235,
0.04041600227355957,
-0.34811851382255554,
0.03294794633984566,
0.21633364260196686,
-0.01665983721613884,
0.3542618453502655,
0.5107313394546509,
-0.11824185401201248,
-0.3356860280036926,
0.34410756826400757,
0.18391306698322296,
0.029782623052597046,
-0.14011108875274658,
0.39059358835220337,
0.12217344343662262,
-0.308458149433136,
-0.23073244094848633,
-0.28441646695137024,
-0.20756393671035767,
0.15421167016029358,
0.5313885807991028,
-0.08288969844579697,
-0.41137754917144775,
-0.08084800094366074,
-0.22426319122314453,
0.3578719198703766,
0.04127952456474304,
0.3631525933742523,
0.1494777798652649,
0.2982650399208069,
-0.4560367166996002,
0.18302106857299805,
0.5325431823730469,
0.48133113980293274,
0.5904289484024048,
-0.23619171977043152,
0.20214708149433136,
0.2957296669483185,
-0.36119258403778076,
0.31002143025398254,
-0.40581661462783813,
-0.8561573028564453,
0.6034212708473206,
0.22343751788139343,
-0.2910904288291931,
0.5177792906761169,
0.23977011442184448,
0.4438697099685669,
0.5482938885688782,
-0.5933458209037781,
-0.011313063092529774,
0.39123812317848206,
0.21798735857009888,
0.5138006210327148,
-0.06960861384868622,
0.21483035385608673,
0.31531015038490295,
0.18288204073905945,
-0.03723005950450897,
-0.09222044795751572,
0.39226841926574707,
-0.2908053398132324,
-0.23226316273212433,
-0.09433078020811081,
-0.7069625854492188,
0.5514958500862122,
0.24630293250083923,
0.05472702160477638,
-0.37796750664711,
0.04420913755893707,
-0.33201122283935547,
-0.21049007773399353,
-0.8849650025367737,
-0.5055088400840759,
1.024336576461792,
-0.8393363952636719,
-0.4037436246871948,
-0.49036604166030884,
0.08302336186170578,
-0.38928982615470886,
-0.40592485666275024,
0.9854716062545776,
-0.07400565594434738,
-0.2659737467765808,
-0.15522882342338562,
-0.37362441420555115,
-0.2464238554239273,
0.3456217646598816,
0.5785220265388489,
-0.15424950420856476,
-0.5811006426811218,
0.33563917875289917,
0.1483037918806076,
-0.387760192155838,
-0.04240082576870918,
0.3676816523075104,
0.3456481397151947,
-0.16803942620754242,
0.32495060563087463,
-0.512428343296051,
0.32226479053497314,
-0.29747045040130615,
0.3172256648540497,
-0.14572258293628693,
-0.27814462780952454,
-0.5230183005332947,
0.24424460530281067,
0.5817636251449585,
0.29451218247413635,
-0.23388199508190155,
0.21548038721084595,
-0.4437011778354645,
0.10933895409107208,
0.14362497627735138,
0.40438100695610046,
-0.05837775021791458,
0.11761319637298584,
0.09721241146326065
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.